Georgy Plekhanov and Lenin's major dispute arose addressing the topic of nationalizing land or leaving it for private use. Lenin wanted to nationalize to aid in collectivization. Plekhanov thought worker motivation would remain higher if individuals were able to maintain their own property. Those who opposed Lenin and wanted to continue on the Marxist path towards complete socialism and disagreed with his strict party membership guidelines became known as \"softs\" while Lenin supporters became known as \"hards.\"\n\nThe base of active and experienced members would be the recruiting ground for this professional core. Sympathizers would be left outside and the party would be organised based on the concept of democratic centralism. Martov, until then a close friend of Lenin, agreed with him that the core of the party should consist of professional revolutionaries, but argued that party membership should be open to sympathizers, revolutionary workers and other fellow travelers.\n\nThe two had disagreed on the issue as early as March–May 1903, but it was not until the Congress that their differences became irreconcilable and split the party. At first the disagreement appeared to be minor and inspired by personal conflicts. For example, Lenin's insistence on dropping less active editorial board members from ''Iskra'' or Martov's support for the Organizing Committee of the Congress which Lenin opposed, The differences quickly grew and the split became irreparable.\n\n===Origins of the name===\nThe two factions were originally known as \"hard\" (Lenin's supporters) and \"soft\" (Martov's supporters). Soon, however, the terminology changed to \"Bolsheviks\" and \"Mensheviks\", from the Russian \"bolshinstvo\" (majority) and \"menshinstvo\" (minority). On the other hand, Martov's supporters won the vote concerning the question of party membership. Neither Lenin nor Martov had a firm majority throughout the Congress as delegates left or switched sides. At the end, the Congress was evenly split between the two factions.\n\nFrom 1907 on, English language articles sometimes used the term \"Maximalist\" for \"Bolshevik\" and \"Minimalist\" for \"Menshevik\", which proved confusing since there was also a \"Maximalist\" faction within the Russian Socialist-Revolutionary Party in 1904–06 (which after 1906 formed a separate Union of Socialists-Revolutionaries Maximalists) and then again after 1917.\n\n===Composition of the party===\nThe average party member was very young. In 1907, 22% of Bolsheviks were under 20, 37% were 20–24 and 16% were 25–29. By 1905, 62% of the members were industrial workers (3% of the population in 1897). 22% of Bolsheviks were gentry (1.7% of the total population), 38% were uprooted peasants, compared with 19% and 26% for the Mensheviks. In 1907, 78.3% of the Bolsheviks were Russian and 10% were Jewish (34% and 20% for the Mensheviks). Total membership was 8,400 in 1905, 13,000 in 1906 and 46,100 by 1907 (8,400, 18,000, 38,200 respectively for the Mensheviks). By 1910, both factions together had fewer than 10,000 members.\n\n===Beginning of the 1905 Revolution (1903–1905)===\nThe two factions were in a state of flux in 1903–04 with many members changing sides. The founder of Russian Marxism, Georgy Plekhanov, who was at first allied with Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks, parted ways with them by 1904. Leon Trotsky at first supported the Mensheviks, but left them in September 1904 over their insistence on an alliance with Russian liberals and their opposition to a reconciliation with Lenin and the Bolsheviks. He remained a self-described \"non-factional social democrat\" until August 1917 when he joined Lenin and the Bolsheviks as their positions assembled and he came to believe that Lenin was right on the issue of the party.\n\nAll but one member of the Central Committee were arrested in Moscow in early 1905. The remaining member, with the power of appointing a new one, was won over by the Bolsheviks.\n\nThe lines between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks hardened in April 1905 when the Bolsheviks held a Bolsheviks-only meeting in London, which they called the Third Party Congress. The Mensheviks organised a rival conference and the split was thus formalised.\n\nThe Bolsheviks played a relatively minor role in the 1905 Revolution, and were a minority in the Saint Petersburg Soviet of Workers' Deputies led by Trotsky. The less significant Moscow Soviet, however, was dominated by the Bolsheviks. These soviets became the model for those formed in 1917.\n\n===The Mensheviks (\"The minority\") (1906–1907)===\n\nAs the Russian Revolution of 1905 progressed, Bolsheviks, Mensheviks and smaller non-Russian social democratic parties operating within the Russian Empire attempted to reunify at the Fourth (Unification) Congress of the RSDLP held at Folkets hus, Norra Bantorget in Stockholm, April 1906. When the Mensheviks struck an alliance with the Jewish Bund, the Bolsheviks found themselves in a minority.\n\nHowever, all factions retained their respective factional structure and the Bolsheviks formed the Bolshevik Centre, the de facto governing body of the Bolshevik faction within the RSDLP. At the Fifth Congress held in London in May 1907, the Bolsheviks were in the majority, but the two factions continued functioning mostly independently of each other.\n\n===Split between Lenin and Bogdanov (1908–10)===\nTensions had existed between Lenin and Bogdanov as early as 1904: Lenin had fallen out with Nikolai Valentinov, after the latter had introduced him to Ernst Mach's Empiriocriticism, a viewpoint that Bogdanov had been exploring and developing as Empiriomonism. Having worked as co-editor with Plekhanov on ''Zayra'' he had come to agree with the latter's rejection of Bogdanov's Empiriomonism. With the defeat of the revolution in mid-1907 and the adoption of a new, highly restrictive election law, the Bolsheviks began debating whether to boycott the new parliament known as the Third Duma. Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev and others argued for participating in the Duma while Alexander Bogdanov, Anatoly Lunacharsky, Mikhail Pokrovsky and others argued that the social democratic faction in the Duma should be recalled. The latter became known as recallists (\"otzovists\" in Russian). A smaller group within the Bolshevik faction demanded that the RSDLP central committee should give its sometimes unruly Duma faction an ultimatum, demanding complete subordination to all party decisions. This group became known as \"ultimatists\" and was generally allied with the recallists.\n\nWith most Bolshevik leaders either supporting Bogdanov or undecided by mid-1908 when the differences became irreconcilable, Lenin concentrated on undermining Bogdanov's reputation as a philosopher. In 1909, he published a scathing book of criticism entitled ''Materialism and Empirio-criticism'' (1909), assaulting Bogdanov's position and accusing him of philosophical idealism. In June 1909, Bogdanov proposed the formation of Party Schools as \"Proletarian Universities\" at a Bolshevik mini-conference in Paris organised by the editorial board of the Bolshevik magazine ''Proletary'' in June 1909. However, this was not accepted and Lenin tried to expel him from the Bolshevik faction. Bogdanov was then involved with setting up Vpered, which ran the Capri Party School from August to December 1909.\n\n===Final attempt at party unity (1910)===\nWith both Bolsheviks and Mensheviks weakened by splits within their ranks and by Tsarist repression, they were tempted to try to re-unite the party. In January 1910, Leninists, recallists and various Menshevik factions held a meeting of the party's Central Committee in Paris. Kamenev and Zinoviev were dubious about the idea, but were willing to give it a try under pressure from \"conciliator\" Bolsheviks like Victor Nogin.\n\nOne of the more underlying reasons that aided in preventing any reunification of the party was the Russian police. The police were able to infiltrate both parties' inner circles by sending in spies who then reported on the opposing party's intentions and hostilities. This allowed the tensions to remain high between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks. In turn it prevented them from uniting under common ground which could have possibly sped up the entire revolution.\n\nLenin was firmly opposed to any re-unification, but was outvoted within the Bolshevik leadership. The meeting reached a tentative agreement and one of its provisions made Trotsky's Vienna-based ''Pravda'' a party-financed 'central organ'. Kamenev, Trotsky's brother-in-law, was added to the editorial board from the Bolsheviks, but the unification attempts failed in August 1910 when Kamenev resigned from the board amid mutual recriminations.\n\n===Forming a separate party (1912)===\nThe factions permanently broke off relations in January 1912 after the Bolsheviks organised a Bolsheviks-only Prague Party Conference and formally expelled Mensheviks and recallists from the party. As a result, they ceased to be a faction in the RSDLP and instead declared themselves an independent party, called '''Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (bolsheviks)''' – or RSDLP(b). Unofficially the Party has been referred to as the \"Bolshevik Party\". Throughout the century, the Party adopted a number of different names. In 1918, RSDLP(b) became '''(All-)Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks)''' and remained so until 1925. From 1925–52 the name was '''All-Union Communist Party (bolsheviks)''', and from 1952–1991 '''Communist Party of the Soviet Union'''.\n\nAs the party split became permanent and politically recognized in 1912 due to an all Bolshevik meeting of Congress further divisions became evident. One of the most notable differences was how each faction decided to fund its revolution. The Mensheviks decided to fund their revolution through membership dues while Lenin often resorted to much more drastic measures since he required a higher budget. One of the common methods the Bolsheviks used was committing bank robberies, one of which in 1907 resulted in the party gaining over 250,000 rubles which is the equivalent of about $125,000. Bolsheviks were in constant need of money because Lenin practiced his beliefs exercised in his writings that revolutions must be led by individuals who devote their entire life to the cause. To compensate he awarded them with salaries for their sacrifice and dedication. This measure was taken to help ensure that the revolutionists stayed focused on their duties and motivated them to perform their jobs. Lenin also used the party money to print and copy pamphlets which were distributed in cities and at political rallies in attempts to expand their operations. This was an obvious difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks party beliefs. Both factions also managed to gain funds simply by receiving donations from wealthy supporters.\n\nFurther differences in party agendas became evident as the beginning of World War I loomed near. Stalin was especially eager for the start of the war, hoping that it would turn into a war between classes or essentially a Russian Civil War. This desire for war was fueled by Lenin's vision that the workers and peasants would resist joining the war effort, and therefore be more compelled to join the socialist movement. Through the increase in support Russia would then be forced to withdraw from the Allied Powers in order to resolve her internal conflict. Unfortunately for the Bolsheviks, Lenin's assumptions were incorrect and despite his and the party's attempts to push for a civil war through involvement in two conferences in 1915 and 1916 in Switzerland the party remained in the minority in calling for the ceasefire by the Russian Army in World War I.\n\t\nAlthough the Bolshevik leadership decided to form a separate party, convincing pro-Bolshevik workers within Russia to follow suit proved difficult. When the first meeting of the Fourth Duma was convened in late 1912, only one out of six Bolshevik deputies, Matvei Muranov, (another one, Roman Malinovsky, was later exposed as an Okhrana Tsarist secret police agent) voted to break away from the Menshevik faction within the Duma on 15 December 1912. The Bolshevik leadership eventually prevailed and the Bolsheviks formed their own Duma faction in September 1913.\n\nOne final difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks was simply how ferocious and tenacious the party was willing to be in order to achieve its goals. Lenin was open minded to retreating on political ideas if he saw the guarantee of long term gains benefiting the party. This practice was commonly seen trying to recruit peasants and uneducated workers by promising them how glorious life would be after the revolution. His approach was \"land seizure for the peasants and national self-determination for the minorities – as nothing more than temporary concessions.\"\n\nIn 1918, at Lenin's suggestion, the party renamed itself the ''Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)''. In 1925, this was changed to ''All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)''. In 1952, at the 19th Party Congress, according to Stalin's suggestion, the Bolshevik party was renamed the ''Communist Party of Soviet Union''.\n","''\"Down with Bolshevism. Bolshevism brings war and destruction, hunger and death\"'', anti-Bolshevik propaganda, Germany, 1919.\n\n\"Bolo\" was a derogatory expression for Bolsheviks used by British service personnel in the North Russian Expeditionary Force which intervened against the Red Army during the Russian Civil War. Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels, and other Nazi leaders used it in reference to the worldwide political movement coordinated by the Comintern. During the days of the Cold War in the United Kingdom, labour union leaders and other leftists were sometimes derisively described as \"Bolshies\". The usage is roughly equivalent to the term \"Commie\", \"Red\", or \"pinko\" in the United States during the same period. The term \"Bolshie\" later became a slang term for anyone who was rebellious, aggressive, or truculent.\n\n===Non-Russian/Soviet groups having used the name \"Bolshevik\"===\n*Bangladesh: Maoist Bolshevik Reorganisation Movement of the Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party\n*Burkina Faso: Burkinabé Bolshevik Party\n*India: Bolshevik Party of India\n*India/Sri Lanka: Bolshevik-Leninist Party of India, Ceylon and Burma\n*India: Revolutionary Socialist Party (Bolshevik)\n*Mexico: Bolshevik Communist Party\n*Senegal: Bolshevik Nuclei\n*Sri Lanka: Bolshevik Samasamaja Party\n*Turkey: Bolshevik Party (North Kurdistan – Turkey)\n","*Democratic centralism\n*Left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks\n*Leninism\n*October Revolution\n*Old Bolshevik\n*Soviet Revolutionary Communists (Bolsheviks)\n*Vladimir Lenin\n*Marxism–Leninism\n*Trotskyism\n","\n","\n\n===Sources===\n* .\n* .\n* .\n","\n\n*.\n*.\n*.\n by Bertrand Russell, November 1920\n*.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\nEnukidze, Kalinin, Bukharin, Tomsky, Lashevich, Kamenev, Preobrazhensky, Serebryakov, Lenin and Rykov.\\n\\nThe '''Bolsheviks''', originally also '''Bolshevists''' or '''Bolsheviki''' (; derived from большинство ''bol'shinstvo'', \\\"majority\\\", literally meaning \\\"one of the majority\\\") were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903. The RSDLP was a revolutionary socialist political party formed in 1898 in Minsk in Belarus to unite the various revolutionary organisations of the Russian Empire into one party.\\n\\nIn the Second Party Congress vote, the Bolsheviks won on the majority of important issues, hence their name. They ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks or Reds came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). With the Reds defeating the Whites, and others during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union in December 1922.\\n\\nThe Bolsheviks, founded by Vladimir Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov, were by 1905 a major organization consisting primarily of workers under a democratic internal hierarchy governed by the principle of democratic centralism, who considered themselves the leaders of the revolutionary working class of Russia. Their beliefs and practices were often referred to as '''Bolshevism'''.\\n\",\n \"\\nBoris Kustodiev's 1920 painting \\\"''Bolshevik''\\\"\\nIn the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, held in Brussels and London during August 1903, Lenin and Julius Martov disagreed over the membership rules. Lenin wanted members \\\"who recognise the Party Programme and support it by material means and by personal participation in one of the party's organisations.\\\" Julius Martov suggested \\\"by regular personal assistance under the direction of one of the party's organisations.\\\" Lenin advocated limiting party membership to a smaller core of active members, as opposed to \\\"card carriers\\\" who might only be active in party branches from time to time or not at all. This active base would develop the cadre, a core of \\\"professional revolutionaries\\\", consisting of loyal communists who would spend most of their time organising the party toward a mass revolutionary party capable of leading a workers' revolution against the Tsarist autocracy.\\n\\nA main source of the factions could be directly attributed to Lenin's steadfast opinion and unwillingness to \\\"bear opinions which were contrary to his own\\\". It was obvious at early stages in Lenin's revolutionary practices that he would not be willing to concede on any party policy that conflicted with his own predetermined ideas. It was the loyalty that he had to his own self-envisioned utopia that caused the party split. He was seen even by fellow party members as being so narrow minded that he believed that there were only two types of people: \\\"Friend and enemy—those who followed him, and all the rest.\\\" Leon Trotsky, one of Lenin's fellow revolutionaries (though they had differing views as to how the revolution and party should be handled), compared Lenin in 1904 to the French revolutionary Robespierre. Lenin's view of politics as verbal and ideological warfare and his inability to accept criticism even if it came from his own dedicated followers was the reason behind this accusation.\\n\\nThe root of the split was a book titled ''What is to be Done?'' that Lenin wrote while serving a sentence of exile. In Germany, the book was published in 1902; in Russia, strict censorship outlawed its publication and distribution. One of the main points of Lenin's writing was that a revolution can only be achieved by the strong leadership of one person (or of a very select few people) over the masses. After the proposed revolution had successfully overthrown the government, this individual leader must release power, to allow socialism to fully encompass the nation. Lenin also wrote that revolutionary leaders must dedicate their entire lives to the cause in order for it to be successful. Lenin said that if professional revolutionaries did not maintain control over the workers then they would lose sight of the party's objective and adopt opposing beliefs, and even abandon the revolution entirely. Lenin's view of a socialist intelligentsia showed that he was not a complete supporter of Marxist theory, which also created some party unrest. For example, Lenin agreed with the Marxist idea of eliminating social classes, but in his utopian society there would still be visible distinctions between those in politics and the common worker. Most party members considered unequal treatment of workers immoral, and were loyal to the idea of a completely classless society, so Lenin's variations caused the party internal dissonance. Although the party split of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks would not become official until 1903, the differences originally began to surface with the publication of ''What is to be Done?''. Through the influence of the book, Lenin also undermined another group of reformers known as \\\"Economists\\\", who were pushing for economic reform while wanting to leave the government relatively unchanged, and who failed to recognize the importance of uniting the working population behind the party's cause.\\n\\nOther than the debate between Lenin and Julius Martov; Lenin felt membership should require support of the Party program, financial contributions, and finally involvement in a Party organization whereas Martov didn't see the need for joining Party organizations, internal unrest also rose over the structure that was best suited for Soviet power. As discussed in ''What is to be Done?'', Lenin firmly believed that a rigid political structure was needed to effectively initiate a formal revolution. This idea was met with opposition from his once close followers including Julius Martov, Georgy Plekhanov, Leon Trotsky, and Pavel Axelrod.> Georgy Plekhanov and Lenin's major dispute arose addressing the topic of nationalizing land or leaving it for private use. Lenin wanted to nationalize to aid in collectivization. Plekhanov thought worker motivation would remain higher if individuals were able to maintain their own property. Those who opposed Lenin and wanted to continue on the Marxist path towards complete socialism and disagreed with his strict party membership guidelines became known as \\\"softs\\\" while Lenin supporters became known as \\\"hards.\\\"\\n\\nThe base of active and experienced members would be the recruiting ground for this professional core. Sympathizers would be left outside and the party would be organised based on the concept of democratic centralism. Martov, until then a close friend of Lenin, agreed with him that the core of the party should consist of professional revolutionaries, but argued that party membership should be open to sympathizers, revolutionary workers and other fellow travelers.\\n\\nThe two had disagreed on the issue as early as March–May 1903, but it was not until the Congress that their differences became irreconcilable and split the party. At first the disagreement appeared to be minor and inspired by personal conflicts. For example, Lenin's insistence on dropping less active editorial board members from ''Iskra'' or Martov's support for the Organizing Committee of the Congress which Lenin opposed, The differences quickly grew and the split became irreparable.\\n\\n===Origins of the name===\\nThe two factions were originally known as \\\"hard\\\" (Lenin's supporters) and \\\"soft\\\" (Martov's supporters). Soon, however, the terminology changed to \\\"Bolsheviks\\\" and \\\"Mensheviks\\\", from the Russian \\\"bolshinstvo\\\" (majority) and \\\"menshinstvo\\\" (minority). On the other hand, Martov's supporters won the vote concerning the question of party membership. Neither Lenin nor Martov had a firm majority throughout the Congress as delegates left or switched sides. At the end, the Congress was evenly split between the two factions.\\n\\nFrom 1907 on, English language articles sometimes used the term \\\"Maximalist\\\" for \\\"Bolshevik\\\" and \\\"Minimalist\\\" for \\\"Menshevik\\\", which proved confusing since there was also a \\\"Maximalist\\\" faction within the Russian Socialist-Revolutionary Party in 1904–06 (which after 1906 formed a separate Union of Socialists-Revolutionaries Maximalists) and then again after 1917.\\n\\n===Composition of the party===\\nThe average party member was very young. In 1907, 22% of Bolsheviks were under 20, 37% were 20–24 and 16% were 25–29. By 1905, 62% of the members were industrial workers (3% of the population in 1897). 22% of Bolsheviks were gentry (1.7% of the total population), 38% were uprooted peasants, compared with 19% and 26% for the Mensheviks. In 1907, 78.3% of the Bolsheviks were Russian and 10% were Jewish (34% and 20% for the Mensheviks). Total membership was 8,400 in 1905, 13,000 in 1906 and 46,100 by 1907 (8,400, 18,000, 38,200 respectively for the Mensheviks). By 1910, both factions together had fewer than 10,000 members.\\n\\n===Beginning of the 1905 Revolution (1903–1905)===\\nThe two factions were in a state of flux in 1903–04 with many members changing sides. The founder of Russian Marxism, Georgy Plekhanov, who was at first allied with Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks, parted ways with them by 1904. Leon Trotsky at first supported the Mensheviks, but left them in September 1904 over their insistence on an alliance with Russian liberals and their opposition to a reconciliation with Lenin and the Bolsheviks. He remained a self-described \\\"non-factional social democrat\\\" until August 1917 when he joined Lenin and the Bolsheviks as their positions assembled and he came to believe that Lenin was right on the issue of the party.\\n\\nAll but one member of the Central Committee were arrested in Moscow in early 1905. The remaining member, with the power of appointing a new one, was won over by the Bolsheviks.\\n\\nThe lines between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks hardened in April 1905 when the Bolsheviks held a Bolsheviks-only meeting in London, which they called the Third Party Congress. The Mensheviks organised a rival conference and the split was thus formalised.\\n\\nThe Bolsheviks played a relatively minor role in the 1905 Revolution, and were a minority in the Saint Petersburg Soviet of Workers' Deputies led by Trotsky. The less significant Moscow Soviet, however, was dominated by the Bolsheviks. These soviets became the model for those formed in 1917.\\n\\n===The Mensheviks (\\\"The minority\\\") (1906–1907)===\\n\\nAs the Russian Revolution of 1905 progressed, Bolsheviks, Mensheviks and smaller non-Russian social democratic parties operating within the Russian Empire attempted to reunify at the Fourth (Unification) Congress of the RSDLP held at Folkets hus, Norra Bantorget in Stockholm, April 1906. When the Mensheviks struck an alliance with the Jewish Bund, the Bolsheviks found themselves in a minority.\\n\\nHowever, all factions retained their respective factional structure and the Bolsheviks formed the Bolshevik Centre, the de facto governing body of the Bolshevik faction within the RSDLP. At the Fifth Congress held in London in May 1907, the Bolsheviks were in the majority, but the two factions continued functioning mostly independently of each other.\\n\\n===Split between Lenin and Bogdanov (1908–10)===\\nTensions had existed between Lenin and Bogdanov as early as 1904: Lenin had fallen out with Nikolai Valentinov, after the latter had introduced him to Ernst Mach's Empiriocriticism, a viewpoint that Bogdanov had been exploring and developing as Empiriomonism. Having worked as co-editor with Plekhanov on ''Zayra'' he had come to agree with the latter's rejection of Bogdanov's Empiriomonism. With the defeat of the revolution in mid-1907 and the adoption of a new, highly restrictive election law, the Bolsheviks began debating whether to boycott the new parliament known as the Third Duma. Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev and others argued for participating in the Duma while Alexander Bogdanov, Anatoly Lunacharsky, Mikhail Pokrovsky and others argued that the social democratic faction in the Duma should be recalled. The latter became known as recallists (\\\"otzovists\\\" in Russian). A smaller group within the Bolshevik faction demanded that the RSDLP central committee should give its sometimes unruly Duma faction an ultimatum, demanding complete subordination to all party decisions. This group became known as \\\"ultimatists\\\" and was generally allied with the recallists.\\n\\nWith most Bolshevik leaders either supporting Bogdanov or undecided by mid-1908 when the differences became irreconcilable, Lenin concentrated on undermining Bogdanov's reputation as a philosopher. In 1909, he published a scathing book of criticism entitled ''Materialism and Empirio-criticism'' (1909), assaulting Bogdanov's position and accusing him of philosophical idealism. In June 1909, Bogdanov proposed the formation of Party Schools as \\\"Proletarian Universities\\\" at a Bolshevik mini-conference in Paris organised by the editorial board of the Bolshevik magazine ''Proletary'' in June 1909. However, this was not accepted and Lenin tried to expel him from the Bolshevik faction. Bogdanov was then involved with setting up Vpered, which ran the Capri Party School from August to December 1909.\\n\\n===Final attempt at party unity (1910)===\\nWith both Bolsheviks and Mensheviks weakened by splits within their ranks and by Tsarist repression, they were tempted to try to re-unite the party. In January 1910, Leninists, recallists and various Menshevik factions held a meeting of the party's Central Committee in Paris. Kamenev and Zinoviev were dubious about the idea, but were willing to give it a try under pressure from \\\"conciliator\\\" Bolsheviks like Victor Nogin.\\n\\nOne of the more underlying reasons that aided in preventing any reunification of the party was the Russian police. The police were able to infiltrate both parties' inner circles by sending in spies who then reported on the opposing party's intentions and hostilities. This allowed the tensions to remain high between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks. In turn it prevented them from uniting under common ground which could have possibly sped up the entire revolution.\\n\\nLenin was firmly opposed to any re-unification, but was outvoted within the Bolshevik leadership. The meeting reached a tentative agreement and one of its provisions made Trotsky's Vienna-based ''Pravda'' a party-financed 'central organ'. Kamenev, Trotsky's brother-in-law, was added to the editorial board from the Bolsheviks, but the unification attempts failed in August 1910 when Kamenev resigned from the board amid mutual recriminations.\\n\\n===Forming a separate party (1912)===\\nThe factions permanently broke off relations in January 1912 after the Bolsheviks organised a Bolsheviks-only Prague Party Conference and formally expelled Mensheviks and recallists from the party. As a result, they ceased to be a faction in the RSDLP and instead declared themselves an independent party, called '''Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (bolsheviks)''' – or RSDLP(b). Unofficially the Party has been referred to as the \\\"Bolshevik Party\\\". Throughout the century, the Party adopted a number of different names. In 1918, RSDLP(b) became '''(All-)Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks)''' and remained so until 1925. From 1925–52 the name was '''All-Union Communist Party (bolsheviks)''', and from 1952–1991 '''Communist Party of the Soviet Union'''.\\n\\nAs the party split became permanent and politically recognized in 1912 due to an all Bolshevik meeting of Congress further divisions became evident. One of the most notable differences was how each faction decided to fund its revolution. The Mensheviks decided to fund their revolution through membership dues while Lenin often resorted to much more drastic measures since he required a higher budget. One of the common methods the Bolsheviks used was committing bank robberies, one of which in 1907 resulted in the party gaining over 250,000 rubles which is the equivalent of about $125,000. Bolsheviks were in constant need of money because Lenin practiced his beliefs exercised in his writings that revolutions must be led by individuals who devote their entire life to the cause. To compensate he awarded them with salaries for their sacrifice and dedication. This measure was taken to help ensure that the revolutionists stayed focused on their duties and motivated them to perform their jobs. Lenin also used the party money to print and copy pamphlets which were distributed in cities and at political rallies in attempts to expand their operations. This was an obvious difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks party beliefs. Both factions also managed to gain funds simply by receiving donations from wealthy supporters.\\n\\nFurther differences in party agendas became evident as the beginning of World War I loomed near. Stalin was especially eager for the start of the war, hoping that it would turn into a war between classes or essentially a Russian Civil War. This desire for war was fueled by Lenin's vision that the workers and peasants would resist joining the war effort, and therefore be more compelled to join the socialist movement. Through the increase in support Russia would then be forced to withdraw from the Allied Powers in order to resolve her internal conflict. Unfortunately for the Bolsheviks, Lenin's assumptions were incorrect and despite his and the party's attempts to push for a civil war through involvement in two conferences in 1915 and 1916 in Switzerland the party remained in the minority in calling for the ceasefire by the Russian Army in World War I.\\n\\t\\nAlthough the Bolshevik leadership decided to form a separate party, convincing pro-Bolshevik workers within Russia to follow suit proved difficult. When the first meeting of the Fourth Duma was convened in late 1912, only one out of six Bolshevik deputies, Matvei Muranov, (another one, Roman Malinovsky, was later exposed as an Okhrana Tsarist secret police agent) voted to break away from the Menshevik faction within the Duma on 15 December 1912. The Bolshevik leadership eventually prevailed and the Bolsheviks formed their own Duma faction in September 1913.\\n\\nOne final difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks was simply how ferocious and tenacious the party was willing to be in order to achieve its goals. Lenin was open minded to retreating on political ideas if he saw the guarantee of long term gains benefiting the party. This practice was commonly seen trying to recruit peasants and uneducated workers by promising them how glorious life would be after the revolution. His approach was \\\"land seizure for the peasants and national self-determination for the minorities – as nothing more than temporary concessions.\\\"\\n\\nIn 1918, at Lenin's suggestion, the party renamed itself the ''Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)''. In 1925, this was changed to ''All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)''. In 1952, at the 19th Party Congress, according to Stalin's suggestion, the Bolshevik party was renamed the ''Communist Party of Soviet Union''.\\n\",\n \"''\\\"Down with Bolshevism. Bolshevism brings war and destruction, hunger and death\\\"'', anti-Bolshevik propaganda, Germany, 1919.\\n\\n\\\"Bolo\\\" was a derogatory expression for Bolsheviks used by British service personnel in the North Russian Expeditionary Force which intervened against the Red Army during the Russian Civil War. Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels, and other Nazi leaders used it in reference to the worldwide political movement coordinated by the Comintern. During the days of the Cold War in the United Kingdom, labour union leaders and other leftists were sometimes derisively described as \\\"Bolshies\\\". The usage is roughly equivalent to the term \\\"Commie\\\", \\\"Red\\\", or \\\"pinko\\\" in the United States during the same period. The term \\\"Bolshie\\\" later became a slang term for anyone who was rebellious, aggressive, or truculent.\\n\\n===Non-Russian/Soviet groups having used the name \\\"Bolshevik\\\"===\\n*Bangladesh: Maoist Bolshevik Reorganisation Movement of the Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party\\n*Burkina Faso: Burkinabé Bolshevik Party\\n*India: Bolshevik Party of India\\n*India/Sri Lanka: Bolshevik-Leninist Party of India, Ceylon and Burma\\n*India: Revolutionary Socialist Party (Bolshevik)\\n*Mexico: Bolshevik Communist Party\\n*Senegal: Bolshevik Nuclei\\n*Sri Lanka: Bolshevik Samasamaja Party\\n*Turkey: Bolshevik Party (North Kurdistan – Turkey)\\n\",\n \"*Democratic centralism\\n*Left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks\\n*Leninism\\n*October Revolution\\n*Old Bolshevik\\n*Soviet Revolutionary Communists (Bolsheviks)\\n*Vladimir Lenin\\n*Marxism–Leninism\\n*Trotskyism\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n===Sources===\\n* .\\n* .\\n* .\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n*.\\n*.\\n*.\\n by Bertrand Russell, November 1920\\n*.\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction","History of the split","Derogatory usage of \"Bolshevik\"","See also","Notes","References","External links"],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \"History of the split\",\n \"Derogatory usage of \\\"Bolshevik\\\"\",\n \"See also\",\n \"Notes\",\n \"References\",\n \"External links\"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Bolsheviks"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["One of the common methods the Bolsheviks used was committing bank robberies, one of which in 1907 resulted in the party gaining over 250,000 rubles which is the equivalent of about $125,000."],"string":"[\n \"One of the common methods the Bolsheviks used was committing bank robberies, one of which in 1907 resulted in the party gaining over 250,000 rubles which is the equivalent of about $125,000.\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\nEnukidze, Kalinin, Bukharin, Tomsky, Lashevich, Kamenev, Preobrazhensky, Serebryakov, Lenin and Rykov.","The '''Bolsheviks''', originally also '''Bolshevists''' or '''Bolsheviki''' (; derived from большинство ''bol'shinstvo'', \"majority\", literally meaning \"one of the majority\") were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903.","The RSDLP was a revolutionary socialist political party formed in 1898 in Minsk in Belarus to unite the various revolutionary organisations of the Russian Empire into one party.","In the Second Party Congress vote, the Bolsheviks won on the majority of important issues, hence their name.","They ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.","The Bolsheviks or Reds came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR).","With the Reds defeating the Whites, and others during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union in December 1922.","The Bolsheviks, founded by Vladimir Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov, were by 1905 a major organization consisting primarily of workers under a democratic internal hierarchy governed by the principle of democratic centralism, who considered themselves the leaders of the revolutionary working class of Russia.","Their beliefs and practices were often referred to as '''Bolshevism'''.","\nBoris Kustodiev's 1920 painting \"''Bolshevik''\"\nIn the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, held in Brussels and London during August 1903, Lenin and Julius Martov disagreed over the membership rules.","Lenin wanted members \"who recognise the Party Programme and support it by material means and by personal participation in one of the party's organisations.\"","Julius Martov suggested \"by regular personal assistance under the direction of one of the party's organisations.\"","Lenin advocated limiting party membership to a smaller core of active members, as opposed to \"card carriers\" who might only be active in party branches from time to time or not at all.","This active base would develop the cadre, a core of \"professional revolutionaries\", consisting of loyal communists who would spend most of their time organising the party toward a mass revolutionary party capable of leading a workers' revolution against the Tsarist autocracy.","A main source of the factions could be directly attributed to Lenin's steadfast opinion and unwillingness to \"bear opinions which were contrary to his own\".","It was obvious at early stages in Lenin's revolutionary practices that he would not be willing to concede on any party policy that conflicted with his own predetermined ideas.","It was the loyalty that he had to his own self-envisioned utopia that caused the party split.","He was seen even by fellow party members as being so narrow minded that he believed that there were only two types of people: \"Friend and enemy—those who followed him, and all the rest.\"","Leon Trotsky, one of Lenin's fellow revolutionaries (though they had differing views as to how the revolution and party should be handled), compared Lenin in 1904 to the French revolutionary Robespierre.","Lenin's view of politics as verbal and ideological warfare and his inability to accept criticism even if it came from his own dedicated followers was the reason behind this accusation.","The root of the split was a book titled ''What is to be Done?''","that Lenin wrote while serving a sentence of exile.","In Germany, the book was published in 1902; in Russia, strict censorship outlawed its publication and distribution.","One of the main points of Lenin's writing was that a revolution can only be achieved by the strong leadership of one person (or of a very select few people) over the masses.","After the proposed revolution had successfully overthrown the government, this individual leader must release power, to allow socialism to fully encompass the nation.","Lenin also wrote that revolutionary leaders must dedicate their entire lives to the cause in order for it to be successful.","Lenin said that if professional revolutionaries did not maintain control over the workers then they would lose sight of the party's objective and adopt opposing beliefs, and even abandon the revolution entirely.","Lenin's view of a socialist intelligentsia showed that he was not a complete supporter of Marxist theory, which also created some party unrest.","For example, Lenin agreed with the Marxist idea of eliminating social classes, but in his utopian society there would still be visible distinctions between those in politics and the common worker.","Most party members considered unequal treatment of workers immoral, and were loyal to the idea of a completely classless society, so Lenin's variations caused the party internal dissonance.","Although the party split of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks would not become official until 1903, the differences originally began to surface with the publication of ''What is to be Done?''.","Through the influence of the book, Lenin also undermined another group of reformers known as \"Economists\", who were pushing for economic reform while wanting to leave the government relatively unchanged, and who failed to recognize the importance of uniting the working population behind the party's cause.","Other than the debate between Lenin and Julius Martov; Lenin felt membership should require support of the Party program, financial contributions, and finally involvement in a Party organization whereas Martov didn't see the need for joining Party organizations, internal unrest also rose over the structure that was best suited for Soviet power.","As discussed in ''What is to be Done?","'', Lenin firmly believed that a rigid political structure was needed to effectively initiate a formal revolution.","This idea was met with opposition from his once close followers including Julius Martov, Georgy Plekhanov, Leon Trotsky, and Pavel Axelrod.> Georgy Plekhanov and Lenin's major dispute arose addressing the topic of nationalizing land or leaving it for private use.","Lenin wanted to nationalize to aid in collectivization.","Plekhanov thought worker motivation would remain higher if individuals were able to maintain their own property.","Those who opposed Lenin and wanted to continue on the Marxist path towards complete socialism and disagreed with his strict party membership guidelines became known as \"softs\" while Lenin supporters became known as \"hards.\"","The base of active and experienced members would be the recruiting ground for this professional core.","Sympathizers would be left outside and the party would be organised based on the concept of democratic centralism.","Martov, until then a close friend of Lenin, agreed with him that the core of the party should consist of professional revolutionaries, but argued that party membership should be open to sympathizers, revolutionary workers and other fellow travelers.","The two had disagreed on the issue as early as March–May 1903, but it was not until the Congress that their differences became irreconcilable and split the party.","At first the disagreement appeared to be minor and inspired by personal conflicts.","For example, Lenin's insistence on dropping less active editorial board members from ''Iskra'' or Martov's support for the Organizing Committee of the Congress which Lenin opposed, The differences quickly grew and the split became irreparable.","===Origins of the name===\nThe two factions were originally known as \"hard\" (Lenin's supporters) and \"soft\" (Martov's supporters).","Soon, however, the terminology changed to \"Bolsheviks\" and \"Mensheviks\", from the Russian \"bolshinstvo\" (majority) and \"menshinstvo\" (minority).","On the other hand, Martov's supporters won the vote concerning the question of party membership.","Neither Lenin nor Martov had a firm majority throughout the Congress as delegates left or switched sides.","At the end, the Congress was evenly split between the two factions.","From 1907 on, English language articles sometimes used the term \"Maximalist\" for \"Bolshevik\" and \"Minimalist\" for \"Menshevik\", which proved confusing since there was also a \"Maximalist\" faction within the Russian Socialist-Revolutionary Party in 1904–06 (which after 1906 formed a separate Union of Socialists-Revolutionaries Maximalists) and then again after 1917.","===Composition of the party===\nThe average party member was very young.","In 1907, 22% of Bolsheviks were under 20, 37% were 20–24 and 16% were 25–29.","By 1905, 62% of the members were industrial workers (3% of the population in 1897).","22% of Bolsheviks were gentry (1.7% of the total population), 38% were uprooted peasants, compared with 19% and 26% for the Mensheviks.","In 1907, 78.3% of the Bolsheviks were Russian and 10% were Jewish (34% and 20% for the Mensheviks).","Total membership was 8,400 in 1905, 13,000 in 1906 and 46,100 by 1907 (8,400, 18,000, 38,200 respectively for the Mensheviks).","By 1910, both factions together had fewer than 10,000 members.","===Beginning of the 1905 Revolution (1903–1905)===\nThe two factions were in a state of flux in 1903–04 with many members changing sides.","The founder of Russian Marxism, Georgy Plekhanov, who was at first allied with Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks, parted ways with them by 1904.","Leon Trotsky at first supported the Mensheviks, but left them in September 1904 over their insistence on an alliance with Russian liberals and their opposition to a reconciliation with Lenin and the Bolsheviks.","He remained a self-described \"non-factional social democrat\" until August 1917 when he joined Lenin and the Bolsheviks as their positions assembled and he came to believe that Lenin was right on the issue of the party.","All but one member of the Central Committee were arrested in Moscow in early 1905.","The remaining member, with the power of appointing a new one, was won over by the Bolsheviks.","The lines between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks hardened in April 1905 when the Bolsheviks held a Bolsheviks-only meeting in London, which they called the Third Party Congress.","The Mensheviks organised a rival conference and the split was thus formalised.","The Bolsheviks played a relatively minor role in the 1905 Revolution, and were a minority in the Saint Petersburg Soviet of Workers' Deputies led by Trotsky.","The less significant Moscow Soviet, however, was dominated by the Bolsheviks.","These soviets became the model for those formed in 1917.","===The Mensheviks (\"The minority\") (1906–1907)===\n\nAs the Russian Revolution of 1905 progressed, Bolsheviks, Mensheviks and smaller non-Russian social democratic parties operating within the Russian Empire attempted to reunify at the Fourth (Unification) Congress of the RSDLP held at Folkets hus, Norra Bantorget in Stockholm, April 1906.","When the Mensheviks struck an alliance with the Jewish Bund, the Bolsheviks found themselves in a minority.","However, all factions retained their respective factional structure and the Bolsheviks formed the Bolshevik Centre, the de facto governing body of the Bolshevik faction within the RSDLP.","At the Fifth Congress held in London in May 1907, the Bolsheviks were in the majority, but the two factions continued functioning mostly independently of each other.","===Split between Lenin and Bogdanov (1908–10)===\nTensions had existed between Lenin and Bogdanov as early as 1904: Lenin had fallen out with Nikolai Valentinov, after the latter had introduced him to Ernst Mach's Empiriocriticism, a viewpoint that Bogdanov had been exploring and developing as Empiriomonism.","Having worked as co-editor with Plekhanov on ''Zayra'' he had come to agree with the latter's rejection of Bogdanov's Empiriomonism.","With the defeat of the revolution in mid-1907 and the adoption of a new, highly restrictive election law, the Bolsheviks began debating whether to boycott the new parliament known as the Third Duma.","Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev and others argued for participating in the Duma while Alexander Bogdanov, Anatoly Lunacharsky, Mikhail Pokrovsky and others argued that the social democratic faction in the Duma should be recalled.","The latter became known as recallists (\"otzovists\" in Russian).","A smaller group within the Bolshevik faction demanded that the RSDLP central committee should give its sometimes unruly Duma faction an ultimatum, demanding complete subordination to all party decisions.","This group became known as \"ultimatists\" and was generally allied with the recallists.","With most Bolshevik leaders either supporting Bogdanov or undecided by mid-1908 when the differences became irreconcilable, Lenin concentrated on undermining Bogdanov's reputation as a philosopher.","In 1909, he published a scathing book of criticism entitled ''Materialism and Empirio-criticism'' (1909), assaulting Bogdanov's position and accusing him of philosophical idealism.","In June 1909, Bogdanov proposed the formation of Party Schools as \"Proletarian Universities\" at a Bolshevik mini-conference in Paris organised by the editorial board of the Bolshevik magazine ''Proletary'' in June 1909.","However, this was not accepted and Lenin tried to expel him from the Bolshevik faction.","Bogdanov was then involved with setting up Vpered, which ran the Capri Party School from August to December 1909.","===Final attempt at party unity (1910)===\nWith both Bolsheviks and Mensheviks weakened by splits within their ranks and by Tsarist repression, they were tempted to try to re-unite the party.","In January 1910, Leninists, recallists and various Menshevik factions held a meeting of the party's Central Committee in Paris.","Kamenev and Zinoviev were dubious about the idea, but were willing to give it a try under pressure from \"conciliator\" Bolsheviks like Victor Nogin.","One of the more underlying reasons that aided in preventing any reunification of the party was the Russian police.","The police were able to infiltrate both parties' inner circles by sending in spies who then reported on the opposing party's intentions and hostilities.","This allowed the tensions to remain high between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.","In turn it prevented them from uniting under common ground which could have possibly sped up the entire revolution.","Lenin was firmly opposed to any re-unification, but was outvoted within the Bolshevik leadership.","The meeting reached a tentative agreement and one of its provisions made Trotsky's Vienna-based ''Pravda'' a party-financed 'central organ'.","Kamenev, Trotsky's brother-in-law, was added to the editorial board from the Bolsheviks, but the unification attempts failed in August 1910 when Kamenev resigned from the board amid mutual recriminations.","===Forming a separate party (1912)===\nThe factions permanently broke off relations in January 1912 after the Bolsheviks organised a Bolsheviks-only Prague Party Conference and formally expelled Mensheviks and recallists from the party.","As a result, they ceased to be a faction in the RSDLP and instead declared themselves an independent party, called '''Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (bolsheviks)''' – or RSDLP(b).","Unofficially the Party has been referred to as the \"Bolshevik Party\".","Throughout the century, the Party adopted a number of different names.","In 1918, RSDLP(b) became '''(All-)Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks)''' and remained so until 1925.","From 1925–52 the name was '''All-Union Communist Party (bolsheviks)''', and from 1952–1991 '''Communist Party of the Soviet Union'''.","As the party split became permanent and politically recognized in 1912 due to an all Bolshevik meeting of Congress further divisions became evident.","One of the most notable differences was how each faction decided to fund its revolution.","The Mensheviks decided to fund their revolution through membership dues while Lenin often resorted to much more drastic measures since he required a higher budget.","Bolsheviks were in constant need of money because Lenin practiced his beliefs exercised in his writings that revolutions must be led by individuals who devote their entire life to the cause.","To compensate he awarded them with salaries for their sacrifice and dedication.","This measure was taken to help ensure that the revolutionists stayed focused on their duties and motivated them to perform their jobs.","Lenin also used the party money to print and copy pamphlets which were distributed in cities and at political rallies in attempts to expand their operations.","This was an obvious difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks party beliefs.","Both factions also managed to gain funds simply by receiving donations from wealthy supporters.","Further differences in party agendas became evident as the beginning of World War I loomed near.","Stalin was especially eager for the start of the war, hoping that it would turn into a war between classes or essentially a Russian Civil War.","This desire for war was fueled by Lenin's vision that the workers and peasants would resist joining the war effort, and therefore be more compelled to join the socialist movement.","Through the increase in support Russia would then be forced to withdraw from the Allied Powers in order to resolve her internal conflict.","Unfortunately for the Bolsheviks, Lenin's assumptions were incorrect and despite his and the party's attempts to push for a civil war through involvement in two conferences in 1915 and 1916 in Switzerland the party remained in the minority in calling for the ceasefire by the Russian Army in World War I.","Although the Bolshevik leadership decided to form a separate party, convincing pro-Bolshevik workers within Russia to follow suit proved difficult.","When the first meeting of the Fourth Duma was convened in late 1912, only one out of six Bolshevik deputies, Matvei Muranov, (another one, Roman Malinovsky, was later exposed as an Okhrana Tsarist secret police agent) voted to break away from the Menshevik faction within the Duma on 15 December 1912.","The Bolshevik leadership eventually prevailed and the Bolsheviks formed their own Duma faction in September 1913.","One final difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks was simply how ferocious and tenacious the party was willing to be in order to achieve its goals.","Lenin was open minded to retreating on political ideas if he saw the guarantee of long term gains benefiting the party.","This practice was commonly seen trying to recruit peasants and uneducated workers by promising them how glorious life would be after the revolution.","His approach was \"land seizure for the peasants and national self-determination for the minorities – as nothing more than temporary concessions.\"","In 1918, at Lenin's suggestion, the party renamed itself the ''Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)''.","In 1925, this was changed to ''All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)''.","In 1952, at the 19th Party Congress, according to Stalin's suggestion, the Bolshevik party was renamed the ''Communist Party of Soviet Union''.","''\"Down with Bolshevism.","Bolshevism brings war and destruction, hunger and death\"'', anti-Bolshevik propaganda, Germany, 1919.","\"Bolo\" was a derogatory expression for Bolsheviks used by British service personnel in the North Russian Expeditionary Force which intervened against the Red Army during the Russian Civil War.","Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels, and other Nazi leaders used it in reference to the worldwide political movement coordinated by the Comintern.","During the days of the Cold War in the United Kingdom, labour union leaders and other leftists were sometimes derisively described as \"Bolshies\".","The usage is roughly equivalent to the term \"Commie\", \"Red\", or \"pinko\" in the United States during the same period.","The term \"Bolshie\" later became a slang term for anyone who was rebellious, aggressive, or truculent.","===Non-Russian/Soviet groups having used the name \"Bolshevik\"===\n*Bangladesh: Maoist Bolshevik Reorganisation Movement of the Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party\n*Burkina Faso: Burkinabé Bolshevik Party\n*India: Bolshevik Party of India\n*India/Sri Lanka: Bolshevik-Leninist Party of India, Ceylon and Burma\n*India: Revolutionary Socialist Party (Bolshevik)\n*Mexico: Bolshevik Communist Party\n*Senegal: Bolshevik Nuclei\n*Sri Lanka: Bolshevik Samasamaja Party\n*Turkey: Bolshevik Party (North Kurdistan – Turkey)","*Democratic centralism\n*Left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks\n*Leninism\n*October Revolution\n*Old Bolshevik\n*Soviet Revolutionary Communists (Bolsheviks)\n*Vladimir Lenin\n*Marxism–Leninism\n*Trotskyism","\n\n===Sources===\n* .","* .","* .","\n\n*.","*.","*.","by Bertrand Russell, November 1920\n*."],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\nEnukidze, Kalinin, Bukharin, Tomsky, Lashevich, Kamenev, Preobrazhensky, Serebryakov, Lenin and Rykov.\",\n \"The '''Bolsheviks''', originally also '''Bolshevists''' or '''Bolsheviki''' (; derived from большинство ''bol'shinstvo'', \\\"majority\\\", literally meaning \\\"one of the majority\\\") were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903.\",\n \"The RSDLP was a revolutionary socialist political party formed in 1898 in Minsk in Belarus to unite the various revolutionary organisations of the Russian Empire into one party.\",\n \"In the Second Party Congress vote, the Bolsheviks won on the majority of important issues, hence their name.\",\n \"They ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.\",\n \"The Bolsheviks or Reds came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR).\",\n \"With the Reds defeating the Whites, and others during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union in December 1922.\",\n \"The Bolsheviks, founded by Vladimir Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov, were by 1905 a major organization consisting primarily of workers under a democratic internal hierarchy governed by the principle of democratic centralism, who considered themselves the leaders of the revolutionary working class of Russia.\",\n \"Their beliefs and practices were often referred to as '''Bolshevism'''.\",\n \"\\nBoris Kustodiev's 1920 painting \\\"''Bolshevik''\\\"\\nIn the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, held in Brussels and London during August 1903, Lenin and Julius Martov disagreed over the membership rules.\",\n \"Lenin wanted members \\\"who recognise the Party Programme and support it by material means and by personal participation in one of the party's organisations.\\\"\",\n \"Julius Martov suggested \\\"by regular personal assistance under the direction of one of the party's organisations.\\\"\",\n \"Lenin advocated limiting party membership to a smaller core of active members, as opposed to \\\"card carriers\\\" who might only be active in party branches from time to time or not at all.\",\n \"This active base would develop the cadre, a core of \\\"professional revolutionaries\\\", consisting of loyal communists who would spend most of their time organising the party toward a mass revolutionary party capable of leading a workers' revolution against the Tsarist autocracy.\",\n \"A main source of the factions could be directly attributed to Lenin's steadfast opinion and unwillingness to \\\"bear opinions which were contrary to his own\\\".\",\n \"It was obvious at early stages in Lenin's revolutionary practices that he would not be willing to concede on any party policy that conflicted with his own predetermined ideas.\",\n \"It was the loyalty that he had to his own self-envisioned utopia that caused the party split.\",\n \"He was seen even by fellow party members as being so narrow minded that he believed that there were only two types of people: \\\"Friend and enemy—those who followed him, and all the rest.\\\"\",\n \"Leon Trotsky, one of Lenin's fellow revolutionaries (though they had differing views as to how the revolution and party should be handled), compared Lenin in 1904 to the French revolutionary Robespierre.\",\n \"Lenin's view of politics as verbal and ideological warfare and his inability to accept criticism even if it came from his own dedicated followers was the reason behind this accusation.\",\n \"The root of the split was a book titled ''What is to be Done?''\",\n \"that Lenin wrote while serving a sentence of exile.\",\n \"In Germany, the book was published in 1902; in Russia, strict censorship outlawed its publication and distribution.\",\n \"One of the main points of Lenin's writing was that a revolution can only be achieved by the strong leadership of one person (or of a very select few people) over the masses.\",\n \"After the proposed revolution had successfully overthrown the government, this individual leader must release power, to allow socialism to fully encompass the nation.\",\n \"Lenin also wrote that revolutionary leaders must dedicate their entire lives to the cause in order for it to be successful.\",\n \"Lenin said that if professional revolutionaries did not maintain control over the workers then they would lose sight of the party's objective and adopt opposing beliefs, and even abandon the revolution entirely.\",\n \"Lenin's view of a socialist intelligentsia showed that he was not a complete supporter of Marxist theory, which also created some party unrest.\",\n \"For example, Lenin agreed with the Marxist idea of eliminating social classes, but in his utopian society there would still be visible distinctions between those in politics and the common worker.\",\n \"Most party members considered unequal treatment of workers immoral, and were loyal to the idea of a completely classless society, so Lenin's variations caused the party internal dissonance.\",\n \"Although the party split of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks would not become official until 1903, the differences originally began to surface with the publication of ''What is to be Done?''.\",\n \"Through the influence of the book, Lenin also undermined another group of reformers known as \\\"Economists\\\", who were pushing for economic reform while wanting to leave the government relatively unchanged, and who failed to recognize the importance of uniting the working population behind the party's cause.\",\n \"Other than the debate between Lenin and Julius Martov; Lenin felt membership should require support of the Party program, financial contributions, and finally involvement in a Party organization whereas Martov didn't see the need for joining Party organizations, internal unrest also rose over the structure that was best suited for Soviet power.\",\n \"As discussed in ''What is to be Done?\",\n \"'', Lenin firmly believed that a rigid political structure was needed to effectively initiate a formal revolution.\",\n \"This idea was met with opposition from his once close followers including Julius Martov, Georgy Plekhanov, Leon Trotsky, and Pavel Axelrod.> Georgy Plekhanov and Lenin's major dispute arose addressing the topic of nationalizing land or leaving it for private use.\",\n \"Lenin wanted to nationalize to aid in collectivization.\",\n \"Plekhanov thought worker motivation would remain higher if individuals were able to maintain their own property.\",\n \"Those who opposed Lenin and wanted to continue on the Marxist path towards complete socialism and disagreed with his strict party membership guidelines became known as \\\"softs\\\" while Lenin supporters became known as \\\"hards.\\\"\",\n \"The base of active and experienced members would be the recruiting ground for this professional core.\",\n \"Sympathizers would be left outside and the party would be organised based on the concept of democratic centralism.\",\n \"Martov, until then a close friend of Lenin, agreed with him that the core of the party should consist of professional revolutionaries, but argued that party membership should be open to sympathizers, revolutionary workers and other fellow travelers.\",\n \"The two had disagreed on the issue as early as March–May 1903, but it was not until the Congress that their differences became irreconcilable and split the party.\",\n \"At first the disagreement appeared to be minor and inspired by personal conflicts.\",\n \"For example, Lenin's insistence on dropping less active editorial board members from ''Iskra'' or Martov's support for the Organizing Committee of the Congress which Lenin opposed, The differences quickly grew and the split became irreparable.\",\n \"===Origins of the name===\\nThe two factions were originally known as \\\"hard\\\" (Lenin's supporters) and \\\"soft\\\" (Martov's supporters).\",\n \"Soon, however, the terminology changed to \\\"Bolsheviks\\\" and \\\"Mensheviks\\\", from the Russian \\\"bolshinstvo\\\" (majority) and \\\"menshinstvo\\\" (minority).\",\n \"On the other hand, Martov's supporters won the vote concerning the question of party membership.\",\n \"Neither Lenin nor Martov had a firm majority throughout the Congress as delegates left or switched sides.\",\n \"At the end, the Congress was evenly split between the two factions.\",\n \"From 1907 on, English language articles sometimes used the term \\\"Maximalist\\\" for \\\"Bolshevik\\\" and \\\"Minimalist\\\" for \\\"Menshevik\\\", which proved confusing since there was also a \\\"Maximalist\\\" faction within the Russian Socialist-Revolutionary Party in 1904–06 (which after 1906 formed a separate Union of Socialists-Revolutionaries Maximalists) and then again after 1917.\",\n \"===Composition of the party===\\nThe average party member was very young.\",\n \"In 1907, 22% of Bolsheviks were under 20, 37% were 20–24 and 16% were 25–29.\",\n \"By 1905, 62% of the members were industrial workers (3% of the population in 1897).\",\n \"22% of Bolsheviks were gentry (1.7% of the total population), 38% were uprooted peasants, compared with 19% and 26% for the Mensheviks.\",\n \"In 1907, 78.3% of the Bolsheviks were Russian and 10% were Jewish (34% and 20% for the Mensheviks).\",\n \"Total membership was 8,400 in 1905, 13,000 in 1906 and 46,100 by 1907 (8,400, 18,000, 38,200 respectively for the Mensheviks).\",\n \"By 1910, both factions together had fewer than 10,000 members.\",\n \"===Beginning of the 1905 Revolution (1903–1905)===\\nThe two factions were in a state of flux in 1903–04 with many members changing sides.\",\n \"The founder of Russian Marxism, Georgy Plekhanov, who was at first allied with Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks, parted ways with them by 1904.\",\n \"Leon Trotsky at first supported the Mensheviks, but left them in September 1904 over their insistence on an alliance with Russian liberals and their opposition to a reconciliation with Lenin and the Bolsheviks.\",\n \"He remained a self-described \\\"non-factional social democrat\\\" until August 1917 when he joined Lenin and the Bolsheviks as their positions assembled and he came to believe that Lenin was right on the issue of the party.\",\n \"All but one member of the Central Committee were arrested in Moscow in early 1905.\",\n \"The remaining member, with the power of appointing a new one, was won over by the Bolsheviks.\",\n \"The lines between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks hardened in April 1905 when the Bolsheviks held a Bolsheviks-only meeting in London, which they called the Third Party Congress.\",\n \"The Mensheviks organised a rival conference and the split was thus formalised.\",\n \"The Bolsheviks played a relatively minor role in the 1905 Revolution, and were a minority in the Saint Petersburg Soviet of Workers' Deputies led by Trotsky.\",\n \"The less significant Moscow Soviet, however, was dominated by the Bolsheviks.\",\n \"These soviets became the model for those formed in 1917.\",\n \"===The Mensheviks (\\\"The minority\\\") (1906–1907)===\\n\\nAs the Russian Revolution of 1905 progressed, Bolsheviks, Mensheviks and smaller non-Russian social democratic parties operating within the Russian Empire attempted to reunify at the Fourth (Unification) Congress of the RSDLP held at Folkets hus, Norra Bantorget in Stockholm, April 1906.\",\n \"When the Mensheviks struck an alliance with the Jewish Bund, the Bolsheviks found themselves in a minority.\",\n \"However, all factions retained their respective factional structure and the Bolsheviks formed the Bolshevik Centre, the de facto governing body of the Bolshevik faction within the RSDLP.\",\n \"At the Fifth Congress held in London in May 1907, the Bolsheviks were in the majority, but the two factions continued functioning mostly independently of each other.\",\n \"===Split between Lenin and Bogdanov (1908–10)===\\nTensions had existed between Lenin and Bogdanov as early as 1904: Lenin had fallen out with Nikolai Valentinov, after the latter had introduced him to Ernst Mach's Empiriocriticism, a viewpoint that Bogdanov had been exploring and developing as Empiriomonism.\",\n \"Having worked as co-editor with Plekhanov on ''Zayra'' he had come to agree with the latter's rejection of Bogdanov's Empiriomonism.\",\n \"With the defeat of the revolution in mid-1907 and the adoption of a new, highly restrictive election law, the Bolsheviks began debating whether to boycott the new parliament known as the Third Duma.\",\n \"Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev and others argued for participating in the Duma while Alexander Bogdanov, Anatoly Lunacharsky, Mikhail Pokrovsky and others argued that the social democratic faction in the Duma should be recalled.\",\n \"The latter became known as recallists (\\\"otzovists\\\" in Russian).\",\n \"A smaller group within the Bolshevik faction demanded that the RSDLP central committee should give its sometimes unruly Duma faction an ultimatum, demanding complete subordination to all party decisions.\",\n \"This group became known as \\\"ultimatists\\\" and was generally allied with the recallists.\",\n \"With most Bolshevik leaders either supporting Bogdanov or undecided by mid-1908 when the differences became irreconcilable, Lenin concentrated on undermining Bogdanov's reputation as a philosopher.\",\n \"In 1909, he published a scathing book of criticism entitled ''Materialism and Empirio-criticism'' (1909), assaulting Bogdanov's position and accusing him of philosophical idealism.\",\n \"In June 1909, Bogdanov proposed the formation of Party Schools as \\\"Proletarian Universities\\\" at a Bolshevik mini-conference in Paris organised by the editorial board of the Bolshevik magazine ''Proletary'' in June 1909.\",\n \"However, this was not accepted and Lenin tried to expel him from the Bolshevik faction.\",\n \"Bogdanov was then involved with setting up Vpered, which ran the Capri Party School from August to December 1909.\",\n \"===Final attempt at party unity (1910)===\\nWith both Bolsheviks and Mensheviks weakened by splits within their ranks and by Tsarist repression, they were tempted to try to re-unite the party.\",\n \"In January 1910, Leninists, recallists and various Menshevik factions held a meeting of the party's Central Committee in Paris.\",\n \"Kamenev and Zinoviev were dubious about the idea, but were willing to give it a try under pressure from \\\"conciliator\\\" Bolsheviks like Victor Nogin.\",\n \"One of the more underlying reasons that aided in preventing any reunification of the party was the Russian police.\",\n \"The police were able to infiltrate both parties' inner circles by sending in spies who then reported on the opposing party's intentions and hostilities.\",\n \"This allowed the tensions to remain high between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.\",\n \"In turn it prevented them from uniting under common ground which could have possibly sped up the entire revolution.\",\n \"Lenin was firmly opposed to any re-unification, but was outvoted within the Bolshevik leadership.\",\n \"The meeting reached a tentative agreement and one of its provisions made Trotsky's Vienna-based ''Pravda'' a party-financed 'central organ'.\",\n \"Kamenev, Trotsky's brother-in-law, was added to the editorial board from the Bolsheviks, but the unification attempts failed in August 1910 when Kamenev resigned from the board amid mutual recriminations.\",\n \"===Forming a separate party (1912)===\\nThe factions permanently broke off relations in January 1912 after the Bolsheviks organised a Bolsheviks-only Prague Party Conference and formally expelled Mensheviks and recallists from the party.\",\n \"As a result, they ceased to be a faction in the RSDLP and instead declared themselves an independent party, called '''Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (bolsheviks)''' – or RSDLP(b).\",\n \"Unofficially the Party has been referred to as the \\\"Bolshevik Party\\\".\",\n \"Throughout the century, the Party adopted a number of different names.\",\n \"In 1918, RSDLP(b) became '''(All-)Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks)''' and remained so until 1925.\",\n \"From 1925–52 the name was '''All-Union Communist Party (bolsheviks)''', and from 1952–1991 '''Communist Party of the Soviet Union'''.\",\n \"As the party split became permanent and politically recognized in 1912 due to an all Bolshevik meeting of Congress further divisions became evident.\",\n \"One of the most notable differences was how each faction decided to fund its revolution.\",\n \"The Mensheviks decided to fund their revolution through membership dues while Lenin often resorted to much more drastic measures since he required a higher budget.\",\n \"Bolsheviks were in constant need of money because Lenin practiced his beliefs exercised in his writings that revolutions must be led by individuals who devote their entire life to the cause.\",\n \"To compensate he awarded them with salaries for their sacrifice and dedication.\",\n \"This measure was taken to help ensure that the revolutionists stayed focused on their duties and motivated them to perform their jobs.\",\n \"Lenin also used the party money to print and copy pamphlets which were distributed in cities and at political rallies in attempts to expand their operations.\",\n \"This was an obvious difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks party beliefs.\",\n \"Both factions also managed to gain funds simply by receiving donations from wealthy supporters.\",\n \"Further differences in party agendas became evident as the beginning of World War I loomed near.\",\n \"Stalin was especially eager for the start of the war, hoping that it would turn into a war between classes or essentially a Russian Civil War.\",\n \"This desire for war was fueled by Lenin's vision that the workers and peasants would resist joining the war effort, and therefore be more compelled to join the socialist movement.\",\n \"Through the increase in support Russia would then be forced to withdraw from the Allied Powers in order to resolve her internal conflict.\",\n \"Unfortunately for the Bolsheviks, Lenin's assumptions were incorrect and despite his and the party's attempts to push for a civil war through involvement in two conferences in 1915 and 1916 in Switzerland the party remained in the minority in calling for the ceasefire by the Russian Army in World War I.\",\n \"Although the Bolshevik leadership decided to form a separate party, convincing pro-Bolshevik workers within Russia to follow suit proved difficult.\",\n \"When the first meeting of the Fourth Duma was convened in late 1912, only one out of six Bolshevik deputies, Matvei Muranov, (another one, Roman Malinovsky, was later exposed as an Okhrana Tsarist secret police agent) voted to break away from the Menshevik faction within the Duma on 15 December 1912.\",\n \"The Bolshevik leadership eventually prevailed and the Bolsheviks formed their own Duma faction in September 1913.\",\n \"One final difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks was simply how ferocious and tenacious the party was willing to be in order to achieve its goals.\",\n \"Lenin was open minded to retreating on political ideas if he saw the guarantee of long term gains benefiting the party.\",\n \"This practice was commonly seen trying to recruit peasants and uneducated workers by promising them how glorious life would be after the revolution.\",\n \"His approach was \\\"land seizure for the peasants and national self-determination for the minorities – as nothing more than temporary concessions.\\\"\",\n \"In 1918, at Lenin's suggestion, the party renamed itself the ''Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)''.\",\n \"In 1925, this was changed to ''All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)''.\",\n \"In 1952, at the 19th Party Congress, according to Stalin's suggestion, the Bolshevik party was renamed the ''Communist Party of Soviet Union''.\",\n \"''\\\"Down with Bolshevism.\",\n \"Bolshevism brings war and destruction, hunger and death\\\"'', anti-Bolshevik propaganda, Germany, 1919.\",\n \"\\\"Bolo\\\" was a derogatory expression for Bolsheviks used by British service personnel in the North Russian Expeditionary Force which intervened against the Red Army during the Russian Civil War.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels, and other Nazi leaders used it in reference to the worldwide political movement coordinated by the Comintern.\",\n \"During the days of the Cold War in the United Kingdom, labour union leaders and other leftists were sometimes derisively described as \\\"Bolshies\\\".\",\n \"The usage is roughly equivalent to the term \\\"Commie\\\", \\\"Red\\\", or \\\"pinko\\\" in the United States during the same period.\",\n \"The term \\\"Bolshie\\\" later became a slang term for anyone who was rebellious, aggressive, or truculent.\",\n \"===Non-Russian/Soviet groups having used the name \\\"Bolshevik\\\"===\\n*Bangladesh: Maoist Bolshevik Reorganisation Movement of the Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party\\n*Burkina Faso: Burkinabé Bolshevik Party\\n*India: Bolshevik Party of India\\n*India/Sri Lanka: Bolshevik-Leninist Party of India, Ceylon and Burma\\n*India: Revolutionary Socialist Party (Bolshevik)\\n*Mexico: Bolshevik Communist Party\\n*Senegal: Bolshevik Nuclei\\n*Sri Lanka: Bolshevik Samasamaja Party\\n*Turkey: Bolshevik Party (North Kurdistan – Turkey)\",\n \"*Democratic centralism\\n*Left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks\\n*Leninism\\n*October Revolution\\n*Old Bolshevik\\n*Soviet Revolutionary Communists (Bolsheviks)\\n*Vladimir Lenin\\n*Marxism–Leninism\\n*Trotskyism\",\n \"\\n\\n===Sources===\\n* .\",\n \"* .\",\n \"* .\",\n \"\\n\\n*.\",\n \"*.\",\n \"*.\",\n \"by Bertrand Russell, November 1920\\n*.\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"finance"}}},{"rowIdx":275,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\nPolish Knights 1447-1492\n\nThe '''Battle of Świecino''' (named for the village of Świecino, near Żarnowiec Lake, northern Poland) also called the '''Battle of Żarnowiec''' or in German '''Battle of Schwetz''', took place on September 17, 1462 during the Thirteen Years' War. The Poles commanded by Piotr Dunin, consisting of some 2000 mercenares and Poles, decisively defeated the 2700 man army of the Teutonic Knights commanded by Fritz Raweneck and Kaspar Nostyc. Auxiliary forces sent by duke Eric II of Pomerania, an ally of the Polish king, did not enter the battle.\n","The Polish forces consisted mostly of the mercenaries hired by the Polish king, Casimir IV the Jagiellon and the city of Danzig (Gdańsk). This army included 1000 cavalry, of which 112 were heavy cavalry, and another 1000 of infantry. 1000 cavalry and 400 infantry were mercenaries hired by Polish king, while the rest were units from Danzig (Gdańsk).\n","Most of the Teutonic army, under the command of Fritz Raweneck and Kaspar Nostyc, were troops gathered from the nearby castles Mewe (Gniew), Stargard (Starogard Gdański), Nowe, Skarszewy and Kiszewy. This army totalled 1000 cavalry and 400 infantry. Raweneck also had the supply chain (tabors), cannons and up to 1300 auxiliary infantry of Pomeranian peasants, used mainly for fortification works.\n","The battle started in the evening. Adopting a relatively new tactic, Polish units built a fortified camp on the Hussite model consisting of wagons linked by a chain surrounded by a deep ditch (tabor). The units of Raveneck and his subordinate, Kaspar Nostyc (commander from Conitz (Chojnice) also created a tabor. Piotr Dunin decided not to wait for the enemy and attacked first, setting infantry with crossbows on the left, defended by cavalry between the tabor and the coast of the nearby lake of Rogoźnica. Raveneck placed cavalry in front of his tabor, and infantry behind it, without any strategic plan. The first phase of the battle was started by a charge of Polish heavy cavalry under Paweł Jasieński. Fierce fighting continued for three hours and ended without a clear winner. After a short pause at midday, Teutonic units were able to push the Poles back; however, they found themselves under very heavy fire from crossbows of the Polish infantry, which caused huge losses and a withdrawal. During this fight Raveneck was wounded. He stopped his soldiers and tried to attack again, but this charge ended with a total defeat - Raveneck died and the rest of the cavalry surrendered or escaped. The Teutonic infantry tried to defend themselves at the tabor but its resistance was broken by a quick attack of Polish cavalry.\n","The Teutonic Order's army lost around 1000 soldiers, including some 300 cavalrymen. Fifty soldiers were captured. The Teutonic commander was also killed in battle and was buried in the Żarnowiec chapter church.\n\nThe Poles lost just 100 soldiers, although 150 later died from their wounds. Among the dead on the Polish side was Maciej Hagen from Gdańsk. Piotr Dunin was wounded twice.\n","The direct result of the battle of Świecino was that the city of Danzig and Pomerania were freed from the danger of an attack by the Teutonic Order. As a result, the royal and municipal armed forces could be used elsewhere in the war, mainly to protect the Vistula waterway and to capture the Teutonic held strongholds. This way that Teutonic forces in Prussia on the right bank of Vistula were cut off from supplies from Western Europe.\n\nThe psychological significance of the battle was that this was the first open field battle won by the royal forces, so it increased the morale of the Polish forces and lowered the morale of the Teutonic Knights. Many military historians say that the battle of Świecino was the turning point of the Thirteen Years' War, leading to the final Polish victory in 1466.\n","* Świecino near Żarnowiec Lake\n* Malbork Castle - Battle of Świecino\n","* Janusz Sikorski, ''Zarys historii wojskowości powszechnej do końca wieku XIX. Universal history of military operations till 1900'', Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny, Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 1972. - description of the battle of Świecino: pp. 287–288, map of the battle of Świecino: p. 288\n* Janusz Sikorski (ed.), Wiesław Majewski, Tadeusz Marian Nowak, Jerzy Teodorczyk, ''Polskie tradycje wojskowe. Tradycje walk obronnych z najazdami Niemców, Krzyżaków, Szwedów, Turków i Tatarów X-XVII w. Polish military traditions. Tradition of defence struggles with the invasions of the Germans, Teutonic Knights, Swedes, Turks and Tartars in 10th-17th centuries''. Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny, Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 1990. - description of the battle of Świecino: p. 127, map of the battle of Świecino: p. 114\n* Stanisław Herbst, ''Wojna Trzynastoletnia - O bitwie pod Świecinem. The Thirteen Years' War - About the Battle of Świecino'', Przegląd Historyczno-Wojskowy, vol. 7: 1934/1935, issue 2, pp. 309–311, reprinted in: Stanisław Herbst, ''Potrzeba historii czyli o polskim stylu życia. Wybór pism.'' Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, Warszawa 1978\n* K. Górski, ''Pomorze w dobie wojny trzynastoletniej. Pomerania during the Thirteen Years' War'', Poznań 1932 - description and 3 maps of the battle of Świecino: p. 308\n* Marian Biskup, ''Druga faza wojny trzynastoletniej (1462-1466). Second phase of the Thirteen Years' War 1462-1466'', in: Gerard Labuda (ed.), ''Historia Pomorza. History of Pomerania'', Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, Poznań 1972, - description of the battle of Świecino: p. 738\n* ''Świecino'', in: Róża Ostrowska, Izabela Trojanowska, ''Bedeker Kaszubski'', Wydawcnictwo Morskie, Gdańsk 1974\n* ''Świecino'', in: Tadeusz Bolduan, ''Nowy bedeker kaszubski'', Gdańsk 1997\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\nPolish Knights 1447-1492\\n\\nThe '''Battle of Świecino''' (named for the village of Świecino, near Żarnowiec Lake, northern Poland) also called the '''Battle of Żarnowiec''' or in German '''Battle of Schwetz''', took place on September 17, 1462 during the Thirteen Years' War. The Poles commanded by Piotr Dunin, consisting of some 2000 mercenares and Poles, decisively defeated the 2700 man army of the Teutonic Knights commanded by Fritz Raweneck and Kaspar Nostyc. Auxiliary forces sent by duke Eric II of Pomerania, an ally of the Polish king, did not enter the battle.\\n\",\n \"The Polish forces consisted mostly of the mercenaries hired by the Polish king, Casimir IV the Jagiellon and the city of Danzig (Gdańsk). This army included 1000 cavalry, of which 112 were heavy cavalry, and another 1000 of infantry. 1000 cavalry and 400 infantry were mercenaries hired by Polish king, while the rest were units from Danzig (Gdańsk).\\n\",\n \"Most of the Teutonic army, under the command of Fritz Raweneck and Kaspar Nostyc, were troops gathered from the nearby castles Mewe (Gniew), Stargard (Starogard Gdański), Nowe, Skarszewy and Kiszewy. This army totalled 1000 cavalry and 400 infantry. Raweneck also had the supply chain (tabors), cannons and up to 1300 auxiliary infantry of Pomeranian peasants, used mainly for fortification works.\\n\",\n \"The battle started in the evening. Adopting a relatively new tactic, Polish units built a fortified camp on the Hussite model consisting of wagons linked by a chain surrounded by a deep ditch (tabor). The units of Raveneck and his subordinate, Kaspar Nostyc (commander from Conitz (Chojnice) also created a tabor. Piotr Dunin decided not to wait for the enemy and attacked first, setting infantry with crossbows on the left, defended by cavalry between the tabor and the coast of the nearby lake of Rogoźnica. Raveneck placed cavalry in front of his tabor, and infantry behind it, without any strategic plan. The first phase of the battle was started by a charge of Polish heavy cavalry under Paweł Jasieński. Fierce fighting continued for three hours and ended without a clear winner. After a short pause at midday, Teutonic units were able to push the Poles back; however, they found themselves under very heavy fire from crossbows of the Polish infantry, which caused huge losses and a withdrawal. During this fight Raveneck was wounded. He stopped his soldiers and tried to attack again, but this charge ended with a total defeat - Raveneck died and the rest of the cavalry surrendered or escaped. The Teutonic infantry tried to defend themselves at the tabor but its resistance was broken by a quick attack of Polish cavalry.\\n\",\n \"The Teutonic Order's army lost around 1000 soldiers, including some 300 cavalrymen. Fifty soldiers were captured. The Teutonic commander was also killed in battle and was buried in the Żarnowiec chapter church.\\n\\nThe Poles lost just 100 soldiers, although 150 later died from their wounds. Among the dead on the Polish side was Maciej Hagen from Gdańsk. Piotr Dunin was wounded twice.\\n\",\n \"The direct result of the battle of Świecino was that the city of Danzig and Pomerania were freed from the danger of an attack by the Teutonic Order. As a result, the royal and municipal armed forces could be used elsewhere in the war, mainly to protect the Vistula waterway and to capture the Teutonic held strongholds. This way that Teutonic forces in Prussia on the right bank of Vistula were cut off from supplies from Western Europe.\\n\\nThe psychological significance of the battle was that this was the first open field battle won by the royal forces, so it increased the morale of the Polish forces and lowered the morale of the Teutonic Knights. Many military historians say that the battle of Świecino was the turning point of the Thirteen Years' War, leading to the final Polish victory in 1466.\\n\",\n \"* Świecino near Żarnowiec Lake\\n* Malbork Castle - Battle of Świecino\\n\",\n \"* Janusz Sikorski, ''Zarys historii wojskowości powszechnej do końca wieku XIX. Universal history of military operations till 1900'', Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny, Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 1972. - description of the battle of Świecino: pp. 287–288, map of the battle of Świecino: p. 288\\n* Janusz Sikorski (ed.), Wiesław Majewski, Tadeusz Marian Nowak, Jerzy Teodorczyk, ''Polskie tradycje wojskowe. Tradycje walk obronnych z najazdami Niemców, Krzyżaków, Szwedów, Turków i Tatarów X-XVII w. Polish military traditions. Tradition of defence struggles with the invasions of the Germans, Teutonic Knights, Swedes, Turks and Tartars in 10th-17th centuries''. Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny, Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 1990. - description of the battle of Świecino: p. 127, map of the battle of Świecino: p. 114\\n* Stanisław Herbst, ''Wojna Trzynastoletnia - O bitwie pod Świecinem. The Thirteen Years' War - About the Battle of Świecino'', Przegląd Historyczno-Wojskowy, vol. 7: 1934/1935, issue 2, pp. 309–311, reprinted in: Stanisław Herbst, ''Potrzeba historii czyli o polskim stylu życia. Wybór pism.'' Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, Warszawa 1978\\n* K. Górski, ''Pomorze w dobie wojny trzynastoletniej. Pomerania during the Thirteen Years' War'', Poznań 1932 - description and 3 maps of the battle of Świecino: p. 308\\n* Marian Biskup, ''Druga faza wojny trzynastoletniej (1462-1466). Second phase of the Thirteen Years' War 1462-1466'', in: Gerard Labuda (ed.), ''Historia Pomorza. History of Pomerania'', Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, Poznań 1972, - description of the battle of Świecino: p. 738\\n* ''Świecino'', in: Róża Ostrowska, Izabela Trojanowska, ''Bedeker Kaszubski'', Wydawcnictwo Morskie, Gdańsk 1974\\n* ''Świecino'', in: Tadeusz Bolduan, ''Nowy bedeker kaszubski'', Gdańsk 1997\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction","Polish forces","Teutonic forces","Battle","Casualties","Aftermath","External links","References"],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \"Polish forces\",\n \"Teutonic forces\",\n \"Battle\",\n \"Casualties\",\n \"Aftermath\",\n \"External links\",\n \"References\"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Battle of Świecino"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["This way that Teutonic forces in Prussia on the right bank of Vistula were cut off from supplies from Western Europe."],"string":"[\n \"This way that Teutonic forces in Prussia on the right bank of Vistula were cut off from supplies from Western Europe.\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\nPolish Knights 1447-1492\n\nThe '''Battle of Świecino''' (named for the village of Świecino, near Żarnowiec Lake, northern Poland) also called the '''Battle of Żarnowiec''' or in German '''Battle of Schwetz''', took place on September 17, 1462 during the Thirteen Years' War.","The Poles commanded by Piotr Dunin, consisting of some 2000 mercenares and Poles, decisively defeated the 2700 man army of the Teutonic Knights commanded by Fritz Raweneck and Kaspar Nostyc.","Auxiliary forces sent by duke Eric II of Pomerania, an ally of the Polish king, did not enter the battle.","The Polish forces consisted mostly of the mercenaries hired by the Polish king, Casimir IV the Jagiellon and the city of Danzig (Gdańsk).","This army included 1000 cavalry, of which 112 were heavy cavalry, and another 1000 of infantry.","1000 cavalry and 400 infantry were mercenaries hired by Polish king, while the rest were units from Danzig (Gdańsk).","Most of the Teutonic army, under the command of Fritz Raweneck and Kaspar Nostyc, were troops gathered from the nearby castles Mewe (Gniew), Stargard (Starogard Gdański), Nowe, Skarszewy and Kiszewy.","This army totalled 1000 cavalry and 400 infantry.","Raweneck also had the supply chain (tabors), cannons and up to 1300 auxiliary infantry of Pomeranian peasants, used mainly for fortification works.","The battle started in the evening.","Adopting a relatively new tactic, Polish units built a fortified camp on the Hussite model consisting of wagons linked by a chain surrounded by a deep ditch (tabor).","The units of Raveneck and his subordinate, Kaspar Nostyc (commander from Conitz (Chojnice) also created a tabor.","Piotr Dunin decided not to wait for the enemy and attacked first, setting infantry with crossbows on the left, defended by cavalry between the tabor and the coast of the nearby lake of Rogoźnica.","Raveneck placed cavalry in front of his tabor, and infantry behind it, without any strategic plan.","The first phase of the battle was started by a charge of Polish heavy cavalry under Paweł Jasieński.","Fierce fighting continued for three hours and ended without a clear winner.","After a short pause at midday, Teutonic units were able to push the Poles back; however, they found themselves under very heavy fire from crossbows of the Polish infantry, which caused huge losses and a withdrawal.","During this fight Raveneck was wounded.","He stopped his soldiers and tried to attack again, but this charge ended with a total defeat - Raveneck died and the rest of the cavalry surrendered or escaped.","The Teutonic infantry tried to defend themselves at the tabor but its resistance was broken by a quick attack of Polish cavalry.","The Teutonic Order's army lost around 1000 soldiers, including some 300 cavalrymen.","Fifty soldiers were captured.","The Teutonic commander was also killed in battle and was buried in the Żarnowiec chapter church.","The Poles lost just 100 soldiers, although 150 later died from their wounds.","Among the dead on the Polish side was Maciej Hagen from Gdańsk.","Piotr Dunin was wounded twice.","The direct result of the battle of Świecino was that the city of Danzig and Pomerania were freed from the danger of an attack by the Teutonic Order.","As a result, the royal and municipal armed forces could be used elsewhere in the war, mainly to protect the Vistula waterway and to capture the Teutonic held strongholds.","The psychological significance of the battle was that this was the first open field battle won by the royal forces, so it increased the morale of the Polish forces and lowered the morale of the Teutonic Knights.","Many military historians say that the battle of Świecino was the turning point of the Thirteen Years' War, leading to the final Polish victory in 1466.","* Świecino near Żarnowiec Lake\n* Malbork Castle - Battle of Świecino","* Janusz Sikorski, ''Zarys historii wojskowości powszechnej do końca wieku XIX.","Universal history of military operations till 1900'', Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny, Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 1972.","- description of the battle of Świecino: pp.","287–288, map of the battle of Świecino: p. 288\n* Janusz Sikorski (ed.","), Wiesław Majewski, Tadeusz Marian Nowak, Jerzy Teodorczyk, ''Polskie tradycje wojskowe.","Tradycje walk obronnych z najazdami Niemców, Krzyżaków, Szwedów, Turków i Tatarów X-XVII w. Polish military traditions.","Tradition of defence struggles with the invasions of the Germans, Teutonic Knights, Swedes, Turks and Tartars in 10th-17th centuries''.","Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny, Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 1990.","- description of the battle of Świecino: p. 127, map of the battle of Świecino: p. 114\n* Stanisław Herbst, ''Wojna Trzynastoletnia - O bitwie pod Świecinem.","The Thirteen Years' War - About the Battle of Świecino'', Przegląd Historyczno-Wojskowy, vol.","7: 1934/1935, issue 2, pp.","309–311, reprinted in: Stanisław Herbst, ''Potrzeba historii czyli o polskim stylu życia.","Wybór pism.''","Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, Warszawa 1978\n* K. Górski, ''Pomorze w dobie wojny trzynastoletniej.","Pomerania during the Thirteen Years' War'', Poznań 1932 - description and 3 maps of the battle of Świecino: p. 308\n* Marian Biskup, ''Druga faza wojny trzynastoletniej (1462-1466).","Second phase of the Thirteen Years' War 1462-1466'', in: Gerard Labuda (ed.","), ''Historia Pomorza.","History of Pomerania'', Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, Poznań 1972, - description of the battle of Świecino: p. 738\n* ''Świecino'', in: Róża Ostrowska, Izabela Trojanowska, ''Bedeker Kaszubski'', Wydawcnictwo Morskie, Gdańsk 1974\n* ''Świecino'', in: Tadeusz Bolduan, ''Nowy bedeker kaszubski'', Gdańsk 1997"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\nPolish Knights 1447-1492\\n\\nThe '''Battle of Świecino''' (named for the village of Świecino, near Żarnowiec Lake, northern Poland) also called the '''Battle of Żarnowiec''' or in German '''Battle of Schwetz''', took place on September 17, 1462 during the Thirteen Years' War.\",\n \"The Poles commanded by Piotr Dunin, consisting of some 2000 mercenares and Poles, decisively defeated the 2700 man army of the Teutonic Knights commanded by Fritz Raweneck and Kaspar Nostyc.\",\n \"Auxiliary forces sent by duke Eric II of Pomerania, an ally of the Polish king, did not enter the battle.\",\n \"The Polish forces consisted mostly of the mercenaries hired by the Polish king, Casimir IV the Jagiellon and the city of Danzig (Gdańsk).\",\n \"This army included 1000 cavalry, of which 112 were heavy cavalry, and another 1000 of infantry.\",\n \"1000 cavalry and 400 infantry were mercenaries hired by Polish king, while the rest were units from Danzig (Gdańsk).\",\n \"Most of the Teutonic army, under the command of Fritz Raweneck and Kaspar Nostyc, were troops gathered from the nearby castles Mewe (Gniew), Stargard (Starogard Gdański), Nowe, Skarszewy and Kiszewy.\",\n \"This army totalled 1000 cavalry and 400 infantry.\",\n \"Raweneck also had the supply chain (tabors), cannons and up to 1300 auxiliary infantry of Pomeranian peasants, used mainly for fortification works.\",\n \"The battle started in the evening.\",\n \"Adopting a relatively new tactic, Polish units built a fortified camp on the Hussite model consisting of wagons linked by a chain surrounded by a deep ditch (tabor).\",\n \"The units of Raveneck and his subordinate, Kaspar Nostyc (commander from Conitz (Chojnice) also created a tabor.\",\n \"Piotr Dunin decided not to wait for the enemy and attacked first, setting infantry with crossbows on the left, defended by cavalry between the tabor and the coast of the nearby lake of Rogoźnica.\",\n \"Raveneck placed cavalry in front of his tabor, and infantry behind it, without any strategic plan.\",\n \"The first phase of the battle was started by a charge of Polish heavy cavalry under Paweł Jasieński.\",\n \"Fierce fighting continued for three hours and ended without a clear winner.\",\n \"After a short pause at midday, Teutonic units were able to push the Poles back; however, they found themselves under very heavy fire from crossbows of the Polish infantry, which caused huge losses and a withdrawal.\",\n \"During this fight Raveneck was wounded.\",\n \"He stopped his soldiers and tried to attack again, but this charge ended with a total defeat - Raveneck died and the rest of the cavalry surrendered or escaped.\",\n \"The Teutonic infantry tried to defend themselves at the tabor but its resistance was broken by a quick attack of Polish cavalry.\",\n \"The Teutonic Order's army lost around 1000 soldiers, including some 300 cavalrymen.\",\n \"Fifty soldiers were captured.\",\n \"The Teutonic commander was also killed in battle and was buried in the Żarnowiec chapter church.\",\n \"The Poles lost just 100 soldiers, although 150 later died from their wounds.\",\n \"Among the dead on the Polish side was Maciej Hagen from Gdańsk.\",\n \"Piotr Dunin was wounded twice.\",\n \"The direct result of the battle of Świecino was that the city of Danzig and Pomerania were freed from the danger of an attack by the Teutonic Order.\",\n \"As a result, the royal and municipal armed forces could be used elsewhere in the war, mainly to protect the Vistula waterway and to capture the Teutonic held strongholds.\",\n \"The psychological significance of the battle was that this was the first open field battle won by the royal forces, so it increased the morale of the Polish forces and lowered the morale of the Teutonic Knights.\",\n \"Many military historians say that the battle of Świecino was the turning point of the Thirteen Years' War, leading to the final Polish victory in 1466.\",\n \"* Świecino near Żarnowiec Lake\\n* Malbork Castle - Battle of Świecino\",\n \"* Janusz Sikorski, ''Zarys historii wojskowości powszechnej do końca wieku XIX.\",\n \"Universal history of military operations till 1900'', Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny, Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 1972.\",\n \"- description of the battle of Świecino: pp.\",\n \"287–288, map of the battle of Świecino: p. 288\\n* Janusz Sikorski (ed.\",\n \"), Wiesław Majewski, Tadeusz Marian Nowak, Jerzy Teodorczyk, ''Polskie tradycje wojskowe.\",\n \"Tradycje walk obronnych z najazdami Niemców, Krzyżaków, Szwedów, Turków i Tatarów X-XVII w. Polish military traditions.\",\n \"Tradition of defence struggles with the invasions of the Germans, Teutonic Knights, Swedes, Turks and Tartars in 10th-17th centuries''.\",\n \"Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny, Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 1990.\",\n \"- description of the battle of Świecino: p. 127, map of the battle of Świecino: p. 114\\n* Stanisław Herbst, ''Wojna Trzynastoletnia - O bitwie pod Świecinem.\",\n \"The Thirteen Years' War - About the Battle of Świecino'', Przegląd Historyczno-Wojskowy, vol.\",\n \"7: 1934/1935, issue 2, pp.\",\n \"309–311, reprinted in: Stanisław Herbst, ''Potrzeba historii czyli o polskim stylu życia.\",\n \"Wybór pism.''\",\n \"Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, Warszawa 1978\\n* K. Górski, ''Pomorze w dobie wojny trzynastoletniej.\",\n \"Pomerania during the Thirteen Years' War'', Poznań 1932 - description and 3 maps of the battle of Świecino: p. 308\\n* Marian Biskup, ''Druga faza wojny trzynastoletniej (1462-1466).\",\n \"Second phase of the Thirteen Years' War 1462-1466'', in: Gerard Labuda (ed.\",\n \"), ''Historia Pomorza.\",\n \"History of Pomerania'', Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, Poznań 1972, - description of the battle of Świecino: p. 738\\n* ''Świecino'', in: Róża Ostrowska, Izabela Trojanowska, ''Bedeker Kaszubski'', Wydawcnictwo Morskie, Gdańsk 1974\\n* ''Świecino'', in: Tadeusz Bolduan, ''Nowy bedeker kaszubski'', Gdańsk 1997\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"river"}}},{"rowIdx":276,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n'''BND''' may refer to:\n","* Federal Intelligence Service (Germany) (''''), the foreign intelligence agency of Germany\n* Bank of North Dakota, a state-owned and -run financial institution, based in Bismarck, North Dakota, US\n* Bulgarian New Democracy (), a Bulgarian centre-right political party\n* VID (company) (), a Russian TV company\n","* Buy Nothing Day, an international day of protest against consumerism\n* Brunei dollar (ISO 4217 currency code BND), the currency of the Sultanate of Brunei since 1967\n* BTEC National Diploma, a further-education qualification in most of the United Kingdom\n* Brandon railway station (National Rail station code BND), Suffolk, England\n* \"BND\", a song on the album ''No Doubt'' by No Doubt\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n'''BND''' may refer to:\\n\",\n \"* Federal Intelligence Service (Germany) (''''), the foreign intelligence agency of Germany\\n* Bank of North Dakota, a state-owned and -run financial institution, based in Bismarck, North Dakota, US\\n* Bulgarian New Democracy (), a Bulgarian centre-right political party\\n* VID (company) (), a Russian TV company\\n\",\n \"* Buy Nothing Day, an international day of protest against consumerism\\n* Brunei dollar (ISO 4217 currency code BND), the currency of the Sultanate of Brunei since 1967\\n* BTEC National Diploma, a further-education qualification in most of the United Kingdom\\n* Brandon railway station (National Rail station code BND), Suffolk, England\\n* \\\"BND\\\", a song on the album ''No Doubt'' by No Doubt\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction","Organisations","Other uses"],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \"Organisations\",\n \"Other uses\"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"BND"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["* Federal Intelligence Service (Germany) (''''), the foreign intelligence agency of Germany\n* Bank of North Dakota, a state-owned and -run financial institution, based in Bismarck, North Dakota, US\n* Bulgarian New Democracy (), a Bulgarian centre-right political party\n* VID (company) (), a Russian TV company"],"string":"[\n \"* Federal Intelligence Service (Germany) (''''), the foreign intelligence agency of Germany\\n* Bank of North Dakota, a state-owned and -run financial institution, based in Bismarck, North Dakota, US\\n* Bulgarian New Democracy (), a Bulgarian centre-right political party\\n* VID (company) (), a Russian TV company\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n'''BND''' may refer to:","* Buy Nothing Day, an international day of protest against consumerism\n* Brunei dollar (ISO 4217 currency code BND), the currency of the Sultanate of Brunei since 1967\n* BTEC National Diploma, a further-education qualification in most of the United Kingdom\n* Brandon railway station (National Rail station code BND), Suffolk, England\n* \"BND\", a song on the album ''No Doubt'' by No Doubt"],"string":"[\n \"\\n'''BND''' may refer to:\",\n \"* Buy Nothing Day, an international day of protest against consumerism\\n* Brunei dollar (ISO 4217 currency code BND), the currency of the Sultanate of Brunei since 1967\\n* BTEC National Diploma, a further-education qualification in most of the United Kingdom\\n* Brandon railway station (National Rail station code BND), Suffolk, England\\n* \\\"BND\\\", a song on the album ''No Doubt'' by No Doubt\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"finance"}}},{"rowIdx":277,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["'''BMI''' may refer to:\n* Body mass index, to categorize a person by weight\n\n","* Central Illinois Regional Airport, IATA code\n* BMI Healthcare, UK\n* British Midland International, a UK airline incorporated into BA\n** Bmibaby.com, former airline, BMI subsidiary\n** BMI Regional airline, formerly a BMI subsidiary\n* BMI Research, a research firm\n* Baltimore Museum of Industry\n* Bank Melli Iran\n* Birmingham and Midland Institute, England\n* Bundesministerium des Innern, the German Federal Ministry of the Interior\n* Bureau of Military Information, US Civil War agency\n","* BMI Gaming or BMI Worldwide, an amusement products firm\n* ''Best Motoring International'', a Japanese magazine\n* Broadcast Music, Inc., a collecting society for composers' copyrights\n** BMI Foundation, founded by Broadcast Music Incorporated\n","* Bit Manipulation Instruction Sets for x86 microprocessors.\n* Brain Machine Interface\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"'''BMI''' may refer to:\\n* Body mass index, to categorize a person by weight\\n\\n\",\n \"* Central Illinois Regional Airport, IATA code\\n* BMI Healthcare, UK\\n* British Midland International, a UK airline incorporated into BA\\n** Bmibaby.com, former airline, BMI subsidiary\\n** BMI Regional airline, formerly a BMI subsidiary\\n* BMI Research, a research firm\\n* Baltimore Museum of Industry\\n* Bank Melli Iran\\n* Birmingham and Midland Institute, England\\n* Bundesministerium des Innern, the German Federal Ministry of the Interior\\n* Bureau of Military Information, US Civil War agency\\n\",\n \"* BMI Gaming or BMI Worldwide, an amusement products firm\\n* ''Best Motoring International'', a Japanese magazine\\n* Broadcast Music, Inc., a collecting society for composers' copyrights\\n** BMI Foundation, founded by Broadcast Music Incorporated\\n\",\n \"* Bit Manipulation Instruction Sets for x86 microprocessors.\\n* Brain Machine Interface\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction"," Companies and organizations "," Art, media, and entertainment "," Other uses "],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \" Companies and organizations \",\n \" Art, media, and entertainment \",\n \" Other uses \"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"BMI"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["* Central Illinois Regional Airport, IATA code\n* BMI Healthcare, UK\n* British Midland International, a UK airline incorporated into BA\n** Bmibaby.com, former airline, BMI subsidiary\n** BMI Regional airline, formerly a BMI subsidiary\n* BMI Research, a research firm\n* Baltimore Museum of Industry\n* Bank Melli Iran\n* Birmingham and Midland Institute, England\n* Bundesministerium des Innern, the German Federal Ministry of the Interior\n* Bureau of Military Information, US Civil War agency"],"string":"[\n \"* Central Illinois Regional Airport, IATA code\\n* BMI Healthcare, UK\\n* British Midland International, a UK airline incorporated into BA\\n** Bmibaby.com, former airline, BMI subsidiary\\n** BMI Regional airline, formerly a BMI subsidiary\\n* BMI Research, a research firm\\n* Baltimore Museum of Industry\\n* Bank Melli Iran\\n* Birmingham and Midland Institute, England\\n* Bundesministerium des Innern, the German Federal Ministry of the Interior\\n* Bureau of Military Information, US Civil War agency\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["'''BMI''' may refer to:\n* Body mass index, to categorize a person by weight","* BMI Gaming or BMI Worldwide, an amusement products firm\n* ''Best Motoring International'', a Japanese magazine\n* Broadcast Music, Inc., a collecting society for composers' copyrights\n** BMI Foundation, founded by Broadcast Music Incorporated","* Bit Manipulation Instruction Sets for x86 microprocessors.","* Brain Machine Interface"],"string":"[\n \"'''BMI''' may refer to:\\n* Body mass index, to categorize a person by weight\",\n \"* BMI Gaming or BMI Worldwide, an amusement products firm\\n* ''Best Motoring International'', a Japanese magazine\\n* Broadcast Music, Inc., a collecting society for composers' copyrights\\n** BMI Foundation, founded by Broadcast Music Incorporated\",\n \"* Bit Manipulation Instruction Sets for x86 microprocessors.\",\n \"* Brain Machine Interface\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"river"}}},{"rowIdx":278,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["'''BSA''' may refer to:\n\n","\n* Bearing Specialists Association\n* Belarusian Socialist Assembly\n* Bhutan Scouts Association\n* Bibliographical Society of America\n* Birmingham Small Arms Company (also known as BSA), a British manufacturer of military and civilian firearms and vehicles including motorcycles\n* Boston Society of Architects, Boston Chapter of the American Institute of Architects (AIA)\n* Botanical Society of America\n* The Botswana Scouts Association\n* Boy Scouts of America\n* British Social Attitudes Survey, annual statistical survey conducted in Britain by NatCen Social Research since 1983\n* British Sandwich Association\n* British Science Association, a trading name for the British Association for the Advancement of Science\n* British Social Attitudes\n* British Sociological Association\n* British South Africa Company\n* British Speleological Association\n* British Stammering Association\n* Broadcasting Service Association, Australian radio affiliation which became the Macquarie Broadcasting Network\n* BSA Company, motorcycle manufacturer\n* Building Societies Association\n* Business Services Association, the body representing UK outsourced service providers\n* Business Software Alliance\n* Business Systems Analyst, specializing in the analysis of various business technology and protocol.\n","* Base Station Almanac - a cellular providers list of base station locations used in location-based services\n* Bethesda Softworks Archive, a common extension used by this company for the data needed by its games\n","* Bank Secrecy Act\n* Brazilian Space Agency\n* Broadcasting Standards Authority\n","* Bosnian Serb Army – Army of the Republika Srpska\n* Bronze service arrowhead, properly known as the arrowhead device, an insignia of the United States Army\n","* Baltimore School for the Arts\n* Birmingham School of Acting\n* British School at Athens\n* British School of Alexandria\n","\n* Behavioral systems analysis\n* Bis(trimethylsilyl)acetamide\n* Body surface area\n* Bovine serum albumin, used as a standard for protein assay curves\n","\n* Bachelor of Science in Agriculture, B.S.A.\n","\n\n* BSA Bantam\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"'''BSA''' may refer to:\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n* Bearing Specialists Association\\n* Belarusian Socialist Assembly\\n* Bhutan Scouts Association\\n* Bibliographical Society of America\\n* Birmingham Small Arms Company (also known as BSA), a British manufacturer of military and civilian firearms and vehicles including motorcycles\\n* Boston Society of Architects, Boston Chapter of the American Institute of Architects (AIA)\\n* Botanical Society of America\\n* The Botswana Scouts Association\\n* Boy Scouts of America\\n* British Social Attitudes Survey, annual statistical survey conducted in Britain by NatCen Social Research since 1983\\n* British Sandwich Association\\n* British Science Association, a trading name for the British Association for the Advancement of Science\\n* British Social Attitudes\\n* British Sociological Association\\n* British South Africa Company\\n* British Speleological Association\\n* British Stammering Association\\n* Broadcasting Service Association, Australian radio affiliation which became the Macquarie Broadcasting Network\\n* BSA Company, motorcycle manufacturer\\n* Building Societies Association\\n* Business Services Association, the body representing UK outsourced service providers\\n* Business Software Alliance\\n* Business Systems Analyst, specializing in the analysis of various business technology and protocol.\\n\",\n \"* Base Station Almanac - a cellular providers list of base station locations used in location-based services\\n* Bethesda Softworks Archive, a common extension used by this company for the data needed by its games\\n\",\n \"* Bank Secrecy Act\\n* Brazilian Space Agency\\n* Broadcasting Standards Authority\\n\",\n \"* Bosnian Serb Army – Army of the Republika Srpska\\n* Bronze service arrowhead, properly known as the arrowhead device, an insignia of the United States Army\\n\",\n \"* Baltimore School for the Arts\\n* Birmingham School of Acting\\n* British School at Athens\\n* British School of Alexandria\\n\",\n \"\\n* Behavioral systems analysis\\n* Bis(trimethylsilyl)acetamide\\n* Body surface area\\n* Bovine serum albumin, used as a standard for protein assay curves\\n\",\n \"\\n* Bachelor of Science in Agriculture, B.S.A.\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n* BSA Bantam\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction"," Businesses and organizations ","Computing and technology","Government and laws","Military","Schools"," Science and medicine "," Other uses "," See also "],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \" Businesses and organizations \",\n \"Computing and technology\",\n \"Government and laws\",\n \"Military\",\n \"Schools\",\n \" Science and medicine \",\n \" Other uses \",\n \" See also \"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"BSA"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["* Bank Secrecy Act\n* Brazilian Space Agency\n* Broadcasting Standards Authority"],"string":"[\n \"* Bank Secrecy Act\\n* Brazilian Space Agency\\n* Broadcasting Standards Authority\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["'''BSA''' may refer to:","\n* Bearing Specialists Association\n* Belarusian Socialist Assembly\n* Bhutan Scouts Association\n* Bibliographical Society of America\n* Birmingham Small Arms Company (also known as BSA), a British manufacturer of military and civilian firearms and vehicles including motorcycles\n* Boston Society of Architects, Boston Chapter of the American Institute of Architects (AIA)\n* Botanical Society of America\n* The Botswana Scouts Association\n* Boy Scouts of America\n* British Social Attitudes Survey, annual statistical survey conducted in Britain by NatCen Social Research since 1983\n* British Sandwich Association\n* British Science Association, a trading name for the British Association for the Advancement of Science\n* British Social Attitudes\n* British Sociological Association\n* British South Africa Company\n* British Speleological Association\n* British Stammering Association\n* Broadcasting Service Association, Australian radio affiliation which became the Macquarie Broadcasting Network\n* BSA Company, motorcycle manufacturer\n* Building Societies Association\n* Business Services Association, the body representing UK outsourced service providers\n* Business Software Alliance\n* Business Systems Analyst, specializing in the analysis of various business technology and protocol.","* Base Station Almanac - a cellular providers list of base station locations used in location-based services\n* Bethesda Softworks Archive, a common extension used by this company for the data needed by its games","* Bosnian Serb Army – Army of the Republika Srpska\n* Bronze service arrowhead, properly known as the arrowhead device, an insignia of the United States Army","* Baltimore School for the Arts\n* Birmingham School of Acting\n* British School at Athens\n* British School of Alexandria","\n* Behavioral systems analysis\n* Bis(trimethylsilyl)acetamide\n* Body surface area\n* Bovine serum albumin, used as a standard for protein assay curves","\n* Bachelor of Science in Agriculture, B.S.A.","\n\n* BSA Bantam"],"string":"[\n \"'''BSA''' may refer to:\",\n \"\\n* Bearing Specialists Association\\n* Belarusian Socialist Assembly\\n* Bhutan Scouts Association\\n* Bibliographical Society of America\\n* Birmingham Small Arms Company (also known as BSA), a British manufacturer of military and civilian firearms and vehicles including motorcycles\\n* Boston Society of Architects, Boston Chapter of the American Institute of Architects (AIA)\\n* Botanical Society of America\\n* The Botswana Scouts Association\\n* Boy Scouts of America\\n* British Social Attitudes Survey, annual statistical survey conducted in Britain by NatCen Social Research since 1983\\n* British Sandwich Association\\n* British Science Association, a trading name for the British Association for the Advancement of Science\\n* British Social Attitudes\\n* British Sociological Association\\n* British South Africa Company\\n* British Speleological Association\\n* British Stammering Association\\n* Broadcasting Service Association, Australian radio affiliation which became the Macquarie Broadcasting Network\\n* BSA Company, motorcycle manufacturer\\n* Building Societies Association\\n* Business Services Association, the body representing UK outsourced service providers\\n* Business Software Alliance\\n* Business Systems Analyst, specializing in the analysis of various business technology and protocol.\",\n \"* Base Station Almanac - a cellular providers list of base station locations used in location-based services\\n* Bethesda Softworks Archive, a common extension used by this company for the data needed by its games\",\n \"* Bosnian Serb Army – Army of the Republika Srpska\\n* Bronze service arrowhead, properly known as the arrowhead device, an insignia of the United States Army\",\n \"* Baltimore School for the Arts\\n* Birmingham School of Acting\\n* British School at Athens\\n* British School of Alexandria\",\n \"\\n* Behavioral systems analysis\\n* Bis(trimethylsilyl)acetamide\\n* Body surface area\\n* Bovine serum albumin, used as a standard for protein assay curves\",\n \"\\n* Bachelor of Science in Agriculture, B.S.A.\",\n \"\\n\\n* BSA Bantam\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"finance"}}},{"rowIdx":279,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n'''The Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited''' ('''BSA''') was a major British industrial combine, a group of businesses manufacturing military and sporting firearms; bicycles; motorcycles; cars; buses and bodies; steel; iron castings; hand, power, and machine tools; coal cleaning and handling plants; sintered metals; and hard chrome process.\n\nAt its peak, BSA (who also owned Triumph) was the largest motorcycle producer in the world. In the late 1950s and early 1960s poor management and failure to develop new products in the motorcycle division led to a dramatic decline of sales to its major USA market. The management had failed to appreciate the importance of the resurgent Japanese motorcycle industry, leading to problems for the entire BSA group.\n\nA government-organised rescue operation in 1973 led to the takeover of remaining operations by what is now Manganese Bronze Holdings, then owners of Norton-Villiers, and over the following decade further closures and dispersals. The original company, The Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited, remains a subsidiary of Manganese Bronze but its name was changed in 1987.\n\nManganese Bronze continues to operate former BSA subsidiary Carbodies, now known as The London Taxi Company, previously LTI Limited, manufacturers of London taxicabs and formerly the largest wholly British-owned car manufacturer. (Manganese Bronze is now owned by the Chinese company Geely).\n","BSA began in June 1861 in the Gun Quarter, Birmingham, England, founded specifically to manufacture guns by machinery. It was formed by a group of fourteen gunsmith members of the Birmingham Small Arms Trade Association. The market had moved against British gunsmiths following the outbreak of the Crimean War in 1854 because the Board of Ordnance's Royal Small Arms Factory at Enfield had introduced machinery made in the USA and Enfield's greatly increased output had been achieved with reduced reliance on skilled craftsmen. The War Office provided this new grouping of gunsmiths free access to technical drawings and their facilities at their Enfield factory.\n\nThe newly formed company purchased of land at Small Heath, Birmingham, built a factory there and made a road on the site calling it Armoury Road.\n\nThis machinery brought to Birmingham manifested the principle of the inter-changeability of parts.\n\n===Firearms===\nBSA's resort to the use of machinery was rewarded in 1863 with an order for 20,000 Turkish infantry rifles. The management of the BSA Company was changed at an Extraordinary Meeting called on 30 September 1863 when the company was changed from being run by a committee to that of an elected Board of Directors, Joseph Wilson, Samuel Buckley, Isaac Hollis, Charles Playfair, Charles Pryse, Sir John Ratcliffe, Edward Gem, and J.F. Swinburn under the chairmanship of John Dent Goodman.\n\nThe first War Office contract was not agreed until 1868. In 1879, the factory, without work, was shut for a year; the military arms trade was precarious.\n\n===New ventures===\n\n====Bicycles====\n\nThe next year BSA branched out into bicycle manufacture. The gun factory proved remarkably adaptable to the manufacture of cycle parts. What cycles needed was large quantities of standard parts accurately machined at low prices. In 1880 BSA manufactured the Otto Dicycle, In the 1880s the company began to manufacture safety bicycles on their own account and not until 1905 was the company's first experimental motorcycle constructed. Bicycle production ceased in 1887 as the company concentrated on producing the Lee–Metford magazine-loading rifle for the War Office which was re-equipping the British Army with it. The order was for 1,200 rifles per week. BSA recommenced manufacturing bicycles on their own behalf from 1908. BSA Cycles Ltd was set up in 1919 for the manufacture of both bicycles and motorcycles. BSA sold the bicycle business to Raleigh in 1957 after separating the bicycle and motorcycle business in 1953.\n\n====Bicycle components====\nIn 1893, BSA commenced making bicycle hubs and continued to supply the cycle trade with bicycle parts up to 1936. BSA bought The Eadie Manufacturing Company of Redditch in 1907 and so began to manufacture the Eadie two speed hub gear and the Eadie coaster brake hub. BSA also signed an agreement with the Three Speed Gear Syndicate in 1907 to manufacture a 3 speed hub under licence. This was later classified as the Sturmey Archer Type X. BSA introduced a 'Duo' hub in the late 1930s which was capable of one fixed gear and one gear with a freewheel. All BSA hub gear production temporarily ceased in 1939, until they recommenced making their 3 speed hub around 1945. The Eadie coaster hub made a brief return in 1953 on two BSA bicycle models. BSA forever ceased production of their hub gears in 1955.\n\n====Ammunition====\nBSA sold its ammunition business in 1897 to Birmingham Metal and Munitions Company Limited part of the Nobel-Dynamite Trust, through Kynoch a forerunner of ICI.\n\n====Sparkbrook====\nIn 1906 Frank Dudley Docker was appointed a director of the company. By the autumn of that year BSA was in some difficulty. They had purchased the Sparkbrook Royal Small Arms Factory from the War Office, and in return, the War Office undertook to give BSA a quarter of all orders for Lee–Enfield rifles. But, the War Office did not honour their undertaking. The ensuing financial crisis did not prevent BSA from signing an agreement to amalgamate with another bicycle component manufacturer, the Eadie Manufacturing Company of Redditch, on 11 February 1907. That decision was ratified by the shareholders of both companies at separate Extraordinary General Meetings held in the Grand Hotel, Birmingham on 27 February 1907. Albert Eadie became a BSA director, a post he held until his death in 1931.\n\n====Motorcycles====\nMotor bicycles were added to bicycle products in 1910. The BSA 3½ hp was exhibited at the 1910 Olympia Show, London for the 1911 season. The entire BSA production sold out in 1911, 1912 and 1913.\n\n====Motor cars====\n\n=====BSA cars=====\n\n\n\nIn an effort to make use of the Sparkbrook factory BSA established a motorcar department there. An independent part of it was occupied by Lanchester Motor Company. The first prototype automobile was produced in 1907. The following year, marketed under BSA Cycles Ltd, the company sold 150 automobiles and again began producing complete bicycles on its own account. By 1909 it was clear the new motorcar department was unsuccessful; an investigation committee reported to the BSA Board on the many failures of its management and their poor organisation of production.\n\n=====Daimler vehicles=====\n\n\nDudley Docker had joined the board in 1906 and was appointed deputy chairman of BSA in 1909. He had made a spectacular financial success of a merger of five large rolling-stock companies in 1902 and become the leader of the period's merger movement. Believing he could buy the missing management skills that could not be found within BSA he started merger talks with The Daimler Company Limited of Coventry. Daimler and Rover were then the largest British car producers. Daimler was immensely profitable. After its capital reconstruction in 1904 Daimler's profits were 57 per cent and 150 per cent returns on invested capital in 1905 and 1906. The attraction for Daimler shareholders was the apparent stability of BSA.\n\nSo in 1910 BSA purchased Daimler with BSA shares but Docker who negotiated the arrangements either ignored or failed in his assessment of their consequences for the new combine. The combine was never adequately balanced or co-ordinated. One of the financial provisions obliged Daimler to pay BSA an annual dividend of £100,000 representing approximately 40 per cent of the actual cash BSA had put into Daimler. This financial burden deprived Daimler of badly needed cash to fund development, forcing the Daimler company to borrow money from the Midland Bank.\n\nBSA had still not recovered financially from the earlier purchase of Royal Small Arms factory at Sparkbrook and BSA were not in a position to finance Daimler, nor had either company ample liquid resources. BSA went ahead with motorcycle production in 1910, their first model available for the 1911 season. In 1913 the BSA group were compelled through pressure from the Midland Bank to make a capital issue of 300,000 preference shares. In the short term this was to solve the liquidity issue but further diluted the group's capitalisation.\n\nDudley Docker retired as a BSA director in 1912 and installed Lincoln Chandler on the BSA board as his replacement. Dudley Docker liked to draw a comparison between the BSA~Daimler merger he engineered and that of his 1902 merger of Metropolitan Carriage Wagon & Finance Company and Patent Shaft. However, there was not the integration of facilities in the BSA~Daimler case, nor was there a reorganisation of either BSA or Daimler and in view of the earlier criticism contained in the 1909 report of the investigation committee, BSA continued to produce cars of their own using Daimler engines. In 1913 Daimler employed 5,000 workers to manufacture 1,000 vehicles, an indication that things were not well.\n\n=====Steel bodies=====\nIn 1912, BSA would be one of two automobile manufacturers pioneering the use of all-steel bodies, joining Hupmobile in the US.\n\n===First World War===\nDuring the First World War, the company returned to arms manufacture and greatly expanded its operations. BSA produced rifles, Lewis guns, shells, motorcycles and other vehicles for the war effort.\n\n===Inter-war years===\n1935 magazine advert for the BSA range of motorcycles and 3-wheeler cars\n\n====Motorcycles====\n\n\nIn November 1919 BSA launched their first 50 degree vee-twin, Model E, 770cc side valve (6-7 hp) motorcycle for the 1920 season. The machine had interchangeable valves, total loss oil system with mechanical pump and an emergency hand one. Retail price was £130. Other features were Amac carburettor, chain drive, choice of magneto or Magdyno, 7-plate clutch, 3 speed gear box with kickstarter and new type of cantilever fork\n\n====Aviation====\n\nDuring the war Daimler had built enormous numbers of aero engines and aircraft and by the end was building 80 Airco de Havilland bombers a month. In February 1920 BSA amalgamated with what was the world's largest aircraft manufacturer, Aircraft Manufacturing Company (Airco), Airco's main plant at Hendon had employed between 7,000 and 8,000 people. The Airco group of companies had turned out a new aircraft every 45 minutes.\n\nWithin days BSA discovered Airco was in a far more serious financial state than George Holt Thomas had revealed. Holt Thomas was immediately dropped from his new seat on the BSA board and all BSA's new acquisitions were placed in the hands of a liquidator. Some of the businesses were allowed to continue for some years, Aircraft Transport and Travel's assets being eventually rolled into Daimler Air Hire to make Daimler Airway Limited. BSA failed to pay a dividend for the following four years while it tried to recover from its losses. Some relief was achieved when in March 1924 Daimler Airway and its management became the major constituent of Imperial Airways.\n\nAs well as the Daimler car range, BSA Cycles Ltd re-entered the car market under the BSA name in 1921 with a V-twin engined light car followed by four-cylinder models up to 1926, when the name was temporarily dropped. In 1929 a new range of 3- and 4-wheel cars appeared and production of these continued until 1936.\n\nBy 1930 the BSA Group's primary activities were BSA motorcycles and Daimler vehicles.\n\nCar production under the BSA name ceased in the 1930s.\n\n====Lanchester====\n\n\nIn 1931 the Lanchester Motor Company at Sparkbrook was acquired and production of their cars transferred to Daimler's Coventry works. The first new product was a version of the Daimler Light Twenty or 16/20 and called Lanchester 15/18.\n\nLanchester Type 1518 - 1932 5905514590.jpg|Lanchester 15/18October 19312504 cc6\nLanchester Ten 6-light saloon 1936 5917710821 3a71f2bf4b o.jpg|Lanchester TenSeptember 19321203 cc4\nDaimler 15 HP 1934 4860323967 .jpg|Daimler FifteenSeptember 19321805 cc6\nBSA 10 1185cc October 1933.JPG|BSA TenOctober 19321185 cc4\n\n\n====Armaments====\nIn the 1930s, the board of directors authorised expenditure on bringing their arms-making equipment back to use – it had been stored at company expense since the end of the Great War in the belief that BSA might again be called upon to perform its patriotic duty. In 1939, BSA acquired the blueprints for a submachine gun designed by Hungarian arms designer Pál Király as well as the rights to manufacture it. Examples were produced in 9mm Mauser Export calibre according to Kiraly's design. It was estimated that these arms would only cost 5 pounds each to manufacture. However, at the time, submachine guns were viewed as \"gangster weapons\" and plans to manufacture it were shelved.\n\n===Second World War===\nBy the outbreak of the Second World War, BSA Guns Ltd at Small Heath, was the only factory producing rifles in the UK. The Royal Ordnance Factories did not begin production until 1941. BSA Guns Ltd was also producing .303 Browning machine guns for the Air Ministry at the rate of 600 guns per week in March 1939 and Browning production was to peak at 16,390 per month by March 1942. The armed forces had chosen the 500 cc side-valve BSA M20 motorcycle as their preferred machine. On the outbreak of war the Government requisitioned the 690 machines BSA had in stock as well as placing an order for another 8,000 machines. South Africa, Ireland, India, Sweden and the Netherlands also wanted machines.\n\nThe Government passed the Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1939 on 24 August allowing the drafting of defence regulations affecting food, travel, requisitioning of land and supplies, manpower and agricultural production. A second Emergency Powers (Defence) Act was passed on 22 May 1940 allowing the conscription of labour. The fall of France had not been anticipated in Government planning and the encirclement of a large part of the British Expeditionary Force into the Dunkirk pocket resulted in a hasty evacuation of that part of the B.E.F following the abandonment of their equipment. The parlous state of affairs \"no arms, no transport, no equipment\" in the face of the threat of imminent invasion of Britain by Nazi forces was recorded by the Chief of the Imperial General Staff Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke in his diary entries of the 1/2 July 1940.\n\nThe creation of the Home Guard (initially as the Local Defence Volunteers) following Anthony Eden's broadcast appeal to the Nation on Tuesday 14 May 1940 also created further demand for arms production to equip this new force. BSA, as the only rifle producer in Britain, had to step up to the mark and the workforce voluntarily went onto a seven-day week. Motorcycle production was also stepped up from 500 to 1,000 machines per week which meant a finished machine coming off the production line every 5 minutes. The motorcycle department had been left intact in 1939 due to demand which was doubled following Dunkirk. At the same time BSA staff were providing lectures and demonstrations on motorcycle riding and maintenance to 250,000 officers and men in all parts of the UK.\n\nThe BSA factory at Small Heath was bombed by the Luftwaffe on 26 August 1940 resulting in one high explosive bomb and a shower of incendiaries hitting the main barrel mill which was the only one operating on service rifles in the country, causing the unaffordable loss of 750 machine tools but fortunately no loss of life. Two further air raids took place on 19 and 22 November 1940. The air raid of 19 November did the most damage, causing loss of production and trapping hundreds of workers. Two BSA night-shift electricians, Alf Stevens and Alf Goodwin, helped rescue their fellow workers. Alf Stevens was awarded the George Medal for his selfless acts of bravery in the rescue and Alf Goodwin was awarded the British Empire Medal. Workers involved in the works Civil Defence were brought in to help search for and clear bodies to get the plant back into production. The net effect of the November raids was to destroy machine shops in the four-storey 1915 building, the original 1863 gunsmiths' building and nearby buildings, 1,600 machine tools, kill 53 employees, injure 89, 30 of them seriously and halt rifle production for three months.\n\nThe Government Ministry of Supply and BSA immediately began a process of production dispersal throughout Britain, through the shadow factory scheme. Factories were set up at Tipton, Dudley, Smethwick, Blackheath, Lye, Kidderminster, Stourport, Tyseley, and Bromsgrove to manufacture Browning machine guns, Stoke, Corsham, and Newcastle-under-Lyme produced the Hispano cannon, Leicester and Studley Road produced the Besa machine gun, Ruislip produced the Oerlikon 20mm cannon, Stafford produced rocket projectiles, Tamworth produced two-pounder gun carriages, Mansfield produced the Boys Anti-tank gun and Shirley produced rifles. These were dispersal factories which were in addition to Small Heath and the other BSA factories opened in the two years following the 1940 blitz. At its peak Small Heath was running 67 factories engaged in war production. BSA operations were also dispersed to other companies under licence.\n\nIn 1941 BSA was approached to produce a new pedal cycle with a maximum weight allowance of only 22 lb especially for airborne use. This required a new concept in frame design which BSA found, producing a machine which weighed 21 lb, one pound less than the design specification and which also exceeded the design requirement for an effective life of 50 miles many times over. Over 60,000 folding bicycles were produced, a figure equal to half the total production of military bicycles during World War II. BSA also produced folding motorcycles for the Airborne Division. In late 1942 BSA examined the Special Operations Executive designed Welgun with a view to manufacture. BSA were willing to manufacture the gun in the quantities required starting April 1943 but the cheaper and less accurate Sten Mk IV was adopted for production by the Ministry of Supply. BSA bought the Sunbeam motorcycles and bicycle business from Associated Motor Cycles Ltd in 1943 and then Ariel Motors Ltd in 1944. During the course of the conflict BSA produced 1,250,000 Lee–Enfield .303 service rifles, 404,383 Sten sub-machine guns, 468,098 Browning machine guns plus spares equivalent to another 100,000, 42,532 Hispano cannon, 32,971 Oerlikon cannon, 59,322 7.9 mm Besa machine guns, 3,218 15 mm Besa machine guns, 68,882 Boys Anti-tank guns, 126,334 motorcycles, 128,000 military bicycles (over 60,000 of which were folding paratrooper bicycles), 10,000,000 shell fuse cases, 3,485,335 magazines and 750,000 anti-aircraft rockets were supplied to the armed forces.\n\nAt the same time other parts of the Group were having similar problems. Before World War II Daimler had been linked with other Coventry motor manufacturers in a government-backed scheme for aero engine manufacture and had been allocated two shadow factories. Apart from this, BSA-owned Daimler was producing Scout Cars and Daimler Mk I Armoured Cars which had been designed by BSA at Small Heath not Coventry as well as gun turrets, gun parts, tank transmissions, rocket projectiles and other munitions. This activity had not gone unnoticed by the enemy, which made Radford Works a target in the Coventry air raids. Radford Works received direct hits in four separate air raids during 1940. None of these attacks were to seriously disrupt production, however two more serious air raids were carried out in April 1941 which destroyed half the factory. In all it is estimated that 170 bombs containing 52,000 lbs of explosive were dropped on Radford Works as well as the thousands of incendiaries. Like BSA, Daimler had to find dispersal units. A back-handed compliment was paid by Field Marshal Rommel to the workers at Radford Works when he used a captured Daimler Scout to escape following his defeat at El Alamein.\n\n===Post-war===\nAs the result of increased post war demand the Small Heath, Birmingham factory was turned over entirely to motorcycle production.\n\nBSA produced the first Sunbeam bicycle catalogue in 1949 and produced its own '4 Star' derailleur gear with an associated splined cassette hub and 4 sprocket cassette. This design was different from the 1930s Bayliss Wiley cassette hub which had a threaded sprocket carrier. BSA bought New Hudson motorcycle and bicycle business in 1950 and followed this up in 1951 with the purchase of Triumph Motorcycles which brought Jack Sangster onto the BSA board. The effect of this acquisition was to make BSA into the largest producer of motorcycles in the world at that time.\n\n1952 saw BSA establish a Professional Cycling Team. Bob Maitland a successful amateur cyclist and the highest placed British finisher in the 1948 Olympic Games road race and now an independent rider in the BSA team was a BSA employee working in the design office as a draughtsman. It was Bob Maitland who was responsible for the design of post war BSA range of lightweight sports bicycles based on his knowledge of cycling. Bob Maitland also made some of the components used on the bicycles of the professional team which were not standard production machines. In the 1952 Tour of Britain Road Race run between Friday 22 August and Saturday 6 September, involving 14 individual stages and covering a total race distance of 1,470 miles, the BSA team of Bob Maitland, “Tiny” Thomas, Pete Proctor, Alf Newman and Stan Jones won the overall team race and Pete Proctor “King of the Mountains” classification. The riders also enjoyed success on the individual stages of the race. The team competed in four further events, 14 September Tour of the Chilterns, 1st “Tiny” Thomas and Team Prize, 21 September Weston-Super-Mare Grand Prix, Team Prize, 28 September Staffordshire Grand Prix, 1st Bob Maitland and Team Prize, 5 October Tour Revenge Race, Dublin, 1st “Tiny” Thomas and Team prize.\n\nIn 1953 BSA withdrew motorcycle production from BSA Cycles Ltd, the company it has established in 1919, by creating BSA Motorcycles Ltd. BSA also produced its 100,000th BSA Bantam motorcycle, a fact celebrated at the 1953 motorcycle show with a visit by Sir Anthony Eden to the BSA stand. In 1953 the BSA Professional Cycling Team was managed by Syd Cozens. Successes were 5/6 April Bournemouth Two Day Road Race, 1st Bob Maitland, 12 April Dover to London 63 Miles Road Race, 1st Stan Jones, 31 May Langsett 90 Miles Road Race, 1st Bob Maitland and “King of the Mountains”, 7 June Tour of the Wrekin, 1st Bob Maitland, 12 July Severn Valley 100 Miles Road Race, 1st “Tiny” Thomas, 19 July Jackson Trophy, Newcastle, Team Prize, 9 August Les Adams Memorial 80 Miles Road Race, 1st Alf Newman, Team Prize, “King of the Mountains” Arthur Ilsley, 30 August Weston-Super-Mare 100 Miles Grand Prix, 1st Bob Maitland, Team Prize. The team also competed in the 1,624 mile, 12 stage, 1953 Tour of Britain Road Race. The 1953 line up had changed as Arthur Ilsley replaced Pete Proctor in the team. “Tiny” Thomas won the overall individual classification, the Team were runners-up in the team competition and Arthur Ilsley was 3rd in the “King of the Mountains” competition. Bob Maitland also had notable success by winning the Independent National Championship.\n\n1954 saw the introduction of the BSA Quick Release 3 Speed hub gear. It was a split axle three speed gear intended for use with bicycles equipped with oil bath chainguards. The original BSA 3 speed hub gear had been made under licence from the Three-Speed Gear Syndicate since 1907. The design was later to be classified as the Sturmey-Archer 'Type X', but all BSA hub gear production ceased in 1955\n\nSir Bernard Docker remained chairman of BSA until 1956 when the BSA removed him. In an acrimonious dispute conducted in the media the matter was brought to the BSA shareholders at the Annual General Meeting where the decision of the Board was upheld. Another significant departure for the fortune of the BSA Group but less controversial was the retirement on ill health grounds of James Leek CBE, Managing Director from 1939 until his retirement. Sir Bernard Docker was replaced as Chairman of the BSA Board by Jack Sangster.\n\nThe BSA bicycle division, BSA Cycles Ltd., including the BSA cycle dealer network was sold to Raleigh in 1957. Raleigh initially continued bicycle production in Birmingham at Coventry Road, Sheldon, Birmingham 26 into the early 1960s using up BSA parts but as time went on more stock Raleigh parts and fittings were used, some continuing to bear the 'piled arms' stamp. TI Group owners of the British Cycle Corporation bought Raleigh in 1960 thus gaining access to the BSA brand. Bicycles bearing the BSA name are currently manufactured and distributed within India by TI Cycles of India but have no direct connection to the original Birmingham BSA company.\n\nIn 1960, Daimler was sold off to Jaguar.\n\n1961 was the centenary year of the BSA Group and in recognition of this milestone the company magazine produced an anniversary issue of ''BSA Group News'' in June ''BSA Centenary 1861–1961'' in which many of the achievements of the Group were celebrated. This year also saw the end of military rifle production, however BSA still continued to make sporting guns. In 1986 BSA Guns was liquidated, the assets bought and renamed '''BSA Guns (UK) Ltd'''. The company continues to make air rifles and shotguns, and is still based in Small Heath in Birmingham.\n\n====Norton-Villiers-Triumph====\n\n\nThe Group continued to expand and acquire throughout the 1950s, but by 1965 competition from Japan (in the shape of companies like Honda, Yamaha and Suzuki) and Europe from Jawa / CZ, Bultaco and Husqvarna was eroding BSA's market share. The BSA (and Triumph range) were no longer aligned with the markets; mopeds were displacing scooter sales and the trials and scrambles areas were now the preserve of European two-strokes. Some poor marketing decisions and expensive projects contributed to substantial losses. For example, the development and production investment of the Ariel 3, an ultra stable 3-wheel moped, was not recouped by sales; the loss has been estimated at £2 million. Furthermore, BSA failed to take seriously the threat that key-start Japanese motor cycles might completely destroy the market for kick-started BSA motor cycles.\n\nIn 1968, BSA announced many changes to its product line of singles, twins and the new three-cylinder machine named the \"Rocket three\" for the 1969 model year. It now concentrated on the more promising USA, and to a lesser extent, Canadian, markets. However, despite the adding of modern accessories, for example, turn signals and even differing versions of the A65 twins for home and export sale, the damage had been done and the end was near.\n\nReorganisation in 1971 concentrated motorcycle production at Meriden, Triumph's site, with production of components and engines at BSA's Small Heath. At the same time there were redundancies and the selling of assets. Barclays Bank arranged financial backing to the tune of £10 million.\n\nUpgrades and service bulletins continued until 1972, but the less service-intensive Japanese bikes had by then flooded the market on both sides of the Atlantic. The merger with Norton Villers was started in late 1972, and for a brief time a Norton 500 single was built with the B50-based unit-single engine, but few if any were sold publicly. The BSA unit single B50's 500 cc enjoyed much improvement in the hands of the CCM motorcycle company allowing the basic BSA design to continue until the mid to late 1970s in a competitive form all over Europe.\n\nThe final BSA range was just four models: Gold Star 500, 650 Thunderbolt/Lightning and the 750 cc Rocket Three. By 1972, BSA was so moribund that, with bankruptcy imminent, its motorcycle businesses were merged (as part of a government-initiated rescue plan) with the Manganese Bronze company, Norton-Villiers, to become NVT, headed by Dennis Poore. The intention was to produce and market Norton and Triumph motorcycles at home and abroad; but Poore's rationalisation led to redundancies of two-thirds of the workforce. In response, the Triumph workers at Meriden set up their own cooperative. This left Poore with neither BSA nor Triumph, and the sole NVT model was the Norton Commando. Although this machine won the ''Motor Cycle News'' \"Bike of the Year\" award for several years running, nothing could hide the fact that the Commando was an old design, being a pre-unit pushrod parallel-twin.\n\nIn exchange for its motorcycle businesses, Manganese Bronze received BSA Group's non-motorcycle-related divisions—namely, Carbodies. Although the BSA name was left out of the new company's name, a few products continued to be made carrying it until 1973. However, the plan involved the axing of some brands, large redundancies and consolidation of production at two sites. This scheme to rescue and combine Norton, BSA and Triumph failed in the face of worker resistance. Norton's and BSA's factories were eventually shut down, while Triumph staggered on to fail four years later.\nBSA logo\n","\n===Motorcycles===\nRights went to Norton Villiers Triumph and on its liquidation were purchased by a new company formed by management and named BSA Company Limited.\n\n===Guns===\nRights were acquired by Gamo for its new subsidiary '''BSA Guns (UK) Limited'''\n","\n===Bicycles===\nAccording to Charles Spencer, BSA was manufacturing the \"Delta\" bicycle circa 1869. In 1880 the company was approached to manufacture the \"Otto Dicycle\". An initial contract was signed to produce 210 and a further contract followed for a further 200. In all it is believed that a total of 953 Otto machines were made. BSA then went into bicycle production on their own account, the first machines to their own specification being exhibited at the 1881 Stanley Show. BSA went on to design and manufacture a \"safety\" bicycle (patent:15,342 of 1884). BSA was also producing tricycles and a licence was obtained in 1885 to manufacture ball bearings. BSA ceased bicycle manufacture in 1887 because of the demand for arms. Bicycle component manufacture commenced in 1894 and BSA continued to supply the bicycle trade up to 1936. The company recommenced bicycle manufacture on their own account again in 1908 and these were exhibited at the Stanley Show in 1909. Bicycle manufacture was what led BSA into motorcycles. BSA produced bicycles for both the police and military and notably a folding bicycle for the British Army during World War I and the more well known folding Paratroopers bicycle during World War II. BSA supplied the Irish Army with bicycles after 1922.\n\nBSA manufactured a range of bicycles from utility roadsters through to racing bicycles. The BSA range of Sports bicycles expanded in the 1930s following the granting of a patent for a new lighter design of seat lug in 1929 and tandems were introduced into the BSA bicycle range as well. BSA had a reputation for quality and durability and their components were more expensive that either Chater-Lea or Brampton. BSA launched a high end club cyclists machine in the early 1930s initially branded as the \"Super-eeze\". Never slow to avail of publicity BSA sponsored the great Australian cyclist Hubert Opperman and re-branded the top of the range machine the \"Opperman\" model. A less expensive range of clubman lightweight machines was introduced from 1936 with the \"Cyclo\" 3 speed derailleur equipped \"Clubman\". Subtle changes were made to the range, most models being equipped with \"Russ\" patent forks and some models were made for only two seasons. This all stopped around September 1939 with the outbreak of war. A revised catalogue with a much reduced range was issued in March 1940 which also saw the launch of the BSA \"Streamlight\" model. A novel all white bicycle was produced for the blackout but had disappeared from a severely reduced bicycle range the details of which were circulated to dealers from December 1941. BSA had ceased production of their 3 speed hub gear in 1939 and production appears to have started again by 1945 although with a black finish instead of chromium plating. BSA bought '''Sunbeam''' in 1943 and produced Sunbeam bicycles using up existing frames and parts and using BSA components for the missing bits. The first BSA produced Sunbeam catalogue was published in 1949\n\nPost war BSA expanded their bicycle range but faced problems of shortages of raw materials such as steel and was required to export a lot of their manufactured output in order to get a Government licence to purchase the necessary raw materials. The company moved bicycle production to the new Waverley Works after World War II. BSA continued to innovate introducing the 4 Star derailleur gear in 1949 along with an associated 4-speed 'unit' or cassette hub. The derailleur design was altered from 1950 and was certainly available up to 1953 but was not a great success. BSA bought New Hudson in 1950 and started to manufacture and sell New Hudson branded machines as well as Sunbeam. It appears that the top of the range BSA lightweight club cyclist machine was the \"Gold Column\" and this appears to have been changed into the BSA \"Tour of Britain\" model following the success of the BSA Professional Cycling Team in the 1952 Tour of Britain race. The \"Tour of Britain\" model was heavily promoted in the BSA 1953 sales literature. The factory made \"Tour of Britain\" model was not the same as those ridden by the professional team. Only eight machines were crafted for the professional team and none of the components appear to have been standard BSA parts. 1953 saw BSA separate the bicycle / motorcar and motorcycle business into different holdings.\n\nThe good times were coming to an end and demand for bicycles fell with the end of rationing in 1954. James Leek, managing director of BSA Cycles Ltd was suffering ill health and he retired in 1956, the same year the BSA Chairman, Sir Bernard Docker, was removed from the BSA Board. Jack Sangster who had joined the BSA Board in 1951 following the purchase of his company Triumph Motorcycles became Chairman. The bicycle manufacturing business BSA Cycles Ltd was sold to Raleigh Industries in 1957.\n\n===Motorcycles from 1910===\n\n\nBSA Motorcycles were made by BSA Cycles Ltd, under the BSA parent, up until 1953 when the motorcycle business was moved into holding ''BSA Motorcycles Ltd''. The first instance of intention to produce motorcycles was reported in The Motor Cycle, a British motorcycling journal, in July 1906. The first wholly BSA motorcycle, the 3½ H.P. was built in 1910 and displayed at the first Olympia Show, London on 21 November in that year. Sir Hallewell Rogers, BSA Chairman, had informed the shareholders at the Company's 1910 AGM in Birmingham \"We have decided to put a motor-bicycle on the market for the coming season .... These machines will be on exhibit at the Cycle and Motor Show on November 21st, after which date we look forward to commencing delivery\". The machines were available for the 1911 season and entire production sold out. BSA had previously acquired a commercially available engine in 1905 and fitted it to one of their bicycle frames and discovered at first hand the problems that needed to be overcome. BSA Cycles Ltd was set up as a subsidiary company in 1919 under Managing Director Charles Hyde to manufacture both bicycles and motorcycles.\n\nBSA produced their only two-stroke motorcycle design for the 1928 season, the 1.74 H.P. Model A28 with two speed gearbox. It was produced as the A29 and A30 the following two years and became the A31 with a three-speed gearbox in 1931, the last year of production. The post-war 'Bantam' was a German DKW design, part of war reparation, and not a true BSA design.\n\nBSA motorcycles were sold as affordable motorcycles with reasonable performance for the average user. BSA stressed the reliability of their machines, the availability of spares and dealer support. The motorcycles were a mixture of sidevalve and OHV engines offering different performance for different roles, e.g. hauling a sidecar. The bulk of use would be for commuting. BSA motorcycles were also popular with \"fleet buyers\" in Britain, who (for example) used the Bantams for telegram delivery for the Post Office or motorcycle/sidecar combinations for AA patrols The Automobile Association (AA) breakdown help services. This mass market appeal meant they could claim \"one in four is a BSA\" on advertising.\n\nMachines with better specifications were available for those who wanted more performance or for competition work.\n\nInitially, after the Second World War, BSA motorcycles were not generally seen as racing machines, compared to the likes of Norton. In the immediate post-war period few were entered in races such as the TT races, though this changed dramatically in the Junior Clubman event (smaller engine motorcycles racing over some 3 or 4 laps around one of the Isle of Man courses). In 1947 there were but a couple of BSA mounted riders, but by 1952 BSA were in the majority and in 1956 the makeup was 53 BSA, 1 Norton and 1 Velocette.\n\nTo improve US sales, in 1954, for example, BSA entered a team of riders in the 200 mile Daytona beach race with a mixture of single cylinder Gold Stars and twin cylinder Shooting Stars assembled by Roland Pike. The BSA team riders took first, second, third, fourth, and fifth places with two more riders finishing at 8th and 16th. This was the first case of a one brand sweep.\n\nThe BSA factory experienced success in the sport of motocross with Jeff Smith riding a B40 to capture the 1964 and 1965 FIM 500 cc Motocross World Championships. It would be the last year the title would be won by a four-stroke machine until the mid-1990s. A BSA motocross machine was often colloquially known as a \"Beezer.\"\n\nBirmingham rocker Steve Gibbons released a song \"BSA\" on his 1980 album \"Saints & Sinners\" as a tribute to the Gold Star. He still plays this song with his band and often performs on the Isle of Man at the TT races.\n\n===Motorcycle models===\n\n\n====Pre World War II====\n1935 BSA Blue Star\n*3½ hp\n*Model E\n*Model A28\n*C10 sidevalve 250 cc 1938 on design by Val Page\n*G14 1000 cc V-twin\n*Blue Star\n*Empire Star\n*Silver Star\n*Gold Star\n*Sloper\n*M20 (500cc):as the WD (War Department) M20 the motorcycle of the British Army in World War II\n*M21 (600cc): the big brother of the M20, also used by the British Army in World War II\n\n====Post World War II====\nBSA Golden Flash 650\n1969 BSA Royal Star\n*'''A series Twins''' (four-stroke, pushrod parallel twins)\n**A7\n***A7 Shooting Star - 500cc pre-unit construction\n**A10 - 650cc pre-unit construction\n***A10 Golden Flash\n***A10 Super Flash\n***A10 Road Rocket\n***A10 Super Rocket\n***A10 Rocket Gold Star\n**A50 - 500cc unit construction\n***A50R Royal Star\n***A50C Cyclone\n***A50W Wasp\n**A65 - 650cc unit construction\n***A65 Star Twin\n***A65R Rocket\n***A65T Thunderbolt\n***A65L Lightning\n***A65S Spitfire\n***A65H Hornet\n***A65F Firebird Scrambler\n**A70L Lightning 750\n*'''Triples''' (four-stroke, pushrod, three-cylinder engines) - The BSA Rocket 3/Triumph Trident were developed together. The Rocket 3 shares a majority of engine components and other parts with the Trident T150, but has forward-inclined cylinder barrels and a BSA frame.\n**A75R Rocket3 750\n**A75RV Rocket3 750 - 5 speed\n**A75V Rocket3 750 - 5 speed\n*'''Singles''' (Four-stroke single cylinder)\n**C25 Barracuda\n**B25 Starfire - 250cc unit construction\n**B25FS Fleetstar\n**B25 SS Gold Star\n**BSA B31 single\n**B32 Gold Star\n**B33\n**B34 Gold Star\n**B40 350 Star - 350cc unit construction\n**B40 SS90\n**B44 Victor\n**B44\n***B44SS Shooting Star\n***B44VS Victor Special\n**B50\n***B50SS Gold Star 500\n***B50T Victor Trials\n***B50MX Motocross\n*C series (Four-stroke 250 cc single-cylinder).\n**C10\n**C11/C11G: - - 85mpg - weight .\nThe C11 used a C10 motor fitted with an overhead valve cylinder head. The C11 frame was almost unchanged until 1951 when BSA added plunger rear suspension. Early gearboxes were weak and unreliable. The C11G was available with a three ratio gearbox and rigid frame or a four ratio gearbox and a plunger frame. Both models had better front brakes than earlier models. This model was a common commuter motorcycle, and many survive today.\n\n**C12\n: (1956–1958). 249 cc OHV\nUsed the C11G engine, fitted with an alternator and swinging fork (known as swinging arm) rear suspension.\n\n1959 BSA C15 Star\n**C15 Star - 250cc unit construction\n**C15T Trials\n**C15S Scrambler\n**C15SS80 Sports Star 80\n**C15 Sportsman\n*D series (Two-stroke single cylinder. See BSA Bantam for details)\n**D1 Bantam - 125cc unit-construction\n**D3 Bantam Major\n**D5 Bantam Super\n**D7 Bantam Super\n**D10 Silver Bantam, Bantam Supreme, Bantam Sports, Bushman\n**D13\n**D14/4 Bantam Supreme, Bantam Sports, Bushman - 175cc\n**B175 Bantam Sports, Bushman\n*Others (may include some export versions of models listed above)\n**B31 Twin (350 cc). B31 frame fitted with a Triumph 3T motor to produce this BSA B31 Twin. Very few units were produced, probably prototypes.\n**BSA Barracuda\n**BSA Beagle\n**BSA Boxer - 1979 - c.1981 the sports version of the 50cc range (Beaver, Boxer, Brigand, GT50). The engine was by Moto Morini.\n**BSA GT50 (renamed from the Boxer)\n**BSA Beaver (the standard road version)\n**BSA Tracker 125/175 - late 70s moto-cross style product by NVT with Yamaha two stroke engine.\n**BSA Dandy 70\n**BSA Sunbeam ''(Scooters, also produced as Triumph TS1, TW2 Tigress)''\n***175B1\n***250B2\n**BSA Starfire\n**BSA Rocket Scrambler\n**BSA Rocket Gold Star\n**BSA Fury\n**BSA Hornet\n**Winged Wheel (auxiliary power unit for bicycles)\n**T65 Thunderbolt (essentially a Triumph TR6P with BSA Badges)\n\n===Military vehicles===\n* BSA Scout armoured car.\n* \"Type G Apparatus\", Folding paratrooper bicycle, with parachute.\n\n===Military firearms===\n* Snider–Enfield rifle\n* Martini–Henry rifle\n* Lee–Metford rifle\n* Lewis gun\n* Lee–Enfield rifle\n* Thompson submachine gun\n* BSA Thompson Autorifle\n* .303 RAF Browning\n* Hispano-Suiza cannon\n* Oerlikon 20mm cannon\n* Sten submachine gun\n* Boys anti-tank rifle\n* Besa machine gun\n* BSA experimental model 1949 pump-action machine carbine\n* ADEN cannon\n* L1A1 SLR\n\n===Civilian firearms===\n* The 1906 war office pattern rifle\n* The Sportsman series of .22 Long Rifle bolt-action rifles\n* Various Martini action target .22lr rifles\n* The Ralock and Armatic semi automatic .22lr rifles\n* Various bolt action hunting rifles\n","* Clews Competition Motorcycles (CCM) - the remnants of BSA's off-road arm\n* List of BSA motorcycles\n* List of modern armament manufacturers\n* Tribsa custom built café racer or off-road using a Triumph engine in a BSA frame\n","\n","\n","\n* BSA History from the Days of the Crimea (1918)\n* \n* Catalogue of the BSA archives, held at the Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n'''The Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited''' ('''BSA''') was a major British industrial combine, a group of businesses manufacturing military and sporting firearms; bicycles; motorcycles; cars; buses and bodies; steel; iron castings; hand, power, and machine tools; coal cleaning and handling plants; sintered metals; and hard chrome process.\\n\\nAt its peak, BSA (who also owned Triumph) was the largest motorcycle producer in the world. In the late 1950s and early 1960s poor management and failure to develop new products in the motorcycle division led to a dramatic decline of sales to its major USA market. The management had failed to appreciate the importance of the resurgent Japanese motorcycle industry, leading to problems for the entire BSA group.\\n\\nA government-organised rescue operation in 1973 led to the takeover of remaining operations by what is now Manganese Bronze Holdings, then owners of Norton-Villiers, and over the following decade further closures and dispersals. The original company, The Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited, remains a subsidiary of Manganese Bronze but its name was changed in 1987.\\n\\nManganese Bronze continues to operate former BSA subsidiary Carbodies, now known as The London Taxi Company, previously LTI Limited, manufacturers of London taxicabs and formerly the largest wholly British-owned car manufacturer. (Manganese Bronze is now owned by the Chinese company Geely).\\n\",\n \"BSA began in June 1861 in the Gun Quarter, Birmingham, England, founded specifically to manufacture guns by machinery. It was formed by a group of fourteen gunsmith members of the Birmingham Small Arms Trade Association. The market had moved against British gunsmiths following the outbreak of the Crimean War in 1854 because the Board of Ordnance's Royal Small Arms Factory at Enfield had introduced machinery made in the USA and Enfield's greatly increased output had been achieved with reduced reliance on skilled craftsmen. The War Office provided this new grouping of gunsmiths free access to technical drawings and their facilities at their Enfield factory.\\n\\nThe newly formed company purchased of land at Small Heath, Birmingham, built a factory there and made a road on the site calling it Armoury Road.\\n\\nThis machinery brought to Birmingham manifested the principle of the inter-changeability of parts.\\n\\n===Firearms===\\nBSA's resort to the use of machinery was rewarded in 1863 with an order for 20,000 Turkish infantry rifles. The management of the BSA Company was changed at an Extraordinary Meeting called on 30 September 1863 when the company was changed from being run by a committee to that of an elected Board of Directors, Joseph Wilson, Samuel Buckley, Isaac Hollis, Charles Playfair, Charles Pryse, Sir John Ratcliffe, Edward Gem, and J.F. Swinburn under the chairmanship of John Dent Goodman.\\n\\nThe first War Office contract was not agreed until 1868. In 1879, the factory, without work, was shut for a year; the military arms trade was precarious.\\n\\n===New ventures===\\n\\n====Bicycles====\\n\\nThe next year BSA branched out into bicycle manufacture. The gun factory proved remarkably adaptable to the manufacture of cycle parts. What cycles needed was large quantities of standard parts accurately machined at low prices. In 1880 BSA manufactured the Otto Dicycle, In the 1880s the company began to manufacture safety bicycles on their own account and not until 1905 was the company's first experimental motorcycle constructed. Bicycle production ceased in 1887 as the company concentrated on producing the Lee–Metford magazine-loading rifle for the War Office which was re-equipping the British Army with it. The order was for 1,200 rifles per week. BSA recommenced manufacturing bicycles on their own behalf from 1908. BSA Cycles Ltd was set up in 1919 for the manufacture of both bicycles and motorcycles. BSA sold the bicycle business to Raleigh in 1957 after separating the bicycle and motorcycle business in 1953.\\n\\n====Bicycle components====\\nIn 1893, BSA commenced making bicycle hubs and continued to supply the cycle trade with bicycle parts up to 1936. BSA bought The Eadie Manufacturing Company of Redditch in 1907 and so began to manufacture the Eadie two speed hub gear and the Eadie coaster brake hub. BSA also signed an agreement with the Three Speed Gear Syndicate in 1907 to manufacture a 3 speed hub under licence. This was later classified as the Sturmey Archer Type X. BSA introduced a 'Duo' hub in the late 1930s which was capable of one fixed gear and one gear with a freewheel. All BSA hub gear production temporarily ceased in 1939, until they recommenced making their 3 speed hub around 1945. The Eadie coaster hub made a brief return in 1953 on two BSA bicycle models. BSA forever ceased production of their hub gears in 1955.\\n\\n====Ammunition====\\nBSA sold its ammunition business in 1897 to Birmingham Metal and Munitions Company Limited part of the Nobel-Dynamite Trust, through Kynoch a forerunner of ICI.\\n\\n====Sparkbrook====\\nIn 1906 Frank Dudley Docker was appointed a director of the company. By the autumn of that year BSA was in some difficulty. They had purchased the Sparkbrook Royal Small Arms Factory from the War Office, and in return, the War Office undertook to give BSA a quarter of all orders for Lee–Enfield rifles. But, the War Office did not honour their undertaking. The ensuing financial crisis did not prevent BSA from signing an agreement to amalgamate with another bicycle component manufacturer, the Eadie Manufacturing Company of Redditch, on 11 February 1907. That decision was ratified by the shareholders of both companies at separate Extraordinary General Meetings held in the Grand Hotel, Birmingham on 27 February 1907. Albert Eadie became a BSA director, a post he held until his death in 1931.\\n\\n====Motorcycles====\\nMotor bicycles were added to bicycle products in 1910. The BSA 3½ hp was exhibited at the 1910 Olympia Show, London for the 1911 season. The entire BSA production sold out in 1911, 1912 and 1913.\\n\\n====Motor cars====\\n\\n=====BSA cars=====\\n\\n\\n\\nIn an effort to make use of the Sparkbrook factory BSA established a motorcar department there. An independent part of it was occupied by Lanchester Motor Company. The first prototype automobile was produced in 1907. The following year, marketed under BSA Cycles Ltd, the company sold 150 automobiles and again began producing complete bicycles on its own account. By 1909 it was clear the new motorcar department was unsuccessful; an investigation committee reported to the BSA Board on the many failures of its management and their poor organisation of production.\\n\\n=====Daimler vehicles=====\\n\\n\\nDudley Docker had joined the board in 1906 and was appointed deputy chairman of BSA in 1909. He had made a spectacular financial success of a merger of five large rolling-stock companies in 1902 and become the leader of the period's merger movement. Believing he could buy the missing management skills that could not be found within BSA he started merger talks with The Daimler Company Limited of Coventry. Daimler and Rover were then the largest British car producers. Daimler was immensely profitable. After its capital reconstruction in 1904 Daimler's profits were 57 per cent and 150 per cent returns on invested capital in 1905 and 1906. The attraction for Daimler shareholders was the apparent stability of BSA.\\n\\nSo in 1910 BSA purchased Daimler with BSA shares but Docker who negotiated the arrangements either ignored or failed in his assessment of their consequences for the new combine. The combine was never adequately balanced or co-ordinated. One of the financial provisions obliged Daimler to pay BSA an annual dividend of £100,000 representing approximately 40 per cent of the actual cash BSA had put into Daimler. This financial burden deprived Daimler of badly needed cash to fund development, forcing the Daimler company to borrow money from the Midland Bank.\\n\\nBSA had still not recovered financially from the earlier purchase of Royal Small Arms factory at Sparkbrook and BSA were not in a position to finance Daimler, nor had either company ample liquid resources. BSA went ahead with motorcycle production in 1910, their first model available for the 1911 season. In 1913 the BSA group were compelled through pressure from the Midland Bank to make a capital issue of 300,000 preference shares. In the short term this was to solve the liquidity issue but further diluted the group's capitalisation.\\n\\nDudley Docker retired as a BSA director in 1912 and installed Lincoln Chandler on the BSA board as his replacement. Dudley Docker liked to draw a comparison between the BSA~Daimler merger he engineered and that of his 1902 merger of Metropolitan Carriage Wagon & Finance Company and Patent Shaft. However, there was not the integration of facilities in the BSA~Daimler case, nor was there a reorganisation of either BSA or Daimler and in view of the earlier criticism contained in the 1909 report of the investigation committee, BSA continued to produce cars of their own using Daimler engines. In 1913 Daimler employed 5,000 workers to manufacture 1,000 vehicles, an indication that things were not well.\\n\\n=====Steel bodies=====\\nIn 1912, BSA would be one of two automobile manufacturers pioneering the use of all-steel bodies, joining Hupmobile in the US.\\n\\n===First World War===\\nDuring the First World War, the company returned to arms manufacture and greatly expanded its operations. BSA produced rifles, Lewis guns, shells, motorcycles and other vehicles for the war effort.\\n\\n===Inter-war years===\\n1935 magazine advert for the BSA range of motorcycles and 3-wheeler cars\\n\\n====Motorcycles====\\n\\n\\nIn November 1919 BSA launched their first 50 degree vee-twin, Model E, 770cc side valve (6-7 hp) motorcycle for the 1920 season. The machine had interchangeable valves, total loss oil system with mechanical pump and an emergency hand one. Retail price was £130. Other features were Amac carburettor, chain drive, choice of magneto or Magdyno, 7-plate clutch, 3 speed gear box with kickstarter and new type of cantilever fork\\n\\n====Aviation====\\n\\nDuring the war Daimler had built enormous numbers of aero engines and aircraft and by the end was building 80 Airco de Havilland bombers a month. In February 1920 BSA amalgamated with what was the world's largest aircraft manufacturer, Aircraft Manufacturing Company (Airco), Airco's main plant at Hendon had employed between 7,000 and 8,000 people. The Airco group of companies had turned out a new aircraft every 45 minutes.\\n\\nWithin days BSA discovered Airco was in a far more serious financial state than George Holt Thomas had revealed. Holt Thomas was immediately dropped from his new seat on the BSA board and all BSA's new acquisitions were placed in the hands of a liquidator. Some of the businesses were allowed to continue for some years, Aircraft Transport and Travel's assets being eventually rolled into Daimler Air Hire to make Daimler Airway Limited. BSA failed to pay a dividend for the following four years while it tried to recover from its losses. Some relief was achieved when in March 1924 Daimler Airway and its management became the major constituent of Imperial Airways.\\n\\nAs well as the Daimler car range, BSA Cycles Ltd re-entered the car market under the BSA name in 1921 with a V-twin engined light car followed by four-cylinder models up to 1926, when the name was temporarily dropped. In 1929 a new range of 3- and 4-wheel cars appeared and production of these continued until 1936.\\n\\nBy 1930 the BSA Group's primary activities were BSA motorcycles and Daimler vehicles.\\n\\nCar production under the BSA name ceased in the 1930s.\\n\\n====Lanchester====\\n\\n\\nIn 1931 the Lanchester Motor Company at Sparkbrook was acquired and production of their cars transferred to Daimler's Coventry works. The first new product was a version of the Daimler Light Twenty or 16/20 and called Lanchester 15/18.\\n\\nLanchester Type 1518 - 1932 5905514590.jpg|Lanchester 15/18October 19312504 cc6\\nLanchester Ten 6-light saloon 1936 5917710821 3a71f2bf4b o.jpg|Lanchester TenSeptember 19321203 cc4\\nDaimler 15 HP 1934 4860323967 .jpg|Daimler FifteenSeptember 19321805 cc6\\nBSA 10 1185cc October 1933.JPG|BSA TenOctober 19321185 cc4\\n\\n\\n====Armaments====\\nIn the 1930s, the board of directors authorised expenditure on bringing their arms-making equipment back to use – it had been stored at company expense since the end of the Great War in the belief that BSA might again be called upon to perform its patriotic duty. In 1939, BSA acquired the blueprints for a submachine gun designed by Hungarian arms designer Pál Király as well as the rights to manufacture it. Examples were produced in 9mm Mauser Export calibre according to Kiraly's design. It was estimated that these arms would only cost 5 pounds each to manufacture. However, at the time, submachine guns were viewed as \\\"gangster weapons\\\" and plans to manufacture it were shelved.\\n\\n===Second World War===\\nBy the outbreak of the Second World War, BSA Guns Ltd at Small Heath, was the only factory producing rifles in the UK. The Royal Ordnance Factories did not begin production until 1941. BSA Guns Ltd was also producing .303 Browning machine guns for the Air Ministry at the rate of 600 guns per week in March 1939 and Browning production was to peak at 16,390 per month by March 1942. The armed forces had chosen the 500 cc side-valve BSA M20 motorcycle as their preferred machine. On the outbreak of war the Government requisitioned the 690 machines BSA had in stock as well as placing an order for another 8,000 machines. South Africa, Ireland, India, Sweden and the Netherlands also wanted machines.\\n\\nThe Government passed the Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1939 on 24 August allowing the drafting of defence regulations affecting food, travel, requisitioning of land and supplies, manpower and agricultural production. A second Emergency Powers (Defence) Act was passed on 22 May 1940 allowing the conscription of labour. The fall of France had not been anticipated in Government planning and the encirclement of a large part of the British Expeditionary Force into the Dunkirk pocket resulted in a hasty evacuation of that part of the B.E.F following the abandonment of their equipment. The parlous state of affairs \\\"no arms, no transport, no equipment\\\" in the face of the threat of imminent invasion of Britain by Nazi forces was recorded by the Chief of the Imperial General Staff Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke in his diary entries of the 1/2 July 1940.\\n\\nThe creation of the Home Guard (initially as the Local Defence Volunteers) following Anthony Eden's broadcast appeal to the Nation on Tuesday 14 May 1940 also created further demand for arms production to equip this new force. BSA, as the only rifle producer in Britain, had to step up to the mark and the workforce voluntarily went onto a seven-day week. Motorcycle production was also stepped up from 500 to 1,000 machines per week which meant a finished machine coming off the production line every 5 minutes. The motorcycle department had been left intact in 1939 due to demand which was doubled following Dunkirk. At the same time BSA staff were providing lectures and demonstrations on motorcycle riding and maintenance to 250,000 officers and men in all parts of the UK.\\n\\nThe BSA factory at Small Heath was bombed by the Luftwaffe on 26 August 1940 resulting in one high explosive bomb and a shower of incendiaries hitting the main barrel mill which was the only one operating on service rifles in the country, causing the unaffordable loss of 750 machine tools but fortunately no loss of life. Two further air raids took place on 19 and 22 November 1940. The air raid of 19 November did the most damage, causing loss of production and trapping hundreds of workers. Two BSA night-shift electricians, Alf Stevens and Alf Goodwin, helped rescue their fellow workers. Alf Stevens was awarded the George Medal for his selfless acts of bravery in the rescue and Alf Goodwin was awarded the British Empire Medal. Workers involved in the works Civil Defence were brought in to help search for and clear bodies to get the plant back into production. The net effect of the November raids was to destroy machine shops in the four-storey 1915 building, the original 1863 gunsmiths' building and nearby buildings, 1,600 machine tools, kill 53 employees, injure 89, 30 of them seriously and halt rifle production for three months.\\n\\nThe Government Ministry of Supply and BSA immediately began a process of production dispersal throughout Britain, through the shadow factory scheme. Factories were set up at Tipton, Dudley, Smethwick, Blackheath, Lye, Kidderminster, Stourport, Tyseley, and Bromsgrove to manufacture Browning machine guns, Stoke, Corsham, and Newcastle-under-Lyme produced the Hispano cannon, Leicester and Studley Road produced the Besa machine gun, Ruislip produced the Oerlikon 20mm cannon, Stafford produced rocket projectiles, Tamworth produced two-pounder gun carriages, Mansfield produced the Boys Anti-tank gun and Shirley produced rifles. These were dispersal factories which were in addition to Small Heath and the other BSA factories opened in the two years following the 1940 blitz. At its peak Small Heath was running 67 factories engaged in war production. BSA operations were also dispersed to other companies under licence.\\n\\nIn 1941 BSA was approached to produce a new pedal cycle with a maximum weight allowance of only 22 lb especially for airborne use. This required a new concept in frame design which BSA found, producing a machine which weighed 21 lb, one pound less than the design specification and which also exceeded the design requirement for an effective life of 50 miles many times over. Over 60,000 folding bicycles were produced, a figure equal to half the total production of military bicycles during World War II. BSA also produced folding motorcycles for the Airborne Division. In late 1942 BSA examined the Special Operations Executive designed Welgun with a view to manufacture. BSA were willing to manufacture the gun in the quantities required starting April 1943 but the cheaper and less accurate Sten Mk IV was adopted for production by the Ministry of Supply. BSA bought the Sunbeam motorcycles and bicycle business from Associated Motor Cycles Ltd in 1943 and then Ariel Motors Ltd in 1944. During the course of the conflict BSA produced 1,250,000 Lee–Enfield .303 service rifles, 404,383 Sten sub-machine guns, 468,098 Browning machine guns plus spares equivalent to another 100,000, 42,532 Hispano cannon, 32,971 Oerlikon cannon, 59,322 7.9 mm Besa machine guns, 3,218 15 mm Besa machine guns, 68,882 Boys Anti-tank guns, 126,334 motorcycles, 128,000 military bicycles (over 60,000 of which were folding paratrooper bicycles), 10,000,000 shell fuse cases, 3,485,335 magazines and 750,000 anti-aircraft rockets were supplied to the armed forces.\\n\\nAt the same time other parts of the Group were having similar problems. Before World War II Daimler had been linked with other Coventry motor manufacturers in a government-backed scheme for aero engine manufacture and had been allocated two shadow factories. Apart from this, BSA-owned Daimler was producing Scout Cars and Daimler Mk I Armoured Cars which had been designed by BSA at Small Heath not Coventry as well as gun turrets, gun parts, tank transmissions, rocket projectiles and other munitions. This activity had not gone unnoticed by the enemy, which made Radford Works a target in the Coventry air raids. Radford Works received direct hits in four separate air raids during 1940. None of these attacks were to seriously disrupt production, however two more serious air raids were carried out in April 1941 which destroyed half the factory. In all it is estimated that 170 bombs containing 52,000 lbs of explosive were dropped on Radford Works as well as the thousands of incendiaries. Like BSA, Daimler had to find dispersal units. A back-handed compliment was paid by Field Marshal Rommel to the workers at Radford Works when he used a captured Daimler Scout to escape following his defeat at El Alamein.\\n\\n===Post-war===\\nAs the result of increased post war demand the Small Heath, Birmingham factory was turned over entirely to motorcycle production.\\n\\nBSA produced the first Sunbeam bicycle catalogue in 1949 and produced its own '4 Star' derailleur gear with an associated splined cassette hub and 4 sprocket cassette. This design was different from the 1930s Bayliss Wiley cassette hub which had a threaded sprocket carrier. BSA bought New Hudson motorcycle and bicycle business in 1950 and followed this up in 1951 with the purchase of Triumph Motorcycles which brought Jack Sangster onto the BSA board. The effect of this acquisition was to make BSA into the largest producer of motorcycles in the world at that time.\\n\\n1952 saw BSA establish a Professional Cycling Team. Bob Maitland a successful amateur cyclist and the highest placed British finisher in the 1948 Olympic Games road race and now an independent rider in the BSA team was a BSA employee working in the design office as a draughtsman. It was Bob Maitland who was responsible for the design of post war BSA range of lightweight sports bicycles based on his knowledge of cycling. Bob Maitland also made some of the components used on the bicycles of the professional team which were not standard production machines. In the 1952 Tour of Britain Road Race run between Friday 22 August and Saturday 6 September, involving 14 individual stages and covering a total race distance of 1,470 miles, the BSA team of Bob Maitland, “Tiny” Thomas, Pete Proctor, Alf Newman and Stan Jones won the overall team race and Pete Proctor “King of the Mountains” classification. The riders also enjoyed success on the individual stages of the race. The team competed in four further events, 14 September Tour of the Chilterns, 1st “Tiny” Thomas and Team Prize, 21 September Weston-Super-Mare Grand Prix, Team Prize, 28 September Staffordshire Grand Prix, 1st Bob Maitland and Team Prize, 5 October Tour Revenge Race, Dublin, 1st “Tiny” Thomas and Team prize.\\n\\nIn 1953 BSA withdrew motorcycle production from BSA Cycles Ltd, the company it has established in 1919, by creating BSA Motorcycles Ltd. BSA also produced its 100,000th BSA Bantam motorcycle, a fact celebrated at the 1953 motorcycle show with a visit by Sir Anthony Eden to the BSA stand. In 1953 the BSA Professional Cycling Team was managed by Syd Cozens. Successes were 5/6 April Bournemouth Two Day Road Race, 1st Bob Maitland, 12 April Dover to London 63 Miles Road Race, 1st Stan Jones, 31 May Langsett 90 Miles Road Race, 1st Bob Maitland and “King of the Mountains”, 7 June Tour of the Wrekin, 1st Bob Maitland, 12 July Severn Valley 100 Miles Road Race, 1st “Tiny” Thomas, 19 July Jackson Trophy, Newcastle, Team Prize, 9 August Les Adams Memorial 80 Miles Road Race, 1st Alf Newman, Team Prize, “King of the Mountains” Arthur Ilsley, 30 August Weston-Super-Mare 100 Miles Grand Prix, 1st Bob Maitland, Team Prize. The team also competed in the 1,624 mile, 12 stage, 1953 Tour of Britain Road Race. The 1953 line up had changed as Arthur Ilsley replaced Pete Proctor in the team. “Tiny” Thomas won the overall individual classification, the Team were runners-up in the team competition and Arthur Ilsley was 3rd in the “King of the Mountains” competition. Bob Maitland also had notable success by winning the Independent National Championship.\\n\\n1954 saw the introduction of the BSA Quick Release 3 Speed hub gear. It was a split axle three speed gear intended for use with bicycles equipped with oil bath chainguards. The original BSA 3 speed hub gear had been made under licence from the Three-Speed Gear Syndicate since 1907. The design was later to be classified as the Sturmey-Archer 'Type X', but all BSA hub gear production ceased in 1955\\n\\nSir Bernard Docker remained chairman of BSA until 1956 when the BSA removed him. In an acrimonious dispute conducted in the media the matter was brought to the BSA shareholders at the Annual General Meeting where the decision of the Board was upheld. Another significant departure for the fortune of the BSA Group but less controversial was the retirement on ill health grounds of James Leek CBE, Managing Director from 1939 until his retirement. Sir Bernard Docker was replaced as Chairman of the BSA Board by Jack Sangster.\\n\\nThe BSA bicycle division, BSA Cycles Ltd., including the BSA cycle dealer network was sold to Raleigh in 1957. Raleigh initially continued bicycle production in Birmingham at Coventry Road, Sheldon, Birmingham 26 into the early 1960s using up BSA parts but as time went on more stock Raleigh parts and fittings were used, some continuing to bear the 'piled arms' stamp. TI Group owners of the British Cycle Corporation bought Raleigh in 1960 thus gaining access to the BSA brand. Bicycles bearing the BSA name are currently manufactured and distributed within India by TI Cycles of India but have no direct connection to the original Birmingham BSA company.\\n\\nIn 1960, Daimler was sold off to Jaguar.\\n\\n1961 was the centenary year of the BSA Group and in recognition of this milestone the company magazine produced an anniversary issue of ''BSA Group News'' in June ''BSA Centenary 1861–1961'' in which many of the achievements of the Group were celebrated. This year also saw the end of military rifle production, however BSA still continued to make sporting guns. In 1986 BSA Guns was liquidated, the assets bought and renamed '''BSA Guns (UK) Ltd'''. The company continues to make air rifles and shotguns, and is still based in Small Heath in Birmingham.\\n\\n====Norton-Villiers-Triumph====\\n\\n\\nThe Group continued to expand and acquire throughout the 1950s, but by 1965 competition from Japan (in the shape of companies like Honda, Yamaha and Suzuki) and Europe from Jawa / CZ, Bultaco and Husqvarna was eroding BSA's market share. The BSA (and Triumph range) were no longer aligned with the markets; mopeds were displacing scooter sales and the trials and scrambles areas were now the preserve of European two-strokes. Some poor marketing decisions and expensive projects contributed to substantial losses. For example, the development and production investment of the Ariel 3, an ultra stable 3-wheel moped, was not recouped by sales; the loss has been estimated at £2 million. Furthermore, BSA failed to take seriously the threat that key-start Japanese motor cycles might completely destroy the market for kick-started BSA motor cycles.\\n\\nIn 1968, BSA announced many changes to its product line of singles, twins and the new three-cylinder machine named the \\\"Rocket three\\\" for the 1969 model year. It now concentrated on the more promising USA, and to a lesser extent, Canadian, markets. However, despite the adding of modern accessories, for example, turn signals and even differing versions of the A65 twins for home and export sale, the damage had been done and the end was near.\\n\\nReorganisation in 1971 concentrated motorcycle production at Meriden, Triumph's site, with production of components and engines at BSA's Small Heath. At the same time there were redundancies and the selling of assets. Barclays Bank arranged financial backing to the tune of £10 million.\\n\\nUpgrades and service bulletins continued until 1972, but the less service-intensive Japanese bikes had by then flooded the market on both sides of the Atlantic. The merger with Norton Villers was started in late 1972, and for a brief time a Norton 500 single was built with the B50-based unit-single engine, but few if any were sold publicly. The BSA unit single B50's 500 cc enjoyed much improvement in the hands of the CCM motorcycle company allowing the basic BSA design to continue until the mid to late 1970s in a competitive form all over Europe.\\n\\nThe final BSA range was just four models: Gold Star 500, 650 Thunderbolt/Lightning and the 750 cc Rocket Three. By 1972, BSA was so moribund that, with bankruptcy imminent, its motorcycle businesses were merged (as part of a government-initiated rescue plan) with the Manganese Bronze company, Norton-Villiers, to become NVT, headed by Dennis Poore. The intention was to produce and market Norton and Triumph motorcycles at home and abroad; but Poore's rationalisation led to redundancies of two-thirds of the workforce. In response, the Triumph workers at Meriden set up their own cooperative. This left Poore with neither BSA nor Triumph, and the sole NVT model was the Norton Commando. Although this machine won the ''Motor Cycle News'' \\\"Bike of the Year\\\" award for several years running, nothing could hide the fact that the Commando was an old design, being a pre-unit pushrod parallel-twin.\\n\\nIn exchange for its motorcycle businesses, Manganese Bronze received BSA Group's non-motorcycle-related divisions—namely, Carbodies. Although the BSA name was left out of the new company's name, a few products continued to be made carrying it until 1973. However, the plan involved the axing of some brands, large redundancies and consolidation of production at two sites. This scheme to rescue and combine Norton, BSA and Triumph failed in the face of worker resistance. Norton's and BSA's factories were eventually shut down, while Triumph staggered on to fail four years later.\\nBSA logo\\n\",\n \"\\n===Motorcycles===\\nRights went to Norton Villiers Triumph and on its liquidation were purchased by a new company formed by management and named BSA Company Limited.\\n\\n===Guns===\\nRights were acquired by Gamo for its new subsidiary '''BSA Guns (UK) Limited'''\\n\",\n \"\\n===Bicycles===\\nAccording to Charles Spencer, BSA was manufacturing the \\\"Delta\\\" bicycle circa 1869. In 1880 the company was approached to manufacture the \\\"Otto Dicycle\\\". An initial contract was signed to produce 210 and a further contract followed for a further 200. In all it is believed that a total of 953 Otto machines were made. BSA then went into bicycle production on their own account, the first machines to their own specification being exhibited at the 1881 Stanley Show. BSA went on to design and manufacture a \\\"safety\\\" bicycle (patent:15,342 of 1884). BSA was also producing tricycles and a licence was obtained in 1885 to manufacture ball bearings. BSA ceased bicycle manufacture in 1887 because of the demand for arms. Bicycle component manufacture commenced in 1894 and BSA continued to supply the bicycle trade up to 1936. The company recommenced bicycle manufacture on their own account again in 1908 and these were exhibited at the Stanley Show in 1909. Bicycle manufacture was what led BSA into motorcycles. BSA produced bicycles for both the police and military and notably a folding bicycle for the British Army during World War I and the more well known folding Paratroopers bicycle during World War II. BSA supplied the Irish Army with bicycles after 1922.\\n\\nBSA manufactured a range of bicycles from utility roadsters through to racing bicycles. The BSA range of Sports bicycles expanded in the 1930s following the granting of a patent for a new lighter design of seat lug in 1929 and tandems were introduced into the BSA bicycle range as well. BSA had a reputation for quality and durability and their components were more expensive that either Chater-Lea or Brampton. BSA launched a high end club cyclists machine in the early 1930s initially branded as the \\\"Super-eeze\\\". Never slow to avail of publicity BSA sponsored the great Australian cyclist Hubert Opperman and re-branded the top of the range machine the \\\"Opperman\\\" model. A less expensive range of clubman lightweight machines was introduced from 1936 with the \\\"Cyclo\\\" 3 speed derailleur equipped \\\"Clubman\\\". Subtle changes were made to the range, most models being equipped with \\\"Russ\\\" patent forks and some models were made for only two seasons. This all stopped around September 1939 with the outbreak of war. A revised catalogue with a much reduced range was issued in March 1940 which also saw the launch of the BSA \\\"Streamlight\\\" model. A novel all white bicycle was produced for the blackout but had disappeared from a severely reduced bicycle range the details of which were circulated to dealers from December 1941. BSA had ceased production of their 3 speed hub gear in 1939 and production appears to have started again by 1945 although with a black finish instead of chromium plating. BSA bought '''Sunbeam''' in 1943 and produced Sunbeam bicycles using up existing frames and parts and using BSA components for the missing bits. The first BSA produced Sunbeam catalogue was published in 1949\\n\\nPost war BSA expanded their bicycle range but faced problems of shortages of raw materials such as steel and was required to export a lot of their manufactured output in order to get a Government licence to purchase the necessary raw materials. The company moved bicycle production to the new Waverley Works after World War II. BSA continued to innovate introducing the 4 Star derailleur gear in 1949 along with an associated 4-speed 'unit' or cassette hub. The derailleur design was altered from 1950 and was certainly available up to 1953 but was not a great success. BSA bought New Hudson in 1950 and started to manufacture and sell New Hudson branded machines as well as Sunbeam. It appears that the top of the range BSA lightweight club cyclist machine was the \\\"Gold Column\\\" and this appears to have been changed into the BSA \\\"Tour of Britain\\\" model following the success of the BSA Professional Cycling Team in the 1952 Tour of Britain race. The \\\"Tour of Britain\\\" model was heavily promoted in the BSA 1953 sales literature. The factory made \\\"Tour of Britain\\\" model was not the same as those ridden by the professional team. Only eight machines were crafted for the professional team and none of the components appear to have been standard BSA parts. 1953 saw BSA separate the bicycle / motorcar and motorcycle business into different holdings.\\n\\nThe good times were coming to an end and demand for bicycles fell with the end of rationing in 1954. James Leek, managing director of BSA Cycles Ltd was suffering ill health and he retired in 1956, the same year the BSA Chairman, Sir Bernard Docker, was removed from the BSA Board. Jack Sangster who had joined the BSA Board in 1951 following the purchase of his company Triumph Motorcycles became Chairman. The bicycle manufacturing business BSA Cycles Ltd was sold to Raleigh Industries in 1957.\\n\\n===Motorcycles from 1910===\\n\\n\\nBSA Motorcycles were made by BSA Cycles Ltd, under the BSA parent, up until 1953 when the motorcycle business was moved into holding ''BSA Motorcycles Ltd''. The first instance of intention to produce motorcycles was reported in The Motor Cycle, a British motorcycling journal, in July 1906. The first wholly BSA motorcycle, the 3½ H.P. was built in 1910 and displayed at the first Olympia Show, London on 21 November in that year. Sir Hallewell Rogers, BSA Chairman, had informed the shareholders at the Company's 1910 AGM in Birmingham \\\"We have decided to put a motor-bicycle on the market for the coming season .... These machines will be on exhibit at the Cycle and Motor Show on November 21st, after which date we look forward to commencing delivery\\\". The machines were available for the 1911 season and entire production sold out. BSA had previously acquired a commercially available engine in 1905 and fitted it to one of their bicycle frames and discovered at first hand the problems that needed to be overcome. BSA Cycles Ltd was set up as a subsidiary company in 1919 under Managing Director Charles Hyde to manufacture both bicycles and motorcycles.\\n\\nBSA produced their only two-stroke motorcycle design for the 1928 season, the 1.74 H.P. Model A28 with two speed gearbox. It was produced as the A29 and A30 the following two years and became the A31 with a three-speed gearbox in 1931, the last year of production. The post-war 'Bantam' was a German DKW design, part of war reparation, and not a true BSA design.\\n\\nBSA motorcycles were sold as affordable motorcycles with reasonable performance for the average user. BSA stressed the reliability of their machines, the availability of spares and dealer support. The motorcycles were a mixture of sidevalve and OHV engines offering different performance for different roles, e.g. hauling a sidecar. The bulk of use would be for commuting. BSA motorcycles were also popular with \\\"fleet buyers\\\" in Britain, who (for example) used the Bantams for telegram delivery for the Post Office or motorcycle/sidecar combinations for AA patrols The Automobile Association (AA) breakdown help services. This mass market appeal meant they could claim \\\"one in four is a BSA\\\" on advertising.\\n\\nMachines with better specifications were available for those who wanted more performance or for competition work.\\n\\nInitially, after the Second World War, BSA motorcycles were not generally seen as racing machines, compared to the likes of Norton. In the immediate post-war period few were entered in races such as the TT races, though this changed dramatically in the Junior Clubman event (smaller engine motorcycles racing over some 3 or 4 laps around one of the Isle of Man courses). In 1947 there were but a couple of BSA mounted riders, but by 1952 BSA were in the majority and in 1956 the makeup was 53 BSA, 1 Norton and 1 Velocette.\\n\\nTo improve US sales, in 1954, for example, BSA entered a team of riders in the 200 mile Daytona beach race with a mixture of single cylinder Gold Stars and twin cylinder Shooting Stars assembled by Roland Pike. The BSA team riders took first, second, third, fourth, and fifth places with two more riders finishing at 8th and 16th. This was the first case of a one brand sweep.\\n\\nThe BSA factory experienced success in the sport of motocross with Jeff Smith riding a B40 to capture the 1964 and 1965 FIM 500 cc Motocross World Championships. It would be the last year the title would be won by a four-stroke machine until the mid-1990s. A BSA motocross machine was often colloquially known as a \\\"Beezer.\\\"\\n\\nBirmingham rocker Steve Gibbons released a song \\\"BSA\\\" on his 1980 album \\\"Saints & Sinners\\\" as a tribute to the Gold Star. He still plays this song with his band and often performs on the Isle of Man at the TT races.\\n\\n===Motorcycle models===\\n\\n\\n====Pre World War II====\\n1935 BSA Blue Star\\n*3½ hp\\n*Model E\\n*Model A28\\n*C10 sidevalve 250 cc 1938 on design by Val Page\\n*G14 1000 cc V-twin\\n*Blue Star\\n*Empire Star\\n*Silver Star\\n*Gold Star\\n*Sloper\\n*M20 (500cc):as the WD (War Department) M20 the motorcycle of the British Army in World War II\\n*M21 (600cc): the big brother of the M20, also used by the British Army in World War II\\n\\n====Post World War II====\\nBSA Golden Flash 650\\n1969 BSA Royal Star\\n*'''A series Twins''' (four-stroke, pushrod parallel twins)\\n**A7\\n***A7 Shooting Star - 500cc pre-unit construction\\n**A10 - 650cc pre-unit construction\\n***A10 Golden Flash\\n***A10 Super Flash\\n***A10 Road Rocket\\n***A10 Super Rocket\\n***A10 Rocket Gold Star\\n**A50 - 500cc unit construction\\n***A50R Royal Star\\n***A50C Cyclone\\n***A50W Wasp\\n**A65 - 650cc unit construction\\n***A65 Star Twin\\n***A65R Rocket\\n***A65T Thunderbolt\\n***A65L Lightning\\n***A65S Spitfire\\n***A65H Hornet\\n***A65F Firebird Scrambler\\n**A70L Lightning 750\\n*'''Triples''' (four-stroke, pushrod, three-cylinder engines) - The BSA Rocket 3/Triumph Trident were developed together. The Rocket 3 shares a majority of engine components and other parts with the Trident T150, but has forward-inclined cylinder barrels and a BSA frame.\\n**A75R Rocket3 750\\n**A75RV Rocket3 750 - 5 speed\\n**A75V Rocket3 750 - 5 speed\\n*'''Singles''' (Four-stroke single cylinder)\\n**C25 Barracuda\\n**B25 Starfire - 250cc unit construction\\n**B25FS Fleetstar\\n**B25 SS Gold Star\\n**BSA B31 single\\n**B32 Gold Star\\n**B33\\n**B34 Gold Star\\n**B40 350 Star - 350cc unit construction\\n**B40 SS90\\n**B44 Victor\\n**B44\\n***B44SS Shooting Star\\n***B44VS Victor Special\\n**B50\\n***B50SS Gold Star 500\\n***B50T Victor Trials\\n***B50MX Motocross\\n*C series (Four-stroke 250 cc single-cylinder).\\n**C10\\n**C11/C11G: - - 85mpg - weight .\\nThe C11 used a C10 motor fitted with an overhead valve cylinder head. The C11 frame was almost unchanged until 1951 when BSA added plunger rear suspension. Early gearboxes were weak and unreliable. The C11G was available with a three ratio gearbox and rigid frame or a four ratio gearbox and a plunger frame. Both models had better front brakes than earlier models. This model was a common commuter motorcycle, and many survive today.\\n\\n**C12\\n: (1956–1958). 249 cc OHV\\nUsed the C11G engine, fitted with an alternator and swinging fork (known as swinging arm) rear suspension.\\n\\n1959 BSA C15 Star\\n**C15 Star - 250cc unit construction\\n**C15T Trials\\n**C15S Scrambler\\n**C15SS80 Sports Star 80\\n**C15 Sportsman\\n*D series (Two-stroke single cylinder. See BSA Bantam for details)\\n**D1 Bantam - 125cc unit-construction\\n**D3 Bantam Major\\n**D5 Bantam Super\\n**D7 Bantam Super\\n**D10 Silver Bantam, Bantam Supreme, Bantam Sports, Bushman\\n**D13\\n**D14/4 Bantam Supreme, Bantam Sports, Bushman - 175cc\\n**B175 Bantam Sports, Bushman\\n*Others (may include some export versions of models listed above)\\n**B31 Twin (350 cc). B31 frame fitted with a Triumph 3T motor to produce this BSA B31 Twin. Very few units were produced, probably prototypes.\\n**BSA Barracuda\\n**BSA Beagle\\n**BSA Boxer - 1979 - c.1981 the sports version of the 50cc range (Beaver, Boxer, Brigand, GT50). The engine was by Moto Morini.\\n**BSA GT50 (renamed from the Boxer)\\n**BSA Beaver (the standard road version)\\n**BSA Tracker 125/175 - late 70s moto-cross style product by NVT with Yamaha two stroke engine.\\n**BSA Dandy 70\\n**BSA Sunbeam ''(Scooters, also produced as Triumph TS1, TW2 Tigress)''\\n***175B1\\n***250B2\\n**BSA Starfire\\n**BSA Rocket Scrambler\\n**BSA Rocket Gold Star\\n**BSA Fury\\n**BSA Hornet\\n**Winged Wheel (auxiliary power unit for bicycles)\\n**T65 Thunderbolt (essentially a Triumph TR6P with BSA Badges)\\n\\n===Military vehicles===\\n* BSA Scout armoured car.\\n* \\\"Type G Apparatus\\\", Folding paratrooper bicycle, with parachute.\\n\\n===Military firearms===\\n* Snider–Enfield rifle\\n* Martini–Henry rifle\\n* Lee–Metford rifle\\n* Lewis gun\\n* Lee–Enfield rifle\\n* Thompson submachine gun\\n* BSA Thompson Autorifle\\n* .303 RAF Browning\\n* Hispano-Suiza cannon\\n* Oerlikon 20mm cannon\\n* Sten submachine gun\\n* Boys anti-tank rifle\\n* Besa machine gun\\n* BSA experimental model 1949 pump-action machine carbine\\n* ADEN cannon\\n* L1A1 SLR\\n\\n===Civilian firearms===\\n* The 1906 war office pattern rifle\\n* The Sportsman series of .22 Long Rifle bolt-action rifles\\n* Various Martini action target .22lr rifles\\n* The Ralock and Armatic semi automatic .22lr rifles\\n* Various bolt action hunting rifles\\n\",\n \"* Clews Competition Motorcycles (CCM) - the remnants of BSA's off-road arm\\n* List of BSA motorcycles\\n* List of modern armament manufacturers\\n* Tribsa custom built café racer or off-road using a Triumph engine in a BSA frame\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"\\n* BSA History from the Days of the Crimea (1918)\\n* \\n* Catalogue of the BSA archives, held at the Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction","History of the BSA industrial group","Trademarks","Products"," See also "," Notes "," References "," External links "],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \"History of the BSA industrial group\",\n \"Trademarks\",\n \"Products\",\n \" See also \",\n \" Notes \",\n \" References \",\n \" External links \"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Birmingham Small Arms Company"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["This financial burden deprived Daimler of badly needed cash to fund development, forcing the Daimler company to borrow money from the Midland Bank.","In 1913 the BSA group were compelled through pressure from the Midland Bank to make a capital issue of 300,000 preference shares.","Barclays Bank arranged financial backing to the tune of £10 million."],"string":"[\n \"This financial burden deprived Daimler of badly needed cash to fund development, forcing the Daimler company to borrow money from the Midland Bank.\",\n \"In 1913 the BSA group were compelled through pressure from the Midland Bank to make a capital issue of 300,000 preference shares.\",\n \"Barclays Bank arranged financial backing to the tune of £10 million.\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n'''The Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited''' ('''BSA''') was a major British industrial combine, a group of businesses manufacturing military and sporting firearms; bicycles; motorcycles; cars; buses and bodies; steel; iron castings; hand, power, and machine tools; coal cleaning and handling plants; sintered metals; and hard chrome process.","At its peak, BSA (who also owned Triumph) was the largest motorcycle producer in the world.","In the late 1950s and early 1960s poor management and failure to develop new products in the motorcycle division led to a dramatic decline of sales to its major USA market.","The management had failed to appreciate the importance of the resurgent Japanese motorcycle industry, leading to problems for the entire BSA group.","A government-organised rescue operation in 1973 led to the takeover of remaining operations by what is now Manganese Bronze Holdings, then owners of Norton-Villiers, and over the following decade further closures and dispersals.","The original company, The Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited, remains a subsidiary of Manganese Bronze but its name was changed in 1987.","Manganese Bronze continues to operate former BSA subsidiary Carbodies, now known as The London Taxi Company, previously LTI Limited, manufacturers of London taxicabs and formerly the largest wholly British-owned car manufacturer.","(Manganese Bronze is now owned by the Chinese company Geely).","BSA began in June 1861 in the Gun Quarter, Birmingham, England, founded specifically to manufacture guns by machinery.","It was formed by a group of fourteen gunsmith members of the Birmingham Small Arms Trade Association.","The market had moved against British gunsmiths following the outbreak of the Crimean War in 1854 because the Board of Ordnance's Royal Small Arms Factory at Enfield had introduced machinery made in the USA and Enfield's greatly increased output had been achieved with reduced reliance on skilled craftsmen.","The War Office provided this new grouping of gunsmiths free access to technical drawings and their facilities at their Enfield factory.","The newly formed company purchased of land at Small Heath, Birmingham, built a factory there and made a road on the site calling it Armoury Road.","This machinery brought to Birmingham manifested the principle of the inter-changeability of parts.","===Firearms===\nBSA's resort to the use of machinery was rewarded in 1863 with an order for 20,000 Turkish infantry rifles.","The management of the BSA Company was changed at an Extraordinary Meeting called on 30 September 1863 when the company was changed from being run by a committee to that of an elected Board of Directors, Joseph Wilson, Samuel Buckley, Isaac Hollis, Charles Playfair, Charles Pryse, Sir John Ratcliffe, Edward Gem, and J.F.","Swinburn under the chairmanship of John Dent Goodman.","The first War Office contract was not agreed until 1868.","In 1879, the factory, without work, was shut for a year; the military arms trade was precarious.","===New ventures===\n\n====Bicycles====\n\nThe next year BSA branched out into bicycle manufacture.","The gun factory proved remarkably adaptable to the manufacture of cycle parts.","What cycles needed was large quantities of standard parts accurately machined at low prices.","In 1880 BSA manufactured the Otto Dicycle, In the 1880s the company began to manufacture safety bicycles on their own account and not until 1905 was the company's first experimental motorcycle constructed.","Bicycle production ceased in 1887 as the company concentrated on producing the Lee–Metford magazine-loading rifle for the War Office which was re-equipping the British Army with it.","The order was for 1,200 rifles per week.","BSA recommenced manufacturing bicycles on their own behalf from 1908.","BSA Cycles Ltd was set up in 1919 for the manufacture of both bicycles and motorcycles.","BSA sold the bicycle business to Raleigh in 1957 after separating the bicycle and motorcycle business in 1953.","====Bicycle components====\nIn 1893, BSA commenced making bicycle hubs and continued to supply the cycle trade with bicycle parts up to 1936.","BSA bought The Eadie Manufacturing Company of Redditch in 1907 and so began to manufacture the Eadie two speed hub gear and the Eadie coaster brake hub.","BSA also signed an agreement with the Three Speed Gear Syndicate in 1907 to manufacture a 3 speed hub under licence.","This was later classified as the Sturmey Archer Type X. BSA introduced a 'Duo' hub in the late 1930s which was capable of one fixed gear and one gear with a freewheel.","All BSA hub gear production temporarily ceased in 1939, until they recommenced making their 3 speed hub around 1945.","The Eadie coaster hub made a brief return in 1953 on two BSA bicycle models.","BSA forever ceased production of their hub gears in 1955.","====Ammunition====\nBSA sold its ammunition business in 1897 to Birmingham Metal and Munitions Company Limited part of the Nobel-Dynamite Trust, through Kynoch a forerunner of ICI.","====Sparkbrook====\nIn 1906 Frank Dudley Docker was appointed a director of the company.","By the autumn of that year BSA was in some difficulty.","They had purchased the Sparkbrook Royal Small Arms Factory from the War Office, and in return, the War Office undertook to give BSA a quarter of all orders for Lee–Enfield rifles.","But, the War Office did not honour their undertaking.","The ensuing financial crisis did not prevent BSA from signing an agreement to amalgamate with another bicycle component manufacturer, the Eadie Manufacturing Company of Redditch, on 11 February 1907.","That decision was ratified by the shareholders of both companies at separate Extraordinary General Meetings held in the Grand Hotel, Birmingham on 27 February 1907.","Albert Eadie became a BSA director, a post he held until his death in 1931.","====Motorcycles====\nMotor bicycles were added to bicycle products in 1910.","The BSA 3½ hp was exhibited at the 1910 Olympia Show, London for the 1911 season.","The entire BSA production sold out in 1911, 1912 and 1913.","====Motor cars====\n\n=====BSA cars=====\n\n\n\nIn an effort to make use of the Sparkbrook factory BSA established a motorcar department there.","An independent part of it was occupied by Lanchester Motor Company.","The first prototype automobile was produced in 1907.","The following year, marketed under BSA Cycles Ltd, the company sold 150 automobiles and again began producing complete bicycles on its own account.","By 1909 it was clear the new motorcar department was unsuccessful; an investigation committee reported to the BSA Board on the many failures of its management and their poor organisation of production.","=====Daimler vehicles=====\n\n\nDudley Docker had joined the board in 1906 and was appointed deputy chairman of BSA in 1909.","He had made a spectacular financial success of a merger of five large rolling-stock companies in 1902 and become the leader of the period's merger movement.","Believing he could buy the missing management skills that could not be found within BSA he started merger talks with The Daimler Company Limited of Coventry.","Daimler and Rover were then the largest British car producers.","Daimler was immensely profitable.","After its capital reconstruction in 1904 Daimler's profits were 57 per cent and 150 per cent returns on invested capital in 1905 and 1906.","The attraction for Daimler shareholders was the apparent stability of BSA.","So in 1910 BSA purchased Daimler with BSA shares but Docker who negotiated the arrangements either ignored or failed in his assessment of their consequences for the new combine.","The combine was never adequately balanced or co-ordinated.","One of the financial provisions obliged Daimler to pay BSA an annual dividend of £100,000 representing approximately 40 per cent of the actual cash BSA had put into Daimler.","BSA had still not recovered financially from the earlier purchase of Royal Small Arms factory at Sparkbrook and BSA were not in a position to finance Daimler, nor had either company ample liquid resources.","BSA went ahead with motorcycle production in 1910, their first model available for the 1911 season.","In the short term this was to solve the liquidity issue but further diluted the group's capitalisation.","Dudley Docker retired as a BSA director in 1912 and installed Lincoln Chandler on the BSA board as his replacement.","Dudley Docker liked to draw a comparison between the BSA~Daimler merger he engineered and that of his 1902 merger of Metropolitan Carriage Wagon & Finance Company and Patent Shaft.","However, there was not the integration of facilities in the BSA~Daimler case, nor was there a reorganisation of either BSA or Daimler and in view of the earlier criticism contained in the 1909 report of the investigation committee, BSA continued to produce cars of their own using Daimler engines.","In 1913 Daimler employed 5,000 workers to manufacture 1,000 vehicles, an indication that things were not well.","=====Steel bodies=====\nIn 1912, BSA would be one of two automobile manufacturers pioneering the use of all-steel bodies, joining Hupmobile in the US.","===First World War===\nDuring the First World War, the company returned to arms manufacture and greatly expanded its operations.","BSA produced rifles, Lewis guns, shells, motorcycles and other vehicles for the war effort.","===Inter-war years===\n1935 magazine advert for the BSA range of motorcycles and 3-wheeler cars\n\n====Motorcycles====\n\n\nIn November 1919 BSA launched their first 50 degree vee-twin, Model E, 770cc side valve (6-7 hp) motorcycle for the 1920 season.","The machine had interchangeable valves, total loss oil system with mechanical pump and an emergency hand one.","Retail price was £130.","Other features were Amac carburettor, chain drive, choice of magneto or Magdyno, 7-plate clutch, 3 speed gear box with kickstarter and new type of cantilever fork\n\n====Aviation====\n\nDuring the war Daimler had built enormous numbers of aero engines and aircraft and by the end was building 80 Airco de Havilland bombers a month.","In February 1920 BSA amalgamated with what was the world's largest aircraft manufacturer, Aircraft Manufacturing Company (Airco), Airco's main plant at Hendon had employed between 7,000 and 8,000 people.","The Airco group of companies had turned out a new aircraft every 45 minutes.","Within days BSA discovered Airco was in a far more serious financial state than George Holt Thomas had revealed.","Holt Thomas was immediately dropped from his new seat on the BSA board and all BSA's new acquisitions were placed in the hands of a liquidator.","Some of the businesses were allowed to continue for some years, Aircraft Transport and Travel's assets being eventually rolled into Daimler Air Hire to make Daimler Airway Limited.","BSA failed to pay a dividend for the following four years while it tried to recover from its losses.","Some relief was achieved when in March 1924 Daimler Airway and its management became the major constituent of Imperial Airways.","As well as the Daimler car range, BSA Cycles Ltd re-entered the car market under the BSA name in 1921 with a V-twin engined light car followed by four-cylinder models up to 1926, when the name was temporarily dropped.","In 1929 a new range of 3- and 4-wheel cars appeared and production of these continued until 1936.","By 1930 the BSA Group's primary activities were BSA motorcycles and Daimler vehicles.","Car production under the BSA name ceased in the 1930s.","====Lanchester====\n\n\nIn 1931 the Lanchester Motor Company at Sparkbrook was acquired and production of their cars transferred to Daimler's Coventry works.","The first new product was a version of the Daimler Light Twenty or 16/20 and called Lanchester 15/18.","Lanchester Type 1518 - 1932 5905514590.jpg|Lanchester 15/18October 19312504 cc6\nLanchester Ten 6-light saloon 1936 5917710821 3a71f2bf4b o.jpg|Lanchester TenSeptember 19321203 cc4\nDaimler 15 HP 1934 4860323967 .jpg|Daimler FifteenSeptember 19321805 cc6\nBSA 10 1185cc October 1933.JPG|BSA TenOctober 19321185 cc4\n\n\n====Armaments====\nIn the 1930s, the board of directors authorised expenditure on bringing their arms-making equipment back to use – it had been stored at company expense since the end of the Great War in the belief that BSA might again be called upon to perform its patriotic duty.","In 1939, BSA acquired the blueprints for a submachine gun designed by Hungarian arms designer Pál Király as well as the rights to manufacture it.","Examples were produced in 9mm Mauser Export calibre according to Kiraly's design.","It was estimated that these arms would only cost 5 pounds each to manufacture.","However, at the time, submachine guns were viewed as \"gangster weapons\" and plans to manufacture it were shelved.","===Second World War===\nBy the outbreak of the Second World War, BSA Guns Ltd at Small Heath, was the only factory producing rifles in the UK.","The Royal Ordnance Factories did not begin production until 1941.","BSA Guns Ltd was also producing .303 Browning machine guns for the Air Ministry at the rate of 600 guns per week in March 1939 and Browning production was to peak at 16,390 per month by March 1942.","The armed forces had chosen the 500 cc side-valve BSA M20 motorcycle as their preferred machine.","On the outbreak of war the Government requisitioned the 690 machines BSA had in stock as well as placing an order for another 8,000 machines.","South Africa, Ireland, India, Sweden and the Netherlands also wanted machines.","The Government passed the Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1939 on 24 August allowing the drafting of defence regulations affecting food, travel, requisitioning of land and supplies, manpower and agricultural production.","A second Emergency Powers (Defence) Act was passed on 22 May 1940 allowing the conscription of labour.","The fall of France had not been anticipated in Government planning and the encirclement of a large part of the British Expeditionary Force into the Dunkirk pocket resulted in a hasty evacuation of that part of the B.E.F following the abandonment of their equipment.","The parlous state of affairs \"no arms, no transport, no equipment\" in the face of the threat of imminent invasion of Britain by Nazi forces was recorded by the Chief of the Imperial General Staff Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke in his diary entries of the 1/2 July 1940.","The creation of the Home Guard (initially as the Local Defence Volunteers) following Anthony Eden's broadcast appeal to the Nation on Tuesday 14 May 1940 also created further demand for arms production to equip this new force.","BSA, as the only rifle producer in Britain, had to step up to the mark and the workforce voluntarily went onto a seven-day week.","Motorcycle production was also stepped up from 500 to 1,000 machines per week which meant a finished machine coming off the production line every 5 minutes.","The motorcycle department had been left intact in 1939 due to demand which was doubled following Dunkirk.","At the same time BSA staff were providing lectures and demonstrations on motorcycle riding and maintenance to 250,000 officers and men in all parts of the UK.","The BSA factory at Small Heath was bombed by the Luftwaffe on 26 August 1940 resulting in one high explosive bomb and a shower of incendiaries hitting the main barrel mill which was the only one operating on service rifles in the country, causing the unaffordable loss of 750 machine tools but fortunately no loss of life.","Two further air raids took place on 19 and 22 November 1940.","The air raid of 19 November did the most damage, causing loss of production and trapping hundreds of workers.","Two BSA night-shift electricians, Alf Stevens and Alf Goodwin, helped rescue their fellow workers.","Alf Stevens was awarded the George Medal for his selfless acts of bravery in the rescue and Alf Goodwin was awarded the British Empire Medal.","Workers involved in the works Civil Defence were brought in to help search for and clear bodies to get the plant back into production.","The net effect of the November raids was to destroy machine shops in the four-storey 1915 building, the original 1863 gunsmiths' building and nearby buildings, 1,600 machine tools, kill 53 employees, injure 89, 30 of them seriously and halt rifle production for three months.","The Government Ministry of Supply and BSA immediately began a process of production dispersal throughout Britain, through the shadow factory scheme.","Factories were set up at Tipton, Dudley, Smethwick, Blackheath, Lye, Kidderminster, Stourport, Tyseley, and Bromsgrove to manufacture Browning machine guns, Stoke, Corsham, and Newcastle-under-Lyme produced the Hispano cannon, Leicester and Studley Road produced the Besa machine gun, Ruislip produced the Oerlikon 20mm cannon, Stafford produced rocket projectiles, Tamworth produced two-pounder gun carriages, Mansfield produced the Boys Anti-tank gun and Shirley produced rifles.","These were dispersal factories which were in addition to Small Heath and the other BSA factories opened in the two years following the 1940 blitz.","At its peak Small Heath was running 67 factories engaged in war production.","BSA operations were also dispersed to other companies under licence.","In 1941 BSA was approached to produce a new pedal cycle with a maximum weight allowance of only 22 lb especially for airborne use.","This required a new concept in frame design which BSA found, producing a machine which weighed 21 lb, one pound less than the design specification and which also exceeded the design requirement for an effective life of 50 miles many times over.","Over 60,000 folding bicycles were produced, a figure equal to half the total production of military bicycles during World War II.","BSA also produced folding motorcycles for the Airborne Division.","In late 1942 BSA examined the Special Operations Executive designed Welgun with a view to manufacture.","BSA were willing to manufacture the gun in the quantities required starting April 1943 but the cheaper and less accurate Sten Mk IV was adopted for production by the Ministry of Supply.","BSA bought the Sunbeam motorcycles and bicycle business from Associated Motor Cycles Ltd in 1943 and then Ariel Motors Ltd in 1944.","During the course of the conflict BSA produced 1,250,000 Lee–Enfield .303 service rifles, 404,383 Sten sub-machine guns, 468,098 Browning machine guns plus spares equivalent to another 100,000, 42,532 Hispano cannon, 32,971 Oerlikon cannon, 59,322 7.9 mm Besa machine guns, 3,218 15 mm Besa machine guns, 68,882 Boys Anti-tank guns, 126,334 motorcycles, 128,000 military bicycles (over 60,000 of which were folding paratrooper bicycles), 10,000,000 shell fuse cases, 3,485,335 magazines and 750,000 anti-aircraft rockets were supplied to the armed forces.","At the same time other parts of the Group were having similar problems.","Before World War II Daimler had been linked with other Coventry motor manufacturers in a government-backed scheme for aero engine manufacture and had been allocated two shadow factories.","Apart from this, BSA-owned Daimler was producing Scout Cars and Daimler Mk I Armoured Cars which had been designed by BSA at Small Heath not Coventry as well as gun turrets, gun parts, tank transmissions, rocket projectiles and other munitions.","This activity had not gone unnoticed by the enemy, which made Radford Works a target in the Coventry air raids.","Radford Works received direct hits in four separate air raids during 1940.","None of these attacks were to seriously disrupt production, however two more serious air raids were carried out in April 1941 which destroyed half the factory.","In all it is estimated that 170 bombs containing 52,000 lbs of explosive were dropped on Radford Works as well as the thousands of incendiaries.","Like BSA, Daimler had to find dispersal units.","A back-handed compliment was paid by Field Marshal Rommel to the workers at Radford Works when he used a captured Daimler Scout to escape following his defeat at El Alamein.","===Post-war===\nAs the result of increased post war demand the Small Heath, Birmingham factory was turned over entirely to motorcycle production.","BSA produced the first Sunbeam bicycle catalogue in 1949 and produced its own '4 Star' derailleur gear with an associated splined cassette hub and 4 sprocket cassette.","This design was different from the 1930s Bayliss Wiley cassette hub which had a threaded sprocket carrier.","BSA bought New Hudson motorcycle and bicycle business in 1950 and followed this up in 1951 with the purchase of Triumph Motorcycles which brought Jack Sangster onto the BSA board.","The effect of this acquisition was to make BSA into the largest producer of motorcycles in the world at that time.","1952 saw BSA establish a Professional Cycling Team.","Bob Maitland a successful amateur cyclist and the highest placed British finisher in the 1948 Olympic Games road race and now an independent rider in the BSA team was a BSA employee working in the design office as a draughtsman.","It was Bob Maitland who was responsible for the design of post war BSA range of lightweight sports bicycles based on his knowledge of cycling.","Bob Maitland also made some of the components used on the bicycles of the professional team which were not standard production machines.","In the 1952 Tour of Britain Road Race run between Friday 22 August and Saturday 6 September, involving 14 individual stages and covering a total race distance of 1,470 miles, the BSA team of Bob Maitland, “Tiny” Thomas, Pete Proctor, Alf Newman and Stan Jones won the overall team race and Pete Proctor “King of the Mountains” classification.","The riders also enjoyed success on the individual stages of the race.","The team competed in four further events, 14 September Tour of the Chilterns, 1st “Tiny” Thomas and Team Prize, 21 September Weston-Super-Mare Grand Prix, Team Prize, 28 September Staffordshire Grand Prix, 1st Bob Maitland and Team Prize, 5 October Tour Revenge Race, Dublin, 1st “Tiny” Thomas and Team prize.","In 1953 BSA withdrew motorcycle production from BSA Cycles Ltd, the company it has established in 1919, by creating BSA Motorcycles Ltd. BSA also produced its 100,000th BSA Bantam motorcycle, a fact celebrated at the 1953 motorcycle show with a visit by Sir Anthony Eden to the BSA stand.","In 1953 the BSA Professional Cycling Team was managed by Syd Cozens.","Successes were 5/6 April Bournemouth Two Day Road Race, 1st Bob Maitland, 12 April Dover to London 63 Miles Road Race, 1st Stan Jones, 31 May Langsett 90 Miles Road Race, 1st Bob Maitland and “King of the Mountains”, 7 June Tour of the Wrekin, 1st Bob Maitland, 12 July Severn Valley 100 Miles Road Race, 1st “Tiny” Thomas, 19 July Jackson Trophy, Newcastle, Team Prize, 9 August Les Adams Memorial 80 Miles Road Race, 1st Alf Newman, Team Prize, “King of the Mountains” Arthur Ilsley, 30 August Weston-Super-Mare 100 Miles Grand Prix, 1st Bob Maitland, Team Prize.","The team also competed in the 1,624 mile, 12 stage, 1953 Tour of Britain Road Race.","The 1953 line up had changed as Arthur Ilsley replaced Pete Proctor in the team.","“Tiny” Thomas won the overall individual classification, the Team were runners-up in the team competition and Arthur Ilsley was 3rd in the “King of the Mountains” competition.","Bob Maitland also had notable success by winning the Independent National Championship.","1954 saw the introduction of the BSA Quick Release 3 Speed hub gear.","It was a split axle three speed gear intended for use with bicycles equipped with oil bath chainguards.","The original BSA 3 speed hub gear had been made under licence from the Three-Speed Gear Syndicate since 1907.","The design was later to be classified as the Sturmey-Archer 'Type X', but all BSA hub gear production ceased in 1955\n\nSir Bernard Docker remained chairman of BSA until 1956 when the BSA removed him.","In an acrimonious dispute conducted in the media the matter was brought to the BSA shareholders at the Annual General Meeting where the decision of the Board was upheld.","Another significant departure for the fortune of the BSA Group but less controversial was the retirement on ill health grounds of James Leek CBE, Managing Director from 1939 until his retirement.","Sir Bernard Docker was replaced as Chairman of the BSA Board by Jack Sangster.","The BSA bicycle division, BSA Cycles Ltd., including the BSA cycle dealer network was sold to Raleigh in 1957.","Raleigh initially continued bicycle production in Birmingham at Coventry Road, Sheldon, Birmingham 26 into the early 1960s using up BSA parts but as time went on more stock Raleigh parts and fittings were used, some continuing to bear the 'piled arms' stamp.","TI Group owners of the British Cycle Corporation bought Raleigh in 1960 thus gaining access to the BSA brand.","Bicycles bearing the BSA name are currently manufactured and distributed within India by TI Cycles of India but have no direct connection to the original Birmingham BSA company.","In 1960, Daimler was sold off to Jaguar.","1961 was the centenary year of the BSA Group and in recognition of this milestone the company magazine produced an anniversary issue of ''BSA Group News'' in June ''BSA Centenary 1861–1961'' in which many of the achievements of the Group were celebrated.","This year also saw the end of military rifle production, however BSA still continued to make sporting guns.","In 1986 BSA Guns was liquidated, the assets bought and renamed '''BSA Guns (UK) Ltd'''.","The company continues to make air rifles and shotguns, and is still based in Small Heath in Birmingham.","====Norton-Villiers-Triumph====\n\n\nThe Group continued to expand and acquire throughout the 1950s, but by 1965 competition from Japan (in the shape of companies like Honda, Yamaha and Suzuki) and Europe from Jawa / CZ, Bultaco and Husqvarna was eroding BSA's market share.","The BSA (and Triumph range) were no longer aligned with the markets; mopeds were displacing scooter sales and the trials and scrambles areas were now the preserve of European two-strokes.","Some poor marketing decisions and expensive projects contributed to substantial losses.","For example, the development and production investment of the Ariel 3, an ultra stable 3-wheel moped, was not recouped by sales; the loss has been estimated at £2 million.","Furthermore, BSA failed to take seriously the threat that key-start Japanese motor cycles might completely destroy the market for kick-started BSA motor cycles.","In 1968, BSA announced many changes to its product line of singles, twins and the new three-cylinder machine named the \"Rocket three\" for the 1969 model year.","It now concentrated on the more promising USA, and to a lesser extent, Canadian, markets.","However, despite the adding of modern accessories, for example, turn signals and even differing versions of the A65 twins for home and export sale, the damage had been done and the end was near.","Reorganisation in 1971 concentrated motorcycle production at Meriden, Triumph's site, with production of components and engines at BSA's Small Heath.","At the same time there were redundancies and the selling of assets.","Upgrades and service bulletins continued until 1972, but the less service-intensive Japanese bikes had by then flooded the market on both sides of the Atlantic.","The merger with Norton Villers was started in late 1972, and for a brief time a Norton 500 single was built with the B50-based unit-single engine, but few if any were sold publicly.","The BSA unit single B50's 500 cc enjoyed much improvement in the hands of the CCM motorcycle company allowing the basic BSA design to continue until the mid to late 1970s in a competitive form all over Europe.","The final BSA range was just four models: Gold Star 500, 650 Thunderbolt/Lightning and the 750 cc Rocket Three.","By 1972, BSA was so moribund that, with bankruptcy imminent, its motorcycle businesses were merged (as part of a government-initiated rescue plan) with the Manganese Bronze company, Norton-Villiers, to become NVT, headed by Dennis Poore.","The intention was to produce and market Norton and Triumph motorcycles at home and abroad; but Poore's rationalisation led to redundancies of two-thirds of the workforce.","In response, the Triumph workers at Meriden set up their own cooperative.","This left Poore with neither BSA nor Triumph, and the sole NVT model was the Norton Commando.","Although this machine won the ''Motor Cycle News'' \"Bike of the Year\" award for several years running, nothing could hide the fact that the Commando was an old design, being a pre-unit pushrod parallel-twin.","In exchange for its motorcycle businesses, Manganese Bronze received BSA Group's non-motorcycle-related divisions—namely, Carbodies.","Although the BSA name was left out of the new company's name, a few products continued to be made carrying it until 1973.","However, the plan involved the axing of some brands, large redundancies and consolidation of production at two sites.","This scheme to rescue and combine Norton, BSA and Triumph failed in the face of worker resistance.","Norton's and BSA's factories were eventually shut down, while Triumph staggered on to fail four years later.","BSA logo","\n===Motorcycles===\nRights went to Norton Villiers Triumph and on its liquidation were purchased by a new company formed by management and named BSA Company Limited.","===Guns===\nRights were acquired by Gamo for its new subsidiary '''BSA Guns (UK) Limited'''","\n===Bicycles===\nAccording to Charles Spencer, BSA was manufacturing the \"Delta\" bicycle circa 1869.","In 1880 the company was approached to manufacture the \"Otto Dicycle\".","An initial contract was signed to produce 210 and a further contract followed for a further 200.","In all it is believed that a total of 953 Otto machines were made.","BSA then went into bicycle production on their own account, the first machines to their own specification being exhibited at the 1881 Stanley Show.","BSA went on to design and manufacture a \"safety\" bicycle (patent:15,342 of 1884).","BSA was also producing tricycles and a licence was obtained in 1885 to manufacture ball bearings.","BSA ceased bicycle manufacture in 1887 because of the demand for arms.","Bicycle component manufacture commenced in 1894 and BSA continued to supply the bicycle trade up to 1936.","The company recommenced bicycle manufacture on their own account again in 1908 and these were exhibited at the Stanley Show in 1909.","Bicycle manufacture was what led BSA into motorcycles.","BSA produced bicycles for both the police and military and notably a folding bicycle for the British Army during World War I and the more well known folding Paratroopers bicycle during World War II.","BSA supplied the Irish Army with bicycles after 1922.","BSA manufactured a range of bicycles from utility roadsters through to racing bicycles.","The BSA range of Sports bicycles expanded in the 1930s following the granting of a patent for a new lighter design of seat lug in 1929 and tandems were introduced into the BSA bicycle range as well.","BSA had a reputation for quality and durability and their components were more expensive that either Chater-Lea or Brampton.","BSA launched a high end club cyclists machine in the early 1930s initially branded as the \"Super-eeze\".","Never slow to avail of publicity BSA sponsored the great Australian cyclist Hubert Opperman and re-branded the top of the range machine the \"Opperman\" model.","A less expensive range of clubman lightweight machines was introduced from 1936 with the \"Cyclo\" 3 speed derailleur equipped \"Clubman\".","Subtle changes were made to the range, most models being equipped with \"Russ\" patent forks and some models were made for only two seasons.","This all stopped around September 1939 with the outbreak of war.","A revised catalogue with a much reduced range was issued in March 1940 which also saw the launch of the BSA \"Streamlight\" model.","A novel all white bicycle was produced for the blackout but had disappeared from a severely reduced bicycle range the details of which were circulated to dealers from December 1941.","BSA had ceased production of their 3 speed hub gear in 1939 and production appears to have started again by 1945 although with a black finish instead of chromium plating.","BSA bought '''Sunbeam''' in 1943 and produced Sunbeam bicycles using up existing frames and parts and using BSA components for the missing bits.","The first BSA produced Sunbeam catalogue was published in 1949\n\nPost war BSA expanded their bicycle range but faced problems of shortages of raw materials such as steel and was required to export a lot of their manufactured output in order to get a Government licence to purchase the necessary raw materials.","The company moved bicycle production to the new Waverley Works after World War II.","BSA continued to innovate introducing the 4 Star derailleur gear in 1949 along with an associated 4-speed 'unit' or cassette hub.","The derailleur design was altered from 1950 and was certainly available up to 1953 but was not a great success.","BSA bought New Hudson in 1950 and started to manufacture and sell New Hudson branded machines as well as Sunbeam.","It appears that the top of the range BSA lightweight club cyclist machine was the \"Gold Column\" and this appears to have been changed into the BSA \"Tour of Britain\" model following the success of the BSA Professional Cycling Team in the 1952 Tour of Britain race.","The \"Tour of Britain\" model was heavily promoted in the BSA 1953 sales literature.","The factory made \"Tour of Britain\" model was not the same as those ridden by the professional team.","Only eight machines were crafted for the professional team and none of the components appear to have been standard BSA parts.","1953 saw BSA separate the bicycle / motorcar and motorcycle business into different holdings.","The good times were coming to an end and demand for bicycles fell with the end of rationing in 1954.","James Leek, managing director of BSA Cycles Ltd was suffering ill health and he retired in 1956, the same year the BSA Chairman, Sir Bernard Docker, was removed from the BSA Board.","Jack Sangster who had joined the BSA Board in 1951 following the purchase of his company Triumph Motorcycles became Chairman.","The bicycle manufacturing business BSA Cycles Ltd was sold to Raleigh Industries in 1957.","===Motorcycles from 1910===\n\n\nBSA Motorcycles were made by BSA Cycles Ltd, under the BSA parent, up until 1953 when the motorcycle business was moved into holding ''BSA Motorcycles Ltd''.","The first instance of intention to produce motorcycles was reported in The Motor Cycle, a British motorcycling journal, in July 1906.","The first wholly BSA motorcycle, the 3½ H.P.","was built in 1910 and displayed at the first Olympia Show, London on 21 November in that year.","Sir Hallewell Rogers, BSA Chairman, had informed the shareholders at the Company's 1910 AGM in Birmingham \"We have decided to put a motor-bicycle on the market for the coming season ....","These machines will be on exhibit at the Cycle and Motor Show on November 21st, after which date we look forward to commencing delivery\".","The machines were available for the 1911 season and entire production sold out.","BSA had previously acquired a commercially available engine in 1905 and fitted it to one of their bicycle frames and discovered at first hand the problems that needed to be overcome.","BSA Cycles Ltd was set up as a subsidiary company in 1919 under Managing Director Charles Hyde to manufacture both bicycles and motorcycles.","BSA produced their only two-stroke motorcycle design for the 1928 season, the 1.74 H.P.","Model A28 with two speed gearbox.","It was produced as the A29 and A30 the following two years and became the A31 with a three-speed gearbox in 1931, the last year of production.","The post-war 'Bantam' was a German DKW design, part of war reparation, and not a true BSA design.","BSA motorcycles were sold as affordable motorcycles with reasonable performance for the average user.","BSA stressed the reliability of their machines, the availability of spares and dealer support.","The motorcycles were a mixture of sidevalve and OHV engines offering different performance for different roles, e.g.","hauling a sidecar.","The bulk of use would be for commuting.","BSA motorcycles were also popular with \"fleet buyers\" in Britain, who (for example) used the Bantams for telegram delivery for the Post Office or motorcycle/sidecar combinations for AA patrols The Automobile Association (AA) breakdown help services.","This mass market appeal meant they could claim \"one in four is a BSA\" on advertising.","Machines with better specifications were available for those who wanted more performance or for competition work.","Initially, after the Second World War, BSA motorcycles were not generally seen as racing machines, compared to the likes of Norton.","In the immediate post-war period few were entered in races such as the TT races, though this changed dramatically in the Junior Clubman event (smaller engine motorcycles racing over some 3 or 4 laps around one of the Isle of Man courses).","In 1947 there were but a couple of BSA mounted riders, but by 1952 BSA were in the majority and in 1956 the makeup was 53 BSA, 1 Norton and 1 Velocette.","To improve US sales, in 1954, for example, BSA entered a team of riders in the 200 mile Daytona beach race with a mixture of single cylinder Gold Stars and twin cylinder Shooting Stars assembled by Roland Pike.","The BSA team riders took first, second, third, fourth, and fifth places with two more riders finishing at 8th and 16th.","This was the first case of a one brand sweep.","The BSA factory experienced success in the sport of motocross with Jeff Smith riding a B40 to capture the 1964 and 1965 FIM 500 cc Motocross World Championships.","It would be the last year the title would be won by a four-stroke machine until the mid-1990s.","A BSA motocross machine was often colloquially known as a \"Beezer.\"","Birmingham rocker Steve Gibbons released a song \"BSA\" on his 1980 album \"Saints & Sinners\" as a tribute to the Gold Star.","He still plays this song with his band and often performs on the Isle of Man at the TT races.","===Motorcycle models===\n\n\n====Pre World War II====\n1935 BSA Blue Star\n*3½ hp\n*Model E\n*Model A28\n*C10 sidevalve 250 cc 1938 on design by Val Page\n*G14 1000 cc V-twin\n*Blue Star\n*Empire Star\n*Silver Star\n*Gold Star\n*Sloper\n*M20 (500cc):as the WD (War Department) M20 the motorcycle of the British Army in World War II\n*M21 (600cc): the big brother of the M20, also used by the British Army in World War II\n\n====Post World War II====\nBSA Golden Flash 650\n1969 BSA Royal Star\n*'''A series Twins''' (four-stroke, pushrod parallel twins)\n**A7\n***A7 Shooting Star - 500cc pre-unit construction\n**A10 - 650cc pre-unit construction\n***A10 Golden Flash\n***A10 Super Flash\n***A10 Road Rocket\n***A10 Super Rocket\n***A10 Rocket Gold Star\n**A50 - 500cc unit construction\n***A50R Royal Star\n***A50C Cyclone\n***A50W Wasp\n**A65 - 650cc unit construction\n***A65 Star Twin\n***A65R Rocket\n***A65T Thunderbolt\n***A65L Lightning\n***A65S Spitfire\n***A65H Hornet\n***A65F Firebird Scrambler\n**A70L Lightning 750\n*'''Triples''' (four-stroke, pushrod, three-cylinder engines) - The BSA Rocket 3/Triumph Trident were developed together.","The Rocket 3 shares a majority of engine components and other parts with the Trident T150, but has forward-inclined cylinder barrels and a BSA frame.","**A75R Rocket3 750\n**A75RV Rocket3 750 - 5 speed\n**A75V Rocket3 750 - 5 speed\n*'''Singles''' (Four-stroke single cylinder)\n**C25 Barracuda\n**B25 Starfire - 250cc unit construction\n**B25FS Fleetstar\n**B25 SS Gold Star\n**BSA B31 single\n**B32 Gold Star\n**B33\n**B34 Gold Star\n**B40 350 Star - 350cc unit construction\n**B40 SS90\n**B44 Victor\n**B44\n***B44SS Shooting Star\n***B44VS Victor Special\n**B50\n***B50SS Gold Star 500\n***B50T Victor Trials\n***B50MX Motocross\n*C series (Four-stroke 250 cc single-cylinder).","**C10\n**C11/C11G: - - 85mpg - weight .","The C11 used a C10 motor fitted with an overhead valve cylinder head.","The C11 frame was almost unchanged until 1951 when BSA added plunger rear suspension.","Early gearboxes were weak and unreliable.","The C11G was available with a three ratio gearbox and rigid frame or a four ratio gearbox and a plunger frame.","Both models had better front brakes than earlier models.","This model was a common commuter motorcycle, and many survive today.","**C12\n: (1956–1958).","249 cc OHV\nUsed the C11G engine, fitted with an alternator and swinging fork (known as swinging arm) rear suspension.","1959 BSA C15 Star\n**C15 Star - 250cc unit construction\n**C15T Trials\n**C15S Scrambler\n**C15SS80 Sports Star 80\n**C15 Sportsman\n*D series (Two-stroke single cylinder.","See BSA Bantam for details)\n**D1 Bantam - 125cc unit-construction\n**D3 Bantam Major\n**D5 Bantam Super\n**D7 Bantam Super\n**D10 Silver Bantam, Bantam Supreme, Bantam Sports, Bushman\n**D13\n**D14/4 Bantam Supreme, Bantam Sports, Bushman - 175cc\n**B175 Bantam Sports, Bushman\n*Others (may include some export versions of models listed above)\n**B31 Twin (350 cc).","B31 frame fitted with a Triumph 3T motor to produce this BSA B31 Twin.","Very few units were produced, probably prototypes.","**BSA Barracuda\n**BSA Beagle\n**BSA Boxer - 1979 - c.1981 the sports version of the 50cc range (Beaver, Boxer, Brigand, GT50).","The engine was by Moto Morini.","**BSA GT50 (renamed from the Boxer)\n**BSA Beaver (the standard road version)\n**BSA Tracker 125/175 - late 70s moto-cross style product by NVT with Yamaha two stroke engine.","**BSA Dandy 70\n**BSA Sunbeam ''(Scooters, also produced as Triumph TS1, TW2 Tigress)''\n***175B1\n***250B2\n**BSA Starfire\n**BSA Rocket Scrambler\n**BSA Rocket Gold Star\n**BSA Fury\n**BSA Hornet\n**Winged Wheel (auxiliary power unit for bicycles)\n**T65 Thunderbolt (essentially a Triumph TR6P with BSA Badges)\n\n===Military vehicles===\n* BSA Scout armoured car.","* \"Type G Apparatus\", Folding paratrooper bicycle, with parachute.","===Military firearms===\n* Snider–Enfield rifle\n* Martini–Henry rifle\n* Lee–Metford rifle\n* Lewis gun\n* Lee–Enfield rifle\n* Thompson submachine gun\n* BSA Thompson Autorifle\n* .303 RAF Browning\n* Hispano-Suiza cannon\n* Oerlikon 20mm cannon\n* Sten submachine gun\n* Boys anti-tank rifle\n* Besa machine gun\n* BSA experimental model 1949 pump-action machine carbine\n* ADEN cannon\n* L1A1 SLR\n\n===Civilian firearms===\n* The 1906 war office pattern rifle\n* The Sportsman series of .22 Long Rifle bolt-action rifles\n* Various Martini action target .22lr rifles\n* The Ralock and Armatic semi automatic .22lr rifles\n* Various bolt action hunting rifles","* Clews Competition Motorcycles (CCM) - the remnants of BSA's off-road arm\n* List of BSA motorcycles\n* List of modern armament manufacturers\n* Tribsa custom built café racer or off-road using a Triumph engine in a BSA frame","\n* BSA History from the Days of the Crimea (1918)\n* \n* Catalogue of the BSA archives, held at the Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n'''The Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited''' ('''BSA''') was a major British industrial combine, a group of businesses manufacturing military and sporting firearms; bicycles; motorcycles; cars; buses and bodies; steel; iron castings; hand, power, and machine tools; coal cleaning and handling plants; sintered metals; and hard chrome process.\",\n \"At its peak, BSA (who also owned Triumph) was the largest motorcycle producer in the world.\",\n \"In the late 1950s and early 1960s poor management and failure to develop new products in the motorcycle division led to a dramatic decline of sales to its major USA market.\",\n \"The management had failed to appreciate the importance of the resurgent Japanese motorcycle industry, leading to problems for the entire BSA group.\",\n \"A government-organised rescue operation in 1973 led to the takeover of remaining operations by what is now Manganese Bronze Holdings, then owners of Norton-Villiers, and over the following decade further closures and dispersals.\",\n \"The original company, The Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited, remains a subsidiary of Manganese Bronze but its name was changed in 1987.\",\n \"Manganese Bronze continues to operate former BSA subsidiary Carbodies, now known as The London Taxi Company, previously LTI Limited, manufacturers of London taxicabs and formerly the largest wholly British-owned car manufacturer.\",\n \"(Manganese Bronze is now owned by the Chinese company Geely).\",\n \"BSA began in June 1861 in the Gun Quarter, Birmingham, England, founded specifically to manufacture guns by machinery.\",\n \"It was formed by a group of fourteen gunsmith members of the Birmingham Small Arms Trade Association.\",\n \"The market had moved against British gunsmiths following the outbreak of the Crimean War in 1854 because the Board of Ordnance's Royal Small Arms Factory at Enfield had introduced machinery made in the USA and Enfield's greatly increased output had been achieved with reduced reliance on skilled craftsmen.\",\n \"The War Office provided this new grouping of gunsmiths free access to technical drawings and their facilities at their Enfield factory.\",\n \"The newly formed company purchased of land at Small Heath, Birmingham, built a factory there and made a road on the site calling it Armoury Road.\",\n \"This machinery brought to Birmingham manifested the principle of the inter-changeability of parts.\",\n \"===Firearms===\\nBSA's resort to the use of machinery was rewarded in 1863 with an order for 20,000 Turkish infantry rifles.\",\n \"The management of the BSA Company was changed at an Extraordinary Meeting called on 30 September 1863 when the company was changed from being run by a committee to that of an elected Board of Directors, Joseph Wilson, Samuel Buckley, Isaac Hollis, Charles Playfair, Charles Pryse, Sir John Ratcliffe, Edward Gem, and J.F.\",\n \"Swinburn under the chairmanship of John Dent Goodman.\",\n \"The first War Office contract was not agreed until 1868.\",\n \"In 1879, the factory, without work, was shut for a year; the military arms trade was precarious.\",\n \"===New ventures===\\n\\n====Bicycles====\\n\\nThe next year BSA branched out into bicycle manufacture.\",\n \"The gun factory proved remarkably adaptable to the manufacture of cycle parts.\",\n \"What cycles needed was large quantities of standard parts accurately machined at low prices.\",\n \"In 1880 BSA manufactured the Otto Dicycle, In the 1880s the company began to manufacture safety bicycles on their own account and not until 1905 was the company's first experimental motorcycle constructed.\",\n \"Bicycle production ceased in 1887 as the company concentrated on producing the Lee–Metford magazine-loading rifle for the War Office which was re-equipping the British Army with it.\",\n \"The order was for 1,200 rifles per week.\",\n \"BSA recommenced manufacturing bicycles on their own behalf from 1908.\",\n \"BSA Cycles Ltd was set up in 1919 for the manufacture of both bicycles and motorcycles.\",\n \"BSA sold the bicycle business to Raleigh in 1957 after separating the bicycle and motorcycle business in 1953.\",\n \"====Bicycle components====\\nIn 1893, BSA commenced making bicycle hubs and continued to supply the cycle trade with bicycle parts up to 1936.\",\n \"BSA bought The Eadie Manufacturing Company of Redditch in 1907 and so began to manufacture the Eadie two speed hub gear and the Eadie coaster brake hub.\",\n \"BSA also signed an agreement with the Three Speed Gear Syndicate in 1907 to manufacture a 3 speed hub under licence.\",\n \"This was later classified as the Sturmey Archer Type X. BSA introduced a 'Duo' hub in the late 1930s which was capable of one fixed gear and one gear with a freewheel.\",\n \"All BSA hub gear production temporarily ceased in 1939, until they recommenced making their 3 speed hub around 1945.\",\n \"The Eadie coaster hub made a brief return in 1953 on two BSA bicycle models.\",\n \"BSA forever ceased production of their hub gears in 1955.\",\n \"====Ammunition====\\nBSA sold its ammunition business in 1897 to Birmingham Metal and Munitions Company Limited part of the Nobel-Dynamite Trust, through Kynoch a forerunner of ICI.\",\n \"====Sparkbrook====\\nIn 1906 Frank Dudley Docker was appointed a director of the company.\",\n \"By the autumn of that year BSA was in some difficulty.\",\n \"They had purchased the Sparkbrook Royal Small Arms Factory from the War Office, and in return, the War Office undertook to give BSA a quarter of all orders for Lee–Enfield rifles.\",\n \"But, the War Office did not honour their undertaking.\",\n \"The ensuing financial crisis did not prevent BSA from signing an agreement to amalgamate with another bicycle component manufacturer, the Eadie Manufacturing Company of Redditch, on 11 February 1907.\",\n \"That decision was ratified by the shareholders of both companies at separate Extraordinary General Meetings held in the Grand Hotel, Birmingham on 27 February 1907.\",\n \"Albert Eadie became a BSA director, a post he held until his death in 1931.\",\n \"====Motorcycles====\\nMotor bicycles were added to bicycle products in 1910.\",\n \"The BSA 3½ hp was exhibited at the 1910 Olympia Show, London for the 1911 season.\",\n \"The entire BSA production sold out in 1911, 1912 and 1913.\",\n \"====Motor cars====\\n\\n=====BSA cars=====\\n\\n\\n\\nIn an effort to make use of the Sparkbrook factory BSA established a motorcar department there.\",\n \"An independent part of it was occupied by Lanchester Motor Company.\",\n \"The first prototype automobile was produced in 1907.\",\n \"The following year, marketed under BSA Cycles Ltd, the company sold 150 automobiles and again began producing complete bicycles on its own account.\",\n \"By 1909 it was clear the new motorcar department was unsuccessful; an investigation committee reported to the BSA Board on the many failures of its management and their poor organisation of production.\",\n \"=====Daimler vehicles=====\\n\\n\\nDudley Docker had joined the board in 1906 and was appointed deputy chairman of BSA in 1909.\",\n \"He had made a spectacular financial success of a merger of five large rolling-stock companies in 1902 and become the leader of the period's merger movement.\",\n \"Believing he could buy the missing management skills that could not be found within BSA he started merger talks with The Daimler Company Limited of Coventry.\",\n \"Daimler and Rover were then the largest British car producers.\",\n \"Daimler was immensely profitable.\",\n \"After its capital reconstruction in 1904 Daimler's profits were 57 per cent and 150 per cent returns on invested capital in 1905 and 1906.\",\n \"The attraction for Daimler shareholders was the apparent stability of BSA.\",\n \"So in 1910 BSA purchased Daimler with BSA shares but Docker who negotiated the arrangements either ignored or failed in his assessment of their consequences for the new combine.\",\n \"The combine was never adequately balanced or co-ordinated.\",\n \"One of the financial provisions obliged Daimler to pay BSA an annual dividend of £100,000 representing approximately 40 per cent of the actual cash BSA had put into Daimler.\",\n \"BSA had still not recovered financially from the earlier purchase of Royal Small Arms factory at Sparkbrook and BSA were not in a position to finance Daimler, nor had either company ample liquid resources.\",\n \"BSA went ahead with motorcycle production in 1910, their first model available for the 1911 season.\",\n \"In the short term this was to solve the liquidity issue but further diluted the group's capitalisation.\",\n \"Dudley Docker retired as a BSA director in 1912 and installed Lincoln Chandler on the BSA board as his replacement.\",\n \"Dudley Docker liked to draw a comparison between the BSA~Daimler merger he engineered and that of his 1902 merger of Metropolitan Carriage Wagon & Finance Company and Patent Shaft.\",\n \"However, there was not the integration of facilities in the BSA~Daimler case, nor was there a reorganisation of either BSA or Daimler and in view of the earlier criticism contained in the 1909 report of the investigation committee, BSA continued to produce cars of their own using Daimler engines.\",\n \"In 1913 Daimler employed 5,000 workers to manufacture 1,000 vehicles, an indication that things were not well.\",\n \"=====Steel bodies=====\\nIn 1912, BSA would be one of two automobile manufacturers pioneering the use of all-steel bodies, joining Hupmobile in the US.\",\n \"===First World War===\\nDuring the First World War, the company returned to arms manufacture and greatly expanded its operations.\",\n \"BSA produced rifles, Lewis guns, shells, motorcycles and other vehicles for the war effort.\",\n \"===Inter-war years===\\n1935 magazine advert for the BSA range of motorcycles and 3-wheeler cars\\n\\n====Motorcycles====\\n\\n\\nIn November 1919 BSA launched their first 50 degree vee-twin, Model E, 770cc side valve (6-7 hp) motorcycle for the 1920 season.\",\n \"The machine had interchangeable valves, total loss oil system with mechanical pump and an emergency hand one.\",\n \"Retail price was £130.\",\n \"Other features were Amac carburettor, chain drive, choice of magneto or Magdyno, 7-plate clutch, 3 speed gear box with kickstarter and new type of cantilever fork\\n\\n====Aviation====\\n\\nDuring the war Daimler had built enormous numbers of aero engines and aircraft and by the end was building 80 Airco de Havilland bombers a month.\",\n \"In February 1920 BSA amalgamated with what was the world's largest aircraft manufacturer, Aircraft Manufacturing Company (Airco), Airco's main plant at Hendon had employed between 7,000 and 8,000 people.\",\n \"The Airco group of companies had turned out a new aircraft every 45 minutes.\",\n \"Within days BSA discovered Airco was in a far more serious financial state than George Holt Thomas had revealed.\",\n \"Holt Thomas was immediately dropped from his new seat on the BSA board and all BSA's new acquisitions were placed in the hands of a liquidator.\",\n \"Some of the businesses were allowed to continue for some years, Aircraft Transport and Travel's assets being eventually rolled into Daimler Air Hire to make Daimler Airway Limited.\",\n \"BSA failed to pay a dividend for the following four years while it tried to recover from its losses.\",\n \"Some relief was achieved when in March 1924 Daimler Airway and its management became the major constituent of Imperial Airways.\",\n \"As well as the Daimler car range, BSA Cycles Ltd re-entered the car market under the BSA name in 1921 with a V-twin engined light car followed by four-cylinder models up to 1926, when the name was temporarily dropped.\",\n \"In 1929 a new range of 3- and 4-wheel cars appeared and production of these continued until 1936.\",\n \"By 1930 the BSA Group's primary activities were BSA motorcycles and Daimler vehicles.\",\n \"Car production under the BSA name ceased in the 1930s.\",\n \"====Lanchester====\\n\\n\\nIn 1931 the Lanchester Motor Company at Sparkbrook was acquired and production of their cars transferred to Daimler's Coventry works.\",\n \"The first new product was a version of the Daimler Light Twenty or 16/20 and called Lanchester 15/18.\",\n \"Lanchester Type 1518 - 1932 5905514590.jpg|Lanchester 15/18October 19312504 cc6\\nLanchester Ten 6-light saloon 1936 5917710821 3a71f2bf4b o.jpg|Lanchester TenSeptember 19321203 cc4\\nDaimler 15 HP 1934 4860323967 .jpg|Daimler FifteenSeptember 19321805 cc6\\nBSA 10 1185cc October 1933.JPG|BSA TenOctober 19321185 cc4\\n\\n\\n====Armaments====\\nIn the 1930s, the board of directors authorised expenditure on bringing their arms-making equipment back to use – it had been stored at company expense since the end of the Great War in the belief that BSA might again be called upon to perform its patriotic duty.\",\n \"In 1939, BSA acquired the blueprints for a submachine gun designed by Hungarian arms designer Pál Király as well as the rights to manufacture it.\",\n \"Examples were produced in 9mm Mauser Export calibre according to Kiraly's design.\",\n \"It was estimated that these arms would only cost 5 pounds each to manufacture.\",\n \"However, at the time, submachine guns were viewed as \\\"gangster weapons\\\" and plans to manufacture it were shelved.\",\n \"===Second World War===\\nBy the outbreak of the Second World War, BSA Guns Ltd at Small Heath, was the only factory producing rifles in the UK.\",\n \"The Royal Ordnance Factories did not begin production until 1941.\",\n \"BSA Guns Ltd was also producing .303 Browning machine guns for the Air Ministry at the rate of 600 guns per week in March 1939 and Browning production was to peak at 16,390 per month by March 1942.\",\n \"The armed forces had chosen the 500 cc side-valve BSA M20 motorcycle as their preferred machine.\",\n \"On the outbreak of war the Government requisitioned the 690 machines BSA had in stock as well as placing an order for another 8,000 machines.\",\n \"South Africa, Ireland, India, Sweden and the Netherlands also wanted machines.\",\n \"The Government passed the Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1939 on 24 August allowing the drafting of defence regulations affecting food, travel, requisitioning of land and supplies, manpower and agricultural production.\",\n \"A second Emergency Powers (Defence) Act was passed on 22 May 1940 allowing the conscription of labour.\",\n \"The fall of France had not been anticipated in Government planning and the encirclement of a large part of the British Expeditionary Force into the Dunkirk pocket resulted in a hasty evacuation of that part of the B.E.F following the abandonment of their equipment.\",\n \"The parlous state of affairs \\\"no arms, no transport, no equipment\\\" in the face of the threat of imminent invasion of Britain by Nazi forces was recorded by the Chief of the Imperial General Staff Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke in his diary entries of the 1/2 July 1940.\",\n \"The creation of the Home Guard (initially as the Local Defence Volunteers) following Anthony Eden's broadcast appeal to the Nation on Tuesday 14 May 1940 also created further demand for arms production to equip this new force.\",\n \"BSA, as the only rifle producer in Britain, had to step up to the mark and the workforce voluntarily went onto a seven-day week.\",\n \"Motorcycle production was also stepped up from 500 to 1,000 machines per week which meant a finished machine coming off the production line every 5 minutes.\",\n \"The motorcycle department had been left intact in 1939 due to demand which was doubled following Dunkirk.\",\n \"At the same time BSA staff were providing lectures and demonstrations on motorcycle riding and maintenance to 250,000 officers and men in all parts of the UK.\",\n \"The BSA factory at Small Heath was bombed by the Luftwaffe on 26 August 1940 resulting in one high explosive bomb and a shower of incendiaries hitting the main barrel mill which was the only one operating on service rifles in the country, causing the unaffordable loss of 750 machine tools but fortunately no loss of life.\",\n \"Two further air raids took place on 19 and 22 November 1940.\",\n \"The air raid of 19 November did the most damage, causing loss of production and trapping hundreds of workers.\",\n \"Two BSA night-shift electricians, Alf Stevens and Alf Goodwin, helped rescue their fellow workers.\",\n \"Alf Stevens was awarded the George Medal for his selfless acts of bravery in the rescue and Alf Goodwin was awarded the British Empire Medal.\",\n \"Workers involved in the works Civil Defence were brought in to help search for and clear bodies to get the plant back into production.\",\n \"The net effect of the November raids was to destroy machine shops in the four-storey 1915 building, the original 1863 gunsmiths' building and nearby buildings, 1,600 machine tools, kill 53 employees, injure 89, 30 of them seriously and halt rifle production for three months.\",\n \"The Government Ministry of Supply and BSA immediately began a process of production dispersal throughout Britain, through the shadow factory scheme.\",\n \"Factories were set up at Tipton, Dudley, Smethwick, Blackheath, Lye, Kidderminster, Stourport, Tyseley, and Bromsgrove to manufacture Browning machine guns, Stoke, Corsham, and Newcastle-under-Lyme produced the Hispano cannon, Leicester and Studley Road produced the Besa machine gun, Ruislip produced the Oerlikon 20mm cannon, Stafford produced rocket projectiles, Tamworth produced two-pounder gun carriages, Mansfield produced the Boys Anti-tank gun and Shirley produced rifles.\",\n \"These were dispersal factories which were in addition to Small Heath and the other BSA factories opened in the two years following the 1940 blitz.\",\n \"At its peak Small Heath was running 67 factories engaged in war production.\",\n \"BSA operations were also dispersed to other companies under licence.\",\n \"In 1941 BSA was approached to produce a new pedal cycle with a maximum weight allowance of only 22 lb especially for airborne use.\",\n \"This required a new concept in frame design which BSA found, producing a machine which weighed 21 lb, one pound less than the design specification and which also exceeded the design requirement for an effective life of 50 miles many times over.\",\n \"Over 60,000 folding bicycles were produced, a figure equal to half the total production of military bicycles during World War II.\",\n \"BSA also produced folding motorcycles for the Airborne Division.\",\n \"In late 1942 BSA examined the Special Operations Executive designed Welgun with a view to manufacture.\",\n \"BSA were willing to manufacture the gun in the quantities required starting April 1943 but the cheaper and less accurate Sten Mk IV was adopted for production by the Ministry of Supply.\",\n \"BSA bought the Sunbeam motorcycles and bicycle business from Associated Motor Cycles Ltd in 1943 and then Ariel Motors Ltd in 1944.\",\n \"During the course of the conflict BSA produced 1,250,000 Lee–Enfield .303 service rifles, 404,383 Sten sub-machine guns, 468,098 Browning machine guns plus spares equivalent to another 100,000, 42,532 Hispano cannon, 32,971 Oerlikon cannon, 59,322 7.9 mm Besa machine guns, 3,218 15 mm Besa machine guns, 68,882 Boys Anti-tank guns, 126,334 motorcycles, 128,000 military bicycles (over 60,000 of which were folding paratrooper bicycles), 10,000,000 shell fuse cases, 3,485,335 magazines and 750,000 anti-aircraft rockets were supplied to the armed forces.\",\n \"At the same time other parts of the Group were having similar problems.\",\n \"Before World War II Daimler had been linked with other Coventry motor manufacturers in a government-backed scheme for aero engine manufacture and had been allocated two shadow factories.\",\n \"Apart from this, BSA-owned Daimler was producing Scout Cars and Daimler Mk I Armoured Cars which had been designed by BSA at Small Heath not Coventry as well as gun turrets, gun parts, tank transmissions, rocket projectiles and other munitions.\",\n \"This activity had not gone unnoticed by the enemy, which made Radford Works a target in the Coventry air raids.\",\n \"Radford Works received direct hits in four separate air raids during 1940.\",\n \"None of these attacks were to seriously disrupt production, however two more serious air raids were carried out in April 1941 which destroyed half the factory.\",\n \"In all it is estimated that 170 bombs containing 52,000 lbs of explosive were dropped on Radford Works as well as the thousands of incendiaries.\",\n \"Like BSA, Daimler had to find dispersal units.\",\n \"A back-handed compliment was paid by Field Marshal Rommel to the workers at Radford Works when he used a captured Daimler Scout to escape following his defeat at El Alamein.\",\n \"===Post-war===\\nAs the result of increased post war demand the Small Heath, Birmingham factory was turned over entirely to motorcycle production.\",\n \"BSA produced the first Sunbeam bicycle catalogue in 1949 and produced its own '4 Star' derailleur gear with an associated splined cassette hub and 4 sprocket cassette.\",\n \"This design was different from the 1930s Bayliss Wiley cassette hub which had a threaded sprocket carrier.\",\n \"BSA bought New Hudson motorcycle and bicycle business in 1950 and followed this up in 1951 with the purchase of Triumph Motorcycles which brought Jack Sangster onto the BSA board.\",\n \"The effect of this acquisition was to make BSA into the largest producer of motorcycles in the world at that time.\",\n \"1952 saw BSA establish a Professional Cycling Team.\",\n \"Bob Maitland a successful amateur cyclist and the highest placed British finisher in the 1948 Olympic Games road race and now an independent rider in the BSA team was a BSA employee working in the design office as a draughtsman.\",\n \"It was Bob Maitland who was responsible for the design of post war BSA range of lightweight sports bicycles based on his knowledge of cycling.\",\n \"Bob Maitland also made some of the components used on the bicycles of the professional team which were not standard production machines.\",\n \"In the 1952 Tour of Britain Road Race run between Friday 22 August and Saturday 6 September, involving 14 individual stages and covering a total race distance of 1,470 miles, the BSA team of Bob Maitland, “Tiny” Thomas, Pete Proctor, Alf Newman and Stan Jones won the overall team race and Pete Proctor “King of the Mountains” classification.\",\n \"The riders also enjoyed success on the individual stages of the race.\",\n \"The team competed in four further events, 14 September Tour of the Chilterns, 1st “Tiny” Thomas and Team Prize, 21 September Weston-Super-Mare Grand Prix, Team Prize, 28 September Staffordshire Grand Prix, 1st Bob Maitland and Team Prize, 5 October Tour Revenge Race, Dublin, 1st “Tiny” Thomas and Team prize.\",\n \"In 1953 BSA withdrew motorcycle production from BSA Cycles Ltd, the company it has established in 1919, by creating BSA Motorcycles Ltd. BSA also produced its 100,000th BSA Bantam motorcycle, a fact celebrated at the 1953 motorcycle show with a visit by Sir Anthony Eden to the BSA stand.\",\n \"In 1953 the BSA Professional Cycling Team was managed by Syd Cozens.\",\n \"Successes were 5/6 April Bournemouth Two Day Road Race, 1st Bob Maitland, 12 April Dover to London 63 Miles Road Race, 1st Stan Jones, 31 May Langsett 90 Miles Road Race, 1st Bob Maitland and “King of the Mountains”, 7 June Tour of the Wrekin, 1st Bob Maitland, 12 July Severn Valley 100 Miles Road Race, 1st “Tiny” Thomas, 19 July Jackson Trophy, Newcastle, Team Prize, 9 August Les Adams Memorial 80 Miles Road Race, 1st Alf Newman, Team Prize, “King of the Mountains” Arthur Ilsley, 30 August Weston-Super-Mare 100 Miles Grand Prix, 1st Bob Maitland, Team Prize.\",\n \"The team also competed in the 1,624 mile, 12 stage, 1953 Tour of Britain Road Race.\",\n \"The 1953 line up had changed as Arthur Ilsley replaced Pete Proctor in the team.\",\n \"“Tiny” Thomas won the overall individual classification, the Team were runners-up in the team competition and Arthur Ilsley was 3rd in the “King of the Mountains” competition.\",\n \"Bob Maitland also had notable success by winning the Independent National Championship.\",\n \"1954 saw the introduction of the BSA Quick Release 3 Speed hub gear.\",\n \"It was a split axle three speed gear intended for use with bicycles equipped with oil bath chainguards.\",\n \"The original BSA 3 speed hub gear had been made under licence from the Three-Speed Gear Syndicate since 1907.\",\n \"The design was later to be classified as the Sturmey-Archer 'Type X', but all BSA hub gear production ceased in 1955\\n\\nSir Bernard Docker remained chairman of BSA until 1956 when the BSA removed him.\",\n \"In an acrimonious dispute conducted in the media the matter was brought to the BSA shareholders at the Annual General Meeting where the decision of the Board was upheld.\",\n \"Another significant departure for the fortune of the BSA Group but less controversial was the retirement on ill health grounds of James Leek CBE, Managing Director from 1939 until his retirement.\",\n \"Sir Bernard Docker was replaced as Chairman of the BSA Board by Jack Sangster.\",\n \"The BSA bicycle division, BSA Cycles Ltd., including the BSA cycle dealer network was sold to Raleigh in 1957.\",\n \"Raleigh initially continued bicycle production in Birmingham at Coventry Road, Sheldon, Birmingham 26 into the early 1960s using up BSA parts but as time went on more stock Raleigh parts and fittings were used, some continuing to bear the 'piled arms' stamp.\",\n \"TI Group owners of the British Cycle Corporation bought Raleigh in 1960 thus gaining access to the BSA brand.\",\n \"Bicycles bearing the BSA name are currently manufactured and distributed within India by TI Cycles of India but have no direct connection to the original Birmingham BSA company.\",\n \"In 1960, Daimler was sold off to Jaguar.\",\n \"1961 was the centenary year of the BSA Group and in recognition of this milestone the company magazine produced an anniversary issue of ''BSA Group News'' in June ''BSA Centenary 1861–1961'' in which many of the achievements of the Group were celebrated.\",\n \"This year also saw the end of military rifle production, however BSA still continued to make sporting guns.\",\n \"In 1986 BSA Guns was liquidated, the assets bought and renamed '''BSA Guns (UK) Ltd'''.\",\n \"The company continues to make air rifles and shotguns, and is still based in Small Heath in Birmingham.\",\n \"====Norton-Villiers-Triumph====\\n\\n\\nThe Group continued to expand and acquire throughout the 1950s, but by 1965 competition from Japan (in the shape of companies like Honda, Yamaha and Suzuki) and Europe from Jawa / CZ, Bultaco and Husqvarna was eroding BSA's market share.\",\n \"The BSA (and Triumph range) were no longer aligned with the markets; mopeds were displacing scooter sales and the trials and scrambles areas were now the preserve of European two-strokes.\",\n \"Some poor marketing decisions and expensive projects contributed to substantial losses.\",\n \"For example, the development and production investment of the Ariel 3, an ultra stable 3-wheel moped, was not recouped by sales; the loss has been estimated at £2 million.\",\n \"Furthermore, BSA failed to take seriously the threat that key-start Japanese motor cycles might completely destroy the market for kick-started BSA motor cycles.\",\n \"In 1968, BSA announced many changes to its product line of singles, twins and the new three-cylinder machine named the \\\"Rocket three\\\" for the 1969 model year.\",\n \"It now concentrated on the more promising USA, and to a lesser extent, Canadian, markets.\",\n \"However, despite the adding of modern accessories, for example, turn signals and even differing versions of the A65 twins for home and export sale, the damage had been done and the end was near.\",\n \"Reorganisation in 1971 concentrated motorcycle production at Meriden, Triumph's site, with production of components and engines at BSA's Small Heath.\",\n \"At the same time there were redundancies and the selling of assets.\",\n \"Upgrades and service bulletins continued until 1972, but the less service-intensive Japanese bikes had by then flooded the market on both sides of the Atlantic.\",\n \"The merger with Norton Villers was started in late 1972, and for a brief time a Norton 500 single was built with the B50-based unit-single engine, but few if any were sold publicly.\",\n \"The BSA unit single B50's 500 cc enjoyed much improvement in the hands of the CCM motorcycle company allowing the basic BSA design to continue until the mid to late 1970s in a competitive form all over Europe.\",\n \"The final BSA range was just four models: Gold Star 500, 650 Thunderbolt/Lightning and the 750 cc Rocket Three.\",\n \"By 1972, BSA was so moribund that, with bankruptcy imminent, its motorcycle businesses were merged (as part of a government-initiated rescue plan) with the Manganese Bronze company, Norton-Villiers, to become NVT, headed by Dennis Poore.\",\n \"The intention was to produce and market Norton and Triumph motorcycles at home and abroad; but Poore's rationalisation led to redundancies of two-thirds of the workforce.\",\n \"In response, the Triumph workers at Meriden set up their own cooperative.\",\n \"This left Poore with neither BSA nor Triumph, and the sole NVT model was the Norton Commando.\",\n \"Although this machine won the ''Motor Cycle News'' \\\"Bike of the Year\\\" award for several years running, nothing could hide the fact that the Commando was an old design, being a pre-unit pushrod parallel-twin.\",\n \"In exchange for its motorcycle businesses, Manganese Bronze received BSA Group's non-motorcycle-related divisions—namely, Carbodies.\",\n \"Although the BSA name was left out of the new company's name, a few products continued to be made carrying it until 1973.\",\n \"However, the plan involved the axing of some brands, large redundancies and consolidation of production at two sites.\",\n \"This scheme to rescue and combine Norton, BSA and Triumph failed in the face of worker resistance.\",\n \"Norton's and BSA's factories were eventually shut down, while Triumph staggered on to fail four years later.\",\n \"BSA logo\",\n \"\\n===Motorcycles===\\nRights went to Norton Villiers Triumph and on its liquidation were purchased by a new company formed by management and named BSA Company Limited.\",\n \"===Guns===\\nRights were acquired by Gamo for its new subsidiary '''BSA Guns (UK) Limited'''\",\n \"\\n===Bicycles===\\nAccording to Charles Spencer, BSA was manufacturing the \\\"Delta\\\" bicycle circa 1869.\",\n \"In 1880 the company was approached to manufacture the \\\"Otto Dicycle\\\".\",\n \"An initial contract was signed to produce 210 and a further contract followed for a further 200.\",\n \"In all it is believed that a total of 953 Otto machines were made.\",\n \"BSA then went into bicycle production on their own account, the first machines to their own specification being exhibited at the 1881 Stanley Show.\",\n \"BSA went on to design and manufacture a \\\"safety\\\" bicycle (patent:15,342 of 1884).\",\n \"BSA was also producing tricycles and a licence was obtained in 1885 to manufacture ball bearings.\",\n \"BSA ceased bicycle manufacture in 1887 because of the demand for arms.\",\n \"Bicycle component manufacture commenced in 1894 and BSA continued to supply the bicycle trade up to 1936.\",\n \"The company recommenced bicycle manufacture on their own account again in 1908 and these were exhibited at the Stanley Show in 1909.\",\n \"Bicycle manufacture was what led BSA into motorcycles.\",\n \"BSA produced bicycles for both the police and military and notably a folding bicycle for the British Army during World War I and the more well known folding Paratroopers bicycle during World War II.\",\n \"BSA supplied the Irish Army with bicycles after 1922.\",\n \"BSA manufactured a range of bicycles from utility roadsters through to racing bicycles.\",\n \"The BSA range of Sports bicycles expanded in the 1930s following the granting of a patent for a new lighter design of seat lug in 1929 and tandems were introduced into the BSA bicycle range as well.\",\n \"BSA had a reputation for quality and durability and their components were more expensive that either Chater-Lea or Brampton.\",\n \"BSA launched a high end club cyclists machine in the early 1930s initially branded as the \\\"Super-eeze\\\".\",\n \"Never slow to avail of publicity BSA sponsored the great Australian cyclist Hubert Opperman and re-branded the top of the range machine the \\\"Opperman\\\" model.\",\n \"A less expensive range of clubman lightweight machines was introduced from 1936 with the \\\"Cyclo\\\" 3 speed derailleur equipped \\\"Clubman\\\".\",\n \"Subtle changes were made to the range, most models being equipped with \\\"Russ\\\" patent forks and some models were made for only two seasons.\",\n \"This all stopped around September 1939 with the outbreak of war.\",\n \"A revised catalogue with a much reduced range was issued in March 1940 which also saw the launch of the BSA \\\"Streamlight\\\" model.\",\n \"A novel all white bicycle was produced for the blackout but had disappeared from a severely reduced bicycle range the details of which were circulated to dealers from December 1941.\",\n \"BSA had ceased production of their 3 speed hub gear in 1939 and production appears to have started again by 1945 although with a black finish instead of chromium plating.\",\n \"BSA bought '''Sunbeam''' in 1943 and produced Sunbeam bicycles using up existing frames and parts and using BSA components for the missing bits.\",\n \"The first BSA produced Sunbeam catalogue was published in 1949\\n\\nPost war BSA expanded their bicycle range but faced problems of shortages of raw materials such as steel and was required to export a lot of their manufactured output in order to get a Government licence to purchase the necessary raw materials.\",\n \"The company moved bicycle production to the new Waverley Works after World War II.\",\n \"BSA continued to innovate introducing the 4 Star derailleur gear in 1949 along with an associated 4-speed 'unit' or cassette hub.\",\n \"The derailleur design was altered from 1950 and was certainly available up to 1953 but was not a great success.\",\n \"BSA bought New Hudson in 1950 and started to manufacture and sell New Hudson branded machines as well as Sunbeam.\",\n \"It appears that the top of the range BSA lightweight club cyclist machine was the \\\"Gold Column\\\" and this appears to have been changed into the BSA \\\"Tour of Britain\\\" model following the success of the BSA Professional Cycling Team in the 1952 Tour of Britain race.\",\n \"The \\\"Tour of Britain\\\" model was heavily promoted in the BSA 1953 sales literature.\",\n \"The factory made \\\"Tour of Britain\\\" model was not the same as those ridden by the professional team.\",\n \"Only eight machines were crafted for the professional team and none of the components appear to have been standard BSA parts.\",\n \"1953 saw BSA separate the bicycle / motorcar and motorcycle business into different holdings.\",\n \"The good times were coming to an end and demand for bicycles fell with the end of rationing in 1954.\",\n \"James Leek, managing director of BSA Cycles Ltd was suffering ill health and he retired in 1956, the same year the BSA Chairman, Sir Bernard Docker, was removed from the BSA Board.\",\n \"Jack Sangster who had joined the BSA Board in 1951 following the purchase of his company Triumph Motorcycles became Chairman.\",\n \"The bicycle manufacturing business BSA Cycles Ltd was sold to Raleigh Industries in 1957.\",\n \"===Motorcycles from 1910===\\n\\n\\nBSA Motorcycles were made by BSA Cycles Ltd, under the BSA parent, up until 1953 when the motorcycle business was moved into holding ''BSA Motorcycles Ltd''.\",\n \"The first instance of intention to produce motorcycles was reported in The Motor Cycle, a British motorcycling journal, in July 1906.\",\n \"The first wholly BSA motorcycle, the 3½ H.P.\",\n \"was built in 1910 and displayed at the first Olympia Show, London on 21 November in that year.\",\n \"Sir Hallewell Rogers, BSA Chairman, had informed the shareholders at the Company's 1910 AGM in Birmingham \\\"We have decided to put a motor-bicycle on the market for the coming season ....\",\n \"These machines will be on exhibit at the Cycle and Motor Show on November 21st, after which date we look forward to commencing delivery\\\".\",\n \"The machines were available for the 1911 season and entire production sold out.\",\n \"BSA had previously acquired a commercially available engine in 1905 and fitted it to one of their bicycle frames and discovered at first hand the problems that needed to be overcome.\",\n \"BSA Cycles Ltd was set up as a subsidiary company in 1919 under Managing Director Charles Hyde to manufacture both bicycles and motorcycles.\",\n \"BSA produced their only two-stroke motorcycle design for the 1928 season, the 1.74 H.P.\",\n \"Model A28 with two speed gearbox.\",\n \"It was produced as the A29 and A30 the following two years and became the A31 with a three-speed gearbox in 1931, the last year of production.\",\n \"The post-war 'Bantam' was a German DKW design, part of war reparation, and not a true BSA design.\",\n \"BSA motorcycles were sold as affordable motorcycles with reasonable performance for the average user.\",\n \"BSA stressed the reliability of their machines, the availability of spares and dealer support.\",\n \"The motorcycles were a mixture of sidevalve and OHV engines offering different performance for different roles, e.g.\",\n \"hauling a sidecar.\",\n \"The bulk of use would be for commuting.\",\n \"BSA motorcycles were also popular with \\\"fleet buyers\\\" in Britain, who (for example) used the Bantams for telegram delivery for the Post Office or motorcycle/sidecar combinations for AA patrols The Automobile Association (AA) breakdown help services.\",\n \"This mass market appeal meant they could claim \\\"one in four is a BSA\\\" on advertising.\",\n \"Machines with better specifications were available for those who wanted more performance or for competition work.\",\n \"Initially, after the Second World War, BSA motorcycles were not generally seen as racing machines, compared to the likes of Norton.\",\n \"In the immediate post-war period few were entered in races such as the TT races, though this changed dramatically in the Junior Clubman event (smaller engine motorcycles racing over some 3 or 4 laps around one of the Isle of Man courses).\",\n \"In 1947 there were but a couple of BSA mounted riders, but by 1952 BSA were in the majority and in 1956 the makeup was 53 BSA, 1 Norton and 1 Velocette.\",\n \"To improve US sales, in 1954, for example, BSA entered a team of riders in the 200 mile Daytona beach race with a mixture of single cylinder Gold Stars and twin cylinder Shooting Stars assembled by Roland Pike.\",\n \"The BSA team riders took first, second, third, fourth, and fifth places with two more riders finishing at 8th and 16th.\",\n \"This was the first case of a one brand sweep.\",\n \"The BSA factory experienced success in the sport of motocross with Jeff Smith riding a B40 to capture the 1964 and 1965 FIM 500 cc Motocross World Championships.\",\n \"It would be the last year the title would be won by a four-stroke machine until the mid-1990s.\",\n \"A BSA motocross machine was often colloquially known as a \\\"Beezer.\\\"\",\n \"Birmingham rocker Steve Gibbons released a song \\\"BSA\\\" on his 1980 album \\\"Saints & Sinners\\\" as a tribute to the Gold Star.\",\n \"He still plays this song with his band and often performs on the Isle of Man at the TT races.\",\n \"===Motorcycle models===\\n\\n\\n====Pre World War II====\\n1935 BSA Blue Star\\n*3½ hp\\n*Model E\\n*Model A28\\n*C10 sidevalve 250 cc 1938 on design by Val Page\\n*G14 1000 cc V-twin\\n*Blue Star\\n*Empire Star\\n*Silver Star\\n*Gold Star\\n*Sloper\\n*M20 (500cc):as the WD (War Department) M20 the motorcycle of the British Army in World War II\\n*M21 (600cc): the big brother of the M20, also used by the British Army in World War II\\n\\n====Post World War II====\\nBSA Golden Flash 650\\n1969 BSA Royal Star\\n*'''A series Twins''' (four-stroke, pushrod parallel twins)\\n**A7\\n***A7 Shooting Star - 500cc pre-unit construction\\n**A10 - 650cc pre-unit construction\\n***A10 Golden Flash\\n***A10 Super Flash\\n***A10 Road Rocket\\n***A10 Super Rocket\\n***A10 Rocket Gold Star\\n**A50 - 500cc unit construction\\n***A50R Royal Star\\n***A50C Cyclone\\n***A50W Wasp\\n**A65 - 650cc unit construction\\n***A65 Star Twin\\n***A65R Rocket\\n***A65T Thunderbolt\\n***A65L Lightning\\n***A65S Spitfire\\n***A65H Hornet\\n***A65F Firebird Scrambler\\n**A70L Lightning 750\\n*'''Triples''' (four-stroke, pushrod, three-cylinder engines) - The BSA Rocket 3/Triumph Trident were developed together.\",\n \"The Rocket 3 shares a majority of engine components and other parts with the Trident T150, but has forward-inclined cylinder barrels and a BSA frame.\",\n \"**A75R Rocket3 750\\n**A75RV Rocket3 750 - 5 speed\\n**A75V Rocket3 750 - 5 speed\\n*'''Singles''' (Four-stroke single cylinder)\\n**C25 Barracuda\\n**B25 Starfire - 250cc unit construction\\n**B25FS Fleetstar\\n**B25 SS Gold Star\\n**BSA B31 single\\n**B32 Gold Star\\n**B33\\n**B34 Gold Star\\n**B40 350 Star - 350cc unit construction\\n**B40 SS90\\n**B44 Victor\\n**B44\\n***B44SS Shooting Star\\n***B44VS Victor Special\\n**B50\\n***B50SS Gold Star 500\\n***B50T Victor Trials\\n***B50MX Motocross\\n*C series (Four-stroke 250 cc single-cylinder).\",\n \"**C10\\n**C11/C11G: - - 85mpg - weight .\",\n \"The C11 used a C10 motor fitted with an overhead valve cylinder head.\",\n \"The C11 frame was almost unchanged until 1951 when BSA added plunger rear suspension.\",\n \"Early gearboxes were weak and unreliable.\",\n \"The C11G was available with a three ratio gearbox and rigid frame or a four ratio gearbox and a plunger frame.\",\n \"Both models had better front brakes than earlier models.\",\n \"This model was a common commuter motorcycle, and many survive today.\",\n \"**C12\\n: (1956–1958).\",\n \"249 cc OHV\\nUsed the C11G engine, fitted with an alternator and swinging fork (known as swinging arm) rear suspension.\",\n \"1959 BSA C15 Star\\n**C15 Star - 250cc unit construction\\n**C15T Trials\\n**C15S Scrambler\\n**C15SS80 Sports Star 80\\n**C15 Sportsman\\n*D series (Two-stroke single cylinder.\",\n \"See BSA Bantam for details)\\n**D1 Bantam - 125cc unit-construction\\n**D3 Bantam Major\\n**D5 Bantam Super\\n**D7 Bantam Super\\n**D10 Silver Bantam, Bantam Supreme, Bantam Sports, Bushman\\n**D13\\n**D14/4 Bantam Supreme, Bantam Sports, Bushman - 175cc\\n**B175 Bantam Sports, Bushman\\n*Others (may include some export versions of models listed above)\\n**B31 Twin (350 cc).\",\n \"B31 frame fitted with a Triumph 3T motor to produce this BSA B31 Twin.\",\n \"Very few units were produced, probably prototypes.\",\n \"**BSA Barracuda\\n**BSA Beagle\\n**BSA Boxer - 1979 - c.1981 the sports version of the 50cc range (Beaver, Boxer, Brigand, GT50).\",\n \"The engine was by Moto Morini.\",\n \"**BSA GT50 (renamed from the Boxer)\\n**BSA Beaver (the standard road version)\\n**BSA Tracker 125/175 - late 70s moto-cross style product by NVT with Yamaha two stroke engine.\",\n \"**BSA Dandy 70\\n**BSA Sunbeam ''(Scooters, also produced as Triumph TS1, TW2 Tigress)''\\n***175B1\\n***250B2\\n**BSA Starfire\\n**BSA Rocket Scrambler\\n**BSA Rocket Gold Star\\n**BSA Fury\\n**BSA Hornet\\n**Winged Wheel (auxiliary power unit for bicycles)\\n**T65 Thunderbolt (essentially a Triumph TR6P with BSA Badges)\\n\\n===Military vehicles===\\n* BSA Scout armoured car.\",\n \"* \\\"Type G Apparatus\\\", Folding paratrooper bicycle, with parachute.\",\n \"===Military firearms===\\n* Snider–Enfield rifle\\n* Martini–Henry rifle\\n* Lee–Metford rifle\\n* Lewis gun\\n* Lee–Enfield rifle\\n* Thompson submachine gun\\n* BSA Thompson Autorifle\\n* .303 RAF Browning\\n* Hispano-Suiza cannon\\n* Oerlikon 20mm cannon\\n* Sten submachine gun\\n* Boys anti-tank rifle\\n* Besa machine gun\\n* BSA experimental model 1949 pump-action machine carbine\\n* ADEN cannon\\n* L1A1 SLR\\n\\n===Civilian firearms===\\n* The 1906 war office pattern rifle\\n* The Sportsman series of .22 Long Rifle bolt-action rifles\\n* Various Martini action target .22lr rifles\\n* The Ralock and Armatic semi automatic .22lr rifles\\n* Various bolt action hunting rifles\",\n \"* Clews Competition Motorcycles (CCM) - the remnants of BSA's off-road arm\\n* List of BSA motorcycles\\n* List of modern armament manufacturers\\n* Tribsa custom built café racer or off-road using a Triumph engine in a BSA frame\",\n \"\\n* BSA History from the Days of the Crimea (1918)\\n* \\n* Catalogue of the BSA archives, held at the Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"finance"}}},{"rowIdx":280,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\n\n'''Ballarat''' is a city located on the Yarrowee River in the Central Highlands of Victoria, Australia. The city is approximately west-north-west of the state capital, Melbourne, with a population of some 101,686. It is the third largest population for an inland city in Australia. Locals are known as 'Ballaratians'.\n\nBallarat is arguably the most significant Victorian era gold rush boomtown in Australia. Just months after Victoria was granted separation from the state of New South Wales, the Victorian gold rush transformed Ballarat from a small sheep station to a major settlement. Gold was discovered at Poverty Point on 18 August 1851, and news quickly spread of rich alluvial fields where gold could easily be extracted. Within months, migrants from across the world had rushed to the district in search of gold. Unlike many other gold boom towns, the Ballarat fields experienced sustained high gold yields for many decades, which can be evidenced to this day in the city's rich architecture.\n\nThe Eureka Rebellion began in Ballarat, and the only armed rebellion in Australian history, the Battle of Eureka Stockade, took place on 3 December 1854. In response to the event the first male suffrage in Australia was instituted and as such Eureka is interpreted by some as the origin of democracy in Australia. The gold rush and boom gave birth to many other significant cultural legacies. The rebellion's symbol, the Eureka Flag, has become a national symbol and is held at the Museum of Australian Democracy at Eureka in Ballarat. Other nationally significant heritage structures include the Ballarat Botanical Gardens (established 1857), with the greatest concentration of public statuary, the official Prime Ministers Avenue, the longest running lyric theatre building (Her Majesty's Theatre, established 1875), the first municipal observatory, established 1886, and the earliest and longest war memorial avenue (the Avenue of Honour, established between 1917 and 1919).\n\nProclaimed a city in 1871, its prosperity continued until late in the 19th century, after which its importance relative to both Melbourne and Geelong rapidly faded with the slowing of gold extraction. It has endured as a major regional centre hosting the rowing and kayaking events from the 1956 Summer Olympics. It is the commercial capital of the Central Highlands and the largest city in the Goldfields region of Victoria, as well a significant tourist destination. Ballarat is known for its history, culture and its well-preserved Victorian era heritage, with much of the city subject to heritage overlays. After a narrow popular vote the city merged with the town of Ballarat East in 1921, ending a long standing rivalry.\n\n\n","\n=== Prehistory and European settlement ===\nPrior to the European settlement of Australia, the Ballarat region was populated by the Wathaurong people, an Indigenous Australian people. The Boro gundidj tribe's territory was based along the Yarrowee River.\n\nThe first Europeans to sight the area were an 1837 party of six mostly Scottish squatters from Geelong, led by Somerville Learmonth, who were in search of land less affected by the severe drought for their sheep to graze. The party scaled Mount Buninyong; among them were Somerville's brother Thomas Livingstone Learmonth, William Cross Yuille and Henry Anderson, all three of whom later claimed land in what is now Ballarat.\n\nThe Yuille family, Scottish settlers Archibald Buchanan Yuille and his brother William Cross Yuille, arrived in 1837 and squatted a sheep run. The first houses were built near Woolshed Creek by William Yuille and Anderson (Sebastopol), while Yuille erected a hut at Black Swamp (Lake Wendouree) in 1838. Outsiders originally knew of the settlement as Yuille's Station and Yuille's Swamp. Archibald Yuille named the area \"Ballaarat\" Some claim the name is derived from a local Wathaurong Aboriginal word for the area, ''balla arat''. The meaning of this word is not certain; however several translations have been made and it is generally thought to mean \"resting place\". In some dialects, ''balla'' means \"bent elbow\", which is translated to mean reclining or resting and ''arat'' meaning \"place\". Another claim is that the name derives from Yuille's native Gaelic Baile Ararat (Town of Ararat), alluding to the resting place of Noah's ark. The present spelling was officially adopted by the City of Ballarat in 1996.\n\n=== 1850s: Gold rush ===\nBallarat's tent city in the summer of 1853–1854 oil painting from an original sketch by Eugene von Guerard.\n\nThe first publicised discovery of gold in the region was by Thomas Hiscock on 2 August 1851 in the Buninyong region to the south. The find brought other prospectors to the area and on 19 August 1851 John Dunlop and James Regan struck gold at Poverty Point with a few ounces. Within days of the announcement of Dunlop and Regan's find a gold rush began, bringing thousands of prospectors to the Yarrowee valley which became known as the Ballarat diggings. Yields were particularly high, with the first prospectors in the area extracting between half an ounce (which was more than the average wage of the time) and up to five ounces of alluvial gold per day. As news of the Australian gold rushes reached the world, Ballarat gained an international reputation as a particularly rich goldfield. As a result, a huge influx of immigrants occurred, including many from Ireland and China, gathering in a collection of prospecting shanty towns around the creeks and hills. In just a few months numerous alluvial runs were established, several deep mining leads began, and the population had swelled to over 1,000 people. Pencil drawing of goldfields camp at Ballarat\n\nThe first post office opened on 1 November 1851. It was the first Victorian post office to open in a gold-mining settlement. Parts of the district were first surveyed by William Urquhart as early as October 1851. By 1852 his grid plan and wide streets for land sales in the new township of West Ballarat, built upon a plateau of basalt, contrasted markedly with the existing narrow unplanned streets, tents, and gullies of the original East Ballarat settlement. The new town's main streets of the time were named in honour of police commissioners and gold commissioners of the time, with the main street, Sturt Street, named after Evelyn Pitfield Shirley Sturt; Dana Street named after Henry Dana; Lydiard Street after his assistant; Doveton Street after Francis Crossman Doveton, Ballarat's first gold commissioner; Armstrong after David Armstrong; and Mair Street after William Mair. These officials were based at the government encampment (after which nearby Camp Street was named), which was strategically positioned on an escarpment with an optimal view over the district's diggings.\n\nThe first newspaper, ''The Banner'', published on 11 September 1853, was one of many to be distributed during the gold-rush period. Print media played a large role in the early history of the settlement. Ballarat attracted a sizable number of miners from the Californian 1848 gold rush, and some were known as Ballafornians.\n\nBattle of the Eureka Stockade. J. B. Henderson (1854) Watercolour\nCivil disobedience in Ballarat led to Australia's only armed civil uprising, the Eureka Rebellion (colloquially referred to as the \"Eureka Stockade\") which took place in Ballarat on 3 December 1854. The event, in which 22 miners were killed, is considered to be a defining moment in Australian history.\n\nThe city earned the nickname \"The Golden City\" in the 1850s. The gold rush population peaked at almost 60,000, mostly male diggers, by 1858. However the early population was largely itinerant. As quickly as the alluvial deposits drew prospectors to Ballarat, the rate of gold extraction fluctuated and, as they were rapidly worked dry, many quickly moved to rush other fields as new findings were announced, particularly Mount Alexander in 1852, Fiery Creek in 1855, and Ararat in 1857. By 1859, a smaller number of permanent settlers numbering around 23,000, many of whom had built personal wealth in gold, established a prosperous economy based around a shift to deep underground gold mining.\n\nConfidence of the city's early citizens in the enduring future of their city is evident in the sheer scale of many of the early public buildings, generous public recreational spaces, and opulence of many of its commercial establishments and private housing. A local steam locomotive industry developed from 1854 with the Phoenix Foundry operating until 1906. The railway came to the town with the opening of the Geelong–Ballarat line in 1862 and Ballarat developed as a major railway town. As the city grew the region's original indigenous inhabitants were quickly expelled to the fringe and by 1867 few remained.\n\n=== Victorian city ===\nThe intersection of Lydiard and Sturt Street in about 1905 was the heart of a bustling city of trams, horses and pedestrians.\nFrom the late 1860s to the early 20th century, Ballarat made a successful transition from a gold rush town to an industrial-age city. The ramshackle tents and timber buildings gradually made way for permanent buildings, many impressive structures of solid stone and brick mainly built from wealth generated by early mining.\n\nPrince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh visited between 9 and 13 December 1867 and as the first royal visit, the occasion was met with great fanfare. The Prince Room was prepared at Craigs Royal Hotel for his stay. The city's first civic centre—Prince Alfred Hall—erected over the Yarrowee between the two municipalities, was named in his honour during his visit. The later attempt of the Prince's assassination by Ballaratian Henry James O'Farrell was met with shock and great horror from locals.\n\nBallarat was proclaimed a city in 1871. Gong Gong reservoir was built in 1877 to alleviate flooding and to provide a permanent water supply. A direct railway to Melbourne was completed in December 1889. Many industries and workshops had been established as a result of manufacturing and servicing for the deep lead mining industry.\n\nLocal boosterists at the start of the 20th century adopted the nickname \"Athens of Australia\", first used to describe the city by the prestigious Irish-Australian jurist and politician of the early 20th century Sir John Madden.\n\nOn 13 May 1901, the Duke of York (later George V) and his wife, Mary the Duchess of York, travelled by train from Melbourne to Ballarat.\n\nThe first electricity supply was completed in 1901 by the Electric Supply Company of Victoria. A bluestone power station was built at the corner of Ripon Street and Wendouree Parade in 1901 with the main aim of providing the power required for electrification of the city's tramway network.\n\n=== Declining fortunes ===\nDevelopment of the Ballarat North Workshops was a major initiative to capitalise on the city's burgeoning role as a railway town and transition from a declining gold mining industry\nFollowing the start of the 20th century, however, mining activity slowed and Ballarat's growth all but stopped—the city went into a period of decline and saw a reversal of the fortunes acquired in the previous century.\n\nThe Sunshine rail disaster in 1908 resulted in the death of dozens of Ballarat residents. On 19 August 1909, a great storm lashed the city, resulting in the death of one person and injury of seven others. During the storm, a tornado swept across the city's northern and eastern suburbs destroying numerous homes in Ballarat North, Soldiers Hill, Black Hill and Ballarat East, lifting and then again touching down at Eureka where it destroyed more homes before dissipating.\n\nOne bright spot in this period was the establishment of Osrey Pottery in 1922 by the artist Gladys Reynell, one of Australia's first potters, and her husband, George Samuel Osborne. The pottery closed in 1926 when Osborne developed lead poisoning.\n\nBallarat's significant representation during WWI resulted in heavy human loss. The city eventually lost first provincial status to Geelong. In response, local lobbyists continually pushed the Victorian government for decentralisation, the greatest success being the Victorian Railways opening the Ballarat North Workshops in April 1917. The Great Depression proved a further setback for Ballarat, with the closure of many institutions and causing the worst unemployment in the city's history, with over a thousand people in the dole queue.\n\nThe city's two municipalities, Ballarat East and West Town Councils, finally amalgamated in 1921 to form the City of Ballarat.\n\n=== Since the 20th century ===\nView of central Ballarat from St Peter's Anglican Church\nWhile deep, the depression was also brief. The interwar period proved a period of recovery for Ballarat with a number of major infrastructure projects well underway including a new sewerage system. In 1930, Ballarat Airport was established. By 1931, Ballarat's economy and population was recovering strongly with further diversification of industry, although in 1936 Geelong displaced it as the state's second largest city. During World War II an expanded Ballarat airport was the base of the RAAF Wireless Air Gunners' School as well as the base for USAAF Liberator bomber squadrons. In 1942, Ballarat became connected to the state electricity grid by a 66,000 kV line. Prior to this, power supply was generated locally.\n\nIn the post-war era, Ballarat's growth continued. In response to an acute housing shortage, significant suburban expansion occurred. An extensive Housing Commission of Victoria estate was built on the former Ballarat Common (today known as Wendouree West). The estate was originally planned to contain over 750 prefabricated houses. While planning for the estate began in 1949, main construction occurred between 1951 and 1962.\n\nThe 1950s brought a new optimism to the city. On 17 April 1952 it was announced that Lake Wendouree was to be the venue for rowing events of the 1956 Summer Olympics, and work soon began on an Olympic village in Gillies Street. A new prefabricted power terminal substation at Norman Street Ballarat North was constructed between 1951 and 1953 by the State Electricity Commission. The first Begonia Festival, a highly successful community celebration, was held in 1953. Elizabeth II visited on 8 March 1954. The Civic Centre, Prince Alfred Hall had burned down suspiciously that year; however a new Civic Hall was constructed and opened in March 1955. On 23 November 1956, the Olympic torch was carried through the city, and the following day the rowing events were held at the lake. On 2 March 1958 the Queen Mother visited Ballarat.\n\nDuring the following decades, the city saw increased threats to its heritage. In 1964, the Ballarat City Council passed laws banning pillar-supported verandahs in the CBD, which threatened the removal of historic cast iron verandahs in the city. The by-law was met by staunch opposition from the National Trust, which had begun campaigning to protect some of the city's most historic buildings. By the 1970s, Ballarat began to officially recognise its substantial heritage, and the first heritage controls were recommended to ensure its preservation. With the opening of Sovereign Hill, the city made a rapid shift to become a major cultural tourist destination, visited by thousands each year.\n\nDuring the 1970s, a further 300 houses were constructed at Wendouree West. Private housing in the adjacent suburb of Wendouree closely matched and eventually eclipsed this by the mid-1960s. The suburb of greater Wendouree and Wendouree West had evolved as the suburban middle-class heart of the city. Charles, Prince of Wales visited Ballarat on 28 October 1974 during which he toured Sovereign Hill, the Ballarat College of Advanced Education's new Mt Helen Campus and the White Swan Reservoir and spoke at Civic Hall.\n\nThe city continued to grow at the national average throughout the late 20th century and early 21st century. In 2008 the City of Ballarat released a plan directing that growth of the city over the next 30 years is to be concentrated to the west of the city centre. The Ballarat West Growth Area Plan was approved by the city and state government in 2010, planning an extensive fringe development consisting of 14,000 new homes and up to 40,000 new residents including new activity centres and employment zones.\n\n=== Military history ===\n\nDuring World War 2, Ballarat was the location of RAAF No.1 Inland Aircraft Fuel Depot (IAFD), completed in 1942 in the defence of Australia against a Japanese invasion and de-commissioned on 29 August 1944. Usually consisting of 4 tanks, 31 fuel depots were built across Australia for the storage and supply of aircraft fuel for the RAAF and the US Army Air Forces at a total cost of £900,000 ($1,800,000).\n","Ballarat's skyline hidden from this view of the city looking east across Lake Wendouree to Mount Warrenheip.\nBallarat lies at the foothills of the Great Dividing Range in Central Western Victoria. Also known as the Central Highlands, it is named so because of its gentle hills and lack of any significant mountains that are more common in the eastern sections of the Great Dividing Range. The city lies within a mostly gently undulating section of the midland plains which stretch from Creswick in the north, to Rokewood in the south, and from Lal Lal in the south-east to Pittong in the west.\n\nGeologically, the area consists of alluvial sediment and volcanic flows originating from now-extinct volcanoes such as nearby Buninyong and Warrenheip, which are the area's tallest peaks. As a result, the basin contains large areas of fertile agricultural soil. Ballarat itself is situated on an alluvial basin of the Yarrowee catchment and its tributary creeks, penetrated by sub-ranges of schists composed of granites and quartz. Along with the visible river and creeks, the catchment basin has numerous active and inactive aquifers and natural wetlands, which are used for urban water supply, agriculture and recreation.\n\nThere are numerous densely forested areas around Ballarat; however due to historic wood milling and land clearing there remain no old-growth forests. The major natural bodies of water are in the west and include the former shallow swamps of Lake Wendouree which is central to the city's western suburbs and beyond Winter's Swamp and the large Lake Burrumbeet wetland complex. Almost all of the other numerous bodies of water have been created artificially and include several reservoirs, the largest being the White Swan Reservoir and smaller suburban lakes such as Lake Esmond.\n\nThe contiguous urban area of Ballarat covers approximately of the local government area's . Approximately 90% of the urban area's land use is residential and suburban. From the city centre this area extends approximately north to the hills around Invermay, approximately east to Leigh Creek in the foothills of Mount Warrenheip, approximately west along the plains to Lucas and approximately south along the Yarrowee River and Canadian Creek valley to the fringe of Buninyong. The central city is situated low in the valley of the Yarrowee River and surrounded by hills such that the city skyline is visible only from the hills and the lower lying inner eastern suburbs. The reach of the Yarrowee River toward Ballarat Central becomes a stormwater drain and is completely covered over as it flows under the CBD.\n\n===City and suburbs===\nMap of the urban area (grey) and the extent of the municipal area\nView of Ballarat Central and surrounding areas from the Black Hill lookout.\nLooking south over Sturt Street and the CBD toward Bridge Mall from the Town Hall clock tower\n\nBallarat is a primarily low-rise city though apart from the area around Ballarat Airport there are few established height limits for buildings. The City of Ballarat defines two Major Activity Centres within the urban area – the Central Business District (CBD) and Wendouree with a high concentration of business, retail and community function based primarily on the Melbourne 2030 planning model and a further 11 neighbourhood activity centres. The tallest building in urban Ballarat is the seven-storey Henry Bolte wing of the Ballarat Base Hospital (1994). Beyond the central area, urban Ballarat extends into several suburban areas with a mixture of housing styles. Predominant styles are 19th-century villas, Victorian terraces, Federation homes and Georgian red brick homes. Settlement patterns around Ballarat consist of small villages and country towns, some with less than a few thousand people.\n\nThe Central Business District (located in Ballarat Central) is a large mixed-use office and retail district bounded to the north by railway lines, to the west by Drummond Street, to the south to Grant street and to the east by Princes Street and spanning the floodplain of the Yarrowee River. Lydiard, Sturt Streets, Armstrong, Doveton, Dana Street and Bridge Street (known as Bridge Mall) along with the historic centre of East Ballarat—Main Street and Bakery Hill have retained stands of commercial and civic buildings of state and national heritage significance.\n\nThe inner established suburbs were initially laid out around the key mining areas and include Ballarat East, Bakery Hill, Golden Point, Soldiers Hill, Black Hill, Brown Hill, Eureka, Canadian, Mount Pleasant, Redan, Sebastopol and Newington.\n\nThe post gold rush era has seen a boom in expansion, extending the conurbation north, south and west. To the west, Ballarat has expanded West to Lucas, Alfredton, Delacombe To The North West Wendouree , Wendouree West and Miners Rest To the north it has expanded to Ballarat North, Invermay Park, Invermay, Victoria Invermay and Nerrina; to the east to Warrenheip and south to Sebastopol, Mount Clear and Mount Helen with the urban area encroaching the large town of Buninyong.\n\nWendouree is currently the only major suburban activity centre with a large indoor shopping mall—Stockland Shopping Centre (expanded in 2007) and also has a number of surrounding retail parks including a strip shopping centre along Howitt Street including the large retail chain Harvey Norman. Elsewhere are small suburban hubs with supermarkets such as IGA (supermarkets) and small stretches of shopfronts.\n\nUnlike Melbourne, Ballarat does not have a defined urban growth boundary. This has put continuing pressure on the city council to approve development applications for subdivisions outside of the city fringe. In response to lobbying by landholders, the Ballarat West Growth Area Plan, a major greenfield land development plan, was prepared and has approved by the city and state government to allow for planned fringe communities consisting of 14,000 new homes and up to 40,000 new residents, effectively doubling the city's urban area by extending the urban sprawl from Sebastopol, Delacombe and Alfredton west toward Bonshaw, Smythes Creek and Cardigan with a new suburb to be known as Lucas to be created. New activity centres are to be developed at Delacombe and Alfredton.\n\n===Climate===\nSnow scene in Sturt Gardens in 1905\nBallarat has a moderate oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification ''Cfb'') with four seasons. Its elevation, at above sea level, causes its mean monthly temperatures to tend to be on average below those of Melbourne. The mean daily maximum temperature for January is , while the mean minimum is . In July, the mean maximum is ; average July minimum is . Ballarat has 55.2 clear days annually.\n\nThe mean annual rainfall is , with August being the wettest month (). There are an average of 198 rain-free days per year. Like much of Australia, Ballarat experiences cyclical drought and heavy rainfall. Flooding of the Yarrowee catchment occurs occasionally. In 1869 a serious flood of the Yarrowee River put most of the lower section of business district including Bridge and Grenville streets under water and caused the loss of two lives. Prolonged drought (an average annual rainfall with falls averaging as low as per year since 2001) caused Lake Wendouree to dry up completely for the first time in its history between 2006 and 2007. More recently higher rainfall levels have been recorded including in the 24 hours to 9 am on 14 January 2011, ending a four-day period of flooding rains across much of Victoria and Tasmania, and contributing to the wettest January on record, with a total of of rain for the month.\n\nLight snowfall typically falls on nearby Mount Buninyong and Mount Warrenheip at least once a year but in the urban area only during heavy winters. Widespread frosts and fog are more common during the cooler months. Snow has been known to fall heavily. Heavy snow seasons occurred in 1900–1902 and 1905–1907 (with record falls in 1906), and moderate snow seasons were recorded during the 1940s and 1980s. Recent snowfalls to have occurred within the urban area were in 2006, 2008, 2014 and 2016, with falls in November 2006 (light, also the latest snowfall on record), July 2007 (heavy), June 2008 (light), August 2008 (light), August 2014 (moderate) and June 2016 (light).\n\nBallarat's highest maximum recorded temperature was on 7 February 2009 during the 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave. This was above the previous record of , set on 25 January 2003. The lowest-ever recorded minimum was at sunrise on 19 July 2015.\n\n\n","A view from Lake Wendouree toward Mount Buninyong Reserve\nBallarat has a healthy environment in comparison to Melbourne; however, as a growing regional city there are issues including pollution, waterway health and invasive species. Air quality is generally good, however dust is sometimes an issue in the summer months and woodsmoke from fireplaces is an issue in the winter months. Ballarat's waterways have historically been affected by heavy pollution from both mining and industry.\n\nThe Ballarat Environment Network formed in 1993 to provide a voice for environmental and nature conservation issues in Ballarat and its surroundings. Another large lobby group for sustainability in the city is the Ballarat Renewable Energy And Zero Emissions (BREAZE) formed in 2006. The City of Ballarat released an Environment Sustainability Strategy for the city in 2007.\n\nWhile there are no national parks in Ballarat's proximity, Ballarat is bordered by extensive bushland to the north, south and south west and sensitive wetlands to the east. There are a number of nearby state parks and large reserves including the Enfield State Park, Creswick Regional Park, Mount Warrenheip Flora Reserve, Mount Buninyong Reserve and Lake Burrumbeet park. The region is home to a large koala population with protected areas established in the city's outer southern and eastern settlements.\n\nMany parts of urban Ballarat have been affected by the introduction of exotic species, particularly introduced flora. Common gorse is one such problem which has prompted the formation of an official Ballarat Region Gorse Task Force in 1999 to control. European rabbits and red foxes cause significant environmental damage in the region's agriculture areas.\n","The economy of Ballarat is driven by all three economic sectors, though contemporary Ballarat has emerged as a primarily service economy with its main industry being the service industry and its key areas of business including tourism, hospitality, retail, professional services, government administration and education. Secondary industry including manufacturing, which had grown in the 20th century remains an important sector. The city's historic primary industry roots including mining and agriculture continue to play a role, though one that has declined since the 20th century. Industries emerging this century include information technology service sector and renewable energy.\n\n===Service industries===\nAs a major service centre for the populous goldfields region, Ballarat has large sectors of employment in business including retail, professional services and trades as well as state and federal government branch offices for public services and health care and non-government service organisations. Collectively these industries employ more than half of the city's workforce and generate the bulk of the city's economic activity.\n\nBallarat is the main retail economy in the region. The city has several key retail districts including a pedestrian mall known as Bridge Mall comprising over 100 traders. There are also indoor shopping malls including Central Square Shopping Centre and Stockland Wendouree. better known as Wendouree Village, with a large number of specialty stores. Major department stores include Myer, Target, Big W, Kmart, Harvey Norman and Harris Scarfe. Additionally each of the major supermarkets (Coles, Woolworths, IGA and Aldi) are represented. Servicing the financial sector are branches of the big four Australian retail banks (National Australia Bank, Australia and New Zealand Banking Group, Commonwealth Bank and Westpac) along with Bendigo Bank and St.George Bank and a number of smaller independent financial services firms.\n\nFederation University Australia exports education through a large international students program and throughout Australia through distance education programs.\n\nIn recent years, a large technology park, the Ballarat Technology Park with communications centre has been established, with tenants including IBM and employing over 1,400 people.\n\n====Tourism and hospitality====\nMain Street in Sovereign Hill, a large open-air gold mining museum, is Ballarat's most famous attraction.\nBallarat attracts 2.2 million visitors a year and the tourism and hospitality industry is a A$480 million a year sector which accounts for around 15% of Ballarat's economy and employs around 2,870 people. Tourism in Ballarat is promoted by Ballarat Regional Tourism.\n\nA significant heritage tourism industry has not grown substantially in Ballarat since the 1960s. Ballarat is most notable for the award-winning open-air museum known as Sovereign Hill, a recreated 1850s gold mining settlement opened in 1970. Sovereign Hill is Ballarat's biggest tourism drawcard and is consistently rated among one of the best outdoor museums in the world and continues to expand. Sovereign Hill accounts for over half a million of Ballarat's visitors and $40 million in tourism revenue.\n\nSeveral businesses and attractions have capitalised on Ballarat's gold mining history. They include Kryal Castle (1972), \"Gold Rush Mini Golf\" (2002) featuring the \"Big Miner\" (2006) one of Australia's big things (although the original proposal appeared larger and for the miner to hold the Eureka Flag) at Ballarat's eastern entrance.\n\nOther tourist attractions include the Eureka Centre; The Gold Museum, Ballarat; Ballarat Botanic gardens and Lake Wendouree; the Museum of Australian Democracy; the Ballarat Tramway Museum and Ballarat Ghost Tours and Ballarat Wildlife Park. A large number of Ballarat hotels, motels and restaurants service the tourism industry. The Ballarat Tourist Association is an industry based non-profit, membership organisation representing the city's tourism industry.\n\n===Manufacturing===\nAccording to the 2006 Australian Census, manufacturing is Ballarat's third largest employment sector, accounting for 14.8% of all workers.\n\nBallarat attracts investment from several international manufacturers. The Australian headquarters of Mars, Incorporated was established in Ballarat in 1979 with the main Ballarat factory producing popular confectionery including Mars bars, Snickers and M&M's for the Australian market as well as expanding in 2013 to produce Maltesers. McCain Foods Limited Australian headquarters was established in Ballarat in 1970 and the company continues to expand its operations. The Ballarat North Workshops is a major manufacturer of public transportation products with current investment from Alstom.\n\nBallarat also has a large number of home-grown companies producing textiles, general industrial engineering, food products, brick and tiles, building components, prefabricated housing components and automotive components. Brewing was once a large-scale operation, with many large businesses including the public company Phoenix Brewery, and although large-scale brewing has ceased, the city retains a substantial microbrewery industry.\n\n===Primary industry===\nReplica of the \"Welcome Nugget\", found at Ballarat, the second largest gold nugget discovered in recorded history\nThough historically an important sector, the production of Ballarat's primary industry declined for many decades, recovering only marginally since 2006. Where historically the mining industry supported tens of thousands of workers or the majority of the population, today agriculture dominates the sector, though collectively both industries employ less than thousand people or just over 2% of the City of Ballarat's total workforce.\n\nBallarat rose to prominence as a goldrush boomtown, though gold no longer plays a pivotal role in the economy of the city. Nevertheless, deep underground mining continues to the present date with a single main mine operating. There are still thought to be large, undiscovered gold reserves in the Ballarat region, with investigations being made by local and national companies. Lihir Gold invested in Ballarat Goldfields in 2006, however it downscaled its operations in 2009 due to the expense of extraction before selling its stake in 2010 to Castlemaine Goldfields. Along with gold, lignite (coal), kaolin (clay) and iron ore have also been mined in the Ballarat region and nearby Lal Lal however many of the resource deposits have since been exhausted. An active quarrying industry with large enterprises including Boral Limited extracts and manufactures building materials from the Ballarat region, including clays, aggregates, cements, asphalts.\n\nApproximately half () of the municipality's area is rural with optimal conditions for agriculture including rich volcanic soils and climate. This area is used primarily for agriculture and animal husbandry and generates more than $37 million in commodities. The region supports an active potato growing industry that has supplied local food manufacturers including McCain, though more recently has been threatened by cheaper imports. Other large crops include grains, vegetables, grapes and berries. Cattle and poultry stocks, including sheep, cows and pigs, support an active local meat and dairy industry. The Ballarat Livestock Selling Centre is the largest cattle exchange in regional Victoria. The Ballarat Agricultural and Pastoral Society formed in 1856 and has run the Ballarat Show annually since 1859.\n\nA $7.5 million forestry industry is active in nearby state forests as well as on a small scale in the urban area along the Canadian Valley around the suburbs of Mt Clear and Mt Helen areas with pine plantations and sawmill operations.\n\n====Renewable energy====\nPart of the Waubra Wind Farm\nThe Ballarat region has a rapidly growing renewable energy industry, in particular due to its abundant wind energy, attracting significant investment and generating revenue for local landholders and local councils. The region is also a source of bountiful geothermal energy, solar power and biomass although to date, only its wind, solar and hydroelectricity has been harvested commercially. All local commercially produced electricity is sent to the National Electricity Market.\n\nWind energy is generated by local wind farms. The largest, Waubra Wind Farm, completed in 2009, ( W – 192 MW, 128 turbines) is capable of producing enough electricity to power a city 3 to 4 times the size of Ballarat. Other significant nearby wind farms include Mount Mercer, completed 2014, ( S – 131 MW, 64 turbines) which produces enough energy to power 100,000 homes, equivalent to Ballarat's population and Chepstowe, completed March 2015, ( W – 6 MW, 3 turbines) which produces enough power for 3,400 homes. The first community-owned wind farm in Australia, the Hepburn Wind Project at Leonards Hill, completed in 2011, ( NE – 4 MW, 2 turbines) produces the equivalent amount of electricity used by the town of Daylesford. Several large projects have planning approval, including Stockyard Hill Wind Farm ( W – 41 MW, 157 turbines), Moorabool Wind Project at Mount Egerton and Ballan ( E – 330 MW, 107 turbines). and the Lal Lal Wind Farm ( SE – 150 MW, 64 turbines).\n\nHydroelectricity is generated at White Swan reservoir micro hydro plant established in 2008 and producing the equivalent electricity needs of around 370 homes. Ballarat Solar Park, opened in 2009 at the Airport site in Mitchell Park, is Victoria's first ground-mounted, flat-plate and grid-connected photovoltaic farm. Built by Sharp Corporation for Origin Energy, it is and generates the equivalent electricity needs of around 150 homes.\n","The 2006 Australian national census indicated that the permanent population of the urban area was 78,221 out of the City of Ballarat's population of 85,196 and a total of 31,960 households.\n\nBallarat has witnessed a significant growth surge since 2006 and the population of the City of Ballarat is becoming increasingly urban such that statistically, the LGA is now used as the ABS statistical division. Recent rapid growth has been attributed by demographers to increased commuter activity arising from surging house and land prices in Melbourne coupled with transport upgrades between Ballarat and Melbourne. Since 2006 Ballarat has averaged an annual population growth of 1700 and in June 2008 the estimated resident population of the City of Ballarat was 91,787. In August 2009 this population had grown to 94,000.\n\nWhile most of the city's population can trace their ethnic roots to Anglo-Celtic descent, 8.2% of the population are born overseas. Of them, the majority (4.2%) come from North East Europe. 3.4% speak a language other than English. 14.4% of the population is over the age of 65. The median age in Ballarat is 35.8 years.\n\nThe average income of Ballarat, while lower than Melbourne, is higher than average for regional Victoria. Ballaratians in the 2007/08 financial year earned on average A$38,850 a year. The highest earners living in the city's inner suburbs with a mean of $53,174 a year, while the lower earners are centred on the city's southern suburbs. According to the 2006 Census, Ballarat's working population is largely white collar 52.1% consisting of Management, Professionals, Clerical and Administrative Workers and Sales Workers, while 32.9% are blue collar working in Technicians and Trades, Labouring or Machinery Operation. 56.5% of households had access to the Internet in 2006. The unemployment rate as of June 2011 was 7.8%.\nSt Peters Anglican Church, which represents the second most common religious affiliation in Ballarat.\n50.3% of the population have completed further education after high school.\n\n===Religion===\nChristianity remains the dominant religion in Ballarat, with over 65% of residents claiming Christian affiliation, slightly above the national average of 64%. According to the 2006 Census, Catholics (27.1%), Anglicans (15.0%), Uniting Church (11.2%) and Presbyterians (4.0%) remain the largest Christian denominations in Ballarat.\n\nOver 21.6% of Ballarat residents claim no religious affiliation. Minority religious groups include Buddhism, Judaism, Baha'i and Islam and total less than 5% of the population.\n","Ballarat Town Hall\nCouncil Chamber in Ballarat Town Hall, Sturt Street, is the seat of local government for the City of Ballarat. The council was created in 1994 as an amalgamation of a number of other municipalities in the region. The City is made up of 3 wards, each represented by three councillors elected once every four years by postal voting. The Mayor of Ballarat is elected from these councillors by their colleagues for a one-year term. The Town Hall and annexe contains some council offices, however the council's administrative headquarters are located at the council owned Phoenix Building and the leased Gordon Buildings on the opposite side of Bath Lane.\n\nIn state politics, Ballarat is located in the Legislative Assembly districts of Buninyong and Wendouree, with both of these seats currently held by the Australian Labor Party. In federal politics, Ballarat is located in a single House of Representatives division—the Division of Ballarat. The Division of Ballarat has been a safe Australian Labor Party seat since 2001, and was the seat of the second Prime Minister of Australia, Alfred Deakin.\n\nLaw enforcement is overseen from regional police headquarters at the law complex in Dana Street with a single local police station operating in Buninyong. Due to an increase in crime rates and population, two additional local police stations were proposed in 2011 one each for the suburbs of North Ballarat and Sebastopol. Justice is conducted locally overseen through branches of the Supreme, County, Magistrates and Children's Court of Victoria which operate out of the Ballarat courts Complex adjacent police headquarters in Dana Street. Corrections, at least in the longer term are no longer handled locally since the closure of the Ballarat Gaol in 1965. Offenders can be detained in 25 available cells at the police complex though are commonly transferred to nearby Corrections Victoria facilities such as the Hopkins Correctional Centre in Ararat.\n\nPublic safety and emergency services are provided by several state funded organisations including local volunteer based organisations. Storms and flooding are handled by the State Emergency Service (SES) Mid West Region Headquarters at Wendouree. Bushfires are handled by the Country Fire Authority District 15 Headquarters and Grampians Region Headquarters at Wendouree and urban structure fires are handled by multiple urban fire brigades operating at fire stations including the Ballarat Fire Brigade at Barkly Street Ballarat East, Ballarat City Fire Brigade at Sturt Street Ballarat Central and suburban stations including Wendouree and Sebastopol. Medical emergency and paramedic services are provided through Ambulance Victoria and include the Rural Ambulance Victoria, St. John Ambulance and Ballarat Base Hospital ambulance services. City of Ballarat is responsible for coordinating the Municipal Emergency Management Planning Committee (MEMPC) which prepares the Municipal Emergency Management Plan which is actioned in conjunction with local police.\n","\n===Newspapers===\nBallarat has two local newspapers, both owned by Fairfax. ''The Courier'' is a daily and ''The Miner'' is a free weekly. The latter is distributed across most of the city on Wednesdays and contains news of community events, advertisements for local businesses, real estate and a classifieds sections.\n\n===Radio stations===\nRadio House, Lydiard Street North. Home to 3BA and Power FM\nLocal radio stations include 3BA, Power FM and several community radio stations. There is also a Ballarat branch of ABC Local Radio's national network.\n\n* 102.3 FM – 3BA (local \"classic hits\" commercial radio station)\n* 103.1 FM – Power FM 103.1 FM (local \"top-40\" commercial radio station)\n* 99.9 FM – Voice FM 99.9 – formerly known as 3BBB (local community radio station)\n* 107.9 FM – ABC Local Radio (government-funded local news, current affairs, light entertainment and talkback)\n* 103.9 FM – Good News Radio 103.9 (Christian community-based radio station)\n\n===Television===\nTelevision station BTV Channel 6 Ballarat commenced transmission of test patterns on 17 March 1962. Among the many local programs BTV6 produced, the 90 minute live variety program ''Six Tonight'' (1971–1983), hosted by local Ballarat identity Fred Fargher, was one of the few live Australian programs of this type being presented in Australia.\n\nIn his 1999 book ''And Now Here's...'' (Four Decades of Behind the Scenes Fun in Australian Television), Mike McColl Jones fondly remembers local live television variety:\n\n\"...and in Ballarat, Victoria, a Tonight show (\"Six Tonight\") was carving its name into Australian television history. The show, hosted by Fred Fargher, ran for 13 years, and managed to attract many of the top name entertainers in the world, simply by offering them a limo ride to this beautiful country centre, a no-pressure spot on the show, and then a great dinner afterwards at one of the city's excellent restaurants. The sheer bravado of the offer enticed some of show business' biggest names\".\n\nToday Ballarat is serviced by numerous \"free to air\" High Definition and Standard Definition Digital television services. Two television broadcasting stations are located in the city, including WIN, GEM HD and GO! (sub-licensees of Nine Network) and Prime7, 7Two, 7mate (a sub-licensee of Seven Network). These two stations broadcast relayed services throughout regional Victoria. The city also receives Southern Cross Ten, One HD and Eleven (sub-licensee's of Network Ten) which is based in Bendigo but operates a local office.\n\nBallarat television maintains a similar schedule to the national television network but maintains local commercials and regional news programmingWIN produces a 30-minute local news bulletin each weeknight from its studios in the city, where bulletins for Albury, Bendigo, Gippsland, Shepparton and Mildura also originate. Southern Cross Ten provides short local news updates from its Canberra studios throughout the day. In addition to commercial television services, Ballarat receives Government ABC (ABC1, ABC2, ABC3, ABC News 24) and SBS (SBS One and Two) television services.\n\nOn 5 May 2011, analog television transmissions ceased in most areas of regional Victoria and some border regions including Ballarat and surrounding areas. All local free-to-air television services are now broadcasting in digital transmission only. This was done as part of the federal government's plan for digital terrestrial television in Australia, where all analogue transmission systems are gradually turned off and replaced with modern DVB-T transmission systems.\n\nSubscription television services are provided by Neighbourhood Cable, Foxtel and SelecTV.\n","\nFederation University Australia's SMB campus is set among the heritage buildings of Lydiard Street Sth including the former School of Mines and Industry (left), former Supreme Court and former Ballarat Gaol (rear)\nSchool of Mines Building\nBallarat has two universities, Federation University and a campus of the Australian Catholic University.\n\nFormerly the University of Ballarat, Federation University Australia was opened in 2014. It originated as the Ballarat School of Mines, founded in 1870, and was once affiliated with the University of Melbourne. The main campus is located in Mount Helen, approximately southeast of the city. The university also has campuses in the Ballarat CBD, Horsham, Churchill, Ararat and Stawell.\n\nThe Australian Catholic University's Ballarat campus is located on Mair Street. It was formerly the Aquinas Training College, run by the Ballarat East Sisters of Mercy in 1909. It is ACU's only campus located outside of a capital city.\n\nBallarat has four State Government-operated secondary schools of which Ballarat High School (established in 1907) is the oldest. Ballarat High School and Mount Clear College are the only state school members of the Ballarat Associated Schools. The two remaining schools are Phoenix College and Ballarat Secondary College. Ballarat Secondary College was formed in 1994 by the amalgamation of Ballarat East Secondary College, Wendouree Secondary College and Midlands Secondary College. Phoenix College was formed in 2012 as an amalgamation of Sebastopol College and Redan Primary School.\n\nThe city is well serviced by Catholic schools, with eight primary schools and three secondary colleges which include the all-boys St Patrick's College, the all-girls Loreto College and the co-educational Damascus College, which was formed by the amalgamation of St Martin's in the Pines, St Paul's College and Sacred Heart College in 1995.\n\nBallarat has three other non-government secondary schools: Ballarat Christian College, Ballarat Clarendon College and Ballarat Grammar School.\nThe later two schools are day and boarding schools who provide education from Preschool to Year 12. Both of these co-educational schools are classified as academically excellent as the only Ballarat schools to be ranked on the tables of the top 100 Victorian schools based on median VCE scores and percentage of scores of 40 and above. In 2015, Clarendon was placed at 9th best VCE results in the State, above Melbourne Grammar, Geelong College, Scotch College, Trinity Grammar School (Victoria), Xavier College, and Haileybury College. Ballarat Grammar was placed at 82nd, above Wesley College, Geelong Grammar and Tintern.\n\nThe City of Ballarat has three public libraries, the largest and most extensive of which is the City of Ballarat Library, run by the Central Highlands Regional Library Corporation and located on Doveton Street North. Another library service is provided by the Ballarat Mechanics' Institute in Sturt Street, which is the oldest library in the city and a significant heritage site; it contains a collection of historic, archival and rare reference material as well as more general books.\n\n\nFile:BallaratMechanicsInstitute1909.jpg|The newspaper reading room of the Ballarat Mechanics' Institute in 1909\nFile:BallaratMechanicsInstitute1942.jpg|American and Australian soldiers in the reading room of the Ballarat Mechanics' Institute in 1942\nFile:Ballarat mechanics institute.jpg|Ballarat mechanics institute\n\n","\n=== Heritage ===\nThe Ballarat railway station is notable for being one of only three surviving nineteenth-century station buildings in Australia to retain a train hall\n\nBallarat is renowned for its cultural heritage and decorative arts, especially applied to the built environment, combined with the gold rush, this has created a picturesque urban landscape.\nIn 2003 Ballarat was the first of two Australian cities to be registered as a member of the International League of Historical Cities and in 2006 hosted the 10th World League of Historical Cities Congress.\n\nRestoration of historic buildings is encouraged including a low interest council Heritage Loans Scheme. and the prevention of demolition by neglect discouraged by council policies. Since the 1970s, the local council has become increasingly aware of the economic and social value of heritage preservation. This is in stark contrast to the 1950s and 60s when Ballarat followed Melbourne in encouraging the removal of Victorian buildings, verandahs in particular. Recent restoration projects funded by the Ballarat include the reconstruction of significant cast iron lace verandahs including the Mining Exchange, Art Gallery (2007), Mechanics institute (2005–) on Lydiard Street and in 2010 the restoration of the Town Hall and the long neglected Unicorn Hotel façade on Sturt Street.\n\nBallarat Citizens for Thoughtful Development formed in 1998 and was incorporated as Ballarat Heritage Watch in 2005 to ensure that the city's architectural heritage is given due consideration in the planning process.\n\nThe Ballarat Botanical Gardens (established in 1858) are recognised as the finest example of a regional botanical gardens in Australia and are home to many heritage listed exotic tree species and feature a modern glasshouse and horticultural centre and the Prime Ministers Avenue which features bronze busts of every past Australian Prime Minister.\n\nAustralian Ex-Prisoners of War Memorial\nBallarat is notable for its very wide boulevards. The main street is Sturt Street and is considered among one of the finest main avenues in Australia with over of central gardens known as the Sturt Street Gardens featuring bandstands, fountains, statues, monuments, memorials and lampposts. Ballarat is home to the largest of a collection of several Avenues of Honour in Victoria. The Ballarat Avenue of Honour consists of a total of approximately 4,000 trees, mostly deciduous which in many parts arch completely over the road. Each tree has a bronze plaque dedicated to a soldier from the Ballarat region who enlisted during World War I. The Avenue of Honour and the Arch of Victory are on the Victorian Heritage Register and are seen by approximately 20,000 visitors each year.\n\nThe city also has the greatest concentration of public statuary in any Australian city with many parks and streets featuring sculptures and statues dating from the 1860s to the present. Some of the other notable memorials located in the Sturt Street Gardens in the middle of Ballarat's main boulevard include a bandstand situated in the heart of the city that was funded and built by the City of Ballarat Band in 1913 as a tribute to the bandsmen of the , a fountain dedicated to the early explorers Burke and Wills, and those dedicated to monarchs and those who have played pivotal roles in the development of the city and its rich social fabric.\n\nBallarat has an extensive array of significant war memorials, the most recent of which is the Australian Ex Prisoner of War Memorial. The most prominent memorial in the city is the Ballarat Victory Arch that spans the old Western Highway on the Western approaches of the city. The archway serves as the focal point for the Avenue of Honour. Other significant individual monuments located along Sturt Street include those dedicated to the Boer War (1899–1901), the World War II (1939–1945) cenotaph, and Vietnam (1962–1972) (located adjacent to the Arch of Victory).\n\n====Commercial and civic buildings====\nBallarat Fine Art Gallery, Lydiard Street North\nThe legacy of the wealth generated during Ballarat's gold boom is still visible in a large number of fine stone buildings in and around the city, especially in the Lydiard Street area. This precinct contains some of Victoria's finest examples of Victorian era buildings, many of which are on the Victorian Heritage Register or classified by the National Trust of Australia.\n\nNotable civic buildings include the Town Hall (1870–72), the former Post Office (1864), the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery (1887), the Mechanics' Institute (1860, 1869), the Queen Victoria Wards of the Ballarat Base Hospital (1890s) and the Ballarat railway station (1862, 1877, 1888).\n\nOther historic buildings include the Provincial Hotel (1909), Reid's Coffee Palace (1886), Craig's Royal Hotel (1862–1890) and Her Majesty's Theatre (1875), the oldest intact and operating lyric theatre in Australia and Ballarat Fire Station (1864, 1911) one of Victoria's oldest fire fighting structures and the Jewish synagogue (1861) the oldest surviving synagogue on the Australian mainland.\n\n====Galleries====\nThe Ballarat Fine Art Gallery houses one of Australia's oldest and most extensive collections of early Australian works. It is considered to have the best Australian collection outside any capital city in Australia.\n\nFederation University Australia operates the Post Office Gallery in the Wardell designed former Post Office on the corner of Sturt and Lydiard Streets.\n\n===Events and festivals===\nBallarat is home to many annual festivals and events that attract thousands of visitors. The oldest large annual event is the Ballarat Agricultural Show (since 1859), currently held at the Ballarat Showgrounds and has attracted attendances of up to 30,000 and is an official public holiday for residents of the city.\n\nLake Wendouree is featured in many including the biggest and most prominent is the Begonia Festival (held annually since 1953). SpringFest (held annually since 2001) attracts more than 15,000 people from around Victoria and features market stalls and activities around the lake.\n\nAnnual Agricultural Society Show at Ballarat Showgrounds, Wendouree\nThe controversial Ballarat Swap Meet (formerly the Super Southern Swap Meet and held annually since 1989) attracts 30,000 visitors a year. Ballarat Heritage Weekend (held annually since 2006) celebrates the city's heritage with activities such as historic vehicles and displays in and around the CBD and has attracted as many as 14,500 visitors a year from around Victoria. The Ballarat Beer Festival at the City Oval (since 2012) has attracted more than 4,000 visitors. The Ballarat Airport Open Day (Ballarat's unofficial air show, held annually since 2009) also attracts thousands.\n\nOther minor cultural festivals include the Ballarat Writers Festival, Ballarat International Foto Biennialle and the Goldfields Music Festival.\n\n===Entertainment===\nHer Majesty's Theatre façade (1875), Lydiard Street Sth.\nBallarat has a lively and well established theatrical community with several local ensembles as well as a number of large performing arts venues. Major performing arts venues include:\n* Her Majesty's Theatre – Seating 940\n* Post Office Box Theatre (Federation University Australia Arts Academy, Camp Street Campus) – Flexible Seating up to 100\n* Helen Macpherson Smith Performing Arts Theatre (Federation University Australia, Arts Academy Camp Street Campus) – Seating 200\n* The 1870 Founders Theatre (Federation University Australia, Mount Helen Campus) – Seating 600\n* The Courthouse Theatre (Federation University Australia, SMB Campus) – Seating 140\n* The Victoria Theatre (Sovereign Hill) – Seating 300\n* Wendouree Centre for Performing Arts (Ballarat Grammar School) – Seating 900\n* Gay E. Gough Theatre (Mount Clear Secondary College) – Seating 350\n* Mechanics Institute hall (seating 700) is used from time to time for travelling performances and cinema shows.\n\nThe Ballarat Civic Hall is a large public building constructed in 1958 as a general purpose venue. Its stripped classical design was heavily criticised during its planning, however it has gained some cultural significance to the city with its cavernous spaces holding many significant events over the years. Civic Hall was closed in 2002 and there have been moves to redevelop it for many years with some calls to retain the building as a venue.\n\nBallarat has its own symphony orchestra, the Ballarat Symphony Orchestra which was formed in 1987. Some notable theatre organisations in Ballarat include BLOC (Ballarat Light Opera Company) founded in 1959. Ballarat is also the home to Australia's oldest and largest annual performing arts eisteddfod. The Royal South Street Eisteddfod is an all-encompassing performing arts festival and competition event that is conducted over twelve weeks annually.\n\nThe modest 1853 Bath's Hotel grew to become the grand Craig's Royal Hotel in anticipation of the royal visit of Prince Alfred. The current buildings date to 1890.\nIn the 1970s the Ballarat urban area contained no less than 60 hotels. The introduction of gaming machines in the early 1990s has brought about significant change in the city entertainment precincts. By 2006 at least 20 hotels had closed and some of those that remain have been redeveloped as dining and/or gaming venues. Gaming machines have brought significant revenue to the remaining hotels, sports and social clubs which has enabled many to expand and modernise. The city has several dance clubs as well as a highly active live music and jazz scene. Hotels are popular meeting places for young people. The city has many fine restaurants, wine bars and eateries as well as themed restaurants. A large cinema complex consisting of several theatres is located behind the façade of the old Regent cinemas in the heart of the city. Dance parties are popular within the Ballarat area; BTR is an organisation founded in 2006 that has begun hosting dance events in Ballarat.\n\n==== Music and live entertainment ====\nBallarat has a significant music scene and a number of established music venues. Ballarat has produced several note worthy bands and musicians. Notable musicians from Ballarat include composer and violinist Warren Ellis, and alternative bands The Mavis's, Epicure and The Dead Salesmen.\n\n===Sport and recreation===\nAFL pre-season match. Western Bulldogs vs Melbourne. Eureka Stadium, Wendouree.\nBallarat has a number of large parks, sport fields, organised sporting clubs and associations. Australian rules football and cricket are the most popular spectator and participation sports in Ballarat, while soccer, basketball, netball, horse racing and rowing have large followings. There are stadiums, both indoor and outdoor as well as training facilities for most sports.\n\nAustralian rules football is played at semi-professional and amateur levels with a large number of players at numerous venues, both dedicated such as Eureka Stadium and shared with cricket. The North Ballarat Roosters based out of Eureka Stadium compete in the Victorian Football League. The Western Bulldogs AFL Club will commence playing periodic home games at the redevloped Eureka Stadium from 2017. The Ballarat Football League (founded 1893) is a strong regional league of which there are 6 local teams (Ballarat, EastPoint, Redan, Sebastopol, Lake Wendouree and North Ballarat City). The Ballarat Football Club (founded 1860) remains one of the oldest football clubs in the world. Other city teams from Buninyong and North Ballarat compete in the regional Central Highlands Football League.\n\nCricket is also played extensively with three international standard cricket ovals. Ballarat's Eastern Oval hosted a game in the 1992 Cricket World Cup. Horse racing and greyhound racing are popular, with dedicated facilities. The Harness Racing centre is considered to be among the best in Australia. The Ballarat Turf Club schedules around 28 race meetings a year including the Ballarat Cup meeting in mid-November. Ballarat Harness Racing Club conducts regular meetings at its racetrack in the city.\n\nThe Ballarat Greyhound Racing Club holds regular meetings at Sebastopol.\n\nBasketball is played at various levels with the Ballarat Miners and Ballarat Rush competing in the South East Australian Basketball League and playing out of the MARS Minerdome. Netball is similarly popular, with many netball clubs affiliated with local Australian rules clubs including Wendouree, East Point, Eureka, North Ballarat, Redan, Brown Hill and the Ballarat Netball Association. Rowing and kayaking is centred on Lake Wendouree and the sport is particularly popular with the high schools. The lake hosts the Victorian Schools Rowing Championships as well as the annual \"Head of the Lake\" rowing regatta—contested by Ballarat High School, Ballarat and Clarendon College, Ballarat Grammar School, St Patrick's College and Loreto College. The city hosted rowing events for the 1956 Olympic Games.\n\nAssociation Football (known locally as soccer) is mostly played at an amateur level. The local competition is known as the Ballarat & District Soccer Association, which consists of 13 teams. The Ballarat Red Devils are the biggest soccer club in Ballarat and play in the FFV National Premier League Victoria 1 West. Their home ground is Morshead Park Stadium, located in central Ballarat, which was recently significantly redeveloped.\n\nAthletics facilities include an international standard athletics track at Llanberris Reserve on York Street Golden Point which is an Athletics Victoria venue and home to local athletics and little athletics clubs. Swimming and water sport is facilitated at two Olympic-sized pools as well as an indoor competition short course pool. The main facility is the Ballarat Aquatic Centre located at Gillies Street Lake Gardens in the city's west. Baseball was first organised in Australia at Ballarat in 1857. The Alfredton Eagles, Ballarat City Brewers and Mounties YC field teams in the Geelong Baseball Association Winter Division.\n\nGolf is played at four main venues which include the Ballarat Golf Course on Sturt Street in the Easter suburb of Alfredton, home to the Ballarat Golf Club; the Midlands Golf Course on Heinz Lane in the northern suburb of Invermay Park which is home to the Midlands Golf Club; the Eureka Golf Course at Elford Street in the eastern suburb of Ballarat East and in the southern suburb of Buninyong at the Buninyong Golf Course.\n\nThe Ballarat Roller Derby League was formed in 2008, and held their first match in 2009. They have two teams who compete in local events, and a combined travelling team, the Rat Pack, who compete in interleague roller derby competitions. Lake Wendouree is a large recreational lake that was created out of former wetlands and hosted the rowing events for the 1956 Summer Olympics. Victoria Park is an expansive reserve with tree-lined avenues and sporting fields in suburban Newington. The suburbs feature some privately run wildlife parks including Ballarat Wildlife Park in Ballarat East and Ballarat Bird World in Buninyong.\n\n===Popular culture===\nBallarat has inspired many visual artists. Eugene von Guerard documented the city's establishment as a gold digging settlement, while Albert Henry Fullwood and Knut Bull depicted the city's boom era streetscapes. Ballarat features prominently in literature and fiction, including \"The Boscombe Valley Mystery\", a short story from Arthur Conan Doyle's ''The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes'' (1891); ''King Billy of Ballarat and Other Stories'' (1892) by Morley Roberts; ''The Fortunes of Richard Mahony'' (1917) by Henry Handel Richardson; ''Murder on the Ballarat Train'' (1993) by Kerry Greenwood; and ''Illywhacker'' (1985) by Peter Carey.\n\nBallarat is also a popular filming location. Australia's second oldest feature film, ''Eureka Stockade'' (1907), is the first in a line of films about the historic Ballarat event. The city makes cameos in ''Dogs in Space'' (1986), ''My Brother Jack'' (2001), ''Ned Kelly'' (2003) and ''The Writer'' (2005). The television series ''The Doctor Blake Mysteries'' (2012–) is set in Ballarat and also mostly shot there.\n\nTwo ships of the Royal Australian Navy have been named HMAS Ballarat after the city, HMAS Ballarat (J184) and HMAS Ballarat (FFH 155).\n\n=== Notable persons ===\n\n\nBust of Alfred Deakin, first federal member for Ballaarat at the Prime Ministers Avenue.\nA great many notable people's origins are in the Ballarat region, with the most prominent being high-ranking politicians and sportspeople.\n\nSeveral former prime ministers of Australia were either born in or lived in Ballarat, and this was recognised by the city's Prime Minister's Avenue. Alfred Deakin, the second prime minister, was the first federal parliament MP for Ballarat. Sir Robert Menzies, and James Scullin were both educated in Ballarat. John Curtin was born in nearby Creswick and his wife Elsie was born in Ballarat. Several premiers of the Australian states were born in Ballarat, including Ballarat born Sir Henry Bolte, Steve Bracks, Thomas Hollway, and Henry Daglish. Additionally Duncan Gillies lived in and represented Ballarat in the Victorian Legislative Assembly before becoming state premier.\n\nAn additional political activist included Francis William Hyet is trade unionist and born in Ballarat. He was heavily inclined towards socialism which became a calling for his way of life. He became involved with the Social Democratic Party in 1905 and following the Victorian Socialist Party in 1906. Hyett was a very prominent in the anti-conscription campaign. He was able to harness the union's newspaper which became a medium for the anti-conscriptionists.\n\nOutside politics other prominent public figures include Peter Lalor, a notable historical figure in Australia as the leader of the Eureka Rebellion (1854) and a parliamentarian; the inventor George Alfred Julius, who spent part of his childhood there when his father was a local Anglican cleric; the inventor Henry Sutton was born and worked in Ballarat; and Cardinal George Pell, the former Catholic Archbishop of Melbourne and Sydney was born in Ballarat and worked in the area for some time.\n\nBallarat has also produced many notable athletes including the Olympic long distance runner Steve Moneghetti and four time Olympic basketball player Ray Borner. A large number of notable Australian rules football identities have come from Ballarat, including Australian Football Hall of Fame members Tony Lockett and Bob Davis.\n\nIn addition, Henry Sutton was an inventor from Ballarat. Sutton designed an electric continuous current dynamo with a practical ring armature. This design could be used as an electric motor and the rapid incline of the electrical industry followed. Sutton was involved in devising and constructing different telephone designs. Sutton interacted closely with Bell (the inventor of the telephone), Bell came to visit Sutton in order to see a complete telephone system that was set up in Sutton's family warehouse.\n","\n===Health===\nBallarat Base Hospital's Henry Bolte wing (completed in 1994) Drummond St Nth\nBallarat has two major hospitals. The public health services are managed by Ballarat Health Services including the Ballarat Base which services the entire region and the Queen Elizabeth Centre for aged care on Ascot Street Sth. The St John of God Health Care centre also on Drummond Street Nth, established in 1915 is currently the largest private hospital in regional Victoria.\n\nThe Ballarat Regional Integrated Cancer Centre (BRICC) on the corner of Drummond and Sturt Street includes a number of facilities focused on cancer treatment.\n\nThe Heart Foundation did a study in 2014 that Ballarat had the highest level of physical inactivity (85.3 per cent) in Australia and that 32.9 per cent of residents were deemed obese.\n\n===Utilities===\nBallarat's residents are serviced by a wide range of public utilities including water, gas and electricity, telephony and data communications supplied, overseen and regulated by state based authorities and private enterprise and local council.\n\nWater supply as well as sewage collection and disposal are provided by Central Highlands Water. Drinking water is sourced from a network reservoirs all located in the highlands to the east, however the majority is sourced from two main reservoirs—Lal Lal and White Swan. The Lal Lal Reservoir (built in 1970 with a capacity of ) is Ballarat's largest water catchment accounting for approximately two thirds of the city's water usage. The White Swan reservoir (built in 1952 with a capacity) supplies most of the remainder. Since May 2008, the White Swan has been topped up by water from Bendigo's Sandhurst Reservoir through the Goldfields Superpipe with water originally sourced from the Goulburn River system. Kirks Reservoir (built between 1860 and 1862 with a capacity of ) and Gong Gong Reservoir (built in 1877 at Gong Gong, Victoria with a capacity of ) are historic main water supplies now maintained for emergency use. Other reservoirs supplying Ballarat include Moorabool reservoir (located in Bolwarrah, Victoria with a capacity of ), Wilson's Reservoir (located in the Wombat State Forest with a capacity of ), Beales reservoir (built 1863 located at Wallace with a capacity of ) and Pincotts reservoir (built 1867 located at Leigh Creek, Victoria with a capacity of ). Sewage is managed by two plants—the Ballarat North Wastewater Treatment Plant and the Ballarat South Waste Water Treatment Plant.\n\nResidential electricity is supplied by Victorian electricity distributor Powercor, while residential natural gas is supplied by AGL Energy.\n\nTelephone services are provided via the Doveton Street (BRAT) telephone exchange which was originally built by the Australian Telecommunications Commission (now known as Telstra) who remains its owner, though Optus now also operates services from this facility. The city's cellular network currently uses Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS). Telstra has provided mobile telecommunications to Ballarat since 2003 (initially as CDMA). Optus provided competition with its entrance to the market in 2003 along with significant service upgrades in 2004 followed by Vodafone in mid-2009.\n\nData communications are provided by several companies. Telstra was the first company to provide dial-up Internet access via the Ballarat exchange, however the first network for broadband Internet access available in the city was a hybrid optical fiber cable and coaxial cable built by Neighbourhood Cable in 2001. Since then, Telstra and Optus have entered the Ballarat market, providing Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) services for residential Internet access from four main exchanges—Ballarat, Wendouree (Howitt Street), Sebastopol (Skipton Street) and Alfredton (Cuthberts Road). These companies also provide mobile data access Evolved HSPA and since late 2011 3GPP Long Term Evolution (4G). Ballarat's rollout of the National Broadband Network (NBN) is seen as vital for the city's growing IT industry. During Ballarat's first stage NBN rollout in 2012, 17,800 homes will be directly connected to the network via optical fibre cable.\n\n===Transport===\n\n====Road====\nA view of the Western Freeway (M8) at Nerrina looking west toward Doodts Road, Ballarat North and Invermay from the Nerrina pedestrian overpass.\nRoad transport and the motor vehicle is the main form of transport. A network of state highways radiate from Ballarat and the Western Freeway (A8) is dual carriageway bypasses the central city to the north of the urban area, providing a direct road connection to Melbourne (approximately 90 minutes), westward to Ararat (approximately 75 minutes) and Horsham. Five freeway interchanges service the urban area, East Ballarat (half diamond) interchange at Victoria Street (C805); Brown Hill interchange (full diamond) at Daylesford-Ballarat Road (C292), Creswick Road interchange (full diamond) at Wendouree (A300); the Mount Rowan interchange (half diamond) at Gillies Road, Wendouree (C307) and the Mitchell Park interchange (full diamond) at Howe Street (C287). The Midland Highway is a dual carriageway which runs north along Creswick Road to the Western Freeway interchange but becomes a single carriageway north of Ballarat to Creswick (approximately 25 minutes) and runs south as the dual carriageway of Skipton Road to Magpie before becoming a single carriageway to Geelong (approximately 87 minutes). The Glenelg Highway connects directly to Mount Gambier and the Sunraysia Highway west of Ballarat which connects directly to Mildura.\n\nSturt Street and Victoria Street, both dual carriageways carry the bulk of the east-west CBD traffic, while Mair Street is planned to become a four lane dual carriageway to relieve pressure on these main streets. Other dual carriageway main roads in the west include Howitt Street and Gillies Street. The busiest roads by far are located in the west and south at Albert Street in Redan, Sturt Street in Newington and Gillies Street in Lake Gardens which carry 22,400, 22,000 and 21,500 vehicles per day respectively and all have 4 traffic lanes.\n\n====Bus, coach and taxi====\n\nBallarat is also served by an extensive public bus service operated by CDC Ballarat. They operate 15 routes across the city, routes 10-15, 20-26, 30 & 31, and school bus services..\n* Route 10 - Ballarat Station - Alfredton via Wendouree\n* Route 11 - Ballarat Station - Wendouree Station via Howitt St \n* Route 12 - Ballarat Station - Wendouree Station via Forest St \n* Route 13 - Ballarat Station - Invermay Park \n* Route 14 - Ballarat Station - Black Hill \n* Route 15 - Ballarat Station - Brown Hill \n* Route 20 - Ballarat Station - Canadian \n* Route 21 - Ballarat Station - Buninyong via Federation University \n* Route 22 - Ballarat Station - Federation University via Sebastopol \n* Route 23 - Ballarat Station - Mount Pleasant \n* Route 24 - Ballarat Station - Sebastopol \n* Route 25 - Ballarat Station - Delacombe \n* Route 26 - Ballarat Station - Alfredton \n* Route 30 - Ballarat Station - Creswick \n* Route 31 - Wendouree Station - Miners Rest\n\nNumerous private companies service suburban, intercity and interstate routes with coach services. Gold Bus provides additional suburban services as well as the Ballarat School Bus Network. Ballarat railway station is a major regional terminal for coach services. V/Line operates direct services to regional Victorian locations including Melbourne, Geelong, Bendigo, Warrnambool, Mildura, Nhill, Ouyen, Halls Gap, Daylesford, Maryborough as well as the South Australian cities of Adelaide and Mount Gambier. Gold Bus operates direct regional services to links to both Avoca and Maryborough, while Sandlants operates a direct service to Stawell. There is also a direct bus service to Melbourne's Tullamarine Airport with the Ballarat Airport Shuttlebus. Interstate coaches from Greyhound Australia and Firefly Express coaches stop at Ballarat on route between Melbourne and Adelaide. The local taxi fleet consists of over 57 vehicles services in all suburbs and is currently operated by Ballarat Taxis Co-op Ltd. Taxis and bus are the only late night public transport option in the city.VLocity railcars inside the train shed at Ballarat railway station\nA tourist tram on Wendouree Parade\n'''Rail'''\n\nBallarat has historically been a major rail transport hub in Victoria, situated at the junction of the Ballarat line, Ararat line and Mildura lines it currently has several connections for both passenger rail services and freight rail.\n\nThe city has two passenger railway stations, the hub of Ballarat railway station and suburban Wendouree railway station. From Ballarat station, V/Line operates VLocity trains running at up to east to Melbourne, west to Ararat and north to Maryborough. Since the controversial removal of \"flagship\" express services in 2011, successive timetable changes have slowed peak hour services to Southern Cross Station, with the current journey taking a minimum of 73 minutes. Patronage however has continued to grow. The Regional Rail Link project is aimed at separating Ballarat trains from Melbourne's suburban rail network. Interurban services (Ballarat-Melbourne) now run half-hourly during weekday peak and hourly during weekday non-peak and on weekends from Ballarat station. A twice daily (thrice daily on weekdays) (57 minute) service connects Ballarat to Ararat (stopping at Beaufort) while there is a (53 minute) service to and from Maryborough (stopping at Creswick, Clunes, and Talbot) once a day (twice a day on weekdays) each way. Victoria's electronic ticketing system, Myki, was implemented on rail services between Wendouree and Melbourne on 24 July 2013.\n\nBallarat is connected to Geelong by rail via the Geelong-Ballarat railway line, which currently operates only for freight (passenger services were withdrawn in 1978) although in 2011, a planning study began for returning of passenger services along the line to investigate connecting both cities to Bendigo via Maryborough and Castlemaine. There are also several disused railway corridors and stations along the Skipton railway, Buninyong railway. A former branch line built in 1886 to Redan was sold off by VicTrack and finally dismantled in 2010. The freight line forked off the Singleton line at Lake Gardens running south through Alfredton and then east parallel to Latrobe Street, past the Cattle yards and on to Redan (now Delacombe).\n\nThe once extensive Ballarat tramway network operated between 1887 and 1971 with a small section of remaining track being utilised as a tourist and museum tramway. There have been proposals to extend the network, particularly as a major tourist facility but also to connect it to the railways and return it as a viable component of the Ballarat public transport system, including a strong lobby in 2001–2002, 2010–11 and 2014, however Ballarat City Council and federal member of parliament have dismissed recent proposals.\n\n====Air====\nBallarat Aerodrome from above\nBallarat Airport located north-west of the CBD consists of two sealed runways (each approximately long and wide) as well as extensive sealed aprons, night lighting and NDB navaid. A Master Plan for the Aerodrome was completed in 2005 followed by an Airport Master Plan in 2013. The report made a series of recommendations and forecasts that included eventual lengthening, widening and strengthening of the existing main runway up to , consideration for expansion of the passenger terminal and recommendations for future use of aprons and development of future structures supporting larger aircraft and increased frequent usage. It was forecast that by 2012–2015 regular domestic passenger services using 40–50 seat commuter aircraft could feasibly commence.\n\n====Cycling====\nBallarat has a long history of cycling as a form of transport and recreation. The current cycling network continues to grow and consists of several marked on-road routes and of segregated bicycle facilities including several main routes:Ballarat–Skipton Rail Trail, Yarrowee River Trail with connections to the Gong Gong Reservoir. Buningyong Trail, Sebastopol Trail, and the Lake Wendouree shared path. The Ballarat Bicycle Users Group provides advocacy for the growing number of cyclists in the city. The popularity of cycling in Ballarat is also demonstrated by the large number of spectators and participants drawn to cycling sporting events held in the city.\n","Ballarat is home to three bikie chapters, most notably the Finks Motorcycle Club, who, in 2010, were planning to build a club house and training centre in the city. Other bikie chapters in the city are the Vikings and the Bandidos Motorcycle Club. The city was the subject of an ABC ''Four Corners'' report on the use of methamphetamine in Australia, along with Devonport, Burnie, Castlemaine and St Arnaud. Ballarat also has 3 police stations: Ballarat, Ballarat North and Ballarat West.\n","\n","'''History books'''\n* Bate, Weston. ''Lucky City: The First Generation of Ballarat 1851–1901'' (1978)\n* Bate, Weston. ''Life After Gold: Twentieth-Century Ballarat'' Melbourne University Press (1993)\n* Carboni, Raffaello. ''The Eureka Stockade'' (1980) first published (1855)\n* Goodman, David. ''Gold Seeking: Victorian and California in the 1850s'' (1994)\n* Jacobs, Wendy. ''Ballarat: A Guide to Buildings and Areas 1851–1940'' Jacob Lewis Vines Conservation Architects and Planners (1981)\n* Lynch, John. ''The Story of the Eureka Stockade: Epic Days in the early fifties at Ballarat'', (1947?)\n* Flett, James. ''The History of Gold Discovery in Victoria''\n* Molony, John. ''Eureka'', (1984)\n* Molony, John. ''By Wendouree'', (2010)\n* Serle, Geoffrey. ''The Golden Age: A History of the Colony of Victoria, 1851–1860'', (1963)\n* Freund, Peter, with Val Sarah. ''Her Maj: A History of Her Majesty's Theatre, Ballarat'' (2007)\n* Ballarat City Council\n* Victorian Heritage Register, Heritage Victoria\n","\n\n\n* Ballarat City Council\n* Visit Ballarat – Ballarats Official Tourism website\n* Ballarat – Tourism Victoria – Government tourism site.\n* Ballarat and District Industrial Heritage Project\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n'''Ballarat''' is a city located on the Yarrowee River in the Central Highlands of Victoria, Australia. The city is approximately west-north-west of the state capital, Melbourne, with a population of some 101,686. It is the third largest population for an inland city in Australia. Locals are known as 'Ballaratians'.\\n\\nBallarat is arguably the most significant Victorian era gold rush boomtown in Australia. Just months after Victoria was granted separation from the state of New South Wales, the Victorian gold rush transformed Ballarat from a small sheep station to a major settlement. Gold was discovered at Poverty Point on 18 August 1851, and news quickly spread of rich alluvial fields where gold could easily be extracted. Within months, migrants from across the world had rushed to the district in search of gold. Unlike many other gold boom towns, the Ballarat fields experienced sustained high gold yields for many decades, which can be evidenced to this day in the city's rich architecture.\\n\\nThe Eureka Rebellion began in Ballarat, and the only armed rebellion in Australian history, the Battle of Eureka Stockade, took place on 3 December 1854. In response to the event the first male suffrage in Australia was instituted and as such Eureka is interpreted by some as the origin of democracy in Australia. The gold rush and boom gave birth to many other significant cultural legacies. The rebellion's symbol, the Eureka Flag, has become a national symbol and is held at the Museum of Australian Democracy at Eureka in Ballarat. Other nationally significant heritage structures include the Ballarat Botanical Gardens (established 1857), with the greatest concentration of public statuary, the official Prime Ministers Avenue, the longest running lyric theatre building (Her Majesty's Theatre, established 1875), the first municipal observatory, established 1886, and the earliest and longest war memorial avenue (the Avenue of Honour, established between 1917 and 1919).\\n\\nProclaimed a city in 1871, its prosperity continued until late in the 19th century, after which its importance relative to both Melbourne and Geelong rapidly faded with the slowing of gold extraction. It has endured as a major regional centre hosting the rowing and kayaking events from the 1956 Summer Olympics. It is the commercial capital of the Central Highlands and the largest city in the Goldfields region of Victoria, as well a significant tourist destination. Ballarat is known for its history, culture and its well-preserved Victorian era heritage, with much of the city subject to heritage overlays. After a narrow popular vote the city merged with the town of Ballarat East in 1921, ending a long standing rivalry.\\n\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n=== Prehistory and European settlement ===\\nPrior to the European settlement of Australia, the Ballarat region was populated by the Wathaurong people, an Indigenous Australian people. The Boro gundidj tribe's territory was based along the Yarrowee River.\\n\\nThe first Europeans to sight the area were an 1837 party of six mostly Scottish squatters from Geelong, led by Somerville Learmonth, who were in search of land less affected by the severe drought for their sheep to graze. The party scaled Mount Buninyong; among them were Somerville's brother Thomas Livingstone Learmonth, William Cross Yuille and Henry Anderson, all three of whom later claimed land in what is now Ballarat.\\n\\nThe Yuille family, Scottish settlers Archibald Buchanan Yuille and his brother William Cross Yuille, arrived in 1837 and squatted a sheep run. The first houses were built near Woolshed Creek by William Yuille and Anderson (Sebastopol), while Yuille erected a hut at Black Swamp (Lake Wendouree) in 1838. Outsiders originally knew of the settlement as Yuille's Station and Yuille's Swamp. Archibald Yuille named the area \\\"Ballaarat\\\" Some claim the name is derived from a local Wathaurong Aboriginal word for the area, ''balla arat''. The meaning of this word is not certain; however several translations have been made and it is generally thought to mean \\\"resting place\\\". In some dialects, ''balla'' means \\\"bent elbow\\\", which is translated to mean reclining or resting and ''arat'' meaning \\\"place\\\". Another claim is that the name derives from Yuille's native Gaelic Baile Ararat (Town of Ararat), alluding to the resting place of Noah's ark. The present spelling was officially adopted by the City of Ballarat in 1996.\\n\\n=== 1850s: Gold rush ===\\nBallarat's tent city in the summer of 1853–1854 oil painting from an original sketch by Eugene von Guerard.\\n\\nThe first publicised discovery of gold in the region was by Thomas Hiscock on 2 August 1851 in the Buninyong region to the south. The find brought other prospectors to the area and on 19 August 1851 John Dunlop and James Regan struck gold at Poverty Point with a few ounces. Within days of the announcement of Dunlop and Regan's find a gold rush began, bringing thousands of prospectors to the Yarrowee valley which became known as the Ballarat diggings. Yields were particularly high, with the first prospectors in the area extracting between half an ounce (which was more than the average wage of the time) and up to five ounces of alluvial gold per day. As news of the Australian gold rushes reached the world, Ballarat gained an international reputation as a particularly rich goldfield. As a result, a huge influx of immigrants occurred, including many from Ireland and China, gathering in a collection of prospecting shanty towns around the creeks and hills. In just a few months numerous alluvial runs were established, several deep mining leads began, and the population had swelled to over 1,000 people. Pencil drawing of goldfields camp at Ballarat\\n\\nThe first post office opened on 1 November 1851. It was the first Victorian post office to open in a gold-mining settlement. Parts of the district were first surveyed by William Urquhart as early as October 1851. By 1852 his grid plan and wide streets for land sales in the new township of West Ballarat, built upon a plateau of basalt, contrasted markedly with the existing narrow unplanned streets, tents, and gullies of the original East Ballarat settlement. The new town's main streets of the time were named in honour of police commissioners and gold commissioners of the time, with the main street, Sturt Street, named after Evelyn Pitfield Shirley Sturt; Dana Street named after Henry Dana; Lydiard Street after his assistant; Doveton Street after Francis Crossman Doveton, Ballarat's first gold commissioner; Armstrong after David Armstrong; and Mair Street after William Mair. These officials were based at the government encampment (after which nearby Camp Street was named), which was strategically positioned on an escarpment with an optimal view over the district's diggings.\\n\\nThe first newspaper, ''The Banner'', published on 11 September 1853, was one of many to be distributed during the gold-rush period. Print media played a large role in the early history of the settlement. Ballarat attracted a sizable number of miners from the Californian 1848 gold rush, and some were known as Ballafornians.\\n\\nBattle of the Eureka Stockade. J. B. Henderson (1854) Watercolour\\nCivil disobedience in Ballarat led to Australia's only armed civil uprising, the Eureka Rebellion (colloquially referred to as the \\\"Eureka Stockade\\\") which took place in Ballarat on 3 December 1854. The event, in which 22 miners were killed, is considered to be a defining moment in Australian history.\\n\\nThe city earned the nickname \\\"The Golden City\\\" in the 1850s. The gold rush population peaked at almost 60,000, mostly male diggers, by 1858. However the early population was largely itinerant. As quickly as the alluvial deposits drew prospectors to Ballarat, the rate of gold extraction fluctuated and, as they were rapidly worked dry, many quickly moved to rush other fields as new findings were announced, particularly Mount Alexander in 1852, Fiery Creek in 1855, and Ararat in 1857. By 1859, a smaller number of permanent settlers numbering around 23,000, many of whom had built personal wealth in gold, established a prosperous economy based around a shift to deep underground gold mining.\\n\\nConfidence of the city's early citizens in the enduring future of their city is evident in the sheer scale of many of the early public buildings, generous public recreational spaces, and opulence of many of its commercial establishments and private housing. A local steam locomotive industry developed from 1854 with the Phoenix Foundry operating until 1906. The railway came to the town with the opening of the Geelong–Ballarat line in 1862 and Ballarat developed as a major railway town. As the city grew the region's original indigenous inhabitants were quickly expelled to the fringe and by 1867 few remained.\\n\\n=== Victorian city ===\\nThe intersection of Lydiard and Sturt Street in about 1905 was the heart of a bustling city of trams, horses and pedestrians.\\nFrom the late 1860s to the early 20th century, Ballarat made a successful transition from a gold rush town to an industrial-age city. The ramshackle tents and timber buildings gradually made way for permanent buildings, many impressive structures of solid stone and brick mainly built from wealth generated by early mining.\\n\\nPrince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh visited between 9 and 13 December 1867 and as the first royal visit, the occasion was met with great fanfare. The Prince Room was prepared at Craigs Royal Hotel for his stay. The city's first civic centre—Prince Alfred Hall—erected over the Yarrowee between the two municipalities, was named in his honour during his visit. The later attempt of the Prince's assassination by Ballaratian Henry James O'Farrell was met with shock and great horror from locals.\\n\\nBallarat was proclaimed a city in 1871. Gong Gong reservoir was built in 1877 to alleviate flooding and to provide a permanent water supply. A direct railway to Melbourne was completed in December 1889. Many industries and workshops had been established as a result of manufacturing and servicing for the deep lead mining industry.\\n\\nLocal boosterists at the start of the 20th century adopted the nickname \\\"Athens of Australia\\\", first used to describe the city by the prestigious Irish-Australian jurist and politician of the early 20th century Sir John Madden.\\n\\nOn 13 May 1901, the Duke of York (later George V) and his wife, Mary the Duchess of York, travelled by train from Melbourne to Ballarat.\\n\\nThe first electricity supply was completed in 1901 by the Electric Supply Company of Victoria. A bluestone power station was built at the corner of Ripon Street and Wendouree Parade in 1901 with the main aim of providing the power required for electrification of the city's tramway network.\\n\\n=== Declining fortunes ===\\nDevelopment of the Ballarat North Workshops was a major initiative to capitalise on the city's burgeoning role as a railway town and transition from a declining gold mining industry\\nFollowing the start of the 20th century, however, mining activity slowed and Ballarat's growth all but stopped—the city went into a period of decline and saw a reversal of the fortunes acquired in the previous century.\\n\\nThe Sunshine rail disaster in 1908 resulted in the death of dozens of Ballarat residents. On 19 August 1909, a great storm lashed the city, resulting in the death of one person and injury of seven others. During the storm, a tornado swept across the city's northern and eastern suburbs destroying numerous homes in Ballarat North, Soldiers Hill, Black Hill and Ballarat East, lifting and then again touching down at Eureka where it destroyed more homes before dissipating.\\n\\nOne bright spot in this period was the establishment of Osrey Pottery in 1922 by the artist Gladys Reynell, one of Australia's first potters, and her husband, George Samuel Osborne. The pottery closed in 1926 when Osborne developed lead poisoning.\\n\\nBallarat's significant representation during WWI resulted in heavy human loss. The city eventually lost first provincial status to Geelong. In response, local lobbyists continually pushed the Victorian government for decentralisation, the greatest success being the Victorian Railways opening the Ballarat North Workshops in April 1917. The Great Depression proved a further setback for Ballarat, with the closure of many institutions and causing the worst unemployment in the city's history, with over a thousand people in the dole queue.\\n\\nThe city's two municipalities, Ballarat East and West Town Councils, finally amalgamated in 1921 to form the City of Ballarat.\\n\\n=== Since the 20th century ===\\nView of central Ballarat from St Peter's Anglican Church\\nWhile deep, the depression was also brief. The interwar period proved a period of recovery for Ballarat with a number of major infrastructure projects well underway including a new sewerage system. In 1930, Ballarat Airport was established. By 1931, Ballarat's economy and population was recovering strongly with further diversification of industry, although in 1936 Geelong displaced it as the state's second largest city. During World War II an expanded Ballarat airport was the base of the RAAF Wireless Air Gunners' School as well as the base for USAAF Liberator bomber squadrons. In 1942, Ballarat became connected to the state electricity grid by a 66,000 kV line. Prior to this, power supply was generated locally.\\n\\nIn the post-war era, Ballarat's growth continued. In response to an acute housing shortage, significant suburban expansion occurred. An extensive Housing Commission of Victoria estate was built on the former Ballarat Common (today known as Wendouree West). The estate was originally planned to contain over 750 prefabricated houses. While planning for the estate began in 1949, main construction occurred between 1951 and 1962.\\n\\nThe 1950s brought a new optimism to the city. On 17 April 1952 it was announced that Lake Wendouree was to be the venue for rowing events of the 1956 Summer Olympics, and work soon began on an Olympic village in Gillies Street. A new prefabricted power terminal substation at Norman Street Ballarat North was constructed between 1951 and 1953 by the State Electricity Commission. The first Begonia Festival, a highly successful community celebration, was held in 1953. Elizabeth II visited on 8 March 1954. The Civic Centre, Prince Alfred Hall had burned down suspiciously that year; however a new Civic Hall was constructed and opened in March 1955. On 23 November 1956, the Olympic torch was carried through the city, and the following day the rowing events were held at the lake. On 2 March 1958 the Queen Mother visited Ballarat.\\n\\nDuring the following decades, the city saw increased threats to its heritage. In 1964, the Ballarat City Council passed laws banning pillar-supported verandahs in the CBD, which threatened the removal of historic cast iron verandahs in the city. The by-law was met by staunch opposition from the National Trust, which had begun campaigning to protect some of the city's most historic buildings. By the 1970s, Ballarat began to officially recognise its substantial heritage, and the first heritage controls were recommended to ensure its preservation. With the opening of Sovereign Hill, the city made a rapid shift to become a major cultural tourist destination, visited by thousands each year.\\n\\nDuring the 1970s, a further 300 houses were constructed at Wendouree West. Private housing in the adjacent suburb of Wendouree closely matched and eventually eclipsed this by the mid-1960s. The suburb of greater Wendouree and Wendouree West had evolved as the suburban middle-class heart of the city. Charles, Prince of Wales visited Ballarat on 28 October 1974 during which he toured Sovereign Hill, the Ballarat College of Advanced Education's new Mt Helen Campus and the White Swan Reservoir and spoke at Civic Hall.\\n\\nThe city continued to grow at the national average throughout the late 20th century and early 21st century. In 2008 the City of Ballarat released a plan directing that growth of the city over the next 30 years is to be concentrated to the west of the city centre. The Ballarat West Growth Area Plan was approved by the city and state government in 2010, planning an extensive fringe development consisting of 14,000 new homes and up to 40,000 new residents including new activity centres and employment zones.\\n\\n=== Military history ===\\n\\nDuring World War 2, Ballarat was the location of RAAF No.1 Inland Aircraft Fuel Depot (IAFD), completed in 1942 in the defence of Australia against a Japanese invasion and de-commissioned on 29 August 1944. Usually consisting of 4 tanks, 31 fuel depots were built across Australia for the storage and supply of aircraft fuel for the RAAF and the US Army Air Forces at a total cost of £900,000 ($1,800,000).\\n\",\n \"Ballarat's skyline hidden from this view of the city looking east across Lake Wendouree to Mount Warrenheip.\\nBallarat lies at the foothills of the Great Dividing Range in Central Western Victoria. Also known as the Central Highlands, it is named so because of its gentle hills and lack of any significant mountains that are more common in the eastern sections of the Great Dividing Range. The city lies within a mostly gently undulating section of the midland plains which stretch from Creswick in the north, to Rokewood in the south, and from Lal Lal in the south-east to Pittong in the west.\\n\\nGeologically, the area consists of alluvial sediment and volcanic flows originating from now-extinct volcanoes such as nearby Buninyong and Warrenheip, which are the area's tallest peaks. As a result, the basin contains large areas of fertile agricultural soil. Ballarat itself is situated on an alluvial basin of the Yarrowee catchment and its tributary creeks, penetrated by sub-ranges of schists composed of granites and quartz. Along with the visible river and creeks, the catchment basin has numerous active and inactive aquifers and natural wetlands, which are used for urban water supply, agriculture and recreation.\\n\\nThere are numerous densely forested areas around Ballarat; however due to historic wood milling and land clearing there remain no old-growth forests. The major natural bodies of water are in the west and include the former shallow swamps of Lake Wendouree which is central to the city's western suburbs and beyond Winter's Swamp and the large Lake Burrumbeet wetland complex. Almost all of the other numerous bodies of water have been created artificially and include several reservoirs, the largest being the White Swan Reservoir and smaller suburban lakes such as Lake Esmond.\\n\\nThe contiguous urban area of Ballarat covers approximately of the local government area's . Approximately 90% of the urban area's land use is residential and suburban. From the city centre this area extends approximately north to the hills around Invermay, approximately east to Leigh Creek in the foothills of Mount Warrenheip, approximately west along the plains to Lucas and approximately south along the Yarrowee River and Canadian Creek valley to the fringe of Buninyong. The central city is situated low in the valley of the Yarrowee River and surrounded by hills such that the city skyline is visible only from the hills and the lower lying inner eastern suburbs. The reach of the Yarrowee River toward Ballarat Central becomes a stormwater drain and is completely covered over as it flows under the CBD.\\n\\n===City and suburbs===\\nMap of the urban area (grey) and the extent of the municipal area\\nView of Ballarat Central and surrounding areas from the Black Hill lookout.\\nLooking south over Sturt Street and the CBD toward Bridge Mall from the Town Hall clock tower\\n\\nBallarat is a primarily low-rise city though apart from the area around Ballarat Airport there are few established height limits for buildings. The City of Ballarat defines two Major Activity Centres within the urban area – the Central Business District (CBD) and Wendouree with a high concentration of business, retail and community function based primarily on the Melbourne 2030 planning model and a further 11 neighbourhood activity centres. The tallest building in urban Ballarat is the seven-storey Henry Bolte wing of the Ballarat Base Hospital (1994). Beyond the central area, urban Ballarat extends into several suburban areas with a mixture of housing styles. Predominant styles are 19th-century villas, Victorian terraces, Federation homes and Georgian red brick homes. Settlement patterns around Ballarat consist of small villages and country towns, some with less than a few thousand people.\\n\\nThe Central Business District (located in Ballarat Central) is a large mixed-use office and retail district bounded to the north by railway lines, to the west by Drummond Street, to the south to Grant street and to the east by Princes Street and spanning the floodplain of the Yarrowee River. Lydiard, Sturt Streets, Armstrong, Doveton, Dana Street and Bridge Street (known as Bridge Mall) along with the historic centre of East Ballarat—Main Street and Bakery Hill have retained stands of commercial and civic buildings of state and national heritage significance.\\n\\nThe inner established suburbs were initially laid out around the key mining areas and include Ballarat East, Bakery Hill, Golden Point, Soldiers Hill, Black Hill, Brown Hill, Eureka, Canadian, Mount Pleasant, Redan, Sebastopol and Newington.\\n\\nThe post gold rush era has seen a boom in expansion, extending the conurbation north, south and west. To the west, Ballarat has expanded West to Lucas, Alfredton, Delacombe To The North West Wendouree , Wendouree West and Miners Rest To the north it has expanded to Ballarat North, Invermay Park, Invermay, Victoria Invermay and Nerrina; to the east to Warrenheip and south to Sebastopol, Mount Clear and Mount Helen with the urban area encroaching the large town of Buninyong.\\n\\nWendouree is currently the only major suburban activity centre with a large indoor shopping mall—Stockland Shopping Centre (expanded in 2007) and also has a number of surrounding retail parks including a strip shopping centre along Howitt Street including the large retail chain Harvey Norman. Elsewhere are small suburban hubs with supermarkets such as IGA (supermarkets) and small stretches of shopfronts.\\n\\nUnlike Melbourne, Ballarat does not have a defined urban growth boundary. This has put continuing pressure on the city council to approve development applications for subdivisions outside of the city fringe. In response to lobbying by landholders, the Ballarat West Growth Area Plan, a major greenfield land development plan, was prepared and has approved by the city and state government to allow for planned fringe communities consisting of 14,000 new homes and up to 40,000 new residents, effectively doubling the city's urban area by extending the urban sprawl from Sebastopol, Delacombe and Alfredton west toward Bonshaw, Smythes Creek and Cardigan with a new suburb to be known as Lucas to be created. New activity centres are to be developed at Delacombe and Alfredton.\\n\\n===Climate===\\nSnow scene in Sturt Gardens in 1905\\nBallarat has a moderate oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification ''Cfb'') with four seasons. Its elevation, at above sea level, causes its mean monthly temperatures to tend to be on average below those of Melbourne. The mean daily maximum temperature for January is , while the mean minimum is . In July, the mean maximum is ; average July minimum is . Ballarat has 55.2 clear days annually.\\n\\nThe mean annual rainfall is , with August being the wettest month (). There are an average of 198 rain-free days per year. Like much of Australia, Ballarat experiences cyclical drought and heavy rainfall. Flooding of the Yarrowee catchment occurs occasionally. In 1869 a serious flood of the Yarrowee River put most of the lower section of business district including Bridge and Grenville streets under water and caused the loss of two lives. Prolonged drought (an average annual rainfall with falls averaging as low as per year since 2001) caused Lake Wendouree to dry up completely for the first time in its history between 2006 and 2007. More recently higher rainfall levels have been recorded including in the 24 hours to 9 am on 14 January 2011, ending a four-day period of flooding rains across much of Victoria and Tasmania, and contributing to the wettest January on record, with a total of of rain for the month.\\n\\nLight snowfall typically falls on nearby Mount Buninyong and Mount Warrenheip at least once a year but in the urban area only during heavy winters. Widespread frosts and fog are more common during the cooler months. Snow has been known to fall heavily. Heavy snow seasons occurred in 1900–1902 and 1905–1907 (with record falls in 1906), and moderate snow seasons were recorded during the 1940s and 1980s. Recent snowfalls to have occurred within the urban area were in 2006, 2008, 2014 and 2016, with falls in November 2006 (light, also the latest snowfall on record), July 2007 (heavy), June 2008 (light), August 2008 (light), August 2014 (moderate) and June 2016 (light).\\n\\nBallarat's highest maximum recorded temperature was on 7 February 2009 during the 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave. This was above the previous record of , set on 25 January 2003. The lowest-ever recorded minimum was at sunrise on 19 July 2015.\\n\\n\\n\",\n \"A view from Lake Wendouree toward Mount Buninyong Reserve\\nBallarat has a healthy environment in comparison to Melbourne; however, as a growing regional city there are issues including pollution, waterway health and invasive species. Air quality is generally good, however dust is sometimes an issue in the summer months and woodsmoke from fireplaces is an issue in the winter months. Ballarat's waterways have historically been affected by heavy pollution from both mining and industry.\\n\\nThe Ballarat Environment Network formed in 1993 to provide a voice for environmental and nature conservation issues in Ballarat and its surroundings. Another large lobby group for sustainability in the city is the Ballarat Renewable Energy And Zero Emissions (BREAZE) formed in 2006. The City of Ballarat released an Environment Sustainability Strategy for the city in 2007.\\n\\nWhile there are no national parks in Ballarat's proximity, Ballarat is bordered by extensive bushland to the north, south and south west and sensitive wetlands to the east. There are a number of nearby state parks and large reserves including the Enfield State Park, Creswick Regional Park, Mount Warrenheip Flora Reserve, Mount Buninyong Reserve and Lake Burrumbeet park. The region is home to a large koala population with protected areas established in the city's outer southern and eastern settlements.\\n\\nMany parts of urban Ballarat have been affected by the introduction of exotic species, particularly introduced flora. Common gorse is one such problem which has prompted the formation of an official Ballarat Region Gorse Task Force in 1999 to control. European rabbits and red foxes cause significant environmental damage in the region's agriculture areas.\\n\",\n \"The economy of Ballarat is driven by all three economic sectors, though contemporary Ballarat has emerged as a primarily service economy with its main industry being the service industry and its key areas of business including tourism, hospitality, retail, professional services, government administration and education. Secondary industry including manufacturing, which had grown in the 20th century remains an important sector. The city's historic primary industry roots including mining and agriculture continue to play a role, though one that has declined since the 20th century. Industries emerging this century include information technology service sector and renewable energy.\\n\\n===Service industries===\\nAs a major service centre for the populous goldfields region, Ballarat has large sectors of employment in business including retail, professional services and trades as well as state and federal government branch offices for public services and health care and non-government service organisations. Collectively these industries employ more than half of the city's workforce and generate the bulk of the city's economic activity.\\n\\nBallarat is the main retail economy in the region. The city has several key retail districts including a pedestrian mall known as Bridge Mall comprising over 100 traders. There are also indoor shopping malls including Central Square Shopping Centre and Stockland Wendouree. better known as Wendouree Village, with a large number of specialty stores. Major department stores include Myer, Target, Big W, Kmart, Harvey Norman and Harris Scarfe. Additionally each of the major supermarkets (Coles, Woolworths, IGA and Aldi) are represented. Servicing the financial sector are branches of the big four Australian retail banks (National Australia Bank, Australia and New Zealand Banking Group, Commonwealth Bank and Westpac) along with Bendigo Bank and St.George Bank and a number of smaller independent financial services firms.\\n\\nFederation University Australia exports education through a large international students program and throughout Australia through distance education programs.\\n\\nIn recent years, a large technology park, the Ballarat Technology Park with communications centre has been established, with tenants including IBM and employing over 1,400 people.\\n\\n====Tourism and hospitality====\\nMain Street in Sovereign Hill, a large open-air gold mining museum, is Ballarat's most famous attraction.\\nBallarat attracts 2.2 million visitors a year and the tourism and hospitality industry is a A$480 million a year sector which accounts for around 15% of Ballarat's economy and employs around 2,870 people. Tourism in Ballarat is promoted by Ballarat Regional Tourism.\\n\\nA significant heritage tourism industry has not grown substantially in Ballarat since the 1960s. Ballarat is most notable for the award-winning open-air museum known as Sovereign Hill, a recreated 1850s gold mining settlement opened in 1970. Sovereign Hill is Ballarat's biggest tourism drawcard and is consistently rated among one of the best outdoor museums in the world and continues to expand. Sovereign Hill accounts for over half a million of Ballarat's visitors and $40 million in tourism revenue.\\n\\nSeveral businesses and attractions have capitalised on Ballarat's gold mining history. They include Kryal Castle (1972), \\\"Gold Rush Mini Golf\\\" (2002) featuring the \\\"Big Miner\\\" (2006) one of Australia's big things (although the original proposal appeared larger and for the miner to hold the Eureka Flag) at Ballarat's eastern entrance.\\n\\nOther tourist attractions include the Eureka Centre; The Gold Museum, Ballarat; Ballarat Botanic gardens and Lake Wendouree; the Museum of Australian Democracy; the Ballarat Tramway Museum and Ballarat Ghost Tours and Ballarat Wildlife Park. A large number of Ballarat hotels, motels and restaurants service the tourism industry. The Ballarat Tourist Association is an industry based non-profit, membership organisation representing the city's tourism industry.\\n\\n===Manufacturing===\\nAccording to the 2006 Australian Census, manufacturing is Ballarat's third largest employment sector, accounting for 14.8% of all workers.\\n\\nBallarat attracts investment from several international manufacturers. The Australian headquarters of Mars, Incorporated was established in Ballarat in 1979 with the main Ballarat factory producing popular confectionery including Mars bars, Snickers and M&M's for the Australian market as well as expanding in 2013 to produce Maltesers. McCain Foods Limited Australian headquarters was established in Ballarat in 1970 and the company continues to expand its operations. The Ballarat North Workshops is a major manufacturer of public transportation products with current investment from Alstom.\\n\\nBallarat also has a large number of home-grown companies producing textiles, general industrial engineering, food products, brick and tiles, building components, prefabricated housing components and automotive components. Brewing was once a large-scale operation, with many large businesses including the public company Phoenix Brewery, and although large-scale brewing has ceased, the city retains a substantial microbrewery industry.\\n\\n===Primary industry===\\nReplica of the \\\"Welcome Nugget\\\", found at Ballarat, the second largest gold nugget discovered in recorded history\\nThough historically an important sector, the production of Ballarat's primary industry declined for many decades, recovering only marginally since 2006. Where historically the mining industry supported tens of thousands of workers or the majority of the population, today agriculture dominates the sector, though collectively both industries employ less than thousand people or just over 2% of the City of Ballarat's total workforce.\\n\\nBallarat rose to prominence as a goldrush boomtown, though gold no longer plays a pivotal role in the economy of the city. Nevertheless, deep underground mining continues to the present date with a single main mine operating. There are still thought to be large, undiscovered gold reserves in the Ballarat region, with investigations being made by local and national companies. Lihir Gold invested in Ballarat Goldfields in 2006, however it downscaled its operations in 2009 due to the expense of extraction before selling its stake in 2010 to Castlemaine Goldfields. Along with gold, lignite (coal), kaolin (clay) and iron ore have also been mined in the Ballarat region and nearby Lal Lal however many of the resource deposits have since been exhausted. An active quarrying industry with large enterprises including Boral Limited extracts and manufactures building materials from the Ballarat region, including clays, aggregates, cements, asphalts.\\n\\nApproximately half () of the municipality's area is rural with optimal conditions for agriculture including rich volcanic soils and climate. This area is used primarily for agriculture and animal husbandry and generates more than $37 million in commodities. The region supports an active potato growing industry that has supplied local food manufacturers including McCain, though more recently has been threatened by cheaper imports. Other large crops include grains, vegetables, grapes and berries. Cattle and poultry stocks, including sheep, cows and pigs, support an active local meat and dairy industry. The Ballarat Livestock Selling Centre is the largest cattle exchange in regional Victoria. The Ballarat Agricultural and Pastoral Society formed in 1856 and has run the Ballarat Show annually since 1859.\\n\\nA $7.5 million forestry industry is active in nearby state forests as well as on a small scale in the urban area along the Canadian Valley around the suburbs of Mt Clear and Mt Helen areas with pine plantations and sawmill operations.\\n\\n====Renewable energy====\\nPart of the Waubra Wind Farm\\nThe Ballarat region has a rapidly growing renewable energy industry, in particular due to its abundant wind energy, attracting significant investment and generating revenue for local landholders and local councils. The region is also a source of bountiful geothermal energy, solar power and biomass although to date, only its wind, solar and hydroelectricity has been harvested commercially. All local commercially produced electricity is sent to the National Electricity Market.\\n\\nWind energy is generated by local wind farms. The largest, Waubra Wind Farm, completed in 2009, ( W – 192 MW, 128 turbines) is capable of producing enough electricity to power a city 3 to 4 times the size of Ballarat. Other significant nearby wind farms include Mount Mercer, completed 2014, ( S – 131 MW, 64 turbines) which produces enough energy to power 100,000 homes, equivalent to Ballarat's population and Chepstowe, completed March 2015, ( W – 6 MW, 3 turbines) which produces enough power for 3,400 homes. The first community-owned wind farm in Australia, the Hepburn Wind Project at Leonards Hill, completed in 2011, ( NE – 4 MW, 2 turbines) produces the equivalent amount of electricity used by the town of Daylesford. Several large projects have planning approval, including Stockyard Hill Wind Farm ( W – 41 MW, 157 turbines), Moorabool Wind Project at Mount Egerton and Ballan ( E – 330 MW, 107 turbines). and the Lal Lal Wind Farm ( SE – 150 MW, 64 turbines).\\n\\nHydroelectricity is generated at White Swan reservoir micro hydro plant established in 2008 and producing the equivalent electricity needs of around 370 homes. Ballarat Solar Park, opened in 2009 at the Airport site in Mitchell Park, is Victoria's first ground-mounted, flat-plate and grid-connected photovoltaic farm. Built by Sharp Corporation for Origin Energy, it is and generates the equivalent electricity needs of around 150 homes.\\n\",\n \"The 2006 Australian national census indicated that the permanent population of the urban area was 78,221 out of the City of Ballarat's population of 85,196 and a total of 31,960 households.\\n\\nBallarat has witnessed a significant growth surge since 2006 and the population of the City of Ballarat is becoming increasingly urban such that statistically, the LGA is now used as the ABS statistical division. Recent rapid growth has been attributed by demographers to increased commuter activity arising from surging house and land prices in Melbourne coupled with transport upgrades between Ballarat and Melbourne. Since 2006 Ballarat has averaged an annual population growth of 1700 and in June 2008 the estimated resident population of the City of Ballarat was 91,787. In August 2009 this population had grown to 94,000.\\n\\nWhile most of the city's population can trace their ethnic roots to Anglo-Celtic descent, 8.2% of the population are born overseas. Of them, the majority (4.2%) come from North East Europe. 3.4% speak a language other than English. 14.4% of the population is over the age of 65. The median age in Ballarat is 35.8 years.\\n\\nThe average income of Ballarat, while lower than Melbourne, is higher than average for regional Victoria. Ballaratians in the 2007/08 financial year earned on average A$38,850 a year. The highest earners living in the city's inner suburbs with a mean of $53,174 a year, while the lower earners are centred on the city's southern suburbs. According to the 2006 Census, Ballarat's working population is largely white collar 52.1% consisting of Management, Professionals, Clerical and Administrative Workers and Sales Workers, while 32.9% are blue collar working in Technicians and Trades, Labouring or Machinery Operation. 56.5% of households had access to the Internet in 2006. The unemployment rate as of June 2011 was 7.8%.\\nSt Peters Anglican Church, which represents the second most common religious affiliation in Ballarat.\\n50.3% of the population have completed further education after high school.\\n\\n===Religion===\\nChristianity remains the dominant religion in Ballarat, with over 65% of residents claiming Christian affiliation, slightly above the national average of 64%. According to the 2006 Census, Catholics (27.1%), Anglicans (15.0%), Uniting Church (11.2%) and Presbyterians (4.0%) remain the largest Christian denominations in Ballarat.\\n\\nOver 21.6% of Ballarat residents claim no religious affiliation. Minority religious groups include Buddhism, Judaism, Baha'i and Islam and total less than 5% of the population.\\n\",\n \"Ballarat Town Hall\\nCouncil Chamber in Ballarat Town Hall, Sturt Street, is the seat of local government for the City of Ballarat. The council was created in 1994 as an amalgamation of a number of other municipalities in the region. The City is made up of 3 wards, each represented by three councillors elected once every four years by postal voting. The Mayor of Ballarat is elected from these councillors by their colleagues for a one-year term. The Town Hall and annexe contains some council offices, however the council's administrative headquarters are located at the council owned Phoenix Building and the leased Gordon Buildings on the opposite side of Bath Lane.\\n\\nIn state politics, Ballarat is located in the Legislative Assembly districts of Buninyong and Wendouree, with both of these seats currently held by the Australian Labor Party. In federal politics, Ballarat is located in a single House of Representatives division—the Division of Ballarat. The Division of Ballarat has been a safe Australian Labor Party seat since 2001, and was the seat of the second Prime Minister of Australia, Alfred Deakin.\\n\\nLaw enforcement is overseen from regional police headquarters at the law complex in Dana Street with a single local police station operating in Buninyong. Due to an increase in crime rates and population, two additional local police stations were proposed in 2011 one each for the suburbs of North Ballarat and Sebastopol. Justice is conducted locally overseen through branches of the Supreme, County, Magistrates and Children's Court of Victoria which operate out of the Ballarat courts Complex adjacent police headquarters in Dana Street. Corrections, at least in the longer term are no longer handled locally since the closure of the Ballarat Gaol in 1965. Offenders can be detained in 25 available cells at the police complex though are commonly transferred to nearby Corrections Victoria facilities such as the Hopkins Correctional Centre in Ararat.\\n\\nPublic safety and emergency services are provided by several state funded organisations including local volunteer based organisations. Storms and flooding are handled by the State Emergency Service (SES) Mid West Region Headquarters at Wendouree. Bushfires are handled by the Country Fire Authority District 15 Headquarters and Grampians Region Headquarters at Wendouree and urban structure fires are handled by multiple urban fire brigades operating at fire stations including the Ballarat Fire Brigade at Barkly Street Ballarat East, Ballarat City Fire Brigade at Sturt Street Ballarat Central and suburban stations including Wendouree and Sebastopol. Medical emergency and paramedic services are provided through Ambulance Victoria and include the Rural Ambulance Victoria, St. John Ambulance and Ballarat Base Hospital ambulance services. City of Ballarat is responsible for coordinating the Municipal Emergency Management Planning Committee (MEMPC) which prepares the Municipal Emergency Management Plan which is actioned in conjunction with local police.\\n\",\n \"\\n===Newspapers===\\nBallarat has two local newspapers, both owned by Fairfax. ''The Courier'' is a daily and ''The Miner'' is a free weekly. The latter is distributed across most of the city on Wednesdays and contains news of community events, advertisements for local businesses, real estate and a classifieds sections.\\n\\n===Radio stations===\\nRadio House, Lydiard Street North. Home to 3BA and Power FM\\nLocal radio stations include 3BA, Power FM and several community radio stations. There is also a Ballarat branch of ABC Local Radio's national network.\\n\\n* 102.3 FM – 3BA (local \\\"classic hits\\\" commercial radio station)\\n* 103.1 FM – Power FM 103.1 FM (local \\\"top-40\\\" commercial radio station)\\n* 99.9 FM – Voice FM 99.9 – formerly known as 3BBB (local community radio station)\\n* 107.9 FM – ABC Local Radio (government-funded local news, current affairs, light entertainment and talkback)\\n* 103.9 FM – Good News Radio 103.9 (Christian community-based radio station)\\n\\n===Television===\\nTelevision station BTV Channel 6 Ballarat commenced transmission of test patterns on 17 March 1962. Among the many local programs BTV6 produced, the 90 minute live variety program ''Six Tonight'' (1971–1983), hosted by local Ballarat identity Fred Fargher, was one of the few live Australian programs of this type being presented in Australia.\\n\\nIn his 1999 book ''And Now Here's...'' (Four Decades of Behind the Scenes Fun in Australian Television), Mike McColl Jones fondly remembers local live television variety:\\n\\n\\\"...and in Ballarat, Victoria, a Tonight show (\\\"Six Tonight\\\") was carving its name into Australian television history. The show, hosted by Fred Fargher, ran for 13 years, and managed to attract many of the top name entertainers in the world, simply by offering them a limo ride to this beautiful country centre, a no-pressure spot on the show, and then a great dinner afterwards at one of the city's excellent restaurants. The sheer bravado of the offer enticed some of show business' biggest names\\\".\\n\\nToday Ballarat is serviced by numerous \\\"free to air\\\" High Definition and Standard Definition Digital television services. Two television broadcasting stations are located in the city, including WIN, GEM HD and GO! (sub-licensees of Nine Network) and Prime7, 7Two, 7mate (a sub-licensee of Seven Network). These two stations broadcast relayed services throughout regional Victoria. The city also receives Southern Cross Ten, One HD and Eleven (sub-licensee's of Network Ten) which is based in Bendigo but operates a local office.\\n\\nBallarat television maintains a similar schedule to the national television network but maintains local commercials and regional news programmingWIN produces a 30-minute local news bulletin each weeknight from its studios in the city, where bulletins for Albury, Bendigo, Gippsland, Shepparton and Mildura also originate. Southern Cross Ten provides short local news updates from its Canberra studios throughout the day. In addition to commercial television services, Ballarat receives Government ABC (ABC1, ABC2, ABC3, ABC News 24) and SBS (SBS One and Two) television services.\\n\\nOn 5 May 2011, analog television transmissions ceased in most areas of regional Victoria and some border regions including Ballarat and surrounding areas. All local free-to-air television services are now broadcasting in digital transmission only. This was done as part of the federal government's plan for digital terrestrial television in Australia, where all analogue transmission systems are gradually turned off and replaced with modern DVB-T transmission systems.\\n\\nSubscription television services are provided by Neighbourhood Cable, Foxtel and SelecTV.\\n\",\n \"\\nFederation University Australia's SMB campus is set among the heritage buildings of Lydiard Street Sth including the former School of Mines and Industry (left), former Supreme Court and former Ballarat Gaol (rear)\\nSchool of Mines Building\\nBallarat has two universities, Federation University and a campus of the Australian Catholic University.\\n\\nFormerly the University of Ballarat, Federation University Australia was opened in 2014. It originated as the Ballarat School of Mines, founded in 1870, and was once affiliated with the University of Melbourne. The main campus is located in Mount Helen, approximately southeast of the city. The university also has campuses in the Ballarat CBD, Horsham, Churchill, Ararat and Stawell.\\n\\nThe Australian Catholic University's Ballarat campus is located on Mair Street. It was formerly the Aquinas Training College, run by the Ballarat East Sisters of Mercy in 1909. It is ACU's only campus located outside of a capital city.\\n\\nBallarat has four State Government-operated secondary schools of which Ballarat High School (established in 1907) is the oldest. Ballarat High School and Mount Clear College are the only state school members of the Ballarat Associated Schools. The two remaining schools are Phoenix College and Ballarat Secondary College. Ballarat Secondary College was formed in 1994 by the amalgamation of Ballarat East Secondary College, Wendouree Secondary College and Midlands Secondary College. Phoenix College was formed in 2012 as an amalgamation of Sebastopol College and Redan Primary School.\\n\\nThe city is well serviced by Catholic schools, with eight primary schools and three secondary colleges which include the all-boys St Patrick's College, the all-girls Loreto College and the co-educational Damascus College, which was formed by the amalgamation of St Martin's in the Pines, St Paul's College and Sacred Heart College in 1995.\\n\\nBallarat has three other non-government secondary schools: Ballarat Christian College, Ballarat Clarendon College and Ballarat Grammar School.\\nThe later two schools are day and boarding schools who provide education from Preschool to Year 12. Both of these co-educational schools are classified as academically excellent as the only Ballarat schools to be ranked on the tables of the top 100 Victorian schools based on median VCE scores and percentage of scores of 40 and above. In 2015, Clarendon was placed at 9th best VCE results in the State, above Melbourne Grammar, Geelong College, Scotch College, Trinity Grammar School (Victoria), Xavier College, and Haileybury College. Ballarat Grammar was placed at 82nd, above Wesley College, Geelong Grammar and Tintern.\\n\\nThe City of Ballarat has three public libraries, the largest and most extensive of which is the City of Ballarat Library, run by the Central Highlands Regional Library Corporation and located on Doveton Street North. Another library service is provided by the Ballarat Mechanics' Institute in Sturt Street, which is the oldest library in the city and a significant heritage site; it contains a collection of historic, archival and rare reference material as well as more general books.\\n\\n\\nFile:BallaratMechanicsInstitute1909.jpg|The newspaper reading room of the Ballarat Mechanics' Institute in 1909\\nFile:BallaratMechanicsInstitute1942.jpg|American and Australian soldiers in the reading room of the Ballarat Mechanics' Institute in 1942\\nFile:Ballarat mechanics institute.jpg|Ballarat mechanics institute\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n=== Heritage ===\\nThe Ballarat railway station is notable for being one of only three surviving nineteenth-century station buildings in Australia to retain a train hall\\n\\nBallarat is renowned for its cultural heritage and decorative arts, especially applied to the built environment, combined with the gold rush, this has created a picturesque urban landscape.\\nIn 2003 Ballarat was the first of two Australian cities to be registered as a member of the International League of Historical Cities and in 2006 hosted the 10th World League of Historical Cities Congress.\\n\\nRestoration of historic buildings is encouraged including a low interest council Heritage Loans Scheme. and the prevention of demolition by neglect discouraged by council policies. Since the 1970s, the local council has become increasingly aware of the economic and social value of heritage preservation. This is in stark contrast to the 1950s and 60s when Ballarat followed Melbourne in encouraging the removal of Victorian buildings, verandahs in particular. Recent restoration projects funded by the Ballarat include the reconstruction of significant cast iron lace verandahs including the Mining Exchange, Art Gallery (2007), Mechanics institute (2005–) on Lydiard Street and in 2010 the restoration of the Town Hall and the long neglected Unicorn Hotel façade on Sturt Street.\\n\\nBallarat Citizens for Thoughtful Development formed in 1998 and was incorporated as Ballarat Heritage Watch in 2005 to ensure that the city's architectural heritage is given due consideration in the planning process.\\n\\nThe Ballarat Botanical Gardens (established in 1858) are recognised as the finest example of a regional botanical gardens in Australia and are home to many heritage listed exotic tree species and feature a modern glasshouse and horticultural centre and the Prime Ministers Avenue which features bronze busts of every past Australian Prime Minister.\\n\\nAustralian Ex-Prisoners of War Memorial\\nBallarat is notable for its very wide boulevards. The main street is Sturt Street and is considered among one of the finest main avenues in Australia with over of central gardens known as the Sturt Street Gardens featuring bandstands, fountains, statues, monuments, memorials and lampposts. Ballarat is home to the largest of a collection of several Avenues of Honour in Victoria. The Ballarat Avenue of Honour consists of a total of approximately 4,000 trees, mostly deciduous which in many parts arch completely over the road. Each tree has a bronze plaque dedicated to a soldier from the Ballarat region who enlisted during World War I. The Avenue of Honour and the Arch of Victory are on the Victorian Heritage Register and are seen by approximately 20,000 visitors each year.\\n\\nThe city also has the greatest concentration of public statuary in any Australian city with many parks and streets featuring sculptures and statues dating from the 1860s to the present. Some of the other notable memorials located in the Sturt Street Gardens in the middle of Ballarat's main boulevard include a bandstand situated in the heart of the city that was funded and built by the City of Ballarat Band in 1913 as a tribute to the bandsmen of the , a fountain dedicated to the early explorers Burke and Wills, and those dedicated to monarchs and those who have played pivotal roles in the development of the city and its rich social fabric.\\n\\nBallarat has an extensive array of significant war memorials, the most recent of which is the Australian Ex Prisoner of War Memorial. The most prominent memorial in the city is the Ballarat Victory Arch that spans the old Western Highway on the Western approaches of the city. The archway serves as the focal point for the Avenue of Honour. Other significant individual monuments located along Sturt Street include those dedicated to the Boer War (1899–1901), the World War II (1939–1945) cenotaph, and Vietnam (1962–1972) (located adjacent to the Arch of Victory).\\n\\n====Commercial and civic buildings====\\nBallarat Fine Art Gallery, Lydiard Street North\\nThe legacy of the wealth generated during Ballarat's gold boom is still visible in a large number of fine stone buildings in and around the city, especially in the Lydiard Street area. This precinct contains some of Victoria's finest examples of Victorian era buildings, many of which are on the Victorian Heritage Register or classified by the National Trust of Australia.\\n\\nNotable civic buildings include the Town Hall (1870–72), the former Post Office (1864), the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery (1887), the Mechanics' Institute (1860, 1869), the Queen Victoria Wards of the Ballarat Base Hospital (1890s) and the Ballarat railway station (1862, 1877, 1888).\\n\\nOther historic buildings include the Provincial Hotel (1909), Reid's Coffee Palace (1886), Craig's Royal Hotel (1862–1890) and Her Majesty's Theatre (1875), the oldest intact and operating lyric theatre in Australia and Ballarat Fire Station (1864, 1911) one of Victoria's oldest fire fighting structures and the Jewish synagogue (1861) the oldest surviving synagogue on the Australian mainland.\\n\\n====Galleries====\\nThe Ballarat Fine Art Gallery houses one of Australia's oldest and most extensive collections of early Australian works. It is considered to have the best Australian collection outside any capital city in Australia.\\n\\nFederation University Australia operates the Post Office Gallery in the Wardell designed former Post Office on the corner of Sturt and Lydiard Streets.\\n\\n===Events and festivals===\\nBallarat is home to many annual festivals and events that attract thousands of visitors. The oldest large annual event is the Ballarat Agricultural Show (since 1859), currently held at the Ballarat Showgrounds and has attracted attendances of up to 30,000 and is an official public holiday for residents of the city.\\n\\nLake Wendouree is featured in many including the biggest and most prominent is the Begonia Festival (held annually since 1953). SpringFest (held annually since 2001) attracts more than 15,000 people from around Victoria and features market stalls and activities around the lake.\\n\\nAnnual Agricultural Society Show at Ballarat Showgrounds, Wendouree\\nThe controversial Ballarat Swap Meet (formerly the Super Southern Swap Meet and held annually since 1989) attracts 30,000 visitors a year. Ballarat Heritage Weekend (held annually since 2006) celebrates the city's heritage with activities such as historic vehicles and displays in and around the CBD and has attracted as many as 14,500 visitors a year from around Victoria. The Ballarat Beer Festival at the City Oval (since 2012) has attracted more than 4,000 visitors. The Ballarat Airport Open Day (Ballarat's unofficial air show, held annually since 2009) also attracts thousands.\\n\\nOther minor cultural festivals include the Ballarat Writers Festival, Ballarat International Foto Biennialle and the Goldfields Music Festival.\\n\\n===Entertainment===\\nHer Majesty's Theatre façade (1875), Lydiard Street Sth.\\nBallarat has a lively and well established theatrical community with several local ensembles as well as a number of large performing arts venues. Major performing arts venues include:\\n* Her Majesty's Theatre – Seating 940\\n* Post Office Box Theatre (Federation University Australia Arts Academy, Camp Street Campus) – Flexible Seating up to 100\\n* Helen Macpherson Smith Performing Arts Theatre (Federation University Australia, Arts Academy Camp Street Campus) – Seating 200\\n* The 1870 Founders Theatre (Federation University Australia, Mount Helen Campus) – Seating 600\\n* The Courthouse Theatre (Federation University Australia, SMB Campus) – Seating 140\\n* The Victoria Theatre (Sovereign Hill) – Seating 300\\n* Wendouree Centre for Performing Arts (Ballarat Grammar School) – Seating 900\\n* Gay E. Gough Theatre (Mount Clear Secondary College) – Seating 350\\n* Mechanics Institute hall (seating 700) is used from time to time for travelling performances and cinema shows.\\n\\nThe Ballarat Civic Hall is a large public building constructed in 1958 as a general purpose venue. Its stripped classical design was heavily criticised during its planning, however it has gained some cultural significance to the city with its cavernous spaces holding many significant events over the years. Civic Hall was closed in 2002 and there have been moves to redevelop it for many years with some calls to retain the building as a venue.\\n\\nBallarat has its own symphony orchestra, the Ballarat Symphony Orchestra which was formed in 1987. Some notable theatre organisations in Ballarat include BLOC (Ballarat Light Opera Company) founded in 1959. Ballarat is also the home to Australia's oldest and largest annual performing arts eisteddfod. The Royal South Street Eisteddfod is an all-encompassing performing arts festival and competition event that is conducted over twelve weeks annually.\\n\\nThe modest 1853 Bath's Hotel grew to become the grand Craig's Royal Hotel in anticipation of the royal visit of Prince Alfred. The current buildings date to 1890.\\nIn the 1970s the Ballarat urban area contained no less than 60 hotels. The introduction of gaming machines in the early 1990s has brought about significant change in the city entertainment precincts. By 2006 at least 20 hotels had closed and some of those that remain have been redeveloped as dining and/or gaming venues. Gaming machines have brought significant revenue to the remaining hotels, sports and social clubs which has enabled many to expand and modernise. The city has several dance clubs as well as a highly active live music and jazz scene. Hotels are popular meeting places for young people. The city has many fine restaurants, wine bars and eateries as well as themed restaurants. A large cinema complex consisting of several theatres is located behind the façade of the old Regent cinemas in the heart of the city. Dance parties are popular within the Ballarat area; BTR is an organisation founded in 2006 that has begun hosting dance events in Ballarat.\\n\\n==== Music and live entertainment ====\\nBallarat has a significant music scene and a number of established music venues. Ballarat has produced several note worthy bands and musicians. Notable musicians from Ballarat include composer and violinist Warren Ellis, and alternative bands The Mavis's, Epicure and The Dead Salesmen.\\n\\n===Sport and recreation===\\nAFL pre-season match. Western Bulldogs vs Melbourne. Eureka Stadium, Wendouree.\\nBallarat has a number of large parks, sport fields, organised sporting clubs and associations. Australian rules football and cricket are the most popular spectator and participation sports in Ballarat, while soccer, basketball, netball, horse racing and rowing have large followings. There are stadiums, both indoor and outdoor as well as training facilities for most sports.\\n\\nAustralian rules football is played at semi-professional and amateur levels with a large number of players at numerous venues, both dedicated such as Eureka Stadium and shared with cricket. The North Ballarat Roosters based out of Eureka Stadium compete in the Victorian Football League. The Western Bulldogs AFL Club will commence playing periodic home games at the redevloped Eureka Stadium from 2017. The Ballarat Football League (founded 1893) is a strong regional league of which there are 6 local teams (Ballarat, EastPoint, Redan, Sebastopol, Lake Wendouree and North Ballarat City). The Ballarat Football Club (founded 1860) remains one of the oldest football clubs in the world. Other city teams from Buninyong and North Ballarat compete in the regional Central Highlands Football League.\\n\\nCricket is also played extensively with three international standard cricket ovals. Ballarat's Eastern Oval hosted a game in the 1992 Cricket World Cup. Horse racing and greyhound racing are popular, with dedicated facilities. The Harness Racing centre is considered to be among the best in Australia. The Ballarat Turf Club schedules around 28 race meetings a year including the Ballarat Cup meeting in mid-November. Ballarat Harness Racing Club conducts regular meetings at its racetrack in the city.\\n\\nThe Ballarat Greyhound Racing Club holds regular meetings at Sebastopol.\\n\\nBasketball is played at various levels with the Ballarat Miners and Ballarat Rush competing in the South East Australian Basketball League and playing out of the MARS Minerdome. Netball is similarly popular, with many netball clubs affiliated with local Australian rules clubs including Wendouree, East Point, Eureka, North Ballarat, Redan, Brown Hill and the Ballarat Netball Association. Rowing and kayaking is centred on Lake Wendouree and the sport is particularly popular with the high schools. The lake hosts the Victorian Schools Rowing Championships as well as the annual \\\"Head of the Lake\\\" rowing regatta—contested by Ballarat High School, Ballarat and Clarendon College, Ballarat Grammar School, St Patrick's College and Loreto College. The city hosted rowing events for the 1956 Olympic Games.\\n\\nAssociation Football (known locally as soccer) is mostly played at an amateur level. The local competition is known as the Ballarat & District Soccer Association, which consists of 13 teams. The Ballarat Red Devils are the biggest soccer club in Ballarat and play in the FFV National Premier League Victoria 1 West. Their home ground is Morshead Park Stadium, located in central Ballarat, which was recently significantly redeveloped.\\n\\nAthletics facilities include an international standard athletics track at Llanberris Reserve on York Street Golden Point which is an Athletics Victoria venue and home to local athletics and little athletics clubs. Swimming and water sport is facilitated at two Olympic-sized pools as well as an indoor competition short course pool. The main facility is the Ballarat Aquatic Centre located at Gillies Street Lake Gardens in the city's west. Baseball was first organised in Australia at Ballarat in 1857. The Alfredton Eagles, Ballarat City Brewers and Mounties YC field teams in the Geelong Baseball Association Winter Division.\\n\\nGolf is played at four main venues which include the Ballarat Golf Course on Sturt Street in the Easter suburb of Alfredton, home to the Ballarat Golf Club; the Midlands Golf Course on Heinz Lane in the northern suburb of Invermay Park which is home to the Midlands Golf Club; the Eureka Golf Course at Elford Street in the eastern suburb of Ballarat East and in the southern suburb of Buninyong at the Buninyong Golf Course.\\n\\nThe Ballarat Roller Derby League was formed in 2008, and held their first match in 2009. They have two teams who compete in local events, and a combined travelling team, the Rat Pack, who compete in interleague roller derby competitions. Lake Wendouree is a large recreational lake that was created out of former wetlands and hosted the rowing events for the 1956 Summer Olympics. Victoria Park is an expansive reserve with tree-lined avenues and sporting fields in suburban Newington. The suburbs feature some privately run wildlife parks including Ballarat Wildlife Park in Ballarat East and Ballarat Bird World in Buninyong.\\n\\n===Popular culture===\\nBallarat has inspired many visual artists. Eugene von Guerard documented the city's establishment as a gold digging settlement, while Albert Henry Fullwood and Knut Bull depicted the city's boom era streetscapes. Ballarat features prominently in literature and fiction, including \\\"The Boscombe Valley Mystery\\\", a short story from Arthur Conan Doyle's ''The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes'' (1891); ''King Billy of Ballarat and Other Stories'' (1892) by Morley Roberts; ''The Fortunes of Richard Mahony'' (1917) by Henry Handel Richardson; ''Murder on the Ballarat Train'' (1993) by Kerry Greenwood; and ''Illywhacker'' (1985) by Peter Carey.\\n\\nBallarat is also a popular filming location. Australia's second oldest feature film, ''Eureka Stockade'' (1907), is the first in a line of films about the historic Ballarat event. The city makes cameos in ''Dogs in Space'' (1986), ''My Brother Jack'' (2001), ''Ned Kelly'' (2003) and ''The Writer'' (2005). The television series ''The Doctor Blake Mysteries'' (2012–) is set in Ballarat and also mostly shot there.\\n\\nTwo ships of the Royal Australian Navy have been named HMAS Ballarat after the city, HMAS Ballarat (J184) and HMAS Ballarat (FFH 155).\\n\\n=== Notable persons ===\\n\\n\\nBust of Alfred Deakin, first federal member for Ballaarat at the Prime Ministers Avenue.\\nA great many notable people's origins are in the Ballarat region, with the most prominent being high-ranking politicians and sportspeople.\\n\\nSeveral former prime ministers of Australia were either born in or lived in Ballarat, and this was recognised by the city's Prime Minister's Avenue. Alfred Deakin, the second prime minister, was the first federal parliament MP for Ballarat. Sir Robert Menzies, and James Scullin were both educated in Ballarat. John Curtin was born in nearby Creswick and his wife Elsie was born in Ballarat. Several premiers of the Australian states were born in Ballarat, including Ballarat born Sir Henry Bolte, Steve Bracks, Thomas Hollway, and Henry Daglish. Additionally Duncan Gillies lived in and represented Ballarat in the Victorian Legislative Assembly before becoming state premier.\\n\\nAn additional political activist included Francis William Hyet is trade unionist and born in Ballarat. He was heavily inclined towards socialism which became a calling for his way of life. He became involved with the Social Democratic Party in 1905 and following the Victorian Socialist Party in 1906. Hyett was a very prominent in the anti-conscription campaign. He was able to harness the union's newspaper which became a medium for the anti-conscriptionists.\\n\\nOutside politics other prominent public figures include Peter Lalor, a notable historical figure in Australia as the leader of the Eureka Rebellion (1854) and a parliamentarian; the inventor George Alfred Julius, who spent part of his childhood there when his father was a local Anglican cleric; the inventor Henry Sutton was born and worked in Ballarat; and Cardinal George Pell, the former Catholic Archbishop of Melbourne and Sydney was born in Ballarat and worked in the area for some time.\\n\\nBallarat has also produced many notable athletes including the Olympic long distance runner Steve Moneghetti and four time Olympic basketball player Ray Borner. A large number of notable Australian rules football identities have come from Ballarat, including Australian Football Hall of Fame members Tony Lockett and Bob Davis.\\n\\nIn addition, Henry Sutton was an inventor from Ballarat. Sutton designed an electric continuous current dynamo with a practical ring armature. This design could be used as an electric motor and the rapid incline of the electrical industry followed. Sutton was involved in devising and constructing different telephone designs. Sutton interacted closely with Bell (the inventor of the telephone), Bell came to visit Sutton in order to see a complete telephone system that was set up in Sutton's family warehouse.\\n\",\n \"\\n===Health===\\nBallarat Base Hospital's Henry Bolte wing (completed in 1994) Drummond St Nth\\nBallarat has two major hospitals. The public health services are managed by Ballarat Health Services including the Ballarat Base which services the entire region and the Queen Elizabeth Centre for aged care on Ascot Street Sth. The St John of God Health Care centre also on Drummond Street Nth, established in 1915 is currently the largest private hospital in regional Victoria.\\n\\nThe Ballarat Regional Integrated Cancer Centre (BRICC) on the corner of Drummond and Sturt Street includes a number of facilities focused on cancer treatment.\\n\\nThe Heart Foundation did a study in 2014 that Ballarat had the highest level of physical inactivity (85.3 per cent) in Australia and that 32.9 per cent of residents were deemed obese.\\n\\n===Utilities===\\nBallarat's residents are serviced by a wide range of public utilities including water, gas and electricity, telephony and data communications supplied, overseen and regulated by state based authorities and private enterprise and local council.\\n\\nWater supply as well as sewage collection and disposal are provided by Central Highlands Water. Drinking water is sourced from a network reservoirs all located in the highlands to the east, however the majority is sourced from two main reservoirs—Lal Lal and White Swan. The Lal Lal Reservoir (built in 1970 with a capacity of ) is Ballarat's largest water catchment accounting for approximately two thirds of the city's water usage. The White Swan reservoir (built in 1952 with a capacity) supplies most of the remainder. Since May 2008, the White Swan has been topped up by water from Bendigo's Sandhurst Reservoir through the Goldfields Superpipe with water originally sourced from the Goulburn River system. Kirks Reservoir (built between 1860 and 1862 with a capacity of ) and Gong Gong Reservoir (built in 1877 at Gong Gong, Victoria with a capacity of ) are historic main water supplies now maintained for emergency use. Other reservoirs supplying Ballarat include Moorabool reservoir (located in Bolwarrah, Victoria with a capacity of ), Wilson's Reservoir (located in the Wombat State Forest with a capacity of ), Beales reservoir (built 1863 located at Wallace with a capacity of ) and Pincotts reservoir (built 1867 located at Leigh Creek, Victoria with a capacity of ). Sewage is managed by two plants—the Ballarat North Wastewater Treatment Plant and the Ballarat South Waste Water Treatment Plant.\\n\\nResidential electricity is supplied by Victorian electricity distributor Powercor, while residential natural gas is supplied by AGL Energy.\\n\\nTelephone services are provided via the Doveton Street (BRAT) telephone exchange which was originally built by the Australian Telecommunications Commission (now known as Telstra) who remains its owner, though Optus now also operates services from this facility. The city's cellular network currently uses Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS). Telstra has provided mobile telecommunications to Ballarat since 2003 (initially as CDMA). Optus provided competition with its entrance to the market in 2003 along with significant service upgrades in 2004 followed by Vodafone in mid-2009.\\n\\nData communications are provided by several companies. Telstra was the first company to provide dial-up Internet access via the Ballarat exchange, however the first network for broadband Internet access available in the city was a hybrid optical fiber cable and coaxial cable built by Neighbourhood Cable in 2001. Since then, Telstra and Optus have entered the Ballarat market, providing Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) services for residential Internet access from four main exchanges—Ballarat, Wendouree (Howitt Street), Sebastopol (Skipton Street) and Alfredton (Cuthberts Road). These companies also provide mobile data access Evolved HSPA and since late 2011 3GPP Long Term Evolution (4G). Ballarat's rollout of the National Broadband Network (NBN) is seen as vital for the city's growing IT industry. During Ballarat's first stage NBN rollout in 2012, 17,800 homes will be directly connected to the network via optical fibre cable.\\n\\n===Transport===\\n\\n====Road====\\nA view of the Western Freeway (M8) at Nerrina looking west toward Doodts Road, Ballarat North and Invermay from the Nerrina pedestrian overpass.\\nRoad transport and the motor vehicle is the main form of transport. A network of state highways radiate from Ballarat and the Western Freeway (A8) is dual carriageway bypasses the central city to the north of the urban area, providing a direct road connection to Melbourne (approximately 90 minutes), westward to Ararat (approximately 75 minutes) and Horsham. Five freeway interchanges service the urban area, East Ballarat (half diamond) interchange at Victoria Street (C805); Brown Hill interchange (full diamond) at Daylesford-Ballarat Road (C292), Creswick Road interchange (full diamond) at Wendouree (A300); the Mount Rowan interchange (half diamond) at Gillies Road, Wendouree (C307) and the Mitchell Park interchange (full diamond) at Howe Street (C287). The Midland Highway is a dual carriageway which runs north along Creswick Road to the Western Freeway interchange but becomes a single carriageway north of Ballarat to Creswick (approximately 25 minutes) and runs south as the dual carriageway of Skipton Road to Magpie before becoming a single carriageway to Geelong (approximately 87 minutes). The Glenelg Highway connects directly to Mount Gambier and the Sunraysia Highway west of Ballarat which connects directly to Mildura.\\n\\nSturt Street and Victoria Street, both dual carriageways carry the bulk of the east-west CBD traffic, while Mair Street is planned to become a four lane dual carriageway to relieve pressure on these main streets. Other dual carriageway main roads in the west include Howitt Street and Gillies Street. The busiest roads by far are located in the west and south at Albert Street in Redan, Sturt Street in Newington and Gillies Street in Lake Gardens which carry 22,400, 22,000 and 21,500 vehicles per day respectively and all have 4 traffic lanes.\\n\\n====Bus, coach and taxi====\\n\\nBallarat is also served by an extensive public bus service operated by CDC Ballarat. They operate 15 routes across the city, routes 10-15, 20-26, 30 & 31, and school bus services..\\n* Route 10 - Ballarat Station - Alfredton via Wendouree\\n* Route 11 - Ballarat Station - Wendouree Station via Howitt St \\n* Route 12 - Ballarat Station - Wendouree Station via Forest St \\n* Route 13 - Ballarat Station - Invermay Park \\n* Route 14 - Ballarat Station - Black Hill \\n* Route 15 - Ballarat Station - Brown Hill \\n* Route 20 - Ballarat Station - Canadian \\n* Route 21 - Ballarat Station - Buninyong via Federation University \\n* Route 22 - Ballarat Station - Federation University via Sebastopol \\n* Route 23 - Ballarat Station - Mount Pleasant \\n* Route 24 - Ballarat Station - Sebastopol \\n* Route 25 - Ballarat Station - Delacombe \\n* Route 26 - Ballarat Station - Alfredton \\n* Route 30 - Ballarat Station - Creswick \\n* Route 31 - Wendouree Station - Miners Rest\\n\\nNumerous private companies service suburban, intercity and interstate routes with coach services. Gold Bus provides additional suburban services as well as the Ballarat School Bus Network. Ballarat railway station is a major regional terminal for coach services. V/Line operates direct services to regional Victorian locations including Melbourne, Geelong, Bendigo, Warrnambool, Mildura, Nhill, Ouyen, Halls Gap, Daylesford, Maryborough as well as the South Australian cities of Adelaide and Mount Gambier. Gold Bus operates direct regional services to links to both Avoca and Maryborough, while Sandlants operates a direct service to Stawell. There is also a direct bus service to Melbourne's Tullamarine Airport with the Ballarat Airport Shuttlebus. Interstate coaches from Greyhound Australia and Firefly Express coaches stop at Ballarat on route between Melbourne and Adelaide. The local taxi fleet consists of over 57 vehicles services in all suburbs and is currently operated by Ballarat Taxis Co-op Ltd. Taxis and bus are the only late night public transport option in the city.VLocity railcars inside the train shed at Ballarat railway station\\nA tourist tram on Wendouree Parade\\n'''Rail'''\\n\\nBallarat has historically been a major rail transport hub in Victoria, situated at the junction of the Ballarat line, Ararat line and Mildura lines it currently has several connections for both passenger rail services and freight rail.\\n\\nThe city has two passenger railway stations, the hub of Ballarat railway station and suburban Wendouree railway station. From Ballarat station, V/Line operates VLocity trains running at up to east to Melbourne, west to Ararat and north to Maryborough. Since the controversial removal of \\\"flagship\\\" express services in 2011, successive timetable changes have slowed peak hour services to Southern Cross Station, with the current journey taking a minimum of 73 minutes. Patronage however has continued to grow. The Regional Rail Link project is aimed at separating Ballarat trains from Melbourne's suburban rail network. Interurban services (Ballarat-Melbourne) now run half-hourly during weekday peak and hourly during weekday non-peak and on weekends from Ballarat station. A twice daily (thrice daily on weekdays) (57 minute) service connects Ballarat to Ararat (stopping at Beaufort) while there is a (53 minute) service to and from Maryborough (stopping at Creswick, Clunes, and Talbot) once a day (twice a day on weekdays) each way. Victoria's electronic ticketing system, Myki, was implemented on rail services between Wendouree and Melbourne on 24 July 2013.\\n\\nBallarat is connected to Geelong by rail via the Geelong-Ballarat railway line, which currently operates only for freight (passenger services were withdrawn in 1978) although in 2011, a planning study began for returning of passenger services along the line to investigate connecting both cities to Bendigo via Maryborough and Castlemaine. There are also several disused railway corridors and stations along the Skipton railway, Buninyong railway. A former branch line built in 1886 to Redan was sold off by VicTrack and finally dismantled in 2010. The freight line forked off the Singleton line at Lake Gardens running south through Alfredton and then east parallel to Latrobe Street, past the Cattle yards and on to Redan (now Delacombe).\\n\\nThe once extensive Ballarat tramway network operated between 1887 and 1971 with a small section of remaining track being utilised as a tourist and museum tramway. There have been proposals to extend the network, particularly as a major tourist facility but also to connect it to the railways and return it as a viable component of the Ballarat public transport system, including a strong lobby in 2001–2002, 2010–11 and 2014, however Ballarat City Council and federal member of parliament have dismissed recent proposals.\\n\\n====Air====\\nBallarat Aerodrome from above\\nBallarat Airport located north-west of the CBD consists of two sealed runways (each approximately long and wide) as well as extensive sealed aprons, night lighting and NDB navaid. A Master Plan for the Aerodrome was completed in 2005 followed by an Airport Master Plan in 2013. The report made a series of recommendations and forecasts that included eventual lengthening, widening and strengthening of the existing main runway up to , consideration for expansion of the passenger terminal and recommendations for future use of aprons and development of future structures supporting larger aircraft and increased frequent usage. It was forecast that by 2012–2015 regular domestic passenger services using 40–50 seat commuter aircraft could feasibly commence.\\n\\n====Cycling====\\nBallarat has a long history of cycling as a form of transport and recreation. The current cycling network continues to grow and consists of several marked on-road routes and of segregated bicycle facilities including several main routes:Ballarat–Skipton Rail Trail, Yarrowee River Trail with connections to the Gong Gong Reservoir. Buningyong Trail, Sebastopol Trail, and the Lake Wendouree shared path. The Ballarat Bicycle Users Group provides advocacy for the growing number of cyclists in the city. The popularity of cycling in Ballarat is also demonstrated by the large number of spectators and participants drawn to cycling sporting events held in the city.\\n\",\n \"Ballarat is home to three bikie chapters, most notably the Finks Motorcycle Club, who, in 2010, were planning to build a club house and training centre in the city. Other bikie chapters in the city are the Vikings and the Bandidos Motorcycle Club. The city was the subject of an ABC ''Four Corners'' report on the use of methamphetamine in Australia, along with Devonport, Burnie, Castlemaine and St Arnaud. Ballarat also has 3 police stations: Ballarat, Ballarat North and Ballarat West.\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"'''History books'''\\n* Bate, Weston. ''Lucky City: The First Generation of Ballarat 1851–1901'' (1978)\\n* Bate, Weston. ''Life After Gold: Twentieth-Century Ballarat'' Melbourne University Press (1993)\\n* Carboni, Raffaello. ''The Eureka Stockade'' (1980) first published (1855)\\n* Goodman, David. ''Gold Seeking: Victorian and California in the 1850s'' (1994)\\n* Jacobs, Wendy. ''Ballarat: A Guide to Buildings and Areas 1851–1940'' Jacob Lewis Vines Conservation Architects and Planners (1981)\\n* Lynch, John. ''The Story of the Eureka Stockade: Epic Days in the early fifties at Ballarat'', (1947?)\\n* Flett, James. ''The History of Gold Discovery in Victoria''\\n* Molony, John. ''Eureka'', (1984)\\n* Molony, John. ''By Wendouree'', (2010)\\n* Serle, Geoffrey. ''The Golden Age: A History of the Colony of Victoria, 1851–1860'', (1963)\\n* Freund, Peter, with Val Sarah. ''Her Maj: A History of Her Majesty's Theatre, Ballarat'' (2007)\\n* Ballarat City Council\\n* Victorian Heritage Register, Heritage Victoria\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n\\n* Ballarat City Council\\n* Visit Ballarat – Ballarats Official Tourism website\\n* Ballarat – Tourism Victoria – Government tourism site.\\n* Ballarat and District Industrial Heritage Project\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction"," History ","Geography","Environment","Economy","Demographics","Governance","Media","Education","Arts and culture","Infrastructure"," Crime ","References","Bibliography","External links"],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \" History \",\n \"Geography\",\n \"Environment\",\n \"Economy\",\n \"Demographics\",\n \"Governance\",\n \"Media\",\n \"Education\",\n \"Arts and culture\",\n \"Infrastructure\",\n \" Crime \",\n \"References\",\n \"Bibliography\",\n \"External links\"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Ballarat"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["Servicing the financial sector are branches of the big four Australian retail banks (National Australia Bank, Australia and New Zealand Banking Group, Commonwealth Bank and Westpac) along with Bendigo Bank and St.George Bank and a number of smaller independent financial services firms."],"string":"[\n \"Servicing the financial sector are branches of the big four Australian retail banks (National Australia Bank, Australia and New Zealand Banking Group, Commonwealth Bank and Westpac) along with Bendigo Bank and St.George Bank and a number of smaller independent financial services firms.\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\n\n'''Ballarat''' is a city located on the Yarrowee River in the Central Highlands of Victoria, Australia.","The city is approximately west-north-west of the state capital, Melbourne, with a population of some 101,686.","It is the third largest population for an inland city in Australia.","Locals are known as 'Ballaratians'.","Ballarat is arguably the most significant Victorian era gold rush boomtown in Australia.","Just months after Victoria was granted separation from the state of New South Wales, the Victorian gold rush transformed Ballarat from a small sheep station to a major settlement.","Gold was discovered at Poverty Point on 18 August 1851, and news quickly spread of rich alluvial fields where gold could easily be extracted.","Within months, migrants from across the world had rushed to the district in search of gold.","Unlike many other gold boom towns, the Ballarat fields experienced sustained high gold yields for many decades, which can be evidenced to this day in the city's rich architecture.","The Eureka Rebellion began in Ballarat, and the only armed rebellion in Australian history, the Battle of Eureka Stockade, took place on 3 December 1854.","In response to the event the first male suffrage in Australia was instituted and as such Eureka is interpreted by some as the origin of democracy in Australia.","The gold rush and boom gave birth to many other significant cultural legacies.","The rebellion's symbol, the Eureka Flag, has become a national symbol and is held at the Museum of Australian Democracy at Eureka in Ballarat.","Other nationally significant heritage structures include the Ballarat Botanical Gardens (established 1857), with the greatest concentration of public statuary, the official Prime Ministers Avenue, the longest running lyric theatre building (Her Majesty's Theatre, established 1875), the first municipal observatory, established 1886, and the earliest and longest war memorial avenue (the Avenue of Honour, established between 1917 and 1919).","Proclaimed a city in 1871, its prosperity continued until late in the 19th century, after which its importance relative to both Melbourne and Geelong rapidly faded with the slowing of gold extraction.","It has endured as a major regional centre hosting the rowing and kayaking events from the 1956 Summer Olympics.","It is the commercial capital of the Central Highlands and the largest city in the Goldfields region of Victoria, as well a significant tourist destination.","Ballarat is known for its history, culture and its well-preserved Victorian era heritage, with much of the city subject to heritage overlays.","After a narrow popular vote the city merged with the town of Ballarat East in 1921, ending a long standing rivalry.","\n=== Prehistory and European settlement ===\nPrior to the European settlement of Australia, the Ballarat region was populated by the Wathaurong people, an Indigenous Australian people.","The Boro gundidj tribe's territory was based along the Yarrowee River.","The first Europeans to sight the area were an 1837 party of six mostly Scottish squatters from Geelong, led by Somerville Learmonth, who were in search of land less affected by the severe drought for their sheep to graze.","The party scaled Mount Buninyong; among them were Somerville's brother Thomas Livingstone Learmonth, William Cross Yuille and Henry Anderson, all three of whom later claimed land in what is now Ballarat.","The Yuille family, Scottish settlers Archibald Buchanan Yuille and his brother William Cross Yuille, arrived in 1837 and squatted a sheep run.","The first houses were built near Woolshed Creek by William Yuille and Anderson (Sebastopol), while Yuille erected a hut at Black Swamp (Lake Wendouree) in 1838.","Outsiders originally knew of the settlement as Yuille's Station and Yuille's Swamp.","Archibald Yuille named the area \"Ballaarat\" Some claim the name is derived from a local Wathaurong Aboriginal word for the area, ''balla arat''.","The meaning of this word is not certain; however several translations have been made and it is generally thought to mean \"resting place\".","In some dialects, ''balla'' means \"bent elbow\", which is translated to mean reclining or resting and ''arat'' meaning \"place\".","Another claim is that the name derives from Yuille's native Gaelic Baile Ararat (Town of Ararat), alluding to the resting place of Noah's ark.","The present spelling was officially adopted by the City of Ballarat in 1996.","=== 1850s: Gold rush ===\nBallarat's tent city in the summer of 1853–1854 oil painting from an original sketch by Eugene von Guerard.","The first publicised discovery of gold in the region was by Thomas Hiscock on 2 August 1851 in the Buninyong region to the south.","The find brought other prospectors to the area and on 19 August 1851 John Dunlop and James Regan struck gold at Poverty Point with a few ounces.","Within days of the announcement of Dunlop and Regan's find a gold rush began, bringing thousands of prospectors to the Yarrowee valley which became known as the Ballarat diggings.","Yields were particularly high, with the first prospectors in the area extracting between half an ounce (which was more than the average wage of the time) and up to five ounces of alluvial gold per day.","As news of the Australian gold rushes reached the world, Ballarat gained an international reputation as a particularly rich goldfield.","As a result, a huge influx of immigrants occurred, including many from Ireland and China, gathering in a collection of prospecting shanty towns around the creeks and hills.","In just a few months numerous alluvial runs were established, several deep mining leads began, and the population had swelled to over 1,000 people.","Pencil drawing of goldfields camp at Ballarat\n\nThe first post office opened on 1 November 1851.","It was the first Victorian post office to open in a gold-mining settlement.","Parts of the district were first surveyed by William Urquhart as early as October 1851.","By 1852 his grid plan and wide streets for land sales in the new township of West Ballarat, built upon a plateau of basalt, contrasted markedly with the existing narrow unplanned streets, tents, and gullies of the original East Ballarat settlement.","The new town's main streets of the time were named in honour of police commissioners and gold commissioners of the time, with the main street, Sturt Street, named after Evelyn Pitfield Shirley Sturt; Dana Street named after Henry Dana; Lydiard Street after his assistant; Doveton Street after Francis Crossman Doveton, Ballarat's first gold commissioner; Armstrong after David Armstrong; and Mair Street after William Mair.","These officials were based at the government encampment (after which nearby Camp Street was named), which was strategically positioned on an escarpment with an optimal view over the district's diggings.","The first newspaper, ''The Banner'', published on 11 September 1853, was one of many to be distributed during the gold-rush period.","Print media played a large role in the early history of the settlement.","Ballarat attracted a sizable number of miners from the Californian 1848 gold rush, and some were known as Ballafornians.","Battle of the Eureka Stockade.","J.","B. Henderson (1854) Watercolour\nCivil disobedience in Ballarat led to Australia's only armed civil uprising, the Eureka Rebellion (colloquially referred to as the \"Eureka Stockade\") which took place in Ballarat on 3 December 1854.","The event, in which 22 miners were killed, is considered to be a defining moment in Australian history.","The city earned the nickname \"The Golden City\" in the 1850s.","The gold rush population peaked at almost 60,000, mostly male diggers, by 1858.","However the early population was largely itinerant.","As quickly as the alluvial deposits drew prospectors to Ballarat, the rate of gold extraction fluctuated and, as they were rapidly worked dry, many quickly moved to rush other fields as new findings were announced, particularly Mount Alexander in 1852, Fiery Creek in 1855, and Ararat in 1857.","By 1859, a smaller number of permanent settlers numbering around 23,000, many of whom had built personal wealth in gold, established a prosperous economy based around a shift to deep underground gold mining.","Confidence of the city's early citizens in the enduring future of their city is evident in the sheer scale of many of the early public buildings, generous public recreational spaces, and opulence of many of its commercial establishments and private housing.","A local steam locomotive industry developed from 1854 with the Phoenix Foundry operating until 1906.","The railway came to the town with the opening of the Geelong–Ballarat line in 1862 and Ballarat developed as a major railway town.","As the city grew the region's original indigenous inhabitants were quickly expelled to the fringe and by 1867 few remained.","=== Victorian city ===\nThe intersection of Lydiard and Sturt Street in about 1905 was the heart of a bustling city of trams, horses and pedestrians.","From the late 1860s to the early 20th century, Ballarat made a successful transition from a gold rush town to an industrial-age city.","The ramshackle tents and timber buildings gradually made way for permanent buildings, many impressive structures of solid stone and brick mainly built from wealth generated by early mining.","Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh visited between 9 and 13 December 1867 and as the first royal visit, the occasion was met with great fanfare.","The Prince Room was prepared at Craigs Royal Hotel for his stay.","The city's first civic centre—Prince Alfred Hall—erected over the Yarrowee between the two municipalities, was named in his honour during his visit.","The later attempt of the Prince's assassination by Ballaratian Henry James O'Farrell was met with shock and great horror from locals.","Ballarat was proclaimed a city in 1871.","Gong Gong reservoir was built in 1877 to alleviate flooding and to provide a permanent water supply.","A direct railway to Melbourne was completed in December 1889.","Many industries and workshops had been established as a result of manufacturing and servicing for the deep lead mining industry.","Local boosterists at the start of the 20th century adopted the nickname \"Athens of Australia\", first used to describe the city by the prestigious Irish-Australian jurist and politician of the early 20th century Sir John Madden.","On 13 May 1901, the Duke of York (later George V) and his wife, Mary the Duchess of York, travelled by train from Melbourne to Ballarat.","The first electricity supply was completed in 1901 by the Electric Supply Company of Victoria.","A bluestone power station was built at the corner of Ripon Street and Wendouree Parade in 1901 with the main aim of providing the power required for electrification of the city's tramway network.","=== Declining fortunes ===\nDevelopment of the Ballarat North Workshops was a major initiative to capitalise on the city's burgeoning role as a railway town and transition from a declining gold mining industry\nFollowing the start of the 20th century, however, mining activity slowed and Ballarat's growth all but stopped—the city went into a period of decline and saw a reversal of the fortunes acquired in the previous century.","The Sunshine rail disaster in 1908 resulted in the death of dozens of Ballarat residents.","On 19 August 1909, a great storm lashed the city, resulting in the death of one person and injury of seven others.","During the storm, a tornado swept across the city's northern and eastern suburbs destroying numerous homes in Ballarat North, Soldiers Hill, Black Hill and Ballarat East, lifting and then again touching down at Eureka where it destroyed more homes before dissipating.","One bright spot in this period was the establishment of Osrey Pottery in 1922 by the artist Gladys Reynell, one of Australia's first potters, and her husband, George Samuel Osborne.","The pottery closed in 1926 when Osborne developed lead poisoning.","Ballarat's significant representation during WWI resulted in heavy human loss.","The city eventually lost first provincial status to Geelong.","In response, local lobbyists continually pushed the Victorian government for decentralisation, the greatest success being the Victorian Railways opening the Ballarat North Workshops in April 1917.","The Great Depression proved a further setback for Ballarat, with the closure of many institutions and causing the worst unemployment in the city's history, with over a thousand people in the dole queue.","The city's two municipalities, Ballarat East and West Town Councils, finally amalgamated in 1921 to form the City of Ballarat.","=== Since the 20th century ===\nView of central Ballarat from St Peter's Anglican Church\nWhile deep, the depression was also brief.","The interwar period proved a period of recovery for Ballarat with a number of major infrastructure projects well underway including a new sewerage system.","In 1930, Ballarat Airport was established.","By 1931, Ballarat's economy and population was recovering strongly with further diversification of industry, although in 1936 Geelong displaced it as the state's second largest city.","During World War II an expanded Ballarat airport was the base of the RAAF Wireless Air Gunners' School as well as the base for USAAF Liberator bomber squadrons.","In 1942, Ballarat became connected to the state electricity grid by a 66,000 kV line.","Prior to this, power supply was generated locally.","In the post-war era, Ballarat's growth continued.","In response to an acute housing shortage, significant suburban expansion occurred.","An extensive Housing Commission of Victoria estate was built on the former Ballarat Common (today known as Wendouree West).","The estate was originally planned to contain over 750 prefabricated houses.","While planning for the estate began in 1949, main construction occurred between 1951 and 1962.","The 1950s brought a new optimism to the city.","On 17 April 1952 it was announced that Lake Wendouree was to be the venue for rowing events of the 1956 Summer Olympics, and work soon began on an Olympic village in Gillies Street.","A new prefabricted power terminal substation at Norman Street Ballarat North was constructed between 1951 and 1953 by the State Electricity Commission.","The first Begonia Festival, a highly successful community celebration, was held in 1953.","Elizabeth II visited on 8 March 1954.","The Civic Centre, Prince Alfred Hall had burned down suspiciously that year; however a new Civic Hall was constructed and opened in March 1955.","On 23 November 1956, the Olympic torch was carried through the city, and the following day the rowing events were held at the lake.","On 2 March 1958 the Queen Mother visited Ballarat.","During the following decades, the city saw increased threats to its heritage.","In 1964, the Ballarat City Council passed laws banning pillar-supported verandahs in the CBD, which threatened the removal of historic cast iron verandahs in the city.","The by-law was met by staunch opposition from the National Trust, which had begun campaigning to protect some of the city's most historic buildings.","By the 1970s, Ballarat began to officially recognise its substantial heritage, and the first heritage controls were recommended to ensure its preservation.","With the opening of Sovereign Hill, the city made a rapid shift to become a major cultural tourist destination, visited by thousands each year.","During the 1970s, a further 300 houses were constructed at Wendouree West.","Private housing in the adjacent suburb of Wendouree closely matched and eventually eclipsed this by the mid-1960s.","The suburb of greater Wendouree and Wendouree West had evolved as the suburban middle-class heart of the city.","Charles, Prince of Wales visited Ballarat on 28 October 1974 during which he toured Sovereign Hill, the Ballarat College of Advanced Education's new Mt Helen Campus and the White Swan Reservoir and spoke at Civic Hall.","The city continued to grow at the national average throughout the late 20th century and early 21st century.","In 2008 the City of Ballarat released a plan directing that growth of the city over the next 30 years is to be concentrated to the west of the city centre.","The Ballarat West Growth Area Plan was approved by the city and state government in 2010, planning an extensive fringe development consisting of 14,000 new homes and up to 40,000 new residents including new activity centres and employment zones.","=== Military history ===\n\nDuring World War 2, Ballarat was the location of RAAF No.1 Inland Aircraft Fuel Depot (IAFD), completed in 1942 in the defence of Australia against a Japanese invasion and de-commissioned on 29 August 1944.","Usually consisting of 4 tanks, 31 fuel depots were built across Australia for the storage and supply of aircraft fuel for the RAAF and the US Army Air Forces at a total cost of £900,000 ($1,800,000).","Ballarat's skyline hidden from this view of the city looking east across Lake Wendouree to Mount Warrenheip.","Ballarat lies at the foothills of the Great Dividing Range in Central Western Victoria.","Also known as the Central Highlands, it is named so because of its gentle hills and lack of any significant mountains that are more common in the eastern sections of the Great Dividing Range.","The city lies within a mostly gently undulating section of the midland plains which stretch from Creswick in the north, to Rokewood in the south, and from Lal Lal in the south-east to Pittong in the west.","Geologically, the area consists of alluvial sediment and volcanic flows originating from now-extinct volcanoes such as nearby Buninyong and Warrenheip, which are the area's tallest peaks.","As a result, the basin contains large areas of fertile agricultural soil.","Ballarat itself is situated on an alluvial basin of the Yarrowee catchment and its tributary creeks, penetrated by sub-ranges of schists composed of granites and quartz.","Along with the visible river and creeks, the catchment basin has numerous active and inactive aquifers and natural wetlands, which are used for urban water supply, agriculture and recreation.","There are numerous densely forested areas around Ballarat; however due to historic wood milling and land clearing there remain no old-growth forests.","The major natural bodies of water are in the west and include the former shallow swamps of Lake Wendouree which is central to the city's western suburbs and beyond Winter's Swamp and the large Lake Burrumbeet wetland complex.","Almost all of the other numerous bodies of water have been created artificially and include several reservoirs, the largest being the White Swan Reservoir and smaller suburban lakes such as Lake Esmond.","The contiguous urban area of Ballarat covers approximately of the local government area's .","Approximately 90% of the urban area's land use is residential and suburban.","From the city centre this area extends approximately north to the hills around Invermay, approximately east to Leigh Creek in the foothills of Mount Warrenheip, approximately west along the plains to Lucas and approximately south along the Yarrowee River and Canadian Creek valley to the fringe of Buninyong.","The central city is situated low in the valley of the Yarrowee River and surrounded by hills such that the city skyline is visible only from the hills and the lower lying inner eastern suburbs.","The reach of the Yarrowee River toward Ballarat Central becomes a stormwater drain and is completely covered over as it flows under the CBD.","===City and suburbs===\nMap of the urban area (grey) and the extent of the municipal area\nView of Ballarat Central and surrounding areas from the Black Hill lookout.","Looking south over Sturt Street and the CBD toward Bridge Mall from the Town Hall clock tower\n\nBallarat is a primarily low-rise city though apart from the area around Ballarat Airport there are few established height limits for buildings.","The City of Ballarat defines two Major Activity Centres within the urban area – the Central Business District (CBD) and Wendouree with a high concentration of business, retail and community function based primarily on the Melbourne 2030 planning model and a further 11 neighbourhood activity centres.","The tallest building in urban Ballarat is the seven-storey Henry Bolte wing of the Ballarat Base Hospital (1994).","Beyond the central area, urban Ballarat extends into several suburban areas with a mixture of housing styles.","Predominant styles are 19th-century villas, Victorian terraces, Federation homes and Georgian red brick homes.","Settlement patterns around Ballarat consist of small villages and country towns, some with less than a few thousand people.","The Central Business District (located in Ballarat Central) is a large mixed-use office and retail district bounded to the north by railway lines, to the west by Drummond Street, to the south to Grant street and to the east by Princes Street and spanning the floodplain of the Yarrowee River.","Lydiard, Sturt Streets, Armstrong, Doveton, Dana Street and Bridge Street (known as Bridge Mall) along with the historic centre of East Ballarat—Main Street and Bakery Hill have retained stands of commercial and civic buildings of state and national heritage significance.","The inner established suburbs were initially laid out around the key mining areas and include Ballarat East, Bakery Hill, Golden Point, Soldiers Hill, Black Hill, Brown Hill, Eureka, Canadian, Mount Pleasant, Redan, Sebastopol and Newington.","The post gold rush era has seen a boom in expansion, extending the conurbation north, south and west.","To the west, Ballarat has expanded West to Lucas, Alfredton, Delacombe To The North West Wendouree , Wendouree West and Miners Rest To the north it has expanded to Ballarat North, Invermay Park, Invermay, Victoria Invermay and Nerrina; to the east to Warrenheip and south to Sebastopol, Mount Clear and Mount Helen with the urban area encroaching the large town of Buninyong.","Wendouree is currently the only major suburban activity centre with a large indoor shopping mall—Stockland Shopping Centre (expanded in 2007) and also has a number of surrounding retail parks including a strip shopping centre along Howitt Street including the large retail chain Harvey Norman.","Elsewhere are small suburban hubs with supermarkets such as IGA (supermarkets) and small stretches of shopfronts.","Unlike Melbourne, Ballarat does not have a defined urban growth boundary.","This has put continuing pressure on the city council to approve development applications for subdivisions outside of the city fringe.","In response to lobbying by landholders, the Ballarat West Growth Area Plan, a major greenfield land development plan, was prepared and has approved by the city and state government to allow for planned fringe communities consisting of 14,000 new homes and up to 40,000 new residents, effectively doubling the city's urban area by extending the urban sprawl from Sebastopol, Delacombe and Alfredton west toward Bonshaw, Smythes Creek and Cardigan with a new suburb to be known as Lucas to be created.","New activity centres are to be developed at Delacombe and Alfredton.","===Climate===\nSnow scene in Sturt Gardens in 1905\nBallarat has a moderate oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification ''Cfb'') with four seasons.","Its elevation, at above sea level, causes its mean monthly temperatures to tend to be on average below those of Melbourne.","The mean daily maximum temperature for January is , while the mean minimum is .","In July, the mean maximum is ; average July minimum is .","Ballarat has 55.2 clear days annually.","The mean annual rainfall is , with August being the wettest month ().","There are an average of 198 rain-free days per year.","Like much of Australia, Ballarat experiences cyclical drought and heavy rainfall.","Flooding of the Yarrowee catchment occurs occasionally.","In 1869 a serious flood of the Yarrowee River put most of the lower section of business district including Bridge and Grenville streets under water and caused the loss of two lives.","Prolonged drought (an average annual rainfall with falls averaging as low as per year since 2001) caused Lake Wendouree to dry up completely for the first time in its history between 2006 and 2007.","More recently higher rainfall levels have been recorded including in the 24 hours to 9 am on 14 January 2011, ending a four-day period of flooding rains across much of Victoria and Tasmania, and contributing to the wettest January on record, with a total of of rain for the month.","Light snowfall typically falls on nearby Mount Buninyong and Mount Warrenheip at least once a year but in the urban area only during heavy winters.","Widespread frosts and fog are more common during the cooler months.","Snow has been known to fall heavily.","Heavy snow seasons occurred in 1900–1902 and 1905–1907 (with record falls in 1906), and moderate snow seasons were recorded during the 1940s and 1980s.","Recent snowfalls to have occurred within the urban area were in 2006, 2008, 2014 and 2016, with falls in November 2006 (light, also the latest snowfall on record), July 2007 (heavy), June 2008 (light), August 2008 (light), August 2014 (moderate) and June 2016 (light).","Ballarat's highest maximum recorded temperature was on 7 February 2009 during the 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave.","This was above the previous record of , set on 25 January 2003.","The lowest-ever recorded minimum was at sunrise on 19 July 2015.","A view from Lake Wendouree toward Mount Buninyong Reserve\nBallarat has a healthy environment in comparison to Melbourne; however, as a growing regional city there are issues including pollution, waterway health and invasive species.","Air quality is generally good, however dust is sometimes an issue in the summer months and woodsmoke from fireplaces is an issue in the winter months.","Ballarat's waterways have historically been affected by heavy pollution from both mining and industry.","The Ballarat Environment Network formed in 1993 to provide a voice for environmental and nature conservation issues in Ballarat and its surroundings.","Another large lobby group for sustainability in the city is the Ballarat Renewable Energy And Zero Emissions (BREAZE) formed in 2006.","The City of Ballarat released an Environment Sustainability Strategy for the city in 2007.","While there are no national parks in Ballarat's proximity, Ballarat is bordered by extensive bushland to the north, south and south west and sensitive wetlands to the east.","There are a number of nearby state parks and large reserves including the Enfield State Park, Creswick Regional Park, Mount Warrenheip Flora Reserve, Mount Buninyong Reserve and Lake Burrumbeet park.","The region is home to a large koala population with protected areas established in the city's outer southern and eastern settlements.","Many parts of urban Ballarat have been affected by the introduction of exotic species, particularly introduced flora.","Common gorse is one such problem which has prompted the formation of an official Ballarat Region Gorse Task Force in 1999 to control.","European rabbits and red foxes cause significant environmental damage in the region's agriculture areas.","The economy of Ballarat is driven by all three economic sectors, though contemporary Ballarat has emerged as a primarily service economy with its main industry being the service industry and its key areas of business including tourism, hospitality, retail, professional services, government administration and education.","Secondary industry including manufacturing, which had grown in the 20th century remains an important sector.","The city's historic primary industry roots including mining and agriculture continue to play a role, though one that has declined since the 20th century.","Industries emerging this century include information technology service sector and renewable energy.","===Service industries===\nAs a major service centre for the populous goldfields region, Ballarat has large sectors of employment in business including retail, professional services and trades as well as state and federal government branch offices for public services and health care and non-government service organisations.","Collectively these industries employ more than half of the city's workforce and generate the bulk of the city's economic activity.","Ballarat is the main retail economy in the region.","The city has several key retail districts including a pedestrian mall known as Bridge Mall comprising over 100 traders.","There are also indoor shopping malls including Central Square Shopping Centre and Stockland Wendouree.","better known as Wendouree Village, with a large number of specialty stores.","Major department stores include Myer, Target, Big W, Kmart, Harvey Norman and Harris Scarfe.","Additionally each of the major supermarkets (Coles, Woolworths, IGA and Aldi) are represented.","Federation University Australia exports education through a large international students program and throughout Australia through distance education programs.","In recent years, a large technology park, the Ballarat Technology Park with communications centre has been established, with tenants including IBM and employing over 1,400 people.","====Tourism and hospitality====\nMain Street in Sovereign Hill, a large open-air gold mining museum, is Ballarat's most famous attraction.","Ballarat attracts 2.2 million visitors a year and the tourism and hospitality industry is a A$480 million a year sector which accounts for around 15% of Ballarat's economy and employs around 2,870 people.","Tourism in Ballarat is promoted by Ballarat Regional Tourism.","A significant heritage tourism industry has not grown substantially in Ballarat since the 1960s.","Ballarat is most notable for the award-winning open-air museum known as Sovereign Hill, a recreated 1850s gold mining settlement opened in 1970.","Sovereign Hill is Ballarat's biggest tourism drawcard and is consistently rated among one of the best outdoor museums in the world and continues to expand.","Sovereign Hill accounts for over half a million of Ballarat's visitors and $40 million in tourism revenue.","Several businesses and attractions have capitalised on Ballarat's gold mining history.","They include Kryal Castle (1972), \"Gold Rush Mini Golf\" (2002) featuring the \"Big Miner\" (2006) one of Australia's big things (although the original proposal appeared larger and for the miner to hold the Eureka Flag) at Ballarat's eastern entrance.","Other tourist attractions include the Eureka Centre; The Gold Museum, Ballarat; Ballarat Botanic gardens and Lake Wendouree; the Museum of Australian Democracy; the Ballarat Tramway Museum and Ballarat Ghost Tours and Ballarat Wildlife Park.","A large number of Ballarat hotels, motels and restaurants service the tourism industry.","The Ballarat Tourist Association is an industry based non-profit, membership organisation representing the city's tourism industry.","===Manufacturing===\nAccording to the 2006 Australian Census, manufacturing is Ballarat's third largest employment sector, accounting for 14.8% of all workers.","Ballarat attracts investment from several international manufacturers.","The Australian headquarters of Mars, Incorporated was established in Ballarat in 1979 with the main Ballarat factory producing popular confectionery including Mars bars, Snickers and M&M's for the Australian market as well as expanding in 2013 to produce Maltesers.","McCain Foods Limited Australian headquarters was established in Ballarat in 1970 and the company continues to expand its operations.","The Ballarat North Workshops is a major manufacturer of public transportation products with current investment from Alstom.","Ballarat also has a large number of home-grown companies producing textiles, general industrial engineering, food products, brick and tiles, building components, prefabricated housing components and automotive components.","Brewing was once a large-scale operation, with many large businesses including the public company Phoenix Brewery, and although large-scale brewing has ceased, the city retains a substantial microbrewery industry.","===Primary industry===\nReplica of the \"Welcome Nugget\", found at Ballarat, the second largest gold nugget discovered in recorded history\nThough historically an important sector, the production of Ballarat's primary industry declined for many decades, recovering only marginally since 2006.","Where historically the mining industry supported tens of thousands of workers or the majority of the population, today agriculture dominates the sector, though collectively both industries employ less than thousand people or just over 2% of the City of Ballarat's total workforce.","Ballarat rose to prominence as a goldrush boomtown, though gold no longer plays a pivotal role in the economy of the city.","Nevertheless, deep underground mining continues to the present date with a single main mine operating.","There are still thought to be large, undiscovered gold reserves in the Ballarat region, with investigations being made by local and national companies.","Lihir Gold invested in Ballarat Goldfields in 2006, however it downscaled its operations in 2009 due to the expense of extraction before selling its stake in 2010 to Castlemaine Goldfields.","Along with gold, lignite (coal), kaolin (clay) and iron ore have also been mined in the Ballarat region and nearby Lal Lal however many of the resource deposits have since been exhausted.","An active quarrying industry with large enterprises including Boral Limited extracts and manufactures building materials from the Ballarat region, including clays, aggregates, cements, asphalts.","Approximately half () of the municipality's area is rural with optimal conditions for agriculture including rich volcanic soils and climate.","This area is used primarily for agriculture and animal husbandry and generates more than $37 million in commodities.","The region supports an active potato growing industry that has supplied local food manufacturers including McCain, though more recently has been threatened by cheaper imports.","Other large crops include grains, vegetables, grapes and berries.","Cattle and poultry stocks, including sheep, cows and pigs, support an active local meat and dairy industry.","The Ballarat Livestock Selling Centre is the largest cattle exchange in regional Victoria.","The Ballarat Agricultural and Pastoral Society formed in 1856 and has run the Ballarat Show annually since 1859.","A $7.5 million forestry industry is active in nearby state forests as well as on a small scale in the urban area along the Canadian Valley around the suburbs of Mt Clear and Mt Helen areas with pine plantations and sawmill operations.","====Renewable energy====\nPart of the Waubra Wind Farm\nThe Ballarat region has a rapidly growing renewable energy industry, in particular due to its abundant wind energy, attracting significant investment and generating revenue for local landholders and local councils.","The region is also a source of bountiful geothermal energy, solar power and biomass although to date, only its wind, solar and hydroelectricity has been harvested commercially.","All local commercially produced electricity is sent to the National Electricity Market.","Wind energy is generated by local wind farms.","The largest, Waubra Wind Farm, completed in 2009, ( W – 192 MW, 128 turbines) is capable of producing enough electricity to power a city 3 to 4 times the size of Ballarat.","Other significant nearby wind farms include Mount Mercer, completed 2014, ( S – 131 MW, 64 turbines) which produces enough energy to power 100,000 homes, equivalent to Ballarat's population and Chepstowe, completed March 2015, ( W – 6 MW, 3 turbines) which produces enough power for 3,400 homes.","The first community-owned wind farm in Australia, the Hepburn Wind Project at Leonards Hill, completed in 2011, ( NE – 4 MW, 2 turbines) produces the equivalent amount of electricity used by the town of Daylesford.","Several large projects have planning approval, including Stockyard Hill Wind Farm ( W – 41 MW, 157 turbines), Moorabool Wind Project at Mount Egerton and Ballan ( E – 330 MW, 107 turbines).","and the Lal Lal Wind Farm ( SE – 150 MW, 64 turbines).","Hydroelectricity is generated at White Swan reservoir micro hydro plant established in 2008 and producing the equivalent electricity needs of around 370 homes.","Ballarat Solar Park, opened in 2009 at the Airport site in Mitchell Park, is Victoria's first ground-mounted, flat-plate and grid-connected photovoltaic farm.","Built by Sharp Corporation for Origin Energy, it is and generates the equivalent electricity needs of around 150 homes.","The 2006 Australian national census indicated that the permanent population of the urban area was 78,221 out of the City of Ballarat's population of 85,196 and a total of 31,960 households.","Ballarat has witnessed a significant growth surge since 2006 and the population of the City of Ballarat is becoming increasingly urban such that statistically, the LGA is now used as the ABS statistical division.","Recent rapid growth has been attributed by demographers to increased commuter activity arising from surging house and land prices in Melbourne coupled with transport upgrades between Ballarat and Melbourne.","Since 2006 Ballarat has averaged an annual population growth of 1700 and in June 2008 the estimated resident population of the City of Ballarat was 91,787.","In August 2009 this population had grown to 94,000.","While most of the city's population can trace their ethnic roots to Anglo-Celtic descent, 8.2% of the population are born overseas.","Of them, the majority (4.2%) come from North East Europe.","3.4% speak a language other than English.","14.4% of the population is over the age of 65.","The median age in Ballarat is 35.8 years.","The average income of Ballarat, while lower than Melbourne, is higher than average for regional Victoria.","Ballaratians in the 2007/08 financial year earned on average A$38,850 a year.","The highest earners living in the city's inner suburbs with a mean of $53,174 a year, while the lower earners are centred on the city's southern suburbs.","According to the 2006 Census, Ballarat's working population is largely white collar 52.1% consisting of Management, Professionals, Clerical and Administrative Workers and Sales Workers, while 32.9% are blue collar working in Technicians and Trades, Labouring or Machinery Operation.","56.5% of households had access to the Internet in 2006.","The unemployment rate as of June 2011 was 7.8%.","St Peters Anglican Church, which represents the second most common religious affiliation in Ballarat.","50.3% of the population have completed further education after high school.","===Religion===\nChristianity remains the dominant religion in Ballarat, with over 65% of residents claiming Christian affiliation, slightly above the national average of 64%.","According to the 2006 Census, Catholics (27.1%), Anglicans (15.0%), Uniting Church (11.2%) and Presbyterians (4.0%) remain the largest Christian denominations in Ballarat.","Over 21.6% of Ballarat residents claim no religious affiliation.","Minority religious groups include Buddhism, Judaism, Baha'i and Islam and total less than 5% of the population.","Ballarat Town Hall\nCouncil Chamber in Ballarat Town Hall, Sturt Street, is the seat of local government for the City of Ballarat.","The council was created in 1994 as an amalgamation of a number of other municipalities in the region.","The City is made up of 3 wards, each represented by three councillors elected once every four years by postal voting.","The Mayor of Ballarat is elected from these councillors by their colleagues for a one-year term.","The Town Hall and annexe contains some council offices, however the council's administrative headquarters are located at the council owned Phoenix Building and the leased Gordon Buildings on the opposite side of Bath Lane.","In state politics, Ballarat is located in the Legislative Assembly districts of Buninyong and Wendouree, with both of these seats currently held by the Australian Labor Party.","In federal politics, Ballarat is located in a single House of Representatives division—the Division of Ballarat.","The Division of Ballarat has been a safe Australian Labor Party seat since 2001, and was the seat of the second Prime Minister of Australia, Alfred Deakin.","Law enforcement is overseen from regional police headquarters at the law complex in Dana Street with a single local police station operating in Buninyong.","Due to an increase in crime rates and population, two additional local police stations were proposed in 2011 one each for the suburbs of North Ballarat and Sebastopol.","Justice is conducted locally overseen through branches of the Supreme, County, Magistrates and Children's Court of Victoria which operate out of the Ballarat courts Complex adjacent police headquarters in Dana Street.","Corrections, at least in the longer term are no longer handled locally since the closure of the Ballarat Gaol in 1965.","Offenders can be detained in 25 available cells at the police complex though are commonly transferred to nearby Corrections Victoria facilities such as the Hopkins Correctional Centre in Ararat.","Public safety and emergency services are provided by several state funded organisations including local volunteer based organisations.","Storms and flooding are handled by the State Emergency Service (SES) Mid West Region Headquarters at Wendouree.","Bushfires are handled by the Country Fire Authority District 15 Headquarters and Grampians Region Headquarters at Wendouree and urban structure fires are handled by multiple urban fire brigades operating at fire stations including the Ballarat Fire Brigade at Barkly Street Ballarat East, Ballarat City Fire Brigade at Sturt Street Ballarat Central and suburban stations including Wendouree and Sebastopol.","Medical emergency and paramedic services are provided through Ambulance Victoria and include the Rural Ambulance Victoria, St. John Ambulance and Ballarat Base Hospital ambulance services.","City of Ballarat is responsible for coordinating the Municipal Emergency Management Planning Committee (MEMPC) which prepares the Municipal Emergency Management Plan which is actioned in conjunction with local police.","\n===Newspapers===\nBallarat has two local newspapers, both owned by Fairfax.","''The Courier'' is a daily and ''The Miner'' is a free weekly.","The latter is distributed across most of the city on Wednesdays and contains news of community events, advertisements for local businesses, real estate and a classifieds sections.","===Radio stations===\nRadio House, Lydiard Street North.","Home to 3BA and Power FM\nLocal radio stations include 3BA, Power FM and several community radio stations.","There is also a Ballarat branch of ABC Local Radio's national network.","* 102.3 FM – 3BA (local \"classic hits\" commercial radio station)\n* 103.1 FM – Power FM 103.1 FM (local \"top-40\" commercial radio station)\n* 99.9 FM – Voice FM 99.9 – formerly known as 3BBB (local community radio station)\n* 107.9 FM – ABC Local Radio (government-funded local news, current affairs, light entertainment and talkback)\n* 103.9 FM – Good News Radio 103.9 (Christian community-based radio station)\n\n===Television===\nTelevision station BTV Channel 6 Ballarat commenced transmission of test patterns on 17 March 1962.","Among the many local programs BTV6 produced, the 90 minute live variety program ''Six Tonight'' (1971–1983), hosted by local Ballarat identity Fred Fargher, was one of the few live Australian programs of this type being presented in Australia.","In his 1999 book ''And Now Here's...'' (Four Decades of Behind the Scenes Fun in Australian Television), Mike McColl Jones fondly remembers local live television variety:\n\n\"...and in Ballarat, Victoria, a Tonight show (\"Six Tonight\") was carving its name into Australian television history.","The show, hosted by Fred Fargher, ran for 13 years, and managed to attract many of the top name entertainers in the world, simply by offering them a limo ride to this beautiful country centre, a no-pressure spot on the show, and then a great dinner afterwards at one of the city's excellent restaurants.","The sheer bravado of the offer enticed some of show business' biggest names\".","Today Ballarat is serviced by numerous \"free to air\" High Definition and Standard Definition Digital television services.","Two television broadcasting stations are located in the city, including WIN, GEM HD and GO!","(sub-licensees of Nine Network) and Prime7, 7Two, 7mate (a sub-licensee of Seven Network).","These two stations broadcast relayed services throughout regional Victoria.","The city also receives Southern Cross Ten, One HD and Eleven (sub-licensee's of Network Ten) which is based in Bendigo but operates a local office.","Ballarat television maintains a similar schedule to the national television network but maintains local commercials and regional news programmingWIN produces a 30-minute local news bulletin each weeknight from its studios in the city, where bulletins for Albury, Bendigo, Gippsland, Shepparton and Mildura also originate.","Southern Cross Ten provides short local news updates from its Canberra studios throughout the day.","In addition to commercial television services, Ballarat receives Government ABC (ABC1, ABC2, ABC3, ABC News 24) and SBS (SBS One and Two) television services.","On 5 May 2011, analog television transmissions ceased in most areas of regional Victoria and some border regions including Ballarat and surrounding areas.","All local free-to-air television services are now broadcasting in digital transmission only.","This was done as part of the federal government's plan for digital terrestrial television in Australia, where all analogue transmission systems are gradually turned off and replaced with modern DVB-T transmission systems.","Subscription television services are provided by Neighbourhood Cable, Foxtel and SelecTV.","\nFederation University Australia's SMB campus is set among the heritage buildings of Lydiard Street Sth including the former School of Mines and Industry (left), former Supreme Court and former Ballarat Gaol (rear)\nSchool of Mines Building\nBallarat has two universities, Federation University and a campus of the Australian Catholic University.","Formerly the University of Ballarat, Federation University Australia was opened in 2014.","It originated as the Ballarat School of Mines, founded in 1870, and was once affiliated with the University of Melbourne.","The main campus is located in Mount Helen, approximately southeast of the city.","The university also has campuses in the Ballarat CBD, Horsham, Churchill, Ararat and Stawell.","The Australian Catholic University's Ballarat campus is located on Mair Street.","It was formerly the Aquinas Training College, run by the Ballarat East Sisters of Mercy in 1909.","It is ACU's only campus located outside of a capital city.","Ballarat has four State Government-operated secondary schools of which Ballarat High School (established in 1907) is the oldest.","Ballarat High School and Mount Clear College are the only state school members of the Ballarat Associated Schools.","The two remaining schools are Phoenix College and Ballarat Secondary College.","Ballarat Secondary College was formed in 1994 by the amalgamation of Ballarat East Secondary College, Wendouree Secondary College and Midlands Secondary College.","Phoenix College was formed in 2012 as an amalgamation of Sebastopol College and Redan Primary School.","The city is well serviced by Catholic schools, with eight primary schools and three secondary colleges which include the all-boys St Patrick's College, the all-girls Loreto College and the co-educational Damascus College, which was formed by the amalgamation of St Martin's in the Pines, St Paul's College and Sacred Heart College in 1995.","Ballarat has three other non-government secondary schools: Ballarat Christian College, Ballarat Clarendon College and Ballarat Grammar School.","The later two schools are day and boarding schools who provide education from Preschool to Year 12.","Both of these co-educational schools are classified as academically excellent as the only Ballarat schools to be ranked on the tables of the top 100 Victorian schools based on median VCE scores and percentage of scores of 40 and above.","In 2015, Clarendon was placed at 9th best VCE results in the State, above Melbourne Grammar, Geelong College, Scotch College, Trinity Grammar School (Victoria), Xavier College, and Haileybury College.","Ballarat Grammar was placed at 82nd, above Wesley College, Geelong Grammar and Tintern.","The City of Ballarat has three public libraries, the largest and most extensive of which is the City of Ballarat Library, run by the Central Highlands Regional Library Corporation and located on Doveton Street North.","Another library service is provided by the Ballarat Mechanics' Institute in Sturt Street, which is the oldest library in the city and a significant heritage site; it contains a collection of historic, archival and rare reference material as well as more general books.","File:BallaratMechanicsInstitute1909.jpg|The newspaper reading room of the Ballarat Mechanics' Institute in 1909\nFile:BallaratMechanicsInstitute1942.jpg|American and Australian soldiers in the reading room of the Ballarat Mechanics' Institute in 1942\nFile:Ballarat mechanics institute.jpg|Ballarat mechanics institute","\n=== Heritage ===\nThe Ballarat railway station is notable for being one of only three surviving nineteenth-century station buildings in Australia to retain a train hall\n\nBallarat is renowned for its cultural heritage and decorative arts, especially applied to the built environment, combined with the gold rush, this has created a picturesque urban landscape.","In 2003 Ballarat was the first of two Australian cities to be registered as a member of the International League of Historical Cities and in 2006 hosted the 10th World League of Historical Cities Congress.","Restoration of historic buildings is encouraged including a low interest council Heritage Loans Scheme.","and the prevention of demolition by neglect discouraged by council policies.","Since the 1970s, the local council has become increasingly aware of the economic and social value of heritage preservation.","This is in stark contrast to the 1950s and 60s when Ballarat followed Melbourne in encouraging the removal of Victorian buildings, verandahs in particular.","Recent restoration projects funded by the Ballarat include the reconstruction of significant cast iron lace verandahs including the Mining Exchange, Art Gallery (2007), Mechanics institute (2005–) on Lydiard Street and in 2010 the restoration of the Town Hall and the long neglected Unicorn Hotel façade on Sturt Street.","Ballarat Citizens for Thoughtful Development formed in 1998 and was incorporated as Ballarat Heritage Watch in 2005 to ensure that the city's architectural heritage is given due consideration in the planning process.","The Ballarat Botanical Gardens (established in 1858) are recognised as the finest example of a regional botanical gardens in Australia and are home to many heritage listed exotic tree species and feature a modern glasshouse and horticultural centre and the Prime Ministers Avenue which features bronze busts of every past Australian Prime Minister.","Australian Ex-Prisoners of War Memorial\nBallarat is notable for its very wide boulevards.","The main street is Sturt Street and is considered among one of the finest main avenues in Australia with over of central gardens known as the Sturt Street Gardens featuring bandstands, fountains, statues, monuments, memorials and lampposts.","Ballarat is home to the largest of a collection of several Avenues of Honour in Victoria.","The Ballarat Avenue of Honour consists of a total of approximately 4,000 trees, mostly deciduous which in many parts arch completely over the road.","Each tree has a bronze plaque dedicated to a soldier from the Ballarat region who enlisted during World War I.","The Avenue of Honour and the Arch of Victory are on the Victorian Heritage Register and are seen by approximately 20,000 visitors each year.","The city also has the greatest concentration of public statuary in any Australian city with many parks and streets featuring sculptures and statues dating from the 1860s to the present.","Some of the other notable memorials located in the Sturt Street Gardens in the middle of Ballarat's main boulevard include a bandstand situated in the heart of the city that was funded and built by the City of Ballarat Band in 1913 as a tribute to the bandsmen of the , a fountain dedicated to the early explorers Burke and Wills, and those dedicated to monarchs and those who have played pivotal roles in the development of the city and its rich social fabric.","Ballarat has an extensive array of significant war memorials, the most recent of which is the Australian Ex Prisoner of War Memorial.","The most prominent memorial in the city is the Ballarat Victory Arch that spans the old Western Highway on the Western approaches of the city.","The archway serves as the focal point for the Avenue of Honour.","Other significant individual monuments located along Sturt Street include those dedicated to the Boer War (1899–1901), the World War II (1939–1945) cenotaph, and Vietnam (1962–1972) (located adjacent to the Arch of Victory).","====Commercial and civic buildings====\nBallarat Fine Art Gallery, Lydiard Street North\nThe legacy of the wealth generated during Ballarat's gold boom is still visible in a large number of fine stone buildings in and around the city, especially in the Lydiard Street area.","This precinct contains some of Victoria's finest examples of Victorian era buildings, many of which are on the Victorian Heritage Register or classified by the National Trust of Australia.","Notable civic buildings include the Town Hall (1870–72), the former Post Office (1864), the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery (1887), the Mechanics' Institute (1860, 1869), the Queen Victoria Wards of the Ballarat Base Hospital (1890s) and the Ballarat railway station (1862, 1877, 1888).","Other historic buildings include the Provincial Hotel (1909), Reid's Coffee Palace (1886), Craig's Royal Hotel (1862–1890) and Her Majesty's Theatre (1875), the oldest intact and operating lyric theatre in Australia and Ballarat Fire Station (1864, 1911) one of Victoria's oldest fire fighting structures and the Jewish synagogue (1861) the oldest surviving synagogue on the Australian mainland.","====Galleries====\nThe Ballarat Fine Art Gallery houses one of Australia's oldest and most extensive collections of early Australian works.","It is considered to have the best Australian collection outside any capital city in Australia.","Federation University Australia operates the Post Office Gallery in the Wardell designed former Post Office on the corner of Sturt and Lydiard Streets.","===Events and festivals===\nBallarat is home to many annual festivals and events that attract thousands of visitors.","The oldest large annual event is the Ballarat Agricultural Show (since 1859), currently held at the Ballarat Showgrounds and has attracted attendances of up to 30,000 and is an official public holiday for residents of the city.","Lake Wendouree is featured in many including the biggest and most prominent is the Begonia Festival (held annually since 1953).","SpringFest (held annually since 2001) attracts more than 15,000 people from around Victoria and features market stalls and activities around the lake.","Annual Agricultural Society Show at Ballarat Showgrounds, Wendouree\nThe controversial Ballarat Swap Meet (formerly the Super Southern Swap Meet and held annually since 1989) attracts 30,000 visitors a year.","Ballarat Heritage Weekend (held annually since 2006) celebrates the city's heritage with activities such as historic vehicles and displays in and around the CBD and has attracted as many as 14,500 visitors a year from around Victoria.","The Ballarat Beer Festival at the City Oval (since 2012) has attracted more than 4,000 visitors.","The Ballarat Airport Open Day (Ballarat's unofficial air show, held annually since 2009) also attracts thousands.","Other minor cultural festivals include the Ballarat Writers Festival, Ballarat International Foto Biennialle and the Goldfields Music Festival.","===Entertainment===\nHer Majesty's Theatre façade (1875), Lydiard Street Sth.","Ballarat has a lively and well established theatrical community with several local ensembles as well as a number of large performing arts venues.","Major performing arts venues include:\n* Her Majesty's Theatre – Seating 940\n* Post Office Box Theatre (Federation University Australia Arts Academy, Camp Street Campus) – Flexible Seating up to 100\n* Helen Macpherson Smith Performing Arts Theatre (Federation University Australia, Arts Academy Camp Street Campus) – Seating 200\n* The 1870 Founders Theatre (Federation University Australia, Mount Helen Campus) – Seating 600\n* The Courthouse Theatre (Federation University Australia, SMB Campus) – Seating 140\n* The Victoria Theatre (Sovereign Hill) – Seating 300\n* Wendouree Centre for Performing Arts (Ballarat Grammar School) – Seating 900\n* Gay E. Gough Theatre (Mount Clear Secondary College) – Seating 350\n* Mechanics Institute hall (seating 700) is used from time to time for travelling performances and cinema shows.","The Ballarat Civic Hall is a large public building constructed in 1958 as a general purpose venue.","Its stripped classical design was heavily criticised during its planning, however it has gained some cultural significance to the city with its cavernous spaces holding many significant events over the years.","Civic Hall was closed in 2002 and there have been moves to redevelop it for many years with some calls to retain the building as a venue.","Ballarat has its own symphony orchestra, the Ballarat Symphony Orchestra which was formed in 1987.","Some notable theatre organisations in Ballarat include BLOC (Ballarat Light Opera Company) founded in 1959.","Ballarat is also the home to Australia's oldest and largest annual performing arts eisteddfod.","The Royal South Street Eisteddfod is an all-encompassing performing arts festival and competition event that is conducted over twelve weeks annually.","The modest 1853 Bath's Hotel grew to become the grand Craig's Royal Hotel in anticipation of the royal visit of Prince Alfred.","The current buildings date to 1890.","In the 1970s the Ballarat urban area contained no less than 60 hotels.","The introduction of gaming machines in the early 1990s has brought about significant change in the city entertainment precincts.","By 2006 at least 20 hotels had closed and some of those that remain have been redeveloped as dining and/or gaming venues.","Gaming machines have brought significant revenue to the remaining hotels, sports and social clubs which has enabled many to expand and modernise.","The city has several dance clubs as well as a highly active live music and jazz scene.","Hotels are popular meeting places for young people.","The city has many fine restaurants, wine bars and eateries as well as themed restaurants.","A large cinema complex consisting of several theatres is located behind the façade of the old Regent cinemas in the heart of the city.","Dance parties are popular within the Ballarat area; BTR is an organisation founded in 2006 that has begun hosting dance events in Ballarat.","==== Music and live entertainment ====\nBallarat has a significant music scene and a number of established music venues.","Ballarat has produced several note worthy bands and musicians.","Notable musicians from Ballarat include composer and violinist Warren Ellis, and alternative bands The Mavis's, Epicure and The Dead Salesmen.","===Sport and recreation===\nAFL pre-season match.","Western Bulldogs vs Melbourne.","Eureka Stadium, Wendouree.","Ballarat has a number of large parks, sport fields, organised sporting clubs and associations.","Australian rules football and cricket are the most popular spectator and participation sports in Ballarat, while soccer, basketball, netball, horse racing and rowing have large followings.","There are stadiums, both indoor and outdoor as well as training facilities for most sports.","Australian rules football is played at semi-professional and amateur levels with a large number of players at numerous venues, both dedicated such as Eureka Stadium and shared with cricket.","The North Ballarat Roosters based out of Eureka Stadium compete in the Victorian Football League.","The Western Bulldogs AFL Club will commence playing periodic home games at the redevloped Eureka Stadium from 2017.","The Ballarat Football League (founded 1893) is a strong regional league of which there are 6 local teams (Ballarat, EastPoint, Redan, Sebastopol, Lake Wendouree and North Ballarat City).","The Ballarat Football Club (founded 1860) remains one of the oldest football clubs in the world.","Other city teams from Buninyong and North Ballarat compete in the regional Central Highlands Football League.","Cricket is also played extensively with three international standard cricket ovals.","Ballarat's Eastern Oval hosted a game in the 1992 Cricket World Cup.","Horse racing and greyhound racing are popular, with dedicated facilities.","The Harness Racing centre is considered to be among the best in Australia.","The Ballarat Turf Club schedules around 28 race meetings a year including the Ballarat Cup meeting in mid-November.","Ballarat Harness Racing Club conducts regular meetings at its racetrack in the city.","The Ballarat Greyhound Racing Club holds regular meetings at Sebastopol.","Basketball is played at various levels with the Ballarat Miners and Ballarat Rush competing in the South East Australian Basketball League and playing out of the MARS Minerdome.","Netball is similarly popular, with many netball clubs affiliated with local Australian rules clubs including Wendouree, East Point, Eureka, North Ballarat, Redan, Brown Hill and the Ballarat Netball Association.","Rowing and kayaking is centred on Lake Wendouree and the sport is particularly popular with the high schools.","The lake hosts the Victorian Schools Rowing Championships as well as the annual \"Head of the Lake\" rowing regatta—contested by Ballarat High School, Ballarat and Clarendon College, Ballarat Grammar School, St Patrick's College and Loreto College.","The city hosted rowing events for the 1956 Olympic Games.","Association Football (known locally as soccer) is mostly played at an amateur level.","The local competition is known as the Ballarat & District Soccer Association, which consists of 13 teams.","The Ballarat Red Devils are the biggest soccer club in Ballarat and play in the FFV National Premier League Victoria 1 West.","Their home ground is Morshead Park Stadium, located in central Ballarat, which was recently significantly redeveloped.","Athletics facilities include an international standard athletics track at Llanberris Reserve on York Street Golden Point which is an Athletics Victoria venue and home to local athletics and little athletics clubs.","Swimming and water sport is facilitated at two Olympic-sized pools as well as an indoor competition short course pool.","The main facility is the Ballarat Aquatic Centre located at Gillies Street Lake Gardens in the city's west.","Baseball was first organised in Australia at Ballarat in 1857.","The Alfredton Eagles, Ballarat City Brewers and Mounties YC field teams in the Geelong Baseball Association Winter Division.","Golf is played at four main venues which include the Ballarat Golf Course on Sturt Street in the Easter suburb of Alfredton, home to the Ballarat Golf Club; the Midlands Golf Course on Heinz Lane in the northern suburb of Invermay Park which is home to the Midlands Golf Club; the Eureka Golf Course at Elford Street in the eastern suburb of Ballarat East and in the southern suburb of Buninyong at the Buninyong Golf Course.","The Ballarat Roller Derby League was formed in 2008, and held their first match in 2009.","They have two teams who compete in local events, and a combined travelling team, the Rat Pack, who compete in interleague roller derby competitions.","Lake Wendouree is a large recreational lake that was created out of former wetlands and hosted the rowing events for the 1956 Summer Olympics.","Victoria Park is an expansive reserve with tree-lined avenues and sporting fields in suburban Newington.","The suburbs feature some privately run wildlife parks including Ballarat Wildlife Park in Ballarat East and Ballarat Bird World in Buninyong.","===Popular culture===\nBallarat has inspired many visual artists.","Eugene von Guerard documented the city's establishment as a gold digging settlement, while Albert Henry Fullwood and Knut Bull depicted the city's boom era streetscapes.","Ballarat features prominently in literature and fiction, including \"The Boscombe Valley Mystery\", a short story from Arthur Conan Doyle's ''The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes'' (1891); ''King Billy of Ballarat and Other Stories'' (1892) by Morley Roberts; ''The Fortunes of Richard Mahony'' (1917) by Henry Handel Richardson; ''Murder on the Ballarat Train'' (1993) by Kerry Greenwood; and ''Illywhacker'' (1985) by Peter Carey.","Ballarat is also a popular filming location.","Australia's second oldest feature film, ''Eureka Stockade'' (1907), is the first in a line of films about the historic Ballarat event.","The city makes cameos in ''Dogs in Space'' (1986), ''My Brother Jack'' (2001), ''Ned Kelly'' (2003) and ''The Writer'' (2005).","The television series ''The Doctor Blake Mysteries'' (2012–) is set in Ballarat and also mostly shot there.","Two ships of the Royal Australian Navy have been named HMAS Ballarat after the city, HMAS Ballarat (J184) and HMAS Ballarat (FFH 155).","=== Notable persons ===\n\n\nBust of Alfred Deakin, first federal member for Ballaarat at the Prime Ministers Avenue.","A great many notable people's origins are in the Ballarat region, with the most prominent being high-ranking politicians and sportspeople.","Several former prime ministers of Australia were either born in or lived in Ballarat, and this was recognised by the city's Prime Minister's Avenue.","Alfred Deakin, the second prime minister, was the first federal parliament MP for Ballarat.","Sir Robert Menzies, and James Scullin were both educated in Ballarat.","John Curtin was born in nearby Creswick and his wife Elsie was born in Ballarat.","Several premiers of the Australian states were born in Ballarat, including Ballarat born Sir Henry Bolte, Steve Bracks, Thomas Hollway, and Henry Daglish.","Additionally Duncan Gillies lived in and represented Ballarat in the Victorian Legislative Assembly before becoming state premier.","An additional political activist included Francis William Hyet is trade unionist and born in Ballarat.","He was heavily inclined towards socialism which became a calling for his way of life.","He became involved with the Social Democratic Party in 1905 and following the Victorian Socialist Party in 1906.","Hyett was a very prominent in the anti-conscription campaign.","He was able to harness the union's newspaper which became a medium for the anti-conscriptionists.","Outside politics other prominent public figures include Peter Lalor, a notable historical figure in Australia as the leader of the Eureka Rebellion (1854) and a parliamentarian; the inventor George Alfred Julius, who spent part of his childhood there when his father was a local Anglican cleric; the inventor Henry Sutton was born and worked in Ballarat; and Cardinal George Pell, the former Catholic Archbishop of Melbourne and Sydney was born in Ballarat and worked in the area for some time.","Ballarat has also produced many notable athletes including the Olympic long distance runner Steve Moneghetti and four time Olympic basketball player Ray Borner.","A large number of notable Australian rules football identities have come from Ballarat, including Australian Football Hall of Fame members Tony Lockett and Bob Davis.","In addition, Henry Sutton was an inventor from Ballarat.","Sutton designed an electric continuous current dynamo with a practical ring armature.","This design could be used as an electric motor and the rapid incline of the electrical industry followed.","Sutton was involved in devising and constructing different telephone designs.","Sutton interacted closely with Bell (the inventor of the telephone), Bell came to visit Sutton in order to see a complete telephone system that was set up in Sutton's family warehouse.","\n===Health===\nBallarat Base Hospital's Henry Bolte wing (completed in 1994) Drummond St Nth\nBallarat has two major hospitals.","The public health services are managed by Ballarat Health Services including the Ballarat Base which services the entire region and the Queen Elizabeth Centre for aged care on Ascot Street Sth.","The St John of God Health Care centre also on Drummond Street Nth, established in 1915 is currently the largest private hospital in regional Victoria.","The Ballarat Regional Integrated Cancer Centre (BRICC) on the corner of Drummond and Sturt Street includes a number of facilities focused on cancer treatment.","The Heart Foundation did a study in 2014 that Ballarat had the highest level of physical inactivity (85.3 per cent) in Australia and that 32.9 per cent of residents were deemed obese.","===Utilities===\nBallarat's residents are serviced by a wide range of public utilities including water, gas and electricity, telephony and data communications supplied, overseen and regulated by state based authorities and private enterprise and local council.","Water supply as well as sewage collection and disposal are provided by Central Highlands Water.","Drinking water is sourced from a network reservoirs all located in the highlands to the east, however the majority is sourced from two main reservoirs—Lal Lal and White Swan.","The Lal Lal Reservoir (built in 1970 with a capacity of ) is Ballarat's largest water catchment accounting for approximately two thirds of the city's water usage.","The White Swan reservoir (built in 1952 with a capacity) supplies most of the remainder.","Since May 2008, the White Swan has been topped up by water from Bendigo's Sandhurst Reservoir through the Goldfields Superpipe with water originally sourced from the Goulburn River system.","Kirks Reservoir (built between 1860 and 1862 with a capacity of ) and Gong Gong Reservoir (built in 1877 at Gong Gong, Victoria with a capacity of ) are historic main water supplies now maintained for emergency use.","Other reservoirs supplying Ballarat include Moorabool reservoir (located in Bolwarrah, Victoria with a capacity of ), Wilson's Reservoir (located in the Wombat State Forest with a capacity of ), Beales reservoir (built 1863 located at Wallace with a capacity of ) and Pincotts reservoir (built 1867 located at Leigh Creek, Victoria with a capacity of ).","Sewage is managed by two plants—the Ballarat North Wastewater Treatment Plant and the Ballarat South Waste Water Treatment Plant.","Residential electricity is supplied by Victorian electricity distributor Powercor, while residential natural gas is supplied by AGL Energy.","Telephone services are provided via the Doveton Street (BRAT) telephone exchange which was originally built by the Australian Telecommunications Commission (now known as Telstra) who remains its owner, though Optus now also operates services from this facility.","The city's cellular network currently uses Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS).","Telstra has provided mobile telecommunications to Ballarat since 2003 (initially as CDMA).","Optus provided competition with its entrance to the market in 2003 along with significant service upgrades in 2004 followed by Vodafone in mid-2009.","Data communications are provided by several companies.","Telstra was the first company to provide dial-up Internet access via the Ballarat exchange, however the first network for broadband Internet access available in the city was a hybrid optical fiber cable and coaxial cable built by Neighbourhood Cable in 2001.","Since then, Telstra and Optus have entered the Ballarat market, providing Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) services for residential Internet access from four main exchanges—Ballarat, Wendouree (Howitt Street), Sebastopol (Skipton Street) and Alfredton (Cuthberts Road).","These companies also provide mobile data access Evolved HSPA and since late 2011 3GPP Long Term Evolution (4G).","Ballarat's rollout of the National Broadband Network (NBN) is seen as vital for the city's growing IT industry.","During Ballarat's first stage NBN rollout in 2012, 17,800 homes will be directly connected to the network via optical fibre cable.","===Transport===\n\n====Road====\nA view of the Western Freeway (M8) at Nerrina looking west toward Doodts Road, Ballarat North and Invermay from the Nerrina pedestrian overpass.","Road transport and the motor vehicle is the main form of transport.","A network of state highways radiate from Ballarat and the Western Freeway (A8) is dual carriageway bypasses the central city to the north of the urban area, providing a direct road connection to Melbourne (approximately 90 minutes), westward to Ararat (approximately 75 minutes) and Horsham.","Five freeway interchanges service the urban area, East Ballarat (half diamond) interchange at Victoria Street (C805); Brown Hill interchange (full diamond) at Daylesford-Ballarat Road (C292), Creswick Road interchange (full diamond) at Wendouree (A300); the Mount Rowan interchange (half diamond) at Gillies Road, Wendouree (C307) and the Mitchell Park interchange (full diamond) at Howe Street (C287).","The Midland Highway is a dual carriageway which runs north along Creswick Road to the Western Freeway interchange but becomes a single carriageway north of Ballarat to Creswick (approximately 25 minutes) and runs south as the dual carriageway of Skipton Road to Magpie before becoming a single carriageway to Geelong (approximately 87 minutes).","The Glenelg Highway connects directly to Mount Gambier and the Sunraysia Highway west of Ballarat which connects directly to Mildura.","Sturt Street and Victoria Street, both dual carriageways carry the bulk of the east-west CBD traffic, while Mair Street is planned to become a four lane dual carriageway to relieve pressure on these main streets.","Other dual carriageway main roads in the west include Howitt Street and Gillies Street.","The busiest roads by far are located in the west and south at Albert Street in Redan, Sturt Street in Newington and Gillies Street in Lake Gardens which carry 22,400, 22,000 and 21,500 vehicles per day respectively and all have 4 traffic lanes.","====Bus, coach and taxi====\n\nBallarat is also served by an extensive public bus service operated by CDC Ballarat.","They operate 15 routes across the city, routes 10-15, 20-26, 30 & 31, and school bus services..\n* Route 10 - Ballarat Station - Alfredton via Wendouree\n* Route 11 - Ballarat Station - Wendouree Station via Howitt St \n* Route 12 - Ballarat Station - Wendouree Station via Forest St \n* Route 13 - Ballarat Station - Invermay Park \n* Route 14 - Ballarat Station - Black Hill \n* Route 15 - Ballarat Station - Brown Hill \n* Route 20 - Ballarat Station - Canadian \n* Route 21 - Ballarat Station - Buninyong via Federation University \n* Route 22 - Ballarat Station - Federation University via Sebastopol \n* Route 23 - Ballarat Station - Mount Pleasant \n* Route 24 - Ballarat Station - Sebastopol \n* Route 25 - Ballarat Station - Delacombe \n* Route 26 - Ballarat Station - Alfredton \n* Route 30 - Ballarat Station - Creswick \n* Route 31 - Wendouree Station - Miners Rest\n\nNumerous private companies service suburban, intercity and interstate routes with coach services.","Gold Bus provides additional suburban services as well as the Ballarat School Bus Network.","Ballarat railway station is a major regional terminal for coach services.","V/Line operates direct services to regional Victorian locations including Melbourne, Geelong, Bendigo, Warrnambool, Mildura, Nhill, Ouyen, Halls Gap, Daylesford, Maryborough as well as the South Australian cities of Adelaide and Mount Gambier.","Gold Bus operates direct regional services to links to both Avoca and Maryborough, while Sandlants operates a direct service to Stawell.","There is also a direct bus service to Melbourne's Tullamarine Airport with the Ballarat Airport Shuttlebus.","Interstate coaches from Greyhound Australia and Firefly Express coaches stop at Ballarat on route between Melbourne and Adelaide.","The local taxi fleet consists of over 57 vehicles services in all suburbs and is currently operated by Ballarat Taxis Co-op Ltd. Taxis and bus are the only late night public transport option in the city.VLocity railcars inside the train shed at Ballarat railway station\nA tourist tram on Wendouree Parade\n'''Rail'''\n\nBallarat has historically been a major rail transport hub in Victoria, situated at the junction of the Ballarat line, Ararat line and Mildura lines it currently has several connections for both passenger rail services and freight rail.","The city has two passenger railway stations, the hub of Ballarat railway station and suburban Wendouree railway station.","From Ballarat station, V/Line operates VLocity trains running at up to east to Melbourne, west to Ararat and north to Maryborough.","Since the controversial removal of \"flagship\" express services in 2011, successive timetable changes have slowed peak hour services to Southern Cross Station, with the current journey taking a minimum of 73 minutes.","Patronage however has continued to grow.","The Regional Rail Link project is aimed at separating Ballarat trains from Melbourne's suburban rail network.","Interurban services (Ballarat-Melbourne) now run half-hourly during weekday peak and hourly during weekday non-peak and on weekends from Ballarat station.","A twice daily (thrice daily on weekdays) (57 minute) service connects Ballarat to Ararat (stopping at Beaufort) while there is a (53 minute) service to and from Maryborough (stopping at Creswick, Clunes, and Talbot) once a day (twice a day on weekdays) each way.","Victoria's electronic ticketing system, Myki, was implemented on rail services between Wendouree and Melbourne on 24 July 2013.","Ballarat is connected to Geelong by rail via the Geelong-Ballarat railway line, which currently operates only for freight (passenger services were withdrawn in 1978) although in 2011, a planning study began for returning of passenger services along the line to investigate connecting both cities to Bendigo via Maryborough and Castlemaine.","There are also several disused railway corridors and stations along the Skipton railway, Buninyong railway.","A former branch line built in 1886 to Redan was sold off by VicTrack and finally dismantled in 2010.","The freight line forked off the Singleton line at Lake Gardens running south through Alfredton and then east parallel to Latrobe Street, past the Cattle yards and on to Redan (now Delacombe).","The once extensive Ballarat tramway network operated between 1887 and 1971 with a small section of remaining track being utilised as a tourist and museum tramway.","There have been proposals to extend the network, particularly as a major tourist facility but also to connect it to the railways and return it as a viable component of the Ballarat public transport system, including a strong lobby in 2001–2002, 2010–11 and 2014, however Ballarat City Council and federal member of parliament have dismissed recent proposals.","====Air====\nBallarat Aerodrome from above\nBallarat Airport located north-west of the CBD consists of two sealed runways (each approximately long and wide) as well as extensive sealed aprons, night lighting and NDB navaid.","A Master Plan for the Aerodrome was completed in 2005 followed by an Airport Master Plan in 2013.","The report made a series of recommendations and forecasts that included eventual lengthening, widening and strengthening of the existing main runway up to , consideration for expansion of the passenger terminal and recommendations for future use of aprons and development of future structures supporting larger aircraft and increased frequent usage.","It was forecast that by 2012–2015 regular domestic passenger services using 40–50 seat commuter aircraft could feasibly commence.","====Cycling====\nBallarat has a long history of cycling as a form of transport and recreation.","The current cycling network continues to grow and consists of several marked on-road routes and of segregated bicycle facilities including several main routes:Ballarat–Skipton Rail Trail, Yarrowee River Trail with connections to the Gong Gong Reservoir.","Buningyong Trail, Sebastopol Trail, and the Lake Wendouree shared path.","The Ballarat Bicycle Users Group provides advocacy for the growing number of cyclists in the city.","The popularity of cycling in Ballarat is also demonstrated by the large number of spectators and participants drawn to cycling sporting events held in the city.","Ballarat is home to three bikie chapters, most notably the Finks Motorcycle Club, who, in 2010, were planning to build a club house and training centre in the city.","Other bikie chapters in the city are the Vikings and the Bandidos Motorcycle Club.","The city was the subject of an ABC ''Four Corners'' report on the use of methamphetamine in Australia, along with Devonport, Burnie, Castlemaine and St Arnaud.","Ballarat also has 3 police stations: Ballarat, Ballarat North and Ballarat West.","'''History books'''\n* Bate, Weston.","''Lucky City: The First Generation of Ballarat 1851–1901'' (1978)\n* Bate, Weston.","''Life After Gold: Twentieth-Century Ballarat'' Melbourne University Press (1993)\n* Carboni, Raffaello.","''The Eureka Stockade'' (1980) first published (1855)\n* Goodman, David.","''Gold Seeking: Victorian and California in the 1850s'' (1994)\n* Jacobs, Wendy.","''Ballarat: A Guide to Buildings and Areas 1851–1940'' Jacob Lewis Vines Conservation Architects and Planners (1981)\n* Lynch, John.","''The Story of the Eureka Stockade: Epic Days in the early fifties at Ballarat'', (1947?)","* Flett, James.","''The History of Gold Discovery in Victoria''\n* Molony, John.","''Eureka'', (1984)\n* Molony, John.","''By Wendouree'', (2010)\n* Serle, Geoffrey.","''The Golden Age: A History of the Colony of Victoria, 1851–1860'', (1963)\n* Freund, Peter, with Val Sarah.","''Her Maj: A History of Her Majesty's Theatre, Ballarat'' (2007)\n* Ballarat City Council\n* Victorian Heritage Register, Heritage Victoria","\n\n\n* Ballarat City Council\n* Visit Ballarat – Ballarats Official Tourism website\n* Ballarat – Tourism Victoria – Government tourism site.","* Ballarat and District Industrial Heritage Project"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n'''Ballarat''' is a city located on the Yarrowee River in the Central Highlands of Victoria, Australia.\",\n \"The city is approximately west-north-west of the state capital, Melbourne, with a population of some 101,686.\",\n \"It is the third largest population for an inland city in Australia.\",\n \"Locals are known as 'Ballaratians'.\",\n \"Ballarat is arguably the most significant Victorian era gold rush boomtown in Australia.\",\n \"Just months after Victoria was granted separation from the state of New South Wales, the Victorian gold rush transformed Ballarat from a small sheep station to a major settlement.\",\n \"Gold was discovered at Poverty Point on 18 August 1851, and news quickly spread of rich alluvial fields where gold could easily be extracted.\",\n \"Within months, migrants from across the world had rushed to the district in search of gold.\",\n \"Unlike many other gold boom towns, the Ballarat fields experienced sustained high gold yields for many decades, which can be evidenced to this day in the city's rich architecture.\",\n \"The Eureka Rebellion began in Ballarat, and the only armed rebellion in Australian history, the Battle of Eureka Stockade, took place on 3 December 1854.\",\n \"In response to the event the first male suffrage in Australia was instituted and as such Eureka is interpreted by some as the origin of democracy in Australia.\",\n \"The gold rush and boom gave birth to many other significant cultural legacies.\",\n \"The rebellion's symbol, the Eureka Flag, has become a national symbol and is held at the Museum of Australian Democracy at Eureka in Ballarat.\",\n \"Other nationally significant heritage structures include the Ballarat Botanical Gardens (established 1857), with the greatest concentration of public statuary, the official Prime Ministers Avenue, the longest running lyric theatre building (Her Majesty's Theatre, established 1875), the first municipal observatory, established 1886, and the earliest and longest war memorial avenue (the Avenue of Honour, established between 1917 and 1919).\",\n \"Proclaimed a city in 1871, its prosperity continued until late in the 19th century, after which its importance relative to both Melbourne and Geelong rapidly faded with the slowing of gold extraction.\",\n \"It has endured as a major regional centre hosting the rowing and kayaking events from the 1956 Summer Olympics.\",\n \"It is the commercial capital of the Central Highlands and the largest city in the Goldfields region of Victoria, as well a significant tourist destination.\",\n \"Ballarat is known for its history, culture and its well-preserved Victorian era heritage, with much of the city subject to heritage overlays.\",\n \"After a narrow popular vote the city merged with the town of Ballarat East in 1921, ending a long standing rivalry.\",\n \"\\n=== Prehistory and European settlement ===\\nPrior to the European settlement of Australia, the Ballarat region was populated by the Wathaurong people, an Indigenous Australian people.\",\n \"The Boro gundidj tribe's territory was based along the Yarrowee River.\",\n \"The first Europeans to sight the area were an 1837 party of six mostly Scottish squatters from Geelong, led by Somerville Learmonth, who were in search of land less affected by the severe drought for their sheep to graze.\",\n \"The party scaled Mount Buninyong; among them were Somerville's brother Thomas Livingstone Learmonth, William Cross Yuille and Henry Anderson, all three of whom later claimed land in what is now Ballarat.\",\n \"The Yuille family, Scottish settlers Archibald Buchanan Yuille and his brother William Cross Yuille, arrived in 1837 and squatted a sheep run.\",\n \"The first houses were built near Woolshed Creek by William Yuille and Anderson (Sebastopol), while Yuille erected a hut at Black Swamp (Lake Wendouree) in 1838.\",\n \"Outsiders originally knew of the settlement as Yuille's Station and Yuille's Swamp.\",\n \"Archibald Yuille named the area \\\"Ballaarat\\\" Some claim the name is derived from a local Wathaurong Aboriginal word for the area, ''balla arat''.\",\n \"The meaning of this word is not certain; however several translations have been made and it is generally thought to mean \\\"resting place\\\".\",\n \"In some dialects, ''balla'' means \\\"bent elbow\\\", which is translated to mean reclining or resting and ''arat'' meaning \\\"place\\\".\",\n \"Another claim is that the name derives from Yuille's native Gaelic Baile Ararat (Town of Ararat), alluding to the resting place of Noah's ark.\",\n \"The present spelling was officially adopted by the City of Ballarat in 1996.\",\n \"=== 1850s: Gold rush ===\\nBallarat's tent city in the summer of 1853–1854 oil painting from an original sketch by Eugene von Guerard.\",\n \"The first publicised discovery of gold in the region was by Thomas Hiscock on 2 August 1851 in the Buninyong region to the south.\",\n \"The find brought other prospectors to the area and on 19 August 1851 John Dunlop and James Regan struck gold at Poverty Point with a few ounces.\",\n \"Within days of the announcement of Dunlop and Regan's find a gold rush began, bringing thousands of prospectors to the Yarrowee valley which became known as the Ballarat diggings.\",\n \"Yields were particularly high, with the first prospectors in the area extracting between half an ounce (which was more than the average wage of the time) and up to five ounces of alluvial gold per day.\",\n \"As news of the Australian gold rushes reached the world, Ballarat gained an international reputation as a particularly rich goldfield.\",\n \"As a result, a huge influx of immigrants occurred, including many from Ireland and China, gathering in a collection of prospecting shanty towns around the creeks and hills.\",\n \"In just a few months numerous alluvial runs were established, several deep mining leads began, and the population had swelled to over 1,000 people.\",\n \"Pencil drawing of goldfields camp at Ballarat\\n\\nThe first post office opened on 1 November 1851.\",\n \"It was the first Victorian post office to open in a gold-mining settlement.\",\n \"Parts of the district were first surveyed by William Urquhart as early as October 1851.\",\n \"By 1852 his grid plan and wide streets for land sales in the new township of West Ballarat, built upon a plateau of basalt, contrasted markedly with the existing narrow unplanned streets, tents, and gullies of the original East Ballarat settlement.\",\n \"The new town's main streets of the time were named in honour of police commissioners and gold commissioners of the time, with the main street, Sturt Street, named after Evelyn Pitfield Shirley Sturt; Dana Street named after Henry Dana; Lydiard Street after his assistant; Doveton Street after Francis Crossman Doveton, Ballarat's first gold commissioner; Armstrong after David Armstrong; and Mair Street after William Mair.\",\n \"These officials were based at the government encampment (after which nearby Camp Street was named), which was strategically positioned on an escarpment with an optimal view over the district's diggings.\",\n \"The first newspaper, ''The Banner'', published on 11 September 1853, was one of many to be distributed during the gold-rush period.\",\n \"Print media played a large role in the early history of the settlement.\",\n \"Ballarat attracted a sizable number of miners from the Californian 1848 gold rush, and some were known as Ballafornians.\",\n \"Battle of the Eureka Stockade.\",\n \"J.\",\n \"B. Henderson (1854) Watercolour\\nCivil disobedience in Ballarat led to Australia's only armed civil uprising, the Eureka Rebellion (colloquially referred to as the \\\"Eureka Stockade\\\") which took place in Ballarat on 3 December 1854.\",\n \"The event, in which 22 miners were killed, is considered to be a defining moment in Australian history.\",\n \"The city earned the nickname \\\"The Golden City\\\" in the 1850s.\",\n \"The gold rush population peaked at almost 60,000, mostly male diggers, by 1858.\",\n \"However the early population was largely itinerant.\",\n \"As quickly as the alluvial deposits drew prospectors to Ballarat, the rate of gold extraction fluctuated and, as they were rapidly worked dry, many quickly moved to rush other fields as new findings were announced, particularly Mount Alexander in 1852, Fiery Creek in 1855, and Ararat in 1857.\",\n \"By 1859, a smaller number of permanent settlers numbering around 23,000, many of whom had built personal wealth in gold, established a prosperous economy based around a shift to deep underground gold mining.\",\n \"Confidence of the city's early citizens in the enduring future of their city is evident in the sheer scale of many of the early public buildings, generous public recreational spaces, and opulence of many of its commercial establishments and private housing.\",\n \"A local steam locomotive industry developed from 1854 with the Phoenix Foundry operating until 1906.\",\n \"The railway came to the town with the opening of the Geelong–Ballarat line in 1862 and Ballarat developed as a major railway town.\",\n \"As the city grew the region's original indigenous inhabitants were quickly expelled to the fringe and by 1867 few remained.\",\n \"=== Victorian city ===\\nThe intersection of Lydiard and Sturt Street in about 1905 was the heart of a bustling city of trams, horses and pedestrians.\",\n \"From the late 1860s to the early 20th century, Ballarat made a successful transition from a gold rush town to an industrial-age city.\",\n \"The ramshackle tents and timber buildings gradually made way for permanent buildings, many impressive structures of solid stone and brick mainly built from wealth generated by early mining.\",\n \"Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh visited between 9 and 13 December 1867 and as the first royal visit, the occasion was met with great fanfare.\",\n \"The Prince Room was prepared at Craigs Royal Hotel for his stay.\",\n \"The city's first civic centre—Prince Alfred Hall—erected over the Yarrowee between the two municipalities, was named in his honour during his visit.\",\n \"The later attempt of the Prince's assassination by Ballaratian Henry James O'Farrell was met with shock and great horror from locals.\",\n \"Ballarat was proclaimed a city in 1871.\",\n \"Gong Gong reservoir was built in 1877 to alleviate flooding and to provide a permanent water supply.\",\n \"A direct railway to Melbourne was completed in December 1889.\",\n \"Many industries and workshops had been established as a result of manufacturing and servicing for the deep lead mining industry.\",\n \"Local boosterists at the start of the 20th century adopted the nickname \\\"Athens of Australia\\\", first used to describe the city by the prestigious Irish-Australian jurist and politician of the early 20th century Sir John Madden.\",\n \"On 13 May 1901, the Duke of York (later George V) and his wife, Mary the Duchess of York, travelled by train from Melbourne to Ballarat.\",\n \"The first electricity supply was completed in 1901 by the Electric Supply Company of Victoria.\",\n \"A bluestone power station was built at the corner of Ripon Street and Wendouree Parade in 1901 with the main aim of providing the power required for electrification of the city's tramway network.\",\n \"=== Declining fortunes ===\\nDevelopment of the Ballarat North Workshops was a major initiative to capitalise on the city's burgeoning role as a railway town and transition from a declining gold mining industry\\nFollowing the start of the 20th century, however, mining activity slowed and Ballarat's growth all but stopped—the city went into a period of decline and saw a reversal of the fortunes acquired in the previous century.\",\n \"The Sunshine rail disaster in 1908 resulted in the death of dozens of Ballarat residents.\",\n \"On 19 August 1909, a great storm lashed the city, resulting in the death of one person and injury of seven others.\",\n \"During the storm, a tornado swept across the city's northern and eastern suburbs destroying numerous homes in Ballarat North, Soldiers Hill, Black Hill and Ballarat East, lifting and then again touching down at Eureka where it destroyed more homes before dissipating.\",\n \"One bright spot in this period was the establishment of Osrey Pottery in 1922 by the artist Gladys Reynell, one of Australia's first potters, and her husband, George Samuel Osborne.\",\n \"The pottery closed in 1926 when Osborne developed lead poisoning.\",\n \"Ballarat's significant representation during WWI resulted in heavy human loss.\",\n \"The city eventually lost first provincial status to Geelong.\",\n \"In response, local lobbyists continually pushed the Victorian government for decentralisation, the greatest success being the Victorian Railways opening the Ballarat North Workshops in April 1917.\",\n \"The Great Depression proved a further setback for Ballarat, with the closure of many institutions and causing the worst unemployment in the city's history, with over a thousand people in the dole queue.\",\n \"The city's two municipalities, Ballarat East and West Town Councils, finally amalgamated in 1921 to form the City of Ballarat.\",\n \"=== Since the 20th century ===\\nView of central Ballarat from St Peter's Anglican Church\\nWhile deep, the depression was also brief.\",\n \"The interwar period proved a period of recovery for Ballarat with a number of major infrastructure projects well underway including a new sewerage system.\",\n \"In 1930, Ballarat Airport was established.\",\n \"By 1931, Ballarat's economy and population was recovering strongly with further diversification of industry, although in 1936 Geelong displaced it as the state's second largest city.\",\n \"During World War II an expanded Ballarat airport was the base of the RAAF Wireless Air Gunners' School as well as the base for USAAF Liberator bomber squadrons.\",\n \"In 1942, Ballarat became connected to the state electricity grid by a 66,000 kV line.\",\n \"Prior to this, power supply was generated locally.\",\n \"In the post-war era, Ballarat's growth continued.\",\n \"In response to an acute housing shortage, significant suburban expansion occurred.\",\n \"An extensive Housing Commission of Victoria estate was built on the former Ballarat Common (today known as Wendouree West).\",\n \"The estate was originally planned to contain over 750 prefabricated houses.\",\n \"While planning for the estate began in 1949, main construction occurred between 1951 and 1962.\",\n \"The 1950s brought a new optimism to the city.\",\n \"On 17 April 1952 it was announced that Lake Wendouree was to be the venue for rowing events of the 1956 Summer Olympics, and work soon began on an Olympic village in Gillies Street.\",\n \"A new prefabricted power terminal substation at Norman Street Ballarat North was constructed between 1951 and 1953 by the State Electricity Commission.\",\n \"The first Begonia Festival, a highly successful community celebration, was held in 1953.\",\n \"Elizabeth II visited on 8 March 1954.\",\n \"The Civic Centre, Prince Alfred Hall had burned down suspiciously that year; however a new Civic Hall was constructed and opened in March 1955.\",\n \"On 23 November 1956, the Olympic torch was carried through the city, and the following day the rowing events were held at the lake.\",\n \"On 2 March 1958 the Queen Mother visited Ballarat.\",\n \"During the following decades, the city saw increased threats to its heritage.\",\n \"In 1964, the Ballarat City Council passed laws banning pillar-supported verandahs in the CBD, which threatened the removal of historic cast iron verandahs in the city.\",\n \"The by-law was met by staunch opposition from the National Trust, which had begun campaigning to protect some of the city's most historic buildings.\",\n \"By the 1970s, Ballarat began to officially recognise its substantial heritage, and the first heritage controls were recommended to ensure its preservation.\",\n \"With the opening of Sovereign Hill, the city made a rapid shift to become a major cultural tourist destination, visited by thousands each year.\",\n \"During the 1970s, a further 300 houses were constructed at Wendouree West.\",\n \"Private housing in the adjacent suburb of Wendouree closely matched and eventually eclipsed this by the mid-1960s.\",\n \"The suburb of greater Wendouree and Wendouree West had evolved as the suburban middle-class heart of the city.\",\n \"Charles, Prince of Wales visited Ballarat on 28 October 1974 during which he toured Sovereign Hill, the Ballarat College of Advanced Education's new Mt Helen Campus and the White Swan Reservoir and spoke at Civic Hall.\",\n \"The city continued to grow at the national average throughout the late 20th century and early 21st century.\",\n \"In 2008 the City of Ballarat released a plan directing that growth of the city over the next 30 years is to be concentrated to the west of the city centre.\",\n \"The Ballarat West Growth Area Plan was approved by the city and state government in 2010, planning an extensive fringe development consisting of 14,000 new homes and up to 40,000 new residents including new activity centres and employment zones.\",\n \"=== Military history ===\\n\\nDuring World War 2, Ballarat was the location of RAAF No.1 Inland Aircraft Fuel Depot (IAFD), completed in 1942 in the defence of Australia against a Japanese invasion and de-commissioned on 29 August 1944.\",\n \"Usually consisting of 4 tanks, 31 fuel depots were built across Australia for the storage and supply of aircraft fuel for the RAAF and the US Army Air Forces at a total cost of £900,000 ($1,800,000).\",\n \"Ballarat's skyline hidden from this view of the city looking east across Lake Wendouree to Mount Warrenheip.\",\n \"Ballarat lies at the foothills of the Great Dividing Range in Central Western Victoria.\",\n \"Also known as the Central Highlands, it is named so because of its gentle hills and lack of any significant mountains that are more common in the eastern sections of the Great Dividing Range.\",\n \"The city lies within a mostly gently undulating section of the midland plains which stretch from Creswick in the north, to Rokewood in the south, and from Lal Lal in the south-east to Pittong in the west.\",\n \"Geologically, the area consists of alluvial sediment and volcanic flows originating from now-extinct volcanoes such as nearby Buninyong and Warrenheip, which are the area's tallest peaks.\",\n \"As a result, the basin contains large areas of fertile agricultural soil.\",\n \"Ballarat itself is situated on an alluvial basin of the Yarrowee catchment and its tributary creeks, penetrated by sub-ranges of schists composed of granites and quartz.\",\n \"Along with the visible river and creeks, the catchment basin has numerous active and inactive aquifers and natural wetlands, which are used for urban water supply, agriculture and recreation.\",\n \"There are numerous densely forested areas around Ballarat; however due to historic wood milling and land clearing there remain no old-growth forests.\",\n \"The major natural bodies of water are in the west and include the former shallow swamps of Lake Wendouree which is central to the city's western suburbs and beyond Winter's Swamp and the large Lake Burrumbeet wetland complex.\",\n \"Almost all of the other numerous bodies of water have been created artificially and include several reservoirs, the largest being the White Swan Reservoir and smaller suburban lakes such as Lake Esmond.\",\n \"The contiguous urban area of Ballarat covers approximately of the local government area's .\",\n \"Approximately 90% of the urban area's land use is residential and suburban.\",\n \"From the city centre this area extends approximately north to the hills around Invermay, approximately east to Leigh Creek in the foothills of Mount Warrenheip, approximately west along the plains to Lucas and approximately south along the Yarrowee River and Canadian Creek valley to the fringe of Buninyong.\",\n \"The central city is situated low in the valley of the Yarrowee River and surrounded by hills such that the city skyline is visible only from the hills and the lower lying inner eastern suburbs.\",\n \"The reach of the Yarrowee River toward Ballarat Central becomes a stormwater drain and is completely covered over as it flows under the CBD.\",\n \"===City and suburbs===\\nMap of the urban area (grey) and the extent of the municipal area\\nView of Ballarat Central and surrounding areas from the Black Hill lookout.\",\n \"Looking south over Sturt Street and the CBD toward Bridge Mall from the Town Hall clock tower\\n\\nBallarat is a primarily low-rise city though apart from the area around Ballarat Airport there are few established height limits for buildings.\",\n \"The City of Ballarat defines two Major Activity Centres within the urban area – the Central Business District (CBD) and Wendouree with a high concentration of business, retail and community function based primarily on the Melbourne 2030 planning model and a further 11 neighbourhood activity centres.\",\n \"The tallest building in urban Ballarat is the seven-storey Henry Bolte wing of the Ballarat Base Hospital (1994).\",\n \"Beyond the central area, urban Ballarat extends into several suburban areas with a mixture of housing styles.\",\n \"Predominant styles are 19th-century villas, Victorian terraces, Federation homes and Georgian red brick homes.\",\n \"Settlement patterns around Ballarat consist of small villages and country towns, some with less than a few thousand people.\",\n \"The Central Business District (located in Ballarat Central) is a large mixed-use office and retail district bounded to the north by railway lines, to the west by Drummond Street, to the south to Grant street and to the east by Princes Street and spanning the floodplain of the Yarrowee River.\",\n \"Lydiard, Sturt Streets, Armstrong, Doveton, Dana Street and Bridge Street (known as Bridge Mall) along with the historic centre of East Ballarat—Main Street and Bakery Hill have retained stands of commercial and civic buildings of state and national heritage significance.\",\n \"The inner established suburbs were initially laid out around the key mining areas and include Ballarat East, Bakery Hill, Golden Point, Soldiers Hill, Black Hill, Brown Hill, Eureka, Canadian, Mount Pleasant, Redan, Sebastopol and Newington.\",\n \"The post gold rush era has seen a boom in expansion, extending the conurbation north, south and west.\",\n \"To the west, Ballarat has expanded West to Lucas, Alfredton, Delacombe To The North West Wendouree , Wendouree West and Miners Rest To the north it has expanded to Ballarat North, Invermay Park, Invermay, Victoria Invermay and Nerrina; to the east to Warrenheip and south to Sebastopol, Mount Clear and Mount Helen with the urban area encroaching the large town of Buninyong.\",\n \"Wendouree is currently the only major suburban activity centre with a large indoor shopping mall—Stockland Shopping Centre (expanded in 2007) and also has a number of surrounding retail parks including a strip shopping centre along Howitt Street including the large retail chain Harvey Norman.\",\n \"Elsewhere are small suburban hubs with supermarkets such as IGA (supermarkets) and small stretches of shopfronts.\",\n \"Unlike Melbourne, Ballarat does not have a defined urban growth boundary.\",\n \"This has put continuing pressure on the city council to approve development applications for subdivisions outside of the city fringe.\",\n \"In response to lobbying by landholders, the Ballarat West Growth Area Plan, a major greenfield land development plan, was prepared and has approved by the city and state government to allow for planned fringe communities consisting of 14,000 new homes and up to 40,000 new residents, effectively doubling the city's urban area by extending the urban sprawl from Sebastopol, Delacombe and Alfredton west toward Bonshaw, Smythes Creek and Cardigan with a new suburb to be known as Lucas to be created.\",\n \"New activity centres are to be developed at Delacombe and Alfredton.\",\n \"===Climate===\\nSnow scene in Sturt Gardens in 1905\\nBallarat has a moderate oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification ''Cfb'') with four seasons.\",\n \"Its elevation, at above sea level, causes its mean monthly temperatures to tend to be on average below those of Melbourne.\",\n \"The mean daily maximum temperature for January is , while the mean minimum is .\",\n \"In July, the mean maximum is ; average July minimum is .\",\n \"Ballarat has 55.2 clear days annually.\",\n \"The mean annual rainfall is , with August being the wettest month ().\",\n \"There are an average of 198 rain-free days per year.\",\n \"Like much of Australia, Ballarat experiences cyclical drought and heavy rainfall.\",\n \"Flooding of the Yarrowee catchment occurs occasionally.\",\n \"In 1869 a serious flood of the Yarrowee River put most of the lower section of business district including Bridge and Grenville streets under water and caused the loss of two lives.\",\n \"Prolonged drought (an average annual rainfall with falls averaging as low as per year since 2001) caused Lake Wendouree to dry up completely for the first time in its history between 2006 and 2007.\",\n \"More recently higher rainfall levels have been recorded including in the 24 hours to 9 am on 14 January 2011, ending a four-day period of flooding rains across much of Victoria and Tasmania, and contributing to the wettest January on record, with a total of of rain for the month.\",\n \"Light snowfall typically falls on nearby Mount Buninyong and Mount Warrenheip at least once a year but in the urban area only during heavy winters.\",\n \"Widespread frosts and fog are more common during the cooler months.\",\n \"Snow has been known to fall heavily.\",\n \"Heavy snow seasons occurred in 1900–1902 and 1905–1907 (with record falls in 1906), and moderate snow seasons were recorded during the 1940s and 1980s.\",\n \"Recent snowfalls to have occurred within the urban area were in 2006, 2008, 2014 and 2016, with falls in November 2006 (light, also the latest snowfall on record), July 2007 (heavy), June 2008 (light), August 2008 (light), August 2014 (moderate) and June 2016 (light).\",\n \"Ballarat's highest maximum recorded temperature was on 7 February 2009 during the 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave.\",\n \"This was above the previous record of , set on 25 January 2003.\",\n \"The lowest-ever recorded minimum was at sunrise on 19 July 2015.\",\n \"A view from Lake Wendouree toward Mount Buninyong Reserve\\nBallarat has a healthy environment in comparison to Melbourne; however, as a growing regional city there are issues including pollution, waterway health and invasive species.\",\n \"Air quality is generally good, however dust is sometimes an issue in the summer months and woodsmoke from fireplaces is an issue in the winter months.\",\n \"Ballarat's waterways have historically been affected by heavy pollution from both mining and industry.\",\n \"The Ballarat Environment Network formed in 1993 to provide a voice for environmental and nature conservation issues in Ballarat and its surroundings.\",\n \"Another large lobby group for sustainability in the city is the Ballarat Renewable Energy And Zero Emissions (BREAZE) formed in 2006.\",\n \"The City of Ballarat released an Environment Sustainability Strategy for the city in 2007.\",\n \"While there are no national parks in Ballarat's proximity, Ballarat is bordered by extensive bushland to the north, south and south west and sensitive wetlands to the east.\",\n \"There are a number of nearby state parks and large reserves including the Enfield State Park, Creswick Regional Park, Mount Warrenheip Flora Reserve, Mount Buninyong Reserve and Lake Burrumbeet park.\",\n \"The region is home to a large koala population with protected areas established in the city's outer southern and eastern settlements.\",\n \"Many parts of urban Ballarat have been affected by the introduction of exotic species, particularly introduced flora.\",\n \"Common gorse is one such problem which has prompted the formation of an official Ballarat Region Gorse Task Force in 1999 to control.\",\n \"European rabbits and red foxes cause significant environmental damage in the region's agriculture areas.\",\n \"The economy of Ballarat is driven by all three economic sectors, though contemporary Ballarat has emerged as a primarily service economy with its main industry being the service industry and its key areas of business including tourism, hospitality, retail, professional services, government administration and education.\",\n \"Secondary industry including manufacturing, which had grown in the 20th century remains an important sector.\",\n \"The city's historic primary industry roots including mining and agriculture continue to play a role, though one that has declined since the 20th century.\",\n \"Industries emerging this century include information technology service sector and renewable energy.\",\n \"===Service industries===\\nAs a major service centre for the populous goldfields region, Ballarat has large sectors of employment in business including retail, professional services and trades as well as state and federal government branch offices for public services and health care and non-government service organisations.\",\n \"Collectively these industries employ more than half of the city's workforce and generate the bulk of the city's economic activity.\",\n \"Ballarat is the main retail economy in the region.\",\n \"The city has several key retail districts including a pedestrian mall known as Bridge Mall comprising over 100 traders.\",\n \"There are also indoor shopping malls including Central Square Shopping Centre and Stockland Wendouree.\",\n \"better known as Wendouree Village, with a large number of specialty stores.\",\n \"Major department stores include Myer, Target, Big W, Kmart, Harvey Norman and Harris Scarfe.\",\n \"Additionally each of the major supermarkets (Coles, Woolworths, IGA and Aldi) are represented.\",\n \"Federation University Australia exports education through a large international students program and throughout Australia through distance education programs.\",\n \"In recent years, a large technology park, the Ballarat Technology Park with communications centre has been established, with tenants including IBM and employing over 1,400 people.\",\n \"====Tourism and hospitality====\\nMain Street in Sovereign Hill, a large open-air gold mining museum, is Ballarat's most famous attraction.\",\n \"Ballarat attracts 2.2 million visitors a year and the tourism and hospitality industry is a A$480 million a year sector which accounts for around 15% of Ballarat's economy and employs around 2,870 people.\",\n \"Tourism in Ballarat is promoted by Ballarat Regional Tourism.\",\n \"A significant heritage tourism industry has not grown substantially in Ballarat since the 1960s.\",\n \"Ballarat is most notable for the award-winning open-air museum known as Sovereign Hill, a recreated 1850s gold mining settlement opened in 1970.\",\n \"Sovereign Hill is Ballarat's biggest tourism drawcard and is consistently rated among one of the best outdoor museums in the world and continues to expand.\",\n \"Sovereign Hill accounts for over half a million of Ballarat's visitors and $40 million in tourism revenue.\",\n \"Several businesses and attractions have capitalised on Ballarat's gold mining history.\",\n \"They include Kryal Castle (1972), \\\"Gold Rush Mini Golf\\\" (2002) featuring the \\\"Big Miner\\\" (2006) one of Australia's big things (although the original proposal appeared larger and for the miner to hold the Eureka Flag) at Ballarat's eastern entrance.\",\n \"Other tourist attractions include the Eureka Centre; The Gold Museum, Ballarat; Ballarat Botanic gardens and Lake Wendouree; the Museum of Australian Democracy; the Ballarat Tramway Museum and Ballarat Ghost Tours and Ballarat Wildlife Park.\",\n \"A large number of Ballarat hotels, motels and restaurants service the tourism industry.\",\n \"The Ballarat Tourist Association is an industry based non-profit, membership organisation representing the city's tourism industry.\",\n \"===Manufacturing===\\nAccording to the 2006 Australian Census, manufacturing is Ballarat's third largest employment sector, accounting for 14.8% of all workers.\",\n \"Ballarat attracts investment from several international manufacturers.\",\n \"The Australian headquarters of Mars, Incorporated was established in Ballarat in 1979 with the main Ballarat factory producing popular confectionery including Mars bars, Snickers and M&M's for the Australian market as well as expanding in 2013 to produce Maltesers.\",\n \"McCain Foods Limited Australian headquarters was established in Ballarat in 1970 and the company continues to expand its operations.\",\n \"The Ballarat North Workshops is a major manufacturer of public transportation products with current investment from Alstom.\",\n \"Ballarat also has a large number of home-grown companies producing textiles, general industrial engineering, food products, brick and tiles, building components, prefabricated housing components and automotive components.\",\n \"Brewing was once a large-scale operation, with many large businesses including the public company Phoenix Brewery, and although large-scale brewing has ceased, the city retains a substantial microbrewery industry.\",\n \"===Primary industry===\\nReplica of the \\\"Welcome Nugget\\\", found at Ballarat, the second largest gold nugget discovered in recorded history\\nThough historically an important sector, the production of Ballarat's primary industry declined for many decades, recovering only marginally since 2006.\",\n \"Where historically the mining industry supported tens of thousands of workers or the majority of the population, today agriculture dominates the sector, though collectively both industries employ less than thousand people or just over 2% of the City of Ballarat's total workforce.\",\n \"Ballarat rose to prominence as a goldrush boomtown, though gold no longer plays a pivotal role in the economy of the city.\",\n \"Nevertheless, deep underground mining continues to the present date with a single main mine operating.\",\n \"There are still thought to be large, undiscovered gold reserves in the Ballarat region, with investigations being made by local and national companies.\",\n \"Lihir Gold invested in Ballarat Goldfields in 2006, however it downscaled its operations in 2009 due to the expense of extraction before selling its stake in 2010 to Castlemaine Goldfields.\",\n \"Along with gold, lignite (coal), kaolin (clay) and iron ore have also been mined in the Ballarat region and nearby Lal Lal however many of the resource deposits have since been exhausted.\",\n \"An active quarrying industry with large enterprises including Boral Limited extracts and manufactures building materials from the Ballarat region, including clays, aggregates, cements, asphalts.\",\n \"Approximately half () of the municipality's area is rural with optimal conditions for agriculture including rich volcanic soils and climate.\",\n \"This area is used primarily for agriculture and animal husbandry and generates more than $37 million in commodities.\",\n \"The region supports an active potato growing industry that has supplied local food manufacturers including McCain, though more recently has been threatened by cheaper imports.\",\n \"Other large crops include grains, vegetables, grapes and berries.\",\n \"Cattle and poultry stocks, including sheep, cows and pigs, support an active local meat and dairy industry.\",\n \"The Ballarat Livestock Selling Centre is the largest cattle exchange in regional Victoria.\",\n \"The Ballarat Agricultural and Pastoral Society formed in 1856 and has run the Ballarat Show annually since 1859.\",\n \"A $7.5 million forestry industry is active in nearby state forests as well as on a small scale in the urban area along the Canadian Valley around the suburbs of Mt Clear and Mt Helen areas with pine plantations and sawmill operations.\",\n \"====Renewable energy====\\nPart of the Waubra Wind Farm\\nThe Ballarat region has a rapidly growing renewable energy industry, in particular due to its abundant wind energy, attracting significant investment and generating revenue for local landholders and local councils.\",\n \"The region is also a source of bountiful geothermal energy, solar power and biomass although to date, only its wind, solar and hydroelectricity has been harvested commercially.\",\n \"All local commercially produced electricity is sent to the National Electricity Market.\",\n \"Wind energy is generated by local wind farms.\",\n \"The largest, Waubra Wind Farm, completed in 2009, ( W – 192 MW, 128 turbines) is capable of producing enough electricity to power a city 3 to 4 times the size of Ballarat.\",\n \"Other significant nearby wind farms include Mount Mercer, completed 2014, ( S – 131 MW, 64 turbines) which produces enough energy to power 100,000 homes, equivalent to Ballarat's population and Chepstowe, completed March 2015, ( W – 6 MW, 3 turbines) which produces enough power for 3,400 homes.\",\n \"The first community-owned wind farm in Australia, the Hepburn Wind Project at Leonards Hill, completed in 2011, ( NE – 4 MW, 2 turbines) produces the equivalent amount of electricity used by the town of Daylesford.\",\n \"Several large projects have planning approval, including Stockyard Hill Wind Farm ( W – 41 MW, 157 turbines), Moorabool Wind Project at Mount Egerton and Ballan ( E – 330 MW, 107 turbines).\",\n \"and the Lal Lal Wind Farm ( SE – 150 MW, 64 turbines).\",\n \"Hydroelectricity is generated at White Swan reservoir micro hydro plant established in 2008 and producing the equivalent electricity needs of around 370 homes.\",\n \"Ballarat Solar Park, opened in 2009 at the Airport site in Mitchell Park, is Victoria's first ground-mounted, flat-plate and grid-connected photovoltaic farm.\",\n \"Built by Sharp Corporation for Origin Energy, it is and generates the equivalent electricity needs of around 150 homes.\",\n \"The 2006 Australian national census indicated that the permanent population of the urban area was 78,221 out of the City of Ballarat's population of 85,196 and a total of 31,960 households.\",\n \"Ballarat has witnessed a significant growth surge since 2006 and the population of the City of Ballarat is becoming increasingly urban such that statistically, the LGA is now used as the ABS statistical division.\",\n \"Recent rapid growth has been attributed by demographers to increased commuter activity arising from surging house and land prices in Melbourne coupled with transport upgrades between Ballarat and Melbourne.\",\n \"Since 2006 Ballarat has averaged an annual population growth of 1700 and in June 2008 the estimated resident population of the City of Ballarat was 91,787.\",\n \"In August 2009 this population had grown to 94,000.\",\n \"While most of the city's population can trace their ethnic roots to Anglo-Celtic descent, 8.2% of the population are born overseas.\",\n \"Of them, the majority (4.2%) come from North East Europe.\",\n \"3.4% speak a language other than English.\",\n \"14.4% of the population is over the age of 65.\",\n \"The median age in Ballarat is 35.8 years.\",\n \"The average income of Ballarat, while lower than Melbourne, is higher than average for regional Victoria.\",\n \"Ballaratians in the 2007/08 financial year earned on average A$38,850 a year.\",\n \"The highest earners living in the city's inner suburbs with a mean of $53,174 a year, while the lower earners are centred on the city's southern suburbs.\",\n \"According to the 2006 Census, Ballarat's working population is largely white collar 52.1% consisting of Management, Professionals, Clerical and Administrative Workers and Sales Workers, while 32.9% are blue collar working in Technicians and Trades, Labouring or Machinery Operation.\",\n \"56.5% of households had access to the Internet in 2006.\",\n \"The unemployment rate as of June 2011 was 7.8%.\",\n \"St Peters Anglican Church, which represents the second most common religious affiliation in Ballarat.\",\n \"50.3% of the population have completed further education after high school.\",\n \"===Religion===\\nChristianity remains the dominant religion in Ballarat, with over 65% of residents claiming Christian affiliation, slightly above the national average of 64%.\",\n \"According to the 2006 Census, Catholics (27.1%), Anglicans (15.0%), Uniting Church (11.2%) and Presbyterians (4.0%) remain the largest Christian denominations in Ballarat.\",\n \"Over 21.6% of Ballarat residents claim no religious affiliation.\",\n \"Minority religious groups include Buddhism, Judaism, Baha'i and Islam and total less than 5% of the population.\",\n \"Ballarat Town Hall\\nCouncil Chamber in Ballarat Town Hall, Sturt Street, is the seat of local government for the City of Ballarat.\",\n \"The council was created in 1994 as an amalgamation of a number of other municipalities in the region.\",\n \"The City is made up of 3 wards, each represented by three councillors elected once every four years by postal voting.\",\n \"The Mayor of Ballarat is elected from these councillors by their colleagues for a one-year term.\",\n \"The Town Hall and annexe contains some council offices, however the council's administrative headquarters are located at the council owned Phoenix Building and the leased Gordon Buildings on the opposite side of Bath Lane.\",\n \"In state politics, Ballarat is located in the Legislative Assembly districts of Buninyong and Wendouree, with both of these seats currently held by the Australian Labor Party.\",\n \"In federal politics, Ballarat is located in a single House of Representatives division—the Division of Ballarat.\",\n \"The Division of Ballarat has been a safe Australian Labor Party seat since 2001, and was the seat of the second Prime Minister of Australia, Alfred Deakin.\",\n \"Law enforcement is overseen from regional police headquarters at the law complex in Dana Street with a single local police station operating in Buninyong.\",\n \"Due to an increase in crime rates and population, two additional local police stations were proposed in 2011 one each for the suburbs of North Ballarat and Sebastopol.\",\n \"Justice is conducted locally overseen through branches of the Supreme, County, Magistrates and Children's Court of Victoria which operate out of the Ballarat courts Complex adjacent police headquarters in Dana Street.\",\n \"Corrections, at least in the longer term are no longer handled locally since the closure of the Ballarat Gaol in 1965.\",\n \"Offenders can be detained in 25 available cells at the police complex though are commonly transferred to nearby Corrections Victoria facilities such as the Hopkins Correctional Centre in Ararat.\",\n \"Public safety and emergency services are provided by several state funded organisations including local volunteer based organisations.\",\n \"Storms and flooding are handled by the State Emergency Service (SES) Mid West Region Headquarters at Wendouree.\",\n \"Bushfires are handled by the Country Fire Authority District 15 Headquarters and Grampians Region Headquarters at Wendouree and urban structure fires are handled by multiple urban fire brigades operating at fire stations including the Ballarat Fire Brigade at Barkly Street Ballarat East, Ballarat City Fire Brigade at Sturt Street Ballarat Central and suburban stations including Wendouree and Sebastopol.\",\n \"Medical emergency and paramedic services are provided through Ambulance Victoria and include the Rural Ambulance Victoria, St. John Ambulance and Ballarat Base Hospital ambulance services.\",\n \"City of Ballarat is responsible for coordinating the Municipal Emergency Management Planning Committee (MEMPC) which prepares the Municipal Emergency Management Plan which is actioned in conjunction with local police.\",\n \"\\n===Newspapers===\\nBallarat has two local newspapers, both owned by Fairfax.\",\n \"''The Courier'' is a daily and ''The Miner'' is a free weekly.\",\n \"The latter is distributed across most of the city on Wednesdays and contains news of community events, advertisements for local businesses, real estate and a classifieds sections.\",\n \"===Radio stations===\\nRadio House, Lydiard Street North.\",\n \"Home to 3BA and Power FM\\nLocal radio stations include 3BA, Power FM and several community radio stations.\",\n \"There is also a Ballarat branch of ABC Local Radio's national network.\",\n \"* 102.3 FM – 3BA (local \\\"classic hits\\\" commercial radio station)\\n* 103.1 FM – Power FM 103.1 FM (local \\\"top-40\\\" commercial radio station)\\n* 99.9 FM – Voice FM 99.9 – formerly known as 3BBB (local community radio station)\\n* 107.9 FM – ABC Local Radio (government-funded local news, current affairs, light entertainment and talkback)\\n* 103.9 FM – Good News Radio 103.9 (Christian community-based radio station)\\n\\n===Television===\\nTelevision station BTV Channel 6 Ballarat commenced transmission of test patterns on 17 March 1962.\",\n \"Among the many local programs BTV6 produced, the 90 minute live variety program ''Six Tonight'' (1971–1983), hosted by local Ballarat identity Fred Fargher, was one of the few live Australian programs of this type being presented in Australia.\",\n \"In his 1999 book ''And Now Here's...'' (Four Decades of Behind the Scenes Fun in Australian Television), Mike McColl Jones fondly remembers local live television variety:\\n\\n\\\"...and in Ballarat, Victoria, a Tonight show (\\\"Six Tonight\\\") was carving its name into Australian television history.\",\n \"The show, hosted by Fred Fargher, ran for 13 years, and managed to attract many of the top name entertainers in the world, simply by offering them a limo ride to this beautiful country centre, a no-pressure spot on the show, and then a great dinner afterwards at one of the city's excellent restaurants.\",\n \"The sheer bravado of the offer enticed some of show business' biggest names\\\".\",\n \"Today Ballarat is serviced by numerous \\\"free to air\\\" High Definition and Standard Definition Digital television services.\",\n \"Two television broadcasting stations are located in the city, including WIN, GEM HD and GO!\",\n \"(sub-licensees of Nine Network) and Prime7, 7Two, 7mate (a sub-licensee of Seven Network).\",\n \"These two stations broadcast relayed services throughout regional Victoria.\",\n \"The city also receives Southern Cross Ten, One HD and Eleven (sub-licensee's of Network Ten) which is based in Bendigo but operates a local office.\",\n \"Ballarat television maintains a similar schedule to the national television network but maintains local commercials and regional news programmingWIN produces a 30-minute local news bulletin each weeknight from its studios in the city, where bulletins for Albury, Bendigo, Gippsland, Shepparton and Mildura also originate.\",\n \"Southern Cross Ten provides short local news updates from its Canberra studios throughout the day.\",\n \"In addition to commercial television services, Ballarat receives Government ABC (ABC1, ABC2, ABC3, ABC News 24) and SBS (SBS One and Two) television services.\",\n \"On 5 May 2011, analog television transmissions ceased in most areas of regional Victoria and some border regions including Ballarat and surrounding areas.\",\n \"All local free-to-air television services are now broadcasting in digital transmission only.\",\n \"This was done as part of the federal government's plan for digital terrestrial television in Australia, where all analogue transmission systems are gradually turned off and replaced with modern DVB-T transmission systems.\",\n \"Subscription television services are provided by Neighbourhood Cable, Foxtel and SelecTV.\",\n \"\\nFederation University Australia's SMB campus is set among the heritage buildings of Lydiard Street Sth including the former School of Mines and Industry (left), former Supreme Court and former Ballarat Gaol (rear)\\nSchool of Mines Building\\nBallarat has two universities, Federation University and a campus of the Australian Catholic University.\",\n \"Formerly the University of Ballarat, Federation University Australia was opened in 2014.\",\n \"It originated as the Ballarat School of Mines, founded in 1870, and was once affiliated with the University of Melbourne.\",\n \"The main campus is located in Mount Helen, approximately southeast of the city.\",\n \"The university also has campuses in the Ballarat CBD, Horsham, Churchill, Ararat and Stawell.\",\n \"The Australian Catholic University's Ballarat campus is located on Mair Street.\",\n \"It was formerly the Aquinas Training College, run by the Ballarat East Sisters of Mercy in 1909.\",\n \"It is ACU's only campus located outside of a capital city.\",\n \"Ballarat has four State Government-operated secondary schools of which Ballarat High School (established in 1907) is the oldest.\",\n \"Ballarat High School and Mount Clear College are the only state school members of the Ballarat Associated Schools.\",\n \"The two remaining schools are Phoenix College and Ballarat Secondary College.\",\n \"Ballarat Secondary College was formed in 1994 by the amalgamation of Ballarat East Secondary College, Wendouree Secondary College and Midlands Secondary College.\",\n \"Phoenix College was formed in 2012 as an amalgamation of Sebastopol College and Redan Primary School.\",\n \"The city is well serviced by Catholic schools, with eight primary schools and three secondary colleges which include the all-boys St Patrick's College, the all-girls Loreto College and the co-educational Damascus College, which was formed by the amalgamation of St Martin's in the Pines, St Paul's College and Sacred Heart College in 1995.\",\n \"Ballarat has three other non-government secondary schools: Ballarat Christian College, Ballarat Clarendon College and Ballarat Grammar School.\",\n \"The later two schools are day and boarding schools who provide education from Preschool to Year 12.\",\n \"Both of these co-educational schools are classified as academically excellent as the only Ballarat schools to be ranked on the tables of the top 100 Victorian schools based on median VCE scores and percentage of scores of 40 and above.\",\n \"In 2015, Clarendon was placed at 9th best VCE results in the State, above Melbourne Grammar, Geelong College, Scotch College, Trinity Grammar School (Victoria), Xavier College, and Haileybury College.\",\n \"Ballarat Grammar was placed at 82nd, above Wesley College, Geelong Grammar and Tintern.\",\n \"The City of Ballarat has three public libraries, the largest and most extensive of which is the City of Ballarat Library, run by the Central Highlands Regional Library Corporation and located on Doveton Street North.\",\n \"Another library service is provided by the Ballarat Mechanics' Institute in Sturt Street, which is the oldest library in the city and a significant heritage site; it contains a collection of historic, archival and rare reference material as well as more general books.\",\n \"File:BallaratMechanicsInstitute1909.jpg|The newspaper reading room of the Ballarat Mechanics' Institute in 1909\\nFile:BallaratMechanicsInstitute1942.jpg|American and Australian soldiers in the reading room of the Ballarat Mechanics' Institute in 1942\\nFile:Ballarat mechanics institute.jpg|Ballarat mechanics institute\",\n \"\\n=== Heritage ===\\nThe Ballarat railway station is notable for being one of only three surviving nineteenth-century station buildings in Australia to retain a train hall\\n\\nBallarat is renowned for its cultural heritage and decorative arts, especially applied to the built environment, combined with the gold rush, this has created a picturesque urban landscape.\",\n \"In 2003 Ballarat was the first of two Australian cities to be registered as a member of the International League of Historical Cities and in 2006 hosted the 10th World League of Historical Cities Congress.\",\n \"Restoration of historic buildings is encouraged including a low interest council Heritage Loans Scheme.\",\n \"and the prevention of demolition by neglect discouraged by council policies.\",\n \"Since the 1970s, the local council has become increasingly aware of the economic and social value of heritage preservation.\",\n \"This is in stark contrast to the 1950s and 60s when Ballarat followed Melbourne in encouraging the removal of Victorian buildings, verandahs in particular.\",\n \"Recent restoration projects funded by the Ballarat include the reconstruction of significant cast iron lace verandahs including the Mining Exchange, Art Gallery (2007), Mechanics institute (2005–) on Lydiard Street and in 2010 the restoration of the Town Hall and the long neglected Unicorn Hotel façade on Sturt Street.\",\n \"Ballarat Citizens for Thoughtful Development formed in 1998 and was incorporated as Ballarat Heritage Watch in 2005 to ensure that the city's architectural heritage is given due consideration in the planning process.\",\n \"The Ballarat Botanical Gardens (established in 1858) are recognised as the finest example of a regional botanical gardens in Australia and are home to many heritage listed exotic tree species and feature a modern glasshouse and horticultural centre and the Prime Ministers Avenue which features bronze busts of every past Australian Prime Minister.\",\n \"Australian Ex-Prisoners of War Memorial\\nBallarat is notable for its very wide boulevards.\",\n \"The main street is Sturt Street and is considered among one of the finest main avenues in Australia with over of central gardens known as the Sturt Street Gardens featuring bandstands, fountains, statues, monuments, memorials and lampposts.\",\n \"Ballarat is home to the largest of a collection of several Avenues of Honour in Victoria.\",\n \"The Ballarat Avenue of Honour consists of a total of approximately 4,000 trees, mostly deciduous which in many parts arch completely over the road.\",\n \"Each tree has a bronze plaque dedicated to a soldier from the Ballarat region who enlisted during World War I.\",\n \"The Avenue of Honour and the Arch of Victory are on the Victorian Heritage Register and are seen by approximately 20,000 visitors each year.\",\n \"The city also has the greatest concentration of public statuary in any Australian city with many parks and streets featuring sculptures and statues dating from the 1860s to the present.\",\n \"Some of the other notable memorials located in the Sturt Street Gardens in the middle of Ballarat's main boulevard include a bandstand situated in the heart of the city that was funded and built by the City of Ballarat Band in 1913 as a tribute to the bandsmen of the , a fountain dedicated to the early explorers Burke and Wills, and those dedicated to monarchs and those who have played pivotal roles in the development of the city and its rich social fabric.\",\n \"Ballarat has an extensive array of significant war memorials, the most recent of which is the Australian Ex Prisoner of War Memorial.\",\n \"The most prominent memorial in the city is the Ballarat Victory Arch that spans the old Western Highway on the Western approaches of the city.\",\n \"The archway serves as the focal point for the Avenue of Honour.\",\n \"Other significant individual monuments located along Sturt Street include those dedicated to the Boer War (1899–1901), the World War II (1939–1945) cenotaph, and Vietnam (1962–1972) (located adjacent to the Arch of Victory).\",\n \"====Commercial and civic buildings====\\nBallarat Fine Art Gallery, Lydiard Street North\\nThe legacy of the wealth generated during Ballarat's gold boom is still visible in a large number of fine stone buildings in and around the city, especially in the Lydiard Street area.\",\n \"This precinct contains some of Victoria's finest examples of Victorian era buildings, many of which are on the Victorian Heritage Register or classified by the National Trust of Australia.\",\n \"Notable civic buildings include the Town Hall (1870–72), the former Post Office (1864), the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery (1887), the Mechanics' Institute (1860, 1869), the Queen Victoria Wards of the Ballarat Base Hospital (1890s) and the Ballarat railway station (1862, 1877, 1888).\",\n \"Other historic buildings include the Provincial Hotel (1909), Reid's Coffee Palace (1886), Craig's Royal Hotel (1862–1890) and Her Majesty's Theatre (1875), the oldest intact and operating lyric theatre in Australia and Ballarat Fire Station (1864, 1911) one of Victoria's oldest fire fighting structures and the Jewish synagogue (1861) the oldest surviving synagogue on the Australian mainland.\",\n \"====Galleries====\\nThe Ballarat Fine Art Gallery houses one of Australia's oldest and most extensive collections of early Australian works.\",\n \"It is considered to have the best Australian collection outside any capital city in Australia.\",\n \"Federation University Australia operates the Post Office Gallery in the Wardell designed former Post Office on the corner of Sturt and Lydiard Streets.\",\n \"===Events and festivals===\\nBallarat is home to many annual festivals and events that attract thousands of visitors.\",\n \"The oldest large annual event is the Ballarat Agricultural Show (since 1859), currently held at the Ballarat Showgrounds and has attracted attendances of up to 30,000 and is an official public holiday for residents of the city.\",\n \"Lake Wendouree is featured in many including the biggest and most prominent is the Begonia Festival (held annually since 1953).\",\n \"SpringFest (held annually since 2001) attracts more than 15,000 people from around Victoria and features market stalls and activities around the lake.\",\n \"Annual Agricultural Society Show at Ballarat Showgrounds, Wendouree\\nThe controversial Ballarat Swap Meet (formerly the Super Southern Swap Meet and held annually since 1989) attracts 30,000 visitors a year.\",\n \"Ballarat Heritage Weekend (held annually since 2006) celebrates the city's heritage with activities such as historic vehicles and displays in and around the CBD and has attracted as many as 14,500 visitors a year from around Victoria.\",\n \"The Ballarat Beer Festival at the City Oval (since 2012) has attracted more than 4,000 visitors.\",\n \"The Ballarat Airport Open Day (Ballarat's unofficial air show, held annually since 2009) also attracts thousands.\",\n \"Other minor cultural festivals include the Ballarat Writers Festival, Ballarat International Foto Biennialle and the Goldfields Music Festival.\",\n \"===Entertainment===\\nHer Majesty's Theatre façade (1875), Lydiard Street Sth.\",\n \"Ballarat has a lively and well established theatrical community with several local ensembles as well as a number of large performing arts venues.\",\n \"Major performing arts venues include:\\n* Her Majesty's Theatre – Seating 940\\n* Post Office Box Theatre (Federation University Australia Arts Academy, Camp Street Campus) – Flexible Seating up to 100\\n* Helen Macpherson Smith Performing Arts Theatre (Federation University Australia, Arts Academy Camp Street Campus) – Seating 200\\n* The 1870 Founders Theatre (Federation University Australia, Mount Helen Campus) – Seating 600\\n* The Courthouse Theatre (Federation University Australia, SMB Campus) – Seating 140\\n* The Victoria Theatre (Sovereign Hill) – Seating 300\\n* Wendouree Centre for Performing Arts (Ballarat Grammar School) – Seating 900\\n* Gay E. Gough Theatre (Mount Clear Secondary College) – Seating 350\\n* Mechanics Institute hall (seating 700) is used from time to time for travelling performances and cinema shows.\",\n \"The Ballarat Civic Hall is a large public building constructed in 1958 as a general purpose venue.\",\n \"Its stripped classical design was heavily criticised during its planning, however it has gained some cultural significance to the city with its cavernous spaces holding many significant events over the years.\",\n \"Civic Hall was closed in 2002 and there have been moves to redevelop it for many years with some calls to retain the building as a venue.\",\n \"Ballarat has its own symphony orchestra, the Ballarat Symphony Orchestra which was formed in 1987.\",\n \"Some notable theatre organisations in Ballarat include BLOC (Ballarat Light Opera Company) founded in 1959.\",\n \"Ballarat is also the home to Australia's oldest and largest annual performing arts eisteddfod.\",\n \"The Royal South Street Eisteddfod is an all-encompassing performing arts festival and competition event that is conducted over twelve weeks annually.\",\n \"The modest 1853 Bath's Hotel grew to become the grand Craig's Royal Hotel in anticipation of the royal visit of Prince Alfred.\",\n \"The current buildings date to 1890.\",\n \"In the 1970s the Ballarat urban area contained no less than 60 hotels.\",\n \"The introduction of gaming machines in the early 1990s has brought about significant change in the city entertainment precincts.\",\n \"By 2006 at least 20 hotels had closed and some of those that remain have been redeveloped as dining and/or gaming venues.\",\n \"Gaming machines have brought significant revenue to the remaining hotels, sports and social clubs which has enabled many to expand and modernise.\",\n \"The city has several dance clubs as well as a highly active live music and jazz scene.\",\n \"Hotels are popular meeting places for young people.\",\n \"The city has many fine restaurants, wine bars and eateries as well as themed restaurants.\",\n \"A large cinema complex consisting of several theatres is located behind the façade of the old Regent cinemas in the heart of the city.\",\n \"Dance parties are popular within the Ballarat area; BTR is an organisation founded in 2006 that has begun hosting dance events in Ballarat.\",\n \"==== Music and live entertainment ====\\nBallarat has a significant music scene and a number of established music venues.\",\n \"Ballarat has produced several note worthy bands and musicians.\",\n \"Notable musicians from Ballarat include composer and violinist Warren Ellis, and alternative bands The Mavis's, Epicure and The Dead Salesmen.\",\n \"===Sport and recreation===\\nAFL pre-season match.\",\n \"Western Bulldogs vs Melbourne.\",\n \"Eureka Stadium, Wendouree.\",\n \"Ballarat has a number of large parks, sport fields, organised sporting clubs and associations.\",\n \"Australian rules football and cricket are the most popular spectator and participation sports in Ballarat, while soccer, basketball, netball, horse racing and rowing have large followings.\",\n \"There are stadiums, both indoor and outdoor as well as training facilities for most sports.\",\n \"Australian rules football is played at semi-professional and amateur levels with a large number of players at numerous venues, both dedicated such as Eureka Stadium and shared with cricket.\",\n \"The North Ballarat Roosters based out of Eureka Stadium compete in the Victorian Football League.\",\n \"The Western Bulldogs AFL Club will commence playing periodic home games at the redevloped Eureka Stadium from 2017.\",\n \"The Ballarat Football League (founded 1893) is a strong regional league of which there are 6 local teams (Ballarat, EastPoint, Redan, Sebastopol, Lake Wendouree and North Ballarat City).\",\n \"The Ballarat Football Club (founded 1860) remains one of the oldest football clubs in the world.\",\n \"Other city teams from Buninyong and North Ballarat compete in the regional Central Highlands Football League.\",\n \"Cricket is also played extensively with three international standard cricket ovals.\",\n \"Ballarat's Eastern Oval hosted a game in the 1992 Cricket World Cup.\",\n \"Horse racing and greyhound racing are popular, with dedicated facilities.\",\n \"The Harness Racing centre is considered to be among the best in Australia.\",\n \"The Ballarat Turf Club schedules around 28 race meetings a year including the Ballarat Cup meeting in mid-November.\",\n \"Ballarat Harness Racing Club conducts regular meetings at its racetrack in the city.\",\n \"The Ballarat Greyhound Racing Club holds regular meetings at Sebastopol.\",\n \"Basketball is played at various levels with the Ballarat Miners and Ballarat Rush competing in the South East Australian Basketball League and playing out of the MARS Minerdome.\",\n \"Netball is similarly popular, with many netball clubs affiliated with local Australian rules clubs including Wendouree, East Point, Eureka, North Ballarat, Redan, Brown Hill and the Ballarat Netball Association.\",\n \"Rowing and kayaking is centred on Lake Wendouree and the sport is particularly popular with the high schools.\",\n \"The lake hosts the Victorian Schools Rowing Championships as well as the annual \\\"Head of the Lake\\\" rowing regatta—contested by Ballarat High School, Ballarat and Clarendon College, Ballarat Grammar School, St Patrick's College and Loreto College.\",\n \"The city hosted rowing events for the 1956 Olympic Games.\",\n \"Association Football (known locally as soccer) is mostly played at an amateur level.\",\n \"The local competition is known as the Ballarat & District Soccer Association, which consists of 13 teams.\",\n \"The Ballarat Red Devils are the biggest soccer club in Ballarat and play in the FFV National Premier League Victoria 1 West.\",\n \"Their home ground is Morshead Park Stadium, located in central Ballarat, which was recently significantly redeveloped.\",\n \"Athletics facilities include an international standard athletics track at Llanberris Reserve on York Street Golden Point which is an Athletics Victoria venue and home to local athletics and little athletics clubs.\",\n \"Swimming and water sport is facilitated at two Olympic-sized pools as well as an indoor competition short course pool.\",\n \"The main facility is the Ballarat Aquatic Centre located at Gillies Street Lake Gardens in the city's west.\",\n \"Baseball was first organised in Australia at Ballarat in 1857.\",\n \"The Alfredton Eagles, Ballarat City Brewers and Mounties YC field teams in the Geelong Baseball Association Winter Division.\",\n \"Golf is played at four main venues which include the Ballarat Golf Course on Sturt Street in the Easter suburb of Alfredton, home to the Ballarat Golf Club; the Midlands Golf Course on Heinz Lane in the northern suburb of Invermay Park which is home to the Midlands Golf Club; the Eureka Golf Course at Elford Street in the eastern suburb of Ballarat East and in the southern suburb of Buninyong at the Buninyong Golf Course.\",\n \"The Ballarat Roller Derby League was formed in 2008, and held their first match in 2009.\",\n \"They have two teams who compete in local events, and a combined travelling team, the Rat Pack, who compete in interleague roller derby competitions.\",\n \"Lake Wendouree is a large recreational lake that was created out of former wetlands and hosted the rowing events for the 1956 Summer Olympics.\",\n \"Victoria Park is an expansive reserve with tree-lined avenues and sporting fields in suburban Newington.\",\n \"The suburbs feature some privately run wildlife parks including Ballarat Wildlife Park in Ballarat East and Ballarat Bird World in Buninyong.\",\n \"===Popular culture===\\nBallarat has inspired many visual artists.\",\n \"Eugene von Guerard documented the city's establishment as a gold digging settlement, while Albert Henry Fullwood and Knut Bull depicted the city's boom era streetscapes.\",\n \"Ballarat features prominently in literature and fiction, including \\\"The Boscombe Valley Mystery\\\", a short story from Arthur Conan Doyle's ''The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes'' (1891); ''King Billy of Ballarat and Other Stories'' (1892) by Morley Roberts; ''The Fortunes of Richard Mahony'' (1917) by Henry Handel Richardson; ''Murder on the Ballarat Train'' (1993) by Kerry Greenwood; and ''Illywhacker'' (1985) by Peter Carey.\",\n \"Ballarat is also a popular filming location.\",\n \"Australia's second oldest feature film, ''Eureka Stockade'' (1907), is the first in a line of films about the historic Ballarat event.\",\n \"The city makes cameos in ''Dogs in Space'' (1986), ''My Brother Jack'' (2001), ''Ned Kelly'' (2003) and ''The Writer'' (2005).\",\n \"The television series ''The Doctor Blake Mysteries'' (2012–) is set in Ballarat and also mostly shot there.\",\n \"Two ships of the Royal Australian Navy have been named HMAS Ballarat after the city, HMAS Ballarat (J184) and HMAS Ballarat (FFH 155).\",\n \"=== Notable persons ===\\n\\n\\nBust of Alfred Deakin, first federal member for Ballaarat at the Prime Ministers Avenue.\",\n \"A great many notable people's origins are in the Ballarat region, with the most prominent being high-ranking politicians and sportspeople.\",\n \"Several former prime ministers of Australia were either born in or lived in Ballarat, and this was recognised by the city's Prime Minister's Avenue.\",\n \"Alfred Deakin, the second prime minister, was the first federal parliament MP for Ballarat.\",\n \"Sir Robert Menzies, and James Scullin were both educated in Ballarat.\",\n \"John Curtin was born in nearby Creswick and his wife Elsie was born in Ballarat.\",\n \"Several premiers of the Australian states were born in Ballarat, including Ballarat born Sir Henry Bolte, Steve Bracks, Thomas Hollway, and Henry Daglish.\",\n \"Additionally Duncan Gillies lived in and represented Ballarat in the Victorian Legislative Assembly before becoming state premier.\",\n \"An additional political activist included Francis William Hyet is trade unionist and born in Ballarat.\",\n \"He was heavily inclined towards socialism which became a calling for his way of life.\",\n \"He became involved with the Social Democratic Party in 1905 and following the Victorian Socialist Party in 1906.\",\n \"Hyett was a very prominent in the anti-conscription campaign.\",\n \"He was able to harness the union's newspaper which became a medium for the anti-conscriptionists.\",\n \"Outside politics other prominent public figures include Peter Lalor, a notable historical figure in Australia as the leader of the Eureka Rebellion (1854) and a parliamentarian; the inventor George Alfred Julius, who spent part of his childhood there when his father was a local Anglican cleric; the inventor Henry Sutton was born and worked in Ballarat; and Cardinal George Pell, the former Catholic Archbishop of Melbourne and Sydney was born in Ballarat and worked in the area for some time.\",\n \"Ballarat has also produced many notable athletes including the Olympic long distance runner Steve Moneghetti and four time Olympic basketball player Ray Borner.\",\n \"A large number of notable Australian rules football identities have come from Ballarat, including Australian Football Hall of Fame members Tony Lockett and Bob Davis.\",\n \"In addition, Henry Sutton was an inventor from Ballarat.\",\n \"Sutton designed an electric continuous current dynamo with a practical ring armature.\",\n \"This design could be used as an electric motor and the rapid incline of the electrical industry followed.\",\n \"Sutton was involved in devising and constructing different telephone designs.\",\n \"Sutton interacted closely with Bell (the inventor of the telephone), Bell came to visit Sutton in order to see a complete telephone system that was set up in Sutton's family warehouse.\",\n \"\\n===Health===\\nBallarat Base Hospital's Henry Bolte wing (completed in 1994) Drummond St Nth\\nBallarat has two major hospitals.\",\n \"The public health services are managed by Ballarat Health Services including the Ballarat Base which services the entire region and the Queen Elizabeth Centre for aged care on Ascot Street Sth.\",\n \"The St John of God Health Care centre also on Drummond Street Nth, established in 1915 is currently the largest private hospital in regional Victoria.\",\n \"The Ballarat Regional Integrated Cancer Centre (BRICC) on the corner of Drummond and Sturt Street includes a number of facilities focused on cancer treatment.\",\n \"The Heart Foundation did a study in 2014 that Ballarat had the highest level of physical inactivity (85.3 per cent) in Australia and that 32.9 per cent of residents were deemed obese.\",\n \"===Utilities===\\nBallarat's residents are serviced by a wide range of public utilities including water, gas and electricity, telephony and data communications supplied, overseen and regulated by state based authorities and private enterprise and local council.\",\n \"Water supply as well as sewage collection and disposal are provided by Central Highlands Water.\",\n \"Drinking water is sourced from a network reservoirs all located in the highlands to the east, however the majority is sourced from two main reservoirs—Lal Lal and White Swan.\",\n \"The Lal Lal Reservoir (built in 1970 with a capacity of ) is Ballarat's largest water catchment accounting for approximately two thirds of the city's water usage.\",\n \"The White Swan reservoir (built in 1952 with a capacity) supplies most of the remainder.\",\n \"Since May 2008, the White Swan has been topped up by water from Bendigo's Sandhurst Reservoir through the Goldfields Superpipe with water originally sourced from the Goulburn River system.\",\n \"Kirks Reservoir (built between 1860 and 1862 with a capacity of ) and Gong Gong Reservoir (built in 1877 at Gong Gong, Victoria with a capacity of ) are historic main water supplies now maintained for emergency use.\",\n \"Other reservoirs supplying Ballarat include Moorabool reservoir (located in Bolwarrah, Victoria with a capacity of ), Wilson's Reservoir (located in the Wombat State Forest with a capacity of ), Beales reservoir (built 1863 located at Wallace with a capacity of ) and Pincotts reservoir (built 1867 located at Leigh Creek, Victoria with a capacity of ).\",\n \"Sewage is managed by two plants—the Ballarat North Wastewater Treatment Plant and the Ballarat South Waste Water Treatment Plant.\",\n \"Residential electricity is supplied by Victorian electricity distributor Powercor, while residential natural gas is supplied by AGL Energy.\",\n \"Telephone services are provided via the Doveton Street (BRAT) telephone exchange which was originally built by the Australian Telecommunications Commission (now known as Telstra) who remains its owner, though Optus now also operates services from this facility.\",\n \"The city's cellular network currently uses Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS).\",\n \"Telstra has provided mobile telecommunications to Ballarat since 2003 (initially as CDMA).\",\n \"Optus provided competition with its entrance to the market in 2003 along with significant service upgrades in 2004 followed by Vodafone in mid-2009.\",\n \"Data communications are provided by several companies.\",\n \"Telstra was the first company to provide dial-up Internet access via the Ballarat exchange, however the first network for broadband Internet access available in the city was a hybrid optical fiber cable and coaxial cable built by Neighbourhood Cable in 2001.\",\n \"Since then, Telstra and Optus have entered the Ballarat market, providing Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) services for residential Internet access from four main exchanges—Ballarat, Wendouree (Howitt Street), Sebastopol (Skipton Street) and Alfredton (Cuthberts Road).\",\n \"These companies also provide mobile data access Evolved HSPA and since late 2011 3GPP Long Term Evolution (4G).\",\n \"Ballarat's rollout of the National Broadband Network (NBN) is seen as vital for the city's growing IT industry.\",\n \"During Ballarat's first stage NBN rollout in 2012, 17,800 homes will be directly connected to the network via optical fibre cable.\",\n \"===Transport===\\n\\n====Road====\\nA view of the Western Freeway (M8) at Nerrina looking west toward Doodts Road, Ballarat North and Invermay from the Nerrina pedestrian overpass.\",\n \"Road transport and the motor vehicle is the main form of transport.\",\n \"A network of state highways radiate from Ballarat and the Western Freeway (A8) is dual carriageway bypasses the central city to the north of the urban area, providing a direct road connection to Melbourne (approximately 90 minutes), westward to Ararat (approximately 75 minutes) and Horsham.\",\n \"Five freeway interchanges service the urban area, East Ballarat (half diamond) interchange at Victoria Street (C805); Brown Hill interchange (full diamond) at Daylesford-Ballarat Road (C292), Creswick Road interchange (full diamond) at Wendouree (A300); the Mount Rowan interchange (half diamond) at Gillies Road, Wendouree (C307) and the Mitchell Park interchange (full diamond) at Howe Street (C287).\",\n \"The Midland Highway is a dual carriageway which runs north along Creswick Road to the Western Freeway interchange but becomes a single carriageway north of Ballarat to Creswick (approximately 25 minutes) and runs south as the dual carriageway of Skipton Road to Magpie before becoming a single carriageway to Geelong (approximately 87 minutes).\",\n \"The Glenelg Highway connects directly to Mount Gambier and the Sunraysia Highway west of Ballarat which connects directly to Mildura.\",\n \"Sturt Street and Victoria Street, both dual carriageways carry the bulk of the east-west CBD traffic, while Mair Street is planned to become a four lane dual carriageway to relieve pressure on these main streets.\",\n \"Other dual carriageway main roads in the west include Howitt Street and Gillies Street.\",\n \"The busiest roads by far are located in the west and south at Albert Street in Redan, Sturt Street in Newington and Gillies Street in Lake Gardens which carry 22,400, 22,000 and 21,500 vehicles per day respectively and all have 4 traffic lanes.\",\n \"====Bus, coach and taxi====\\n\\nBallarat is also served by an extensive public bus service operated by CDC Ballarat.\",\n \"They operate 15 routes across the city, routes 10-15, 20-26, 30 & 31, and school bus services..\\n* Route 10 - Ballarat Station - Alfredton via Wendouree\\n* Route 11 - Ballarat Station - Wendouree Station via Howitt St \\n* Route 12 - Ballarat Station - Wendouree Station via Forest St \\n* Route 13 - Ballarat Station - Invermay Park \\n* Route 14 - Ballarat Station - Black Hill \\n* Route 15 - Ballarat Station - Brown Hill \\n* Route 20 - Ballarat Station - Canadian \\n* Route 21 - Ballarat Station - Buninyong via Federation University \\n* Route 22 - Ballarat Station - Federation University via Sebastopol \\n* Route 23 - Ballarat Station - Mount Pleasant \\n* Route 24 - Ballarat Station - Sebastopol \\n* Route 25 - Ballarat Station - Delacombe \\n* Route 26 - Ballarat Station - Alfredton \\n* Route 30 - Ballarat Station - Creswick \\n* Route 31 - Wendouree Station - Miners Rest\\n\\nNumerous private companies service suburban, intercity and interstate routes with coach services.\",\n \"Gold Bus provides additional suburban services as well as the Ballarat School Bus Network.\",\n \"Ballarat railway station is a major regional terminal for coach services.\",\n \"V/Line operates direct services to regional Victorian locations including Melbourne, Geelong, Bendigo, Warrnambool, Mildura, Nhill, Ouyen, Halls Gap, Daylesford, Maryborough as well as the South Australian cities of Adelaide and Mount Gambier.\",\n \"Gold Bus operates direct regional services to links to both Avoca and Maryborough, while Sandlants operates a direct service to Stawell.\",\n \"There is also a direct bus service to Melbourne's Tullamarine Airport with the Ballarat Airport Shuttlebus.\",\n \"Interstate coaches from Greyhound Australia and Firefly Express coaches stop at Ballarat on route between Melbourne and Adelaide.\",\n \"The local taxi fleet consists of over 57 vehicles services in all suburbs and is currently operated by Ballarat Taxis Co-op Ltd. Taxis and bus are the only late night public transport option in the city.VLocity railcars inside the train shed at Ballarat railway station\\nA tourist tram on Wendouree Parade\\n'''Rail'''\\n\\nBallarat has historically been a major rail transport hub in Victoria, situated at the junction of the Ballarat line, Ararat line and Mildura lines it currently has several connections for both passenger rail services and freight rail.\",\n \"The city has two passenger railway stations, the hub of Ballarat railway station and suburban Wendouree railway station.\",\n \"From Ballarat station, V/Line operates VLocity trains running at up to east to Melbourne, west to Ararat and north to Maryborough.\",\n \"Since the controversial removal of \\\"flagship\\\" express services in 2011, successive timetable changes have slowed peak hour services to Southern Cross Station, with the current journey taking a minimum of 73 minutes.\",\n \"Patronage however has continued to grow.\",\n \"The Regional Rail Link project is aimed at separating Ballarat trains from Melbourne's suburban rail network.\",\n \"Interurban services (Ballarat-Melbourne) now run half-hourly during weekday peak and hourly during weekday non-peak and on weekends from Ballarat station.\",\n \"A twice daily (thrice daily on weekdays) (57 minute) service connects Ballarat to Ararat (stopping at Beaufort) while there is a (53 minute) service to and from Maryborough (stopping at Creswick, Clunes, and Talbot) once a day (twice a day on weekdays) each way.\",\n \"Victoria's electronic ticketing system, Myki, was implemented on rail services between Wendouree and Melbourne on 24 July 2013.\",\n \"Ballarat is connected to Geelong by rail via the Geelong-Ballarat railway line, which currently operates only for freight (passenger services were withdrawn in 1978) although in 2011, a planning study began for returning of passenger services along the line to investigate connecting both cities to Bendigo via Maryborough and Castlemaine.\",\n \"There are also several disused railway corridors and stations along the Skipton railway, Buninyong railway.\",\n \"A former branch line built in 1886 to Redan was sold off by VicTrack and finally dismantled in 2010.\",\n \"The freight line forked off the Singleton line at Lake Gardens running south through Alfredton and then east parallel to Latrobe Street, past the Cattle yards and on to Redan (now Delacombe).\",\n \"The once extensive Ballarat tramway network operated between 1887 and 1971 with a small section of remaining track being utilised as a tourist and museum tramway.\",\n \"There have been proposals to extend the network, particularly as a major tourist facility but also to connect it to the railways and return it as a viable component of the Ballarat public transport system, including a strong lobby in 2001–2002, 2010–11 and 2014, however Ballarat City Council and federal member of parliament have dismissed recent proposals.\",\n \"====Air====\\nBallarat Aerodrome from above\\nBallarat Airport located north-west of the CBD consists of two sealed runways (each approximately long and wide) as well as extensive sealed aprons, night lighting and NDB navaid.\",\n \"A Master Plan for the Aerodrome was completed in 2005 followed by an Airport Master Plan in 2013.\",\n \"The report made a series of recommendations and forecasts that included eventual lengthening, widening and strengthening of the existing main runway up to , consideration for expansion of the passenger terminal and recommendations for future use of aprons and development of future structures supporting larger aircraft and increased frequent usage.\",\n \"It was forecast that by 2012–2015 regular domestic passenger services using 40–50 seat commuter aircraft could feasibly commence.\",\n \"====Cycling====\\nBallarat has a long history of cycling as a form of transport and recreation.\",\n \"The current cycling network continues to grow and consists of several marked on-road routes and of segregated bicycle facilities including several main routes:Ballarat–Skipton Rail Trail, Yarrowee River Trail with connections to the Gong Gong Reservoir.\",\n \"Buningyong Trail, Sebastopol Trail, and the Lake Wendouree shared path.\",\n \"The Ballarat Bicycle Users Group provides advocacy for the growing number of cyclists in the city.\",\n \"The popularity of cycling in Ballarat is also demonstrated by the large number of spectators and participants drawn to cycling sporting events held in the city.\",\n \"Ballarat is home to three bikie chapters, most notably the Finks Motorcycle Club, who, in 2010, were planning to build a club house and training centre in the city.\",\n \"Other bikie chapters in the city are the Vikings and the Bandidos Motorcycle Club.\",\n \"The city was the subject of an ABC ''Four Corners'' report on the use of methamphetamine in Australia, along with Devonport, Burnie, Castlemaine and St Arnaud.\",\n \"Ballarat also has 3 police stations: Ballarat, Ballarat North and Ballarat West.\",\n \"'''History books'''\\n* Bate, Weston.\",\n \"''Lucky City: The First Generation of Ballarat 1851–1901'' (1978)\\n* Bate, Weston.\",\n \"''Life After Gold: Twentieth-Century Ballarat'' Melbourne University Press (1993)\\n* Carboni, Raffaello.\",\n \"''The Eureka Stockade'' (1980) first published (1855)\\n* Goodman, David.\",\n \"''Gold Seeking: Victorian and California in the 1850s'' (1994)\\n* Jacobs, Wendy.\",\n \"''Ballarat: A Guide to Buildings and Areas 1851–1940'' Jacob Lewis Vines Conservation Architects and Planners (1981)\\n* Lynch, John.\",\n \"''The Story of the Eureka Stockade: Epic Days in the early fifties at Ballarat'', (1947?)\",\n \"* Flett, James.\",\n \"''The History of Gold Discovery in Victoria''\\n* Molony, John.\",\n \"''Eureka'', (1984)\\n* Molony, John.\",\n \"''By Wendouree'', (2010)\\n* Serle, Geoffrey.\",\n \"''The Golden Age: A History of the Colony of Victoria, 1851–1860'', (1963)\\n* Freund, Peter, with Val Sarah.\",\n \"''Her Maj: A History of Her Majesty's Theatre, Ballarat'' (2007)\\n* Ballarat City Council\\n* Victorian Heritage Register, Heritage Victoria\",\n \"\\n\\n\\n* Ballarat City Council\\n* Visit Ballarat – Ballarats Official Tourism website\\n* Ballarat – Tourism Victoria – Government tourism site.\",\n \"* Ballarat and District Industrial Heritage Project\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"finance"}}},{"rowIdx":281,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Brisbane Lions''' is a professional Australian rules football club which plays in the Australian Football League (AFL). The club is based in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. The club was formed in 1996 from the merger of the Fitzroy Lions and the Brisbane Bears. The Lions are one of the most successful AFL clubs of the 21st century, having appeared in four consecutive AFL Grand Finals from 2001 to 2004 and winning three premierships (2001, 2002, 2003).\n\nThe club is based at the Gabba. The team is captained by Dayne Beams and coached by Chris Fagan.\n","\nThe Brisbane Lions were officially launched on 1 November 1996, joining the national competition in 1997.\n\n===Beginnings: 1997–2000===\nBrisbane Lions logo from 2001 to 2009\nIn their first year as a combined club the Lions made the finals, finishing in eighth position after being defeated by the St Kilda Football Club in a qualifying final. The following year, however, they finished in last position, despite boasting a talented playing list.\n\n===Triple premiership success: 2001–2003===\nAs the Brisbane Lions, the club won its first AFL premiership in the 2001 AFL Grand Final, defeating Essendon 15.18 (108) to 12.10 (82). Lions utility player Shaun Hart won the Norm Smith Medal as best on ground in the Grand Final.\n\nIn 2002, the Lions won back-to-back premierships when they again defeated Collingwood 9.12 (66) to 10.15 (75) in the 2002 AFL Grand Final in cold and wet conditions at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. Early in the contest the Lions lost both ruckman Beau McDonald and utility player Martin Pike (who had already had nine possessions in the first quarter) to injury and had to complete the match with a limited bench.\n\nWith a number of players under an injury cloud – and having lost to Collingwood in a qualifying final at the Melbourne Cricket Ground three weeks previously – the Lions went into the game as underdogs. However, they sealed their place in history as an AFL dynasty by thrashing the Magpies in cool but sunny conditions. At one stage in the final quarter the Lions led by almost 80 points before relaxing when the match was well and truly won, allowing Collingwood to score the last four goals. The final score of 20.14 (134) to 12.12 (84) saw the club become only the fourth in VFL/AFL history to win three consecutive premierships and the first since the creation of the AFL. Simon Black claimed the Norm Smith Medal with a dominant 39 possession match, the most possessions ever gathered by a player in a grand final.\n\nThe 2004 season saw Brisbane remain in the top portion of the ladder for most of the season. Reaching the finals in second position, Brisbane controversially had to travel to Melbourne to play against Geelong in the preliminary final, due to a contract between the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) and the Australian Football League (AFL) that required one preliminary final to be played each year at the MCG. Port Adelaide had finished on top of the ladder and hosted the other preliminary final in Adelaide. Despite this setback, Brisbane beat Geelong and reached the AFL Grand Final for the fourth consecutive year. Their opponents, Port Adelaide, playing in their first ever grand final, were too good on the day and recorded a 40-point win.\n\n===Rebuild of the Lions' second generation: 2005–2008===\nThe Lions in the training camp, May 2007.\nThe Lions began the 2006 season optimistically, but injuries again plagued the club, whose players recorded an AFL record total of 200 matches lost to injury for the season.\n\nThe Brisbane Lions finished runner up in the 2007 NAB Cup and then went on to create history by being the first team in the history of the AFL to have five co-captains. That year, the Lions failed to make the finals for a third successive year in 2007.\n\nThe Lions began the 2008 NAB Cup shakily, losing to Essendon by 27 points. The team struggled for the season and missed out on the finals with a 10–12 record, losing 3 games despite having at least 5 more scoring shots in each of those games. Coach Leigh Matthews resigned at the end of the season after 10 seasons and 3 premierships with the club.\n\n===Michael Voss: 2009–2013===\n\n\nThe Lions made a good start in the 2009 NAB Cup under new senior coach Michael Voss by registering a 9-point win over St Kilda. However this was followed by a series of losses in the pre-season to Essendon, Melbourne and Richmond. Their season ended with a 51-point loss to the Western Bulldogs.\n\nThe 2009/2010 off-season was dominated by the arrival of Brendan Fevola from Carlton, and the hype was focused on Fevola and Jonathan Brown in the sense that the Lions could capitalise on their strong 2009 season. Indeed, the Lions won their first four matches of the 2010 season to be top of the ladder after four rounds, but they would only win three more games after that to crash to a lowly finish by season's end. One of those wins however, was against eventual premiers .\n\nThe Lions' 2010/2011 off-season was disrupted by the sacking of Fevola after just one season at the Lions, following repeated off-field indiscretions which included getting drunk in the Brisbane streets during New Year's Eve celebrations. On the field, the Lions won only four games for the year, but only one against any Victorian team, and that was , in Round 9. Despite their worst season since 1998, coach Michael Voss was granted a contract extension after the board recommended that Voss was the best man to take the club forward into the future. Leading into season 2012, only two players from the triple-premiership winning team of 2001–2003 remained: Simon Black and Jonathan Brown.\n\nThe 2013 season started well for Brisbane, defeating Carlton in the final of the NAB Cup, with Daniel Rich winning the Michael Tuck Medal for best on ground and Aaron Cornelius showing some good form. However, things began to decline from then, with losses to the Western Bulldogs and Adelaide. However, in the 5th QClash match against Gold Coast, the Lions won by two points, with Jonathan Brown winning the Marcus Ashcroft Medal. Injuries were beginning to take a toll, with young players Claye Beams and Jared Polec suffering severe injuries. In Round 13, Brisbane defeated second-placed Geelong, coming from 52 points down late in the third quarter to win by 5 points due to an Ash McGrath goal after the siren in his 200th match.\n\nOn 13 August 2013, coach Michael Voss was told that his contract would not be renewed.\n\n=== Playing under Justin Leppitsch: 2014–2016 ===\nOn 25 August 2013, former premiership player of the Lions, Justin Leppitsch, was confirmed to be the senior coach of the Lions for the next 3 seasons starting in 2014\n\nOn 18 October 2013, Brisbane Lions legend Simon Black announced his retirement.\n\nDuring round 13, 2014 Lions captain Jonathan Brown was the victim of a facial injury in a clash between the Lions and the Greater Western Sydney Giants. He collided with Tomas Bugg's knee and was taken off the ground. He suffered a concussion, which caused his retirement from football. Along with the retirement of Ashley McGrath in August 2014, no active players remain from any of the club's triple-premiership winning sides.\n\nOn 29 August 2016, Leppitsch was sacked as coach of the Lions.\n\n===Chris Fagan era: 2017–===\nOn 4 October 2016, Chris Fagan was announced as the Lions' coach from the 2017 season onwards.\n\nBrendan Fevola became the 1st Coleman Medallist to win the medal at a club and be traded to another the following year. He originally came from Carlton.\n","\n===Membership base and sponsorship===\nCrowds and memberships for the Brisbane Lions grew dramatically during the four seasons in which they made the AFL Grand Final. Since then, with the team being less successful, attendances have declined, but have remained stable over the past three seasons. In 2009 the Lions found it so difficult to sell corporate boxes that they resorted to doing so on a game-by-game basis. 2011 saw the Brisbane Lions suffer their worst ever drop in support, as memberships decreased by 28%. 2017 memberships are the lowest the club has had since 2012.\n\n\n\n Profit (loss) \nKit sponsor!! Major sponsor/s\n\n1997\n19,550\n N/A \n Qualifying Finalist (8th) \n 24,468 \n \nPuma\n Carlton & United Breweries\n\n1998\n''16,674''\n 2,876 \n''Wooden spoon (16th)''\n 19,913\n\n1999\n16,931\n 257 \n Preliminary Finalist (3rd) \n 21,890 \n AAPT\n\n2000\n20,295\n 3,364 \n Semi-finalist (6th) \n 27,406\n\n2001\n18,330\n 1,965 \n'''Premiers''' ('''2nd''') \n 27,637 \n ($845,000)\nRussell Athletic\n\n2002\n22,288\n 3,958 \n'''Premiers''' ('''2nd''') \n 26,894 \n\n2003\n25,578\n 3,290 \n'''Premiers''' ('''3rd''') \n 31,717 \n '''$2,200,000'''\n\n2004\n'''30,941'''\n '''5,363''' \n Grand Finalist (2nd) \n'''33,619'''\n\n\n2005\n30,027\n 914 \n 11th \n 33,266\n\n2006\n26,459\n 3,568 \n 13th \n 28,629\n\n2007\n23,072\n 3,387 \n 10th \n 28,847 \n $1,058,000 \nPuma\n Vodafone\n\n2008\n23,079 \n 7 \n 10th \n 28,127 \n ($2,200,030)\n\n2009\n26,324 \n 3,245\n Semi-finalist (6th) \n 29,172 \n ($603,207)\n\n2010\n29,014\n 2,690 \n 13th \n 29,933 \n ($2,713,848)\n Bank of Queensland, Conergy\n\n2011\n20,792\n'' 8,222'' \n 15th \n 20,461 \n ($1,855,926)\nBLK\n\n2012\n20,762\n 30 \n13th\n20,343 \n ($2,513,262)\n\n2013\n24,130\n 3,368 \n 12th \n 21,083 \n ($1,574,762) \n National Storage, Vero Insurance\n\n2014\n23,930\n 200 \n 15th \n 19,735 \n ''($3,543,138)''\n\n2015\n25,408\n 1,478 \n 17th \n 18,810 \n ($681,053)\n\n2016\n 23,286 \n 2,122 \n 17th \n ''17,074'' \n ($1,780,000) \n Camperdown Dairy International, Vero Insurance\n\n2017\n 21,203* \n \n 18th \n \n \n Majestic Athletic\n\nStatistics highlighted in '''bold''' denote the best season for Brisbane in that category\nStatistics highlighted in ''italic'' denote the worst season for Brisbane in that category\n1 following finals matches\n\n===Non-playing/coaching staff===\n\n\n\n'''Name'''\n'''Position'''\n\n Greg Swann\n Chief Executive Officer\n\n Bob Sharpless\n Chairman\n\n Andrew Wellington\n Deputy Chairman\n\n Cyril Jinks\n Directors\n\n Sarah Kelly\n\n Leigh Matthews\n\n Peter McGregor\n\n Mick Power\n\n Cathie Reid\n\n Ross Thornton\n\n David Noble\n General Manager of Football\n\n Dom Abrogio\n List manager\n\n Craig Lambert\n Strategy and Retention Manager\n\n Melissa Lambert\n Player Welfare Manager\n\n Andrew Crowell\n Head of Welfare and Wellbeing\n\n Matthew Francis\n Football Manager\n\n Damien Austin\n High Performance Manager\n\n Stephen Conole\n Senior Recruiting Manager\n\n Leon Harris\n Recruitment Consultant\n\n Andrew Farrell\n Victoria and South Australia Recruiting Manager\n\n","\n===Emblem===\nIn 1997 the club unveiled its new merger emblem it would consist of the iconic golden Fitzroy Lion on a badge (which was the style in the AFL at the time) of Maroon and Blue. The club used this from 1997 to the end of 2001 after their first premiership. In 2002 the club would unveil a new emblem in the shape of a football with the words \"Brisbane Lions\" in the middle with the golden Lion placed inside the O of Lion. The club continued the use of this emblem until the 2010 season when they changed the entire emblem dropping the golden Lion and replaced it with a cartoonish style Lions head. The club also removed the golden Lion from the team guernseys and introduced the new emblem on the body of the original Lion. The change was met with much backlash as many supporters dubbed the new emblem the \"Paddle Pop Lion\" after the popular ice cream of the same name. In 2014 after overwhelming response from the supporters the club dropped the new emblem from their guernseys and reintroduced the classic golden Lion which they wore from 1997 until 2010. Though the club has kept the current emblem for all club related advertising and marketing.\n\n===Guernseys===\n\nThe three types of guernsey are:\n\n*Home guernsey (worn since 2015): Maroon and blue based guernsey with original Fitzroy lion, coloured gold and maroon. Vero Insurance is the sponsor on the front and Camperdown Dairy International is the sponsor on the back (home shorts worn in home games and away shorts worn in away games not played in Victoria). The Lions also wore this jumper from 1997-2009 before switching to a more 'modern' lion.\n*Away guernsey (Worn since 2015): Red and blue based guernsey with original Fitzroy lion, coloured gold and red. Camperdown Dairy International is the sponsor on the front and Vero Insurance is the sponsor on the back (away shorts worn). The Lions also wore this jumper from 2008-2009 before switching to a more 'modern' lion.\n*Clash guernsey (Worn since 2017): Reminiscent of the Bears’ final guernsey, this guernsey features maroon, yellow and white with original Fitzroy lion, coloured maroon and gold. Camperdown Dairy International is the sponsor on the front and Vero Insurance is the sponsor on the back (away shorts worn).\n\n===Mascot===\nBernie \"Gabba\" Vegas\nAs of 2016 the lions new mascot 'Roy' was introduced.\nThe Lion's Mascot Manor representative and club mascot is Bernie \"Gabba\" Vegas, a caricature of a lion dressed in Brisbane Lions jumper, sunglasses, wide lapels, and flares, designed to resemble Elvis Presley.\n\n===Song===\nThe club's team song, \"The Pride of Brisbane Town\", is based on the Fitzroy club song, and is sung to the music of \"La Marseillaise\", the French national anthem:\n\nWe are the pride of Brisbane town,\nwe wear maroon, blue and gold,\nwe will always fight for victory,\nlike Fitzroy and Bears of old,\nall for one, and one for all,\nwe will answer to the call,\ngo Lions, Brisbane Lions,\nwe'll kick the winning score,\nyou'll hear our mighty roar!\n","\nThe Brisbane Lions have three main rivals, Collingwood, Port Adelaide and Gold Coast.\n\n===Collingwood===\nThe biggest rival for the Lions is Collingwood, having built up plenty of history in the relatively short existence as a merged club. Pre-merger Fitzroy was a neighbouring suburb to Collingwood, with the boundary being based on Smith Street, along with the fact that Fitzroy and Collingwood topped the VFL/AFL premiership tally during the early decades of the VFL competition. The Brisbane Bears also had a bit of history with the Magpies as Nathan Buckley famously deflected to Collingwood after one season on the Bears list, citing that he wanted to win premierships, ironically retiring at the end of the 2007 season without a premiership as a player in the AFL. The Bears also lost their final regular season match in their final season to the Magpies, costing the Bears the minor premiership that season. However the rivalry between the Lions and the Magpies has been properly ignited post-merger, starting in late 1999 when Collingwood played their last ever VFL/AFL game at their spiritual home ground, Victoria Park with the Lions emerging 42 point victors that day and consigning the Magpies to their second wooden spoon, to the dissatisfaction of the Collingwood supporters. The rivalry between the two clubs went to the next level as the clubs played off in two consecutive Grand Finals in 2002 and 2003, with the Lions emerging victors on both occasions. These grand final results further fueled the bitterness that Collingwood supporters and their president Eddie McGuire still have towards the Brisbane Lions to this day, despite the Lions having a poor decade on the field after their golden era. Due to many Collingwood supporters migrating up to Queensland and many Brisbane Lions supporters residing in Victoria (many of which were ex-Fitzroy supporters), along with the on-field history between the two clubs, many Lions supporters consider a Brisbane Lions v Collingwood match-up to be their derby, despite the clubs being over 1700 km apart and the fact that there are many clubs in the competition that are geographically closer to each other.\n\n===Port Adelaide===\nThe third biggest rival of the Lions is Port Adelaide, with the Brisbane Bears and Fitzroy merging to become the Brisbane Lions in order to allow Port Adelaide to enter the AFL competition. This created some dissatisfaction between old Bears and Fitzroy supporters who have felt that they have lost their clubs. In their first season in the AFL, the Lions narrowly made the finals at the expense of Port Adelaide, with the Power narrowly missing out on percentage. However the rivalry was properly ignited during the early 2000s, as both clubs fielded strong teams during that period. In 2001 the Lions defeated the Power in the Qualifying final en route to their first of three consecutive premierships, with Port bowing out in straight sets that year. In 2002 Port defeated Brisbane by 6 points in the final regular season game to narrowly claim the minor premiership, however Brisbane would eliminate Port in the Preliminary Final that year to claim their second premiership out of their hat-trick of premierships. In 2003 Port would claim their second consecutive minor premiership, however they would go on to lose their qualifying and preliminary finals again, as the Lions would claim their hat-trick of premierships that season. However, in 2004 Port Adelaide would finally break through and win their first AFL premiership, defeating the Brisbane Lions in the Grand Final and preventing them from what would have been a historic four premierships in a row. In adding further insult to injury for Lions fans, it meant that their biggest rivals, Collingwood, would remain the only team in the VFL/AFL to win four-in-a-row. The rivalry between the two clubs has cooled down since the early 2000s, however, there are a few Lions supporters that still consider Port Adelaide to be a bigger rival than Collingwood.\n\n===Gold Coast===\nThe introduction of the Gold Coast Suns into the competition in 2011 saw a rivalry within Queensland Football for the first time ever. The Lions and Suns play each other two times a year. The best player on the ground is awarded the '''Marcus Ashcroft Medal'''. Gold Coast won the first Q Clash by 8 points in Round 7, 2011.\n","\n===Club===\n* '''Australian Football League'''\n** '''Premierships (3)''': 2001, 2002, 2003\n** ''Runners-up (1)'': 2004\n** '''Wooden Spoons (2)''': 1998, 2017\n* '''Pre-Season Grand Final Appearances'''\n** '''Premierships (1)''': 2013\n** ''Runners-up (2)'': 2001, 2007\n\n====Reserves====\n* '''North East Australian Football League (3)''': 2001, 2012, 2013\n\n===Individual===\n\n","\n'''Premierships'''\n*2001\n*2002\n*2003\n\n'''Runners Up'''\n*2004\n\n'''Wooden Spoons'''\n*1998\n*2017\n\n'''Coaches'''\n* John Northey: 1997–1998\n* Roger Merrett: 1998 (caretaker)\n* Leigh Matthews: 1999–2008\n* John Blakey: 2005 (caretaker)\n* Michael Voss: 2009–2013\n* Mark Harvey: 2013 (caretaker)\n* Justin Leppitsch: 2014–2016\n* Chris Fagan: 2017–present\n\n'''Captains'''\n* Michael Voss (co-captain: 1997–2000; captain: 2000–2006)\n* Alastair Lynch (co-captain: 1997–2000)\n* Chris Johnson (co-captain: 2007)\n* Nigel Lappin (co-captain: 2007–2008)\n* Simon Black (co-captain: 2007–2008)\n* Luke Power (co-captain: 2007–2008)\n* Jonathan Brown (co-captain: 2007–2008, 2013; captain: 2009–2012)\n* Jed Adcock (co-captain: 2013; captain: 2014)\n* Tom Rockliff (captain: 2015–2016)\n* Dayne Beams (captain: 2017–present)\n\n'''Biggest home crowds'''\n\n\n Rank !! Crowd !! Round, Season !! Result !! Opponent !! Brisbane Lions !! Opposition !! Margin !! Venue !! Day/Night/Twilight\n\n1\n 37,224 \n 15, 2005 \n Win \n \n 19.19 (133) \n 7.13 (55) \n +78 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n2\n 37,032 \n PF2, 2001 \n Win \n \n 20.16 (136) \n 10.8 (68) \n +68 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n3\n 36,803 \n 4, 2003 \n Win \n Collingwood \n 14.11 (95) \n 11.15 (81) \n +14 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n4\n 36,780 \n 2, 2010 \n Win \n Carlton \n 16.11 (107) \n 12.16 (88) \n +19 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n5\n 36,467 \n 3, 2004 \n Win \n Collingwood \n 21.11 (137) \n 12.5 (77) \n +60 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n6\n 36,197 \n 1, 2003 \n Win \n \n 14.20 (104) \n 8.13 (61) \n +43 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n7\n 36,149 \n 10, 2001 \n Win \n Essendon \n 15.12 (102) \n 10.14 (74) \n +28 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n8\n 36,077 \n 17, 2005 \n Win \n Essendon \n 17.12 (114) \n 14.17 (101) \n +13 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n9\n 35,898 \n 3, 2002 \n Win \n Essendon \n 17.15 (117) \n 9.13 (67) \n +50 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n10\n 35,823 \n 21, 2004 \n Win \n \n 20.10 (130) \n 13.7 (85) \n +45 \n The Gabba \n Day\n\n","\n===Current squad===\n\n","\nThe Brisbane Lions have entered a reserves team in the North East Australian Football League (NEAFL) competition since 2011. The club had previously entered a reserves team in the local Queensland Australian Football League in 1998, known as the Lion Cubs but became the Suncoast Lions Football Club in 2004 and were based on the Sunshine Coast. They would win their first premiership in 2001 when they defeated the Southport Sharks in the QAFL Grand Final. A stand-alone Brisbane Lions reserves team was created in 2011 and began playing in the Northern Conference of the North East Australian Football League. In 2012, the Lions won the Northern Conference and overall NEAFL premierships, a feat which was repeated in 2013. The Lions reserves play home games at the South Pine Sports Complex in Brendale, a facility opened in 2016.\n\n===Premierships===\n\n'''Premierships (4)'''\n\nYear\nCompetition\nOpponent\nScore\nVenue\n\n 2001 \n QAFL\n Southport Sharks \n '''13.20 (98) – 13.8 (86)''' \n Giffin Park\n\n 2012 \n NEAFL\n Queanbeyan Tigers \n '''22.12 (144) – 11.9 (75)''' \n Manuka Oval\n\n 2013 \n NEAFL\n Sydney Swans \n '''12.9 (81) – 10.13 (73)''' \n Graham Rd Oval\n\n 2017 \n NEAFL\n Sydney Swans \n '''10.22 (82) – 12.13 (85)''' \n Sydney Cricket Ground\n\n\n===Season summaries===\n\n\n Season !! Competition !! W–L—D !! Ladder position !! Finals result \n\n 2010 \n QAFL \n 6–12–0 \n 8th \n DNQ\n\n 2011\n NEAFL(Northern Conference)\n 4–13–1 \n 10th (Wooden spoon)\n\n 2012\n NEAFL(Northern Conference)\n 14–4–0 \n 2nd \n '''Premiers'''\n\n 2013\n NEAFL(Northern Conference)\n 16–2–0 \n 1st (Minor premiership) \n\n 2014 \n NEAFL \n 6–12–0 \n 9th \n DNQ\n\n 2015 \n NEAFL \n 2–16–0 \n 10th\n\n 2016 \n NEAFL \n 3–15–0 \n 10th (Wooden spoon)\n\n 2017 \n NEAFL \n 15–3–0 \n 2nd \n '''Premiers''' \n\n\n===Coaches===\n\n* 1998: Roger Merrett\n* 1999–2000: Justin Leppitsch\n* 2001–2005: Craig Brittain\n* 2006: John Blakey/Daryn Cresswell\n* 2007: Craig Brittain\n* 2007: Justin Leppitsch (caretaker)\n* 2008: Paul Hudson\n* 2008: Justin Leppitsch (caretaker)\n* 2009: Craig Brittain\n* 2010: Craig McRae\n* 2011–2012: Nathan Clarke\n* 2013–2014: Leigh Harding\n* 2015–2016: Shane Woewodin\n* 2017–: Mitch Hahn\n","In May 2016, the club launched a bid to enter a team in the inaugural AFL Women's season in 2017. \nThe Brisbane Lions were granted a license on 15 June 2016, becoming one of eight teams to compete in the league's first season. Former AFL Queensland employee Breeanna Brock was appointed to the position of Women’s CEO the following day.\n\nTayla Harris and Sabrina Frederick-Traub were the club's first signings, unveiled along with the league's other 14 marquee players on 27 July 2016. A further 23 senior players and two rookie players were added to the club's inaugural list in the league's drafting and signing period. Emma Zielke will captain the team for their inaugural season.\n\nFormer Collingwood and Brisbane Bears player and AFL Queensland coach Craig Starcevich was appointed the team's inaugural head coach in June 2016. The rest of the coaching team was announced on 8 November 2016 as David Lake as the midfield coach, Daniel Merrett as the backline coach and Brent Staker as the forward coach.\n\nExisting club sponsor Hyundai, along with Epic Pharmacy, will sponsor the team in 2017.\n\nThe team plays its home games at the South Pine Sports Complex in Brendale.\n\n===Current squad===\n\n\n\n===Best and fairest winners===\n\nSeason\nRecipient\nRef.\n\n 2017\n Emily Bates\n\n\n","\n* Wikipedia listing of Brisbane Lions players\n* Merrett–Murray Medal\n* Australian rules football in Queensland\n* Sport in Queensland\n* Sport in Australia\n* Brisbane Broncos\n","\n","\n* Official website of the Brisbane Lions Football Club\n* The Brisbane Lions – an Overview – Official AFL website of the Brisbane Lions Football Club\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nThe '''Brisbane Lions''' is a professional Australian rules football club which plays in the Australian Football League (AFL). The club is based in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. The club was formed in 1996 from the merger of the Fitzroy Lions and the Brisbane Bears. The Lions are one of the most successful AFL clubs of the 21st century, having appeared in four consecutive AFL Grand Finals from 2001 to 2004 and winning three premierships (2001, 2002, 2003).\\n\\nThe club is based at the Gabba. The team is captained by Dayne Beams and coached by Chris Fagan.\\n\",\n \"\\nThe Brisbane Lions were officially launched on 1 November 1996, joining the national competition in 1997.\\n\\n===Beginnings: 1997–2000===\\nBrisbane Lions logo from 2001 to 2009\\nIn their first year as a combined club the Lions made the finals, finishing in eighth position after being defeated by the St Kilda Football Club in a qualifying final. The following year, however, they finished in last position, despite boasting a talented playing list.\\n\\n===Triple premiership success: 2001–2003===\\nAs the Brisbane Lions, the club won its first AFL premiership in the 2001 AFL Grand Final, defeating Essendon 15.18 (108) to 12.10 (82). Lions utility player Shaun Hart won the Norm Smith Medal as best on ground in the Grand Final.\\n\\nIn 2002, the Lions won back-to-back premierships when they again defeated Collingwood 9.12 (66) to 10.15 (75) in the 2002 AFL Grand Final in cold and wet conditions at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. Early in the contest the Lions lost both ruckman Beau McDonald and utility player Martin Pike (who had already had nine possessions in the first quarter) to injury and had to complete the match with a limited bench.\\n\\nWith a number of players under an injury cloud – and having lost to Collingwood in a qualifying final at the Melbourne Cricket Ground three weeks previously – the Lions went into the game as underdogs. However, they sealed their place in history as an AFL dynasty by thrashing the Magpies in cool but sunny conditions. At one stage in the final quarter the Lions led by almost 80 points before relaxing when the match was well and truly won, allowing Collingwood to score the last four goals. The final score of 20.14 (134) to 12.12 (84) saw the club become only the fourth in VFL/AFL history to win three consecutive premierships and the first since the creation of the AFL. Simon Black claimed the Norm Smith Medal with a dominant 39 possession match, the most possessions ever gathered by a player in a grand final.\\n\\nThe 2004 season saw Brisbane remain in the top portion of the ladder for most of the season. Reaching the finals in second position, Brisbane controversially had to travel to Melbourne to play against Geelong in the preliminary final, due to a contract between the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) and the Australian Football League (AFL) that required one preliminary final to be played each year at the MCG. Port Adelaide had finished on top of the ladder and hosted the other preliminary final in Adelaide. Despite this setback, Brisbane beat Geelong and reached the AFL Grand Final for the fourth consecutive year. Their opponents, Port Adelaide, playing in their first ever grand final, were too good on the day and recorded a 40-point win.\\n\\n===Rebuild of the Lions' second generation: 2005–2008===\\nThe Lions in the training camp, May 2007.\\nThe Lions began the 2006 season optimistically, but injuries again plagued the club, whose players recorded an AFL record total of 200 matches lost to injury for the season.\\n\\nThe Brisbane Lions finished runner up in the 2007 NAB Cup and then went on to create history by being the first team in the history of the AFL to have five co-captains. That year, the Lions failed to make the finals for a third successive year in 2007.\\n\\nThe Lions began the 2008 NAB Cup shakily, losing to Essendon by 27 points. The team struggled for the season and missed out on the finals with a 10–12 record, losing 3 games despite having at least 5 more scoring shots in each of those games. Coach Leigh Matthews resigned at the end of the season after 10 seasons and 3 premierships with the club.\\n\\n===Michael Voss: 2009–2013===\\n\\n\\nThe Lions made a good start in the 2009 NAB Cup under new senior coach Michael Voss by registering a 9-point win over St Kilda. However this was followed by a series of losses in the pre-season to Essendon, Melbourne and Richmond. Their season ended with a 51-point loss to the Western Bulldogs.\\n\\nThe 2009/2010 off-season was dominated by the arrival of Brendan Fevola from Carlton, and the hype was focused on Fevola and Jonathan Brown in the sense that the Lions could capitalise on their strong 2009 season. Indeed, the Lions won their first four matches of the 2010 season to be top of the ladder after four rounds, but they would only win three more games after that to crash to a lowly finish by season's end. One of those wins however, was against eventual premiers .\\n\\nThe Lions' 2010/2011 off-season was disrupted by the sacking of Fevola after just one season at the Lions, following repeated off-field indiscretions which included getting drunk in the Brisbane streets during New Year's Eve celebrations. On the field, the Lions won only four games for the year, but only one against any Victorian team, and that was , in Round 9. Despite their worst season since 1998, coach Michael Voss was granted a contract extension after the board recommended that Voss was the best man to take the club forward into the future. Leading into season 2012, only two players from the triple-premiership winning team of 2001–2003 remained: Simon Black and Jonathan Brown.\\n\\nThe 2013 season started well for Brisbane, defeating Carlton in the final of the NAB Cup, with Daniel Rich winning the Michael Tuck Medal for best on ground and Aaron Cornelius showing some good form. However, things began to decline from then, with losses to the Western Bulldogs and Adelaide. However, in the 5th QClash match against Gold Coast, the Lions won by two points, with Jonathan Brown winning the Marcus Ashcroft Medal. Injuries were beginning to take a toll, with young players Claye Beams and Jared Polec suffering severe injuries. In Round 13, Brisbane defeated second-placed Geelong, coming from 52 points down late in the third quarter to win by 5 points due to an Ash McGrath goal after the siren in his 200th match.\\n\\nOn 13 August 2013, coach Michael Voss was told that his contract would not be renewed.\\n\\n=== Playing under Justin Leppitsch: 2014–2016 ===\\nOn 25 August 2013, former premiership player of the Lions, Justin Leppitsch, was confirmed to be the senior coach of the Lions for the next 3 seasons starting in 2014\\n\\nOn 18 October 2013, Brisbane Lions legend Simon Black announced his retirement.\\n\\nDuring round 13, 2014 Lions captain Jonathan Brown was the victim of a facial injury in a clash between the Lions and the Greater Western Sydney Giants. He collided with Tomas Bugg's knee and was taken off the ground. He suffered a concussion, which caused his retirement from football. Along with the retirement of Ashley McGrath in August 2014, no active players remain from any of the club's triple-premiership winning sides.\\n\\nOn 29 August 2016, Leppitsch was sacked as coach of the Lions.\\n\\n===Chris Fagan era: 2017–===\\nOn 4 October 2016, Chris Fagan was announced as the Lions' coach from the 2017 season onwards.\\n\\nBrendan Fevola became the 1st Coleman Medallist to win the medal at a club and be traded to another the following year. He originally came from Carlton.\\n\",\n \"\\n===Membership base and sponsorship===\\nCrowds and memberships for the Brisbane Lions grew dramatically during the four seasons in which they made the AFL Grand Final. Since then, with the team being less successful, attendances have declined, but have remained stable over the past three seasons. In 2009 the Lions found it so difficult to sell corporate boxes that they resorted to doing so on a game-by-game basis. 2011 saw the Brisbane Lions suffer their worst ever drop in support, as memberships decreased by 28%. 2017 memberships are the lowest the club has had since 2012.\\n\\n\\n\\n Profit (loss) \\nKit sponsor!! Major sponsor/s\\n\\n1997\\n19,550\\n N/A \\n Qualifying Finalist (8th) \\n 24,468 \\n \\nPuma\\n Carlton & United Breweries\\n\\n1998\\n''16,674''\\n 2,876 \\n''Wooden spoon (16th)''\\n 19,913\\n\\n1999\\n16,931\\n 257 \\n Preliminary Finalist (3rd) \\n 21,890 \\n AAPT\\n\\n2000\\n20,295\\n 3,364 \\n Semi-finalist (6th) \\n 27,406\\n\\n2001\\n18,330\\n 1,965 \\n'''Premiers''' ('''2nd''') \\n 27,637 \\n ($845,000)\\nRussell Athletic\\n\\n2002\\n22,288\\n 3,958 \\n'''Premiers''' ('''2nd''') \\n 26,894 \\n\\n2003\\n25,578\\n 3,290 \\n'''Premiers''' ('''3rd''') \\n 31,717 \\n '''$2,200,000'''\\n\\n2004\\n'''30,941'''\\n '''5,363''' \\n Grand Finalist (2nd) \\n'''33,619'''\\n\\n\\n2005\\n30,027\\n 914 \\n 11th \\n 33,266\\n\\n2006\\n26,459\\n 3,568 \\n 13th \\n 28,629\\n\\n2007\\n23,072\\n 3,387 \\n 10th \\n 28,847 \\n $1,058,000 \\nPuma\\n Vodafone\\n\\n2008\\n23,079 \\n 7 \\n 10th \\n 28,127 \\n ($2,200,030)\\n\\n2009\\n26,324 \\n 3,245\\n Semi-finalist (6th) \\n 29,172 \\n ($603,207)\\n\\n2010\\n29,014\\n 2,690 \\n 13th \\n 29,933 \\n ($2,713,848)\\n Bank of Queensland, Conergy\\n\\n2011\\n20,792\\n'' 8,222'' \\n 15th \\n 20,461 \\n ($1,855,926)\\nBLK\\n\\n2012\\n20,762\\n 30 \\n13th\\n20,343 \\n ($2,513,262)\\n\\n2013\\n24,130\\n 3,368 \\n 12th \\n 21,083 \\n ($1,574,762) \\n National Storage, Vero Insurance\\n\\n2014\\n23,930\\n 200 \\n 15th \\n 19,735 \\n ''($3,543,138)''\\n\\n2015\\n25,408\\n 1,478 \\n 17th \\n 18,810 \\n ($681,053)\\n\\n2016\\n 23,286 \\n 2,122 \\n 17th \\n ''17,074'' \\n ($1,780,000) \\n Camperdown Dairy International, Vero Insurance\\n\\n2017\\n 21,203* \\n \\n 18th \\n \\n \\n Majestic Athletic\\n\\nStatistics highlighted in '''bold''' denote the best season for Brisbane in that category\\nStatistics highlighted in ''italic'' denote the worst season for Brisbane in that category\\n1 following finals matches\\n\\n===Non-playing/coaching staff===\\n\\n\\n\\n'''Name'''\\n'''Position'''\\n\\n Greg Swann\\n Chief Executive Officer\\n\\n Bob Sharpless\\n Chairman\\n\\n Andrew Wellington\\n Deputy Chairman\\n\\n Cyril Jinks\\n Directors\\n\\n Sarah Kelly\\n\\n Leigh Matthews\\n\\n Peter McGregor\\n\\n Mick Power\\n\\n Cathie Reid\\n\\n Ross Thornton\\n\\n David Noble\\n General Manager of Football\\n\\n Dom Abrogio\\n List manager\\n\\n Craig Lambert\\n Strategy and Retention Manager\\n\\n Melissa Lambert\\n Player Welfare Manager\\n\\n Andrew Crowell\\n Head of Welfare and Wellbeing\\n\\n Matthew Francis\\n Football Manager\\n\\n Damien Austin\\n High Performance Manager\\n\\n Stephen Conole\\n Senior Recruiting Manager\\n\\n Leon Harris\\n Recruitment Consultant\\n\\n Andrew Farrell\\n Victoria and South Australia Recruiting Manager\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n===Emblem===\\nIn 1997 the club unveiled its new merger emblem it would consist of the iconic golden Fitzroy Lion on a badge (which was the style in the AFL at the time) of Maroon and Blue. The club used this from 1997 to the end of 2001 after their first premiership. In 2002 the club would unveil a new emblem in the shape of a football with the words \\\"Brisbane Lions\\\" in the middle with the golden Lion placed inside the O of Lion. The club continued the use of this emblem until the 2010 season when they changed the entire emblem dropping the golden Lion and replaced it with a cartoonish style Lions head. The club also removed the golden Lion from the team guernseys and introduced the new emblem on the body of the original Lion. The change was met with much backlash as many supporters dubbed the new emblem the \\\"Paddle Pop Lion\\\" after the popular ice cream of the same name. In 2014 after overwhelming response from the supporters the club dropped the new emblem from their guernseys and reintroduced the classic golden Lion which they wore from 1997 until 2010. Though the club has kept the current emblem for all club related advertising and marketing.\\n\\n===Guernseys===\\n\\nThe three types of guernsey are:\\n\\n*Home guernsey (worn since 2015): Maroon and blue based guernsey with original Fitzroy lion, coloured gold and maroon. Vero Insurance is the sponsor on the front and Camperdown Dairy International is the sponsor on the back (home shorts worn in home games and away shorts worn in away games not played in Victoria). The Lions also wore this jumper from 1997-2009 before switching to a more 'modern' lion.\\n*Away guernsey (Worn since 2015): Red and blue based guernsey with original Fitzroy lion, coloured gold and red. Camperdown Dairy International is the sponsor on the front and Vero Insurance is the sponsor on the back (away shorts worn). The Lions also wore this jumper from 2008-2009 before switching to a more 'modern' lion.\\n*Clash guernsey (Worn since 2017): Reminiscent of the Bears’ final guernsey, this guernsey features maroon, yellow and white with original Fitzroy lion, coloured maroon and gold. Camperdown Dairy International is the sponsor on the front and Vero Insurance is the sponsor on the back (away shorts worn).\\n\\n===Mascot===\\nBernie \\\"Gabba\\\" Vegas\\nAs of 2016 the lions new mascot 'Roy' was introduced.\\nThe Lion's Mascot Manor representative and club mascot is Bernie \\\"Gabba\\\" Vegas, a caricature of a lion dressed in Brisbane Lions jumper, sunglasses, wide lapels, and flares, designed to resemble Elvis Presley.\\n\\n===Song===\\nThe club's team song, \\\"The Pride of Brisbane Town\\\", is based on the Fitzroy club song, and is sung to the music of \\\"La Marseillaise\\\", the French national anthem:\\n\\nWe are the pride of Brisbane town,\\nwe wear maroon, blue and gold,\\nwe will always fight for victory,\\nlike Fitzroy and Bears of old,\\nall for one, and one for all,\\nwe will answer to the call,\\ngo Lions, Brisbane Lions,\\nwe'll kick the winning score,\\nyou'll hear our mighty roar!\\n\",\n \"\\nThe Brisbane Lions have three main rivals, Collingwood, Port Adelaide and Gold Coast.\\n\\n===Collingwood===\\nThe biggest rival for the Lions is Collingwood, having built up plenty of history in the relatively short existence as a merged club. Pre-merger Fitzroy was a neighbouring suburb to Collingwood, with the boundary being based on Smith Street, along with the fact that Fitzroy and Collingwood topped the VFL/AFL premiership tally during the early decades of the VFL competition. The Brisbane Bears also had a bit of history with the Magpies as Nathan Buckley famously deflected to Collingwood after one season on the Bears list, citing that he wanted to win premierships, ironically retiring at the end of the 2007 season without a premiership as a player in the AFL. The Bears also lost their final regular season match in their final season to the Magpies, costing the Bears the minor premiership that season. However the rivalry between the Lions and the Magpies has been properly ignited post-merger, starting in late 1999 when Collingwood played their last ever VFL/AFL game at their spiritual home ground, Victoria Park with the Lions emerging 42 point victors that day and consigning the Magpies to their second wooden spoon, to the dissatisfaction of the Collingwood supporters. The rivalry between the two clubs went to the next level as the clubs played off in two consecutive Grand Finals in 2002 and 2003, with the Lions emerging victors on both occasions. These grand final results further fueled the bitterness that Collingwood supporters and their president Eddie McGuire still have towards the Brisbane Lions to this day, despite the Lions having a poor decade on the field after their golden era. Due to many Collingwood supporters migrating up to Queensland and many Brisbane Lions supporters residing in Victoria (many of which were ex-Fitzroy supporters), along with the on-field history between the two clubs, many Lions supporters consider a Brisbane Lions v Collingwood match-up to be their derby, despite the clubs being over 1700 km apart and the fact that there are many clubs in the competition that are geographically closer to each other.\\n\\n===Port Adelaide===\\nThe third biggest rival of the Lions is Port Adelaide, with the Brisbane Bears and Fitzroy merging to become the Brisbane Lions in order to allow Port Adelaide to enter the AFL competition. This created some dissatisfaction between old Bears and Fitzroy supporters who have felt that they have lost their clubs. In their first season in the AFL, the Lions narrowly made the finals at the expense of Port Adelaide, with the Power narrowly missing out on percentage. However the rivalry was properly ignited during the early 2000s, as both clubs fielded strong teams during that period. In 2001 the Lions defeated the Power in the Qualifying final en route to their first of three consecutive premierships, with Port bowing out in straight sets that year. In 2002 Port defeated Brisbane by 6 points in the final regular season game to narrowly claim the minor premiership, however Brisbane would eliminate Port in the Preliminary Final that year to claim their second premiership out of their hat-trick of premierships. In 2003 Port would claim their second consecutive minor premiership, however they would go on to lose their qualifying and preliminary finals again, as the Lions would claim their hat-trick of premierships that season. However, in 2004 Port Adelaide would finally break through and win their first AFL premiership, defeating the Brisbane Lions in the Grand Final and preventing them from what would have been a historic four premierships in a row. In adding further insult to injury for Lions fans, it meant that their biggest rivals, Collingwood, would remain the only team in the VFL/AFL to win four-in-a-row. The rivalry between the two clubs has cooled down since the early 2000s, however, there are a few Lions supporters that still consider Port Adelaide to be a bigger rival than Collingwood.\\n\\n===Gold Coast===\\nThe introduction of the Gold Coast Suns into the competition in 2011 saw a rivalry within Queensland Football for the first time ever. The Lions and Suns play each other two times a year. The best player on the ground is awarded the '''Marcus Ashcroft Medal'''. Gold Coast won the first Q Clash by 8 points in Round 7, 2011.\\n\",\n \"\\n===Club===\\n* '''Australian Football League'''\\n** '''Premierships (3)''': 2001, 2002, 2003\\n** ''Runners-up (1)'': 2004\\n** '''Wooden Spoons (2)''': 1998, 2017\\n* '''Pre-Season Grand Final Appearances'''\\n** '''Premierships (1)''': 2013\\n** ''Runners-up (2)'': 2001, 2007\\n\\n====Reserves====\\n* '''North East Australian Football League (3)''': 2001, 2012, 2013\\n\\n===Individual===\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n'''Premierships'''\\n*2001\\n*2002\\n*2003\\n\\n'''Runners Up'''\\n*2004\\n\\n'''Wooden Spoons'''\\n*1998\\n*2017\\n\\n'''Coaches'''\\n* John Northey: 1997–1998\\n* Roger Merrett: 1998 (caretaker)\\n* Leigh Matthews: 1999–2008\\n* John Blakey: 2005 (caretaker)\\n* Michael Voss: 2009–2013\\n* Mark Harvey: 2013 (caretaker)\\n* Justin Leppitsch: 2014–2016\\n* Chris Fagan: 2017–present\\n\\n'''Captains'''\\n* Michael Voss (co-captain: 1997–2000; captain: 2000–2006)\\n* Alastair Lynch (co-captain: 1997–2000)\\n* Chris Johnson (co-captain: 2007)\\n* Nigel Lappin (co-captain: 2007–2008)\\n* Simon Black (co-captain: 2007–2008)\\n* Luke Power (co-captain: 2007–2008)\\n* Jonathan Brown (co-captain: 2007–2008, 2013; captain: 2009–2012)\\n* Jed Adcock (co-captain: 2013; captain: 2014)\\n* Tom Rockliff (captain: 2015–2016)\\n* Dayne Beams (captain: 2017–present)\\n\\n'''Biggest home crowds'''\\n\\n\\n Rank !! Crowd !! Round, Season !! Result !! Opponent !! Brisbane Lions !! Opposition !! Margin !! Venue !! Day/Night/Twilight\\n\\n1\\n 37,224 \\n 15, 2005 \\n Win \\n \\n 19.19 (133) \\n 7.13 (55) \\n +78 \\n The Gabba \\n Night\\n\\n2\\n 37,032 \\n PF2, 2001 \\n Win \\n \\n 20.16 (136) \\n 10.8 (68) \\n +68 \\n The Gabba \\n Night\\n\\n3\\n 36,803 \\n 4, 2003 \\n Win \\n Collingwood \\n 14.11 (95) \\n 11.15 (81) \\n +14 \\n The Gabba \\n Night\\n\\n4\\n 36,780 \\n 2, 2010 \\n Win \\n Carlton \\n 16.11 (107) \\n 12.16 (88) \\n +19 \\n The Gabba \\n Night\\n\\n5\\n 36,467 \\n 3, 2004 \\n Win \\n Collingwood \\n 21.11 (137) \\n 12.5 (77) \\n +60 \\n The Gabba \\n Night\\n\\n6\\n 36,197 \\n 1, 2003 \\n Win \\n \\n 14.20 (104) \\n 8.13 (61) \\n +43 \\n The Gabba \\n Night\\n\\n7\\n 36,149 \\n 10, 2001 \\n Win \\n Essendon \\n 15.12 (102) \\n 10.14 (74) \\n +28 \\n The Gabba \\n Night\\n\\n8\\n 36,077 \\n 17, 2005 \\n Win \\n Essendon \\n 17.12 (114) \\n 14.17 (101) \\n +13 \\n The Gabba \\n Night\\n\\n9\\n 35,898 \\n 3, 2002 \\n Win \\n Essendon \\n 17.15 (117) \\n 9.13 (67) \\n +50 \\n The Gabba \\n Night\\n\\n10\\n 35,823 \\n 21, 2004 \\n Win \\n \\n 20.10 (130) \\n 13.7 (85) \\n +45 \\n The Gabba \\n Day\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n===Current squad===\\n\\n\",\n \"\\nThe Brisbane Lions have entered a reserves team in the North East Australian Football League (NEAFL) competition since 2011. The club had previously entered a reserves team in the local Queensland Australian Football League in 1998, known as the Lion Cubs but became the Suncoast Lions Football Club in 2004 and were based on the Sunshine Coast. They would win their first premiership in 2001 when they defeated the Southport Sharks in the QAFL Grand Final. A stand-alone Brisbane Lions reserves team was created in 2011 and began playing in the Northern Conference of the North East Australian Football League. In 2012, the Lions won the Northern Conference and overall NEAFL premierships, a feat which was repeated in 2013. The Lions reserves play home games at the South Pine Sports Complex in Brendale, a facility opened in 2016.\\n\\n===Premierships===\\n\\n'''Premierships (4)'''\\n\\nYear\\nCompetition\\nOpponent\\nScore\\nVenue\\n\\n 2001 \\n QAFL\\n Southport Sharks \\n '''13.20 (98) – 13.8 (86)''' \\n Giffin Park\\n\\n 2012 \\n NEAFL\\n Queanbeyan Tigers \\n '''22.12 (144) – 11.9 (75)''' \\n Manuka Oval\\n\\n 2013 \\n NEAFL\\n Sydney Swans \\n '''12.9 (81) – 10.13 (73)''' \\n Graham Rd Oval\\n\\n 2017 \\n NEAFL\\n Sydney Swans \\n '''10.22 (82) – 12.13 (85)''' \\n Sydney Cricket Ground\\n\\n\\n===Season summaries===\\n\\n\\n Season !! Competition !! W–L—D !! Ladder position !! Finals result \\n\\n 2010 \\n QAFL \\n 6–12–0 \\n 8th \\n DNQ\\n\\n 2011\\n NEAFL(Northern Conference)\\n 4–13–1 \\n 10th (Wooden spoon)\\n\\n 2012\\n NEAFL(Northern Conference)\\n 14–4–0 \\n 2nd \\n '''Premiers'''\\n\\n 2013\\n NEAFL(Northern Conference)\\n 16–2–0 \\n 1st (Minor premiership) \\n\\n 2014 \\n NEAFL \\n 6–12–0 \\n 9th \\n DNQ\\n\\n 2015 \\n NEAFL \\n 2–16–0 \\n 10th\\n\\n 2016 \\n NEAFL \\n 3–15–0 \\n 10th (Wooden spoon)\\n\\n 2017 \\n NEAFL \\n 15–3–0 \\n 2nd \\n '''Premiers''' \\n\\n\\n===Coaches===\\n\\n* 1998: Roger Merrett\\n* 1999–2000: Justin Leppitsch\\n* 2001–2005: Craig Brittain\\n* 2006: John Blakey/Daryn Cresswell\\n* 2007: Craig Brittain\\n* 2007: Justin Leppitsch (caretaker)\\n* 2008: Paul Hudson\\n* 2008: Justin Leppitsch (caretaker)\\n* 2009: Craig Brittain\\n* 2010: Craig McRae\\n* 2011–2012: Nathan Clarke\\n* 2013–2014: Leigh Harding\\n* 2015–2016: Shane Woewodin\\n* 2017–: Mitch Hahn\\n\",\n \"In May 2016, the club launched a bid to enter a team in the inaugural AFL Women's season in 2017. \\nThe Brisbane Lions were granted a license on 15 June 2016, becoming one of eight teams to compete in the league's first season. Former AFL Queensland employee Breeanna Brock was appointed to the position of Women’s CEO the following day.\\n\\nTayla Harris and Sabrina Frederick-Traub were the club's first signings, unveiled along with the league's other 14 marquee players on 27 July 2016. A further 23 senior players and two rookie players were added to the club's inaugural list in the league's drafting and signing period. Emma Zielke will captain the team for their inaugural season.\\n\\nFormer Collingwood and Brisbane Bears player and AFL Queensland coach Craig Starcevich was appointed the team's inaugural head coach in June 2016. The rest of the coaching team was announced on 8 November 2016 as David Lake as the midfield coach, Daniel Merrett as the backline coach and Brent Staker as the forward coach.\\n\\nExisting club sponsor Hyundai, along with Epic Pharmacy, will sponsor the team in 2017.\\n\\nThe team plays its home games at the South Pine Sports Complex in Brendale.\\n\\n===Current squad===\\n\\n\\n\\n===Best and fairest winners===\\n\\nSeason\\nRecipient\\nRef.\\n\\n 2017\\n Emily Bates\\n\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n* Wikipedia listing of Brisbane Lions players\\n* Merrett–Murray Medal\\n* Australian rules football in Queensland\\n* Sport in Queensland\\n* Sport in Australia\\n* Brisbane Broncos\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"\\n* Official website of the Brisbane Lions Football Club\\n* The Brisbane Lions – an Overview – Official AFL website of the Brisbane Lions Football Club\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction","History: Start of a new era","Corporate","Club symbols","Rivalries","Honours","Club facts","Players","Reserves team","AFL Women's team","See also","References","External links"],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \"History: Start of a new era\",\n \"Corporate\",\n \"Club symbols\",\n \"Rivalries\",\n \"Honours\",\n \"Club facts\",\n \"Players\",\n \"Reserves team\",\n \"AFL Women's team\",\n \"See also\",\n \"References\",\n \"External links\"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Brisbane Lions"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["Major sponsor/s\n\n1997\n19,550\n N/A \n Qualifying Finalist (8th) \n 24,468 \n \nPuma\n Carlton & United Breweries\n\n1998\n''16,674''\n 2,876 \n''Wooden spoon (16th)''\n 19,913\n\n1999\n16,931\n 257 \n Preliminary Finalist (3rd) \n 21,890 \n AAPT\n\n2000\n20,295\n 3,364 \n Semi-finalist (6th) \n 27,406\n\n2001\n18,330\n 1,965 \n'''Premiers''' ('''2nd''') \n 27,637 \n ($845,000)\nRussell Athletic\n\n2002\n22,288\n 3,958 \n'''Premiers''' ('''2nd''') \n 26,894 \n\n2003\n25,578\n 3,290 \n'''Premiers''' ('''3rd''') \n 31,717 \n '''$2,200,000'''\n\n2004\n'''30,941'''\n '''5,363''' \n Grand Finalist (2nd) \n'''33,619'''\n\n\n2005\n30,027\n 914 \n 11th \n 33,266\n\n2006\n26,459\n 3,568 \n 13th \n 28,629\n\n2007\n23,072\n 3,387 \n 10th \n 28,847 \n $1,058,000 \nPuma\n Vodafone\n\n2008\n23,079 \n 7 \n 10th \n 28,127 \n ($2,200,030)\n\n2009\n26,324 \n 3,245\n Semi-finalist (6th) \n 29,172 \n ($603,207)\n\n2010\n29,014\n 2,690 \n 13th \n 29,933 \n ($2,713,848)\n Bank of Queensland, Conergy\n\n2011\n20,792\n'' 8,222'' \n 15th \n 20,461 \n ($1,855,926)\nBLK\n\n2012\n20,762\n 30 \n13th\n20,343 \n ($2,513,262)\n\n2013\n24,130\n 3,368 \n 12th \n 21,083 \n ($1,574,762) \n National Storage, Vero Insurance\n\n2014\n23,930\n 200 \n 15th \n 19,735 \n ''($3,543,138)''\n\n2015\n25,408\n 1,478 \n 17th \n 18,810 \n ($681,053)\n\n2016\n 23,286 \n 2,122 \n 17th \n ''17,074'' \n ($1,780,000) \n Camperdown Dairy International, Vero Insurance\n\n2017\n 21,203* \n \n 18th \n \n \n Majestic Athletic\n\nStatistics highlighted in '''bold''' denote the best season for Brisbane in that category\nStatistics highlighted in ''italic'' denote the worst season for Brisbane in that category\n1 following finals matches\n\n===Non-playing/coaching staff===\n\n\n\n'''Name'''\n'''Position'''\n\n Greg Swann\n Chief Executive Officer\n\n Bob Sharpless\n Chairman\n\n Andrew Wellington\n Deputy Chairman\n\n Cyril Jinks\n Directors\n\n Sarah Kelly\n\n Leigh Matthews\n\n Peter McGregor\n\n Mick Power\n\n Cathie Reid\n\n Ross Thornton\n\n David Noble\n General Manager of Football\n\n Dom Abrogio\n List manager\n\n Craig Lambert\n Strategy and Retention Manager\n\n Melissa Lambert\n Player Welfare Manager\n\n Andrew Crowell\n Head of Welfare and Wellbeing\n\n Matthew Francis\n Football Manager\n\n Damien Austin\n High Performance Manager\n\n Stephen Conole\n Senior Recruiting Manager\n\n Leon Harris\n Recruitment Consultant\n\n Andrew Farrell\n Victoria and South Australia Recruiting Manager"],"string":"[\n \"Major sponsor/s\\n\\n1997\\n19,550\\n N/A \\n Qualifying Finalist (8th) \\n 24,468 \\n \\nPuma\\n Carlton & United Breweries\\n\\n1998\\n''16,674''\\n 2,876 \\n''Wooden spoon (16th)''\\n 19,913\\n\\n1999\\n16,931\\n 257 \\n Preliminary Finalist (3rd) \\n 21,890 \\n AAPT\\n\\n2000\\n20,295\\n 3,364 \\n Semi-finalist (6th) \\n 27,406\\n\\n2001\\n18,330\\n 1,965 \\n'''Premiers''' ('''2nd''') \\n 27,637 \\n ($845,000)\\nRussell Athletic\\n\\n2002\\n22,288\\n 3,958 \\n'''Premiers''' ('''2nd''') \\n 26,894 \\n\\n2003\\n25,578\\n 3,290 \\n'''Premiers''' ('''3rd''') \\n 31,717 \\n '''$2,200,000'''\\n\\n2004\\n'''30,941'''\\n '''5,363''' \\n Grand Finalist (2nd) \\n'''33,619'''\\n\\n\\n2005\\n30,027\\n 914 \\n 11th \\n 33,266\\n\\n2006\\n26,459\\n 3,568 \\n 13th \\n 28,629\\n\\n2007\\n23,072\\n 3,387 \\n 10th \\n 28,847 \\n $1,058,000 \\nPuma\\n Vodafone\\n\\n2008\\n23,079 \\n 7 \\n 10th \\n 28,127 \\n ($2,200,030)\\n\\n2009\\n26,324 \\n 3,245\\n Semi-finalist (6th) \\n 29,172 \\n ($603,207)\\n\\n2010\\n29,014\\n 2,690 \\n 13th \\n 29,933 \\n ($2,713,848)\\n Bank of Queensland, Conergy\\n\\n2011\\n20,792\\n'' 8,222'' \\n 15th \\n 20,461 \\n ($1,855,926)\\nBLK\\n\\n2012\\n20,762\\n 30 \\n13th\\n20,343 \\n ($2,513,262)\\n\\n2013\\n24,130\\n 3,368 \\n 12th \\n 21,083 \\n ($1,574,762) \\n National Storage, Vero Insurance\\n\\n2014\\n23,930\\n 200 \\n 15th \\n 19,735 \\n ''($3,543,138)''\\n\\n2015\\n25,408\\n 1,478 \\n 17th \\n 18,810 \\n ($681,053)\\n\\n2016\\n 23,286 \\n 2,122 \\n 17th \\n ''17,074'' \\n ($1,780,000) \\n Camperdown Dairy International, Vero Insurance\\n\\n2017\\n 21,203* \\n \\n 18th \\n \\n \\n Majestic Athletic\\n\\nStatistics highlighted in '''bold''' denote the best season for Brisbane in that category\\nStatistics highlighted in ''italic'' denote the worst season for Brisbane in that category\\n1 following finals matches\\n\\n===Non-playing/coaching staff===\\n\\n\\n\\n'''Name'''\\n'''Position'''\\n\\n Greg Swann\\n Chief Executive Officer\\n\\n Bob Sharpless\\n Chairman\\n\\n Andrew Wellington\\n Deputy Chairman\\n\\n Cyril Jinks\\n Directors\\n\\n Sarah Kelly\\n\\n Leigh Matthews\\n\\n Peter McGregor\\n\\n Mick Power\\n\\n Cathie Reid\\n\\n Ross Thornton\\n\\n David Noble\\n General Manager of Football\\n\\n Dom Abrogio\\n List manager\\n\\n Craig Lambert\\n Strategy and Retention Manager\\n\\n Melissa Lambert\\n Player Welfare Manager\\n\\n Andrew Crowell\\n Head of Welfare and Wellbeing\\n\\n Matthew Francis\\n Football Manager\\n\\n Damien Austin\\n High Performance Manager\\n\\n Stephen Conole\\n Senior Recruiting Manager\\n\\n Leon Harris\\n Recruitment Consultant\\n\\n Andrew Farrell\\n Victoria and South Australia Recruiting Manager\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Brisbane Lions''' is a professional Australian rules football club which plays in the Australian Football League (AFL).","The club is based in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.","The club was formed in 1996 from the merger of the Fitzroy Lions and the Brisbane Bears.","The Lions are one of the most successful AFL clubs of the 21st century, having appeared in four consecutive AFL Grand Finals from 2001 to 2004 and winning three premierships (2001, 2002, 2003).","The club is based at the Gabba.","The team is captained by Dayne Beams and coached by Chris Fagan.","\nThe Brisbane Lions were officially launched on 1 November 1996, joining the national competition in 1997.","===Beginnings: 1997–2000===\nBrisbane Lions logo from 2001 to 2009\nIn their first year as a combined club the Lions made the finals, finishing in eighth position after being defeated by the St Kilda Football Club in a qualifying final.","The following year, however, they finished in last position, despite boasting a talented playing list.","===Triple premiership success: 2001–2003===\nAs the Brisbane Lions, the club won its first AFL premiership in the 2001 AFL Grand Final, defeating Essendon 15.18 (108) to 12.10 (82).","Lions utility player Shaun Hart won the Norm Smith Medal as best on ground in the Grand Final.","In 2002, the Lions won back-to-back premierships when they again defeated Collingwood 9.12 (66) to 10.15 (75) in the 2002 AFL Grand Final in cold and wet conditions at the Melbourne Cricket Ground.","Early in the contest the Lions lost both ruckman Beau McDonald and utility player Martin Pike (who had already had nine possessions in the first quarter) to injury and had to complete the match with a limited bench.","With a number of players under an injury cloud – and having lost to Collingwood in a qualifying final at the Melbourne Cricket Ground three weeks previously – the Lions went into the game as underdogs.","However, they sealed their place in history as an AFL dynasty by thrashing the Magpies in cool but sunny conditions.","At one stage in the final quarter the Lions led by almost 80 points before relaxing when the match was well and truly won, allowing Collingwood to score the last four goals.","The final score of 20.14 (134) to 12.12 (84) saw the club become only the fourth in VFL/AFL history to win three consecutive premierships and the first since the creation of the AFL.","Simon Black claimed the Norm Smith Medal with a dominant 39 possession match, the most possessions ever gathered by a player in a grand final.","The 2004 season saw Brisbane remain in the top portion of the ladder for most of the season.","Reaching the finals in second position, Brisbane controversially had to travel to Melbourne to play against Geelong in the preliminary final, due to a contract between the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) and the Australian Football League (AFL) that required one preliminary final to be played each year at the MCG.","Port Adelaide had finished on top of the ladder and hosted the other preliminary final in Adelaide.","Despite this setback, Brisbane beat Geelong and reached the AFL Grand Final for the fourth consecutive year.","Their opponents, Port Adelaide, playing in their first ever grand final, were too good on the day and recorded a 40-point win.","===Rebuild of the Lions' second generation: 2005–2008===\nThe Lions in the training camp, May 2007.","The Lions began the 2006 season optimistically, but injuries again plagued the club, whose players recorded an AFL record total of 200 matches lost to injury for the season.","The Brisbane Lions finished runner up in the 2007 NAB Cup and then went on to create history by being the first team in the history of the AFL to have five co-captains.","That year, the Lions failed to make the finals for a third successive year in 2007.","The Lions began the 2008 NAB Cup shakily, losing to Essendon by 27 points.","The team struggled for the season and missed out on the finals with a 10–12 record, losing 3 games despite having at least 5 more scoring shots in each of those games.","Coach Leigh Matthews resigned at the end of the season after 10 seasons and 3 premierships with the club.","===Michael Voss: 2009–2013===\n\n\nThe Lions made a good start in the 2009 NAB Cup under new senior coach Michael Voss by registering a 9-point win over St Kilda.","However this was followed by a series of losses in the pre-season to Essendon, Melbourne and Richmond.","Their season ended with a 51-point loss to the Western Bulldogs.","The 2009/2010 off-season was dominated by the arrival of Brendan Fevola from Carlton, and the hype was focused on Fevola and Jonathan Brown in the sense that the Lions could capitalise on their strong 2009 season.","Indeed, the Lions won their first four matches of the 2010 season to be top of the ladder after four rounds, but they would only win three more games after that to crash to a lowly finish by season's end.","One of those wins however, was against eventual premiers .","The Lions' 2010/2011 off-season was disrupted by the sacking of Fevola after just one season at the Lions, following repeated off-field indiscretions which included getting drunk in the Brisbane streets during New Year's Eve celebrations.","On the field, the Lions won only four games for the year, but only one against any Victorian team, and that was , in Round 9.","Despite their worst season since 1998, coach Michael Voss was granted a contract extension after the board recommended that Voss was the best man to take the club forward into the future.","Leading into season 2012, only two players from the triple-premiership winning team of 2001–2003 remained: Simon Black and Jonathan Brown.","The 2013 season started well for Brisbane, defeating Carlton in the final of the NAB Cup, with Daniel Rich winning the Michael Tuck Medal for best on ground and Aaron Cornelius showing some good form.","However, things began to decline from then, with losses to the Western Bulldogs and Adelaide.","However, in the 5th QClash match against Gold Coast, the Lions won by two points, with Jonathan Brown winning the Marcus Ashcroft Medal.","Injuries were beginning to take a toll, with young players Claye Beams and Jared Polec suffering severe injuries.","In Round 13, Brisbane defeated second-placed Geelong, coming from 52 points down late in the third quarter to win by 5 points due to an Ash McGrath goal after the siren in his 200th match.","On 13 August 2013, coach Michael Voss was told that his contract would not be renewed.","=== Playing under Justin Leppitsch: 2014–2016 ===\nOn 25 August 2013, former premiership player of the Lions, Justin Leppitsch, was confirmed to be the senior coach of the Lions for the next 3 seasons starting in 2014\n\nOn 18 October 2013, Brisbane Lions legend Simon Black announced his retirement.","During round 13, 2014 Lions captain Jonathan Brown was the victim of a facial injury in a clash between the Lions and the Greater Western Sydney Giants.","He collided with Tomas Bugg's knee and was taken off the ground.","He suffered a concussion, which caused his retirement from football.","Along with the retirement of Ashley McGrath in August 2014, no active players remain from any of the club's triple-premiership winning sides.","On 29 August 2016, Leppitsch was sacked as coach of the Lions.","===Chris Fagan era: 2017–===\nOn 4 October 2016, Chris Fagan was announced as the Lions' coach from the 2017 season onwards.","Brendan Fevola became the 1st Coleman Medallist to win the medal at a club and be traded to another the following year.","He originally came from Carlton.","\n===Membership base and sponsorship===\nCrowds and memberships for the Brisbane Lions grew dramatically during the four seasons in which they made the AFL Grand Final.","Since then, with the team being less successful, attendances have declined, but have remained stable over the past three seasons.","In 2009 the Lions found it so difficult to sell corporate boxes that they resorted to doing so on a game-by-game basis.","2011 saw the Brisbane Lions suffer their worst ever drop in support, as memberships decreased by 28%.","2017 memberships are the lowest the club has had since 2012.","Profit (loss) \nKit sponsor!!","\n===Emblem===\nIn 1997 the club unveiled its new merger emblem it would consist of the iconic golden Fitzroy Lion on a badge (which was the style in the AFL at the time) of Maroon and Blue.","The club used this from 1997 to the end of 2001 after their first premiership.","In 2002 the club would unveil a new emblem in the shape of a football with the words \"Brisbane Lions\" in the middle with the golden Lion placed inside the O of Lion.","The club continued the use of this emblem until the 2010 season when they changed the entire emblem dropping the golden Lion and replaced it with a cartoonish style Lions head.","The club also removed the golden Lion from the team guernseys and introduced the new emblem on the body of the original Lion.","The change was met with much backlash as many supporters dubbed the new emblem the \"Paddle Pop Lion\" after the popular ice cream of the same name.","In 2014 after overwhelming response from the supporters the club dropped the new emblem from their guernseys and reintroduced the classic golden Lion which they wore from 1997 until 2010.","Though the club has kept the current emblem for all club related advertising and marketing.","===Guernseys===\n\nThe three types of guernsey are:\n\n*Home guernsey (worn since 2015): Maroon and blue based guernsey with original Fitzroy lion, coloured gold and maroon.","Vero Insurance is the sponsor on the front and Camperdown Dairy International is the sponsor on the back (home shorts worn in home games and away shorts worn in away games not played in Victoria).","The Lions also wore this jumper from 1997-2009 before switching to a more 'modern' lion.","*Away guernsey (Worn since 2015): Red and blue based guernsey with original Fitzroy lion, coloured gold and red.","Camperdown Dairy International is the sponsor on the front and Vero Insurance is the sponsor on the back (away shorts worn).","The Lions also wore this jumper from 2008-2009 before switching to a more 'modern' lion.","*Clash guernsey (Worn since 2017): Reminiscent of the Bears’ final guernsey, this guernsey features maroon, yellow and white with original Fitzroy lion, coloured maroon and gold.","Camperdown Dairy International is the sponsor on the front and Vero Insurance is the sponsor on the back (away shorts worn).","===Mascot===\nBernie \"Gabba\" Vegas\nAs of 2016 the lions new mascot 'Roy' was introduced.","The Lion's Mascot Manor representative and club mascot is Bernie \"Gabba\" Vegas, a caricature of a lion dressed in Brisbane Lions jumper, sunglasses, wide lapels, and flares, designed to resemble Elvis Presley.","===Song===\nThe club's team song, \"The Pride of Brisbane Town\", is based on the Fitzroy club song, and is sung to the music of \"La Marseillaise\", the French national anthem:\n\nWe are the pride of Brisbane town,\nwe wear maroon, blue and gold,\nwe will always fight for victory,\nlike Fitzroy and Bears of old,\nall for one, and one for all,\nwe will answer to the call,\ngo Lions, Brisbane Lions,\nwe'll kick the winning score,\nyou'll hear our mighty roar!","\nThe Brisbane Lions have three main rivals, Collingwood, Port Adelaide and Gold Coast.","===Collingwood===\nThe biggest rival for the Lions is Collingwood, having built up plenty of history in the relatively short existence as a merged club.","Pre-merger Fitzroy was a neighbouring suburb to Collingwood, with the boundary being based on Smith Street, along with the fact that Fitzroy and Collingwood topped the VFL/AFL premiership tally during the early decades of the VFL competition.","The Brisbane Bears also had a bit of history with the Magpies as Nathan Buckley famously deflected to Collingwood after one season on the Bears list, citing that he wanted to win premierships, ironically retiring at the end of the 2007 season without a premiership as a player in the AFL.","The Bears also lost their final regular season match in their final season to the Magpies, costing the Bears the minor premiership that season.","However the rivalry between the Lions and the Magpies has been properly ignited post-merger, starting in late 1999 when Collingwood played their last ever VFL/AFL game at their spiritual home ground, Victoria Park with the Lions emerging 42 point victors that day and consigning the Magpies to their second wooden spoon, to the dissatisfaction of the Collingwood supporters.","The rivalry between the two clubs went to the next level as the clubs played off in two consecutive Grand Finals in 2002 and 2003, with the Lions emerging victors on both occasions.","These grand final results further fueled the bitterness that Collingwood supporters and their president Eddie McGuire still have towards the Brisbane Lions to this day, despite the Lions having a poor decade on the field after their golden era.","Due to many Collingwood supporters migrating up to Queensland and many Brisbane Lions supporters residing in Victoria (many of which were ex-Fitzroy supporters), along with the on-field history between the two clubs, many Lions supporters consider a Brisbane Lions v Collingwood match-up to be their derby, despite the clubs being over 1700 km apart and the fact that there are many clubs in the competition that are geographically closer to each other.","===Port Adelaide===\nThe third biggest rival of the Lions is Port Adelaide, with the Brisbane Bears and Fitzroy merging to become the Brisbane Lions in order to allow Port Adelaide to enter the AFL competition.","This created some dissatisfaction between old Bears and Fitzroy supporters who have felt that they have lost their clubs.","In their first season in the AFL, the Lions narrowly made the finals at the expense of Port Adelaide, with the Power narrowly missing out on percentage.","However the rivalry was properly ignited during the early 2000s, as both clubs fielded strong teams during that period.","In 2001 the Lions defeated the Power in the Qualifying final en route to their first of three consecutive premierships, with Port bowing out in straight sets that year.","In 2002 Port defeated Brisbane by 6 points in the final regular season game to narrowly claim the minor premiership, however Brisbane would eliminate Port in the Preliminary Final that year to claim their second premiership out of their hat-trick of premierships.","In 2003 Port would claim their second consecutive minor premiership, however they would go on to lose their qualifying and preliminary finals again, as the Lions would claim their hat-trick of premierships that season.","However, in 2004 Port Adelaide would finally break through and win their first AFL premiership, defeating the Brisbane Lions in the Grand Final and preventing them from what would have been a historic four premierships in a row.","In adding further insult to injury for Lions fans, it meant that their biggest rivals, Collingwood, would remain the only team in the VFL/AFL to win four-in-a-row.","The rivalry between the two clubs has cooled down since the early 2000s, however, there are a few Lions supporters that still consider Port Adelaide to be a bigger rival than Collingwood.","===Gold Coast===\nThe introduction of the Gold Coast Suns into the competition in 2011 saw a rivalry within Queensland Football for the first time ever.","The Lions and Suns play each other two times a year.","The best player on the ground is awarded the '''Marcus Ashcroft Medal'''.","Gold Coast won the first Q Clash by 8 points in Round 7, 2011.","\n===Club===\n* '''Australian Football League'''\n** '''Premierships (3)''': 2001, 2002, 2003\n** ''Runners-up (1)'': 2004\n** '''Wooden Spoons (2)''': 1998, 2017\n* '''Pre-Season Grand Final Appearances'''\n** '''Premierships (1)''': 2013\n** ''Runners-up (2)'': 2001, 2007\n\n====Reserves====\n* '''North East Australian Football League (3)''': 2001, 2012, 2013\n\n===Individual===","\n'''Premierships'''\n*2001\n*2002\n*2003\n\n'''Runners Up'''\n*2004\n\n'''Wooden Spoons'''\n*1998\n*2017\n\n'''Coaches'''\n* John Northey: 1997–1998\n* Roger Merrett: 1998 (caretaker)\n* Leigh Matthews: 1999–2008\n* John Blakey: 2005 (caretaker)\n* Michael Voss: 2009–2013\n* Mark Harvey: 2013 (caretaker)\n* Justin Leppitsch: 2014–2016\n* Chris Fagan: 2017–present\n\n'''Captains'''\n* Michael Voss (co-captain: 1997–2000; captain: 2000–2006)\n* Alastair Lynch (co-captain: 1997–2000)\n* Chris Johnson (co-captain: 2007)\n* Nigel Lappin (co-captain: 2007–2008)\n* Simon Black (co-captain: 2007–2008)\n* Luke Power (co-captain: 2007–2008)\n* Jonathan Brown (co-captain: 2007–2008, 2013; captain: 2009–2012)\n* Jed Adcock (co-captain: 2013; captain: 2014)\n* Tom Rockliff (captain: 2015–2016)\n* Dayne Beams (captain: 2017–present)\n\n'''Biggest home crowds'''\n\n\n Rank !","!","Crowd !","!","Round, Season !","!","Result !","!","Opponent !","!","Brisbane Lions !","!","Opposition !","!","Margin !","!","Venue !","!","Day/Night/Twilight\n\n1\n 37,224 \n 15, 2005 \n Win \n \n 19.19 (133) \n 7.13 (55) \n +78 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n2\n 37,032 \n PF2, 2001 \n Win \n \n 20.16 (136) \n 10.8 (68) \n +68 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n3\n 36,803 \n 4, 2003 \n Win \n Collingwood \n 14.11 (95) \n 11.15 (81) \n +14 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n4\n 36,780 \n 2, 2010 \n Win \n Carlton \n 16.11 (107) \n 12.16 (88) \n +19 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n5\n 36,467 \n 3, 2004 \n Win \n Collingwood \n 21.11 (137) \n 12.5 (77) \n +60 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n6\n 36,197 \n 1, 2003 \n Win \n \n 14.20 (104) \n 8.13 (61) \n +43 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n7\n 36,149 \n 10, 2001 \n Win \n Essendon \n 15.12 (102) \n 10.14 (74) \n +28 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n8\n 36,077 \n 17, 2005 \n Win \n Essendon \n 17.12 (114) \n 14.17 (101) \n +13 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n9\n 35,898 \n 3, 2002 \n Win \n Essendon \n 17.15 (117) \n 9.13 (67) \n +50 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n10\n 35,823 \n 21, 2004 \n Win \n \n 20.10 (130) \n 13.7 (85) \n +45 \n The Gabba \n Day","\n===Current squad===","\nThe Brisbane Lions have entered a reserves team in the North East Australian Football League (NEAFL) competition since 2011.","The club had previously entered a reserves team in the local Queensland Australian Football League in 1998, known as the Lion Cubs but became the Suncoast Lions Football Club in 2004 and were based on the Sunshine Coast.","They would win their first premiership in 2001 when they defeated the Southport Sharks in the QAFL Grand Final.","A stand-alone Brisbane Lions reserves team was created in 2011 and began playing in the Northern Conference of the North East Australian Football League.","In 2012, the Lions won the Northern Conference and overall NEAFL premierships, a feat which was repeated in 2013.","The Lions reserves play home games at the South Pine Sports Complex in Brendale, a facility opened in 2016.","===Premierships===\n\n'''Premierships (4)'''\n\nYear\nCompetition\nOpponent\nScore\nVenue\n\n 2001 \n QAFL\n Southport Sharks \n '''13.20 (98) – 13.8 (86)''' \n Giffin Park\n\n 2012 \n NEAFL\n Queanbeyan Tigers \n '''22.12 (144) – 11.9 (75)''' \n Manuka Oval\n\n 2013 \n NEAFL\n Sydney Swans \n '''12.9 (81) – 10.13 (73)''' \n Graham Rd Oval\n\n 2017 \n NEAFL\n Sydney Swans \n '''10.22 (82) – 12.13 (85)''' \n Sydney Cricket Ground\n\n\n===Season summaries===\n\n\n Season !","!","Competition !","!","W–L—D !","!","Ladder position !","!","Finals result \n\n 2010 \n QAFL \n 6–12–0 \n 8th \n DNQ\n\n 2011\n NEAFL(Northern Conference)\n 4–13–1 \n 10th (Wooden spoon)\n\n 2012\n NEAFL(Northern Conference)\n 14–4–0 \n 2nd \n '''Premiers'''\n\n 2013\n NEAFL(Northern Conference)\n 16–2–0 \n 1st (Minor premiership) \n\n 2014 \n NEAFL \n 6–12–0 \n 9th \n DNQ\n\n 2015 \n NEAFL \n 2–16–0 \n 10th\n\n 2016 \n NEAFL \n 3–15–0 \n 10th (Wooden spoon)\n\n 2017 \n NEAFL \n 15–3–0 \n 2nd \n '''Premiers''' \n\n\n===Coaches===\n\n* 1998: Roger Merrett\n* 1999–2000: Justin Leppitsch\n* 2001–2005: Craig Brittain\n* 2006: John Blakey/Daryn Cresswell\n* 2007: Craig Brittain\n* 2007: Justin Leppitsch (caretaker)\n* 2008: Paul Hudson\n* 2008: Justin Leppitsch (caretaker)\n* 2009: Craig Brittain\n* 2010: Craig McRae\n* 2011–2012: Nathan Clarke\n* 2013–2014: Leigh Harding\n* 2015–2016: Shane Woewodin\n* 2017–: Mitch Hahn","In May 2016, the club launched a bid to enter a team in the inaugural AFL Women's season in 2017.","The Brisbane Lions were granted a license on 15 June 2016, becoming one of eight teams to compete in the league's first season.","Former AFL Queensland employee Breeanna Brock was appointed to the position of Women’s CEO the following day.","Tayla Harris and Sabrina Frederick-Traub were the club's first signings, unveiled along with the league's other 14 marquee players on 27 July 2016.","A further 23 senior players and two rookie players were added to the club's inaugural list in the league's drafting and signing period.","Emma Zielke will captain the team for their inaugural season.","Former Collingwood and Brisbane Bears player and AFL Queensland coach Craig Starcevich was appointed the team's inaugural head coach in June 2016.","The rest of the coaching team was announced on 8 November 2016 as David Lake as the midfield coach, Daniel Merrett as the backline coach and Brent Staker as the forward coach.","Existing club sponsor Hyundai, along with Epic Pharmacy, will sponsor the team in 2017.","The team plays its home games at the South Pine Sports Complex in Brendale.","===Current squad===\n\n\n\n===Best and fairest winners===\n\nSeason\nRecipient\nRef.","2017\n Emily Bates","\n* Wikipedia listing of Brisbane Lions players\n* Merrett–Murray Medal\n* Australian rules football in Queensland\n* Sport in Queensland\n* Sport in Australia\n* Brisbane Broncos","\n* Official website of the Brisbane Lions Football Club\n* The Brisbane Lions – an Overview – Official AFL website of the Brisbane Lions Football Club"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nThe '''Brisbane Lions''' is a professional Australian rules football club which plays in the Australian Football League (AFL).\",\n \"The club is based in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.\",\n \"The club was formed in 1996 from the merger of the Fitzroy Lions and the Brisbane Bears.\",\n \"The Lions are one of the most successful AFL clubs of the 21st century, having appeared in four consecutive AFL Grand Finals from 2001 to 2004 and winning three premierships (2001, 2002, 2003).\",\n \"The club is based at the Gabba.\",\n \"The team is captained by Dayne Beams and coached by Chris Fagan.\",\n \"\\nThe Brisbane Lions were officially launched on 1 November 1996, joining the national competition in 1997.\",\n \"===Beginnings: 1997–2000===\\nBrisbane Lions logo from 2001 to 2009\\nIn their first year as a combined club the Lions made the finals, finishing in eighth position after being defeated by the St Kilda Football Club in a qualifying final.\",\n \"The following year, however, they finished in last position, despite boasting a talented playing list.\",\n \"===Triple premiership success: 2001–2003===\\nAs the Brisbane Lions, the club won its first AFL premiership in the 2001 AFL Grand Final, defeating Essendon 15.18 (108) to 12.10 (82).\",\n \"Lions utility player Shaun Hart won the Norm Smith Medal as best on ground in the Grand Final.\",\n \"In 2002, the Lions won back-to-back premierships when they again defeated Collingwood 9.12 (66) to 10.15 (75) in the 2002 AFL Grand Final in cold and wet conditions at the Melbourne Cricket Ground.\",\n \"Early in the contest the Lions lost both ruckman Beau McDonald and utility player Martin Pike (who had already had nine possessions in the first quarter) to injury and had to complete the match with a limited bench.\",\n \"With a number of players under an injury cloud – and having lost to Collingwood in a qualifying final at the Melbourne Cricket Ground three weeks previously – the Lions went into the game as underdogs.\",\n \"However, they sealed their place in history as an AFL dynasty by thrashing the Magpies in cool but sunny conditions.\",\n \"At one stage in the final quarter the Lions led by almost 80 points before relaxing when the match was well and truly won, allowing Collingwood to score the last four goals.\",\n \"The final score of 20.14 (134) to 12.12 (84) saw the club become only the fourth in VFL/AFL history to win three consecutive premierships and the first since the creation of the AFL.\",\n \"Simon Black claimed the Norm Smith Medal with a dominant 39 possession match, the most possessions ever gathered by a player in a grand final.\",\n \"The 2004 season saw Brisbane remain in the top portion of the ladder for most of the season.\",\n \"Reaching the finals in second position, Brisbane controversially had to travel to Melbourne to play against Geelong in the preliminary final, due to a contract between the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) and the Australian Football League (AFL) that required one preliminary final to be played each year at the MCG.\",\n \"Port Adelaide had finished on top of the ladder and hosted the other preliminary final in Adelaide.\",\n \"Despite this setback, Brisbane beat Geelong and reached the AFL Grand Final for the fourth consecutive year.\",\n \"Their opponents, Port Adelaide, playing in their first ever grand final, were too good on the day and recorded a 40-point win.\",\n \"===Rebuild of the Lions' second generation: 2005–2008===\\nThe Lions in the training camp, May 2007.\",\n \"The Lions began the 2006 season optimistically, but injuries again plagued the club, whose players recorded an AFL record total of 200 matches lost to injury for the season.\",\n \"The Brisbane Lions finished runner up in the 2007 NAB Cup and then went on to create history by being the first team in the history of the AFL to have five co-captains.\",\n \"That year, the Lions failed to make the finals for a third successive year in 2007.\",\n \"The Lions began the 2008 NAB Cup shakily, losing to Essendon by 27 points.\",\n \"The team struggled for the season and missed out on the finals with a 10–12 record, losing 3 games despite having at least 5 more scoring shots in each of those games.\",\n \"Coach Leigh Matthews resigned at the end of the season after 10 seasons and 3 premierships with the club.\",\n \"===Michael Voss: 2009–2013===\\n\\n\\nThe Lions made a good start in the 2009 NAB Cup under new senior coach Michael Voss by registering a 9-point win over St Kilda.\",\n \"However this was followed by a series of losses in the pre-season to Essendon, Melbourne and Richmond.\",\n \"Their season ended with a 51-point loss to the Western Bulldogs.\",\n \"The 2009/2010 off-season was dominated by the arrival of Brendan Fevola from Carlton, and the hype was focused on Fevola and Jonathan Brown in the sense that the Lions could capitalise on their strong 2009 season.\",\n \"Indeed, the Lions won their first four matches of the 2010 season to be top of the ladder after four rounds, but they would only win three more games after that to crash to a lowly finish by season's end.\",\n \"One of those wins however, was against eventual premiers .\",\n \"The Lions' 2010/2011 off-season was disrupted by the sacking of Fevola after just one season at the Lions, following repeated off-field indiscretions which included getting drunk in the Brisbane streets during New Year's Eve celebrations.\",\n \"On the field, the Lions won only four games for the year, but only one against any Victorian team, and that was , in Round 9.\",\n \"Despite their worst season since 1998, coach Michael Voss was granted a contract extension after the board recommended that Voss was the best man to take the club forward into the future.\",\n \"Leading into season 2012, only two players from the triple-premiership winning team of 2001–2003 remained: Simon Black and Jonathan Brown.\",\n \"The 2013 season started well for Brisbane, defeating Carlton in the final of the NAB Cup, with Daniel Rich winning the Michael Tuck Medal for best on ground and Aaron Cornelius showing some good form.\",\n \"However, things began to decline from then, with losses to the Western Bulldogs and Adelaide.\",\n \"However, in the 5th QClash match against Gold Coast, the Lions won by two points, with Jonathan Brown winning the Marcus Ashcroft Medal.\",\n \"Injuries were beginning to take a toll, with young players Claye Beams and Jared Polec suffering severe injuries.\",\n \"In Round 13, Brisbane defeated second-placed Geelong, coming from 52 points down late in the third quarter to win by 5 points due to an Ash McGrath goal after the siren in his 200th match.\",\n \"On 13 August 2013, coach Michael Voss was told that his contract would not be renewed.\",\n \"=== Playing under Justin Leppitsch: 2014–2016 ===\\nOn 25 August 2013, former premiership player of the Lions, Justin Leppitsch, was confirmed to be the senior coach of the Lions for the next 3 seasons starting in 2014\\n\\nOn 18 October 2013, Brisbane Lions legend Simon Black announced his retirement.\",\n \"During round 13, 2014 Lions captain Jonathan Brown was the victim of a facial injury in a clash between the Lions and the Greater Western Sydney Giants.\",\n \"He collided with Tomas Bugg's knee and was taken off the ground.\",\n \"He suffered a concussion, which caused his retirement from football.\",\n \"Along with the retirement of Ashley McGrath in August 2014, no active players remain from any of the club's triple-premiership winning sides.\",\n \"On 29 August 2016, Leppitsch was sacked as coach of the Lions.\",\n \"===Chris Fagan era: 2017–===\\nOn 4 October 2016, Chris Fagan was announced as the Lions' coach from the 2017 season onwards.\",\n \"Brendan Fevola became the 1st Coleman Medallist to win the medal at a club and be traded to another the following year.\",\n \"He originally came from Carlton.\",\n \"\\n===Membership base and sponsorship===\\nCrowds and memberships for the Brisbane Lions grew dramatically during the four seasons in which they made the AFL Grand Final.\",\n \"Since then, with the team being less successful, attendances have declined, but have remained stable over the past three seasons.\",\n \"In 2009 the Lions found it so difficult to sell corporate boxes that they resorted to doing so on a game-by-game basis.\",\n \"2011 saw the Brisbane Lions suffer their worst ever drop in support, as memberships decreased by 28%.\",\n \"2017 memberships are the lowest the club has had since 2012.\",\n \"Profit (loss) \\nKit sponsor!!\",\n \"\\n===Emblem===\\nIn 1997 the club unveiled its new merger emblem it would consist of the iconic golden Fitzroy Lion on a badge (which was the style in the AFL at the time) of Maroon and Blue.\",\n \"The club used this from 1997 to the end of 2001 after their first premiership.\",\n \"In 2002 the club would unveil a new emblem in the shape of a football with the words \\\"Brisbane Lions\\\" in the middle with the golden Lion placed inside the O of Lion.\",\n \"The club continued the use of this emblem until the 2010 season when they changed the entire emblem dropping the golden Lion and replaced it with a cartoonish style Lions head.\",\n \"The club also removed the golden Lion from the team guernseys and introduced the new emblem on the body of the original Lion.\",\n \"The change was met with much backlash as many supporters dubbed the new emblem the \\\"Paddle Pop Lion\\\" after the popular ice cream of the same name.\",\n \"In 2014 after overwhelming response from the supporters the club dropped the new emblem from their guernseys and reintroduced the classic golden Lion which they wore from 1997 until 2010.\",\n \"Though the club has kept the current emblem for all club related advertising and marketing.\",\n \"===Guernseys===\\n\\nThe three types of guernsey are:\\n\\n*Home guernsey (worn since 2015): Maroon and blue based guernsey with original Fitzroy lion, coloured gold and maroon.\",\n \"Vero Insurance is the sponsor on the front and Camperdown Dairy International is the sponsor on the back (home shorts worn in home games and away shorts worn in away games not played in Victoria).\",\n \"The Lions also wore this jumper from 1997-2009 before switching to a more 'modern' lion.\",\n \"*Away guernsey (Worn since 2015): Red and blue based guernsey with original Fitzroy lion, coloured gold and red.\",\n \"Camperdown Dairy International is the sponsor on the front and Vero Insurance is the sponsor on the back (away shorts worn).\",\n \"The Lions also wore this jumper from 2008-2009 before switching to a more 'modern' lion.\",\n \"*Clash guernsey (Worn since 2017): Reminiscent of the Bears’ final guernsey, this guernsey features maroon, yellow and white with original Fitzroy lion, coloured maroon and gold.\",\n \"Camperdown Dairy International is the sponsor on the front and Vero Insurance is the sponsor on the back (away shorts worn).\",\n \"===Mascot===\\nBernie \\\"Gabba\\\" Vegas\\nAs of 2016 the lions new mascot 'Roy' was introduced.\",\n \"The Lion's Mascot Manor representative and club mascot is Bernie \\\"Gabba\\\" Vegas, a caricature of a lion dressed in Brisbane Lions jumper, sunglasses, wide lapels, and flares, designed to resemble Elvis Presley.\",\n \"===Song===\\nThe club's team song, \\\"The Pride of Brisbane Town\\\", is based on the Fitzroy club song, and is sung to the music of \\\"La Marseillaise\\\", the French national anthem:\\n\\nWe are the pride of Brisbane town,\\nwe wear maroon, blue and gold,\\nwe will always fight for victory,\\nlike Fitzroy and Bears of old,\\nall for one, and one for all,\\nwe will answer to the call,\\ngo Lions, Brisbane Lions,\\nwe'll kick the winning score,\\nyou'll hear our mighty roar!\",\n \"\\nThe Brisbane Lions have three main rivals, Collingwood, Port Adelaide and Gold Coast.\",\n \"===Collingwood===\\nThe biggest rival for the Lions is Collingwood, having built up plenty of history in the relatively short existence as a merged club.\",\n \"Pre-merger Fitzroy was a neighbouring suburb to Collingwood, with the boundary being based on Smith Street, along with the fact that Fitzroy and Collingwood topped the VFL/AFL premiership tally during the early decades of the VFL competition.\",\n \"The Brisbane Bears also had a bit of history with the Magpies as Nathan Buckley famously deflected to Collingwood after one season on the Bears list, citing that he wanted to win premierships, ironically retiring at the end of the 2007 season without a premiership as a player in the AFL.\",\n \"The Bears also lost their final regular season match in their final season to the Magpies, costing the Bears the minor premiership that season.\",\n \"However the rivalry between the Lions and the Magpies has been properly ignited post-merger, starting in late 1999 when Collingwood played their last ever VFL/AFL game at their spiritual home ground, Victoria Park with the Lions emerging 42 point victors that day and consigning the Magpies to their second wooden spoon, to the dissatisfaction of the Collingwood supporters.\",\n \"The rivalry between the two clubs went to the next level as the clubs played off in two consecutive Grand Finals in 2002 and 2003, with the Lions emerging victors on both occasions.\",\n \"These grand final results further fueled the bitterness that Collingwood supporters and their president Eddie McGuire still have towards the Brisbane Lions to this day, despite the Lions having a poor decade on the field after their golden era.\",\n \"Due to many Collingwood supporters migrating up to Queensland and many Brisbane Lions supporters residing in Victoria (many of which were ex-Fitzroy supporters), along with the on-field history between the two clubs, many Lions supporters consider a Brisbane Lions v Collingwood match-up to be their derby, despite the clubs being over 1700 km apart and the fact that there are many clubs in the competition that are geographically closer to each other.\",\n \"===Port Adelaide===\\nThe third biggest rival of the Lions is Port Adelaide, with the Brisbane Bears and Fitzroy merging to become the Brisbane Lions in order to allow Port Adelaide to enter the AFL competition.\",\n \"This created some dissatisfaction between old Bears and Fitzroy supporters who have felt that they have lost their clubs.\",\n \"In their first season in the AFL, the Lions narrowly made the finals at the expense of Port Adelaide, with the Power narrowly missing out on percentage.\",\n \"However the rivalry was properly ignited during the early 2000s, as both clubs fielded strong teams during that period.\",\n \"In 2001 the Lions defeated the Power in the Qualifying final en route to their first of three consecutive premierships, with Port bowing out in straight sets that year.\",\n \"In 2002 Port defeated Brisbane by 6 points in the final regular season game to narrowly claim the minor premiership, however Brisbane would eliminate Port in the Preliminary Final that year to claim their second premiership out of their hat-trick of premierships.\",\n \"In 2003 Port would claim their second consecutive minor premiership, however they would go on to lose their qualifying and preliminary finals again, as the Lions would claim their hat-trick of premierships that season.\",\n \"However, in 2004 Port Adelaide would finally break through and win their first AFL premiership, defeating the Brisbane Lions in the Grand Final and preventing them from what would have been a historic four premierships in a row.\",\n \"In adding further insult to injury for Lions fans, it meant that their biggest rivals, Collingwood, would remain the only team in the VFL/AFL to win four-in-a-row.\",\n \"The rivalry between the two clubs has cooled down since the early 2000s, however, there are a few Lions supporters that still consider Port Adelaide to be a bigger rival than Collingwood.\",\n \"===Gold Coast===\\nThe introduction of the Gold Coast Suns into the competition in 2011 saw a rivalry within Queensland Football for the first time ever.\",\n \"The Lions and Suns play each other two times a year.\",\n \"The best player on the ground is awarded the '''Marcus Ashcroft Medal'''.\",\n \"Gold Coast won the first Q Clash by 8 points in Round 7, 2011.\",\n \"\\n===Club===\\n* '''Australian Football League'''\\n** '''Premierships (3)''': 2001, 2002, 2003\\n** ''Runners-up (1)'': 2004\\n** '''Wooden Spoons (2)''': 1998, 2017\\n* '''Pre-Season Grand Final Appearances'''\\n** '''Premierships (1)''': 2013\\n** ''Runners-up (2)'': 2001, 2007\\n\\n====Reserves====\\n* '''North East Australian Football League (3)''': 2001, 2012, 2013\\n\\n===Individual===\",\n \"\\n'''Premierships'''\\n*2001\\n*2002\\n*2003\\n\\n'''Runners Up'''\\n*2004\\n\\n'''Wooden Spoons'''\\n*1998\\n*2017\\n\\n'''Coaches'''\\n* John Northey: 1997–1998\\n* Roger Merrett: 1998 (caretaker)\\n* Leigh Matthews: 1999–2008\\n* John Blakey: 2005 (caretaker)\\n* Michael Voss: 2009–2013\\n* Mark Harvey: 2013 (caretaker)\\n* Justin Leppitsch: 2014–2016\\n* Chris Fagan: 2017–present\\n\\n'''Captains'''\\n* Michael Voss (co-captain: 1997–2000; captain: 2000–2006)\\n* Alastair Lynch (co-captain: 1997–2000)\\n* Chris Johnson (co-captain: 2007)\\n* Nigel Lappin (co-captain: 2007–2008)\\n* Simon Black (co-captain: 2007–2008)\\n* Luke Power (co-captain: 2007–2008)\\n* Jonathan Brown (co-captain: 2007–2008, 2013; captain: 2009–2012)\\n* Jed Adcock (co-captain: 2013; captain: 2014)\\n* Tom Rockliff (captain: 2015–2016)\\n* Dayne Beams (captain: 2017–present)\\n\\n'''Biggest home crowds'''\\n\\n\\n Rank !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Crowd !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Round, Season !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Result !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Opponent !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Brisbane Lions !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Opposition !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Margin !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Venue !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Day/Night/Twilight\\n\\n1\\n 37,224 \\n 15, 2005 \\n Win \\n \\n 19.19 (133) \\n 7.13 (55) \\n +78 \\n The Gabba \\n Night\\n\\n2\\n 37,032 \\n PF2, 2001 \\n Win \\n \\n 20.16 (136) \\n 10.8 (68) \\n +68 \\n The Gabba \\n Night\\n\\n3\\n 36,803 \\n 4, 2003 \\n Win \\n Collingwood \\n 14.11 (95) \\n 11.15 (81) \\n +14 \\n The Gabba \\n Night\\n\\n4\\n 36,780 \\n 2, 2010 \\n Win \\n Carlton \\n 16.11 (107) \\n 12.16 (88) \\n +19 \\n The Gabba \\n Night\\n\\n5\\n 36,467 \\n 3, 2004 \\n Win \\n Collingwood \\n 21.11 (137) \\n 12.5 (77) \\n +60 \\n The Gabba \\n Night\\n\\n6\\n 36,197 \\n 1, 2003 \\n Win \\n \\n 14.20 (104) \\n 8.13 (61) \\n +43 \\n The Gabba \\n Night\\n\\n7\\n 36,149 \\n 10, 2001 \\n Win \\n Essendon \\n 15.12 (102) \\n 10.14 (74) \\n +28 \\n The Gabba \\n Night\\n\\n8\\n 36,077 \\n 17, 2005 \\n Win \\n Essendon \\n 17.12 (114) \\n 14.17 (101) \\n +13 \\n The Gabba \\n Night\\n\\n9\\n 35,898 \\n 3, 2002 \\n Win \\n Essendon \\n 17.15 (117) \\n 9.13 (67) \\n +50 \\n The Gabba \\n Night\\n\\n10\\n 35,823 \\n 21, 2004 \\n Win \\n \\n 20.10 (130) \\n 13.7 (85) \\n +45 \\n The Gabba \\n Day\",\n \"\\n===Current squad===\",\n \"\\nThe Brisbane Lions have entered a reserves team in the North East Australian Football League (NEAFL) competition since 2011.\",\n \"The club had previously entered a reserves team in the local Queensland Australian Football League in 1998, known as the Lion Cubs but became the Suncoast Lions Football Club in 2004 and were based on the Sunshine Coast.\",\n \"They would win their first premiership in 2001 when they defeated the Southport Sharks in the QAFL Grand Final.\",\n \"A stand-alone Brisbane Lions reserves team was created in 2011 and began playing in the Northern Conference of the North East Australian Football League.\",\n \"In 2012, the Lions won the Northern Conference and overall NEAFL premierships, a feat which was repeated in 2013.\",\n \"The Lions reserves play home games at the South Pine Sports Complex in Brendale, a facility opened in 2016.\",\n \"===Premierships===\\n\\n'''Premierships (4)'''\\n\\nYear\\nCompetition\\nOpponent\\nScore\\nVenue\\n\\n 2001 \\n QAFL\\n Southport Sharks \\n '''13.20 (98) – 13.8 (86)''' \\n Giffin Park\\n\\n 2012 \\n NEAFL\\n Queanbeyan Tigers \\n '''22.12 (144) – 11.9 (75)''' \\n Manuka Oval\\n\\n 2013 \\n NEAFL\\n Sydney Swans \\n '''12.9 (81) – 10.13 (73)''' \\n Graham Rd Oval\\n\\n 2017 \\n NEAFL\\n Sydney Swans \\n '''10.22 (82) – 12.13 (85)''' \\n Sydney Cricket Ground\\n\\n\\n===Season summaries===\\n\\n\\n Season !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Competition !\",\n \"!\",\n \"W–L—D !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Ladder position !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Finals result \\n\\n 2010 \\n QAFL \\n 6–12–0 \\n 8th \\n DNQ\\n\\n 2011\\n NEAFL(Northern Conference)\\n 4–13–1 \\n 10th (Wooden spoon)\\n\\n 2012\\n NEAFL(Northern Conference)\\n 14–4–0 \\n 2nd \\n '''Premiers'''\\n\\n 2013\\n NEAFL(Northern Conference)\\n 16–2–0 \\n 1st (Minor premiership) \\n\\n 2014 \\n NEAFL \\n 6–12–0 \\n 9th \\n DNQ\\n\\n 2015 \\n NEAFL \\n 2–16–0 \\n 10th\\n\\n 2016 \\n NEAFL \\n 3–15–0 \\n 10th (Wooden spoon)\\n\\n 2017 \\n NEAFL \\n 15–3–0 \\n 2nd \\n '''Premiers''' \\n\\n\\n===Coaches===\\n\\n* 1998: Roger Merrett\\n* 1999–2000: Justin Leppitsch\\n* 2001–2005: Craig Brittain\\n* 2006: John Blakey/Daryn Cresswell\\n* 2007: Craig Brittain\\n* 2007: Justin Leppitsch (caretaker)\\n* 2008: Paul Hudson\\n* 2008: Justin Leppitsch (caretaker)\\n* 2009: Craig Brittain\\n* 2010: Craig McRae\\n* 2011–2012: Nathan Clarke\\n* 2013–2014: Leigh Harding\\n* 2015–2016: Shane Woewodin\\n* 2017–: Mitch Hahn\",\n \"In May 2016, the club launched a bid to enter a team in the inaugural AFL Women's season in 2017.\",\n \"The Brisbane Lions were granted a license on 15 June 2016, becoming one of eight teams to compete in the league's first season.\",\n \"Former AFL Queensland employee Breeanna Brock was appointed to the position of Women’s CEO the following day.\",\n \"Tayla Harris and Sabrina Frederick-Traub were the club's first signings, unveiled along with the league's other 14 marquee players on 27 July 2016.\",\n \"A further 23 senior players and two rookie players were added to the club's inaugural list in the league's drafting and signing period.\",\n \"Emma Zielke will captain the team for their inaugural season.\",\n \"Former Collingwood and Brisbane Bears player and AFL Queensland coach Craig Starcevich was appointed the team's inaugural head coach in June 2016.\",\n \"The rest of the coaching team was announced on 8 November 2016 as David Lake as the midfield coach, Daniel Merrett as the backline coach and Brent Staker as the forward coach.\",\n \"Existing club sponsor Hyundai, along with Epic Pharmacy, will sponsor the team in 2017.\",\n \"The team plays its home games at the South Pine Sports Complex in Brendale.\",\n \"===Current squad===\\n\\n\\n\\n===Best and fairest winners===\\n\\nSeason\\nRecipient\\nRef.\",\n \"2017\\n Emily Bates\",\n \"\\n* Wikipedia listing of Brisbane Lions players\\n* Merrett–Murray Medal\\n* Australian rules football in Queensland\\n* Sport in Queensland\\n* Sport in Australia\\n* Brisbane Broncos\",\n \"\\n* Official website of the Brisbane Lions Football Club\\n* The Brisbane Lions – an Overview – Official AFL website of the Brisbane Lions Football Club\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"finance"}}},{"rowIdx":282,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\n\n'''Bloody Sunday''' – sometimes called the '''Bogside Massacre''' – was an incident on 30 January 1972 in the Bogside area of Derry, Northern Ireland, when British soldiers shot 28 unarmed civilians during a peaceful protest march against internment. Fourteen people died: thirteen were killed outright, while the death of another man four months later was attributed to his injuries. Many of the victims were shot while fleeing from the soldiers and some were shot while trying to help the wounded. Other protesters were injured by rubber bullets or batons, and two were run down by army vehicles. The march had been organised by the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA). The soldiers involved were members of the 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment, also known as \"1 Para\".\n\nTwo investigations have been held by the British government. The Widgery Tribunal, held in the immediate aftermath of the incident, largely cleared the soldiers and British authorities of blame. It described the soldiers' shooting as \"bordering on the reckless\", but accepted their claims that they shot at gunmen and bomb-throwers. The report was widely criticised as a \"whitewash\". The Saville Inquiry, chaired by Lord Saville of Newdigate, was established in 1998 to reinvestigate the incident. Following a 12-year inquiry, Saville's report was made public in 2010 and concluded that the killings were both \"unjustified\" and \"unjustifiable\". It found that all of those shot were unarmed, that none were posing a serious threat, that no bombs were thrown, and that soldiers \"knowingly put forward false accounts\" to justify their firing. On the publication of the report, British prime minister David Cameron made a formal apology on behalf of the United Kingdom. Following this, police began a murder investigation into the killings.\n\nBloody Sunday was one of the most significant events of \"the Troubles\" because a large number of civilian citizens were killed, by forces of the state, in full view of the public and the press. It was the highest number of people killed in a single shooting incident during the conflict. Bloody Sunday increased Catholic and Irish nationalist hostility towards the British Army and exacerbated the conflict. Support for the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) rose and there was a surge of recruitment into the organisation, especially locally.\n","\nThe City of Londonderry was perceived by many Catholics and Irish nationalists in Northern Ireland to be the epitome of what was described as \"fifty years of Unionist misrule\": despite having a nationalist majority, gerrymandering ensured elections to the City Corporation always returned a unionist majority. At the same time the city was perceived to be deprived of public investment – rail routes to the city were closed, motorways were not extended to it, a university was opened in the relatively small (Protestant-majority) town of Coleraine rather than Derry and, above all, the city's housing stock was in an appalling state. The city therefore became a significant focus of the civil rights campaign led by organisations such as Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) in the late 1960s and it was in Derry that the so-called Battle of the Bogside – the event that more than any other pushed the Northern Ireland administration to ask for military support for civil policing – took place in August 1969.\n\nWhile many Catholics initially welcomed the British Army as a neutral force, in contrast to what was regarded as a sectarian police force, relations between them soon deteriorated.\n\nIn response to escalating levels of violence across Northern Ireland, internment without trial was introduced on 9 August 1971. There was disorder across Northern Ireland following the introduction of internment, with 21 people being killed in three days of rioting. In Belfast, soldiers of the Parachute Regiment shot dead 11 Catholic civilians in what became known as the Ballymurphy Massacre. On 10 August, Bombardier Paul Challenor became the first soldier to be killed by the Provisional IRA in Derry, when he was shot by a sniper on the Creggan estate. A further six soldiers had been killed in Derry by mid-December 1971. At least 1,332 rounds were fired at the British Army, who also faced 211 explosions and 180 nail bombs, and who fired 364 rounds in return.\n\nIRA activity also increased across Northern Ireland with thirty British soldiers being killed in the remaining months of 1971, in contrast to the ten soldiers killed during the pre-internment period of the year. Both the Official IRA and Provisional IRA had established no-go areas for the British Army and Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) in Derry through the use of barricades. By the end of 1971, 29 barricades were in place to prevent access to what was known as Free Derry, 16 of them impassable even to the British Army's one-ton armoured vehicles. IRA members openly mounted roadblocks in front of the media, and daily clashes took place between nationalist youths and the British Army at a spot known as \"aggro corner\". Due to rioting and damage to shops caused by incendiary devices, an estimated total of worth of damage had been done to local businesses.\n\nOn 18 January 1972 Brian Faulkner, Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, banned all parades and marches in Northern Ireland until the end of the year.\n\nOn 22 January 1972, a week before Bloody Sunday, an anti-internment march was held at Magilligan strand, near Derry. The protesters marched to a new internment camp there, but were stopped by soldiers of the Parachute Regiment. When some protesters threw stones and tried to go around the barbed wire, paratroopers drove them back by firing rubber bullets at close range and making baton charges. The paratroopers badly beat a number of protesters and had to be physically restrained by their own officers. These allegations of brutality by paratroopers were reported widely on television and in the press. Some in the Army also thought there had been undue violence by the paratroopers.\n\nNICRA intended, despite the ban, to hold another anti-internment march in Derry on Sunday 30 January. The authorities decided to allow it to proceed in the Catholic areas of the city, but to stop it from reaching Guildhall Square, as planned by the organisers. The authorities expected that this would lead to rioting. Major General Robert Ford, then Commander of Land Forces in Northern Ireland, ordered that the 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment (1 Para), should travel to Derry to be used to arrest possible rioters. The arrest operation was codenamed 'Operation Forecast'. The Saville Report criticised General Ford for choosing the Parachute Regiment for the operation, as it had \"a reputation for using excessive physical violence\". The paratroopers arrived in Derry on the morning of the march and took up positions in the city. Brigadier Pat MacLellan was the operational commander and issued orders from Ebrington Barracks. He gave orders to Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford, commander of 1 Para. He in turn gave orders to Major Ted Loden, who commanded the company who launched the arrest operation.\n","\nThe Bogside in 1981, overlooking the area where many of the victims were shot. On the right of the picture is the south side of Rossville Flats, and in the middle distance is Glenfada Park.\n\nThe protesters planned on marching from Bishop's Field, in the Creggan housing estate, to the Guildhall, in the city centre, where they would hold a rally. The march set off at about 2:45pm. There were 10–15,000 people on the march, with many joining along its route. Lord Widgery, in his now discredited tribunal, said that there were only 3,000 to 5,000.\n\nThe march made its way along William Street but, as it neared the city centre, its path was blocked by British Army barriers. The organisers redirected the march down Rossville Street, intending to hold the rally at Free Derry Corner instead. However, some broke off from the march and began throwing stones at soldiers manning the barriers. The soldiers fired rubber bullets, CS gas and water cannon to try to disperse the rioters. Such clashes between soldiers and youths were common, and observers reported that the rioting was not intense.\n\nSome of the crowd spotted paratroopers hiding in a derelict three-storey building overlooking William Street, and began throwing stones at the windows. At about 3:55pm, these paratroopers opened fire. Civilians Damien Donaghy and John Johnston were shot and wounded while standing on waste ground opposite the building. These were the first shots fired. The soldiers claimed Donaghy was holding a black cylindrical object, but the Saville Inquiry concluded that all of those shot were unarmed.\n\nAt 4:07pm, the paratroopers were ordered to go through the barriers and arrest rioters. The paratroopers, on foot and in armoured vehicles, chased people down Rossville Street and into the Bogside. Two people were knocked down by the vehicles. Brigadier MacLellan had ordered that only one company of paratroopers be sent through the barriers, on foot, and that they should not chase people down Rossville Street. Colonel Wilford disobeyed this order, which meant there was no separation between rioters and peaceful marchers.\n\nThe paratroopers disembarked and began seizing people. There were many claims of paratroopers beating people, clubbing them with rifle butts, firing rubber bullets at them from close range, making threats to kill, and hurling abuse. The Saville Report agreed that soldiers \"used excessive force when arresting people … as well as seriously assaulting them for no good reason while in their custody\".\n\nOne group of paratroopers took up position at a low wall about in front of a rubble barricade that stretched across Rossville Street. There were people at the barricade and some were throwing stones at the soldiers, but none were near enough to hit them. The soldiers fired on the people at the barricade, killing six and wounding a seventh.\n\nA large group of people fled or were chased into the car park of Rossville Flats. This area was like a courtyard, surrounded on three sides by high-rise flats. The soldiers opened fire, killing one civilian and wounding six others. This fatality, Jackie Duddy, was running alongside a priest, Father Edward Daly, when he was shot in the back.\n\nAnother group of people fled into the car park of Glenfada Park, which was also a courtyard-like area surrounded by flats. Here, the soldiers shot at people across the car park, about 40–50 yards away. Two civilians were killed and at least four others wounded. The Saville Report says it is \"probable\" that at least one soldier fired from the hip towards the crowd, without aiming.\n\nThe soldiers went through the car park and out the other side. Some soldiers went out the southwest corner, where they shot dead two civilians. The other soldiers went out the southeast corner and shot four more civilians, killing two.\n\nAbout ten minutes had elapsed between the time soldiers drove into the Bogside and the time the last of the civilians was shot. More than 100 rounds were fired by the soldiers.\n\nSome of those shot were given first aid by civilian volunteers, either on the scene or after being carried into nearby homes. They were then driven to hospital, either in civilian cars or in ambulances. The first ambulances arrived at 4:28pm. The three boys killed at the rubble barricade were driven to hospital by the paratroopers. Witnesses said paratroopers lifted the bodies by the hands and feet and dumped them in the back of their APC, as if they were \"pieces of meat\". The Saville Report agreed that this is an \"accurate description of what happened\". It says the paratroopers \"might well have felt themselves at risk, but in our view this does not excuse them\".\n\n===Casualties===\nMural by the Bogside Artists depicting all who were killed by the British Army on the day\nBelt worn by Patrick Doherty. The notch was made by the bullet that killed him.\nIn all, 26 people were shot by the paratroopers; 13 died on the day and another died four months later. Most of them were killed in four main areas: the rubble barricade across Rossville Street, the courtyard car park of Rossville Flats (on the north side of the flats), the courtyard car park of Glenfada Park, and the forecourt of Rossville Flats (on the south side of the flats).\n\nAll of the soldiers responsible insisted that they had shot at, and hit, gunmen or bomb-throwers. The Saville Report concluded that all of those shot were unarmed and that none were posing a serious threat. It also concluded that none of the soldiers fired in response to attacks, or threatened attacks, by gunmen or bomb-throwers.\n\nThe casualties are listed in the order in which they were killed.\n\n* '''John 'Jackie' Duddy''', age 17. Shot as he ran away from soldiers in the car park of Rossville Flats. The bullet struck him in the shoulder and entered his chest. Three witnesses said they saw a soldier take deliberate aim at the youth as he ran. He was the first fatality on Bloody Sunday. Like Saville, Widgery also concluded that Duddy was unarmed. His nephew is boxer John Duddy.\n* '''Michael Kelly''', age 17. Shot in the stomach while standing at the rubble barricade on Rossville Street. Both Saville and Widgery concluded that Kelly was unarmed.\n* '''Hugh Gilmour''', age 17. Shot as he ran away from soldiers near the rubble barricade. The bullet went through his left elbow and entered his chest. Widgery acknowledged that a photograph taken seconds after Gilmour was hit corroborated witness reports that he was unarmed, and that tests for gunshot residue were negative.\n* '''William Nash''', age 19. Shot in the chest at the rubble barricade. Witnesses stated Nash was unarmed. Three people were shot while apparently going to his aid, including his father Alexander Nash.\n* '''John Young''', age 17. Shot in the face at the rubble barricade, apparently while crouching and going to the aid of William Nash. Two witnesses stated Young was unarmed.\n* '''Michael McDaid''', age 20. Shot in the face at the rubble barricade, apparently while crouching and going to the aid of William Nash.\n* '''Kevin McElhinney''', age 17. Shot from behind, near the rubble barricade, while attempting to crawl to safety. Two witnesses stated McElhinney was unarmed.\n* '''James 'Jim' Wray''', age 22. Shot in the back while running away from soldiers in Glenfada Park courtyard. He was then shot again in the back as he lay mortally wounded on the ground. Witnesses, who were not called to the Widgery Tribunal, stated that Wray was calling out that he could not move his legs before he was shot the second time.\n* '''William McKinney''', age 27. Shot in the back as he attempted to flee through Glenfada Park courtyard.\n* '''Gerard McKinney''', age 35. Shot in the chest at Abbey Park. A soldier ran through an alleyway from Glenfada Park and shot him from a few yards away. Witnesses said that when he saw the soldier, McKinney stopped and held up his arms, shouting \"Don't shoot! Don't shoot!\", before being shot. The bullet apparently went through his body and struck Gerard Donaghy behind him.\n* '''Gerard Donaghy''', age 17. Shot in the stomach at Abbey Park while standing behind Gerard McKinney. Both were apparently struck by the same bullet. Bystanders brought Donaghy to a nearby house, where he was examined by a doctor. The doctor opened Donaghy's clothes to examine him, and his pockets were also searched for identification. Two bystanders then attempted to drive Donaghy to hospital, but the car was stopped at an Army checkpoint. They were ordered to leave the car and a soldier drove it to a Regimental Aid Post, where an Army medical officer pronounced Donaghy dead. Shortly after, soldiers found four nail bombs in his pockets. The civilians who searched him, the soldier who drove him to the Army post, and the Army medical officer, all said that they did not see any bombs. This led to claims that soldiers planted the bombs on Donaghy to justify the killings. Donaghy was a member of Fianna Éireann, an IRA-linked republican youth movement. Paddy Ward, a police informer who gave evidence at the Saville Inquiry, claimed he gave two nail bombs to Donaghy several hours before he was shot. The Saville Report concluded that the bombs were probably in Donaghy's pockets when he was shot. However, it concluded that he was not about to throw a bomb when he was shot; and that he was not shot because he had bombs. \"He was shot while trying to escape from the soldiers\".\n* '''Patrick Doherty''', age 31. Shot from behind while attempting to crawl to safety in the forecourt of Rossville Flats. He was shot by soldiers who came out of Glenfada Park. Doherty was photographed, moments before and after he died, by French journalist Gilles Peress. Despite testimony from \"Soldier F\" that he had shot a man holding a pistol, Widgery acknowledged that the photographs show Doherty was unarmed, and that forensic tests on his hands for gunshot residue proved negative.\n* '''Bernard 'Barney' McGuigan''', age 41. Shot in the head when he walked out from cover to help Patrick Doherty. He had been waving a white handkerchief to indicate his peaceful intentions.\n* '''John Johnston''', age 59. Shot in the leg and left shoulder on William Street 15 minutes before the rest of the shooting started. Johnston was not on the march, but on his way to visit a friend in Glenfada Park. He died on 16 June 1972; his death has been attributed to the injuries he received on the day. He was the only one not to die immediately or soon after being shot.\n\n\n\n","Thirteen people were shot and killed, with another man later dying of his wounds. The official army position, backed by the British Home Secretary the next day in the House of Commons, was that the paratroopers had reacted to gun and nail bomb attacks from suspected IRA members. All eyewitnesses (apart from the soldiers), including marchers, local residents, and British and Irish journalists present, maintain that soldiers fired into an unarmed crowd, or were aiming at fleeing people and those tending the wounded, whereas the soldiers themselves were not fired upon. No British soldier was wounded by gunfire or reported any injuries, nor were any bullets or nail bombs recovered to back up their claims.\n\nOn 2 February, the day that 12 of those killed were buried, there was a general strike in the Republic, described as the biggest general strike in Europe since the Second World War relative to population. Memorial services were held in Catholic and Protestant churches, as well as synagogues, throughout the Republic. The same day, irate crowds burned down the British embassy on Merrion Square in Dublin. Anglo-Irish relations hit one of their lowest ebbs with the Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs, Patrick Hillery, going to the United Nations Security Council in New York to demand the involvement of a UN peacekeeping force in the Northern Ireland \"Troubles\".\n\nAlthough there were many IRA men—both Official and Provisional—at the protest, it is claimed they were all unarmed, apparently because it was anticipated that the paratroopers would attempt to \"draw them out.\" March organiser and MP Ivan Cooper had been promised beforehand that no armed IRA men would be near the march. One paratrooper who gave evidence at the tribunal testified that they were told by an officer to expect a gunfight and \"We want some kills.\" In the event, one man was witnessed by Father Edward Daly and others haphazardly firing a revolver in the direction of the paratroopers. Later identified as a member of the Official IRA, this man was also photographed in the act of drawing his weapon, but was apparently not seen or targeted by the soldiers. Various other claims have been made to the Saville Inquiry about gunmen on the day.\n\nThe city's coroner, Hubert O'Neill, a retired British Army major, issued a statement on 21 August 1973 at the completion of the inquest into the deaths of those killed. He declared:\n\n\nTwo days after Bloody Sunday, the Westminster Parliament adopted a resolution for a tribunal into the events of the day, resulting in Prime Minister Edward Heath commissioning the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Widgery, to undertake it. Many witnesses intended to boycott the tribunal as they lacked faith in Widgery's impartiality, but were eventually persuaded to take part. Widgery's quickly-produced report—completed within 10 weeks (10 April) and published within 11 (19 April)—supported the Army's account of the events of the day. Among the evidence presented to the tribunal were the results of paraffin tests, used to identify lead residues from firing weapons, and that nail bombs had been found on the body of one of those killed. Tests for traces of explosives on the clothes of eleven of the dead proved negative, while those of the remaining man could not be tested as they had already been washed. Most witnesses to the event disputed the report's conclusions and regarded it as a whitewash. It has been argued that firearms residue on some deceased may have come from contact with the soldiers who themselves moved some of the bodies, or that the presence of lead on the hands of one (James Wray) was easily explained by the fact that his occupation involved the use of lead-based solder. In 1992, John Major, writing to John Hume stated:\n\n\nThe 35th Bloody Sunday memorial march in Derry, 28 January 2007\nFollowing the events of Bloody Sunday Bernadette Devlin, an Independent Socialist nationalist MP from Northern Ireland, expressed anger at what she perceived as government attempts to stifle accounts being reported about the day. Having witnessed the events firsthand, she was later infuriated that Speaker Selwyn Lloyd consistently denied her the chance to speak in Parliament about the day, although parliamentary convention decreed that any MP witnessing an incident under discussion would be granted an opportunity to speak about it in the House.\nDevlin punched Reginald Maudling, the Secretary of State for the Home Department in the Conservative government, when he made a statement to Parliament on the events of Bloody Sunday stating that the British Army had fired only in self-defence.\nShe was temporarily suspended from Parliament as a result of the incident. Nonetheless, six months after Bloody Sunday, Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford who was directly in charge of 1 Para, the soldiers who went into the Bogside, was awarded the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II.\n\nIn January 1997, the UK television broadcaster Channel 4 carried a news report suggesting that members of the Royal Anglian Regiment had also opened fire on the protesters, and could have been responsible for three of the 14 deaths.\n\nOn 29 May 2007, General (then Captain) Sir Mike Jackson, adjutant of 1 Para on Bloody Sunday, said: \"I have no doubt that innocent people were shot.\" This was in sharp contrast to his insistence, for more than 30 years, that those killed on the day had not been innocent. In 2008 a former aide to British Prime Minister Tony Blair, Jonathan Powell, described Widgery as a \"complete and utter whitewash.\"\nIn 1998 Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford expressed his anger at Tony Blair's intention of setting up the Saville inquiry, stating that he was proud of his actions on Bloody Sunday. Two years later in 2000 during an interview with the BBC, Wilford said: \"There might have been things wrong in the sense that some innocent people, people who were not carrying a weapon, were wounded or even killed. But that was not done as a deliberate malicious act. It was done as an act of war.\"\n\nOn 10 November 2015, a 66-year-old former member of the Parachute Regiment was arrested for questioning over the deaths of William Nash, Michael McDaid and John Young.\n","\nGuildhall, home to the Inquiry\n\nAlthough British Prime Minister John Major rejected John Hume's requests for a public inquiry into the killings, his successor, Tony Blair, decided to start one. A second commission of inquiry, chaired by Lord Saville, was established in January 1998 to re-examine Bloody Sunday. The other judges were John Toohey QC, a former Justice of the High Court of Australia who had worked on Aboriginal issues (he replaced New Zealander Sir Edward Somers QC, who retired from the Inquiry in 2000 for personal reasons), and Mr Justice William Hoyt QC, former Chief Justice of New Brunswick and a member of the Canadian Judicial Council. The hearings were concluded in November 2004, and the report was published 15 June 2010. The Saville Inquiry was a more comprehensive study than the Widgery Tribunal, interviewing a wide range of witnesses, including local residents, soldiers, journalists and politicians. Lord Saville declined to comment on the Widgery report and made the point that the Saville Inquiry was a judicial inquiry into Bloody Sunday, not the Widgery Tribunal.\n\nEvidence given by Martin McGuinness, a senior member of Sinn Féin and later the deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland, to the inquiry stated that he was second-in-command of the Derry City brigade of the Provisional IRA and was present at the march. A claim was made at the Saville Inquiry that McGuinness was responsible for supplying detonators for nail bombs on Bloody Sunday. Paddy Ward claimed he was the leader of the Fianna Éireann, the youth wing of the IRA in January 1972. He claimed that McGuinness, the second-in-command of the IRA in the city at the time, and another anonymous IRA member gave him bomb parts on the morning of 30 January, the date planned for the civil rights march. He said his organisation intended to attack city-centre premises in Derry on the day when civilians were shot dead by British soldiers. In response McGuinness rejected the claims as \"fantasy\", while Gerry O'Hara, a Sinn Féin councillor in Derry stated that he and not Ward was the Fianna leader at the time.\n\nMany observers allege that the Ministry of Defence acted in a way to impede the inquiry. Over 1,000 army photographs and original army helicopter video footage were never made available. Additionally, guns used on the day by the soldiers that could have been evidence in the inquiry were lost by the MoD. The MoD claimed that all the guns had been destroyed, but some were subsequently recovered in various locations (such as Sierra Leone and Beirut) despite the obstruction.\n\nBy the time the inquiry had retired to write up its findings, it had interviewed over 900 witnesses, over seven years, making it the biggest investigation in British legal history. The cost of this process has drawn criticism; as of the publication of the Saville Report being .\n\nBanner and crosses carried by the families of the victims on the annual commemoration march\nThe inquiry was expected to report in late 2009 but was delayed until after the general election on 6 May 2010.\n\nThe report of the inquiry was published on 15 June 2010. The report concluded, \"The firing by soldiers of 1 PARA on Bloody Sunday caused the deaths of 13 people and injury to a similar number, none of whom was posing a threat of causing death or serious injury.\" Saville stated that British paratroopers \"lost control\", fatally shooting fleeing civilians and those who tried to aid civilians who had been shot by the British soldiers. The report stated that British soldiers had concocted lies in their attempt to hide their acts. Saville stated that the civilians had not been warned by the British soldiers that they intended to shoot. The report states, contrary to the previously established belief, that no stones and no petrol bombs were thrown by civilians before British soldiers shot at them, and that the civilians were not posing any threat.\n\nThe report concluded that an Official IRA sniper fired on British soldiers, albeit that on the balance of evidence his shot was fired ''after'' the Army shots that wounded Damien Donaghey and John Johnston. The Inquiry rejected the sniper's account that this shot had been made in reprisal, stating the view that he and another Official IRA member had already been in position, and the shot had probably been fired simply because the opportunity had presented itself. Ultimately the Saville Inquiry was inconclusive on Martin McGuinness' role, due to a lack of certainty over his movements, concluding that while he was \"engaged in paramilitary activity\" during Bloody Sunday, and had probably been armed with a Thompson submachine gun, there was insufficient evidence to make any finding other than they were \"sure that he did not engage in any activity that provided any of the soldiers with any justification for opening fire\".\n\nRegarding the soldiers in charge on the day of Bloody Sunday, the Saville Inquiry arrived at the following findings:\n\n*Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford: Commander of 1 Para and directly responsible for arresting rioters and returning to base. Found to have 'deliberately disobeyed' his superior Brigadier Patrick MacLellan's orders by sending Support Company into the Bogside (and without informing MacLellan).\n*Major Ted Loden: Commander in charge of soldiers, following orders issued by Lieutenant Colonel Wilford. Cleared of misconduct; Saville cited in the report that Loden \"neither realised nor should have realised that his soldiers were or might be firing at people who were not posing or about to pose a threat\". The inquiry found that Loden could not be held responsible for claims (whether malicious or not) by some of the individual soldiers that they had received fire from snipers.\n*Captain Mike Jackson: Second in command of 1 Para on the day of Bloody Sunday. Cleared of sinister actions following Jackson's compiling of a list of what soldiers told Major Loden on why they had fired. This list became known as the \"Loden List of Engagements\" which played a role in the Army's initial explanations. While the inquiry found the compiling of the list was 'far from ideal', Jackson's explanations were accepted based on the list not containing the names of soldiers and the number of times they fired.\n*Major General Robert Ford: Commander of land forces and set the British strategy to oversee the civil march in Derry. Cleared of any fault, but his selection of 1 Para, and in particular his selection of Colonel Wilford to be in control of arresting rioters, was found to be disconcerting, specifically as \"1 PARA was a force with a reputation for using excessive physical violence, which thus ran the risk of exacerbating the tensions between the Army and nationalists\".\n*Brigadier Pat MacLellan: Operational commander of the day. Cleared of any wrongdoing as he was under the impression that Wilford would follow orders by arresting rioters and then returning to base, and could not be blamed for Wilford's actions.\n*Major Michael Steele: With MacLellan in the operations room and in charge of passing on the orders of the day. The inquiry report accepted that Steele could not believe other than that a separation had been achieved between rioters and marchers, because both groups were in different areas.\n*Other soldiers: Lance Corporal F was found responsible for a number of the deaths and that a number of soldiers have \"knowingly put forward false accounts in order to seek to justify their firing\".\n*Intelligence officer Colonel Maurice Tugwell and Colin Wallace, (an IPU army press officer): Cleared of wrongdoing. Saville believed the information Tugwell and Wallace released through the media was not down to any deliberate attempt to deceive the public but rather due to much of the inaccurate information Tugwell had received at the time by various other figures.\n\nReporting on the findings of the Saville Inquiry in the House of Commons, the British Prime Minister David Cameron said:\n\n\"Mr Speaker, I am deeply patriotic. I never want to believe anything bad about our country. I never want to call into question the behaviour of our soldiers and our army, who I believe to be the finest in the world. And I have seen for myself the very difficult and dangerous circumstances in which we ask our soldiers to serve. But the conclusions of this report are absolutely clear. There is no doubt, there is nothing equivocal, there are no ambiguities. What happened on Bloody Sunday was both unjustified and unjustifiable. It was wrong.\"\n","Bloody Sunday memorial in the Bogside\n\nHarold Wilson, then the Leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons, reiterated his belief that a united Ireland was the only possible solution to Northern Ireland's Troubles. William Craig, then Stormont Home Affairs Minister, suggested that the west bank of Derry should be ceded to the Republic of Ireland.\n\nWhen it was deployed on duty in Northern Ireland, the British Army was welcomed by Roman Catholics as a neutral force there to protect them from Protestant mobs, the RUC and the B-Specials. After Bloody Sunday many Catholics turned on the British army, seeing it no longer as their protector but as their enemy. Young nationalists became increasingly attracted to violent republican groups. With the Official IRA and Official Sinn Féin having moved away from mainstream Irish republicanism towards Marxism, the Provisional IRA began to win the support of newly radicalised, disaffected young people.\n\nIn the following twenty years, the Provisional Irish Republican Army and other smaller republican groups such as the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) stepped up their armed campaigns against the state and those seen as being in service to it. With rival paramilitary organisations appearing in both the nationalist/republican and unionist/loyalist communities (such as the Ulster Defence Association (UDA), Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), etc. on the loyalist side), the Troubles cost the lives of thousands of people.\n\nIn his speech to the House of Commons on the Inquiry, British Prime Minister David Cameron stated: \"These are shocking conclusions to read and shocking words to have to say. But you do not defend the British Army by defending the indefensible.\" He acknowledged that all those who died were unarmed when they were killed by British soldiers, and that a British soldier had fired the first shot at civilians. He also said that this was not a premeditated action, though \"there was no point in trying to soften or equivocate\" as \"what happened should never, ever have happened\". Cameron then apologised on behalf of the British Government by saying he was \"deeply sorry\".\n\nA survey conducted by Angus Reid Public Opinion in June 2010 found that 61 per cent of Britons and 70 per cent of Northern Irish agreed with Cameron's apology for the Bloody Sunday events.\n\nStephen Pollard, solicitor representing several of the soldiers, said on 15 June 2010 that Saville had cherry-picked the evidence and did not have justification for his findings.\nParachute Regiment flag and the Union flag flying in Ballymena\n\nIn 2012 an actively serving British army soldier from Belfast was charged with inciting hatred by a surviving relative of the deceased, due to their online use of social media to promote sectarian slogans about the killings while featuring banners of the Parachute Regiment logo.\n\nIn January 2013, shortly before the annual Bloody Sunday remembrance march, two Parachute Regiment flags appeared in the loyalist Fountain, and Waterside, Drumahoe areas of Derry. The display of the flags was heavily criticised by nationalist politicians and relatives of the Bloody Sunday dead. The Ministry of Defence also condemned the flying of the flags. The flags were removed to be replaced by Union Flags. In the run up to the loyalist marching season in 2013 the flag of the Parachute Regiment appeared alongside other loyalist flags in other parts of Northern Ireland. In 2014 loyalists in Cookstown erected the flags in opposition, close to the route of a St.Patrick's Day parade in the town.\n","Paul McCartney (who is of Irish descent) recorded the first song in response only two days after the incident. The single entitled \"Give Ireland Back to the Irish\", expressed his views on the matter. It was one of a few McCartney solo songs to be banned by the BBC.\n\nThe 1972 John Lennon album ''Some Time in New York City'' features a song entitled \"Sunday Bloody Sunday\", inspired by the incident, as well as the song \"The Luck of the Irish\", which dealt more with the Irish conflict in general. Lennon, who was of Irish descent, also spoke at a protest in New York in support of the victims and families of Bloody Sunday.\n\nIrish poet Thomas Kinsella's 1972 poem ''Butcher's Dozen'' is a satirical and angry response to the Widgery Tribunal and the events of Bloody Sunday.\n\nBlack Sabbath's Geezer Butler (also of Irish descent) wrote the lyrics to the Black Sabbath song \"Sabbath Bloody Sabbath\" on the album of the same name in 1973. Butler stated, \"…the Sunday Bloody Sunday thing had just happened in Ireland, when the British troops opened fire on the Irish demonstrators… So I came up with the title 'Sabbath Bloody Sabbath', and sort of put it in how the band was feeling at the time, getting away from management, mixed with the state Ireland was in.\"\n\nThe Roy Harper song \"All Ireland\" from the album ''Lifemask'', written in the days following the incident, is critical of the military but takes a long term view with regard to a solution. In Harper's book (''The Passions of Great Fortune''), his comment on the song ends \"…there must always be some hope that the children of 'Bloody Sunday', on both sides, can grow into some wisdom\".\n\nBrian Friel's 1973 play ''The Freedom of the City'' deals with the incident from the viewpoint of three civilians.\n\nIrish poet Seamus Heaney's ''Casualty'' (published in ''Field Work,'' 1981) criticizes Britain for the death of his friend.\n\nThe incident has been commemorated by Irish band, U2, in their 1983 protest song \"Sunday Bloody Sunday\".\n\nChristy Moore's song \"Minds Locked Shut\" on the album ''Graffiti Tongue'' is all about the events of the day, and names the dead civilians.\n\nThe events of the day have been dramatised in two 2002 television films, ''Bloody Sunday'' (starring James Nesbitt) and ''Sunday'' by Jimmy McGovern.\n\nThe Celtic metal band Cruachan addressed the incident in a song \"Bloody Sunday\" from their 2004 album ''Folk-Lore''.\n\nWillie Doherty, a Derry-born artist, has amassed a large body of work which addresses the troubles in Northern Ireland. \"30 January 1972\" deals specifically with the events of Bloody Sunday.\n\nIn mid-2005, the play ''Bloody Sunday: Scenes from the Saville Inquiry'', a dramatisation based on the Saville Inquiry, opened in London, and subsequently travelled to Derry and Dublin. The writer, journalist Richard Norton-Taylor, distilled four years of evidence into two hours of stage performance by Tricycle Theatre. The play received glowing reviews in all the British broadsheets, including ''The Times'': \"The Tricycle's latest recreation of a major inquiry is its most devastating\"; ''The Daily Telegraph'': \"I can't praise this enthralling production too highly… exceptionally gripping courtroom drama\"; and ''The Independent'': \"A necessary triumph\".\n\nSwedish troubadour Fred Åkerström wrote a song called \"Den 30/1-72\" about the incident.\n\nIn October 2010, T with the Maggies released the song ''Domhnach na Fola'' (Irish for ''Bloody Sunday''), written by Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh and Tríona Ní Dhomhnaill on their debut album.\n\nIrish professional wrestler Finn Bálor named one of his signature manoeuvres, a lifting single underhook DDT, \"Bloody Sunday\".\n","\n","* \n* (extracts available online)\n* \n* \n* \n* English, Richard. ''Armed Struggle;– A History of the IRA'', MacMillan, London 2003, \n","\n* Madden & Finucane Bloody Sunday index\n* CAIN Web Service Bloody Sunday index\n* UTV Coverage: Bloody Sunday & The Saville Report\n* Guardian Coverage\n* Dáil debate on Bloody Sunday\n* The Widgery Report (from Cain website)\n* BBC Special Report\n* Programme of events commemorating Bloody Sunday – 2008\n* 1610: Soldiers open fire\n\n;The events of the day\n* BBC Interactive Guide\n* Guardian Interactive Guide\n* History – Bloody Sunday – Events of the Day Museum of Free Derry\n\n;Contemporary newspaper coverage\n* \"13 killed as paratroops break riot\" from The Guardian, Monday 31 January 1972\n* \"Bogsiders insist that soldiers shot first\" from The Guardian, Tuesday 1 February 1972\n\n;Importance and impact\n* \"Shootings 'triggered decades of violence'\" from The Guardian, Wednesday 16 May 2001\n* Britain Acknowledges \"Bloody Sunday\" Killings Were Unjustified and Apologizes to Victims’ Families – video report by ''Democracy Now!''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n'''Bloody Sunday''' – sometimes called the '''Bogside Massacre''' – was an incident on 30 January 1972 in the Bogside area of Derry, Northern Ireland, when British soldiers shot 28 unarmed civilians during a peaceful protest march against internment. Fourteen people died: thirteen were killed outright, while the death of another man four months later was attributed to his injuries. Many of the victims were shot while fleeing from the soldiers and some were shot while trying to help the wounded. Other protesters were injured by rubber bullets or batons, and two were run down by army vehicles. The march had been organised by the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA). The soldiers involved were members of the 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment, also known as \\\"1 Para\\\".\\n\\nTwo investigations have been held by the British government. The Widgery Tribunal, held in the immediate aftermath of the incident, largely cleared the soldiers and British authorities of blame. It described the soldiers' shooting as \\\"bordering on the reckless\\\", but accepted their claims that they shot at gunmen and bomb-throwers. The report was widely criticised as a \\\"whitewash\\\". The Saville Inquiry, chaired by Lord Saville of Newdigate, was established in 1998 to reinvestigate the incident. Following a 12-year inquiry, Saville's report was made public in 2010 and concluded that the killings were both \\\"unjustified\\\" and \\\"unjustifiable\\\". It found that all of those shot were unarmed, that none were posing a serious threat, that no bombs were thrown, and that soldiers \\\"knowingly put forward false accounts\\\" to justify their firing. On the publication of the report, British prime minister David Cameron made a formal apology on behalf of the United Kingdom. Following this, police began a murder investigation into the killings.\\n\\nBloody Sunday was one of the most significant events of \\\"the Troubles\\\" because a large number of civilian citizens were killed, by forces of the state, in full view of the public and the press. It was the highest number of people killed in a single shooting incident during the conflict. Bloody Sunday increased Catholic and Irish nationalist hostility towards the British Army and exacerbated the conflict. Support for the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) rose and there was a surge of recruitment into the organisation, especially locally.\\n\",\n \"\\nThe City of Londonderry was perceived by many Catholics and Irish nationalists in Northern Ireland to be the epitome of what was described as \\\"fifty years of Unionist misrule\\\": despite having a nationalist majority, gerrymandering ensured elections to the City Corporation always returned a unionist majority. At the same time the city was perceived to be deprived of public investment – rail routes to the city were closed, motorways were not extended to it, a university was opened in the relatively small (Protestant-majority) town of Coleraine rather than Derry and, above all, the city's housing stock was in an appalling state. The city therefore became a significant focus of the civil rights campaign led by organisations such as Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) in the late 1960s and it was in Derry that the so-called Battle of the Bogside – the event that more than any other pushed the Northern Ireland administration to ask for military support for civil policing – took place in August 1969.\\n\\nWhile many Catholics initially welcomed the British Army as a neutral force, in contrast to what was regarded as a sectarian police force, relations between them soon deteriorated.\\n\\nIn response to escalating levels of violence across Northern Ireland, internment without trial was introduced on 9 August 1971. There was disorder across Northern Ireland following the introduction of internment, with 21 people being killed in three days of rioting. In Belfast, soldiers of the Parachute Regiment shot dead 11 Catholic civilians in what became known as the Ballymurphy Massacre. On 10 August, Bombardier Paul Challenor became the first soldier to be killed by the Provisional IRA in Derry, when he was shot by a sniper on the Creggan estate. A further six soldiers had been killed in Derry by mid-December 1971. At least 1,332 rounds were fired at the British Army, who also faced 211 explosions and 180 nail bombs, and who fired 364 rounds in return.\\n\\nIRA activity also increased across Northern Ireland with thirty British soldiers being killed in the remaining months of 1971, in contrast to the ten soldiers killed during the pre-internment period of the year. Both the Official IRA and Provisional IRA had established no-go areas for the British Army and Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) in Derry through the use of barricades. By the end of 1971, 29 barricades were in place to prevent access to what was known as Free Derry, 16 of them impassable even to the British Army's one-ton armoured vehicles. IRA members openly mounted roadblocks in front of the media, and daily clashes took place between nationalist youths and the British Army at a spot known as \\\"aggro corner\\\". Due to rioting and damage to shops caused by incendiary devices, an estimated total of worth of damage had been done to local businesses.\\n\\nOn 18 January 1972 Brian Faulkner, Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, banned all parades and marches in Northern Ireland until the end of the year.\\n\\nOn 22 January 1972, a week before Bloody Sunday, an anti-internment march was held at Magilligan strand, near Derry. The protesters marched to a new internment camp there, but were stopped by soldiers of the Parachute Regiment. When some protesters threw stones and tried to go around the barbed wire, paratroopers drove them back by firing rubber bullets at close range and making baton charges. The paratroopers badly beat a number of protesters and had to be physically restrained by their own officers. These allegations of brutality by paratroopers were reported widely on television and in the press. Some in the Army also thought there had been undue violence by the paratroopers.\\n\\nNICRA intended, despite the ban, to hold another anti-internment march in Derry on Sunday 30 January. The authorities decided to allow it to proceed in the Catholic areas of the city, but to stop it from reaching Guildhall Square, as planned by the organisers. The authorities expected that this would lead to rioting. Major General Robert Ford, then Commander of Land Forces in Northern Ireland, ordered that the 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment (1 Para), should travel to Derry to be used to arrest possible rioters. The arrest operation was codenamed 'Operation Forecast'. The Saville Report criticised General Ford for choosing the Parachute Regiment for the operation, as it had \\\"a reputation for using excessive physical violence\\\". The paratroopers arrived in Derry on the morning of the march and took up positions in the city. Brigadier Pat MacLellan was the operational commander and issued orders from Ebrington Barracks. He gave orders to Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford, commander of 1 Para. He in turn gave orders to Major Ted Loden, who commanded the company who launched the arrest operation.\\n\",\n \"\\nThe Bogside in 1981, overlooking the area where many of the victims were shot. On the right of the picture is the south side of Rossville Flats, and in the middle distance is Glenfada Park.\\n\\nThe protesters planned on marching from Bishop's Field, in the Creggan housing estate, to the Guildhall, in the city centre, where they would hold a rally. The march set off at about 2:45pm. There were 10–15,000 people on the march, with many joining along its route. Lord Widgery, in his now discredited tribunal, said that there were only 3,000 to 5,000.\\n\\nThe march made its way along William Street but, as it neared the city centre, its path was blocked by British Army barriers. The organisers redirected the march down Rossville Street, intending to hold the rally at Free Derry Corner instead. However, some broke off from the march and began throwing stones at soldiers manning the barriers. The soldiers fired rubber bullets, CS gas and water cannon to try to disperse the rioters. Such clashes between soldiers and youths were common, and observers reported that the rioting was not intense.\\n\\nSome of the crowd spotted paratroopers hiding in a derelict three-storey building overlooking William Street, and began throwing stones at the windows. At about 3:55pm, these paratroopers opened fire. Civilians Damien Donaghy and John Johnston were shot and wounded while standing on waste ground opposite the building. These were the first shots fired. The soldiers claimed Donaghy was holding a black cylindrical object, but the Saville Inquiry concluded that all of those shot were unarmed.\\n\\nAt 4:07pm, the paratroopers were ordered to go through the barriers and arrest rioters. The paratroopers, on foot and in armoured vehicles, chased people down Rossville Street and into the Bogside. Two people were knocked down by the vehicles. Brigadier MacLellan had ordered that only one company of paratroopers be sent through the barriers, on foot, and that they should not chase people down Rossville Street. Colonel Wilford disobeyed this order, which meant there was no separation between rioters and peaceful marchers.\\n\\nThe paratroopers disembarked and began seizing people. There were many claims of paratroopers beating people, clubbing them with rifle butts, firing rubber bullets at them from close range, making threats to kill, and hurling abuse. The Saville Report agreed that soldiers \\\"used excessive force when arresting people … as well as seriously assaulting them for no good reason while in their custody\\\".\\n\\nOne group of paratroopers took up position at a low wall about in front of a rubble barricade that stretched across Rossville Street. There were people at the barricade and some were throwing stones at the soldiers, but none were near enough to hit them. The soldiers fired on the people at the barricade, killing six and wounding a seventh.\\n\\nA large group of people fled or were chased into the car park of Rossville Flats. This area was like a courtyard, surrounded on three sides by high-rise flats. The soldiers opened fire, killing one civilian and wounding six others. This fatality, Jackie Duddy, was running alongside a priest, Father Edward Daly, when he was shot in the back.\\n\\nAnother group of people fled into the car park of Glenfada Park, which was also a courtyard-like area surrounded by flats. Here, the soldiers shot at people across the car park, about 40–50 yards away. Two civilians were killed and at least four others wounded. The Saville Report says it is \\\"probable\\\" that at least one soldier fired from the hip towards the crowd, without aiming.\\n\\nThe soldiers went through the car park and out the other side. Some soldiers went out the southwest corner, where they shot dead two civilians. The other soldiers went out the southeast corner and shot four more civilians, killing two.\\n\\nAbout ten minutes had elapsed between the time soldiers drove into the Bogside and the time the last of the civilians was shot. More than 100 rounds were fired by the soldiers.\\n\\nSome of those shot were given first aid by civilian volunteers, either on the scene or after being carried into nearby homes. They were then driven to hospital, either in civilian cars or in ambulances. The first ambulances arrived at 4:28pm. The three boys killed at the rubble barricade were driven to hospital by the paratroopers. Witnesses said paratroopers lifted the bodies by the hands and feet and dumped them in the back of their APC, as if they were \\\"pieces of meat\\\". The Saville Report agreed that this is an \\\"accurate description of what happened\\\". It says the paratroopers \\\"might well have felt themselves at risk, but in our view this does not excuse them\\\".\\n\\n===Casualties===\\nMural by the Bogside Artists depicting all who were killed by the British Army on the day\\nBelt worn by Patrick Doherty. The notch was made by the bullet that killed him.\\nIn all, 26 people were shot by the paratroopers; 13 died on the day and another died four months later. Most of them were killed in four main areas: the rubble barricade across Rossville Street, the courtyard car park of Rossville Flats (on the north side of the flats), the courtyard car park of Glenfada Park, and the forecourt of Rossville Flats (on the south side of the flats).\\n\\nAll of the soldiers responsible insisted that they had shot at, and hit, gunmen or bomb-throwers. The Saville Report concluded that all of those shot were unarmed and that none were posing a serious threat. It also concluded that none of the soldiers fired in response to attacks, or threatened attacks, by gunmen or bomb-throwers.\\n\\nThe casualties are listed in the order in which they were killed.\\n\\n* '''John 'Jackie' Duddy''', age 17. Shot as he ran away from soldiers in the car park of Rossville Flats. The bullet struck him in the shoulder and entered his chest. Three witnesses said they saw a soldier take deliberate aim at the youth as he ran. He was the first fatality on Bloody Sunday. Like Saville, Widgery also concluded that Duddy was unarmed. His nephew is boxer John Duddy.\\n* '''Michael Kelly''', age 17. Shot in the stomach while standing at the rubble barricade on Rossville Street. Both Saville and Widgery concluded that Kelly was unarmed.\\n* '''Hugh Gilmour''', age 17. Shot as he ran away from soldiers near the rubble barricade. The bullet went through his left elbow and entered his chest. Widgery acknowledged that a photograph taken seconds after Gilmour was hit corroborated witness reports that he was unarmed, and that tests for gunshot residue were negative.\\n* '''William Nash''', age 19. Shot in the chest at the rubble barricade. Witnesses stated Nash was unarmed. Three people were shot while apparently going to his aid, including his father Alexander Nash.\\n* '''John Young''', age 17. Shot in the face at the rubble barricade, apparently while crouching and going to the aid of William Nash. Two witnesses stated Young was unarmed.\\n* '''Michael McDaid''', age 20. Shot in the face at the rubble barricade, apparently while crouching and going to the aid of William Nash.\\n* '''Kevin McElhinney''', age 17. Shot from behind, near the rubble barricade, while attempting to crawl to safety. Two witnesses stated McElhinney was unarmed.\\n* '''James 'Jim' Wray''', age 22. Shot in the back while running away from soldiers in Glenfada Park courtyard. He was then shot again in the back as he lay mortally wounded on the ground. Witnesses, who were not called to the Widgery Tribunal, stated that Wray was calling out that he could not move his legs before he was shot the second time.\\n* '''William McKinney''', age 27. Shot in the back as he attempted to flee through Glenfada Park courtyard.\\n* '''Gerard McKinney''', age 35. Shot in the chest at Abbey Park. A soldier ran through an alleyway from Glenfada Park and shot him from a few yards away. Witnesses said that when he saw the soldier, McKinney stopped and held up his arms, shouting \\\"Don't shoot! Don't shoot!\\\", before being shot. The bullet apparently went through his body and struck Gerard Donaghy behind him.\\n* '''Gerard Donaghy''', age 17. Shot in the stomach at Abbey Park while standing behind Gerard McKinney. Both were apparently struck by the same bullet. Bystanders brought Donaghy to a nearby house, where he was examined by a doctor. The doctor opened Donaghy's clothes to examine him, and his pockets were also searched for identification. Two bystanders then attempted to drive Donaghy to hospital, but the car was stopped at an Army checkpoint. They were ordered to leave the car and a soldier drove it to a Regimental Aid Post, where an Army medical officer pronounced Donaghy dead. Shortly after, soldiers found four nail bombs in his pockets. The civilians who searched him, the soldier who drove him to the Army post, and the Army medical officer, all said that they did not see any bombs. This led to claims that soldiers planted the bombs on Donaghy to justify the killings. Donaghy was a member of Fianna Éireann, an IRA-linked republican youth movement. Paddy Ward, a police informer who gave evidence at the Saville Inquiry, claimed he gave two nail bombs to Donaghy several hours before he was shot. The Saville Report concluded that the bombs were probably in Donaghy's pockets when he was shot. However, it concluded that he was not about to throw a bomb when he was shot; and that he was not shot because he had bombs. \\\"He was shot while trying to escape from the soldiers\\\".\\n* '''Patrick Doherty''', age 31. Shot from behind while attempting to crawl to safety in the forecourt of Rossville Flats. He was shot by soldiers who came out of Glenfada Park. Doherty was photographed, moments before and after he died, by French journalist Gilles Peress. Despite testimony from \\\"Soldier F\\\" that he had shot a man holding a pistol, Widgery acknowledged that the photographs show Doherty was unarmed, and that forensic tests on his hands for gunshot residue proved negative.\\n* '''Bernard 'Barney' McGuigan''', age 41. Shot in the head when he walked out from cover to help Patrick Doherty. He had been waving a white handkerchief to indicate his peaceful intentions.\\n* '''John Johnston''', age 59. Shot in the leg and left shoulder on William Street 15 minutes before the rest of the shooting started. Johnston was not on the march, but on his way to visit a friend in Glenfada Park. He died on 16 June 1972; his death has been attributed to the injuries he received on the day. He was the only one not to die immediately or soon after being shot.\\n\\n\\n\\n\",\n \"Thirteen people were shot and killed, with another man later dying of his wounds. The official army position, backed by the British Home Secretary the next day in the House of Commons, was that the paratroopers had reacted to gun and nail bomb attacks from suspected IRA members. All eyewitnesses (apart from the soldiers), including marchers, local residents, and British and Irish journalists present, maintain that soldiers fired into an unarmed crowd, or were aiming at fleeing people and those tending the wounded, whereas the soldiers themselves were not fired upon. No British soldier was wounded by gunfire or reported any injuries, nor were any bullets or nail bombs recovered to back up their claims.\\n\\nOn 2 February, the day that 12 of those killed were buried, there was a general strike in the Republic, described as the biggest general strike in Europe since the Second World War relative to population. Memorial services were held in Catholic and Protestant churches, as well as synagogues, throughout the Republic. The same day, irate crowds burned down the British embassy on Merrion Square in Dublin. Anglo-Irish relations hit one of their lowest ebbs with the Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs, Patrick Hillery, going to the United Nations Security Council in New York to demand the involvement of a UN peacekeeping force in the Northern Ireland \\\"Troubles\\\".\\n\\nAlthough there were many IRA men—both Official and Provisional—at the protest, it is claimed they were all unarmed, apparently because it was anticipated that the paratroopers would attempt to \\\"draw them out.\\\" March organiser and MP Ivan Cooper had been promised beforehand that no armed IRA men would be near the march. One paratrooper who gave evidence at the tribunal testified that they were told by an officer to expect a gunfight and \\\"We want some kills.\\\" In the event, one man was witnessed by Father Edward Daly and others haphazardly firing a revolver in the direction of the paratroopers. Later identified as a member of the Official IRA, this man was also photographed in the act of drawing his weapon, but was apparently not seen or targeted by the soldiers. Various other claims have been made to the Saville Inquiry about gunmen on the day.\\n\\nThe city's coroner, Hubert O'Neill, a retired British Army major, issued a statement on 21 August 1973 at the completion of the inquest into the deaths of those killed. He declared:\\n\\n\\nTwo days after Bloody Sunday, the Westminster Parliament adopted a resolution for a tribunal into the events of the day, resulting in Prime Minister Edward Heath commissioning the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Widgery, to undertake it. Many witnesses intended to boycott the tribunal as they lacked faith in Widgery's impartiality, but were eventually persuaded to take part. Widgery's quickly-produced report—completed within 10 weeks (10 April) and published within 11 (19 April)—supported the Army's account of the events of the day. Among the evidence presented to the tribunal were the results of paraffin tests, used to identify lead residues from firing weapons, and that nail bombs had been found on the body of one of those killed. Tests for traces of explosives on the clothes of eleven of the dead proved negative, while those of the remaining man could not be tested as they had already been washed. Most witnesses to the event disputed the report's conclusions and regarded it as a whitewash. It has been argued that firearms residue on some deceased may have come from contact with the soldiers who themselves moved some of the bodies, or that the presence of lead on the hands of one (James Wray) was easily explained by the fact that his occupation involved the use of lead-based solder. In 1992, John Major, writing to John Hume stated:\\n\\n\\nThe 35th Bloody Sunday memorial march in Derry, 28 January 2007\\nFollowing the events of Bloody Sunday Bernadette Devlin, an Independent Socialist nationalist MP from Northern Ireland, expressed anger at what she perceived as government attempts to stifle accounts being reported about the day. Having witnessed the events firsthand, she was later infuriated that Speaker Selwyn Lloyd consistently denied her the chance to speak in Parliament about the day, although parliamentary convention decreed that any MP witnessing an incident under discussion would be granted an opportunity to speak about it in the House.\\nDevlin punched Reginald Maudling, the Secretary of State for the Home Department in the Conservative government, when he made a statement to Parliament on the events of Bloody Sunday stating that the British Army had fired only in self-defence.\\nShe was temporarily suspended from Parliament as a result of the incident. Nonetheless, six months after Bloody Sunday, Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford who was directly in charge of 1 Para, the soldiers who went into the Bogside, was awarded the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II.\\n\\nIn January 1997, the UK television broadcaster Channel 4 carried a news report suggesting that members of the Royal Anglian Regiment had also opened fire on the protesters, and could have been responsible for three of the 14 deaths.\\n\\nOn 29 May 2007, General (then Captain) Sir Mike Jackson, adjutant of 1 Para on Bloody Sunday, said: \\\"I have no doubt that innocent people were shot.\\\" This was in sharp contrast to his insistence, for more than 30 years, that those killed on the day had not been innocent. In 2008 a former aide to British Prime Minister Tony Blair, Jonathan Powell, described Widgery as a \\\"complete and utter whitewash.\\\"\\nIn 1998 Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford expressed his anger at Tony Blair's intention of setting up the Saville inquiry, stating that he was proud of his actions on Bloody Sunday. Two years later in 2000 during an interview with the BBC, Wilford said: \\\"There might have been things wrong in the sense that some innocent people, people who were not carrying a weapon, were wounded or even killed. But that was not done as a deliberate malicious act. It was done as an act of war.\\\"\\n\\nOn 10 November 2015, a 66-year-old former member of the Parachute Regiment was arrested for questioning over the deaths of William Nash, Michael McDaid and John Young.\\n\",\n \"\\nGuildhall, home to the Inquiry\\n\\nAlthough British Prime Minister John Major rejected John Hume's requests for a public inquiry into the killings, his successor, Tony Blair, decided to start one. A second commission of inquiry, chaired by Lord Saville, was established in January 1998 to re-examine Bloody Sunday. The other judges were John Toohey QC, a former Justice of the High Court of Australia who had worked on Aboriginal issues (he replaced New Zealander Sir Edward Somers QC, who retired from the Inquiry in 2000 for personal reasons), and Mr Justice William Hoyt QC, former Chief Justice of New Brunswick and a member of the Canadian Judicial Council. The hearings were concluded in November 2004, and the report was published 15 June 2010. The Saville Inquiry was a more comprehensive study than the Widgery Tribunal, interviewing a wide range of witnesses, including local residents, soldiers, journalists and politicians. Lord Saville declined to comment on the Widgery report and made the point that the Saville Inquiry was a judicial inquiry into Bloody Sunday, not the Widgery Tribunal.\\n\\nEvidence given by Martin McGuinness, a senior member of Sinn Féin and later the deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland, to the inquiry stated that he was second-in-command of the Derry City brigade of the Provisional IRA and was present at the march. A claim was made at the Saville Inquiry that McGuinness was responsible for supplying detonators for nail bombs on Bloody Sunday. Paddy Ward claimed he was the leader of the Fianna Éireann, the youth wing of the IRA in January 1972. He claimed that McGuinness, the second-in-command of the IRA in the city at the time, and another anonymous IRA member gave him bomb parts on the morning of 30 January, the date planned for the civil rights march. He said his organisation intended to attack city-centre premises in Derry on the day when civilians were shot dead by British soldiers. In response McGuinness rejected the claims as \\\"fantasy\\\", while Gerry O'Hara, a Sinn Féin councillor in Derry stated that he and not Ward was the Fianna leader at the time.\\n\\nMany observers allege that the Ministry of Defence acted in a way to impede the inquiry. Over 1,000 army photographs and original army helicopter video footage were never made available. Additionally, guns used on the day by the soldiers that could have been evidence in the inquiry were lost by the MoD. The MoD claimed that all the guns had been destroyed, but some were subsequently recovered in various locations (such as Sierra Leone and Beirut) despite the obstruction.\\n\\nBy the time the inquiry had retired to write up its findings, it had interviewed over 900 witnesses, over seven years, making it the biggest investigation in British legal history. The cost of this process has drawn criticism; as of the publication of the Saville Report being .\\n\\nBanner and crosses carried by the families of the victims on the annual commemoration march\\nThe inquiry was expected to report in late 2009 but was delayed until after the general election on 6 May 2010.\\n\\nThe report of the inquiry was published on 15 June 2010. The report concluded, \\\"The firing by soldiers of 1 PARA on Bloody Sunday caused the deaths of 13 people and injury to a similar number, none of whom was posing a threat of causing death or serious injury.\\\" Saville stated that British paratroopers \\\"lost control\\\", fatally shooting fleeing civilians and those who tried to aid civilians who had been shot by the British soldiers. The report stated that British soldiers had concocted lies in their attempt to hide their acts. Saville stated that the civilians had not been warned by the British soldiers that they intended to shoot. The report states, contrary to the previously established belief, that no stones and no petrol bombs were thrown by civilians before British soldiers shot at them, and that the civilians were not posing any threat.\\n\\nThe report concluded that an Official IRA sniper fired on British soldiers, albeit that on the balance of evidence his shot was fired ''after'' the Army shots that wounded Damien Donaghey and John Johnston. The Inquiry rejected the sniper's account that this shot had been made in reprisal, stating the view that he and another Official IRA member had already been in position, and the shot had probably been fired simply because the opportunity had presented itself. Ultimately the Saville Inquiry was inconclusive on Martin McGuinness' role, due to a lack of certainty over his movements, concluding that while he was \\\"engaged in paramilitary activity\\\" during Bloody Sunday, and had probably been armed with a Thompson submachine gun, there was insufficient evidence to make any finding other than they were \\\"sure that he did not engage in any activity that provided any of the soldiers with any justification for opening fire\\\".\\n\\nRegarding the soldiers in charge on the day of Bloody Sunday, the Saville Inquiry arrived at the following findings:\\n\\n*Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford: Commander of 1 Para and directly responsible for arresting rioters and returning to base. Found to have 'deliberately disobeyed' his superior Brigadier Patrick MacLellan's orders by sending Support Company into the Bogside (and without informing MacLellan).\\n*Major Ted Loden: Commander in charge of soldiers, following orders issued by Lieutenant Colonel Wilford. Cleared of misconduct; Saville cited in the report that Loden \\\"neither realised nor should have realised that his soldiers were or might be firing at people who were not posing or about to pose a threat\\\". The inquiry found that Loden could not be held responsible for claims (whether malicious or not) by some of the individual soldiers that they had received fire from snipers.\\n*Captain Mike Jackson: Second in command of 1 Para on the day of Bloody Sunday. Cleared of sinister actions following Jackson's compiling of a list of what soldiers told Major Loden on why they had fired. This list became known as the \\\"Loden List of Engagements\\\" which played a role in the Army's initial explanations. While the inquiry found the compiling of the list was 'far from ideal', Jackson's explanations were accepted based on the list not containing the names of soldiers and the number of times they fired.\\n*Major General Robert Ford: Commander of land forces and set the British strategy to oversee the civil march in Derry. Cleared of any fault, but his selection of 1 Para, and in particular his selection of Colonel Wilford to be in control of arresting rioters, was found to be disconcerting, specifically as \\\"1 PARA was a force with a reputation for using excessive physical violence, which thus ran the risk of exacerbating the tensions between the Army and nationalists\\\".\\n*Brigadier Pat MacLellan: Operational commander of the day. Cleared of any wrongdoing as he was under the impression that Wilford would follow orders by arresting rioters and then returning to base, and could not be blamed for Wilford's actions.\\n*Major Michael Steele: With MacLellan in the operations room and in charge of passing on the orders of the day. The inquiry report accepted that Steele could not believe other than that a separation had been achieved between rioters and marchers, because both groups were in different areas.\\n*Other soldiers: Lance Corporal F was found responsible for a number of the deaths and that a number of soldiers have \\\"knowingly put forward false accounts in order to seek to justify their firing\\\".\\n*Intelligence officer Colonel Maurice Tugwell and Colin Wallace, (an IPU army press officer): Cleared of wrongdoing. Saville believed the information Tugwell and Wallace released through the media was not down to any deliberate attempt to deceive the public but rather due to much of the inaccurate information Tugwell had received at the time by various other figures.\\n\\nReporting on the findings of the Saville Inquiry in the House of Commons, the British Prime Minister David Cameron said:\\n\\n\\\"Mr Speaker, I am deeply patriotic. I never want to believe anything bad about our country. I never want to call into question the behaviour of our soldiers and our army, who I believe to be the finest in the world. And I have seen for myself the very difficult and dangerous circumstances in which we ask our soldiers to serve. But the conclusions of this report are absolutely clear. There is no doubt, there is nothing equivocal, there are no ambiguities. What happened on Bloody Sunday was both unjustified and unjustifiable. It was wrong.\\\"\\n\",\n \"Bloody Sunday memorial in the Bogside\\n\\nHarold Wilson, then the Leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons, reiterated his belief that a united Ireland was the only possible solution to Northern Ireland's Troubles. William Craig, then Stormont Home Affairs Minister, suggested that the west bank of Derry should be ceded to the Republic of Ireland.\\n\\nWhen it was deployed on duty in Northern Ireland, the British Army was welcomed by Roman Catholics as a neutral force there to protect them from Protestant mobs, the RUC and the B-Specials. After Bloody Sunday many Catholics turned on the British army, seeing it no longer as their protector but as their enemy. Young nationalists became increasingly attracted to violent republican groups. With the Official IRA and Official Sinn Féin having moved away from mainstream Irish republicanism towards Marxism, the Provisional IRA began to win the support of newly radicalised, disaffected young people.\\n\\nIn the following twenty years, the Provisional Irish Republican Army and other smaller republican groups such as the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) stepped up their armed campaigns against the state and those seen as being in service to it. With rival paramilitary organisations appearing in both the nationalist/republican and unionist/loyalist communities (such as the Ulster Defence Association (UDA), Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), etc. on the loyalist side), the Troubles cost the lives of thousands of people.\\n\\nIn his speech to the House of Commons on the Inquiry, British Prime Minister David Cameron stated: \\\"These are shocking conclusions to read and shocking words to have to say. But you do not defend the British Army by defending the indefensible.\\\" He acknowledged that all those who died were unarmed when they were killed by British soldiers, and that a British soldier had fired the first shot at civilians. He also said that this was not a premeditated action, though \\\"there was no point in trying to soften or equivocate\\\" as \\\"what happened should never, ever have happened\\\". Cameron then apologised on behalf of the British Government by saying he was \\\"deeply sorry\\\".\\n\\nA survey conducted by Angus Reid Public Opinion in June 2010 found that 61 per cent of Britons and 70 per cent of Northern Irish agreed with Cameron's apology for the Bloody Sunday events.\\n\\nStephen Pollard, solicitor representing several of the soldiers, said on 15 June 2010 that Saville had cherry-picked the evidence and did not have justification for his findings.\\nParachute Regiment flag and the Union flag flying in Ballymena\\n\\nIn 2012 an actively serving British army soldier from Belfast was charged with inciting hatred by a surviving relative of the deceased, due to their online use of social media to promote sectarian slogans about the killings while featuring banners of the Parachute Regiment logo.\\n\\nIn January 2013, shortly before the annual Bloody Sunday remembrance march, two Parachute Regiment flags appeared in the loyalist Fountain, and Waterside, Drumahoe areas of Derry. The display of the flags was heavily criticised by nationalist politicians and relatives of the Bloody Sunday dead. The Ministry of Defence also condemned the flying of the flags. The flags were removed to be replaced by Union Flags. In the run up to the loyalist marching season in 2013 the flag of the Parachute Regiment appeared alongside other loyalist flags in other parts of Northern Ireland. In 2014 loyalists in Cookstown erected the flags in opposition, close to the route of a St.Patrick's Day parade in the town.\\n\",\n \"Paul McCartney (who is of Irish descent) recorded the first song in response only two days after the incident. The single entitled \\\"Give Ireland Back to the Irish\\\", expressed his views on the matter. It was one of a few McCartney solo songs to be banned by the BBC.\\n\\nThe 1972 John Lennon album ''Some Time in New York City'' features a song entitled \\\"Sunday Bloody Sunday\\\", inspired by the incident, as well as the song \\\"The Luck of the Irish\\\", which dealt more with the Irish conflict in general. Lennon, who was of Irish descent, also spoke at a protest in New York in support of the victims and families of Bloody Sunday.\\n\\nIrish poet Thomas Kinsella's 1972 poem ''Butcher's Dozen'' is a satirical and angry response to the Widgery Tribunal and the events of Bloody Sunday.\\n\\nBlack Sabbath's Geezer Butler (also of Irish descent) wrote the lyrics to the Black Sabbath song \\\"Sabbath Bloody Sabbath\\\" on the album of the same name in 1973. Butler stated, \\\"…the Sunday Bloody Sunday thing had just happened in Ireland, when the British troops opened fire on the Irish demonstrators… So I came up with the title 'Sabbath Bloody Sabbath', and sort of put it in how the band was feeling at the time, getting away from management, mixed with the state Ireland was in.\\\"\\n\\nThe Roy Harper song \\\"All Ireland\\\" from the album ''Lifemask'', written in the days following the incident, is critical of the military but takes a long term view with regard to a solution. In Harper's book (''The Passions of Great Fortune''), his comment on the song ends \\\"…there must always be some hope that the children of 'Bloody Sunday', on both sides, can grow into some wisdom\\\".\\n\\nBrian Friel's 1973 play ''The Freedom of the City'' deals with the incident from the viewpoint of three civilians.\\n\\nIrish poet Seamus Heaney's ''Casualty'' (published in ''Field Work,'' 1981) criticizes Britain for the death of his friend.\\n\\nThe incident has been commemorated by Irish band, U2, in their 1983 protest song \\\"Sunday Bloody Sunday\\\".\\n\\nChristy Moore's song \\\"Minds Locked Shut\\\" on the album ''Graffiti Tongue'' is all about the events of the day, and names the dead civilians.\\n\\nThe events of the day have been dramatised in two 2002 television films, ''Bloody Sunday'' (starring James Nesbitt) and ''Sunday'' by Jimmy McGovern.\\n\\nThe Celtic metal band Cruachan addressed the incident in a song \\\"Bloody Sunday\\\" from their 2004 album ''Folk-Lore''.\\n\\nWillie Doherty, a Derry-born artist, has amassed a large body of work which addresses the troubles in Northern Ireland. \\\"30 January 1972\\\" deals specifically with the events of Bloody Sunday.\\n\\nIn mid-2005, the play ''Bloody Sunday: Scenes from the Saville Inquiry'', a dramatisation based on the Saville Inquiry, opened in London, and subsequently travelled to Derry and Dublin. The writer, journalist Richard Norton-Taylor, distilled four years of evidence into two hours of stage performance by Tricycle Theatre. The play received glowing reviews in all the British broadsheets, including ''The Times'': \\\"The Tricycle's latest recreation of a major inquiry is its most devastating\\\"; ''The Daily Telegraph'': \\\"I can't praise this enthralling production too highly… exceptionally gripping courtroom drama\\\"; and ''The Independent'': \\\"A necessary triumph\\\".\\n\\nSwedish troubadour Fred Åkerström wrote a song called \\\"Den 30/1-72\\\" about the incident.\\n\\nIn October 2010, T with the Maggies released the song ''Domhnach na Fola'' (Irish for ''Bloody Sunday''), written by Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh and Tríona Ní Dhomhnaill on their debut album.\\n\\nIrish professional wrestler Finn Bálor named one of his signature manoeuvres, a lifting single underhook DDT, \\\"Bloody Sunday\\\".\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"* \\n* (extracts available online)\\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* English, Richard. ''Armed Struggle;– A History of the IRA'', MacMillan, London 2003, \\n\",\n \"\\n* Madden & Finucane Bloody Sunday index\\n* CAIN Web Service Bloody Sunday index\\n* UTV Coverage: Bloody Sunday & The Saville Report\\n* Guardian Coverage\\n* Dáil debate on Bloody Sunday\\n* The Widgery Report (from Cain website)\\n* BBC Special Report\\n* Programme of events commemorating Bloody Sunday – 2008\\n* 1610: Soldiers open fire\\n\\n;The events of the day\\n* BBC Interactive Guide\\n* Guardian Interactive Guide\\n* History – Bloody Sunday – Events of the Day Museum of Free Derry\\n\\n;Contemporary newspaper coverage\\n* \\\"13 killed as paratroops break riot\\\" from The Guardian, Monday 31 January 1972\\n* \\\"Bogsiders insist that soldiers shot first\\\" from The Guardian, Tuesday 1 February 1972\\n\\n;Importance and impact\\n* \\\"Shootings 'triggered decades of violence'\\\" from The Guardian, Wednesday 16 May 2001\\n* Britain Acknowledges \\\"Bloody Sunday\\\" Killings Were Unjustified and Apologizes to Victims’ Families – video report by ''Democracy Now!''\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction","Background","Events of the day","Aftermath","Saville Inquiry","Impact on Northern Ireland divisions","Artistic reaction","References","Bibliography","External links"],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \"Background\",\n \"Events of the day\",\n \"Aftermath\",\n \"Saville Inquiry\",\n \"Impact on Northern Ireland divisions\",\n \"Artistic reaction\",\n \"References\",\n \"Bibliography\",\n \"External links\"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Bloody Sunday (1972)"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["William Craig, then Stormont Home Affairs Minister, suggested that the west bank of Derry should be ceded to the Republic of Ireland."],"string":"[\n \"William Craig, then Stormont Home Affairs Minister, suggested that the west bank of Derry should be ceded to the Republic of Ireland.\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\n\n'''Bloody Sunday''' – sometimes called the '''Bogside Massacre''' – was an incident on 30 January 1972 in the Bogside area of Derry, Northern Ireland, when British soldiers shot 28 unarmed civilians during a peaceful protest march against internment.","Fourteen people died: thirteen were killed outright, while the death of another man four months later was attributed to his injuries.","Many of the victims were shot while fleeing from the soldiers and some were shot while trying to help the wounded.","Other protesters were injured by rubber bullets or batons, and two were run down by army vehicles.","The march had been organised by the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA).","The soldiers involved were members of the 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment, also known as \"1 Para\".","Two investigations have been held by the British government.","The Widgery Tribunal, held in the immediate aftermath of the incident, largely cleared the soldiers and British authorities of blame.","It described the soldiers' shooting as \"bordering on the reckless\", but accepted their claims that they shot at gunmen and bomb-throwers.","The report was widely criticised as a \"whitewash\".","The Saville Inquiry, chaired by Lord Saville of Newdigate, was established in 1998 to reinvestigate the incident.","Following a 12-year inquiry, Saville's report was made public in 2010 and concluded that the killings were both \"unjustified\" and \"unjustifiable\".","It found that all of those shot were unarmed, that none were posing a serious threat, that no bombs were thrown, and that soldiers \"knowingly put forward false accounts\" to justify their firing.","On the publication of the report, British prime minister David Cameron made a formal apology on behalf of the United Kingdom.","Following this, police began a murder investigation into the killings.","Bloody Sunday was one of the most significant events of \"the Troubles\" because a large number of civilian citizens were killed, by forces of the state, in full view of the public and the press.","It was the highest number of people killed in a single shooting incident during the conflict.","Bloody Sunday increased Catholic and Irish nationalist hostility towards the British Army and exacerbated the conflict.","Support for the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) rose and there was a surge of recruitment into the organisation, especially locally.","\nThe City of Londonderry was perceived by many Catholics and Irish nationalists in Northern Ireland to be the epitome of what was described as \"fifty years of Unionist misrule\": despite having a nationalist majority, gerrymandering ensured elections to the City Corporation always returned a unionist majority.","At the same time the city was perceived to be deprived of public investment – rail routes to the city were closed, motorways were not extended to it, a university was opened in the relatively small (Protestant-majority) town of Coleraine rather than Derry and, above all, the city's housing stock was in an appalling state.","The city therefore became a significant focus of the civil rights campaign led by organisations such as Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) in the late 1960s and it was in Derry that the so-called Battle of the Bogside – the event that more than any other pushed the Northern Ireland administration to ask for military support for civil policing – took place in August 1969.","While many Catholics initially welcomed the British Army as a neutral force, in contrast to what was regarded as a sectarian police force, relations between them soon deteriorated.","In response to escalating levels of violence across Northern Ireland, internment without trial was introduced on 9 August 1971.","There was disorder across Northern Ireland following the introduction of internment, with 21 people being killed in three days of rioting.","In Belfast, soldiers of the Parachute Regiment shot dead 11 Catholic civilians in what became known as the Ballymurphy Massacre.","On 10 August, Bombardier Paul Challenor became the first soldier to be killed by the Provisional IRA in Derry, when he was shot by a sniper on the Creggan estate.","A further six soldiers had been killed in Derry by mid-December 1971.","At least 1,332 rounds were fired at the British Army, who also faced 211 explosions and 180 nail bombs, and who fired 364 rounds in return.","IRA activity also increased across Northern Ireland with thirty British soldiers being killed in the remaining months of 1971, in contrast to the ten soldiers killed during the pre-internment period of the year.","Both the Official IRA and Provisional IRA had established no-go areas for the British Army and Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) in Derry through the use of barricades.","By the end of 1971, 29 barricades were in place to prevent access to what was known as Free Derry, 16 of them impassable even to the British Army's one-ton armoured vehicles.","IRA members openly mounted roadblocks in front of the media, and daily clashes took place between nationalist youths and the British Army at a spot known as \"aggro corner\".","Due to rioting and damage to shops caused by incendiary devices, an estimated total of worth of damage had been done to local businesses.","On 18 January 1972 Brian Faulkner, Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, banned all parades and marches in Northern Ireland until the end of the year.","On 22 January 1972, a week before Bloody Sunday, an anti-internment march was held at Magilligan strand, near Derry.","The protesters marched to a new internment camp there, but were stopped by soldiers of the Parachute Regiment.","When some protesters threw stones and tried to go around the barbed wire, paratroopers drove them back by firing rubber bullets at close range and making baton charges.","The paratroopers badly beat a number of protesters and had to be physically restrained by their own officers.","These allegations of brutality by paratroopers were reported widely on television and in the press.","Some in the Army also thought there had been undue violence by the paratroopers.","NICRA intended, despite the ban, to hold another anti-internment march in Derry on Sunday 30 January.","The authorities decided to allow it to proceed in the Catholic areas of the city, but to stop it from reaching Guildhall Square, as planned by the organisers.","The authorities expected that this would lead to rioting.","Major General Robert Ford, then Commander of Land Forces in Northern Ireland, ordered that the 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment (1 Para), should travel to Derry to be used to arrest possible rioters.","The arrest operation was codenamed 'Operation Forecast'.","The Saville Report criticised General Ford for choosing the Parachute Regiment for the operation, as it had \"a reputation for using excessive physical violence\".","The paratroopers arrived in Derry on the morning of the march and took up positions in the city.","Brigadier Pat MacLellan was the operational commander and issued orders from Ebrington Barracks.","He gave orders to Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford, commander of 1 Para.","He in turn gave orders to Major Ted Loden, who commanded the company who launched the arrest operation.","\nThe Bogside in 1981, overlooking the area where many of the victims were shot.","On the right of the picture is the south side of Rossville Flats, and in the middle distance is Glenfada Park.","The protesters planned on marching from Bishop's Field, in the Creggan housing estate, to the Guildhall, in the city centre, where they would hold a rally.","The march set off at about 2:45pm.","There were 10–15,000 people on the march, with many joining along its route.","Lord Widgery, in his now discredited tribunal, said that there were only 3,000 to 5,000.","The march made its way along William Street but, as it neared the city centre, its path was blocked by British Army barriers.","The organisers redirected the march down Rossville Street, intending to hold the rally at Free Derry Corner instead.","However, some broke off from the march and began throwing stones at soldiers manning the barriers.","The soldiers fired rubber bullets, CS gas and water cannon to try to disperse the rioters.","Such clashes between soldiers and youths were common, and observers reported that the rioting was not intense.","Some of the crowd spotted paratroopers hiding in a derelict three-storey building overlooking William Street, and began throwing stones at the windows.","At about 3:55pm, these paratroopers opened fire.","Civilians Damien Donaghy and John Johnston were shot and wounded while standing on waste ground opposite the building.","These were the first shots fired.","The soldiers claimed Donaghy was holding a black cylindrical object, but the Saville Inquiry concluded that all of those shot were unarmed.","At 4:07pm, the paratroopers were ordered to go through the barriers and arrest rioters.","The paratroopers, on foot and in armoured vehicles, chased people down Rossville Street and into the Bogside.","Two people were knocked down by the vehicles.","Brigadier MacLellan had ordered that only one company of paratroopers be sent through the barriers, on foot, and that they should not chase people down Rossville Street.","Colonel Wilford disobeyed this order, which meant there was no separation between rioters and peaceful marchers.","The paratroopers disembarked and began seizing people.","There were many claims of paratroopers beating people, clubbing them with rifle butts, firing rubber bullets at them from close range, making threats to kill, and hurling abuse.","The Saville Report agreed that soldiers \"used excessive force when arresting people … as well as seriously assaulting them for no good reason while in their custody\".","One group of paratroopers took up position at a low wall about in front of a rubble barricade that stretched across Rossville Street.","There were people at the barricade and some were throwing stones at the soldiers, but none were near enough to hit them.","The soldiers fired on the people at the barricade, killing six and wounding a seventh.","A large group of people fled or were chased into the car park of Rossville Flats.","This area was like a courtyard, surrounded on three sides by high-rise flats.","The soldiers opened fire, killing one civilian and wounding six others.","This fatality, Jackie Duddy, was running alongside a priest, Father Edward Daly, when he was shot in the back.","Another group of people fled into the car park of Glenfada Park, which was also a courtyard-like area surrounded by flats.","Here, the soldiers shot at people across the car park, about 40–50 yards away.","Two civilians were killed and at least four others wounded.","The Saville Report says it is \"probable\" that at least one soldier fired from the hip towards the crowd, without aiming.","The soldiers went through the car park and out the other side.","Some soldiers went out the southwest corner, where they shot dead two civilians.","The other soldiers went out the southeast corner and shot four more civilians, killing two.","About ten minutes had elapsed between the time soldiers drove into the Bogside and the time the last of the civilians was shot.","More than 100 rounds were fired by the soldiers.","Some of those shot were given first aid by civilian volunteers, either on the scene or after being carried into nearby homes.","They were then driven to hospital, either in civilian cars or in ambulances.","The first ambulances arrived at 4:28pm.","The three boys killed at the rubble barricade were driven to hospital by the paratroopers.","Witnesses said paratroopers lifted the bodies by the hands and feet and dumped them in the back of their APC, as if they were \"pieces of meat\".","The Saville Report agreed that this is an \"accurate description of what happened\".","It says the paratroopers \"might well have felt themselves at risk, but in our view this does not excuse them\".","===Casualties===\nMural by the Bogside Artists depicting all who were killed by the British Army on the day\nBelt worn by Patrick Doherty.","The notch was made by the bullet that killed him.","In all, 26 people were shot by the paratroopers; 13 died on the day and another died four months later.","Most of them were killed in four main areas: the rubble barricade across Rossville Street, the courtyard car park of Rossville Flats (on the north side of the flats), the courtyard car park of Glenfada Park, and the forecourt of Rossville Flats (on the south side of the flats).","All of the soldiers responsible insisted that they had shot at, and hit, gunmen or bomb-throwers.","The Saville Report concluded that all of those shot were unarmed and that none were posing a serious threat.","It also concluded that none of the soldiers fired in response to attacks, or threatened attacks, by gunmen or bomb-throwers.","The casualties are listed in the order in which they were killed.","* '''John 'Jackie' Duddy''', age 17.","Shot as he ran away from soldiers in the car park of Rossville Flats.","The bullet struck him in the shoulder and entered his chest.","Three witnesses said they saw a soldier take deliberate aim at the youth as he ran.","He was the first fatality on Bloody Sunday.","Like Saville, Widgery also concluded that Duddy was unarmed.","His nephew is boxer John Duddy.","* '''Michael Kelly''', age 17.","Shot in the stomach while standing at the rubble barricade on Rossville Street.","Both Saville and Widgery concluded that Kelly was unarmed.","* '''Hugh Gilmour''', age 17.","Shot as he ran away from soldiers near the rubble barricade.","The bullet went through his left elbow and entered his chest.","Widgery acknowledged that a photograph taken seconds after Gilmour was hit corroborated witness reports that he was unarmed, and that tests for gunshot residue were negative.","* '''William Nash''', age 19.","Shot in the chest at the rubble barricade.","Witnesses stated Nash was unarmed.","Three people were shot while apparently going to his aid, including his father Alexander Nash.","* '''John Young''', age 17.","Shot in the face at the rubble barricade, apparently while crouching and going to the aid of William Nash.","Two witnesses stated Young was unarmed.","* '''Michael McDaid''', age 20.","Shot in the face at the rubble barricade, apparently while crouching and going to the aid of William Nash.","* '''Kevin McElhinney''', age 17.","Shot from behind, near the rubble barricade, while attempting to crawl to safety.","Two witnesses stated McElhinney was unarmed.","* '''James 'Jim' Wray''', age 22.","Shot in the back while running away from soldiers in Glenfada Park courtyard.","He was then shot again in the back as he lay mortally wounded on the ground.","Witnesses, who were not called to the Widgery Tribunal, stated that Wray was calling out that he could not move his legs before he was shot the second time.","* '''William McKinney''', age 27.","Shot in the back as he attempted to flee through Glenfada Park courtyard.","* '''Gerard McKinney''', age 35.","Shot in the chest at Abbey Park.","A soldier ran through an alleyway from Glenfada Park and shot him from a few yards away.","Witnesses said that when he saw the soldier, McKinney stopped and held up his arms, shouting \"Don't shoot!","Don't shoot!","\", before being shot.","The bullet apparently went through his body and struck Gerard Donaghy behind him.","* '''Gerard Donaghy''', age 17.","Shot in the stomach at Abbey Park while standing behind Gerard McKinney.","Both were apparently struck by the same bullet.","Bystanders brought Donaghy to a nearby house, where he was examined by a doctor.","The doctor opened Donaghy's clothes to examine him, and his pockets were also searched for identification.","Two bystanders then attempted to drive Donaghy to hospital, but the car was stopped at an Army checkpoint.","They were ordered to leave the car and a soldier drove it to a Regimental Aid Post, where an Army medical officer pronounced Donaghy dead.","Shortly after, soldiers found four nail bombs in his pockets.","The civilians who searched him, the soldier who drove him to the Army post, and the Army medical officer, all said that they did not see any bombs.","This led to claims that soldiers planted the bombs on Donaghy to justify the killings.","Donaghy was a member of Fianna Éireann, an IRA-linked republican youth movement.","Paddy Ward, a police informer who gave evidence at the Saville Inquiry, claimed he gave two nail bombs to Donaghy several hours before he was shot.","The Saville Report concluded that the bombs were probably in Donaghy's pockets when he was shot.","However, it concluded that he was not about to throw a bomb when he was shot; and that he was not shot because he had bombs.","\"He was shot while trying to escape from the soldiers\".","* '''Patrick Doherty''', age 31.","Shot from behind while attempting to crawl to safety in the forecourt of Rossville Flats.","He was shot by soldiers who came out of Glenfada Park.","Doherty was photographed, moments before and after he died, by French journalist Gilles Peress.","Despite testimony from \"Soldier F\" that he had shot a man holding a pistol, Widgery acknowledged that the photographs show Doherty was unarmed, and that forensic tests on his hands for gunshot residue proved negative.","* '''Bernard 'Barney' McGuigan''', age 41.","Shot in the head when he walked out from cover to help Patrick Doherty.","He had been waving a white handkerchief to indicate his peaceful intentions.","* '''John Johnston''', age 59.","Shot in the leg and left shoulder on William Street 15 minutes before the rest of the shooting started.","Johnston was not on the march, but on his way to visit a friend in Glenfada Park.","He died on 16 June 1972; his death has been attributed to the injuries he received on the day.","He was the only one not to die immediately or soon after being shot.","Thirteen people were shot and killed, with another man later dying of his wounds.","The official army position, backed by the British Home Secretary the next day in the House of Commons, was that the paratroopers had reacted to gun and nail bomb attacks from suspected IRA members.","All eyewitnesses (apart from the soldiers), including marchers, local residents, and British and Irish journalists present, maintain that soldiers fired into an unarmed crowd, or were aiming at fleeing people and those tending the wounded, whereas the soldiers themselves were not fired upon.","No British soldier was wounded by gunfire or reported any injuries, nor were any bullets or nail bombs recovered to back up their claims.","On 2 February, the day that 12 of those killed were buried, there was a general strike in the Republic, described as the biggest general strike in Europe since the Second World War relative to population.","Memorial services were held in Catholic and Protestant churches, as well as synagogues, throughout the Republic.","The same day, irate crowds burned down the British embassy on Merrion Square in Dublin.","Anglo-Irish relations hit one of their lowest ebbs with the Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs, Patrick Hillery, going to the United Nations Security Council in New York to demand the involvement of a UN peacekeeping force in the Northern Ireland \"Troubles\".","Although there were many IRA men—both Official and Provisional—at the protest, it is claimed they were all unarmed, apparently because it was anticipated that the paratroopers would attempt to \"draw them out.\"","March organiser and MP Ivan Cooper had been promised beforehand that no armed IRA men would be near the march.","One paratrooper who gave evidence at the tribunal testified that they were told by an officer to expect a gunfight and \"We want some kills.\"","In the event, one man was witnessed by Father Edward Daly and others haphazardly firing a revolver in the direction of the paratroopers.","Later identified as a member of the Official IRA, this man was also photographed in the act of drawing his weapon, but was apparently not seen or targeted by the soldiers.","Various other claims have been made to the Saville Inquiry about gunmen on the day.","The city's coroner, Hubert O'Neill, a retired British Army major, issued a statement on 21 August 1973 at the completion of the inquest into the deaths of those killed.","He declared:\n\n\nTwo days after Bloody Sunday, the Westminster Parliament adopted a resolution for a tribunal into the events of the day, resulting in Prime Minister Edward Heath commissioning the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Widgery, to undertake it.","Many witnesses intended to boycott the tribunal as they lacked faith in Widgery's impartiality, but were eventually persuaded to take part.","Widgery's quickly-produced report—completed within 10 weeks (10 April) and published within 11 (19 April)—supported the Army's account of the events of the day.","Among the evidence presented to the tribunal were the results of paraffin tests, used to identify lead residues from firing weapons, and that nail bombs had been found on the body of one of those killed.","Tests for traces of explosives on the clothes of eleven of the dead proved negative, while those of the remaining man could not be tested as they had already been washed.","Most witnesses to the event disputed the report's conclusions and regarded it as a whitewash.","It has been argued that firearms residue on some deceased may have come from contact with the soldiers who themselves moved some of the bodies, or that the presence of lead on the hands of one (James Wray) was easily explained by the fact that his occupation involved the use of lead-based solder.","In 1992, John Major, writing to John Hume stated:\n\n\nThe 35th Bloody Sunday memorial march in Derry, 28 January 2007\nFollowing the events of Bloody Sunday Bernadette Devlin, an Independent Socialist nationalist MP from Northern Ireland, expressed anger at what she perceived as government attempts to stifle accounts being reported about the day.","Having witnessed the events firsthand, she was later infuriated that Speaker Selwyn Lloyd consistently denied her the chance to speak in Parliament about the day, although parliamentary convention decreed that any MP witnessing an incident under discussion would be granted an opportunity to speak about it in the House.","Devlin punched Reginald Maudling, the Secretary of State for the Home Department in the Conservative government, when he made a statement to Parliament on the events of Bloody Sunday stating that the British Army had fired only in self-defence.","She was temporarily suspended from Parliament as a result of the incident.","Nonetheless, six months after Bloody Sunday, Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford who was directly in charge of 1 Para, the soldiers who went into the Bogside, was awarded the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II.","In January 1997, the UK television broadcaster Channel 4 carried a news report suggesting that members of the Royal Anglian Regiment had also opened fire on the protesters, and could have been responsible for three of the 14 deaths.","On 29 May 2007, General (then Captain) Sir Mike Jackson, adjutant of 1 Para on Bloody Sunday, said: \"I have no doubt that innocent people were shot.\"","This was in sharp contrast to his insistence, for more than 30 years, that those killed on the day had not been innocent.","In 2008 a former aide to British Prime Minister Tony Blair, Jonathan Powell, described Widgery as a \"complete and utter whitewash.\"","In 1998 Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford expressed his anger at Tony Blair's intention of setting up the Saville inquiry, stating that he was proud of his actions on Bloody Sunday.","Two years later in 2000 during an interview with the BBC, Wilford said: \"There might have been things wrong in the sense that some innocent people, people who were not carrying a weapon, were wounded or even killed.","But that was not done as a deliberate malicious act.","It was done as an act of war.\"","On 10 November 2015, a 66-year-old former member of the Parachute Regiment was arrested for questioning over the deaths of William Nash, Michael McDaid and John Young.","\nGuildhall, home to the Inquiry\n\nAlthough British Prime Minister John Major rejected John Hume's requests for a public inquiry into the killings, his successor, Tony Blair, decided to start one.","A second commission of inquiry, chaired by Lord Saville, was established in January 1998 to re-examine Bloody Sunday.","The other judges were John Toohey QC, a former Justice of the High Court of Australia who had worked on Aboriginal issues (he replaced New Zealander Sir Edward Somers QC, who retired from the Inquiry in 2000 for personal reasons), and Mr Justice William Hoyt QC, former Chief Justice of New Brunswick and a member of the Canadian Judicial Council.","The hearings were concluded in November 2004, and the report was published 15 June 2010.","The Saville Inquiry was a more comprehensive study than the Widgery Tribunal, interviewing a wide range of witnesses, including local residents, soldiers, journalists and politicians.","Lord Saville declined to comment on the Widgery report and made the point that the Saville Inquiry was a judicial inquiry into Bloody Sunday, not the Widgery Tribunal.","Evidence given by Martin McGuinness, a senior member of Sinn Féin and later the deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland, to the inquiry stated that he was second-in-command of the Derry City brigade of the Provisional IRA and was present at the march.","A claim was made at the Saville Inquiry that McGuinness was responsible for supplying detonators for nail bombs on Bloody Sunday.","Paddy Ward claimed he was the leader of the Fianna Éireann, the youth wing of the IRA in January 1972.","He claimed that McGuinness, the second-in-command of the IRA in the city at the time, and another anonymous IRA member gave him bomb parts on the morning of 30 January, the date planned for the civil rights march.","He said his organisation intended to attack city-centre premises in Derry on the day when civilians were shot dead by British soldiers.","In response McGuinness rejected the claims as \"fantasy\", while Gerry O'Hara, a Sinn Féin councillor in Derry stated that he and not Ward was the Fianna leader at the time.","Many observers allege that the Ministry of Defence acted in a way to impede the inquiry.","Over 1,000 army photographs and original army helicopter video footage were never made available.","Additionally, guns used on the day by the soldiers that could have been evidence in the inquiry were lost by the MoD.","The MoD claimed that all the guns had been destroyed, but some were subsequently recovered in various locations (such as Sierra Leone and Beirut) despite the obstruction.","By the time the inquiry had retired to write up its findings, it had interviewed over 900 witnesses, over seven years, making it the biggest investigation in British legal history.","The cost of this process has drawn criticism; as of the publication of the Saville Report being .","Banner and crosses carried by the families of the victims on the annual commemoration march\nThe inquiry was expected to report in late 2009 but was delayed until after the general election on 6 May 2010.","The report of the inquiry was published on 15 June 2010.","The report concluded, \"The firing by soldiers of 1 PARA on Bloody Sunday caused the deaths of 13 people and injury to a similar number, none of whom was posing a threat of causing death or serious injury.\"","Saville stated that British paratroopers \"lost control\", fatally shooting fleeing civilians and those who tried to aid civilians who had been shot by the British soldiers.","The report stated that British soldiers had concocted lies in their attempt to hide their acts.","Saville stated that the civilians had not been warned by the British soldiers that they intended to shoot.","The report states, contrary to the previously established belief, that no stones and no petrol bombs were thrown by civilians before British soldiers shot at them, and that the civilians were not posing any threat.","The report concluded that an Official IRA sniper fired on British soldiers, albeit that on the balance of evidence his shot was fired ''after'' the Army shots that wounded Damien Donaghey and John Johnston.","The Inquiry rejected the sniper's account that this shot had been made in reprisal, stating the view that he and another Official IRA member had already been in position, and the shot had probably been fired simply because the opportunity had presented itself.","Ultimately the Saville Inquiry was inconclusive on Martin McGuinness' role, due to a lack of certainty over his movements, concluding that while he was \"engaged in paramilitary activity\" during Bloody Sunday, and had probably been armed with a Thompson submachine gun, there was insufficient evidence to make any finding other than they were \"sure that he did not engage in any activity that provided any of the soldiers with any justification for opening fire\".","Regarding the soldiers in charge on the day of Bloody Sunday, the Saville Inquiry arrived at the following findings:\n\n*Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford: Commander of 1 Para and directly responsible for arresting rioters and returning to base.","Found to have 'deliberately disobeyed' his superior Brigadier Patrick MacLellan's orders by sending Support Company into the Bogside (and without informing MacLellan).","*Major Ted Loden: Commander in charge of soldiers, following orders issued by Lieutenant Colonel Wilford.","Cleared of misconduct; Saville cited in the report that Loden \"neither realised nor should have realised that his soldiers were or might be firing at people who were not posing or about to pose a threat\".","The inquiry found that Loden could not be held responsible for claims (whether malicious or not) by some of the individual soldiers that they had received fire from snipers.","*Captain Mike Jackson: Second in command of 1 Para on the day of Bloody Sunday.","Cleared of sinister actions following Jackson's compiling of a list of what soldiers told Major Loden on why they had fired.","This list became known as the \"Loden List of Engagements\" which played a role in the Army's initial explanations.","While the inquiry found the compiling of the list was 'far from ideal', Jackson's explanations were accepted based on the list not containing the names of soldiers and the number of times they fired.","*Major General Robert Ford: Commander of land forces and set the British strategy to oversee the civil march in Derry.","Cleared of any fault, but his selection of 1 Para, and in particular his selection of Colonel Wilford to be in control of arresting rioters, was found to be disconcerting, specifically as \"1 PARA was a force with a reputation for using excessive physical violence, which thus ran the risk of exacerbating the tensions between the Army and nationalists\".","*Brigadier Pat MacLellan: Operational commander of the day.","Cleared of any wrongdoing as he was under the impression that Wilford would follow orders by arresting rioters and then returning to base, and could not be blamed for Wilford's actions.","*Major Michael Steele: With MacLellan in the operations room and in charge of passing on the orders of the day.","The inquiry report accepted that Steele could not believe other than that a separation had been achieved between rioters and marchers, because both groups were in different areas.","*Other soldiers: Lance Corporal F was found responsible for a number of the deaths and that a number of soldiers have \"knowingly put forward false accounts in order to seek to justify their firing\".","*Intelligence officer Colonel Maurice Tugwell and Colin Wallace, (an IPU army press officer): Cleared of wrongdoing.","Saville believed the information Tugwell and Wallace released through the media was not down to any deliberate attempt to deceive the public but rather due to much of the inaccurate information Tugwell had received at the time by various other figures.","Reporting on the findings of the Saville Inquiry in the House of Commons, the British Prime Minister David Cameron said:\n\n\"Mr Speaker, I am deeply patriotic.","I never want to believe anything bad about our country.","I never want to call into question the behaviour of our soldiers and our army, who I believe to be the finest in the world.","And I have seen for myself the very difficult and dangerous circumstances in which we ask our soldiers to serve.","But the conclusions of this report are absolutely clear.","There is no doubt, there is nothing equivocal, there are no ambiguities.","What happened on Bloody Sunday was both unjustified and unjustifiable.","It was wrong.\"","Bloody Sunday memorial in the Bogside\n\nHarold Wilson, then the Leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons, reiterated his belief that a united Ireland was the only possible solution to Northern Ireland's Troubles.","When it was deployed on duty in Northern Ireland, the British Army was welcomed by Roman Catholics as a neutral force there to protect them from Protestant mobs, the RUC and the B-Specials.","After Bloody Sunday many Catholics turned on the British army, seeing it no longer as their protector but as their enemy.","Young nationalists became increasingly attracted to violent republican groups.","With the Official IRA and Official Sinn Féin having moved away from mainstream Irish republicanism towards Marxism, the Provisional IRA began to win the support of newly radicalised, disaffected young people.","In the following twenty years, the Provisional Irish Republican Army and other smaller republican groups such as the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) stepped up their armed campaigns against the state and those seen as being in service to it.","With rival paramilitary organisations appearing in both the nationalist/republican and unionist/loyalist communities (such as the Ulster Defence Association (UDA), Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), etc.","on the loyalist side), the Troubles cost the lives of thousands of people.","In his speech to the House of Commons on the Inquiry, British Prime Minister David Cameron stated: \"These are shocking conclusions to read and shocking words to have to say.","But you do not defend the British Army by defending the indefensible.\"","He acknowledged that all those who died were unarmed when they were killed by British soldiers, and that a British soldier had fired the first shot at civilians.","He also said that this was not a premeditated action, though \"there was no point in trying to soften or equivocate\" as \"what happened should never, ever have happened\".","Cameron then apologised on behalf of the British Government by saying he was \"deeply sorry\".","A survey conducted by Angus Reid Public Opinion in June 2010 found that 61 per cent of Britons and 70 per cent of Northern Irish agreed with Cameron's apology for the Bloody Sunday events.","Stephen Pollard, solicitor representing several of the soldiers, said on 15 June 2010 that Saville had cherry-picked the evidence and did not have justification for his findings.","Parachute Regiment flag and the Union flag flying in Ballymena\n\nIn 2012 an actively serving British army soldier from Belfast was charged with inciting hatred by a surviving relative of the deceased, due to their online use of social media to promote sectarian slogans about the killings while featuring banners of the Parachute Regiment logo.","In January 2013, shortly before the annual Bloody Sunday remembrance march, two Parachute Regiment flags appeared in the loyalist Fountain, and Waterside, Drumahoe areas of Derry.","The display of the flags was heavily criticised by nationalist politicians and relatives of the Bloody Sunday dead.","The Ministry of Defence also condemned the flying of the flags.","The flags were removed to be replaced by Union Flags.","In the run up to the loyalist marching season in 2013 the flag of the Parachute Regiment appeared alongside other loyalist flags in other parts of Northern Ireland.","In 2014 loyalists in Cookstown erected the flags in opposition, close to the route of a St.Patrick's Day parade in the town.","Paul McCartney (who is of Irish descent) recorded the first song in response only two days after the incident.","The single entitled \"Give Ireland Back to the Irish\", expressed his views on the matter.","It was one of a few McCartney solo songs to be banned by the BBC.","The 1972 John Lennon album ''Some Time in New York City'' features a song entitled \"Sunday Bloody Sunday\", inspired by the incident, as well as the song \"The Luck of the Irish\", which dealt more with the Irish conflict in general.","Lennon, who was of Irish descent, also spoke at a protest in New York in support of the victims and families of Bloody Sunday.","Irish poet Thomas Kinsella's 1972 poem ''Butcher's Dozen'' is a satirical and angry response to the Widgery Tribunal and the events of Bloody Sunday.","Black Sabbath's Geezer Butler (also of Irish descent) wrote the lyrics to the Black Sabbath song \"Sabbath Bloody Sabbath\" on the album of the same name in 1973.","Butler stated, \"…the Sunday Bloody Sunday thing had just happened in Ireland, when the British troops opened fire on the Irish demonstrators… So I came up with the title 'Sabbath Bloody Sabbath', and sort of put it in how the band was feeling at the time, getting away from management, mixed with the state Ireland was in.\"","The Roy Harper song \"All Ireland\" from the album ''Lifemask'', written in the days following the incident, is critical of the military but takes a long term view with regard to a solution.","In Harper's book (''The Passions of Great Fortune''), his comment on the song ends \"…there must always be some hope that the children of 'Bloody Sunday', on both sides, can grow into some wisdom\".","Brian Friel's 1973 play ''The Freedom of the City'' deals with the incident from the viewpoint of three civilians.","Irish poet Seamus Heaney's ''Casualty'' (published in ''Field Work,'' 1981) criticizes Britain for the death of his friend.","The incident has been commemorated by Irish band, U2, in their 1983 protest song \"Sunday Bloody Sunday\".","Christy Moore's song \"Minds Locked Shut\" on the album ''Graffiti Tongue'' is all about the events of the day, and names the dead civilians.","The events of the day have been dramatised in two 2002 television films, ''Bloody Sunday'' (starring James Nesbitt) and ''Sunday'' by Jimmy McGovern.","The Celtic metal band Cruachan addressed the incident in a song \"Bloody Sunday\" from their 2004 album ''Folk-Lore''.","Willie Doherty, a Derry-born artist, has amassed a large body of work which addresses the troubles in Northern Ireland.","\"30 January 1972\" deals specifically with the events of Bloody Sunday.","In mid-2005, the play ''Bloody Sunday: Scenes from the Saville Inquiry'', a dramatisation based on the Saville Inquiry, opened in London, and subsequently travelled to Derry and Dublin.","The writer, journalist Richard Norton-Taylor, distilled four years of evidence into two hours of stage performance by Tricycle Theatre.","The play received glowing reviews in all the British broadsheets, including ''The Times'': \"The Tricycle's latest recreation of a major inquiry is its most devastating\"; ''The Daily Telegraph'': \"I can't praise this enthralling production too highly… exceptionally gripping courtroom drama\"; and ''The Independent'': \"A necessary triumph\".","Swedish troubadour Fred Åkerström wrote a song called \"Den 30/1-72\" about the incident.","In October 2010, T with the Maggies released the song ''Domhnach na Fola'' (Irish for ''Bloody Sunday''), written by Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh and Tríona Ní Dhomhnaill on their debut album.","Irish professional wrestler Finn Bálor named one of his signature manoeuvres, a lifting single underhook DDT, \"Bloody Sunday\".","* \n* (extracts available online)\n* \n* \n* \n* English, Richard.","''Armed Struggle;– A History of the IRA'', MacMillan, London 2003,","\n* Madden & Finucane Bloody Sunday index\n* CAIN Web Service Bloody Sunday index\n* UTV Coverage: Bloody Sunday & The Saville Report\n* Guardian Coverage\n* Dáil debate on Bloody Sunday\n* The Widgery Report (from Cain website)\n* BBC Special Report\n* Programme of events commemorating Bloody Sunday – 2008\n* 1610: Soldiers open fire\n\n;The events of the day\n* BBC Interactive Guide\n* Guardian Interactive Guide\n* History – Bloody Sunday – Events of the Day Museum of Free Derry\n\n;Contemporary newspaper coverage\n* \"13 killed as paratroops break riot\" from The Guardian, Monday 31 January 1972\n* \"Bogsiders insist that soldiers shot first\" from The Guardian, Tuesday 1 February 1972\n\n;Importance and impact\n* \"Shootings 'triggered decades of violence'\" from The Guardian, Wednesday 16 May 2001\n* Britain Acknowledges \"Bloody Sunday\" Killings Were Unjustified and Apologizes to Victims’ Families – video report by ''Democracy Now!''"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n'''Bloody Sunday''' – sometimes called the '''Bogside Massacre''' – was an incident on 30 January 1972 in the Bogside area of Derry, Northern Ireland, when British soldiers shot 28 unarmed civilians during a peaceful protest march against internment.\",\n \"Fourteen people died: thirteen were killed outright, while the death of another man four months later was attributed to his injuries.\",\n \"Many of the victims were shot while fleeing from the soldiers and some were shot while trying to help the wounded.\",\n \"Other protesters were injured by rubber bullets or batons, and two were run down by army vehicles.\",\n \"The march had been organised by the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA).\",\n \"The soldiers involved were members of the 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment, also known as \\\"1 Para\\\".\",\n \"Two investigations have been held by the British government.\",\n \"The Widgery Tribunal, held in the immediate aftermath of the incident, largely cleared the soldiers and British authorities of blame.\",\n \"It described the soldiers' shooting as \\\"bordering on the reckless\\\", but accepted their claims that they shot at gunmen and bomb-throwers.\",\n \"The report was widely criticised as a \\\"whitewash\\\".\",\n \"The Saville Inquiry, chaired by Lord Saville of Newdigate, was established in 1998 to reinvestigate the incident.\",\n \"Following a 12-year inquiry, Saville's report was made public in 2010 and concluded that the killings were both \\\"unjustified\\\" and \\\"unjustifiable\\\".\",\n \"It found that all of those shot were unarmed, that none were posing a serious threat, that no bombs were thrown, and that soldiers \\\"knowingly put forward false accounts\\\" to justify their firing.\",\n \"On the publication of the report, British prime minister David Cameron made a formal apology on behalf of the United Kingdom.\",\n \"Following this, police began a murder investigation into the killings.\",\n \"Bloody Sunday was one of the most significant events of \\\"the Troubles\\\" because a large number of civilian citizens were killed, by forces of the state, in full view of the public and the press.\",\n \"It was the highest number of people killed in a single shooting incident during the conflict.\",\n \"Bloody Sunday increased Catholic and Irish nationalist hostility towards the British Army and exacerbated the conflict.\",\n \"Support for the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) rose and there was a surge of recruitment into the organisation, especially locally.\",\n \"\\nThe City of Londonderry was perceived by many Catholics and Irish nationalists in Northern Ireland to be the epitome of what was described as \\\"fifty years of Unionist misrule\\\": despite having a nationalist majority, gerrymandering ensured elections to the City Corporation always returned a unionist majority.\",\n \"At the same time the city was perceived to be deprived of public investment – rail routes to the city were closed, motorways were not extended to it, a university was opened in the relatively small (Protestant-majority) town of Coleraine rather than Derry and, above all, the city's housing stock was in an appalling state.\",\n \"The city therefore became a significant focus of the civil rights campaign led by organisations such as Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) in the late 1960s and it was in Derry that the so-called Battle of the Bogside – the event that more than any other pushed the Northern Ireland administration to ask for military support for civil policing – took place in August 1969.\",\n \"While many Catholics initially welcomed the British Army as a neutral force, in contrast to what was regarded as a sectarian police force, relations between them soon deteriorated.\",\n \"In response to escalating levels of violence across Northern Ireland, internment without trial was introduced on 9 August 1971.\",\n \"There was disorder across Northern Ireland following the introduction of internment, with 21 people being killed in three days of rioting.\",\n \"In Belfast, soldiers of the Parachute Regiment shot dead 11 Catholic civilians in what became known as the Ballymurphy Massacre.\",\n \"On 10 August, Bombardier Paul Challenor became the first soldier to be killed by the Provisional IRA in Derry, when he was shot by a sniper on the Creggan estate.\",\n \"A further six soldiers had been killed in Derry by mid-December 1971.\",\n \"At least 1,332 rounds were fired at the British Army, who also faced 211 explosions and 180 nail bombs, and who fired 364 rounds in return.\",\n \"IRA activity also increased across Northern Ireland with thirty British soldiers being killed in the remaining months of 1971, in contrast to the ten soldiers killed during the pre-internment period of the year.\",\n \"Both the Official IRA and Provisional IRA had established no-go areas for the British Army and Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) in Derry through the use of barricades.\",\n \"By the end of 1971, 29 barricades were in place to prevent access to what was known as Free Derry, 16 of them impassable even to the British Army's one-ton armoured vehicles.\",\n \"IRA members openly mounted roadblocks in front of the media, and daily clashes took place between nationalist youths and the British Army at a spot known as \\\"aggro corner\\\".\",\n \"Due to rioting and damage to shops caused by incendiary devices, an estimated total of worth of damage had been done to local businesses.\",\n \"On 18 January 1972 Brian Faulkner, Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, banned all parades and marches in Northern Ireland until the end of the year.\",\n \"On 22 January 1972, a week before Bloody Sunday, an anti-internment march was held at Magilligan strand, near Derry.\",\n \"The protesters marched to a new internment camp there, but were stopped by soldiers of the Parachute Regiment.\",\n \"When some protesters threw stones and tried to go around the barbed wire, paratroopers drove them back by firing rubber bullets at close range and making baton charges.\",\n \"The paratroopers badly beat a number of protesters and had to be physically restrained by their own officers.\",\n \"These allegations of brutality by paratroopers were reported widely on television and in the press.\",\n \"Some in the Army also thought there had been undue violence by the paratroopers.\",\n \"NICRA intended, despite the ban, to hold another anti-internment march in Derry on Sunday 30 January.\",\n \"The authorities decided to allow it to proceed in the Catholic areas of the city, but to stop it from reaching Guildhall Square, as planned by the organisers.\",\n \"The authorities expected that this would lead to rioting.\",\n \"Major General Robert Ford, then Commander of Land Forces in Northern Ireland, ordered that the 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment (1 Para), should travel to Derry to be used to arrest possible rioters.\",\n \"The arrest operation was codenamed 'Operation Forecast'.\",\n \"The Saville Report criticised General Ford for choosing the Parachute Regiment for the operation, as it had \\\"a reputation for using excessive physical violence\\\".\",\n \"The paratroopers arrived in Derry on the morning of the march and took up positions in the city.\",\n \"Brigadier Pat MacLellan was the operational commander and issued orders from Ebrington Barracks.\",\n \"He gave orders to Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford, commander of 1 Para.\",\n \"He in turn gave orders to Major Ted Loden, who commanded the company who launched the arrest operation.\",\n \"\\nThe Bogside in 1981, overlooking the area where many of the victims were shot.\",\n \"On the right of the picture is the south side of Rossville Flats, and in the middle distance is Glenfada Park.\",\n \"The protesters planned on marching from Bishop's Field, in the Creggan housing estate, to the Guildhall, in the city centre, where they would hold a rally.\",\n \"The march set off at about 2:45pm.\",\n \"There were 10–15,000 people on the march, with many joining along its route.\",\n \"Lord Widgery, in his now discredited tribunal, said that there were only 3,000 to 5,000.\",\n \"The march made its way along William Street but, as it neared the city centre, its path was blocked by British Army barriers.\",\n \"The organisers redirected the march down Rossville Street, intending to hold the rally at Free Derry Corner instead.\",\n \"However, some broke off from the march and began throwing stones at soldiers manning the barriers.\",\n \"The soldiers fired rubber bullets, CS gas and water cannon to try to disperse the rioters.\",\n \"Such clashes between soldiers and youths were common, and observers reported that the rioting was not intense.\",\n \"Some of the crowd spotted paratroopers hiding in a derelict three-storey building overlooking William Street, and began throwing stones at the windows.\",\n \"At about 3:55pm, these paratroopers opened fire.\",\n \"Civilians Damien Donaghy and John Johnston were shot and wounded while standing on waste ground opposite the building.\",\n \"These were the first shots fired.\",\n \"The soldiers claimed Donaghy was holding a black cylindrical object, but the Saville Inquiry concluded that all of those shot were unarmed.\",\n \"At 4:07pm, the paratroopers were ordered to go through the barriers and arrest rioters.\",\n \"The paratroopers, on foot and in armoured vehicles, chased people down Rossville Street and into the Bogside.\",\n \"Two people were knocked down by the vehicles.\",\n \"Brigadier MacLellan had ordered that only one company of paratroopers be sent through the barriers, on foot, and that they should not chase people down Rossville Street.\",\n \"Colonel Wilford disobeyed this order, which meant there was no separation between rioters and peaceful marchers.\",\n \"The paratroopers disembarked and began seizing people.\",\n \"There were many claims of paratroopers beating people, clubbing them with rifle butts, firing rubber bullets at them from close range, making threats to kill, and hurling abuse.\",\n \"The Saville Report agreed that soldiers \\\"used excessive force when arresting people … as well as seriously assaulting them for no good reason while in their custody\\\".\",\n \"One group of paratroopers took up position at a low wall about in front of a rubble barricade that stretched across Rossville Street.\",\n \"There were people at the barricade and some were throwing stones at the soldiers, but none were near enough to hit them.\",\n \"The soldiers fired on the people at the barricade, killing six and wounding a seventh.\",\n \"A large group of people fled or were chased into the car park of Rossville Flats.\",\n \"This area was like a courtyard, surrounded on three sides by high-rise flats.\",\n \"The soldiers opened fire, killing one civilian and wounding six others.\",\n \"This fatality, Jackie Duddy, was running alongside a priest, Father Edward Daly, when he was shot in the back.\",\n \"Another group of people fled into the car park of Glenfada Park, which was also a courtyard-like area surrounded by flats.\",\n \"Here, the soldiers shot at people across the car park, about 40–50 yards away.\",\n \"Two civilians were killed and at least four others wounded.\",\n \"The Saville Report says it is \\\"probable\\\" that at least one soldier fired from the hip towards the crowd, without aiming.\",\n \"The soldiers went through the car park and out the other side.\",\n \"Some soldiers went out the southwest corner, where they shot dead two civilians.\",\n \"The other soldiers went out the southeast corner and shot four more civilians, killing two.\",\n \"About ten minutes had elapsed between the time soldiers drove into the Bogside and the time the last of the civilians was shot.\",\n \"More than 100 rounds were fired by the soldiers.\",\n \"Some of those shot were given first aid by civilian volunteers, either on the scene or after being carried into nearby homes.\",\n \"They were then driven to hospital, either in civilian cars or in ambulances.\",\n \"The first ambulances arrived at 4:28pm.\",\n \"The three boys killed at the rubble barricade were driven to hospital by the paratroopers.\",\n \"Witnesses said paratroopers lifted the bodies by the hands and feet and dumped them in the back of their APC, as if they were \\\"pieces of meat\\\".\",\n \"The Saville Report agreed that this is an \\\"accurate description of what happened\\\".\",\n \"It says the paratroopers \\\"might well have felt themselves at risk, but in our view this does not excuse them\\\".\",\n \"===Casualties===\\nMural by the Bogside Artists depicting all who were killed by the British Army on the day\\nBelt worn by Patrick Doherty.\",\n \"The notch was made by the bullet that killed him.\",\n \"In all, 26 people were shot by the paratroopers; 13 died on the day and another died four months later.\",\n \"Most of them were killed in four main areas: the rubble barricade across Rossville Street, the courtyard car park of Rossville Flats (on the north side of the flats), the courtyard car park of Glenfada Park, and the forecourt of Rossville Flats (on the south side of the flats).\",\n \"All of the soldiers responsible insisted that they had shot at, and hit, gunmen or bomb-throwers.\",\n \"The Saville Report concluded that all of those shot were unarmed and that none were posing a serious threat.\",\n \"It also concluded that none of the soldiers fired in response to attacks, or threatened attacks, by gunmen or bomb-throwers.\",\n \"The casualties are listed in the order in which they were killed.\",\n \"* '''John 'Jackie' Duddy''', age 17.\",\n \"Shot as he ran away from soldiers in the car park of Rossville Flats.\",\n \"The bullet struck him in the shoulder and entered his chest.\",\n \"Three witnesses said they saw a soldier take deliberate aim at the youth as he ran.\",\n \"He was the first fatality on Bloody Sunday.\",\n \"Like Saville, Widgery also concluded that Duddy was unarmed.\",\n \"His nephew is boxer John Duddy.\",\n \"* '''Michael Kelly''', age 17.\",\n \"Shot in the stomach while standing at the rubble barricade on Rossville Street.\",\n \"Both Saville and Widgery concluded that Kelly was unarmed.\",\n \"* '''Hugh Gilmour''', age 17.\",\n \"Shot as he ran away from soldiers near the rubble barricade.\",\n \"The bullet went through his left elbow and entered his chest.\",\n \"Widgery acknowledged that a photograph taken seconds after Gilmour was hit corroborated witness reports that he was unarmed, and that tests for gunshot residue were negative.\",\n \"* '''William Nash''', age 19.\",\n \"Shot in the chest at the rubble barricade.\",\n \"Witnesses stated Nash was unarmed.\",\n \"Three people were shot while apparently going to his aid, including his father Alexander Nash.\",\n \"* '''John Young''', age 17.\",\n \"Shot in the face at the rubble barricade, apparently while crouching and going to the aid of William Nash.\",\n \"Two witnesses stated Young was unarmed.\",\n \"* '''Michael McDaid''', age 20.\",\n \"Shot in the face at the rubble barricade, apparently while crouching and going to the aid of William Nash.\",\n \"* '''Kevin McElhinney''', age 17.\",\n \"Shot from behind, near the rubble barricade, while attempting to crawl to safety.\",\n \"Two witnesses stated McElhinney was unarmed.\",\n \"* '''James 'Jim' Wray''', age 22.\",\n \"Shot in the back while running away from soldiers in Glenfada Park courtyard.\",\n \"He was then shot again in the back as he lay mortally wounded on the ground.\",\n \"Witnesses, who were not called to the Widgery Tribunal, stated that Wray was calling out that he could not move his legs before he was shot the second time.\",\n \"* '''William McKinney''', age 27.\",\n \"Shot in the back as he attempted to flee through Glenfada Park courtyard.\",\n \"* '''Gerard McKinney''', age 35.\",\n \"Shot in the chest at Abbey Park.\",\n \"A soldier ran through an alleyway from Glenfada Park and shot him from a few yards away.\",\n \"Witnesses said that when he saw the soldier, McKinney stopped and held up his arms, shouting \\\"Don't shoot!\",\n \"Don't shoot!\",\n \"\\\", before being shot.\",\n \"The bullet apparently went through his body and struck Gerard Donaghy behind him.\",\n \"* '''Gerard Donaghy''', age 17.\",\n \"Shot in the stomach at Abbey Park while standing behind Gerard McKinney.\",\n \"Both were apparently struck by the same bullet.\",\n \"Bystanders brought Donaghy to a nearby house, where he was examined by a doctor.\",\n \"The doctor opened Donaghy's clothes to examine him, and his pockets were also searched for identification.\",\n \"Two bystanders then attempted to drive Donaghy to hospital, but the car was stopped at an Army checkpoint.\",\n \"They were ordered to leave the car and a soldier drove it to a Regimental Aid Post, where an Army medical officer pronounced Donaghy dead.\",\n \"Shortly after, soldiers found four nail bombs in his pockets.\",\n \"The civilians who searched him, the soldier who drove him to the Army post, and the Army medical officer, all said that they did not see any bombs.\",\n \"This led to claims that soldiers planted the bombs on Donaghy to justify the killings.\",\n \"Donaghy was a member of Fianna Éireann, an IRA-linked republican youth movement.\",\n \"Paddy Ward, a police informer who gave evidence at the Saville Inquiry, claimed he gave two nail bombs to Donaghy several hours before he was shot.\",\n \"The Saville Report concluded that the bombs were probably in Donaghy's pockets when he was shot.\",\n \"However, it concluded that he was not about to throw a bomb when he was shot; and that he was not shot because he had bombs.\",\n \"\\\"He was shot while trying to escape from the soldiers\\\".\",\n \"* '''Patrick Doherty''', age 31.\",\n \"Shot from behind while attempting to crawl to safety in the forecourt of Rossville Flats.\",\n \"He was shot by soldiers who came out of Glenfada Park.\",\n \"Doherty was photographed, moments before and after he died, by French journalist Gilles Peress.\",\n \"Despite testimony from \\\"Soldier F\\\" that he had shot a man holding a pistol, Widgery acknowledged that the photographs show Doherty was unarmed, and that forensic tests on his hands for gunshot residue proved negative.\",\n \"* '''Bernard 'Barney' McGuigan''', age 41.\",\n \"Shot in the head when he walked out from cover to help Patrick Doherty.\",\n \"He had been waving a white handkerchief to indicate his peaceful intentions.\",\n \"* '''John Johnston''', age 59.\",\n \"Shot in the leg and left shoulder on William Street 15 minutes before the rest of the shooting started.\",\n \"Johnston was not on the march, but on his way to visit a friend in Glenfada Park.\",\n \"He died on 16 June 1972; his death has been attributed to the injuries he received on the day.\",\n \"He was the only one not to die immediately or soon after being shot.\",\n \"Thirteen people were shot and killed, with another man later dying of his wounds.\",\n \"The official army position, backed by the British Home Secretary the next day in the House of Commons, was that the paratroopers had reacted to gun and nail bomb attacks from suspected IRA members.\",\n \"All eyewitnesses (apart from the soldiers), including marchers, local residents, and British and Irish journalists present, maintain that soldiers fired into an unarmed crowd, or were aiming at fleeing people and those tending the wounded, whereas the soldiers themselves were not fired upon.\",\n \"No British soldier was wounded by gunfire or reported any injuries, nor were any bullets or nail bombs recovered to back up their claims.\",\n \"On 2 February, the day that 12 of those killed were buried, there was a general strike in the Republic, described as the biggest general strike in Europe since the Second World War relative to population.\",\n \"Memorial services were held in Catholic and Protestant churches, as well as synagogues, throughout the Republic.\",\n \"The same day, irate crowds burned down the British embassy on Merrion Square in Dublin.\",\n \"Anglo-Irish relations hit one of their lowest ebbs with the Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs, Patrick Hillery, going to the United Nations Security Council in New York to demand the involvement of a UN peacekeeping force in the Northern Ireland \\\"Troubles\\\".\",\n \"Although there were many IRA men—both Official and Provisional—at the protest, it is claimed they were all unarmed, apparently because it was anticipated that the paratroopers would attempt to \\\"draw them out.\\\"\",\n \"March organiser and MP Ivan Cooper had been promised beforehand that no armed IRA men would be near the march.\",\n \"One paratrooper who gave evidence at the tribunal testified that they were told by an officer to expect a gunfight and \\\"We want some kills.\\\"\",\n \"In the event, one man was witnessed by Father Edward Daly and others haphazardly firing a revolver in the direction of the paratroopers.\",\n \"Later identified as a member of the Official IRA, this man was also photographed in the act of drawing his weapon, but was apparently not seen or targeted by the soldiers.\",\n \"Various other claims have been made to the Saville Inquiry about gunmen on the day.\",\n \"The city's coroner, Hubert O'Neill, a retired British Army major, issued a statement on 21 August 1973 at the completion of the inquest into the deaths of those killed.\",\n \"He declared:\\n\\n\\nTwo days after Bloody Sunday, the Westminster Parliament adopted a resolution for a tribunal into the events of the day, resulting in Prime Minister Edward Heath commissioning the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Widgery, to undertake it.\",\n \"Many witnesses intended to boycott the tribunal as they lacked faith in Widgery's impartiality, but were eventually persuaded to take part.\",\n \"Widgery's quickly-produced report—completed within 10 weeks (10 April) and published within 11 (19 April)—supported the Army's account of the events of the day.\",\n \"Among the evidence presented to the tribunal were the results of paraffin tests, used to identify lead residues from firing weapons, and that nail bombs had been found on the body of one of those killed.\",\n \"Tests for traces of explosives on the clothes of eleven of the dead proved negative, while those of the remaining man could not be tested as they had already been washed.\",\n \"Most witnesses to the event disputed the report's conclusions and regarded it as a whitewash.\",\n \"It has been argued that firearms residue on some deceased may have come from contact with the soldiers who themselves moved some of the bodies, or that the presence of lead on the hands of one (James Wray) was easily explained by the fact that his occupation involved the use of lead-based solder.\",\n \"In 1992, John Major, writing to John Hume stated:\\n\\n\\nThe 35th Bloody Sunday memorial march in Derry, 28 January 2007\\nFollowing the events of Bloody Sunday Bernadette Devlin, an Independent Socialist nationalist MP from Northern Ireland, expressed anger at what she perceived as government attempts to stifle accounts being reported about the day.\",\n \"Having witnessed the events firsthand, she was later infuriated that Speaker Selwyn Lloyd consistently denied her the chance to speak in Parliament about the day, although parliamentary convention decreed that any MP witnessing an incident under discussion would be granted an opportunity to speak about it in the House.\",\n \"Devlin punched Reginald Maudling, the Secretary of State for the Home Department in the Conservative government, when he made a statement to Parliament on the events of Bloody Sunday stating that the British Army had fired only in self-defence.\",\n \"She was temporarily suspended from Parliament as a result of the incident.\",\n \"Nonetheless, six months after Bloody Sunday, Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford who was directly in charge of 1 Para, the soldiers who went into the Bogside, was awarded the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II.\",\n \"In January 1997, the UK television broadcaster Channel 4 carried a news report suggesting that members of the Royal Anglian Regiment had also opened fire on the protesters, and could have been responsible for three of the 14 deaths.\",\n \"On 29 May 2007, General (then Captain) Sir Mike Jackson, adjutant of 1 Para on Bloody Sunday, said: \\\"I have no doubt that innocent people were shot.\\\"\",\n \"This was in sharp contrast to his insistence, for more than 30 years, that those killed on the day had not been innocent.\",\n \"In 2008 a former aide to British Prime Minister Tony Blair, Jonathan Powell, described Widgery as a \\\"complete and utter whitewash.\\\"\",\n \"In 1998 Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford expressed his anger at Tony Blair's intention of setting up the Saville inquiry, stating that he was proud of his actions on Bloody Sunday.\",\n \"Two years later in 2000 during an interview with the BBC, Wilford said: \\\"There might have been things wrong in the sense that some innocent people, people who were not carrying a weapon, were wounded or even killed.\",\n \"But that was not done as a deliberate malicious act.\",\n \"It was done as an act of war.\\\"\",\n \"On 10 November 2015, a 66-year-old former member of the Parachute Regiment was arrested for questioning over the deaths of William Nash, Michael McDaid and John Young.\",\n \"\\nGuildhall, home to the Inquiry\\n\\nAlthough British Prime Minister John Major rejected John Hume's requests for a public inquiry into the killings, his successor, Tony Blair, decided to start one.\",\n \"A second commission of inquiry, chaired by Lord Saville, was established in January 1998 to re-examine Bloody Sunday.\",\n \"The other judges were John Toohey QC, a former Justice of the High Court of Australia who had worked on Aboriginal issues (he replaced New Zealander Sir Edward Somers QC, who retired from the Inquiry in 2000 for personal reasons), and Mr Justice William Hoyt QC, former Chief Justice of New Brunswick and a member of the Canadian Judicial Council.\",\n \"The hearings were concluded in November 2004, and the report was published 15 June 2010.\",\n \"The Saville Inquiry was a more comprehensive study than the Widgery Tribunal, interviewing a wide range of witnesses, including local residents, soldiers, journalists and politicians.\",\n \"Lord Saville declined to comment on the Widgery report and made the point that the Saville Inquiry was a judicial inquiry into Bloody Sunday, not the Widgery Tribunal.\",\n \"Evidence given by Martin McGuinness, a senior member of Sinn Féin and later the deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland, to the inquiry stated that he was second-in-command of the Derry City brigade of the Provisional IRA and was present at the march.\",\n \"A claim was made at the Saville Inquiry that McGuinness was responsible for supplying detonators for nail bombs on Bloody Sunday.\",\n \"Paddy Ward claimed he was the leader of the Fianna Éireann, the youth wing of the IRA in January 1972.\",\n \"He claimed that McGuinness, the second-in-command of the IRA in the city at the time, and another anonymous IRA member gave him bomb parts on the morning of 30 January, the date planned for the civil rights march.\",\n \"He said his organisation intended to attack city-centre premises in Derry on the day when civilians were shot dead by British soldiers.\",\n \"In response McGuinness rejected the claims as \\\"fantasy\\\", while Gerry O'Hara, a Sinn Féin councillor in Derry stated that he and not Ward was the Fianna leader at the time.\",\n \"Many observers allege that the Ministry of Defence acted in a way to impede the inquiry.\",\n \"Over 1,000 army photographs and original army helicopter video footage were never made available.\",\n \"Additionally, guns used on the day by the soldiers that could have been evidence in the inquiry were lost by the MoD.\",\n \"The MoD claimed that all the guns had been destroyed, but some were subsequently recovered in various locations (such as Sierra Leone and Beirut) despite the obstruction.\",\n \"By the time the inquiry had retired to write up its findings, it had interviewed over 900 witnesses, over seven years, making it the biggest investigation in British legal history.\",\n \"The cost of this process has drawn criticism; as of the publication of the Saville Report being .\",\n \"Banner and crosses carried by the families of the victims on the annual commemoration march\\nThe inquiry was expected to report in late 2009 but was delayed until after the general election on 6 May 2010.\",\n \"The report of the inquiry was published on 15 June 2010.\",\n \"The report concluded, \\\"The firing by soldiers of 1 PARA on Bloody Sunday caused the deaths of 13 people and injury to a similar number, none of whom was posing a threat of causing death or serious injury.\\\"\",\n \"Saville stated that British paratroopers \\\"lost control\\\", fatally shooting fleeing civilians and those who tried to aid civilians who had been shot by the British soldiers.\",\n \"The report stated that British soldiers had concocted lies in their attempt to hide their acts.\",\n \"Saville stated that the civilians had not been warned by the British soldiers that they intended to shoot.\",\n \"The report states, contrary to the previously established belief, that no stones and no petrol bombs were thrown by civilians before British soldiers shot at them, and that the civilians were not posing any threat.\",\n \"The report concluded that an Official IRA sniper fired on British soldiers, albeit that on the balance of evidence his shot was fired ''after'' the Army shots that wounded Damien Donaghey and John Johnston.\",\n \"The Inquiry rejected the sniper's account that this shot had been made in reprisal, stating the view that he and another Official IRA member had already been in position, and the shot had probably been fired simply because the opportunity had presented itself.\",\n \"Ultimately the Saville Inquiry was inconclusive on Martin McGuinness' role, due to a lack of certainty over his movements, concluding that while he was \\\"engaged in paramilitary activity\\\" during Bloody Sunday, and had probably been armed with a Thompson submachine gun, there was insufficient evidence to make any finding other than they were \\\"sure that he did not engage in any activity that provided any of the soldiers with any justification for opening fire\\\".\",\n \"Regarding the soldiers in charge on the day of Bloody Sunday, the Saville Inquiry arrived at the following findings:\\n\\n*Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford: Commander of 1 Para and directly responsible for arresting rioters and returning to base.\",\n \"Found to have 'deliberately disobeyed' his superior Brigadier Patrick MacLellan's orders by sending Support Company into the Bogside (and without informing MacLellan).\",\n \"*Major Ted Loden: Commander in charge of soldiers, following orders issued by Lieutenant Colonel Wilford.\",\n \"Cleared of misconduct; Saville cited in the report that Loden \\\"neither realised nor should have realised that his soldiers were or might be firing at people who were not posing or about to pose a threat\\\".\",\n \"The inquiry found that Loden could not be held responsible for claims (whether malicious or not) by some of the individual soldiers that they had received fire from snipers.\",\n \"*Captain Mike Jackson: Second in command of 1 Para on the day of Bloody Sunday.\",\n \"Cleared of sinister actions following Jackson's compiling of a list of what soldiers told Major Loden on why they had fired.\",\n \"This list became known as the \\\"Loden List of Engagements\\\" which played a role in the Army's initial explanations.\",\n \"While the inquiry found the compiling of the list was 'far from ideal', Jackson's explanations were accepted based on the list not containing the names of soldiers and the number of times they fired.\",\n \"*Major General Robert Ford: Commander of land forces and set the British strategy to oversee the civil march in Derry.\",\n \"Cleared of any fault, but his selection of 1 Para, and in particular his selection of Colonel Wilford to be in control of arresting rioters, was found to be disconcerting, specifically as \\\"1 PARA was a force with a reputation for using excessive physical violence, which thus ran the risk of exacerbating the tensions between the Army and nationalists\\\".\",\n \"*Brigadier Pat MacLellan: Operational commander of the day.\",\n \"Cleared of any wrongdoing as he was under the impression that Wilford would follow orders by arresting rioters and then returning to base, and could not be blamed for Wilford's actions.\",\n \"*Major Michael Steele: With MacLellan in the operations room and in charge of passing on the orders of the day.\",\n \"The inquiry report accepted that Steele could not believe other than that a separation had been achieved between rioters and marchers, because both groups were in different areas.\",\n \"*Other soldiers: Lance Corporal F was found responsible for a number of the deaths and that a number of soldiers have \\\"knowingly put forward false accounts in order to seek to justify their firing\\\".\",\n \"*Intelligence officer Colonel Maurice Tugwell and Colin Wallace, (an IPU army press officer): Cleared of wrongdoing.\",\n \"Saville believed the information Tugwell and Wallace released through the media was not down to any deliberate attempt to deceive the public but rather due to much of the inaccurate information Tugwell had received at the time by various other figures.\",\n \"Reporting on the findings of the Saville Inquiry in the House of Commons, the British Prime Minister David Cameron said:\\n\\n\\\"Mr Speaker, I am deeply patriotic.\",\n \"I never want to believe anything bad about our country.\",\n \"I never want to call into question the behaviour of our soldiers and our army, who I believe to be the finest in the world.\",\n \"And I have seen for myself the very difficult and dangerous circumstances in which we ask our soldiers to serve.\",\n \"But the conclusions of this report are absolutely clear.\",\n \"There is no doubt, there is nothing equivocal, there are no ambiguities.\",\n \"What happened on Bloody Sunday was both unjustified and unjustifiable.\",\n \"It was wrong.\\\"\",\n \"Bloody Sunday memorial in the Bogside\\n\\nHarold Wilson, then the Leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons, reiterated his belief that a united Ireland was the only possible solution to Northern Ireland's Troubles.\",\n \"When it was deployed on duty in Northern Ireland, the British Army was welcomed by Roman Catholics as a neutral force there to protect them from Protestant mobs, the RUC and the B-Specials.\",\n \"After Bloody Sunday many Catholics turned on the British army, seeing it no longer as their protector but as their enemy.\",\n \"Young nationalists became increasingly attracted to violent republican groups.\",\n \"With the Official IRA and Official Sinn Féin having moved away from mainstream Irish republicanism towards Marxism, the Provisional IRA began to win the support of newly radicalised, disaffected young people.\",\n \"In the following twenty years, the Provisional Irish Republican Army and other smaller republican groups such as the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) stepped up their armed campaigns against the state and those seen as being in service to it.\",\n \"With rival paramilitary organisations appearing in both the nationalist/republican and unionist/loyalist communities (such as the Ulster Defence Association (UDA), Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), etc.\",\n \"on the loyalist side), the Troubles cost the lives of thousands of people.\",\n \"In his speech to the House of Commons on the Inquiry, British Prime Minister David Cameron stated: \\\"These are shocking conclusions to read and shocking words to have to say.\",\n \"But you do not defend the British Army by defending the indefensible.\\\"\",\n \"He acknowledged that all those who died were unarmed when they were killed by British soldiers, and that a British soldier had fired the first shot at civilians.\",\n \"He also said that this was not a premeditated action, though \\\"there was no point in trying to soften or equivocate\\\" as \\\"what happened should never, ever have happened\\\".\",\n \"Cameron then apologised on behalf of the British Government by saying he was \\\"deeply sorry\\\".\",\n \"A survey conducted by Angus Reid Public Opinion in June 2010 found that 61 per cent of Britons and 70 per cent of Northern Irish agreed with Cameron's apology for the Bloody Sunday events.\",\n \"Stephen Pollard, solicitor representing several of the soldiers, said on 15 June 2010 that Saville had cherry-picked the evidence and did not have justification for his findings.\",\n \"Parachute Regiment flag and the Union flag flying in Ballymena\\n\\nIn 2012 an actively serving British army soldier from Belfast was charged with inciting hatred by a surviving relative of the deceased, due to their online use of social media to promote sectarian slogans about the killings while featuring banners of the Parachute Regiment logo.\",\n \"In January 2013, shortly before the annual Bloody Sunday remembrance march, two Parachute Regiment flags appeared in the loyalist Fountain, and Waterside, Drumahoe areas of Derry.\",\n \"The display of the flags was heavily criticised by nationalist politicians and relatives of the Bloody Sunday dead.\",\n \"The Ministry of Defence also condemned the flying of the flags.\",\n \"The flags were removed to be replaced by Union Flags.\",\n \"In the run up to the loyalist marching season in 2013 the flag of the Parachute Regiment appeared alongside other loyalist flags in other parts of Northern Ireland.\",\n \"In 2014 loyalists in Cookstown erected the flags in opposition, close to the route of a St.Patrick's Day parade in the town.\",\n \"Paul McCartney (who is of Irish descent) recorded the first song in response only two days after the incident.\",\n \"The single entitled \\\"Give Ireland Back to the Irish\\\", expressed his views on the matter.\",\n \"It was one of a few McCartney solo songs to be banned by the BBC.\",\n \"The 1972 John Lennon album ''Some Time in New York City'' features a song entitled \\\"Sunday Bloody Sunday\\\", inspired by the incident, as well as the song \\\"The Luck of the Irish\\\", which dealt more with the Irish conflict in general.\",\n \"Lennon, who was of Irish descent, also spoke at a protest in New York in support of the victims and families of Bloody Sunday.\",\n \"Irish poet Thomas Kinsella's 1972 poem ''Butcher's Dozen'' is a satirical and angry response to the Widgery Tribunal and the events of Bloody Sunday.\",\n \"Black Sabbath's Geezer Butler (also of Irish descent) wrote the lyrics to the Black Sabbath song \\\"Sabbath Bloody Sabbath\\\" on the album of the same name in 1973.\",\n \"Butler stated, \\\"…the Sunday Bloody Sunday thing had just happened in Ireland, when the British troops opened fire on the Irish demonstrators… So I came up with the title 'Sabbath Bloody Sabbath', and sort of put it in how the band was feeling at the time, getting away from management, mixed with the state Ireland was in.\\\"\",\n \"The Roy Harper song \\\"All Ireland\\\" from the album ''Lifemask'', written in the days following the incident, is critical of the military but takes a long term view with regard to a solution.\",\n \"In Harper's book (''The Passions of Great Fortune''), his comment on the song ends \\\"…there must always be some hope that the children of 'Bloody Sunday', on both sides, can grow into some wisdom\\\".\",\n \"Brian Friel's 1973 play ''The Freedom of the City'' deals with the incident from the viewpoint of three civilians.\",\n \"Irish poet Seamus Heaney's ''Casualty'' (published in ''Field Work,'' 1981) criticizes Britain for the death of his friend.\",\n \"The incident has been commemorated by Irish band, U2, in their 1983 protest song \\\"Sunday Bloody Sunday\\\".\",\n \"Christy Moore's song \\\"Minds Locked Shut\\\" on the album ''Graffiti Tongue'' is all about the events of the day, and names the dead civilians.\",\n \"The events of the day have been dramatised in two 2002 television films, ''Bloody Sunday'' (starring James Nesbitt) and ''Sunday'' by Jimmy McGovern.\",\n \"The Celtic metal band Cruachan addressed the incident in a song \\\"Bloody Sunday\\\" from their 2004 album ''Folk-Lore''.\",\n \"Willie Doherty, a Derry-born artist, has amassed a large body of work which addresses the troubles in Northern Ireland.\",\n \"\\\"30 January 1972\\\" deals specifically with the events of Bloody Sunday.\",\n \"In mid-2005, the play ''Bloody Sunday: Scenes from the Saville Inquiry'', a dramatisation based on the Saville Inquiry, opened in London, and subsequently travelled to Derry and Dublin.\",\n \"The writer, journalist Richard Norton-Taylor, distilled four years of evidence into two hours of stage performance by Tricycle Theatre.\",\n \"The play received glowing reviews in all the British broadsheets, including ''The Times'': \\\"The Tricycle's latest recreation of a major inquiry is its most devastating\\\"; ''The Daily Telegraph'': \\\"I can't praise this enthralling production too highly… exceptionally gripping courtroom drama\\\"; and ''The Independent'': \\\"A necessary triumph\\\".\",\n \"Swedish troubadour Fred Åkerström wrote a song called \\\"Den 30/1-72\\\" about the incident.\",\n \"In October 2010, T with the Maggies released the song ''Domhnach na Fola'' (Irish for ''Bloody Sunday''), written by Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh and Tríona Ní Dhomhnaill on their debut album.\",\n \"Irish professional wrestler Finn Bálor named one of his signature manoeuvres, a lifting single underhook DDT, \\\"Bloody Sunday\\\".\",\n \"* \\n* (extracts available online)\\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* English, Richard.\",\n \"''Armed Struggle;– A History of the IRA'', MacMillan, London 2003,\",\n \"\\n* Madden & Finucane Bloody Sunday index\\n* CAIN Web Service Bloody Sunday index\\n* UTV Coverage: Bloody Sunday & The Saville Report\\n* Guardian Coverage\\n* Dáil debate on Bloody Sunday\\n* The Widgery Report (from Cain website)\\n* BBC Special Report\\n* Programme of events commemorating Bloody Sunday – 2008\\n* 1610: Soldiers open fire\\n\\n;The events of the day\\n* BBC Interactive Guide\\n* Guardian Interactive Guide\\n* History – Bloody Sunday – Events of the Day Museum of Free Derry\\n\\n;Contemporary newspaper coverage\\n* \\\"13 killed as paratroops break riot\\\" from The Guardian, Monday 31 January 1972\\n* \\\"Bogsiders insist that soldiers shot first\\\" from The Guardian, Tuesday 1 February 1972\\n\\n;Importance and impact\\n* \\\"Shootings 'triggered decades of violence'\\\" from The Guardian, Wednesday 16 May 2001\\n* Britain Acknowledges \\\"Bloody Sunday\\\" Killings Were Unjustified and Apologizes to Victims’ Families – video report by ''Democracy Now!''\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"river"}}},{"rowIdx":283,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\nSaint '''Bruno of Querfurt''' ( 974 – February 14, 1009 AD), also known as ''Brun'' and ''Boniface'', was a missionary bishop and martyr, who was beheaded near the border of Kievan Rus and Lithuania while trying to spread Christianity in Eastern Europe. He is also called the second \"Apostle of the Prussians\".\n","\n=== Early life ===\nBruno was from a noble family of Querfurt (now in Saxony-Anhalt). He is rumored to have been a relative of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto III. At the age of six, he was sent to be educated at the cathedral school in Magdeburg, seat of Adalbert of Magdeburg, the teacher and namesake of Saint Adalbert. While still a youth, he was made a canon of the Cathedral of Magdeburg. The fifteen-year-old Otto III made Bruno a part of his royal court. While in Rome for Otto's imperial coronation, Bruno met Saint Adalbert of Prague, the first \"Apostle of the Prussians\", killed a year later, which inspired Bruno to write a biography of St. Adalbert when he reached the recently Christianized and consolidated Kingdom of Hungary himself. Bruno spent much time at the monastery where Adalbert had become a monk and where abbot John Canaparius may have written a life of Saint Adalbert. Later, Bruno entered a monastery near Ravenna that Otto had founded, and underwent strict ascetic training under the guidance of Saint Romuald.\n\n=== Missionary life ===\nThe lands given St. Bruno in 1003 were in the region shown on left bank of the Oder, Hither Pomerania along the coast, or the future Margraviate of Brandenburg to its south.\n\nOtto III hoped to establish a monastery between the Elbe and the Oder (somewhere in the pagan lands that became Brandenburg or Western Pomerania) to help convert the local population to Christianity and colonize the area. In 1001, two monks from his monastery traveled to Poland, while Bruno was with Otto in Italy, studying the language and awaiting the Apostolic appointment by Pope Sylvester II. \n\nIn 1003 Pope Sylvester II appointed Bruno, at the age of 33, to head a mission amongst the pagan peoples of Eastern Europe. Bruno left Rome in 1004, and having been named an archbishop was consecrated in February of that year by Archbishop Tagino of Magdeburg. Owing to a regional conflict between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry II and Duke Boleslaus I of Poland he delayed the plans for the monastery, and so Bruno set out for Hungary. There he went to the places that Saint Adalbert of Prague had attended.\n\nBruno tried to persuade Ahtum, the Duke of Banat, who was under jurisdiction of Patriarchate of Constantinople to accept the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, but this precipitated a large controversy leading to organized opposition from local monks. Bruno elected to gracefully exit the region after he first finished his book, the famous ''\"Life of St. Adalbert,\"'' a literary memorial of much worth giving a history of the (relatively recent) conversion of the Hungarians.\n\nAfter this diplomatic failure, Bruno went to Kiev, where Grand Duke Vladimir I authorized him to make Christian converts among the Pechenegs, semi-nomadic Turkic peoples living between the Danube and the Don rivers. Bruno spent five months there and baptized some thirty adults. He helped to bring about a peace treaty between them and the ruler of Kiev.\n\nBefore leaving for Poland, Bruno consecrated a bishop for the Pechenegs. While in Poland he consecrated the first Bishop of Sweden and is said to have sent emissaries to baptize the king of Sweden, whose mother had come from Poland. Bruno found out that his friend Benedict and four companions had been killed by robbers in 1003. Bruno took eyewitness accounts and wrote down a touching history of the so-called Five Martyred Brothers.\n\n=== Mission to Prussia and death ===\nIn the autumn or at the end of 1008 Bruno and eighteen companions set out to found a mission among the Old Prussians; they succeeded in converting Netimer and then traveled to the east, heading very likely towards Yotvingia. Yotvingia was a Prussian region, then subordinate to Kievan Rus (since 983), that intersected the borders of what was then Prussia, Kievan Rus and the Duchy of Lithuania.\n\nSaint Bruno was beheaded on February 14, 1009, whereas most of his companions were hanged the same day by Zebeden, brother of Netimer. Duke Boleslaus the Brave brought the bodies to Poland (it was supposed that they were laid to rest in Przemyśl, where some historians place Bruno's diocese; such localization of the Bruno's burial place is hardly probable because Przemyśl then belonged to Orthodox Kievan Rus through 1018). The ''Annals of Magdeburg,'' Thietmar of Merseburg's ''Chronicle'', the ''Annals of Quedlinburg'', various works of Magdeburg Bishops, and many other written sources of 11th–15th centuries record this story.\n\nSoon after his death, Bruno and his companions were venerated as martyrs and Bruno was soon after canonized. It was said that Braunsberg was named after St Bruno.\n","\n*Name of Lithuania\n* A. Bumblauskas. Lithuania’s Millennium –Millennium Lithuaniae Or What Lithuania Can Tell the World on this Occasion. ''Lietuvos istorijos studijos'', 2009, t. 23, p. 127–158.\n* A. Bumblauskas. Lithuania's Millennium – Millennium Lithuaniae\n* D. Baronas. ST BRUNO OF QUERFURT: THE MISSIONARY VOCATION. ''LITHUANIAN HISTORICAL STUDIES'', 2009, t. 14. p. 41–52.\n","\n","\n\n* Saint Bruno Querfurt \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\nSaint '''Bruno of Querfurt''' ( 974 – February 14, 1009 AD), also known as ''Brun'' and ''Boniface'', was a missionary bishop and martyr, who was beheaded near the border of Kievan Rus and Lithuania while trying to spread Christianity in Eastern Europe. He is also called the second \\\"Apostle of the Prussians\\\".\\n\",\n \"\\n=== Early life ===\\nBruno was from a noble family of Querfurt (now in Saxony-Anhalt). He is rumored to have been a relative of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto III. At the age of six, he was sent to be educated at the cathedral school in Magdeburg, seat of Adalbert of Magdeburg, the teacher and namesake of Saint Adalbert. While still a youth, he was made a canon of the Cathedral of Magdeburg. The fifteen-year-old Otto III made Bruno a part of his royal court. While in Rome for Otto's imperial coronation, Bruno met Saint Adalbert of Prague, the first \\\"Apostle of the Prussians\\\", killed a year later, which inspired Bruno to write a biography of St. Adalbert when he reached the recently Christianized and consolidated Kingdom of Hungary himself. Bruno spent much time at the monastery where Adalbert had become a monk and where abbot John Canaparius may have written a life of Saint Adalbert. Later, Bruno entered a monastery near Ravenna that Otto had founded, and underwent strict ascetic training under the guidance of Saint Romuald.\\n\\n=== Missionary life ===\\nThe lands given St. Bruno in 1003 were in the region shown on left bank of the Oder, Hither Pomerania along the coast, or the future Margraviate of Brandenburg to its south.\\n\\nOtto III hoped to establish a monastery between the Elbe and the Oder (somewhere in the pagan lands that became Brandenburg or Western Pomerania) to help convert the local population to Christianity and colonize the area. In 1001, two monks from his monastery traveled to Poland, while Bruno was with Otto in Italy, studying the language and awaiting the Apostolic appointment by Pope Sylvester II. \\n\\nIn 1003 Pope Sylvester II appointed Bruno, at the age of 33, to head a mission amongst the pagan peoples of Eastern Europe. Bruno left Rome in 1004, and having been named an archbishop was consecrated in February of that year by Archbishop Tagino of Magdeburg. Owing to a regional conflict between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry II and Duke Boleslaus I of Poland he delayed the plans for the monastery, and so Bruno set out for Hungary. There he went to the places that Saint Adalbert of Prague had attended.\\n\\nBruno tried to persuade Ahtum, the Duke of Banat, who was under jurisdiction of Patriarchate of Constantinople to accept the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, but this precipitated a large controversy leading to organized opposition from local monks. Bruno elected to gracefully exit the region after he first finished his book, the famous ''\\\"Life of St. Adalbert,\\\"'' a literary memorial of much worth giving a history of the (relatively recent) conversion of the Hungarians.\\n\\nAfter this diplomatic failure, Bruno went to Kiev, where Grand Duke Vladimir I authorized him to make Christian converts among the Pechenegs, semi-nomadic Turkic peoples living between the Danube and the Don rivers. Bruno spent five months there and baptized some thirty adults. He helped to bring about a peace treaty between them and the ruler of Kiev.\\n\\nBefore leaving for Poland, Bruno consecrated a bishop for the Pechenegs. While in Poland he consecrated the first Bishop of Sweden and is said to have sent emissaries to baptize the king of Sweden, whose mother had come from Poland. Bruno found out that his friend Benedict and four companions had been killed by robbers in 1003. Bruno took eyewitness accounts and wrote down a touching history of the so-called Five Martyred Brothers.\\n\\n=== Mission to Prussia and death ===\\nIn the autumn or at the end of 1008 Bruno and eighteen companions set out to found a mission among the Old Prussians; they succeeded in converting Netimer and then traveled to the east, heading very likely towards Yotvingia. Yotvingia was a Prussian region, then subordinate to Kievan Rus (since 983), that intersected the borders of what was then Prussia, Kievan Rus and the Duchy of Lithuania.\\n\\nSaint Bruno was beheaded on February 14, 1009, whereas most of his companions were hanged the same day by Zebeden, brother of Netimer. Duke Boleslaus the Brave brought the bodies to Poland (it was supposed that they were laid to rest in Przemyśl, where some historians place Bruno's diocese; such localization of the Bruno's burial place is hardly probable because Przemyśl then belonged to Orthodox Kievan Rus through 1018). The ''Annals of Magdeburg,'' Thietmar of Merseburg's ''Chronicle'', the ''Annals of Quedlinburg'', various works of Magdeburg Bishops, and many other written sources of 11th–15th centuries record this story.\\n\\nSoon after his death, Bruno and his companions were venerated as martyrs and Bruno was soon after canonized. It was said that Braunsberg was named after St Bruno.\\n\",\n \"\\n*Name of Lithuania\\n* A. Bumblauskas. Lithuania’s Millennium –Millennium Lithuaniae Or What Lithuania Can Tell the World on this Occasion. ''Lietuvos istorijos studijos'', 2009, t. 23, p. 127–158.\\n* A. Bumblauskas. Lithuania's Millennium – Millennium Lithuaniae\\n* D. Baronas. ST BRUNO OF QUERFURT: THE MISSIONARY VOCATION. ''LITHUANIAN HISTORICAL STUDIES'', 2009, t. 14. p. 41–52.\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n* Saint Bruno Querfurt \\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction"," Biography "," See also "," References "," External links "],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \" Biography \",\n \" See also \",\n \" References \",\n \" External links \"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Bruno of Querfurt"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["=== Missionary life ===\nThe lands given St. Bruno in 1003 were in the region shown on left bank of the Oder, Hither Pomerania along the coast, or the future Margraviate of Brandenburg to its south."],"string":"[\n \"=== Missionary life ===\\nThe lands given St. Bruno in 1003 were in the region shown on left bank of the Oder, Hither Pomerania along the coast, or the future Margraviate of Brandenburg to its south.\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\nSaint '''Bruno of Querfurt''' ( 974 – February 14, 1009 AD), also known as ''Brun'' and ''Boniface'', was a missionary bishop and martyr, who was beheaded near the border of Kievan Rus and Lithuania while trying to spread Christianity in Eastern Europe.","He is also called the second \"Apostle of the Prussians\".","\n=== Early life ===\nBruno was from a noble family of Querfurt (now in Saxony-Anhalt).","He is rumored to have been a relative of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto III.","At the age of six, he was sent to be educated at the cathedral school in Magdeburg, seat of Adalbert of Magdeburg, the teacher and namesake of Saint Adalbert.","While still a youth, he was made a canon of the Cathedral of Magdeburg.","The fifteen-year-old Otto III made Bruno a part of his royal court.","While in Rome for Otto's imperial coronation, Bruno met Saint Adalbert of Prague, the first \"Apostle of the Prussians\", killed a year later, which inspired Bruno to write a biography of St. Adalbert when he reached the recently Christianized and consolidated Kingdom of Hungary himself.","Bruno spent much time at the monastery where Adalbert had become a monk and where abbot John Canaparius may have written a life of Saint Adalbert.","Later, Bruno entered a monastery near Ravenna that Otto had founded, and underwent strict ascetic training under the guidance of Saint Romuald.","Otto III hoped to establish a monastery between the Elbe and the Oder (somewhere in the pagan lands that became Brandenburg or Western Pomerania) to help convert the local population to Christianity and colonize the area.","In 1001, two monks from his monastery traveled to Poland, while Bruno was with Otto in Italy, studying the language and awaiting the Apostolic appointment by Pope Sylvester II.","In 1003 Pope Sylvester II appointed Bruno, at the age of 33, to head a mission amongst the pagan peoples of Eastern Europe.","Bruno left Rome in 1004, and having been named an archbishop was consecrated in February of that year by Archbishop Tagino of Magdeburg.","Owing to a regional conflict between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry II and Duke Boleslaus I of Poland he delayed the plans for the monastery, and so Bruno set out for Hungary.","There he went to the places that Saint Adalbert of Prague had attended.","Bruno tried to persuade Ahtum, the Duke of Banat, who was under jurisdiction of Patriarchate of Constantinople to accept the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, but this precipitated a large controversy leading to organized opposition from local monks.","Bruno elected to gracefully exit the region after he first finished his book, the famous ''\"Life of St. Adalbert,\"'' a literary memorial of much worth giving a history of the (relatively recent) conversion of the Hungarians.","After this diplomatic failure, Bruno went to Kiev, where Grand Duke Vladimir I authorized him to make Christian converts among the Pechenegs, semi-nomadic Turkic peoples living between the Danube and the Don rivers.","Bruno spent five months there and baptized some thirty adults.","He helped to bring about a peace treaty between them and the ruler of Kiev.","Before leaving for Poland, Bruno consecrated a bishop for the Pechenegs.","While in Poland he consecrated the first Bishop of Sweden and is said to have sent emissaries to baptize the king of Sweden, whose mother had come from Poland.","Bruno found out that his friend Benedict and four companions had been killed by robbers in 1003.","Bruno took eyewitness accounts and wrote down a touching history of the so-called Five Martyred Brothers.","=== Mission to Prussia and death ===\nIn the autumn or at the end of 1008 Bruno and eighteen companions set out to found a mission among the Old Prussians; they succeeded in converting Netimer and then traveled to the east, heading very likely towards Yotvingia.","Yotvingia was a Prussian region, then subordinate to Kievan Rus (since 983), that intersected the borders of what was then Prussia, Kievan Rus and the Duchy of Lithuania.","Saint Bruno was beheaded on February 14, 1009, whereas most of his companions were hanged the same day by Zebeden, brother of Netimer.","Duke Boleslaus the Brave brought the bodies to Poland (it was supposed that they were laid to rest in Przemyśl, where some historians place Bruno's diocese; such localization of the Bruno's burial place is hardly probable because Przemyśl then belonged to Orthodox Kievan Rus through 1018).","The ''Annals of Magdeburg,'' Thietmar of Merseburg's ''Chronicle'', the ''Annals of Quedlinburg'', various works of Magdeburg Bishops, and many other written sources of 11th–15th centuries record this story.","Soon after his death, Bruno and his companions were venerated as martyrs and Bruno was soon after canonized.","It was said that Braunsberg was named after St Bruno.","\n*Name of Lithuania\n* A. Bumblauskas.","Lithuania’s Millennium –Millennium Lithuaniae Or What Lithuania Can Tell the World on this Occasion.","''Lietuvos istorijos studijos'', 2009, t. 23, p. 127–158.","* A. Bumblauskas.","Lithuania's Millennium – Millennium Lithuaniae\n* D. Baronas.","ST BRUNO OF QUERFURT: THE MISSIONARY VOCATION.","''LITHUANIAN HISTORICAL STUDIES'', 2009, t. 14. p. 41–52.","\n\n* Saint Bruno Querfurt"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\nSaint '''Bruno of Querfurt''' ( 974 – February 14, 1009 AD), also known as ''Brun'' and ''Boniface'', was a missionary bishop and martyr, who was beheaded near the border of Kievan Rus and Lithuania while trying to spread Christianity in Eastern Europe.\",\n \"He is also called the second \\\"Apostle of the Prussians\\\".\",\n \"\\n=== Early life ===\\nBruno was from a noble family of Querfurt (now in Saxony-Anhalt).\",\n \"He is rumored to have been a relative of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto III.\",\n \"At the age of six, he was sent to be educated at the cathedral school in Magdeburg, seat of Adalbert of Magdeburg, the teacher and namesake of Saint Adalbert.\",\n \"While still a youth, he was made a canon of the Cathedral of Magdeburg.\",\n \"The fifteen-year-old Otto III made Bruno a part of his royal court.\",\n \"While in Rome for Otto's imperial coronation, Bruno met Saint Adalbert of Prague, the first \\\"Apostle of the Prussians\\\", killed a year later, which inspired Bruno to write a biography of St. Adalbert when he reached the recently Christianized and consolidated Kingdom of Hungary himself.\",\n \"Bruno spent much time at the monastery where Adalbert had become a monk and where abbot John Canaparius may have written a life of Saint Adalbert.\",\n \"Later, Bruno entered a monastery near Ravenna that Otto had founded, and underwent strict ascetic training under the guidance of Saint Romuald.\",\n \"Otto III hoped to establish a monastery between the Elbe and the Oder (somewhere in the pagan lands that became Brandenburg or Western Pomerania) to help convert the local population to Christianity and colonize the area.\",\n \"In 1001, two monks from his monastery traveled to Poland, while Bruno was with Otto in Italy, studying the language and awaiting the Apostolic appointment by Pope Sylvester II.\",\n \"In 1003 Pope Sylvester II appointed Bruno, at the age of 33, to head a mission amongst the pagan peoples of Eastern Europe.\",\n \"Bruno left Rome in 1004, and having been named an archbishop was consecrated in February of that year by Archbishop Tagino of Magdeburg.\",\n \"Owing to a regional conflict between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry II and Duke Boleslaus I of Poland he delayed the plans for the monastery, and so Bruno set out for Hungary.\",\n \"There he went to the places that Saint Adalbert of Prague had attended.\",\n \"Bruno tried to persuade Ahtum, the Duke of Banat, who was under jurisdiction of Patriarchate of Constantinople to accept the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, but this precipitated a large controversy leading to organized opposition from local monks.\",\n \"Bruno elected to gracefully exit the region after he first finished his book, the famous ''\\\"Life of St. Adalbert,\\\"'' a literary memorial of much worth giving a history of the (relatively recent) conversion of the Hungarians.\",\n \"After this diplomatic failure, Bruno went to Kiev, where Grand Duke Vladimir I authorized him to make Christian converts among the Pechenegs, semi-nomadic Turkic peoples living between the Danube and the Don rivers.\",\n \"Bruno spent five months there and baptized some thirty adults.\",\n \"He helped to bring about a peace treaty between them and the ruler of Kiev.\",\n \"Before leaving for Poland, Bruno consecrated a bishop for the Pechenegs.\",\n \"While in Poland he consecrated the first Bishop of Sweden and is said to have sent emissaries to baptize the king of Sweden, whose mother had come from Poland.\",\n \"Bruno found out that his friend Benedict and four companions had been killed by robbers in 1003.\",\n \"Bruno took eyewitness accounts and wrote down a touching history of the so-called Five Martyred Brothers.\",\n \"=== Mission to Prussia and death ===\\nIn the autumn or at the end of 1008 Bruno and eighteen companions set out to found a mission among the Old Prussians; they succeeded in converting Netimer and then traveled to the east, heading very likely towards Yotvingia.\",\n \"Yotvingia was a Prussian region, then subordinate to Kievan Rus (since 983), that intersected the borders of what was then Prussia, Kievan Rus and the Duchy of Lithuania.\",\n \"Saint Bruno was beheaded on February 14, 1009, whereas most of his companions were hanged the same day by Zebeden, brother of Netimer.\",\n \"Duke Boleslaus the Brave brought the bodies to Poland (it was supposed that they were laid to rest in Przemyśl, where some historians place Bruno's diocese; such localization of the Bruno's burial place is hardly probable because Przemyśl then belonged to Orthodox Kievan Rus through 1018).\",\n \"The ''Annals of Magdeburg,'' Thietmar of Merseburg's ''Chronicle'', the ''Annals of Quedlinburg'', various works of Magdeburg Bishops, and many other written sources of 11th–15th centuries record this story.\",\n \"Soon after his death, Bruno and his companions were venerated as martyrs and Bruno was soon after canonized.\",\n \"It was said that Braunsberg was named after St Bruno.\",\n \"\\n*Name of Lithuania\\n* A. Bumblauskas.\",\n \"Lithuania’s Millennium –Millennium Lithuaniae Or What Lithuania Can Tell the World on this Occasion.\",\n \"''Lietuvos istorijos studijos'', 2009, t. 23, p. 127–158.\",\n \"* A. Bumblauskas.\",\n \"Lithuania's Millennium – Millennium Lithuaniae\\n* D. Baronas.\",\n \"ST BRUNO OF QUERFURT: THE MISSIONARY VOCATION.\",\n \"''LITHUANIAN HISTORICAL STUDIES'', 2009, t. 14. p. 41–52.\",\n \"\\n\\n* Saint Bruno Querfurt\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"river"}}},{"rowIdx":284,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n1669 report that claims a woman fasted for 12 months\n'''Inedia''' (Latin for \"fasting\") or '''breatharianism''' is the belief that it is possible for a person to live without consuming food. Breatharians claim that food, and in some cases water, are not necessary for survival, and that humans can be sustained solely by ''prana'', the vital life force in Hinduism. According to Ayurveda, sunlight is one of the main sources of ''prana'', and some practitioners believe that it is possible for a person to survive on sunlight alone. The terms ''breatharianism'' or ''inedia'' may also refer to this philosophy when it is practiced as a lifestyle in place of the usual diet.\n\nBreatharianism is considered a lethal pseudoscience by scientists and medical professionals, and several adherents of these practices have died from starvation and dehydration. Though it is common knowledge that biological entities require sustenance to survive, breatharianism continues.\n","Nutritional science proves that fasting for extended periods leads to starvation, dehydration, and eventual death. In the absence of food intake, the body normally burns its own reserves of glycogen, body fat, and muscle. Breatharians claim that their bodies do not consume these reserves while fasting.\n\nSome breatharians have submitted themselves to medical testing, including a hospital's observation of Indian mystic Prahlad Jani appearing to survive without food or water for 15 days, and an Israeli breatharian appearing to survive for eight days on a television documentary. In a handful of documented cases, individuals attempting breatharian fasting have died. Among the claims in support of Inedia investigated by the Indian Rationalist Association, all were found to be fraudulent. In other cases, people have attempted to survive on sunlight alone, only to abandon the effort after losing a large percentage of their body weight.\n","\n===Rosicrucianism===\nThe 1670 Rosicrucian text ''Comte de Gabalis'' attributed the practice to the physician and occultist Paracelsus (1493–1541) who was described as having lived \"several years by taking only one half scrupule of Solar Quintessence\". In this book, it is also stated that, \"Paracelsus affirms that He has seen many of the Sages fast twenty years without eating anything whatsoever.\"\n\n===Ram Bahadur Bomjon===\nRam Bahadur Bomjon is a young Nepalese Buddhist monk who lives as an ascetic in a remote area of Nepal. Bomjon appears to go for periods of time without ingesting either food or water. One such period was chronicled in a 2006 Discovery Channel documentary titled ''The Boy With Divine Powers'', which reported that Bomjon neither moved, ate, nor drank anything during 96 hours of filming.\n\n===Prahlad Jani (\"Mataji\")===\nPrahlad Jani is an Indian sadhu who says he has lived without food and water for more than 70 years. His claims were investigated by doctors at Sterling Hospital, Ahmedabad, Gujarat in 2003 and 2010. The study concluded that Prahlad Jani was able to survive under observation for two weeks without either food or water, and had passed no urine or stool, with no need for dialysis. Interviews with the researchers speak of strict observation and relate that round-the-clock observation was ensured by multiple CCTV cameras. Jani was subjected to multiple medical tests, and his only contact with any form of fluid was during bathing and gargling, with the fluid spat out measured by the doctors. The research team could not comment on his claim of having been able to survive in this way for decades.\n\nThe case has attracted criticism, both after the 2003 tests and the 2010 tests. Sanal Edamaruku, president of the Indian Rationalist Association, criticized the 2010 experiment for allowing Jani to move out of a certain CCTV camera's field of view, meet devotees and leave the sealed test room to sunbathe. Edamaruku stated that the regular gargling and bathing activities were not sufficiently monitored, and accused Jani of having had some \"influential protectors\" who denied Edamaruku permission to inspect the project during its operation.\n\n===Jasmuheen===\nJasmuheen (born Ellen Greve) was a prominent advocate of breatharianism in the 1990s. She said \"I can go for months and months without having anything at all other than a cup of tea. My body runs on a different kind of nourishment.\" Interviewers found her house stocked with food; Jasmuheen claimed the food was for her husband and daughter. In 1999, she volunteered to be monitored closely by the Australian television program ''60 Minutes'' for one week without eating to demonstrate her methods. Jasmuheen stated that she found it difficult on the third day of the test because the hotel room in which she was confined was located near a busy road, causing stress and pollution that prevented absorption of required nutrients from the air. \"I asked for fresh air. Seventy percent of my nutrients come from fresh air. I couldn’t even breathe,\" she said. The third day the test was moved to a mountainside retreat where her condition continued to deteriorate. After Jasmuheen had fasted for four days, Dr. Berris Wink, president of the Queensland branch of the Australian Medical Association, urged her to stop the test.\n\nAccording to Dr. Wink, Jasmuheen’s pupils were dilated, her speech was slow, and she was \"quite dehydrated, probably over 10%, getting up to 11%\". Towards the end of the test, she said, \"Her pulse is about double what it was when she started. The risks if she goes any further are kidney failure. ''60 Minutes'' would be culpable if they encouraged her to continue. She should stop now.\" The test was stopped. Dr. Wink said, \"Unfortunately there are a few people who may believe what she says, and I'm sure it's only a few, but I think it's quite irresponsible for somebody to be trying to encourage others to do something that is so detrimental to their health.\" Jasmuheen challenged the results of the program, saying, \"Look, 6,000 people have done this around the world without any problem.\"\n\nJasmuheen was awarded the Bent Spoon Award by Australian Skeptics in 2000 (\"presented to the perpetrator of the most preposterous piece of paranormal or pseudoscientific piffle\"). She also won the 2000 Ig Nobel Prize for Literature for ''Living on Light''. Jasmuheen claims that their beliefs are based on the writings and \"more recent channelled material\" from St. Germain. She stated that some people's DNA has expanded from 2 to 12 strands, to \"absorb more hydrogen\". When offered $30,000 to prove her claim with a blood test, she said that she didn't understand the relevance as she was not referring to herself.\n\nIn the documentary ''No Way to Heaven'' the Swiss chemist Michael Werner claims to have followed the directions appearing on Jasmuheen's books, living for several years without food. The documentary also describes two attempts at scientific verification of his claims. , five deaths had been directly linked to breatharianism as a result of Jasmuheen's publications. Jasmuheen has denied any responsibility for the deaths.\n\n===Wiley Brooks===\nWiley Brooks is the founder of the Breatharian Institute of America. He was first introduced to the public in 1980 when he appeared on the TV show ''That's Incredible!''. Brooks stopped teaching recently to \"devote 100% of his time on solving the problem as to why he needed to eat some type of food to keep his physical body alive and allow his light body to manifest completely.\" Brooks claims to have found \"four major deterrents\" which prevented him from living without food: \"people pollution\", \"food pollution\", \"air pollution\" and \"electro pollution\".\n\nIn 1983 he was reportedly observed leaving a Santa Cruz 7-Eleven with a Slurpee, a hot dog, and Twinkies. He told ''Colors'' magazine in 2003 that he periodically breaks his fasting with a cheeseburger and a cola, explaining that when he's surrounded by junk culture and junk food, consuming them adds balance. \n\nWiley Brooks later claimed that Diet Coke and McDonald's cheeseburgers have special \"5D\" properties. The idea of separate but interconnected 5D and 3D worlds is a major part of Wiley Brooks' ideology, and Wiley Brooks encourages his followers to only eat these special 5D foods, as well as meditate on a set of magical 5D words.\n\nBrooks's institute has charged varying fees to prospective clients who wished to learn how to live without food, which have ranged from US$100,000 with an initial deposit of $10,000 to one billion dollars, to be paid via bank wire transfer with a preliminary deposit of $100,000, for a session called \"Immortality workshop\". A payment plan was also offered. These charges have typically been presented as limited time offers exclusively for billionaires.\n\n===Hira Ratan Manek===\nHira Ratan Manek (born 12 September 1937) claims that since 18 June 1995 he has lived on water and occasionally tea, coffee, and buttermilk. Manek states that Sungazing is the key to his health citing yogis, ancient Egyptians, Aztecs, Mayans and Native Americans as practitioners of the art. While he and his proponents state that medical experts have confirmed his ability to draw sustenance by gazing at the sun, he was caught on camera eating a big meal in a San Francisco restaurant in the 2011 documentary ''Eat the Sun''.\n\n===Ray Maor===\nIn a television documentary produced by the Israeli television investigative show ''The Real Face'' (פנים אמיתיות) hosted by Amnon Levy, Israeli practitioner of Inedia, Ray Maor (ריי מאור), appeared to survive without food or water for eight days and eight nights. According to the documentary, he was restricted to a small villa and placed under constant video surveillance, with medical supervision that included daily blood testing. The documentary claimed Maor was in good spirits throughout the experiment, lost 17 lb after eight days, blood tests showed no change before, during or after the experiment, and Cardiologist Ilan Kitsis from Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center was \"baffled.\"\n","\n===Buddhism===\n* Fuhui (福慧)\n\n===Hinduism===\nHindu religious texts contain account of saints and hermits practicing what would be called inedia, breatharianism or Sustenance through Light in modern terms. In Valmiki's Ramayana, Book III, Canto VI, an account of anchorites and holy men is given, who flocked around Rama when he came to Śarabhanga's hermitage. These included, among others, the \"...saints who live on rays which moon and daystar give\" and \"those ... whose food the wave of air supplies\". In Canto XI of the same book a hermit named Māṇḍakarṇi is mentioned: \"For he, great votarist, intent – On strictest rule his stern life spent – ... – Ten thousand years on air he fed...\" (English quotations are from Ralph T. H. Griffith's translation).\n\nParamahansa Yogananda's ''Autobiography of a Yogi'' details two alleged historical examples of breatharianism, Hari Giri Baba and Therese Neumann.\n\nThere are claims that Devraha Baba lived without food.\n\n===Taoism===\n* Bigu (avoiding grains)\n* Chi Song Zi (赤松子)\n","* ''No Way to Heaven'', a 2008 documentary on breatharianism\n* ''In the Beginning There Was Light'', a 2010 Austrian documentary on breatharianism\n* Fasting girls\n* Sungazing\n","\n","\n* A list of historical and contemporary breatharians\n* ''Living on Light'' at Google Videos – episode of ''60 Minutes'' (Jasmuheen's aborted experiment)\n* Skeptic's Dictionary article on Breatharianism\n* Past Breatharian hoaxes in India\n* Professor claims to survive on just sunshine and fruit juice\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n1669 report that claims a woman fasted for 12 months\\n'''Inedia''' (Latin for \\\"fasting\\\") or '''breatharianism''' is the belief that it is possible for a person to live without consuming food. Breatharians claim that food, and in some cases water, are not necessary for survival, and that humans can be sustained solely by ''prana'', the vital life force in Hinduism. According to Ayurveda, sunlight is one of the main sources of ''prana'', and some practitioners believe that it is possible for a person to survive on sunlight alone. The terms ''breatharianism'' or ''inedia'' may also refer to this philosophy when it is practiced as a lifestyle in place of the usual diet.\\n\\nBreatharianism is considered a lethal pseudoscience by scientists and medical professionals, and several adherents of these practices have died from starvation and dehydration. Though it is common knowledge that biological entities require sustenance to survive, breatharianism continues.\\n\",\n \"Nutritional science proves that fasting for extended periods leads to starvation, dehydration, and eventual death. In the absence of food intake, the body normally burns its own reserves of glycogen, body fat, and muscle. Breatharians claim that their bodies do not consume these reserves while fasting.\\n\\nSome breatharians have submitted themselves to medical testing, including a hospital's observation of Indian mystic Prahlad Jani appearing to survive without food or water for 15 days, and an Israeli breatharian appearing to survive for eight days on a television documentary. In a handful of documented cases, individuals attempting breatharian fasting have died. Among the claims in support of Inedia investigated by the Indian Rationalist Association, all were found to be fraudulent. In other cases, people have attempted to survive on sunlight alone, only to abandon the effort after losing a large percentage of their body weight.\\n\",\n \"\\n===Rosicrucianism===\\nThe 1670 Rosicrucian text ''Comte de Gabalis'' attributed the practice to the physician and occultist Paracelsus (1493–1541) who was described as having lived \\\"several years by taking only one half scrupule of Solar Quintessence\\\". In this book, it is also stated that, \\\"Paracelsus affirms that He has seen many of the Sages fast twenty years without eating anything whatsoever.\\\"\\n\\n===Ram Bahadur Bomjon===\\nRam Bahadur Bomjon is a young Nepalese Buddhist monk who lives as an ascetic in a remote area of Nepal. Bomjon appears to go for periods of time without ingesting either food or water. One such period was chronicled in a 2006 Discovery Channel documentary titled ''The Boy With Divine Powers'', which reported that Bomjon neither moved, ate, nor drank anything during 96 hours of filming.\\n\\n===Prahlad Jani (\\\"Mataji\\\")===\\nPrahlad Jani is an Indian sadhu who says he has lived without food and water for more than 70 years. His claims were investigated by doctors at Sterling Hospital, Ahmedabad, Gujarat in 2003 and 2010. The study concluded that Prahlad Jani was able to survive under observation for two weeks without either food or water, and had passed no urine or stool, with no need for dialysis. Interviews with the researchers speak of strict observation and relate that round-the-clock observation was ensured by multiple CCTV cameras. Jani was subjected to multiple medical tests, and his only contact with any form of fluid was during bathing and gargling, with the fluid spat out measured by the doctors. The research team could not comment on his claim of having been able to survive in this way for decades.\\n\\nThe case has attracted criticism, both after the 2003 tests and the 2010 tests. Sanal Edamaruku, president of the Indian Rationalist Association, criticized the 2010 experiment for allowing Jani to move out of a certain CCTV camera's field of view, meet devotees and leave the sealed test room to sunbathe. Edamaruku stated that the regular gargling and bathing activities were not sufficiently monitored, and accused Jani of having had some \\\"influential protectors\\\" who denied Edamaruku permission to inspect the project during its operation.\\n\\n===Jasmuheen===\\nJasmuheen (born Ellen Greve) was a prominent advocate of breatharianism in the 1990s. She said \\\"I can go for months and months without having anything at all other than a cup of tea. My body runs on a different kind of nourishment.\\\" Interviewers found her house stocked with food; Jasmuheen claimed the food was for her husband and daughter. In 1999, she volunteered to be monitored closely by the Australian television program ''60 Minutes'' for one week without eating to demonstrate her methods. Jasmuheen stated that she found it difficult on the third day of the test because the hotel room in which she was confined was located near a busy road, causing stress and pollution that prevented absorption of required nutrients from the air. \\\"I asked for fresh air. Seventy percent of my nutrients come from fresh air. I couldn’t even breathe,\\\" she said. The third day the test was moved to a mountainside retreat where her condition continued to deteriorate. After Jasmuheen had fasted for four days, Dr. Berris Wink, president of the Queensland branch of the Australian Medical Association, urged her to stop the test.\\n\\nAccording to Dr. Wink, Jasmuheen’s pupils were dilated, her speech was slow, and she was \\\"quite dehydrated, probably over 10%, getting up to 11%\\\". Towards the end of the test, she said, \\\"Her pulse is about double what it was when she started. The risks if she goes any further are kidney failure. ''60 Minutes'' would be culpable if they encouraged her to continue. She should stop now.\\\" The test was stopped. Dr. Wink said, \\\"Unfortunately there are a few people who may believe what she says, and I'm sure it's only a few, but I think it's quite irresponsible for somebody to be trying to encourage others to do something that is so detrimental to their health.\\\" Jasmuheen challenged the results of the program, saying, \\\"Look, 6,000 people have done this around the world without any problem.\\\"\\n\\nJasmuheen was awarded the Bent Spoon Award by Australian Skeptics in 2000 (\\\"presented to the perpetrator of the most preposterous piece of paranormal or pseudoscientific piffle\\\"). She also won the 2000 Ig Nobel Prize for Literature for ''Living on Light''. Jasmuheen claims that their beliefs are based on the writings and \\\"more recent channelled material\\\" from St. Germain. She stated that some people's DNA has expanded from 2 to 12 strands, to \\\"absorb more hydrogen\\\". When offered $30,000 to prove her claim with a blood test, she said that she didn't understand the relevance as she was not referring to herself.\\n\\nIn the documentary ''No Way to Heaven'' the Swiss chemist Michael Werner claims to have followed the directions appearing on Jasmuheen's books, living for several years without food. The documentary also describes two attempts at scientific verification of his claims. , five deaths had been directly linked to breatharianism as a result of Jasmuheen's publications. Jasmuheen has denied any responsibility for the deaths.\\n\\n===Wiley Brooks===\\nWiley Brooks is the founder of the Breatharian Institute of America. He was first introduced to the public in 1980 when he appeared on the TV show ''That's Incredible!''. Brooks stopped teaching recently to \\\"devote 100% of his time on solving the problem as to why he needed to eat some type of food to keep his physical body alive and allow his light body to manifest completely.\\\" Brooks claims to have found \\\"four major deterrents\\\" which prevented him from living without food: \\\"people pollution\\\", \\\"food pollution\\\", \\\"air pollution\\\" and \\\"electro pollution\\\".\\n\\nIn 1983 he was reportedly observed leaving a Santa Cruz 7-Eleven with a Slurpee, a hot dog, and Twinkies. He told ''Colors'' magazine in 2003 that he periodically breaks his fasting with a cheeseburger and a cola, explaining that when he's surrounded by junk culture and junk food, consuming them adds balance. \\n\\nWiley Brooks later claimed that Diet Coke and McDonald's cheeseburgers have special \\\"5D\\\" properties. The idea of separate but interconnected 5D and 3D worlds is a major part of Wiley Brooks' ideology, and Wiley Brooks encourages his followers to only eat these special 5D foods, as well as meditate on a set of magical 5D words.\\n\\nBrooks's institute has charged varying fees to prospective clients who wished to learn how to live without food, which have ranged from US$100,000 with an initial deposit of $10,000 to one billion dollars, to be paid via bank wire transfer with a preliminary deposit of $100,000, for a session called \\\"Immortality workshop\\\". A payment plan was also offered. These charges have typically been presented as limited time offers exclusively for billionaires.\\n\\n===Hira Ratan Manek===\\nHira Ratan Manek (born 12 September 1937) claims that since 18 June 1995 he has lived on water and occasionally tea, coffee, and buttermilk. Manek states that Sungazing is the key to his health citing yogis, ancient Egyptians, Aztecs, Mayans and Native Americans as practitioners of the art. While he and his proponents state that medical experts have confirmed his ability to draw sustenance by gazing at the sun, he was caught on camera eating a big meal in a San Francisco restaurant in the 2011 documentary ''Eat the Sun''.\\n\\n===Ray Maor===\\nIn a television documentary produced by the Israeli television investigative show ''The Real Face'' (פנים אמיתיות) hosted by Amnon Levy, Israeli practitioner of Inedia, Ray Maor (ריי מאור), appeared to survive without food or water for eight days and eight nights. According to the documentary, he was restricted to a small villa and placed under constant video surveillance, with medical supervision that included daily blood testing. The documentary claimed Maor was in good spirits throughout the experiment, lost 17 lb after eight days, blood tests showed no change before, during or after the experiment, and Cardiologist Ilan Kitsis from Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center was \\\"baffled.\\\"\\n\",\n \"\\n===Buddhism===\\n* Fuhui (福慧)\\n\\n===Hinduism===\\nHindu religious texts contain account of saints and hermits practicing what would be called inedia, breatharianism or Sustenance through Light in modern terms. In Valmiki's Ramayana, Book III, Canto VI, an account of anchorites and holy men is given, who flocked around Rama when he came to Śarabhanga's hermitage. These included, among others, the \\\"...saints who live on rays which moon and daystar give\\\" and \\\"those ... whose food the wave of air supplies\\\". In Canto XI of the same book a hermit named Māṇḍakarṇi is mentioned: \\\"For he, great votarist, intent – On strictest rule his stern life spent – ... – Ten thousand years on air he fed...\\\" (English quotations are from Ralph T. H. Griffith's translation).\\n\\nParamahansa Yogananda's ''Autobiography of a Yogi'' details two alleged historical examples of breatharianism, Hari Giri Baba and Therese Neumann.\\n\\nThere are claims that Devraha Baba lived without food.\\n\\n===Taoism===\\n* Bigu (avoiding grains)\\n* Chi Song Zi (赤松子)\\n\",\n \"* ''No Way to Heaven'', a 2008 documentary on breatharianism\\n* ''In the Beginning There Was Light'', a 2010 Austrian documentary on breatharianism\\n* Fasting girls\\n* Sungazing\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"\\n* A list of historical and contemporary breatharians\\n* ''Living on Light'' at Google Videos – episode of ''60 Minutes'' (Jasmuheen's aborted experiment)\\n* Skeptic's Dictionary article on Breatharianism\\n* Past Breatharian hoaxes in India\\n* Professor claims to survive on just sunshine and fruit juice\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction","Scientific assessment","Practitioners","Religious traditions"," See also ","References","External links"],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \"Scientific assessment\",\n \"Practitioners\",\n \"Religious traditions\",\n \" See also \",\n \"References\",\n \"External links\"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Inedia"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["Brooks's institute has charged varying fees to prospective clients who wished to learn how to live without food, which have ranged from US$100,000 with an initial deposit of $10,000 to one billion dollars, to be paid via bank wire transfer with a preliminary deposit of $100,000, for a session called \"Immortality workshop\"."],"string":"[\n \"Brooks's institute has charged varying fees to prospective clients who wished to learn how to live without food, which have ranged from US$100,000 with an initial deposit of $10,000 to one billion dollars, to be paid via bank wire transfer with a preliminary deposit of $100,000, for a session called \\\"Immortality workshop\\\".\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n1669 report that claims a woman fasted for 12 months\n'''Inedia''' (Latin for \"fasting\") or '''breatharianism''' is the belief that it is possible for a person to live without consuming food.","Breatharians claim that food, and in some cases water, are not necessary for survival, and that humans can be sustained solely by ''prana'', the vital life force in Hinduism.","According to Ayurveda, sunlight is one of the main sources of ''prana'', and some practitioners believe that it is possible for a person to survive on sunlight alone.","The terms ''breatharianism'' or ''inedia'' may also refer to this philosophy when it is practiced as a lifestyle in place of the usual diet.","Breatharianism is considered a lethal pseudoscience by scientists and medical professionals, and several adherents of these practices have died from starvation and dehydration.","Though it is common knowledge that biological entities require sustenance to survive, breatharianism continues.","Nutritional science proves that fasting for extended periods leads to starvation, dehydration, and eventual death.","In the absence of food intake, the body normally burns its own reserves of glycogen, body fat, and muscle.","Breatharians claim that their bodies do not consume these reserves while fasting.","Some breatharians have submitted themselves to medical testing, including a hospital's observation of Indian mystic Prahlad Jani appearing to survive without food or water for 15 days, and an Israeli breatharian appearing to survive for eight days on a television documentary.","In a handful of documented cases, individuals attempting breatharian fasting have died.","Among the claims in support of Inedia investigated by the Indian Rationalist Association, all were found to be fraudulent.","In other cases, people have attempted to survive on sunlight alone, only to abandon the effort after losing a large percentage of their body weight.","\n===Rosicrucianism===\nThe 1670 Rosicrucian text ''Comte de Gabalis'' attributed the practice to the physician and occultist Paracelsus (1493–1541) who was described as having lived \"several years by taking only one half scrupule of Solar Quintessence\".","In this book, it is also stated that, \"Paracelsus affirms that He has seen many of the Sages fast twenty years without eating anything whatsoever.\"","===Ram Bahadur Bomjon===\nRam Bahadur Bomjon is a young Nepalese Buddhist monk who lives as an ascetic in a remote area of Nepal.","Bomjon appears to go for periods of time without ingesting either food or water.","One such period was chronicled in a 2006 Discovery Channel documentary titled ''The Boy With Divine Powers'', which reported that Bomjon neither moved, ate, nor drank anything during 96 hours of filming.","===Prahlad Jani (\"Mataji\")===\nPrahlad Jani is an Indian sadhu who says he has lived without food and water for more than 70 years.","His claims were investigated by doctors at Sterling Hospital, Ahmedabad, Gujarat in 2003 and 2010.","The study concluded that Prahlad Jani was able to survive under observation for two weeks without either food or water, and had passed no urine or stool, with no need for dialysis.","Interviews with the researchers speak of strict observation and relate that round-the-clock observation was ensured by multiple CCTV cameras.","Jani was subjected to multiple medical tests, and his only contact with any form of fluid was during bathing and gargling, with the fluid spat out measured by the doctors.","The research team could not comment on his claim of having been able to survive in this way for decades.","The case has attracted criticism, both after the 2003 tests and the 2010 tests.","Sanal Edamaruku, president of the Indian Rationalist Association, criticized the 2010 experiment for allowing Jani to move out of a certain CCTV camera's field of view, meet devotees and leave the sealed test room to sunbathe.","Edamaruku stated that the regular gargling and bathing activities were not sufficiently monitored, and accused Jani of having had some \"influential protectors\" who denied Edamaruku permission to inspect the project during its operation.","===Jasmuheen===\nJasmuheen (born Ellen Greve) was a prominent advocate of breatharianism in the 1990s.","She said \"I can go for months and months without having anything at all other than a cup of tea.","My body runs on a different kind of nourishment.\"","Interviewers found her house stocked with food; Jasmuheen claimed the food was for her husband and daughter.","In 1999, she volunteered to be monitored closely by the Australian television program ''60 Minutes'' for one week without eating to demonstrate her methods.","Jasmuheen stated that she found it difficult on the third day of the test because the hotel room in which she was confined was located near a busy road, causing stress and pollution that prevented absorption of required nutrients from the air.","\"I asked for fresh air.","Seventy percent of my nutrients come from fresh air.","I couldn’t even breathe,\" she said.","The third day the test was moved to a mountainside retreat where her condition continued to deteriorate.","After Jasmuheen had fasted for four days, Dr. Berris Wink, president of the Queensland branch of the Australian Medical Association, urged her to stop the test.","According to Dr. Wink, Jasmuheen’s pupils were dilated, her speech was slow, and she was \"quite dehydrated, probably over 10%, getting up to 11%\".","Towards the end of the test, she said, \"Her pulse is about double what it was when she started.","The risks if she goes any further are kidney failure.","''60 Minutes'' would be culpable if they encouraged her to continue.","She should stop now.\"","The test was stopped.","Dr. Wink said, \"Unfortunately there are a few people who may believe what she says, and I'm sure it's only a few, but I think it's quite irresponsible for somebody to be trying to encourage others to do something that is so detrimental to their health.\"","Jasmuheen challenged the results of the program, saying, \"Look, 6,000 people have done this around the world without any problem.\"","Jasmuheen was awarded the Bent Spoon Award by Australian Skeptics in 2000 (\"presented to the perpetrator of the most preposterous piece of paranormal or pseudoscientific piffle\").","She also won the 2000 Ig Nobel Prize for Literature for ''Living on Light''.","Jasmuheen claims that their beliefs are based on the writings and \"more recent channelled material\" from St. Germain.","She stated that some people's DNA has expanded from 2 to 12 strands, to \"absorb more hydrogen\".","When offered $30,000 to prove her claim with a blood test, she said that she didn't understand the relevance as she was not referring to herself.","In the documentary ''No Way to Heaven'' the Swiss chemist Michael Werner claims to have followed the directions appearing on Jasmuheen's books, living for several years without food.","The documentary also describes two attempts at scientific verification of his claims.",", five deaths had been directly linked to breatharianism as a result of Jasmuheen's publications.","Jasmuheen has denied any responsibility for the deaths.","===Wiley Brooks===\nWiley Brooks is the founder of the Breatharian Institute of America.","He was first introduced to the public in 1980 when he appeared on the TV show ''That's Incredible!''.","Brooks stopped teaching recently to \"devote 100% of his time on solving the problem as to why he needed to eat some type of food to keep his physical body alive and allow his light body to manifest completely.\"","Brooks claims to have found \"four major deterrents\" which prevented him from living without food: \"people pollution\", \"food pollution\", \"air pollution\" and \"electro pollution\".","In 1983 he was reportedly observed leaving a Santa Cruz 7-Eleven with a Slurpee, a hot dog, and Twinkies.","He told ''Colors'' magazine in 2003 that he periodically breaks his fasting with a cheeseburger and a cola, explaining that when he's surrounded by junk culture and junk food, consuming them adds balance.","Wiley Brooks later claimed that Diet Coke and McDonald's cheeseburgers have special \"5D\" properties.","The idea of separate but interconnected 5D and 3D worlds is a major part of Wiley Brooks' ideology, and Wiley Brooks encourages his followers to only eat these special 5D foods, as well as meditate on a set of magical 5D words.","A payment plan was also offered.","These charges have typically been presented as limited time offers exclusively for billionaires.","===Hira Ratan Manek===\nHira Ratan Manek (born 12 September 1937) claims that since 18 June 1995 he has lived on water and occasionally tea, coffee, and buttermilk.","Manek states that Sungazing is the key to his health citing yogis, ancient Egyptians, Aztecs, Mayans and Native Americans as practitioners of the art.","While he and his proponents state that medical experts have confirmed his ability to draw sustenance by gazing at the sun, he was caught on camera eating a big meal in a San Francisco restaurant in the 2011 documentary ''Eat the Sun''.","===Ray Maor===\nIn a television documentary produced by the Israeli television investigative show ''The Real Face'' (פנים אמיתיות) hosted by Amnon Levy, Israeli practitioner of Inedia, Ray Maor (ריי מאור), appeared to survive without food or water for eight days and eight nights.","According to the documentary, he was restricted to a small villa and placed under constant video surveillance, with medical supervision that included daily blood testing.","The documentary claimed Maor was in good spirits throughout the experiment, lost 17 lb after eight days, blood tests showed no change before, during or after the experiment, and Cardiologist Ilan Kitsis from Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center was \"baffled.\"","\n===Buddhism===\n* Fuhui (福慧)\n\n===Hinduism===\nHindu religious texts contain account of saints and hermits practicing what would be called inedia, breatharianism or Sustenance through Light in modern terms.","In Valmiki's Ramayana, Book III, Canto VI, an account of anchorites and holy men is given, who flocked around Rama when he came to Śarabhanga's hermitage.","These included, among others, the \"...saints who live on rays which moon and daystar give\" and \"those ... whose food the wave of air supplies\".","In Canto XI of the same book a hermit named Māṇḍakarṇi is mentioned: \"For he, great votarist, intent – On strictest rule his stern life spent – ... – Ten thousand years on air he fed...\" (English quotations are from Ralph T. H. Griffith's translation).","Paramahansa Yogananda's ''Autobiography of a Yogi'' details two alleged historical examples of breatharianism, Hari Giri Baba and Therese Neumann.","There are claims that Devraha Baba lived without food.","===Taoism===\n* Bigu (avoiding grains)\n* Chi Song Zi (赤松子)","* ''No Way to Heaven'', a 2008 documentary on breatharianism\n* ''In the Beginning There Was Light'', a 2010 Austrian documentary on breatharianism\n* Fasting girls\n* Sungazing","\n* A list of historical and contemporary breatharians\n* ''Living on Light'' at Google Videos – episode of ''60 Minutes'' (Jasmuheen's aborted experiment)\n* Skeptic's Dictionary article on Breatharianism\n* Past Breatharian hoaxes in India\n* Professor claims to survive on just sunshine and fruit juice"],"string":"[\n \"\\n1669 report that claims a woman fasted for 12 months\\n'''Inedia''' (Latin for \\\"fasting\\\") or '''breatharianism''' is the belief that it is possible for a person to live without consuming food.\",\n \"Breatharians claim that food, and in some cases water, are not necessary for survival, and that humans can be sustained solely by ''prana'', the vital life force in Hinduism.\",\n \"According to Ayurveda, sunlight is one of the main sources of ''prana'', and some practitioners believe that it is possible for a person to survive on sunlight alone.\",\n \"The terms ''breatharianism'' or ''inedia'' may also refer to this philosophy when it is practiced as a lifestyle in place of the usual diet.\",\n \"Breatharianism is considered a lethal pseudoscience by scientists and medical professionals, and several adherents of these practices have died from starvation and dehydration.\",\n \"Though it is common knowledge that biological entities require sustenance to survive, breatharianism continues.\",\n \"Nutritional science proves that fasting for extended periods leads to starvation, dehydration, and eventual death.\",\n \"In the absence of food intake, the body normally burns its own reserves of glycogen, body fat, and muscle.\",\n \"Breatharians claim that their bodies do not consume these reserves while fasting.\",\n \"Some breatharians have submitted themselves to medical testing, including a hospital's observation of Indian mystic Prahlad Jani appearing to survive without food or water for 15 days, and an Israeli breatharian appearing to survive for eight days on a television documentary.\",\n \"In a handful of documented cases, individuals attempting breatharian fasting have died.\",\n \"Among the claims in support of Inedia investigated by the Indian Rationalist Association, all were found to be fraudulent.\",\n \"In other cases, people have attempted to survive on sunlight alone, only to abandon the effort after losing a large percentage of their body weight.\",\n \"\\n===Rosicrucianism===\\nThe 1670 Rosicrucian text ''Comte de Gabalis'' attributed the practice to the physician and occultist Paracelsus (1493–1541) who was described as having lived \\\"several years by taking only one half scrupule of Solar Quintessence\\\".\",\n \"In this book, it is also stated that, \\\"Paracelsus affirms that He has seen many of the Sages fast twenty years without eating anything whatsoever.\\\"\",\n \"===Ram Bahadur Bomjon===\\nRam Bahadur Bomjon is a young Nepalese Buddhist monk who lives as an ascetic in a remote area of Nepal.\",\n \"Bomjon appears to go for periods of time without ingesting either food or water.\",\n \"One such period was chronicled in a 2006 Discovery Channel documentary titled ''The Boy With Divine Powers'', which reported that Bomjon neither moved, ate, nor drank anything during 96 hours of filming.\",\n \"===Prahlad Jani (\\\"Mataji\\\")===\\nPrahlad Jani is an Indian sadhu who says he has lived without food and water for more than 70 years.\",\n \"His claims were investigated by doctors at Sterling Hospital, Ahmedabad, Gujarat in 2003 and 2010.\",\n \"The study concluded that Prahlad Jani was able to survive under observation for two weeks without either food or water, and had passed no urine or stool, with no need for dialysis.\",\n \"Interviews with the researchers speak of strict observation and relate that round-the-clock observation was ensured by multiple CCTV cameras.\",\n \"Jani was subjected to multiple medical tests, and his only contact with any form of fluid was during bathing and gargling, with the fluid spat out measured by the doctors.\",\n \"The research team could not comment on his claim of having been able to survive in this way for decades.\",\n \"The case has attracted criticism, both after the 2003 tests and the 2010 tests.\",\n \"Sanal Edamaruku, president of the Indian Rationalist Association, criticized the 2010 experiment for allowing Jani to move out of a certain CCTV camera's field of view, meet devotees and leave the sealed test room to sunbathe.\",\n \"Edamaruku stated that the regular gargling and bathing activities were not sufficiently monitored, and accused Jani of having had some \\\"influential protectors\\\" who denied Edamaruku permission to inspect the project during its operation.\",\n \"===Jasmuheen===\\nJasmuheen (born Ellen Greve) was a prominent advocate of breatharianism in the 1990s.\",\n \"She said \\\"I can go for months and months without having anything at all other than a cup of tea.\",\n \"My body runs on a different kind of nourishment.\\\"\",\n \"Interviewers found her house stocked with food; Jasmuheen claimed the food was for her husband and daughter.\",\n \"In 1999, she volunteered to be monitored closely by the Australian television program ''60 Minutes'' for one week without eating to demonstrate her methods.\",\n \"Jasmuheen stated that she found it difficult on the third day of the test because the hotel room in which she was confined was located near a busy road, causing stress and pollution that prevented absorption of required nutrients from the air.\",\n \"\\\"I asked for fresh air.\",\n \"Seventy percent of my nutrients come from fresh air.\",\n \"I couldn’t even breathe,\\\" she said.\",\n \"The third day the test was moved to a mountainside retreat where her condition continued to deteriorate.\",\n \"After Jasmuheen had fasted for four days, Dr. Berris Wink, president of the Queensland branch of the Australian Medical Association, urged her to stop the test.\",\n \"According to Dr. Wink, Jasmuheen’s pupils were dilated, her speech was slow, and she was \\\"quite dehydrated, probably over 10%, getting up to 11%\\\".\",\n \"Towards the end of the test, she said, \\\"Her pulse is about double what it was when she started.\",\n \"The risks if she goes any further are kidney failure.\",\n \"''60 Minutes'' would be culpable if they encouraged her to continue.\",\n \"She should stop now.\\\"\",\n \"The test was stopped.\",\n \"Dr. Wink said, \\\"Unfortunately there are a few people who may believe what she says, and I'm sure it's only a few, but I think it's quite irresponsible for somebody to be trying to encourage others to do something that is so detrimental to their health.\\\"\",\n \"Jasmuheen challenged the results of the program, saying, \\\"Look, 6,000 people have done this around the world without any problem.\\\"\",\n \"Jasmuheen was awarded the Bent Spoon Award by Australian Skeptics in 2000 (\\\"presented to the perpetrator of the most preposterous piece of paranormal or pseudoscientific piffle\\\").\",\n \"She also won the 2000 Ig Nobel Prize for Literature for ''Living on Light''.\",\n \"Jasmuheen claims that their beliefs are based on the writings and \\\"more recent channelled material\\\" from St. Germain.\",\n \"She stated that some people's DNA has expanded from 2 to 12 strands, to \\\"absorb more hydrogen\\\".\",\n \"When offered $30,000 to prove her claim with a blood test, she said that she didn't understand the relevance as she was not referring to herself.\",\n \"In the documentary ''No Way to Heaven'' the Swiss chemist Michael Werner claims to have followed the directions appearing on Jasmuheen's books, living for several years without food.\",\n \"The documentary also describes two attempts at scientific verification of his claims.\",\n \", five deaths had been directly linked to breatharianism as a result of Jasmuheen's publications.\",\n \"Jasmuheen has denied any responsibility for the deaths.\",\n \"===Wiley Brooks===\\nWiley Brooks is the founder of the Breatharian Institute of America.\",\n \"He was first introduced to the public in 1980 when he appeared on the TV show ''That's Incredible!''.\",\n \"Brooks stopped teaching recently to \\\"devote 100% of his time on solving the problem as to why he needed to eat some type of food to keep his physical body alive and allow his light body to manifest completely.\\\"\",\n \"Brooks claims to have found \\\"four major deterrents\\\" which prevented him from living without food: \\\"people pollution\\\", \\\"food pollution\\\", \\\"air pollution\\\" and \\\"electro pollution\\\".\",\n \"In 1983 he was reportedly observed leaving a Santa Cruz 7-Eleven with a Slurpee, a hot dog, and Twinkies.\",\n \"He told ''Colors'' magazine in 2003 that he periodically breaks his fasting with a cheeseburger and a cola, explaining that when he's surrounded by junk culture and junk food, consuming them adds balance.\",\n \"Wiley Brooks later claimed that Diet Coke and McDonald's cheeseburgers have special \\\"5D\\\" properties.\",\n \"The idea of separate but interconnected 5D and 3D worlds is a major part of Wiley Brooks' ideology, and Wiley Brooks encourages his followers to only eat these special 5D foods, as well as meditate on a set of magical 5D words.\",\n \"A payment plan was also offered.\",\n \"These charges have typically been presented as limited time offers exclusively for billionaires.\",\n \"===Hira Ratan Manek===\\nHira Ratan Manek (born 12 September 1937) claims that since 18 June 1995 he has lived on water and occasionally tea, coffee, and buttermilk.\",\n \"Manek states that Sungazing is the key to his health citing yogis, ancient Egyptians, Aztecs, Mayans and Native Americans as practitioners of the art.\",\n \"While he and his proponents state that medical experts have confirmed his ability to draw sustenance by gazing at the sun, he was caught on camera eating a big meal in a San Francisco restaurant in the 2011 documentary ''Eat the Sun''.\",\n \"===Ray Maor===\\nIn a television documentary produced by the Israeli television investigative show ''The Real Face'' (פנים אמיתיות) hosted by Amnon Levy, Israeli practitioner of Inedia, Ray Maor (ריי מאור), appeared to survive without food or water for eight days and eight nights.\",\n \"According to the documentary, he was restricted to a small villa and placed under constant video surveillance, with medical supervision that included daily blood testing.\",\n \"The documentary claimed Maor was in good spirits throughout the experiment, lost 17 lb after eight days, blood tests showed no change before, during or after the experiment, and Cardiologist Ilan Kitsis from Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center was \\\"baffled.\\\"\",\n \"\\n===Buddhism===\\n* Fuhui (福慧)\\n\\n===Hinduism===\\nHindu religious texts contain account of saints and hermits practicing what would be called inedia, breatharianism or Sustenance through Light in modern terms.\",\n \"In Valmiki's Ramayana, Book III, Canto VI, an account of anchorites and holy men is given, who flocked around Rama when he came to Śarabhanga's hermitage.\",\n \"These included, among others, the \\\"...saints who live on rays which moon and daystar give\\\" and \\\"those ... whose food the wave of air supplies\\\".\",\n \"In Canto XI of the same book a hermit named Māṇḍakarṇi is mentioned: \\\"For he, great votarist, intent – On strictest rule his stern life spent – ... – Ten thousand years on air he fed...\\\" (English quotations are from Ralph T. H. Griffith's translation).\",\n \"Paramahansa Yogananda's ''Autobiography of a Yogi'' details two alleged historical examples of breatharianism, Hari Giri Baba and Therese Neumann.\",\n \"There are claims that Devraha Baba lived without food.\",\n \"===Taoism===\\n* Bigu (avoiding grains)\\n* Chi Song Zi (赤松子)\",\n \"* ''No Way to Heaven'', a 2008 documentary on breatharianism\\n* ''In the Beginning There Was Light'', a 2010 Austrian documentary on breatharianism\\n* Fasting girls\\n* Sungazing\",\n \"\\n* A list of historical and contemporary breatharians\\n* ''Living on Light'' at Google Videos – episode of ''60 Minutes'' (Jasmuheen's aborted experiment)\\n* Skeptic's Dictionary article on Breatharianism\\n* Past Breatharian hoaxes in India\\n* Professor claims to survive on just sunshine and fruit juice\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"river"}}},{"rowIdx":285,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\n\n= Flag of Belfast.\n\n\n'''Belfast''' ( or ; ) is the capital and largest city of Northern Ireland, and the second largest on the island of Ireland. On the River Lagan, it had a population of 333,871 in 2015. Belfast was granted city status in 1888.\n\nBelfast was a centre of the Irish linen, tobacco-processing, rope-making and shipbuilding industries: in the early 20th century, Harland and Wolff, which built the , was the world's biggest and most productive shipyard. Belfast played a key role in the Industrial Revolution, and was a global industrial centre until the latter half of the 20th century. It has sustained a major aerospace and missiles industry since the mid 1930s. Industrialisation and the inward migration it brought made Belfast Ireland's biggest city at the beginning of the 20th century.\n\nToday, Belfast remains a centre for industry, as well as the arts, higher education, business, and law, and is the economic engine of Northern Ireland. The city suffered greatly during the Troubles, but latterly has undergone a sustained period of calm, free from the intense political violence of former years, and substantial economic and commercial growth. Additionally, Belfast city centre has undergone considerable expansion and regeneration in recent years, notably around Victoria Square.\n\nBelfast is served by two airports: George Best Belfast City Airport in the city, and Belfast International Airport west of the city. Belfast is a major port, with commercial and industrial docks dominating the Belfast Lough shoreline, including the Harland and Wolff shipyard, and is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network (GaWC) as a global city.\n","\nThe name Belfast is derived from the Irish '''', which was later spelt ''''. The word '''' means \"mouth\" or \"rivermouth\" while '''' is the genitive singular of '''' and refers to a sandbar or tidal ford across a river's mouth. The name would thus translate literally as \"(river) mouth of the sandbar\" or \"(river) mouth of the ford\". This sandbar was formed at the confluence of two rivers at what is now Donegall Quay: the Lagan, which flows into Belfast Lough, and its tributary the Farset. This area was the hub around which the original settlement developed. The Irish name '''' is shared by a townland in County Mayo, whose name has been anglicised as ''Belfarsad''.\n\nAn alternative interpretation of the name is \"mouth of the river of the sandbar\", an allusion to the River Farset, which flows into the Lagan where the sandbar was located. This interpretation was favoured by Edmund Hogan and John O'Donovan. It seems clear, however, that the river itself was named after the tidal crossing.\n\nIn Ulster-Scots, the name of the city has been variously translated as ''Bilfawst'', ''Bilfaust'' or ''Baelfawst'', although \"Belfast\" is also used.\n","\n\nAlthough the county borough of Belfast was created when it was granted city status by Queen Victoria in 1888, the city continues to be viewed as straddling County Antrim and County Down.\n\n===Origins===\nBelfast Castle\n\nThe site of Belfast has been occupied since the Bronze Age. The Giant's Ring, a 5,000-year-old henge, is located near the city, and the remains of Iron Age hill forts can still be seen in the surrounding hills. Belfast remained a small settlement of little importance during the Middle Ages. John de Courcy built a castle on what is now Castle Street in the city centre in the 12th century, but this was on a lesser scale and not as strategically important as Carrickfergus Castle to the north, which was built by de Courcy in 1177. The O'Neill clan had a presence in the area.\n\nIn the 14th century, Cloinne Aodha Buidhe, descendants of Aodh Buidhe O'Neill built Grey Castle at Castlereagh, now in the east of the city. Conn O'Neill of the Clannaboy O'Neills owned vast lands in the area and was the last inhabitant of Grey Castle, one remaining link being the Conn's Water river flowing through east Belfast.\n\n===Growth===\nCastle Place, Belfast in c.1830\nBelfast became a substantial settlement in the 17th century after being established as a town by Sir Arthur Chichester, which was initially settled by Protestant English and Scottish migrants at the time of the Plantation of Ulster. (Belfast and County Antrim, however, did not form part of this particular Plantation scheme as they were privately colonised.) In 1791, the Society of United Irishmen was founded in Belfast, after Henry Joy McCracken and other prominent Presbyterians from the city invited Theobald Wolfe Tone and Thomas Russell to a meeting, after having read Tone's \"Argument on Behalf of the Catholics of Ireland\". Evidence of this period of Belfast's growth can still be seen in the oldest areas of the city, known as the Entries.\n\nDonegall Square in the early 1900s\nBelfast blossomed as a commercial and industrial centre in the 18th and 19th centuries and became Ireland's pre-eminent industrial city. Industries thrived, including linen, rope-making, tobacco, heavy engineering and shipbuilding, and at the end of the 19th century, Belfast briefly overtook Dublin as the largest city in Ireland. The Harland and Wolff shipyards became one of the largest shipbuilders in the world, employing up to 35,000 workers. In 1886 the city suffered intense riots over the issue of home rule, which had divided the city.\n\nIn 1920–22, Belfast became the capital of the new entity of Northern Ireland as the island of Ireland was partitioned. The accompanying conflict (the Irish War of Independence) cost up to 500 lives in Belfast, the bloodiest sectarian strife in the city until the Troubles of the late 1960s onwards.\n\nAftermath of the Blitz in May 1941\n\nBelfast was heavily bombed during World War II. In one raid, in 1941, German bombers killed around one thousand people and left tens of thousands homeless. Apart from London, this was the greatest loss of life in a night raid during the Blitz.\n\n===The Troubles===\n\nBelfast has been the capital of Northern Ireland since its establishment in 1921 following the Government of Ireland Act 1920. It had been the scene of various episodes of sectarian conflict between its Catholic and Protestant populations. These opposing groups in this conflict are now often termed republican and loyalist respectively, although they are also loosely referred to as 'nationalist' and 'unionist'. The most recent example of this conflict was known as the Troubles – a civil conflict that raged from around 1969 to 1998.\n\nBelfast saw some of the worst of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, particularly in the 1970s, with rival paramilitary groups formed on both sides. Bombing, assassination and street violence formed a backdrop to life throughout the Troubles. The Provisional IRA detonated 22 bombs within the confines of Belfast city centre in 1972, on what is known as \"Bloody Friday\", killing eleven people. Loyalist paramilitaries including the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and the Ulster Defence Association (UDA) claimed that the killings they carried out were in retaliation for the IRA campaign. Most of their victims were Catholics with no links to the Provisional IRA. A particularly notorious group, based on the Shankill Road in the mid-1970s, became known as the Shankill Butchers.\n\nIn all, over 1,600 people were killed in political violence in the city between 1969 and 2001. Sporadic violent events continue , although not supported by the previous antagonists who had reached political agreement in 1998.\n\n","Belfast was granted borough status by James VI and I in 1613 and official city status by Queen Victoria in 1888. Since 1973 it has been a local government district under local administration by Belfast City Council. Belfast is represented in both the British House of Commons and in the Northern Ireland Assembly. For elections to the European Parliament, Belfast is within the Northern Ireland constituency.\n\n===Local government===\n\nBelfast City Hall\n\nBelfast City Council is the local council with responsibility for the city. The city's elected officials are the Lord Mayor of Belfast, Deputy Lord Mayor and High Sheriff who are elected from among 60 councillors. The first Lord Mayor of Belfast was Daniel Dixon, who was elected in 1892. The Lord Mayor for 2016–17 is Alderman Brian Kingston of the Democratic Unionist Party, while the Deputy Lord Mayor is Mary Ellen Campbell of Sinn Féin, both of whom were elected in June 2016 to serve a one-year term. The Lord Mayor's duties include presiding over meetings of the council, receiving distinguished visitors to the city, and representing and promoting the city on the national and international stage.\n\nIn 1997, Unionists lost overall control of Belfast City Council for the first time in its history, with the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland gaining the balance of power between Nationalists and Unionists. This position was confirmed in the three subsequent council elections, with mayors from Sinn Féin and the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP), both of whom are Nationalist parties, and the cross-community Alliance Party regularly elected since. The first nationalist Lord Mayor of Belfast was Alban Maginness of the SDLP, in 1997.\n\nThe last elections to Belfast City Council were held on 22 May 2014, with the city's voters electing sixty councillors across ten district electoral areas. The results were: 19(+3) Sinn Féin, 13(−2) Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), 8(+2) Alliance Party, 7(−1) SDLP, 7(+4) Ulster Unionist Party (UUP), 3(+1) Progressive Unionist Party (PUP), with the Traditional Unionist Voice. Greens and People Before Profit Alliance all winning their first seats.\n\nBelfast council takes part in the twinning scheme, and is twinned with Nashville, in the United States, Hefei in China, and Boston, in the United States.\n\n===Northern Ireland Assembly and Westminster===\nStormont is home to the Northern Ireland Assembly.\n\n\n\n\nAs Northern Ireland's capital city, Belfast is host to the Northern Ireland Assembly at Stormont, the site of the devolved legislature for Northern Ireland. Belfast is divided into four Northern Ireland Assembly and UK parliamentary constituencies: Belfast North, Belfast West, Belfast South and Belfast East. All four extend beyond the city boundaries to include parts of Castlereagh, Lisburn and Newtownabbey districts. In the Northern Ireland Assembly Elections in 2017, Belfast elected 20 Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs), 5 from each constituency. Belfast elected 7 Sinn Féin, 5 DUP, 2 SDLP, 3 Alliance Party, 1 UUP, 1 Green and 1 PBPA MLAs. In the 2017 UK general election, Belfast elected one MP from each constituency to the House of Commons at Westminster, London. This comprised 3 DUP and 1 Sinn Féin.\n\n\n===Coat of arms and motto===\nBelfast's coat of arms was adopted in 1890\n\nThe city of Belfast has the Latin motto \".\" This is taken from Psalms 116 Verse 12 in the Latin Vulgate Bible and is literally \"For so much what shall we repay \" The verse has been translated in bibles differently – for example as \"What shall I render unto the Lord for all his benefits toward me?\". It is also translated as \"In return for so much, what shall we give back?\" The Queen's University Students' Union Rag Week publication ''PTQ'' derives its name from the first three words of the motto.\n\nThe coat of arms of the city were designed by John Vinycomb and are blazoned as ''Party per fesse argent and azure, in chief a pile vair and on a canton gules a bell argent, in base a ship with sails set argent on waves of the sea proper''. This heraldic language describes a shield that is divided in two horizontally (''party per fesse''). The top (''chief'') of the shield is silver (''argent''), and has a point-down triangle (''a pile'') with a repeating blue-and-white pattern that represents fur (''vair''). There is also a red square in the top corner (''a canton gules'') on which there is a silver bell. It is likely that the bell is an example here of \"canting\" (or punning) heraldry, representing the first syllable of Belfast. In the lower part of the shield (''in base'') there is a silver sailing ship shown sailing on waves coloured in the actual colours of the sea (''proper''). The supporter on the \"dexter\" side (the right hand side, to note that in heraldry \"right and \"left\" are from the wearer of the shield's perspective) is a chained wolf, while on the \"sinister\" (the left side from the bearer's perspective) is a sea-horse. The crest above the shield is also a sea-horse. These arms date back to 1613, when James VI and I granted Belfast town status. The seal was used by Belfast merchants throughout the 17th century on their signs and trade-coins. A large stained glass window in the City Hall displays the arms, where an explanation suggests that the seahorse and the ship refer to Belfast's significant maritime history. The wolf may be a tribute to the city's founder, Sir Arthur Chichester, and refer to his own coat of arms.\n","alt=Aerial photo of urban sprawl, edged by green hills and sea shore, and bisected by a winding river.\nBelfast is at the western end of Belfast Lough and at the mouth of the River Lagan giving it the ideal location for the shipbuilding industry that once made it famous. When the ''Titanic'' was built in Belfast in 1911–1912, Harland and Wolff had the largest shipyard in the world.\nBelfast is situated on Northern Ireland's eastern coast at . A consequence of this northern latitude is that it both endures short winter days and enjoys long summer evenings. During the winter solstice, the shortest day of the year, local sunset is before 16:00 while sunrise is around 08:45. This is balanced by the summer solstice in June, when the sun sets after 22:00 and rises before 05:00.\n\nOpenStreetMap of metro Belfast-Lisburn\nIn 1994, a weir was built across the river by the Laganside Corporation to raise the average water level so that it would cover the unseemly mud flats which gave Belfast its name (). The area of Belfast Local Government District is .\n\nThe River Farset is also named after this silt deposit (from the Irish ''feirste'' meaning \"sand spit\"). Originally a more significant river than it is today, the Farset formed a dock on High Street until the mid 19th century. Bank Street in the city centre referred to the river bank and Bridge Street was named for the site of an early Farset bridge. Superseded by the River Lagan as the more important river in the city, the Farset now languishes in obscurity, under High Street. There are no less than eleven other minor rivers in and around Belfast, namely the Blackstaff, the Colin, the Connswater, the Cregagh, the Derriaghy, the Forth, the Knock, the Legoniel, the Milewater, the Purdysburn and the Ravernet.\n\nCavehill, a basaltic hill overlooking the city\nThe city is flanked on the north and northwest by a series of hills, including Divis Mountain, Black Mountain and Cavehill, thought to be the inspiration for Jonathan Swift's ''Gulliver's Travels''. When Swift was living at Lilliput Cottage near the bottom of Belfast's Limestone Road, he imagined that the Cavehill resembled the shape of a sleeping giant safeguarding the city. The shape of the giant's nose, known locally as ''Napoleon's Nose'', is officially called McArt's Fort probably named after Art O'Neill, a 17th-century chieftain who controlled the area at that time. The Castlereagh Hills overlook the city on the southeast.\n\n===Climate===\nAs with the rest of Ireland, Belfast has a temperate or oceanic climate, with a narrow range of temperatures and rainfall throughout the year. The climate of Belfast is significantly milder than some other locations in the world at a similar latitude, due to the warming influence of the Gulf Stream. There are currently 5 weather observing stations in the Belfast area: Helens Bay, Stormont, Newforge, Castlereagh, and Ravenhill Road. Slightly further afield is Aldergrove Airport. The highest temperature recorded at any official weather station in the Belfast area was at Shaws Bridge on 12 July 1983. Belfast holds the record for Northern Ireland's warmest night time minimum, at Whitehouse on 14 August 2001.\n\nThe city gets significant precipitation (greater than 1mm) on 157 days in an average year with an average annual rainfall of , less than areas of northern England or most of Scotland, but higher than Dublin or the south-east coast of Ireland. As an urban and coastal area, Belfast typically gets snow on fewer than 10 days per year. The absolute maximum temperature at the weather station at Stormont is , set during July 1983. In an average year the warmest day will rise to a temperature of with a day of or above occurring roughly once every two in three years. The absolute minimum temperature at Stormont is , during January 1982, although in an average year the coldest night will fall no lower than with air frost being recorded on just 26 nights. The lowest temperature to occur in recent years was on 22 December 2010.\n\nThe nearest weather station for which sunshine data and longer term observations are available is Belfast International Airport (Aldergrove). Temperature extremes here have slightly more variability due to the more inland location. The average warmest day at Aldergrove for example will reach a temperature of , ( higher than Stormont) and 2.1 days should attain a temperature of or above in total. Conversely the coldest night of the year averages (or lower than Stormont) and 39 nights should register an air frost. Some 13 more frosty nights than Stormont. The minimum temperature at Aldergrove was , during December 2010.\n\n\n\n\n\n===Areas and districts===\n\nRoyal Avenue in Belfast\n\nBelfast expanded very rapidly from being a market town to becoming an industrial city during the course of the 19th century. Because of this, it is less an agglomeration of villages and towns which have expanded into each other, than other comparable cities, such as Manchester or Birmingham. The city expanded to the natural barrier of the hills that surround it, overwhelming other settlements. Consequently, the arterial roads along which this expansion took place (such as the Falls Road or the Newtownards Road) are more significant in defining the districts of the city than nucleated settlements. Belfast remains segregated by walls, commonly known as \"peace lines\", erected by the British Army after August 1969, and which still divide 14 districts in the inner city. In 2008 a process was proposed for the removal of the 'peace walls'. In June 2007, a £16 million programme was announced which will transform and redevelop streets and public spaces in the city centre. Major arterial roads (quality bus corridor) into the city include the Antrim Road, Shore Road, Holywood Road, Newtownards Road, Castlereagh Road, Cregagh Road, Ormeau Road, Malone Road, Lisburn Road, Falls Road, Springfield Road, Shankill Road, and Crumlin Road, Four Winds.\n\nSt Anne's Cathedral\nBelfast city centre is divided into two postcode districts, ''BT1'' for the area lying north of the City Hall, and ''BT2'' for the area to its south. The industrial estate and docklands ''BT3''. The rest of the Belfast post town is divided in a broadly clockwise system from ''BT3'' in the north-east round to ''BT15'', with ''BT16'' and ''BT17'' further out to the east and west respectively. Although ''BT'' derives from ''Belfast'', the BT postcode area extends across the whole of Northern Ireland.\n\nSince 2001, boosted by increasing numbers of tourists, the city council has developed a number of cultural quarters. The '''Cathedral Quarter''' takes its name from St Anne's Cathedral (Church of Ireland) and has taken on the mantle of the city's key cultural locality. It hosts a yearly visual and performing arts festival.\n\nCustom House Square is one of the city's main outdoor venues for free concerts and street entertainment. The '''Gaeltacht Quarter''' is an area around the Falls Road in west Belfast which promotes and encourages the use of the Irish language. The '''Queen's Quarter''' in south Belfast is named after Queen's University. The area has a large student population and hosts the annual Belfast Festival at Queen's each autumn. It is home to Botanic Gardens and the Ulster Museum, which was reopened in 2009 after major redevelopment. The Golden Mile is the name given to the mile between Belfast City Hall and Queen's University. Taking in Dublin Road, Great Victoria Street, Shaftesbury Square and Bradbury Place, it contains some of the best bars and restaurants in the city. Since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, the nearby Lisburn Road has developed into the city's most exclusive shopping strip. Finally, the '''Titanic Quarter''' covers of reclaimed land adjacent to Belfast Harbour, formerly known as ''Queen's Island''. Named after ''RMS Titanic'', which was built here in 1912, work has begun which promises to transform some former shipyard land into \"one of the largest waterfront developments in Europe\". Plans include apartments, a riverside entertainment district, and a major Titanic-themed museum.\n","\n\n\n===Architecture===\n\nObel Tower is the tallest building in Belfast and Ireland.\n\nThe architectural style of Belfast's buildings range from Edwardian, like the City Hall, to modern, like Waterfront Hall. Many of the city's Victorian landmarks, including the main ''Lanyon Building'' at Queen's University Belfast and the Linenhall Library, were designed by Sir Charles Lanyon.\n\nThe City Hall was finished in 1906 and was built to reflect Belfast's city status, granted by Queen Victoria in 1888. The Edwardian architectural style of Belfast City Hall influenced the Victoria Memorial in Calcutta, India, and Durban City Hall in South Africa. The dome is high and figures above the door state \"Hibernia encouraging and promoting the Commerce and Arts of the City\".\n\nAmong the city's grandest buildings are two former banks: Ulster Bank in Waring Street (built in 1860) and Northern Bank, in nearby Donegall Street (built in 1769). The Royal Courts of Justice in Chichester Street are home to Northern Ireland's Supreme Court. Many of Belfast's oldest buildings are found in the Cathedral Quarter area, which is currently undergoing redevelopment as the city's main cultural and tourist area. Windsor House, high, has 23 floors and is the second tallest building (as distinct from structure) in Ireland. Work has started on the taller Obel Tower, which already surpasses the height of Windsor House in its unfinished state.\n\nScottish Provident Institution, an example of Victorian architecture in Belfast\nThe ornately decorated Crown Liquor Saloon, designed by Joseph Anderson in 1876, in Great Victoria Street is one of only two pubs in the UK that are owned by the National Trust (the other is the George Inn, Southwark in London). It was made internationally famous as the setting for the classic film, ''Odd Man Out'', starring James Mason. The restaurant panels in the Crown Bar were originally made for ''Britannic'', the sister ship of the ''Titanic'', built in Belfast.\n\nThe Harland and Wolff shipyard has two of the largest dry docks in Europe, where the giant cranes, Samson and Goliath stand out against Belfast's skyline.\nIncluding the Waterfront Hall and the Odyssey Arena, Belfast has several other venues for performing arts. The architecture of the Grand Opera House has an oriental theme and was completed in 1895. It was bombed several times during the Troubles but has now been restored to its former glory. The Lyric Theatre, (re-opened 1 May 2011 after undergoing a rebuilding programme) the only full-time producing theatre in the country, is where film star Liam Neeson began his career. The Ulster Hall (1859–1862) was originally designed for grand dances but is now used primarily as a concert and sporting venue. Lloyd George, Parnell and Patrick Pearse all attended political rallies there.\n\n===Parks and gardens===\n\nBotanic Gardens\n\nSitting at the mouth of the River Lagan where it becomes a deep and sheltered lough, Belfast is surrounded by mountains that create a micro-climate conducive to horticulture. From the Victorian Botanic Gardens in the heart of the city to the heights of Cave Hill Country Park, the great expanse of Lagan Valley Regional Park to Colin Glen, Belfast contains an abundance of parkland and forest parks.\n\nParks and gardens are an integral part of Belfast's heritage, and home to an abundance of local wildlife and popular places for a picnic, a stroll or a jog. Numerous events take place throughout including festivals such as Rose Week and special activities such as bird watching evenings and great beast hunts.\n\nBelfast has over forty public parks. The Forest of Belfast is a partnership between government and local groups, set up in 1992 to manage and conserve the city's parks and open spaces. They have commissioned more than 30 public sculptures since 1993. In 2006, the City Council set aside £8 million to continue this work. The Belfast Naturalists' Field Club was founded in 1863 and is administered by National Museums and Galleries of Northern Ireland.\n\nWith an average of 670,000 visitors per year between 2007 and 2011, one of the most popular parks is Botanic Gardens in the Queen's Quarter. Built in the 1830s and designed by Sir Charles Lanyon, Botanic Gardens Palm House is one of the earliest examples of a curvilinear and cast iron glasshouse. Other attractions in the park include the Tropical Ravine, a humid jungle glen built in 1889, rose gardens and public events ranging from live opera broadcasts to pop concerts. U2 played here in 1997. Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park, to the south of the city centre, attracts thousands of visitors each year to its International Rose Garden. Rose Week in July each year features over 20,000 blooms. It has an area of of meadows, woodland and gardens and features a Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Garden, a Japanese garden, a walled garden, and the Golden Crown Fountain commissioned in 2002 as part of the Queen's Golden Jubilee celebrations.\n\nIn 2008, Belfast was named a finalist in the Large City (200,001 and over) category of the RHS Britain in Bloom competition along with London Borough of Croydon and Sheffield.\n\nBelfast Zoo is owned by Belfast City Council. The council spends £1.5 million every year on running and promoting the zoo, which is one of the few local government-funded zoos in the UK and Ireland. The zoo is one of the top visitor attractions in Northern Ireland, receiving more than 295,000 visitors a year. The majority of the animals are in danger in their natural habitat. The zoo houses more than 1,200 animals of 140 species including Asian elephants, Barbary lions, Malayan sun bears (one of the few in the United Kingdom), two species of penguin, a family of western lowland gorillas, a troop of common chimpanzees, a pair of red pandas, a pair of Goodfellow's tree-kangaroos and Francois' langurs. The zoo also carries out important conservation work and takes part in European and international breeding programmes which help to ensure the survival of many species under threat.\n","\nAt the 2001 census, the population was 276,459, while 579,554 people lived in the wider Belfast Metropolitan Area.\n\nThis made it the fifteenth-largest city in the United Kingdom, but the eleventh-largest conurbation.\n\nBelfast experienced a huge growth in population in the first half of the twentieth century. This rise slowed and peaked around the start of the Troubles with the 1971 census showing almost 600,000 people in the Belfast Urban Area. Since then, the inner city numbers have dropped dramatically as people have moved to swell the Greater Belfast suburb population. The 2001 census population in the same Urban Area had fallen to 277,391 people, with 579,554 people living in the wider Belfast Metropolitan Area.\n\nThe 2001 census recorded 81,650 people from Catholic backgrounds and 79,650 people from Protestant backgrounds of working age living in Belfast. The population density in 2011 was 24.88 people/hectare (compared to 1.34 for the rest of Northern Ireland).\n\nAs with many cities, Belfast's inner city is currently characterised by the elderly, students and single young people, while families tend to live on the periphery. Socio-economic areas radiate out from the Central Business District, with a pronounced wedge of affluence extending out the Malone Road and Upper Malone Road to the south. An area of greater deprivation extends to the west of the city. The areas around the Falls (Catholic nationalist) and the Shankill Road (Protestant loyalist) are the most deprived wards in Northern Ireland.\n\nDespite a period of relative peace, most areas and districts of Belfast still reflect the divided nature of Northern Ireland as a whole. Many areas are still highly segregated along ethnic, political and religious lines, especially in working-class neighbourhoods.\n\nThese zones – Catholic/Republican on one side and Protestant/Loyalist on the other – are invariably marked by flags, graffiti and murals. Segregation has been present throughout the history of Belfast, but has been maintained and increased by each outbreak of violence in the city. This escalation in segregation, described as a \"ratchet effect\", has shown little sign of decreasing.\n\nThe highest levels of segregation in the city are in west Belfast with many areas greater than 90% Catholic. Opposite but comparatively high levels are seen in the predominantly Protestant east Belfast. Areas where segregated working-class areas meet are known as interface areas and sometimes marked by peace lines. When violence flares, it tends to be in interface areas.\n\nEthnic minority communities have been in Belfast since the 1930s. The largest groups are Poles, Chinese and Indians.\n\nSince the expansion of the European Union, numbers have been boosted by an influx of Eastern European immigrants. Census figures (2011) showed that Belfast has a total non-white population of 10,219 or 3.3%, while 18,420 or 6.6% of the population were born outside the UK and Ireland. Almost half of those born outside the UK and Ireland live in south Belfast, where they comprise 9.5% of the population. The majority of the estimated 5,000 Muslims and 200 Hindu families living in Northern Ireland live in the Greater Belfast area.\n\n\n\nFile:Population Density Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Population density\nFile:Religion Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Percentage Catholic or brought up Catholic\nFile:National Identity Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Most commonly stated national identity\nFile:Born Outside UK And Ireland Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Percentage born outside the UK and Ireland\n\n","\n\nThe IRA Ceasefire in 1994 and the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 have given investors increased confidence to invest in Belfast. This has led to a period of sustained economic growth and large-scale redevelopment of the city centre. Developments include Victoria Square, the Cathedral Quarter, and the Laganside with the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall. The Waterfront Hall. Built in 1997, the hall is a concert, exhibition and conference venue.\nOther major developments include the regeneration of the Titanic Quarter, and the erection of the Obel Tower, a skyscraper set to be the tallest tower on the island.\nToday, Belfast is Northern Ireland's educational and commercial hub. In February 2006, Belfast's unemployment rate stood at 4.2%, lower than both the Northern Ireland and the UK average of 5.5%. Over the past 10 years employment has grown by 16.4 per cent, compared with 9.2 per cent for the UK as a whole.\n\nNorthern Ireland's peace dividend has led to soaring property prices in the city. In 2007, Belfast saw house prices grow by 50%, the fastest rate of growth in the UK. In March 2007, the average house in Belfast cost £91,819, with the average in south Belfast being £141,000. In 2004, Belfast had the lowest owner occupation rate in Northern Ireland at 54%.\n\nPeace has boosted the numbers of tourists coming to Belfast. There were 6.4 million visitors in 2005, which was a growth of 8.5% from 2004. The visitors spent £285.2 million, supporting more than 15,600 jobs. Visitor numbers rose by 6% to reach 6.8 million in 2006, with tourists spending £324 million, an increase of 15% on 2005. The city's two airports have helped make the city one of the most visited weekend destinations in Europe.\n\nBelfast has been the fastest-growing economy of the thirty largest cities in the UK over the past decade, a new economy report by Howard Spencer has found. ''\"That's because of the fundamentals of the UK economy and because people actually want to invest in the UK,\"'' he commented on that report.\n\nBBC Radio 4's World reported furthermore that despite higher levels of corporation tax in the UK than in the Republic. There are \"huge amounts\" of foreign investment coming into the country.\n\n''The Times'' wrote about Belfast's growing economy: \"According to the region's development agency, throughout the 1990s Northern Ireland had the fastest-growing regional economy in the UK, with GDP increasing 1 per cent per annum faster than the rest of the country. As with any modern economy, the service sector is vital to Northern Ireland's development and is enjoying excellent growth. In particular, the region has a booming tourist industry with record levels of visitors and tourist revenues and has established itself as a significant location for call centres.\"\nSince the ending of the regions conflict tourism has boomed in Northern Ireland, greatly aided by low cost.\n\nDer Spiegel, a German weekly magazine for politics and economy, titled Belfast as ''The New Celtic Tiger'' which is \"open for business\".\n\n===Industrial growth===\nA 1907 stereoscope postcard depicting the construction of a passenger liner (the RMS ''Adriatic'') at the Harland and Wolff shipyard\n\nWhen the population of Belfast town began to grow in the 17th century, its economy was built on commerce. It provided a market for the surrounding countryside and the natural inlet of Belfast Lough gave the city its own port. The port supplied an avenue for trade with Great Britain and later Europe and North America. In the mid-17th century, Belfast exported beef, butter, hides, tallow and corn and it imported coal, cloth, wine, brandy, paper, timber and tobacco.\n\nAround this time, the linen trade in Northern Ireland blossomed and by the middle of the 18th century, one fifth of all the linen exported from Ireland was shipped from Belfast. The present city however is a product of the Industrial Revolution. It was not until industry transformed the linen and shipbuilding trades that the economy and the population boomed. By the turn of the 19th century, Belfast had transformed into the largest linen producing centre in the world, earning the nickname \"Linenopolis\".\n\nBelfast harbour was dredged in 1845 to provide deeper berths for larger ships. Donegall Quay was built out into the river as the harbour was developed further and trade flourished. The Harland and Wolff shipbuilding firm was created in 1861, and by the time the ''Titanic'' was built, in 1912, it had become the largest shipyard in the world.\nSamson and Goliath, Harland & Wolff's gantry cranes.\nShort Brothers plc is a British aerospace company based in Belfast. It was the first aircraft manufacturing company in the world. The company began its association with Belfast in 1936, with Short & Harland Ltd, a venture jointly owned by Shorts and Harland and Wolff. Now known as Shorts Bombardier it works as an international aircraft manufacturer located near the Port of Belfast.\n\nThe rise of mass-produced and cotton clothing following World War I were some of the factors which led to the decline of Belfast's international linen trade. Like many British cities dependent on traditional heavy industry, Belfast suffered serious decline since the 1960s, exacerbated greatly in the 1970s and 1980s by the Troubles. More than 100,000 manufacturing jobs have been lost since the 1970s. For several decades, Northern Ireland's fragile economy required significant public support from the British exchequer of up to £4 billion per year.\n","Ulster University, Belfast campus\n\nBelfast saw the worst of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, with nearly half of the total deaths in the conflict occurring in the city. However, since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, there has been significant urban regeneration in the city centre including Victoria Square, Queen's Island and Laganside as well as the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall. The city is served by two airports: The George Best Belfast City Airport adjacent to Belfast Lough and Belfast International Airport which is near Lough Neagh. Queen's University of Belfast is the main university in the city. The Ulster University also maintains a campus in the city, which concentrates on fine art, design and architecture.\n\nBelfast is one of the constituent cities that makes up the Dublin-Belfast corridor region, which has a population of just under 3 million.\n\n===Utilities===\nSilent Valley Reservoir, showing the brick-built overflow\n\nMost of Belfast's water is supplied from the Silent Valley Reservoir in County Down, created to collect water from the Mourne Mountains. The rest of the city's water is sourced from Lough Neagh, via ''Dunore Water Treatment Works'' in County Antrim. The citizens of Belfast pay for their water in their rates bill. Plans to bring in additional water tariffs have been deferred by devolution in May 2007. Belfast has approximately of sewers, which are currently being replaced in a project costing over £100 million and due for completion in 2009.\n\nNorthern Ireland Electricity is responsible for transmitting electricity in Northern Ireland. Belfast's electricity comes from Kilroot Power Station, a 520 MegaWatt dual coal and oil fired plant, situated near Carrickfergus. Phoenix Natural Gas Ltd. started supplying customers in Larne and Greater Belfast with natural gas in 1996 via the newly constructed Scotland-Northern Ireland pipeline. Rates in Belfast (and the rest of Northern Ireland) were reformed in April 2007. The discrete capital value system means rates bills are determined by the capital value of each domestic property as assessed by the ''Valuation and Lands Agency''. The recent dramatic rise in house prices has made these reforms unpopular.\n\n===Health care===\n\nThe Belfast Health & Social Care Trust is one of five trusts that were created on 1 April 2007 by the Department of Health. Belfast contains most of Northern Ireland's regional specialist centres. The Royal Victoria Hospital is an internationally renowned centre of excellence in trauma care and provides specialist trauma care for all of Northern Ireland. It also provides the city's specialist neurosurgical, ophthalmology, ENT, and dentistry services. The Belfast City Hospital is the regional specialist centre for haematology and is home to a cancer centre that rivals the best in the world. The Mary G McGeown Regional Nephrology Unit at the City Hospital is the kidney transplant centre and provides regional renal services for Northern Ireland.\nMusgrave Park Hospital in south Belfast specialises in orthopaedics, rheumatology, sports medicine and rehabilitation. It is home to Northern Ireland's first Acquired Brain Injury Unit, costing £9 million and opened by the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall in May 2006. Other hospitals in Belfast include the Mater Hospital in north Belfast and the Children's Hospital.\n\n===Transport===\n\nGeorge Best Belfast City Airport.\nGreat Victoria Street station on Northern Ireland Railways\n\nBelfast is a relatively car-dependent city by European standards, with an extensive road network including the M2 and M22 motorway route. A 2005 survey of how people travel in Northern Ireland showed that people in Belfast made 77% of all journeys by car, 11% by public transport and 6% on foot. It showed that Belfast has 0.70 cars per household compared to figures of 1.18 in the East and 1.14 in the West of Northern Ireland. A road improvement-scheme in Belfast began early in 2006, with the upgrading of two junctions along the Westlink dual-carriageway to grade-separated standard. The improvement scheme was completed five months ahead of schedule on February 2009, with the official opening taking place on 4 March 2009.\n\nCommentators have argued that this may create a bottleneck at York Street, the next at-grade intersection, until that too is upgraded. On 25 October 2012 the stage 2 report for the York Street intersection was approved and in December 2012 the planned upgrade moved into stage 3 of the development process. If successfully completing the necessary statutory procedures, work on a grade separated junction to connect the Westlink to the M2/M3 motorways is scheduled to take place between 2014 and 2018, creating a continuous link between the M1 and M2, the two main motorways in Northern Ireland.\n\nBlack taxis are common in the city, operating on a share basis in some areas. These are outnumbered by private hire taxis. Bus and rail public transport in Northern Ireland is operated by subsidiaries of Translink. Bus services in the city proper and the nearer suburbs are operated by Translink Metro, with services focusing on linking residential districts with the city centre on 12 quality bus corridors running along main radial roads,\n\nMore distant suburbs are served by Ulsterbus. Northern Ireland Railways provides suburban services along three lines running through Belfast's northern suburbs to Carrickfergus, Larne and Larne Harbour, eastwards towards Bangor and south-westwards towards Lisburn and Portadown. This service is known as the Belfast Suburban Rail system. Belfast is linked directly to Coleraine, Portrush and Derry. Belfast has a direct rail connection with Dublin called ''Enterprise'' which is operated jointly by NIR and Iarnród Éireann, the state railway company of the Republic of Ireland.\nThere are no rail services to cities in other countries of the United Kingdom, due to the lack of a bridge or tunnel connecting Great Britain to the island of Ireland. There is, however, a combined ferry and rail ticket between Belfast and cities in Great Britain, which is referred to as ''Sailrail''.\n\nIn April 2008, the Department for Regional Development reported on a plan for a light-rail system, similar to that in Dublin. The consultants said Belfast does not have the population to support a light rail system, suggesting that investment in bus-based rapid transit would be preferable.The study found that bus-based rapid transit produces positive economic results, but light rail does not. The report by Atkins & KPMG, however, said there would be the option of migrating to light rail in the future should the demand increase.\n\nThe city has two airports: Belfast International Airport offering, domestic, European and international flights such as Newark (New York) operated by United Airlines, Orlando, and Las Vegas both operated by Thomas Cook. The seasonal flight to Orlando is also operated by Virgin Atlantic. The airport is located northwest of the city, near Lough Neagh, while the George Best Belfast City Airport, which is closer to the city centre by train from Sydenham on the Bangor Line, adjacent to Belfast Lough, offers UK domestic flights and a few European flights. In 2005, Belfast International Airport was the 11th busiest commercial airport in the UK, accounting for just over 2% of all UK terminal passengers while the George Best Belfast City Airport was the 16th busiest and had 1% of UK terminal passengers. The Belfast – Liverpool route is the busiest domestic flight route in the UK excluding London with 555,224 passengers in 2009. Over 2.2 million passengers flew between Belfast and London in 2009.\n\nBelfast has a large port used for exporting and importing goods, and for passenger ferry services. Stena Line runs regular routes to Cairnryan in Scotland using its conventional vessels – with a crossing time of around 2 hours 15 minutes. Until 2011 the route went to Stranraer and used inter alia a HSS (High Speed Service) vessel – with a crossing time of around 90 minutes. Stena Line also operates a route to Liverpool. A seasonal sailing to Douglas, Isle of Man is operated by the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company.\n","\nAC/DC with Bon Scott (centre) pictured with guitarist Angus Young (left) and bassist Cliff Williams (back), performing at the Ulster Hall in August 1979\n\nBelfast's population is evenly split between its Protestant and Catholic residents. These two distinct cultural communities have both contributed significantly to the city's culture. Throughout the Troubles, Belfast artists continued to express themselves through poetry, art and music. In the period since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, Belfast has begun a social, economic and cultural transformation giving it a growing international cultural reputation. In 2003, Belfast had an unsuccessful bid for the 2008 European Capital of Culture. The bid was run by an independent company, ''Imagine Belfast'', who boasted that it would \"make Belfast the meeting place of Europe's legends, where the meaning of history and belief find a home and a sanctuary from caricature, parody and oblivion.\" According to ''The Guardian'' the bid may have been undermined by the city's history and volatile politics.\n\nIn 2004–05, art and cultural events in Belfast were attended by 1.8 million people (400,000 more than the previous year). The same year, 80,000 people participated in culture and other arts activities, twice as many as in 2003–04. A combination of relative peace, international investment and an active promotion of arts and culture is attracting more tourists to Belfast than ever before. In 2004–05, 5.9 million people visited Belfast, a 10% increase from the previous year, and spent £262.5 million.\nThe Beatles emerging from the Ritz Cinema, Belfast following their concert, 8 November 1963.\nThe Ulster Orchestra, based in Belfast, is Northern Ireland's only full-time symphony orchestra and is well renowned in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1966, it has existed in its present form since 1981, when the BBC Northern Ireland Orchestra was disbanded. The music school of Queen's University is responsible for arranging a notable series of lunchtime and evening concerts, often given by renowned musicians which are usually given in The Harty Room at the university (University Square).\n\nThere are many Traditional Irish bands playing throughout the city and quite a few music schools concentrate on teaching Traditional music.\n\nMusicians and bands who have written songs about or dedicated to Belfast:\nU2, Van Morrison, Snow Patrol, Simple Minds, Elton John, Rogue Male, Katie Melua, Boney M, Paul Muldoon, Stiff Little Fingers, Nanci Griffith, Glenn Patterson, Orbital, James Taylor, Fun Boy Three, Spandau Ballet, The Police, Barnbrack, Gary Moore, Neon Neon, Toxic Waste, Energy Orchard, and Billy Bragg.\n\nFurther in Belfast the Oh Yeah Music Centre is located (Cathedral Quarter), a project founded to give young musicians and artists a place where they can share ideas and kick-start their music careers as a chance to be supported and promoted by professional musicians of Northern Ireland's music-scene.\n\nBelfast has a longstanding underground club scene which was established in the early 1980s.\n\nLike all areas of the island of Ireland outside of the Gaeltacht, the Irish language in Belfast is not that of an unbroken intergenerational transmission. Due to community activity in the 1960s, including the establishment of the Shaws Road Gaeltacht community, the expanse in the Irish language arts, and the advancements made in the availability of Irish medium education throughout the city, it can now be said that there is a 'mother-tongue' community of speakers. The language is heavily promoted in the city and is particularly visible in the Falls Road area, where the signs on both the iconic black taxis and on the public buses are bilingual. Belfast has the highest concentration of Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. Projects to promote the language in the city are funded by various sources, notably Foras na Gaeilge, an all-Ireland body funded by both the Irish and British governments. There are a number Irish language Primary schools and one secondary school in Belfast. The provision of certain resources for these schools (for example, such as the provision of textbooks) is supported by the charitable organisation TACA.\n\n===Media===\nThe Belfast Telegraph Headquarters\n\nBelfast is the home of the ''Belfast Telegraph'', ''Irish News'', and ''The News Letter'', the oldest English-language newspaper in the world still in publication. The city has a number of free publications including ''Fate'' magazine, ''Go Belfast'', and the ''Vacuum'', that are distributed through bar, cafes and public venues.\n\nThe city is the headquarters of BBC Northern Ireland, ITV station UTV and commercial radio stations Belfast CityBeat and U105. Two community radio stations, Blast 106 and Irish-language station Raidió Fáilte, broadcast to the city from west Belfast, as does Queen's Radio, a student-run radio station which broadcasts from Queen's University Students' Union. One of Northern Ireland's two community TV stations, NvTv, is based in the Cathedral Quarter of the city. There are two independent cinemas in Belfast: the Queen's Film Theatre and the Strand Cinema, which host screenings during the Belfast Film Festival and the Belfast Festival at Queen's. Broadcasting only over the Internet is Homely Planet, the Cultural Radio Station for Northern Ireland, supporting community relations.\n\nThe city has become a popular film location; The Paint Hall at Harland and Wolff has become one of the UK Film Council's main studios. The facility comprises four stages of . Shows filmed at The Paint Hall include the film ''City of Ember'' (2008) and HBO's ''Game of Thrones'' series (beginning in late 2009).\n\nIn November 2011, Belfast became the smallest city to host the MTV Europe Music Awards. The event was hosted by Selena Gomez and celebrities such as Justin Bieber, Jessie J, Hayden Panettiere, and Lady Gaga travelled to Northern Ireland to attend the event, held in the Odyssey Arena.\n\n===Sports===\n\nThe Kingspan Stadium is the home of Ulster Rugby\n\nBelfast has several notable sports teams playing a diverse variety of sports such as football, Gaelic games, rugby, cricket, and ice hockey. The Belfast Marathon is run annually on May Day, and attracted 20,000 participants in 2011.\n\nThe Northern Ireland national football team, ranked 23rd in August 2017 in the FIFA World Rankings, plays its home matches at Windsor Park. The current Irish League champions Crusaders are based at Seaview, in the north of the city. Other senior clubs are Glentoran, Linfield, Cliftonville, Harland & Wolff Welders and PSNI. Intermediate-level clubs are: Donegal Celtic, Dundela, Newington Youth, Queen's University and Sport & Leisure Swifts, who compete in the NIFL Premier Intermediate League; Albert Foundry, Bloomfield, Colin Valley, Crumlin Star, Dunmurry Rec., Dunmurry Young Men, East Belfast, Grove United, Immaculata, Iveagh United, Malachians, Orangefield Old Boys, Rosario Youth Club, St Luke's, St Patrick's Young Men, Shankill United, Short Brothers and Sirocco Works of the Northern Amateur Football League and Brantwood of the Ballymena & Provincial League. Belfast was the home town of Manchester United legend George Best who died in November 2005. On the day he was buried in the city, 100,000 people lined the route from his home on the Cregagh Road to Roselawn cemetery. Since his death the City Airport was named after him and a trust has been set up to fund a memorial to him in the city centre.\n\nBelfast is home to over twenty Gaelic football and hurling clubs. Casement Park in west Belfast, home to the Antrim county teams, has a capacity of 32,000 which makes it the second largest Gaelic Athletic Association ground in Ulster. The 1999 Heineken Cup champions Ulster Rugby play at the Kingspan Stadium in the south of the city. Belfast has four teams in rugby's All-Ireland League: Belfast Harlequins in Division 1B; and Instonians, Queen's University and Malone in Division 2A.\n\nBelfast is home to the Stormont cricket ground since 1949 and was the venue for the Irish cricket team's first ever one day international (ODI) against England in 2006.\n\nIn 2007, Pro Wrestling Ulster formed. This is wrestling promotion on the independent circuit, holding events and PPV's in Europa Hotel and The Mandela Hall. It runs to this day.\n\nBelfast is home to one of the biggest British ice hockey clubs, the Belfast Giants. The Giants were founded in 2000 and play their games at the 9,500 capacity Odyssey Arena, crowds normally range from 4,000–7,000. Many ex-NHL players have featured on the Giants roster, none more famous than world superstar Theo Fleury. The Giants play in the 10 team professional Elite Ice Hockey League which is the top league in Britain. The Giants have been league champions 4 times, most recently in the 2013–14 season. The Belfast Giants are a huge brand in Northern Ireland and their increasing stature in the game led to the Belfast Giants playing the Boston Bruins of the NHL on 2 October 2010 at the Odyssey Arena in Belfast, losing the game 5–1.\n\nOther significant sportspeople from Belfast include double world snooker champion Alex \"Hurricane\" Higgins and world champion boxers Wayne McCullough and Rinty Monaghan.\nLeander A.S.C is a well known swimming club in Belfast. Belfast produced the Formula One racing stars John Watson who raced for five different teams during his career in the 1970s and 1980s and Ferrari driver Eddie Irvine.\n","\n\nA blue plaque adorned the Belfast birthplace of former President of Israel Chaim Herzog\nBrian Desmond Hurst in 1976 (portrait by Allan Warren)\n*John Stewart Bell, physicist\n*George Best, football player, Ballon D'or winner\n*Danny Blanchflower, football player and manager\n*Dave Finlay, wrestler\n*Jackie Blanchflower football player\n*Sir Kenneth Branagh, actor\n*Christopher Brunt, football player\n*Dame Jocelyn Bell Burnell, astrophysicist\n*Patrick Carlin, Victoria Cross recipient\n*Ciaran Carson, writer\n*Frank Carson, comedian\n*Craig Cathcart, football player\n*Shaw Clifton, former General of The Salvation Army\n*Lord Craigavon, former Prime Minister of Northern Ireland\n*Mal Donaghy, football player\n*Jamie Dornan, actor\n*Barry Douglas, musician\n*John Boyd Dunlop, inventor\n*Jonny Evans, football player\n*Corry Evans, football player\n*Carl Frampton, boxer\n*Sir James Galway, musician\n*Craig Gilroy, rugby union player\n*Chaim Herzog, former President of Israel\n*Alex Higgins, snooker player\n*Eamonn Holmes, broadcaster\n*Brian Desmond Hurst, film director\n*Paddy Jackson, rugby union player\n*Oliver Jeffers, artist\n*Dame Rotha Johnston, entrepreneur\n*Lord Kelvin, physicist and engineer\n*C. S. Lewis, author\n*James Joseph Magennis, Victoria Cross recipient\n*Jim Magilton, football player and manager\n*Paula Malcomson, actress\n*Mary McAleese, former President of Ireland\n*Gerry McAvoy, musician and long time bass guitarist with Rory Gallagher\n*Sir Tony McCoy, horse racing jockey\n*Wayne McCullough, Olympic Games Silver Medalist, WBC World Champion Boxer, Patron of Northern Ireland Children's Hospice\n*Alan McDonald, football player\n*Rory McIlroy, golfer\n*Sammy McIlroy, football player and manager\n*Gary Moore, guitarist\n*Van Morrison, singer-songwriter\n*Doc Neeson, singer-songwriter\n*Dame Mary Peters, Olympic sportswoman\n*Patricia Quinn, actress\n*Pat Rice, football player and coach\n*Trevor Ringland, rugby union player\n*Peter Robinson, First Minister of Northern Ireland\n*Mark Ryder, actor\n*Jonathan Simms, victim of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD) who survived for an unprecedented ten years after diagnosis\n*David Trimble, former First Minister of Northern Ireland, Nobel Peace Prize winner\n*Gary Wilson, cricketer\n*Roy Walker (comedian), TV Gameshow Host\n","\n\nBelfast has two universities. Queen's University Belfast was founded in 1845 and is a member of the Russell Group, an association of 24 leading research-intensive universities in the UK. It is one of the largest universities in the UK with 25,231 undergraduate and postgraduate students spread over 250 buildings, 120 of which are listed as being of architectural merit. Ulster University, created in its current form in 1984, is a multi-centre university with a campus in the Cathedral Quarter of Belfast. The Belfast campus has a specific focus on Art and Design and Architecture, and is currently undergoing major redevelopment. The Jordanstown campus, just from Belfast city centre concentrates on engineering, health and social science. The Coleraine campus, about from Belfast city centre concentrates on a broad range of subjects. Course provision is broad – biomedical sciences, environmental science and geography, psychology, business, the humanities and languages, film and journalism, travel and tourism, teacher training and computing are among the campus strengths. The Magee campus, about from Belfast city centre has many teaching strengths; including business, computing, creative technologies, nursing, Irish language and literature, social sciences, law, psychology, peace and conflict studies and the performing arts. The Conflict Archive on the INternet (CAIN) Web Service receives funding from both universities and is a rich source of information and source material on the Troubles as well as society and politics in Northern Ireland.\n\nBelfast Metropolitan College is a large further education college with three main campuses around the city, including several smaller buildings. Formerly known as Belfast Institute of Further and Higher Education, it specialises in vocational education. The college has over 53,000 students enrolled on full-time and part-time courses, making it one of the largest further education colleges in the UK and the largest in the island of Ireland.\n\nThe Belfast Education and Library Board was established in 1973 as the local council responsible for education, youth and library services within the city. There are 184 primary, secondary and grammar schools in the city.\n\nThe Ulster Museum is located in Belfast.\n","Titanic Belfast, devoted to the Belfast-built RMS ''Titanic'', opened in 2012\n\nBelfast is one of the most visited cities in the UK, and the second most visited on the island of Ireland. In 2008, 7.1 million tourists visited the city. Numerous popular tour bus companies and boat tours run there throughout the year.\n\nFrommer's, the American travel guidebook series, listed Belfast as the only United Kingdom destination in its ''Top 12 Destinations to Visit'' in 2009. The other listed destinations were Berlin (Germany), Cambodia, Cape Town (South Africa), Cartagena (Colombia), Istanbul (Turkey), the Lassen Volcanic National Park (USA), Saqqara (Egypt), the Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail (USA), Waiheke Island (New Zealand), Washington, D.C. (USA), and Waterton Lakes National Park (Canada).\n\nThe Belfast City Council is currently investing into the complete redevelopment of the Titanic Quarter, which is planned to consist of apartments, hotels, and a riverside entertainment district. A major visitor attraction, Titanic Belfast is a monument to Belfast's maritime heritage on the site of the former Harland & Wolff shipyard, opened on 31 March 2012. It features a criss-cross of escalators and suspended walkways and nine high-tech galleries. They also hope to invest in a new modern transport system (including high-speed rail and others) for Belfast, with a cost of £250 million.\n\nThere is a tourist information centre located at Donegall Place.\n","Belfast has the following sister cities:\n\n* Nashville, Tennessee, United States (since 1994)\n* Hefei, Anhui Province, China (since 2005)\n* Boston, Massachusetts, United States (since 2014)\n* Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China (since 2016)\n","\n","* Beesley, S. and Wilde, J. 1997. ''Urban Flora of Belfast''. Institute of Irish Studies & The Queen's University of Belfast.\n* Deane, C.Douglas. 1983. ''The Ulster Countryside.'' Century Books. \n* Gillespie, R. 2007. ''Early Belfast.'' Belfast Natural History & Philosophical Society in Association with Ulster Historical Foundation. .\n* Nesbitt, Noel. 1982. ''The Changing Face of Belfast.'' Ulster Museum, Belfast. Publication no. 183.\n* Pollock, V. and Parkhill, T. 1997. ''Belfast''. National Museums of Northern Ireland. \n* Scott, Robert. 2004. ''Wild Belfast on safari in the city.'' Blackstaff Press. .\n* Walker, B.M. and Dixon, H. 1984. ''Early Photographs from the Lawrence Collection in Belfast Town 1864–1880.'' The Friar's Bush Press, \n* Walker, B.M. and Dixon, H. 1983. ''No Mean City: Belfast 1880–1914.'' .\n* Connolly, S.J. Ed. 2012. Belfast 400 People Places and History. Liverpool University Press. \n* McCracken, E. 1971. ''The Palm House and Botanic Garden, Belfast''. Ulster Architectural Heritage Society.\n* McMahon, Sean. 2011. ''A Brief History of Belfast.'' The Brehon Press. Belfast. \n* Fulton, C. 2011. ''Coalbricks and Prefabs, Glimpses of Belfast in the 1950s.'' Thedoc Press. \n* O'Reilly, D. 2010. \" Rivers of Belfast\". Colourpoint Books. \n","\n\n\n*\n* Belfast City Council\n* Belfast Pride\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n= Flag of Belfast.\\n\\n\\n'''Belfast''' ( or ; ) is the capital and largest city of Northern Ireland, and the second largest on the island of Ireland. On the River Lagan, it had a population of 333,871 in 2015. Belfast was granted city status in 1888.\\n\\nBelfast was a centre of the Irish linen, tobacco-processing, rope-making and shipbuilding industries: in the early 20th century, Harland and Wolff, which built the , was the world's biggest and most productive shipyard. Belfast played a key role in the Industrial Revolution, and was a global industrial centre until the latter half of the 20th century. It has sustained a major aerospace and missiles industry since the mid 1930s. Industrialisation and the inward migration it brought made Belfast Ireland's biggest city at the beginning of the 20th century.\\n\\nToday, Belfast remains a centre for industry, as well as the arts, higher education, business, and law, and is the economic engine of Northern Ireland. The city suffered greatly during the Troubles, but latterly has undergone a sustained period of calm, free from the intense political violence of former years, and substantial economic and commercial growth. Additionally, Belfast city centre has undergone considerable expansion and regeneration in recent years, notably around Victoria Square.\\n\\nBelfast is served by two airports: George Best Belfast City Airport in the city, and Belfast International Airport west of the city. Belfast is a major port, with commercial and industrial docks dominating the Belfast Lough shoreline, including the Harland and Wolff shipyard, and is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network (GaWC) as a global city.\\n\",\n \"\\nThe name Belfast is derived from the Irish '''', which was later spelt ''''. The word '''' means \\\"mouth\\\" or \\\"rivermouth\\\" while '''' is the genitive singular of '''' and refers to a sandbar or tidal ford across a river's mouth. The name would thus translate literally as \\\"(river) mouth of the sandbar\\\" or \\\"(river) mouth of the ford\\\". This sandbar was formed at the confluence of two rivers at what is now Donegall Quay: the Lagan, which flows into Belfast Lough, and its tributary the Farset. This area was the hub around which the original settlement developed. The Irish name '''' is shared by a townland in County Mayo, whose name has been anglicised as ''Belfarsad''.\\n\\nAn alternative interpretation of the name is \\\"mouth of the river of the sandbar\\\", an allusion to the River Farset, which flows into the Lagan where the sandbar was located. This interpretation was favoured by Edmund Hogan and John O'Donovan. It seems clear, however, that the river itself was named after the tidal crossing.\\n\\nIn Ulster-Scots, the name of the city has been variously translated as ''Bilfawst'', ''Bilfaust'' or ''Baelfawst'', although \\\"Belfast\\\" is also used.\\n\",\n \"\\n\\nAlthough the county borough of Belfast was created when it was granted city status by Queen Victoria in 1888, the city continues to be viewed as straddling County Antrim and County Down.\\n\\n===Origins===\\nBelfast Castle\\n\\nThe site of Belfast has been occupied since the Bronze Age. The Giant's Ring, a 5,000-year-old henge, is located near the city, and the remains of Iron Age hill forts can still be seen in the surrounding hills. Belfast remained a small settlement of little importance during the Middle Ages. John de Courcy built a castle on what is now Castle Street in the city centre in the 12th century, but this was on a lesser scale and not as strategically important as Carrickfergus Castle to the north, which was built by de Courcy in 1177. The O'Neill clan had a presence in the area.\\n\\nIn the 14th century, Cloinne Aodha Buidhe, descendants of Aodh Buidhe O'Neill built Grey Castle at Castlereagh, now in the east of the city. Conn O'Neill of the Clannaboy O'Neills owned vast lands in the area and was the last inhabitant of Grey Castle, one remaining link being the Conn's Water river flowing through east Belfast.\\n\\n===Growth===\\nCastle Place, Belfast in c.1830\\nBelfast became a substantial settlement in the 17th century after being established as a town by Sir Arthur Chichester, which was initially settled by Protestant English and Scottish migrants at the time of the Plantation of Ulster. (Belfast and County Antrim, however, did not form part of this particular Plantation scheme as they were privately colonised.) In 1791, the Society of United Irishmen was founded in Belfast, after Henry Joy McCracken and other prominent Presbyterians from the city invited Theobald Wolfe Tone and Thomas Russell to a meeting, after having read Tone's \\\"Argument on Behalf of the Catholics of Ireland\\\". Evidence of this period of Belfast's growth can still be seen in the oldest areas of the city, known as the Entries.\\n\\nDonegall Square in the early 1900s\\nBelfast blossomed as a commercial and industrial centre in the 18th and 19th centuries and became Ireland's pre-eminent industrial city. Industries thrived, including linen, rope-making, tobacco, heavy engineering and shipbuilding, and at the end of the 19th century, Belfast briefly overtook Dublin as the largest city in Ireland. The Harland and Wolff shipyards became one of the largest shipbuilders in the world, employing up to 35,000 workers. In 1886 the city suffered intense riots over the issue of home rule, which had divided the city.\\n\\nIn 1920–22, Belfast became the capital of the new entity of Northern Ireland as the island of Ireland was partitioned. The accompanying conflict (the Irish War of Independence) cost up to 500 lives in Belfast, the bloodiest sectarian strife in the city until the Troubles of the late 1960s onwards.\\n\\nAftermath of the Blitz in May 1941\\n\\nBelfast was heavily bombed during World War II. In one raid, in 1941, German bombers killed around one thousand people and left tens of thousands homeless. Apart from London, this was the greatest loss of life in a night raid during the Blitz.\\n\\n===The Troubles===\\n\\nBelfast has been the capital of Northern Ireland since its establishment in 1921 following the Government of Ireland Act 1920. It had been the scene of various episodes of sectarian conflict between its Catholic and Protestant populations. These opposing groups in this conflict are now often termed republican and loyalist respectively, although they are also loosely referred to as 'nationalist' and 'unionist'. The most recent example of this conflict was known as the Troubles – a civil conflict that raged from around 1969 to 1998.\\n\\nBelfast saw some of the worst of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, particularly in the 1970s, with rival paramilitary groups formed on both sides. Bombing, assassination and street violence formed a backdrop to life throughout the Troubles. The Provisional IRA detonated 22 bombs within the confines of Belfast city centre in 1972, on what is known as \\\"Bloody Friday\\\", killing eleven people. Loyalist paramilitaries including the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and the Ulster Defence Association (UDA) claimed that the killings they carried out were in retaliation for the IRA campaign. Most of their victims were Catholics with no links to the Provisional IRA. A particularly notorious group, based on the Shankill Road in the mid-1970s, became known as the Shankill Butchers.\\n\\nIn all, over 1,600 people were killed in political violence in the city between 1969 and 2001. Sporadic violent events continue , although not supported by the previous antagonists who had reached political agreement in 1998.\\n\\n\",\n \"Belfast was granted borough status by James VI and I in 1613 and official city status by Queen Victoria in 1888. Since 1973 it has been a local government district under local administration by Belfast City Council. Belfast is represented in both the British House of Commons and in the Northern Ireland Assembly. For elections to the European Parliament, Belfast is within the Northern Ireland constituency.\\n\\n===Local government===\\n\\nBelfast City Hall\\n\\nBelfast City Council is the local council with responsibility for the city. The city's elected officials are the Lord Mayor of Belfast, Deputy Lord Mayor and High Sheriff who are elected from among 60 councillors. The first Lord Mayor of Belfast was Daniel Dixon, who was elected in 1892. The Lord Mayor for 2016–17 is Alderman Brian Kingston of the Democratic Unionist Party, while the Deputy Lord Mayor is Mary Ellen Campbell of Sinn Féin, both of whom were elected in June 2016 to serve a one-year term. The Lord Mayor's duties include presiding over meetings of the council, receiving distinguished visitors to the city, and representing and promoting the city on the national and international stage.\\n\\nIn 1997, Unionists lost overall control of Belfast City Council for the first time in its history, with the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland gaining the balance of power between Nationalists and Unionists. This position was confirmed in the three subsequent council elections, with mayors from Sinn Féin and the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP), both of whom are Nationalist parties, and the cross-community Alliance Party regularly elected since. The first nationalist Lord Mayor of Belfast was Alban Maginness of the SDLP, in 1997.\\n\\nThe last elections to Belfast City Council were held on 22 May 2014, with the city's voters electing sixty councillors across ten district electoral areas. The results were: 19(+3) Sinn Féin, 13(−2) Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), 8(+2) Alliance Party, 7(−1) SDLP, 7(+4) Ulster Unionist Party (UUP), 3(+1) Progressive Unionist Party (PUP), with the Traditional Unionist Voice. Greens and People Before Profit Alliance all winning their first seats.\\n\\nBelfast council takes part in the twinning scheme, and is twinned with Nashville, in the United States, Hefei in China, and Boston, in the United States.\\n\\n===Northern Ireland Assembly and Westminster===\\nStormont is home to the Northern Ireland Assembly.\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nAs Northern Ireland's capital city, Belfast is host to the Northern Ireland Assembly at Stormont, the site of the devolved legislature for Northern Ireland. Belfast is divided into four Northern Ireland Assembly and UK parliamentary constituencies: Belfast North, Belfast West, Belfast South and Belfast East. All four extend beyond the city boundaries to include parts of Castlereagh, Lisburn and Newtownabbey districts. In the Northern Ireland Assembly Elections in 2017, Belfast elected 20 Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs), 5 from each constituency. Belfast elected 7 Sinn Féin, 5 DUP, 2 SDLP, 3 Alliance Party, 1 UUP, 1 Green and 1 PBPA MLAs. In the 2017 UK general election, Belfast elected one MP from each constituency to the House of Commons at Westminster, London. This comprised 3 DUP and 1 Sinn Féin.\\n\\n\\n===Coat of arms and motto===\\nBelfast's coat of arms was adopted in 1890\\n\\nThe city of Belfast has the Latin motto \\\".\\\" This is taken from Psalms 116 Verse 12 in the Latin Vulgate Bible and is literally \\\"For so much what shall we repay \\\" The verse has been translated in bibles differently – for example as \\\"What shall I render unto the Lord for all his benefits toward me?\\\". It is also translated as \\\"In return for so much, what shall we give back?\\\" The Queen's University Students' Union Rag Week publication ''PTQ'' derives its name from the first three words of the motto.\\n\\nThe coat of arms of the city were designed by John Vinycomb and are blazoned as ''Party per fesse argent and azure, in chief a pile vair and on a canton gules a bell argent, in base a ship with sails set argent on waves of the sea proper''. This heraldic language describes a shield that is divided in two horizontally (''party per fesse''). The top (''chief'') of the shield is silver (''argent''), and has a point-down triangle (''a pile'') with a repeating blue-and-white pattern that represents fur (''vair''). There is also a red square in the top corner (''a canton gules'') on which there is a silver bell. It is likely that the bell is an example here of \\\"canting\\\" (or punning) heraldry, representing the first syllable of Belfast. In the lower part of the shield (''in base'') there is a silver sailing ship shown sailing on waves coloured in the actual colours of the sea (''proper''). The supporter on the \\\"dexter\\\" side (the right hand side, to note that in heraldry \\\"right and \\\"left\\\" are from the wearer of the shield's perspective) is a chained wolf, while on the \\\"sinister\\\" (the left side from the bearer's perspective) is a sea-horse. The crest above the shield is also a sea-horse. These arms date back to 1613, when James VI and I granted Belfast town status. The seal was used by Belfast merchants throughout the 17th century on their signs and trade-coins. A large stained glass window in the City Hall displays the arms, where an explanation suggests that the seahorse and the ship refer to Belfast's significant maritime history. The wolf may be a tribute to the city's founder, Sir Arthur Chichester, and refer to his own coat of arms.\\n\",\n \"alt=Aerial photo of urban sprawl, edged by green hills and sea shore, and bisected by a winding river.\\nBelfast is at the western end of Belfast Lough and at the mouth of the River Lagan giving it the ideal location for the shipbuilding industry that once made it famous. When the ''Titanic'' was built in Belfast in 1911–1912, Harland and Wolff had the largest shipyard in the world.\\nBelfast is situated on Northern Ireland's eastern coast at . A consequence of this northern latitude is that it both endures short winter days and enjoys long summer evenings. During the winter solstice, the shortest day of the year, local sunset is before 16:00 while sunrise is around 08:45. This is balanced by the summer solstice in June, when the sun sets after 22:00 and rises before 05:00.\\n\\nOpenStreetMap of metro Belfast-Lisburn\\nIn 1994, a weir was built across the river by the Laganside Corporation to raise the average water level so that it would cover the unseemly mud flats which gave Belfast its name (). The area of Belfast Local Government District is .\\n\\nThe River Farset is also named after this silt deposit (from the Irish ''feirste'' meaning \\\"sand spit\\\"). Originally a more significant river than it is today, the Farset formed a dock on High Street until the mid 19th century. Bank Street in the city centre referred to the river bank and Bridge Street was named for the site of an early Farset bridge. Superseded by the River Lagan as the more important river in the city, the Farset now languishes in obscurity, under High Street. There are no less than eleven other minor rivers in and around Belfast, namely the Blackstaff, the Colin, the Connswater, the Cregagh, the Derriaghy, the Forth, the Knock, the Legoniel, the Milewater, the Purdysburn and the Ravernet.\\n\\nCavehill, a basaltic hill overlooking the city\\nThe city is flanked on the north and northwest by a series of hills, including Divis Mountain, Black Mountain and Cavehill, thought to be the inspiration for Jonathan Swift's ''Gulliver's Travels''. When Swift was living at Lilliput Cottage near the bottom of Belfast's Limestone Road, he imagined that the Cavehill resembled the shape of a sleeping giant safeguarding the city. The shape of the giant's nose, known locally as ''Napoleon's Nose'', is officially called McArt's Fort probably named after Art O'Neill, a 17th-century chieftain who controlled the area at that time. The Castlereagh Hills overlook the city on the southeast.\\n\\n===Climate===\\nAs with the rest of Ireland, Belfast has a temperate or oceanic climate, with a narrow range of temperatures and rainfall throughout the year. The climate of Belfast is significantly milder than some other locations in the world at a similar latitude, due to the warming influence of the Gulf Stream. There are currently 5 weather observing stations in the Belfast area: Helens Bay, Stormont, Newforge, Castlereagh, and Ravenhill Road. Slightly further afield is Aldergrove Airport. The highest temperature recorded at any official weather station in the Belfast area was at Shaws Bridge on 12 July 1983. Belfast holds the record for Northern Ireland's warmest night time minimum, at Whitehouse on 14 August 2001.\\n\\nThe city gets significant precipitation (greater than 1mm) on 157 days in an average year with an average annual rainfall of , less than areas of northern England or most of Scotland, but higher than Dublin or the south-east coast of Ireland. As an urban and coastal area, Belfast typically gets snow on fewer than 10 days per year. The absolute maximum temperature at the weather station at Stormont is , set during July 1983. In an average year the warmest day will rise to a temperature of with a day of or above occurring roughly once every two in three years. The absolute minimum temperature at Stormont is , during January 1982, although in an average year the coldest night will fall no lower than with air frost being recorded on just 26 nights. The lowest temperature to occur in recent years was on 22 December 2010.\\n\\nThe nearest weather station for which sunshine data and longer term observations are available is Belfast International Airport (Aldergrove). Temperature extremes here have slightly more variability due to the more inland location. The average warmest day at Aldergrove for example will reach a temperature of , ( higher than Stormont) and 2.1 days should attain a temperature of or above in total. Conversely the coldest night of the year averages (or lower than Stormont) and 39 nights should register an air frost. Some 13 more frosty nights than Stormont. The minimum temperature at Aldergrove was , during December 2010.\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n===Areas and districts===\\n\\nRoyal Avenue in Belfast\\n\\nBelfast expanded very rapidly from being a market town to becoming an industrial city during the course of the 19th century. Because of this, it is less an agglomeration of villages and towns which have expanded into each other, than other comparable cities, such as Manchester or Birmingham. The city expanded to the natural barrier of the hills that surround it, overwhelming other settlements. Consequently, the arterial roads along which this expansion took place (such as the Falls Road or the Newtownards Road) are more significant in defining the districts of the city than nucleated settlements. Belfast remains segregated by walls, commonly known as \\\"peace lines\\\", erected by the British Army after August 1969, and which still divide 14 districts in the inner city. In 2008 a process was proposed for the removal of the 'peace walls'. In June 2007, a £16 million programme was announced which will transform and redevelop streets and public spaces in the city centre. Major arterial roads (quality bus corridor) into the city include the Antrim Road, Shore Road, Holywood Road, Newtownards Road, Castlereagh Road, Cregagh Road, Ormeau Road, Malone Road, Lisburn Road, Falls Road, Springfield Road, Shankill Road, and Crumlin Road, Four Winds.\\n\\nSt Anne's Cathedral\\nBelfast city centre is divided into two postcode districts, ''BT1'' for the area lying north of the City Hall, and ''BT2'' for the area to its south. The industrial estate and docklands ''BT3''. The rest of the Belfast post town is divided in a broadly clockwise system from ''BT3'' in the north-east round to ''BT15'', with ''BT16'' and ''BT17'' further out to the east and west respectively. Although ''BT'' derives from ''Belfast'', the BT postcode area extends across the whole of Northern Ireland.\\n\\nSince 2001, boosted by increasing numbers of tourists, the city council has developed a number of cultural quarters. The '''Cathedral Quarter''' takes its name from St Anne's Cathedral (Church of Ireland) and has taken on the mantle of the city's key cultural locality. It hosts a yearly visual and performing arts festival.\\n\\nCustom House Square is one of the city's main outdoor venues for free concerts and street entertainment. The '''Gaeltacht Quarter''' is an area around the Falls Road in west Belfast which promotes and encourages the use of the Irish language. The '''Queen's Quarter''' in south Belfast is named after Queen's University. The area has a large student population and hosts the annual Belfast Festival at Queen's each autumn. It is home to Botanic Gardens and the Ulster Museum, which was reopened in 2009 after major redevelopment. The Golden Mile is the name given to the mile between Belfast City Hall and Queen's University. Taking in Dublin Road, Great Victoria Street, Shaftesbury Square and Bradbury Place, it contains some of the best bars and restaurants in the city. Since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, the nearby Lisburn Road has developed into the city's most exclusive shopping strip. Finally, the '''Titanic Quarter''' covers of reclaimed land adjacent to Belfast Harbour, formerly known as ''Queen's Island''. Named after ''RMS Titanic'', which was built here in 1912, work has begun which promises to transform some former shipyard land into \\\"one of the largest waterfront developments in Europe\\\". Plans include apartments, a riverside entertainment district, and a major Titanic-themed museum.\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n\\n===Architecture===\\n\\nObel Tower is the tallest building in Belfast and Ireland.\\n\\nThe architectural style of Belfast's buildings range from Edwardian, like the City Hall, to modern, like Waterfront Hall. Many of the city's Victorian landmarks, including the main ''Lanyon Building'' at Queen's University Belfast and the Linenhall Library, were designed by Sir Charles Lanyon.\\n\\nThe City Hall was finished in 1906 and was built to reflect Belfast's city status, granted by Queen Victoria in 1888. The Edwardian architectural style of Belfast City Hall influenced the Victoria Memorial in Calcutta, India, and Durban City Hall in South Africa. The dome is high and figures above the door state \\\"Hibernia encouraging and promoting the Commerce and Arts of the City\\\".\\n\\nAmong the city's grandest buildings are two former banks: Ulster Bank in Waring Street (built in 1860) and Northern Bank, in nearby Donegall Street (built in 1769). The Royal Courts of Justice in Chichester Street are home to Northern Ireland's Supreme Court. Many of Belfast's oldest buildings are found in the Cathedral Quarter area, which is currently undergoing redevelopment as the city's main cultural and tourist area. Windsor House, high, has 23 floors and is the second tallest building (as distinct from structure) in Ireland. Work has started on the taller Obel Tower, which already surpasses the height of Windsor House in its unfinished state.\\n\\nScottish Provident Institution, an example of Victorian architecture in Belfast\\nThe ornately decorated Crown Liquor Saloon, designed by Joseph Anderson in 1876, in Great Victoria Street is one of only two pubs in the UK that are owned by the National Trust (the other is the George Inn, Southwark in London). It was made internationally famous as the setting for the classic film, ''Odd Man Out'', starring James Mason. The restaurant panels in the Crown Bar were originally made for ''Britannic'', the sister ship of the ''Titanic'', built in Belfast.\\n\\nThe Harland and Wolff shipyard has two of the largest dry docks in Europe, where the giant cranes, Samson and Goliath stand out against Belfast's skyline.\\nIncluding the Waterfront Hall and the Odyssey Arena, Belfast has several other venues for performing arts. The architecture of the Grand Opera House has an oriental theme and was completed in 1895. It was bombed several times during the Troubles but has now been restored to its former glory. The Lyric Theatre, (re-opened 1 May 2011 after undergoing a rebuilding programme) the only full-time producing theatre in the country, is where film star Liam Neeson began his career. The Ulster Hall (1859–1862) was originally designed for grand dances but is now used primarily as a concert and sporting venue. Lloyd George, Parnell and Patrick Pearse all attended political rallies there.\\n\\n===Parks and gardens===\\n\\nBotanic Gardens\\n\\nSitting at the mouth of the River Lagan where it becomes a deep and sheltered lough, Belfast is surrounded by mountains that create a micro-climate conducive to horticulture. From the Victorian Botanic Gardens in the heart of the city to the heights of Cave Hill Country Park, the great expanse of Lagan Valley Regional Park to Colin Glen, Belfast contains an abundance of parkland and forest parks.\\n\\nParks and gardens are an integral part of Belfast's heritage, and home to an abundance of local wildlife and popular places for a picnic, a stroll or a jog. Numerous events take place throughout including festivals such as Rose Week and special activities such as bird watching evenings and great beast hunts.\\n\\nBelfast has over forty public parks. The Forest of Belfast is a partnership between government and local groups, set up in 1992 to manage and conserve the city's parks and open spaces. They have commissioned more than 30 public sculptures since 1993. In 2006, the City Council set aside £8 million to continue this work. The Belfast Naturalists' Field Club was founded in 1863 and is administered by National Museums and Galleries of Northern Ireland.\\n\\nWith an average of 670,000 visitors per year between 2007 and 2011, one of the most popular parks is Botanic Gardens in the Queen's Quarter. Built in the 1830s and designed by Sir Charles Lanyon, Botanic Gardens Palm House is one of the earliest examples of a curvilinear and cast iron glasshouse. Other attractions in the park include the Tropical Ravine, a humid jungle glen built in 1889, rose gardens and public events ranging from live opera broadcasts to pop concerts. U2 played here in 1997. Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park, to the south of the city centre, attracts thousands of visitors each year to its International Rose Garden. Rose Week in July each year features over 20,000 blooms. It has an area of of meadows, woodland and gardens and features a Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Garden, a Japanese garden, a walled garden, and the Golden Crown Fountain commissioned in 2002 as part of the Queen's Golden Jubilee celebrations.\\n\\nIn 2008, Belfast was named a finalist in the Large City (200,001 and over) category of the RHS Britain in Bloom competition along with London Borough of Croydon and Sheffield.\\n\\nBelfast Zoo is owned by Belfast City Council. The council spends £1.5 million every year on running and promoting the zoo, which is one of the few local government-funded zoos in the UK and Ireland. The zoo is one of the top visitor attractions in Northern Ireland, receiving more than 295,000 visitors a year. The majority of the animals are in danger in their natural habitat. The zoo houses more than 1,200 animals of 140 species including Asian elephants, Barbary lions, Malayan sun bears (one of the few in the United Kingdom), two species of penguin, a family of western lowland gorillas, a troop of common chimpanzees, a pair of red pandas, a pair of Goodfellow's tree-kangaroos and Francois' langurs. The zoo also carries out important conservation work and takes part in European and international breeding programmes which help to ensure the survival of many species under threat.\\n\",\n \"\\nAt the 2001 census, the population was 276,459, while 579,554 people lived in the wider Belfast Metropolitan Area.\\n\\nThis made it the fifteenth-largest city in the United Kingdom, but the eleventh-largest conurbation.\\n\\nBelfast experienced a huge growth in population in the first half of the twentieth century. This rise slowed and peaked around the start of the Troubles with the 1971 census showing almost 600,000 people in the Belfast Urban Area. Since then, the inner city numbers have dropped dramatically as people have moved to swell the Greater Belfast suburb population. The 2001 census population in the same Urban Area had fallen to 277,391 people, with 579,554 people living in the wider Belfast Metropolitan Area.\\n\\nThe 2001 census recorded 81,650 people from Catholic backgrounds and 79,650 people from Protestant backgrounds of working age living in Belfast. The population density in 2011 was 24.88 people/hectare (compared to 1.34 for the rest of Northern Ireland).\\n\\nAs with many cities, Belfast's inner city is currently characterised by the elderly, students and single young people, while families tend to live on the periphery. Socio-economic areas radiate out from the Central Business District, with a pronounced wedge of affluence extending out the Malone Road and Upper Malone Road to the south. An area of greater deprivation extends to the west of the city. The areas around the Falls (Catholic nationalist) and the Shankill Road (Protestant loyalist) are the most deprived wards in Northern Ireland.\\n\\nDespite a period of relative peace, most areas and districts of Belfast still reflect the divided nature of Northern Ireland as a whole. Many areas are still highly segregated along ethnic, political and religious lines, especially in working-class neighbourhoods.\\n\\nThese zones – Catholic/Republican on one side and Protestant/Loyalist on the other – are invariably marked by flags, graffiti and murals. Segregation has been present throughout the history of Belfast, but has been maintained and increased by each outbreak of violence in the city. This escalation in segregation, described as a \\\"ratchet effect\\\", has shown little sign of decreasing.\\n\\nThe highest levels of segregation in the city are in west Belfast with many areas greater than 90% Catholic. Opposite but comparatively high levels are seen in the predominantly Protestant east Belfast. Areas where segregated working-class areas meet are known as interface areas and sometimes marked by peace lines. When violence flares, it tends to be in interface areas.\\n\\nEthnic minority communities have been in Belfast since the 1930s. The largest groups are Poles, Chinese and Indians.\\n\\nSince the expansion of the European Union, numbers have been boosted by an influx of Eastern European immigrants. Census figures (2011) showed that Belfast has a total non-white population of 10,219 or 3.3%, while 18,420 or 6.6% of the population were born outside the UK and Ireland. Almost half of those born outside the UK and Ireland live in south Belfast, where they comprise 9.5% of the population. The majority of the estimated 5,000 Muslims and 200 Hindu families living in Northern Ireland live in the Greater Belfast area.\\n\\n\\n\\nFile:Population Density Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Population density\\nFile:Religion Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Percentage Catholic or brought up Catholic\\nFile:National Identity Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Most commonly stated national identity\\nFile:Born Outside UK And Ireland Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Percentage born outside the UK and Ireland\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n\\nThe IRA Ceasefire in 1994 and the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 have given investors increased confidence to invest in Belfast. This has led to a period of sustained economic growth and large-scale redevelopment of the city centre. Developments include Victoria Square, the Cathedral Quarter, and the Laganside with the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall. The Waterfront Hall. Built in 1997, the hall is a concert, exhibition and conference venue.\\nOther major developments include the regeneration of the Titanic Quarter, and the erection of the Obel Tower, a skyscraper set to be the tallest tower on the island.\\nToday, Belfast is Northern Ireland's educational and commercial hub. In February 2006, Belfast's unemployment rate stood at 4.2%, lower than both the Northern Ireland and the UK average of 5.5%. Over the past 10 years employment has grown by 16.4 per cent, compared with 9.2 per cent for the UK as a whole.\\n\\nNorthern Ireland's peace dividend has led to soaring property prices in the city. In 2007, Belfast saw house prices grow by 50%, the fastest rate of growth in the UK. In March 2007, the average house in Belfast cost £91,819, with the average in south Belfast being £141,000. In 2004, Belfast had the lowest owner occupation rate in Northern Ireland at 54%.\\n\\nPeace has boosted the numbers of tourists coming to Belfast. There were 6.4 million visitors in 2005, which was a growth of 8.5% from 2004. The visitors spent £285.2 million, supporting more than 15,600 jobs. Visitor numbers rose by 6% to reach 6.8 million in 2006, with tourists spending £324 million, an increase of 15% on 2005. The city's two airports have helped make the city one of the most visited weekend destinations in Europe.\\n\\nBelfast has been the fastest-growing economy of the thirty largest cities in the UK over the past decade, a new economy report by Howard Spencer has found. ''\\\"That's because of the fundamentals of the UK economy and because people actually want to invest in the UK,\\\"'' he commented on that report.\\n\\nBBC Radio 4's World reported furthermore that despite higher levels of corporation tax in the UK than in the Republic. There are \\\"huge amounts\\\" of foreign investment coming into the country.\\n\\n''The Times'' wrote about Belfast's growing economy: \\\"According to the region's development agency, throughout the 1990s Northern Ireland had the fastest-growing regional economy in the UK, with GDP increasing 1 per cent per annum faster than the rest of the country. As with any modern economy, the service sector is vital to Northern Ireland's development and is enjoying excellent growth. In particular, the region has a booming tourist industry with record levels of visitors and tourist revenues and has established itself as a significant location for call centres.\\\"\\nSince the ending of the regions conflict tourism has boomed in Northern Ireland, greatly aided by low cost.\\n\\nDer Spiegel, a German weekly magazine for politics and economy, titled Belfast as ''The New Celtic Tiger'' which is \\\"open for business\\\".\\n\\n===Industrial growth===\\nA 1907 stereoscope postcard depicting the construction of a passenger liner (the RMS ''Adriatic'') at the Harland and Wolff shipyard\\n\\nWhen the population of Belfast town began to grow in the 17th century, its economy was built on commerce. It provided a market for the surrounding countryside and the natural inlet of Belfast Lough gave the city its own port. The port supplied an avenue for trade with Great Britain and later Europe and North America. In the mid-17th century, Belfast exported beef, butter, hides, tallow and corn and it imported coal, cloth, wine, brandy, paper, timber and tobacco.\\n\\nAround this time, the linen trade in Northern Ireland blossomed and by the middle of the 18th century, one fifth of all the linen exported from Ireland was shipped from Belfast. The present city however is a product of the Industrial Revolution. It was not until industry transformed the linen and shipbuilding trades that the economy and the population boomed. By the turn of the 19th century, Belfast had transformed into the largest linen producing centre in the world, earning the nickname \\\"Linenopolis\\\".\\n\\nBelfast harbour was dredged in 1845 to provide deeper berths for larger ships. Donegall Quay was built out into the river as the harbour was developed further and trade flourished. The Harland and Wolff shipbuilding firm was created in 1861, and by the time the ''Titanic'' was built, in 1912, it had become the largest shipyard in the world.\\nSamson and Goliath, Harland & Wolff's gantry cranes.\\nShort Brothers plc is a British aerospace company based in Belfast. It was the first aircraft manufacturing company in the world. The company began its association with Belfast in 1936, with Short & Harland Ltd, a venture jointly owned by Shorts and Harland and Wolff. Now known as Shorts Bombardier it works as an international aircraft manufacturer located near the Port of Belfast.\\n\\nThe rise of mass-produced and cotton clothing following World War I were some of the factors which led to the decline of Belfast's international linen trade. Like many British cities dependent on traditional heavy industry, Belfast suffered serious decline since the 1960s, exacerbated greatly in the 1970s and 1980s by the Troubles. More than 100,000 manufacturing jobs have been lost since the 1970s. For several decades, Northern Ireland's fragile economy required significant public support from the British exchequer of up to £4 billion per year.\\n\",\n \"Ulster University, Belfast campus\\n\\nBelfast saw the worst of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, with nearly half of the total deaths in the conflict occurring in the city. However, since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, there has been significant urban regeneration in the city centre including Victoria Square, Queen's Island and Laganside as well as the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall. The city is served by two airports: The George Best Belfast City Airport adjacent to Belfast Lough and Belfast International Airport which is near Lough Neagh. Queen's University of Belfast is the main university in the city. The Ulster University also maintains a campus in the city, which concentrates on fine art, design and architecture.\\n\\nBelfast is one of the constituent cities that makes up the Dublin-Belfast corridor region, which has a population of just under 3 million.\\n\\n===Utilities===\\nSilent Valley Reservoir, showing the brick-built overflow\\n\\nMost of Belfast's water is supplied from the Silent Valley Reservoir in County Down, created to collect water from the Mourne Mountains. The rest of the city's water is sourced from Lough Neagh, via ''Dunore Water Treatment Works'' in County Antrim. The citizens of Belfast pay for their water in their rates bill. Plans to bring in additional water tariffs have been deferred by devolution in May 2007. Belfast has approximately of sewers, which are currently being replaced in a project costing over £100 million and due for completion in 2009.\\n\\nNorthern Ireland Electricity is responsible for transmitting electricity in Northern Ireland. Belfast's electricity comes from Kilroot Power Station, a 520 MegaWatt dual coal and oil fired plant, situated near Carrickfergus. Phoenix Natural Gas Ltd. started supplying customers in Larne and Greater Belfast with natural gas in 1996 via the newly constructed Scotland-Northern Ireland pipeline. Rates in Belfast (and the rest of Northern Ireland) were reformed in April 2007. The discrete capital value system means rates bills are determined by the capital value of each domestic property as assessed by the ''Valuation and Lands Agency''. The recent dramatic rise in house prices has made these reforms unpopular.\\n\\n===Health care===\\n\\nThe Belfast Health & Social Care Trust is one of five trusts that were created on 1 April 2007 by the Department of Health. Belfast contains most of Northern Ireland's regional specialist centres. The Royal Victoria Hospital is an internationally renowned centre of excellence in trauma care and provides specialist trauma care for all of Northern Ireland. It also provides the city's specialist neurosurgical, ophthalmology, ENT, and dentistry services. The Belfast City Hospital is the regional specialist centre for haematology and is home to a cancer centre that rivals the best in the world. The Mary G McGeown Regional Nephrology Unit at the City Hospital is the kidney transplant centre and provides regional renal services for Northern Ireland.\\nMusgrave Park Hospital in south Belfast specialises in orthopaedics, rheumatology, sports medicine and rehabilitation. It is home to Northern Ireland's first Acquired Brain Injury Unit, costing £9 million and opened by the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall in May 2006. Other hospitals in Belfast include the Mater Hospital in north Belfast and the Children's Hospital.\\n\\n===Transport===\\n\\nGeorge Best Belfast City Airport.\\nGreat Victoria Street station on Northern Ireland Railways\\n\\nBelfast is a relatively car-dependent city by European standards, with an extensive road network including the M2 and M22 motorway route. A 2005 survey of how people travel in Northern Ireland showed that people in Belfast made 77% of all journeys by car, 11% by public transport and 6% on foot. It showed that Belfast has 0.70 cars per household compared to figures of 1.18 in the East and 1.14 in the West of Northern Ireland. A road improvement-scheme in Belfast began early in 2006, with the upgrading of two junctions along the Westlink dual-carriageway to grade-separated standard. The improvement scheme was completed five months ahead of schedule on February 2009, with the official opening taking place on 4 March 2009.\\n\\nCommentators have argued that this may create a bottleneck at York Street, the next at-grade intersection, until that too is upgraded. On 25 October 2012 the stage 2 report for the York Street intersection was approved and in December 2012 the planned upgrade moved into stage 3 of the development process. If successfully completing the necessary statutory procedures, work on a grade separated junction to connect the Westlink to the M2/M3 motorways is scheduled to take place between 2014 and 2018, creating a continuous link between the M1 and M2, the two main motorways in Northern Ireland.\\n\\nBlack taxis are common in the city, operating on a share basis in some areas. These are outnumbered by private hire taxis. Bus and rail public transport in Northern Ireland is operated by subsidiaries of Translink. Bus services in the city proper and the nearer suburbs are operated by Translink Metro, with services focusing on linking residential districts with the city centre on 12 quality bus corridors running along main radial roads,\\n\\nMore distant suburbs are served by Ulsterbus. Northern Ireland Railways provides suburban services along three lines running through Belfast's northern suburbs to Carrickfergus, Larne and Larne Harbour, eastwards towards Bangor and south-westwards towards Lisburn and Portadown. This service is known as the Belfast Suburban Rail system. Belfast is linked directly to Coleraine, Portrush and Derry. Belfast has a direct rail connection with Dublin called ''Enterprise'' which is operated jointly by NIR and Iarnród Éireann, the state railway company of the Republic of Ireland.\\nThere are no rail services to cities in other countries of the United Kingdom, due to the lack of a bridge or tunnel connecting Great Britain to the island of Ireland. There is, however, a combined ferry and rail ticket between Belfast and cities in Great Britain, which is referred to as ''Sailrail''.\\n\\nIn April 2008, the Department for Regional Development reported on a plan for a light-rail system, similar to that in Dublin. The consultants said Belfast does not have the population to support a light rail system, suggesting that investment in bus-based rapid transit would be preferable.The study found that bus-based rapid transit produces positive economic results, but light rail does not. The report by Atkins & KPMG, however, said there would be the option of migrating to light rail in the future should the demand increase.\\n\\nThe city has two airports: Belfast International Airport offering, domestic, European and international flights such as Newark (New York) operated by United Airlines, Orlando, and Las Vegas both operated by Thomas Cook. The seasonal flight to Orlando is also operated by Virgin Atlantic. The airport is located northwest of the city, near Lough Neagh, while the George Best Belfast City Airport, which is closer to the city centre by train from Sydenham on the Bangor Line, adjacent to Belfast Lough, offers UK domestic flights and a few European flights. In 2005, Belfast International Airport was the 11th busiest commercial airport in the UK, accounting for just over 2% of all UK terminal passengers while the George Best Belfast City Airport was the 16th busiest and had 1% of UK terminal passengers. The Belfast – Liverpool route is the busiest domestic flight route in the UK excluding London with 555,224 passengers in 2009. Over 2.2 million passengers flew between Belfast and London in 2009.\\n\\nBelfast has a large port used for exporting and importing goods, and for passenger ferry services. Stena Line runs regular routes to Cairnryan in Scotland using its conventional vessels – with a crossing time of around 2 hours 15 minutes. Until 2011 the route went to Stranraer and used inter alia a HSS (High Speed Service) vessel – with a crossing time of around 90 minutes. Stena Line also operates a route to Liverpool. A seasonal sailing to Douglas, Isle of Man is operated by the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company.\\n\",\n \"\\nAC/DC with Bon Scott (centre) pictured with guitarist Angus Young (left) and bassist Cliff Williams (back), performing at the Ulster Hall in August 1979\\n\\nBelfast's population is evenly split between its Protestant and Catholic residents. These two distinct cultural communities have both contributed significantly to the city's culture. Throughout the Troubles, Belfast artists continued to express themselves through poetry, art and music. In the period since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, Belfast has begun a social, economic and cultural transformation giving it a growing international cultural reputation. In 2003, Belfast had an unsuccessful bid for the 2008 European Capital of Culture. The bid was run by an independent company, ''Imagine Belfast'', who boasted that it would \\\"make Belfast the meeting place of Europe's legends, where the meaning of history and belief find a home and a sanctuary from caricature, parody and oblivion.\\\" According to ''The Guardian'' the bid may have been undermined by the city's history and volatile politics.\\n\\nIn 2004–05, art and cultural events in Belfast were attended by 1.8 million people (400,000 more than the previous year). The same year, 80,000 people participated in culture and other arts activities, twice as many as in 2003–04. A combination of relative peace, international investment and an active promotion of arts and culture is attracting more tourists to Belfast than ever before. In 2004–05, 5.9 million people visited Belfast, a 10% increase from the previous year, and spent £262.5 million.\\nThe Beatles emerging from the Ritz Cinema, Belfast following their concert, 8 November 1963.\\nThe Ulster Orchestra, based in Belfast, is Northern Ireland's only full-time symphony orchestra and is well renowned in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1966, it has existed in its present form since 1981, when the BBC Northern Ireland Orchestra was disbanded. The music school of Queen's University is responsible for arranging a notable series of lunchtime and evening concerts, often given by renowned musicians which are usually given in The Harty Room at the university (University Square).\\n\\nThere are many Traditional Irish bands playing throughout the city and quite a few music schools concentrate on teaching Traditional music.\\n\\nMusicians and bands who have written songs about or dedicated to Belfast:\\nU2, Van Morrison, Snow Patrol, Simple Minds, Elton John, Rogue Male, Katie Melua, Boney M, Paul Muldoon, Stiff Little Fingers, Nanci Griffith, Glenn Patterson, Orbital, James Taylor, Fun Boy Three, Spandau Ballet, The Police, Barnbrack, Gary Moore, Neon Neon, Toxic Waste, Energy Orchard, and Billy Bragg.\\n\\nFurther in Belfast the Oh Yeah Music Centre is located (Cathedral Quarter), a project founded to give young musicians and artists a place where they can share ideas and kick-start their music careers as a chance to be supported and promoted by professional musicians of Northern Ireland's music-scene.\\n\\nBelfast has a longstanding underground club scene which was established in the early 1980s.\\n\\nLike all areas of the island of Ireland outside of the Gaeltacht, the Irish language in Belfast is not that of an unbroken intergenerational transmission. Due to community activity in the 1960s, including the establishment of the Shaws Road Gaeltacht community, the expanse in the Irish language arts, and the advancements made in the availability of Irish medium education throughout the city, it can now be said that there is a 'mother-tongue' community of speakers. The language is heavily promoted in the city and is particularly visible in the Falls Road area, where the signs on both the iconic black taxis and on the public buses are bilingual. Belfast has the highest concentration of Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. Projects to promote the language in the city are funded by various sources, notably Foras na Gaeilge, an all-Ireland body funded by both the Irish and British governments. There are a number Irish language Primary schools and one secondary school in Belfast. The provision of certain resources for these schools (for example, such as the provision of textbooks) is supported by the charitable organisation TACA.\\n\\n===Media===\\nThe Belfast Telegraph Headquarters\\n\\nBelfast is the home of the ''Belfast Telegraph'', ''Irish News'', and ''The News Letter'', the oldest English-language newspaper in the world still in publication. The city has a number of free publications including ''Fate'' magazine, ''Go Belfast'', and the ''Vacuum'', that are distributed through bar, cafes and public venues.\\n\\nThe city is the headquarters of BBC Northern Ireland, ITV station UTV and commercial radio stations Belfast CityBeat and U105. Two community radio stations, Blast 106 and Irish-language station Raidió Fáilte, broadcast to the city from west Belfast, as does Queen's Radio, a student-run radio station which broadcasts from Queen's University Students' Union. One of Northern Ireland's two community TV stations, NvTv, is based in the Cathedral Quarter of the city. There are two independent cinemas in Belfast: the Queen's Film Theatre and the Strand Cinema, which host screenings during the Belfast Film Festival and the Belfast Festival at Queen's. Broadcasting only over the Internet is Homely Planet, the Cultural Radio Station for Northern Ireland, supporting community relations.\\n\\nThe city has become a popular film location; The Paint Hall at Harland and Wolff has become one of the UK Film Council's main studios. The facility comprises four stages of . Shows filmed at The Paint Hall include the film ''City of Ember'' (2008) and HBO's ''Game of Thrones'' series (beginning in late 2009).\\n\\nIn November 2011, Belfast became the smallest city to host the MTV Europe Music Awards. The event was hosted by Selena Gomez and celebrities such as Justin Bieber, Jessie J, Hayden Panettiere, and Lady Gaga travelled to Northern Ireland to attend the event, held in the Odyssey Arena.\\n\\n===Sports===\\n\\nThe Kingspan Stadium is the home of Ulster Rugby\\n\\nBelfast has several notable sports teams playing a diverse variety of sports such as football, Gaelic games, rugby, cricket, and ice hockey. The Belfast Marathon is run annually on May Day, and attracted 20,000 participants in 2011.\\n\\nThe Northern Ireland national football team, ranked 23rd in August 2017 in the FIFA World Rankings, plays its home matches at Windsor Park. The current Irish League champions Crusaders are based at Seaview, in the north of the city. Other senior clubs are Glentoran, Linfield, Cliftonville, Harland & Wolff Welders and PSNI. Intermediate-level clubs are: Donegal Celtic, Dundela, Newington Youth, Queen's University and Sport & Leisure Swifts, who compete in the NIFL Premier Intermediate League; Albert Foundry, Bloomfield, Colin Valley, Crumlin Star, Dunmurry Rec., Dunmurry Young Men, East Belfast, Grove United, Immaculata, Iveagh United, Malachians, Orangefield Old Boys, Rosario Youth Club, St Luke's, St Patrick's Young Men, Shankill United, Short Brothers and Sirocco Works of the Northern Amateur Football League and Brantwood of the Ballymena & Provincial League. Belfast was the home town of Manchester United legend George Best who died in November 2005. On the day he was buried in the city, 100,000 people lined the route from his home on the Cregagh Road to Roselawn cemetery. Since his death the City Airport was named after him and a trust has been set up to fund a memorial to him in the city centre.\\n\\nBelfast is home to over twenty Gaelic football and hurling clubs. Casement Park in west Belfast, home to the Antrim county teams, has a capacity of 32,000 which makes it the second largest Gaelic Athletic Association ground in Ulster. The 1999 Heineken Cup champions Ulster Rugby play at the Kingspan Stadium in the south of the city. Belfast has four teams in rugby's All-Ireland League: Belfast Harlequins in Division 1B; and Instonians, Queen's University and Malone in Division 2A.\\n\\nBelfast is home to the Stormont cricket ground since 1949 and was the venue for the Irish cricket team's first ever one day international (ODI) against England in 2006.\\n\\nIn 2007, Pro Wrestling Ulster formed. This is wrestling promotion on the independent circuit, holding events and PPV's in Europa Hotel and The Mandela Hall. It runs to this day.\\n\\nBelfast is home to one of the biggest British ice hockey clubs, the Belfast Giants. The Giants were founded in 2000 and play their games at the 9,500 capacity Odyssey Arena, crowds normally range from 4,000–7,000. Many ex-NHL players have featured on the Giants roster, none more famous than world superstar Theo Fleury. The Giants play in the 10 team professional Elite Ice Hockey League which is the top league in Britain. The Giants have been league champions 4 times, most recently in the 2013–14 season. The Belfast Giants are a huge brand in Northern Ireland and their increasing stature in the game led to the Belfast Giants playing the Boston Bruins of the NHL on 2 October 2010 at the Odyssey Arena in Belfast, losing the game 5–1.\\n\\nOther significant sportspeople from Belfast include double world snooker champion Alex \\\"Hurricane\\\" Higgins and world champion boxers Wayne McCullough and Rinty Monaghan.\\nLeander A.S.C is a well known swimming club in Belfast. Belfast produced the Formula One racing stars John Watson who raced for five different teams during his career in the 1970s and 1980s and Ferrari driver Eddie Irvine.\\n\",\n \"\\n\\nA blue plaque adorned the Belfast birthplace of former President of Israel Chaim Herzog\\nBrian Desmond Hurst in 1976 (portrait by Allan Warren)\\n*John Stewart Bell, physicist\\n*George Best, football player, Ballon D'or winner\\n*Danny Blanchflower, football player and manager\\n*Dave Finlay, wrestler\\n*Jackie Blanchflower football player\\n*Sir Kenneth Branagh, actor\\n*Christopher Brunt, football player\\n*Dame Jocelyn Bell Burnell, astrophysicist\\n*Patrick Carlin, Victoria Cross recipient\\n*Ciaran Carson, writer\\n*Frank Carson, comedian\\n*Craig Cathcart, football player\\n*Shaw Clifton, former General of The Salvation Army\\n*Lord Craigavon, former Prime Minister of Northern Ireland\\n*Mal Donaghy, football player\\n*Jamie Dornan, actor\\n*Barry Douglas, musician\\n*John Boyd Dunlop, inventor\\n*Jonny Evans, football player\\n*Corry Evans, football player\\n*Carl Frampton, boxer\\n*Sir James Galway, musician\\n*Craig Gilroy, rugby union player\\n*Chaim Herzog, former President of Israel\\n*Alex Higgins, snooker player\\n*Eamonn Holmes, broadcaster\\n*Brian Desmond Hurst, film director\\n*Paddy Jackson, rugby union player\\n*Oliver Jeffers, artist\\n*Dame Rotha Johnston, entrepreneur\\n*Lord Kelvin, physicist and engineer\\n*C. S. Lewis, author\\n*James Joseph Magennis, Victoria Cross recipient\\n*Jim Magilton, football player and manager\\n*Paula Malcomson, actress\\n*Mary McAleese, former President of Ireland\\n*Gerry McAvoy, musician and long time bass guitarist with Rory Gallagher\\n*Sir Tony McCoy, horse racing jockey\\n*Wayne McCullough, Olympic Games Silver Medalist, WBC World Champion Boxer, Patron of Northern Ireland Children's Hospice\\n*Alan McDonald, football player\\n*Rory McIlroy, golfer\\n*Sammy McIlroy, football player and manager\\n*Gary Moore, guitarist\\n*Van Morrison, singer-songwriter\\n*Doc Neeson, singer-songwriter\\n*Dame Mary Peters, Olympic sportswoman\\n*Patricia Quinn, actress\\n*Pat Rice, football player and coach\\n*Trevor Ringland, rugby union player\\n*Peter Robinson, First Minister of Northern Ireland\\n*Mark Ryder, actor\\n*Jonathan Simms, victim of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD) who survived for an unprecedented ten years after diagnosis\\n*David Trimble, former First Minister of Northern Ireland, Nobel Peace Prize winner\\n*Gary Wilson, cricketer\\n*Roy Walker (comedian), TV Gameshow Host\\n\",\n \"\\n\\nBelfast has two universities. Queen's University Belfast was founded in 1845 and is a member of the Russell Group, an association of 24 leading research-intensive universities in the UK. It is one of the largest universities in the UK with 25,231 undergraduate and postgraduate students spread over 250 buildings, 120 of which are listed as being of architectural merit. Ulster University, created in its current form in 1984, is a multi-centre university with a campus in the Cathedral Quarter of Belfast. The Belfast campus has a specific focus on Art and Design and Architecture, and is currently undergoing major redevelopment. The Jordanstown campus, just from Belfast city centre concentrates on engineering, health and social science. The Coleraine campus, about from Belfast city centre concentrates on a broad range of subjects. Course provision is broad – biomedical sciences, environmental science and geography, psychology, business, the humanities and languages, film and journalism, travel and tourism, teacher training and computing are among the campus strengths. The Magee campus, about from Belfast city centre has many teaching strengths; including business, computing, creative technologies, nursing, Irish language and literature, social sciences, law, psychology, peace and conflict studies and the performing arts. The Conflict Archive on the INternet (CAIN) Web Service receives funding from both universities and is a rich source of information and source material on the Troubles as well as society and politics in Northern Ireland.\\n\\nBelfast Metropolitan College is a large further education college with three main campuses around the city, including several smaller buildings. Formerly known as Belfast Institute of Further and Higher Education, it specialises in vocational education. The college has over 53,000 students enrolled on full-time and part-time courses, making it one of the largest further education colleges in the UK and the largest in the island of Ireland.\\n\\nThe Belfast Education and Library Board was established in 1973 as the local council responsible for education, youth and library services within the city. There are 184 primary, secondary and grammar schools in the city.\\n\\nThe Ulster Museum is located in Belfast.\\n\",\n \"Titanic Belfast, devoted to the Belfast-built RMS ''Titanic'', opened in 2012\\n\\nBelfast is one of the most visited cities in the UK, and the second most visited on the island of Ireland. In 2008, 7.1 million tourists visited the city. Numerous popular tour bus companies and boat tours run there throughout the year.\\n\\nFrommer's, the American travel guidebook series, listed Belfast as the only United Kingdom destination in its ''Top 12 Destinations to Visit'' in 2009. The other listed destinations were Berlin (Germany), Cambodia, Cape Town (South Africa), Cartagena (Colombia), Istanbul (Turkey), the Lassen Volcanic National Park (USA), Saqqara (Egypt), the Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail (USA), Waiheke Island (New Zealand), Washington, D.C. (USA), and Waterton Lakes National Park (Canada).\\n\\nThe Belfast City Council is currently investing into the complete redevelopment of the Titanic Quarter, which is planned to consist of apartments, hotels, and a riverside entertainment district. A major visitor attraction, Titanic Belfast is a monument to Belfast's maritime heritage on the site of the former Harland & Wolff shipyard, opened on 31 March 2012. It features a criss-cross of escalators and suspended walkways and nine high-tech galleries. They also hope to invest in a new modern transport system (including high-speed rail and others) for Belfast, with a cost of £250 million.\\n\\nThere is a tourist information centre located at Donegall Place.\\n\",\n \"Belfast has the following sister cities:\\n\\n* Nashville, Tennessee, United States (since 1994)\\n* Hefei, Anhui Province, China (since 2005)\\n* Boston, Massachusetts, United States (since 2014)\\n* Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China (since 2016)\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"* Beesley, S. and Wilde, J. 1997. ''Urban Flora of Belfast''. Institute of Irish Studies & The Queen's University of Belfast.\\n* Deane, C.Douglas. 1983. ''The Ulster Countryside.'' Century Books. \\n* Gillespie, R. 2007. ''Early Belfast.'' Belfast Natural History & Philosophical Society in Association with Ulster Historical Foundation. .\\n* Nesbitt, Noel. 1982. ''The Changing Face of Belfast.'' Ulster Museum, Belfast. Publication no. 183.\\n* Pollock, V. and Parkhill, T. 1997. ''Belfast''. National Museums of Northern Ireland. \\n* Scott, Robert. 2004. ''Wild Belfast on safari in the city.'' Blackstaff Press. .\\n* Walker, B.M. and Dixon, H. 1984. ''Early Photographs from the Lawrence Collection in Belfast Town 1864–1880.'' The Friar's Bush Press, \\n* Walker, B.M. and Dixon, H. 1983. ''No Mean City: Belfast 1880–1914.'' .\\n* Connolly, S.J. Ed. 2012. Belfast 400 People Places and History. Liverpool University Press. \\n* McCracken, E. 1971. ''The Palm House and Botanic Garden, Belfast''. Ulster Architectural Heritage Society.\\n* McMahon, Sean. 2011. ''A Brief History of Belfast.'' The Brehon Press. Belfast. \\n* Fulton, C. 2011. ''Coalbricks and Prefabs, Glimpses of Belfast in the 1950s.'' Thedoc Press. \\n* O'Reilly, D. 2010. \\\" Rivers of Belfast\\\". Colourpoint Books. \\n\",\n \"\\n\\n\\n*\\n* Belfast City Council\\n* Belfast Pride\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction","Name","History","Governance","Geography","Cityscape","Demography","Economy","Infrastructure","Culture","Famous natives","Education","Tourism","Twin towns – sister cities","References","Further reading","External links"],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \"Name\",\n \"History\",\n \"Governance\",\n \"Geography\",\n \"Cityscape\",\n \"Demography\",\n \"Economy\",\n \"Infrastructure\",\n \"Culture\",\n \"Famous natives\",\n \"Education\",\n \"Tourism\",\n \"Twin towns – sister cities\",\n \"References\",\n \"Further reading\",\n \"External links\"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Belfast"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["Bank Street in the city centre referred to the river bank and Bridge Street was named for the site of an early Farset bridge.","Among the city's grandest buildings are two former banks: Ulster Bank in Waring Street (built in 1860) and Northern Bank, in nearby Donegall Street (built in 1769)."],"string":"[\n \"Bank Street in the city centre referred to the river bank and Bridge Street was named for the site of an early Farset bridge.\",\n \"Among the city's grandest buildings are two former banks: Ulster Bank in Waring Street (built in 1860) and Northern Bank, in nearby Donegall Street (built in 1769).\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\n\n= Flag of Belfast.","'''Belfast''' ( or ; ) is the capital and largest city of Northern Ireland, and the second largest on the island of Ireland.","On the River Lagan, it had a population of 333,871 in 2015.","Belfast was granted city status in 1888.","Belfast was a centre of the Irish linen, tobacco-processing, rope-making and shipbuilding industries: in the early 20th century, Harland and Wolff, which built the , was the world's biggest and most productive shipyard.","Belfast played a key role in the Industrial Revolution, and was a global industrial centre until the latter half of the 20th century.","It has sustained a major aerospace and missiles industry since the mid 1930s.","Industrialisation and the inward migration it brought made Belfast Ireland's biggest city at the beginning of the 20th century.","Today, Belfast remains a centre for industry, as well as the arts, higher education, business, and law, and is the economic engine of Northern Ireland.","The city suffered greatly during the Troubles, but latterly has undergone a sustained period of calm, free from the intense political violence of former years, and substantial economic and commercial growth.","Additionally, Belfast city centre has undergone considerable expansion and regeneration in recent years, notably around Victoria Square.","Belfast is served by two airports: George Best Belfast City Airport in the city, and Belfast International Airport west of the city.","Belfast is a major port, with commercial and industrial docks dominating the Belfast Lough shoreline, including the Harland and Wolff shipyard, and is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network (GaWC) as a global city.","\nThe name Belfast is derived from the Irish '''', which was later spelt ''''.","The word '''' means \"mouth\" or \"rivermouth\" while '''' is the genitive singular of '''' and refers to a sandbar or tidal ford across a river's mouth.","The name would thus translate literally as \"(river) mouth of the sandbar\" or \"(river) mouth of the ford\".","This sandbar was formed at the confluence of two rivers at what is now Donegall Quay: the Lagan, which flows into Belfast Lough, and its tributary the Farset.","This area was the hub around which the original settlement developed.","The Irish name '''' is shared by a townland in County Mayo, whose name has been anglicised as ''Belfarsad''.","An alternative interpretation of the name is \"mouth of the river of the sandbar\", an allusion to the River Farset, which flows into the Lagan where the sandbar was located.","This interpretation was favoured by Edmund Hogan and John O'Donovan.","It seems clear, however, that the river itself was named after the tidal crossing.","In Ulster-Scots, the name of the city has been variously translated as ''Bilfawst'', ''Bilfaust'' or ''Baelfawst'', although \"Belfast\" is also used.","\n\nAlthough the county borough of Belfast was created when it was granted city status by Queen Victoria in 1888, the city continues to be viewed as straddling County Antrim and County Down.","===Origins===\nBelfast Castle\n\nThe site of Belfast has been occupied since the Bronze Age.","The Giant's Ring, a 5,000-year-old henge, is located near the city, and the remains of Iron Age hill forts can still be seen in the surrounding hills.","Belfast remained a small settlement of little importance during the Middle Ages.","John de Courcy built a castle on what is now Castle Street in the city centre in the 12th century, but this was on a lesser scale and not as strategically important as Carrickfergus Castle to the north, which was built by de Courcy in 1177.","The O'Neill clan had a presence in the area.","In the 14th century, Cloinne Aodha Buidhe, descendants of Aodh Buidhe O'Neill built Grey Castle at Castlereagh, now in the east of the city.","Conn O'Neill of the Clannaboy O'Neills owned vast lands in the area and was the last inhabitant of Grey Castle, one remaining link being the Conn's Water river flowing through east Belfast.","===Growth===\nCastle Place, Belfast in c.1830\nBelfast became a substantial settlement in the 17th century after being established as a town by Sir Arthur Chichester, which was initially settled by Protestant English and Scottish migrants at the time of the Plantation of Ulster.","(Belfast and County Antrim, however, did not form part of this particular Plantation scheme as they were privately colonised.)","In 1791, the Society of United Irishmen was founded in Belfast, after Henry Joy McCracken and other prominent Presbyterians from the city invited Theobald Wolfe Tone and Thomas Russell to a meeting, after having read Tone's \"Argument on Behalf of the Catholics of Ireland\".","Evidence of this period of Belfast's growth can still be seen in the oldest areas of the city, known as the Entries.","Donegall Square in the early 1900s\nBelfast blossomed as a commercial and industrial centre in the 18th and 19th centuries and became Ireland's pre-eminent industrial city.","Industries thrived, including linen, rope-making, tobacco, heavy engineering and shipbuilding, and at the end of the 19th century, Belfast briefly overtook Dublin as the largest city in Ireland.","The Harland and Wolff shipyards became one of the largest shipbuilders in the world, employing up to 35,000 workers.","In 1886 the city suffered intense riots over the issue of home rule, which had divided the city.","In 1920–22, Belfast became the capital of the new entity of Northern Ireland as the island of Ireland was partitioned.","The accompanying conflict (the Irish War of Independence) cost up to 500 lives in Belfast, the bloodiest sectarian strife in the city until the Troubles of the late 1960s onwards.","Aftermath of the Blitz in May 1941\n\nBelfast was heavily bombed during World War II.","In one raid, in 1941, German bombers killed around one thousand people and left tens of thousands homeless.","Apart from London, this was the greatest loss of life in a night raid during the Blitz.","===The Troubles===\n\nBelfast has been the capital of Northern Ireland since its establishment in 1921 following the Government of Ireland Act 1920.","It had been the scene of various episodes of sectarian conflict between its Catholic and Protestant populations.","These opposing groups in this conflict are now often termed republican and loyalist respectively, although they are also loosely referred to as 'nationalist' and 'unionist'.","The most recent example of this conflict was known as the Troubles – a civil conflict that raged from around 1969 to 1998.","Belfast saw some of the worst of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, particularly in the 1970s, with rival paramilitary groups formed on both sides.","Bombing, assassination and street violence formed a backdrop to life throughout the Troubles.","The Provisional IRA detonated 22 bombs within the confines of Belfast city centre in 1972, on what is known as \"Bloody Friday\", killing eleven people.","Loyalist paramilitaries including the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and the Ulster Defence Association (UDA) claimed that the killings they carried out were in retaliation for the IRA campaign.","Most of their victims were Catholics with no links to the Provisional IRA.","A particularly notorious group, based on the Shankill Road in the mid-1970s, became known as the Shankill Butchers.","In all, over 1,600 people were killed in political violence in the city between 1969 and 2001.","Sporadic violent events continue , although not supported by the previous antagonists who had reached political agreement in 1998.","Belfast was granted borough status by James VI and I in 1613 and official city status by Queen Victoria in 1888.","Since 1973 it has been a local government district under local administration by Belfast City Council.","Belfast is represented in both the British House of Commons and in the Northern Ireland Assembly.","For elections to the European Parliament, Belfast is within the Northern Ireland constituency.","===Local government===\n\nBelfast City Hall\n\nBelfast City Council is the local council with responsibility for the city.","The city's elected officials are the Lord Mayor of Belfast, Deputy Lord Mayor and High Sheriff who are elected from among 60 councillors.","The first Lord Mayor of Belfast was Daniel Dixon, who was elected in 1892.","The Lord Mayor for 2016–17 is Alderman Brian Kingston of the Democratic Unionist Party, while the Deputy Lord Mayor is Mary Ellen Campbell of Sinn Féin, both of whom were elected in June 2016 to serve a one-year term.","The Lord Mayor's duties include presiding over meetings of the council, receiving distinguished visitors to the city, and representing and promoting the city on the national and international stage.","In 1997, Unionists lost overall control of Belfast City Council for the first time in its history, with the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland gaining the balance of power between Nationalists and Unionists.","This position was confirmed in the three subsequent council elections, with mayors from Sinn Féin and the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP), both of whom are Nationalist parties, and the cross-community Alliance Party regularly elected since.","The first nationalist Lord Mayor of Belfast was Alban Maginness of the SDLP, in 1997.","The last elections to Belfast City Council were held on 22 May 2014, with the city's voters electing sixty councillors across ten district electoral areas.","The results were: 19(+3) Sinn Féin, 13(−2) Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), 8(+2) Alliance Party, 7(−1) SDLP, 7(+4) Ulster Unionist Party (UUP), 3(+1) Progressive Unionist Party (PUP), with the Traditional Unionist Voice.","Greens and People Before Profit Alliance all winning their first seats.","Belfast council takes part in the twinning scheme, and is twinned with Nashville, in the United States, Hefei in China, and Boston, in the United States.","===Northern Ireland Assembly and Westminster===\nStormont is home to the Northern Ireland Assembly.","As Northern Ireland's capital city, Belfast is host to the Northern Ireland Assembly at Stormont, the site of the devolved legislature for Northern Ireland.","Belfast is divided into four Northern Ireland Assembly and UK parliamentary constituencies: Belfast North, Belfast West, Belfast South and Belfast East.","All four extend beyond the city boundaries to include parts of Castlereagh, Lisburn and Newtownabbey districts.","In the Northern Ireland Assembly Elections in 2017, Belfast elected 20 Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs), 5 from each constituency.","Belfast elected 7 Sinn Féin, 5 DUP, 2 SDLP, 3 Alliance Party, 1 UUP, 1 Green and 1 PBPA MLAs.","In the 2017 UK general election, Belfast elected one MP from each constituency to the House of Commons at Westminster, London.","This comprised 3 DUP and 1 Sinn Féin.","===Coat of arms and motto===\nBelfast's coat of arms was adopted in 1890\n\nThe city of Belfast has the Latin motto \".\"","This is taken from Psalms 116 Verse 12 in the Latin Vulgate Bible and is literally \"For so much what shall we repay \" The verse has been translated in bibles differently – for example as \"What shall I render unto the Lord for all his benefits toward me?\".","It is also translated as \"In return for so much, what shall we give back?\"","The Queen's University Students' Union Rag Week publication ''PTQ'' derives its name from the first three words of the motto.","The coat of arms of the city were designed by John Vinycomb and are blazoned as ''Party per fesse argent and azure, in chief a pile vair and on a canton gules a bell argent, in base a ship with sails set argent on waves of the sea proper''.","This heraldic language describes a shield that is divided in two horizontally (''party per fesse'').","The top (''chief'') of the shield is silver (''argent''), and has a point-down triangle (''a pile'') with a repeating blue-and-white pattern that represents fur (''vair'').","There is also a red square in the top corner (''a canton gules'') on which there is a silver bell.","It is likely that the bell is an example here of \"canting\" (or punning) heraldry, representing the first syllable of Belfast.","In the lower part of the shield (''in base'') there is a silver sailing ship shown sailing on waves coloured in the actual colours of the sea (''proper'').","The supporter on the \"dexter\" side (the right hand side, to note that in heraldry \"right and \"left\" are from the wearer of the shield's perspective) is a chained wolf, while on the \"sinister\" (the left side from the bearer's perspective) is a sea-horse.","The crest above the shield is also a sea-horse.","These arms date back to 1613, when James VI and I granted Belfast town status.","The seal was used by Belfast merchants throughout the 17th century on their signs and trade-coins.","A large stained glass window in the City Hall displays the arms, where an explanation suggests that the seahorse and the ship refer to Belfast's significant maritime history.","The wolf may be a tribute to the city's founder, Sir Arthur Chichester, and refer to his own coat of arms.","alt=Aerial photo of urban sprawl, edged by green hills and sea shore, and bisected by a winding river.","Belfast is at the western end of Belfast Lough and at the mouth of the River Lagan giving it the ideal location for the shipbuilding industry that once made it famous.","When the ''Titanic'' was built in Belfast in 1911–1912, Harland and Wolff had the largest shipyard in the world.","Belfast is situated on Northern Ireland's eastern coast at .","A consequence of this northern latitude is that it both endures short winter days and enjoys long summer evenings.","During the winter solstice, the shortest day of the year, local sunset is before 16:00 while sunrise is around 08:45.","This is balanced by the summer solstice in June, when the sun sets after 22:00 and rises before 05:00.","OpenStreetMap of metro Belfast-Lisburn\nIn 1994, a weir was built across the river by the Laganside Corporation to raise the average water level so that it would cover the unseemly mud flats which gave Belfast its name ().","The area of Belfast Local Government District is .","The River Farset is also named after this silt deposit (from the Irish ''feirste'' meaning \"sand spit\").","Originally a more significant river than it is today, the Farset formed a dock on High Street until the mid 19th century.","Superseded by the River Lagan as the more important river in the city, the Farset now languishes in obscurity, under High Street.","There are no less than eleven other minor rivers in and around Belfast, namely the Blackstaff, the Colin, the Connswater, the Cregagh, the Derriaghy, the Forth, the Knock, the Legoniel, the Milewater, the Purdysburn and the Ravernet.","Cavehill, a basaltic hill overlooking the city\nThe city is flanked on the north and northwest by a series of hills, including Divis Mountain, Black Mountain and Cavehill, thought to be the inspiration for Jonathan Swift's ''Gulliver's Travels''.","When Swift was living at Lilliput Cottage near the bottom of Belfast's Limestone Road, he imagined that the Cavehill resembled the shape of a sleeping giant safeguarding the city.","The shape of the giant's nose, known locally as ''Napoleon's Nose'', is officially called McArt's Fort probably named after Art O'Neill, a 17th-century chieftain who controlled the area at that time.","The Castlereagh Hills overlook the city on the southeast.","===Climate===\nAs with the rest of Ireland, Belfast has a temperate or oceanic climate, with a narrow range of temperatures and rainfall throughout the year.","The climate of Belfast is significantly milder than some other locations in the world at a similar latitude, due to the warming influence of the Gulf Stream.","There are currently 5 weather observing stations in the Belfast area: Helens Bay, Stormont, Newforge, Castlereagh, and Ravenhill Road.","Slightly further afield is Aldergrove Airport.","The highest temperature recorded at any official weather station in the Belfast area was at Shaws Bridge on 12 July 1983.","Belfast holds the record for Northern Ireland's warmest night time minimum, at Whitehouse on 14 August 2001.","The city gets significant precipitation (greater than 1mm) on 157 days in an average year with an average annual rainfall of , less than areas of northern England or most of Scotland, but higher than Dublin or the south-east coast of Ireland.","As an urban and coastal area, Belfast typically gets snow on fewer than 10 days per year.","The absolute maximum temperature at the weather station at Stormont is , set during July 1983.","In an average year the warmest day will rise to a temperature of with a day of or above occurring roughly once every two in three years.","The absolute minimum temperature at Stormont is , during January 1982, although in an average year the coldest night will fall no lower than with air frost being recorded on just 26 nights.","The lowest temperature to occur in recent years was on 22 December 2010.","The nearest weather station for which sunshine data and longer term observations are available is Belfast International Airport (Aldergrove).","Temperature extremes here have slightly more variability due to the more inland location.","The average warmest day at Aldergrove for example will reach a temperature of , ( higher than Stormont) and 2.1 days should attain a temperature of or above in total.","Conversely the coldest night of the year averages (or lower than Stormont) and 39 nights should register an air frost.","Some 13 more frosty nights than Stormont.","The minimum temperature at Aldergrove was , during December 2010.","===Areas and districts===\n\nRoyal Avenue in Belfast\n\nBelfast expanded very rapidly from being a market town to becoming an industrial city during the course of the 19th century.","Because of this, it is less an agglomeration of villages and towns which have expanded into each other, than other comparable cities, such as Manchester or Birmingham.","The city expanded to the natural barrier of the hills that surround it, overwhelming other settlements.","Consequently, the arterial roads along which this expansion took place (such as the Falls Road or the Newtownards Road) are more significant in defining the districts of the city than nucleated settlements.","Belfast remains segregated by walls, commonly known as \"peace lines\", erected by the British Army after August 1969, and which still divide 14 districts in the inner city.","In 2008 a process was proposed for the removal of the 'peace walls'.","In June 2007, a £16 million programme was announced which will transform and redevelop streets and public spaces in the city centre.","Major arterial roads (quality bus corridor) into the city include the Antrim Road, Shore Road, Holywood Road, Newtownards Road, Castlereagh Road, Cregagh Road, Ormeau Road, Malone Road, Lisburn Road, Falls Road, Springfield Road, Shankill Road, and Crumlin Road, Four Winds.","St Anne's Cathedral\nBelfast city centre is divided into two postcode districts, ''BT1'' for the area lying north of the City Hall, and ''BT2'' for the area to its south.","The industrial estate and docklands ''BT3''.","The rest of the Belfast post town is divided in a broadly clockwise system from ''BT3'' in the north-east round to ''BT15'', with ''BT16'' and ''BT17'' further out to the east and west respectively.","Although ''BT'' derives from ''Belfast'', the BT postcode area extends across the whole of Northern Ireland.","Since 2001, boosted by increasing numbers of tourists, the city council has developed a number of cultural quarters.","The '''Cathedral Quarter''' takes its name from St Anne's Cathedral (Church of Ireland) and has taken on the mantle of the city's key cultural locality.","It hosts a yearly visual and performing arts festival.","Custom House Square is one of the city's main outdoor venues for free concerts and street entertainment.","The '''Gaeltacht Quarter''' is an area around the Falls Road in west Belfast which promotes and encourages the use of the Irish language.","The '''Queen's Quarter''' in south Belfast is named after Queen's University.","The area has a large student population and hosts the annual Belfast Festival at Queen's each autumn.","It is home to Botanic Gardens and the Ulster Museum, which was reopened in 2009 after major redevelopment.","The Golden Mile is the name given to the mile between Belfast City Hall and Queen's University.","Taking in Dublin Road, Great Victoria Street, Shaftesbury Square and Bradbury Place, it contains some of the best bars and restaurants in the city.","Since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, the nearby Lisburn Road has developed into the city's most exclusive shopping strip.","Finally, the '''Titanic Quarter''' covers of reclaimed land adjacent to Belfast Harbour, formerly known as ''Queen's Island''.","Named after ''RMS Titanic'', which was built here in 1912, work has begun which promises to transform some former shipyard land into \"one of the largest waterfront developments in Europe\".","Plans include apartments, a riverside entertainment district, and a major Titanic-themed museum.","\n\n\n===Architecture===\n\nObel Tower is the tallest building in Belfast and Ireland.","The architectural style of Belfast's buildings range from Edwardian, like the City Hall, to modern, like Waterfront Hall.","Many of the city's Victorian landmarks, including the main ''Lanyon Building'' at Queen's University Belfast and the Linenhall Library, were designed by Sir Charles Lanyon.","The City Hall was finished in 1906 and was built to reflect Belfast's city status, granted by Queen Victoria in 1888.","The Edwardian architectural style of Belfast City Hall influenced the Victoria Memorial in Calcutta, India, and Durban City Hall in South Africa.","The dome is high and figures above the door state \"Hibernia encouraging and promoting the Commerce and Arts of the City\".","The Royal Courts of Justice in Chichester Street are home to Northern Ireland's Supreme Court.","Many of Belfast's oldest buildings are found in the Cathedral Quarter area, which is currently undergoing redevelopment as the city's main cultural and tourist area.","Windsor House, high, has 23 floors and is the second tallest building (as distinct from structure) in Ireland.","Work has started on the taller Obel Tower, which already surpasses the height of Windsor House in its unfinished state.","Scottish Provident Institution, an example of Victorian architecture in Belfast\nThe ornately decorated Crown Liquor Saloon, designed by Joseph Anderson in 1876, in Great Victoria Street is one of only two pubs in the UK that are owned by the National Trust (the other is the George Inn, Southwark in London).","It was made internationally famous as the setting for the classic film, ''Odd Man Out'', starring James Mason.","The restaurant panels in the Crown Bar were originally made for ''Britannic'', the sister ship of the ''Titanic'', built in Belfast.","The Harland and Wolff shipyard has two of the largest dry docks in Europe, where the giant cranes, Samson and Goliath stand out against Belfast's skyline.","Including the Waterfront Hall and the Odyssey Arena, Belfast has several other venues for performing arts.","The architecture of the Grand Opera House has an oriental theme and was completed in 1895.","It was bombed several times during the Troubles but has now been restored to its former glory.","The Lyric Theatre, (re-opened 1 May 2011 after undergoing a rebuilding programme) the only full-time producing theatre in the country, is where film star Liam Neeson began his career.","The Ulster Hall (1859–1862) was originally designed for grand dances but is now used primarily as a concert and sporting venue.","Lloyd George, Parnell and Patrick Pearse all attended political rallies there.","===Parks and gardens===\n\nBotanic Gardens\n\nSitting at the mouth of the River Lagan where it becomes a deep and sheltered lough, Belfast is surrounded by mountains that create a micro-climate conducive to horticulture.","From the Victorian Botanic Gardens in the heart of the city to the heights of Cave Hill Country Park, the great expanse of Lagan Valley Regional Park to Colin Glen, Belfast contains an abundance of parkland and forest parks.","Parks and gardens are an integral part of Belfast's heritage, and home to an abundance of local wildlife and popular places for a picnic, a stroll or a jog.","Numerous events take place throughout including festivals such as Rose Week and special activities such as bird watching evenings and great beast hunts.","Belfast has over forty public parks.","The Forest of Belfast is a partnership between government and local groups, set up in 1992 to manage and conserve the city's parks and open spaces.","They have commissioned more than 30 public sculptures since 1993.","In 2006, the City Council set aside £8 million to continue this work.","The Belfast Naturalists' Field Club was founded in 1863 and is administered by National Museums and Galleries of Northern Ireland.","With an average of 670,000 visitors per year between 2007 and 2011, one of the most popular parks is Botanic Gardens in the Queen's Quarter.","Built in the 1830s and designed by Sir Charles Lanyon, Botanic Gardens Palm House is one of the earliest examples of a curvilinear and cast iron glasshouse.","Other attractions in the park include the Tropical Ravine, a humid jungle glen built in 1889, rose gardens and public events ranging from live opera broadcasts to pop concerts.","U2 played here in 1997.","Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park, to the south of the city centre, attracts thousands of visitors each year to its International Rose Garden.","Rose Week in July each year features over 20,000 blooms.","It has an area of of meadows, woodland and gardens and features a Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Garden, a Japanese garden, a walled garden, and the Golden Crown Fountain commissioned in 2002 as part of the Queen's Golden Jubilee celebrations.","In 2008, Belfast was named a finalist in the Large City (200,001 and over) category of the RHS Britain in Bloom competition along with London Borough of Croydon and Sheffield.","Belfast Zoo is owned by Belfast City Council.","The council spends £1.5 million every year on running and promoting the zoo, which is one of the few local government-funded zoos in the UK and Ireland.","The zoo is one of the top visitor attractions in Northern Ireland, receiving more than 295,000 visitors a year.","The majority of the animals are in danger in their natural habitat.","The zoo houses more than 1,200 animals of 140 species including Asian elephants, Barbary lions, Malayan sun bears (one of the few in the United Kingdom), two species of penguin, a family of western lowland gorillas, a troop of common chimpanzees, a pair of red pandas, a pair of Goodfellow's tree-kangaroos and Francois' langurs.","The zoo also carries out important conservation work and takes part in European and international breeding programmes which help to ensure the survival of many species under threat.","\nAt the 2001 census, the population was 276,459, while 579,554 people lived in the wider Belfast Metropolitan Area.","This made it the fifteenth-largest city in the United Kingdom, but the eleventh-largest conurbation.","Belfast experienced a huge growth in population in the first half of the twentieth century.","This rise slowed and peaked around the start of the Troubles with the 1971 census showing almost 600,000 people in the Belfast Urban Area.","Since then, the inner city numbers have dropped dramatically as people have moved to swell the Greater Belfast suburb population.","The 2001 census population in the same Urban Area had fallen to 277,391 people, with 579,554 people living in the wider Belfast Metropolitan Area.","The 2001 census recorded 81,650 people from Catholic backgrounds and 79,650 people from Protestant backgrounds of working age living in Belfast.","The population density in 2011 was 24.88 people/hectare (compared to 1.34 for the rest of Northern Ireland).","As with many cities, Belfast's inner city is currently characterised by the elderly, students and single young people, while families tend to live on the periphery.","Socio-economic areas radiate out from the Central Business District, with a pronounced wedge of affluence extending out the Malone Road and Upper Malone Road to the south.","An area of greater deprivation extends to the west of the city.","The areas around the Falls (Catholic nationalist) and the Shankill Road (Protestant loyalist) are the most deprived wards in Northern Ireland.","Despite a period of relative peace, most areas and districts of Belfast still reflect the divided nature of Northern Ireland as a whole.","Many areas are still highly segregated along ethnic, political and religious lines, especially in working-class neighbourhoods.","These zones – Catholic/Republican on one side and Protestant/Loyalist on the other – are invariably marked by flags, graffiti and murals.","Segregation has been present throughout the history of Belfast, but has been maintained and increased by each outbreak of violence in the city.","This escalation in segregation, described as a \"ratchet effect\", has shown little sign of decreasing.","The highest levels of segregation in the city are in west Belfast with many areas greater than 90% Catholic.","Opposite but comparatively high levels are seen in the predominantly Protestant east Belfast.","Areas where segregated working-class areas meet are known as interface areas and sometimes marked by peace lines.","When violence flares, it tends to be in interface areas.","Ethnic minority communities have been in Belfast since the 1930s.","The largest groups are Poles, Chinese and Indians.","Since the expansion of the European Union, numbers have been boosted by an influx of Eastern European immigrants.","Census figures (2011) showed that Belfast has a total non-white population of 10,219 or 3.3%, while 18,420 or 6.6% of the population were born outside the UK and Ireland.","Almost half of those born outside the UK and Ireland live in south Belfast, where they comprise 9.5% of the population.","The majority of the estimated 5,000 Muslims and 200 Hindu families living in Northern Ireland live in the Greater Belfast area.","File:Population Density Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Population density\nFile:Religion Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Percentage Catholic or brought up Catholic\nFile:National Identity Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Most commonly stated national identity\nFile:Born Outside UK And Ireland Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Percentage born outside the UK and Ireland","\n\nThe IRA Ceasefire in 1994 and the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 have given investors increased confidence to invest in Belfast.","This has led to a period of sustained economic growth and large-scale redevelopment of the city centre.","Developments include Victoria Square, the Cathedral Quarter, and the Laganside with the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall.","The Waterfront Hall.","Built in 1997, the hall is a concert, exhibition and conference venue.","Other major developments include the regeneration of the Titanic Quarter, and the erection of the Obel Tower, a skyscraper set to be the tallest tower on the island.","Today, Belfast is Northern Ireland's educational and commercial hub.","In February 2006, Belfast's unemployment rate stood at 4.2%, lower than both the Northern Ireland and the UK average of 5.5%.","Over the past 10 years employment has grown by 16.4 per cent, compared with 9.2 per cent for the UK as a whole.","Northern Ireland's peace dividend has led to soaring property prices in the city.","In 2007, Belfast saw house prices grow by 50%, the fastest rate of growth in the UK.","In March 2007, the average house in Belfast cost £91,819, with the average in south Belfast being £141,000.","In 2004, Belfast had the lowest owner occupation rate in Northern Ireland at 54%.","Peace has boosted the numbers of tourists coming to Belfast.","There were 6.4 million visitors in 2005, which was a growth of 8.5% from 2004.","The visitors spent £285.2 million, supporting more than 15,600 jobs.","Visitor numbers rose by 6% to reach 6.8 million in 2006, with tourists spending £324 million, an increase of 15% on 2005.","The city's two airports have helped make the city one of the most visited weekend destinations in Europe.","Belfast has been the fastest-growing economy of the thirty largest cities in the UK over the past decade, a new economy report by Howard Spencer has found.","''\"That's because of the fundamentals of the UK economy and because people actually want to invest in the UK,\"'' he commented on that report.","BBC Radio 4's World reported furthermore that despite higher levels of corporation tax in the UK than in the Republic.","There are \"huge amounts\" of foreign investment coming into the country.","''The Times'' wrote about Belfast's growing economy: \"According to the region's development agency, throughout the 1990s Northern Ireland had the fastest-growing regional economy in the UK, with GDP increasing 1 per cent per annum faster than the rest of the country.","As with any modern economy, the service sector is vital to Northern Ireland's development and is enjoying excellent growth.","In particular, the region has a booming tourist industry with record levels of visitors and tourist revenues and has established itself as a significant location for call centres.\"","Since the ending of the regions conflict tourism has boomed in Northern Ireland, greatly aided by low cost.","Der Spiegel, a German weekly magazine for politics and economy, titled Belfast as ''The New Celtic Tiger'' which is \"open for business\".","===Industrial growth===\nA 1907 stereoscope postcard depicting the construction of a passenger liner (the RMS ''Adriatic'') at the Harland and Wolff shipyard\n\nWhen the population of Belfast town began to grow in the 17th century, its economy was built on commerce.","It provided a market for the surrounding countryside and the natural inlet of Belfast Lough gave the city its own port.","The port supplied an avenue for trade with Great Britain and later Europe and North America.","In the mid-17th century, Belfast exported beef, butter, hides, tallow and corn and it imported coal, cloth, wine, brandy, paper, timber and tobacco.","Around this time, the linen trade in Northern Ireland blossomed and by the middle of the 18th century, one fifth of all the linen exported from Ireland was shipped from Belfast.","The present city however is a product of the Industrial Revolution.","It was not until industry transformed the linen and shipbuilding trades that the economy and the population boomed.","By the turn of the 19th century, Belfast had transformed into the largest linen producing centre in the world, earning the nickname \"Linenopolis\".","Belfast harbour was dredged in 1845 to provide deeper berths for larger ships.","Donegall Quay was built out into the river as the harbour was developed further and trade flourished.","The Harland and Wolff shipbuilding firm was created in 1861, and by the time the ''Titanic'' was built, in 1912, it had become the largest shipyard in the world.","Samson and Goliath, Harland & Wolff's gantry cranes.","Short Brothers plc is a British aerospace company based in Belfast.","It was the first aircraft manufacturing company in the world.","The company began its association with Belfast in 1936, with Short & Harland Ltd, a venture jointly owned by Shorts and Harland and Wolff.","Now known as Shorts Bombardier it works as an international aircraft manufacturer located near the Port of Belfast.","The rise of mass-produced and cotton clothing following World War I were some of the factors which led to the decline of Belfast's international linen trade.","Like many British cities dependent on traditional heavy industry, Belfast suffered serious decline since the 1960s, exacerbated greatly in the 1970s and 1980s by the Troubles.","More than 100,000 manufacturing jobs have been lost since the 1970s.","For several decades, Northern Ireland's fragile economy required significant public support from the British exchequer of up to £4 billion per year.","Ulster University, Belfast campus\n\nBelfast saw the worst of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, with nearly half of the total deaths in the conflict occurring in the city.","However, since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, there has been significant urban regeneration in the city centre including Victoria Square, Queen's Island and Laganside as well as the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall.","The city is served by two airports: The George Best Belfast City Airport adjacent to Belfast Lough and Belfast International Airport which is near Lough Neagh.","Queen's University of Belfast is the main university in the city.","The Ulster University also maintains a campus in the city, which concentrates on fine art, design and architecture.","Belfast is one of the constituent cities that makes up the Dublin-Belfast corridor region, which has a population of just under 3 million.","===Utilities===\nSilent Valley Reservoir, showing the brick-built overflow\n\nMost of Belfast's water is supplied from the Silent Valley Reservoir in County Down, created to collect water from the Mourne Mountains.","The rest of the city's water is sourced from Lough Neagh, via ''Dunore Water Treatment Works'' in County Antrim.","The citizens of Belfast pay for their water in their rates bill.","Plans to bring in additional water tariffs have been deferred by devolution in May 2007.","Belfast has approximately of sewers, which are currently being replaced in a project costing over £100 million and due for completion in 2009.","Northern Ireland Electricity is responsible for transmitting electricity in Northern Ireland.","Belfast's electricity comes from Kilroot Power Station, a 520 MegaWatt dual coal and oil fired plant, situated near Carrickfergus.","Phoenix Natural Gas Ltd. started supplying customers in Larne and Greater Belfast with natural gas in 1996 via the newly constructed Scotland-Northern Ireland pipeline.","Rates in Belfast (and the rest of Northern Ireland) were reformed in April 2007.","The discrete capital value system means rates bills are determined by the capital value of each domestic property as assessed by the ''Valuation and Lands Agency''.","The recent dramatic rise in house prices has made these reforms unpopular.","===Health care===\n\nThe Belfast Health & Social Care Trust is one of five trusts that were created on 1 April 2007 by the Department of Health.","Belfast contains most of Northern Ireland's regional specialist centres.","The Royal Victoria Hospital is an internationally renowned centre of excellence in trauma care and provides specialist trauma care for all of Northern Ireland.","It also provides the city's specialist neurosurgical, ophthalmology, ENT, and dentistry services.","The Belfast City Hospital is the regional specialist centre for haematology and is home to a cancer centre that rivals the best in the world.","The Mary G McGeown Regional Nephrology Unit at the City Hospital is the kidney transplant centre and provides regional renal services for Northern Ireland.","Musgrave Park Hospital in south Belfast specialises in orthopaedics, rheumatology, sports medicine and rehabilitation.","It is home to Northern Ireland's first Acquired Brain Injury Unit, costing £9 million and opened by the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall in May 2006.","Other hospitals in Belfast include the Mater Hospital in north Belfast and the Children's Hospital.","===Transport===\n\nGeorge Best Belfast City Airport.","Great Victoria Street station on Northern Ireland Railways\n\nBelfast is a relatively car-dependent city by European standards, with an extensive road network including the M2 and M22 motorway route.","A 2005 survey of how people travel in Northern Ireland showed that people in Belfast made 77% of all journeys by car, 11% by public transport and 6% on foot.","It showed that Belfast has 0.70 cars per household compared to figures of 1.18 in the East and 1.14 in the West of Northern Ireland.","A road improvement-scheme in Belfast began early in 2006, with the upgrading of two junctions along the Westlink dual-carriageway to grade-separated standard.","The improvement scheme was completed five months ahead of schedule on February 2009, with the official opening taking place on 4 March 2009.","Commentators have argued that this may create a bottleneck at York Street, the next at-grade intersection, until that too is upgraded.","On 25 October 2012 the stage 2 report for the York Street intersection was approved and in December 2012 the planned upgrade moved into stage 3 of the development process.","If successfully completing the necessary statutory procedures, work on a grade separated junction to connect the Westlink to the M2/M3 motorways is scheduled to take place between 2014 and 2018, creating a continuous link between the M1 and M2, the two main motorways in Northern Ireland.","Black taxis are common in the city, operating on a share basis in some areas.","These are outnumbered by private hire taxis.","Bus and rail public transport in Northern Ireland is operated by subsidiaries of Translink.","Bus services in the city proper and the nearer suburbs are operated by Translink Metro, with services focusing on linking residential districts with the city centre on 12 quality bus corridors running along main radial roads,\n\nMore distant suburbs are served by Ulsterbus.","Northern Ireland Railways provides suburban services along three lines running through Belfast's northern suburbs to Carrickfergus, Larne and Larne Harbour, eastwards towards Bangor and south-westwards towards Lisburn and Portadown.","This service is known as the Belfast Suburban Rail system.","Belfast is linked directly to Coleraine, Portrush and Derry.","Belfast has a direct rail connection with Dublin called ''Enterprise'' which is operated jointly by NIR and Iarnród Éireann, the state railway company of the Republic of Ireland.","There are no rail services to cities in other countries of the United Kingdom, due to the lack of a bridge or tunnel connecting Great Britain to the island of Ireland.","There is, however, a combined ferry and rail ticket between Belfast and cities in Great Britain, which is referred to as ''Sailrail''.","In April 2008, the Department for Regional Development reported on a plan for a light-rail system, similar to that in Dublin.","The consultants said Belfast does not have the population to support a light rail system, suggesting that investment in bus-based rapid transit would be preferable.The study found that bus-based rapid transit produces positive economic results, but light rail does not.","The report by Atkins & KPMG, however, said there would be the option of migrating to light rail in the future should the demand increase.","The city has two airports: Belfast International Airport offering, domestic, European and international flights such as Newark (New York) operated by United Airlines, Orlando, and Las Vegas both operated by Thomas Cook.","The seasonal flight to Orlando is also operated by Virgin Atlantic.","The airport is located northwest of the city, near Lough Neagh, while the George Best Belfast City Airport, which is closer to the city centre by train from Sydenham on the Bangor Line, adjacent to Belfast Lough, offers UK domestic flights and a few European flights.","In 2005, Belfast International Airport was the 11th busiest commercial airport in the UK, accounting for just over 2% of all UK terminal passengers while the George Best Belfast City Airport was the 16th busiest and had 1% of UK terminal passengers.","The Belfast – Liverpool route is the busiest domestic flight route in the UK excluding London with 555,224 passengers in 2009.","Over 2.2 million passengers flew between Belfast and London in 2009.","Belfast has a large port used for exporting and importing goods, and for passenger ferry services.","Stena Line runs regular routes to Cairnryan in Scotland using its conventional vessels – with a crossing time of around 2 hours 15 minutes.","Until 2011 the route went to Stranraer and used inter alia a HSS (High Speed Service) vessel – with a crossing time of around 90 minutes.","Stena Line also operates a route to Liverpool.","A seasonal sailing to Douglas, Isle of Man is operated by the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company.","\nAC/DC with Bon Scott (centre) pictured with guitarist Angus Young (left) and bassist Cliff Williams (back), performing at the Ulster Hall in August 1979\n\nBelfast's population is evenly split between its Protestant and Catholic residents.","These two distinct cultural communities have both contributed significantly to the city's culture.","Throughout the Troubles, Belfast artists continued to express themselves through poetry, art and music.","In the period since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, Belfast has begun a social, economic and cultural transformation giving it a growing international cultural reputation.","In 2003, Belfast had an unsuccessful bid for the 2008 European Capital of Culture.","The bid was run by an independent company, ''Imagine Belfast'', who boasted that it would \"make Belfast the meeting place of Europe's legends, where the meaning of history and belief find a home and a sanctuary from caricature, parody and oblivion.\"","According to ''The Guardian'' the bid may have been undermined by the city's history and volatile politics.","In 2004–05, art and cultural events in Belfast were attended by 1.8 million people (400,000 more than the previous year).","The same year, 80,000 people participated in culture and other arts activities, twice as many as in 2003–04.","A combination of relative peace, international investment and an active promotion of arts and culture is attracting more tourists to Belfast than ever before.","In 2004–05, 5.9 million people visited Belfast, a 10% increase from the previous year, and spent £262.5 million.","The Beatles emerging from the Ritz Cinema, Belfast following their concert, 8 November 1963.","The Ulster Orchestra, based in Belfast, is Northern Ireland's only full-time symphony orchestra and is well renowned in the United Kingdom.","Founded in 1966, it has existed in its present form since 1981, when the BBC Northern Ireland Orchestra was disbanded.","The music school of Queen's University is responsible for arranging a notable series of lunchtime and evening concerts, often given by renowned musicians which are usually given in The Harty Room at the university (University Square).","There are many Traditional Irish bands playing throughout the city and quite a few music schools concentrate on teaching Traditional music.","Musicians and bands who have written songs about or dedicated to Belfast:\nU2, Van Morrison, Snow Patrol, Simple Minds, Elton John, Rogue Male, Katie Melua, Boney M, Paul Muldoon, Stiff Little Fingers, Nanci Griffith, Glenn Patterson, Orbital, James Taylor, Fun Boy Three, Spandau Ballet, The Police, Barnbrack, Gary Moore, Neon Neon, Toxic Waste, Energy Orchard, and Billy Bragg.","Further in Belfast the Oh Yeah Music Centre is located (Cathedral Quarter), a project founded to give young musicians and artists a place where they can share ideas and kick-start their music careers as a chance to be supported and promoted by professional musicians of Northern Ireland's music-scene.","Belfast has a longstanding underground club scene which was established in the early 1980s.","Like all areas of the island of Ireland outside of the Gaeltacht, the Irish language in Belfast is not that of an unbroken intergenerational transmission.","Due to community activity in the 1960s, including the establishment of the Shaws Road Gaeltacht community, the expanse in the Irish language arts, and the advancements made in the availability of Irish medium education throughout the city, it can now be said that there is a 'mother-tongue' community of speakers.","The language is heavily promoted in the city and is particularly visible in the Falls Road area, where the signs on both the iconic black taxis and on the public buses are bilingual.","Belfast has the highest concentration of Irish speakers in Northern Ireland.","Projects to promote the language in the city are funded by various sources, notably Foras na Gaeilge, an all-Ireland body funded by both the Irish and British governments.","There are a number Irish language Primary schools and one secondary school in Belfast.","The provision of certain resources for these schools (for example, such as the provision of textbooks) is supported by the charitable organisation TACA.","===Media===\nThe Belfast Telegraph Headquarters\n\nBelfast is the home of the ''Belfast Telegraph'', ''Irish News'', and ''The News Letter'', the oldest English-language newspaper in the world still in publication.","The city has a number of free publications including ''Fate'' magazine, ''Go Belfast'', and the ''Vacuum'', that are distributed through bar, cafes and public venues.","The city is the headquarters of BBC Northern Ireland, ITV station UTV and commercial radio stations Belfast CityBeat and U105.","Two community radio stations, Blast 106 and Irish-language station Raidió Fáilte, broadcast to the city from west Belfast, as does Queen's Radio, a student-run radio station which broadcasts from Queen's University Students' Union.","One of Northern Ireland's two community TV stations, NvTv, is based in the Cathedral Quarter of the city.","There are two independent cinemas in Belfast: the Queen's Film Theatre and the Strand Cinema, which host screenings during the Belfast Film Festival and the Belfast Festival at Queen's.","Broadcasting only over the Internet is Homely Planet, the Cultural Radio Station for Northern Ireland, supporting community relations.","The city has become a popular film location; The Paint Hall at Harland and Wolff has become one of the UK Film Council's main studios.","The facility comprises four stages of .","Shows filmed at The Paint Hall include the film ''City of Ember'' (2008) and HBO's ''Game of Thrones'' series (beginning in late 2009).","In November 2011, Belfast became the smallest city to host the MTV Europe Music Awards.","The event was hosted by Selena Gomez and celebrities such as Justin Bieber, Jessie J, Hayden Panettiere, and Lady Gaga travelled to Northern Ireland to attend the event, held in the Odyssey Arena.","===Sports===\n\nThe Kingspan Stadium is the home of Ulster Rugby\n\nBelfast has several notable sports teams playing a diverse variety of sports such as football, Gaelic games, rugby, cricket, and ice hockey.","The Belfast Marathon is run annually on May Day, and attracted 20,000 participants in 2011.","The Northern Ireland national football team, ranked 23rd in August 2017 in the FIFA World Rankings, plays its home matches at Windsor Park.","The current Irish League champions Crusaders are based at Seaview, in the north of the city.","Other senior clubs are Glentoran, Linfield, Cliftonville, Harland & Wolff Welders and PSNI.","Intermediate-level clubs are: Donegal Celtic, Dundela, Newington Youth, Queen's University and Sport & Leisure Swifts, who compete in the NIFL Premier Intermediate League; Albert Foundry, Bloomfield, Colin Valley, Crumlin Star, Dunmurry Rec., Dunmurry Young Men, East Belfast, Grove United, Immaculata, Iveagh United, Malachians, Orangefield Old Boys, Rosario Youth Club, St Luke's, St Patrick's Young Men, Shankill United, Short Brothers and Sirocco Works of the Northern Amateur Football League and Brantwood of the Ballymena & Provincial League.","Belfast was the home town of Manchester United legend George Best who died in November 2005.","On the day he was buried in the city, 100,000 people lined the route from his home on the Cregagh Road to Roselawn cemetery.","Since his death the City Airport was named after him and a trust has been set up to fund a memorial to him in the city centre.","Belfast is home to over twenty Gaelic football and hurling clubs.","Casement Park in west Belfast, home to the Antrim county teams, has a capacity of 32,000 which makes it the second largest Gaelic Athletic Association ground in Ulster.","The 1999 Heineken Cup champions Ulster Rugby play at the Kingspan Stadium in the south of the city.","Belfast has four teams in rugby's All-Ireland League: Belfast Harlequins in Division 1B; and Instonians, Queen's University and Malone in Division 2A.","Belfast is home to the Stormont cricket ground since 1949 and was the venue for the Irish cricket team's first ever one day international (ODI) against England in 2006.","In 2007, Pro Wrestling Ulster formed.","This is wrestling promotion on the independent circuit, holding events and PPV's in Europa Hotel and The Mandela Hall.","It runs to this day.","Belfast is home to one of the biggest British ice hockey clubs, the Belfast Giants.","The Giants were founded in 2000 and play their games at the 9,500 capacity Odyssey Arena, crowds normally range from 4,000–7,000.","Many ex-NHL players have featured on the Giants roster, none more famous than world superstar Theo Fleury.","The Giants play in the 10 team professional Elite Ice Hockey League which is the top league in Britain.","The Giants have been league champions 4 times, most recently in the 2013–14 season.","The Belfast Giants are a huge brand in Northern Ireland and their increasing stature in the game led to the Belfast Giants playing the Boston Bruins of the NHL on 2 October 2010 at the Odyssey Arena in Belfast, losing the game 5–1.","Other significant sportspeople from Belfast include double world snooker champion Alex \"Hurricane\" Higgins and world champion boxers Wayne McCullough and Rinty Monaghan.","Leander A.S.C is a well known swimming club in Belfast.","Belfast produced the Formula One racing stars John Watson who raced for five different teams during his career in the 1970s and 1980s and Ferrari driver Eddie Irvine.","\n\nA blue plaque adorned the Belfast birthplace of former President of Israel Chaim Herzog\nBrian Desmond Hurst in 1976 (portrait by Allan Warren)\n*John Stewart Bell, physicist\n*George Best, football player, Ballon D'or winner\n*Danny Blanchflower, football player and manager\n*Dave Finlay, wrestler\n*Jackie Blanchflower football player\n*Sir Kenneth Branagh, actor\n*Christopher Brunt, football player\n*Dame Jocelyn Bell Burnell, astrophysicist\n*Patrick Carlin, Victoria Cross recipient\n*Ciaran Carson, writer\n*Frank Carson, comedian\n*Craig Cathcart, football player\n*Shaw Clifton, former General of The Salvation Army\n*Lord Craigavon, former Prime Minister of Northern Ireland\n*Mal Donaghy, football player\n*Jamie Dornan, actor\n*Barry Douglas, musician\n*John Boyd Dunlop, inventor\n*Jonny Evans, football player\n*Corry Evans, football player\n*Carl Frampton, boxer\n*Sir James Galway, musician\n*Craig Gilroy, rugby union player\n*Chaim Herzog, former President of Israel\n*Alex Higgins, snooker player\n*Eamonn Holmes, broadcaster\n*Brian Desmond Hurst, film director\n*Paddy Jackson, rugby union player\n*Oliver Jeffers, artist\n*Dame Rotha Johnston, entrepreneur\n*Lord Kelvin, physicist and engineer\n*C. S. Lewis, author\n*James Joseph Magennis, Victoria Cross recipient\n*Jim Magilton, football player and manager\n*Paula Malcomson, actress\n*Mary McAleese, former President of Ireland\n*Gerry McAvoy, musician and long time bass guitarist with Rory Gallagher\n*Sir Tony McCoy, horse racing jockey\n*Wayne McCullough, Olympic Games Silver Medalist, WBC World Champion Boxer, Patron of Northern Ireland Children's Hospice\n*Alan McDonald, football player\n*Rory McIlroy, golfer\n*Sammy McIlroy, football player and manager\n*Gary Moore, guitarist\n*Van Morrison, singer-songwriter\n*Doc Neeson, singer-songwriter\n*Dame Mary Peters, Olympic sportswoman\n*Patricia Quinn, actress\n*Pat Rice, football player and coach\n*Trevor Ringland, rugby union player\n*Peter Robinson, First Minister of Northern Ireland\n*Mark Ryder, actor\n*Jonathan Simms, victim of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD) who survived for an unprecedented ten years after diagnosis\n*David Trimble, former First Minister of Northern Ireland, Nobel Peace Prize winner\n*Gary Wilson, cricketer\n*Roy Walker (comedian), TV Gameshow Host","\n\nBelfast has two universities.","Queen's University Belfast was founded in 1845 and is a member of the Russell Group, an association of 24 leading research-intensive universities in the UK.","It is one of the largest universities in the UK with 25,231 undergraduate and postgraduate students spread over 250 buildings, 120 of which are listed as being of architectural merit.","Ulster University, created in its current form in 1984, is a multi-centre university with a campus in the Cathedral Quarter of Belfast.","The Belfast campus has a specific focus on Art and Design and Architecture, and is currently undergoing major redevelopment.","The Jordanstown campus, just from Belfast city centre concentrates on engineering, health and social science.","The Coleraine campus, about from Belfast city centre concentrates on a broad range of subjects.","Course provision is broad – biomedical sciences, environmental science and geography, psychology, business, the humanities and languages, film and journalism, travel and tourism, teacher training and computing are among the campus strengths.","The Magee campus, about from Belfast city centre has many teaching strengths; including business, computing, creative technologies, nursing, Irish language and literature, social sciences, law, psychology, peace and conflict studies and the performing arts.","The Conflict Archive on the INternet (CAIN) Web Service receives funding from both universities and is a rich source of information and source material on the Troubles as well as society and politics in Northern Ireland.","Belfast Metropolitan College is a large further education college with three main campuses around the city, including several smaller buildings.","Formerly known as Belfast Institute of Further and Higher Education, it specialises in vocational education.","The college has over 53,000 students enrolled on full-time and part-time courses, making it one of the largest further education colleges in the UK and the largest in the island of Ireland.","The Belfast Education and Library Board was established in 1973 as the local council responsible for education, youth and library services within the city.","There are 184 primary, secondary and grammar schools in the city.","The Ulster Museum is located in Belfast.","Titanic Belfast, devoted to the Belfast-built RMS ''Titanic'', opened in 2012\n\nBelfast is one of the most visited cities in the UK, and the second most visited on the island of Ireland.","In 2008, 7.1 million tourists visited the city.","Numerous popular tour bus companies and boat tours run there throughout the year.","Frommer's, the American travel guidebook series, listed Belfast as the only United Kingdom destination in its ''Top 12 Destinations to Visit'' in 2009.","The other listed destinations were Berlin (Germany), Cambodia, Cape Town (South Africa), Cartagena (Colombia), Istanbul (Turkey), the Lassen Volcanic National Park (USA), Saqqara (Egypt), the Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail (USA), Waiheke Island (New Zealand), Washington, D.C. (USA), and Waterton Lakes National Park (Canada).","The Belfast City Council is currently investing into the complete redevelopment of the Titanic Quarter, which is planned to consist of apartments, hotels, and a riverside entertainment district.","A major visitor attraction, Titanic Belfast is a monument to Belfast's maritime heritage on the site of the former Harland & Wolff shipyard, opened on 31 March 2012.","It features a criss-cross of escalators and suspended walkways and nine high-tech galleries.","They also hope to invest in a new modern transport system (including high-speed rail and others) for Belfast, with a cost of £250 million.","There is a tourist information centre located at Donegall Place.","Belfast has the following sister cities:\n\n* Nashville, Tennessee, United States (since 1994)\n* Hefei, Anhui Province, China (since 2005)\n* Boston, Massachusetts, United States (since 2014)\n* Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China (since 2016)","* Beesley, S. and Wilde, J.","1997.","''Urban Flora of Belfast''.","Institute of Irish Studies & The Queen's University of Belfast.","* Deane, C.Douglas.","1983.","''The Ulster Countryside.''","Century Books.","* Gillespie, R. 2007.","''Early Belfast.''","Belfast Natural History & Philosophical Society in Association with Ulster Historical Foundation.",".","* Nesbitt, Noel.","1982.","''The Changing Face of Belfast.''","Ulster Museum, Belfast.","Publication no.","183.","* Pollock, V. and Parkhill, T. 1997.","''Belfast''.","National Museums of Northern Ireland.","* Scott, Robert.","2004.","''Wild Belfast on safari in the city.''","Blackstaff Press.",".","* Walker, B.M.","and Dixon, H. 1984.","''Early Photographs from the Lawrence Collection in Belfast Town 1864–1880.''","The Friar's Bush Press, \n* Walker, B.M.","and Dixon, H. 1983.","''No Mean City: Belfast 1880–1914.''",".","* Connolly, S.J.","Ed.","2012.","Belfast 400 People Places and History.","Liverpool University Press.","* McCracken, E. 1971.","''The Palm House and Botanic Garden, Belfast''.","Ulster Architectural Heritage Society.","* McMahon, Sean.","2011.","''A Brief History of Belfast.''","The Brehon Press.","Belfast.","* Fulton, C. 2011.","''Coalbricks and Prefabs, Glimpses of Belfast in the 1950s.''","Thedoc Press.","* O'Reilly, D. 2010. \"","Rivers of Belfast\".","Colourpoint Books.","\n\n\n*\n* Belfast City Council\n* Belfast Pride"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n= Flag of Belfast.\",\n \"'''Belfast''' ( or ; ) is the capital and largest city of Northern Ireland, and the second largest on the island of Ireland.\",\n \"On the River Lagan, it had a population of 333,871 in 2015.\",\n \"Belfast was granted city status in 1888.\",\n \"Belfast was a centre of the Irish linen, tobacco-processing, rope-making and shipbuilding industries: in the early 20th century, Harland and Wolff, which built the , was the world's biggest and most productive shipyard.\",\n \"Belfast played a key role in the Industrial Revolution, and was a global industrial centre until the latter half of the 20th century.\",\n \"It has sustained a major aerospace and missiles industry since the mid 1930s.\",\n \"Industrialisation and the inward migration it brought made Belfast Ireland's biggest city at the beginning of the 20th century.\",\n \"Today, Belfast remains a centre for industry, as well as the arts, higher education, business, and law, and is the economic engine of Northern Ireland.\",\n \"The city suffered greatly during the Troubles, but latterly has undergone a sustained period of calm, free from the intense political violence of former years, and substantial economic and commercial growth.\",\n \"Additionally, Belfast city centre has undergone considerable expansion and regeneration in recent years, notably around Victoria Square.\",\n \"Belfast is served by two airports: George Best Belfast City Airport in the city, and Belfast International Airport west of the city.\",\n \"Belfast is a major port, with commercial and industrial docks dominating the Belfast Lough shoreline, including the Harland and Wolff shipyard, and is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network (GaWC) as a global city.\",\n \"\\nThe name Belfast is derived from the Irish '''', which was later spelt ''''.\",\n \"The word '''' means \\\"mouth\\\" or \\\"rivermouth\\\" while '''' is the genitive singular of '''' and refers to a sandbar or tidal ford across a river's mouth.\",\n \"The name would thus translate literally as \\\"(river) mouth of the sandbar\\\" or \\\"(river) mouth of the ford\\\".\",\n \"This sandbar was formed at the confluence of two rivers at what is now Donegall Quay: the Lagan, which flows into Belfast Lough, and its tributary the Farset.\",\n \"This area was the hub around which the original settlement developed.\",\n \"The Irish name '''' is shared by a townland in County Mayo, whose name has been anglicised as ''Belfarsad''.\",\n \"An alternative interpretation of the name is \\\"mouth of the river of the sandbar\\\", an allusion to the River Farset, which flows into the Lagan where the sandbar was located.\",\n \"This interpretation was favoured by Edmund Hogan and John O'Donovan.\",\n \"It seems clear, however, that the river itself was named after the tidal crossing.\",\n \"In Ulster-Scots, the name of the city has been variously translated as ''Bilfawst'', ''Bilfaust'' or ''Baelfawst'', although \\\"Belfast\\\" is also used.\",\n \"\\n\\nAlthough the county borough of Belfast was created when it was granted city status by Queen Victoria in 1888, the city continues to be viewed as straddling County Antrim and County Down.\",\n \"===Origins===\\nBelfast Castle\\n\\nThe site of Belfast has been occupied since the Bronze Age.\",\n \"The Giant's Ring, a 5,000-year-old henge, is located near the city, and the remains of Iron Age hill forts can still be seen in the surrounding hills.\",\n \"Belfast remained a small settlement of little importance during the Middle Ages.\",\n \"John de Courcy built a castle on what is now Castle Street in the city centre in the 12th century, but this was on a lesser scale and not as strategically important as Carrickfergus Castle to the north, which was built by de Courcy in 1177.\",\n \"The O'Neill clan had a presence in the area.\",\n \"In the 14th century, Cloinne Aodha Buidhe, descendants of Aodh Buidhe O'Neill built Grey Castle at Castlereagh, now in the east of the city.\",\n \"Conn O'Neill of the Clannaboy O'Neills owned vast lands in the area and was the last inhabitant of Grey Castle, one remaining link being the Conn's Water river flowing through east Belfast.\",\n \"===Growth===\\nCastle Place, Belfast in c.1830\\nBelfast became a substantial settlement in the 17th century after being established as a town by Sir Arthur Chichester, which was initially settled by Protestant English and Scottish migrants at the time of the Plantation of Ulster.\",\n \"(Belfast and County Antrim, however, did not form part of this particular Plantation scheme as they were privately colonised.)\",\n \"In 1791, the Society of United Irishmen was founded in Belfast, after Henry Joy McCracken and other prominent Presbyterians from the city invited Theobald Wolfe Tone and Thomas Russell to a meeting, after having read Tone's \\\"Argument on Behalf of the Catholics of Ireland\\\".\",\n \"Evidence of this period of Belfast's growth can still be seen in the oldest areas of the city, known as the Entries.\",\n \"Donegall Square in the early 1900s\\nBelfast blossomed as a commercial and industrial centre in the 18th and 19th centuries and became Ireland's pre-eminent industrial city.\",\n \"Industries thrived, including linen, rope-making, tobacco, heavy engineering and shipbuilding, and at the end of the 19th century, Belfast briefly overtook Dublin as the largest city in Ireland.\",\n \"The Harland and Wolff shipyards became one of the largest shipbuilders in the world, employing up to 35,000 workers.\",\n \"In 1886 the city suffered intense riots over the issue of home rule, which had divided the city.\",\n \"In 1920–22, Belfast became the capital of the new entity of Northern Ireland as the island of Ireland was partitioned.\",\n \"The accompanying conflict (the Irish War of Independence) cost up to 500 lives in Belfast, the bloodiest sectarian strife in the city until the Troubles of the late 1960s onwards.\",\n \"Aftermath of the Blitz in May 1941\\n\\nBelfast was heavily bombed during World War II.\",\n \"In one raid, in 1941, German bombers killed around one thousand people and left tens of thousands homeless.\",\n \"Apart from London, this was the greatest loss of life in a night raid during the Blitz.\",\n \"===The Troubles===\\n\\nBelfast has been the capital of Northern Ireland since its establishment in 1921 following the Government of Ireland Act 1920.\",\n \"It had been the scene of various episodes of sectarian conflict between its Catholic and Protestant populations.\",\n \"These opposing groups in this conflict are now often termed republican and loyalist respectively, although they are also loosely referred to as 'nationalist' and 'unionist'.\",\n \"The most recent example of this conflict was known as the Troubles – a civil conflict that raged from around 1969 to 1998.\",\n \"Belfast saw some of the worst of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, particularly in the 1970s, with rival paramilitary groups formed on both sides.\",\n \"Bombing, assassination and street violence formed a backdrop to life throughout the Troubles.\",\n \"The Provisional IRA detonated 22 bombs within the confines of Belfast city centre in 1972, on what is known as \\\"Bloody Friday\\\", killing eleven people.\",\n \"Loyalist paramilitaries including the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and the Ulster Defence Association (UDA) claimed that the killings they carried out were in retaliation for the IRA campaign.\",\n \"Most of their victims were Catholics with no links to the Provisional IRA.\",\n \"A particularly notorious group, based on the Shankill Road in the mid-1970s, became known as the Shankill Butchers.\",\n \"In all, over 1,600 people were killed in political violence in the city between 1969 and 2001.\",\n \"Sporadic violent events continue , although not supported by the previous antagonists who had reached political agreement in 1998.\",\n \"Belfast was granted borough status by James VI and I in 1613 and official city status by Queen Victoria in 1888.\",\n \"Since 1973 it has been a local government district under local administration by Belfast City Council.\",\n \"Belfast is represented in both the British House of Commons and in the Northern Ireland Assembly.\",\n \"For elections to the European Parliament, Belfast is within the Northern Ireland constituency.\",\n \"===Local government===\\n\\nBelfast City Hall\\n\\nBelfast City Council is the local council with responsibility for the city.\",\n \"The city's elected officials are the Lord Mayor of Belfast, Deputy Lord Mayor and High Sheriff who are elected from among 60 councillors.\",\n \"The first Lord Mayor of Belfast was Daniel Dixon, who was elected in 1892.\",\n \"The Lord Mayor for 2016–17 is Alderman Brian Kingston of the Democratic Unionist Party, while the Deputy Lord Mayor is Mary Ellen Campbell of Sinn Féin, both of whom were elected in June 2016 to serve a one-year term.\",\n \"The Lord Mayor's duties include presiding over meetings of the council, receiving distinguished visitors to the city, and representing and promoting the city on the national and international stage.\",\n \"In 1997, Unionists lost overall control of Belfast City Council for the first time in its history, with the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland gaining the balance of power between Nationalists and Unionists.\",\n \"This position was confirmed in the three subsequent council elections, with mayors from Sinn Féin and the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP), both of whom are Nationalist parties, and the cross-community Alliance Party regularly elected since.\",\n \"The first nationalist Lord Mayor of Belfast was Alban Maginness of the SDLP, in 1997.\",\n \"The last elections to Belfast City Council were held on 22 May 2014, with the city's voters electing sixty councillors across ten district electoral areas.\",\n \"The results were: 19(+3) Sinn Féin, 13(−2) Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), 8(+2) Alliance Party, 7(−1) SDLP, 7(+4) Ulster Unionist Party (UUP), 3(+1) Progressive Unionist Party (PUP), with the Traditional Unionist Voice.\",\n \"Greens and People Before Profit Alliance all winning their first seats.\",\n \"Belfast council takes part in the twinning scheme, and is twinned with Nashville, in the United States, Hefei in China, and Boston, in the United States.\",\n \"===Northern Ireland Assembly and Westminster===\\nStormont is home to the Northern Ireland Assembly.\",\n \"As Northern Ireland's capital city, Belfast is host to the Northern Ireland Assembly at Stormont, the site of the devolved legislature for Northern Ireland.\",\n \"Belfast is divided into four Northern Ireland Assembly and UK parliamentary constituencies: Belfast North, Belfast West, Belfast South and Belfast East.\",\n \"All four extend beyond the city boundaries to include parts of Castlereagh, Lisburn and Newtownabbey districts.\",\n \"In the Northern Ireland Assembly Elections in 2017, Belfast elected 20 Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs), 5 from each constituency.\",\n \"Belfast elected 7 Sinn Féin, 5 DUP, 2 SDLP, 3 Alliance Party, 1 UUP, 1 Green and 1 PBPA MLAs.\",\n \"In the 2017 UK general election, Belfast elected one MP from each constituency to the House of Commons at Westminster, London.\",\n \"This comprised 3 DUP and 1 Sinn Féin.\",\n \"===Coat of arms and motto===\\nBelfast's coat of arms was adopted in 1890\\n\\nThe city of Belfast has the Latin motto \\\".\\\"\",\n \"This is taken from Psalms 116 Verse 12 in the Latin Vulgate Bible and is literally \\\"For so much what shall we repay \\\" The verse has been translated in bibles differently – for example as \\\"What shall I render unto the Lord for all his benefits toward me?\\\".\",\n \"It is also translated as \\\"In return for so much, what shall we give back?\\\"\",\n \"The Queen's University Students' Union Rag Week publication ''PTQ'' derives its name from the first three words of the motto.\",\n \"The coat of arms of the city were designed by John Vinycomb and are blazoned as ''Party per fesse argent and azure, in chief a pile vair and on a canton gules a bell argent, in base a ship with sails set argent on waves of the sea proper''.\",\n \"This heraldic language describes a shield that is divided in two horizontally (''party per fesse'').\",\n \"The top (''chief'') of the shield is silver (''argent''), and has a point-down triangle (''a pile'') with a repeating blue-and-white pattern that represents fur (''vair'').\",\n \"There is also a red square in the top corner (''a canton gules'') on which there is a silver bell.\",\n \"It is likely that the bell is an example here of \\\"canting\\\" (or punning) heraldry, representing the first syllable of Belfast.\",\n \"In the lower part of the shield (''in base'') there is a silver sailing ship shown sailing on waves coloured in the actual colours of the sea (''proper'').\",\n \"The supporter on the \\\"dexter\\\" side (the right hand side, to note that in heraldry \\\"right and \\\"left\\\" are from the wearer of the shield's perspective) is a chained wolf, while on the \\\"sinister\\\" (the left side from the bearer's perspective) is a sea-horse.\",\n \"The crest above the shield is also a sea-horse.\",\n \"These arms date back to 1613, when James VI and I granted Belfast town status.\",\n \"The seal was used by Belfast merchants throughout the 17th century on their signs and trade-coins.\",\n \"A large stained glass window in the City Hall displays the arms, where an explanation suggests that the seahorse and the ship refer to Belfast's significant maritime history.\",\n \"The wolf may be a tribute to the city's founder, Sir Arthur Chichester, and refer to his own coat of arms.\",\n \"alt=Aerial photo of urban sprawl, edged by green hills and sea shore, and bisected by a winding river.\",\n \"Belfast is at the western end of Belfast Lough and at the mouth of the River Lagan giving it the ideal location for the shipbuilding industry that once made it famous.\",\n \"When the ''Titanic'' was built in Belfast in 1911–1912, Harland and Wolff had the largest shipyard in the world.\",\n \"Belfast is situated on Northern Ireland's eastern coast at .\",\n \"A consequence of this northern latitude is that it both endures short winter days and enjoys long summer evenings.\",\n \"During the winter solstice, the shortest day of the year, local sunset is before 16:00 while sunrise is around 08:45.\",\n \"This is balanced by the summer solstice in June, when the sun sets after 22:00 and rises before 05:00.\",\n \"OpenStreetMap of metro Belfast-Lisburn\\nIn 1994, a weir was built across the river by the Laganside Corporation to raise the average water level so that it would cover the unseemly mud flats which gave Belfast its name ().\",\n \"The area of Belfast Local Government District is .\",\n \"The River Farset is also named after this silt deposit (from the Irish ''feirste'' meaning \\\"sand spit\\\").\",\n \"Originally a more significant river than it is today, the Farset formed a dock on High Street until the mid 19th century.\",\n \"Superseded by the River Lagan as the more important river in the city, the Farset now languishes in obscurity, under High Street.\",\n \"There are no less than eleven other minor rivers in and around Belfast, namely the Blackstaff, the Colin, the Connswater, the Cregagh, the Derriaghy, the Forth, the Knock, the Legoniel, the Milewater, the Purdysburn and the Ravernet.\",\n \"Cavehill, a basaltic hill overlooking the city\\nThe city is flanked on the north and northwest by a series of hills, including Divis Mountain, Black Mountain and Cavehill, thought to be the inspiration for Jonathan Swift's ''Gulliver's Travels''.\",\n \"When Swift was living at Lilliput Cottage near the bottom of Belfast's Limestone Road, he imagined that the Cavehill resembled the shape of a sleeping giant safeguarding the city.\",\n \"The shape of the giant's nose, known locally as ''Napoleon's Nose'', is officially called McArt's Fort probably named after Art O'Neill, a 17th-century chieftain who controlled the area at that time.\",\n \"The Castlereagh Hills overlook the city on the southeast.\",\n \"===Climate===\\nAs with the rest of Ireland, Belfast has a temperate or oceanic climate, with a narrow range of temperatures and rainfall throughout the year.\",\n \"The climate of Belfast is significantly milder than some other locations in the world at a similar latitude, due to the warming influence of the Gulf Stream.\",\n \"There are currently 5 weather observing stations in the Belfast area: Helens Bay, Stormont, Newforge, Castlereagh, and Ravenhill Road.\",\n \"Slightly further afield is Aldergrove Airport.\",\n \"The highest temperature recorded at any official weather station in the Belfast area was at Shaws Bridge on 12 July 1983.\",\n \"Belfast holds the record for Northern Ireland's warmest night time minimum, at Whitehouse on 14 August 2001.\",\n \"The city gets significant precipitation (greater than 1mm) on 157 days in an average year with an average annual rainfall of , less than areas of northern England or most of Scotland, but higher than Dublin or the south-east coast of Ireland.\",\n \"As an urban and coastal area, Belfast typically gets snow on fewer than 10 days per year.\",\n \"The absolute maximum temperature at the weather station at Stormont is , set during July 1983.\",\n \"In an average year the warmest day will rise to a temperature of with a day of or above occurring roughly once every two in three years.\",\n \"The absolute minimum temperature at Stormont is , during January 1982, although in an average year the coldest night will fall no lower than with air frost being recorded on just 26 nights.\",\n \"The lowest temperature to occur in recent years was on 22 December 2010.\",\n \"The nearest weather station for which sunshine data and longer term observations are available is Belfast International Airport (Aldergrove).\",\n \"Temperature extremes here have slightly more variability due to the more inland location.\",\n \"The average warmest day at Aldergrove for example will reach a temperature of , ( higher than Stormont) and 2.1 days should attain a temperature of or above in total.\",\n \"Conversely the coldest night of the year averages (or lower than Stormont) and 39 nights should register an air frost.\",\n \"Some 13 more frosty nights than Stormont.\",\n \"The minimum temperature at Aldergrove was , during December 2010.\",\n \"===Areas and districts===\\n\\nRoyal Avenue in Belfast\\n\\nBelfast expanded very rapidly from being a market town to becoming an industrial city during the course of the 19th century.\",\n \"Because of this, it is less an agglomeration of villages and towns which have expanded into each other, than other comparable cities, such as Manchester or Birmingham.\",\n \"The city expanded to the natural barrier of the hills that surround it, overwhelming other settlements.\",\n \"Consequently, the arterial roads along which this expansion took place (such as the Falls Road or the Newtownards Road) are more significant in defining the districts of the city than nucleated settlements.\",\n \"Belfast remains segregated by walls, commonly known as \\\"peace lines\\\", erected by the British Army after August 1969, and which still divide 14 districts in the inner city.\",\n \"In 2008 a process was proposed for the removal of the 'peace walls'.\",\n \"In June 2007, a £16 million programme was announced which will transform and redevelop streets and public spaces in the city centre.\",\n \"Major arterial roads (quality bus corridor) into the city include the Antrim Road, Shore Road, Holywood Road, Newtownards Road, Castlereagh Road, Cregagh Road, Ormeau Road, Malone Road, Lisburn Road, Falls Road, Springfield Road, Shankill Road, and Crumlin Road, Four Winds.\",\n \"St Anne's Cathedral\\nBelfast city centre is divided into two postcode districts, ''BT1'' for the area lying north of the City Hall, and ''BT2'' for the area to its south.\",\n \"The industrial estate and docklands ''BT3''.\",\n \"The rest of the Belfast post town is divided in a broadly clockwise system from ''BT3'' in the north-east round to ''BT15'', with ''BT16'' and ''BT17'' further out to the east and west respectively.\",\n \"Although ''BT'' derives from ''Belfast'', the BT postcode area extends across the whole of Northern Ireland.\",\n \"Since 2001, boosted by increasing numbers of tourists, the city council has developed a number of cultural quarters.\",\n \"The '''Cathedral Quarter''' takes its name from St Anne's Cathedral (Church of Ireland) and has taken on the mantle of the city's key cultural locality.\",\n \"It hosts a yearly visual and performing arts festival.\",\n \"Custom House Square is one of the city's main outdoor venues for free concerts and street entertainment.\",\n \"The '''Gaeltacht Quarter''' is an area around the Falls Road in west Belfast which promotes and encourages the use of the Irish language.\",\n \"The '''Queen's Quarter''' in south Belfast is named after Queen's University.\",\n \"The area has a large student population and hosts the annual Belfast Festival at Queen's each autumn.\",\n \"It is home to Botanic Gardens and the Ulster Museum, which was reopened in 2009 after major redevelopment.\",\n \"The Golden Mile is the name given to the mile between Belfast City Hall and Queen's University.\",\n \"Taking in Dublin Road, Great Victoria Street, Shaftesbury Square and Bradbury Place, it contains some of the best bars and restaurants in the city.\",\n \"Since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, the nearby Lisburn Road has developed into the city's most exclusive shopping strip.\",\n \"Finally, the '''Titanic Quarter''' covers of reclaimed land adjacent to Belfast Harbour, formerly known as ''Queen's Island''.\",\n \"Named after ''RMS Titanic'', which was built here in 1912, work has begun which promises to transform some former shipyard land into \\\"one of the largest waterfront developments in Europe\\\".\",\n \"Plans include apartments, a riverside entertainment district, and a major Titanic-themed museum.\",\n \"\\n\\n\\n===Architecture===\\n\\nObel Tower is the tallest building in Belfast and Ireland.\",\n \"The architectural style of Belfast's buildings range from Edwardian, like the City Hall, to modern, like Waterfront Hall.\",\n \"Many of the city's Victorian landmarks, including the main ''Lanyon Building'' at Queen's University Belfast and the Linenhall Library, were designed by Sir Charles Lanyon.\",\n \"The City Hall was finished in 1906 and was built to reflect Belfast's city status, granted by Queen Victoria in 1888.\",\n \"The Edwardian architectural style of Belfast City Hall influenced the Victoria Memorial in Calcutta, India, and Durban City Hall in South Africa.\",\n \"The dome is high and figures above the door state \\\"Hibernia encouraging and promoting the Commerce and Arts of the City\\\".\",\n \"The Royal Courts of Justice in Chichester Street are home to Northern Ireland's Supreme Court.\",\n \"Many of Belfast's oldest buildings are found in the Cathedral Quarter area, which is currently undergoing redevelopment as the city's main cultural and tourist area.\",\n \"Windsor House, high, has 23 floors and is the second tallest building (as distinct from structure) in Ireland.\",\n \"Work has started on the taller Obel Tower, which already surpasses the height of Windsor House in its unfinished state.\",\n \"Scottish Provident Institution, an example of Victorian architecture in Belfast\\nThe ornately decorated Crown Liquor Saloon, designed by Joseph Anderson in 1876, in Great Victoria Street is one of only two pubs in the UK that are owned by the National Trust (the other is the George Inn, Southwark in London).\",\n \"It was made internationally famous as the setting for the classic film, ''Odd Man Out'', starring James Mason.\",\n \"The restaurant panels in the Crown Bar were originally made for ''Britannic'', the sister ship of the ''Titanic'', built in Belfast.\",\n \"The Harland and Wolff shipyard has two of the largest dry docks in Europe, where the giant cranes, Samson and Goliath stand out against Belfast's skyline.\",\n \"Including the Waterfront Hall and the Odyssey Arena, Belfast has several other venues for performing arts.\",\n \"The architecture of the Grand Opera House has an oriental theme and was completed in 1895.\",\n \"It was bombed several times during the Troubles but has now been restored to its former glory.\",\n \"The Lyric Theatre, (re-opened 1 May 2011 after undergoing a rebuilding programme) the only full-time producing theatre in the country, is where film star Liam Neeson began his career.\",\n \"The Ulster Hall (1859–1862) was originally designed for grand dances but is now used primarily as a concert and sporting venue.\",\n \"Lloyd George, Parnell and Patrick Pearse all attended political rallies there.\",\n \"===Parks and gardens===\\n\\nBotanic Gardens\\n\\nSitting at the mouth of the River Lagan where it becomes a deep and sheltered lough, Belfast is surrounded by mountains that create a micro-climate conducive to horticulture.\",\n \"From the Victorian Botanic Gardens in the heart of the city to the heights of Cave Hill Country Park, the great expanse of Lagan Valley Regional Park to Colin Glen, Belfast contains an abundance of parkland and forest parks.\",\n \"Parks and gardens are an integral part of Belfast's heritage, and home to an abundance of local wildlife and popular places for a picnic, a stroll or a jog.\",\n \"Numerous events take place throughout including festivals such as Rose Week and special activities such as bird watching evenings and great beast hunts.\",\n \"Belfast has over forty public parks.\",\n \"The Forest of Belfast is a partnership between government and local groups, set up in 1992 to manage and conserve the city's parks and open spaces.\",\n \"They have commissioned more than 30 public sculptures since 1993.\",\n \"In 2006, the City Council set aside £8 million to continue this work.\",\n \"The Belfast Naturalists' Field Club was founded in 1863 and is administered by National Museums and Galleries of Northern Ireland.\",\n \"With an average of 670,000 visitors per year between 2007 and 2011, one of the most popular parks is Botanic Gardens in the Queen's Quarter.\",\n \"Built in the 1830s and designed by Sir Charles Lanyon, Botanic Gardens Palm House is one of the earliest examples of a curvilinear and cast iron glasshouse.\",\n \"Other attractions in the park include the Tropical Ravine, a humid jungle glen built in 1889, rose gardens and public events ranging from live opera broadcasts to pop concerts.\",\n \"U2 played here in 1997.\",\n \"Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park, to the south of the city centre, attracts thousands of visitors each year to its International Rose Garden.\",\n \"Rose Week in July each year features over 20,000 blooms.\",\n \"It has an area of of meadows, woodland and gardens and features a Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Garden, a Japanese garden, a walled garden, and the Golden Crown Fountain commissioned in 2002 as part of the Queen's Golden Jubilee celebrations.\",\n \"In 2008, Belfast was named a finalist in the Large City (200,001 and over) category of the RHS Britain in Bloom competition along with London Borough of Croydon and Sheffield.\",\n \"Belfast Zoo is owned by Belfast City Council.\",\n \"The council spends £1.5 million every year on running and promoting the zoo, which is one of the few local government-funded zoos in the UK and Ireland.\",\n \"The zoo is one of the top visitor attractions in Northern Ireland, receiving more than 295,000 visitors a year.\",\n \"The majority of the animals are in danger in their natural habitat.\",\n \"The zoo houses more than 1,200 animals of 140 species including Asian elephants, Barbary lions, Malayan sun bears (one of the few in the United Kingdom), two species of penguin, a family of western lowland gorillas, a troop of common chimpanzees, a pair of red pandas, a pair of Goodfellow's tree-kangaroos and Francois' langurs.\",\n \"The zoo also carries out important conservation work and takes part in European and international breeding programmes which help to ensure the survival of many species under threat.\",\n \"\\nAt the 2001 census, the population was 276,459, while 579,554 people lived in the wider Belfast Metropolitan Area.\",\n \"This made it the fifteenth-largest city in the United Kingdom, but the eleventh-largest conurbation.\",\n \"Belfast experienced a huge growth in population in the first half of the twentieth century.\",\n \"This rise slowed and peaked around the start of the Troubles with the 1971 census showing almost 600,000 people in the Belfast Urban Area.\",\n \"Since then, the inner city numbers have dropped dramatically as people have moved to swell the Greater Belfast suburb population.\",\n \"The 2001 census population in the same Urban Area had fallen to 277,391 people, with 579,554 people living in the wider Belfast Metropolitan Area.\",\n \"The 2001 census recorded 81,650 people from Catholic backgrounds and 79,650 people from Protestant backgrounds of working age living in Belfast.\",\n \"The population density in 2011 was 24.88 people/hectare (compared to 1.34 for the rest of Northern Ireland).\",\n \"As with many cities, Belfast's inner city is currently characterised by the elderly, students and single young people, while families tend to live on the periphery.\",\n \"Socio-economic areas radiate out from the Central Business District, with a pronounced wedge of affluence extending out the Malone Road and Upper Malone Road to the south.\",\n \"An area of greater deprivation extends to the west of the city.\",\n \"The areas around the Falls (Catholic nationalist) and the Shankill Road (Protestant loyalist) are the most deprived wards in Northern Ireland.\",\n \"Despite a period of relative peace, most areas and districts of Belfast still reflect the divided nature of Northern Ireland as a whole.\",\n \"Many areas are still highly segregated along ethnic, political and religious lines, especially in working-class neighbourhoods.\",\n \"These zones – Catholic/Republican on one side and Protestant/Loyalist on the other – are invariably marked by flags, graffiti and murals.\",\n \"Segregation has been present throughout the history of Belfast, but has been maintained and increased by each outbreak of violence in the city.\",\n \"This escalation in segregation, described as a \\\"ratchet effect\\\", has shown little sign of decreasing.\",\n \"The highest levels of segregation in the city are in west Belfast with many areas greater than 90% Catholic.\",\n \"Opposite but comparatively high levels are seen in the predominantly Protestant east Belfast.\",\n \"Areas where segregated working-class areas meet are known as interface areas and sometimes marked by peace lines.\",\n \"When violence flares, it tends to be in interface areas.\",\n \"Ethnic minority communities have been in Belfast since the 1930s.\",\n \"The largest groups are Poles, Chinese and Indians.\",\n \"Since the expansion of the European Union, numbers have been boosted by an influx of Eastern European immigrants.\",\n \"Census figures (2011) showed that Belfast has a total non-white population of 10,219 or 3.3%, while 18,420 or 6.6% of the population were born outside the UK and Ireland.\",\n \"Almost half of those born outside the UK and Ireland live in south Belfast, where they comprise 9.5% of the population.\",\n \"The majority of the estimated 5,000 Muslims and 200 Hindu families living in Northern Ireland live in the Greater Belfast area.\",\n \"File:Population Density Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Population density\\nFile:Religion Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Percentage Catholic or brought up Catholic\\nFile:National Identity Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Most commonly stated national identity\\nFile:Born Outside UK And Ireland Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Percentage born outside the UK and Ireland\",\n \"\\n\\nThe IRA Ceasefire in 1994 and the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 have given investors increased confidence to invest in Belfast.\",\n \"This has led to a period of sustained economic growth and large-scale redevelopment of the city centre.\",\n \"Developments include Victoria Square, the Cathedral Quarter, and the Laganside with the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall.\",\n \"The Waterfront Hall.\",\n \"Built in 1997, the hall is a concert, exhibition and conference venue.\",\n \"Other major developments include the regeneration of the Titanic Quarter, and the erection of the Obel Tower, a skyscraper set to be the tallest tower on the island.\",\n \"Today, Belfast is Northern Ireland's educational and commercial hub.\",\n \"In February 2006, Belfast's unemployment rate stood at 4.2%, lower than both the Northern Ireland and the UK average of 5.5%.\",\n \"Over the past 10 years employment has grown by 16.4 per cent, compared with 9.2 per cent for the UK as a whole.\",\n \"Northern Ireland's peace dividend has led to soaring property prices in the city.\",\n \"In 2007, Belfast saw house prices grow by 50%, the fastest rate of growth in the UK.\",\n \"In March 2007, the average house in Belfast cost £91,819, with the average in south Belfast being £141,000.\",\n \"In 2004, Belfast had the lowest owner occupation rate in Northern Ireland at 54%.\",\n \"Peace has boosted the numbers of tourists coming to Belfast.\",\n \"There were 6.4 million visitors in 2005, which was a growth of 8.5% from 2004.\",\n \"The visitors spent £285.2 million, supporting more than 15,600 jobs.\",\n \"Visitor numbers rose by 6% to reach 6.8 million in 2006, with tourists spending £324 million, an increase of 15% on 2005.\",\n \"The city's two airports have helped make the city one of the most visited weekend destinations in Europe.\",\n \"Belfast has been the fastest-growing economy of the thirty largest cities in the UK over the past decade, a new economy report by Howard Spencer has found.\",\n \"''\\\"That's because of the fundamentals of the UK economy and because people actually want to invest in the UK,\\\"'' he commented on that report.\",\n \"BBC Radio 4's World reported furthermore that despite higher levels of corporation tax in the UK than in the Republic.\",\n \"There are \\\"huge amounts\\\" of foreign investment coming into the country.\",\n \"''The Times'' wrote about Belfast's growing economy: \\\"According to the region's development agency, throughout the 1990s Northern Ireland had the fastest-growing regional economy in the UK, with GDP increasing 1 per cent per annum faster than the rest of the country.\",\n \"As with any modern economy, the service sector is vital to Northern Ireland's development and is enjoying excellent growth.\",\n \"In particular, the region has a booming tourist industry with record levels of visitors and tourist revenues and has established itself as a significant location for call centres.\\\"\",\n \"Since the ending of the regions conflict tourism has boomed in Northern Ireland, greatly aided by low cost.\",\n \"Der Spiegel, a German weekly magazine for politics and economy, titled Belfast as ''The New Celtic Tiger'' which is \\\"open for business\\\".\",\n \"===Industrial growth===\\nA 1907 stereoscope postcard depicting the construction of a passenger liner (the RMS ''Adriatic'') at the Harland and Wolff shipyard\\n\\nWhen the population of Belfast town began to grow in the 17th century, its economy was built on commerce.\",\n \"It provided a market for the surrounding countryside and the natural inlet of Belfast Lough gave the city its own port.\",\n \"The port supplied an avenue for trade with Great Britain and later Europe and North America.\",\n \"In the mid-17th century, Belfast exported beef, butter, hides, tallow and corn and it imported coal, cloth, wine, brandy, paper, timber and tobacco.\",\n \"Around this time, the linen trade in Northern Ireland blossomed and by the middle of the 18th century, one fifth of all the linen exported from Ireland was shipped from Belfast.\",\n \"The present city however is a product of the Industrial Revolution.\",\n \"It was not until industry transformed the linen and shipbuilding trades that the economy and the population boomed.\",\n \"By the turn of the 19th century, Belfast had transformed into the largest linen producing centre in the world, earning the nickname \\\"Linenopolis\\\".\",\n \"Belfast harbour was dredged in 1845 to provide deeper berths for larger ships.\",\n \"Donegall Quay was built out into the river as the harbour was developed further and trade flourished.\",\n \"The Harland and Wolff shipbuilding firm was created in 1861, and by the time the ''Titanic'' was built, in 1912, it had become the largest shipyard in the world.\",\n \"Samson and Goliath, Harland & Wolff's gantry cranes.\",\n \"Short Brothers plc is a British aerospace company based in Belfast.\",\n \"It was the first aircraft manufacturing company in the world.\",\n \"The company began its association with Belfast in 1936, with Short & Harland Ltd, a venture jointly owned by Shorts and Harland and Wolff.\",\n \"Now known as Shorts Bombardier it works as an international aircraft manufacturer located near the Port of Belfast.\",\n \"The rise of mass-produced and cotton clothing following World War I were some of the factors which led to the decline of Belfast's international linen trade.\",\n \"Like many British cities dependent on traditional heavy industry, Belfast suffered serious decline since the 1960s, exacerbated greatly in the 1970s and 1980s by the Troubles.\",\n \"More than 100,000 manufacturing jobs have been lost since the 1970s.\",\n \"For several decades, Northern Ireland's fragile economy required significant public support from the British exchequer of up to £4 billion per year.\",\n \"Ulster University, Belfast campus\\n\\nBelfast saw the worst of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, with nearly half of the total deaths in the conflict occurring in the city.\",\n \"However, since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, there has been significant urban regeneration in the city centre including Victoria Square, Queen's Island and Laganside as well as the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall.\",\n \"The city is served by two airports: The George Best Belfast City Airport adjacent to Belfast Lough and Belfast International Airport which is near Lough Neagh.\",\n \"Queen's University of Belfast is the main university in the city.\",\n \"The Ulster University also maintains a campus in the city, which concentrates on fine art, design and architecture.\",\n \"Belfast is one of the constituent cities that makes up the Dublin-Belfast corridor region, which has a population of just under 3 million.\",\n \"===Utilities===\\nSilent Valley Reservoir, showing the brick-built overflow\\n\\nMost of Belfast's water is supplied from the Silent Valley Reservoir in County Down, created to collect water from the Mourne Mountains.\",\n \"The rest of the city's water is sourced from Lough Neagh, via ''Dunore Water Treatment Works'' in County Antrim.\",\n \"The citizens of Belfast pay for their water in their rates bill.\",\n \"Plans to bring in additional water tariffs have been deferred by devolution in May 2007.\",\n \"Belfast has approximately of sewers, which are currently being replaced in a project costing over £100 million and due for completion in 2009.\",\n \"Northern Ireland Electricity is responsible for transmitting electricity in Northern Ireland.\",\n \"Belfast's electricity comes from Kilroot Power Station, a 520 MegaWatt dual coal and oil fired plant, situated near Carrickfergus.\",\n \"Phoenix Natural Gas Ltd. started supplying customers in Larne and Greater Belfast with natural gas in 1996 via the newly constructed Scotland-Northern Ireland pipeline.\",\n \"Rates in Belfast (and the rest of Northern Ireland) were reformed in April 2007.\",\n \"The discrete capital value system means rates bills are determined by the capital value of each domestic property as assessed by the ''Valuation and Lands Agency''.\",\n \"The recent dramatic rise in house prices has made these reforms unpopular.\",\n \"===Health care===\\n\\nThe Belfast Health & Social Care Trust is one of five trusts that were created on 1 April 2007 by the Department of Health.\",\n \"Belfast contains most of Northern Ireland's regional specialist centres.\",\n \"The Royal Victoria Hospital is an internationally renowned centre of excellence in trauma care and provides specialist trauma care for all of Northern Ireland.\",\n \"It also provides the city's specialist neurosurgical, ophthalmology, ENT, and dentistry services.\",\n \"The Belfast City Hospital is the regional specialist centre for haematology and is home to a cancer centre that rivals the best in the world.\",\n \"The Mary G McGeown Regional Nephrology Unit at the City Hospital is the kidney transplant centre and provides regional renal services for Northern Ireland.\",\n \"Musgrave Park Hospital in south Belfast specialises in orthopaedics, rheumatology, sports medicine and rehabilitation.\",\n \"It is home to Northern Ireland's first Acquired Brain Injury Unit, costing £9 million and opened by the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall in May 2006.\",\n \"Other hospitals in Belfast include the Mater Hospital in north Belfast and the Children's Hospital.\",\n \"===Transport===\\n\\nGeorge Best Belfast City Airport.\",\n \"Great Victoria Street station on Northern Ireland Railways\\n\\nBelfast is a relatively car-dependent city by European standards, with an extensive road network including the M2 and M22 motorway route.\",\n \"A 2005 survey of how people travel in Northern Ireland showed that people in Belfast made 77% of all journeys by car, 11% by public transport and 6% on foot.\",\n \"It showed that Belfast has 0.70 cars per household compared to figures of 1.18 in the East and 1.14 in the West of Northern Ireland.\",\n \"A road improvement-scheme in Belfast began early in 2006, with the upgrading of two junctions along the Westlink dual-carriageway to grade-separated standard.\",\n \"The improvement scheme was completed five months ahead of schedule on February 2009, with the official opening taking place on 4 March 2009.\",\n \"Commentators have argued that this may create a bottleneck at York Street, the next at-grade intersection, until that too is upgraded.\",\n \"On 25 October 2012 the stage 2 report for the York Street intersection was approved and in December 2012 the planned upgrade moved into stage 3 of the development process.\",\n \"If successfully completing the necessary statutory procedures, work on a grade separated junction to connect the Westlink to the M2/M3 motorways is scheduled to take place between 2014 and 2018, creating a continuous link between the M1 and M2, the two main motorways in Northern Ireland.\",\n \"Black taxis are common in the city, operating on a share basis in some areas.\",\n \"These are outnumbered by private hire taxis.\",\n \"Bus and rail public transport in Northern Ireland is operated by subsidiaries of Translink.\",\n \"Bus services in the city proper and the nearer suburbs are operated by Translink Metro, with services focusing on linking residential districts with the city centre on 12 quality bus corridors running along main radial roads,\\n\\nMore distant suburbs are served by Ulsterbus.\",\n \"Northern Ireland Railways provides suburban services along three lines running through Belfast's northern suburbs to Carrickfergus, Larne and Larne Harbour, eastwards towards Bangor and south-westwards towards Lisburn and Portadown.\",\n \"This service is known as the Belfast Suburban Rail system.\",\n \"Belfast is linked directly to Coleraine, Portrush and Derry.\",\n \"Belfast has a direct rail connection with Dublin called ''Enterprise'' which is operated jointly by NIR and Iarnród Éireann, the state railway company of the Republic of Ireland.\",\n \"There are no rail services to cities in other countries of the United Kingdom, due to the lack of a bridge or tunnel connecting Great Britain to the island of Ireland.\",\n \"There is, however, a combined ferry and rail ticket between Belfast and cities in Great Britain, which is referred to as ''Sailrail''.\",\n \"In April 2008, the Department for Regional Development reported on a plan for a light-rail system, similar to that in Dublin.\",\n \"The consultants said Belfast does not have the population to support a light rail system, suggesting that investment in bus-based rapid transit would be preferable.The study found that bus-based rapid transit produces positive economic results, but light rail does not.\",\n \"The report by Atkins & KPMG, however, said there would be the option of migrating to light rail in the future should the demand increase.\",\n \"The city has two airports: Belfast International Airport offering, domestic, European and international flights such as Newark (New York) operated by United Airlines, Orlando, and Las Vegas both operated by Thomas Cook.\",\n \"The seasonal flight to Orlando is also operated by Virgin Atlantic.\",\n \"The airport is located northwest of the city, near Lough Neagh, while the George Best Belfast City Airport, which is closer to the city centre by train from Sydenham on the Bangor Line, adjacent to Belfast Lough, offers UK domestic flights and a few European flights.\",\n \"In 2005, Belfast International Airport was the 11th busiest commercial airport in the UK, accounting for just over 2% of all UK terminal passengers while the George Best Belfast City Airport was the 16th busiest and had 1% of UK terminal passengers.\",\n \"The Belfast – Liverpool route is the busiest domestic flight route in the UK excluding London with 555,224 passengers in 2009.\",\n \"Over 2.2 million passengers flew between Belfast and London in 2009.\",\n \"Belfast has a large port used for exporting and importing goods, and for passenger ferry services.\",\n \"Stena Line runs regular routes to Cairnryan in Scotland using its conventional vessels – with a crossing time of around 2 hours 15 minutes.\",\n \"Until 2011 the route went to Stranraer and used inter alia a HSS (High Speed Service) vessel – with a crossing time of around 90 minutes.\",\n \"Stena Line also operates a route to Liverpool.\",\n \"A seasonal sailing to Douglas, Isle of Man is operated by the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company.\",\n \"\\nAC/DC with Bon Scott (centre) pictured with guitarist Angus Young (left) and bassist Cliff Williams (back), performing at the Ulster Hall in August 1979\\n\\nBelfast's population is evenly split between its Protestant and Catholic residents.\",\n \"These two distinct cultural communities have both contributed significantly to the city's culture.\",\n \"Throughout the Troubles, Belfast artists continued to express themselves through poetry, art and music.\",\n \"In the period since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, Belfast has begun a social, economic and cultural transformation giving it a growing international cultural reputation.\",\n \"In 2003, Belfast had an unsuccessful bid for the 2008 European Capital of Culture.\",\n \"The bid was run by an independent company, ''Imagine Belfast'', who boasted that it would \\\"make Belfast the meeting place of Europe's legends, where the meaning of history and belief find a home and a sanctuary from caricature, parody and oblivion.\\\"\",\n \"According to ''The Guardian'' the bid may have been undermined by the city's history and volatile politics.\",\n \"In 2004–05, art and cultural events in Belfast were attended by 1.8 million people (400,000 more than the previous year).\",\n \"The same year, 80,000 people participated in culture and other arts activities, twice as many as in 2003–04.\",\n \"A combination of relative peace, international investment and an active promotion of arts and culture is attracting more tourists to Belfast than ever before.\",\n \"In 2004–05, 5.9 million people visited Belfast, a 10% increase from the previous year, and spent £262.5 million.\",\n \"The Beatles emerging from the Ritz Cinema, Belfast following their concert, 8 November 1963.\",\n \"The Ulster Orchestra, based in Belfast, is Northern Ireland's only full-time symphony orchestra and is well renowned in the United Kingdom.\",\n \"Founded in 1966, it has existed in its present form since 1981, when the BBC Northern Ireland Orchestra was disbanded.\",\n \"The music school of Queen's University is responsible for arranging a notable series of lunchtime and evening concerts, often given by renowned musicians which are usually given in The Harty Room at the university (University Square).\",\n \"There are many Traditional Irish bands playing throughout the city and quite a few music schools concentrate on teaching Traditional music.\",\n \"Musicians and bands who have written songs about or dedicated to Belfast:\\nU2, Van Morrison, Snow Patrol, Simple Minds, Elton John, Rogue Male, Katie Melua, Boney M, Paul Muldoon, Stiff Little Fingers, Nanci Griffith, Glenn Patterson, Orbital, James Taylor, Fun Boy Three, Spandau Ballet, The Police, Barnbrack, Gary Moore, Neon Neon, Toxic Waste, Energy Orchard, and Billy Bragg.\",\n \"Further in Belfast the Oh Yeah Music Centre is located (Cathedral Quarter), a project founded to give young musicians and artists a place where they can share ideas and kick-start their music careers as a chance to be supported and promoted by professional musicians of Northern Ireland's music-scene.\",\n \"Belfast has a longstanding underground club scene which was established in the early 1980s.\",\n \"Like all areas of the island of Ireland outside of the Gaeltacht, the Irish language in Belfast is not that of an unbroken intergenerational transmission.\",\n \"Due to community activity in the 1960s, including the establishment of the Shaws Road Gaeltacht community, the expanse in the Irish language arts, and the advancements made in the availability of Irish medium education throughout the city, it can now be said that there is a 'mother-tongue' community of speakers.\",\n \"The language is heavily promoted in the city and is particularly visible in the Falls Road area, where the signs on both the iconic black taxis and on the public buses are bilingual.\",\n \"Belfast has the highest concentration of Irish speakers in Northern Ireland.\",\n \"Projects to promote the language in the city are funded by various sources, notably Foras na Gaeilge, an all-Ireland body funded by both the Irish and British governments.\",\n \"There are a number Irish language Primary schools and one secondary school in Belfast.\",\n \"The provision of certain resources for these schools (for example, such as the provision of textbooks) is supported by the charitable organisation TACA.\",\n \"===Media===\\nThe Belfast Telegraph Headquarters\\n\\nBelfast is the home of the ''Belfast Telegraph'', ''Irish News'', and ''The News Letter'', the oldest English-language newspaper in the world still in publication.\",\n \"The city has a number of free publications including ''Fate'' magazine, ''Go Belfast'', and the ''Vacuum'', that are distributed through bar, cafes and public venues.\",\n \"The city is the headquarters of BBC Northern Ireland, ITV station UTV and commercial radio stations Belfast CityBeat and U105.\",\n \"Two community radio stations, Blast 106 and Irish-language station Raidió Fáilte, broadcast to the city from west Belfast, as does Queen's Radio, a student-run radio station which broadcasts from Queen's University Students' Union.\",\n \"One of Northern Ireland's two community TV stations, NvTv, is based in the Cathedral Quarter of the city.\",\n \"There are two independent cinemas in Belfast: the Queen's Film Theatre and the Strand Cinema, which host screenings during the Belfast Film Festival and the Belfast Festival at Queen's.\",\n \"Broadcasting only over the Internet is Homely Planet, the Cultural Radio Station for Northern Ireland, supporting community relations.\",\n \"The city has become a popular film location; The Paint Hall at Harland and Wolff has become one of the UK Film Council's main studios.\",\n \"The facility comprises four stages of .\",\n \"Shows filmed at The Paint Hall include the film ''City of Ember'' (2008) and HBO's ''Game of Thrones'' series (beginning in late 2009).\",\n \"In November 2011, Belfast became the smallest city to host the MTV Europe Music Awards.\",\n \"The event was hosted by Selena Gomez and celebrities such as Justin Bieber, Jessie J, Hayden Panettiere, and Lady Gaga travelled to Northern Ireland to attend the event, held in the Odyssey Arena.\",\n \"===Sports===\\n\\nThe Kingspan Stadium is the home of Ulster Rugby\\n\\nBelfast has several notable sports teams playing a diverse variety of sports such as football, Gaelic games, rugby, cricket, and ice hockey.\",\n \"The Belfast Marathon is run annually on May Day, and attracted 20,000 participants in 2011.\",\n \"The Northern Ireland national football team, ranked 23rd in August 2017 in the FIFA World Rankings, plays its home matches at Windsor Park.\",\n \"The current Irish League champions Crusaders are based at Seaview, in the north of the city.\",\n \"Other senior clubs are Glentoran, Linfield, Cliftonville, Harland & Wolff Welders and PSNI.\",\n \"Intermediate-level clubs are: Donegal Celtic, Dundela, Newington Youth, Queen's University and Sport & Leisure Swifts, who compete in the NIFL Premier Intermediate League; Albert Foundry, Bloomfield, Colin Valley, Crumlin Star, Dunmurry Rec., Dunmurry Young Men, East Belfast, Grove United, Immaculata, Iveagh United, Malachians, Orangefield Old Boys, Rosario Youth Club, St Luke's, St Patrick's Young Men, Shankill United, Short Brothers and Sirocco Works of the Northern Amateur Football League and Brantwood of the Ballymena & Provincial League.\",\n \"Belfast was the home town of Manchester United legend George Best who died in November 2005.\",\n \"On the day he was buried in the city, 100,000 people lined the route from his home on the Cregagh Road to Roselawn cemetery.\",\n \"Since his death the City Airport was named after him and a trust has been set up to fund a memorial to him in the city centre.\",\n \"Belfast is home to over twenty Gaelic football and hurling clubs.\",\n \"Casement Park in west Belfast, home to the Antrim county teams, has a capacity of 32,000 which makes it the second largest Gaelic Athletic Association ground in Ulster.\",\n \"The 1999 Heineken Cup champions Ulster Rugby play at the Kingspan Stadium in the south of the city.\",\n \"Belfast has four teams in rugby's All-Ireland League: Belfast Harlequins in Division 1B; and Instonians, Queen's University and Malone in Division 2A.\",\n \"Belfast is home to the Stormont cricket ground since 1949 and was the venue for the Irish cricket team's first ever one day international (ODI) against England in 2006.\",\n \"In 2007, Pro Wrestling Ulster formed.\",\n \"This is wrestling promotion on the independent circuit, holding events and PPV's in Europa Hotel and The Mandela Hall.\",\n \"It runs to this day.\",\n \"Belfast is home to one of the biggest British ice hockey clubs, the Belfast Giants.\",\n \"The Giants were founded in 2000 and play their games at the 9,500 capacity Odyssey Arena, crowds normally range from 4,000–7,000.\",\n \"Many ex-NHL players have featured on the Giants roster, none more famous than world superstar Theo Fleury.\",\n \"The Giants play in the 10 team professional Elite Ice Hockey League which is the top league in Britain.\",\n \"The Giants have been league champions 4 times, most recently in the 2013–14 season.\",\n \"The Belfast Giants are a huge brand in Northern Ireland and their increasing stature in the game led to the Belfast Giants playing the Boston Bruins of the NHL on 2 October 2010 at the Odyssey Arena in Belfast, losing the game 5–1.\",\n \"Other significant sportspeople from Belfast include double world snooker champion Alex \\\"Hurricane\\\" Higgins and world champion boxers Wayne McCullough and Rinty Monaghan.\",\n \"Leander A.S.C is a well known swimming club in Belfast.\",\n \"Belfast produced the Formula One racing stars John Watson who raced for five different teams during his career in the 1970s and 1980s and Ferrari driver Eddie Irvine.\",\n \"\\n\\nA blue plaque adorned the Belfast birthplace of former President of Israel Chaim Herzog\\nBrian Desmond Hurst in 1976 (portrait by Allan Warren)\\n*John Stewart Bell, physicist\\n*George Best, football player, Ballon D'or winner\\n*Danny Blanchflower, football player and manager\\n*Dave Finlay, wrestler\\n*Jackie Blanchflower football player\\n*Sir Kenneth Branagh, actor\\n*Christopher Brunt, football player\\n*Dame Jocelyn Bell Burnell, astrophysicist\\n*Patrick Carlin, Victoria Cross recipient\\n*Ciaran Carson, writer\\n*Frank Carson, comedian\\n*Craig Cathcart, football player\\n*Shaw Clifton, former General of The Salvation Army\\n*Lord Craigavon, former Prime Minister of Northern Ireland\\n*Mal Donaghy, football player\\n*Jamie Dornan, actor\\n*Barry Douglas, musician\\n*John Boyd Dunlop, inventor\\n*Jonny Evans, football player\\n*Corry Evans, football player\\n*Carl Frampton, boxer\\n*Sir James Galway, musician\\n*Craig Gilroy, rugby union player\\n*Chaim Herzog, former President of Israel\\n*Alex Higgins, snooker player\\n*Eamonn Holmes, broadcaster\\n*Brian Desmond Hurst, film director\\n*Paddy Jackson, rugby union player\\n*Oliver Jeffers, artist\\n*Dame Rotha Johnston, entrepreneur\\n*Lord Kelvin, physicist and engineer\\n*C. S. Lewis, author\\n*James Joseph Magennis, Victoria Cross recipient\\n*Jim Magilton, football player and manager\\n*Paula Malcomson, actress\\n*Mary McAleese, former President of Ireland\\n*Gerry McAvoy, musician and long time bass guitarist with Rory Gallagher\\n*Sir Tony McCoy, horse racing jockey\\n*Wayne McCullough, Olympic Games Silver Medalist, WBC World Champion Boxer, Patron of Northern Ireland Children's Hospice\\n*Alan McDonald, football player\\n*Rory McIlroy, golfer\\n*Sammy McIlroy, football player and manager\\n*Gary Moore, guitarist\\n*Van Morrison, singer-songwriter\\n*Doc Neeson, singer-songwriter\\n*Dame Mary Peters, Olympic sportswoman\\n*Patricia Quinn, actress\\n*Pat Rice, football player and coach\\n*Trevor Ringland, rugby union player\\n*Peter Robinson, First Minister of Northern Ireland\\n*Mark Ryder, actor\\n*Jonathan Simms, victim of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD) who survived for an unprecedented ten years after diagnosis\\n*David Trimble, former First Minister of Northern Ireland, Nobel Peace Prize winner\\n*Gary Wilson, cricketer\\n*Roy Walker (comedian), TV Gameshow Host\",\n \"\\n\\nBelfast has two universities.\",\n \"Queen's University Belfast was founded in 1845 and is a member of the Russell Group, an association of 24 leading research-intensive universities in the UK.\",\n \"It is one of the largest universities in the UK with 25,231 undergraduate and postgraduate students spread over 250 buildings, 120 of which are listed as being of architectural merit.\",\n \"Ulster University, created in its current form in 1984, is a multi-centre university with a campus in the Cathedral Quarter of Belfast.\",\n \"The Belfast campus has a specific focus on Art and Design and Architecture, and is currently undergoing major redevelopment.\",\n \"The Jordanstown campus, just from Belfast city centre concentrates on engineering, health and social science.\",\n \"The Coleraine campus, about from Belfast city centre concentrates on a broad range of subjects.\",\n \"Course provision is broad – biomedical sciences, environmental science and geography, psychology, business, the humanities and languages, film and journalism, travel and tourism, teacher training and computing are among the campus strengths.\",\n \"The Magee campus, about from Belfast city centre has many teaching strengths; including business, computing, creative technologies, nursing, Irish language and literature, social sciences, law, psychology, peace and conflict studies and the performing arts.\",\n \"The Conflict Archive on the INternet (CAIN) Web Service receives funding from both universities and is a rich source of information and source material on the Troubles as well as society and politics in Northern Ireland.\",\n \"Belfast Metropolitan College is a large further education college with three main campuses around the city, including several smaller buildings.\",\n \"Formerly known as Belfast Institute of Further and Higher Education, it specialises in vocational education.\",\n \"The college has over 53,000 students enrolled on full-time and part-time courses, making it one of the largest further education colleges in the UK and the largest in the island of Ireland.\",\n \"The Belfast Education and Library Board was established in 1973 as the local council responsible for education, youth and library services within the city.\",\n \"There are 184 primary, secondary and grammar schools in the city.\",\n \"The Ulster Museum is located in Belfast.\",\n \"Titanic Belfast, devoted to the Belfast-built RMS ''Titanic'', opened in 2012\\n\\nBelfast is one of the most visited cities in the UK, and the second most visited on the island of Ireland.\",\n \"In 2008, 7.1 million tourists visited the city.\",\n \"Numerous popular tour bus companies and boat tours run there throughout the year.\",\n \"Frommer's, the American travel guidebook series, listed Belfast as the only United Kingdom destination in its ''Top 12 Destinations to Visit'' in 2009.\",\n \"The other listed destinations were Berlin (Germany), Cambodia, Cape Town (South Africa), Cartagena (Colombia), Istanbul (Turkey), the Lassen Volcanic National Park (USA), Saqqara (Egypt), the Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail (USA), Waiheke Island (New Zealand), Washington, D.C. (USA), and Waterton Lakes National Park (Canada).\",\n \"The Belfast City Council is currently investing into the complete redevelopment of the Titanic Quarter, which is planned to consist of apartments, hotels, and a riverside entertainment district.\",\n \"A major visitor attraction, Titanic Belfast is a monument to Belfast's maritime heritage on the site of the former Harland & Wolff shipyard, opened on 31 March 2012.\",\n \"It features a criss-cross of escalators and suspended walkways and nine high-tech galleries.\",\n \"They also hope to invest in a new modern transport system (including high-speed rail and others) for Belfast, with a cost of £250 million.\",\n \"There is a tourist information centre located at Donegall Place.\",\n \"Belfast has the following sister cities:\\n\\n* Nashville, Tennessee, United States (since 1994)\\n* Hefei, Anhui Province, China (since 2005)\\n* Boston, Massachusetts, United States (since 2014)\\n* Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China (since 2016)\",\n \"* Beesley, S. and Wilde, J.\",\n \"1997.\",\n \"''Urban Flora of Belfast''.\",\n \"Institute of Irish Studies & The Queen's University of Belfast.\",\n \"* Deane, C.Douglas.\",\n \"1983.\",\n \"''The Ulster Countryside.''\",\n \"Century Books.\",\n \"* Gillespie, R. 2007.\",\n \"''Early Belfast.''\",\n \"Belfast Natural History & Philosophical Society in Association with Ulster Historical Foundation.\",\n \".\",\n \"* Nesbitt, Noel.\",\n \"1982.\",\n \"''The Changing Face of Belfast.''\",\n \"Ulster Museum, Belfast.\",\n \"Publication no.\",\n \"183.\",\n \"* Pollock, V. and Parkhill, T. 1997.\",\n \"''Belfast''.\",\n \"National Museums of Northern Ireland.\",\n \"* Scott, Robert.\",\n \"2004.\",\n \"''Wild Belfast on safari in the city.''\",\n \"Blackstaff Press.\",\n \".\",\n \"* Walker, B.M.\",\n \"and Dixon, H. 1984.\",\n \"''Early Photographs from the Lawrence Collection in Belfast Town 1864–1880.''\",\n \"The Friar's Bush Press, \\n* Walker, B.M.\",\n \"and Dixon, H. 1983.\",\n \"''No Mean City: Belfast 1880–1914.''\",\n \".\",\n \"* Connolly, S.J.\",\n \"Ed.\",\n \"2012.\",\n \"Belfast 400 People Places and History.\",\n \"Liverpool University Press.\",\n \"* McCracken, E. 1971.\",\n \"''The Palm House and Botanic Garden, Belfast''.\",\n \"Ulster Architectural Heritage Society.\",\n \"* McMahon, Sean.\",\n \"2011.\",\n \"''A Brief History of Belfast.''\",\n \"The Brehon Press.\",\n \"Belfast.\",\n \"* Fulton, C. 2011.\",\n \"''Coalbricks and Prefabs, Glimpses of Belfast in the 1950s.''\",\n \"Thedoc Press.\",\n \"* O'Reilly, D. 2010. \\\"\",\n \"Rivers of Belfast\\\".\",\n \"Colourpoint Books.\",\n \"\\n\\n\\n*\\n* Belfast City Council\\n* Belfast Pride\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"river"}}},{"rowIdx":286,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Charlize Theron''' ( ; ; born 7 August 1975) is a South African and American actress and film producer. She has starred in several Hollywood films, such as ''The Devil's Advocate'' (1997), ''Mighty Joe Young'' (1998), ''The Cider House Rules'' (1999), ''Monster'' (2003), ''The Italian Job'' (2003), ''Hancock'' (2008), ''Snow White and the Huntsman'' (2012), ''Prometheus'' (2012), ''A Million Ways to Die in the West '' (2014), ''Mad Max: Fury Road'' (2015), ''The Fate of the Furious'' (2017), and ''Atomic Blonde'' (2017).\n\nTheron received critical acclaim for her portrayal of serial killer Aileen Wuornos in ''Monster'' (2003), for which she won the Academy Award, Silver Bear, Golden Globe Award, and Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actress among several other accolades, becoming the first South African to win an Academy Award in a major acting category. She received Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for her performance in the sexual harassment-themed drama ''North Country'' in 2005 and a Golden Globe Award nomination for her performance in Jason Reitman's 2011 film ''Young Adult''.\n\nTheron became a U.S. citizen in 2007, while retaining her South African citizenship. In the late 2000s, she moved into the field of producing, both in television and film. She founded and owns the production company Denver and Delilah Productions. In 2006, she produced the documentary ''East of Havana''. She had producing credits on the films ''The Burning Plain'' (2008) and ''Dark Places'' (2015), both of which she starred in. In 2016, ''Time'' named her in the annual ''Time 100'' most influential people list.\n","Theron was born in Benoni, in the then-Transvaal Province (currently in the Gauteng Province) of South Africa, the only child of Gerda Jacoba Aletta (née Maritz) and Charles Jacobus Theron (born 27 November 1947). Second Boer War figure Danie Theron was her great-great-uncle. She is from an Afrikaner family, and her ancestry includes Dutch, as well as French and German; her French forebears were early Huguenot settlers in South Africa. \"Theron\" is an Occitan surname (originally spelled Théron) pronounced in Afrikaans as (or ).\n\nShe grew up on her parents' farm in Benoni, near Johannesburg. On 21 June 1991, Theron's father, an alcoholic, threatened both teenaged Charlize and her mother while drunk, physically attacking her mother. Theron's mother then shot and killed him. The shooting was legally adjudged to have been self-defence, and her mother faced no charges.\n\nTheron attended Putfontein Primary School (Laerskool Putfontein), a period during which she has said she was not \"fitting in.\" At thirteen, Theron was sent to boarding school and began her studies at the National School of the Arts in Johannesburg. Although Theron is fluent in English, her first language is Afrikaans.\n","\n===Early work===\nAlthough seeing herself as a dancer, Theron at 16 won a one-year modelling contract at a local competition in Salerno and with her mother moved to Milan, Italy. After Theron spent a year modelling throughout Europe, she and her mother moved to the US, both New York City and Miami. In New York, she attended the Joffrey Ballet School, where she trained as a ballet dancer until a knee injury closed this career path. As Theron recalled in 2008:\n\nAt 19, Theron flew to Los Angeles, on a one-way ticket her mother bought for her, intending to work in the film industry. During the initial months there, she went to a Hollywood Boulevard bank to cash a cheque her mother had sent to help with the rent. When the teller refused to cash it, Theron engaged in a shouting match with him. Upon seeing this, talent agent John Crosby, waiting behind her, handed her his business card and subsequently introduced her to casting agents and also an acting school. She later fired him as her manager after he kept sending her scripts for films similar to ''Showgirls'' and ''Species''. After several months in the city, she made her film debut with a non-speaking role in the horror film ''Children of the Corn III: Urban Harvest'' (1995). Her first speaking role was a supporting but significant and attention-garnering part as a hitwoman in ''2 Days in the Valley'' (1996). Larger roles in widely released Hollywood films followed, and her career expanded in the late 1990s with box-office successes like ''The Devil's Advocate'' (1997), ''Mighty Joe Young'' (1998), and ''The Cider House Rules'' (1999). She was on the cover of the January 1999 issue of ''Vanity Fair'' as the \"White Hot Venus\". She also appeared on the cover of the May 1999 issue of ''Playboy'' magazine, in photos taken several years earlier when she was an unknown model; Theron unsuccessfully sued the magazine for publishing them without her consent.\n\n===Success and hiatus===\nShe starred in five films in 2000: ''Reindeer Games'', ''The Yards'', ''The Legend of Bagger Vance'' and ''Men of Honor'', ''Sweet November'' and was briefly considered a new \"It girl\". Theron has said of this period in her career that, \"I kept finding myself in a place where directors would back me but studios didn't. I began a love affair with directors, the ones I really, truly admired. I found myself making really bad movies, too. ''Reindeer Games'' was not a good movie, but I did it because I loved John Frankenheimer.\"\n\nNorth Country'' at the 2005 Toronto International Film Festival\n\nAfter appearing in other films, Theron starred as serial killer Aileen Wuornos in ''Monster'' (2003). Film critic Roger Ebert called it \"one of the greatest performances in the history of the cinema\". For her role, she won the Academy Award for Best Actress at the 76th Academy Awards in February 2004, as well as the Screen Actors Guild Award and the Golden Globe Award. She is the first South African to win an Oscar for Best Actress. The Oscar win pushed her to ''The Hollywood Reporter's'' 2006 list of highest-paid actresses in Hollywood, earning US$10 million for both her subsequent films, ''North Country'' and ''Aeon Flux'', she ranked seventh, behind Halle Berry, Cameron Diaz, Drew Barrymore, Renée Zellweger, Reese Witherspoon and Nicole Kidman. AskMen also named her the number one most desirable woman of 2003.\n\nTheron at the 82nd Academy Awards\n\nIn 2005, Theron portrayed Rita, Michael Bluth's (Jason Bateman) love interest, on the third season of Fox's critically acclaimed television series ''Arrested Development''. She also received Golden Globe Award and Primetime Emmy Award nominations for her role of Britt Ekland in the 2004 HBO film ''The Life and Death of Peter Sellers''. On 30 September, Theron received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In the same year, she starred in the financially unsuccessful science fiction thriller ''Aeon Flux''. She also received the 2005 Spike Video Game Award for Best Performance by a Human Female for her voiceover work in the ''Aeon Flux'' video game. Theron was listed for the role of Susan Storm in the film ''Fantastic Four'' (2005).\n\nTheron received Best Actress Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for her lead performance in the drama ''North Country''. ''Ms.'' magazine also honoured her for this performance with a feature article in its Fall 2005 issue. She was supposed to star in the screen adaption of the short story ''The Ice at the Bottom of the World'' by Mark Richard, and it was to be directed by Kimberly Peirce and produced by Theron's company Denver and Delilah Productions (named after Theron's two dogs). Theron has owned the rights for many years. She was also supposed to star in a movie adaption of the graphic novel ''Jinx'', but neither project has been produced yet.\n\nIn 2008, Theron was named the Hasty Pudding Theatricals Woman of the Year. That year she also starred with Will Smith in the superhero film ''Hancock'', and in late 2008 she was asked to be a UN Messenger of Peace by the UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon.\n\nOn 4 December 2009, Theron co-presented the draw for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in Cape Town, South Africa, accompanied by several other celebrities of South African nationality or ancestry. During rehearsals she drew an Ireland ball instead of France as a joke at the expense of FIFA, referring to Thierry Henry's handball controversy in the play-off match between France and Ireland. The stunt alarmed FIFA enough for it to fear she might do it again in front of a live global audience.\n\n===Recent work===\nTheron at WonderCon in March 2012 promoting ''Prometheus''\n\nFollowing a two-year hiatus from the big screen, Theron returned to the spotlight in 2011 with ''Young Adult''. Directed by Jason Reitman, the film earned critical acclaim, especially for Theron's performance. She was nominated for a Golden Globe Award and several other awards. Theron then played the Evil Queen Ravenna, Snow White's evil stepmother, in the film ''Snow White and the Huntsman'', which began production in 2011 and was released in 2012. In 2011, she described her process for becoming the characters in her film:\n\n\nIn 2012, she starred in Ridley Scott's science fiction film ''Prometheus''. In 2013, Vulture/NYMag named her the 68th Most Valuable Star in Hollywood saying: \"We’re just happy that Theron can stay on the list in a year when she didn’t come out with anything … any actress who’s got that kind of skill, beauty, and ferocity ought to have a permanent place in Hollywood.\"\n\nIn 2015, Theron played Libby Day, the lead character in the film adaptation of the Gillian Flynn novel ''Dark Places'', directed by Gilles Paquet-Brenner. Theron also had a producer credit. The same year, Theron also starred as Imperator Furiosa in ''Mad Max: Fury Road'' (2015), opposite Tom Hardy.\n\nTheron reprised her role as Queen Ravenna in the fantasy epic ''The Huntsman: Winter's War'', a sequel to ''Snow White and the Huntsman''. The film was released on 22 April 2016.\n\nIn 2017, she starred in ''Atomic Blonde'', an adaptation of the graphic novel ''The Coldest City'', directed by David Leitch. Production started in November 2015.\n","\n===Activism===\nTheron at the 2013 Crystal Award Ceremony for Exploring Arts in Society\n\nThe Charlize Theron Africa Outreach Project (CTAOP) was created in 2007 by Theron, a UN Messenger of Peace, in an effort to support African youth in the fight against HIV/AIDS. CTAOP's mission is to help keep African youth safe from HIV/AIDS. The project is committed to supporting community-engaged organizations that address the key drivers of the disease. Although the geographic scope of CTAOP is Sub-Saharan Africa, the primary concentration has mostly been Charlize's home country of South Africa. CTAOP's approach is based on the belief that community-based organizations on the ground understand the social and structural relationships of their communities better than anyone. By supporting these organizations through grant giving, networking, and spotlighting their work, CTAOP enables communities to mobilize and empower themselves to prevent HIV.\n\nIn 2008, Theron was named a United Nations Messenger of Peace. In his citation, Ban Ki-Moon said of Theron \"You have consistently dedicated yourself to improving the lives of women and children in South Africa, and to preventing and stopping violence against women and girls.\" She recorded a public service announcement in 2014 as part of their Stop Rape Now program.\n\nIn December 2009, CTAOP and TOMS Shoes partnered to create a limited edition unisex shoe. The shoe was made from vegan materials and inspired by the African baobab tree, the silhouette of which was embroidered on blue and orange canvas. Ten-thousand pairs were given to destitute children, and a portion of the proceeds went to CTAOP.\n\nTheron is involved in women's rights organizations and has marched in pro-choice rallies. Theron also is a supporter of animal rights and active member of PETA. She appeared in a PETA ad for its anti-fur campaign.\n\nTheron is a supporter of same-sex marriage and attended a march and rally to support that in Fresno, California, on 30 May 2009. She has publicly stated that she refuses to get married until same sex marriage is legal in the United States. Theron commented on the subject matter, saying: \"I don't want to get married because right now the institution of marriage feels very one-sided, and I want to live in a country where we all have equal rights. I think it would be exactly the same if we were married, but for me to go through that kind of ceremony, because I have so many friends who are gays and lesbians who would so badly want to get married, that I wouldn't be able to sleep with myself.\" Theron further elaborated on her stance in a June 2011 interview on ''Piers Morgan Tonight''. She stated: \"I do have a problem with the fact that our government hasn't stepped up enough to make this federal, to make gay marriage legal. I think everybody has that right.\"\n\nIn March 2014, CTAOP was among the charities that benefited from the annual Fame and Philanthropy fundraising event on the night of the 86th Academy Awards. Theron was an honoured guest along with Halle Berry and keynote speaker James Cameron.\n\nIn 2015, Theron signed an open letter which the ONE Campaign had been collecting signatures for; the letter was addressed to Angela Merkel and Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the G7 in Germany and the AU in South Africa respectively, which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main UN summit in September 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation.\n\n===Endorsements===\nHaving signed a deal with John Galliano in 2004, Theron replaced Estonian model Tiiu Kuik as the spokeswoman in the \"J'adore\" advertisements by Christian Dior. From October 2005 to December 2006, Theron earned US$3 million for the use of her image in a worldwide print media advertising campaign for Raymond Weil watches. In February 2006, she and her corporate entity were sued by Weil for breach of contract. The lawsuit was settled on 4 November 2008.\n","Theron at the 2008 Meteor Awards\n\nTheron dated Irish actor Stuart Townsend after meeting him on the set of 2002's ''Trapped''. The couple lived together in Los Angeles and Ireland. Theron split from Townsend when she came back from a holiday in Mexico in January 2010.\n\nIn 2007, Theron became a naturalized citizen of the United States, while retaining her South African citizenship.\n\nTheron has two children, both adopted. In March 2012, she adopted a boy. In July 2015, she adopted a girl. She lives in Los Angeles.\n\n===Health concerns===\nAs a child, Theron had suffered from jaundice and due to antibiotics her teeth had rotted away and had to be removed. In an interview, she said \"sic I had no teeth until I was 11. I had these fangs because I had jaundice when I was a kid and I was put on so many antibiotics that my teeth rotted. They had to cut them out. So I never had baby teeth.\"\n\nWhile filming ''Æon Flux'' in Berlin, Germany, Theron suffered a herniated disc in her neck, caused by a fall while filming a series of back handsprings. It required her to wear a neck brace for a month. In July 2009, she was diagnosed with a serious stomach virus, thought to be contracted while overseas. While filming ''The Road'', Theron injured her vocal cords during the labour screaming scenes.\n","\n","\n","\n","\n","\n\n* \n* Charlize Theron at Encyclopædia Britannica\n* \n* \n* Charlize Theron at Who's Who Southern Africa\n* Charlize Theron at AskMen\n* Charlize Theron at Emmys.com\n* Charlize Theron (Aveleyman)\n* @CharlizeAfrica (Verified Twitter Account)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n'''Charlize Theron''' ( ; ; born 7 August 1975) is a South African and American actress and film producer. She has starred in several Hollywood films, such as ''The Devil's Advocate'' (1997), ''Mighty Joe Young'' (1998), ''The Cider House Rules'' (1999), ''Monster'' (2003), ''The Italian Job'' (2003), ''Hancock'' (2008), ''Snow White and the Huntsman'' (2012), ''Prometheus'' (2012), ''A Million Ways to Die in the West '' (2014), ''Mad Max: Fury Road'' (2015), ''The Fate of the Furious'' (2017), and ''Atomic Blonde'' (2017).\\n\\nTheron received critical acclaim for her portrayal of serial killer Aileen Wuornos in ''Monster'' (2003), for which she won the Academy Award, Silver Bear, Golden Globe Award, and Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actress among several other accolades, becoming the first South African to win an Academy Award in a major acting category. She received Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for her performance in the sexual harassment-themed drama ''North Country'' in 2005 and a Golden Globe Award nomination for her performance in Jason Reitman's 2011 film ''Young Adult''.\\n\\nTheron became a U.S. citizen in 2007, while retaining her South African citizenship. In the late 2000s, she moved into the field of producing, both in television and film. She founded and owns the production company Denver and Delilah Productions. In 2006, she produced the documentary ''East of Havana''. She had producing credits on the films ''The Burning Plain'' (2008) and ''Dark Places'' (2015), both of which she starred in. In 2016, ''Time'' named her in the annual ''Time 100'' most influential people list.\\n\",\n \"Theron was born in Benoni, in the then-Transvaal Province (currently in the Gauteng Province) of South Africa, the only child of Gerda Jacoba Aletta (née Maritz) and Charles Jacobus Theron (born 27 November 1947). Second Boer War figure Danie Theron was her great-great-uncle. She is from an Afrikaner family, and her ancestry includes Dutch, as well as French and German; her French forebears were early Huguenot settlers in South Africa. \\\"Theron\\\" is an Occitan surname (originally spelled Théron) pronounced in Afrikaans as (or ).\\n\\nShe grew up on her parents' farm in Benoni, near Johannesburg. On 21 June 1991, Theron's father, an alcoholic, threatened both teenaged Charlize and her mother while drunk, physically attacking her mother. Theron's mother then shot and killed him. The shooting was legally adjudged to have been self-defence, and her mother faced no charges.\\n\\nTheron attended Putfontein Primary School (Laerskool Putfontein), a period during which she has said she was not \\\"fitting in.\\\" At thirteen, Theron was sent to boarding school and began her studies at the National School of the Arts in Johannesburg. Although Theron is fluent in English, her first language is Afrikaans.\\n\",\n \"\\n===Early work===\\nAlthough seeing herself as a dancer, Theron at 16 won a one-year modelling contract at a local competition in Salerno and with her mother moved to Milan, Italy. After Theron spent a year modelling throughout Europe, she and her mother moved to the US, both New York City and Miami. In New York, she attended the Joffrey Ballet School, where she trained as a ballet dancer until a knee injury closed this career path. As Theron recalled in 2008:\\n\\nAt 19, Theron flew to Los Angeles, on a one-way ticket her mother bought for her, intending to work in the film industry. During the initial months there, she went to a Hollywood Boulevard bank to cash a cheque her mother had sent to help with the rent. When the teller refused to cash it, Theron engaged in a shouting match with him. Upon seeing this, talent agent John Crosby, waiting behind her, handed her his business card and subsequently introduced her to casting agents and also an acting school. She later fired him as her manager after he kept sending her scripts for films similar to ''Showgirls'' and ''Species''. After several months in the city, she made her film debut with a non-speaking role in the horror film ''Children of the Corn III: Urban Harvest'' (1995). Her first speaking role was a supporting but significant and attention-garnering part as a hitwoman in ''2 Days in the Valley'' (1996). Larger roles in widely released Hollywood films followed, and her career expanded in the late 1990s with box-office successes like ''The Devil's Advocate'' (1997), ''Mighty Joe Young'' (1998), and ''The Cider House Rules'' (1999). She was on the cover of the January 1999 issue of ''Vanity Fair'' as the \\\"White Hot Venus\\\". She also appeared on the cover of the May 1999 issue of ''Playboy'' magazine, in photos taken several years earlier when she was an unknown model; Theron unsuccessfully sued the magazine for publishing them without her consent.\\n\\n===Success and hiatus===\\nShe starred in five films in 2000: ''Reindeer Games'', ''The Yards'', ''The Legend of Bagger Vance'' and ''Men of Honor'', ''Sweet November'' and was briefly considered a new \\\"It girl\\\". Theron has said of this period in her career that, \\\"I kept finding myself in a place where directors would back me but studios didn't. I began a love affair with directors, the ones I really, truly admired. I found myself making really bad movies, too. ''Reindeer Games'' was not a good movie, but I did it because I loved John Frankenheimer.\\\"\\n\\nNorth Country'' at the 2005 Toronto International Film Festival\\n\\nAfter appearing in other films, Theron starred as serial killer Aileen Wuornos in ''Monster'' (2003). Film critic Roger Ebert called it \\\"one of the greatest performances in the history of the cinema\\\". For her role, she won the Academy Award for Best Actress at the 76th Academy Awards in February 2004, as well as the Screen Actors Guild Award and the Golden Globe Award. She is the first South African to win an Oscar for Best Actress. The Oscar win pushed her to ''The Hollywood Reporter's'' 2006 list of highest-paid actresses in Hollywood, earning US$10 million for both her subsequent films, ''North Country'' and ''Aeon Flux'', she ranked seventh, behind Halle Berry, Cameron Diaz, Drew Barrymore, Renée Zellweger, Reese Witherspoon and Nicole Kidman. AskMen also named her the number one most desirable woman of 2003.\\n\\nTheron at the 82nd Academy Awards\\n\\nIn 2005, Theron portrayed Rita, Michael Bluth's (Jason Bateman) love interest, on the third season of Fox's critically acclaimed television series ''Arrested Development''. She also received Golden Globe Award and Primetime Emmy Award nominations for her role of Britt Ekland in the 2004 HBO film ''The Life and Death of Peter Sellers''. On 30 September, Theron received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In the same year, she starred in the financially unsuccessful science fiction thriller ''Aeon Flux''. She also received the 2005 Spike Video Game Award for Best Performance by a Human Female for her voiceover work in the ''Aeon Flux'' video game. Theron was listed for the role of Susan Storm in the film ''Fantastic Four'' (2005).\\n\\nTheron received Best Actress Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for her lead performance in the drama ''North Country''. ''Ms.'' magazine also honoured her for this performance with a feature article in its Fall 2005 issue. She was supposed to star in the screen adaption of the short story ''The Ice at the Bottom of the World'' by Mark Richard, and it was to be directed by Kimberly Peirce and produced by Theron's company Denver and Delilah Productions (named after Theron's two dogs). Theron has owned the rights for many years. She was also supposed to star in a movie adaption of the graphic novel ''Jinx'', but neither project has been produced yet.\\n\\nIn 2008, Theron was named the Hasty Pudding Theatricals Woman of the Year. That year she also starred with Will Smith in the superhero film ''Hancock'', and in late 2008 she was asked to be a UN Messenger of Peace by the UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon.\\n\\nOn 4 December 2009, Theron co-presented the draw for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in Cape Town, South Africa, accompanied by several other celebrities of South African nationality or ancestry. During rehearsals she drew an Ireland ball instead of France as a joke at the expense of FIFA, referring to Thierry Henry's handball controversy in the play-off match between France and Ireland. The stunt alarmed FIFA enough for it to fear she might do it again in front of a live global audience.\\n\\n===Recent work===\\nTheron at WonderCon in March 2012 promoting ''Prometheus''\\n\\nFollowing a two-year hiatus from the big screen, Theron returned to the spotlight in 2011 with ''Young Adult''. Directed by Jason Reitman, the film earned critical acclaim, especially for Theron's performance. She was nominated for a Golden Globe Award and several other awards. Theron then played the Evil Queen Ravenna, Snow White's evil stepmother, in the film ''Snow White and the Huntsman'', which began production in 2011 and was released in 2012. In 2011, she described her process for becoming the characters in her film:\\n\\n\\nIn 2012, she starred in Ridley Scott's science fiction film ''Prometheus''. In 2013, Vulture/NYMag named her the 68th Most Valuable Star in Hollywood saying: \\\"We’re just happy that Theron can stay on the list in a year when she didn’t come out with anything … any actress who’s got that kind of skill, beauty, and ferocity ought to have a permanent place in Hollywood.\\\"\\n\\nIn 2015, Theron played Libby Day, the lead character in the film adaptation of the Gillian Flynn novel ''Dark Places'', directed by Gilles Paquet-Brenner. Theron also had a producer credit. The same year, Theron also starred as Imperator Furiosa in ''Mad Max: Fury Road'' (2015), opposite Tom Hardy.\\n\\nTheron reprised her role as Queen Ravenna in the fantasy epic ''The Huntsman: Winter's War'', a sequel to ''Snow White and the Huntsman''. The film was released on 22 April 2016.\\n\\nIn 2017, she starred in ''Atomic Blonde'', an adaptation of the graphic novel ''The Coldest City'', directed by David Leitch. Production started in November 2015.\\n\",\n \"\\n===Activism===\\nTheron at the 2013 Crystal Award Ceremony for Exploring Arts in Society\\n\\nThe Charlize Theron Africa Outreach Project (CTAOP) was created in 2007 by Theron, a UN Messenger of Peace, in an effort to support African youth in the fight against HIV/AIDS. CTAOP's mission is to help keep African youth safe from HIV/AIDS. The project is committed to supporting community-engaged organizations that address the key drivers of the disease. Although the geographic scope of CTAOP is Sub-Saharan Africa, the primary concentration has mostly been Charlize's home country of South Africa. CTAOP's approach is based on the belief that community-based organizations on the ground understand the social and structural relationships of their communities better than anyone. By supporting these organizations through grant giving, networking, and spotlighting their work, CTAOP enables communities to mobilize and empower themselves to prevent HIV.\\n\\nIn 2008, Theron was named a United Nations Messenger of Peace. In his citation, Ban Ki-Moon said of Theron \\\"You have consistently dedicated yourself to improving the lives of women and children in South Africa, and to preventing and stopping violence against women and girls.\\\" She recorded a public service announcement in 2014 as part of their Stop Rape Now program.\\n\\nIn December 2009, CTAOP and TOMS Shoes partnered to create a limited edition unisex shoe. The shoe was made from vegan materials and inspired by the African baobab tree, the silhouette of which was embroidered on blue and orange canvas. Ten-thousand pairs were given to destitute children, and a portion of the proceeds went to CTAOP.\\n\\nTheron is involved in women's rights organizations and has marched in pro-choice rallies. Theron also is a supporter of animal rights and active member of PETA. She appeared in a PETA ad for its anti-fur campaign.\\n\\nTheron is a supporter of same-sex marriage and attended a march and rally to support that in Fresno, California, on 30 May 2009. She has publicly stated that she refuses to get married until same sex marriage is legal in the United States. Theron commented on the subject matter, saying: \\\"I don't want to get married because right now the institution of marriage feels very one-sided, and I want to live in a country where we all have equal rights. I think it would be exactly the same if we were married, but for me to go through that kind of ceremony, because I have so many friends who are gays and lesbians who would so badly want to get married, that I wouldn't be able to sleep with myself.\\\" Theron further elaborated on her stance in a June 2011 interview on ''Piers Morgan Tonight''. She stated: \\\"I do have a problem with the fact that our government hasn't stepped up enough to make this federal, to make gay marriage legal. I think everybody has that right.\\\"\\n\\nIn March 2014, CTAOP was among the charities that benefited from the annual Fame and Philanthropy fundraising event on the night of the 86th Academy Awards. Theron was an honoured guest along with Halle Berry and keynote speaker James Cameron.\\n\\nIn 2015, Theron signed an open letter which the ONE Campaign had been collecting signatures for; the letter was addressed to Angela Merkel and Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the G7 in Germany and the AU in South Africa respectively, which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main UN summit in September 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation.\\n\\n===Endorsements===\\nHaving signed a deal with John Galliano in 2004, Theron replaced Estonian model Tiiu Kuik as the spokeswoman in the \\\"J'adore\\\" advertisements by Christian Dior. From October 2005 to December 2006, Theron earned US$3 million for the use of her image in a worldwide print media advertising campaign for Raymond Weil watches. In February 2006, she and her corporate entity were sued by Weil for breach of contract. The lawsuit was settled on 4 November 2008.\\n\",\n \"Theron at the 2008 Meteor Awards\\n\\nTheron dated Irish actor Stuart Townsend after meeting him on the set of 2002's ''Trapped''. The couple lived together in Los Angeles and Ireland. Theron split from Townsend when she came back from a holiday in Mexico in January 2010.\\n\\nIn 2007, Theron became a naturalized citizen of the United States, while retaining her South African citizenship.\\n\\nTheron has two children, both adopted. In March 2012, she adopted a boy. In July 2015, she adopted a girl. She lives in Los Angeles.\\n\\n===Health concerns===\\nAs a child, Theron had suffered from jaundice and due to antibiotics her teeth had rotted away and had to be removed. In an interview, she said \\\"sic I had no teeth until I was 11. I had these fangs because I had jaundice when I was a kid and I was put on so many antibiotics that my teeth rotted. They had to cut them out. So I never had baby teeth.\\\"\\n\\nWhile filming ''Æon Flux'' in Berlin, Germany, Theron suffered a herniated disc in her neck, caused by a fall while filming a series of back handsprings. It required her to wear a neck brace for a month. In July 2009, she was diagnosed with a serious stomach virus, thought to be contracted while overseas. While filming ''The Road'', Theron injured her vocal cords during the labour screaming scenes.\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n* \\n* Charlize Theron at Encyclopædia Britannica\\n* \\n* \\n* Charlize Theron at Who's Who Southern Africa\\n* Charlize Theron at AskMen\\n* Charlize Theron at Emmys.com\\n* Charlize Theron (Aveleyman)\\n* @CharlizeAfrica (Verified Twitter Account)\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction","Early life","Career","Other ventures","Personal life","Filmography","Awards and nominations","See also","References","External links"],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \"Early life\",\n \"Career\",\n \"Other ventures\",\n \"Personal life\",\n \"Filmography\",\n \"Awards and nominations\",\n \"See also\",\n \"References\",\n \"External links\"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Charlize Theron"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["During the initial months there, she went to a Hollywood Boulevard bank to cash a cheque her mother had sent to help with the rent."],"string":"[\n \"During the initial months there, she went to a Hollywood Boulevard bank to cash a cheque her mother had sent to help with the rent.\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Charlize Theron''' ( ; ; born 7 August 1975) is a South African and American actress and film producer.","She has starred in several Hollywood films, such as ''The Devil's Advocate'' (1997), ''Mighty Joe Young'' (1998), ''The Cider House Rules'' (1999), ''Monster'' (2003), ''The Italian Job'' (2003), ''Hancock'' (2008), ''Snow White and the Huntsman'' (2012), ''Prometheus'' (2012), ''A Million Ways to Die in the West '' (2014), ''Mad Max: Fury Road'' (2015), ''The Fate of the Furious'' (2017), and ''Atomic Blonde'' (2017).","Theron received critical acclaim for her portrayal of serial killer Aileen Wuornos in ''Monster'' (2003), for which she won the Academy Award, Silver Bear, Golden Globe Award, and Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actress among several other accolades, becoming the first South African to win an Academy Award in a major acting category.","She received Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for her performance in the sexual harassment-themed drama ''North Country'' in 2005 and a Golden Globe Award nomination for her performance in Jason Reitman's 2011 film ''Young Adult''.","Theron became a U.S. citizen in 2007, while retaining her South African citizenship.","In the late 2000s, she moved into the field of producing, both in television and film.","She founded and owns the production company Denver and Delilah Productions.","In 2006, she produced the documentary ''East of Havana''.","She had producing credits on the films ''The Burning Plain'' (2008) and ''Dark Places'' (2015), both of which she starred in.","In 2016, ''Time'' named her in the annual ''Time 100'' most influential people list.","Theron was born in Benoni, in the then-Transvaal Province (currently in the Gauteng Province) of South Africa, the only child of Gerda Jacoba Aletta (née Maritz) and Charles Jacobus Theron (born 27 November 1947).","Second Boer War figure Danie Theron was her great-great-uncle.","She is from an Afrikaner family, and her ancestry includes Dutch, as well as French and German; her French forebears were early Huguenot settlers in South Africa.","\"Theron\" is an Occitan surname (originally spelled Théron) pronounced in Afrikaans as (or ).","She grew up on her parents' farm in Benoni, near Johannesburg.","On 21 June 1991, Theron's father, an alcoholic, threatened both teenaged Charlize and her mother while drunk, physically attacking her mother.","Theron's mother then shot and killed him.","The shooting was legally adjudged to have been self-defence, and her mother faced no charges.","Theron attended Putfontein Primary School (Laerskool Putfontein), a period during which she has said she was not \"fitting in.\"","At thirteen, Theron was sent to boarding school and began her studies at the National School of the Arts in Johannesburg.","Although Theron is fluent in English, her first language is Afrikaans.","\n===Early work===\nAlthough seeing herself as a dancer, Theron at 16 won a one-year modelling contract at a local competition in Salerno and with her mother moved to Milan, Italy.","After Theron spent a year modelling throughout Europe, she and her mother moved to the US, both New York City and Miami.","In New York, she attended the Joffrey Ballet School, where she trained as a ballet dancer until a knee injury closed this career path.","As Theron recalled in 2008:\n\nAt 19, Theron flew to Los Angeles, on a one-way ticket her mother bought for her, intending to work in the film industry.","When the teller refused to cash it, Theron engaged in a shouting match with him.","Upon seeing this, talent agent John Crosby, waiting behind her, handed her his business card and subsequently introduced her to casting agents and also an acting school.","She later fired him as her manager after he kept sending her scripts for films similar to ''Showgirls'' and ''Species''.","After several months in the city, she made her film debut with a non-speaking role in the horror film ''Children of the Corn III: Urban Harvest'' (1995).","Her first speaking role was a supporting but significant and attention-garnering part as a hitwoman in ''2 Days in the Valley'' (1996).","Larger roles in widely released Hollywood films followed, and her career expanded in the late 1990s with box-office successes like ''The Devil's Advocate'' (1997), ''Mighty Joe Young'' (1998), and ''The Cider House Rules'' (1999).","She was on the cover of the January 1999 issue of ''Vanity Fair'' as the \"White Hot Venus\".","She also appeared on the cover of the May 1999 issue of ''Playboy'' magazine, in photos taken several years earlier when she was an unknown model; Theron unsuccessfully sued the magazine for publishing them without her consent.","===Success and hiatus===\nShe starred in five films in 2000: ''Reindeer Games'', ''The Yards'', ''The Legend of Bagger Vance'' and ''Men of Honor'', ''Sweet November'' and was briefly considered a new \"It girl\".","Theron has said of this period in her career that, \"I kept finding myself in a place where directors would back me but studios didn't.","I began a love affair with directors, the ones I really, truly admired.","I found myself making really bad movies, too.","''Reindeer Games'' was not a good movie, but I did it because I loved John Frankenheimer.\"","North Country'' at the 2005 Toronto International Film Festival\n\nAfter appearing in other films, Theron starred as serial killer Aileen Wuornos in ''Monster'' (2003).","Film critic Roger Ebert called it \"one of the greatest performances in the history of the cinema\".","For her role, she won the Academy Award for Best Actress at the 76th Academy Awards in February 2004, as well as the Screen Actors Guild Award and the Golden Globe Award.","She is the first South African to win an Oscar for Best Actress.","The Oscar win pushed her to ''The Hollywood Reporter's'' 2006 list of highest-paid actresses in Hollywood, earning US$10 million for both her subsequent films, ''North Country'' and ''Aeon Flux'', she ranked seventh, behind Halle Berry, Cameron Diaz, Drew Barrymore, Renée Zellweger, Reese Witherspoon and Nicole Kidman.","AskMen also named her the number one most desirable woman of 2003.","Theron at the 82nd Academy Awards\n\nIn 2005, Theron portrayed Rita, Michael Bluth's (Jason Bateman) love interest, on the third season of Fox's critically acclaimed television series ''Arrested Development''.","She also received Golden Globe Award and Primetime Emmy Award nominations for her role of Britt Ekland in the 2004 HBO film ''The Life and Death of Peter Sellers''.","On 30 September, Theron received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.","In the same year, she starred in the financially unsuccessful science fiction thriller ''Aeon Flux''.","She also received the 2005 Spike Video Game Award for Best Performance by a Human Female for her voiceover work in the ''Aeon Flux'' video game.","Theron was listed for the role of Susan Storm in the film ''Fantastic Four'' (2005).","Theron received Best Actress Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for her lead performance in the drama ''North Country''.","''Ms.''","magazine also honoured her for this performance with a feature article in its Fall 2005 issue.","She was supposed to star in the screen adaption of the short story ''The Ice at the Bottom of the World'' by Mark Richard, and it was to be directed by Kimberly Peirce and produced by Theron's company Denver and Delilah Productions (named after Theron's two dogs).","Theron has owned the rights for many years.","She was also supposed to star in a movie adaption of the graphic novel ''Jinx'', but neither project has been produced yet.","In 2008, Theron was named the Hasty Pudding Theatricals Woman of the Year.","That year she also starred with Will Smith in the superhero film ''Hancock'', and in late 2008 she was asked to be a UN Messenger of Peace by the UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon.","On 4 December 2009, Theron co-presented the draw for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in Cape Town, South Africa, accompanied by several other celebrities of South African nationality or ancestry.","During rehearsals she drew an Ireland ball instead of France as a joke at the expense of FIFA, referring to Thierry Henry's handball controversy in the play-off match between France and Ireland.","The stunt alarmed FIFA enough for it to fear she might do it again in front of a live global audience.","===Recent work===\nTheron at WonderCon in March 2012 promoting ''Prometheus''\n\nFollowing a two-year hiatus from the big screen, Theron returned to the spotlight in 2011 with ''Young Adult''.","Directed by Jason Reitman, the film earned critical acclaim, especially for Theron's performance.","She was nominated for a Golden Globe Award and several other awards.","Theron then played the Evil Queen Ravenna, Snow White's evil stepmother, in the film ''Snow White and the Huntsman'', which began production in 2011 and was released in 2012.","In 2011, she described her process for becoming the characters in her film:\n\n\nIn 2012, she starred in Ridley Scott's science fiction film ''Prometheus''.","In 2013, Vulture/NYMag named her the 68th Most Valuable Star in Hollywood saying: \"We’re just happy that Theron can stay on the list in a year when she didn’t come out with anything … any actress who’s got that kind of skill, beauty, and ferocity ought to have a permanent place in Hollywood.\"","In 2015, Theron played Libby Day, the lead character in the film adaptation of the Gillian Flynn novel ''Dark Places'', directed by Gilles Paquet-Brenner.","Theron also had a producer credit.","The same year, Theron also starred as Imperator Furiosa in ''Mad Max: Fury Road'' (2015), opposite Tom Hardy.","Theron reprised her role as Queen Ravenna in the fantasy epic ''The Huntsman: Winter's War'', a sequel to ''Snow White and the Huntsman''.","The film was released on 22 April 2016.","In 2017, she starred in ''Atomic Blonde'', an adaptation of the graphic novel ''The Coldest City'', directed by David Leitch.","Production started in November 2015.","\n===Activism===\nTheron at the 2013 Crystal Award Ceremony for Exploring Arts in Society\n\nThe Charlize Theron Africa Outreach Project (CTAOP) was created in 2007 by Theron, a UN Messenger of Peace, in an effort to support African youth in the fight against HIV/AIDS.","CTAOP's mission is to help keep African youth safe from HIV/AIDS.","The project is committed to supporting community-engaged organizations that address the key drivers of the disease.","Although the geographic scope of CTAOP is Sub-Saharan Africa, the primary concentration has mostly been Charlize's home country of South Africa.","CTAOP's approach is based on the belief that community-based organizations on the ground understand the social and structural relationships of their communities better than anyone.","By supporting these organizations through grant giving, networking, and spotlighting their work, CTAOP enables communities to mobilize and empower themselves to prevent HIV.","In 2008, Theron was named a United Nations Messenger of Peace.","In his citation, Ban Ki-Moon said of Theron \"You have consistently dedicated yourself to improving the lives of women and children in South Africa, and to preventing and stopping violence against women and girls.\"","She recorded a public service announcement in 2014 as part of their Stop Rape Now program.","In December 2009, CTAOP and TOMS Shoes partnered to create a limited edition unisex shoe.","The shoe was made from vegan materials and inspired by the African baobab tree, the silhouette of which was embroidered on blue and orange canvas.","Ten-thousand pairs were given to destitute children, and a portion of the proceeds went to CTAOP.","Theron is involved in women's rights organizations and has marched in pro-choice rallies.","Theron also is a supporter of animal rights and active member of PETA.","She appeared in a PETA ad for its anti-fur campaign.","Theron is a supporter of same-sex marriage and attended a march and rally to support that in Fresno, California, on 30 May 2009.","She has publicly stated that she refuses to get married until same sex marriage is legal in the United States.","Theron commented on the subject matter, saying: \"I don't want to get married because right now the institution of marriage feels very one-sided, and I want to live in a country where we all have equal rights.","I think it would be exactly the same if we were married, but for me to go through that kind of ceremony, because I have so many friends who are gays and lesbians who would so badly want to get married, that I wouldn't be able to sleep with myself.\"","Theron further elaborated on her stance in a June 2011 interview on ''Piers Morgan Tonight''.","She stated: \"I do have a problem with the fact that our government hasn't stepped up enough to make this federal, to make gay marriage legal.","I think everybody has that right.\"","In March 2014, CTAOP was among the charities that benefited from the annual Fame and Philanthropy fundraising event on the night of the 86th Academy Awards.","Theron was an honoured guest along with Halle Berry and keynote speaker James Cameron.","In 2015, Theron signed an open letter which the ONE Campaign had been collecting signatures for; the letter was addressed to Angela Merkel and Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the G7 in Germany and the AU in South Africa respectively, which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main UN summit in September 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation.","===Endorsements===\nHaving signed a deal with John Galliano in 2004, Theron replaced Estonian model Tiiu Kuik as the spokeswoman in the \"J'adore\" advertisements by Christian Dior.","From October 2005 to December 2006, Theron earned US$3 million for the use of her image in a worldwide print media advertising campaign for Raymond Weil watches.","In February 2006, she and her corporate entity were sued by Weil for breach of contract.","The lawsuit was settled on 4 November 2008.","Theron at the 2008 Meteor Awards\n\nTheron dated Irish actor Stuart Townsend after meeting him on the set of 2002's ''Trapped''.","The couple lived together in Los Angeles and Ireland.","Theron split from Townsend when she came back from a holiday in Mexico in January 2010.","In 2007, Theron became a naturalized citizen of the United States, while retaining her South African citizenship.","Theron has two children, both adopted.","In March 2012, she adopted a boy.","In July 2015, she adopted a girl.","She lives in Los Angeles.","===Health concerns===\nAs a child, Theron had suffered from jaundice and due to antibiotics her teeth had rotted away and had to be removed.","In an interview, she said \"sic I had no teeth until I was 11.","I had these fangs because I had jaundice when I was a kid and I was put on so many antibiotics that my teeth rotted.","They had to cut them out.","So I never had baby teeth.\"","While filming ''Æon Flux'' in Berlin, Germany, Theron suffered a herniated disc in her neck, caused by a fall while filming a series of back handsprings.","It required her to wear a neck brace for a month.","In July 2009, she was diagnosed with a serious stomach virus, thought to be contracted while overseas.","While filming ''The Road'', Theron injured her vocal cords during the labour screaming scenes.","\n\n* \n* Charlize Theron at Encyclopædia Britannica\n* \n* \n* Charlize Theron at Who's Who Southern Africa\n* Charlize Theron at AskMen\n* Charlize Theron at Emmys.com\n* Charlize Theron (Aveleyman)\n* @CharlizeAfrica (Verified Twitter Account)"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n'''Charlize Theron''' ( ; ; born 7 August 1975) is a South African and American actress and film producer.\",\n \"She has starred in several Hollywood films, such as ''The Devil's Advocate'' (1997), ''Mighty Joe Young'' (1998), ''The Cider House Rules'' (1999), ''Monster'' (2003), ''The Italian Job'' (2003), ''Hancock'' (2008), ''Snow White and the Huntsman'' (2012), ''Prometheus'' (2012), ''A Million Ways to Die in the West '' (2014), ''Mad Max: Fury Road'' (2015), ''The Fate of the Furious'' (2017), and ''Atomic Blonde'' (2017).\",\n \"Theron received critical acclaim for her portrayal of serial killer Aileen Wuornos in ''Monster'' (2003), for which she won the Academy Award, Silver Bear, Golden Globe Award, and Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actress among several other accolades, becoming the first South African to win an Academy Award in a major acting category.\",\n \"She received Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for her performance in the sexual harassment-themed drama ''North Country'' in 2005 and a Golden Globe Award nomination for her performance in Jason Reitman's 2011 film ''Young Adult''.\",\n \"Theron became a U.S. citizen in 2007, while retaining her South African citizenship.\",\n \"In the late 2000s, she moved into the field of producing, both in television and film.\",\n \"She founded and owns the production company Denver and Delilah Productions.\",\n \"In 2006, she produced the documentary ''East of Havana''.\",\n \"She had producing credits on the films ''The Burning Plain'' (2008) and ''Dark Places'' (2015), both of which she starred in.\",\n \"In 2016, ''Time'' named her in the annual ''Time 100'' most influential people list.\",\n \"Theron was born in Benoni, in the then-Transvaal Province (currently in the Gauteng Province) of South Africa, the only child of Gerda Jacoba Aletta (née Maritz) and Charles Jacobus Theron (born 27 November 1947).\",\n \"Second Boer War figure Danie Theron was her great-great-uncle.\",\n \"She is from an Afrikaner family, and her ancestry includes Dutch, as well as French and German; her French forebears were early Huguenot settlers in South Africa.\",\n \"\\\"Theron\\\" is an Occitan surname (originally spelled Théron) pronounced in Afrikaans as (or ).\",\n \"She grew up on her parents' farm in Benoni, near Johannesburg.\",\n \"On 21 June 1991, Theron's father, an alcoholic, threatened both teenaged Charlize and her mother while drunk, physically attacking her mother.\",\n \"Theron's mother then shot and killed him.\",\n \"The shooting was legally adjudged to have been self-defence, and her mother faced no charges.\",\n \"Theron attended Putfontein Primary School (Laerskool Putfontein), a period during which she has said she was not \\\"fitting in.\\\"\",\n \"At thirteen, Theron was sent to boarding school and began her studies at the National School of the Arts in Johannesburg.\",\n \"Although Theron is fluent in English, her first language is Afrikaans.\",\n \"\\n===Early work===\\nAlthough seeing herself as a dancer, Theron at 16 won a one-year modelling contract at a local competition in Salerno and with her mother moved to Milan, Italy.\",\n \"After Theron spent a year modelling throughout Europe, she and her mother moved to the US, both New York City and Miami.\",\n \"In New York, she attended the Joffrey Ballet School, where she trained as a ballet dancer until a knee injury closed this career path.\",\n \"As Theron recalled in 2008:\\n\\nAt 19, Theron flew to Los Angeles, on a one-way ticket her mother bought for her, intending to work in the film industry.\",\n \"When the teller refused to cash it, Theron engaged in a shouting match with him.\",\n \"Upon seeing this, talent agent John Crosby, waiting behind her, handed her his business card and subsequently introduced her to casting agents and also an acting school.\",\n \"She later fired him as her manager after he kept sending her scripts for films similar to ''Showgirls'' and ''Species''.\",\n \"After several months in the city, she made her film debut with a non-speaking role in the horror film ''Children of the Corn III: Urban Harvest'' (1995).\",\n \"Her first speaking role was a supporting but significant and attention-garnering part as a hitwoman in ''2 Days in the Valley'' (1996).\",\n \"Larger roles in widely released Hollywood films followed, and her career expanded in the late 1990s with box-office successes like ''The Devil's Advocate'' (1997), ''Mighty Joe Young'' (1998), and ''The Cider House Rules'' (1999).\",\n \"She was on the cover of the January 1999 issue of ''Vanity Fair'' as the \\\"White Hot Venus\\\".\",\n \"She also appeared on the cover of the May 1999 issue of ''Playboy'' magazine, in photos taken several years earlier when she was an unknown model; Theron unsuccessfully sued the magazine for publishing them without her consent.\",\n \"===Success and hiatus===\\nShe starred in five films in 2000: ''Reindeer Games'', ''The Yards'', ''The Legend of Bagger Vance'' and ''Men of Honor'', ''Sweet November'' and was briefly considered a new \\\"It girl\\\".\",\n \"Theron has said of this period in her career that, \\\"I kept finding myself in a place where directors would back me but studios didn't.\",\n \"I began a love affair with directors, the ones I really, truly admired.\",\n \"I found myself making really bad movies, too.\",\n \"''Reindeer Games'' was not a good movie, but I did it because I loved John Frankenheimer.\\\"\",\n \"North Country'' at the 2005 Toronto International Film Festival\\n\\nAfter appearing in other films, Theron starred as serial killer Aileen Wuornos in ''Monster'' (2003).\",\n \"Film critic Roger Ebert called it \\\"one of the greatest performances in the history of the cinema\\\".\",\n \"For her role, she won the Academy Award for Best Actress at the 76th Academy Awards in February 2004, as well as the Screen Actors Guild Award and the Golden Globe Award.\",\n \"She is the first South African to win an Oscar for Best Actress.\",\n \"The Oscar win pushed her to ''The Hollywood Reporter's'' 2006 list of highest-paid actresses in Hollywood, earning US$10 million for both her subsequent films, ''North Country'' and ''Aeon Flux'', she ranked seventh, behind Halle Berry, Cameron Diaz, Drew Barrymore, Renée Zellweger, Reese Witherspoon and Nicole Kidman.\",\n \"AskMen also named her the number one most desirable woman of 2003.\",\n \"Theron at the 82nd Academy Awards\\n\\nIn 2005, Theron portrayed Rita, Michael Bluth's (Jason Bateman) love interest, on the third season of Fox's critically acclaimed television series ''Arrested Development''.\",\n \"She also received Golden Globe Award and Primetime Emmy Award nominations for her role of Britt Ekland in the 2004 HBO film ''The Life and Death of Peter Sellers''.\",\n \"On 30 September, Theron received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.\",\n \"In the same year, she starred in the financially unsuccessful science fiction thriller ''Aeon Flux''.\",\n \"She also received the 2005 Spike Video Game Award for Best Performance by a Human Female for her voiceover work in the ''Aeon Flux'' video game.\",\n \"Theron was listed for the role of Susan Storm in the film ''Fantastic Four'' (2005).\",\n \"Theron received Best Actress Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for her lead performance in the drama ''North Country''.\",\n \"''Ms.''\",\n \"magazine also honoured her for this performance with a feature article in its Fall 2005 issue.\",\n \"She was supposed to star in the screen adaption of the short story ''The Ice at the Bottom of the World'' by Mark Richard, and it was to be directed by Kimberly Peirce and produced by Theron's company Denver and Delilah Productions (named after Theron's two dogs).\",\n \"Theron has owned the rights for many years.\",\n \"She was also supposed to star in a movie adaption of the graphic novel ''Jinx'', but neither project has been produced yet.\",\n \"In 2008, Theron was named the Hasty Pudding Theatricals Woman of the Year.\",\n \"That year she also starred with Will Smith in the superhero film ''Hancock'', and in late 2008 she was asked to be a UN Messenger of Peace by the UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon.\",\n \"On 4 December 2009, Theron co-presented the draw for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in Cape Town, South Africa, accompanied by several other celebrities of South African nationality or ancestry.\",\n \"During rehearsals she drew an Ireland ball instead of France as a joke at the expense of FIFA, referring to Thierry Henry's handball controversy in the play-off match between France and Ireland.\",\n \"The stunt alarmed FIFA enough for it to fear she might do it again in front of a live global audience.\",\n \"===Recent work===\\nTheron at WonderCon in March 2012 promoting ''Prometheus''\\n\\nFollowing a two-year hiatus from the big screen, Theron returned to the spotlight in 2011 with ''Young Adult''.\",\n \"Directed by Jason Reitman, the film earned critical acclaim, especially for Theron's performance.\",\n \"She was nominated for a Golden Globe Award and several other awards.\",\n \"Theron then played the Evil Queen Ravenna, Snow White's evil stepmother, in the film ''Snow White and the Huntsman'', which began production in 2011 and was released in 2012.\",\n \"In 2011, she described her process for becoming the characters in her film:\\n\\n\\nIn 2012, she starred in Ridley Scott's science fiction film ''Prometheus''.\",\n \"In 2013, Vulture/NYMag named her the 68th Most Valuable Star in Hollywood saying: \\\"We’re just happy that Theron can stay on the list in a year when she didn’t come out with anything … any actress who’s got that kind of skill, beauty, and ferocity ought to have a permanent place in Hollywood.\\\"\",\n \"In 2015, Theron played Libby Day, the lead character in the film adaptation of the Gillian Flynn novel ''Dark Places'', directed by Gilles Paquet-Brenner.\",\n \"Theron also had a producer credit.\",\n \"The same year, Theron also starred as Imperator Furiosa in ''Mad Max: Fury Road'' (2015), opposite Tom Hardy.\",\n \"Theron reprised her role as Queen Ravenna in the fantasy epic ''The Huntsman: Winter's War'', a sequel to ''Snow White and the Huntsman''.\",\n \"The film was released on 22 April 2016.\",\n \"In 2017, she starred in ''Atomic Blonde'', an adaptation of the graphic novel ''The Coldest City'', directed by David Leitch.\",\n \"Production started in November 2015.\",\n \"\\n===Activism===\\nTheron at the 2013 Crystal Award Ceremony for Exploring Arts in Society\\n\\nThe Charlize Theron Africa Outreach Project (CTAOP) was created in 2007 by Theron, a UN Messenger of Peace, in an effort to support African youth in the fight against HIV/AIDS.\",\n \"CTAOP's mission is to help keep African youth safe from HIV/AIDS.\",\n \"The project is committed to supporting community-engaged organizations that address the key drivers of the disease.\",\n \"Although the geographic scope of CTAOP is Sub-Saharan Africa, the primary concentration has mostly been Charlize's home country of South Africa.\",\n \"CTAOP's approach is based on the belief that community-based organizations on the ground understand the social and structural relationships of their communities better than anyone.\",\n \"By supporting these organizations through grant giving, networking, and spotlighting their work, CTAOP enables communities to mobilize and empower themselves to prevent HIV.\",\n \"In 2008, Theron was named a United Nations Messenger of Peace.\",\n \"In his citation, Ban Ki-Moon said of Theron \\\"You have consistently dedicated yourself to improving the lives of women and children in South Africa, and to preventing and stopping violence against women and girls.\\\"\",\n \"She recorded a public service announcement in 2014 as part of their Stop Rape Now program.\",\n \"In December 2009, CTAOP and TOMS Shoes partnered to create a limited edition unisex shoe.\",\n \"The shoe was made from vegan materials and inspired by the African baobab tree, the silhouette of which was embroidered on blue and orange canvas.\",\n \"Ten-thousand pairs were given to destitute children, and a portion of the proceeds went to CTAOP.\",\n \"Theron is involved in women's rights organizations and has marched in pro-choice rallies.\",\n \"Theron also is a supporter of animal rights and active member of PETA.\",\n \"She appeared in a PETA ad for its anti-fur campaign.\",\n \"Theron is a supporter of same-sex marriage and attended a march and rally to support that in Fresno, California, on 30 May 2009.\",\n \"She has publicly stated that she refuses to get married until same sex marriage is legal in the United States.\",\n \"Theron commented on the subject matter, saying: \\\"I don't want to get married because right now the institution of marriage feels very one-sided, and I want to live in a country where we all have equal rights.\",\n \"I think it would be exactly the same if we were married, but for me to go through that kind of ceremony, because I have so many friends who are gays and lesbians who would so badly want to get married, that I wouldn't be able to sleep with myself.\\\"\",\n \"Theron further elaborated on her stance in a June 2011 interview on ''Piers Morgan Tonight''.\",\n \"She stated: \\\"I do have a problem with the fact that our government hasn't stepped up enough to make this federal, to make gay marriage legal.\",\n \"I think everybody has that right.\\\"\",\n \"In March 2014, CTAOP was among the charities that benefited from the annual Fame and Philanthropy fundraising event on the night of the 86th Academy Awards.\",\n \"Theron was an honoured guest along with Halle Berry and keynote speaker James Cameron.\",\n \"In 2015, Theron signed an open letter which the ONE Campaign had been collecting signatures for; the letter was addressed to Angela Merkel and Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the G7 in Germany and the AU in South Africa respectively, which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main UN summit in September 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation.\",\n \"===Endorsements===\\nHaving signed a deal with John Galliano in 2004, Theron replaced Estonian model Tiiu Kuik as the spokeswoman in the \\\"J'adore\\\" advertisements by Christian Dior.\",\n \"From October 2005 to December 2006, Theron earned US$3 million for the use of her image in a worldwide print media advertising campaign for Raymond Weil watches.\",\n \"In February 2006, she and her corporate entity were sued by Weil for breach of contract.\",\n \"The lawsuit was settled on 4 November 2008.\",\n \"Theron at the 2008 Meteor Awards\\n\\nTheron dated Irish actor Stuart Townsend after meeting him on the set of 2002's ''Trapped''.\",\n \"The couple lived together in Los Angeles and Ireland.\",\n \"Theron split from Townsend when she came back from a holiday in Mexico in January 2010.\",\n \"In 2007, Theron became a naturalized citizen of the United States, while retaining her South African citizenship.\",\n \"Theron has two children, both adopted.\",\n \"In March 2012, she adopted a boy.\",\n \"In July 2015, she adopted a girl.\",\n \"She lives in Los Angeles.\",\n \"===Health concerns===\\nAs a child, Theron had suffered from jaundice and due to antibiotics her teeth had rotted away and had to be removed.\",\n \"In an interview, she said \\\"sic I had no teeth until I was 11.\",\n \"I had these fangs because I had jaundice when I was a kid and I was put on so many antibiotics that my teeth rotted.\",\n \"They had to cut them out.\",\n \"So I never had baby teeth.\\\"\",\n \"While filming ''Æon Flux'' in Berlin, Germany, Theron suffered a herniated disc in her neck, caused by a fall while filming a series of back handsprings.\",\n \"It required her to wear a neck brace for a month.\",\n \"In July 2009, she was diagnosed with a serious stomach virus, thought to be contracted while overseas.\",\n \"While filming ''The Road'', Theron injured her vocal cords during the labour screaming scenes.\",\n \"\\n\\n* \\n* Charlize Theron at Encyclopædia Britannica\\n* \\n* \\n* Charlize Theron at Who's Who Southern Africa\\n* Charlize Theron at AskMen\\n* Charlize Theron at Emmys.com\\n* Charlize Theron (Aveleyman)\\n* @CharlizeAfrica (Verified Twitter Account)\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"finance"}}},{"rowIdx":287,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Sir Charles Spencer \"Charlie\" Chaplin''', (16 April 1889 – 25 December 1977) was an English comic actor, filmmaker, and composer who rose to fame in the era of silent film. Chaplin became a worldwide icon through his screen persona \"the Tramp\" and is considered one of the most important figures in the history of the film industry. His career spanned more than 75 years, from childhood in the Victorian era until a year before his death in 1977, and encompassed both adulation and controversy.\n\nChaplin's childhood in London was one of poverty and hardship. As his father was absent and his mother struggled financially, he was sent to a workhouse twice before the age of nine. When he was 14, his mother was committed to a mental asylum. Chaplin began performing at an early age, touring music halls and later working as a stage actor and comedian. At 19, he was signed to the prestigious Fred Karno company, which took him to America. Chaplin was scouted for the film industry and began appearing in 1914 for Keystone Studios. He soon developed the Tramp persona and formed a large fan base. Chaplin directed his own films from an early stage and continued to hone his craft as he moved to the Essanay, Mutual, and First National corporations. By 1918, he was one of the best-known figures in the world.\n\nIn 1919, Chaplin co-founded the distribution company United Artists, which gave him complete control over his films. His first feature-length was ''The Kid'' (1921), followed by ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923), ''The Gold Rush'' (1925), and ''The Circus'' (1928). He refused to move to sound films in the 1930s, instead producing ''City Lights'' (1931) and ''Modern Times'' (1936) without dialogue. Chaplin became increasingly political, and his next film, ''The Great Dictator'' (1940), satirised Adolf Hitler. The 1940s were a decade marked with controversy for Chaplin, and his popularity declined rapidly. He was accused of communist sympathies, while his involvement in a paternity suit and marriages to much younger women caused scandal. An FBI investigation was opened, and Chaplin was forced to leave the United States and settle in Switzerland. He abandoned the Tramp in his later films, which include ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947), ''Limelight'' (1952), ''A King in New York'' (1957), and ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967).\n\nChaplin wrote, directed, produced, edited, starred in, and composed the music for most of his films. He was a perfectionist, and his financial independence enabled him to spend years on the development and production of a picture. His films are characterised by slapstick combined with pathos, typified in the Tramp's struggles against adversity. Many contain social and political themes, as well as autobiographical elements. In 1972, as part of a renewed appreciation for his work, Chaplin received an Honorary Academy Award for \"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\". He continues to be held in high regard, with ''The Gold Rush'', ''City Lights'', ''Modern Times'', and ''The Great Dictator'' often ranked on industry lists of the greatest films of all time.\n","===1889–1913: Early years===\n\n====Background and childhood hardship====\nCharles Spencer Chaplin was born on 16 April 1889 to Hannah Chaplin (born Hannah Harriet Pedlingham Hill) and Charles Chaplin Sr. There is no official record of his birth, although Chaplin believed he was born at East Street, Walworth, in South London. His mother and father had married four years previously, at which time Charles Sr. became the legal carer of Hannah's illegitimate son, Sydney John Hill. At the time of his birth, Chaplin's parents were both music hall entertainers. Hannah, the daughter of a shoemaker, had a brief and unsuccessful career under the stage name Lily Harley, while Charles Sr., a butcher's son, was a popular singer. Although they never divorced, Chaplin's parents were estranged by around 1891. The following year, Hannah gave birth to a third son – George Wheeler Dryden – fathered by the music hall entertainer Leo Dryden. The child was taken by Dryden at six months old, and did not re-enter Chaplin's life for 30 years.\n\nSeven-year-old Chaplin (lower centre) at the Central London District School for paupers, 1897\n\nChaplin's childhood was fraught with poverty and hardship, making his eventual trajectory \"the most dramatic of all the rags to riches stories ever told\" according to his authorised biographer David Robinson. Chaplin's early years were spent with his mother and brother Sydney in the London district of Kennington; Hannah had no means of income, other than occasional nursing and dressmaking, and Chaplin Sr. provided no financial support. As the situation deteriorated, Chaplin was sent to Lambeth Workhouse when he was seven years old. The council housed him at the Central London District School for paupers, which Chaplin remembered as \"a forlorn existence\". He was briefly reunited with his mother 18 months later, before Hannah was forced to readmit her family to the workhouse in July 1898. The boys were promptly sent to Norwood Schools, another institution for destitute children.\n\n\n\nIn September 1898, Hannah was committed to Cane Hill mental asylum – she had developed a psychosis seemingly brought on by an infection of syphilis and malnutrition. For the two months she was there, Chaplin and his brother Sydney were sent to live with their father, whom the young boys scarcely knew. Charles Sr. was by then a severe alcoholic, and life there was bad enough to provoke a visit from the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. Chaplin's father died two years later, at 38 years old, from cirrhosis of the liver.\n\nHannah entered a period of remission but, in May 1903, became ill again. Chaplin, then 14, had the task of taking his mother to the infirmary, from where she was sent back to Cane Hill. He lived alone for several days, searching for food and occasionally sleeping rough, until Sydney – who had enrolled in the Navy two years earlier – returned. Hannah was released from the asylum eight months later, but in March 1905, her illness returned, this time permanently. \"There was nothing we could do but accept poor mother's fate\", Chaplin later wrote, and she remained in care until her death in 1928.\n\n====Young performer====\nSherlock Holmes'', in which he appeared between 1903 and 1906\n\nBetween his time in the poor schools and his mother succumbing to mental illness, Chaplin began to perform on stage. He later recalled making his first amateur appearance at the age of five years, when he took over from Hannah one night in Aldershot. This was an isolated occurrence, but by the time he was nine Chaplin had, with his mother's encouragement, grown interested in performing. He later wrote: \"she imbued me with the feeling that I had some sort of talent\". Through his father's connections, Chaplin became a member of the Eight Lancashire Lads clog-dancing troupe, with whom he toured English music halls throughout 1899 and 1900. Chaplin worked hard, and the act was popular with audiences, but he was not satisfied with dancing and wished to form a comedy act.\n\nIn the years Chaplin was touring with the Eight Lancashire Lads, his mother ensured that he still attended school but, by age 13, he had abandoned education. He supported himself with a range of jobs, while nursing his ambition to become an actor. At 14, shortly after his mother's relapse, he registered with a theatrical agency in London's West End. The manager sensed potential in Chaplin, who was promptly given his first role as a newsboy in Harry Arthur Saintsbury's ''Jim, a Romance of Cockayne''. It opened in July 1903, but the show was unsuccessful and closed after two weeks. Chaplin's comic performance, however, was singled out for praise in many of the reviews.\n\nSaintsbury secured a role for Chaplin in Charles Frohman's production of ''Sherlock Holmes'', where he played Billy the pageboy in three nationwide tours. His performance was so well received that he was called to London to play the role alongside William Gillette, the original Holmes. \"It was like tidings from heaven\", Chaplin recalled. At 16 years old, Chaplin starred in the play's West End production at the Duke of York's Theatre from October to December 1905. He completed one final tour of ''Sherlock Holmes'' in early 1906, before leaving the play after more than two-and-a-half years.\n\n====Stage comedy and vaudeville====\nChaplin soon found work with a new company, and went on tour with his brother – who was also pursuing an acting career – in a comedy sketch called ''Repairs''. In May 1906, Chaplin joined the juvenile act ''Casey's Circus'', where he developed popular burlesque pieces and was soon the star of the show. By the time the act finished touring in July 1907, the 18-year-old had become an accomplished comedic performer. He struggled to find more work, however, and a brief attempt at a solo act was a failure.\n\nAdvertisement from Chaplin's American tour with the Fred Karno comedy company, 1913\n\nMeanwhile, Sydney Chaplin had joined Fred Karno's prestigious comedy company in 1906 and, by 1908, he was one of their key performers. In February, he managed to secure a two-week trial for his younger brother. Karno was initially wary, and considered Chaplin a \"pale, puny, sullen-looking youngster\" who \"looked much too shy to do any good in the theatre.\" However, the teenager made an impact on his first night at the London Coliseum and he was quickly signed to a contract. Chaplin began by playing a series of minor parts, eventually progressing to starring roles in 1909. In April 1910, he was given the lead in a new sketch, ''Jimmy the Fearless''. It was a big success, and Chaplin received considerable press attention.\n\nKarno selected his new star to join the section of the company, one that also included Stan Laurel, that toured North America's vaudeville circuit. The young comedian headed the show and impressed reviewers, being described as \"one of the best pantomime artists ever seen here\". His most successful role was a drunk called the \"Inebriate Swell\", which drew him significant recognition. The tour lasted 21 months, and the troupe returned to England in June 1912. Chaplin recalled that he \"had a disquieting feeling of sinking back into a depressing commonplaceness\" and was, therefore, delighted when a new tour began in October.\n\n===1914–1917: Entering films===\n====Keystone====\n\nSix months into the second American tour, Chaplin was invited to join the New York Motion Picture Company. A representative who had seen his performances thought he could replace Fred Mace, a star of their Keystone Studios who intended to leave. Chaplin thought the Keystone comedies \"a crude mélange of rough and rumble\", but liked the idea of working in films and rationalised: \"Besides, it would mean a new life.\" He met with the company and signed a $150-per-week ($ in dollars) contract in September 1913.\n\n\n\nChaplin arrived in Los Angeles, home of the Keystone studio, in early December 1913. His boss was Mack Sennett, who initially expressed concern that the 24-year-old looked too young. He was not used in a picture until late January, during which time Chaplin attempted to learn the processes of filmmaking. The one-reeler ''Making a Living'' marked his film acting debut and was released on 2 February 1914. Chaplin strongly disliked the picture, but one review picked him out as \"a comedian of the first water\". For his second appearance in front of the camera, Chaplin selected the costume with which he became identified. He described the process in his autobiography:\n\n\n\nThe film was ''Mabel's Strange Predicament'', but \"the Tramp\" character, as it became known, debuted to audiences in ''Kid Auto Races at Venice'' – shot later than ''Mabel's Strange Predicament'' but released two days earlier. Chaplin adopted the character as his screen persona and attempted to make suggestions for the films he appeared in. These ideas were dismissed by his directors. During the filming of his eleventh picture, ''Mabel at the Wheel'', he clashed with director Mabel Normand and was almost released from his contract. Sennett kept him on, however, when he received orders from exhibitors for more Chaplin films. Sennett also allowed Chaplin to direct his next film himself after Chaplin promised to pay $1,500 ($ in dollars) if the film was unsuccessful.\n\n''Caught in the Rain'', issued 4 May 1914, was Chaplin's directorial debut and was highly successful. Thereafter he directed almost every short film in which he appeared for Keystone, at the rate of approximately one per week, a period which he later remembered as the most exciting time of his career. Chaplin's films introduced a slower form of comedy than the typical Keystone farce, and he developed a large fan base. In November 1914, he had a supporting role in the first feature length comedy film, ''Tillie's Punctured Romance'', directed by Sennett and starring Marie Dressler, which was a commercial success and increased his popularity. When Chaplin's contract came up for renewal at the end of the year, he asked for $1,000 a week ($ in dollars) – an amount Sennett refused as too large.\n\n====Essanay====\nChaplin and Edna Purviance, his regular leading lady, in ''Work'' (1915)\n\nThe Essanay Film Manufacturing Company of Chicago sent Chaplin an offer of $1,250 a week with a signing bonus of $10,000. He joined the studio in late December 1914, where he began forming a stock company of regular players, including Leo White, Bud Jamison, Paddy McGuire and Billy Armstrong. He soon recruited a leading lady – Edna Purviance, whom Chaplin met in a cafe and hired on account of her beauty. She went on to appear in 35 films with Chaplin over eight years; the pair also formed a romantic relationship that lasted into 1917.\n\nChaplin asserted a high level of control over his pictures and started to put more time and care into each film. There was a month-long interval between the release of his second production, ''A Night Out'', and his third, ''The Champion''. The final seven of Chaplin's 14 Essanay films were all produced at this slower pace. Chaplin also began to alter his screen persona, which had attracted some criticism at Keystone for its \"mean, crude, and brutish\" nature. The character became more gentle and romantic; ''The Tramp'' (April 1915) was considered a particular turning point in his development. The use of pathos was developed further with ''The Bank'', in which Chaplin created a sad ending. Robinson notes that this was an innovation in comedy films, and marked the time when serious critics began to appreciate Chaplin's work. At Essanay, writes film scholar Simon Louvish, Chaplin \"found the themes and the settings that would define the Tramp's world.\"\n\nDuring 1915, Chaplin became a cultural phenomenon. Shops were stocked with Chaplin merchandise, he was featured in cartoons and comic strips, and several songs were written about him. In July, a journalist for ''Motion Picture Magazine'' wrote that \"Chaplinitis\" had spread across America. As his fame grew worldwide, he became the film industry's first international star. When the Essanay contract ended in December 1915, Chaplin – fully aware of his popularity – requested a $150,000 signing bonus from his next studio. He received several offers, including Universal, Fox, and Vitagraph, the best of which came from the Mutual Film Corporation at $10,000 a week.\n\n====Mutual====\nBy 1916, Chaplin was a global phenomenon. Here he shows off some of his merchandise, c. 1918.\n\nA contract was negotiated with Mutual that amounted to $670,000 a year, which Robinson says made Chaplin – at 26 years old – one of the highest paid people in the world. The high salary shocked the public and was widely reported in the press. John R. Freuler, the studio president, explained: \"We can afford to pay Mr. Chaplin this large sum annually because the public wants Chaplin and will pay for him.\"\n\nMutual gave Chaplin his own Los Angeles studio to work in, which opened in March 1916. He added two key members to his stock company, Albert Austin and Eric Campbell, and produced a series of elaborate two-reelers: ''The Floorwalker'', ''The Fireman'', ''The Vagabond'', ''One A.M.'', and ''The Count''. For ''The Pawnshop'', he recruited the actor Henry Bergman, who was to work with Chaplin for 30 years. ''Behind the Screen'' and ''The Rink'' completed Chaplin's releases for 1916. The Mutual contract stipulated that he release a two-reel film every four weeks, which he had managed to achieve. With the new year, however, Chaplin began to demand more time. He made only four more films for Mutual over the first ten months of 1917: ''Easy Street'', ''The Cure'', ''The Immigrant'', and ''The Adventurer''. With their careful construction, these films are considered by Chaplin scholars to be among his finest work. Later in life, Chaplin referred to his Mutual years as the happiest period of his career. However, Chaplin also felt that those films became increasingly formulaic over the period of the contract and he was increasingly dissatisfied with the working conditions encouraging that. \n\n\nChaplin was attacked in the British media for not fighting in the First World War. He defended himself, revealing that he would fight for Britain if called and had registered for the American draft, but he was not summoned by either country. Despite this criticism Chaplin was a favourite with the troops, and his popularity continued to grow worldwide. ''Harper's Weekly'' reported that the name of Charlie Chaplin was \"a part of the common language of almost every country\", and that the Tramp image was \"universally familiar\". In 1917, professional Chaplin imitators were so widespread that he took legal action, and it was reported that nine out of ten men who attended costume parties dressed as the Tramp. The same year, a study by the Boston Society for Psychical Research concluded that Chaplin was \"an American obsession\". The actress Minnie Maddern Fiske wrote that \"a constantly increasing body of cultured, artistic people are beginning to regard the young English buffoon, Charles Chaplin, as an extraordinary artist, as well as a comic genius\".\n\n===1918–1922: First National===\n''A Dog's Life'' (1918). It was around this time that Chaplin began to conceive the Tramp as \"a sort of Pierrot\", or sad clown.\n\nMutual were patient with Chaplin's decreased rate of output, and the contract ended amicably. With his aforementioned concern about the declining quality of his films because of contract scheduling stipulations, Chaplin's primary concern in finding a new distributor was independence; Sydney Chaplin, then his business manager, told the press, \"Charlie must be allowed all the time he needs and all the money for producing films the way he wants ... It is quality, not quantity, we are after.\" In June 1917, Chaplin signed to complete eight films for First National Exhibitors' Circuit in return for $1 million. He chose to build his own studio, situated on five acres of land off Sunset Boulevard, with production facilities of the highest order. It was completed in January 1918, and Chaplin was given freedom over the making of his pictures.\n\n''A Dog's Life'', released April 1918, was the first film under the new contract. In it, Chaplin demonstrated his increasing concern with story construction and his treatment of the Tramp as \"a sort of Pierrot\". The film was described by Louis Delluc as \"cinema's first total work of art\". Chaplin then embarked on the Third Liberty Bond campaign, touring the United States for one month to raise money for the Allies of the First World War. He also produced a short propaganda film, donated to the government for fund-raising, called ''The Bond''. Chaplin's next release was war-based, placing the Tramp in the trenches for ''Shoulder Arms''. Associates warned him against making a comedy about the war but, as he later recalled: \"Dangerous or not, the idea excited me.\" He spent four months filming the 45-minute-long picture, which was released in October 1918 with great success.\n\n====United Artists, Mildred Harris, and ''The Kid''====\nAfter the release of ''Shoulder Arms'', Chaplin requested more money from First National, which was refused. Frustrated with their lack of concern for quality, and worried about rumours of a possible merger between the company and Famous Players-Lasky, Chaplin joined forces with Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pickford, and D. W. Griffith to form a new distribution company – United Artists, established in January 1919. The arrangement was revolutionary in the film industry, as it enabled the four partners – all creative artists – to personally fund their pictures and have complete control. Chaplin was eager to start with the new company and offered to buy out his contract with First National. They declined this and insisted that he complete the final six films he owed them.\n\nThe Kid'' (1921), with Jackie Coogan, combined comedy with drama and was Chaplin's first film to exceed an hour.\n\nBefore the creation of United Artists, Chaplin married for the first time. The 17-year-old actress Mildred Harris had revealed that she was pregnant with his child, and in September 1918, he married her quietly in Los Angeles to avoid controversy. Soon after, the pregnancy was found to be a false alarm. Chaplin was unhappy with the union and, feeling that marriage stunted his creativity, struggled over the production of his film ''Sunnyside''. Harris was by then legitimately pregnant, and on 7 July 1919, gave birth to a son. Norman Spencer Chaplin was born malformed and died three days later. The marriage eventually ended in April 1920, with Chaplin explaining in his autobiography that they were \"irreconcilably mismated\".\n\nLosing a child is thought to have influenced Chaplin's work, as he planned a film which turned the Tramp into the caretaker of a young boy. For this new venture, Chaplin also wished to do more than comedy and, according to Louvish, \"make his mark on a changed world.\" Filming on ''The Kid'' began in August 1919, with four-year-old Jackie Coogan his co-star. It occurred to Chaplin that it was turning into a large project, so to placate First National, he halted production and quickly filmed ''A Day's Pleasure''. ''The Kid'' was in production for nine months until May 1920 and, at 68 minutes, it was Chaplin's longest picture to date. Dealing with issues of poverty and parent–child separation, ''The Kid'' is thought to have been influenced by Chaplin's own childhood and was one of the earliest films to combine comedy and drama. It was released in January 1921 with instant success, and, by 1924, had been screened in over 50 countries.\n\nChaplin spent five months on his next film, the two-reeler ''The Idle Class''. Following its September 1921 release, he chose to return to England for the first time in almost a decade. He then worked to fulfil his First National contract, releasing ''Pay Day'' in February 1922. ''The Pilgrim'' – his final short film – was delayed by distribution disagreements with the studio, and released a year later.\n\n===1923–1938: Silent features===\n====''A Woman of Paris'' and ''The Gold Rush''====\n\nHaving fulfilled his First National contract, Chaplin was free to make his first picture as an independent producer. In November 1922, he began filming ''A Woman of Paris'', a romantic drama about ill-fated lovers. Chaplin intended it to be a star-making vehicle for Edna Purviance, and did not appear in the picture himself other than in a brief, uncredited cameo. He wished for the film to have a realistic feel and directed his cast to give restrained performances. In real life, he explained, \"men and women try to hide their emotions rather than seek to express them\". ''A Woman of Paris'' premiered in September 1923 and was acclaimed for its subtle approach, then an innovation. The public, however, seemed to have little interest in a Chaplin film without his presence, and it was a box office disappointment. The filmmaker was hurt by this failure – he had long wanted to produce a dramatic film and was proud of the result – and withdrew ''A Woman of Paris'' from circulation as soon as he could.\n\nThe Tramp resorts to eating his boot in a famous scene from ''The Gold Rush'' (1925).\n\nChaplin returned to comedy for his next project. Setting his standards high, he told himself: \"This next film must be an epic! The Greatest!\" Inspired by a photograph of the 1898 Klondike Gold Rush, and later the story of the Donner Party of 1846–47, he made what Geoffrey Macnab calls \"an epic comedy out of grim subject matter.\" In ''The Gold Rush'', the Tramp is a lonely prospector fighting adversity and looking for love. With Georgia Hale as his new leading lady, Chaplin began filming the picture in February 1924. Its elaborate production, costing almost $1 million, included location shooting in the Truckee mountains with 600 extras, extravagant sets, and special effects. The last scene was not shot until May 1925, after 15 months of filming.\n\nChaplin felt ''The Gold Rush'' was the best film he had made to that point. It opened in August 1925 and became one of the highest-grossing films of the silent era with a profit of $5 million. The comedy contains some of Chaplin's most famous sequences, such as the Tramp eating his shoe and the \"Dance of the Rolls\". Macnab has called it \"the quintessential Chaplin film\". Chaplin stated, \"This is the picture that I want to be remembered by\" at the time of the film's release.\n\n====Lita Grey and ''The Circus''====\nLita Grey, whose bitter divorce from Chaplin caused a scandal\n\nWhile making ''The Gold Rush'', Chaplin married for the second time. Mirroring the circumstances of his first union, Lita Grey was a teenage actress, originally set to star in the film, whose surprise announcement of pregnancy forced Chaplin into marriage. She was 16 and he was 35, meaning Chaplin could have been charged with statutory rape under California law. He therefore arranged a discreet marriage in Mexico on 25 November 1924. Their first son, Charles Spencer Chaplin, Jr., was born on 5 May 1925, followed by Sydney Earl Chaplin on 30 March 1926.\n\nIt was an unhappy marriage, and Chaplin spent long hours at the studio to avoid seeing his wife. In November 1926, Grey took the children and left the family home. A bitter divorce followed, in which Grey's application – accusing Chaplin of infidelity, abuse, and of harbouring \"perverted sexual desires\" – was leaked to the press. Chaplin was reported to be in a state of nervous breakdown, as the story became headline news and groups formed across America calling for his films to be banned. Eager to end the case without further scandal, Chaplin's lawyers agreed to a cash settlement of $600,000the largest awarded by American courts at that time. His fan base was strong enough to survive the incident, and it was soon forgotten, but Chaplin was deeply affected by it.\n\nBefore the divorce suit was filed, Chaplin had begun work on a new film, ''The Circus''. He built a story around the idea of walking a tightrope while besieged by monkeys, and turned the Tramp into the accidental star of a circus. Filming was suspended for 10 months while he dealt with the divorce scandal, and it was generally a trouble-ridden production. Finally completed in October 1927, ''The Circus'' was released in January 1928 to a positive reception. At the 1st Academy Awards, Chaplin was given a special trophy \"For versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing and producing ''The Circus''\". Despite its success, he permanently associated the film with the stress of its production; Chaplin omitted ''The Circus'' from his autobiography, and struggled to work on it when he recorded the score in his later years.\n\n====''City Lights''====\n\n\nBy the time ''The Circus'' was released, Hollywood had witnessed the introduction of sound films. Chaplin was cynical about this new medium and the technical shortcomings it presented, believing that \"talkies\" lacked the artistry of silent films. He was also hesitant to change the formula that had brought him such success, and feared that giving the Tramp a voice would limit his international appeal. He, therefore, rejected the new Hollywood craze and began work on a new silent film. Chaplin was nonetheless anxious about this decision and remained so throughout the film's production.\n\n''City Lights'' (1931), regarded as one of Chaplin's finest works\n\nWhen filming began at the end of 1928, Chaplin had been working on the story for almost a year. ''City Lights'' followed the Tramp's love for a blind flower girl (played by Virginia Cherrill) and his efforts to raise money for her sight-saving operation. It was a challenging production that lasted 21 months, with Chaplin later confessing that he \"had worked himself into a neurotic state of wanting perfection\". One advantage Chaplin found in sound technology was the opportunity to record a musical score for the film, which he composed himself.\n\nChaplin finished editing ''City Lights'' in December 1930, by which time silent films were an anachronism. A preview before an unsuspecting public audience was not a success, but a showing for the press produced positive reviews. One journalist wrote, \"Nobody in the world but Charlie Chaplin could have done it. He is the only person that has that peculiar something called 'audience appeal' in sufficient quality to defy the popular penchant for movies that talk.\" Given its general release in January 1931, ''City Lights'' proved to be a popular and financial success – eventually grossing over $3 million. The British Film Institute cites it as Chaplin's finest accomplishment, and the critic James Agee hails the closing scene as \"the greatest piece of acting and the highest moment in movies\". ''City Lights'' became Chaplin's personal favourite of his films and remained so throughout his life.\n\n====Travels, Paulette Goddard, and ''Modern Times''====\n''City Lights'' had been a success, but Chaplin was unsure if he could make another picture without dialogue. He remained convinced that sound would not work in his films, but was also \"obsessed by a depressing fear of being old-fashioned.\" In this state of uncertainty, early in 1931, the comedian decided to take a holiday and ended up travelling for 16 months. In his autobiography, Chaplin recalled that on his return to Los Angeles, \"I was confused and without plan, restless and conscious of an extreme loneliness\". He briefly considered retiring and moving to China.\n\nModern Times'' (1936), described by Jérôme Larcher as a \"grim contemplation on the automatization of the individual\"\n\nChaplin's loneliness was relieved when he met 21-year-old actress Paulette Goddard in July 1932, and the pair began a successful relationship. He was not ready to commit to a film, however, and focused on writing a serial about his travels (published in ''Woman's Home Companion''). The trip had been a stimulating experience for Chaplin, including meetings with several prominent thinkers, and he became increasingly interested in world affairs. The state of labour in America troubled him, and he feared that capitalism and machinery in the workplace would increase unemployment levels. It was these concerns that stimulated Chaplin to develop his new film.\n\n''Modern Times'' was announced by Chaplin as \"a satire on certain phases of our industrial life.\" Featuring the Tramp and Goddard as they endure the Great Depression, it took ten and a half months to film. Chaplin intended to use spoken dialogue but changed his mind during rehearsals. Like its predecessor, ''Modern Times'' employed sound effects but almost no speaking. Chaplin's performance of a gibberish song did, however, give the Tramp a voice for the only time on film. After recording the music, Chaplin released ''Modern Times'' in February 1936. It was his first feature in 15 years to adopt political references and social realism, a factor that attracted considerable press coverage despite Chaplin's attempts to downplay the issue. The film earned less at the box-office than his previous features and received mixed reviews, as some viewers disliked the politicising. Today, ''Modern Times'' is seen by the British Film Institute as one of Chaplin's \"great features,\" while David Robinson says it shows the filmmaker at \"his unrivalled peak as a creator of visual comedy.\"\n\nFollowing the release of ''Modern Times'', Chaplin left with Goddard for a trip to the Far East. The couple had refused to comment on the nature of their relationship, and it was not known whether they were married or not. Some time later, Chaplin revealed that they married in Canton during this trip. By 1938, the couple had drifted apart, as both focused heavily on their work, although Goddard was again his leading lady in his next feature film, ''The Great Dictator''. She eventually divorced Chaplin in Mexico in 1942, citing incompatibility and separation for more than a year.\n\n===1939–1952: Controversies and fading popularity===\n====''The Great Dictator''====\nChaplin satirising Adolf Hitler in ''The Great Dictator'' (1940)\n\nThe 1940s saw Chaplin face a series of controversies, both in his work and in his personal life, which changed his fortunes and severely affected his popularity in the United States. The first of these was his growing boldness in expressing his political beliefs. Deeply disturbed by the surge of militaristic nationalism in 1930s world politics, Chaplin found that he could not keep these issues out of his work. Parallels between himself and Adolf Hitler had been widely noted: the pair were born four days apart, both had risen from poverty to world prominence, and Hitler wore the same toothbrush moustache as Chaplin. It was this physical resemblance that supplied the plot for Chaplin's next film, ''The Great Dictator'', which directly satirised Hitler and attacked fascism.\n\nChaplin spent two years developing the script, and began filming in September 1939 – six days after Britain declared war on Germany. He had submitted to using spoken dialogue, partly out of acceptance that he had no other choice, but also because he recognised it as a better method for delivering a political message. Making a comedy about Hitler was seen as highly controversial, but Chaplin's financial independence allowed him to take the risk. \"I was determined to go ahead,\" he later wrote, \"for Hitler must be laughed at.\" Chaplin replaced the Tramp (while wearing similar attire) with \"A Jewish Barber\", a reference to the Nazi party's belief that he was Jewish. In a dual performance, he also played the dictator \"Adenoid Hynkel\", who parodied Hitler.\n\n''The Great Dictator'' spent a year in production and was released in October 1940. The film generated a vast amount of publicity, with a critic for ''The New York Times'' calling it \"the most eagerly awaited picture of the year\", and it was one of the biggest money-makers of the era. The ending was unpopular, however, and generated controversy. Chaplin concluded the film with a five-minute speech in which he abandoned his barber character, looked directly into the camera, and pleaded against war and fascism. Charles J. Maland has identified this overt preaching as triggering a decline in Chaplin's popularity, and writes, \"Henceforth, no movie fan would ever be able to separate the dimension of politics from his star image\". ''The Great Dictator'' received five Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Original Screenplay and Best Actor.\n\n====Legal troubles and Oona O'Neill====\nIn the mid-1940s, Chaplin was involved in a series of trials that occupied most of his time and significantly affected his public image. The troubles stemmed from his affair with an aspirant actress named Joan Barry, with whom he was involved intermittently between June 1941 and the autumn of 1942. Barry, who displayed obsessive behaviour and was twice arrested after they separated, reappeared the following year and announced that she was pregnant with Chaplin's child. As Chaplin denied the claim, Barry filed a paternity suit against him.\n\nThe director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), J. Edgar Hoover, who had long been suspicious of Chaplin's political leanings, used the opportunity to generate negative publicity about him. As part of a smear campaign to damage Chaplin's image, the FBI named him in four indictments related to the Barry case. Most serious of these was an alleged violation of the Mann Act, which prohibits the transportation of women across state boundaries for sexual purposes. The historian Otto Friedrich has called this an \"absurd prosecution\" of an \"ancient statute\", yet if Chaplin was found guilty, he faced 23 years in jail. Three charges lacked sufficient evidence to proceed to court, but the Mann Act trial began in March 1944. Chaplin was acquitted two weeks later. The case was frequently headline news, with ''Newsweek'' calling it the \"biggest public relations scandal since the Fatty Arbuckle murder trial in 1921.\"\n\nChaplin's fourth wife Oona O'Neill, to whom he was married from 1943 until his death. The couple had eight children.\n\nBarry's child, Carole Ann, was born in October 1944, and the paternity suit went to court in February 1945. After two arduous trials, in which the prosecuting lawyer accused him of \"moral turpitude\", Chaplin was declared to be the father. Evidence from blood tests which indicated otherwise were not admissible, and the judge ordered Chaplin to pay child support until Carole Ann turned 21. Media coverage of the paternity suit was influenced by the FBI, as information was fed to the prominent gossip columnist Hedda Hopper, and Chaplin was portrayed in an overwhelmingly critical light.\n\nThe controversy surrounding Chaplin increased when, two weeks after the paternity suit was filed, it was announced that he had married his newest protégée, 18-year-old Oona O'Neill – daughter of the American playwright Eugene O'Neill. Chaplin, then 54, had been introduced to her by a film agent seven months earlier. In his autobiography, Chaplin described meeting O'Neill as \"the happiest event of my life\", and claimed to have found \"perfect love\". Chaplin's son, Charles Jr., reported that Oona \"worshipped\" his father. The couple remained married until Chaplin's death, and had eight children over 18 years: Geraldine Leigh (b. July 1944), Michael John (b. March 1946), Josephine Hannah (b. March 1949), Victoria (b. May 1951), Eugene Anthony (b. August 1953), Jane Cecil (b. May 1957), Annette Emily (b. December 1959), and Christopher James (b. July 1962).\n\n====''Monsieur Verdoux'' and communist accusations====\n''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947), a dark comedy about a serial killer, marked a significant departure for Chaplin. He was so unpopular at the time of release that it flopped in the United States.\n\nChaplin claimed that the Barry trials had \"crippled his creativeness\", and it was some time before he began working again. In April 1946, he finally began filming a project that had been in development since 1942. ''Monsieur Verdoux'' was a black comedy, the story of a French bank clerk, Verdoux (Chaplin), who loses his job and begins marrying and murdering wealthy widows to support his family. Chaplin's inspiration for the project came from Orson Welles, who wanted him to star in a film about the French serial killer Henri Désiré Landru. Chaplin decided that the concept would \"make a wonderful comedy\", and paid Welles $5,000 for the idea.\n\nChaplin again vocalised his political views in ''Monsieur Verdoux'', criticising capitalism and arguing that the world encourages mass killing through wars and weapons of mass destruction. Because of this, the film met with controversy when it was released in April 1947; Chaplin was booed at the premiere, and there were calls for a boycott. ''Monsieur Verdoux'' was the first Chaplin release that failed both critically and commercially in the United States. It was more successful abroad, and Chaplin's screenplay was nominated at the Academy Awards. He was proud of the film, writing in his autobiography, \"''Monsieur Verdoux'' is the cleverest and most brilliant film I have yet made.\"\n\nThe negative reaction to ''Monsieur Verdoux'' was largely the result of changes in Chaplin's public image. Along with damage of the Joan Barry scandal, he was publicly accused of being a communist. His political activity had heightened during World War II, when he campaigned for the opening of a Second Front to help the Soviet Union and supported various Soviet–American friendship groups. He was also friendly with several suspected communists, and attended functions given by Soviet diplomats in Los Angeles. In the political climate of 1940s America, such activities meant Chaplin was considered, as Larcher writes, \"dangerously progressive and amoral.\" The FBI wanted him out of the country, and launched an official investigation in early 1947.\n\nChaplin denied being a communist, instead calling himself a \"peacemonger\", but felt the government's effort to suppress the ideology was an unacceptable infringement of civil liberties. Unwilling to be quiet about the issue, he openly protested against the trials of Communist Party members and the activities of the House Un-American Activities Committee. Chaplin received a subpoena to appear before HUAC but was not called to testify. As his activities were widely reported in the press, and Cold War fears grew, questions were raised over his failure to take American citizenship. Calls were made for him to be deported; in one extreme and widely published example, Representative John E. Rankin, who helped establish HUAC, told Congress in June 1947: \"Chaplin's very life in Hollywood is detrimental to the moral fabric of America. If he is deported ... his loathsome pictures can be kept from before the eyes of the American youth. He should be deported and gotten rid of at once.\"\n\n====''Limelight'' and banning from the United States====\nLimelight'' (1952) was a serious and autobiographical film for Chaplin: his character, Calvero, is an ex music hall star (described in this image as a \"Tramp Comedian\") forced to deal with his loss of popularity.\n\nAlthough Chaplin remained politically active in the years following the failure of ''Monsieur Verdoux'', his next film, about a forgotten vaudeville comedian and a young ballerina in Edwardian London, was devoid of political themes. ''Limelight'' was heavily autobiographical, alluding not only to Chaplin's childhood and the lives of his parents, but also to his loss of popularity in the United States. The cast included various members of his family, including his five oldest children and his half-brother, Wheeler Dryden.\n\nFilming began in November 1951, by which time Chaplin had spent three years working on the story. He aimed for a more serious tone than any of his previous films, regularly using the word \"melancholy\" when explaining his plans to his co-star Claire Bloom. ''Limelight'' featured a cameo appearance from Buster Keaton, whom Chaplin cast as his stage partner in a pantomime scene. This marked the only time the comedians worked together.\n\nChaplin decided to hold the world premiere of ''Limelight'' in London, since it was the setting of the film. As he left Los Angeles, he expressed a premonition that he would not be returning. At New York, he boarded the with his family on 18 September 1952. The next day, attorney general James P. McGranery revoked Chaplin's re-entry permit and stated that he would have to submit to an interview concerning his political views and moral behaviour in order to re-enter the US. Although McGranery told the press that he had \"a pretty good case against Chaplin\", Maland has concluded, on the basis of the FBI files that were released in the 1980s, that the US government had no real evidence to prevent Chaplin's re-entry. It is likely that he would have gained entry if he had applied for it. However, when Chaplin received a cablegram informing him of the news, he privately decided to cut his ties with the United States:\n\n\n\nBecause all of his property remained in America, Chaplin refrained from saying anything negative about the incident to the press. The scandal attracted vast attention, but Chaplin and his film were warmly received in Europe. In America, the hostility towards him continued, and, although it received some positive reviews, ''Limelight'' was subjected to a wide-scale boycott. Reflecting on this, Maland writes that Chaplin's fall, from an \"unprecedented\" level of popularity, \"may be the most dramatic in the history of stardom in America\".\n\n===1953–1977: European years===\n====Move to Switzerland and ''A King in New York''====\n\n\n\nChaplin did not attempt to return to the United States after his re-entry permit was revoked, and instead sent his wife to settle his affairs. The couple decided to settle in Switzerland and, in January 1953, the family moved into their permanent home: Manoir de Ban, a estate overlooking Lake Geneva in Corsier-sur-Vevey. Chaplin put his Beverly Hills house and studio up for sale in March, and surrendered his re-entry permit in April. The next year, his wife renounced her US citizenship and became a British citizen. Chaplin severed the last of his professional ties with the United States in 1955, when he sold the remainder of his stock in United Artists, which had been in financial difficulty since the early 1940s.\n\nManoir de Ban, Chaplin's home in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland\n\nChaplin remained a controversial figure throughout the 1950s, especially after he was awarded the International Peace Prize by the communist-led World Peace Council, and after his meetings with Zhou Enlai and Nikita Khrushchev. He began developing his first European film, ''A King in New York'', in 1954. Casting himself as an exiled king who seeks asylum in the United States, Chaplin included several of his recent experiences in the screenplay. His son, Michael, was cast as a boy whose parents are targeted by the FBI, while Chaplin's character faces accusations of communism. The political satire parodied HUAC and attacked elements of 1950s culture – including consumerism, plastic surgery, and wide-screen cinema. In a review, the playwright John Osborne called it Chaplin's \"most bitter\" and \"most openly personal\" film.\n\nChaplin founded a new production company, Attica, and used Shepperton Studios for the shooting. Filming in England proved a difficult experience, as he was used to his own Hollywood studio and familiar crew, and no longer had limitless production time. According to Robinson, this had an effect on the quality of the film. ''A King in New York'' was released in September 1957, and received mixed reviews. Chaplin banned American journalists from its Paris première and decided not to release the film in the United States. This severely limited its revenue, although it achieved moderate commercial success in Europe. ''A King in New York'' was not shown in America until 1973.\n\n====Final works and renewed appreciation====\nChaplin with his wife Oona and six of their children in 1961\n\nIn the last two decades of his career, Chaplin concentrated on re-editing and scoring his old films for re-release, along with securing their ownership and distribution rights. In an interview he granted in 1959, the year of his 70th birthday, Chaplin stated that there was still \"room for the Little Man in the atomic age\". The first of these re-releases was ''The Chaplin Revue'' (1959), which included new versions of ''A Dog's Life'', ''Shoulder Arms'', and ''The Pilgrim''.\n\nIn America, the political atmosphere began to change and attention was once again directed to Chaplin's films instead of his views. In July 1962, ''The New York Times'' published an editorial stating that \"we do not believe the Republic would be in danger if yesterday's unforgotten little tramp were allowed to amble down the gangplank of a steamer or plane in an American port\". The same month, Chaplin was invested with the honorary degree of Doctor of Letters by the universities of Oxford and Durham. In November 1963, the Plaza Theater in New York started a year-long series of Chaplin's films, including ''Monsieur Verdoux'' and ''Limelight'', which gained excellent reviews from American critics. September 1964 saw the release of Chaplin's memoirs, ''My Autobiography'', which he had been working on since 1957. The 500-page book, which focused on his early years and personal life, became a worldwide best-seller, despite criticism over the lack of information on his film career.\n\nShortly after the publication of his memoirs, Chaplin began work on ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967), a romantic comedy based on a script he had written for Paulette Goddard in the 1930s. Set on an ocean liner, it starred Marlon Brando as an American ambassador and Sophia Loren as a stowaway found in his cabin. The film differed from Chaplin's earlier productions in several aspects. It was his first to use Technicolor and the widescreen format, while he concentrated on directing and appeared on-screen only in a cameo role as a seasick steward. He also signed a deal with Universal Pictures and appointed his assistant, Jerome Epstein, as the producer. Chaplin was paid $600,000 director's fee as well as a percentage of the gross receipts. ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' premiered in January 1967, to unfavourable reviews, and was a box-office failure. Chaplin was deeply hurt by the negative reaction to the film, which turned out to be his last.\n\nChaplin suffered a series of minor strokes in the late 1960s, which marked the beginning of a slow decline in his health. Despite the setbacks, he was soon writing a new film script, ''The Freak'', a story of a winged girl found in South America, which he intended as a starring vehicle for his daughter, Victoria. His fragile health prevented the project from being realised. In the early 1970s, Chaplin concentrated on re-releasing his old films, including ''The Kid'' and ''The Circus''. In 1971, he was made a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour at the Cannes Film Festival. The following year, he was honoured with a special award by the Venice Film Festival.\n\nChaplin (right) receiving his Honorary Academy Award from Jack Lemmon in 1972. It was the first time he had been to the United States in 20 years.\n\nIn 1972, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences offered Chaplin an Honorary Award, which Robinson sees as a sign that America \"wanted to make amends\". Chaplin was initially hesitant about accepting but decided to return to the US for the first time in 20 years. The visit attracted a large amount of press coverage and, at the Academy Awards gala, he was given a twelve-minute standing ovation, the longest in the Academy's history. Visibly emotional, Chaplin accepted his award for \"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\".\n\nAlthough Chaplin still had plans for future film projects, by the mid-1970s he was very frail. He experienced several further strokes, which made it difficult for him to communicate, and he had to use a wheelchair. His final projects were compiling a pictorial autobiography, ''My Life in Pictures'' (1974) and scoring ''A Woman of Paris'' for re-release in 1976. He also appeared in a documentary about his life, ''The Gentleman Tramp'' (1975), directed by Richard Patterson. In the 1975 New Year Honours, Chaplin was awarded a knighthood by Queen Elizabeth II, though he was too weak to kneel and received the honour in his wheelchair.\n\n====Death====\nChaplin's grave in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland\nBy October 1977, Chaplin's health had declined to the point that he needed constant care. In the early morning of 25 December 1977, Chaplin died at home after suffering a stroke in his sleep. He was 88 years old. The funeral, on 27 December, was a small and private Anglican ceremony, according to his wishes. Chaplin was interred in the Corsier-sur-Vevey cemetery. Among the film industry's tributes, director René Clair wrote, \"He was a monument of the cinema, of all countries and all times ... the most beautiful gift the cinema made to us.\" Actor Bob Hope declared, \"We were lucky to have lived in his time.\"\n\nOn 1 March 1978, Chaplin's coffin was dug up and stolen from its grave by two unemployed immigrants, Roman Wardas, from Poland, and Gantcho Ganev, from Bulgaria. The body was held for ransom in an attempt to extort money from Oona Chaplin. The pair were caught in a large police operation in May, and Chaplin's coffin was found buried in a field in the nearby village of Noville. It was re-interred in the Corsier cemetery surrounded by reinforced concrete.\n","===Influences===\nChaplin believed his first influence to be his mother, who entertained him as a child by sitting at the window and mimicking passers-by: \"it was through watching her that I learned not only how to express emotions with my hands and face, but also how to observe and study people.\" Chaplin's early years in music hall allowed him to see stage comedians at work; he also attended the Christmas pantomimes at Drury Lane, where he studied the art of clowning through performers like Dan Leno. Chaplin's years with the Fred Karno company had a formative effect on him as an actor and filmmaker. Simon Louvish writes that the company was his \"training ground\", and it was here that Chaplin learned to vary the pace of his comedy. The concept of mixing pathos with slapstick was learnt from Karno, who also used elements of absurdity that became familiar in Chaplin's gags. From the film industry, Chaplin drew upon the work of the French comedian Max Linder, whose films he greatly admired. In developing the Tramp costume and persona, he was likely inspired by the American vaudeville scene, where tramp characters were common.\n\n===Method===\nA 1922 image of Charlie Chaplin Studios, where all of Chaplin's films between 1918 and 1952 were produced\n\nChaplin never spoke more than cursorily about his filmmaking methods, claiming such a thing would be tantamount to a magician spoiling his own illusion. Little was known about his working process throughout his lifetime, but research from film historians – particularly the findings of Kevin Brownlow and David Gill that were presented in the three-part documentary ''Unknown Chaplin'' (1983) – has since revealed his unique working method.\n\nUntil he began making spoken dialogue films with ''The Great Dictator'', Chaplin never shot from a completed script. Many of his early films began with only a vague premise – for example \"Charlie enters a health spa\" or \"Charlie works in a pawn shop.\" He then had sets constructed and worked with his stock company to improvise gags and \"business\" using them, almost always working the ideas out on film. As ideas were accepted and discarded, a narrative structure would emerge, frequently requiring Chaplin to reshoot an already-completed scene that might have otherwise contradicted the story. From ''A Woman of Paris'' onward Chaplin began the filming process with a prepared plot, but Robinson writes that every film up to ''Modern Times'' \"went through many metamorphoses and permutations before the story took its final form.\"\n\nProducing films in this manner meant Chaplin took longer to complete his pictures than almost any other filmmaker at the time. If he was out of ideas, he often took a break from the shoot, which could last for days, while keeping the studio ready for when inspiration returned. Delaying the process further was Chaplin's rigorous perfectionism. According to his friend Ivor Montagu, \"nothing but perfection would be right\" for the filmmaker. Because he personally funded his films, Chaplin was at liberty to strive for this goal and shoot as many takes as he wished. The number was often excessive, for instance 53 takes for every finished take in ''The Kid''. For ''The Immigrant'', a 20 minute-short, Chaplin shot 40,000 feet of film – enough for a feature-length.\n\n\n\nDescribing his working method as \"sheer perseverance to the point of madness\", Chaplin would be completely consumed by the production of a picture. Robinson writes that even in Chaplin's later years, his work continued \"to take precedence over everything and everyone else.\" The combination of story improvisation and relentless perfectionism – which resulted in days of effort and thousands of feet of film being wasted, all at enormous expense – often proved taxing for Chaplin who, in frustration, would lash out at his actors and crew.\n\nChaplin exercised complete control over his pictures, to the extent that he would act out the other roles for his cast, expecting them to imitate him exactly. He personally edited all of his films, trawling through the large amounts of footage to create the exact picture he wanted. As a result of his complete independence, he was identified by the film historian Andrew Sarris as one of the first auteur filmmakers. Chaplin did receive help, notably from his long-time cinematographer Roland Totheroh, brother Sydney Chaplin, and various assistant directors such as Harry Crocker and Charles Reisner.\n\n===Style and themes===\nThe Kid'' (1921), demonstrating Chaplin's mixture of slapstick, pathos, and social commentary\n\nWhile Chaplin's comedic style is broadly defined as slapstick, it is considered restrained and intelligent, with the film historian Philip Kemp describing his work as a mix of \"deft, balletic physical comedy and thoughtful, situation-based gags\". Chaplin diverged from conventional slapstick by slowing the pace and exhausting each scene of its comic potential, with more focus on developing the viewer's relationship to the characters. Unlike conventional slapstick comedies, Robinson states that the comic moments in Chaplin's films centre on the Tramp's attitude to the things happening to him: the humour does not come from the Tramp bumping into a tree, but from his lifting his hat to the tree in apology. Dan Kamin writes that Chaplin's \"quirky mannerisms\" and \"serious demeanour in the midst of slapstick action\" are other key aspects of his comedy, while the surreal transformation of objects and the employment of in-camera trickery are also common features.\n\nChaplin's silent films typically follow the Tramp's efforts to survive in a hostile world. The character lives in poverty and is frequently treated badly, but remains kind and upbeat; defying his social position, he strives to be seen as a gentleman. As Chaplin said in 1925, \"The whole point of the Little Fellow is that no matter how down on his ass he is, no matter how well the jackals succeed in tearing him apart, he's still a man of dignity.\" The Tramp defies authority figures and \"gives as good as he gets\", leading Robinson and Louvish to see him as a representative for the underprivileged – an \"everyman turned heroic saviour\". Hansmeyer notes that several of Chaplin's films end with \"the homeless and lonely Tramp walking optimistically ... into the sunset ... to continue his journey\".\n\n\n\nThe infusion of pathos is a well-known aspect of Chaplin's work, and Larcher notes his reputation for \"inducing laughter and tears\". Sentimentality in his films comes from a variety of sources, with Louvish pinpointing \"personal failure, society's strictures, economic disaster, and the elements.\" Chaplin sometimes drew on tragic events when creating his films, as in the case of ''The Gold Rush'' (1925), which was inspired by the fate of the Donner Party. Constance B. Kuriyama has identified serious underlying themes in the early comedies, such as greed (''The Gold Rush'') and loss (''The Kid''). Chaplin also touched on controversial issues: immigration (''The Immigrant'', 1917); illegitimacy (''The Kid'', 1921); and drug use (''Easy Street'', 1917). He often explored these topics ironically, making comedy out of suffering.\n\nSocial commentary was a feature of Chaplin's films from early in his career, as he portrayed the underdog in a sympathetic light and highlighted the difficulties of the poor. Later, as he developed a keen interest in economics and felt obliged to publicise his views, Chaplin began incorporating overtly political messages into his films. ''Modern Times'' (1936) depicted factory workers in dismal conditions, ''The Great Dictator'' (1940) parodied Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini and ended in a speech against nationalism, ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947) criticised war and capitalism, and ''A King in New York'' (1957) attacked McCarthyism.\n\nSeveral of Chaplin's films incorporate autobiographical elements, and the psychologist Sigmund Freud believed that Chaplin \"always plays only himself as he was in his dismal youth\". ''The Kid'' is thought to reflect Chaplin's childhood trauma of being sent into an orphanage, the main characters in ''Limelight'' (1952) contain elements from the lives of his parents, and ''A King in New York'' references Chaplin's experiences of being shunned by the United States. Many of his sets, especially in street scenes, bear a strong similarity to Kennington, where he grew up. Stephen M. Weissman has argued that Chaplin's problematic relationship with his mentally ill mother was often reflected in his female characters and the Tramp's desire to save them.\n\nRegarding the structure of Chaplin's films, the scholar Gerald Mast sees them as consisting of sketches tied together by the same theme and setting, rather than having a tightly unified storyline. Visually, his films are simple and economic, with scenes portrayed as if set on a stage. His approach to filming was described by the art director Eugène Lourié: \"Chaplin did not think in 'artistic' images when he was shooting. He believed that action is the main thing. The camera is there to photograph the actors\". In his autobiography, Chaplin wrote, \"Simplicity is best ... pompous effects slow up action, are boring and unpleasant ... The camera should not intrude.\" This approach has prompted criticism, since the 1940s, for being \"old fashioned\", while the film scholar Donald McCaffrey sees it as an indication that Chaplin never completely understood film as a medium. Kamin, however, comments that Chaplin's comedic talent would not be enough to remain funny on screen if he did not have an \"ability to conceive and direct scenes specifically for the film medium\".\n\n===Composing===\nChaplin playing the cello in 1915\n\nChaplin developed a passion for music as a child and taught himself to play the piano, violin, and cello. He considered the musical accompaniment of a film to be important, and from ''A Woman of Paris'' onwards he took an increasing interest in this area. With the advent of sound technology, Chaplin began using a synchronised orchestral soundtrack – composed by himself – for ''City Lights'' (1931). He thereafter composed the scores for all of his films, and from the late 1950s to his death, he scored all of his silent features and some of his short films.\n\nAs Chaplin was not a trained musician, he could not read sheet music and needed the help of professional composers, such as David Raksin, Raymond Rasch and Eric James, when creating his scores. Musical directors were employed to oversee the recording process, such as Alfred Newman for ''City Lights''. Although some critics have claimed that credit for his film music should be given to the composers who worked with him, Raksin – who worked with Chaplin on ''Modern Times'' – stressed Chaplin's creative position and active participation in the composing process. This process, which could take months, would start with Chaplin describing to the composer(s) exactly what he wanted and singing or playing tunes he had improvised on the piano. These tunes were then developed further in a close collaboration among the composer(s) and Chaplin. According to film historian Jeffrey Vance, \"although he relied upon associates to arrange varied and complex instrumentation, the musical imperative is his, and not a note in a Chaplin musical score was placed there without his assent.\"\n\nChaplin's compositions produced three popular songs. \"Smile\", composed originally for ''Modern Times'' (1936) and later set to lyrics by John Turner and Geoffrey Parsons, was a hit for Nat King Cole in 1954. For ''Limelight'', Chaplin composed \"Terry's Theme\", which was popularised by Jimmy Young as \"Eternally\" (1952). Finally, \"This Is My Song\", performed by Petula Clark for ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967), reached number one on the UK and other European charts. Chaplin also received his only competitive Oscar for his composition work, as the ''Limelight'' theme won an Academy Award for Best Original Score in 1973 following the film's re-release.\n","Chaplin as the Tramp in 1915, cinema's \"most universal icon\"\n\nIn 1998, the film critic Andrew Sarris called Chaplin \"arguably the single most important artist produced by the cinema, certainly its most extraordinary performer and probably still its most universal icon\". He is described by the British Film Institute as \"a towering figure in world culture\", and was included in ''Time'' magazine's list of the \"100 Most Important People of the 20th Century\" for the \"laughter he brought to millions\" and because he \"more or less invented global recognizability and helped turn an industry into an art\".\n\nThe image of the Tramp has become a part of cultural history; according to Simon Louvish, the character is recognisable to people who have never seen a Chaplin film, and in places where his films are never shown. The critic Leonard Maltin has written of the \"unique\" and \"indelible\" nature of the Tramp, and argued that no other comedian matched his \"worldwide impact\". Praising the character, Richard Schickel suggests that Chaplin's films with the Tramp contain the most \"eloquent, richly comedic expressions of the human spirit\" in movie history. Memorabilia connected to the character still fetches large sums in auctions: in 2006 a bowler hat and a bamboo cane that were part of the Tramp's costume were bought for $140,000 in a Los Angeles auction.\n\nAs a filmmaker, Chaplin is considered a pioneer and one of the most influential figures of the early twentieth century. He is often credited as one of the medium's first artists. Film historian Mark Cousins has written that Chaplin \"changed not only the imagery of cinema, but also its sociology and grammar\" and claims that Chaplin was as important to the development of comedy as a genre as D.W. Griffith was to drama. He was the first to popularise feature-length comedy and to slow down the pace of action, adding pathos and subtlety to it. Although his work is mostly classified as slapstick, Chaplin's drama ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923) was a major influence on Ernst Lubitsch's film ''The Marriage Circle'' (1924) and thus played a part in the development of \"sophisticated comedy\". According to David Robinson, Chaplin's innovations were \"rapidly assimilated to become part of the common practice of film craft.\" Filmmakers who cited Chaplin as an influence include Federico Fellini (who called Chaplin \"a sort of Adam, from whom we are all descended\"), Jacques Tati (\"Without him I would never have made a film\"), René Clair (\"He inspired practically every filmmaker\"), Michael Powell, Billy Wilder, Vittorio De Sica, and Richard Attenborough. Russian filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky praised Chaplin as \"the only person to have gone down into cinematic history without any shadow of a doubt. The films he left behind can never grow old.\"\n\nChaplin also strongly influenced the work of later comedians. Marcel Marceau said he was inspired to become a mime artist after watching Chaplin, while the actor Raj Kapoor based his screen persona on the Tramp. Mark Cousins has also detected Chaplin's comedic style in the French character Monsieur Hulot and the Italian character Totò. In other fields, Chaplin helped inspire the cartoon characters Felix the Cat and Mickey Mouse, and was an influence on the Dada art movement. As one of the founding members of United Artists, Chaplin also had a role in the development of the film industry. Gerald Mast has written that although UA never became a major company like MGM or Paramount Pictures, the idea that directors could produce their own films was \"years ahead of its time\".\n\nIn the 21st century, several of Chaplin's films are still regarded as classics and among the greatest ever made. The 2012 ''Sight & Sound'' poll, which compiles \"top ten\" ballots from film critics and directors to determine each group's most acclaimed films,\nsaw ''City Lights'' rank among the critics' top 50, ''Modern Times'' inside the top 100, and ''The Great Dictator'' and ''The Gold Rush'' placed in the top 250. The top 100 films as voted on by directors included ''Modern Times'' at number 22, ''City Lights'' at number 30, and ''The Gold Rush'' at number 91. Every one of Chaplin's features received a vote. In 2007, the American Film Institute named ''City Lights'' the 11th greatest American film of all time, while ''The Gold Rush'' and ''Modern Times'' again ranked in the top 100. Books about Chaplin continue to be published regularly, and he is a popular subject for media scholars and film archivists. Many of Chaplin's film have had a DVD and Blu-Ray release.\n\n===Commemoration and tributes===\n\nA room inside Chaplin's World\n\nChaplin's final home, Manoir de Ban in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland, has been converted into a museum named \"Chaplin's World\". It opened on 17 April 2016 after 15 years of development, and is described by Reuters as \"an interactive museum showcasing the life and works of Charlie Chaplin\". On the 128th anniversary of his birth, a record-setting 662 people dressed as the Tramp in an event organised by the museum. Previously, the Museum of the Moving Image in London held a permanent display on Chaplin, and hosted a dedicated exhibition to his life and career in 1988. The London Film Museum hosted an exhibition called ''Charlie Chaplin – The Great Londoner'', from 2010 until 2013.\n\nIn London, a statue of Chaplin as the Tramp, sculpted by John Doubleday and unveiled in 1981, is located in Leicester Square. The city also includes a road named after him in central London, \"Charlie Chaplin Walk\", which is the location of the BFI IMAX. There are nine blue plaques memorialising Chaplin in London, Hampshire, and Yorkshire. The Swiss town of Vevey named a park in his honour in 1980 and erected a statue there in 1982. In 2011, two large murals depicting Chaplin on two 14-storey buildings were also unveiled in Vevey. Chaplin has also been honoured by the Irish town of Waterville, where he spent several summers with his family in the 1960s. A statue was erected in 1998; since 2011, the town has been host to the annual Charlie Chaplin Comedy Film Festival, which was founded to celebrate Chaplin's legacy and to showcase new comic talent.\n\nIn other tributes, a minor planet, 3623 Chaplin – discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Karachkina in 1981 – is named after Chaplin. Throughout the 1980s, the Tramp image was used by IBM to advertise their personal computers. Chaplin's 100th birthday anniversary in 1989 was marked with several events around the world, and on 15 April 2011, a day before his 122nd birthday, Google celebrated him with a special Google Doodle video on its global and other country-wide homepages. Many countries, spanning six continents, have honoured Chaplin with a postal stamp.\n\nChaplin's legacy is managed on behalf of his children by the Chaplin office, located in Paris. The office represents Association Chaplin, founded by some of his children \"to protect the name, image and moral rights\" to his body of work, Roy Export SAS, which owns the copyright to most of his films made after 1918, and Bubbles Incorporated S.A., which owns the copyrights to his image and name. Their central archive is held at the archives of Montreux, Switzerland and scanned versions of its contents, including 83,630 images, 118 scripts, 976 manuscripts, 7,756 letters, and thousands of other documents, are available for research purposes at the Chaplin Research Centre at the Cineteca di Bologna. The photographic archive, which includes approximately 10,000 photographs from Chaplin's life and career, is kept at the Musée de l'Elysée in Lausanne, Switzerland. The British Film Institute has also established the Charles Chaplin Research Foundation, and the first international Charles Chaplin Conference was held in London in July 2005.\n\nStatues of Chaplin around the world, located at (left to right) 1. Trenčianske Teplice, Slovakia; 2. Chełmża, Poland; 3. Waterville, Ireland; 4. London, United Kingdom; 5. Hyderabad, India; 6. Alassio, Italy; 7. Barcelona, Spain; 8. Vevey, Switzerland\n\n===Characterisations===\nChaplin is the subject of a biographical film, ''Chaplin'' (1992) directed by Richard Attenborough, and starring Robert Downey Jr. in the title role. He is also a character in the period drama film ''The Cat's Meow'' (2001), played by Eddie Izzard, and in the made-for-television movie ''The Scarlett O'Hara War'' (1980), played by Clive Revill. A television series about Chaplin's childhood, ''Young Charlie Chaplin'', ran on PBS in 1989, and was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Program.\n\nChaplin's life has also been the subject of several stage productions. Two musicals, ''Little Tramp'' and ''Chaplin'', were produced in the early 1990s. In 2006, Thomas Meehan and Christopher Curtis created another musical, ''Limelight: The Story of Charlie Chaplin'', which was first performed at the La Jolla Playhouse in San Diego in 2010. It was adapted for Broadway two years later, re-titled ''Chaplin – A Musical''. Chaplin was portrayed by Robert McClure in both productions. In 2013, two plays about Chaplin premiered in Finland: ''Chaplin'' at the Svenska Teatern, and ''Kulkuri'' (''The Tramp'') at the Tampere Workers' Theatre.\n\nChaplin has also been characterised in literary fiction. He is the protagonist of Robert Coover's short story \"Charlie in the House of Rue\" (1980; reprinted in Coover's 1987 collection ''A Night at the Movies''), and of Glen David Gold's ''Sunnyside'' (2009), a historical novel set in the First World War period. A day in Chaplin's life in 1909 is dramatised in the chapter entitled \"Modern Times\" in Alan Moore's ''Jerusalem'' (2016), a novel set in the author's home town of Northampton, England.\n","Chaplin's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, located at 6755 Hollywood Boulevard. Although the project started in 1958, Chaplin only received his star in 1970 because of his political views.\n\nChaplin received many awards and honours, especially later in life. In the 1975 New Year Honours, he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (KBE). He was also awarded honorary Doctor of Letters degrees by the University of Oxford and the University of Durham in 1962. In 1965, he and Ingmar Bergman were joint winners of the Erasmus Prize and, in 1971, he was appointed a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour by the French government.\n\nFrom the film industry, Chaplin received a special Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival in 1972, and a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Lincoln Center Film Society the same year. The latter has since been presented annually to filmmakers as The Chaplin Award. Chaplin was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1972, having been previously excluded because of his political beliefs.\n\nChaplin received three Academy Awards: an Honorary Award for \"versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing, and producing ''The Circus''\" in 1929, a second Honorary Award for \"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\" in 1972, and a Best Score award in 1973 for ''Limelight'' (shared with Ray Rasch and Larry Russell). He was further nominated in the Best Actor, Best Original Screenplay, and Best Picture (as producer) categories for ''The Great Dictator'', and received another Best Original Screenplay nomination for ''Monsieur Verdoux''. In 1976, Chaplin was made a Fellow of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA).\n\nSix of Chaplin's films have been selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress: ''The Immigrant'' (1917), ''The Kid'' (1921), ''The Gold Rush'' (1925), ''City Lights'' (1931), ''Modern Times'' (1936), and ''The Great Dictator'' (1940).\n","\n\n'''Directed features:'''\n* ''The Kid'' (1921)\n* ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923)\n* ''The Gold Rush'' (1925)\n* ''The Circus'' (1928)\n* ''City Lights'' (1931)\n* ''Modern Times'' (1936)\n* ''The Great Dictator'' (1940)\n* ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947)\n* ''Limelight'' (1952)\n* ''A King in New York'' (1957)\n* ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967)\n","\n","\n","===Footnotes===\n\n\n===Sources===\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n","\n\n* by Association Chaplin\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* The Charlie Chaplin Archive Online catalogue of Chaplin's professional and personal archives at the Cineteca di Bologna, Italy\n* Charlie Chaplin Comedy Film Festival in Waterville, Ireland\n* Chaplin's World Museum at the Manoir de Ban, Switzerland\n* Chaplin's file at the Federal Bureau of Investigation website\n* Charlie Chaplin at the British Film Institute\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n'''Sir Charles Spencer \\\"Charlie\\\" Chaplin''', (16 April 1889 – 25 December 1977) was an English comic actor, filmmaker, and composer who rose to fame in the era of silent film. Chaplin became a worldwide icon through his screen persona \\\"the Tramp\\\" and is considered one of the most important figures in the history of the film industry. His career spanned more than 75 years, from childhood in the Victorian era until a year before his death in 1977, and encompassed both adulation and controversy.\\n\\nChaplin's childhood in London was one of poverty and hardship. As his father was absent and his mother struggled financially, he was sent to a workhouse twice before the age of nine. When he was 14, his mother was committed to a mental asylum. Chaplin began performing at an early age, touring music halls and later working as a stage actor and comedian. At 19, he was signed to the prestigious Fred Karno company, which took him to America. Chaplin was scouted for the film industry and began appearing in 1914 for Keystone Studios. He soon developed the Tramp persona and formed a large fan base. Chaplin directed his own films from an early stage and continued to hone his craft as he moved to the Essanay, Mutual, and First National corporations. By 1918, he was one of the best-known figures in the world.\\n\\nIn 1919, Chaplin co-founded the distribution company United Artists, which gave him complete control over his films. His first feature-length was ''The Kid'' (1921), followed by ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923), ''The Gold Rush'' (1925), and ''The Circus'' (1928). He refused to move to sound films in the 1930s, instead producing ''City Lights'' (1931) and ''Modern Times'' (1936) without dialogue. Chaplin became increasingly political, and his next film, ''The Great Dictator'' (1940), satirised Adolf Hitler. The 1940s were a decade marked with controversy for Chaplin, and his popularity declined rapidly. He was accused of communist sympathies, while his involvement in a paternity suit and marriages to much younger women caused scandal. An FBI investigation was opened, and Chaplin was forced to leave the United States and settle in Switzerland. He abandoned the Tramp in his later films, which include ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947), ''Limelight'' (1952), ''A King in New York'' (1957), and ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967).\\n\\nChaplin wrote, directed, produced, edited, starred in, and composed the music for most of his films. He was a perfectionist, and his financial independence enabled him to spend years on the development and production of a picture. His films are characterised by slapstick combined with pathos, typified in the Tramp's struggles against adversity. Many contain social and political themes, as well as autobiographical elements. In 1972, as part of a renewed appreciation for his work, Chaplin received an Honorary Academy Award for \\\"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\\\". He continues to be held in high regard, with ''The Gold Rush'', ''City Lights'', ''Modern Times'', and ''The Great Dictator'' often ranked on industry lists of the greatest films of all time.\\n\",\n \"===1889–1913: Early years===\\n\\n====Background and childhood hardship====\\nCharles Spencer Chaplin was born on 16 April 1889 to Hannah Chaplin (born Hannah Harriet Pedlingham Hill) and Charles Chaplin Sr. There is no official record of his birth, although Chaplin believed he was born at East Street, Walworth, in South London. His mother and father had married four years previously, at which time Charles Sr. became the legal carer of Hannah's illegitimate son, Sydney John Hill. At the time of his birth, Chaplin's parents were both music hall entertainers. Hannah, the daughter of a shoemaker, had a brief and unsuccessful career under the stage name Lily Harley, while Charles Sr., a butcher's son, was a popular singer. Although they never divorced, Chaplin's parents were estranged by around 1891. The following year, Hannah gave birth to a third son – George Wheeler Dryden – fathered by the music hall entertainer Leo Dryden. The child was taken by Dryden at six months old, and did not re-enter Chaplin's life for 30 years.\\n\\nSeven-year-old Chaplin (lower centre) at the Central London District School for paupers, 1897\\n\\nChaplin's childhood was fraught with poverty and hardship, making his eventual trajectory \\\"the most dramatic of all the rags to riches stories ever told\\\" according to his authorised biographer David Robinson. Chaplin's early years were spent with his mother and brother Sydney in the London district of Kennington; Hannah had no means of income, other than occasional nursing and dressmaking, and Chaplin Sr. provided no financial support. As the situation deteriorated, Chaplin was sent to Lambeth Workhouse when he was seven years old. The council housed him at the Central London District School for paupers, which Chaplin remembered as \\\"a forlorn existence\\\". He was briefly reunited with his mother 18 months later, before Hannah was forced to readmit her family to the workhouse in July 1898. The boys were promptly sent to Norwood Schools, another institution for destitute children.\\n\\n\\n\\nIn September 1898, Hannah was committed to Cane Hill mental asylum – she had developed a psychosis seemingly brought on by an infection of syphilis and malnutrition. For the two months she was there, Chaplin and his brother Sydney were sent to live with their father, whom the young boys scarcely knew. Charles Sr. was by then a severe alcoholic, and life there was bad enough to provoke a visit from the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. Chaplin's father died two years later, at 38 years old, from cirrhosis of the liver.\\n\\nHannah entered a period of remission but, in May 1903, became ill again. Chaplin, then 14, had the task of taking his mother to the infirmary, from where she was sent back to Cane Hill. He lived alone for several days, searching for food and occasionally sleeping rough, until Sydney – who had enrolled in the Navy two years earlier – returned. Hannah was released from the asylum eight months later, but in March 1905, her illness returned, this time permanently. \\\"There was nothing we could do but accept poor mother's fate\\\", Chaplin later wrote, and she remained in care until her death in 1928.\\n\\n====Young performer====\\nSherlock Holmes'', in which he appeared between 1903 and 1906\\n\\nBetween his time in the poor schools and his mother succumbing to mental illness, Chaplin began to perform on stage. He later recalled making his first amateur appearance at the age of five years, when he took over from Hannah one night in Aldershot. This was an isolated occurrence, but by the time he was nine Chaplin had, with his mother's encouragement, grown interested in performing. He later wrote: \\\"she imbued me with the feeling that I had some sort of talent\\\". Through his father's connections, Chaplin became a member of the Eight Lancashire Lads clog-dancing troupe, with whom he toured English music halls throughout 1899 and 1900. Chaplin worked hard, and the act was popular with audiences, but he was not satisfied with dancing and wished to form a comedy act.\\n\\nIn the years Chaplin was touring with the Eight Lancashire Lads, his mother ensured that he still attended school but, by age 13, he had abandoned education. He supported himself with a range of jobs, while nursing his ambition to become an actor. At 14, shortly after his mother's relapse, he registered with a theatrical agency in London's West End. The manager sensed potential in Chaplin, who was promptly given his first role as a newsboy in Harry Arthur Saintsbury's ''Jim, a Romance of Cockayne''. It opened in July 1903, but the show was unsuccessful and closed after two weeks. Chaplin's comic performance, however, was singled out for praise in many of the reviews.\\n\\nSaintsbury secured a role for Chaplin in Charles Frohman's production of ''Sherlock Holmes'', where he played Billy the pageboy in three nationwide tours. His performance was so well received that he was called to London to play the role alongside William Gillette, the original Holmes. \\\"It was like tidings from heaven\\\", Chaplin recalled. At 16 years old, Chaplin starred in the play's West End production at the Duke of York's Theatre from October to December 1905. He completed one final tour of ''Sherlock Holmes'' in early 1906, before leaving the play after more than two-and-a-half years.\\n\\n====Stage comedy and vaudeville====\\nChaplin soon found work with a new company, and went on tour with his brother – who was also pursuing an acting career – in a comedy sketch called ''Repairs''. In May 1906, Chaplin joined the juvenile act ''Casey's Circus'', where he developed popular burlesque pieces and was soon the star of the show. By the time the act finished touring in July 1907, the 18-year-old had become an accomplished comedic performer. He struggled to find more work, however, and a brief attempt at a solo act was a failure.\\n\\nAdvertisement from Chaplin's American tour with the Fred Karno comedy company, 1913\\n\\nMeanwhile, Sydney Chaplin had joined Fred Karno's prestigious comedy company in 1906 and, by 1908, he was one of their key performers. In February, he managed to secure a two-week trial for his younger brother. Karno was initially wary, and considered Chaplin a \\\"pale, puny, sullen-looking youngster\\\" who \\\"looked much too shy to do any good in the theatre.\\\" However, the teenager made an impact on his first night at the London Coliseum and he was quickly signed to a contract. Chaplin began by playing a series of minor parts, eventually progressing to starring roles in 1909. In April 1910, he was given the lead in a new sketch, ''Jimmy the Fearless''. It was a big success, and Chaplin received considerable press attention.\\n\\nKarno selected his new star to join the section of the company, one that also included Stan Laurel, that toured North America's vaudeville circuit. The young comedian headed the show and impressed reviewers, being described as \\\"one of the best pantomime artists ever seen here\\\". His most successful role was a drunk called the \\\"Inebriate Swell\\\", which drew him significant recognition. The tour lasted 21 months, and the troupe returned to England in June 1912. Chaplin recalled that he \\\"had a disquieting feeling of sinking back into a depressing commonplaceness\\\" and was, therefore, delighted when a new tour began in October.\\n\\n===1914–1917: Entering films===\\n====Keystone====\\n\\nSix months into the second American tour, Chaplin was invited to join the New York Motion Picture Company. A representative who had seen his performances thought he could replace Fred Mace, a star of their Keystone Studios who intended to leave. Chaplin thought the Keystone comedies \\\"a crude mélange of rough and rumble\\\", but liked the idea of working in films and rationalised: \\\"Besides, it would mean a new life.\\\" He met with the company and signed a $150-per-week ($ in dollars) contract in September 1913.\\n\\n\\n\\nChaplin arrived in Los Angeles, home of the Keystone studio, in early December 1913. His boss was Mack Sennett, who initially expressed concern that the 24-year-old looked too young. He was not used in a picture until late January, during which time Chaplin attempted to learn the processes of filmmaking. The one-reeler ''Making a Living'' marked his film acting debut and was released on 2 February 1914. Chaplin strongly disliked the picture, but one review picked him out as \\\"a comedian of the first water\\\". For his second appearance in front of the camera, Chaplin selected the costume with which he became identified. He described the process in his autobiography:\\n\\n\\n\\nThe film was ''Mabel's Strange Predicament'', but \\\"the Tramp\\\" character, as it became known, debuted to audiences in ''Kid Auto Races at Venice'' – shot later than ''Mabel's Strange Predicament'' but released two days earlier. Chaplin adopted the character as his screen persona and attempted to make suggestions for the films he appeared in. These ideas were dismissed by his directors. During the filming of his eleventh picture, ''Mabel at the Wheel'', he clashed with director Mabel Normand and was almost released from his contract. Sennett kept him on, however, when he received orders from exhibitors for more Chaplin films. Sennett also allowed Chaplin to direct his next film himself after Chaplin promised to pay $1,500 ($ in dollars) if the film was unsuccessful.\\n\\n''Caught in the Rain'', issued 4 May 1914, was Chaplin's directorial debut and was highly successful. Thereafter he directed almost every short film in which he appeared for Keystone, at the rate of approximately one per week, a period which he later remembered as the most exciting time of his career. Chaplin's films introduced a slower form of comedy than the typical Keystone farce, and he developed a large fan base. In November 1914, he had a supporting role in the first feature length comedy film, ''Tillie's Punctured Romance'', directed by Sennett and starring Marie Dressler, which was a commercial success and increased his popularity. When Chaplin's contract came up for renewal at the end of the year, he asked for $1,000 a week ($ in dollars) – an amount Sennett refused as too large.\\n\\n====Essanay====\\nChaplin and Edna Purviance, his regular leading lady, in ''Work'' (1915)\\n\\nThe Essanay Film Manufacturing Company of Chicago sent Chaplin an offer of $1,250 a week with a signing bonus of $10,000. He joined the studio in late December 1914, where he began forming a stock company of regular players, including Leo White, Bud Jamison, Paddy McGuire and Billy Armstrong. He soon recruited a leading lady – Edna Purviance, whom Chaplin met in a cafe and hired on account of her beauty. She went on to appear in 35 films with Chaplin over eight years; the pair also formed a romantic relationship that lasted into 1917.\\n\\nChaplin asserted a high level of control over his pictures and started to put more time and care into each film. There was a month-long interval between the release of his second production, ''A Night Out'', and his third, ''The Champion''. The final seven of Chaplin's 14 Essanay films were all produced at this slower pace. Chaplin also began to alter his screen persona, which had attracted some criticism at Keystone for its \\\"mean, crude, and brutish\\\" nature. The character became more gentle and romantic; ''The Tramp'' (April 1915) was considered a particular turning point in his development. The use of pathos was developed further with ''The Bank'', in which Chaplin created a sad ending. Robinson notes that this was an innovation in comedy films, and marked the time when serious critics began to appreciate Chaplin's work. At Essanay, writes film scholar Simon Louvish, Chaplin \\\"found the themes and the settings that would define the Tramp's world.\\\"\\n\\nDuring 1915, Chaplin became a cultural phenomenon. Shops were stocked with Chaplin merchandise, he was featured in cartoons and comic strips, and several songs were written about him. In July, a journalist for ''Motion Picture Magazine'' wrote that \\\"Chaplinitis\\\" had spread across America. As his fame grew worldwide, he became the film industry's first international star. When the Essanay contract ended in December 1915, Chaplin – fully aware of his popularity – requested a $150,000 signing bonus from his next studio. He received several offers, including Universal, Fox, and Vitagraph, the best of which came from the Mutual Film Corporation at $10,000 a week.\\n\\n====Mutual====\\nBy 1916, Chaplin was a global phenomenon. Here he shows off some of his merchandise, c. 1918.\\n\\nA contract was negotiated with Mutual that amounted to $670,000 a year, which Robinson says made Chaplin – at 26 years old – one of the highest paid people in the world. The high salary shocked the public and was widely reported in the press. John R. Freuler, the studio president, explained: \\\"We can afford to pay Mr. Chaplin this large sum annually because the public wants Chaplin and will pay for him.\\\"\\n\\nMutual gave Chaplin his own Los Angeles studio to work in, which opened in March 1916. He added two key members to his stock company, Albert Austin and Eric Campbell, and produced a series of elaborate two-reelers: ''The Floorwalker'', ''The Fireman'', ''The Vagabond'', ''One A.M.'', and ''The Count''. For ''The Pawnshop'', he recruited the actor Henry Bergman, who was to work with Chaplin for 30 years. ''Behind the Screen'' and ''The Rink'' completed Chaplin's releases for 1916. The Mutual contract stipulated that he release a two-reel film every four weeks, which he had managed to achieve. With the new year, however, Chaplin began to demand more time. He made only four more films for Mutual over the first ten months of 1917: ''Easy Street'', ''The Cure'', ''The Immigrant'', and ''The Adventurer''. With their careful construction, these films are considered by Chaplin scholars to be among his finest work. Later in life, Chaplin referred to his Mutual years as the happiest period of his career. However, Chaplin also felt that those films became increasingly formulaic over the period of the contract and he was increasingly dissatisfied with the working conditions encouraging that. \\n\\n\\nChaplin was attacked in the British media for not fighting in the First World War. He defended himself, revealing that he would fight for Britain if called and had registered for the American draft, but he was not summoned by either country. Despite this criticism Chaplin was a favourite with the troops, and his popularity continued to grow worldwide. ''Harper's Weekly'' reported that the name of Charlie Chaplin was \\\"a part of the common language of almost every country\\\", and that the Tramp image was \\\"universally familiar\\\". In 1917, professional Chaplin imitators were so widespread that he took legal action, and it was reported that nine out of ten men who attended costume parties dressed as the Tramp. The same year, a study by the Boston Society for Psychical Research concluded that Chaplin was \\\"an American obsession\\\". The actress Minnie Maddern Fiske wrote that \\\"a constantly increasing body of cultured, artistic people are beginning to regard the young English buffoon, Charles Chaplin, as an extraordinary artist, as well as a comic genius\\\".\\n\\n===1918–1922: First National===\\n''A Dog's Life'' (1918). It was around this time that Chaplin began to conceive the Tramp as \\\"a sort of Pierrot\\\", or sad clown.\\n\\nMutual were patient with Chaplin's decreased rate of output, and the contract ended amicably. With his aforementioned concern about the declining quality of his films because of contract scheduling stipulations, Chaplin's primary concern in finding a new distributor was independence; Sydney Chaplin, then his business manager, told the press, \\\"Charlie must be allowed all the time he needs and all the money for producing films the way he wants ... It is quality, not quantity, we are after.\\\" In June 1917, Chaplin signed to complete eight films for First National Exhibitors' Circuit in return for $1 million. He chose to build his own studio, situated on five acres of land off Sunset Boulevard, with production facilities of the highest order. It was completed in January 1918, and Chaplin was given freedom over the making of his pictures.\\n\\n''A Dog's Life'', released April 1918, was the first film under the new contract. In it, Chaplin demonstrated his increasing concern with story construction and his treatment of the Tramp as \\\"a sort of Pierrot\\\". The film was described by Louis Delluc as \\\"cinema's first total work of art\\\". Chaplin then embarked on the Third Liberty Bond campaign, touring the United States for one month to raise money for the Allies of the First World War. He also produced a short propaganda film, donated to the government for fund-raising, called ''The Bond''. Chaplin's next release was war-based, placing the Tramp in the trenches for ''Shoulder Arms''. Associates warned him against making a comedy about the war but, as he later recalled: \\\"Dangerous or not, the idea excited me.\\\" He spent four months filming the 45-minute-long picture, which was released in October 1918 with great success.\\n\\n====United Artists, Mildred Harris, and ''The Kid''====\\nAfter the release of ''Shoulder Arms'', Chaplin requested more money from First National, which was refused. Frustrated with their lack of concern for quality, and worried about rumours of a possible merger between the company and Famous Players-Lasky, Chaplin joined forces with Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pickford, and D. W. Griffith to form a new distribution company – United Artists, established in January 1919. The arrangement was revolutionary in the film industry, as it enabled the four partners – all creative artists – to personally fund their pictures and have complete control. Chaplin was eager to start with the new company and offered to buy out his contract with First National. They declined this and insisted that he complete the final six films he owed them.\\n\\nThe Kid'' (1921), with Jackie Coogan, combined comedy with drama and was Chaplin's first film to exceed an hour.\\n\\nBefore the creation of United Artists, Chaplin married for the first time. The 17-year-old actress Mildred Harris had revealed that she was pregnant with his child, and in September 1918, he married her quietly in Los Angeles to avoid controversy. Soon after, the pregnancy was found to be a false alarm. Chaplin was unhappy with the union and, feeling that marriage stunted his creativity, struggled over the production of his film ''Sunnyside''. Harris was by then legitimately pregnant, and on 7 July 1919, gave birth to a son. Norman Spencer Chaplin was born malformed and died three days later. The marriage eventually ended in April 1920, with Chaplin explaining in his autobiography that they were \\\"irreconcilably mismated\\\".\\n\\nLosing a child is thought to have influenced Chaplin's work, as he planned a film which turned the Tramp into the caretaker of a young boy. For this new venture, Chaplin also wished to do more than comedy and, according to Louvish, \\\"make his mark on a changed world.\\\" Filming on ''The Kid'' began in August 1919, with four-year-old Jackie Coogan his co-star. It occurred to Chaplin that it was turning into a large project, so to placate First National, he halted production and quickly filmed ''A Day's Pleasure''. ''The Kid'' was in production for nine months until May 1920 and, at 68 minutes, it was Chaplin's longest picture to date. Dealing with issues of poverty and parent–child separation, ''The Kid'' is thought to have been influenced by Chaplin's own childhood and was one of the earliest films to combine comedy and drama. It was released in January 1921 with instant success, and, by 1924, had been screened in over 50 countries.\\n\\nChaplin spent five months on his next film, the two-reeler ''The Idle Class''. Following its September 1921 release, he chose to return to England for the first time in almost a decade. He then worked to fulfil his First National contract, releasing ''Pay Day'' in February 1922. ''The Pilgrim'' – his final short film – was delayed by distribution disagreements with the studio, and released a year later.\\n\\n===1923–1938: Silent features===\\n====''A Woman of Paris'' and ''The Gold Rush''====\\n\\nHaving fulfilled his First National contract, Chaplin was free to make his first picture as an independent producer. In November 1922, he began filming ''A Woman of Paris'', a romantic drama about ill-fated lovers. Chaplin intended it to be a star-making vehicle for Edna Purviance, and did not appear in the picture himself other than in a brief, uncredited cameo. He wished for the film to have a realistic feel and directed his cast to give restrained performances. In real life, he explained, \\\"men and women try to hide their emotions rather than seek to express them\\\". ''A Woman of Paris'' premiered in September 1923 and was acclaimed for its subtle approach, then an innovation. The public, however, seemed to have little interest in a Chaplin film without his presence, and it was a box office disappointment. The filmmaker was hurt by this failure – he had long wanted to produce a dramatic film and was proud of the result – and withdrew ''A Woman of Paris'' from circulation as soon as he could.\\n\\nThe Tramp resorts to eating his boot in a famous scene from ''The Gold Rush'' (1925).\\n\\nChaplin returned to comedy for his next project. Setting his standards high, he told himself: \\\"This next film must be an epic! The Greatest!\\\" Inspired by a photograph of the 1898 Klondike Gold Rush, and later the story of the Donner Party of 1846–47, he made what Geoffrey Macnab calls \\\"an epic comedy out of grim subject matter.\\\" In ''The Gold Rush'', the Tramp is a lonely prospector fighting adversity and looking for love. With Georgia Hale as his new leading lady, Chaplin began filming the picture in February 1924. Its elaborate production, costing almost $1 million, included location shooting in the Truckee mountains with 600 extras, extravagant sets, and special effects. The last scene was not shot until May 1925, after 15 months of filming.\\n\\nChaplin felt ''The Gold Rush'' was the best film he had made to that point. It opened in August 1925 and became one of the highest-grossing films of the silent era with a profit of $5 million. The comedy contains some of Chaplin's most famous sequences, such as the Tramp eating his shoe and the \\\"Dance of the Rolls\\\". Macnab has called it \\\"the quintessential Chaplin film\\\". Chaplin stated, \\\"This is the picture that I want to be remembered by\\\" at the time of the film's release.\\n\\n====Lita Grey and ''The Circus''====\\nLita Grey, whose bitter divorce from Chaplin caused a scandal\\n\\nWhile making ''The Gold Rush'', Chaplin married for the second time. Mirroring the circumstances of his first union, Lita Grey was a teenage actress, originally set to star in the film, whose surprise announcement of pregnancy forced Chaplin into marriage. She was 16 and he was 35, meaning Chaplin could have been charged with statutory rape under California law. He therefore arranged a discreet marriage in Mexico on 25 November 1924. Their first son, Charles Spencer Chaplin, Jr., was born on 5 May 1925, followed by Sydney Earl Chaplin on 30 March 1926.\\n\\nIt was an unhappy marriage, and Chaplin spent long hours at the studio to avoid seeing his wife. In November 1926, Grey took the children and left the family home. A bitter divorce followed, in which Grey's application – accusing Chaplin of infidelity, abuse, and of harbouring \\\"perverted sexual desires\\\" – was leaked to the press. Chaplin was reported to be in a state of nervous breakdown, as the story became headline news and groups formed across America calling for his films to be banned. Eager to end the case without further scandal, Chaplin's lawyers agreed to a cash settlement of $600,000the largest awarded by American courts at that time. His fan base was strong enough to survive the incident, and it was soon forgotten, but Chaplin was deeply affected by it.\\n\\nBefore the divorce suit was filed, Chaplin had begun work on a new film, ''The Circus''. He built a story around the idea of walking a tightrope while besieged by monkeys, and turned the Tramp into the accidental star of a circus. Filming was suspended for 10 months while he dealt with the divorce scandal, and it was generally a trouble-ridden production. Finally completed in October 1927, ''The Circus'' was released in January 1928 to a positive reception. At the 1st Academy Awards, Chaplin was given a special trophy \\\"For versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing and producing ''The Circus''\\\". Despite its success, he permanently associated the film with the stress of its production; Chaplin omitted ''The Circus'' from his autobiography, and struggled to work on it when he recorded the score in his later years.\\n\\n====''City Lights''====\\n\\n\\nBy the time ''The Circus'' was released, Hollywood had witnessed the introduction of sound films. Chaplin was cynical about this new medium and the technical shortcomings it presented, believing that \\\"talkies\\\" lacked the artistry of silent films. He was also hesitant to change the formula that had brought him such success, and feared that giving the Tramp a voice would limit his international appeal. He, therefore, rejected the new Hollywood craze and began work on a new silent film. Chaplin was nonetheless anxious about this decision and remained so throughout the film's production.\\n\\n''City Lights'' (1931), regarded as one of Chaplin's finest works\\n\\nWhen filming began at the end of 1928, Chaplin had been working on the story for almost a year. ''City Lights'' followed the Tramp's love for a blind flower girl (played by Virginia Cherrill) and his efforts to raise money for her sight-saving operation. It was a challenging production that lasted 21 months, with Chaplin later confessing that he \\\"had worked himself into a neurotic state of wanting perfection\\\". One advantage Chaplin found in sound technology was the opportunity to record a musical score for the film, which he composed himself.\\n\\nChaplin finished editing ''City Lights'' in December 1930, by which time silent films were an anachronism. A preview before an unsuspecting public audience was not a success, but a showing for the press produced positive reviews. One journalist wrote, \\\"Nobody in the world but Charlie Chaplin could have done it. He is the only person that has that peculiar something called 'audience appeal' in sufficient quality to defy the popular penchant for movies that talk.\\\" Given its general release in January 1931, ''City Lights'' proved to be a popular and financial success – eventually grossing over $3 million. The British Film Institute cites it as Chaplin's finest accomplishment, and the critic James Agee hails the closing scene as \\\"the greatest piece of acting and the highest moment in movies\\\". ''City Lights'' became Chaplin's personal favourite of his films and remained so throughout his life.\\n\\n====Travels, Paulette Goddard, and ''Modern Times''====\\n''City Lights'' had been a success, but Chaplin was unsure if he could make another picture without dialogue. He remained convinced that sound would not work in his films, but was also \\\"obsessed by a depressing fear of being old-fashioned.\\\" In this state of uncertainty, early in 1931, the comedian decided to take a holiday and ended up travelling for 16 months. In his autobiography, Chaplin recalled that on his return to Los Angeles, \\\"I was confused and without plan, restless and conscious of an extreme loneliness\\\". He briefly considered retiring and moving to China.\\n\\nModern Times'' (1936), described by Jérôme Larcher as a \\\"grim contemplation on the automatization of the individual\\\"\\n\\nChaplin's loneliness was relieved when he met 21-year-old actress Paulette Goddard in July 1932, and the pair began a successful relationship. He was not ready to commit to a film, however, and focused on writing a serial about his travels (published in ''Woman's Home Companion''). The trip had been a stimulating experience for Chaplin, including meetings with several prominent thinkers, and he became increasingly interested in world affairs. The state of labour in America troubled him, and he feared that capitalism and machinery in the workplace would increase unemployment levels. It was these concerns that stimulated Chaplin to develop his new film.\\n\\n''Modern Times'' was announced by Chaplin as \\\"a satire on certain phases of our industrial life.\\\" Featuring the Tramp and Goddard as they endure the Great Depression, it took ten and a half months to film. Chaplin intended to use spoken dialogue but changed his mind during rehearsals. Like its predecessor, ''Modern Times'' employed sound effects but almost no speaking. Chaplin's performance of a gibberish song did, however, give the Tramp a voice for the only time on film. After recording the music, Chaplin released ''Modern Times'' in February 1936. It was his first feature in 15 years to adopt political references and social realism, a factor that attracted considerable press coverage despite Chaplin's attempts to downplay the issue. The film earned less at the box-office than his previous features and received mixed reviews, as some viewers disliked the politicising. Today, ''Modern Times'' is seen by the British Film Institute as one of Chaplin's \\\"great features,\\\" while David Robinson says it shows the filmmaker at \\\"his unrivalled peak as a creator of visual comedy.\\\"\\n\\nFollowing the release of ''Modern Times'', Chaplin left with Goddard for a trip to the Far East. The couple had refused to comment on the nature of their relationship, and it was not known whether they were married or not. Some time later, Chaplin revealed that they married in Canton during this trip. By 1938, the couple had drifted apart, as both focused heavily on their work, although Goddard was again his leading lady in his next feature film, ''The Great Dictator''. She eventually divorced Chaplin in Mexico in 1942, citing incompatibility and separation for more than a year.\\n\\n===1939–1952: Controversies and fading popularity===\\n====''The Great Dictator''====\\nChaplin satirising Adolf Hitler in ''The Great Dictator'' (1940)\\n\\nThe 1940s saw Chaplin face a series of controversies, both in his work and in his personal life, which changed his fortunes and severely affected his popularity in the United States. The first of these was his growing boldness in expressing his political beliefs. Deeply disturbed by the surge of militaristic nationalism in 1930s world politics, Chaplin found that he could not keep these issues out of his work. Parallels between himself and Adolf Hitler had been widely noted: the pair were born four days apart, both had risen from poverty to world prominence, and Hitler wore the same toothbrush moustache as Chaplin. It was this physical resemblance that supplied the plot for Chaplin's next film, ''The Great Dictator'', which directly satirised Hitler and attacked fascism.\\n\\nChaplin spent two years developing the script, and began filming in September 1939 – six days after Britain declared war on Germany. He had submitted to using spoken dialogue, partly out of acceptance that he had no other choice, but also because he recognised it as a better method for delivering a political message. Making a comedy about Hitler was seen as highly controversial, but Chaplin's financial independence allowed him to take the risk. \\\"I was determined to go ahead,\\\" he later wrote, \\\"for Hitler must be laughed at.\\\" Chaplin replaced the Tramp (while wearing similar attire) with \\\"A Jewish Barber\\\", a reference to the Nazi party's belief that he was Jewish. In a dual performance, he also played the dictator \\\"Adenoid Hynkel\\\", who parodied Hitler.\\n\\n''The Great Dictator'' spent a year in production and was released in October 1940. The film generated a vast amount of publicity, with a critic for ''The New York Times'' calling it \\\"the most eagerly awaited picture of the year\\\", and it was one of the biggest money-makers of the era. The ending was unpopular, however, and generated controversy. Chaplin concluded the film with a five-minute speech in which he abandoned his barber character, looked directly into the camera, and pleaded against war and fascism. Charles J. Maland has identified this overt preaching as triggering a decline in Chaplin's popularity, and writes, \\\"Henceforth, no movie fan would ever be able to separate the dimension of politics from his star image\\\". ''The Great Dictator'' received five Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Original Screenplay and Best Actor.\\n\\n====Legal troubles and Oona O'Neill====\\nIn the mid-1940s, Chaplin was involved in a series of trials that occupied most of his time and significantly affected his public image. The troubles stemmed from his affair with an aspirant actress named Joan Barry, with whom he was involved intermittently between June 1941 and the autumn of 1942. Barry, who displayed obsessive behaviour and was twice arrested after they separated, reappeared the following year and announced that she was pregnant with Chaplin's child. As Chaplin denied the claim, Barry filed a paternity suit against him.\\n\\nThe director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), J. Edgar Hoover, who had long been suspicious of Chaplin's political leanings, used the opportunity to generate negative publicity about him. As part of a smear campaign to damage Chaplin's image, the FBI named him in four indictments related to the Barry case. Most serious of these was an alleged violation of the Mann Act, which prohibits the transportation of women across state boundaries for sexual purposes. The historian Otto Friedrich has called this an \\\"absurd prosecution\\\" of an \\\"ancient statute\\\", yet if Chaplin was found guilty, he faced 23 years in jail. Three charges lacked sufficient evidence to proceed to court, but the Mann Act trial began in March 1944. Chaplin was acquitted two weeks later. The case was frequently headline news, with ''Newsweek'' calling it the \\\"biggest public relations scandal since the Fatty Arbuckle murder trial in 1921.\\\"\\n\\nChaplin's fourth wife Oona O'Neill, to whom he was married from 1943 until his death. The couple had eight children.\\n\\nBarry's child, Carole Ann, was born in October 1944, and the paternity suit went to court in February 1945. After two arduous trials, in which the prosecuting lawyer accused him of \\\"moral turpitude\\\", Chaplin was declared to be the father. Evidence from blood tests which indicated otherwise were not admissible, and the judge ordered Chaplin to pay child support until Carole Ann turned 21. Media coverage of the paternity suit was influenced by the FBI, as information was fed to the prominent gossip columnist Hedda Hopper, and Chaplin was portrayed in an overwhelmingly critical light.\\n\\nThe controversy surrounding Chaplin increased when, two weeks after the paternity suit was filed, it was announced that he had married his newest protégée, 18-year-old Oona O'Neill – daughter of the American playwright Eugene O'Neill. Chaplin, then 54, had been introduced to her by a film agent seven months earlier. In his autobiography, Chaplin described meeting O'Neill as \\\"the happiest event of my life\\\", and claimed to have found \\\"perfect love\\\". Chaplin's son, Charles Jr., reported that Oona \\\"worshipped\\\" his father. The couple remained married until Chaplin's death, and had eight children over 18 years: Geraldine Leigh (b. July 1944), Michael John (b. March 1946), Josephine Hannah (b. March 1949), Victoria (b. May 1951), Eugene Anthony (b. August 1953), Jane Cecil (b. May 1957), Annette Emily (b. December 1959), and Christopher James (b. July 1962).\\n\\n====''Monsieur Verdoux'' and communist accusations====\\n''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947), a dark comedy about a serial killer, marked a significant departure for Chaplin. He was so unpopular at the time of release that it flopped in the United States.\\n\\nChaplin claimed that the Barry trials had \\\"crippled his creativeness\\\", and it was some time before he began working again. In April 1946, he finally began filming a project that had been in development since 1942. ''Monsieur Verdoux'' was a black comedy, the story of a French bank clerk, Verdoux (Chaplin), who loses his job and begins marrying and murdering wealthy widows to support his family. Chaplin's inspiration for the project came from Orson Welles, who wanted him to star in a film about the French serial killer Henri Désiré Landru. Chaplin decided that the concept would \\\"make a wonderful comedy\\\", and paid Welles $5,000 for the idea.\\n\\nChaplin again vocalised his political views in ''Monsieur Verdoux'', criticising capitalism and arguing that the world encourages mass killing through wars and weapons of mass destruction. Because of this, the film met with controversy when it was released in April 1947; Chaplin was booed at the premiere, and there were calls for a boycott. ''Monsieur Verdoux'' was the first Chaplin release that failed both critically and commercially in the United States. It was more successful abroad, and Chaplin's screenplay was nominated at the Academy Awards. He was proud of the film, writing in his autobiography, \\\"''Monsieur Verdoux'' is the cleverest and most brilliant film I have yet made.\\\"\\n\\nThe negative reaction to ''Monsieur Verdoux'' was largely the result of changes in Chaplin's public image. Along with damage of the Joan Barry scandal, he was publicly accused of being a communist. His political activity had heightened during World War II, when he campaigned for the opening of a Second Front to help the Soviet Union and supported various Soviet–American friendship groups. He was also friendly with several suspected communists, and attended functions given by Soviet diplomats in Los Angeles. In the political climate of 1940s America, such activities meant Chaplin was considered, as Larcher writes, \\\"dangerously progressive and amoral.\\\" The FBI wanted him out of the country, and launched an official investigation in early 1947.\\n\\nChaplin denied being a communist, instead calling himself a \\\"peacemonger\\\", but felt the government's effort to suppress the ideology was an unacceptable infringement of civil liberties. Unwilling to be quiet about the issue, he openly protested against the trials of Communist Party members and the activities of the House Un-American Activities Committee. Chaplin received a subpoena to appear before HUAC but was not called to testify. As his activities were widely reported in the press, and Cold War fears grew, questions were raised over his failure to take American citizenship. Calls were made for him to be deported; in one extreme and widely published example, Representative John E. Rankin, who helped establish HUAC, told Congress in June 1947: \\\"Chaplin's very life in Hollywood is detrimental to the moral fabric of America. If he is deported ... his loathsome pictures can be kept from before the eyes of the American youth. He should be deported and gotten rid of at once.\\\"\\n\\n====''Limelight'' and banning from the United States====\\nLimelight'' (1952) was a serious and autobiographical film for Chaplin: his character, Calvero, is an ex music hall star (described in this image as a \\\"Tramp Comedian\\\") forced to deal with his loss of popularity.\\n\\nAlthough Chaplin remained politically active in the years following the failure of ''Monsieur Verdoux'', his next film, about a forgotten vaudeville comedian and a young ballerina in Edwardian London, was devoid of political themes. ''Limelight'' was heavily autobiographical, alluding not only to Chaplin's childhood and the lives of his parents, but also to his loss of popularity in the United States. The cast included various members of his family, including his five oldest children and his half-brother, Wheeler Dryden.\\n\\nFilming began in November 1951, by which time Chaplin had spent three years working on the story. He aimed for a more serious tone than any of his previous films, regularly using the word \\\"melancholy\\\" when explaining his plans to his co-star Claire Bloom. ''Limelight'' featured a cameo appearance from Buster Keaton, whom Chaplin cast as his stage partner in a pantomime scene. This marked the only time the comedians worked together.\\n\\nChaplin decided to hold the world premiere of ''Limelight'' in London, since it was the setting of the film. As he left Los Angeles, he expressed a premonition that he would not be returning. At New York, he boarded the with his family on 18 September 1952. The next day, attorney general James P. McGranery revoked Chaplin's re-entry permit and stated that he would have to submit to an interview concerning his political views and moral behaviour in order to re-enter the US. Although McGranery told the press that he had \\\"a pretty good case against Chaplin\\\", Maland has concluded, on the basis of the FBI files that were released in the 1980s, that the US government had no real evidence to prevent Chaplin's re-entry. It is likely that he would have gained entry if he had applied for it. However, when Chaplin received a cablegram informing him of the news, he privately decided to cut his ties with the United States:\\n\\n\\n\\nBecause all of his property remained in America, Chaplin refrained from saying anything negative about the incident to the press. The scandal attracted vast attention, but Chaplin and his film were warmly received in Europe. In America, the hostility towards him continued, and, although it received some positive reviews, ''Limelight'' was subjected to a wide-scale boycott. Reflecting on this, Maland writes that Chaplin's fall, from an \\\"unprecedented\\\" level of popularity, \\\"may be the most dramatic in the history of stardom in America\\\".\\n\\n===1953–1977: European years===\\n====Move to Switzerland and ''A King in New York''====\\n\\n\\n\\nChaplin did not attempt to return to the United States after his re-entry permit was revoked, and instead sent his wife to settle his affairs. The couple decided to settle in Switzerland and, in January 1953, the family moved into their permanent home: Manoir de Ban, a estate overlooking Lake Geneva in Corsier-sur-Vevey. Chaplin put his Beverly Hills house and studio up for sale in March, and surrendered his re-entry permit in April. The next year, his wife renounced her US citizenship and became a British citizen. Chaplin severed the last of his professional ties with the United States in 1955, when he sold the remainder of his stock in United Artists, which had been in financial difficulty since the early 1940s.\\n\\nManoir de Ban, Chaplin's home in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland\\n\\nChaplin remained a controversial figure throughout the 1950s, especially after he was awarded the International Peace Prize by the communist-led World Peace Council, and after his meetings with Zhou Enlai and Nikita Khrushchev. He began developing his first European film, ''A King in New York'', in 1954. Casting himself as an exiled king who seeks asylum in the United States, Chaplin included several of his recent experiences in the screenplay. His son, Michael, was cast as a boy whose parents are targeted by the FBI, while Chaplin's character faces accusations of communism. The political satire parodied HUAC and attacked elements of 1950s culture – including consumerism, plastic surgery, and wide-screen cinema. In a review, the playwright John Osborne called it Chaplin's \\\"most bitter\\\" and \\\"most openly personal\\\" film.\\n\\nChaplin founded a new production company, Attica, and used Shepperton Studios for the shooting. Filming in England proved a difficult experience, as he was used to his own Hollywood studio and familiar crew, and no longer had limitless production time. According to Robinson, this had an effect on the quality of the film. ''A King in New York'' was released in September 1957, and received mixed reviews. Chaplin banned American journalists from its Paris première and decided not to release the film in the United States. This severely limited its revenue, although it achieved moderate commercial success in Europe. ''A King in New York'' was not shown in America until 1973.\\n\\n====Final works and renewed appreciation====\\nChaplin with his wife Oona and six of their children in 1961\\n\\nIn the last two decades of his career, Chaplin concentrated on re-editing and scoring his old films for re-release, along with securing their ownership and distribution rights. In an interview he granted in 1959, the year of his 70th birthday, Chaplin stated that there was still \\\"room for the Little Man in the atomic age\\\". The first of these re-releases was ''The Chaplin Revue'' (1959), which included new versions of ''A Dog's Life'', ''Shoulder Arms'', and ''The Pilgrim''.\\n\\nIn America, the political atmosphere began to change and attention was once again directed to Chaplin's films instead of his views. In July 1962, ''The New York Times'' published an editorial stating that \\\"we do not believe the Republic would be in danger if yesterday's unforgotten little tramp were allowed to amble down the gangplank of a steamer or plane in an American port\\\". The same month, Chaplin was invested with the honorary degree of Doctor of Letters by the universities of Oxford and Durham. In November 1963, the Plaza Theater in New York started a year-long series of Chaplin's films, including ''Monsieur Verdoux'' and ''Limelight'', which gained excellent reviews from American critics. September 1964 saw the release of Chaplin's memoirs, ''My Autobiography'', which he had been working on since 1957. The 500-page book, which focused on his early years and personal life, became a worldwide best-seller, despite criticism over the lack of information on his film career.\\n\\nShortly after the publication of his memoirs, Chaplin began work on ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967), a romantic comedy based on a script he had written for Paulette Goddard in the 1930s. Set on an ocean liner, it starred Marlon Brando as an American ambassador and Sophia Loren as a stowaway found in his cabin. The film differed from Chaplin's earlier productions in several aspects. It was his first to use Technicolor and the widescreen format, while he concentrated on directing and appeared on-screen only in a cameo role as a seasick steward. He also signed a deal with Universal Pictures and appointed his assistant, Jerome Epstein, as the producer. Chaplin was paid $600,000 director's fee as well as a percentage of the gross receipts. ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' premiered in January 1967, to unfavourable reviews, and was a box-office failure. Chaplin was deeply hurt by the negative reaction to the film, which turned out to be his last.\\n\\nChaplin suffered a series of minor strokes in the late 1960s, which marked the beginning of a slow decline in his health. Despite the setbacks, he was soon writing a new film script, ''The Freak'', a story of a winged girl found in South America, which he intended as a starring vehicle for his daughter, Victoria. His fragile health prevented the project from being realised. In the early 1970s, Chaplin concentrated on re-releasing his old films, including ''The Kid'' and ''The Circus''. In 1971, he was made a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour at the Cannes Film Festival. The following year, he was honoured with a special award by the Venice Film Festival.\\n\\nChaplin (right) receiving his Honorary Academy Award from Jack Lemmon in 1972. It was the first time he had been to the United States in 20 years.\\n\\nIn 1972, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences offered Chaplin an Honorary Award, which Robinson sees as a sign that America \\\"wanted to make amends\\\". Chaplin was initially hesitant about accepting but decided to return to the US for the first time in 20 years. The visit attracted a large amount of press coverage and, at the Academy Awards gala, he was given a twelve-minute standing ovation, the longest in the Academy's history. Visibly emotional, Chaplin accepted his award for \\\"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\\\".\\n\\nAlthough Chaplin still had plans for future film projects, by the mid-1970s he was very frail. He experienced several further strokes, which made it difficult for him to communicate, and he had to use a wheelchair. His final projects were compiling a pictorial autobiography, ''My Life in Pictures'' (1974) and scoring ''A Woman of Paris'' for re-release in 1976. He also appeared in a documentary about his life, ''The Gentleman Tramp'' (1975), directed by Richard Patterson. In the 1975 New Year Honours, Chaplin was awarded a knighthood by Queen Elizabeth II, though he was too weak to kneel and received the honour in his wheelchair.\\n\\n====Death====\\nChaplin's grave in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland\\nBy October 1977, Chaplin's health had declined to the point that he needed constant care. In the early morning of 25 December 1977, Chaplin died at home after suffering a stroke in his sleep. He was 88 years old. The funeral, on 27 December, was a small and private Anglican ceremony, according to his wishes. Chaplin was interred in the Corsier-sur-Vevey cemetery. Among the film industry's tributes, director René Clair wrote, \\\"He was a monument of the cinema, of all countries and all times ... the most beautiful gift the cinema made to us.\\\" Actor Bob Hope declared, \\\"We were lucky to have lived in his time.\\\"\\n\\nOn 1 March 1978, Chaplin's coffin was dug up and stolen from its grave by two unemployed immigrants, Roman Wardas, from Poland, and Gantcho Ganev, from Bulgaria. The body was held for ransom in an attempt to extort money from Oona Chaplin. The pair were caught in a large police operation in May, and Chaplin's coffin was found buried in a field in the nearby village of Noville. It was re-interred in the Corsier cemetery surrounded by reinforced concrete.\\n\",\n \"===Influences===\\nChaplin believed his first influence to be his mother, who entertained him as a child by sitting at the window and mimicking passers-by: \\\"it was through watching her that I learned not only how to express emotions with my hands and face, but also how to observe and study people.\\\" Chaplin's early years in music hall allowed him to see stage comedians at work; he also attended the Christmas pantomimes at Drury Lane, where he studied the art of clowning through performers like Dan Leno. Chaplin's years with the Fred Karno company had a formative effect on him as an actor and filmmaker. Simon Louvish writes that the company was his \\\"training ground\\\", and it was here that Chaplin learned to vary the pace of his comedy. The concept of mixing pathos with slapstick was learnt from Karno, who also used elements of absurdity that became familiar in Chaplin's gags. From the film industry, Chaplin drew upon the work of the French comedian Max Linder, whose films he greatly admired. In developing the Tramp costume and persona, he was likely inspired by the American vaudeville scene, where tramp characters were common.\\n\\n===Method===\\nA 1922 image of Charlie Chaplin Studios, where all of Chaplin's films between 1918 and 1952 were produced\\n\\nChaplin never spoke more than cursorily about his filmmaking methods, claiming such a thing would be tantamount to a magician spoiling his own illusion. Little was known about his working process throughout his lifetime, but research from film historians – particularly the findings of Kevin Brownlow and David Gill that were presented in the three-part documentary ''Unknown Chaplin'' (1983) – has since revealed his unique working method.\\n\\nUntil he began making spoken dialogue films with ''The Great Dictator'', Chaplin never shot from a completed script. Many of his early films began with only a vague premise – for example \\\"Charlie enters a health spa\\\" or \\\"Charlie works in a pawn shop.\\\" He then had sets constructed and worked with his stock company to improvise gags and \\\"business\\\" using them, almost always working the ideas out on film. As ideas were accepted and discarded, a narrative structure would emerge, frequently requiring Chaplin to reshoot an already-completed scene that might have otherwise contradicted the story. From ''A Woman of Paris'' onward Chaplin began the filming process with a prepared plot, but Robinson writes that every film up to ''Modern Times'' \\\"went through many metamorphoses and permutations before the story took its final form.\\\"\\n\\nProducing films in this manner meant Chaplin took longer to complete his pictures than almost any other filmmaker at the time. If he was out of ideas, he often took a break from the shoot, which could last for days, while keeping the studio ready for when inspiration returned. Delaying the process further was Chaplin's rigorous perfectionism. According to his friend Ivor Montagu, \\\"nothing but perfection would be right\\\" for the filmmaker. Because he personally funded his films, Chaplin was at liberty to strive for this goal and shoot as many takes as he wished. The number was often excessive, for instance 53 takes for every finished take in ''The Kid''. For ''The Immigrant'', a 20 minute-short, Chaplin shot 40,000 feet of film – enough for a feature-length.\\n\\n\\n\\nDescribing his working method as \\\"sheer perseverance to the point of madness\\\", Chaplin would be completely consumed by the production of a picture. Robinson writes that even in Chaplin's later years, his work continued \\\"to take precedence over everything and everyone else.\\\" The combination of story improvisation and relentless perfectionism – which resulted in days of effort and thousands of feet of film being wasted, all at enormous expense – often proved taxing for Chaplin who, in frustration, would lash out at his actors and crew.\\n\\nChaplin exercised complete control over his pictures, to the extent that he would act out the other roles for his cast, expecting them to imitate him exactly. He personally edited all of his films, trawling through the large amounts of footage to create the exact picture he wanted. As a result of his complete independence, he was identified by the film historian Andrew Sarris as one of the first auteur filmmakers. Chaplin did receive help, notably from his long-time cinematographer Roland Totheroh, brother Sydney Chaplin, and various assistant directors such as Harry Crocker and Charles Reisner.\\n\\n===Style and themes===\\nThe Kid'' (1921), demonstrating Chaplin's mixture of slapstick, pathos, and social commentary\\n\\nWhile Chaplin's comedic style is broadly defined as slapstick, it is considered restrained and intelligent, with the film historian Philip Kemp describing his work as a mix of \\\"deft, balletic physical comedy and thoughtful, situation-based gags\\\". Chaplin diverged from conventional slapstick by slowing the pace and exhausting each scene of its comic potential, with more focus on developing the viewer's relationship to the characters. Unlike conventional slapstick comedies, Robinson states that the comic moments in Chaplin's films centre on the Tramp's attitude to the things happening to him: the humour does not come from the Tramp bumping into a tree, but from his lifting his hat to the tree in apology. Dan Kamin writes that Chaplin's \\\"quirky mannerisms\\\" and \\\"serious demeanour in the midst of slapstick action\\\" are other key aspects of his comedy, while the surreal transformation of objects and the employment of in-camera trickery are also common features.\\n\\nChaplin's silent films typically follow the Tramp's efforts to survive in a hostile world. The character lives in poverty and is frequently treated badly, but remains kind and upbeat; defying his social position, he strives to be seen as a gentleman. As Chaplin said in 1925, \\\"The whole point of the Little Fellow is that no matter how down on his ass he is, no matter how well the jackals succeed in tearing him apart, he's still a man of dignity.\\\" The Tramp defies authority figures and \\\"gives as good as he gets\\\", leading Robinson and Louvish to see him as a representative for the underprivileged – an \\\"everyman turned heroic saviour\\\". Hansmeyer notes that several of Chaplin's films end with \\\"the homeless and lonely Tramp walking optimistically ... into the sunset ... to continue his journey\\\".\\n\\n\\n\\nThe infusion of pathos is a well-known aspect of Chaplin's work, and Larcher notes his reputation for \\\"inducing laughter and tears\\\". Sentimentality in his films comes from a variety of sources, with Louvish pinpointing \\\"personal failure, society's strictures, economic disaster, and the elements.\\\" Chaplin sometimes drew on tragic events when creating his films, as in the case of ''The Gold Rush'' (1925), which was inspired by the fate of the Donner Party. Constance B. Kuriyama has identified serious underlying themes in the early comedies, such as greed (''The Gold Rush'') and loss (''The Kid''). Chaplin also touched on controversial issues: immigration (''The Immigrant'', 1917); illegitimacy (''The Kid'', 1921); and drug use (''Easy Street'', 1917). He often explored these topics ironically, making comedy out of suffering.\\n\\nSocial commentary was a feature of Chaplin's films from early in his career, as he portrayed the underdog in a sympathetic light and highlighted the difficulties of the poor. Later, as he developed a keen interest in economics and felt obliged to publicise his views, Chaplin began incorporating overtly political messages into his films. ''Modern Times'' (1936) depicted factory workers in dismal conditions, ''The Great Dictator'' (1940) parodied Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini and ended in a speech against nationalism, ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947) criticised war and capitalism, and ''A King in New York'' (1957) attacked McCarthyism.\\n\\nSeveral of Chaplin's films incorporate autobiographical elements, and the psychologist Sigmund Freud believed that Chaplin \\\"always plays only himself as he was in his dismal youth\\\". ''The Kid'' is thought to reflect Chaplin's childhood trauma of being sent into an orphanage, the main characters in ''Limelight'' (1952) contain elements from the lives of his parents, and ''A King in New York'' references Chaplin's experiences of being shunned by the United States. Many of his sets, especially in street scenes, bear a strong similarity to Kennington, where he grew up. Stephen M. Weissman has argued that Chaplin's problematic relationship with his mentally ill mother was often reflected in his female characters and the Tramp's desire to save them.\\n\\nRegarding the structure of Chaplin's films, the scholar Gerald Mast sees them as consisting of sketches tied together by the same theme and setting, rather than having a tightly unified storyline. Visually, his films are simple and economic, with scenes portrayed as if set on a stage. His approach to filming was described by the art director Eugène Lourié: \\\"Chaplin did not think in 'artistic' images when he was shooting. He believed that action is the main thing. The camera is there to photograph the actors\\\". In his autobiography, Chaplin wrote, \\\"Simplicity is best ... pompous effects slow up action, are boring and unpleasant ... The camera should not intrude.\\\" This approach has prompted criticism, since the 1940s, for being \\\"old fashioned\\\", while the film scholar Donald McCaffrey sees it as an indication that Chaplin never completely understood film as a medium. Kamin, however, comments that Chaplin's comedic talent would not be enough to remain funny on screen if he did not have an \\\"ability to conceive and direct scenes specifically for the film medium\\\".\\n\\n===Composing===\\nChaplin playing the cello in 1915\\n\\nChaplin developed a passion for music as a child and taught himself to play the piano, violin, and cello. He considered the musical accompaniment of a film to be important, and from ''A Woman of Paris'' onwards he took an increasing interest in this area. With the advent of sound technology, Chaplin began using a synchronised orchestral soundtrack – composed by himself – for ''City Lights'' (1931). He thereafter composed the scores for all of his films, and from the late 1950s to his death, he scored all of his silent features and some of his short films.\\n\\nAs Chaplin was not a trained musician, he could not read sheet music and needed the help of professional composers, such as David Raksin, Raymond Rasch and Eric James, when creating his scores. Musical directors were employed to oversee the recording process, such as Alfred Newman for ''City Lights''. Although some critics have claimed that credit for his film music should be given to the composers who worked with him, Raksin – who worked with Chaplin on ''Modern Times'' – stressed Chaplin's creative position and active participation in the composing process. This process, which could take months, would start with Chaplin describing to the composer(s) exactly what he wanted and singing or playing tunes he had improvised on the piano. These tunes were then developed further in a close collaboration among the composer(s) and Chaplin. According to film historian Jeffrey Vance, \\\"although he relied upon associates to arrange varied and complex instrumentation, the musical imperative is his, and not a note in a Chaplin musical score was placed there without his assent.\\\"\\n\\nChaplin's compositions produced three popular songs. \\\"Smile\\\", composed originally for ''Modern Times'' (1936) and later set to lyrics by John Turner and Geoffrey Parsons, was a hit for Nat King Cole in 1954. For ''Limelight'', Chaplin composed \\\"Terry's Theme\\\", which was popularised by Jimmy Young as \\\"Eternally\\\" (1952). Finally, \\\"This Is My Song\\\", performed by Petula Clark for ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967), reached number one on the UK and other European charts. Chaplin also received his only competitive Oscar for his composition work, as the ''Limelight'' theme won an Academy Award for Best Original Score in 1973 following the film's re-release.\\n\",\n \"Chaplin as the Tramp in 1915, cinema's \\\"most universal icon\\\"\\n\\nIn 1998, the film critic Andrew Sarris called Chaplin \\\"arguably the single most important artist produced by the cinema, certainly its most extraordinary performer and probably still its most universal icon\\\". He is described by the British Film Institute as \\\"a towering figure in world culture\\\", and was included in ''Time'' magazine's list of the \\\"100 Most Important People of the 20th Century\\\" for the \\\"laughter he brought to millions\\\" and because he \\\"more or less invented global recognizability and helped turn an industry into an art\\\".\\n\\nThe image of the Tramp has become a part of cultural history; according to Simon Louvish, the character is recognisable to people who have never seen a Chaplin film, and in places where his films are never shown. The critic Leonard Maltin has written of the \\\"unique\\\" and \\\"indelible\\\" nature of the Tramp, and argued that no other comedian matched his \\\"worldwide impact\\\". Praising the character, Richard Schickel suggests that Chaplin's films with the Tramp contain the most \\\"eloquent, richly comedic expressions of the human spirit\\\" in movie history. Memorabilia connected to the character still fetches large sums in auctions: in 2006 a bowler hat and a bamboo cane that were part of the Tramp's costume were bought for $140,000 in a Los Angeles auction.\\n\\nAs a filmmaker, Chaplin is considered a pioneer and one of the most influential figures of the early twentieth century. He is often credited as one of the medium's first artists. Film historian Mark Cousins has written that Chaplin \\\"changed not only the imagery of cinema, but also its sociology and grammar\\\" and claims that Chaplin was as important to the development of comedy as a genre as D.W. Griffith was to drama. He was the first to popularise feature-length comedy and to slow down the pace of action, adding pathos and subtlety to it. Although his work is mostly classified as slapstick, Chaplin's drama ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923) was a major influence on Ernst Lubitsch's film ''The Marriage Circle'' (1924) and thus played a part in the development of \\\"sophisticated comedy\\\". According to David Robinson, Chaplin's innovations were \\\"rapidly assimilated to become part of the common practice of film craft.\\\" Filmmakers who cited Chaplin as an influence include Federico Fellini (who called Chaplin \\\"a sort of Adam, from whom we are all descended\\\"), Jacques Tati (\\\"Without him I would never have made a film\\\"), René Clair (\\\"He inspired practically every filmmaker\\\"), Michael Powell, Billy Wilder, Vittorio De Sica, and Richard Attenborough. Russian filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky praised Chaplin as \\\"the only person to have gone down into cinematic history without any shadow of a doubt. The films he left behind can never grow old.\\\"\\n\\nChaplin also strongly influenced the work of later comedians. Marcel Marceau said he was inspired to become a mime artist after watching Chaplin, while the actor Raj Kapoor based his screen persona on the Tramp. Mark Cousins has also detected Chaplin's comedic style in the French character Monsieur Hulot and the Italian character Totò. In other fields, Chaplin helped inspire the cartoon characters Felix the Cat and Mickey Mouse, and was an influence on the Dada art movement. As one of the founding members of United Artists, Chaplin also had a role in the development of the film industry. Gerald Mast has written that although UA never became a major company like MGM or Paramount Pictures, the idea that directors could produce their own films was \\\"years ahead of its time\\\".\\n\\nIn the 21st century, several of Chaplin's films are still regarded as classics and among the greatest ever made. The 2012 ''Sight & Sound'' poll, which compiles \\\"top ten\\\" ballots from film critics and directors to determine each group's most acclaimed films,\\nsaw ''City Lights'' rank among the critics' top 50, ''Modern Times'' inside the top 100, and ''The Great Dictator'' and ''The Gold Rush'' placed in the top 250. The top 100 films as voted on by directors included ''Modern Times'' at number 22, ''City Lights'' at number 30, and ''The Gold Rush'' at number 91. Every one of Chaplin's features received a vote. In 2007, the American Film Institute named ''City Lights'' the 11th greatest American film of all time, while ''The Gold Rush'' and ''Modern Times'' again ranked in the top 100. Books about Chaplin continue to be published regularly, and he is a popular subject for media scholars and film archivists. Many of Chaplin's film have had a DVD and Blu-Ray release.\\n\\n===Commemoration and tributes===\\n\\nA room inside Chaplin's World\\n\\nChaplin's final home, Manoir de Ban in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland, has been converted into a museum named \\\"Chaplin's World\\\". It opened on 17 April 2016 after 15 years of development, and is described by Reuters as \\\"an interactive museum showcasing the life and works of Charlie Chaplin\\\". On the 128th anniversary of his birth, a record-setting 662 people dressed as the Tramp in an event organised by the museum. Previously, the Museum of the Moving Image in London held a permanent display on Chaplin, and hosted a dedicated exhibition to his life and career in 1988. The London Film Museum hosted an exhibition called ''Charlie Chaplin – The Great Londoner'', from 2010 until 2013.\\n\\nIn London, a statue of Chaplin as the Tramp, sculpted by John Doubleday and unveiled in 1981, is located in Leicester Square. The city also includes a road named after him in central London, \\\"Charlie Chaplin Walk\\\", which is the location of the BFI IMAX. There are nine blue plaques memorialising Chaplin in London, Hampshire, and Yorkshire. The Swiss town of Vevey named a park in his honour in 1980 and erected a statue there in 1982. In 2011, two large murals depicting Chaplin on two 14-storey buildings were also unveiled in Vevey. Chaplin has also been honoured by the Irish town of Waterville, where he spent several summers with his family in the 1960s. A statue was erected in 1998; since 2011, the town has been host to the annual Charlie Chaplin Comedy Film Festival, which was founded to celebrate Chaplin's legacy and to showcase new comic talent.\\n\\nIn other tributes, a minor planet, 3623 Chaplin – discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Karachkina in 1981 – is named after Chaplin. Throughout the 1980s, the Tramp image was used by IBM to advertise their personal computers. Chaplin's 100th birthday anniversary in 1989 was marked with several events around the world, and on 15 April 2011, a day before his 122nd birthday, Google celebrated him with a special Google Doodle video on its global and other country-wide homepages. Many countries, spanning six continents, have honoured Chaplin with a postal stamp.\\n\\nChaplin's legacy is managed on behalf of his children by the Chaplin office, located in Paris. The office represents Association Chaplin, founded by some of his children \\\"to protect the name, image and moral rights\\\" to his body of work, Roy Export SAS, which owns the copyright to most of his films made after 1918, and Bubbles Incorporated S.A., which owns the copyrights to his image and name. Their central archive is held at the archives of Montreux, Switzerland and scanned versions of its contents, including 83,630 images, 118 scripts, 976 manuscripts, 7,756 letters, and thousands of other documents, are available for research purposes at the Chaplin Research Centre at the Cineteca di Bologna. The photographic archive, which includes approximately 10,000 photographs from Chaplin's life and career, is kept at the Musée de l'Elysée in Lausanne, Switzerland. The British Film Institute has also established the Charles Chaplin Research Foundation, and the first international Charles Chaplin Conference was held in London in July 2005.\\n\\nStatues of Chaplin around the world, located at (left to right) 1. Trenčianske Teplice, Slovakia; 2. Chełmża, Poland; 3. Waterville, Ireland; 4. London, United Kingdom; 5. Hyderabad, India; 6. Alassio, Italy; 7. Barcelona, Spain; 8. Vevey, Switzerland\\n\\n===Characterisations===\\nChaplin is the subject of a biographical film, ''Chaplin'' (1992) directed by Richard Attenborough, and starring Robert Downey Jr. in the title role. He is also a character in the period drama film ''The Cat's Meow'' (2001), played by Eddie Izzard, and in the made-for-television movie ''The Scarlett O'Hara War'' (1980), played by Clive Revill. A television series about Chaplin's childhood, ''Young Charlie Chaplin'', ran on PBS in 1989, and was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Program.\\n\\nChaplin's life has also been the subject of several stage productions. Two musicals, ''Little Tramp'' and ''Chaplin'', were produced in the early 1990s. In 2006, Thomas Meehan and Christopher Curtis created another musical, ''Limelight: The Story of Charlie Chaplin'', which was first performed at the La Jolla Playhouse in San Diego in 2010. It was adapted for Broadway two years later, re-titled ''Chaplin – A Musical''. Chaplin was portrayed by Robert McClure in both productions. In 2013, two plays about Chaplin premiered in Finland: ''Chaplin'' at the Svenska Teatern, and ''Kulkuri'' (''The Tramp'') at the Tampere Workers' Theatre.\\n\\nChaplin has also been characterised in literary fiction. He is the protagonist of Robert Coover's short story \\\"Charlie in the House of Rue\\\" (1980; reprinted in Coover's 1987 collection ''A Night at the Movies''), and of Glen David Gold's ''Sunnyside'' (2009), a historical novel set in the First World War period. A day in Chaplin's life in 1909 is dramatised in the chapter entitled \\\"Modern Times\\\" in Alan Moore's ''Jerusalem'' (2016), a novel set in the author's home town of Northampton, England.\\n\",\n \"Chaplin's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, located at 6755 Hollywood Boulevard. Although the project started in 1958, Chaplin only received his star in 1970 because of his political views.\\n\\nChaplin received many awards and honours, especially later in life. In the 1975 New Year Honours, he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (KBE). He was also awarded honorary Doctor of Letters degrees by the University of Oxford and the University of Durham in 1962. In 1965, he and Ingmar Bergman were joint winners of the Erasmus Prize and, in 1971, he was appointed a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour by the French government.\\n\\nFrom the film industry, Chaplin received a special Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival in 1972, and a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Lincoln Center Film Society the same year. The latter has since been presented annually to filmmakers as The Chaplin Award. Chaplin was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1972, having been previously excluded because of his political beliefs.\\n\\nChaplin received three Academy Awards: an Honorary Award for \\\"versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing, and producing ''The Circus''\\\" in 1929, a second Honorary Award for \\\"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\\\" in 1972, and a Best Score award in 1973 for ''Limelight'' (shared with Ray Rasch and Larry Russell). He was further nominated in the Best Actor, Best Original Screenplay, and Best Picture (as producer) categories for ''The Great Dictator'', and received another Best Original Screenplay nomination for ''Monsieur Verdoux''. In 1976, Chaplin was made a Fellow of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA).\\n\\nSix of Chaplin's films have been selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress: ''The Immigrant'' (1917), ''The Kid'' (1921), ''The Gold Rush'' (1925), ''City Lights'' (1931), ''Modern Times'' (1936), and ''The Great Dictator'' (1940).\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n'''Directed features:'''\\n* ''The Kid'' (1921)\\n* ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923)\\n* ''The Gold Rush'' (1925)\\n* ''The Circus'' (1928)\\n* ''City Lights'' (1931)\\n* ''Modern Times'' (1936)\\n* ''The Great Dictator'' (1940)\\n* ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947)\\n* ''Limelight'' (1952)\\n* ''A King in New York'' (1957)\\n* ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967)\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"===Footnotes===\\n\\n\\n===Sources===\\n\\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n* by Association Chaplin\\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* The Charlie Chaplin Archive Online catalogue of Chaplin's professional and personal archives at the Cineteca di Bologna, Italy\\n* Charlie Chaplin Comedy Film Festival in Waterville, Ireland\\n* Chaplin's World Museum at the Manoir de Ban, Switzerland\\n* Chaplin's file at the Federal Bureau of Investigation website\\n* Charlie Chaplin at the British Film Institute\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction","Biography","Filmmaking","Legacy","Awards and recognition","Filmography","See also","Notes","References","External links"],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \"Biography\",\n \"Filmmaking\",\n \"Legacy\",\n \"Awards and recognition\",\n \"Filmography\",\n \"See also\",\n \"Notes\",\n \"References\",\n \"External links\"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Charlie Chaplin"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["The use of pathos was developed further with ''The Bank'', in which Chaplin created a sad ending.","''Monsieur Verdoux'' was a black comedy, the story of a French bank clerk, Verdoux (Chaplin), who loses his job and begins marrying and murdering wealthy widows to support his family."],"string":"[\n \"The use of pathos was developed further with ''The Bank'', in which Chaplin created a sad ending.\",\n \"''Monsieur Verdoux'' was a black comedy, the story of a French bank clerk, Verdoux (Chaplin), who loses his job and begins marrying and murdering wealthy widows to support his family.\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Sir Charles Spencer \"Charlie\" Chaplin''', (16 April 1889 – 25 December 1977) was an English comic actor, filmmaker, and composer who rose to fame in the era of silent film.","Chaplin became a worldwide icon through his screen persona \"the Tramp\" and is considered one of the most important figures in the history of the film industry.","His career spanned more than 75 years, from childhood in the Victorian era until a year before his death in 1977, and encompassed both adulation and controversy.","Chaplin's childhood in London was one of poverty and hardship.","As his father was absent and his mother struggled financially, he was sent to a workhouse twice before the age of nine.","When he was 14, his mother was committed to a mental asylum.","Chaplin began performing at an early age, touring music halls and later working as a stage actor and comedian.","At 19, he was signed to the prestigious Fred Karno company, which took him to America.","Chaplin was scouted for the film industry and began appearing in 1914 for Keystone Studios.","He soon developed the Tramp persona and formed a large fan base.","Chaplin directed his own films from an early stage and continued to hone his craft as he moved to the Essanay, Mutual, and First National corporations.","By 1918, he was one of the best-known figures in the world.","In 1919, Chaplin co-founded the distribution company United Artists, which gave him complete control over his films.","His first feature-length was ''The Kid'' (1921), followed by ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923), ''The Gold Rush'' (1925), and ''The Circus'' (1928).","He refused to move to sound films in the 1930s, instead producing ''City Lights'' (1931) and ''Modern Times'' (1936) without dialogue.","Chaplin became increasingly political, and his next film, ''The Great Dictator'' (1940), satirised Adolf Hitler.","The 1940s were a decade marked with controversy for Chaplin, and his popularity declined rapidly.","He was accused of communist sympathies, while his involvement in a paternity suit and marriages to much younger women caused scandal.","An FBI investigation was opened, and Chaplin was forced to leave the United States and settle in Switzerland.","He abandoned the Tramp in his later films, which include ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947), ''Limelight'' (1952), ''A King in New York'' (1957), and ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967).","Chaplin wrote, directed, produced, edited, starred in, and composed the music for most of his films.","He was a perfectionist, and his financial independence enabled him to spend years on the development and production of a picture.","His films are characterised by slapstick combined with pathos, typified in the Tramp's struggles against adversity.","Many contain social and political themes, as well as autobiographical elements.","In 1972, as part of a renewed appreciation for his work, Chaplin received an Honorary Academy Award for \"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\".","He continues to be held in high regard, with ''The Gold Rush'', ''City Lights'', ''Modern Times'', and ''The Great Dictator'' often ranked on industry lists of the greatest films of all time.","===1889–1913: Early years===\n\n====Background and childhood hardship====\nCharles Spencer Chaplin was born on 16 April 1889 to Hannah Chaplin (born Hannah Harriet Pedlingham Hill) and Charles Chaplin Sr.","There is no official record of his birth, although Chaplin believed he was born at East Street, Walworth, in South London.","His mother and father had married four years previously, at which time Charles Sr. became the legal carer of Hannah's illegitimate son, Sydney John Hill.","At the time of his birth, Chaplin's parents were both music hall entertainers.","Hannah, the daughter of a shoemaker, had a brief and unsuccessful career under the stage name Lily Harley, while Charles Sr., a butcher's son, was a popular singer.","Although they never divorced, Chaplin's parents were estranged by around 1891.","The following year, Hannah gave birth to a third son – George Wheeler Dryden – fathered by the music hall entertainer Leo Dryden.","The child was taken by Dryden at six months old, and did not re-enter Chaplin's life for 30 years.","Seven-year-old Chaplin (lower centre) at the Central London District School for paupers, 1897\n\nChaplin's childhood was fraught with poverty and hardship, making his eventual trajectory \"the most dramatic of all the rags to riches stories ever told\" according to his authorised biographer David Robinson.","Chaplin's early years were spent with his mother and brother Sydney in the London district of Kennington; Hannah had no means of income, other than occasional nursing and dressmaking, and Chaplin Sr. provided no financial support.","As the situation deteriorated, Chaplin was sent to Lambeth Workhouse when he was seven years old.","The council housed him at the Central London District School for paupers, which Chaplin remembered as \"a forlorn existence\".","He was briefly reunited with his mother 18 months later, before Hannah was forced to readmit her family to the workhouse in July 1898.","The boys were promptly sent to Norwood Schools, another institution for destitute children.","In September 1898, Hannah was committed to Cane Hill mental asylum – she had developed a psychosis seemingly brought on by an infection of syphilis and malnutrition.","For the two months she was there, Chaplin and his brother Sydney were sent to live with their father, whom the young boys scarcely knew.","Charles Sr. was by then a severe alcoholic, and life there was bad enough to provoke a visit from the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children.","Chaplin's father died two years later, at 38 years old, from cirrhosis of the liver.","Hannah entered a period of remission but, in May 1903, became ill again.","Chaplin, then 14, had the task of taking his mother to the infirmary, from where she was sent back to Cane Hill.","He lived alone for several days, searching for food and occasionally sleeping rough, until Sydney – who had enrolled in the Navy two years earlier – returned.","Hannah was released from the asylum eight months later, but in March 1905, her illness returned, this time permanently.","\"There was nothing we could do but accept poor mother's fate\", Chaplin later wrote, and she remained in care until her death in 1928.","====Young performer====\nSherlock Holmes'', in which he appeared between 1903 and 1906\n\nBetween his time in the poor schools and his mother succumbing to mental illness, Chaplin began to perform on stage.","He later recalled making his first amateur appearance at the age of five years, when he took over from Hannah one night in Aldershot.","This was an isolated occurrence, but by the time he was nine Chaplin had, with his mother's encouragement, grown interested in performing.","He later wrote: \"she imbued me with the feeling that I had some sort of talent\".","Through his father's connections, Chaplin became a member of the Eight Lancashire Lads clog-dancing troupe, with whom he toured English music halls throughout 1899 and 1900.","Chaplin worked hard, and the act was popular with audiences, but he was not satisfied with dancing and wished to form a comedy act.","In the years Chaplin was touring with the Eight Lancashire Lads, his mother ensured that he still attended school but, by age 13, he had abandoned education.","He supported himself with a range of jobs, while nursing his ambition to become an actor.","At 14, shortly after his mother's relapse, he registered with a theatrical agency in London's West End.","The manager sensed potential in Chaplin, who was promptly given his first role as a newsboy in Harry Arthur Saintsbury's ''Jim, a Romance of Cockayne''.","It opened in July 1903, but the show was unsuccessful and closed after two weeks.","Chaplin's comic performance, however, was singled out for praise in many of the reviews.","Saintsbury secured a role for Chaplin in Charles Frohman's production of ''Sherlock Holmes'', where he played Billy the pageboy in three nationwide tours.","His performance was so well received that he was called to London to play the role alongside William Gillette, the original Holmes.","\"It was like tidings from heaven\", Chaplin recalled.","At 16 years old, Chaplin starred in the play's West End production at the Duke of York's Theatre from October to December 1905.","He completed one final tour of ''Sherlock Holmes'' in early 1906, before leaving the play after more than two-and-a-half years.","====Stage comedy and vaudeville====\nChaplin soon found work with a new company, and went on tour with his brother – who was also pursuing an acting career – in a comedy sketch called ''Repairs''.","In May 1906, Chaplin joined the juvenile act ''Casey's Circus'', where he developed popular burlesque pieces and was soon the star of the show.","By the time the act finished touring in July 1907, the 18-year-old had become an accomplished comedic performer.","He struggled to find more work, however, and a brief attempt at a solo act was a failure.","Advertisement from Chaplin's American tour with the Fred Karno comedy company, 1913\n\nMeanwhile, Sydney Chaplin had joined Fred Karno's prestigious comedy company in 1906 and, by 1908, he was one of their key performers.","In February, he managed to secure a two-week trial for his younger brother.","Karno was initially wary, and considered Chaplin a \"pale, puny, sullen-looking youngster\" who \"looked much too shy to do any good in the theatre.\"","However, the teenager made an impact on his first night at the London Coliseum and he was quickly signed to a contract.","Chaplin began by playing a series of minor parts, eventually progressing to starring roles in 1909.","In April 1910, he was given the lead in a new sketch, ''Jimmy the Fearless''.","It was a big success, and Chaplin received considerable press attention.","Karno selected his new star to join the section of the company, one that also included Stan Laurel, that toured North America's vaudeville circuit.","The young comedian headed the show and impressed reviewers, being described as \"one of the best pantomime artists ever seen here\".","His most successful role was a drunk called the \"Inebriate Swell\", which drew him significant recognition.","The tour lasted 21 months, and the troupe returned to England in June 1912.","Chaplin recalled that he \"had a disquieting feeling of sinking back into a depressing commonplaceness\" and was, therefore, delighted when a new tour began in October.","===1914–1917: Entering films===\n====Keystone====\n\nSix months into the second American tour, Chaplin was invited to join the New York Motion Picture Company.","A representative who had seen his performances thought he could replace Fred Mace, a star of their Keystone Studios who intended to leave.","Chaplin thought the Keystone comedies \"a crude mélange of rough and rumble\", but liked the idea of working in films and rationalised: \"Besides, it would mean a new life.\"","He met with the company and signed a $150-per-week ($ in dollars) contract in September 1913.","Chaplin arrived in Los Angeles, home of the Keystone studio, in early December 1913.","His boss was Mack Sennett, who initially expressed concern that the 24-year-old looked too young.","He was not used in a picture until late January, during which time Chaplin attempted to learn the processes of filmmaking.","The one-reeler ''Making a Living'' marked his film acting debut and was released on 2 February 1914.","Chaplin strongly disliked the picture, but one review picked him out as \"a comedian of the first water\".","For his second appearance in front of the camera, Chaplin selected the costume with which he became identified.","He described the process in his autobiography:\n\n\n\nThe film was ''Mabel's Strange Predicament'', but \"the Tramp\" character, as it became known, debuted to audiences in ''Kid Auto Races at Venice'' – shot later than ''Mabel's Strange Predicament'' but released two days earlier.","Chaplin adopted the character as his screen persona and attempted to make suggestions for the films he appeared in.","These ideas were dismissed by his directors.","During the filming of his eleventh picture, ''Mabel at the Wheel'', he clashed with director Mabel Normand and was almost released from his contract.","Sennett kept him on, however, when he received orders from exhibitors for more Chaplin films.","Sennett also allowed Chaplin to direct his next film himself after Chaplin promised to pay $1,500 ($ in dollars) if the film was unsuccessful.","''Caught in the Rain'', issued 4 May 1914, was Chaplin's directorial debut and was highly successful.","Thereafter he directed almost every short film in which he appeared for Keystone, at the rate of approximately one per week, a period which he later remembered as the most exciting time of his career.","Chaplin's films introduced a slower form of comedy than the typical Keystone farce, and he developed a large fan base.","In November 1914, he had a supporting role in the first feature length comedy film, ''Tillie's Punctured Romance'', directed by Sennett and starring Marie Dressler, which was a commercial success and increased his popularity.","When Chaplin's contract came up for renewal at the end of the year, he asked for $1,000 a week ($ in dollars) – an amount Sennett refused as too large.","====Essanay====\nChaplin and Edna Purviance, his regular leading lady, in ''Work'' (1915)\n\nThe Essanay Film Manufacturing Company of Chicago sent Chaplin an offer of $1,250 a week with a signing bonus of $10,000.","He joined the studio in late December 1914, where he began forming a stock company of regular players, including Leo White, Bud Jamison, Paddy McGuire and Billy Armstrong.","He soon recruited a leading lady – Edna Purviance, whom Chaplin met in a cafe and hired on account of her beauty.","She went on to appear in 35 films with Chaplin over eight years; the pair also formed a romantic relationship that lasted into 1917.","Chaplin asserted a high level of control over his pictures and started to put more time and care into each film.","There was a month-long interval between the release of his second production, ''A Night Out'', and his third, ''The Champion''.","The final seven of Chaplin's 14 Essanay films were all produced at this slower pace.","Chaplin also began to alter his screen persona, which had attracted some criticism at Keystone for its \"mean, crude, and brutish\" nature.","The character became more gentle and romantic; ''The Tramp'' (April 1915) was considered a particular turning point in his development.","Robinson notes that this was an innovation in comedy films, and marked the time when serious critics began to appreciate Chaplin's work.","At Essanay, writes film scholar Simon Louvish, Chaplin \"found the themes and the settings that would define the Tramp's world.\"","During 1915, Chaplin became a cultural phenomenon.","Shops were stocked with Chaplin merchandise, he was featured in cartoons and comic strips, and several songs were written about him.","In July, a journalist for ''Motion Picture Magazine'' wrote that \"Chaplinitis\" had spread across America.","As his fame grew worldwide, he became the film industry's first international star.","When the Essanay contract ended in December 1915, Chaplin – fully aware of his popularity – requested a $150,000 signing bonus from his next studio.","He received several offers, including Universal, Fox, and Vitagraph, the best of which came from the Mutual Film Corporation at $10,000 a week.","====Mutual====\nBy 1916, Chaplin was a global phenomenon.","Here he shows off some of his merchandise, c. 1918.","A contract was negotiated with Mutual that amounted to $670,000 a year, which Robinson says made Chaplin – at 26 years old – one of the highest paid people in the world.","The high salary shocked the public and was widely reported in the press.","John R. Freuler, the studio president, explained: \"We can afford to pay Mr. Chaplin this large sum annually because the public wants Chaplin and will pay for him.\"","Mutual gave Chaplin his own Los Angeles studio to work in, which opened in March 1916.","He added two key members to his stock company, Albert Austin and Eric Campbell, and produced a series of elaborate two-reelers: ''The Floorwalker'', ''The Fireman'', ''The Vagabond'', ''One A.M.'', and ''The Count''.","For ''The Pawnshop'', he recruited the actor Henry Bergman, who was to work with Chaplin for 30 years.","''Behind the Screen'' and ''The Rink'' completed Chaplin's releases for 1916.","The Mutual contract stipulated that he release a two-reel film every four weeks, which he had managed to achieve.","With the new year, however, Chaplin began to demand more time.","He made only four more films for Mutual over the first ten months of 1917: ''Easy Street'', ''The Cure'', ''The Immigrant'', and ''The Adventurer''.","With their careful construction, these films are considered by Chaplin scholars to be among his finest work.","Later in life, Chaplin referred to his Mutual years as the happiest period of his career.","However, Chaplin also felt that those films became increasingly formulaic over the period of the contract and he was increasingly dissatisfied with the working conditions encouraging that.","Chaplin was attacked in the British media for not fighting in the First World War.","He defended himself, revealing that he would fight for Britain if called and had registered for the American draft, but he was not summoned by either country.","Despite this criticism Chaplin was a favourite with the troops, and his popularity continued to grow worldwide.","''Harper's Weekly'' reported that the name of Charlie Chaplin was \"a part of the common language of almost every country\", and that the Tramp image was \"universally familiar\".","In 1917, professional Chaplin imitators were so widespread that he took legal action, and it was reported that nine out of ten men who attended costume parties dressed as the Tramp.","The same year, a study by the Boston Society for Psychical Research concluded that Chaplin was \"an American obsession\".","The actress Minnie Maddern Fiske wrote that \"a constantly increasing body of cultured, artistic people are beginning to regard the young English buffoon, Charles Chaplin, as an extraordinary artist, as well as a comic genius\".","===1918–1922: First National===\n''A Dog's Life'' (1918).","It was around this time that Chaplin began to conceive the Tramp as \"a sort of Pierrot\", or sad clown.","Mutual were patient with Chaplin's decreased rate of output, and the contract ended amicably.","With his aforementioned concern about the declining quality of his films because of contract scheduling stipulations, Chaplin's primary concern in finding a new distributor was independence; Sydney Chaplin, then his business manager, told the press, \"Charlie must be allowed all the time he needs and all the money for producing films the way he wants ...","It is quality, not quantity, we are after.\"","In June 1917, Chaplin signed to complete eight films for First National Exhibitors' Circuit in return for $1 million.","He chose to build his own studio, situated on five acres of land off Sunset Boulevard, with production facilities of the highest order.","It was completed in January 1918, and Chaplin was given freedom over the making of his pictures.","''A Dog's Life'', released April 1918, was the first film under the new contract.","In it, Chaplin demonstrated his increasing concern with story construction and his treatment of the Tramp as \"a sort of Pierrot\".","The film was described by Louis Delluc as \"cinema's first total work of art\".","Chaplin then embarked on the Third Liberty Bond campaign, touring the United States for one month to raise money for the Allies of the First World War.","He also produced a short propaganda film, donated to the government for fund-raising, called ''The Bond''.","Chaplin's next release was war-based, placing the Tramp in the trenches for ''Shoulder Arms''.","Associates warned him against making a comedy about the war but, as he later recalled: \"Dangerous or not, the idea excited me.\"","He spent four months filming the 45-minute-long picture, which was released in October 1918 with great success.","====United Artists, Mildred Harris, and ''The Kid''====\nAfter the release of ''Shoulder Arms'', Chaplin requested more money from First National, which was refused.","Frustrated with their lack of concern for quality, and worried about rumours of a possible merger between the company and Famous Players-Lasky, Chaplin joined forces with Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pickford, and D. W. Griffith to form a new distribution company – United Artists, established in January 1919.","The arrangement was revolutionary in the film industry, as it enabled the four partners – all creative artists – to personally fund their pictures and have complete control.","Chaplin was eager to start with the new company and offered to buy out his contract with First National.","They declined this and insisted that he complete the final six films he owed them.","The Kid'' (1921), with Jackie Coogan, combined comedy with drama and was Chaplin's first film to exceed an hour.","Before the creation of United Artists, Chaplin married for the first time.","The 17-year-old actress Mildred Harris had revealed that she was pregnant with his child, and in September 1918, he married her quietly in Los Angeles to avoid controversy.","Soon after, the pregnancy was found to be a false alarm.","Chaplin was unhappy with the union and, feeling that marriage stunted his creativity, struggled over the production of his film ''Sunnyside''.","Harris was by then legitimately pregnant, and on 7 July 1919, gave birth to a son.","Norman Spencer Chaplin was born malformed and died three days later.","The marriage eventually ended in April 1920, with Chaplin explaining in his autobiography that they were \"irreconcilably mismated\".","Losing a child is thought to have influenced Chaplin's work, as he planned a film which turned the Tramp into the caretaker of a young boy.","For this new venture, Chaplin also wished to do more than comedy and, according to Louvish, \"make his mark on a changed world.\"","Filming on ''The Kid'' began in August 1919, with four-year-old Jackie Coogan his co-star.","It occurred to Chaplin that it was turning into a large project, so to placate First National, he halted production and quickly filmed ''A Day's Pleasure''.","''The Kid'' was in production for nine months until May 1920 and, at 68 minutes, it was Chaplin's longest picture to date.","Dealing with issues of poverty and parent–child separation, ''The Kid'' is thought to have been influenced by Chaplin's own childhood and was one of the earliest films to combine comedy and drama.","It was released in January 1921 with instant success, and, by 1924, had been screened in over 50 countries.","Chaplin spent five months on his next film, the two-reeler ''The Idle Class''.","Following its September 1921 release, he chose to return to England for the first time in almost a decade.","He then worked to fulfil his First National contract, releasing ''Pay Day'' in February 1922.","''The Pilgrim'' – his final short film – was delayed by distribution disagreements with the studio, and released a year later.","===1923–1938: Silent features===\n====''A Woman of Paris'' and ''The Gold Rush''====\n\nHaving fulfilled his First National contract, Chaplin was free to make his first picture as an independent producer.","In November 1922, he began filming ''A Woman of Paris'', a romantic drama about ill-fated lovers.","Chaplin intended it to be a star-making vehicle for Edna Purviance, and did not appear in the picture himself other than in a brief, uncredited cameo.","He wished for the film to have a realistic feel and directed his cast to give restrained performances.","In real life, he explained, \"men and women try to hide their emotions rather than seek to express them\".","''A Woman of Paris'' premiered in September 1923 and was acclaimed for its subtle approach, then an innovation.","The public, however, seemed to have little interest in a Chaplin film without his presence, and it was a box office disappointment.","The filmmaker was hurt by this failure – he had long wanted to produce a dramatic film and was proud of the result – and withdrew ''A Woman of Paris'' from circulation as soon as he could.","The Tramp resorts to eating his boot in a famous scene from ''The Gold Rush'' (1925).","Chaplin returned to comedy for his next project.","Setting his standards high, he told himself: \"This next film must be an epic!","The Greatest!\"","Inspired by a photograph of the 1898 Klondike Gold Rush, and later the story of the Donner Party of 1846–47, he made what Geoffrey Macnab calls \"an epic comedy out of grim subject matter.\"","In ''The Gold Rush'', the Tramp is a lonely prospector fighting adversity and looking for love.","With Georgia Hale as his new leading lady, Chaplin began filming the picture in February 1924.","Its elaborate production, costing almost $1 million, included location shooting in the Truckee mountains with 600 extras, extravagant sets, and special effects.","The last scene was not shot until May 1925, after 15 months of filming.","Chaplin felt ''The Gold Rush'' was the best film he had made to that point.","It opened in August 1925 and became one of the highest-grossing films of the silent era with a profit of $5 million.","The comedy contains some of Chaplin's most famous sequences, such as the Tramp eating his shoe and the \"Dance of the Rolls\".","Macnab has called it \"the quintessential Chaplin film\".","Chaplin stated, \"This is the picture that I want to be remembered by\" at the time of the film's release.","====Lita Grey and ''The Circus''====\nLita Grey, whose bitter divorce from Chaplin caused a scandal\n\nWhile making ''The Gold Rush'', Chaplin married for the second time.","Mirroring the circumstances of his first union, Lita Grey was a teenage actress, originally set to star in the film, whose surprise announcement of pregnancy forced Chaplin into marriage.","She was 16 and he was 35, meaning Chaplin could have been charged with statutory rape under California law.","He therefore arranged a discreet marriage in Mexico on 25 November 1924.","Their first son, Charles Spencer Chaplin, Jr., was born on 5 May 1925, followed by Sydney Earl Chaplin on 30 March 1926.","It was an unhappy marriage, and Chaplin spent long hours at the studio to avoid seeing his wife.","In November 1926, Grey took the children and left the family home.","A bitter divorce followed, in which Grey's application – accusing Chaplin of infidelity, abuse, and of harbouring \"perverted sexual desires\" – was leaked to the press.","Chaplin was reported to be in a state of nervous breakdown, as the story became headline news and groups formed across America calling for his films to be banned.","Eager to end the case without further scandal, Chaplin's lawyers agreed to a cash settlement of $600,000the largest awarded by American courts at that time.","His fan base was strong enough to survive the incident, and it was soon forgotten, but Chaplin was deeply affected by it.","Before the divorce suit was filed, Chaplin had begun work on a new film, ''The Circus''.","He built a story around the idea of walking a tightrope while besieged by monkeys, and turned the Tramp into the accidental star of a circus.","Filming was suspended for 10 months while he dealt with the divorce scandal, and it was generally a trouble-ridden production.","Finally completed in October 1927, ''The Circus'' was released in January 1928 to a positive reception.","At the 1st Academy Awards, Chaplin was given a special trophy \"For versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing and producing ''The Circus''\".","Despite its success, he permanently associated the film with the stress of its production; Chaplin omitted ''The Circus'' from his autobiography, and struggled to work on it when he recorded the score in his later years.","====''City Lights''====\n\n\nBy the time ''The Circus'' was released, Hollywood had witnessed the introduction of sound films.","Chaplin was cynical about this new medium and the technical shortcomings it presented, believing that \"talkies\" lacked the artistry of silent films.","He was also hesitant to change the formula that had brought him such success, and feared that giving the Tramp a voice would limit his international appeal.","He, therefore, rejected the new Hollywood craze and began work on a new silent film.","Chaplin was nonetheless anxious about this decision and remained so throughout the film's production.","''City Lights'' (1931), regarded as one of Chaplin's finest works\n\nWhen filming began at the end of 1928, Chaplin had been working on the story for almost a year.","''City Lights'' followed the Tramp's love for a blind flower girl (played by Virginia Cherrill) and his efforts to raise money for her sight-saving operation.","It was a challenging production that lasted 21 months, with Chaplin later confessing that he \"had worked himself into a neurotic state of wanting perfection\".","One advantage Chaplin found in sound technology was the opportunity to record a musical score for the film, which he composed himself.","Chaplin finished editing ''City Lights'' in December 1930, by which time silent films were an anachronism.","A preview before an unsuspecting public audience was not a success, but a showing for the press produced positive reviews.","One journalist wrote, \"Nobody in the world but Charlie Chaplin could have done it.","He is the only person that has that peculiar something called 'audience appeal' in sufficient quality to defy the popular penchant for movies that talk.\"","Given its general release in January 1931, ''City Lights'' proved to be a popular and financial success – eventually grossing over $3 million.","The British Film Institute cites it as Chaplin's finest accomplishment, and the critic James Agee hails the closing scene as \"the greatest piece of acting and the highest moment in movies\".","''City Lights'' became Chaplin's personal favourite of his films and remained so throughout his life.","====Travels, Paulette Goddard, and ''Modern Times''====\n''City Lights'' had been a success, but Chaplin was unsure if he could make another picture without dialogue.","He remained convinced that sound would not work in his films, but was also \"obsessed by a depressing fear of being old-fashioned.\"","In this state of uncertainty, early in 1931, the comedian decided to take a holiday and ended up travelling for 16 months.","In his autobiography, Chaplin recalled that on his return to Los Angeles, \"I was confused and without plan, restless and conscious of an extreme loneliness\".","He briefly considered retiring and moving to China.","Modern Times'' (1936), described by Jérôme Larcher as a \"grim contemplation on the automatization of the individual\"\n\nChaplin's loneliness was relieved when he met 21-year-old actress Paulette Goddard in July 1932, and the pair began a successful relationship.","He was not ready to commit to a film, however, and focused on writing a serial about his travels (published in ''Woman's Home Companion'').","The trip had been a stimulating experience for Chaplin, including meetings with several prominent thinkers, and he became increasingly interested in world affairs.","The state of labour in America troubled him, and he feared that capitalism and machinery in the workplace would increase unemployment levels.","It was these concerns that stimulated Chaplin to develop his new film.","''Modern Times'' was announced by Chaplin as \"a satire on certain phases of our industrial life.\"","Featuring the Tramp and Goddard as they endure the Great Depression, it took ten and a half months to film.","Chaplin intended to use spoken dialogue but changed his mind during rehearsals.","Like its predecessor, ''Modern Times'' employed sound effects but almost no speaking.","Chaplin's performance of a gibberish song did, however, give the Tramp a voice for the only time on film.","After recording the music, Chaplin released ''Modern Times'' in February 1936.","It was his first feature in 15 years to adopt political references and social realism, a factor that attracted considerable press coverage despite Chaplin's attempts to downplay the issue.","The film earned less at the box-office than his previous features and received mixed reviews, as some viewers disliked the politicising.","Today, ''Modern Times'' is seen by the British Film Institute as one of Chaplin's \"great features,\" while David Robinson says it shows the filmmaker at \"his unrivalled peak as a creator of visual comedy.\"","Following the release of ''Modern Times'', Chaplin left with Goddard for a trip to the Far East.","The couple had refused to comment on the nature of their relationship, and it was not known whether they were married or not.","Some time later, Chaplin revealed that they married in Canton during this trip.","By 1938, the couple had drifted apart, as both focused heavily on their work, although Goddard was again his leading lady in his next feature film, ''The Great Dictator''.","She eventually divorced Chaplin in Mexico in 1942, citing incompatibility and separation for more than a year.","===1939–1952: Controversies and fading popularity===\n====''The Great Dictator''====\nChaplin satirising Adolf Hitler in ''The Great Dictator'' (1940)\n\nThe 1940s saw Chaplin face a series of controversies, both in his work and in his personal life, which changed his fortunes and severely affected his popularity in the United States.","The first of these was his growing boldness in expressing his political beliefs.","Deeply disturbed by the surge of militaristic nationalism in 1930s world politics, Chaplin found that he could not keep these issues out of his work.","Parallels between himself and Adolf Hitler had been widely noted: the pair were born four days apart, both had risen from poverty to world prominence, and Hitler wore the same toothbrush moustache as Chaplin.","It was this physical resemblance that supplied the plot for Chaplin's next film, ''The Great Dictator'', which directly satirised Hitler and attacked fascism.","Chaplin spent two years developing the script, and began filming in September 1939 – six days after Britain declared war on Germany.","He had submitted to using spoken dialogue, partly out of acceptance that he had no other choice, but also because he recognised it as a better method for delivering a political message.","Making a comedy about Hitler was seen as highly controversial, but Chaplin's financial independence allowed him to take the risk.","\"I was determined to go ahead,\" he later wrote, \"for Hitler must be laughed at.\"","Chaplin replaced the Tramp (while wearing similar attire) with \"A Jewish Barber\", a reference to the Nazi party's belief that he was Jewish.","In a dual performance, he also played the dictator \"Adenoid Hynkel\", who parodied Hitler.","''The Great Dictator'' spent a year in production and was released in October 1940.","The film generated a vast amount of publicity, with a critic for ''The New York Times'' calling it \"the most eagerly awaited picture of the year\", and it was one of the biggest money-makers of the era.","The ending was unpopular, however, and generated controversy.","Chaplin concluded the film with a five-minute speech in which he abandoned his barber character, looked directly into the camera, and pleaded against war and fascism.","Charles J. Maland has identified this overt preaching as triggering a decline in Chaplin's popularity, and writes, \"Henceforth, no movie fan would ever be able to separate the dimension of politics from his star image\".","''The Great Dictator'' received five Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Original Screenplay and Best Actor.","====Legal troubles and Oona O'Neill====\nIn the mid-1940s, Chaplin was involved in a series of trials that occupied most of his time and significantly affected his public image.","The troubles stemmed from his affair with an aspirant actress named Joan Barry, with whom he was involved intermittently between June 1941 and the autumn of 1942.","Barry, who displayed obsessive behaviour and was twice arrested after they separated, reappeared the following year and announced that she was pregnant with Chaplin's child.","As Chaplin denied the claim, Barry filed a paternity suit against him.","The director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), J. Edgar Hoover, who had long been suspicious of Chaplin's political leanings, used the opportunity to generate negative publicity about him.","As part of a smear campaign to damage Chaplin's image, the FBI named him in four indictments related to the Barry case.","Most serious of these was an alleged violation of the Mann Act, which prohibits the transportation of women across state boundaries for sexual purposes.","The historian Otto Friedrich has called this an \"absurd prosecution\" of an \"ancient statute\", yet if Chaplin was found guilty, he faced 23 years in jail.","Three charges lacked sufficient evidence to proceed to court, but the Mann Act trial began in March 1944.","Chaplin was acquitted two weeks later.","The case was frequently headline news, with ''Newsweek'' calling it the \"biggest public relations scandal since the Fatty Arbuckle murder trial in 1921.\"","Chaplin's fourth wife Oona O'Neill, to whom he was married from 1943 until his death.","The couple had eight children.","Barry's child, Carole Ann, was born in October 1944, and the paternity suit went to court in February 1945.","After two arduous trials, in which the prosecuting lawyer accused him of \"moral turpitude\", Chaplin was declared to be the father.","Evidence from blood tests which indicated otherwise were not admissible, and the judge ordered Chaplin to pay child support until Carole Ann turned 21.","Media coverage of the paternity suit was influenced by the FBI, as information was fed to the prominent gossip columnist Hedda Hopper, and Chaplin was portrayed in an overwhelmingly critical light.","The controversy surrounding Chaplin increased when, two weeks after the paternity suit was filed, it was announced that he had married his newest protégée, 18-year-old Oona O'Neill – daughter of the American playwright Eugene O'Neill.","Chaplin, then 54, had been introduced to her by a film agent seven months earlier.","In his autobiography, Chaplin described meeting O'Neill as \"the happiest event of my life\", and claimed to have found \"perfect love\".","Chaplin's son, Charles Jr., reported that Oona \"worshipped\" his father.","The couple remained married until Chaplin's death, and had eight children over 18 years: Geraldine Leigh (b. July 1944), Michael John (b.","March 1946), Josephine Hannah (b.","March 1949), Victoria (b.","May 1951), Eugene Anthony (b. August 1953), Jane Cecil (b.","May 1957), Annette Emily (b. December 1959), and Christopher James (b. July 1962).","====''Monsieur Verdoux'' and communist accusations====\n''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947), a dark comedy about a serial killer, marked a significant departure for Chaplin.","He was so unpopular at the time of release that it flopped in the United States.","Chaplin claimed that the Barry trials had \"crippled his creativeness\", and it was some time before he began working again.","In April 1946, he finally began filming a project that had been in development since 1942.","Chaplin's inspiration for the project came from Orson Welles, who wanted him to star in a film about the French serial killer Henri Désiré Landru.","Chaplin decided that the concept would \"make a wonderful comedy\", and paid Welles $5,000 for the idea.","Chaplin again vocalised his political views in ''Monsieur Verdoux'', criticising capitalism and arguing that the world encourages mass killing through wars and weapons of mass destruction.","Because of this, the film met with controversy when it was released in April 1947; Chaplin was booed at the premiere, and there were calls for a boycott.","''Monsieur Verdoux'' was the first Chaplin release that failed both critically and commercially in the United States.","It was more successful abroad, and Chaplin's screenplay was nominated at the Academy Awards.","He was proud of the film, writing in his autobiography, \"''Monsieur Verdoux'' is the cleverest and most brilliant film I have yet made.\"","The negative reaction to ''Monsieur Verdoux'' was largely the result of changes in Chaplin's public image.","Along with damage of the Joan Barry scandal, he was publicly accused of being a communist.","His political activity had heightened during World War II, when he campaigned for the opening of a Second Front to help the Soviet Union and supported various Soviet–American friendship groups.","He was also friendly with several suspected communists, and attended functions given by Soviet diplomats in Los Angeles.","In the political climate of 1940s America, such activities meant Chaplin was considered, as Larcher writes, \"dangerously progressive and amoral.\"","The FBI wanted him out of the country, and launched an official investigation in early 1947.","Chaplin denied being a communist, instead calling himself a \"peacemonger\", but felt the government's effort to suppress the ideology was an unacceptable infringement of civil liberties.","Unwilling to be quiet about the issue, he openly protested against the trials of Communist Party members and the activities of the House Un-American Activities Committee.","Chaplin received a subpoena to appear before HUAC but was not called to testify.","As his activities were widely reported in the press, and Cold War fears grew, questions were raised over his failure to take American citizenship.","Calls were made for him to be deported; in one extreme and widely published example, Representative John E. Rankin, who helped establish HUAC, told Congress in June 1947: \"Chaplin's very life in Hollywood is detrimental to the moral fabric of America.","If he is deported ... his loathsome pictures can be kept from before the eyes of the American youth.","He should be deported and gotten rid of at once.\"","====''Limelight'' and banning from the United States====\nLimelight'' (1952) was a serious and autobiographical film for Chaplin: his character, Calvero, is an ex music hall star (described in this image as a \"Tramp Comedian\") forced to deal with his loss of popularity.","Although Chaplin remained politically active in the years following the failure of ''Monsieur Verdoux'', his next film, about a forgotten vaudeville comedian and a young ballerina in Edwardian London, was devoid of political themes.","''Limelight'' was heavily autobiographical, alluding not only to Chaplin's childhood and the lives of his parents, but also to his loss of popularity in the United States.","The cast included various members of his family, including his five oldest children and his half-brother, Wheeler Dryden.","Filming began in November 1951, by which time Chaplin had spent three years working on the story.","He aimed for a more serious tone than any of his previous films, regularly using the word \"melancholy\" when explaining his plans to his co-star Claire Bloom.","''Limelight'' featured a cameo appearance from Buster Keaton, whom Chaplin cast as his stage partner in a pantomime scene.","This marked the only time the comedians worked together.","Chaplin decided to hold the world premiere of ''Limelight'' in London, since it was the setting of the film.","As he left Los Angeles, he expressed a premonition that he would not be returning.","At New York, he boarded the with his family on 18 September 1952.","The next day, attorney general James P. McGranery revoked Chaplin's re-entry permit and stated that he would have to submit to an interview concerning his political views and moral behaviour in order to re-enter the US.","Although McGranery told the press that he had \"a pretty good case against Chaplin\", Maland has concluded, on the basis of the FBI files that were released in the 1980s, that the US government had no real evidence to prevent Chaplin's re-entry.","It is likely that he would have gained entry if he had applied for it.","However, when Chaplin received a cablegram informing him of the news, he privately decided to cut his ties with the United States:\n\n\n\nBecause all of his property remained in America, Chaplin refrained from saying anything negative about the incident to the press.","The scandal attracted vast attention, but Chaplin and his film were warmly received in Europe.","In America, the hostility towards him continued, and, although it received some positive reviews, ''Limelight'' was subjected to a wide-scale boycott.","Reflecting on this, Maland writes that Chaplin's fall, from an \"unprecedented\" level of popularity, \"may be the most dramatic in the history of stardom in America\".","===1953–1977: European years===\n====Move to Switzerland and ''A King in New York''====\n\n\n\nChaplin did not attempt to return to the United States after his re-entry permit was revoked, and instead sent his wife to settle his affairs.","The couple decided to settle in Switzerland and, in January 1953, the family moved into their permanent home: Manoir de Ban, a estate overlooking Lake Geneva in Corsier-sur-Vevey.","Chaplin put his Beverly Hills house and studio up for sale in March, and surrendered his re-entry permit in April.","The next year, his wife renounced her US citizenship and became a British citizen.","Chaplin severed the last of his professional ties with the United States in 1955, when he sold the remainder of his stock in United Artists, which had been in financial difficulty since the early 1940s.","Manoir de Ban, Chaplin's home in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland\n\nChaplin remained a controversial figure throughout the 1950s, especially after he was awarded the International Peace Prize by the communist-led World Peace Council, and after his meetings with Zhou Enlai and Nikita Khrushchev.","He began developing his first European film, ''A King in New York'', in 1954.","Casting himself as an exiled king who seeks asylum in the United States, Chaplin included several of his recent experiences in the screenplay.","His son, Michael, was cast as a boy whose parents are targeted by the FBI, while Chaplin's character faces accusations of communism.","The political satire parodied HUAC and attacked elements of 1950s culture – including consumerism, plastic surgery, and wide-screen cinema.","In a review, the playwright John Osborne called it Chaplin's \"most bitter\" and \"most openly personal\" film.","Chaplin founded a new production company, Attica, and used Shepperton Studios for the shooting.","Filming in England proved a difficult experience, as he was used to his own Hollywood studio and familiar crew, and no longer had limitless production time.","According to Robinson, this had an effect on the quality of the film.","''A King in New York'' was released in September 1957, and received mixed reviews.","Chaplin banned American journalists from its Paris première and decided not to release the film in the United States.","This severely limited its revenue, although it achieved moderate commercial success in Europe.","''A King in New York'' was not shown in America until 1973.","====Final works and renewed appreciation====\nChaplin with his wife Oona and six of their children in 1961\n\nIn the last two decades of his career, Chaplin concentrated on re-editing and scoring his old films for re-release, along with securing their ownership and distribution rights.","In an interview he granted in 1959, the year of his 70th birthday, Chaplin stated that there was still \"room for the Little Man in the atomic age\".","The first of these re-releases was ''The Chaplin Revue'' (1959), which included new versions of ''A Dog's Life'', ''Shoulder Arms'', and ''The Pilgrim''.","In America, the political atmosphere began to change and attention was once again directed to Chaplin's films instead of his views.","In July 1962, ''The New York Times'' published an editorial stating that \"we do not believe the Republic would be in danger if yesterday's unforgotten little tramp were allowed to amble down the gangplank of a steamer or plane in an American port\".","The same month, Chaplin was invested with the honorary degree of Doctor of Letters by the universities of Oxford and Durham.","In November 1963, the Plaza Theater in New York started a year-long series of Chaplin's films, including ''Monsieur Verdoux'' and ''Limelight'', which gained excellent reviews from American critics.","September 1964 saw the release of Chaplin's memoirs, ''My Autobiography'', which he had been working on since 1957.","The 500-page book, which focused on his early years and personal life, became a worldwide best-seller, despite criticism over the lack of information on his film career.","Shortly after the publication of his memoirs, Chaplin began work on ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967), a romantic comedy based on a script he had written for Paulette Goddard in the 1930s.","Set on an ocean liner, it starred Marlon Brando as an American ambassador and Sophia Loren as a stowaway found in his cabin.","The film differed from Chaplin's earlier productions in several aspects.","It was his first to use Technicolor and the widescreen format, while he concentrated on directing and appeared on-screen only in a cameo role as a seasick steward.","He also signed a deal with Universal Pictures and appointed his assistant, Jerome Epstein, as the producer.","Chaplin was paid $600,000 director's fee as well as a percentage of the gross receipts.","''A Countess from Hong Kong'' premiered in January 1967, to unfavourable reviews, and was a box-office failure.","Chaplin was deeply hurt by the negative reaction to the film, which turned out to be his last.","Chaplin suffered a series of minor strokes in the late 1960s, which marked the beginning of a slow decline in his health.","Despite the setbacks, he was soon writing a new film script, ''The Freak'', a story of a winged girl found in South America, which he intended as a starring vehicle for his daughter, Victoria.","His fragile health prevented the project from being realised.","In the early 1970s, Chaplin concentrated on re-releasing his old films, including ''The Kid'' and ''The Circus''.","In 1971, he was made a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour at the Cannes Film Festival.","The following year, he was honoured with a special award by the Venice Film Festival.","Chaplin (right) receiving his Honorary Academy Award from Jack Lemmon in 1972.","It was the first time he had been to the United States in 20 years.","In 1972, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences offered Chaplin an Honorary Award, which Robinson sees as a sign that America \"wanted to make amends\".","Chaplin was initially hesitant about accepting but decided to return to the US for the first time in 20 years.","The visit attracted a large amount of press coverage and, at the Academy Awards gala, he was given a twelve-minute standing ovation, the longest in the Academy's history.","Visibly emotional, Chaplin accepted his award for \"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\".","Although Chaplin still had plans for future film projects, by the mid-1970s he was very frail.","He experienced several further strokes, which made it difficult for him to communicate, and he had to use a wheelchair.","His final projects were compiling a pictorial autobiography, ''My Life in Pictures'' (1974) and scoring ''A Woman of Paris'' for re-release in 1976.","He also appeared in a documentary about his life, ''The Gentleman Tramp'' (1975), directed by Richard Patterson.","In the 1975 New Year Honours, Chaplin was awarded a knighthood by Queen Elizabeth II, though he was too weak to kneel and received the honour in his wheelchair.","====Death====\nChaplin's grave in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland\nBy October 1977, Chaplin's health had declined to the point that he needed constant care.","In the early morning of 25 December 1977, Chaplin died at home after suffering a stroke in his sleep.","He was 88 years old.","The funeral, on 27 December, was a small and private Anglican ceremony, according to his wishes.","Chaplin was interred in the Corsier-sur-Vevey cemetery.","Among the film industry's tributes, director René Clair wrote, \"He was a monument of the cinema, of all countries and all times ... the most beautiful gift the cinema made to us.\"","Actor Bob Hope declared, \"We were lucky to have lived in his time.\"","On 1 March 1978, Chaplin's coffin was dug up and stolen from its grave by two unemployed immigrants, Roman Wardas, from Poland, and Gantcho Ganev, from Bulgaria.","The body was held for ransom in an attempt to extort money from Oona Chaplin.","The pair were caught in a large police operation in May, and Chaplin's coffin was found buried in a field in the nearby village of Noville.","It was re-interred in the Corsier cemetery surrounded by reinforced concrete.","===Influences===\nChaplin believed his first influence to be his mother, who entertained him as a child by sitting at the window and mimicking passers-by: \"it was through watching her that I learned not only how to express emotions with my hands and face, but also how to observe and study people.\"","Chaplin's early years in music hall allowed him to see stage comedians at work; he also attended the Christmas pantomimes at Drury Lane, where he studied the art of clowning through performers like Dan Leno.","Chaplin's years with the Fred Karno company had a formative effect on him as an actor and filmmaker.","Simon Louvish writes that the company was his \"training ground\", and it was here that Chaplin learned to vary the pace of his comedy.","The concept of mixing pathos with slapstick was learnt from Karno, who also used elements of absurdity that became familiar in Chaplin's gags.","From the film industry, Chaplin drew upon the work of the French comedian Max Linder, whose films he greatly admired.","In developing the Tramp costume and persona, he was likely inspired by the American vaudeville scene, where tramp characters were common.","===Method===\nA 1922 image of Charlie Chaplin Studios, where all of Chaplin's films between 1918 and 1952 were produced\n\nChaplin never spoke more than cursorily about his filmmaking methods, claiming such a thing would be tantamount to a magician spoiling his own illusion.","Little was known about his working process throughout his lifetime, but research from film historians – particularly the findings of Kevin Brownlow and David Gill that were presented in the three-part documentary ''Unknown Chaplin'' (1983) – has since revealed his unique working method.","Until he began making spoken dialogue films with ''The Great Dictator'', Chaplin never shot from a completed script.","Many of his early films began with only a vague premise – for example \"Charlie enters a health spa\" or \"Charlie works in a pawn shop.\"","He then had sets constructed and worked with his stock company to improvise gags and \"business\" using them, almost always working the ideas out on film.","As ideas were accepted and discarded, a narrative structure would emerge, frequently requiring Chaplin to reshoot an already-completed scene that might have otherwise contradicted the story.","From ''A Woman of Paris'' onward Chaplin began the filming process with a prepared plot, but Robinson writes that every film up to ''Modern Times'' \"went through many metamorphoses and permutations before the story took its final form.\"","Producing films in this manner meant Chaplin took longer to complete his pictures than almost any other filmmaker at the time.","If he was out of ideas, he often took a break from the shoot, which could last for days, while keeping the studio ready for when inspiration returned.","Delaying the process further was Chaplin's rigorous perfectionism.","According to his friend Ivor Montagu, \"nothing but perfection would be right\" for the filmmaker.","Because he personally funded his films, Chaplin was at liberty to strive for this goal and shoot as many takes as he wished.","The number was often excessive, for instance 53 takes for every finished take in ''The Kid''.","For ''The Immigrant'', a 20 minute-short, Chaplin shot 40,000 feet of film – enough for a feature-length.","Describing his working method as \"sheer perseverance to the point of madness\", Chaplin would be completely consumed by the production of a picture.","Robinson writes that even in Chaplin's later years, his work continued \"to take precedence over everything and everyone else.\"","The combination of story improvisation and relentless perfectionism – which resulted in days of effort and thousands of feet of film being wasted, all at enormous expense – often proved taxing for Chaplin who, in frustration, would lash out at his actors and crew.","Chaplin exercised complete control over his pictures, to the extent that he would act out the other roles for his cast, expecting them to imitate him exactly.","He personally edited all of his films, trawling through the large amounts of footage to create the exact picture he wanted.","As a result of his complete independence, he was identified by the film historian Andrew Sarris as one of the first auteur filmmakers.","Chaplin did receive help, notably from his long-time cinematographer Roland Totheroh, brother Sydney Chaplin, and various assistant directors such as Harry Crocker and Charles Reisner.","===Style and themes===\nThe Kid'' (1921), demonstrating Chaplin's mixture of slapstick, pathos, and social commentary\n\nWhile Chaplin's comedic style is broadly defined as slapstick, it is considered restrained and intelligent, with the film historian Philip Kemp describing his work as a mix of \"deft, balletic physical comedy and thoughtful, situation-based gags\".","Chaplin diverged from conventional slapstick by slowing the pace and exhausting each scene of its comic potential, with more focus on developing the viewer's relationship to the characters.","Unlike conventional slapstick comedies, Robinson states that the comic moments in Chaplin's films centre on the Tramp's attitude to the things happening to him: the humour does not come from the Tramp bumping into a tree, but from his lifting his hat to the tree in apology.","Dan Kamin writes that Chaplin's \"quirky mannerisms\" and \"serious demeanour in the midst of slapstick action\" are other key aspects of his comedy, while the surreal transformation of objects and the employment of in-camera trickery are also common features.","Chaplin's silent films typically follow the Tramp's efforts to survive in a hostile world.","The character lives in poverty and is frequently treated badly, but remains kind and upbeat; defying his social position, he strives to be seen as a gentleman.","As Chaplin said in 1925, \"The whole point of the Little Fellow is that no matter how down on his ass he is, no matter how well the jackals succeed in tearing him apart, he's still a man of dignity.\"","The Tramp defies authority figures and \"gives as good as he gets\", leading Robinson and Louvish to see him as a representative for the underprivileged – an \"everyman turned heroic saviour\".","Hansmeyer notes that several of Chaplin's films end with \"the homeless and lonely Tramp walking optimistically ... into the sunset ... to continue his journey\".","The infusion of pathos is a well-known aspect of Chaplin's work, and Larcher notes his reputation for \"inducing laughter and tears\".","Sentimentality in his films comes from a variety of sources, with Louvish pinpointing \"personal failure, society's strictures, economic disaster, and the elements.\"","Chaplin sometimes drew on tragic events when creating his films, as in the case of ''The Gold Rush'' (1925), which was inspired by the fate of the Donner Party.","Constance B. Kuriyama has identified serious underlying themes in the early comedies, such as greed (''The Gold Rush'') and loss (''The Kid'').","Chaplin also touched on controversial issues: immigration (''The Immigrant'', 1917); illegitimacy (''The Kid'', 1921); and drug use (''Easy Street'', 1917).","He often explored these topics ironically, making comedy out of suffering.","Social commentary was a feature of Chaplin's films from early in his career, as he portrayed the underdog in a sympathetic light and highlighted the difficulties of the poor.","Later, as he developed a keen interest in economics and felt obliged to publicise his views, Chaplin began incorporating overtly political messages into his films.","''Modern Times'' (1936) depicted factory workers in dismal conditions, ''The Great Dictator'' (1940) parodied Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini and ended in a speech against nationalism, ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947) criticised war and capitalism, and ''A King in New York'' (1957) attacked McCarthyism.","Several of Chaplin's films incorporate autobiographical elements, and the psychologist Sigmund Freud believed that Chaplin \"always plays only himself as he was in his dismal youth\".","''The Kid'' is thought to reflect Chaplin's childhood trauma of being sent into an orphanage, the main characters in ''Limelight'' (1952) contain elements from the lives of his parents, and ''A King in New York'' references Chaplin's experiences of being shunned by the United States.","Many of his sets, especially in street scenes, bear a strong similarity to Kennington, where he grew up.","Stephen M. Weissman has argued that Chaplin's problematic relationship with his mentally ill mother was often reflected in his female characters and the Tramp's desire to save them.","Regarding the structure of Chaplin's films, the scholar Gerald Mast sees them as consisting of sketches tied together by the same theme and setting, rather than having a tightly unified storyline.","Visually, his films are simple and economic, with scenes portrayed as if set on a stage.","His approach to filming was described by the art director Eugène Lourié: \"Chaplin did not think in 'artistic' images when he was shooting.","He believed that action is the main thing.","The camera is there to photograph the actors\".","In his autobiography, Chaplin wrote, \"Simplicity is best ... pompous effects slow up action, are boring and unpleasant ...","The camera should not intrude.\"","This approach has prompted criticism, since the 1940s, for being \"old fashioned\", while the film scholar Donald McCaffrey sees it as an indication that Chaplin never completely understood film as a medium.","Kamin, however, comments that Chaplin's comedic talent would not be enough to remain funny on screen if he did not have an \"ability to conceive and direct scenes specifically for the film medium\".","===Composing===\nChaplin playing the cello in 1915\n\nChaplin developed a passion for music as a child and taught himself to play the piano, violin, and cello.","He considered the musical accompaniment of a film to be important, and from ''A Woman of Paris'' onwards he took an increasing interest in this area.","With the advent of sound technology, Chaplin began using a synchronised orchestral soundtrack – composed by himself – for ''City Lights'' (1931).","He thereafter composed the scores for all of his films, and from the late 1950s to his death, he scored all of his silent features and some of his short films.","As Chaplin was not a trained musician, he could not read sheet music and needed the help of professional composers, such as David Raksin, Raymond Rasch and Eric James, when creating his scores.","Musical directors were employed to oversee the recording process, such as Alfred Newman for ''City Lights''.","Although some critics have claimed that credit for his film music should be given to the composers who worked with him, Raksin – who worked with Chaplin on ''Modern Times'' – stressed Chaplin's creative position and active participation in the composing process.","This process, which could take months, would start with Chaplin describing to the composer(s) exactly what he wanted and singing or playing tunes he had improvised on the piano.","These tunes were then developed further in a close collaboration among the composer(s) and Chaplin.","According to film historian Jeffrey Vance, \"although he relied upon associates to arrange varied and complex instrumentation, the musical imperative is his, and not a note in a Chaplin musical score was placed there without his assent.\"","Chaplin's compositions produced three popular songs.","\"Smile\", composed originally for ''Modern Times'' (1936) and later set to lyrics by John Turner and Geoffrey Parsons, was a hit for Nat King Cole in 1954.","For ''Limelight'', Chaplin composed \"Terry's Theme\", which was popularised by Jimmy Young as \"Eternally\" (1952).","Finally, \"This Is My Song\", performed by Petula Clark for ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967), reached number one on the UK and other European charts.","Chaplin also received his only competitive Oscar for his composition work, as the ''Limelight'' theme won an Academy Award for Best Original Score in 1973 following the film's re-release.","Chaplin as the Tramp in 1915, cinema's \"most universal icon\"\n\nIn 1998, the film critic Andrew Sarris called Chaplin \"arguably the single most important artist produced by the cinema, certainly its most extraordinary performer and probably still its most universal icon\".","He is described by the British Film Institute as \"a towering figure in world culture\", and was included in ''Time'' magazine's list of the \"100 Most Important People of the 20th Century\" for the \"laughter he brought to millions\" and because he \"more or less invented global recognizability and helped turn an industry into an art\".","The image of the Tramp has become a part of cultural history; according to Simon Louvish, the character is recognisable to people who have never seen a Chaplin film, and in places where his films are never shown.","The critic Leonard Maltin has written of the \"unique\" and \"indelible\" nature of the Tramp, and argued that no other comedian matched his \"worldwide impact\".","Praising the character, Richard Schickel suggests that Chaplin's films with the Tramp contain the most \"eloquent, richly comedic expressions of the human spirit\" in movie history.","Memorabilia connected to the character still fetches large sums in auctions: in 2006 a bowler hat and a bamboo cane that were part of the Tramp's costume were bought for $140,000 in a Los Angeles auction.","As a filmmaker, Chaplin is considered a pioneer and one of the most influential figures of the early twentieth century.","He is often credited as one of the medium's first artists.","Film historian Mark Cousins has written that Chaplin \"changed not only the imagery of cinema, but also its sociology and grammar\" and claims that Chaplin was as important to the development of comedy as a genre as D.W. Griffith was to drama.","He was the first to popularise feature-length comedy and to slow down the pace of action, adding pathos and subtlety to it.","Although his work is mostly classified as slapstick, Chaplin's drama ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923) was a major influence on Ernst Lubitsch's film ''The Marriage Circle'' (1924) and thus played a part in the development of \"sophisticated comedy\".","According to David Robinson, Chaplin's innovations were \"rapidly assimilated to become part of the common practice of film craft.\"","Filmmakers who cited Chaplin as an influence include Federico Fellini (who called Chaplin \"a sort of Adam, from whom we are all descended\"), Jacques Tati (\"Without him I would never have made a film\"), René Clair (\"He inspired practically every filmmaker\"), Michael Powell, Billy Wilder, Vittorio De Sica, and Richard Attenborough.","Russian filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky praised Chaplin as \"the only person to have gone down into cinematic history without any shadow of a doubt.","The films he left behind can never grow old.\"","Chaplin also strongly influenced the work of later comedians.","Marcel Marceau said he was inspired to become a mime artist after watching Chaplin, while the actor Raj Kapoor based his screen persona on the Tramp.","Mark Cousins has also detected Chaplin's comedic style in the French character Monsieur Hulot and the Italian character Totò.","In other fields, Chaplin helped inspire the cartoon characters Felix the Cat and Mickey Mouse, and was an influence on the Dada art movement.","As one of the founding members of United Artists, Chaplin also had a role in the development of the film industry.","Gerald Mast has written that although UA never became a major company like MGM or Paramount Pictures, the idea that directors could produce their own films was \"years ahead of its time\".","In the 21st century, several of Chaplin's films are still regarded as classics and among the greatest ever made.","The 2012 ''Sight & Sound'' poll, which compiles \"top ten\" ballots from film critics and directors to determine each group's most acclaimed films,\nsaw ''City Lights'' rank among the critics' top 50, ''Modern Times'' inside the top 100, and ''The Great Dictator'' and ''The Gold Rush'' placed in the top 250.","The top 100 films as voted on by directors included ''Modern Times'' at number 22, ''City Lights'' at number 30, and ''The Gold Rush'' at number 91.","Every one of Chaplin's features received a vote.","In 2007, the American Film Institute named ''City Lights'' the 11th greatest American film of all time, while ''The Gold Rush'' and ''Modern Times'' again ranked in the top 100.","Books about Chaplin continue to be published regularly, and he is a popular subject for media scholars and film archivists.","Many of Chaplin's film have had a DVD and Blu-Ray release.","===Commemoration and tributes===\n\nA room inside Chaplin's World\n\nChaplin's final home, Manoir de Ban in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland, has been converted into a museum named \"Chaplin's World\".","It opened on 17 April 2016 after 15 years of development, and is described by Reuters as \"an interactive museum showcasing the life and works of Charlie Chaplin\".","On the 128th anniversary of his birth, a record-setting 662 people dressed as the Tramp in an event organised by the museum.","Previously, the Museum of the Moving Image in London held a permanent display on Chaplin, and hosted a dedicated exhibition to his life and career in 1988.","The London Film Museum hosted an exhibition called ''Charlie Chaplin – The Great Londoner'', from 2010 until 2013.","In London, a statue of Chaplin as the Tramp, sculpted by John Doubleday and unveiled in 1981, is located in Leicester Square.","The city also includes a road named after him in central London, \"Charlie Chaplin Walk\", which is the location of the BFI IMAX.","There are nine blue plaques memorialising Chaplin in London, Hampshire, and Yorkshire.","The Swiss town of Vevey named a park in his honour in 1980 and erected a statue there in 1982.","In 2011, two large murals depicting Chaplin on two 14-storey buildings were also unveiled in Vevey.","Chaplin has also been honoured by the Irish town of Waterville, where he spent several summers with his family in the 1960s.","A statue was erected in 1998; since 2011, the town has been host to the annual Charlie Chaplin Comedy Film Festival, which was founded to celebrate Chaplin's legacy and to showcase new comic talent.","In other tributes, a minor planet, 3623 Chaplin – discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Karachkina in 1981 – is named after Chaplin.","Throughout the 1980s, the Tramp image was used by IBM to advertise their personal computers.","Chaplin's 100th birthday anniversary in 1989 was marked with several events around the world, and on 15 April 2011, a day before his 122nd birthday, Google celebrated him with a special Google Doodle video on its global and other country-wide homepages.","Many countries, spanning six continents, have honoured Chaplin with a postal stamp.","Chaplin's legacy is managed on behalf of his children by the Chaplin office, located in Paris.","The office represents Association Chaplin, founded by some of his children \"to protect the name, image and moral rights\" to his body of work, Roy Export SAS, which owns the copyright to most of his films made after 1918, and Bubbles Incorporated S.A., which owns the copyrights to his image and name.","Their central archive is held at the archives of Montreux, Switzerland and scanned versions of its contents, including 83,630 images, 118 scripts, 976 manuscripts, 7,756 letters, and thousands of other documents, are available for research purposes at the Chaplin Research Centre at the Cineteca di Bologna.","The photographic archive, which includes approximately 10,000 photographs from Chaplin's life and career, is kept at the Musée de l'Elysée in Lausanne, Switzerland.","The British Film Institute has also established the Charles Chaplin Research Foundation, and the first international Charles Chaplin Conference was held in London in July 2005.","Statues of Chaplin around the world, located at (left to right) 1.","Trenčianske Teplice, Slovakia; 2.","Chełmża, Poland; 3.","Waterville, Ireland; 4.","London, United Kingdom; 5.","Hyderabad, India; 6.","Alassio, Italy; 7.","Barcelona, Spain; 8.","Vevey, Switzerland\n\n===Characterisations===\nChaplin is the subject of a biographical film, ''Chaplin'' (1992) directed by Richard Attenborough, and starring Robert Downey Jr. in the title role.","He is also a character in the period drama film ''The Cat's Meow'' (2001), played by Eddie Izzard, and in the made-for-television movie ''The Scarlett O'Hara War'' (1980), played by Clive Revill.","A television series about Chaplin's childhood, ''Young Charlie Chaplin'', ran on PBS in 1989, and was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Program.","Chaplin's life has also been the subject of several stage productions.","Two musicals, ''Little Tramp'' and ''Chaplin'', were produced in the early 1990s.","In 2006, Thomas Meehan and Christopher Curtis created another musical, ''Limelight: The Story of Charlie Chaplin'', which was first performed at the La Jolla Playhouse in San Diego in 2010.","It was adapted for Broadway two years later, re-titled ''Chaplin – A Musical''.","Chaplin was portrayed by Robert McClure in both productions.","In 2013, two plays about Chaplin premiered in Finland: ''Chaplin'' at the Svenska Teatern, and ''Kulkuri'' (''The Tramp'') at the Tampere Workers' Theatre.","Chaplin has also been characterised in literary fiction.","He is the protagonist of Robert Coover's short story \"Charlie in the House of Rue\" (1980; reprinted in Coover's 1987 collection ''A Night at the Movies''), and of Glen David Gold's ''Sunnyside'' (2009), a historical novel set in the First World War period.","A day in Chaplin's life in 1909 is dramatised in the chapter entitled \"Modern Times\" in Alan Moore's ''Jerusalem'' (2016), a novel set in the author's home town of Northampton, England.","Chaplin's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, located at 6755 Hollywood Boulevard.","Although the project started in 1958, Chaplin only received his star in 1970 because of his political views.","Chaplin received many awards and honours, especially later in life.","In the 1975 New Year Honours, he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (KBE).","He was also awarded honorary Doctor of Letters degrees by the University of Oxford and the University of Durham in 1962.","In 1965, he and Ingmar Bergman were joint winners of the Erasmus Prize and, in 1971, he was appointed a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour by the French government.","From the film industry, Chaplin received a special Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival in 1972, and a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Lincoln Center Film Society the same year.","The latter has since been presented annually to filmmakers as The Chaplin Award.","Chaplin was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1972, having been previously excluded because of his political beliefs.","Chaplin received three Academy Awards: an Honorary Award for \"versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing, and producing ''The Circus''\" in 1929, a second Honorary Award for \"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\" in 1972, and a Best Score award in 1973 for ''Limelight'' (shared with Ray Rasch and Larry Russell).","He was further nominated in the Best Actor, Best Original Screenplay, and Best Picture (as producer) categories for ''The Great Dictator'', and received another Best Original Screenplay nomination for ''Monsieur Verdoux''.","In 1976, Chaplin was made a Fellow of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA).","Six of Chaplin's films have been selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress: ''The Immigrant'' (1917), ''The Kid'' (1921), ''The Gold Rush'' (1925), ''City Lights'' (1931), ''Modern Times'' (1936), and ''The Great Dictator'' (1940).","\n\n'''Directed features:'''\n* ''The Kid'' (1921)\n* ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923)\n* ''The Gold Rush'' (1925)\n* ''The Circus'' (1928)\n* ''City Lights'' (1931)\n* ''Modern Times'' (1936)\n* ''The Great Dictator'' (1940)\n* ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947)\n* ''Limelight'' (1952)\n* ''A King in New York'' (1957)\n* ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967)","===Footnotes===\n\n\n===Sources===\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*","\n\n* by Association Chaplin\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* The Charlie Chaplin Archive Online catalogue of Chaplin's professional and personal archives at the Cineteca di Bologna, Italy\n* Charlie Chaplin Comedy Film Festival in Waterville, Ireland\n* Chaplin's World Museum at the Manoir de Ban, Switzerland\n* Chaplin's file at the Federal Bureau of Investigation website\n* Charlie Chaplin at the British Film Institute"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n'''Sir Charles Spencer \\\"Charlie\\\" Chaplin''', (16 April 1889 – 25 December 1977) was an English comic actor, filmmaker, and composer who rose to fame in the era of silent film.\",\n \"Chaplin became a worldwide icon through his screen persona \\\"the Tramp\\\" and is considered one of the most important figures in the history of the film industry.\",\n \"His career spanned more than 75 years, from childhood in the Victorian era until a year before his death in 1977, and encompassed both adulation and controversy.\",\n \"Chaplin's childhood in London was one of poverty and hardship.\",\n \"As his father was absent and his mother struggled financially, he was sent to a workhouse twice before the age of nine.\",\n \"When he was 14, his mother was committed to a mental asylum.\",\n \"Chaplin began performing at an early age, touring music halls and later working as a stage actor and comedian.\",\n \"At 19, he was signed to the prestigious Fred Karno company, which took him to America.\",\n \"Chaplin was scouted for the film industry and began appearing in 1914 for Keystone Studios.\",\n \"He soon developed the Tramp persona and formed a large fan base.\",\n \"Chaplin directed his own films from an early stage and continued to hone his craft as he moved to the Essanay, Mutual, and First National corporations.\",\n \"By 1918, he was one of the best-known figures in the world.\",\n \"In 1919, Chaplin co-founded the distribution company United Artists, which gave him complete control over his films.\",\n \"His first feature-length was ''The Kid'' (1921), followed by ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923), ''The Gold Rush'' (1925), and ''The Circus'' (1928).\",\n \"He refused to move to sound films in the 1930s, instead producing ''City Lights'' (1931) and ''Modern Times'' (1936) without dialogue.\",\n \"Chaplin became increasingly political, and his next film, ''The Great Dictator'' (1940), satirised Adolf Hitler.\",\n \"The 1940s were a decade marked with controversy for Chaplin, and his popularity declined rapidly.\",\n \"He was accused of communist sympathies, while his involvement in a paternity suit and marriages to much younger women caused scandal.\",\n \"An FBI investigation was opened, and Chaplin was forced to leave the United States and settle in Switzerland.\",\n \"He abandoned the Tramp in his later films, which include ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947), ''Limelight'' (1952), ''A King in New York'' (1957), and ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967).\",\n \"Chaplin wrote, directed, produced, edited, starred in, and composed the music for most of his films.\",\n \"He was a perfectionist, and his financial independence enabled him to spend years on the development and production of a picture.\",\n \"His films are characterised by slapstick combined with pathos, typified in the Tramp's struggles against adversity.\",\n \"Many contain social and political themes, as well as autobiographical elements.\",\n \"In 1972, as part of a renewed appreciation for his work, Chaplin received an Honorary Academy Award for \\\"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\\\".\",\n \"He continues to be held in high regard, with ''The Gold Rush'', ''City Lights'', ''Modern Times'', and ''The Great Dictator'' often ranked on industry lists of the greatest films of all time.\",\n \"===1889–1913: Early years===\\n\\n====Background and childhood hardship====\\nCharles Spencer Chaplin was born on 16 April 1889 to Hannah Chaplin (born Hannah Harriet Pedlingham Hill) and Charles Chaplin Sr.\",\n \"There is no official record of his birth, although Chaplin believed he was born at East Street, Walworth, in South London.\",\n \"His mother and father had married four years previously, at which time Charles Sr. became the legal carer of Hannah's illegitimate son, Sydney John Hill.\",\n \"At the time of his birth, Chaplin's parents were both music hall entertainers.\",\n \"Hannah, the daughter of a shoemaker, had a brief and unsuccessful career under the stage name Lily Harley, while Charles Sr., a butcher's son, was a popular singer.\",\n \"Although they never divorced, Chaplin's parents were estranged by around 1891.\",\n \"The following year, Hannah gave birth to a third son – George Wheeler Dryden – fathered by the music hall entertainer Leo Dryden.\",\n \"The child was taken by Dryden at six months old, and did not re-enter Chaplin's life for 30 years.\",\n \"Seven-year-old Chaplin (lower centre) at the Central London District School for paupers, 1897\\n\\nChaplin's childhood was fraught with poverty and hardship, making his eventual trajectory \\\"the most dramatic of all the rags to riches stories ever told\\\" according to his authorised biographer David Robinson.\",\n \"Chaplin's early years were spent with his mother and brother Sydney in the London district of Kennington; Hannah had no means of income, other than occasional nursing and dressmaking, and Chaplin Sr. provided no financial support.\",\n \"As the situation deteriorated, Chaplin was sent to Lambeth Workhouse when he was seven years old.\",\n \"The council housed him at the Central London District School for paupers, which Chaplin remembered as \\\"a forlorn existence\\\".\",\n \"He was briefly reunited with his mother 18 months later, before Hannah was forced to readmit her family to the workhouse in July 1898.\",\n \"The boys were promptly sent to Norwood Schools, another institution for destitute children.\",\n \"In September 1898, Hannah was committed to Cane Hill mental asylum – she had developed a psychosis seemingly brought on by an infection of syphilis and malnutrition.\",\n \"For the two months she was there, Chaplin and his brother Sydney were sent to live with their father, whom the young boys scarcely knew.\",\n \"Charles Sr. was by then a severe alcoholic, and life there was bad enough to provoke a visit from the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children.\",\n \"Chaplin's father died two years later, at 38 years old, from cirrhosis of the liver.\",\n \"Hannah entered a period of remission but, in May 1903, became ill again.\",\n \"Chaplin, then 14, had the task of taking his mother to the infirmary, from where she was sent back to Cane Hill.\",\n \"He lived alone for several days, searching for food and occasionally sleeping rough, until Sydney – who had enrolled in the Navy two years earlier – returned.\",\n \"Hannah was released from the asylum eight months later, but in March 1905, her illness returned, this time permanently.\",\n \"\\\"There was nothing we could do but accept poor mother's fate\\\", Chaplin later wrote, and she remained in care until her death in 1928.\",\n \"====Young performer====\\nSherlock Holmes'', in which he appeared between 1903 and 1906\\n\\nBetween his time in the poor schools and his mother succumbing to mental illness, Chaplin began to perform on stage.\",\n \"He later recalled making his first amateur appearance at the age of five years, when he took over from Hannah one night in Aldershot.\",\n \"This was an isolated occurrence, but by the time he was nine Chaplin had, with his mother's encouragement, grown interested in performing.\",\n \"He later wrote: \\\"she imbued me with the feeling that I had some sort of talent\\\".\",\n \"Through his father's connections, Chaplin became a member of the Eight Lancashire Lads clog-dancing troupe, with whom he toured English music halls throughout 1899 and 1900.\",\n \"Chaplin worked hard, and the act was popular with audiences, but he was not satisfied with dancing and wished to form a comedy act.\",\n \"In the years Chaplin was touring with the Eight Lancashire Lads, his mother ensured that he still attended school but, by age 13, he had abandoned education.\",\n \"He supported himself with a range of jobs, while nursing his ambition to become an actor.\",\n \"At 14, shortly after his mother's relapse, he registered with a theatrical agency in London's West End.\",\n \"The manager sensed potential in Chaplin, who was promptly given his first role as a newsboy in Harry Arthur Saintsbury's ''Jim, a Romance of Cockayne''.\",\n \"It opened in July 1903, but the show was unsuccessful and closed after two weeks.\",\n \"Chaplin's comic performance, however, was singled out for praise in many of the reviews.\",\n \"Saintsbury secured a role for Chaplin in Charles Frohman's production of ''Sherlock Holmes'', where he played Billy the pageboy in three nationwide tours.\",\n \"His performance was so well received that he was called to London to play the role alongside William Gillette, the original Holmes.\",\n \"\\\"It was like tidings from heaven\\\", Chaplin recalled.\",\n \"At 16 years old, Chaplin starred in the play's West End production at the Duke of York's Theatre from October to December 1905.\",\n \"He completed one final tour of ''Sherlock Holmes'' in early 1906, before leaving the play after more than two-and-a-half years.\",\n \"====Stage comedy and vaudeville====\\nChaplin soon found work with a new company, and went on tour with his brother – who was also pursuing an acting career – in a comedy sketch called ''Repairs''.\",\n \"In May 1906, Chaplin joined the juvenile act ''Casey's Circus'', where he developed popular burlesque pieces and was soon the star of the show.\",\n \"By the time the act finished touring in July 1907, the 18-year-old had become an accomplished comedic performer.\",\n \"He struggled to find more work, however, and a brief attempt at a solo act was a failure.\",\n \"Advertisement from Chaplin's American tour with the Fred Karno comedy company, 1913\\n\\nMeanwhile, Sydney Chaplin had joined Fred Karno's prestigious comedy company in 1906 and, by 1908, he was one of their key performers.\",\n \"In February, he managed to secure a two-week trial for his younger brother.\",\n \"Karno was initially wary, and considered Chaplin a \\\"pale, puny, sullen-looking youngster\\\" who \\\"looked much too shy to do any good in the theatre.\\\"\",\n \"However, the teenager made an impact on his first night at the London Coliseum and he was quickly signed to a contract.\",\n \"Chaplin began by playing a series of minor parts, eventually progressing to starring roles in 1909.\",\n \"In April 1910, he was given the lead in a new sketch, ''Jimmy the Fearless''.\",\n \"It was a big success, and Chaplin received considerable press attention.\",\n \"Karno selected his new star to join the section of the company, one that also included Stan Laurel, that toured North America's vaudeville circuit.\",\n \"The young comedian headed the show and impressed reviewers, being described as \\\"one of the best pantomime artists ever seen here\\\".\",\n \"His most successful role was a drunk called the \\\"Inebriate Swell\\\", which drew him significant recognition.\",\n \"The tour lasted 21 months, and the troupe returned to England in June 1912.\",\n \"Chaplin recalled that he \\\"had a disquieting feeling of sinking back into a depressing commonplaceness\\\" and was, therefore, delighted when a new tour began in October.\",\n \"===1914–1917: Entering films===\\n====Keystone====\\n\\nSix months into the second American tour, Chaplin was invited to join the New York Motion Picture Company.\",\n \"A representative who had seen his performances thought he could replace Fred Mace, a star of their Keystone Studios who intended to leave.\",\n \"Chaplin thought the Keystone comedies \\\"a crude mélange of rough and rumble\\\", but liked the idea of working in films and rationalised: \\\"Besides, it would mean a new life.\\\"\",\n \"He met with the company and signed a $150-per-week ($ in dollars) contract in September 1913.\",\n \"Chaplin arrived in Los Angeles, home of the Keystone studio, in early December 1913.\",\n \"His boss was Mack Sennett, who initially expressed concern that the 24-year-old looked too young.\",\n \"He was not used in a picture until late January, during which time Chaplin attempted to learn the processes of filmmaking.\",\n \"The one-reeler ''Making a Living'' marked his film acting debut and was released on 2 February 1914.\",\n \"Chaplin strongly disliked the picture, but one review picked him out as \\\"a comedian of the first water\\\".\",\n \"For his second appearance in front of the camera, Chaplin selected the costume with which he became identified.\",\n \"He described the process in his autobiography:\\n\\n\\n\\nThe film was ''Mabel's Strange Predicament'', but \\\"the Tramp\\\" character, as it became known, debuted to audiences in ''Kid Auto Races at Venice'' – shot later than ''Mabel's Strange Predicament'' but released two days earlier.\",\n \"Chaplin adopted the character as his screen persona and attempted to make suggestions for the films he appeared in.\",\n \"These ideas were dismissed by his directors.\",\n \"During the filming of his eleventh picture, ''Mabel at the Wheel'', he clashed with director Mabel Normand and was almost released from his contract.\",\n \"Sennett kept him on, however, when he received orders from exhibitors for more Chaplin films.\",\n \"Sennett also allowed Chaplin to direct his next film himself after Chaplin promised to pay $1,500 ($ in dollars) if the film was unsuccessful.\",\n \"''Caught in the Rain'', issued 4 May 1914, was Chaplin's directorial debut and was highly successful.\",\n \"Thereafter he directed almost every short film in which he appeared for Keystone, at the rate of approximately one per week, a period which he later remembered as the most exciting time of his career.\",\n \"Chaplin's films introduced a slower form of comedy than the typical Keystone farce, and he developed a large fan base.\",\n \"In November 1914, he had a supporting role in the first feature length comedy film, ''Tillie's Punctured Romance'', directed by Sennett and starring Marie Dressler, which was a commercial success and increased his popularity.\",\n \"When Chaplin's contract came up for renewal at the end of the year, he asked for $1,000 a week ($ in dollars) – an amount Sennett refused as too large.\",\n \"====Essanay====\\nChaplin and Edna Purviance, his regular leading lady, in ''Work'' (1915)\\n\\nThe Essanay Film Manufacturing Company of Chicago sent Chaplin an offer of $1,250 a week with a signing bonus of $10,000.\",\n \"He joined the studio in late December 1914, where he began forming a stock company of regular players, including Leo White, Bud Jamison, Paddy McGuire and Billy Armstrong.\",\n \"He soon recruited a leading lady – Edna Purviance, whom Chaplin met in a cafe and hired on account of her beauty.\",\n \"She went on to appear in 35 films with Chaplin over eight years; the pair also formed a romantic relationship that lasted into 1917.\",\n \"Chaplin asserted a high level of control over his pictures and started to put more time and care into each film.\",\n \"There was a month-long interval between the release of his second production, ''A Night Out'', and his third, ''The Champion''.\",\n \"The final seven of Chaplin's 14 Essanay films were all produced at this slower pace.\",\n \"Chaplin also began to alter his screen persona, which had attracted some criticism at Keystone for its \\\"mean, crude, and brutish\\\" nature.\",\n \"The character became more gentle and romantic; ''The Tramp'' (April 1915) was considered a particular turning point in his development.\",\n \"Robinson notes that this was an innovation in comedy films, and marked the time when serious critics began to appreciate Chaplin's work.\",\n \"At Essanay, writes film scholar Simon Louvish, Chaplin \\\"found the themes and the settings that would define the Tramp's world.\\\"\",\n \"During 1915, Chaplin became a cultural phenomenon.\",\n \"Shops were stocked with Chaplin merchandise, he was featured in cartoons and comic strips, and several songs were written about him.\",\n \"In July, a journalist for ''Motion Picture Magazine'' wrote that \\\"Chaplinitis\\\" had spread across America.\",\n \"As his fame grew worldwide, he became the film industry's first international star.\",\n \"When the Essanay contract ended in December 1915, Chaplin – fully aware of his popularity – requested a $150,000 signing bonus from his next studio.\",\n \"He received several offers, including Universal, Fox, and Vitagraph, the best of which came from the Mutual Film Corporation at $10,000 a week.\",\n \"====Mutual====\\nBy 1916, Chaplin was a global phenomenon.\",\n \"Here he shows off some of his merchandise, c. 1918.\",\n \"A contract was negotiated with Mutual that amounted to $670,000 a year, which Robinson says made Chaplin – at 26 years old – one of the highest paid people in the world.\",\n \"The high salary shocked the public and was widely reported in the press.\",\n \"John R. Freuler, the studio president, explained: \\\"We can afford to pay Mr. Chaplin this large sum annually because the public wants Chaplin and will pay for him.\\\"\",\n \"Mutual gave Chaplin his own Los Angeles studio to work in, which opened in March 1916.\",\n \"He added two key members to his stock company, Albert Austin and Eric Campbell, and produced a series of elaborate two-reelers: ''The Floorwalker'', ''The Fireman'', ''The Vagabond'', ''One A.M.'', and ''The Count''.\",\n \"For ''The Pawnshop'', he recruited the actor Henry Bergman, who was to work with Chaplin for 30 years.\",\n \"''Behind the Screen'' and ''The Rink'' completed Chaplin's releases for 1916.\",\n \"The Mutual contract stipulated that he release a two-reel film every four weeks, which he had managed to achieve.\",\n \"With the new year, however, Chaplin began to demand more time.\",\n \"He made only four more films for Mutual over the first ten months of 1917: ''Easy Street'', ''The Cure'', ''The Immigrant'', and ''The Adventurer''.\",\n \"With their careful construction, these films are considered by Chaplin scholars to be among his finest work.\",\n \"Later in life, Chaplin referred to his Mutual years as the happiest period of his career.\",\n \"However, Chaplin also felt that those films became increasingly formulaic over the period of the contract and he was increasingly dissatisfied with the working conditions encouraging that.\",\n \"Chaplin was attacked in the British media for not fighting in the First World War.\",\n \"He defended himself, revealing that he would fight for Britain if called and had registered for the American draft, but he was not summoned by either country.\",\n \"Despite this criticism Chaplin was a favourite with the troops, and his popularity continued to grow worldwide.\",\n \"''Harper's Weekly'' reported that the name of Charlie Chaplin was \\\"a part of the common language of almost every country\\\", and that the Tramp image was \\\"universally familiar\\\".\",\n \"In 1917, professional Chaplin imitators were so widespread that he took legal action, and it was reported that nine out of ten men who attended costume parties dressed as the Tramp.\",\n \"The same year, a study by the Boston Society for Psychical Research concluded that Chaplin was \\\"an American obsession\\\".\",\n \"The actress Minnie Maddern Fiske wrote that \\\"a constantly increasing body of cultured, artistic people are beginning to regard the young English buffoon, Charles Chaplin, as an extraordinary artist, as well as a comic genius\\\".\",\n \"===1918–1922: First National===\\n''A Dog's Life'' (1918).\",\n \"It was around this time that Chaplin began to conceive the Tramp as \\\"a sort of Pierrot\\\", or sad clown.\",\n \"Mutual were patient with Chaplin's decreased rate of output, and the contract ended amicably.\",\n \"With his aforementioned concern about the declining quality of his films because of contract scheduling stipulations, Chaplin's primary concern in finding a new distributor was independence; Sydney Chaplin, then his business manager, told the press, \\\"Charlie must be allowed all the time he needs and all the money for producing films the way he wants ...\",\n \"It is quality, not quantity, we are after.\\\"\",\n \"In June 1917, Chaplin signed to complete eight films for First National Exhibitors' Circuit in return for $1 million.\",\n \"He chose to build his own studio, situated on five acres of land off Sunset Boulevard, with production facilities of the highest order.\",\n \"It was completed in January 1918, and Chaplin was given freedom over the making of his pictures.\",\n \"''A Dog's Life'', released April 1918, was the first film under the new contract.\",\n \"In it, Chaplin demonstrated his increasing concern with story construction and his treatment of the Tramp as \\\"a sort of Pierrot\\\".\",\n \"The film was described by Louis Delluc as \\\"cinema's first total work of art\\\".\",\n \"Chaplin then embarked on the Third Liberty Bond campaign, touring the United States for one month to raise money for the Allies of the First World War.\",\n \"He also produced a short propaganda film, donated to the government for fund-raising, called ''The Bond''.\",\n \"Chaplin's next release was war-based, placing the Tramp in the trenches for ''Shoulder Arms''.\",\n \"Associates warned him against making a comedy about the war but, as he later recalled: \\\"Dangerous or not, the idea excited me.\\\"\",\n \"He spent four months filming the 45-minute-long picture, which was released in October 1918 with great success.\",\n \"====United Artists, Mildred Harris, and ''The Kid''====\\nAfter the release of ''Shoulder Arms'', Chaplin requested more money from First National, which was refused.\",\n \"Frustrated with their lack of concern for quality, and worried about rumours of a possible merger between the company and Famous Players-Lasky, Chaplin joined forces with Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pickford, and D. W. Griffith to form a new distribution company – United Artists, established in January 1919.\",\n \"The arrangement was revolutionary in the film industry, as it enabled the four partners – all creative artists – to personally fund their pictures and have complete control.\",\n \"Chaplin was eager to start with the new company and offered to buy out his contract with First National.\",\n \"They declined this and insisted that he complete the final six films he owed them.\",\n \"The Kid'' (1921), with Jackie Coogan, combined comedy with drama and was Chaplin's first film to exceed an hour.\",\n \"Before the creation of United Artists, Chaplin married for the first time.\",\n \"The 17-year-old actress Mildred Harris had revealed that she was pregnant with his child, and in September 1918, he married her quietly in Los Angeles to avoid controversy.\",\n \"Soon after, the pregnancy was found to be a false alarm.\",\n \"Chaplin was unhappy with the union and, feeling that marriage stunted his creativity, struggled over the production of his film ''Sunnyside''.\",\n \"Harris was by then legitimately pregnant, and on 7 July 1919, gave birth to a son.\",\n \"Norman Spencer Chaplin was born malformed and died three days later.\",\n \"The marriage eventually ended in April 1920, with Chaplin explaining in his autobiography that they were \\\"irreconcilably mismated\\\".\",\n \"Losing a child is thought to have influenced Chaplin's work, as he planned a film which turned the Tramp into the caretaker of a young boy.\",\n \"For this new venture, Chaplin also wished to do more than comedy and, according to Louvish, \\\"make his mark on a changed world.\\\"\",\n \"Filming on ''The Kid'' began in August 1919, with four-year-old Jackie Coogan his co-star.\",\n \"It occurred to Chaplin that it was turning into a large project, so to placate First National, he halted production and quickly filmed ''A Day's Pleasure''.\",\n \"''The Kid'' was in production for nine months until May 1920 and, at 68 minutes, it was Chaplin's longest picture to date.\",\n \"Dealing with issues of poverty and parent–child separation, ''The Kid'' is thought to have been influenced by Chaplin's own childhood and was one of the earliest films to combine comedy and drama.\",\n \"It was released in January 1921 with instant success, and, by 1924, had been screened in over 50 countries.\",\n \"Chaplin spent five months on his next film, the two-reeler ''The Idle Class''.\",\n \"Following its September 1921 release, he chose to return to England for the first time in almost a decade.\",\n \"He then worked to fulfil his First National contract, releasing ''Pay Day'' in February 1922.\",\n \"''The Pilgrim'' – his final short film – was delayed by distribution disagreements with the studio, and released a year later.\",\n \"===1923–1938: Silent features===\\n====''A Woman of Paris'' and ''The Gold Rush''====\\n\\nHaving fulfilled his First National contract, Chaplin was free to make his first picture as an independent producer.\",\n \"In November 1922, he began filming ''A Woman of Paris'', a romantic drama about ill-fated lovers.\",\n \"Chaplin intended it to be a star-making vehicle for Edna Purviance, and did not appear in the picture himself other than in a brief, uncredited cameo.\",\n \"He wished for the film to have a realistic feel and directed his cast to give restrained performances.\",\n \"In real life, he explained, \\\"men and women try to hide their emotions rather than seek to express them\\\".\",\n \"''A Woman of Paris'' premiered in September 1923 and was acclaimed for its subtle approach, then an innovation.\",\n \"The public, however, seemed to have little interest in a Chaplin film without his presence, and it was a box office disappointment.\",\n \"The filmmaker was hurt by this failure – he had long wanted to produce a dramatic film and was proud of the result – and withdrew ''A Woman of Paris'' from circulation as soon as he could.\",\n \"The Tramp resorts to eating his boot in a famous scene from ''The Gold Rush'' (1925).\",\n \"Chaplin returned to comedy for his next project.\",\n \"Setting his standards high, he told himself: \\\"This next film must be an epic!\",\n \"The Greatest!\\\"\",\n \"Inspired by a photograph of the 1898 Klondike Gold Rush, and later the story of the Donner Party of 1846–47, he made what Geoffrey Macnab calls \\\"an epic comedy out of grim subject matter.\\\"\",\n \"In ''The Gold Rush'', the Tramp is a lonely prospector fighting adversity and looking for love.\",\n \"With Georgia Hale as his new leading lady, Chaplin began filming the picture in February 1924.\",\n \"Its elaborate production, costing almost $1 million, included location shooting in the Truckee mountains with 600 extras, extravagant sets, and special effects.\",\n \"The last scene was not shot until May 1925, after 15 months of filming.\",\n \"Chaplin felt ''The Gold Rush'' was the best film he had made to that point.\",\n \"It opened in August 1925 and became one of the highest-grossing films of the silent era with a profit of $5 million.\",\n \"The comedy contains some of Chaplin's most famous sequences, such as the Tramp eating his shoe and the \\\"Dance of the Rolls\\\".\",\n \"Macnab has called it \\\"the quintessential Chaplin film\\\".\",\n \"Chaplin stated, \\\"This is the picture that I want to be remembered by\\\" at the time of the film's release.\",\n \"====Lita Grey and ''The Circus''====\\nLita Grey, whose bitter divorce from Chaplin caused a scandal\\n\\nWhile making ''The Gold Rush'', Chaplin married for the second time.\",\n \"Mirroring the circumstances of his first union, Lita Grey was a teenage actress, originally set to star in the film, whose surprise announcement of pregnancy forced Chaplin into marriage.\",\n \"She was 16 and he was 35, meaning Chaplin could have been charged with statutory rape under California law.\",\n \"He therefore arranged a discreet marriage in Mexico on 25 November 1924.\",\n \"Their first son, Charles Spencer Chaplin, Jr., was born on 5 May 1925, followed by Sydney Earl Chaplin on 30 March 1926.\",\n \"It was an unhappy marriage, and Chaplin spent long hours at the studio to avoid seeing his wife.\",\n \"In November 1926, Grey took the children and left the family home.\",\n \"A bitter divorce followed, in which Grey's application – accusing Chaplin of infidelity, abuse, and of harbouring \\\"perverted sexual desires\\\" – was leaked to the press.\",\n \"Chaplin was reported to be in a state of nervous breakdown, as the story became headline news and groups formed across America calling for his films to be banned.\",\n \"Eager to end the case without further scandal, Chaplin's lawyers agreed to a cash settlement of $600,000the largest awarded by American courts at that time.\",\n \"His fan base was strong enough to survive the incident, and it was soon forgotten, but Chaplin was deeply affected by it.\",\n \"Before the divorce suit was filed, Chaplin had begun work on a new film, ''The Circus''.\",\n \"He built a story around the idea of walking a tightrope while besieged by monkeys, and turned the Tramp into the accidental star of a circus.\",\n \"Filming was suspended for 10 months while he dealt with the divorce scandal, and it was generally a trouble-ridden production.\",\n \"Finally completed in October 1927, ''The Circus'' was released in January 1928 to a positive reception.\",\n \"At the 1st Academy Awards, Chaplin was given a special trophy \\\"For versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing and producing ''The Circus''\\\".\",\n \"Despite its success, he permanently associated the film with the stress of its production; Chaplin omitted ''The Circus'' from his autobiography, and struggled to work on it when he recorded the score in his later years.\",\n \"====''City Lights''====\\n\\n\\nBy the time ''The Circus'' was released, Hollywood had witnessed the introduction of sound films.\",\n \"Chaplin was cynical about this new medium and the technical shortcomings it presented, believing that \\\"talkies\\\" lacked the artistry of silent films.\",\n \"He was also hesitant to change the formula that had brought him such success, and feared that giving the Tramp a voice would limit his international appeal.\",\n \"He, therefore, rejected the new Hollywood craze and began work on a new silent film.\",\n \"Chaplin was nonetheless anxious about this decision and remained so throughout the film's production.\",\n \"''City Lights'' (1931), regarded as one of Chaplin's finest works\\n\\nWhen filming began at the end of 1928, Chaplin had been working on the story for almost a year.\",\n \"''City Lights'' followed the Tramp's love for a blind flower girl (played by Virginia Cherrill) and his efforts to raise money for her sight-saving operation.\",\n \"It was a challenging production that lasted 21 months, with Chaplin later confessing that he \\\"had worked himself into a neurotic state of wanting perfection\\\".\",\n \"One advantage Chaplin found in sound technology was the opportunity to record a musical score for the film, which he composed himself.\",\n \"Chaplin finished editing ''City Lights'' in December 1930, by which time silent films were an anachronism.\",\n \"A preview before an unsuspecting public audience was not a success, but a showing for the press produced positive reviews.\",\n \"One journalist wrote, \\\"Nobody in the world but Charlie Chaplin could have done it.\",\n \"He is the only person that has that peculiar something called 'audience appeal' in sufficient quality to defy the popular penchant for movies that talk.\\\"\",\n \"Given its general release in January 1931, ''City Lights'' proved to be a popular and financial success – eventually grossing over $3 million.\",\n \"The British Film Institute cites it as Chaplin's finest accomplishment, and the critic James Agee hails the closing scene as \\\"the greatest piece of acting and the highest moment in movies\\\".\",\n \"''City Lights'' became Chaplin's personal favourite of his films and remained so throughout his life.\",\n \"====Travels, Paulette Goddard, and ''Modern Times''====\\n''City Lights'' had been a success, but Chaplin was unsure if he could make another picture without dialogue.\",\n \"He remained convinced that sound would not work in his films, but was also \\\"obsessed by a depressing fear of being old-fashioned.\\\"\",\n \"In this state of uncertainty, early in 1931, the comedian decided to take a holiday and ended up travelling for 16 months.\",\n \"In his autobiography, Chaplin recalled that on his return to Los Angeles, \\\"I was confused and without plan, restless and conscious of an extreme loneliness\\\".\",\n \"He briefly considered retiring and moving to China.\",\n \"Modern Times'' (1936), described by Jérôme Larcher as a \\\"grim contemplation on the automatization of the individual\\\"\\n\\nChaplin's loneliness was relieved when he met 21-year-old actress Paulette Goddard in July 1932, and the pair began a successful relationship.\",\n \"He was not ready to commit to a film, however, and focused on writing a serial about his travels (published in ''Woman's Home Companion'').\",\n \"The trip had been a stimulating experience for Chaplin, including meetings with several prominent thinkers, and he became increasingly interested in world affairs.\",\n \"The state of labour in America troubled him, and he feared that capitalism and machinery in the workplace would increase unemployment levels.\",\n \"It was these concerns that stimulated Chaplin to develop his new film.\",\n \"''Modern Times'' was announced by Chaplin as \\\"a satire on certain phases of our industrial life.\\\"\",\n \"Featuring the Tramp and Goddard as they endure the Great Depression, it took ten and a half months to film.\",\n \"Chaplin intended to use spoken dialogue but changed his mind during rehearsals.\",\n \"Like its predecessor, ''Modern Times'' employed sound effects but almost no speaking.\",\n \"Chaplin's performance of a gibberish song did, however, give the Tramp a voice for the only time on film.\",\n \"After recording the music, Chaplin released ''Modern Times'' in February 1936.\",\n \"It was his first feature in 15 years to adopt political references and social realism, a factor that attracted considerable press coverage despite Chaplin's attempts to downplay the issue.\",\n \"The film earned less at the box-office than his previous features and received mixed reviews, as some viewers disliked the politicising.\",\n \"Today, ''Modern Times'' is seen by the British Film Institute as one of Chaplin's \\\"great features,\\\" while David Robinson says it shows the filmmaker at \\\"his unrivalled peak as a creator of visual comedy.\\\"\",\n \"Following the release of ''Modern Times'', Chaplin left with Goddard for a trip to the Far East.\",\n \"The couple had refused to comment on the nature of their relationship, and it was not known whether they were married or not.\",\n \"Some time later, Chaplin revealed that they married in Canton during this trip.\",\n \"By 1938, the couple had drifted apart, as both focused heavily on their work, although Goddard was again his leading lady in his next feature film, ''The Great Dictator''.\",\n \"She eventually divorced Chaplin in Mexico in 1942, citing incompatibility and separation for more than a year.\",\n \"===1939–1952: Controversies and fading popularity===\\n====''The Great Dictator''====\\nChaplin satirising Adolf Hitler in ''The Great Dictator'' (1940)\\n\\nThe 1940s saw Chaplin face a series of controversies, both in his work and in his personal life, which changed his fortunes and severely affected his popularity in the United States.\",\n \"The first of these was his growing boldness in expressing his political beliefs.\",\n \"Deeply disturbed by the surge of militaristic nationalism in 1930s world politics, Chaplin found that he could not keep these issues out of his work.\",\n \"Parallels between himself and Adolf Hitler had been widely noted: the pair were born four days apart, both had risen from poverty to world prominence, and Hitler wore the same toothbrush moustache as Chaplin.\",\n \"It was this physical resemblance that supplied the plot for Chaplin's next film, ''The Great Dictator'', which directly satirised Hitler and attacked fascism.\",\n \"Chaplin spent two years developing the script, and began filming in September 1939 – six days after Britain declared war on Germany.\",\n \"He had submitted to using spoken dialogue, partly out of acceptance that he had no other choice, but also because he recognised it as a better method for delivering a political message.\",\n \"Making a comedy about Hitler was seen as highly controversial, but Chaplin's financial independence allowed him to take the risk.\",\n \"\\\"I was determined to go ahead,\\\" he later wrote, \\\"for Hitler must be laughed at.\\\"\",\n \"Chaplin replaced the Tramp (while wearing similar attire) with \\\"A Jewish Barber\\\", a reference to the Nazi party's belief that he was Jewish.\",\n \"In a dual performance, he also played the dictator \\\"Adenoid Hynkel\\\", who parodied Hitler.\",\n \"''The Great Dictator'' spent a year in production and was released in October 1940.\",\n \"The film generated a vast amount of publicity, with a critic for ''The New York Times'' calling it \\\"the most eagerly awaited picture of the year\\\", and it was one of the biggest money-makers of the era.\",\n \"The ending was unpopular, however, and generated controversy.\",\n \"Chaplin concluded the film with a five-minute speech in which he abandoned his barber character, looked directly into the camera, and pleaded against war and fascism.\",\n \"Charles J. Maland has identified this overt preaching as triggering a decline in Chaplin's popularity, and writes, \\\"Henceforth, no movie fan would ever be able to separate the dimension of politics from his star image\\\".\",\n \"''The Great Dictator'' received five Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Original Screenplay and Best Actor.\",\n \"====Legal troubles and Oona O'Neill====\\nIn the mid-1940s, Chaplin was involved in a series of trials that occupied most of his time and significantly affected his public image.\",\n \"The troubles stemmed from his affair with an aspirant actress named Joan Barry, with whom he was involved intermittently between June 1941 and the autumn of 1942.\",\n \"Barry, who displayed obsessive behaviour and was twice arrested after they separated, reappeared the following year and announced that she was pregnant with Chaplin's child.\",\n \"As Chaplin denied the claim, Barry filed a paternity suit against him.\",\n \"The director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), J. Edgar Hoover, who had long been suspicious of Chaplin's political leanings, used the opportunity to generate negative publicity about him.\",\n \"As part of a smear campaign to damage Chaplin's image, the FBI named him in four indictments related to the Barry case.\",\n \"Most serious of these was an alleged violation of the Mann Act, which prohibits the transportation of women across state boundaries for sexual purposes.\",\n \"The historian Otto Friedrich has called this an \\\"absurd prosecution\\\" of an \\\"ancient statute\\\", yet if Chaplin was found guilty, he faced 23 years in jail.\",\n \"Three charges lacked sufficient evidence to proceed to court, but the Mann Act trial began in March 1944.\",\n \"Chaplin was acquitted two weeks later.\",\n \"The case was frequently headline news, with ''Newsweek'' calling it the \\\"biggest public relations scandal since the Fatty Arbuckle murder trial in 1921.\\\"\",\n \"Chaplin's fourth wife Oona O'Neill, to whom he was married from 1943 until his death.\",\n \"The couple had eight children.\",\n \"Barry's child, Carole Ann, was born in October 1944, and the paternity suit went to court in February 1945.\",\n \"After two arduous trials, in which the prosecuting lawyer accused him of \\\"moral turpitude\\\", Chaplin was declared to be the father.\",\n \"Evidence from blood tests which indicated otherwise were not admissible, and the judge ordered Chaplin to pay child support until Carole Ann turned 21.\",\n \"Media coverage of the paternity suit was influenced by the FBI, as information was fed to the prominent gossip columnist Hedda Hopper, and Chaplin was portrayed in an overwhelmingly critical light.\",\n \"The controversy surrounding Chaplin increased when, two weeks after the paternity suit was filed, it was announced that he had married his newest protégée, 18-year-old Oona O'Neill – daughter of the American playwright Eugene O'Neill.\",\n \"Chaplin, then 54, had been introduced to her by a film agent seven months earlier.\",\n \"In his autobiography, Chaplin described meeting O'Neill as \\\"the happiest event of my life\\\", and claimed to have found \\\"perfect love\\\".\",\n \"Chaplin's son, Charles Jr., reported that Oona \\\"worshipped\\\" his father.\",\n \"The couple remained married until Chaplin's death, and had eight children over 18 years: Geraldine Leigh (b. July 1944), Michael John (b.\",\n \"March 1946), Josephine Hannah (b.\",\n \"March 1949), Victoria (b.\",\n \"May 1951), Eugene Anthony (b. August 1953), Jane Cecil (b.\",\n \"May 1957), Annette Emily (b. December 1959), and Christopher James (b. July 1962).\",\n \"====''Monsieur Verdoux'' and communist accusations====\\n''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947), a dark comedy about a serial killer, marked a significant departure for Chaplin.\",\n \"He was so unpopular at the time of release that it flopped in the United States.\",\n \"Chaplin claimed that the Barry trials had \\\"crippled his creativeness\\\", and it was some time before he began working again.\",\n \"In April 1946, he finally began filming a project that had been in development since 1942.\",\n \"Chaplin's inspiration for the project came from Orson Welles, who wanted him to star in a film about the French serial killer Henri Désiré Landru.\",\n \"Chaplin decided that the concept would \\\"make a wonderful comedy\\\", and paid Welles $5,000 for the idea.\",\n \"Chaplin again vocalised his political views in ''Monsieur Verdoux'', criticising capitalism and arguing that the world encourages mass killing through wars and weapons of mass destruction.\",\n \"Because of this, the film met with controversy when it was released in April 1947; Chaplin was booed at the premiere, and there were calls for a boycott.\",\n \"''Monsieur Verdoux'' was the first Chaplin release that failed both critically and commercially in the United States.\",\n \"It was more successful abroad, and Chaplin's screenplay was nominated at the Academy Awards.\",\n \"He was proud of the film, writing in his autobiography, \\\"''Monsieur Verdoux'' is the cleverest and most brilliant film I have yet made.\\\"\",\n \"The negative reaction to ''Monsieur Verdoux'' was largely the result of changes in Chaplin's public image.\",\n \"Along with damage of the Joan Barry scandal, he was publicly accused of being a communist.\",\n \"His political activity had heightened during World War II, when he campaigned for the opening of a Second Front to help the Soviet Union and supported various Soviet–American friendship groups.\",\n \"He was also friendly with several suspected communists, and attended functions given by Soviet diplomats in Los Angeles.\",\n \"In the political climate of 1940s America, such activities meant Chaplin was considered, as Larcher writes, \\\"dangerously progressive and amoral.\\\"\",\n \"The FBI wanted him out of the country, and launched an official investigation in early 1947.\",\n \"Chaplin denied being a communist, instead calling himself a \\\"peacemonger\\\", but felt the government's effort to suppress the ideology was an unacceptable infringement of civil liberties.\",\n \"Unwilling to be quiet about the issue, he openly protested against the trials of Communist Party members and the activities of the House Un-American Activities Committee.\",\n \"Chaplin received a subpoena to appear before HUAC but was not called to testify.\",\n \"As his activities were widely reported in the press, and Cold War fears grew, questions were raised over his failure to take American citizenship.\",\n \"Calls were made for him to be deported; in one extreme and widely published example, Representative John E. Rankin, who helped establish HUAC, told Congress in June 1947: \\\"Chaplin's very life in Hollywood is detrimental to the moral fabric of America.\",\n \"If he is deported ... his loathsome pictures can be kept from before the eyes of the American youth.\",\n \"He should be deported and gotten rid of at once.\\\"\",\n \"====''Limelight'' and banning from the United States====\\nLimelight'' (1952) was a serious and autobiographical film for Chaplin: his character, Calvero, is an ex music hall star (described in this image as a \\\"Tramp Comedian\\\") forced to deal with his loss of popularity.\",\n \"Although Chaplin remained politically active in the years following the failure of ''Monsieur Verdoux'', his next film, about a forgotten vaudeville comedian and a young ballerina in Edwardian London, was devoid of political themes.\",\n \"''Limelight'' was heavily autobiographical, alluding not only to Chaplin's childhood and the lives of his parents, but also to his loss of popularity in the United States.\",\n \"The cast included various members of his family, including his five oldest children and his half-brother, Wheeler Dryden.\",\n \"Filming began in November 1951, by which time Chaplin had spent three years working on the story.\",\n \"He aimed for a more serious tone than any of his previous films, regularly using the word \\\"melancholy\\\" when explaining his plans to his co-star Claire Bloom.\",\n \"''Limelight'' featured a cameo appearance from Buster Keaton, whom Chaplin cast as his stage partner in a pantomime scene.\",\n \"This marked the only time the comedians worked together.\",\n \"Chaplin decided to hold the world premiere of ''Limelight'' in London, since it was the setting of the film.\",\n \"As he left Los Angeles, he expressed a premonition that he would not be returning.\",\n \"At New York, he boarded the with his family on 18 September 1952.\",\n \"The next day, attorney general James P. McGranery revoked Chaplin's re-entry permit and stated that he would have to submit to an interview concerning his political views and moral behaviour in order to re-enter the US.\",\n \"Although McGranery told the press that he had \\\"a pretty good case against Chaplin\\\", Maland has concluded, on the basis of the FBI files that were released in the 1980s, that the US government had no real evidence to prevent Chaplin's re-entry.\",\n \"It is likely that he would have gained entry if he had applied for it.\",\n \"However, when Chaplin received a cablegram informing him of the news, he privately decided to cut his ties with the United States:\\n\\n\\n\\nBecause all of his property remained in America, Chaplin refrained from saying anything negative about the incident to the press.\",\n \"The scandal attracted vast attention, but Chaplin and his film were warmly received in Europe.\",\n \"In America, the hostility towards him continued, and, although it received some positive reviews, ''Limelight'' was subjected to a wide-scale boycott.\",\n \"Reflecting on this, Maland writes that Chaplin's fall, from an \\\"unprecedented\\\" level of popularity, \\\"may be the most dramatic in the history of stardom in America\\\".\",\n \"===1953–1977: European years===\\n====Move to Switzerland and ''A King in New York''====\\n\\n\\n\\nChaplin did not attempt to return to the United States after his re-entry permit was revoked, and instead sent his wife to settle his affairs.\",\n \"The couple decided to settle in Switzerland and, in January 1953, the family moved into their permanent home: Manoir de Ban, a estate overlooking Lake Geneva in Corsier-sur-Vevey.\",\n \"Chaplin put his Beverly Hills house and studio up for sale in March, and surrendered his re-entry permit in April.\",\n \"The next year, his wife renounced her US citizenship and became a British citizen.\",\n \"Chaplin severed the last of his professional ties with the United States in 1955, when he sold the remainder of his stock in United Artists, which had been in financial difficulty since the early 1940s.\",\n \"Manoir de Ban, Chaplin's home in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland\\n\\nChaplin remained a controversial figure throughout the 1950s, especially after he was awarded the International Peace Prize by the communist-led World Peace Council, and after his meetings with Zhou Enlai and Nikita Khrushchev.\",\n \"He began developing his first European film, ''A King in New York'', in 1954.\",\n \"Casting himself as an exiled king who seeks asylum in the United States, Chaplin included several of his recent experiences in the screenplay.\",\n \"His son, Michael, was cast as a boy whose parents are targeted by the FBI, while Chaplin's character faces accusations of communism.\",\n \"The political satire parodied HUAC and attacked elements of 1950s culture – including consumerism, plastic surgery, and wide-screen cinema.\",\n \"In a review, the playwright John Osborne called it Chaplin's \\\"most bitter\\\" and \\\"most openly personal\\\" film.\",\n \"Chaplin founded a new production company, Attica, and used Shepperton Studios for the shooting.\",\n \"Filming in England proved a difficult experience, as he was used to his own Hollywood studio and familiar crew, and no longer had limitless production time.\",\n \"According to Robinson, this had an effect on the quality of the film.\",\n \"''A King in New York'' was released in September 1957, and received mixed reviews.\",\n \"Chaplin banned American journalists from its Paris première and decided not to release the film in the United States.\",\n \"This severely limited its revenue, although it achieved moderate commercial success in Europe.\",\n \"''A King in New York'' was not shown in America until 1973.\",\n \"====Final works and renewed appreciation====\\nChaplin with his wife Oona and six of their children in 1961\\n\\nIn the last two decades of his career, Chaplin concentrated on re-editing and scoring his old films for re-release, along with securing their ownership and distribution rights.\",\n \"In an interview he granted in 1959, the year of his 70th birthday, Chaplin stated that there was still \\\"room for the Little Man in the atomic age\\\".\",\n \"The first of these re-releases was ''The Chaplin Revue'' (1959), which included new versions of ''A Dog's Life'', ''Shoulder Arms'', and ''The Pilgrim''.\",\n \"In America, the political atmosphere began to change and attention was once again directed to Chaplin's films instead of his views.\",\n \"In July 1962, ''The New York Times'' published an editorial stating that \\\"we do not believe the Republic would be in danger if yesterday's unforgotten little tramp were allowed to amble down the gangplank of a steamer or plane in an American port\\\".\",\n \"The same month, Chaplin was invested with the honorary degree of Doctor of Letters by the universities of Oxford and Durham.\",\n \"In November 1963, the Plaza Theater in New York started a year-long series of Chaplin's films, including ''Monsieur Verdoux'' and ''Limelight'', which gained excellent reviews from American critics.\",\n \"September 1964 saw the release of Chaplin's memoirs, ''My Autobiography'', which he had been working on since 1957.\",\n \"The 500-page book, which focused on his early years and personal life, became a worldwide best-seller, despite criticism over the lack of information on his film career.\",\n \"Shortly after the publication of his memoirs, Chaplin began work on ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967), a romantic comedy based on a script he had written for Paulette Goddard in the 1930s.\",\n \"Set on an ocean liner, it starred Marlon Brando as an American ambassador and Sophia Loren as a stowaway found in his cabin.\",\n \"The film differed from Chaplin's earlier productions in several aspects.\",\n \"It was his first to use Technicolor and the widescreen format, while he concentrated on directing and appeared on-screen only in a cameo role as a seasick steward.\",\n \"He also signed a deal with Universal Pictures and appointed his assistant, Jerome Epstein, as the producer.\",\n \"Chaplin was paid $600,000 director's fee as well as a percentage of the gross receipts.\",\n \"''A Countess from Hong Kong'' premiered in January 1967, to unfavourable reviews, and was a box-office failure.\",\n \"Chaplin was deeply hurt by the negative reaction to the film, which turned out to be his last.\",\n \"Chaplin suffered a series of minor strokes in the late 1960s, which marked the beginning of a slow decline in his health.\",\n \"Despite the setbacks, he was soon writing a new film script, ''The Freak'', a story of a winged girl found in South America, which he intended as a starring vehicle for his daughter, Victoria.\",\n \"His fragile health prevented the project from being realised.\",\n \"In the early 1970s, Chaplin concentrated on re-releasing his old films, including ''The Kid'' and ''The Circus''.\",\n \"In 1971, he was made a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour at the Cannes Film Festival.\",\n \"The following year, he was honoured with a special award by the Venice Film Festival.\",\n \"Chaplin (right) receiving his Honorary Academy Award from Jack Lemmon in 1972.\",\n \"It was the first time he had been to the United States in 20 years.\",\n \"In 1972, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences offered Chaplin an Honorary Award, which Robinson sees as a sign that America \\\"wanted to make amends\\\".\",\n \"Chaplin was initially hesitant about accepting but decided to return to the US for the first time in 20 years.\",\n \"The visit attracted a large amount of press coverage and, at the Academy Awards gala, he was given a twelve-minute standing ovation, the longest in the Academy's history.\",\n \"Visibly emotional, Chaplin accepted his award for \\\"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\\\".\",\n \"Although Chaplin still had plans for future film projects, by the mid-1970s he was very frail.\",\n \"He experienced several further strokes, which made it difficult for him to communicate, and he had to use a wheelchair.\",\n \"His final projects were compiling a pictorial autobiography, ''My Life in Pictures'' (1974) and scoring ''A Woman of Paris'' for re-release in 1976.\",\n \"He also appeared in a documentary about his life, ''The Gentleman Tramp'' (1975), directed by Richard Patterson.\",\n \"In the 1975 New Year Honours, Chaplin was awarded a knighthood by Queen Elizabeth II, though he was too weak to kneel and received the honour in his wheelchair.\",\n \"====Death====\\nChaplin's grave in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland\\nBy October 1977, Chaplin's health had declined to the point that he needed constant care.\",\n \"In the early morning of 25 December 1977, Chaplin died at home after suffering a stroke in his sleep.\",\n \"He was 88 years old.\",\n \"The funeral, on 27 December, was a small and private Anglican ceremony, according to his wishes.\",\n \"Chaplin was interred in the Corsier-sur-Vevey cemetery.\",\n \"Among the film industry's tributes, director René Clair wrote, \\\"He was a monument of the cinema, of all countries and all times ... the most beautiful gift the cinema made to us.\\\"\",\n \"Actor Bob Hope declared, \\\"We were lucky to have lived in his time.\\\"\",\n \"On 1 March 1978, Chaplin's coffin was dug up and stolen from its grave by two unemployed immigrants, Roman Wardas, from Poland, and Gantcho Ganev, from Bulgaria.\",\n \"The body was held for ransom in an attempt to extort money from Oona Chaplin.\",\n \"The pair were caught in a large police operation in May, and Chaplin's coffin was found buried in a field in the nearby village of Noville.\",\n \"It was re-interred in the Corsier cemetery surrounded by reinforced concrete.\",\n \"===Influences===\\nChaplin believed his first influence to be his mother, who entertained him as a child by sitting at the window and mimicking passers-by: \\\"it was through watching her that I learned not only how to express emotions with my hands and face, but also how to observe and study people.\\\"\",\n \"Chaplin's early years in music hall allowed him to see stage comedians at work; he also attended the Christmas pantomimes at Drury Lane, where he studied the art of clowning through performers like Dan Leno.\",\n \"Chaplin's years with the Fred Karno company had a formative effect on him as an actor and filmmaker.\",\n \"Simon Louvish writes that the company was his \\\"training ground\\\", and it was here that Chaplin learned to vary the pace of his comedy.\",\n \"The concept of mixing pathos with slapstick was learnt from Karno, who also used elements of absurdity that became familiar in Chaplin's gags.\",\n \"From the film industry, Chaplin drew upon the work of the French comedian Max Linder, whose films he greatly admired.\",\n \"In developing the Tramp costume and persona, he was likely inspired by the American vaudeville scene, where tramp characters were common.\",\n \"===Method===\\nA 1922 image of Charlie Chaplin Studios, where all of Chaplin's films between 1918 and 1952 were produced\\n\\nChaplin never spoke more than cursorily about his filmmaking methods, claiming such a thing would be tantamount to a magician spoiling his own illusion.\",\n \"Little was known about his working process throughout his lifetime, but research from film historians – particularly the findings of Kevin Brownlow and David Gill that were presented in the three-part documentary ''Unknown Chaplin'' (1983) – has since revealed his unique working method.\",\n \"Until he began making spoken dialogue films with ''The Great Dictator'', Chaplin never shot from a completed script.\",\n \"Many of his early films began with only a vague premise – for example \\\"Charlie enters a health spa\\\" or \\\"Charlie works in a pawn shop.\\\"\",\n \"He then had sets constructed and worked with his stock company to improvise gags and \\\"business\\\" using them, almost always working the ideas out on film.\",\n \"As ideas were accepted and discarded, a narrative structure would emerge, frequently requiring Chaplin to reshoot an already-completed scene that might have otherwise contradicted the story.\",\n \"From ''A Woman of Paris'' onward Chaplin began the filming process with a prepared plot, but Robinson writes that every film up to ''Modern Times'' \\\"went through many metamorphoses and permutations before the story took its final form.\\\"\",\n \"Producing films in this manner meant Chaplin took longer to complete his pictures than almost any other filmmaker at the time.\",\n \"If he was out of ideas, he often took a break from the shoot, which could last for days, while keeping the studio ready for when inspiration returned.\",\n \"Delaying the process further was Chaplin's rigorous perfectionism.\",\n \"According to his friend Ivor Montagu, \\\"nothing but perfection would be right\\\" for the filmmaker.\",\n \"Because he personally funded his films, Chaplin was at liberty to strive for this goal and shoot as many takes as he wished.\",\n \"The number was often excessive, for instance 53 takes for every finished take in ''The Kid''.\",\n \"For ''The Immigrant'', a 20 minute-short, Chaplin shot 40,000 feet of film – enough for a feature-length.\",\n \"Describing his working method as \\\"sheer perseverance to the point of madness\\\", Chaplin would be completely consumed by the production of a picture.\",\n \"Robinson writes that even in Chaplin's later years, his work continued \\\"to take precedence over everything and everyone else.\\\"\",\n \"The combination of story improvisation and relentless perfectionism – which resulted in days of effort and thousands of feet of film being wasted, all at enormous expense – often proved taxing for Chaplin who, in frustration, would lash out at his actors and crew.\",\n \"Chaplin exercised complete control over his pictures, to the extent that he would act out the other roles for his cast, expecting them to imitate him exactly.\",\n \"He personally edited all of his films, trawling through the large amounts of footage to create the exact picture he wanted.\",\n \"As a result of his complete independence, he was identified by the film historian Andrew Sarris as one of the first auteur filmmakers.\",\n \"Chaplin did receive help, notably from his long-time cinematographer Roland Totheroh, brother Sydney Chaplin, and various assistant directors such as Harry Crocker and Charles Reisner.\",\n \"===Style and themes===\\nThe Kid'' (1921), demonstrating Chaplin's mixture of slapstick, pathos, and social commentary\\n\\nWhile Chaplin's comedic style is broadly defined as slapstick, it is considered restrained and intelligent, with the film historian Philip Kemp describing his work as a mix of \\\"deft, balletic physical comedy and thoughtful, situation-based gags\\\".\",\n \"Chaplin diverged from conventional slapstick by slowing the pace and exhausting each scene of its comic potential, with more focus on developing the viewer's relationship to the characters.\",\n \"Unlike conventional slapstick comedies, Robinson states that the comic moments in Chaplin's films centre on the Tramp's attitude to the things happening to him: the humour does not come from the Tramp bumping into a tree, but from his lifting his hat to the tree in apology.\",\n \"Dan Kamin writes that Chaplin's \\\"quirky mannerisms\\\" and \\\"serious demeanour in the midst of slapstick action\\\" are other key aspects of his comedy, while the surreal transformation of objects and the employment of in-camera trickery are also common features.\",\n \"Chaplin's silent films typically follow the Tramp's efforts to survive in a hostile world.\",\n \"The character lives in poverty and is frequently treated badly, but remains kind and upbeat; defying his social position, he strives to be seen as a gentleman.\",\n \"As Chaplin said in 1925, \\\"The whole point of the Little Fellow is that no matter how down on his ass he is, no matter how well the jackals succeed in tearing him apart, he's still a man of dignity.\\\"\",\n \"The Tramp defies authority figures and \\\"gives as good as he gets\\\", leading Robinson and Louvish to see him as a representative for the underprivileged – an \\\"everyman turned heroic saviour\\\".\",\n \"Hansmeyer notes that several of Chaplin's films end with \\\"the homeless and lonely Tramp walking optimistically ... into the sunset ... to continue his journey\\\".\",\n \"The infusion of pathos is a well-known aspect of Chaplin's work, and Larcher notes his reputation for \\\"inducing laughter and tears\\\".\",\n \"Sentimentality in his films comes from a variety of sources, with Louvish pinpointing \\\"personal failure, society's strictures, economic disaster, and the elements.\\\"\",\n \"Chaplin sometimes drew on tragic events when creating his films, as in the case of ''The Gold Rush'' (1925), which was inspired by the fate of the Donner Party.\",\n \"Constance B. Kuriyama has identified serious underlying themes in the early comedies, such as greed (''The Gold Rush'') and loss (''The Kid'').\",\n \"Chaplin also touched on controversial issues: immigration (''The Immigrant'', 1917); illegitimacy (''The Kid'', 1921); and drug use (''Easy Street'', 1917).\",\n \"He often explored these topics ironically, making comedy out of suffering.\",\n \"Social commentary was a feature of Chaplin's films from early in his career, as he portrayed the underdog in a sympathetic light and highlighted the difficulties of the poor.\",\n \"Later, as he developed a keen interest in economics and felt obliged to publicise his views, Chaplin began incorporating overtly political messages into his films.\",\n \"''Modern Times'' (1936) depicted factory workers in dismal conditions, ''The Great Dictator'' (1940) parodied Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini and ended in a speech against nationalism, ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947) criticised war and capitalism, and ''A King in New York'' (1957) attacked McCarthyism.\",\n \"Several of Chaplin's films incorporate autobiographical elements, and the psychologist Sigmund Freud believed that Chaplin \\\"always plays only himself as he was in his dismal youth\\\".\",\n \"''The Kid'' is thought to reflect Chaplin's childhood trauma of being sent into an orphanage, the main characters in ''Limelight'' (1952) contain elements from the lives of his parents, and ''A King in New York'' references Chaplin's experiences of being shunned by the United States.\",\n \"Many of his sets, especially in street scenes, bear a strong similarity to Kennington, where he grew up.\",\n \"Stephen M. Weissman has argued that Chaplin's problematic relationship with his mentally ill mother was often reflected in his female characters and the Tramp's desire to save them.\",\n \"Regarding the structure of Chaplin's films, the scholar Gerald Mast sees them as consisting of sketches tied together by the same theme and setting, rather than having a tightly unified storyline.\",\n \"Visually, his films are simple and economic, with scenes portrayed as if set on a stage.\",\n \"His approach to filming was described by the art director Eugène Lourié: \\\"Chaplin did not think in 'artistic' images when he was shooting.\",\n \"He believed that action is the main thing.\",\n \"The camera is there to photograph the actors\\\".\",\n \"In his autobiography, Chaplin wrote, \\\"Simplicity is best ... pompous effects slow up action, are boring and unpleasant ...\",\n \"The camera should not intrude.\\\"\",\n \"This approach has prompted criticism, since the 1940s, for being \\\"old fashioned\\\", while the film scholar Donald McCaffrey sees it as an indication that Chaplin never completely understood film as a medium.\",\n \"Kamin, however, comments that Chaplin's comedic talent would not be enough to remain funny on screen if he did not have an \\\"ability to conceive and direct scenes specifically for the film medium\\\".\",\n \"===Composing===\\nChaplin playing the cello in 1915\\n\\nChaplin developed a passion for music as a child and taught himself to play the piano, violin, and cello.\",\n \"He considered the musical accompaniment of a film to be important, and from ''A Woman of Paris'' onwards he took an increasing interest in this area.\",\n \"With the advent of sound technology, Chaplin began using a synchronised orchestral soundtrack – composed by himself – for ''City Lights'' (1931).\",\n \"He thereafter composed the scores for all of his films, and from the late 1950s to his death, he scored all of his silent features and some of his short films.\",\n \"As Chaplin was not a trained musician, he could not read sheet music and needed the help of professional composers, such as David Raksin, Raymond Rasch and Eric James, when creating his scores.\",\n \"Musical directors were employed to oversee the recording process, such as Alfred Newman for ''City Lights''.\",\n \"Although some critics have claimed that credit for his film music should be given to the composers who worked with him, Raksin – who worked with Chaplin on ''Modern Times'' – stressed Chaplin's creative position and active participation in the composing process.\",\n \"This process, which could take months, would start with Chaplin describing to the composer(s) exactly what he wanted and singing or playing tunes he had improvised on the piano.\",\n \"These tunes were then developed further in a close collaboration among the composer(s) and Chaplin.\",\n \"According to film historian Jeffrey Vance, \\\"although he relied upon associates to arrange varied and complex instrumentation, the musical imperative is his, and not a note in a Chaplin musical score was placed there without his assent.\\\"\",\n \"Chaplin's compositions produced three popular songs.\",\n \"\\\"Smile\\\", composed originally for ''Modern Times'' (1936) and later set to lyrics by John Turner and Geoffrey Parsons, was a hit for Nat King Cole in 1954.\",\n \"For ''Limelight'', Chaplin composed \\\"Terry's Theme\\\", which was popularised by Jimmy Young as \\\"Eternally\\\" (1952).\",\n \"Finally, \\\"This Is My Song\\\", performed by Petula Clark for ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967), reached number one on the UK and other European charts.\",\n \"Chaplin also received his only competitive Oscar for his composition work, as the ''Limelight'' theme won an Academy Award for Best Original Score in 1973 following the film's re-release.\",\n \"Chaplin as the Tramp in 1915, cinema's \\\"most universal icon\\\"\\n\\nIn 1998, the film critic Andrew Sarris called Chaplin \\\"arguably the single most important artist produced by the cinema, certainly its most extraordinary performer and probably still its most universal icon\\\".\",\n \"He is described by the British Film Institute as \\\"a towering figure in world culture\\\", and was included in ''Time'' magazine's list of the \\\"100 Most Important People of the 20th Century\\\" for the \\\"laughter he brought to millions\\\" and because he \\\"more or less invented global recognizability and helped turn an industry into an art\\\".\",\n \"The image of the Tramp has become a part of cultural history; according to Simon Louvish, the character is recognisable to people who have never seen a Chaplin film, and in places where his films are never shown.\",\n \"The critic Leonard Maltin has written of the \\\"unique\\\" and \\\"indelible\\\" nature of the Tramp, and argued that no other comedian matched his \\\"worldwide impact\\\".\",\n \"Praising the character, Richard Schickel suggests that Chaplin's films with the Tramp contain the most \\\"eloquent, richly comedic expressions of the human spirit\\\" in movie history.\",\n \"Memorabilia connected to the character still fetches large sums in auctions: in 2006 a bowler hat and a bamboo cane that were part of the Tramp's costume were bought for $140,000 in a Los Angeles auction.\",\n \"As a filmmaker, Chaplin is considered a pioneer and one of the most influential figures of the early twentieth century.\",\n \"He is often credited as one of the medium's first artists.\",\n \"Film historian Mark Cousins has written that Chaplin \\\"changed not only the imagery of cinema, but also its sociology and grammar\\\" and claims that Chaplin was as important to the development of comedy as a genre as D.W. Griffith was to drama.\",\n \"He was the first to popularise feature-length comedy and to slow down the pace of action, adding pathos and subtlety to it.\",\n \"Although his work is mostly classified as slapstick, Chaplin's drama ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923) was a major influence on Ernst Lubitsch's film ''The Marriage Circle'' (1924) and thus played a part in the development of \\\"sophisticated comedy\\\".\",\n \"According to David Robinson, Chaplin's innovations were \\\"rapidly assimilated to become part of the common practice of film craft.\\\"\",\n \"Filmmakers who cited Chaplin as an influence include Federico Fellini (who called Chaplin \\\"a sort of Adam, from whom we are all descended\\\"), Jacques Tati (\\\"Without him I would never have made a film\\\"), René Clair (\\\"He inspired practically every filmmaker\\\"), Michael Powell, Billy Wilder, Vittorio De Sica, and Richard Attenborough.\",\n \"Russian filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky praised Chaplin as \\\"the only person to have gone down into cinematic history without any shadow of a doubt.\",\n \"The films he left behind can never grow old.\\\"\",\n \"Chaplin also strongly influenced the work of later comedians.\",\n \"Marcel Marceau said he was inspired to become a mime artist after watching Chaplin, while the actor Raj Kapoor based his screen persona on the Tramp.\",\n \"Mark Cousins has also detected Chaplin's comedic style in the French character Monsieur Hulot and the Italian character Totò.\",\n \"In other fields, Chaplin helped inspire the cartoon characters Felix the Cat and Mickey Mouse, and was an influence on the Dada art movement.\",\n \"As one of the founding members of United Artists, Chaplin also had a role in the development of the film industry.\",\n \"Gerald Mast has written that although UA never became a major company like MGM or Paramount Pictures, the idea that directors could produce their own films was \\\"years ahead of its time\\\".\",\n \"In the 21st century, several of Chaplin's films are still regarded as classics and among the greatest ever made.\",\n \"The 2012 ''Sight & Sound'' poll, which compiles \\\"top ten\\\" ballots from film critics and directors to determine each group's most acclaimed films,\\nsaw ''City Lights'' rank among the critics' top 50, ''Modern Times'' inside the top 100, and ''The Great Dictator'' and ''The Gold Rush'' placed in the top 250.\",\n \"The top 100 films as voted on by directors included ''Modern Times'' at number 22, ''City Lights'' at number 30, and ''The Gold Rush'' at number 91.\",\n \"Every one of Chaplin's features received a vote.\",\n \"In 2007, the American Film Institute named ''City Lights'' the 11th greatest American film of all time, while ''The Gold Rush'' and ''Modern Times'' again ranked in the top 100.\",\n \"Books about Chaplin continue to be published regularly, and he is a popular subject for media scholars and film archivists.\",\n \"Many of Chaplin's film have had a DVD and Blu-Ray release.\",\n \"===Commemoration and tributes===\\n\\nA room inside Chaplin's World\\n\\nChaplin's final home, Manoir de Ban in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland, has been converted into a museum named \\\"Chaplin's World\\\".\",\n \"It opened on 17 April 2016 after 15 years of development, and is described by Reuters as \\\"an interactive museum showcasing the life and works of Charlie Chaplin\\\".\",\n \"On the 128th anniversary of his birth, a record-setting 662 people dressed as the Tramp in an event organised by the museum.\",\n \"Previously, the Museum of the Moving Image in London held a permanent display on Chaplin, and hosted a dedicated exhibition to his life and career in 1988.\",\n \"The London Film Museum hosted an exhibition called ''Charlie Chaplin – The Great Londoner'', from 2010 until 2013.\",\n \"In London, a statue of Chaplin as the Tramp, sculpted by John Doubleday and unveiled in 1981, is located in Leicester Square.\",\n \"The city also includes a road named after him in central London, \\\"Charlie Chaplin Walk\\\", which is the location of the BFI IMAX.\",\n \"There are nine blue plaques memorialising Chaplin in London, Hampshire, and Yorkshire.\",\n \"The Swiss town of Vevey named a park in his honour in 1980 and erected a statue there in 1982.\",\n \"In 2011, two large murals depicting Chaplin on two 14-storey buildings were also unveiled in Vevey.\",\n \"Chaplin has also been honoured by the Irish town of Waterville, where he spent several summers with his family in the 1960s.\",\n \"A statue was erected in 1998; since 2011, the town has been host to the annual Charlie Chaplin Comedy Film Festival, which was founded to celebrate Chaplin's legacy and to showcase new comic talent.\",\n \"In other tributes, a minor planet, 3623 Chaplin – discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Karachkina in 1981 – is named after Chaplin.\",\n \"Throughout the 1980s, the Tramp image was used by IBM to advertise their personal computers.\",\n \"Chaplin's 100th birthday anniversary in 1989 was marked with several events around the world, and on 15 April 2011, a day before his 122nd birthday, Google celebrated him with a special Google Doodle video on its global and other country-wide homepages.\",\n \"Many countries, spanning six continents, have honoured Chaplin with a postal stamp.\",\n \"Chaplin's legacy is managed on behalf of his children by the Chaplin office, located in Paris.\",\n \"The office represents Association Chaplin, founded by some of his children \\\"to protect the name, image and moral rights\\\" to his body of work, Roy Export SAS, which owns the copyright to most of his films made after 1918, and Bubbles Incorporated S.A., which owns the copyrights to his image and name.\",\n \"Their central archive is held at the archives of Montreux, Switzerland and scanned versions of its contents, including 83,630 images, 118 scripts, 976 manuscripts, 7,756 letters, and thousands of other documents, are available for research purposes at the Chaplin Research Centre at the Cineteca di Bologna.\",\n \"The photographic archive, which includes approximately 10,000 photographs from Chaplin's life and career, is kept at the Musée de l'Elysée in Lausanne, Switzerland.\",\n \"The British Film Institute has also established the Charles Chaplin Research Foundation, and the first international Charles Chaplin Conference was held in London in July 2005.\",\n \"Statues of Chaplin around the world, located at (left to right) 1.\",\n \"Trenčianske Teplice, Slovakia; 2.\",\n \"Chełmża, Poland; 3.\",\n \"Waterville, Ireland; 4.\",\n \"London, United Kingdom; 5.\",\n \"Hyderabad, India; 6.\",\n \"Alassio, Italy; 7.\",\n \"Barcelona, Spain; 8.\",\n \"Vevey, Switzerland\\n\\n===Characterisations===\\nChaplin is the subject of a biographical film, ''Chaplin'' (1992) directed by Richard Attenborough, and starring Robert Downey Jr. in the title role.\",\n \"He is also a character in the period drama film ''The Cat's Meow'' (2001), played by Eddie Izzard, and in the made-for-television movie ''The Scarlett O'Hara War'' (1980), played by Clive Revill.\",\n \"A television series about Chaplin's childhood, ''Young Charlie Chaplin'', ran on PBS in 1989, and was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Program.\",\n \"Chaplin's life has also been the subject of several stage productions.\",\n \"Two musicals, ''Little Tramp'' and ''Chaplin'', were produced in the early 1990s.\",\n \"In 2006, Thomas Meehan and Christopher Curtis created another musical, ''Limelight: The Story of Charlie Chaplin'', which was first performed at the La Jolla Playhouse in San Diego in 2010.\",\n \"It was adapted for Broadway two years later, re-titled ''Chaplin – A Musical''.\",\n \"Chaplin was portrayed by Robert McClure in both productions.\",\n \"In 2013, two plays about Chaplin premiered in Finland: ''Chaplin'' at the Svenska Teatern, and ''Kulkuri'' (''The Tramp'') at the Tampere Workers' Theatre.\",\n \"Chaplin has also been characterised in literary fiction.\",\n \"He is the protagonist of Robert Coover's short story \\\"Charlie in the House of Rue\\\" (1980; reprinted in Coover's 1987 collection ''A Night at the Movies''), and of Glen David Gold's ''Sunnyside'' (2009), a historical novel set in the First World War period.\",\n \"A day in Chaplin's life in 1909 is dramatised in the chapter entitled \\\"Modern Times\\\" in Alan Moore's ''Jerusalem'' (2016), a novel set in the author's home town of Northampton, England.\",\n \"Chaplin's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, located at 6755 Hollywood Boulevard.\",\n \"Although the project started in 1958, Chaplin only received his star in 1970 because of his political views.\",\n \"Chaplin received many awards and honours, especially later in life.\",\n \"In the 1975 New Year Honours, he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (KBE).\",\n \"He was also awarded honorary Doctor of Letters degrees by the University of Oxford and the University of Durham in 1962.\",\n \"In 1965, he and Ingmar Bergman were joint winners of the Erasmus Prize and, in 1971, he was appointed a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour by the French government.\",\n \"From the film industry, Chaplin received a special Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival in 1972, and a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Lincoln Center Film Society the same year.\",\n \"The latter has since been presented annually to filmmakers as The Chaplin Award.\",\n \"Chaplin was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1972, having been previously excluded because of his political beliefs.\",\n \"Chaplin received three Academy Awards: an Honorary Award for \\\"versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing, and producing ''The Circus''\\\" in 1929, a second Honorary Award for \\\"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\\\" in 1972, and a Best Score award in 1973 for ''Limelight'' (shared with Ray Rasch and Larry Russell).\",\n \"He was further nominated in the Best Actor, Best Original Screenplay, and Best Picture (as producer) categories for ''The Great Dictator'', and received another Best Original Screenplay nomination for ''Monsieur Verdoux''.\",\n \"In 1976, Chaplin was made a Fellow of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA).\",\n \"Six of Chaplin's films have been selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress: ''The Immigrant'' (1917), ''The Kid'' (1921), ''The Gold Rush'' (1925), ''City Lights'' (1931), ''Modern Times'' (1936), and ''The Great Dictator'' (1940).\",\n \"\\n\\n'''Directed features:'''\\n* ''The Kid'' (1921)\\n* ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923)\\n* ''The Gold Rush'' (1925)\\n* ''The Circus'' (1928)\\n* ''City Lights'' (1931)\\n* ''Modern Times'' (1936)\\n* ''The Great Dictator'' (1940)\\n* ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947)\\n* ''Limelight'' (1952)\\n* ''A King in New York'' (1957)\\n* ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967)\",\n \"===Footnotes===\\n\\n\\n===Sources===\\n\\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n*\",\n \"\\n\\n* by Association Chaplin\\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* The Charlie Chaplin Archive Online catalogue of Chaplin's professional and personal archives at the Cineteca di Bologna, Italy\\n* Charlie Chaplin Comedy Film Festival in Waterville, Ireland\\n* Chaplin's World Museum at the Manoir de Ban, Switzerland\\n* Chaplin's file at the Federal Bureau of Investigation website\\n* Charlie Chaplin at the British Film Institute\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"finance"}}},{"rowIdx":288,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\n'''''The World Factbook''''' (; also known as the '''''CIA World Factbook''''') is a reference resource produced by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) with almanac-style information about the countries of the world. The official print version is available from the National Technical Information Service and the Government Printing Office. Other companies—such as Skyhorse Publishing—also print a paper edition. ''The Factbook'' is available in the form of a website that is partially updated every week. It is also available for download for use off-line. It provides a two- to three-page summary of the demographics, geography, communications, government, economy, and military of each of 267 international entities including U.S.-recognized countries, dependencies, and other areas in the world.\n\n''The World Factbook'' is prepared by the CIA for the use of U.S. government officials, and its style, format, coverage, and content are primarily designed to meet their requirements. However, it is frequently used as a resource for academic research papers and news articles. As a work of the U.S. government, it is in the public domain in the United States.\n","In researching the ''Factbook'', the CIA uses the sources listed below. Other public and private sources are also consulted.\n\n*Antarctic Information Program (National Science Foundation)\n*Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center (Department of Defense)\n*Bureau of the Census (Department of Commerce)\n*Bureau of Labor Statistics (Department of Labor)\n*Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs\n*Defense Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense)\n*Department of Energy\n*Department of State\n*Fish and Wildlife Service (Department of the Interior)\n*Maritime Administration (Department of Transportation)\n*National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense)\n*Naval Facilities Engineering Command (Department of Defense)\n*Office of Insular Affairs (Department of the Interior)\n*Office of Naval Intelligence (Department of Defense)\n*''Oil & Gas Journal''\n*United States Board on Geographic Names (Department of the Interior)\n*United States Transportation Command (Department of Defense)\n","The World Factbook website as it appeared in December 2014\n\nBecause the ''Factbook'' is in the public domain, people are free under United States law to redistribute it or parts of it in any way that they like, without permission of the CIA. However, the CIA requests that it be cited when the ''Factbook'' is used. Copying the official seal of the CIA without permission is prohibited by U.S. federal law—specifically, the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 ().\n","Before November 2001 ''The World Factbook'' website was updated yearly; from 2004 to 2010 it was updated every two weeks; since 2010 it has been updated weekly. Generally, information currently available as of January 1 of the current year is used in preparing the ''Factbook''.\n\n=== Government edition of the ''Factbook'' ===\nThe first, classified, edition of ''Factbook'' was published in August 1962, and the first unclassified version in June 1971. ''The World Factbook'' was first available to the public in print in 1975. In 2008 the CIA discontinued printing the ''Factbook'' themselves, instead turning printing responsibilities over to the Government Printing Office. This happened due to a CIA decision to \"focus Factbook resources\" on the online edition. The ''Factbook'' has been on the World Wide Web since October 1994. The web version gets an average of 6 million visits per month; it can also be downloaded. The official printed version is sold by the Government Printing Office and National Technical Information Service. In past years, the ''Factbook'' was available on CD-ROM, microfiche, magnetic tape, and floppy disk.\n\n=== Reprints and older editions online ===\nMany Internet sites use information and images from the CIA ''World Factbook''. Several publishers, including Grand River Books, Potomac Books (formerly known as Brassey's Inc.), and Skyhorse Publishing have re-published the ''Factbook'' in recent years.\n","\n\nAs of July 2011, ''The World Factbook'' consists of '''267''' entities. These entities can be divided into categories. They are:\n\n; Independent countries: This category has independent countries, which the CIA defines as people \"politically organized into a sovereign state with a definite territory\". In this category, there are '''195''' entities.\n; Others: The ''Other'' category is a list of other places set apart from the list of independent countries. Currently there are '''two''': Taiwan and the European Union.\n; Dependencies and Areas of Special Sovereignty: This category is a list of places affiliated with another country. They may be subdivided into categories using the country they are affiliated with:\n:*Australia: six entities\n:*China: two entities\n:*Denmark: two entities\n:*France: eight entities\n:*Netherlands: three entities\n:*New Zealand: three entities\n:*Norway: three entities\n:*United Kingdom: seventeen entities\n:*United States: fourteen entities\n; Miscellaneous: This category is for Antarctica and places in dispute. There are '''six''' entities.\n; Other entities: This category is for the World and the oceans. There are '''five''' oceans and the World (the World entry is intended as a summary of the other entries).\n","=== Political ===\n; Areas not covered\n: Specific regions within a country or areas in dispute among countries, such as Kashmir, are not covered, but other areas of the world whose status is disputed, such as the Spratly Islands, have entries. Subnational areas of countries (such as U.S. states or the Canadian provinces and territories) are not included in the ''Factbook''. Instead, users looking for information about subnational areas are referred to \"a comprehensive encyclopedia\" for their reference needs. This criterion was invoked in the 2007 and 2011 editions with the decision to drop the entries for French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, and Reunion. They were dropped because besides being overseas departments, they were now overseas regions, and an integral part of France.\n\n; Kashmir\n: Maps depicting Kashmir have the Indo-Pakistani border drawn at the Line of Control, but the region of Kashmir administered by China drawn in hash marks.\n\n; Northern Cyprus\n: Northern Cyprus, which the U.S. considers part of the Republic of Cyprus, is not given a separate entry because \"territorial occupations/annexations not recognized by the United States Government are not shown on U.S. Government maps.\"\n\n; Taiwan/Republic of China\n: The name \"Republic of China\" is not listed as Taiwan's official name under the \"Government\" section, due to U.S. acknowledgement of Beijing's One-China policy according to which there is one China and Taiwan is a part of it. The name \"Republic of China\" was briefly added on January 27, 2005, but has since been changed back to \"none\". Of the ''Factbook''s two maps of China, one highlights the island of Taiwan highlighted as part of the country while the other does not. (See also: Political status of Taiwan, Legal status of Taiwan)\n\n; Disputed South China Sea Islands\n: The Paracel Islands and Spratly Islands, subjects of territorial disputes, have entries in the ''Factbook'' where they are not listed as the territory of any one nation. The disputed claims to the islands are discussed in the entries.\n\n; Burma/Myanmar\n: The U.S. does not recognize the renaming of Burma by its ruling military junta to ''Myanmar'' and thus keeps its entry for the country under the ''Burma'' name.\n\n; Republic of Macedonia\n: The Republic of Macedonia is entered as ''Macedonia'', the name used in its first entry in the ''Factbook'' upon independence in 1992. In the 1994 edition, the name of the entry was changed to the ''Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia'', as it is recognised by the United Nations (pending resolution of the Macedonia naming dispute). For the next decade, this was the name the nation was listed under. Finally, in the 2004 edition of the ''Factbook'', the name of the entry was changed back to ''Macedonia'', following a November 2004 U.S. decision to refer to the country using this name.\n\n; European Union\n: On December 16, 2004, the CIA added an entry for the European Union (EU) for the first time.) The \"What's New\" section of the 2005 ''Factbook'' states: \"The European Union continues to accrue more nation-like characteristics for itself and so a separate listing was deemed appropriate.\"\n\n; United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges and Iles Eparses\n: In the 2006 edition of ''The World Factbook'', the entries for Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Kingman Reef, Johnston Atoll, Palmyra Atoll and the Midway Islands were merged into a new United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges entry. The old entries for each individual insular area remain as redirects on the ''Factbook'' website. On September 7, 2006, the CIA also merged the entries for Bassas da India, Europa Island, the Glorioso Islands, Juan de Nova Island, and Tromelin Island into a new Iles Eparses entry. As with the new United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges entry, the old entries for these five islands remained as redirects on the website. On July 19, 2007, the Iles Eparses entry and redirects for each island were dropped due to the group becoming a district of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands in February.\n\n; Serbia and Montenegro/Yugoslavia\n: The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) broke apart in 1991. The following year, it was replaced in the ''Factbook'' with entries for each of its former constituent republics. In doing this, the CIA listed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY), proclaimed in 1992, as ''Serbia and Montenegro'', as the U.S. did not recognize the union between the two republics. This was done in accordance with a May 21, 1992, decision by the U.S. not to recognize any of the former Yugoslav republics as successor states to the recently dissolved SFRY.\nSerbia and Montenegro from the 2000 edition of ''The World Factbook''. Notice how the disclaimer is printed in the upper right hand corner. One can see how the capital cities of both republics are individually labeled on the map.\n:These views were made clear in a disclaimer printed in the ''Factbook'': \"Serbia and Montenegro have asserted the formation of a joint independent state, but this entity has not been recognized as a state by the United States.\" Montenegro and Serbia were treated separately in the ''Factbook'' data, as can be seen on the map. In October 2000, Slobodan Milošević was forced out of office after a disputed election. This event led to democratic elections and U.S. diplomatic recognition. The 2001 edition of the ''Factbook'' thus referred to the state as ''Yugoslavia''. On March 14, 2002, an agreement was signed to transform the FRY into a loose state union called Serbia and Montenegro; it took effect on February 4, 2003. The name of the Yugoslavia entity was altered in the ''Factbook'' the month after the change.\n\n; Kosovo\n:On February 28, 2008, the CIA added an entry for Kosovo, which declared independence on February 17 of the same year. Before this, Kosovo was excluded in the ''Factbook''. Kosovo is the subject of a territorial dispute; Serbia continues to claim Kosovo as part of its own sovereign territory. Kosovo's independence has been out of United Nations member states, including the United States.\n\n; East Timor/Timor-Leste\n:On July 19, 2007, the entry for East Timor was renamed ''Timor-Leste'' following a decision of the United States Board on Geographic Names (BGN).\n\n=== Factual ===\nThe Factbook is full of usually minor errors, inaccuracies, and out-of-date information, which are often repeated elsewhere due to the ''Factbook''s widespread use as a reference. For example, Albania was until recently, described in the ''Factbook'' as 70% Muslim, 20% Eastern Orthodox, and 10% Roman Catholic, which was based on a survey conducted in 1939, before World War II; numerous surveys conducted since the fall of the Communist regime since 1990 have given quite different figures. Another example is Singapore, which the ''Factbook'' states has a total fertility rate of 0.78 children per woman, despite figures in Statistics Singapore which state that the rate has been about 1.2–1.3 children per woman for at least the past several years, and it is unclear when, or even whether, it ever dropped as low as 0.78. This low and inaccurate value then gets cited in news articles which state that Singapore has the world's lowest fertility, or at least use the figure for its shock value. Another serious problem is that the Factbook never cites its sources, making verification of the information it presents difficult if not impossible.\n\nIn June 2009, National Public Radio (NPR), relying on information obtained from the ''CIA World Factbook'', put the number of Israeli Jews living in settlements in the West Bank and Israeli-annexed East Jerusalem at 250,000. However, a better estimate, based on State Department and Israeli sources put the figure at about 500,000. NPR then issued a correction. Chuck Holmes, foreign editor for NPR Digital, said, \"I'm surprised and displeased, and it makes me wonder what other information is out-of-date or incorrect in the CIA ''World Factbook''.\"\n\nScholars have acknowledged that some entries in the ''Factbook'' are out of date.\n","* ''World Leaders'', another regular publication of the CIA\n* National Security Agency academic publications\n\n;Alternative publications\n* ''Europa World Year Book''\n* ''The New York Times Almanac''\n* ''The World Almanac and Book of Facts''\n* ''TIME Almanac with Information Please''\n* ''Whitaker's Almanack''\n","\n\n","\n\n* Current ''CIA World Factbook'' (official website)\n* ''CIA World Factbook'' as XML\n* The ''World Factbook'' for Google Earth – The ''Factbook'' as Google Earth placemarks\n* On stephansmap.org – The ''CIA World Factbook'' accessible by location and date range; covers the years 2001–2007. All ''Factbook'' entries are tagged with \"cia\". Requires graphical browser with javascript.\n* The current ''CIA World Factbook'' in Excel spreadsheet format\n\n=== Mobile versions of the ''Factbook'' ===\n* ''CIA World Factbook'' for Android - Optimized ''CIA World Factbook'' version for Android, last updated March 2015\n* Mobile Edition of the ''CIA World Factbook'', last updated 10 June 2008\n* Mobile menu of 33 years of ''CIA World Factbooks'', last updated 14 February 2017\n* ''World Factbook'' for Android – Optimized ''CIA World Factbook'' version for Android Devices\n* Mobile ''World Factbook'' – Mobile version of ''World Factbook'' for Android and J2ME\n\n=== The ''Factbook'' by year ===\n* Countries of the World – 30 years of the ''CIA World Factbook'': (1982–2013)\n* Previous editions of ''The World Factbook'' from the University of Missouri–St. Louis archive:\n: 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008\n* 1991 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1990 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1989 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1987 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1986 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1985 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1984 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1982 ''CIA World Factbook''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n'''''The World Factbook''''' (; also known as the '''''CIA World Factbook''''') is a reference resource produced by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) with almanac-style information about the countries of the world. The official print version is available from the National Technical Information Service and the Government Printing Office. Other companies—such as Skyhorse Publishing—also print a paper edition. ''The Factbook'' is available in the form of a website that is partially updated every week. It is also available for download for use off-line. It provides a two- to three-page summary of the demographics, geography, communications, government, economy, and military of each of 267 international entities including U.S.-recognized countries, dependencies, and other areas in the world.\\n\\n''The World Factbook'' is prepared by the CIA for the use of U.S. government officials, and its style, format, coverage, and content are primarily designed to meet their requirements. However, it is frequently used as a resource for academic research papers and news articles. As a work of the U.S. government, it is in the public domain in the United States.\\n\",\n \"In researching the ''Factbook'', the CIA uses the sources listed below. Other public and private sources are also consulted.\\n\\n*Antarctic Information Program (National Science Foundation)\\n*Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center (Department of Defense)\\n*Bureau of the Census (Department of Commerce)\\n*Bureau of Labor Statistics (Department of Labor)\\n*Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs\\n*Defense Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense)\\n*Department of Energy\\n*Department of State\\n*Fish and Wildlife Service (Department of the Interior)\\n*Maritime Administration (Department of Transportation)\\n*National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense)\\n*Naval Facilities Engineering Command (Department of Defense)\\n*Office of Insular Affairs (Department of the Interior)\\n*Office of Naval Intelligence (Department of Defense)\\n*''Oil & Gas Journal''\\n*United States Board on Geographic Names (Department of the Interior)\\n*United States Transportation Command (Department of Defense)\\n\",\n \"The World Factbook website as it appeared in December 2014\\n\\nBecause the ''Factbook'' is in the public domain, people are free under United States law to redistribute it or parts of it in any way that they like, without permission of the CIA. However, the CIA requests that it be cited when the ''Factbook'' is used. Copying the official seal of the CIA without permission is prohibited by U.S. federal law—specifically, the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 ().\\n\",\n \"Before November 2001 ''The World Factbook'' website was updated yearly; from 2004 to 2010 it was updated every two weeks; since 2010 it has been updated weekly. Generally, information currently available as of January 1 of the current year is used in preparing the ''Factbook''.\\n\\n=== Government edition of the ''Factbook'' ===\\nThe first, classified, edition of ''Factbook'' was published in August 1962, and the first unclassified version in June 1971. ''The World Factbook'' was first available to the public in print in 1975. In 2008 the CIA discontinued printing the ''Factbook'' themselves, instead turning printing responsibilities over to the Government Printing Office. This happened due to a CIA decision to \\\"focus Factbook resources\\\" on the online edition. The ''Factbook'' has been on the World Wide Web since October 1994. The web version gets an average of 6 million visits per month; it can also be downloaded. The official printed version is sold by the Government Printing Office and National Technical Information Service. In past years, the ''Factbook'' was available on CD-ROM, microfiche, magnetic tape, and floppy disk.\\n\\n=== Reprints and older editions online ===\\nMany Internet sites use information and images from the CIA ''World Factbook''. Several publishers, including Grand River Books, Potomac Books (formerly known as Brassey's Inc.), and Skyhorse Publishing have re-published the ''Factbook'' in recent years.\\n\",\n \"\\n\\nAs of July 2011, ''The World Factbook'' consists of '''267''' entities. These entities can be divided into categories. They are:\\n\\n; Independent countries: This category has independent countries, which the CIA defines as people \\\"politically organized into a sovereign state with a definite territory\\\". In this category, there are '''195''' entities.\\n; Others: The ''Other'' category is a list of other places set apart from the list of independent countries. Currently there are '''two''': Taiwan and the European Union.\\n; Dependencies and Areas of Special Sovereignty: This category is a list of places affiliated with another country. They may be subdivided into categories using the country they are affiliated with:\\n:*Australia: six entities\\n:*China: two entities\\n:*Denmark: two entities\\n:*France: eight entities\\n:*Netherlands: three entities\\n:*New Zealand: three entities\\n:*Norway: three entities\\n:*United Kingdom: seventeen entities\\n:*United States: fourteen entities\\n; Miscellaneous: This category is for Antarctica and places in dispute. There are '''six''' entities.\\n; Other entities: This category is for the World and the oceans. There are '''five''' oceans and the World (the World entry is intended as a summary of the other entries).\\n\",\n \"=== Political ===\\n; Areas not covered\\n: Specific regions within a country or areas in dispute among countries, such as Kashmir, are not covered, but other areas of the world whose status is disputed, such as the Spratly Islands, have entries. Subnational areas of countries (such as U.S. states or the Canadian provinces and territories) are not included in the ''Factbook''. Instead, users looking for information about subnational areas are referred to \\\"a comprehensive encyclopedia\\\" for their reference needs. This criterion was invoked in the 2007 and 2011 editions with the decision to drop the entries for French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, and Reunion. They were dropped because besides being overseas departments, they were now overseas regions, and an integral part of France.\\n\\n; Kashmir\\n: Maps depicting Kashmir have the Indo-Pakistani border drawn at the Line of Control, but the region of Kashmir administered by China drawn in hash marks.\\n\\n; Northern Cyprus\\n: Northern Cyprus, which the U.S. considers part of the Republic of Cyprus, is not given a separate entry because \\\"territorial occupations/annexations not recognized by the United States Government are not shown on U.S. Government maps.\\\"\\n\\n; Taiwan/Republic of China\\n: The name \\\"Republic of China\\\" is not listed as Taiwan's official name under the \\\"Government\\\" section, due to U.S. acknowledgement of Beijing's One-China policy according to which there is one China and Taiwan is a part of it. The name \\\"Republic of China\\\" was briefly added on January 27, 2005, but has since been changed back to \\\"none\\\". Of the ''Factbook''s two maps of China, one highlights the island of Taiwan highlighted as part of the country while the other does not. (See also: Political status of Taiwan, Legal status of Taiwan)\\n\\n; Disputed South China Sea Islands\\n: The Paracel Islands and Spratly Islands, subjects of territorial disputes, have entries in the ''Factbook'' where they are not listed as the territory of any one nation. The disputed claims to the islands are discussed in the entries.\\n\\n; Burma/Myanmar\\n: The U.S. does not recognize the renaming of Burma by its ruling military junta to ''Myanmar'' and thus keeps its entry for the country under the ''Burma'' name.\\n\\n; Republic of Macedonia\\n: The Republic of Macedonia is entered as ''Macedonia'', the name used in its first entry in the ''Factbook'' upon independence in 1992. In the 1994 edition, the name of the entry was changed to the ''Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia'', as it is recognised by the United Nations (pending resolution of the Macedonia naming dispute). For the next decade, this was the name the nation was listed under. Finally, in the 2004 edition of the ''Factbook'', the name of the entry was changed back to ''Macedonia'', following a November 2004 U.S. decision to refer to the country using this name.\\n\\n; European Union\\n: On December 16, 2004, the CIA added an entry for the European Union (EU) for the first time.) The \\\"What's New\\\" section of the 2005 ''Factbook'' states: \\\"The European Union continues to accrue more nation-like characteristics for itself and so a separate listing was deemed appropriate.\\\"\\n\\n; United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges and Iles Eparses\\n: In the 2006 edition of ''The World Factbook'', the entries for Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Kingman Reef, Johnston Atoll, Palmyra Atoll and the Midway Islands were merged into a new United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges entry. The old entries for each individual insular area remain as redirects on the ''Factbook'' website. On September 7, 2006, the CIA also merged the entries for Bassas da India, Europa Island, the Glorioso Islands, Juan de Nova Island, and Tromelin Island into a new Iles Eparses entry. As with the new United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges entry, the old entries for these five islands remained as redirects on the website. On July 19, 2007, the Iles Eparses entry and redirects for each island were dropped due to the group becoming a district of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands in February.\\n\\n; Serbia and Montenegro/Yugoslavia\\n: The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) broke apart in 1991. The following year, it was replaced in the ''Factbook'' with entries for each of its former constituent republics. In doing this, the CIA listed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY), proclaimed in 1992, as ''Serbia and Montenegro'', as the U.S. did not recognize the union between the two republics. This was done in accordance with a May 21, 1992, decision by the U.S. not to recognize any of the former Yugoslav republics as successor states to the recently dissolved SFRY.\\nSerbia and Montenegro from the 2000 edition of ''The World Factbook''. Notice how the disclaimer is printed in the upper right hand corner. One can see how the capital cities of both republics are individually labeled on the map.\\n:These views were made clear in a disclaimer printed in the ''Factbook'': \\\"Serbia and Montenegro have asserted the formation of a joint independent state, but this entity has not been recognized as a state by the United States.\\\" Montenegro and Serbia were treated separately in the ''Factbook'' data, as can be seen on the map. In October 2000, Slobodan Milošević was forced out of office after a disputed election. This event led to democratic elections and U.S. diplomatic recognition. The 2001 edition of the ''Factbook'' thus referred to the state as ''Yugoslavia''. On March 14, 2002, an agreement was signed to transform the FRY into a loose state union called Serbia and Montenegro; it took effect on February 4, 2003. The name of the Yugoslavia entity was altered in the ''Factbook'' the month after the change.\\n\\n; Kosovo\\n:On February 28, 2008, the CIA added an entry for Kosovo, which declared independence on February 17 of the same year. Before this, Kosovo was excluded in the ''Factbook''. Kosovo is the subject of a territorial dispute; Serbia continues to claim Kosovo as part of its own sovereign territory. Kosovo's independence has been out of United Nations member states, including the United States.\\n\\n; East Timor/Timor-Leste\\n:On July 19, 2007, the entry for East Timor was renamed ''Timor-Leste'' following a decision of the United States Board on Geographic Names (BGN).\\n\\n=== Factual ===\\nThe Factbook is full of usually minor errors, inaccuracies, and out-of-date information, which are often repeated elsewhere due to the ''Factbook''s widespread use as a reference. For example, Albania was until recently, described in the ''Factbook'' as 70% Muslim, 20% Eastern Orthodox, and 10% Roman Catholic, which was based on a survey conducted in 1939, before World War II; numerous surveys conducted since the fall of the Communist regime since 1990 have given quite different figures. Another example is Singapore, which the ''Factbook'' states has a total fertility rate of 0.78 children per woman, despite figures in Statistics Singapore which state that the rate has been about 1.2–1.3 children per woman for at least the past several years, and it is unclear when, or even whether, it ever dropped as low as 0.78. This low and inaccurate value then gets cited in news articles which state that Singapore has the world's lowest fertility, or at least use the figure for its shock value. Another serious problem is that the Factbook never cites its sources, making verification of the information it presents difficult if not impossible.\\n\\nIn June 2009, National Public Radio (NPR), relying on information obtained from the ''CIA World Factbook'', put the number of Israeli Jews living in settlements in the West Bank and Israeli-annexed East Jerusalem at 250,000. However, a better estimate, based on State Department and Israeli sources put the figure at about 500,000. NPR then issued a correction. Chuck Holmes, foreign editor for NPR Digital, said, \\\"I'm surprised and displeased, and it makes me wonder what other information is out-of-date or incorrect in the CIA ''World Factbook''.\\\"\\n\\nScholars have acknowledged that some entries in the ''Factbook'' are out of date.\\n\",\n \"* ''World Leaders'', another regular publication of the CIA\\n* National Security Agency academic publications\\n\\n;Alternative publications\\n* ''Europa World Year Book''\\n* ''The New York Times Almanac''\\n* ''The World Almanac and Book of Facts''\\n* ''TIME Almanac with Information Please''\\n* ''Whitaker's Almanack''\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n* Current ''CIA World Factbook'' (official website)\\n* ''CIA World Factbook'' as XML\\n* The ''World Factbook'' for Google Earth – The ''Factbook'' as Google Earth placemarks\\n* On stephansmap.org – The ''CIA World Factbook'' accessible by location and date range; covers the years 2001–2007. All ''Factbook'' entries are tagged with \\\"cia\\\". Requires graphical browser with javascript.\\n* The current ''CIA World Factbook'' in Excel spreadsheet format\\n\\n=== Mobile versions of the ''Factbook'' ===\\n* ''CIA World Factbook'' for Android - Optimized ''CIA World Factbook'' version for Android, last updated March 2015\\n* Mobile Edition of the ''CIA World Factbook'', last updated 10 June 2008\\n* Mobile menu of 33 years of ''CIA World Factbooks'', last updated 14 February 2017\\n* ''World Factbook'' for Android – Optimized ''CIA World Factbook'' version for Android Devices\\n* Mobile ''World Factbook'' – Mobile version of ''World Factbook'' for Android and J2ME\\n\\n=== The ''Factbook'' by year ===\\n* Countries of the World – 30 years of the ''CIA World Factbook'': (1982–2013)\\n* Previous editions of ''The World Factbook'' from the University of Missouri–St. Louis archive:\\n: 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008\\n* 1991 ''CIA World Factbook''\\n* 1990 ''CIA World Factbook''\\n* 1989 ''CIA World Factbook''\\n* 1987 ''CIA World Factbook''\\n* 1986 ''CIA World Factbook''\\n* 1985 ''CIA World Factbook''\\n* 1984 ''CIA World Factbook''\\n* 1982 ''CIA World Factbook''\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction"," Sources "," Copyright "," Frequency of updates and availability "," Entities listed "," Territorial issues and controversies "," See also "," References "," External links "],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \" Sources \",\n \" Copyright \",\n \" Frequency of updates and availability \",\n \" Entities listed \",\n \" Territorial issues and controversies \",\n \" See also \",\n \" References \",\n \" External links \"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"The World Factbook"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["In June 2009, National Public Radio (NPR), relying on information obtained from the ''CIA World Factbook'', put the number of Israeli Jews living in settlements in the West Bank and Israeli-annexed East Jerusalem at 250,000."],"string":"[\n \"In June 2009, National Public Radio (NPR), relying on information obtained from the ''CIA World Factbook'', put the number of Israeli Jews living in settlements in the West Bank and Israeli-annexed East Jerusalem at 250,000.\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\n'''''The World Factbook''''' (; also known as the '''''CIA World Factbook''''') is a reference resource produced by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) with almanac-style information about the countries of the world.","The official print version is available from the National Technical Information Service and the Government Printing Office.","Other companies—such as Skyhorse Publishing—also print a paper edition.","''The Factbook'' is available in the form of a website that is partially updated every week.","It is also available for download for use off-line.","It provides a two- to three-page summary of the demographics, geography, communications, government, economy, and military of each of 267 international entities including U.S.-recognized countries, dependencies, and other areas in the world.","''The World Factbook'' is prepared by the CIA for the use of U.S. government officials, and its style, format, coverage, and content are primarily designed to meet their requirements.","However, it is frequently used as a resource for academic research papers and news articles.","As a work of the U.S. government, it is in the public domain in the United States.","In researching the ''Factbook'', the CIA uses the sources listed below.","Other public and private sources are also consulted.","*Antarctic Information Program (National Science Foundation)\n*Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center (Department of Defense)\n*Bureau of the Census (Department of Commerce)\n*Bureau of Labor Statistics (Department of Labor)\n*Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs\n*Defense Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense)\n*Department of Energy\n*Department of State\n*Fish and Wildlife Service (Department of the Interior)\n*Maritime Administration (Department of Transportation)\n*National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense)\n*Naval Facilities Engineering Command (Department of Defense)\n*Office of Insular Affairs (Department of the Interior)\n*Office of Naval Intelligence (Department of Defense)\n*''Oil & Gas Journal''\n*United States Board on Geographic Names (Department of the Interior)\n*United States Transportation Command (Department of Defense)","The World Factbook website as it appeared in December 2014\n\nBecause the ''Factbook'' is in the public domain, people are free under United States law to redistribute it or parts of it in any way that they like, without permission of the CIA.","However, the CIA requests that it be cited when the ''Factbook'' is used.","Copying the official seal of the CIA without permission is prohibited by U.S. federal law—specifically, the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 ().","Before November 2001 ''The World Factbook'' website was updated yearly; from 2004 to 2010 it was updated every two weeks; since 2010 it has been updated weekly.","Generally, information currently available as of January 1 of the current year is used in preparing the ''Factbook''.","=== Government edition of the ''Factbook'' ===\nThe first, classified, edition of ''Factbook'' was published in August 1962, and the first unclassified version in June 1971.","''The World Factbook'' was first available to the public in print in 1975.","In 2008 the CIA discontinued printing the ''Factbook'' themselves, instead turning printing responsibilities over to the Government Printing Office.","This happened due to a CIA decision to \"focus Factbook resources\" on the online edition.","The ''Factbook'' has been on the World Wide Web since October 1994.","The web version gets an average of 6 million visits per month; it can also be downloaded.","The official printed version is sold by the Government Printing Office and National Technical Information Service.","In past years, the ''Factbook'' was available on CD-ROM, microfiche, magnetic tape, and floppy disk.","=== Reprints and older editions online ===\nMany Internet sites use information and images from the CIA ''World Factbook''.","Several publishers, including Grand River Books, Potomac Books (formerly known as Brassey's Inc.), and Skyhorse Publishing have re-published the ''Factbook'' in recent years.","\n\nAs of July 2011, ''The World Factbook'' consists of '''267''' entities.","These entities can be divided into categories.","They are:\n\n; Independent countries: This category has independent countries, which the CIA defines as people \"politically organized into a sovereign state with a definite territory\".","In this category, there are '''195''' entities.","; Others: The ''Other'' category is a list of other places set apart from the list of independent countries.","Currently there are '''two''': Taiwan and the European Union.","; Dependencies and Areas of Special Sovereignty: This category is a list of places affiliated with another country.","They may be subdivided into categories using the country they are affiliated with:\n:*Australia: six entities\n:*China: two entities\n:*Denmark: two entities\n:*France: eight entities\n:*Netherlands: three entities\n:*New Zealand: three entities\n:*Norway: three entities\n:*United Kingdom: seventeen entities\n:*United States: fourteen entities\n; Miscellaneous: This category is for Antarctica and places in dispute.","There are '''six''' entities.","; Other entities: This category is for the World and the oceans.","There are '''five''' oceans and the World (the World entry is intended as a summary of the other entries).","=== Political ===\n; Areas not covered\n: Specific regions within a country or areas in dispute among countries, such as Kashmir, are not covered, but other areas of the world whose status is disputed, such as the Spratly Islands, have entries.","Subnational areas of countries (such as U.S. states or the Canadian provinces and territories) are not included in the ''Factbook''.","Instead, users looking for information about subnational areas are referred to \"a comprehensive encyclopedia\" for their reference needs.","This criterion was invoked in the 2007 and 2011 editions with the decision to drop the entries for French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, and Reunion.","They were dropped because besides being overseas departments, they were now overseas regions, and an integral part of France.","; Kashmir\n: Maps depicting Kashmir have the Indo-Pakistani border drawn at the Line of Control, but the region of Kashmir administered by China drawn in hash marks.","; Northern Cyprus\n: Northern Cyprus, which the U.S. considers part of the Republic of Cyprus, is not given a separate entry because \"territorial occupations/annexations not recognized by the United States Government are not shown on U.S. Government maps.\"","; Taiwan/Republic of China\n: The name \"Republic of China\" is not listed as Taiwan's official name under the \"Government\" section, due to U.S. acknowledgement of Beijing's One-China policy according to which there is one China and Taiwan is a part of it.","The name \"Republic of China\" was briefly added on January 27, 2005, but has since been changed back to \"none\".","Of the ''Factbook''s two maps of China, one highlights the island of Taiwan highlighted as part of the country while the other does not.","(See also: Political status of Taiwan, Legal status of Taiwan)\n\n; Disputed South China Sea Islands\n: The Paracel Islands and Spratly Islands, subjects of territorial disputes, have entries in the ''Factbook'' where they are not listed as the territory of any one nation.","The disputed claims to the islands are discussed in the entries.","; Burma/Myanmar\n: The U.S. does not recognize the renaming of Burma by its ruling military junta to ''Myanmar'' and thus keeps its entry for the country under the ''Burma'' name.","; Republic of Macedonia\n: The Republic of Macedonia is entered as ''Macedonia'', the name used in its first entry in the ''Factbook'' upon independence in 1992.","In the 1994 edition, the name of the entry was changed to the ''Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia'', as it is recognised by the United Nations (pending resolution of the Macedonia naming dispute).","For the next decade, this was the name the nation was listed under.","Finally, in the 2004 edition of the ''Factbook'', the name of the entry was changed back to ''Macedonia'', following a November 2004 U.S. decision to refer to the country using this name.","; European Union\n: On December 16, 2004, the CIA added an entry for the European Union (EU) for the first time.)","The \"What's New\" section of the 2005 ''Factbook'' states: \"The European Union continues to accrue more nation-like characteristics for itself and so a separate listing was deemed appropriate.\"","; United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges and Iles Eparses\n: In the 2006 edition of ''The World Factbook'', the entries for Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Kingman Reef, Johnston Atoll, Palmyra Atoll and the Midway Islands were merged into a new United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges entry.","The old entries for each individual insular area remain as redirects on the ''Factbook'' website.","On September 7, 2006, the CIA also merged the entries for Bassas da India, Europa Island, the Glorioso Islands, Juan de Nova Island, and Tromelin Island into a new Iles Eparses entry.","As with the new United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges entry, the old entries for these five islands remained as redirects on the website.","On July 19, 2007, the Iles Eparses entry and redirects for each island were dropped due to the group becoming a district of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands in February.","; Serbia and Montenegro/Yugoslavia\n: The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) broke apart in 1991.","The following year, it was replaced in the ''Factbook'' with entries for each of its former constituent republics.","In doing this, the CIA listed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY), proclaimed in 1992, as ''Serbia and Montenegro'', as the U.S. did not recognize the union between the two republics.","This was done in accordance with a May 21, 1992, decision by the U.S. not to recognize any of the former Yugoslav republics as successor states to the recently dissolved SFRY.","Serbia and Montenegro from the 2000 edition of ''The World Factbook''.","Notice how the disclaimer is printed in the upper right hand corner.","One can see how the capital cities of both republics are individually labeled on the map.",":These views were made clear in a disclaimer printed in the ''Factbook'': \"Serbia and Montenegro have asserted the formation of a joint independent state, but this entity has not been recognized as a state by the United States.\"","Montenegro and Serbia were treated separately in the ''Factbook'' data, as can be seen on the map.","In October 2000, Slobodan Milošević was forced out of office after a disputed election.","This event led to democratic elections and U.S. diplomatic recognition.","The 2001 edition of the ''Factbook'' thus referred to the state as ''Yugoslavia''.","On March 14, 2002, an agreement was signed to transform the FRY into a loose state union called Serbia and Montenegro; it took effect on February 4, 2003.","The name of the Yugoslavia entity was altered in the ''Factbook'' the month after the change.","; Kosovo\n:On February 28, 2008, the CIA added an entry for Kosovo, which declared independence on February 17 of the same year.","Before this, Kosovo was excluded in the ''Factbook''.","Kosovo is the subject of a territorial dispute; Serbia continues to claim Kosovo as part of its own sovereign territory.","Kosovo's independence has been out of United Nations member states, including the United States.","; East Timor/Timor-Leste\n:On July 19, 2007, the entry for East Timor was renamed ''Timor-Leste'' following a decision of the United States Board on Geographic Names (BGN).","=== Factual ===\nThe Factbook is full of usually minor errors, inaccuracies, and out-of-date information, which are often repeated elsewhere due to the ''Factbook''s widespread use as a reference.","For example, Albania was until recently, described in the ''Factbook'' as 70% Muslim, 20% Eastern Orthodox, and 10% Roman Catholic, which was based on a survey conducted in 1939, before World War II; numerous surveys conducted since the fall of the Communist regime since 1990 have given quite different figures.","Another example is Singapore, which the ''Factbook'' states has a total fertility rate of 0.78 children per woman, despite figures in Statistics Singapore which state that the rate has been about 1.2–1.3 children per woman for at least the past several years, and it is unclear when, or even whether, it ever dropped as low as 0.78.","This low and inaccurate value then gets cited in news articles which state that Singapore has the world's lowest fertility, or at least use the figure for its shock value.","Another serious problem is that the Factbook never cites its sources, making verification of the information it presents difficult if not impossible.","However, a better estimate, based on State Department and Israeli sources put the figure at about 500,000.","NPR then issued a correction.","Chuck Holmes, foreign editor for NPR Digital, said, \"I'm surprised and displeased, and it makes me wonder what other information is out-of-date or incorrect in the CIA ''World Factbook''.\"","Scholars have acknowledged that some entries in the ''Factbook'' are out of date.","* ''World Leaders'', another regular publication of the CIA\n* National Security Agency academic publications\n\n;Alternative publications\n* ''Europa World Year Book''\n* ''The New York Times Almanac''\n* ''The World Almanac and Book of Facts''\n* ''TIME Almanac with Information Please''\n* ''Whitaker's Almanack''","\n\n* Current ''CIA World Factbook'' (official website)\n* ''CIA World Factbook'' as XML\n* The ''World Factbook'' for Google Earth – The ''Factbook'' as Google Earth placemarks\n* On stephansmap.org – The ''CIA World Factbook'' accessible by location and date range; covers the years 2001–2007.","All ''Factbook'' entries are tagged with \"cia\".","Requires graphical browser with javascript.","* The current ''CIA World Factbook'' in Excel spreadsheet format\n\n=== Mobile versions of the ''Factbook'' ===\n* ''CIA World Factbook'' for Android - Optimized ''CIA World Factbook'' version for Android, last updated March 2015\n* Mobile Edition of the ''CIA World Factbook'', last updated 10 June 2008\n* Mobile menu of 33 years of ''CIA World Factbooks'', last updated 14 February 2017\n* ''World Factbook'' for Android – Optimized ''CIA World Factbook'' version for Android Devices\n* Mobile ''World Factbook'' – Mobile version of ''World Factbook'' for Android and J2ME\n\n=== The ''Factbook'' by year ===\n* Countries of the World – 30 years of the ''CIA World Factbook'': (1982–2013)\n* Previous editions of ''The World Factbook'' from the University of Missouri–St.","Louis archive:\n: 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008\n* 1991 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1990 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1989 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1987 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1986 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1985 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1984 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1982 ''CIA World Factbook''"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n'''''The World Factbook''''' (; also known as the '''''CIA World Factbook''''') is a reference resource produced by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) with almanac-style information about the countries of the world.\",\n \"The official print version is available from the National Technical Information Service and the Government Printing Office.\",\n \"Other companies—such as Skyhorse Publishing—also print a paper edition.\",\n \"''The Factbook'' is available in the form of a website that is partially updated every week.\",\n \"It is also available for download for use off-line.\",\n \"It provides a two- to three-page summary of the demographics, geography, communications, government, economy, and military of each of 267 international entities including U.S.-recognized countries, dependencies, and other areas in the world.\",\n \"''The World Factbook'' is prepared by the CIA for the use of U.S. government officials, and its style, format, coverage, and content are primarily designed to meet their requirements.\",\n \"However, it is frequently used as a resource for academic research papers and news articles.\",\n \"As a work of the U.S. government, it is in the public domain in the United States.\",\n \"In researching the ''Factbook'', the CIA uses the sources listed below.\",\n \"Other public and private sources are also consulted.\",\n \"*Antarctic Information Program (National Science Foundation)\\n*Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center (Department of Defense)\\n*Bureau of the Census (Department of Commerce)\\n*Bureau of Labor Statistics (Department of Labor)\\n*Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs\\n*Defense Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense)\\n*Department of Energy\\n*Department of State\\n*Fish and Wildlife Service (Department of the Interior)\\n*Maritime Administration (Department of Transportation)\\n*National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense)\\n*Naval Facilities Engineering Command (Department of Defense)\\n*Office of Insular Affairs (Department of the Interior)\\n*Office of Naval Intelligence (Department of Defense)\\n*''Oil & Gas Journal''\\n*United States Board on Geographic Names (Department of the Interior)\\n*United States Transportation Command (Department of Defense)\",\n \"The World Factbook website as it appeared in December 2014\\n\\nBecause the ''Factbook'' is in the public domain, people are free under United States law to redistribute it or parts of it in any way that they like, without permission of the CIA.\",\n \"However, the CIA requests that it be cited when the ''Factbook'' is used.\",\n \"Copying the official seal of the CIA without permission is prohibited by U.S. federal law—specifically, the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 ().\",\n \"Before November 2001 ''The World Factbook'' website was updated yearly; from 2004 to 2010 it was updated every two weeks; since 2010 it has been updated weekly.\",\n \"Generally, information currently available as of January 1 of the current year is used in preparing the ''Factbook''.\",\n \"=== Government edition of the ''Factbook'' ===\\nThe first, classified, edition of ''Factbook'' was published in August 1962, and the first unclassified version in June 1971.\",\n \"''The World Factbook'' was first available to the public in print in 1975.\",\n \"In 2008 the CIA discontinued printing the ''Factbook'' themselves, instead turning printing responsibilities over to the Government Printing Office.\",\n \"This happened due to a CIA decision to \\\"focus Factbook resources\\\" on the online edition.\",\n \"The ''Factbook'' has been on the World Wide Web since October 1994.\",\n \"The web version gets an average of 6 million visits per month; it can also be downloaded.\",\n \"The official printed version is sold by the Government Printing Office and National Technical Information Service.\",\n \"In past years, the ''Factbook'' was available on CD-ROM, microfiche, magnetic tape, and floppy disk.\",\n \"=== Reprints and older editions online ===\\nMany Internet sites use information and images from the CIA ''World Factbook''.\",\n \"Several publishers, including Grand River Books, Potomac Books (formerly known as Brassey's Inc.), and Skyhorse Publishing have re-published the ''Factbook'' in recent years.\",\n \"\\n\\nAs of July 2011, ''The World Factbook'' consists of '''267''' entities.\",\n \"These entities can be divided into categories.\",\n \"They are:\\n\\n; Independent countries: This category has independent countries, which the CIA defines as people \\\"politically organized into a sovereign state with a definite territory\\\".\",\n \"In this category, there are '''195''' entities.\",\n \"; Others: The ''Other'' category is a list of other places set apart from the list of independent countries.\",\n \"Currently there are '''two''': Taiwan and the European Union.\",\n \"; Dependencies and Areas of Special Sovereignty: This category is a list of places affiliated with another country.\",\n \"They may be subdivided into categories using the country they are affiliated with:\\n:*Australia: six entities\\n:*China: two entities\\n:*Denmark: two entities\\n:*France: eight entities\\n:*Netherlands: three entities\\n:*New Zealand: three entities\\n:*Norway: three entities\\n:*United Kingdom: seventeen entities\\n:*United States: fourteen entities\\n; Miscellaneous: This category is for Antarctica and places in dispute.\",\n \"There are '''six''' entities.\",\n \"; Other entities: This category is for the World and the oceans.\",\n \"There are '''five''' oceans and the World (the World entry is intended as a summary of the other entries).\",\n \"=== Political ===\\n; Areas not covered\\n: Specific regions within a country or areas in dispute among countries, such as Kashmir, are not covered, but other areas of the world whose status is disputed, such as the Spratly Islands, have entries.\",\n \"Subnational areas of countries (such as U.S. states or the Canadian provinces and territories) are not included in the ''Factbook''.\",\n \"Instead, users looking for information about subnational areas are referred to \\\"a comprehensive encyclopedia\\\" for their reference needs.\",\n \"This criterion was invoked in the 2007 and 2011 editions with the decision to drop the entries for French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, and Reunion.\",\n \"They were dropped because besides being overseas departments, they were now overseas regions, and an integral part of France.\",\n \"; Kashmir\\n: Maps depicting Kashmir have the Indo-Pakistani border drawn at the Line of Control, but the region of Kashmir administered by China drawn in hash marks.\",\n \"; Northern Cyprus\\n: Northern Cyprus, which the U.S. considers part of the Republic of Cyprus, is not given a separate entry because \\\"territorial occupations/annexations not recognized by the United States Government are not shown on U.S. Government maps.\\\"\",\n \"; Taiwan/Republic of China\\n: The name \\\"Republic of China\\\" is not listed as Taiwan's official name under the \\\"Government\\\" section, due to U.S. acknowledgement of Beijing's One-China policy according to which there is one China and Taiwan is a part of it.\",\n \"The name \\\"Republic of China\\\" was briefly added on January 27, 2005, but has since been changed back to \\\"none\\\".\",\n \"Of the ''Factbook''s two maps of China, one highlights the island of Taiwan highlighted as part of the country while the other does not.\",\n \"(See also: Political status of Taiwan, Legal status of Taiwan)\\n\\n; Disputed South China Sea Islands\\n: The Paracel Islands and Spratly Islands, subjects of territorial disputes, have entries in the ''Factbook'' where they are not listed as the territory of any one nation.\",\n \"The disputed claims to the islands are discussed in the entries.\",\n \"; Burma/Myanmar\\n: The U.S. does not recognize the renaming of Burma by its ruling military junta to ''Myanmar'' and thus keeps its entry for the country under the ''Burma'' name.\",\n \"; Republic of Macedonia\\n: The Republic of Macedonia is entered as ''Macedonia'', the name used in its first entry in the ''Factbook'' upon independence in 1992.\",\n \"In the 1994 edition, the name of the entry was changed to the ''Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia'', as it is recognised by the United Nations (pending resolution of the Macedonia naming dispute).\",\n \"For the next decade, this was the name the nation was listed under.\",\n \"Finally, in the 2004 edition of the ''Factbook'', the name of the entry was changed back to ''Macedonia'', following a November 2004 U.S. decision to refer to the country using this name.\",\n \"; European Union\\n: On December 16, 2004, the CIA added an entry for the European Union (EU) for the first time.)\",\n \"The \\\"What's New\\\" section of the 2005 ''Factbook'' states: \\\"The European Union continues to accrue more nation-like characteristics for itself and so a separate listing was deemed appropriate.\\\"\",\n \"; United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges and Iles Eparses\\n: In the 2006 edition of ''The World Factbook'', the entries for Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Kingman Reef, Johnston Atoll, Palmyra Atoll and the Midway Islands were merged into a new United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges entry.\",\n \"The old entries for each individual insular area remain as redirects on the ''Factbook'' website.\",\n \"On September 7, 2006, the CIA also merged the entries for Bassas da India, Europa Island, the Glorioso Islands, Juan de Nova Island, and Tromelin Island into a new Iles Eparses entry.\",\n \"As with the new United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges entry, the old entries for these five islands remained as redirects on the website.\",\n \"On July 19, 2007, the Iles Eparses entry and redirects for each island were dropped due to the group becoming a district of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands in February.\",\n \"; Serbia and Montenegro/Yugoslavia\\n: The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) broke apart in 1991.\",\n \"The following year, it was replaced in the ''Factbook'' with entries for each of its former constituent republics.\",\n \"In doing this, the CIA listed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY), proclaimed in 1992, as ''Serbia and Montenegro'', as the U.S. did not recognize the union between the two republics.\",\n \"This was done in accordance with a May 21, 1992, decision by the U.S. not to recognize any of the former Yugoslav republics as successor states to the recently dissolved SFRY.\",\n \"Serbia and Montenegro from the 2000 edition of ''The World Factbook''.\",\n \"Notice how the disclaimer is printed in the upper right hand corner.\",\n \"One can see how the capital cities of both republics are individually labeled on the map.\",\n \":These views were made clear in a disclaimer printed in the ''Factbook'': \\\"Serbia and Montenegro have asserted the formation of a joint independent state, but this entity has not been recognized as a state by the United States.\\\"\",\n \"Montenegro and Serbia were treated separately in the ''Factbook'' data, as can be seen on the map.\",\n \"In October 2000, Slobodan Milošević was forced out of office after a disputed election.\",\n \"This event led to democratic elections and U.S. diplomatic recognition.\",\n \"The 2001 edition of the ''Factbook'' thus referred to the state as ''Yugoslavia''.\",\n \"On March 14, 2002, an agreement was signed to transform the FRY into a loose state union called Serbia and Montenegro; it took effect on February 4, 2003.\",\n \"The name of the Yugoslavia entity was altered in the ''Factbook'' the month after the change.\",\n \"; Kosovo\\n:On February 28, 2008, the CIA added an entry for Kosovo, which declared independence on February 17 of the same year.\",\n \"Before this, Kosovo was excluded in the ''Factbook''.\",\n \"Kosovo is the subject of a territorial dispute; Serbia continues to claim Kosovo as part of its own sovereign territory.\",\n \"Kosovo's independence has been out of United Nations member states, including the United States.\",\n \"; East Timor/Timor-Leste\\n:On July 19, 2007, the entry for East Timor was renamed ''Timor-Leste'' following a decision of the United States Board on Geographic Names (BGN).\",\n \"=== Factual ===\\nThe Factbook is full of usually minor errors, inaccuracies, and out-of-date information, which are often repeated elsewhere due to the ''Factbook''s widespread use as a reference.\",\n \"For example, Albania was until recently, described in the ''Factbook'' as 70% Muslim, 20% Eastern Orthodox, and 10% Roman Catholic, which was based on a survey conducted in 1939, before World War II; numerous surveys conducted since the fall of the Communist regime since 1990 have given quite different figures.\",\n \"Another example is Singapore, which the ''Factbook'' states has a total fertility rate of 0.78 children per woman, despite figures in Statistics Singapore which state that the rate has been about 1.2–1.3 children per woman for at least the past several years, and it is unclear when, or even whether, it ever dropped as low as 0.78.\",\n \"This low and inaccurate value then gets cited in news articles which state that Singapore has the world's lowest fertility, or at least use the figure for its shock value.\",\n \"Another serious problem is that the Factbook never cites its sources, making verification of the information it presents difficult if not impossible.\",\n \"However, a better estimate, based on State Department and Israeli sources put the figure at about 500,000.\",\n \"NPR then issued a correction.\",\n \"Chuck Holmes, foreign editor for NPR Digital, said, \\\"I'm surprised and displeased, and it makes me wonder what other information is out-of-date or incorrect in the CIA ''World Factbook''.\\\"\",\n \"Scholars have acknowledged that some entries in the ''Factbook'' are out of date.\",\n \"* ''World Leaders'', another regular publication of the CIA\\n* National Security Agency academic publications\\n\\n;Alternative publications\\n* ''Europa World Year Book''\\n* ''The New York Times Almanac''\\n* ''The World Almanac and Book of Facts''\\n* ''TIME Almanac with Information Please''\\n* ''Whitaker's Almanack''\",\n \"\\n\\n* Current ''CIA World Factbook'' (official website)\\n* ''CIA World Factbook'' as XML\\n* The ''World Factbook'' for Google Earth – The ''Factbook'' as Google Earth placemarks\\n* On stephansmap.org – The ''CIA World Factbook'' accessible by location and date range; covers the years 2001–2007.\",\n \"All ''Factbook'' entries are tagged with \\\"cia\\\".\",\n \"Requires graphical browser with javascript.\",\n \"* The current ''CIA World Factbook'' in Excel spreadsheet format\\n\\n=== Mobile versions of the ''Factbook'' ===\\n* ''CIA World Factbook'' for Android - Optimized ''CIA World Factbook'' version for Android, last updated March 2015\\n* Mobile Edition of the ''CIA World Factbook'', last updated 10 June 2008\\n* Mobile menu of 33 years of ''CIA World Factbooks'', last updated 14 February 2017\\n* ''World Factbook'' for Android – Optimized ''CIA World Factbook'' version for Android Devices\\n* Mobile ''World Factbook'' – Mobile version of ''World Factbook'' for Android and J2ME\\n\\n=== The ''Factbook'' by year ===\\n* Countries of the World – 30 years of the ''CIA World Factbook'': (1982–2013)\\n* Previous editions of ''The World Factbook'' from the University of Missouri–St.\",\n \"Louis archive:\\n: 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008\\n* 1991 ''CIA World Factbook''\\n* 1990 ''CIA World Factbook''\\n* 1989 ''CIA World Factbook''\\n* 1987 ''CIA World Factbook''\\n* 1986 ''CIA World Factbook''\\n* 1985 ''CIA World Factbook''\\n* 1984 ''CIA World Factbook''\\n* 1982 ''CIA World Factbook''\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"river"}}},{"rowIdx":289,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Copenhagen''' ( ; ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark. The city has a population of 763,908 (), of whom 601,448 live in the Municipality of Copenhagen. The larger urban area has a population of 1,280,371 (), while the Copenhagen metropolitan area has just over 2 million inhabitants. Copenhagen is situated on the eastern coast of the island of Zealand; another small portion of the city is located on Amager, and is separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the strait of Øresund. The Øresund Bridge connects the two cities by rail and road.\n\nOriginally a Viking fishing village founded in the 10th century, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark in the early 15th century. Beginning in the 17th century it consolidated its position as a regional centre of power with its institutions, defences and armed forces. After suffering from the effects of plague and fire in the 18th century, the city underwent a period of redevelopment. This included construction of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden and founding of such cultural institutions as the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts. After further disasters in the early 19th century when Nelson attacked the Dano-Norwegian fleet and bombarded the city, rebuilding during the Danish Golden Age brought a Neoclassical look to Copenhagen's architecture. Later, following the Second World War, the Finger Plan fostered the development of housing and businesses along the five urban railway routes stretching out from the city centre.\n\nSince the turn of the 21st century, Copenhagen has seen strong urban and cultural development, facilitated by investment in its institutions and infrastructure. The city is the cultural, economic and governmental centre of Denmark; it is one of the major financial centres of Northern Europe with the Copenhagen Stock Exchange. Copenhagen's economy has seen rapid developments in the service sector, especially through initiatives in information technology, pharmaceuticals and clean technology. Since the completion of the Øresund Bridge, Copenhagen has become increasingly integrated with the Swedish province of Scania and its largest city, Malmö, forming the Øresund Region. With a number of bridges connecting the various districts, the cityscape is characterized by parks, promenades and waterfronts. Copenhagen's landmarks such as Tivoli Gardens, ''The Little Mermaid'' statue, the Amalienborg and Christiansborg palaces, Rosenborg Castle Gardens, Frederik's Church, and many museums, restaurants and nightclubs are significant tourist attractions.\n\nCopenhagen is home to the University of Copenhagen, the Technical University of Denmark and Copenhagen Business School. The University of Copenhagen, founded in 1479, is the oldest university in Denmark. Copenhagen is home to the FC København and Brøndby football clubs. The annual Copenhagen Marathon was established in 1980. Copenhagen is one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world. The Copenhagen Metro launched in 2002 serves central Copenhagen while the Copenhagen S-train network serves and connects central Copenhagen to its outlying boroughs. Serving roughly two million passengers a month, Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup, is the busiest airport in the Nordic countries.\n\n\n","The name of the city reflects its origin as a harbour and a place of commerce. The original designation, from which the contemporary Danish name derives, was ''Køpmannæhafn'', meaning \"merchants' harbour\", often simply ''Hafn'' or ''Havn'' (\"harbour\"). The literal English translation would be \"Chapman's haven\". The English name for the city was adapted from its Low German name, ''Kopenhagen''. The abbreviations ''Kbh.'' or ''Kbhvn'' are often used in Danish for ''København'', and ''kbh.'' for ''københavnsk'' (of Copenhagen).\n\nThe chemical element hafnium is named after Copenhagen (Latin name ''Hafnia''), where it was discovered. The bacterium ''Hafnia'' is also named after Copenhagen: Vagn Møller of the State Serum Institute in Copenhagen named it in 1954.\n","\nReconstruction of Copenhagen \n\n===Early history===\nAlthough the earliest historical records of Copenhagen are from the end of the 12th century, recent archaeological finds in connection with work on the city's metropolitan rail system revealed the remains of a large merchant's mansion near today's Kongens Nytorv from c. 1020. Excavations in Pilestræde have also led to the discovery of a well from the late 12th century. The remains of an ancient church, with graves dating to the 11th century, have been unearthed near where Strøget meets Rådhuspladsen.\n\nThese finds indicate that Copenhagen's origins as a city go back at least to the 11th century. Substantial discoveries of flint tools in the area provide evidence of human settlements dating to the Stone Age. Many historians believe the town dates to the late Viking Age, and was possibly founded by Sweyn I Forkbeard. \nThe natural harbour and good herring stocks seem to have attracted fishermen and merchants to the area on a seasonal basis from the 11th century and more permanently in the 13th century. The first habitations were probably centred on Gammel Strand (literally \"old shore\") in the 11th century or even earlier.\n\nThe earliest written mention of the town was in the 12th century when Saxo Grammaticus in Gesta Danorum referred to it as ''Portus Mercatorum'', meaning Merchants' Harbour or, in the Danish of the time, ''Købmannahavn''. Traditionally, Copenhagen's founding has been dated to Bishop Absalon's construction of a modest fortress on the little island of Slotsholmen in 1167 where Christiansborg Palace stands today. The construction of the fortress was in response to attacks by Wendish pirates who plagued the coastline during the 12th century. Defensive ramparts and moats were completed and by 1177 St. Clemens Church had been built. Attacks by the Germans continued, and after the original fortress was eventually destroyed by the marauders, islanders replaced it with Copenhagen Castle.\n\n===Middle Ages===\n\nIn 1186, a letter from Pope Urban III states that the castle of ''Hafn'' (Copenhagen) and its surrounding lands, including the town of Hafn, were given to Absalon, Bishop of Roskilde 1158–1191 and Archbishop of Lund 1177–1201, by King Valdemar I. On Absalon's death, the property was to come into the ownership of the Bishopric of Roskilde. Around 1200, the Church of Our Lady was constructed on higher ground to the northeast of the town, which began to develop around it.\n\nAs the town became more prominent, it was repeatedly attacked by the Hanseatic League. As the fishing industry thrived in Copenhagen, particularly in the trade of herring, the city began expanding to the north of Slotsholmen. In 1254, it received a charter as a city under Bishop Jakob Erlandsen who garnered support from the local fishing merchants against the king by granting them special privileges. In the mid 1330s, the first land assessment of the city was published.\n\nWith the establishment of the Kalmar Union (1397–1523) between Denmark, Norway and Sweden, by about 1416 Copenhagen had emerged as the capital of Denmark when Eric of Pomerania moved his seat to Copenhagen Castle. The University of Copenhagen was inaugurated on 1 June 1479 by King Christian I, following approval from Pope Sixtus IV. This makes it the oldest university in Denmark and one of the oldest in Europe. Originally controlled by the Catholic Church, the university's role in society was forced to change during the Reformation in Denmark in the late 1530s.\n\n===16th and 17th centuries===\n\n\nIn disputes prior to the Reformation of 1536, the city which had been faithful to Christian II, who was Catholic, was successfully besieged in 1523 by the forces of Frederik I, who supported Lutheranism. Copenhagen's defences were reinforced with a series of towers along the city wall. After an extended siege from July 1535 to July 1536, during which the city supported Christian II's alliance with Malmö and Lübeck, it was finally forced to capitulate to Christian III. During the second half of the century, the city prospered from increased trade across the Baltic supported by Dutch shipping. Christoffer Valkendorff, a high-ranking statesman, defended the city's interests and contributed to its development. The Netherlands had also become primarily Protestant, as were northern German states.\n\nDuring the reign of Christian IV between 1588 and 1648, Copenhagen had dramatic growth as a city. On his initiative at the beginning of the 17th century, two important buildings were completed on Slotsholmen: the Tøjhus Arsenal and Børsen, the stock exchange. To foster international trade, the East India Company was founded in 1616. To the east of the city, inspired by Dutch planning, the king developed the district of Christianshavn with canals and ramparts. It was initially intended to be a fortified trading centre but ultimately became part of Copenhagen. Christian IV also sponsored an array of ambitious building projects including Rosenborg Slot and the Rundetårn. In 1658–59, the city withstood a siege by the Swedes under Charles X and successfully repelled a major assault.\n\nBy 1661, Copenhagen had asserted its position as capital of Denmark and Norway. All the major institutions were located there, as was the fleet and most of the army. The defences were further enhanced with the completion of the Citadel in 1664 and the extension of Christianshavns Vold with its bastions in 1692, leading to the creation of a new base for the fleet at Nyholm.\n\n===18th century===\nA mansion at Amalienborg in Frederiksstaden (1750), part of the Amalienborg Palace\n\nCopenhagen lost around 22,000 of its population of 65,000 to the plague in 1711. The city was also struck by two major fires which destroyed much of its infrastructure. The Copenhagen Fire of 1728 was the largest in the history of Copenhagen. It began on the evening of 20 October, and continued to burn until the morning of 23 October, destroying approximately 28% of the city, leaving some 20% of the population homeless. No less than 47% of the medieval section of the city was completely lost. Along with the 1795 fire, it is the main reason that few traces of the old town can be found in the modern city.\n\nA substantial amount of rebuilding followed. In 1733, work began on the royal residence of Christiansborg Palace which was completed in 1745. In 1749, development of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden was initiated. Designed by Nicolai Eigtved in the Rococo style, its centre contained the mansions which now form Amalienborg Palace. Major extensions to the naval base of Holmen were undertaken while the city's cultural importance was enhanced with the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts.\n\nIn the second half of the 18th century, Copenhagen benefitted from Denmark's neutrality during the wars between Europe's main powers, allowing it to play an important role in trade between the states around the Baltic Sea. After Christiansborg was destroyed by fire in 1794 and another fire caused serious damage to the city in 1795, work began on the classical Copenhagen landmark of Højbro Plads while Nytorv and Gammel Torv were converged.\n\n===19th century===\nOn 2 April 1801, a British fleet under the command of Admiral Sir Hyde Parker defeated a Danish-Norwegian fleet anchored near Copenhagen. Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson led the main attack. He famously disobeyed Parker's order to withdraw, destroying many of the Dano-Norwegian ships before a truce was agreed. Copenhagen is often considered to be Nelson's hardest-fought battle, surpassing even the heavy fighting at Trafalgar. It was during this battle that Lord Nelson was said to have \"put the telescope to the blind eye\" in order not to see Admiral Parker's signal to cease fire.\nGottlieb Bindesbøll's Thorvaldsen Museum (1848)\nThe Second Battle of Copenhagen (or the Bombardment of Copenhagen) (16 August – 5 September 1807) was from a British point of view a preemptive attack on Copenhagen, targeting the civilian population in order to seize the Dano-Norwegian fleet. But from a Danish point of view the battle was a terror bombardment on their capital. Particularly notable was the use of incendiary Congreve rockets (containing phosphorus, which cannot be extinguished with water) that randomly hit the city. Few houses with straw roofs remained after the bombardment. The largest church, ''Vor frue kirke'', was destroyed by the sea artillery. Several historians consider this battle the first terror attack against a major European city in modern times.\n\nSlotsholmen canal, as seen from the Børsen building (). In the background from left to right: Church of the Holy Ghost, Trinitatis Complex, St. Nicholas Church and Holmen Church The British landed 30,000 men, they surrounded Copenhagen and the attack continued for the next three days, killing some 2,000 civilians and destroying most of the city. The devastation was so great because Copenhagen relied on an old defence-line whose limited range could not reach the British ships and their longer-range artillery.\n\nDespite the disasters of the early 19th century, Copenhagen experienced a period of intense cultural creativity known as the Danish Golden Age. Painting prospered under C.W. Eckersberg and his students while C.F. Hansen and Gottlieb Bindesbøll brought a Neoclassical look to the city's architecture. In the early 1850s, the ramparts of the city were opened to allow new housing to be built around The Lakes () that bordered the old defences to the west. By the 1880s, the districts of Nørrebro and Vesterbro developed to accommodate those who came from the provinces to participate in the city's industrialization. This dramatic increase of space was long overdue, as not only were the old ramparts out of date as a defence system but bad sanitation in the old city had to be overcome. From 1886, the west rampart (Vestvolden) was flattened, allowing major extensions to the harbour leading to the establishment of the Freeport of Copenhagen 1892–94. Electricity came in 1892 with electric trams in 1897. The spread of housing to areas outside the old ramparts brought about a huge increase in the population. In 1840, Copenhagen was inhabited by approximately 120,000 people. By 1901, it had some 400,000 inhabitants.\n\n===20th century===\nCentral Copenhagen in 1939\nBy the beginning of the 20th century, Copenhagen had become a thriving industrial and administrative city. With its new city hall and railway station, its centre was drawn towards the west. New housing developments grew up in Brønshøj and Valby while Frederiksberg became an enclave within the city of Copenhagen. The northern part of Amager and Valby were also incorporated into the City of Copenhagen in 1901–02.\n\nAs a result of Denmark's neutrality in the First World War, Copenhagen prospered from trade with both Britain and Germany while the city's defences were kept fully manned by some 40,000 soldiers for the duration of the war.\n\nIn the 1920s there were serious shortages of goods and housing. Plans were drawn up to demolish the old part of Christianshavn and to get rid of the worst of the city's slum areas. However, it was not until the 1930s that substantial housing developments ensued, with the demolishment of one side of Christianhavn's Torvegade in order to build five large blocks of flats.\n\n====World War II====\n\nThe RAF's bombing of Gestapo headquarters in March 1945 was coordinated with the Danish resistance movement\nPeople celebrating the liberation of Denmark at Strøget in Copenhagen, 5 May 1945. Germany surrendered two days later \n\nDuring World War II in Denmark, Copenhagen was occupied by German troops along with the rest of the country from 9 April 1940 until 4 May 1945. German leader Adolf Hitler hoped that Denmark would be \"a model protectorate\" and initially the Nazi authorities sought to arrive at an understanding with the Danish government. The 1943 Danish parliamentary election was also allowed to take place, with only the Communist Party excluded. But in August 1943, after the government's collaboration with the occupation forces collapsed, several ships were sunk in Copenhagen Harbor by the Royal Danish Navy to prevent their use by the Germans. Around that time the Nazis started to arrest Jews, although most managed to escape to Sweden.\n\nIn 1945 Ole Lippman, leader of the Danish section of the Special Operations Executive, invited the British Royal Air Force to assist their operations by attacking Nazi headquarters in Copenhagen. Accordingly, Air Vice-Marshal Sir Basil Embry drew up plans for a spectacular precision attack on the Sicherheitsdienst and Gestapo building, the former offices of the Shell Oil Company. Political prisoners were kept in the attic to prevent an air raid, so the RAF had to bomb the lower levels of the building.\n\nThe attack, known as \"Operation Carthage\", came on 22 March 1945, in three small waves. In the first wave, all six planes (carrying one bomb each) hit their target, but one of the aircraft crashed near Frederiksberg Girls School. Because of this crash four of the planes in the two following waves assumed the school was the military target, and aimed their bombs at the school leading to the death of 123 civilians (of which 87 were schoolchildren). However, 18 of the 26 political prisoners in the Shell Building managed to escape while the Gestapo archives were completely destroyed.\n\nOn 8 May 1945 Copenhagen was officially liberated by British troops commanded by Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery who supervised the surrender of 30,000 Germans situated around the capital.\n\n====Post-war decades====\nBlack Diamond (1999)\nShortly after the end of the war, an innovative urban development project known as the Finger Plan was introduced in 1947, encouraging the creation of new housing and businesses interspersed with large green areas along five \"fingers\" stretching out from the city centre along the S-train routes. With the expansion of the welfare state and women entering the work force, schools, nurseries, sports facilities and hospitals were established across the city. As a result of student unrest in the late 1960s, the former Bådsmandsstræde Barracks in Christianshavn was occupied, leading to the establishment of Freetown Christiania in September 1971.\n\nØresund Bridge (1999)\nMotor traffic in the city grew significantly and in 1972 the trams were replaced by buses. From the 1960s, on the initiative of the young architect Jan Gehl, pedestrian streets and cycle tracks were created in the city centre. Activity in the port of Copenhagen declined with the closure of the Holmen naval base. Copenhagen Airport underwent considerable expansion, becoming a hub for the Nordic countries. In the 1990s, large-scale housing developments were realized in the harbour area and in the west of Amager. The national library's Black Diamond building on the waterfront was completed in 1999.\n\n===2000 to present===\nCopenhagen Opera House (2004)\nSince the summer of 2000, Copenhagen and the Swedish city of Malmö have been connected by the Øresund Bridge, which carries rail and road traffic. As a result, Copenhagen has become the centre of a larger metropolitan area spanning both nations. The bridge has brought about considerable changes in the public transport system and has led to the extensive redevelopment of Amager. The city's service and trade sectors have developed while a number of banking and financial institutions have been established. Educational institutions have also gained importance, especially the University of Copenhagen with its 35,000 students. Another important development for the city has been the Copenhagen Metro, the underground railway system which opened in 2000 with additions until 2007, transporting some 54 million passengers by 2011.\n\nOn the cultural front, the lavish Copenhagen Opera House, a gift to the city from the shipping magnate Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller on behalf of the A.P. Møller foundation, was completed in 2004. In December 2009 Copenhagen gained international prominence when it hosted the worldwide climate meeting COP15.\n\n","Satellite view\nA view over Freetown Christiania\nCopenhagen is part of the Øresund Region, which consists of Zealand, Lolland-Falster and Bornholm in Denmark and Scania in Sweden. It is located on the eastern shore of the island of Zealand, partly on the island of Amager and on a number of natural and artificial islets between the two. Copenhagen faces the Øresund to the east, the strait of water that separates Denmark from Sweden, and which connects the North Sea with the Baltic Sea. The Swedish towns of Malmö and Landskrona lie on the Swedish side of the sound directly across from Copenhagen. By road, Copenhagen is northwest of Malmö, Sweden, northeast of Næstved, northeast of Odense, east of Esbjerg and southeast of Aarhus by sea and road via Sjællands Odde.\n\nThe city centre lies in the area originally defined by the old ramparts, which are still referred to as the Fortification Ring (''Fæstningsringen'') and kept as a partial green band around it. Then come the late 19th and early 20th century residential neighbourhoods of Østerbro, Nørrebro, Vesterbro and Amagerbro. The outlying areas of Kongens Enghave, Valby, Vigerslev, Vanløse, Brønshøj, Utterslev and Sundby followed from 1920 to 1960. They consist mainly of residential housing and apartments often enhanced with parks and greenery.\n\n===Topography===\nThe central area of the city consists of relatively low-lying flat ground formed by moraines from the last ice age while the hilly areas to the north and west frequently rise to above sea level. The slopes of Valby and Brønshøj reach heights of over , divided by valleys running from the northeast to the southwest. Close to the centre are the Copenhagen lakes of Sortedams Sø, Peblinge Sø and Sankt Jørgens Sø.\n\nCopenhagen rests on a subsoil of flint-layered limestone deposited in the Danian period some 60 to 66 million years ago. Some greensand from the Selandian is also present. There are a few faults in the area, the most important of which is the Carlsberg fault which runs northwest to southeast through the centre of the city. During the last ice age, glaciers eroded the surface leaving a layer of moraines up to thick.\n\n===Beaches===\nAmager Strandpark\nAmager Strandpark, which opened in 2005, is a long artificial island, with a total of of beaches. It is located just 15 minutes by bicycle or a few minutes by metro from the city centre. In Klampenborg, about 10 kilometers from downtown Copenhagen, is Bellevue Beach. It is long and has both lifeguards and freshwater showers on the beach.\n\nThe beaches are supplemented by a system of Harbour Baths along the Copenhagen waterfront. The first and most popular of these is located at Islands Brygge and has won international acclaim for its design.\n\n===Climate===\nFrederiksberg Palace in the snow\nCopenhagen is in the oceanic climate zone (Köppen: ''Cfb ''). Its weather is subject to low-pressure systems from the Atlantic which result in unstable conditions throughout the year. Apart from slightly higher rainfall from July to September, precipitation is moderate. While snowfall occurs mainly from late December to early March, there can also be rain, with average temperatures around the freezing point.\n\nJune is the sunniest month of the year with an average of about eight hours of sunshine a day. July is the warmest month with an average daytime high of 21 °C. By contrast, the average hours of sunshine are less than two per day in November and only one and a half per day from December to February. In the spring, it gets warmer again with from four to six hours of sunshine per day from March to May. February is the driest month of the year. Exceptional weather conditions can bring as much as 50 cm of snow to Copenhagen in a 24-hour period during the winter months while summer temperatures have been known to rise to heights of .\n\nBecause of Copenhagen's northern latitude, the number of daylight hours varies considerably between summer and winter. On the summer solstice, the sun rises at 04:26 and sets at 21:58, providing 17 hours 32 minutes of daylight. On the winter solstice, it rises at 08:37 and sets at 15:39 with 7 hours and 1 minute of daylight. There is therefore a difference of 10 hours and 31 minutes in the length of days and nights between the summer and winter solstices.\n\n\n","City Hall of Copenhagen Municipality\n\nAccording to Statistics Denmark, the urban area of Copenhagen () consists of the municipalities of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Albertslund, Brøndby, Gentofte, Gladsaxe, Glostrup, Herlev, Hvidovre, Lyngby-Taarbæk, Rødovre, Tårnby and Vallensbæk as well as parts of Ballerup, Rudersdal and Furesø municipalities, along with the cities of Ishøj and Greve Strand. They are located in the Capital Region (). Municipalities are responsible for a wide variety of public services, which include land-use planning, environmental planning, public housing, management and maintenance of local roads, and social security. Municipal administration is also conducted by a mayor, a council, and an executive.\n\nCopenhagen Municipality is by far the largest municipality, with the historic city at its core. The seat of Copenhagen's municipal council is the Copenhagen City Hall (''''), which is situated on City Hall Square. The second largest municipality is Frederiksberg, an enclave within Copenhagen Municipality.\n\nCopenhagen Municipality is divided into ten districts (''bydele''): Indre By, Østerbro, Nørrebro, Vesterbro/Kongens Enghave, Valby, Vanløse, Brønshøj-Husum, Bispebjerg, Amager Øst, and Amager Vest. Neighbourhoods of Copenhagen include Slotsholmen, Frederiksstaden, Islands Brygge, Holmen, Christiania, Carlsberg, Sluseholmen, Amagerbro, Ørestad, Nordhavnen, Bellahøj, Brønshøj, Ryparken, and Vigerslev.\n\n===Law and order===\n\nMost of Denmark's top legal courts and institutions are based in Copenhagen. A modern style court of justice, ''Hof- og Stadsretten'', was introduced in Denmark, specifically for Copenhagen, by Johann Friedrich Struensee in 1771. Now known as the City Court of Copenhagen (''Københavns Byret''), it is the largest of the 24 city courts in Denmark with jurisdiction over the municipalities of Copenhagen, Dragør and Tårnby. With its 42 judges, it has a Probate Division, an Enforcement Division and a Registration and Notorial Acts Division while bankruptcy is handled by the Maritime and Commercial Court of Copenhagen. Established in 1862, the Maritime and Commercial Court (''Sø- og Handelsretten'') also hears commercial cases including those relating to trade marks, marketing practices and competition for the whole of Denmark. Denmark's Supreme Court (''Højesteret''), located in Christiansborg Palace on Prins Jørgens Gård in the centre of Copenhagen, is the country's final court of appeal. Handling civil and criminal cases from the subordinate courts, it has two chambers which each hear all types of cases.\n\nThe Danish National Police and Copenhagen Police headquarters is situated in the Neoclassical-inspired Politigården building built in 1918–24 under architects Hack Kampmann and Holger Alfred Jacobsen. The building also contains administration, management, emergency department and radio service offices. In their efforts to deal with drugs, the police have noted considerable success in the two special drug consumption rooms opened by the city where addicts can use sterile needles and receive help from nurses if necessary. Use of these rooms does not lead to prosecution; the city treats drug use as a public health issue, not a criminal one.\n\nThe Copenhagen Fire Department forms the largest municipal fire brigade in Denmark with some 500 fire and ambulance personnel, 150 administration and service workers, and 35 workers in prevention. The brigade began as the Copenhagen Royal Fire Brigade on 9 July 1687 under King Christian V. After the passing of the Copenhagen Fire Act on 18 May 1868, on 1 August 1870 the Copenhagen Fire Brigade became a municipal institution in its own right. The fire department has its headquarters in the Copenhagen Central Fire Station which was designed by Ludvig Fenger in the Historicist style and inaugurated in 1892.\n\n=== Environmental planning ===\n\n\nCopenhagen is recognized as one of the most environmentally friendly cities in the world. As a result of its commitment to high environmental standards, Copenhagen has been praised for its green economy, ranked as the top green city for the second time in the 2014 ''Global Green Economy Index (GGEI)''. In 2001 a large offshore wind farm was built just off the coast of Copenhagen at Middelgrunden. It produces about 4% of the city's energy. Years of substantial investment in sewage treatment have improved water quality in the harbour to an extent that the inner harbour can be used for swimming with facilities at a number of locations.\nMiddelgrunden offshore wind farm\n\nCopenhagen aims to be carbon-neutral by 2025. Commercial and residential buildings are to reduce electricity consumption by 20 percent and 10 percent respectively, and total heat consumption is to fall by 20 percent by 2025. Renewable energy features such as solar panels are becoming increasingly common in the newest buildings in Copenhagen. District heating will be carbon-neutral by 2025, by waste incineration and biomass. New buildings must now be constructed according to Low Energy Class ratings and in 2020 near net-zero energy buildings. By 2025, 75% of trips should be made on foot, by bike, or by using public transit. The city plans that 20–30% of cars will run on electricity or biofuel by 2025. The investment is estimated at $472 million public funds and $4.78 billion private funds.\n\nThe city's architectural planning authorities continue to take full account of these priorities. Special attention is given both to climate issues and efforts to ensure maximum application of low-energy standards. Priorities include sustainable drainage systems, recycling rainwater, green roofs and efficient waste management solutions. In city planning, streets and squares are to be designed to encourage cycling and walking rather than driving.\n","\n\n\n First-generation immigrants by country of origin (Q12016)\n\n '''Nationality''' \n '''Population''' \n\n Pakistan \n5,409\n\n Morocco \n5,197\n\n Poland \n4,767\n\n Germany \n4,560\t\n\n Iraq \n4,407\n\n Turkey \n4,168\t\n\n Sweden \n4,471\n\n Norway \n3,836\n\n United Kingdom \n3,292\n\n United States \n3,244\n\n Italy \n3,098\t\t\n\n China \n3,002\t\t\n\n\n\nCopenhagen is the most populous city in Denmark and one of the most populous in the Nordic countries. For statistical purposes, Statistics Denmark considers the City of Copenhagen (''Byen København'') to consist of the Municipality of Copenhagen plus three adjacent municipalities, viz. Dragør, Frederiksberg, and Tårnby. Their combined population stands at 763,908 ().\n\nThe Municipality of Copenhagen is by far the most populous in the country and one of the one of the most populous Nordic municipalities with 601,448 inhabitants (). There was a demographic boom in the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, largely due to immigration to Denmark. According to figures from the first quarter of 2016, approximately 76% of the municipality's population was of Danish descent, defined as having at least one parent who was born in Denmark and has Danish citizenship. Much of the remaining 24% were of a foreign background, defined as immigrants (18%) or descendants of recent immigrants (6%). There are no official statistics on ethnic groups. The table to the right shows the most common countries of birth of Copenhagen residents.\n\nAccording to Statistics Denmark, Copenhagen's urban area has a larger population of 1,280,371 (). The urban area consists of the municipalities of Copenhagen and Frederiksberg plus 16 of the 20 municipalities of the former counties Copenhagen and Roskilde, though five of them only partially. Metropolitan Copenhagen has a total of 2,016,285 inhabitants (). The area of Metropolitan Copenhagen is defined by the Finger Plan. Since the opening of the Øresund Bridge in 2000, commuting between Zealand and Scania in Sweden has increased rapidly, leading to a wider, integrated area. Known as the Øresund Region, it has 3.8 million inhabitants (of whom 2.5 million live in the Danish part of the region).\n\n===Religion===\n\nChurch of Our Lady, situated on Frue Plads\nWith 58.1% a majority of those living in Copenhagen are members of the Lutheran Church of Denmark which is 1.2% lower than one year earlier according to 2017 figures. The National Cathedral, the Church of Our Lady, is one of the dozens of churches in Copenhagen. There are also several other Christian communities in the city, of which the largest is Roman Catholic.\n\nForeign migration to Copenhagen, rising over the last three decades, has contributed to increasing religious diversity; the Grand Mosque of Copenhagen, the first in Denmark, opened in 2014. Islam is the second largest religion in Copenhagen, accounting for approximately 10% of the population. While there are no official statistics, a significant portion of the estimated 175,000–200,000 Muslims in the country live in the Copenhagen urban area, with the highest concentration in Nørrebro and the Vestegnen. There are also some 7,000 Jews in Denmark, most of them in the Copenhagen area where there are several synagogues.\n\n\n===Quality of living===\nFor a number of years, Copenhagen has ranked high in international surveys for its quality of life. Its stable economy together with its education services and level of social safety make it attractive for locals and visitors alike. Although it is one of the world's most expensive cities, it is also one of the most liveable with its public transport, facilities for cyclists and its environmental policies. In elevating Copenhagen to \"most liveable city\" in 2013, ''Monocle'' pointed to its open spaces, increasing activity on the streets, city planning in favour of cyclists and pedestrians, and features to encourage inhabitants to enjoy city life with an emphasis on community, culture and cuisine. Other sources have ranked Copenhagen high for its business environment, accessibility, restaurants and environmental planning. However, Copenhagen ranks only 39th for student friendliness in 2012. Despite a top score for quality of living, its scores were low for employer activity and affordability.\n","Copenhagen is the major economic and financial centre of Denmark. The city's economy is based largely on services and commerce. Statistics for 2010 show that the vast majority of the 350,000 workers in Copenhagen are employed in the service sector, especially transport and communications, trade, and finance, while less than 10,000 work in the manufacturing industries. The public sector workforce is around 110,000, including education and healthcare. From 2006 to 2011, the economy grew by 2.5% in Copenhagen, while it fell by some 4% in the rest of Denmark. In 2010, the wider Capital Region of Denmark had a gross domestic product (GDP) of €88,366 million, and the 15th largest GDP per capita of regions in the European Union.\n\nThe Crystal, headquarters of Nykredit bank\nSeveral financial institutions and banks have headquarters in Copenhagen, including Alm. Brand, Danske Bank, Nykredit and Nordea Bank Danmark. The Copenhagen Stock Exchange (CSE) was founded in 1620 and is now owned by Nasdaq, Inc.. Copenhagen is also home to a number of international companies including A.P. Møller-Mærsk, Novo Nordisk, Carlsberg and Novozymes. City authorities have encouraged the development of business clusters in several innovative sectors, which include information technology, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, clean technology and smart city solutions.\n\nScandinavian headquarters for the Swiss pharmaceutical company Ferring Pharmaceuticals\nLife science is a key sector with extensive research and development activities. Medicon Valley is a leading bi-national life sciences cluster in Europe, spanning the Øresund Region. Copenhagen is rich in companies and institutions with a focus on research and development within the field of biotechnology, and the Medicon Valley initiative aims to strengthen this position and to promote cooperation between companies and academia. Many major Danish companies like Novo Nordisk and Lundbeck, both of which are among the 50 largest pharmaceutical and biotech companies in the world, are located in this business cluster.\n\nShipping is another import sector with Maersk, the world's largest shipping company, having their world headquarters in Copenhagen. The city has an industrial harbour, Copenhagen Port. Following decades of stagnation, it has experienced a resurgence since 1990 following a merger with Malmö harbour. Both ports are operated by Copenhagen Malmö Port (CMP). The central location in the Øresund Region allows the ports to act as a hub for freight that is transported onward to the Baltic countries. CMP annually receives about 8,000 ships and handled some 148,000 TEU in 2012.\n\nCopenhagen has some of the highest gross wages in the world. High taxes mean that wages are reduced after mandatory deduction. A ''beneficial researcher scheme'' with low taxation of foreign specialists has made Denmark an attractive location for foreign labour. It is however also among the most expensive cities in Europe.\n\nDenmark's Flexicurity model features some of the most flexible hiring and firing legislation in Europe, providing attractive conditions for foreign investment and international companies looking to locate in Copenhagen. In Dansk Industri's 2013 survey of employment factors in the ninety-six municipalities of Denmark, Copenhagen came in first place for educational qualifications and for the development of private companies in recent years, but fell to 86th place in local companies' assessment of the employment climate. The survey revealed considerable dissatisfaction in the level of dialogue companies enjoyed with the municipal authorities.\n\n===Tourism===\n\nTourism is a major contributor to Copenhagen's economy, attracting visitors due to the city's harbour, cultural attractions and award-winning restaurants. Since 2009, Copenhagen has been one of the fastest growing metropolitan destinations in Europe. Hotel capacity in the city is growing significantly. From 2009 to 2013, it experienced a 42% growth in international bed nights (total number of nights spent by tourists), tallying a rise of nearly 70% for Chinese visitors. The total number of bed nights in the Capital Region surpassed 9 million in 2013, while international bed nights reached 5 million.\n\nIn 2010, it is estimated that city break tourism contributed to DKK 2 billion in turnover. However, 2010 was an exceptional year for city break tourism and turnover increased with 29% in that one year. 680,000 cruise passengers visited the port in 2015.\n","\nThe city's appearance today is shaped by the key role it has played as a regional centre for centuries. Copenhagen has a multitude of districts, each with its distinctive character and representing its own period. Other distinctive features of Copenhagen include the abundance of water, its many parks, and the bicycle paths that line most streets.\n\n===Architecture===\n\n\n\nThe oldest section of Copenhagen's inner city is often referred to as ''Middelalderbyen'' (the medieval city). However, the city's most distinctive district is Frederiksstaden, developed during the reign of Frederick V. It has the Amalienborg Palace at its centre and is dominated by the dome of Frederik's Church (or the Marble Church) and several elegant 18th-century Rococo mansions. The inner city includes Slotsholmen, a little island on which Christiansborg Palace stands and Christianshavn with its canals. Børsen on Slotsholmen and Frederiksborg Palace in Hillerød are prominent examples of the Dutch Renaissance style in Copenhagen. Around the historical city centre lies a band of congenial residential boroughs (Vesterbro, Inner Nørrebro, Inner Østerbro) dating mainly from late 19th century. They were built outside the old ramparts when the city was finally allowed to expand beyond its fortifications.\n\nSometimes referred to as \"the City of Spires\", Copenhagen is known for its horizontal skyline, broken only by the spires and towers of its churches and castles. Most characteristic of all is the Baroque spire of the Church of Our Saviour with its narrowing external spiral stairway that visitors can climb to the top. Other important spires are those of Christiansborg Palace, the City Hall and the former Church of St. Nikolaj that now houses a modern art venue. Not quite so high are the Renaissance spires of Rosenborg Castle and the \"dragon spire\" of Christian IV's former stock exchange, so named because it resembles the intertwined tails of four dragons.\n\nCopenhagen is recognised globally as an exemplar of best practice urban planning. Its thriving mixed use city centre is defined by striking contemporary architecture, engaging public spaces and an abundance of human activity. These design outcomes have been deliberately achieved through careful replanning in the second half of the 20th century.\n\nRecent years have seen a boom in modern architecture in Copenhagen both for Danish architecture and for works by international architects. For a few hundred years, virtually no foreign architects had worked in Copenhagen, but since the turn of the millennium the city and its immediate surroundings have seen buildings and projects designed by top international architects. British design magazine ''Monocle'' named Copenhagen the ''World's best design city 2008''.\n\nCopenhagen's urban development in the first half of the 20th century was heavily influenced by industrialisation. After World War II, Copenhagen Municipality adopted Fordism and repurposed its medieval centre to facilitate private automobile infrastructure in response to innovations in transport, trade and communication. Copenhagen’s spacial planning in this time frame was characterised by the separation of land uses: an approach which requires residents to travel by car to access facilities of different uses.\n\nThe boom in urban development and modern architecture has brought some changes to the city's skyline. A political majority has decided to keep the historical centre free of high-rise buildings, but several areas will see or have already seen massive urban development. Ørestad now has seen most of the recent development. Located near Copenhagen Airport, it currently boasts one of the largest malls in Scandinavia and a variety of office and residential buildings as well as the IT University and a high school.\n\n===Parks, gardens and zoo===\n\nRosenborg Castle and park in central Copenhagen\nCopenhagen is a green city with many parks, both large and small. King's Garden (''''), the garden of Rosenborg Castle, is the oldest and most frequented of them all. It was Christian IV who first developed its landscaping in 1606. Every year it sees more than 2.5 million visitors and in the summer months it is packed with sunbathers, picnickers and ballplayers. It serves as a sculpture garden with both a permanent display and temporary exhibits during the summer months. Also located in the city centre are the Botanical Gardens noted for their large complex of 19th-century greenhouses donated by Carlsberg founder J. C. Jacobsen. Fælledparken at is the largest park in Copenhagen.\n\nIt is popular for sports fixtures and hosts several annual events including a free opera concert at the opening of the opera season, other open-air concerts, carnival and Labour Day celebrations, and the Copenhagen Historic Grand Prix, a race for antique cars. A historical green space in the northeastern part of the city is Kastellet, a well-preserved Renaissance citadel that now serves mainly as a park. Another popular park is the Frederiksberg Gardens, a 32-hectare romantic landscape park. It houses a colony of tame grey herons and other waterfowl. The park offers views of the elephants and the elephant house designed by world-famous British architect Norman Foster of the adjacent Copenhagen Zoo. Langelinie, a park and promenade along the inner Øresund coast, is home to one of Copenhagen's most-visited tourist attractions, the Little Mermaid statue.\n\nIn Copenhagen, many cemeteries double as parks, though only for the more quiet activities such as sunbathing, reading and meditation. Assistens Cemetery, the burial place of Hans Christian Andersen, is an important green space for the district of Inner Nørrebro and a Copenhagen institution. The lesser known Vestre Kirkegaard is the largest cemetery in Denmark () and offers a maze of dense groves, open lawns, winding paths, hedges, overgrown tombs, monuments, tree-lined avenues, lakes and other garden features.\n\nIt is official municipal policy in Copenhagen that by 2015 all citizens must be able to reach a park or beach on foot in less than 15 minutes. In line with this policy, several new parks, including the innovative Superkilen in the Nørrebro district, have been completed or are under development in areas lacking green spaces.\n\n===Landmarks by district===\n\n====Indre By====\nThe historic centre of the city, Indre By or the Inner City, features many of Copenhagen's most popular monuments and attractions. The area known as Frederiksstaden, developed by Frederik V in the second half of the 18th century in the Rococo style, has the four mansions of Amalienborg, the royal residence, and the wide-domed Marble Church at its centre. Directly across the water from Amalienborg, the recently completed Copenhagen Opera stands on the island of Holmen. To the south of Frederiksstaden, the Nyhavn canal is lined with colourful houses from the 17th and 18th centuries, many now with lively restaurants and bars. The canal runs from the harbour front to the spacious square of Kongens Nytorv which was laid out by Christian V in 1670. Important buildings include Charlottenborg Palace, famous for its art exhibitions, the Thott Palace (now the French embassy), the Royal Danish Theatre and the Hotel D'Angleterre, dated to 1755. Other landmarks in Indre By include the parliament building of Christiansborg, the City Hall and Rundetårn, originally an observatory. There are also several museums in the area including Thorvaldsen Museum dedicated to the 18th-century sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen. Closed to traffic since 1964, Strøget, the world's oldest and longest pedestrian street, runs the from Rådhuspladsen to Kongens Nytorv. With its speciality shops, cafés, restaurants, and buskers, it is always full of life and includes the old squares of Gammel Torv and Amagertorv, each with a fountain. Rosenborg Castle on Øster Voldgade was built by Christian IV in 1606 as a summer residence in the Renaissance style. It houses the Danish crown jewels and crown regalia, the coronation throne and tapestries illustrating Christian V's victories in the Scanian War.\n\n====Christianshavn====\nChristianshavn Canal\nChristianshavn lies to the southeast of Indre By on the other side of the harbour. The area was developed by Christian IV in the early 17th century. Impressed by the city of Amsterdam, he employed Dutch architects to create canals within its ramparts which are still well preserved today. The canals themselves, branching off the central Christianshavn Canal and lined with house boats and pleasure craft are one of the area's attractions. Another interesting feature is Freetown Christiania, a fairly large area which was initially occupied by squatters during student unrest in 1971. Today it still maintains a measure of autonomy. The inhabitants openly sell drugs on \"Pusher Street\" as well as their arts and crafts. Other buildings of interest in Christianshavn include the Church of Our Saviour with its spiralling steeple and the magnificent Rococo Christian's Church. Once a warehouse, the North Atlantic House now displays culture from Iceland and Greenland and houses the Noma restaurant, known for its Nordic cuisine.\n\n====Vesterbro====\nHalmtorvet in Vesterbro\nVesterbro, to the southwest of Indre By, begins with the Tivoli Gardens, the city's top tourist attraction with its fairground atmosphere, its Pantomime Theatre, its Concert Hall and its many rides and restaurants. The Carlsberg neighbourhood has some interesting vestiges of the old brewery of the same name including the Elephant Gate and the Ny Carlsberg Brewhouse. The Tycho Brahe Planetarium is located on the edge of Skt. Jørgens Sø, one of the Copenhagen lakes. Halmtorvet, the old haymarket behind the Central Station, is an increasingly popular area with its cafés and restaurants. The former cattle market Øksnehallen has been converted into a modern exhibition centre for art and photography. Radisson Blu Royal Hotel, built by Danish architect and designer Arne Jacobsen for the airline Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS) between 1956 and 1960 was once the tallest hotel in Denmark with a height of and the city's only skyscraper until 1969. Completed in 1908, Det Ny Teater (the New Theatre) located in a passage between Vesterbrogade and Gammel Kongevej has become a popular venue for musicals since its reopening in 1994, attracting the largest audiences in the country.\n\n====Nørrebro====\nDronning Louises Bro leading into Nørrebrogade\nNørrebro to the northwest of the city centre has recently developed from a working-class district into a colourful cosmopolitan area with antique shops, ethnic food stores and restaurants. Much of the activity is centred on Sankt Hans Torv. Copenhagen's historic cemetery, Assistens Kirkegård halfway up Nørrebrogade, is the resting place of many famous figures including Søren Kierkegaard, Niels Bohr, and Hans Christian Andersen but is also used by locals as a park and recreation area.\n\n====Østerbro====\nThe Gefion Fountain\nJust north of the city centre, Østerbro is an upper middle-class district with a number of fine mansions, some now serving as embassies. The district stretches from Nørrebro to the waterfront where ''The Little Mermaid'' statue can be seen from the promenade known as Langelinie. Inspired by Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale, it was created by Edvard Eriksen and unveiled in 1913. Not far from the Little Mermaid, the old Citadel (''Kastellet'') can be seen. Built by Christian IV, it is one of northern Europe's best preserved fortifications. There is also a windmill in the area. The large Gefion Fountain (''Gefionspringvandet'') designed by Anders Bundgaard and completed in 1908 stands close to the southeast corner of Kastellet. Its figures illustrate a Nordic legend.\n\n====Frederiksberg====\nFrederiksberg Palace\nFrederiksberg, a separate municipality within the urban area of Copenhagen, lies to the west of Nørrebro and Indre By and north of Vesterbro. Its landmarks include Copenhagen Zoo founded in 1869 with over 250 species from all over the world and Frederiksberg Palace built as a summer residence by Charles IV who was inspired by Italian architecture. Now a military academy, it overlooks the extensive landscaped Frederiksberg Gardens with its follies, waterfalls, lakes and decorative buildings. The wide tree-lined avenue of Frederiksberg Allé connecting Vesterbrogade with the Frederiksberg Gardens has long been associated with theatres and entertainment. While a number of the earlier theatres are now closed, the Betty Nansen Theatre and Aveny-T are still active.\n\n====Other districts====\nNot far from Copenhagen Airport on the Kastrup coast, The Blue Planet completed in March 2013 now houses the national aquarium. With its 53 aquariums, it is the largest facility of its kind in Scandinavia. Grundtvig's Church, located in the northern suburb of Bispebjerg, was designed by P.V. Jensen Klint and completed in 1940. A rare example of Expressionist church architecture, its striking west façade is reminiscent of a church organ.\n","The Little Mermaid'' statue, an icon of the city and a popular tourist attraction\nApart from being the national capital, Copenhagen also serves as the cultural hub of Denmark and wider Scandinavia. Since the late 1990s, it has undergone a transformation from a modest Scandinavian capital into a metropolitan city of international appeal in the same league as Barcelona and Amsterdam. This is a result of huge investments in infrastructure and culture as well as the work of successful new Danish architects, designers and chefs. Copenhagen Fashion Week, the largest fashion event in Northern Europe, takes place every year in February and August.\n\n===Museums===\n\n\nCopenhagen has a wide array of museums of international standing. The National Museum, ''Nationalmuseet'', is Denmark's largest museum of archaeology and cultural history, comprising the histories of Danish and foreign cultures alike. Denmark's National Gallery (''Statens Museum for Kunst'') is the national art museum with collections dating from the 12th century to the present. In addition to Danish painters, artists represented in the collections include Rubens, Rembrandt, Picasso, Braque, Léger, Matisse, Emil Nolde, Olafur Eliasson, Elmgreen and Dragset, Superflex and Jens Haaning.\n\nNy Carlsberg Glyptotek art museum\nAnother important Copenhagen art museum is the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek founded by second generation Carlsberg philanthropist Carl Jacobsen and built around his personal collections. Its main focus is classical Egyptian, Roman and Greek sculptures and antiquities and a collection of Rodin sculptures, the largest outside France. Besides its sculpture collections, the museum also holds a comprehensive collection of paintings of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist painters such as Monet, Renoir, Cézanne, van Gogh and Toulouse-Lautrec as well as works by the Danish Golden Age painters.\n\nLouisiana is a museum of modern art situated on the coast just north of Copenhagen. It is located in the middle of a sculpture garden on a cliff overlooking Øresund. Its collection of over 3,000 items includes works by Picasso, Giacometti and Dubuffet. The Danish Design Museum is housed in the 18th-century former Frederiks Hospital and displays Danish design as well as international design and crafts.\n\nOther museums include: the Thorvaldsens Museum, dedicated to the oeuvre of romantic Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen who lived and worked in Rome; the Cisternerne museum dedicated to modern glass art, located in former cisterns that come complete with stalactites formed by the changing water levels; and the Ordrupgaard Museum, located just north of Copenhagen, which features 19th-century French and Danish art and is noted for its works by Paul Gauguin.\n\n===Entertainment and performing arts===\nThe Royal Danish Playhouse (left) and Opera House (background, right)\nThe new Copenhagen Concert Hall opened in January 2009. Designed by Jean Nouvel, it has four halls with the main auditorium seating 1,800 people. It serves as the home of the Danish National Symphony Orchestra and along with the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles is the most expensive concert hall ever built. Another important venue for classical music is the Tivoli Concert Hall located in the Tivoli Gardens. Designed by Henning Larsen, the Copenhagen Opera House (''Operaen'') opened in 2005. It is among the most modern opera houses in the world. The Royal Danish Theatre also stages opera in addition to its drama productions. It is also home to the Royal Danish Ballet. Founded in 1748 along with the theatre, it is one of the oldest ballet troupes in Europe, and is noted for its Bournonville style of ballet. \nThe Royal Danish Theatre main building\nCopenhagen has a significant jazz scene that has existed for many years. It developed when a number of American jazz musicians such as Ben Webster, Thad Jones, Richard Boone, Ernie Wilkins, Kenny Drew, Ed Thigpen, Bob Rockwell, Dexter Gordon, and others such as rock guitarist Link Wray came to live in Copenhagen during the 1960s. Every year in early July, Copenhagen's streets, squares, parks as well as cafés and concert halls fill up with big and small jazz concerts during the Copenhagen Jazz Festival. One of Europe's top jazz festivals, the annual event features around 900 concerts at 100 venues with over 200,000 guests from Denmark and around the world.\n\nThe largest venue for popular music in Copenhagen is Vega in the Vesterbro district. It was chosen as \"best concert venue in Europe\" by international music magazine ''Live''. The venue has three concert halls: the great hall, Store Vega, accommodates audiences of 1,550, the middle hall, Lille Vega, has space for 500 and Ideal Bar Live has a capacity of 250. Every September since 2006, the Festival of Endless Gratitude (FOEG) has taken place in Copenhagen. This festival focuses on indie counterculture, experimental pop music and left field music combined with visual arts exhibitions.\n\nCopenhagen is home to the \"K-Town\" punk and hardcore music community. This community developed around the underground scene venue Ungdomshuset in the late 90's punk scene, with punk- and hardcore acts such as Snipers, Amdi Petersens Armé, Gorilla Angreb, Young Wasteners, and No Hope For The Kids emerging as significant bands. The term \"K-town\" got international recognition within the punk-scene with the emergence of \"K-Town\" festivals. In 2001, the first of these was held in Ungdomshuset, on Jagtvej 69, Nørrebro, Copenhagen. The festival temporarily moved to Freetown Christiania after Ungdomshuset was evicted from its original location until a new Ungdomshuset location was opened on Dortheavej 61.\n\nFor free entertainment one can stroll along Strøget, especially between Nytorv and Højbro Plads, which in the late afternoon and evening is a bit like an impromptu three-ring circus with musicians, magicians, jugglers and other street performers.\n\n===Literature===\nCopenhagen's main public library\nMost of Denmarks's major publishing houses are based in Copenhagen. These include the book publishers Gyldendal and Akademisk Forlag and newspaper publishers Berlingske and Politiken (the latter also publishing books). Many of the most important contributors to Danish literature such as Hans Christian Andersen (1805–1875) with his fairy tales, the philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) and playwright Ludvig Holberg (1684–1754) spent much of their lives in Copenhagen. Novels set in Copenhagen include ''Baby'' (1973) by Kirsten Thorup, ''The Copenhagen Connection'' (1982) by Barbara Mertz, ''Number the Stars'' (1989) by Lois Lowry, ''Miss Smilla's Feeling for Snow'' (1992) and ''Borderliners'' (1993) by Peter Høeg, ''Music and Silence'' (1999) by Rose Tremain, ''The Danish Girl'' (2000) by David Ebershoff, and ''Sharpe's Prey'' (2001) by Bernard Cornwell. Michael Frayn's 1998 play ''Copenhagen'' about the meeting between the physicists Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg in 1941 is also set in the city. On 15–18 August 1973, an oral literature conference took place in Copenhagen as part of the 9th International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences.\n\nThe Royal Library, belonging to the University of Copenhagen, is the largest library in the Nordic countries with an almost complete collection of all printed Danish books since 1482. Founded in 1648, the Royal Library is located at four sites in the city, the main one being on the Slotsholmen waterfront. Copenhagen's public library network has over 20 outlets, the largest being the Central Library (''Københavns Hovedbibliotek'') on Krystalgade in the inner city.\n\n===Art===\nInterior of the National Gallery (Statens Museum for Kunst), combining new and old architecture\nCopenhagen has a wide selection of art museums and galleries displaying both historic works and more modern contributions. They include Statens Museum for Kunst, i.e. the Danish national art gallery, in the Østre Anlæg park, and the adjacent Hirschsprung Collection specialising in the 19th and early 20th century. Kunsthal Charlottenborg in the city centre exhibits national and international contemporary art. Den Frie Udstilling near the Østerport Station exhibits paintings created and selected by contemporary artists themselves rather than by the official authorities. The Arken Museum of Modern Art is located in southwestern Ishøj. Among artists who have painted scenes of Copenhagen are Martinus Rørbye (1803–1848), Christen Købke (1810–1848) and the prolific Paul Gustav Fischer (1860–1934).\n\nA number of notable sculptures can be seen in the city. In addition to ''The Little Mermaid'' on the waterfront, there are two historic equestrian statues in the city centre: Jacques Saly's ''Frederik V on Horseback'' (1771) in Amalienborg Square and the statue of Christian V on Kongens Nytorv created by Abraham-César Lamoureux in 1688 who was inspired by the statue of Louis XIII in Paris. Rosenborg Castle Gardens contains several sculptures and monuments including August Saabye's Hans Christian Andersen, Aksel Hansen's Echo, and Vilhelm Bissen's Dowager Queen Caroline Amalie.\n\nCopenhagen is believed to have invented the photomarathon photography competition, which has been held in the City each year since 1989.\n\n===Cuisine===\n\nNoma is an example of Copenhagen's renowned experimental restaurants, and has gained two Michelin stars.\n, Copenhagen has 15 Michelin-starred restaurants, the most of any Scandinavian city. The city is increasingly recognized internationally as a gourmet destination. These include Den Røde Cottage, Formel B Restaurant, Grønbech & Churchill, Søllerød Kro, Kadeau, Kiin Kiin (Denmark's first Michelin-starred Asian gourmet restaurant), the French restaurant Kong Hans Kælder, Relæ, Restaurant AOC, Noma (short for Danish: ''no''rdisk ''ma''d, English: Nordic food) with two Stars and Geranium with three. Noma, was ranked as the Best Restaurant in the World by ''Restaurant'' in 2010, 2011, 2012, and again in 2014, sparking interest in the New Nordic Cuisine.\n\nApart from the selection of upmarket restaurants, Copenhagen offers a great variety of Danish, ethnic and experimental restaurants. It is possible to find modest eateries serving open sandwiches, known as smørrebrød – a traditional, Danish lunch dish; however, most restaurants serve international dishes. Danish pastry can be sampled from any of numerous bakeries found in all parts of the city. The Copenhagen Baker's Association dates back to the 1290s and Denmark's oldest confectioner's shop still operating, ''Conditori La Glace'', was founded in 1870 in Skoubogade by Nicolaus Henningsen, a trained master baker from Flensburg.\n\nCopenhagen has long been associated with beer. Carlsberg beer has been brewed at the brewery's premises on the border between the Vesterbro and Valby districts since 1847 and has long been almost synonymous with Danish beer production. However, recent years have seen an explosive growth in the number of microbreweries so that Denmark today has more than 100 breweries, many of which are located in Copenhagen. Some like ''Nørrebro Bryghus'' also act as brewpubs where it is also possible to eat on the premises.\n\n===Nightlife and festivals===\nCopenhagen Pride Parade, 2008\nCopenhagen has one of the highest number of restaurants and bars per capita in the world. The nightclubs and bars stay open until 5 or 6 in the morning, some even longer. Denmark has a very liberal alcohol culture and a strong tradition for beer breweries, although binge drinking is frowned upon and the Danish Police take driving under the influence very seriously. Inner city areas such as Istedgade and Enghave Plads in Vesterbro, Sankt Hans Torv in Nørrebro and certain places in Frederiksberg are especially noted for their nightlife. Notable nightclubs include Bakken Kbh, ARCH (previously ZEN), Jolene, The Jane, Chateau Motel, KB3, At Dolores (previously Sunday Club), Rust, Vega Nightclub, Culture Box and Gefährlich, which also serves as a bar, café, restaurant, and art gallery.\n\nCopenhagen has several recurring community festivals, mainly in the summer. Copenhagen Carnival has taken place every year since 1982 during the Whitsun Holiday in Fælledparken and around the city with the participation of 120 bands, 2,000 dancers and 100,000 spectators. Since 2010, the old B&W Shipyard at Refshaleøen in the harbour has been the location for Copenhell, a heavy metal rock music festival. Copenhagen Pride is a gay pride festival taking place every year in August. The Pride has a series of different activities all over Copenhagen, but it is at the City Hall Square that most of the celebration takes place. During the Pride the square is renamed Pride Square. Copenhagen Distortion has emerged to be one of the biggest street festivals in Europe with 100.000 people joining to parties in the beginning of June every year.\n\n===Amusement parks===\nPantomime Theatre, opened in 1874, is the oldest building in the Tivoli Gardens\nCopenhagen has the two oldest amusement parks in the world.\n\nDyrehavsbakken, a fair-ground and pleasure-park established in 1583, is located in Klampenborg just north of Copenhagen in a forested area known as Dyrehaven. Created as an amusement park complete with rides, games and restaurants by Christian IV, it is the oldest surviving amusement park in the world. Pierrot (), a nitwit dressed in white with a scarlet grin wearing a boat-like hat while entertaining children, remains one of the park's key attractions. In Danish, Dyrehavsbakken is often abbreviated as ''Bakken''. There is no entrance fee to pay and Klampenborg Station on the C-line, is situated nearby.\n\nThe Tivoli Gardens is an amusement park and pleasure garden located in central Copenhagen between the City Hall Square and the Central Station. It opened in 1843, making it the second oldest amusement park in the world. Among its rides are the oldest still operating rollercoaster ''Rutschebanen'' from 1915 and the oldest ferris wheel still in use, opened in 1943. Tivoli Gardens also serves as a venue for various performing arts and as an active part of the cultural scene in Copenhagen.\n","The main building of the University of Copenhagen\nCopenhagen has over 94,000 students enrolled in its largest universities and institutions: University of Copenhagen (38,867 students), Copenhagen Business School (19,999 students), Metropolitan University College and University College Capital (10,000 students each), Technical University of Denmark (7,000 students), KEA (c. 4,500 students), IT University of Copenhagen (2,000 students) and Aalborg University – Copenhagen (2,300 students).\n\nThe University of Copenhagen is Denmark's oldest university founded in 1479. It attracts some 1,500 international and exchange students every year. The Academic Ranking of World Universities placed it 30th in the world in 2016.\n\nThe Technical University of Denmark is located in Lyngby in the northern outskirts of Copenhagen. In 2013, it was ranked as one of the leading technical universities in Northern Europe. The IT University is Denmark's youngest university, a mono-faculty institution focusing on technical, societal and business aspects of information technology.\n\nThe Danish Academy of Fine Arts has provided education in the arts for more than 250 years. It includes the historic School of Visual Arts, and has in later years come to include a School of Architecture, a School of Design and a School of Conservation. Copenhagen Business School (CBS) is an EQUIS-accredited business school located in Frederiksberg.\nThere are also branches of both University College Capital and Metropolitan University College inside and outside Copenhagen.\n","The city has a variety of sporting teams. The major football teams are the historically successful FC København and Brøndby. FC København plays at Parken in Østerbro. Formed in 1992, it is a merger of two older Copenhagen clubs, B 1903 (from the inner suburb Gentofte) and KB (from Frederiksberg). Brøndby plays at Brøndby Stadion in the inner suburb of Brøndbyvester. BK Frem is based in the southern part of Copenhagen (Sydhavnen, Valby). Other teams are FC Nordsjælland (from suburban Farum), Fremad Amager, B93, AB, Lyngby and Hvidovre IF.\n\nCopenhagen Marathon 2008\nCopenhagen has several handball teams—a sport which is particularly popular in Denmark. Of clubs playing in the \"highest\" leagues, there are Ajax, Ydun, and HIK (Hellerup). The København Håndbold women's club has recently been established. Copenhagen also has ice hockey teams, of which three play in the top league, Rødovre Mighty Bulls, Herlev Eagles and Hvidovre Ligahockey all inner suburban clubs. Copenhagen Ice Skating Club founded in 1869 is the oldest ice hockey team in Denmark but is no longer in the top league.\n\nRugby union is also played in the Danish capital with teams such as CSR-Nanok, Copenhagen Business School Sport Rugby, Frederiksberg RK, Exiles RUFC and Rugbyklubben Speed. Rugby league is now played in Copenhagen, with the national team playing out of Gentofte Stadion. The Danish Australian Football League, based in Copenhagen is the largest Australian rules football competition outside of the English-speaking world.\n\nCopenhagen Marathon, Copenhagen's annual marathon event, was established in 1980.\nRound Christiansborg Open Water Swim Race is a open water swimming competition taking place each year in late August. This amateur event is combined with a Danish championship. In 2009 the event included a FINA World Cup competition in the morning. Copenhagen hosted the 2011 UCI Road World Championships in September 2011, taking advantage of its bicycle-friendly infrastructure. It was the first time that Denmark had hosted the event since 1956, when it was also held in Copenhagen.\n","\n\nCopenhagen Airport, Kastrup\nThe greater Copenhagen area has a very well established transportation infrastructure making it a hub in Northern Europe. Copenhagen Airport, opened in 1925, is Scandinavia's largest airport, located in Kastrup on the island of Amager. It is connected to the city centre by metro and main line railway services. October 2013 was a record month with 2.2 million passengers, and November 2013 figures reveal that the number of passengers is increasing by some 3% annually, about 50% more than the European average.\n\nS-train at Copenhagen Central Station\nCopenhagen has an extensive road network including motorways connecting the city to other parts of Denmark and to Sweden over the Øresund Bridge. The car is still the most popular form of transport within the city itself, representing two-thirds of all distances travelled. This can however lead to serious congestion in rush hour traffic.\nCopenhagen is also served by a daily ferry connection to Oslo in Norway. In 2012, Copenhagen Harbour handled 372 cruise ships and 840,000 passengers.\n\nThe intense use of bicycles here illustrated at the Christianshavn Metro Station\nThe Copenhagen S-Train, Copenhagen Metro and the regional train networks are used by about half of the city's passengers, the remainder using bus services. Nørreport Station near the city centre serves passengers travelling by main-line rail, S-train, regional train, metro and bus. Some 750,000 passengers make use of public transport facilities every day. Copenhagen Central Station is the hub of the DSB railway network serving Denmark and international destinations.\n\nThe Danish capital is known as one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world, with bicycles actually outnumbering its inhabitants. In 2012 some 36% of all working or studying city-dwellers cycled to work, school, or university. With 1.27 million km covered every working day by Copenhagen's cyclists (including both residents and commuters), and 75% of Copenhageners cycling throughout the year. The city's bicycle paths are extensive and well used, boasting of cycle lanes not shared with cars or pedestrians, and sometimes have their own signal systems – giving the cyclists a lead of a couple of seconds to accelerate.\n\n","\n\nPromoting health is an extremely important issue for Copenhagen's municipal authorities. Central to its sustainability mission is its \"Long Live Copenhagen\" (''Længe Leve København'') scheme in which it has the goal of increasing the life expectancy of citizens, improving quality of life through better standards of health, and encouraging more productive lives and equal opportunities. The city has targets to encourage people to exercise regularly and to reduce the number who smoke and consume alcohol.\n\nRigshospitalet is one of the largest hospitals in Denmark.\nCopenhagen University Hospital forms a conglomerate of several hospitals in Region Hovedstaden and Region Sjælland, together with the faculty of health sciences at the University of Copenhagen; Rigshospitalet and Bispebjerg Hospital in Copenhagen belong to this group of university hospitals. Rigshospitalet began operating in March 1757 as Frederiks Hospital, and became state-owned in 1903. With 1,120 beds, Rigshospitalet has responsibility for 65,000 inpatients and approximately 420,000 outpatients annually. It seeks to be the number one specialist hospital in the country, with an extensive team of researchers into cancer treatment, surgery and radiotherapy. In addition to its 8,000 personnel, the hospital has training and hosting functions. It benefits from the presence of in-service students of medicine and other healthcare sciences, as well as scientists working under a variety of research grants. The hospital became internationally famous as the location of Lars von Trier's television horror mini-series ''The Kingdom''. Bispebjerg Hospital was built in 1913, and serves about 400,000 people in the Greater Copenhagen area, with some 3,000 employees. Other large hospitals in the city include Amager Hospital (1997), Herlev Hospital (1976), Hvidovre Hospital (1970), and Gentofte Hospital (1927).\n","Aller Media conglomerate building in Havneholm\nMany Danish media corporations are located in Copenhagen. DR, the major Danish public service broadcasting corporation collected their activities in a new headquarters, DR Byen, in 2006 and 2007. Similarly TV2 which is based in Odense has concentrated its Copenhagen activities in a modern media house in Teglholmen. The two national daily newspapers ''Politiken'' and ''Berlingske Tidende'' and the two tabloids ''Ekstra Bladet'' and ''B.T.'' are based in Copenhagen. ''Kristeligt Dagblad'' is based in Copenhagen and is published six days a week. Other important media corporations include Aller Media which is the largest publisher of weekly and monthly magazines in Scandinavia, the Egmont media group and Gyldendal, the largest Danish publisher of books.\n\nCopenhagen also has a sizable film and television industry. Nordisk Film, established in Valby, Copenhagen in 1906 is the oldest continuously operating film production company in the world. In 1992 it merged with the Egmont media group and currently runs the 17-screen Palads Cinema in Copenhagen. Filmbyen (movie city), located in a former military camp in the suburb of Hvidovre, houses several movie companies and studios. Among the movie companies is Zentropa, co-owned by Danish movie director Lars von Trier who is behind several international movie productions as well as a founding force behind the Dogme Movement. CPH:PIX is Copenhagen's international feature film festival, established in 2009 as a fusion of the 20-year-old Natfilm festival and the four-year-old CIFF. The CPH:PIX festival takes place in mid-April. CPH:DOX is Copenhagen's international documentary film festival, every year in November. On top of its documentary film programme of over 100 films, CPH:DOX includes a wide event programme with dozens of events, concerts, exhibitions and parties all over town.\n\n\n","\nCopenhagen is twinned or cooperating with several cities, including:\n\n\n* Beijing, China\n\n* Paris, France (friendship and cooperation agreement only)\n\n* Reykjavík, Iceland\n\n* Campeche, Mexico\n\n","\n*:Category: People from Copenhagen\n*2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen\n*Architecture in Copenhagen\n*Copenhagen Climate Council\n*Outline of Denmark\n*Ports of the Baltic Sea\n","\n","\n","*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n","\n","* VisitCopenhagen.dk – Official VisitCopenhagen tourism website\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n'''Copenhagen''' ( ; ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark. The city has a population of 763,908 (), of whom 601,448 live in the Municipality of Copenhagen. The larger urban area has a population of 1,280,371 (), while the Copenhagen metropolitan area has just over 2 million inhabitants. Copenhagen is situated on the eastern coast of the island of Zealand; another small portion of the city is located on Amager, and is separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the strait of Øresund. The Øresund Bridge connects the two cities by rail and road.\\n\\nOriginally a Viking fishing village founded in the 10th century, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark in the early 15th century. Beginning in the 17th century it consolidated its position as a regional centre of power with its institutions, defences and armed forces. After suffering from the effects of plague and fire in the 18th century, the city underwent a period of redevelopment. This included construction of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden and founding of such cultural institutions as the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts. After further disasters in the early 19th century when Nelson attacked the Dano-Norwegian fleet and bombarded the city, rebuilding during the Danish Golden Age brought a Neoclassical look to Copenhagen's architecture. Later, following the Second World War, the Finger Plan fostered the development of housing and businesses along the five urban railway routes stretching out from the city centre.\\n\\nSince the turn of the 21st century, Copenhagen has seen strong urban and cultural development, facilitated by investment in its institutions and infrastructure. The city is the cultural, economic and governmental centre of Denmark; it is one of the major financial centres of Northern Europe with the Copenhagen Stock Exchange. Copenhagen's economy has seen rapid developments in the service sector, especially through initiatives in information technology, pharmaceuticals and clean technology. Since the completion of the Øresund Bridge, Copenhagen has become increasingly integrated with the Swedish province of Scania and its largest city, Malmö, forming the Øresund Region. With a number of bridges connecting the various districts, the cityscape is characterized by parks, promenades and waterfronts. Copenhagen's landmarks such as Tivoli Gardens, ''The Little Mermaid'' statue, the Amalienborg and Christiansborg palaces, Rosenborg Castle Gardens, Frederik's Church, and many museums, restaurants and nightclubs are significant tourist attractions.\\n\\nCopenhagen is home to the University of Copenhagen, the Technical University of Denmark and Copenhagen Business School. The University of Copenhagen, founded in 1479, is the oldest university in Denmark. Copenhagen is home to the FC København and Brøndby football clubs. The annual Copenhagen Marathon was established in 1980. Copenhagen is one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world. The Copenhagen Metro launched in 2002 serves central Copenhagen while the Copenhagen S-train network serves and connects central Copenhagen to its outlying boroughs. Serving roughly two million passengers a month, Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup, is the busiest airport in the Nordic countries.\\n\\n\\n\",\n \"The name of the city reflects its origin as a harbour and a place of commerce. The original designation, from which the contemporary Danish name derives, was ''Køpmannæhafn'', meaning \\\"merchants' harbour\\\", often simply ''Hafn'' or ''Havn'' (\\\"harbour\\\"). The literal English translation would be \\\"Chapman's haven\\\". The English name for the city was adapted from its Low German name, ''Kopenhagen''. The abbreviations ''Kbh.'' or ''Kbhvn'' are often used in Danish for ''København'', and ''kbh.'' for ''københavnsk'' (of Copenhagen).\\n\\nThe chemical element hafnium is named after Copenhagen (Latin name ''Hafnia''), where it was discovered. The bacterium ''Hafnia'' is also named after Copenhagen: Vagn Møller of the State Serum Institute in Copenhagen named it in 1954.\\n\",\n \"\\nReconstruction of Copenhagen \\n\\n===Early history===\\nAlthough the earliest historical records of Copenhagen are from the end of the 12th century, recent archaeological finds in connection with work on the city's metropolitan rail system revealed the remains of a large merchant's mansion near today's Kongens Nytorv from c. 1020. Excavations in Pilestræde have also led to the discovery of a well from the late 12th century. The remains of an ancient church, with graves dating to the 11th century, have been unearthed near where Strøget meets Rådhuspladsen.\\n\\nThese finds indicate that Copenhagen's origins as a city go back at least to the 11th century. Substantial discoveries of flint tools in the area provide evidence of human settlements dating to the Stone Age. Many historians believe the town dates to the late Viking Age, and was possibly founded by Sweyn I Forkbeard. \\nThe natural harbour and good herring stocks seem to have attracted fishermen and merchants to the area on a seasonal basis from the 11th century and more permanently in the 13th century. The first habitations were probably centred on Gammel Strand (literally \\\"old shore\\\") in the 11th century or even earlier.\\n\\nThe earliest written mention of the town was in the 12th century when Saxo Grammaticus in Gesta Danorum referred to it as ''Portus Mercatorum'', meaning Merchants' Harbour or, in the Danish of the time, ''Købmannahavn''. Traditionally, Copenhagen's founding has been dated to Bishop Absalon's construction of a modest fortress on the little island of Slotsholmen in 1167 where Christiansborg Palace stands today. The construction of the fortress was in response to attacks by Wendish pirates who plagued the coastline during the 12th century. Defensive ramparts and moats were completed and by 1177 St. Clemens Church had been built. Attacks by the Germans continued, and after the original fortress was eventually destroyed by the marauders, islanders replaced it with Copenhagen Castle.\\n\\n===Middle Ages===\\n\\nIn 1186, a letter from Pope Urban III states that the castle of ''Hafn'' (Copenhagen) and its surrounding lands, including the town of Hafn, were given to Absalon, Bishop of Roskilde 1158–1191 and Archbishop of Lund 1177–1201, by King Valdemar I. On Absalon's death, the property was to come into the ownership of the Bishopric of Roskilde. Around 1200, the Church of Our Lady was constructed on higher ground to the northeast of the town, which began to develop around it.\\n\\nAs the town became more prominent, it was repeatedly attacked by the Hanseatic League. As the fishing industry thrived in Copenhagen, particularly in the trade of herring, the city began expanding to the north of Slotsholmen. In 1254, it received a charter as a city under Bishop Jakob Erlandsen who garnered support from the local fishing merchants against the king by granting them special privileges. In the mid 1330s, the first land assessment of the city was published.\\n\\nWith the establishment of the Kalmar Union (1397–1523) between Denmark, Norway and Sweden, by about 1416 Copenhagen had emerged as the capital of Denmark when Eric of Pomerania moved his seat to Copenhagen Castle. The University of Copenhagen was inaugurated on 1 June 1479 by King Christian I, following approval from Pope Sixtus IV. This makes it the oldest university in Denmark and one of the oldest in Europe. Originally controlled by the Catholic Church, the university's role in society was forced to change during the Reformation in Denmark in the late 1530s.\\n\\n===16th and 17th centuries===\\n\\n\\nIn disputes prior to the Reformation of 1536, the city which had been faithful to Christian II, who was Catholic, was successfully besieged in 1523 by the forces of Frederik I, who supported Lutheranism. Copenhagen's defences were reinforced with a series of towers along the city wall. After an extended siege from July 1535 to July 1536, during which the city supported Christian II's alliance with Malmö and Lübeck, it was finally forced to capitulate to Christian III. During the second half of the century, the city prospered from increased trade across the Baltic supported by Dutch shipping. Christoffer Valkendorff, a high-ranking statesman, defended the city's interests and contributed to its development. The Netherlands had also become primarily Protestant, as were northern German states.\\n\\nDuring the reign of Christian IV between 1588 and 1648, Copenhagen had dramatic growth as a city. On his initiative at the beginning of the 17th century, two important buildings were completed on Slotsholmen: the Tøjhus Arsenal and Børsen, the stock exchange. To foster international trade, the East India Company was founded in 1616. To the east of the city, inspired by Dutch planning, the king developed the district of Christianshavn with canals and ramparts. It was initially intended to be a fortified trading centre but ultimately became part of Copenhagen. Christian IV also sponsored an array of ambitious building projects including Rosenborg Slot and the Rundetårn. In 1658–59, the city withstood a siege by the Swedes under Charles X and successfully repelled a major assault.\\n\\nBy 1661, Copenhagen had asserted its position as capital of Denmark and Norway. All the major institutions were located there, as was the fleet and most of the army. The defences were further enhanced with the completion of the Citadel in 1664 and the extension of Christianshavns Vold with its bastions in 1692, leading to the creation of a new base for the fleet at Nyholm.\\n\\n===18th century===\\nA mansion at Amalienborg in Frederiksstaden (1750), part of the Amalienborg Palace\\n\\nCopenhagen lost around 22,000 of its population of 65,000 to the plague in 1711. The city was also struck by two major fires which destroyed much of its infrastructure. The Copenhagen Fire of 1728 was the largest in the history of Copenhagen. It began on the evening of 20 October, and continued to burn until the morning of 23 October, destroying approximately 28% of the city, leaving some 20% of the population homeless. No less than 47% of the medieval section of the city was completely lost. Along with the 1795 fire, it is the main reason that few traces of the old town can be found in the modern city.\\n\\nA substantial amount of rebuilding followed. In 1733, work began on the royal residence of Christiansborg Palace which was completed in 1745. In 1749, development of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden was initiated. Designed by Nicolai Eigtved in the Rococo style, its centre contained the mansions which now form Amalienborg Palace. Major extensions to the naval base of Holmen were undertaken while the city's cultural importance was enhanced with the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts.\\n\\nIn the second half of the 18th century, Copenhagen benefitted from Denmark's neutrality during the wars between Europe's main powers, allowing it to play an important role in trade between the states around the Baltic Sea. After Christiansborg was destroyed by fire in 1794 and another fire caused serious damage to the city in 1795, work began on the classical Copenhagen landmark of Højbro Plads while Nytorv and Gammel Torv were converged.\\n\\n===19th century===\\nOn 2 April 1801, a British fleet under the command of Admiral Sir Hyde Parker defeated a Danish-Norwegian fleet anchored near Copenhagen. Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson led the main attack. He famously disobeyed Parker's order to withdraw, destroying many of the Dano-Norwegian ships before a truce was agreed. Copenhagen is often considered to be Nelson's hardest-fought battle, surpassing even the heavy fighting at Trafalgar. It was during this battle that Lord Nelson was said to have \\\"put the telescope to the blind eye\\\" in order not to see Admiral Parker's signal to cease fire.\\nGottlieb Bindesbøll's Thorvaldsen Museum (1848)\\nThe Second Battle of Copenhagen (or the Bombardment of Copenhagen) (16 August – 5 September 1807) was from a British point of view a preemptive attack on Copenhagen, targeting the civilian population in order to seize the Dano-Norwegian fleet. But from a Danish point of view the battle was a terror bombardment on their capital. Particularly notable was the use of incendiary Congreve rockets (containing phosphorus, which cannot be extinguished with water) that randomly hit the city. Few houses with straw roofs remained after the bombardment. The largest church, ''Vor frue kirke'', was destroyed by the sea artillery. Several historians consider this battle the first terror attack against a major European city in modern times.\\n\\nSlotsholmen canal, as seen from the Børsen building (). In the background from left to right: Church of the Holy Ghost, Trinitatis Complex, St. Nicholas Church and Holmen Church The British landed 30,000 men, they surrounded Copenhagen and the attack continued for the next three days, killing some 2,000 civilians and destroying most of the city. The devastation was so great because Copenhagen relied on an old defence-line whose limited range could not reach the British ships and their longer-range artillery.\\n\\nDespite the disasters of the early 19th century, Copenhagen experienced a period of intense cultural creativity known as the Danish Golden Age. Painting prospered under C.W. Eckersberg and his students while C.F. Hansen and Gottlieb Bindesbøll brought a Neoclassical look to the city's architecture. In the early 1850s, the ramparts of the city were opened to allow new housing to be built around The Lakes () that bordered the old defences to the west. By the 1880s, the districts of Nørrebro and Vesterbro developed to accommodate those who came from the provinces to participate in the city's industrialization. This dramatic increase of space was long overdue, as not only were the old ramparts out of date as a defence system but bad sanitation in the old city had to be overcome. From 1886, the west rampart (Vestvolden) was flattened, allowing major extensions to the harbour leading to the establishment of the Freeport of Copenhagen 1892–94. Electricity came in 1892 with electric trams in 1897. The spread of housing to areas outside the old ramparts brought about a huge increase in the population. In 1840, Copenhagen was inhabited by approximately 120,000 people. By 1901, it had some 400,000 inhabitants.\\n\\n===20th century===\\nCentral Copenhagen in 1939\\nBy the beginning of the 20th century, Copenhagen had become a thriving industrial and administrative city. With its new city hall and railway station, its centre was drawn towards the west. New housing developments grew up in Brønshøj and Valby while Frederiksberg became an enclave within the city of Copenhagen. The northern part of Amager and Valby were also incorporated into the City of Copenhagen in 1901–02.\\n\\nAs a result of Denmark's neutrality in the First World War, Copenhagen prospered from trade with both Britain and Germany while the city's defences were kept fully manned by some 40,000 soldiers for the duration of the war.\\n\\nIn the 1920s there were serious shortages of goods and housing. Plans were drawn up to demolish the old part of Christianshavn and to get rid of the worst of the city's slum areas. However, it was not until the 1930s that substantial housing developments ensued, with the demolishment of one side of Christianhavn's Torvegade in order to build five large blocks of flats.\\n\\n====World War II====\\n\\nThe RAF's bombing of Gestapo headquarters in March 1945 was coordinated with the Danish resistance movement\\nPeople celebrating the liberation of Denmark at Strøget in Copenhagen, 5 May 1945. Germany surrendered two days later \\n\\nDuring World War II in Denmark, Copenhagen was occupied by German troops along with the rest of the country from 9 April 1940 until 4 May 1945. German leader Adolf Hitler hoped that Denmark would be \\\"a model protectorate\\\" and initially the Nazi authorities sought to arrive at an understanding with the Danish government. The 1943 Danish parliamentary election was also allowed to take place, with only the Communist Party excluded. But in August 1943, after the government's collaboration with the occupation forces collapsed, several ships were sunk in Copenhagen Harbor by the Royal Danish Navy to prevent their use by the Germans. Around that time the Nazis started to arrest Jews, although most managed to escape to Sweden.\\n\\nIn 1945 Ole Lippman, leader of the Danish section of the Special Operations Executive, invited the British Royal Air Force to assist their operations by attacking Nazi headquarters in Copenhagen. Accordingly, Air Vice-Marshal Sir Basil Embry drew up plans for a spectacular precision attack on the Sicherheitsdienst and Gestapo building, the former offices of the Shell Oil Company. Political prisoners were kept in the attic to prevent an air raid, so the RAF had to bomb the lower levels of the building.\\n\\nThe attack, known as \\\"Operation Carthage\\\", came on 22 March 1945, in three small waves. In the first wave, all six planes (carrying one bomb each) hit their target, but one of the aircraft crashed near Frederiksberg Girls School. Because of this crash four of the planes in the two following waves assumed the school was the military target, and aimed their bombs at the school leading to the death of 123 civilians (of which 87 were schoolchildren). However, 18 of the 26 political prisoners in the Shell Building managed to escape while the Gestapo archives were completely destroyed.\\n\\nOn 8 May 1945 Copenhagen was officially liberated by British troops commanded by Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery who supervised the surrender of 30,000 Germans situated around the capital.\\n\\n====Post-war decades====\\nBlack Diamond (1999)\\nShortly after the end of the war, an innovative urban development project known as the Finger Plan was introduced in 1947, encouraging the creation of new housing and businesses interspersed with large green areas along five \\\"fingers\\\" stretching out from the city centre along the S-train routes. With the expansion of the welfare state and women entering the work force, schools, nurseries, sports facilities and hospitals were established across the city. As a result of student unrest in the late 1960s, the former Bådsmandsstræde Barracks in Christianshavn was occupied, leading to the establishment of Freetown Christiania in September 1971.\\n\\nØresund Bridge (1999)\\nMotor traffic in the city grew significantly and in 1972 the trams were replaced by buses. From the 1960s, on the initiative of the young architect Jan Gehl, pedestrian streets and cycle tracks were created in the city centre. Activity in the port of Copenhagen declined with the closure of the Holmen naval base. Copenhagen Airport underwent considerable expansion, becoming a hub for the Nordic countries. In the 1990s, large-scale housing developments were realized in the harbour area and in the west of Amager. The national library's Black Diamond building on the waterfront was completed in 1999.\\n\\n===2000 to present===\\nCopenhagen Opera House (2004)\\nSince the summer of 2000, Copenhagen and the Swedish city of Malmö have been connected by the Øresund Bridge, which carries rail and road traffic. As a result, Copenhagen has become the centre of a larger metropolitan area spanning both nations. The bridge has brought about considerable changes in the public transport system and has led to the extensive redevelopment of Amager. The city's service and trade sectors have developed while a number of banking and financial institutions have been established. Educational institutions have also gained importance, especially the University of Copenhagen with its 35,000 students. Another important development for the city has been the Copenhagen Metro, the underground railway system which opened in 2000 with additions until 2007, transporting some 54 million passengers by 2011.\\n\\nOn the cultural front, the lavish Copenhagen Opera House, a gift to the city from the shipping magnate Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller on behalf of the A.P. Møller foundation, was completed in 2004. In December 2009 Copenhagen gained international prominence when it hosted the worldwide climate meeting COP15.\\n\\n\",\n \"Satellite view\\nA view over Freetown Christiania\\nCopenhagen is part of the Øresund Region, which consists of Zealand, Lolland-Falster and Bornholm in Denmark and Scania in Sweden. It is located on the eastern shore of the island of Zealand, partly on the island of Amager and on a number of natural and artificial islets between the two. Copenhagen faces the Øresund to the east, the strait of water that separates Denmark from Sweden, and which connects the North Sea with the Baltic Sea. The Swedish towns of Malmö and Landskrona lie on the Swedish side of the sound directly across from Copenhagen. By road, Copenhagen is northwest of Malmö, Sweden, northeast of Næstved, northeast of Odense, east of Esbjerg and southeast of Aarhus by sea and road via Sjællands Odde.\\n\\nThe city centre lies in the area originally defined by the old ramparts, which are still referred to as the Fortification Ring (''Fæstningsringen'') and kept as a partial green band around it. Then come the late 19th and early 20th century residential neighbourhoods of Østerbro, Nørrebro, Vesterbro and Amagerbro. The outlying areas of Kongens Enghave, Valby, Vigerslev, Vanløse, Brønshøj, Utterslev and Sundby followed from 1920 to 1960. They consist mainly of residential housing and apartments often enhanced with parks and greenery.\\n\\n===Topography===\\nThe central area of the city consists of relatively low-lying flat ground formed by moraines from the last ice age while the hilly areas to the north and west frequently rise to above sea level. The slopes of Valby and Brønshøj reach heights of over , divided by valleys running from the northeast to the southwest. Close to the centre are the Copenhagen lakes of Sortedams Sø, Peblinge Sø and Sankt Jørgens Sø.\\n\\nCopenhagen rests on a subsoil of flint-layered limestone deposited in the Danian period some 60 to 66 million years ago. Some greensand from the Selandian is also present. There are a few faults in the area, the most important of which is the Carlsberg fault which runs northwest to southeast through the centre of the city. During the last ice age, glaciers eroded the surface leaving a layer of moraines up to thick.\\n\\n===Beaches===\\nAmager Strandpark\\nAmager Strandpark, which opened in 2005, is a long artificial island, with a total of of beaches. It is located just 15 minutes by bicycle or a few minutes by metro from the city centre. In Klampenborg, about 10 kilometers from downtown Copenhagen, is Bellevue Beach. It is long and has both lifeguards and freshwater showers on the beach.\\n\\nThe beaches are supplemented by a system of Harbour Baths along the Copenhagen waterfront. The first and most popular of these is located at Islands Brygge and has won international acclaim for its design.\\n\\n===Climate===\\nFrederiksberg Palace in the snow\\nCopenhagen is in the oceanic climate zone (Köppen: ''Cfb ''). Its weather is subject to low-pressure systems from the Atlantic which result in unstable conditions throughout the year. Apart from slightly higher rainfall from July to September, precipitation is moderate. While snowfall occurs mainly from late December to early March, there can also be rain, with average temperatures around the freezing point.\\n\\nJune is the sunniest month of the year with an average of about eight hours of sunshine a day. July is the warmest month with an average daytime high of 21 °C. By contrast, the average hours of sunshine are less than two per day in November and only one and a half per day from December to February. In the spring, it gets warmer again with from four to six hours of sunshine per day from March to May. February is the driest month of the year. Exceptional weather conditions can bring as much as 50 cm of snow to Copenhagen in a 24-hour period during the winter months while summer temperatures have been known to rise to heights of .\\n\\nBecause of Copenhagen's northern latitude, the number of daylight hours varies considerably between summer and winter. On the summer solstice, the sun rises at 04:26 and sets at 21:58, providing 17 hours 32 minutes of daylight. On the winter solstice, it rises at 08:37 and sets at 15:39 with 7 hours and 1 minute of daylight. There is therefore a difference of 10 hours and 31 minutes in the length of days and nights between the summer and winter solstices.\\n\\n\\n\",\n \"City Hall of Copenhagen Municipality\\n\\nAccording to Statistics Denmark, the urban area of Copenhagen () consists of the municipalities of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Albertslund, Brøndby, Gentofte, Gladsaxe, Glostrup, Herlev, Hvidovre, Lyngby-Taarbæk, Rødovre, Tårnby and Vallensbæk as well as parts of Ballerup, Rudersdal and Furesø municipalities, along with the cities of Ishøj and Greve Strand. They are located in the Capital Region (). Municipalities are responsible for a wide variety of public services, which include land-use planning, environmental planning, public housing, management and maintenance of local roads, and social security. Municipal administration is also conducted by a mayor, a council, and an executive.\\n\\nCopenhagen Municipality is by far the largest municipality, with the historic city at its core. The seat of Copenhagen's municipal council is the Copenhagen City Hall (''''), which is situated on City Hall Square. The second largest municipality is Frederiksberg, an enclave within Copenhagen Municipality.\\n\\nCopenhagen Municipality is divided into ten districts (''bydele''): Indre By, Østerbro, Nørrebro, Vesterbro/Kongens Enghave, Valby, Vanløse, Brønshøj-Husum, Bispebjerg, Amager Øst, and Amager Vest. Neighbourhoods of Copenhagen include Slotsholmen, Frederiksstaden, Islands Brygge, Holmen, Christiania, Carlsberg, Sluseholmen, Amagerbro, Ørestad, Nordhavnen, Bellahøj, Brønshøj, Ryparken, and Vigerslev.\\n\\n===Law and order===\\n\\nMost of Denmark's top legal courts and institutions are based in Copenhagen. A modern style court of justice, ''Hof- og Stadsretten'', was introduced in Denmark, specifically for Copenhagen, by Johann Friedrich Struensee in 1771. Now known as the City Court of Copenhagen (''Københavns Byret''), it is the largest of the 24 city courts in Denmark with jurisdiction over the municipalities of Copenhagen, Dragør and Tårnby. With its 42 judges, it has a Probate Division, an Enforcement Division and a Registration and Notorial Acts Division while bankruptcy is handled by the Maritime and Commercial Court of Copenhagen. Established in 1862, the Maritime and Commercial Court (''Sø- og Handelsretten'') also hears commercial cases including those relating to trade marks, marketing practices and competition for the whole of Denmark. Denmark's Supreme Court (''Højesteret''), located in Christiansborg Palace on Prins Jørgens Gård in the centre of Copenhagen, is the country's final court of appeal. Handling civil and criminal cases from the subordinate courts, it has two chambers which each hear all types of cases.\\n\\nThe Danish National Police and Copenhagen Police headquarters is situated in the Neoclassical-inspired Politigården building built in 1918–24 under architects Hack Kampmann and Holger Alfred Jacobsen. The building also contains administration, management, emergency department and radio service offices. In their efforts to deal with drugs, the police have noted considerable success in the two special drug consumption rooms opened by the city where addicts can use sterile needles and receive help from nurses if necessary. Use of these rooms does not lead to prosecution; the city treats drug use as a public health issue, not a criminal one.\\n\\nThe Copenhagen Fire Department forms the largest municipal fire brigade in Denmark with some 500 fire and ambulance personnel, 150 administration and service workers, and 35 workers in prevention. The brigade began as the Copenhagen Royal Fire Brigade on 9 July 1687 under King Christian V. After the passing of the Copenhagen Fire Act on 18 May 1868, on 1 August 1870 the Copenhagen Fire Brigade became a municipal institution in its own right. The fire department has its headquarters in the Copenhagen Central Fire Station which was designed by Ludvig Fenger in the Historicist style and inaugurated in 1892.\\n\\n=== Environmental planning ===\\n\\n\\nCopenhagen is recognized as one of the most environmentally friendly cities in the world. As a result of its commitment to high environmental standards, Copenhagen has been praised for its green economy, ranked as the top green city for the second time in the 2014 ''Global Green Economy Index (GGEI)''. In 2001 a large offshore wind farm was built just off the coast of Copenhagen at Middelgrunden. It produces about 4% of the city's energy. Years of substantial investment in sewage treatment have improved water quality in the harbour to an extent that the inner harbour can be used for swimming with facilities at a number of locations.\\nMiddelgrunden offshore wind farm\\n\\nCopenhagen aims to be carbon-neutral by 2025. Commercial and residential buildings are to reduce electricity consumption by 20 percent and 10 percent respectively, and total heat consumption is to fall by 20 percent by 2025. Renewable energy features such as solar panels are becoming increasingly common in the newest buildings in Copenhagen. District heating will be carbon-neutral by 2025, by waste incineration and biomass. New buildings must now be constructed according to Low Energy Class ratings and in 2020 near net-zero energy buildings. By 2025, 75% of trips should be made on foot, by bike, or by using public transit. The city plans that 20–30% of cars will run on electricity or biofuel by 2025. The investment is estimated at $472 million public funds and $4.78 billion private funds.\\n\\nThe city's architectural planning authorities continue to take full account of these priorities. Special attention is given both to climate issues and efforts to ensure maximum application of low-energy standards. Priorities include sustainable drainage systems, recycling rainwater, green roofs and efficient waste management solutions. In city planning, streets and squares are to be designed to encourage cycling and walking rather than driving.\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n\\n First-generation immigrants by country of origin (Q12016)\\n\\n '''Nationality''' \\n '''Population''' \\n\\n Pakistan \\n5,409\\n\\n Morocco \\n5,197\\n\\n Poland \\n4,767\\n\\n Germany \\n4,560\\t\\n\\n Iraq \\n4,407\\n\\n Turkey \\n4,168\\t\\n\\n Sweden \\n4,471\\n\\n Norway \\n3,836\\n\\n United Kingdom \\n3,292\\n\\n United States \\n3,244\\n\\n Italy \\n3,098\\t\\t\\n\\n China \\n3,002\\t\\t\\n\\n\\n\\nCopenhagen is the most populous city in Denmark and one of the most populous in the Nordic countries. For statistical purposes, Statistics Denmark considers the City of Copenhagen (''Byen København'') to consist of the Municipality of Copenhagen plus three adjacent municipalities, viz. Dragør, Frederiksberg, and Tårnby. Their combined population stands at 763,908 ().\\n\\nThe Municipality of Copenhagen is by far the most populous in the country and one of the one of the most populous Nordic municipalities with 601,448 inhabitants (). There was a demographic boom in the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, largely due to immigration to Denmark. According to figures from the first quarter of 2016, approximately 76% of the municipality's population was of Danish descent, defined as having at least one parent who was born in Denmark and has Danish citizenship. Much of the remaining 24% were of a foreign background, defined as immigrants (18%) or descendants of recent immigrants (6%). There are no official statistics on ethnic groups. The table to the right shows the most common countries of birth of Copenhagen residents.\\n\\nAccording to Statistics Denmark, Copenhagen's urban area has a larger population of 1,280,371 (). The urban area consists of the municipalities of Copenhagen and Frederiksberg plus 16 of the 20 municipalities of the former counties Copenhagen and Roskilde, though five of them only partially. Metropolitan Copenhagen has a total of 2,016,285 inhabitants (). The area of Metropolitan Copenhagen is defined by the Finger Plan. Since the opening of the Øresund Bridge in 2000, commuting between Zealand and Scania in Sweden has increased rapidly, leading to a wider, integrated area. Known as the Øresund Region, it has 3.8 million inhabitants (of whom 2.5 million live in the Danish part of the region).\\n\\n===Religion===\\n\\nChurch of Our Lady, situated on Frue Plads\\nWith 58.1% a majority of those living in Copenhagen are members of the Lutheran Church of Denmark which is 1.2% lower than one year earlier according to 2017 figures. The National Cathedral, the Church of Our Lady, is one of the dozens of churches in Copenhagen. There are also several other Christian communities in the city, of which the largest is Roman Catholic.\\n\\nForeign migration to Copenhagen, rising over the last three decades, has contributed to increasing religious diversity; the Grand Mosque of Copenhagen, the first in Denmark, opened in 2014. Islam is the second largest religion in Copenhagen, accounting for approximately 10% of the population. While there are no official statistics, a significant portion of the estimated 175,000–200,000 Muslims in the country live in the Copenhagen urban area, with the highest concentration in Nørrebro and the Vestegnen. There are also some 7,000 Jews in Denmark, most of them in the Copenhagen area where there are several synagogues.\\n\\n\\n===Quality of living===\\nFor a number of years, Copenhagen has ranked high in international surveys for its quality of life. Its stable economy together with its education services and level of social safety make it attractive for locals and visitors alike. Although it is one of the world's most expensive cities, it is also one of the most liveable with its public transport, facilities for cyclists and its environmental policies. In elevating Copenhagen to \\\"most liveable city\\\" in 2013, ''Monocle'' pointed to its open spaces, increasing activity on the streets, city planning in favour of cyclists and pedestrians, and features to encourage inhabitants to enjoy city life with an emphasis on community, culture and cuisine. Other sources have ranked Copenhagen high for its business environment, accessibility, restaurants and environmental planning. However, Copenhagen ranks only 39th for student friendliness in 2012. Despite a top score for quality of living, its scores were low for employer activity and affordability.\\n\",\n \"Copenhagen is the major economic and financial centre of Denmark. The city's economy is based largely on services and commerce. Statistics for 2010 show that the vast majority of the 350,000 workers in Copenhagen are employed in the service sector, especially transport and communications, trade, and finance, while less than 10,000 work in the manufacturing industries. The public sector workforce is around 110,000, including education and healthcare. From 2006 to 2011, the economy grew by 2.5% in Copenhagen, while it fell by some 4% in the rest of Denmark. In 2010, the wider Capital Region of Denmark had a gross domestic product (GDP) of €88,366 million, and the 15th largest GDP per capita of regions in the European Union.\\n\\nThe Crystal, headquarters of Nykredit bank\\nSeveral financial institutions and banks have headquarters in Copenhagen, including Alm. Brand, Danske Bank, Nykredit and Nordea Bank Danmark. The Copenhagen Stock Exchange (CSE) was founded in 1620 and is now owned by Nasdaq, Inc.. Copenhagen is also home to a number of international companies including A.P. Møller-Mærsk, Novo Nordisk, Carlsberg and Novozymes. City authorities have encouraged the development of business clusters in several innovative sectors, which include information technology, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, clean technology and smart city solutions.\\n\\nScandinavian headquarters for the Swiss pharmaceutical company Ferring Pharmaceuticals\\nLife science is a key sector with extensive research and development activities. Medicon Valley is a leading bi-national life sciences cluster in Europe, spanning the Øresund Region. Copenhagen is rich in companies and institutions with a focus on research and development within the field of biotechnology, and the Medicon Valley initiative aims to strengthen this position and to promote cooperation between companies and academia. Many major Danish companies like Novo Nordisk and Lundbeck, both of which are among the 50 largest pharmaceutical and biotech companies in the world, are located in this business cluster.\\n\\nShipping is another import sector with Maersk, the world's largest shipping company, having their world headquarters in Copenhagen. The city has an industrial harbour, Copenhagen Port. Following decades of stagnation, it has experienced a resurgence since 1990 following a merger with Malmö harbour. Both ports are operated by Copenhagen Malmö Port (CMP). The central location in the Øresund Region allows the ports to act as a hub for freight that is transported onward to the Baltic countries. CMP annually receives about 8,000 ships and handled some 148,000 TEU in 2012.\\n\\nCopenhagen has some of the highest gross wages in the world. High taxes mean that wages are reduced after mandatory deduction. A ''beneficial researcher scheme'' with low taxation of foreign specialists has made Denmark an attractive location for foreign labour. It is however also among the most expensive cities in Europe.\\n\\nDenmark's Flexicurity model features some of the most flexible hiring and firing legislation in Europe, providing attractive conditions for foreign investment and international companies looking to locate in Copenhagen. In Dansk Industri's 2013 survey of employment factors in the ninety-six municipalities of Denmark, Copenhagen came in first place for educational qualifications and for the development of private companies in recent years, but fell to 86th place in local companies' assessment of the employment climate. The survey revealed considerable dissatisfaction in the level of dialogue companies enjoyed with the municipal authorities.\\n\\n===Tourism===\\n\\nTourism is a major contributor to Copenhagen's economy, attracting visitors due to the city's harbour, cultural attractions and award-winning restaurants. Since 2009, Copenhagen has been one of the fastest growing metropolitan destinations in Europe. Hotel capacity in the city is growing significantly. From 2009 to 2013, it experienced a 42% growth in international bed nights (total number of nights spent by tourists), tallying a rise of nearly 70% for Chinese visitors. The total number of bed nights in the Capital Region surpassed 9 million in 2013, while international bed nights reached 5 million.\\n\\nIn 2010, it is estimated that city break tourism contributed to DKK 2 billion in turnover. However, 2010 was an exceptional year for city break tourism and turnover increased with 29% in that one year. 680,000 cruise passengers visited the port in 2015.\\n\",\n \"\\nThe city's appearance today is shaped by the key role it has played as a regional centre for centuries. Copenhagen has a multitude of districts, each with its distinctive character and representing its own period. Other distinctive features of Copenhagen include the abundance of water, its many parks, and the bicycle paths that line most streets.\\n\\n===Architecture===\\n\\n\\n\\nThe oldest section of Copenhagen's inner city is often referred to as ''Middelalderbyen'' (the medieval city). However, the city's most distinctive district is Frederiksstaden, developed during the reign of Frederick V. It has the Amalienborg Palace at its centre and is dominated by the dome of Frederik's Church (or the Marble Church) and several elegant 18th-century Rococo mansions. The inner city includes Slotsholmen, a little island on which Christiansborg Palace stands and Christianshavn with its canals. Børsen on Slotsholmen and Frederiksborg Palace in Hillerød are prominent examples of the Dutch Renaissance style in Copenhagen. Around the historical city centre lies a band of congenial residential boroughs (Vesterbro, Inner Nørrebro, Inner Østerbro) dating mainly from late 19th century. They were built outside the old ramparts when the city was finally allowed to expand beyond its fortifications.\\n\\nSometimes referred to as \\\"the City of Spires\\\", Copenhagen is known for its horizontal skyline, broken only by the spires and towers of its churches and castles. Most characteristic of all is the Baroque spire of the Church of Our Saviour with its narrowing external spiral stairway that visitors can climb to the top. Other important spires are those of Christiansborg Palace, the City Hall and the former Church of St. Nikolaj that now houses a modern art venue. Not quite so high are the Renaissance spires of Rosenborg Castle and the \\\"dragon spire\\\" of Christian IV's former stock exchange, so named because it resembles the intertwined tails of four dragons.\\n\\nCopenhagen is recognised globally as an exemplar of best practice urban planning. Its thriving mixed use city centre is defined by striking contemporary architecture, engaging public spaces and an abundance of human activity. These design outcomes have been deliberately achieved through careful replanning in the second half of the 20th century.\\n\\nRecent years have seen a boom in modern architecture in Copenhagen both for Danish architecture and for works by international architects. For a few hundred years, virtually no foreign architects had worked in Copenhagen, but since the turn of the millennium the city and its immediate surroundings have seen buildings and projects designed by top international architects. British design magazine ''Monocle'' named Copenhagen the ''World's best design city 2008''.\\n\\nCopenhagen's urban development in the first half of the 20th century was heavily influenced by industrialisation. After World War II, Copenhagen Municipality adopted Fordism and repurposed its medieval centre to facilitate private automobile infrastructure in response to innovations in transport, trade and communication. Copenhagen’s spacial planning in this time frame was characterised by the separation of land uses: an approach which requires residents to travel by car to access facilities of different uses.\\n\\nThe boom in urban development and modern architecture has brought some changes to the city's skyline. A political majority has decided to keep the historical centre free of high-rise buildings, but several areas will see or have already seen massive urban development. Ørestad now has seen most of the recent development. Located near Copenhagen Airport, it currently boasts one of the largest malls in Scandinavia and a variety of office and residential buildings as well as the IT University and a high school.\\n\\n===Parks, gardens and zoo===\\n\\nRosenborg Castle and park in central Copenhagen\\nCopenhagen is a green city with many parks, both large and small. King's Garden (''''), the garden of Rosenborg Castle, is the oldest and most frequented of them all. It was Christian IV who first developed its landscaping in 1606. Every year it sees more than 2.5 million visitors and in the summer months it is packed with sunbathers, picnickers and ballplayers. It serves as a sculpture garden with both a permanent display and temporary exhibits during the summer months. Also located in the city centre are the Botanical Gardens noted for their large complex of 19th-century greenhouses donated by Carlsberg founder J. C. Jacobsen. Fælledparken at is the largest park in Copenhagen.\\n\\nIt is popular for sports fixtures and hosts several annual events including a free opera concert at the opening of the opera season, other open-air concerts, carnival and Labour Day celebrations, and the Copenhagen Historic Grand Prix, a race for antique cars. A historical green space in the northeastern part of the city is Kastellet, a well-preserved Renaissance citadel that now serves mainly as a park. Another popular park is the Frederiksberg Gardens, a 32-hectare romantic landscape park. It houses a colony of tame grey herons and other waterfowl. The park offers views of the elephants and the elephant house designed by world-famous British architect Norman Foster of the adjacent Copenhagen Zoo. Langelinie, a park and promenade along the inner Øresund coast, is home to one of Copenhagen's most-visited tourist attractions, the Little Mermaid statue.\\n\\nIn Copenhagen, many cemeteries double as parks, though only for the more quiet activities such as sunbathing, reading and meditation. Assistens Cemetery, the burial place of Hans Christian Andersen, is an important green space for the district of Inner Nørrebro and a Copenhagen institution. The lesser known Vestre Kirkegaard is the largest cemetery in Denmark () and offers a maze of dense groves, open lawns, winding paths, hedges, overgrown tombs, monuments, tree-lined avenues, lakes and other garden features.\\n\\nIt is official municipal policy in Copenhagen that by 2015 all citizens must be able to reach a park or beach on foot in less than 15 minutes. In line with this policy, several new parks, including the innovative Superkilen in the Nørrebro district, have been completed or are under development in areas lacking green spaces.\\n\\n===Landmarks by district===\\n\\n====Indre By====\\nThe historic centre of the city, Indre By or the Inner City, features many of Copenhagen's most popular monuments and attractions. The area known as Frederiksstaden, developed by Frederik V in the second half of the 18th century in the Rococo style, has the four mansions of Amalienborg, the royal residence, and the wide-domed Marble Church at its centre. Directly across the water from Amalienborg, the recently completed Copenhagen Opera stands on the island of Holmen. To the south of Frederiksstaden, the Nyhavn canal is lined with colourful houses from the 17th and 18th centuries, many now with lively restaurants and bars. The canal runs from the harbour front to the spacious square of Kongens Nytorv which was laid out by Christian V in 1670. Important buildings include Charlottenborg Palace, famous for its art exhibitions, the Thott Palace (now the French embassy), the Royal Danish Theatre and the Hotel D'Angleterre, dated to 1755. Other landmarks in Indre By include the parliament building of Christiansborg, the City Hall and Rundetårn, originally an observatory. There are also several museums in the area including Thorvaldsen Museum dedicated to the 18th-century sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen. Closed to traffic since 1964, Strøget, the world's oldest and longest pedestrian street, runs the from Rådhuspladsen to Kongens Nytorv. With its speciality shops, cafés, restaurants, and buskers, it is always full of life and includes the old squares of Gammel Torv and Amagertorv, each with a fountain. Rosenborg Castle on Øster Voldgade was built by Christian IV in 1606 as a summer residence in the Renaissance style. It houses the Danish crown jewels and crown regalia, the coronation throne and tapestries illustrating Christian V's victories in the Scanian War.\\n\\n====Christianshavn====\\nChristianshavn Canal\\nChristianshavn lies to the southeast of Indre By on the other side of the harbour. The area was developed by Christian IV in the early 17th century. Impressed by the city of Amsterdam, he employed Dutch architects to create canals within its ramparts which are still well preserved today. The canals themselves, branching off the central Christianshavn Canal and lined with house boats and pleasure craft are one of the area's attractions. Another interesting feature is Freetown Christiania, a fairly large area which was initially occupied by squatters during student unrest in 1971. Today it still maintains a measure of autonomy. The inhabitants openly sell drugs on \\\"Pusher Street\\\" as well as their arts and crafts. Other buildings of interest in Christianshavn include the Church of Our Saviour with its spiralling steeple and the magnificent Rococo Christian's Church. Once a warehouse, the North Atlantic House now displays culture from Iceland and Greenland and houses the Noma restaurant, known for its Nordic cuisine.\\n\\n====Vesterbro====\\nHalmtorvet in Vesterbro\\nVesterbro, to the southwest of Indre By, begins with the Tivoli Gardens, the city's top tourist attraction with its fairground atmosphere, its Pantomime Theatre, its Concert Hall and its many rides and restaurants. The Carlsberg neighbourhood has some interesting vestiges of the old brewery of the same name including the Elephant Gate and the Ny Carlsberg Brewhouse. The Tycho Brahe Planetarium is located on the edge of Skt. Jørgens Sø, one of the Copenhagen lakes. Halmtorvet, the old haymarket behind the Central Station, is an increasingly popular area with its cafés and restaurants. The former cattle market Øksnehallen has been converted into a modern exhibition centre for art and photography. Radisson Blu Royal Hotel, built by Danish architect and designer Arne Jacobsen for the airline Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS) between 1956 and 1960 was once the tallest hotel in Denmark with a height of and the city's only skyscraper until 1969. Completed in 1908, Det Ny Teater (the New Theatre) located in a passage between Vesterbrogade and Gammel Kongevej has become a popular venue for musicals since its reopening in 1994, attracting the largest audiences in the country.\\n\\n====Nørrebro====\\nDronning Louises Bro leading into Nørrebrogade\\nNørrebro to the northwest of the city centre has recently developed from a working-class district into a colourful cosmopolitan area with antique shops, ethnic food stores and restaurants. Much of the activity is centred on Sankt Hans Torv. Copenhagen's historic cemetery, Assistens Kirkegård halfway up Nørrebrogade, is the resting place of many famous figures including Søren Kierkegaard, Niels Bohr, and Hans Christian Andersen but is also used by locals as a park and recreation area.\\n\\n====Østerbro====\\nThe Gefion Fountain\\nJust north of the city centre, Østerbro is an upper middle-class district with a number of fine mansions, some now serving as embassies. The district stretches from Nørrebro to the waterfront where ''The Little Mermaid'' statue can be seen from the promenade known as Langelinie. Inspired by Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale, it was created by Edvard Eriksen and unveiled in 1913. Not far from the Little Mermaid, the old Citadel (''Kastellet'') can be seen. Built by Christian IV, it is one of northern Europe's best preserved fortifications. There is also a windmill in the area. The large Gefion Fountain (''Gefionspringvandet'') designed by Anders Bundgaard and completed in 1908 stands close to the southeast corner of Kastellet. Its figures illustrate a Nordic legend.\\n\\n====Frederiksberg====\\nFrederiksberg Palace\\nFrederiksberg, a separate municipality within the urban area of Copenhagen, lies to the west of Nørrebro and Indre By and north of Vesterbro. Its landmarks include Copenhagen Zoo founded in 1869 with over 250 species from all over the world and Frederiksberg Palace built as a summer residence by Charles IV who was inspired by Italian architecture. Now a military academy, it overlooks the extensive landscaped Frederiksberg Gardens with its follies, waterfalls, lakes and decorative buildings. The wide tree-lined avenue of Frederiksberg Allé connecting Vesterbrogade with the Frederiksberg Gardens has long been associated with theatres and entertainment. While a number of the earlier theatres are now closed, the Betty Nansen Theatre and Aveny-T are still active.\\n\\n====Other districts====\\nNot far from Copenhagen Airport on the Kastrup coast, The Blue Planet completed in March 2013 now houses the national aquarium. With its 53 aquariums, it is the largest facility of its kind in Scandinavia. Grundtvig's Church, located in the northern suburb of Bispebjerg, was designed by P.V. Jensen Klint and completed in 1940. A rare example of Expressionist church architecture, its striking west façade is reminiscent of a church organ.\\n\",\n \"The Little Mermaid'' statue, an icon of the city and a popular tourist attraction\\nApart from being the national capital, Copenhagen also serves as the cultural hub of Denmark and wider Scandinavia. Since the late 1990s, it has undergone a transformation from a modest Scandinavian capital into a metropolitan city of international appeal in the same league as Barcelona and Amsterdam. This is a result of huge investments in infrastructure and culture as well as the work of successful new Danish architects, designers and chefs. Copenhagen Fashion Week, the largest fashion event in Northern Europe, takes place every year in February and August.\\n\\n===Museums===\\n\\n\\nCopenhagen has a wide array of museums of international standing. The National Museum, ''Nationalmuseet'', is Denmark's largest museum of archaeology and cultural history, comprising the histories of Danish and foreign cultures alike. Denmark's National Gallery (''Statens Museum for Kunst'') is the national art museum with collections dating from the 12th century to the present. In addition to Danish painters, artists represented in the collections include Rubens, Rembrandt, Picasso, Braque, Léger, Matisse, Emil Nolde, Olafur Eliasson, Elmgreen and Dragset, Superflex and Jens Haaning.\\n\\nNy Carlsberg Glyptotek art museum\\nAnother important Copenhagen art museum is the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek founded by second generation Carlsberg philanthropist Carl Jacobsen and built around his personal collections. Its main focus is classical Egyptian, Roman and Greek sculptures and antiquities and a collection of Rodin sculptures, the largest outside France. Besides its sculpture collections, the museum also holds a comprehensive collection of paintings of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist painters such as Monet, Renoir, Cézanne, van Gogh and Toulouse-Lautrec as well as works by the Danish Golden Age painters.\\n\\nLouisiana is a museum of modern art situated on the coast just north of Copenhagen. It is located in the middle of a sculpture garden on a cliff overlooking Øresund. Its collection of over 3,000 items includes works by Picasso, Giacometti and Dubuffet. The Danish Design Museum is housed in the 18th-century former Frederiks Hospital and displays Danish design as well as international design and crafts.\\n\\nOther museums include: the Thorvaldsens Museum, dedicated to the oeuvre of romantic Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen who lived and worked in Rome; the Cisternerne museum dedicated to modern glass art, located in former cisterns that come complete with stalactites formed by the changing water levels; and the Ordrupgaard Museum, located just north of Copenhagen, which features 19th-century French and Danish art and is noted for its works by Paul Gauguin.\\n\\n===Entertainment and performing arts===\\nThe Royal Danish Playhouse (left) and Opera House (background, right)\\nThe new Copenhagen Concert Hall opened in January 2009. Designed by Jean Nouvel, it has four halls with the main auditorium seating 1,800 people. It serves as the home of the Danish National Symphony Orchestra and along with the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles is the most expensive concert hall ever built. Another important venue for classical music is the Tivoli Concert Hall located in the Tivoli Gardens. Designed by Henning Larsen, the Copenhagen Opera House (''Operaen'') opened in 2005. It is among the most modern opera houses in the world. The Royal Danish Theatre also stages opera in addition to its drama productions. It is also home to the Royal Danish Ballet. Founded in 1748 along with the theatre, it is one of the oldest ballet troupes in Europe, and is noted for its Bournonville style of ballet. \\nThe Royal Danish Theatre main building\\nCopenhagen has a significant jazz scene that has existed for many years. It developed when a number of American jazz musicians such as Ben Webster, Thad Jones, Richard Boone, Ernie Wilkins, Kenny Drew, Ed Thigpen, Bob Rockwell, Dexter Gordon, and others such as rock guitarist Link Wray came to live in Copenhagen during the 1960s. Every year in early July, Copenhagen's streets, squares, parks as well as cafés and concert halls fill up with big and small jazz concerts during the Copenhagen Jazz Festival. One of Europe's top jazz festivals, the annual event features around 900 concerts at 100 venues with over 200,000 guests from Denmark and around the world.\\n\\nThe largest venue for popular music in Copenhagen is Vega in the Vesterbro district. It was chosen as \\\"best concert venue in Europe\\\" by international music magazine ''Live''. The venue has three concert halls: the great hall, Store Vega, accommodates audiences of 1,550, the middle hall, Lille Vega, has space for 500 and Ideal Bar Live has a capacity of 250. Every September since 2006, the Festival of Endless Gratitude (FOEG) has taken place in Copenhagen. This festival focuses on indie counterculture, experimental pop music and left field music combined with visual arts exhibitions.\\n\\nCopenhagen is home to the \\\"K-Town\\\" punk and hardcore music community. This community developed around the underground scene venue Ungdomshuset in the late 90's punk scene, with punk- and hardcore acts such as Snipers, Amdi Petersens Armé, Gorilla Angreb, Young Wasteners, and No Hope For The Kids emerging as significant bands. The term \\\"K-town\\\" got international recognition within the punk-scene with the emergence of \\\"K-Town\\\" festivals. In 2001, the first of these was held in Ungdomshuset, on Jagtvej 69, Nørrebro, Copenhagen. The festival temporarily moved to Freetown Christiania after Ungdomshuset was evicted from its original location until a new Ungdomshuset location was opened on Dortheavej 61.\\n\\nFor free entertainment one can stroll along Strøget, especially between Nytorv and Højbro Plads, which in the late afternoon and evening is a bit like an impromptu three-ring circus with musicians, magicians, jugglers and other street performers.\\n\\n===Literature===\\nCopenhagen's main public library\\nMost of Denmarks's major publishing houses are based in Copenhagen. These include the book publishers Gyldendal and Akademisk Forlag and newspaper publishers Berlingske and Politiken (the latter also publishing books). Many of the most important contributors to Danish literature such as Hans Christian Andersen (1805–1875) with his fairy tales, the philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) and playwright Ludvig Holberg (1684–1754) spent much of their lives in Copenhagen. Novels set in Copenhagen include ''Baby'' (1973) by Kirsten Thorup, ''The Copenhagen Connection'' (1982) by Barbara Mertz, ''Number the Stars'' (1989) by Lois Lowry, ''Miss Smilla's Feeling for Snow'' (1992) and ''Borderliners'' (1993) by Peter Høeg, ''Music and Silence'' (1999) by Rose Tremain, ''The Danish Girl'' (2000) by David Ebershoff, and ''Sharpe's Prey'' (2001) by Bernard Cornwell. Michael Frayn's 1998 play ''Copenhagen'' about the meeting between the physicists Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg in 1941 is also set in the city. On 15–18 August 1973, an oral literature conference took place in Copenhagen as part of the 9th International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences.\\n\\nThe Royal Library, belonging to the University of Copenhagen, is the largest library in the Nordic countries with an almost complete collection of all printed Danish books since 1482. Founded in 1648, the Royal Library is located at four sites in the city, the main one being on the Slotsholmen waterfront. Copenhagen's public library network has over 20 outlets, the largest being the Central Library (''Københavns Hovedbibliotek'') on Krystalgade in the inner city.\\n\\n===Art===\\nInterior of the National Gallery (Statens Museum for Kunst), combining new and old architecture\\nCopenhagen has a wide selection of art museums and galleries displaying both historic works and more modern contributions. They include Statens Museum for Kunst, i.e. the Danish national art gallery, in the Østre Anlæg park, and the adjacent Hirschsprung Collection specialising in the 19th and early 20th century. Kunsthal Charlottenborg in the city centre exhibits national and international contemporary art. Den Frie Udstilling near the Østerport Station exhibits paintings created and selected by contemporary artists themselves rather than by the official authorities. The Arken Museum of Modern Art is located in southwestern Ishøj. Among artists who have painted scenes of Copenhagen are Martinus Rørbye (1803–1848), Christen Købke (1810–1848) and the prolific Paul Gustav Fischer (1860–1934).\\n\\nA number of notable sculptures can be seen in the city. In addition to ''The Little Mermaid'' on the waterfront, there are two historic equestrian statues in the city centre: Jacques Saly's ''Frederik V on Horseback'' (1771) in Amalienborg Square and the statue of Christian V on Kongens Nytorv created by Abraham-César Lamoureux in 1688 who was inspired by the statue of Louis XIII in Paris. Rosenborg Castle Gardens contains several sculptures and monuments including August Saabye's Hans Christian Andersen, Aksel Hansen's Echo, and Vilhelm Bissen's Dowager Queen Caroline Amalie.\\n\\nCopenhagen is believed to have invented the photomarathon photography competition, which has been held in the City each year since 1989.\\n\\n===Cuisine===\\n\\nNoma is an example of Copenhagen's renowned experimental restaurants, and has gained two Michelin stars.\\n, Copenhagen has 15 Michelin-starred restaurants, the most of any Scandinavian city. The city is increasingly recognized internationally as a gourmet destination. These include Den Røde Cottage, Formel B Restaurant, Grønbech & Churchill, Søllerød Kro, Kadeau, Kiin Kiin (Denmark's first Michelin-starred Asian gourmet restaurant), the French restaurant Kong Hans Kælder, Relæ, Restaurant AOC, Noma (short for Danish: ''no''rdisk ''ma''d, English: Nordic food) with two Stars and Geranium with three. Noma, was ranked as the Best Restaurant in the World by ''Restaurant'' in 2010, 2011, 2012, and again in 2014, sparking interest in the New Nordic Cuisine.\\n\\nApart from the selection of upmarket restaurants, Copenhagen offers a great variety of Danish, ethnic and experimental restaurants. It is possible to find modest eateries serving open sandwiches, known as smørrebrød – a traditional, Danish lunch dish; however, most restaurants serve international dishes. Danish pastry can be sampled from any of numerous bakeries found in all parts of the city. The Copenhagen Baker's Association dates back to the 1290s and Denmark's oldest confectioner's shop still operating, ''Conditori La Glace'', was founded in 1870 in Skoubogade by Nicolaus Henningsen, a trained master baker from Flensburg.\\n\\nCopenhagen has long been associated with beer. Carlsberg beer has been brewed at the brewery's premises on the border between the Vesterbro and Valby districts since 1847 and has long been almost synonymous with Danish beer production. However, recent years have seen an explosive growth in the number of microbreweries so that Denmark today has more than 100 breweries, many of which are located in Copenhagen. Some like ''Nørrebro Bryghus'' also act as brewpubs where it is also possible to eat on the premises.\\n\\n===Nightlife and festivals===\\nCopenhagen Pride Parade, 2008\\nCopenhagen has one of the highest number of restaurants and bars per capita in the world. The nightclubs and bars stay open until 5 or 6 in the morning, some even longer. Denmark has a very liberal alcohol culture and a strong tradition for beer breweries, although binge drinking is frowned upon and the Danish Police take driving under the influence very seriously. Inner city areas such as Istedgade and Enghave Plads in Vesterbro, Sankt Hans Torv in Nørrebro and certain places in Frederiksberg are especially noted for their nightlife. Notable nightclubs include Bakken Kbh, ARCH (previously ZEN), Jolene, The Jane, Chateau Motel, KB3, At Dolores (previously Sunday Club), Rust, Vega Nightclub, Culture Box and Gefährlich, which also serves as a bar, café, restaurant, and art gallery.\\n\\nCopenhagen has several recurring community festivals, mainly in the summer. Copenhagen Carnival has taken place every year since 1982 during the Whitsun Holiday in Fælledparken and around the city with the participation of 120 bands, 2,000 dancers and 100,000 spectators. Since 2010, the old B&W Shipyard at Refshaleøen in the harbour has been the location for Copenhell, a heavy metal rock music festival. Copenhagen Pride is a gay pride festival taking place every year in August. The Pride has a series of different activities all over Copenhagen, but it is at the City Hall Square that most of the celebration takes place. During the Pride the square is renamed Pride Square. Copenhagen Distortion has emerged to be one of the biggest street festivals in Europe with 100.000 people joining to parties in the beginning of June every year.\\n\\n===Amusement parks===\\nPantomime Theatre, opened in 1874, is the oldest building in the Tivoli Gardens\\nCopenhagen has the two oldest amusement parks in the world.\\n\\nDyrehavsbakken, a fair-ground and pleasure-park established in 1583, is located in Klampenborg just north of Copenhagen in a forested area known as Dyrehaven. Created as an amusement park complete with rides, games and restaurants by Christian IV, it is the oldest surviving amusement park in the world. Pierrot (), a nitwit dressed in white with a scarlet grin wearing a boat-like hat while entertaining children, remains one of the park's key attractions. In Danish, Dyrehavsbakken is often abbreviated as ''Bakken''. There is no entrance fee to pay and Klampenborg Station on the C-line, is situated nearby.\\n\\nThe Tivoli Gardens is an amusement park and pleasure garden located in central Copenhagen between the City Hall Square and the Central Station. It opened in 1843, making it the second oldest amusement park in the world. Among its rides are the oldest still operating rollercoaster ''Rutschebanen'' from 1915 and the oldest ferris wheel still in use, opened in 1943. Tivoli Gardens also serves as a venue for various performing arts and as an active part of the cultural scene in Copenhagen.\\n\",\n \"The main building of the University of Copenhagen\\nCopenhagen has over 94,000 students enrolled in its largest universities and institutions: University of Copenhagen (38,867 students), Copenhagen Business School (19,999 students), Metropolitan University College and University College Capital (10,000 students each), Technical University of Denmark (7,000 students), KEA (c. 4,500 students), IT University of Copenhagen (2,000 students) and Aalborg University – Copenhagen (2,300 students).\\n\\nThe University of Copenhagen is Denmark's oldest university founded in 1479. It attracts some 1,500 international and exchange students every year. The Academic Ranking of World Universities placed it 30th in the world in 2016.\\n\\nThe Technical University of Denmark is located in Lyngby in the northern outskirts of Copenhagen. In 2013, it was ranked as one of the leading technical universities in Northern Europe. The IT University is Denmark's youngest university, a mono-faculty institution focusing on technical, societal and business aspects of information technology.\\n\\nThe Danish Academy of Fine Arts has provided education in the arts for more than 250 years. It includes the historic School of Visual Arts, and has in later years come to include a School of Architecture, a School of Design and a School of Conservation. Copenhagen Business School (CBS) is an EQUIS-accredited business school located in Frederiksberg.\\nThere are also branches of both University College Capital and Metropolitan University College inside and outside Copenhagen.\\n\",\n \"The city has a variety of sporting teams. The major football teams are the historically successful FC København and Brøndby. FC København plays at Parken in Østerbro. Formed in 1992, it is a merger of two older Copenhagen clubs, B 1903 (from the inner suburb Gentofte) and KB (from Frederiksberg). Brøndby plays at Brøndby Stadion in the inner suburb of Brøndbyvester. BK Frem is based in the southern part of Copenhagen (Sydhavnen, Valby). Other teams are FC Nordsjælland (from suburban Farum), Fremad Amager, B93, AB, Lyngby and Hvidovre IF.\\n\\nCopenhagen Marathon 2008\\nCopenhagen has several handball teams—a sport which is particularly popular in Denmark. Of clubs playing in the \\\"highest\\\" leagues, there are Ajax, Ydun, and HIK (Hellerup). The København Håndbold women's club has recently been established. Copenhagen also has ice hockey teams, of which three play in the top league, Rødovre Mighty Bulls, Herlev Eagles and Hvidovre Ligahockey all inner suburban clubs. Copenhagen Ice Skating Club founded in 1869 is the oldest ice hockey team in Denmark but is no longer in the top league.\\n\\nRugby union is also played in the Danish capital with teams such as CSR-Nanok, Copenhagen Business School Sport Rugby, Frederiksberg RK, Exiles RUFC and Rugbyklubben Speed. Rugby league is now played in Copenhagen, with the national team playing out of Gentofte Stadion. The Danish Australian Football League, based in Copenhagen is the largest Australian rules football competition outside of the English-speaking world.\\n\\nCopenhagen Marathon, Copenhagen's annual marathon event, was established in 1980.\\nRound Christiansborg Open Water Swim Race is a open water swimming competition taking place each year in late August. This amateur event is combined with a Danish championship. In 2009 the event included a FINA World Cup competition in the morning. Copenhagen hosted the 2011 UCI Road World Championships in September 2011, taking advantage of its bicycle-friendly infrastructure. It was the first time that Denmark had hosted the event since 1956, when it was also held in Copenhagen.\\n\",\n \"\\n\\nCopenhagen Airport, Kastrup\\nThe greater Copenhagen area has a very well established transportation infrastructure making it a hub in Northern Europe. Copenhagen Airport, opened in 1925, is Scandinavia's largest airport, located in Kastrup on the island of Amager. It is connected to the city centre by metro and main line railway services. October 2013 was a record month with 2.2 million passengers, and November 2013 figures reveal that the number of passengers is increasing by some 3% annually, about 50% more than the European average.\\n\\nS-train at Copenhagen Central Station\\nCopenhagen has an extensive road network including motorways connecting the city to other parts of Denmark and to Sweden over the Øresund Bridge. The car is still the most popular form of transport within the city itself, representing two-thirds of all distances travelled. This can however lead to serious congestion in rush hour traffic.\\nCopenhagen is also served by a daily ferry connection to Oslo in Norway. In 2012, Copenhagen Harbour handled 372 cruise ships and 840,000 passengers.\\n\\nThe intense use of bicycles here illustrated at the Christianshavn Metro Station\\nThe Copenhagen S-Train, Copenhagen Metro and the regional train networks are used by about half of the city's passengers, the remainder using bus services. Nørreport Station near the city centre serves passengers travelling by main-line rail, S-train, regional train, metro and bus. Some 750,000 passengers make use of public transport facilities every day. Copenhagen Central Station is the hub of the DSB railway network serving Denmark and international destinations.\\n\\nThe Danish capital is known as one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world, with bicycles actually outnumbering its inhabitants. In 2012 some 36% of all working or studying city-dwellers cycled to work, school, or university. With 1.27 million km covered every working day by Copenhagen's cyclists (including both residents and commuters), and 75% of Copenhageners cycling throughout the year. The city's bicycle paths are extensive and well used, boasting of cycle lanes not shared with cars or pedestrians, and sometimes have their own signal systems – giving the cyclists a lead of a couple of seconds to accelerate.\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n\\nPromoting health is an extremely important issue for Copenhagen's municipal authorities. Central to its sustainability mission is its \\\"Long Live Copenhagen\\\" (''Længe Leve København'') scheme in which it has the goal of increasing the life expectancy of citizens, improving quality of life through better standards of health, and encouraging more productive lives and equal opportunities. The city has targets to encourage people to exercise regularly and to reduce the number who smoke and consume alcohol.\\n\\nRigshospitalet is one of the largest hospitals in Denmark.\\nCopenhagen University Hospital forms a conglomerate of several hospitals in Region Hovedstaden and Region Sjælland, together with the faculty of health sciences at the University of Copenhagen; Rigshospitalet and Bispebjerg Hospital in Copenhagen belong to this group of university hospitals. Rigshospitalet began operating in March 1757 as Frederiks Hospital, and became state-owned in 1903. With 1,120 beds, Rigshospitalet has responsibility for 65,000 inpatients and approximately 420,000 outpatients annually. It seeks to be the number one specialist hospital in the country, with an extensive team of researchers into cancer treatment, surgery and radiotherapy. In addition to its 8,000 personnel, the hospital has training and hosting functions. It benefits from the presence of in-service students of medicine and other healthcare sciences, as well as scientists working under a variety of research grants. The hospital became internationally famous as the location of Lars von Trier's television horror mini-series ''The Kingdom''. Bispebjerg Hospital was built in 1913, and serves about 400,000 people in the Greater Copenhagen area, with some 3,000 employees. Other large hospitals in the city include Amager Hospital (1997), Herlev Hospital (1976), Hvidovre Hospital (1970), and Gentofte Hospital (1927).\\n\",\n \"Aller Media conglomerate building in Havneholm\\nMany Danish media corporations are located in Copenhagen. DR, the major Danish public service broadcasting corporation collected their activities in a new headquarters, DR Byen, in 2006 and 2007. Similarly TV2 which is based in Odense has concentrated its Copenhagen activities in a modern media house in Teglholmen. The two national daily newspapers ''Politiken'' and ''Berlingske Tidende'' and the two tabloids ''Ekstra Bladet'' and ''B.T.'' are based in Copenhagen. ''Kristeligt Dagblad'' is based in Copenhagen and is published six days a week. Other important media corporations include Aller Media which is the largest publisher of weekly and monthly magazines in Scandinavia, the Egmont media group and Gyldendal, the largest Danish publisher of books.\\n\\nCopenhagen also has a sizable film and television industry. Nordisk Film, established in Valby, Copenhagen in 1906 is the oldest continuously operating film production company in the world. In 1992 it merged with the Egmont media group and currently runs the 17-screen Palads Cinema in Copenhagen. Filmbyen (movie city), located in a former military camp in the suburb of Hvidovre, houses several movie companies and studios. Among the movie companies is Zentropa, co-owned by Danish movie director Lars von Trier who is behind several international movie productions as well as a founding force behind the Dogme Movement. CPH:PIX is Copenhagen's international feature film festival, established in 2009 as a fusion of the 20-year-old Natfilm festival and the four-year-old CIFF. The CPH:PIX festival takes place in mid-April. CPH:DOX is Copenhagen's international documentary film festival, every year in November. On top of its documentary film programme of over 100 films, CPH:DOX includes a wide event programme with dozens of events, concerts, exhibitions and parties all over town.\\n\\n\\n\",\n \"\\nCopenhagen is twinned or cooperating with several cities, including:\\n\\n\\n* Beijing, China\\n\\n* Paris, France (friendship and cooperation agreement only)\\n\\n* Reykjavík, Iceland\\n\\n* Campeche, Mexico\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n*:Category: People from Copenhagen\\n*2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen\\n*Architecture in Copenhagen\\n*Copenhagen Climate Council\\n*Outline of Denmark\\n*Ports of the Baltic Sea\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"* VisitCopenhagen.dk – Official VisitCopenhagen tourism website\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction","Etymology","History","Geography","Administration","Demographics and society","Economy","Cityscape","Culture and contemporary life","Education","Sport","Transport","Healthcare","Media","Twin cities","See also","Footnotes","Citations","References","Further reading","External links"],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \"Etymology\",\n \"History\",\n \"Geography\",\n \"Administration\",\n \"Demographics and society\",\n \"Economy\",\n \"Cityscape\",\n \"Culture and contemporary life\",\n \"Education\",\n \"Sport\",\n \"Transport\",\n \"Healthcare\",\n \"Media\",\n \"Twin cities\",\n \"See also\",\n \"Footnotes\",\n \"Citations\",\n \"References\",\n \"Further reading\",\n \"External links\"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Copenhagen"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["The Crystal, headquarters of Nykredit bank\nSeveral financial institutions and banks have headquarters in Copenhagen, including Alm.","Brand, Danske Bank, Nykredit and Nordea Bank Danmark."],"string":"[\n \"The Crystal, headquarters of Nykredit bank\\nSeveral financial institutions and banks have headquarters in Copenhagen, including Alm.\",\n \"Brand, Danske Bank, Nykredit and Nordea Bank Danmark.\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Copenhagen''' ( ; ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark.","The city has a population of 763,908 (), of whom 601,448 live in the Municipality of Copenhagen.","The larger urban area has a population of 1,280,371 (), while the Copenhagen metropolitan area has just over 2 million inhabitants.","Copenhagen is situated on the eastern coast of the island of Zealand; another small portion of the city is located on Amager, and is separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the strait of Øresund.","The Øresund Bridge connects the two cities by rail and road.","Originally a Viking fishing village founded in the 10th century, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark in the early 15th century.","Beginning in the 17th century it consolidated its position as a regional centre of power with its institutions, defences and armed forces.","After suffering from the effects of plague and fire in the 18th century, the city underwent a period of redevelopment.","This included construction of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden and founding of such cultural institutions as the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts.","After further disasters in the early 19th century when Nelson attacked the Dano-Norwegian fleet and bombarded the city, rebuilding during the Danish Golden Age brought a Neoclassical look to Copenhagen's architecture.","Later, following the Second World War, the Finger Plan fostered the development of housing and businesses along the five urban railway routes stretching out from the city centre.","Since the turn of the 21st century, Copenhagen has seen strong urban and cultural development, facilitated by investment in its institutions and infrastructure.","The city is the cultural, economic and governmental centre of Denmark; it is one of the major financial centres of Northern Europe with the Copenhagen Stock Exchange.","Copenhagen's economy has seen rapid developments in the service sector, especially through initiatives in information technology, pharmaceuticals and clean technology.","Since the completion of the Øresund Bridge, Copenhagen has become increasingly integrated with the Swedish province of Scania and its largest city, Malmö, forming the Øresund Region.","With a number of bridges connecting the various districts, the cityscape is characterized by parks, promenades and waterfronts.","Copenhagen's landmarks such as Tivoli Gardens, ''The Little Mermaid'' statue, the Amalienborg and Christiansborg palaces, Rosenborg Castle Gardens, Frederik's Church, and many museums, restaurants and nightclubs are significant tourist attractions.","Copenhagen is home to the University of Copenhagen, the Technical University of Denmark and Copenhagen Business School.","The University of Copenhagen, founded in 1479, is the oldest university in Denmark.","Copenhagen is home to the FC København and Brøndby football clubs.","The annual Copenhagen Marathon was established in 1980.","Copenhagen is one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world.","The Copenhagen Metro launched in 2002 serves central Copenhagen while the Copenhagen S-train network serves and connects central Copenhagen to its outlying boroughs.","Serving roughly two million passengers a month, Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup, is the busiest airport in the Nordic countries.","The name of the city reflects its origin as a harbour and a place of commerce.","The original designation, from which the contemporary Danish name derives, was ''Køpmannæhafn'', meaning \"merchants' harbour\", often simply ''Hafn'' or ''Havn'' (\"harbour\").","The literal English translation would be \"Chapman's haven\".","The English name for the city was adapted from its Low German name, ''Kopenhagen''.","The abbreviations ''Kbh.''","or ''Kbhvn'' are often used in Danish for ''København'', and ''kbh.''","for ''københavnsk'' (of Copenhagen).","The chemical element hafnium is named after Copenhagen (Latin name ''Hafnia''), where it was discovered.","The bacterium ''Hafnia'' is also named after Copenhagen: Vagn Møller of the State Serum Institute in Copenhagen named it in 1954.","\nReconstruction of Copenhagen \n\n===Early history===\nAlthough the earliest historical records of Copenhagen are from the end of the 12th century, recent archaeological finds in connection with work on the city's metropolitan rail system revealed the remains of a large merchant's mansion near today's Kongens Nytorv from c. 1020.","Excavations in Pilestræde have also led to the discovery of a well from the late 12th century.","The remains of an ancient church, with graves dating to the 11th century, have been unearthed near where Strøget meets Rådhuspladsen.","These finds indicate that Copenhagen's origins as a city go back at least to the 11th century.","Substantial discoveries of flint tools in the area provide evidence of human settlements dating to the Stone Age.","Many historians believe the town dates to the late Viking Age, and was possibly founded by Sweyn I Forkbeard.","The natural harbour and good herring stocks seem to have attracted fishermen and merchants to the area on a seasonal basis from the 11th century and more permanently in the 13th century.","The first habitations were probably centred on Gammel Strand (literally \"old shore\") in the 11th century or even earlier.","The earliest written mention of the town was in the 12th century when Saxo Grammaticus in Gesta Danorum referred to it as ''Portus Mercatorum'', meaning Merchants' Harbour or, in the Danish of the time, ''Købmannahavn''.","Traditionally, Copenhagen's founding has been dated to Bishop Absalon's construction of a modest fortress on the little island of Slotsholmen in 1167 where Christiansborg Palace stands today.","The construction of the fortress was in response to attacks by Wendish pirates who plagued the coastline during the 12th century.","Defensive ramparts and moats were completed and by 1177 St. Clemens Church had been built.","Attacks by the Germans continued, and after the original fortress was eventually destroyed by the marauders, islanders replaced it with Copenhagen Castle.","===Middle Ages===\n\nIn 1186, a letter from Pope Urban III states that the castle of ''Hafn'' (Copenhagen) and its surrounding lands, including the town of Hafn, were given to Absalon, Bishop of Roskilde 1158–1191 and Archbishop of Lund 1177–1201, by King Valdemar I.","On Absalon's death, the property was to come into the ownership of the Bishopric of Roskilde.","Around 1200, the Church of Our Lady was constructed on higher ground to the northeast of the town, which began to develop around it.","As the town became more prominent, it was repeatedly attacked by the Hanseatic League.","As the fishing industry thrived in Copenhagen, particularly in the trade of herring, the city began expanding to the north of Slotsholmen.","In 1254, it received a charter as a city under Bishop Jakob Erlandsen who garnered support from the local fishing merchants against the king by granting them special privileges.","In the mid 1330s, the first land assessment of the city was published.","With the establishment of the Kalmar Union (1397–1523) between Denmark, Norway and Sweden, by about 1416 Copenhagen had emerged as the capital of Denmark when Eric of Pomerania moved his seat to Copenhagen Castle.","The University of Copenhagen was inaugurated on 1 June 1479 by King Christian I, following approval from Pope Sixtus IV.","This makes it the oldest university in Denmark and one of the oldest in Europe.","Originally controlled by the Catholic Church, the university's role in society was forced to change during the Reformation in Denmark in the late 1530s.","===16th and 17th centuries===\n\n\nIn disputes prior to the Reformation of 1536, the city which had been faithful to Christian II, who was Catholic, was successfully besieged in 1523 by the forces of Frederik I, who supported Lutheranism.","Copenhagen's defences were reinforced with a series of towers along the city wall.","After an extended siege from July 1535 to July 1536, during which the city supported Christian II's alliance with Malmö and Lübeck, it was finally forced to capitulate to Christian III.","During the second half of the century, the city prospered from increased trade across the Baltic supported by Dutch shipping.","Christoffer Valkendorff, a high-ranking statesman, defended the city's interests and contributed to its development.","The Netherlands had also become primarily Protestant, as were northern German states.","During the reign of Christian IV between 1588 and 1648, Copenhagen had dramatic growth as a city.","On his initiative at the beginning of the 17th century, two important buildings were completed on Slotsholmen: the Tøjhus Arsenal and Børsen, the stock exchange.","To foster international trade, the East India Company was founded in 1616.","To the east of the city, inspired by Dutch planning, the king developed the district of Christianshavn with canals and ramparts.","It was initially intended to be a fortified trading centre but ultimately became part of Copenhagen.","Christian IV also sponsored an array of ambitious building projects including Rosenborg Slot and the Rundetårn.","In 1658–59, the city withstood a siege by the Swedes under Charles X and successfully repelled a major assault.","By 1661, Copenhagen had asserted its position as capital of Denmark and Norway.","All the major institutions were located there, as was the fleet and most of the army.","The defences were further enhanced with the completion of the Citadel in 1664 and the extension of Christianshavns Vold with its bastions in 1692, leading to the creation of a new base for the fleet at Nyholm.","===18th century===\nA mansion at Amalienborg in Frederiksstaden (1750), part of the Amalienborg Palace\n\nCopenhagen lost around 22,000 of its population of 65,000 to the plague in 1711.","The city was also struck by two major fires which destroyed much of its infrastructure.","The Copenhagen Fire of 1728 was the largest in the history of Copenhagen.","It began on the evening of 20 October, and continued to burn until the morning of 23 October, destroying approximately 28% of the city, leaving some 20% of the population homeless.","No less than 47% of the medieval section of the city was completely lost.","Along with the 1795 fire, it is the main reason that few traces of the old town can be found in the modern city.","A substantial amount of rebuilding followed.","In 1733, work began on the royal residence of Christiansborg Palace which was completed in 1745.","In 1749, development of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden was initiated.","Designed by Nicolai Eigtved in the Rococo style, its centre contained the mansions which now form Amalienborg Palace.","Major extensions to the naval base of Holmen were undertaken while the city's cultural importance was enhanced with the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts.","In the second half of the 18th century, Copenhagen benefitted from Denmark's neutrality during the wars between Europe's main powers, allowing it to play an important role in trade between the states around the Baltic Sea.","After Christiansborg was destroyed by fire in 1794 and another fire caused serious damage to the city in 1795, work began on the classical Copenhagen landmark of Højbro Plads while Nytorv and Gammel Torv were converged.","===19th century===\nOn 2 April 1801, a British fleet under the command of Admiral Sir Hyde Parker defeated a Danish-Norwegian fleet anchored near Copenhagen.","Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson led the main attack.","He famously disobeyed Parker's order to withdraw, destroying many of the Dano-Norwegian ships before a truce was agreed.","Copenhagen is often considered to be Nelson's hardest-fought battle, surpassing even the heavy fighting at Trafalgar.","It was during this battle that Lord Nelson was said to have \"put the telescope to the blind eye\" in order not to see Admiral Parker's signal to cease fire.","Gottlieb Bindesbøll's Thorvaldsen Museum (1848)\nThe Second Battle of Copenhagen (or the Bombardment of Copenhagen) (16 August – 5 September 1807) was from a British point of view a preemptive attack on Copenhagen, targeting the civilian population in order to seize the Dano-Norwegian fleet.","But from a Danish point of view the battle was a terror bombardment on their capital.","Particularly notable was the use of incendiary Congreve rockets (containing phosphorus, which cannot be extinguished with water) that randomly hit the city.","Few houses with straw roofs remained after the bombardment.","The largest church, ''Vor frue kirke'', was destroyed by the sea artillery.","Several historians consider this battle the first terror attack against a major European city in modern times.","Slotsholmen canal, as seen from the Børsen building ().","In the background from left to right: Church of the Holy Ghost, Trinitatis Complex, St. Nicholas Church and Holmen Church The British landed 30,000 men, they surrounded Copenhagen and the attack continued for the next three days, killing some 2,000 civilians and destroying most of the city.","The devastation was so great because Copenhagen relied on an old defence-line whose limited range could not reach the British ships and their longer-range artillery.","Despite the disasters of the early 19th century, Copenhagen experienced a period of intense cultural creativity known as the Danish Golden Age.","Painting prospered under C.W.","Eckersberg and his students while C.F.","Hansen and Gottlieb Bindesbøll brought a Neoclassical look to the city's architecture.","In the early 1850s, the ramparts of the city were opened to allow new housing to be built around The Lakes () that bordered the old defences to the west.","By the 1880s, the districts of Nørrebro and Vesterbro developed to accommodate those who came from the provinces to participate in the city's industrialization.","This dramatic increase of space was long overdue, as not only were the old ramparts out of date as a defence system but bad sanitation in the old city had to be overcome.","From 1886, the west rampart (Vestvolden) was flattened, allowing major extensions to the harbour leading to the establishment of the Freeport of Copenhagen 1892–94.","Electricity came in 1892 with electric trams in 1897.","The spread of housing to areas outside the old ramparts brought about a huge increase in the population.","In 1840, Copenhagen was inhabited by approximately 120,000 people.","By 1901, it had some 400,000 inhabitants.","===20th century===\nCentral Copenhagen in 1939\nBy the beginning of the 20th century, Copenhagen had become a thriving industrial and administrative city.","With its new city hall and railway station, its centre was drawn towards the west.","New housing developments grew up in Brønshøj and Valby while Frederiksberg became an enclave within the city of Copenhagen.","The northern part of Amager and Valby were also incorporated into the City of Copenhagen in 1901–02.","As a result of Denmark's neutrality in the First World War, Copenhagen prospered from trade with both Britain and Germany while the city's defences were kept fully manned by some 40,000 soldiers for the duration of the war.","In the 1920s there were serious shortages of goods and housing.","Plans were drawn up to demolish the old part of Christianshavn and to get rid of the worst of the city's slum areas.","However, it was not until the 1930s that substantial housing developments ensued, with the demolishment of one side of Christianhavn's Torvegade in order to build five large blocks of flats.","====World War II====\n\nThe RAF's bombing of Gestapo headquarters in March 1945 was coordinated with the Danish resistance movement\nPeople celebrating the liberation of Denmark at Strøget in Copenhagen, 5 May 1945.","Germany surrendered two days later \n\nDuring World War II in Denmark, Copenhagen was occupied by German troops along with the rest of the country from 9 April 1940 until 4 May 1945.","German leader Adolf Hitler hoped that Denmark would be \"a model protectorate\" and initially the Nazi authorities sought to arrive at an understanding with the Danish government.","The 1943 Danish parliamentary election was also allowed to take place, with only the Communist Party excluded.","But in August 1943, after the government's collaboration with the occupation forces collapsed, several ships were sunk in Copenhagen Harbor by the Royal Danish Navy to prevent their use by the Germans.","Around that time the Nazis started to arrest Jews, although most managed to escape to Sweden.","In 1945 Ole Lippman, leader of the Danish section of the Special Operations Executive, invited the British Royal Air Force to assist their operations by attacking Nazi headquarters in Copenhagen.","Accordingly, Air Vice-Marshal Sir Basil Embry drew up plans for a spectacular precision attack on the Sicherheitsdienst and Gestapo building, the former offices of the Shell Oil Company.","Political prisoners were kept in the attic to prevent an air raid, so the RAF had to bomb the lower levels of the building.","The attack, known as \"Operation Carthage\", came on 22 March 1945, in three small waves.","In the first wave, all six planes (carrying one bomb each) hit their target, but one of the aircraft crashed near Frederiksberg Girls School.","Because of this crash four of the planes in the two following waves assumed the school was the military target, and aimed their bombs at the school leading to the death of 123 civilians (of which 87 were schoolchildren).","However, 18 of the 26 political prisoners in the Shell Building managed to escape while the Gestapo archives were completely destroyed.","On 8 May 1945 Copenhagen was officially liberated by British troops commanded by Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery who supervised the surrender of 30,000 Germans situated around the capital.","====Post-war decades====\nBlack Diamond (1999)\nShortly after the end of the war, an innovative urban development project known as the Finger Plan was introduced in 1947, encouraging the creation of new housing and businesses interspersed with large green areas along five \"fingers\" stretching out from the city centre along the S-train routes.","With the expansion of the welfare state and women entering the work force, schools, nurseries, sports facilities and hospitals were established across the city.","As a result of student unrest in the late 1960s, the former Bådsmandsstræde Barracks in Christianshavn was occupied, leading to the establishment of Freetown Christiania in September 1971.","Øresund Bridge (1999)\nMotor traffic in the city grew significantly and in 1972 the trams were replaced by buses.","From the 1960s, on the initiative of the young architect Jan Gehl, pedestrian streets and cycle tracks were created in the city centre.","Activity in the port of Copenhagen declined with the closure of the Holmen naval base.","Copenhagen Airport underwent considerable expansion, becoming a hub for the Nordic countries.","In the 1990s, large-scale housing developments were realized in the harbour area and in the west of Amager.","The national library's Black Diamond building on the waterfront was completed in 1999.","===2000 to present===\nCopenhagen Opera House (2004)\nSince the summer of 2000, Copenhagen and the Swedish city of Malmö have been connected by the Øresund Bridge, which carries rail and road traffic.","As a result, Copenhagen has become the centre of a larger metropolitan area spanning both nations.","The bridge has brought about considerable changes in the public transport system and has led to the extensive redevelopment of Amager.","The city's service and trade sectors have developed while a number of banking and financial institutions have been established.","Educational institutions have also gained importance, especially the University of Copenhagen with its 35,000 students.","Another important development for the city has been the Copenhagen Metro, the underground railway system which opened in 2000 with additions until 2007, transporting some 54 million passengers by 2011.","On the cultural front, the lavish Copenhagen Opera House, a gift to the city from the shipping magnate Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller on behalf of the A.P.","Møller foundation, was completed in 2004.","In December 2009 Copenhagen gained international prominence when it hosted the worldwide climate meeting COP15.","Satellite view\nA view over Freetown Christiania\nCopenhagen is part of the Øresund Region, which consists of Zealand, Lolland-Falster and Bornholm in Denmark and Scania in Sweden.","It is located on the eastern shore of the island of Zealand, partly on the island of Amager and on a number of natural and artificial islets between the two.","Copenhagen faces the Øresund to the east, the strait of water that separates Denmark from Sweden, and which connects the North Sea with the Baltic Sea.","The Swedish towns of Malmö and Landskrona lie on the Swedish side of the sound directly across from Copenhagen.","By road, Copenhagen is northwest of Malmö, Sweden, northeast of Næstved, northeast of Odense, east of Esbjerg and southeast of Aarhus by sea and road via Sjællands Odde.","The city centre lies in the area originally defined by the old ramparts, which are still referred to as the Fortification Ring (''Fæstningsringen'') and kept as a partial green band around it.","Then come the late 19th and early 20th century residential neighbourhoods of Østerbro, Nørrebro, Vesterbro and Amagerbro.","The outlying areas of Kongens Enghave, Valby, Vigerslev, Vanløse, Brønshøj, Utterslev and Sundby followed from 1920 to 1960.","They consist mainly of residential housing and apartments often enhanced with parks and greenery.","===Topography===\nThe central area of the city consists of relatively low-lying flat ground formed by moraines from the last ice age while the hilly areas to the north and west frequently rise to above sea level.","The slopes of Valby and Brønshøj reach heights of over , divided by valleys running from the northeast to the southwest.","Close to the centre are the Copenhagen lakes of Sortedams Sø, Peblinge Sø and Sankt Jørgens Sø.","Copenhagen rests on a subsoil of flint-layered limestone deposited in the Danian period some 60 to 66 million years ago.","Some greensand from the Selandian is also present.","There are a few faults in the area, the most important of which is the Carlsberg fault which runs northwest to southeast through the centre of the city.","During the last ice age, glaciers eroded the surface leaving a layer of moraines up to thick.","===Beaches===\nAmager Strandpark\nAmager Strandpark, which opened in 2005, is a long artificial island, with a total of of beaches.","It is located just 15 minutes by bicycle or a few minutes by metro from the city centre.","In Klampenborg, about 10 kilometers from downtown Copenhagen, is Bellevue Beach.","It is long and has both lifeguards and freshwater showers on the beach.","The beaches are supplemented by a system of Harbour Baths along the Copenhagen waterfront.","The first and most popular of these is located at Islands Brygge and has won international acclaim for its design.","===Climate===\nFrederiksberg Palace in the snow\nCopenhagen is in the oceanic climate zone (Köppen: ''Cfb '').","Its weather is subject to low-pressure systems from the Atlantic which result in unstable conditions throughout the year.","Apart from slightly higher rainfall from July to September, precipitation is moderate.","While snowfall occurs mainly from late December to early March, there can also be rain, with average temperatures around the freezing point.","June is the sunniest month of the year with an average of about eight hours of sunshine a day.","July is the warmest month with an average daytime high of 21 °C.","By contrast, the average hours of sunshine are less than two per day in November and only one and a half per day from December to February.","In the spring, it gets warmer again with from four to six hours of sunshine per day from March to May.","February is the driest month of the year.","Exceptional weather conditions can bring as much as 50 cm of snow to Copenhagen in a 24-hour period during the winter months while summer temperatures have been known to rise to heights of .","Because of Copenhagen's northern latitude, the number of daylight hours varies considerably between summer and winter.","On the summer solstice, the sun rises at 04:26 and sets at 21:58, providing 17 hours 32 minutes of daylight.","On the winter solstice, it rises at 08:37 and sets at 15:39 with 7 hours and 1 minute of daylight.","There is therefore a difference of 10 hours and 31 minutes in the length of days and nights between the summer and winter solstices.","City Hall of Copenhagen Municipality\n\nAccording to Statistics Denmark, the urban area of Copenhagen () consists of the municipalities of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Albertslund, Brøndby, Gentofte, Gladsaxe, Glostrup, Herlev, Hvidovre, Lyngby-Taarbæk, Rødovre, Tårnby and Vallensbæk as well as parts of Ballerup, Rudersdal and Furesø municipalities, along with the cities of Ishøj and Greve Strand.","They are located in the Capital Region ().","Municipalities are responsible for a wide variety of public services, which include land-use planning, environmental planning, public housing, management and maintenance of local roads, and social security.","Municipal administration is also conducted by a mayor, a council, and an executive.","Copenhagen Municipality is by far the largest municipality, with the historic city at its core.","The seat of Copenhagen's municipal council is the Copenhagen City Hall (''''), which is situated on City Hall Square.","The second largest municipality is Frederiksberg, an enclave within Copenhagen Municipality.","Copenhagen Municipality is divided into ten districts (''bydele''): Indre By, Østerbro, Nørrebro, Vesterbro/Kongens Enghave, Valby, Vanløse, Brønshøj-Husum, Bispebjerg, Amager Øst, and Amager Vest.","Neighbourhoods of Copenhagen include Slotsholmen, Frederiksstaden, Islands Brygge, Holmen, Christiania, Carlsberg, Sluseholmen, Amagerbro, Ørestad, Nordhavnen, Bellahøj, Brønshøj, Ryparken, and Vigerslev.","===Law and order===\n\nMost of Denmark's top legal courts and institutions are based in Copenhagen.","A modern style court of justice, ''Hof- og Stadsretten'', was introduced in Denmark, specifically for Copenhagen, by Johann Friedrich Struensee in 1771.","Now known as the City Court of Copenhagen (''Københavns Byret''), it is the largest of the 24 city courts in Denmark with jurisdiction over the municipalities of Copenhagen, Dragør and Tårnby.","With its 42 judges, it has a Probate Division, an Enforcement Division and a Registration and Notorial Acts Division while bankruptcy is handled by the Maritime and Commercial Court of Copenhagen.","Established in 1862, the Maritime and Commercial Court (''Sø- og Handelsretten'') also hears commercial cases including those relating to trade marks, marketing practices and competition for the whole of Denmark.","Denmark's Supreme Court (''Højesteret''), located in Christiansborg Palace on Prins Jørgens Gård in the centre of Copenhagen, is the country's final court of appeal.","Handling civil and criminal cases from the subordinate courts, it has two chambers which each hear all types of cases.","The Danish National Police and Copenhagen Police headquarters is situated in the Neoclassical-inspired Politigården building built in 1918–24 under architects Hack Kampmann and Holger Alfred Jacobsen.","The building also contains administration, management, emergency department and radio service offices.","In their efforts to deal with drugs, the police have noted considerable success in the two special drug consumption rooms opened by the city where addicts can use sterile needles and receive help from nurses if necessary.","Use of these rooms does not lead to prosecution; the city treats drug use as a public health issue, not a criminal one.","The Copenhagen Fire Department forms the largest municipal fire brigade in Denmark with some 500 fire and ambulance personnel, 150 administration and service workers, and 35 workers in prevention.","The brigade began as the Copenhagen Royal Fire Brigade on 9 July 1687 under King Christian V. After the passing of the Copenhagen Fire Act on 18 May 1868, on 1 August 1870 the Copenhagen Fire Brigade became a municipal institution in its own right.","The fire department has its headquarters in the Copenhagen Central Fire Station which was designed by Ludvig Fenger in the Historicist style and inaugurated in 1892.","=== Environmental planning ===\n\n\nCopenhagen is recognized as one of the most environmentally friendly cities in the world.","As a result of its commitment to high environmental standards, Copenhagen has been praised for its green economy, ranked as the top green city for the second time in the 2014 ''Global Green Economy Index (GGEI)''.","In 2001 a large offshore wind farm was built just off the coast of Copenhagen at Middelgrunden.","It produces about 4% of the city's energy.","Years of substantial investment in sewage treatment have improved water quality in the harbour to an extent that the inner harbour can be used for swimming with facilities at a number of locations.","Middelgrunden offshore wind farm\n\nCopenhagen aims to be carbon-neutral by 2025.","Commercial and residential buildings are to reduce electricity consumption by 20 percent and 10 percent respectively, and total heat consumption is to fall by 20 percent by 2025.","Renewable energy features such as solar panels are becoming increasingly common in the newest buildings in Copenhagen.","District heating will be carbon-neutral by 2025, by waste incineration and biomass.","New buildings must now be constructed according to Low Energy Class ratings and in 2020 near net-zero energy buildings.","By 2025, 75% of trips should be made on foot, by bike, or by using public transit.","The city plans that 20–30% of cars will run on electricity or biofuel by 2025.","The investment is estimated at $472 million public funds and $4.78 billion private funds.","The city's architectural planning authorities continue to take full account of these priorities.","Special attention is given both to climate issues and efforts to ensure maximum application of low-energy standards.","Priorities include sustainable drainage systems, recycling rainwater, green roofs and efficient waste management solutions.","In city planning, streets and squares are to be designed to encourage cycling and walking rather than driving.","\n\n\n First-generation immigrants by country of origin (Q12016)\n\n '''Nationality''' \n '''Population''' \n\n Pakistan \n5,409\n\n Morocco \n5,197\n\n Poland \n4,767\n\n Germany \n4,560\t\n\n Iraq \n4,407\n\n Turkey \n4,168\t\n\n Sweden \n4,471\n\n Norway \n3,836\n\n United Kingdom \n3,292\n\n United States \n3,244\n\n Italy \n3,098\t\t\n\n China \n3,002\t\t\n\n\n\nCopenhagen is the most populous city in Denmark and one of the most populous in the Nordic countries.","For statistical purposes, Statistics Denmark considers the City of Copenhagen (''Byen København'') to consist of the Municipality of Copenhagen plus three adjacent municipalities, viz.","Dragør, Frederiksberg, and Tårnby.","Their combined population stands at 763,908 ().","The Municipality of Copenhagen is by far the most populous in the country and one of the one of the most populous Nordic municipalities with 601,448 inhabitants ().","There was a demographic boom in the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, largely due to immigration to Denmark.","According to figures from the first quarter of 2016, approximately 76% of the municipality's population was of Danish descent, defined as having at least one parent who was born in Denmark and has Danish citizenship.","Much of the remaining 24% were of a foreign background, defined as immigrants (18%) or descendants of recent immigrants (6%).","There are no official statistics on ethnic groups.","The table to the right shows the most common countries of birth of Copenhagen residents.","According to Statistics Denmark, Copenhagen's urban area has a larger population of 1,280,371 ().","The urban area consists of the municipalities of Copenhagen and Frederiksberg plus 16 of the 20 municipalities of the former counties Copenhagen and Roskilde, though five of them only partially.","Metropolitan Copenhagen has a total of 2,016,285 inhabitants ().","The area of Metropolitan Copenhagen is defined by the Finger Plan.","Since the opening of the Øresund Bridge in 2000, commuting between Zealand and Scania in Sweden has increased rapidly, leading to a wider, integrated area.","Known as the Øresund Region, it has 3.8 million inhabitants (of whom 2.5 million live in the Danish part of the region).","===Religion===\n\nChurch of Our Lady, situated on Frue Plads\nWith 58.1% a majority of those living in Copenhagen are members of the Lutheran Church of Denmark which is 1.2% lower than one year earlier according to 2017 figures.","The National Cathedral, the Church of Our Lady, is one of the dozens of churches in Copenhagen.","There are also several other Christian communities in the city, of which the largest is Roman Catholic.","Foreign migration to Copenhagen, rising over the last three decades, has contributed to increasing religious diversity; the Grand Mosque of Copenhagen, the first in Denmark, opened in 2014.","Islam is the second largest religion in Copenhagen, accounting for approximately 10% of the population.","While there are no official statistics, a significant portion of the estimated 175,000–200,000 Muslims in the country live in the Copenhagen urban area, with the highest concentration in Nørrebro and the Vestegnen.","There are also some 7,000 Jews in Denmark, most of them in the Copenhagen area where there are several synagogues.","===Quality of living===\nFor a number of years, Copenhagen has ranked high in international surveys for its quality of life.","Its stable economy together with its education services and level of social safety make it attractive for locals and visitors alike.","Although it is one of the world's most expensive cities, it is also one of the most liveable with its public transport, facilities for cyclists and its environmental policies.","In elevating Copenhagen to \"most liveable city\" in 2013, ''Monocle'' pointed to its open spaces, increasing activity on the streets, city planning in favour of cyclists and pedestrians, and features to encourage inhabitants to enjoy city life with an emphasis on community, culture and cuisine.","Other sources have ranked Copenhagen high for its business environment, accessibility, restaurants and environmental planning.","However, Copenhagen ranks only 39th for student friendliness in 2012.","Despite a top score for quality of living, its scores were low for employer activity and affordability.","Copenhagen is the major economic and financial centre of Denmark.","The city's economy is based largely on services and commerce.","Statistics for 2010 show that the vast majority of the 350,000 workers in Copenhagen are employed in the service sector, especially transport and communications, trade, and finance, while less than 10,000 work in the manufacturing industries.","The public sector workforce is around 110,000, including education and healthcare.","From 2006 to 2011, the economy grew by 2.5% in Copenhagen, while it fell by some 4% in the rest of Denmark.","In 2010, the wider Capital Region of Denmark had a gross domestic product (GDP) of €88,366 million, and the 15th largest GDP per capita of regions in the European Union.","The Copenhagen Stock Exchange (CSE) was founded in 1620 and is now owned by Nasdaq, Inc.. Copenhagen is also home to a number of international companies including A.P.","Møller-Mærsk, Novo Nordisk, Carlsberg and Novozymes.","City authorities have encouraged the development of business clusters in several innovative sectors, which include information technology, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, clean technology and smart city solutions.","Scandinavian headquarters for the Swiss pharmaceutical company Ferring Pharmaceuticals\nLife science is a key sector with extensive research and development activities.","Medicon Valley is a leading bi-national life sciences cluster in Europe, spanning the Øresund Region.","Copenhagen is rich in companies and institutions with a focus on research and development within the field of biotechnology, and the Medicon Valley initiative aims to strengthen this position and to promote cooperation between companies and academia.","Many major Danish companies like Novo Nordisk and Lundbeck, both of which are among the 50 largest pharmaceutical and biotech companies in the world, are located in this business cluster.","Shipping is another import sector with Maersk, the world's largest shipping company, having their world headquarters in Copenhagen.","The city has an industrial harbour, Copenhagen Port.","Following decades of stagnation, it has experienced a resurgence since 1990 following a merger with Malmö harbour.","Both ports are operated by Copenhagen Malmö Port (CMP).","The central location in the Øresund Region allows the ports to act as a hub for freight that is transported onward to the Baltic countries.","CMP annually receives about 8,000 ships and handled some 148,000 TEU in 2012.","Copenhagen has some of the highest gross wages in the world.","High taxes mean that wages are reduced after mandatory deduction.","A ''beneficial researcher scheme'' with low taxation of foreign specialists has made Denmark an attractive location for foreign labour.","It is however also among the most expensive cities in Europe.","Denmark's Flexicurity model features some of the most flexible hiring and firing legislation in Europe, providing attractive conditions for foreign investment and international companies looking to locate in Copenhagen.","In Dansk Industri's 2013 survey of employment factors in the ninety-six municipalities of Denmark, Copenhagen came in first place for educational qualifications and for the development of private companies in recent years, but fell to 86th place in local companies' assessment of the employment climate.","The survey revealed considerable dissatisfaction in the level of dialogue companies enjoyed with the municipal authorities.","===Tourism===\n\nTourism is a major contributor to Copenhagen's economy, attracting visitors due to the city's harbour, cultural attractions and award-winning restaurants.","Since 2009, Copenhagen has been one of the fastest growing metropolitan destinations in Europe.","Hotel capacity in the city is growing significantly.","From 2009 to 2013, it experienced a 42% growth in international bed nights (total number of nights spent by tourists), tallying a rise of nearly 70% for Chinese visitors.","The total number of bed nights in the Capital Region surpassed 9 million in 2013, while international bed nights reached 5 million.","In 2010, it is estimated that city break tourism contributed to DKK 2 billion in turnover.","However, 2010 was an exceptional year for city break tourism and turnover increased with 29% in that one year.","680,000 cruise passengers visited the port in 2015.","\nThe city's appearance today is shaped by the key role it has played as a regional centre for centuries.","Copenhagen has a multitude of districts, each with its distinctive character and representing its own period.","Other distinctive features of Copenhagen include the abundance of water, its many parks, and the bicycle paths that line most streets.","===Architecture===\n\n\n\nThe oldest section of Copenhagen's inner city is often referred to as ''Middelalderbyen'' (the medieval city).","However, the city's most distinctive district is Frederiksstaden, developed during the reign of Frederick V. It has the Amalienborg Palace at its centre and is dominated by the dome of Frederik's Church (or the Marble Church) and several elegant 18th-century Rococo mansions.","The inner city includes Slotsholmen, a little island on which Christiansborg Palace stands and Christianshavn with its canals.","Børsen on Slotsholmen and Frederiksborg Palace in Hillerød are prominent examples of the Dutch Renaissance style in Copenhagen.","Around the historical city centre lies a band of congenial residential boroughs (Vesterbro, Inner Nørrebro, Inner Østerbro) dating mainly from late 19th century.","They were built outside the old ramparts when the city was finally allowed to expand beyond its fortifications.","Sometimes referred to as \"the City of Spires\", Copenhagen is known for its horizontal skyline, broken only by the spires and towers of its churches and castles.","Most characteristic of all is the Baroque spire of the Church of Our Saviour with its narrowing external spiral stairway that visitors can climb to the top.","Other important spires are those of Christiansborg Palace, the City Hall and the former Church of St. Nikolaj that now houses a modern art venue.","Not quite so high are the Renaissance spires of Rosenborg Castle and the \"dragon spire\" of Christian IV's former stock exchange, so named because it resembles the intertwined tails of four dragons.","Copenhagen is recognised globally as an exemplar of best practice urban planning.","Its thriving mixed use city centre is defined by striking contemporary architecture, engaging public spaces and an abundance of human activity.","These design outcomes have been deliberately achieved through careful replanning in the second half of the 20th century.","Recent years have seen a boom in modern architecture in Copenhagen both for Danish architecture and for works by international architects.","For a few hundred years, virtually no foreign architects had worked in Copenhagen, but since the turn of the millennium the city and its immediate surroundings have seen buildings and projects designed by top international architects.","British design magazine ''Monocle'' named Copenhagen the ''World's best design city 2008''.","Copenhagen's urban development in the first half of the 20th century was heavily influenced by industrialisation.","After World War II, Copenhagen Municipality adopted Fordism and repurposed its medieval centre to facilitate private automobile infrastructure in response to innovations in transport, trade and communication.","Copenhagen’s spacial planning in this time frame was characterised by the separation of land uses: an approach which requires residents to travel by car to access facilities of different uses.","The boom in urban development and modern architecture has brought some changes to the city's skyline.","A political majority has decided to keep the historical centre free of high-rise buildings, but several areas will see or have already seen massive urban development.","Ørestad now has seen most of the recent development.","Located near Copenhagen Airport, it currently boasts one of the largest malls in Scandinavia and a variety of office and residential buildings as well as the IT University and a high school.","===Parks, gardens and zoo===\n\nRosenborg Castle and park in central Copenhagen\nCopenhagen is a green city with many parks, both large and small.","King's Garden (''''), the garden of Rosenborg Castle, is the oldest and most frequented of them all.","It was Christian IV who first developed its landscaping in 1606.","Every year it sees more than 2.5 million visitors and in the summer months it is packed with sunbathers, picnickers and ballplayers.","It serves as a sculpture garden with both a permanent display and temporary exhibits during the summer months.","Also located in the city centre are the Botanical Gardens noted for their large complex of 19th-century greenhouses donated by Carlsberg founder J. C. Jacobsen.","Fælledparken at is the largest park in Copenhagen.","It is popular for sports fixtures and hosts several annual events including a free opera concert at the opening of the opera season, other open-air concerts, carnival and Labour Day celebrations, and the Copenhagen Historic Grand Prix, a race for antique cars.","A historical green space in the northeastern part of the city is Kastellet, a well-preserved Renaissance citadel that now serves mainly as a park.","Another popular park is the Frederiksberg Gardens, a 32-hectare romantic landscape park.","It houses a colony of tame grey herons and other waterfowl.","The park offers views of the elephants and the elephant house designed by world-famous British architect Norman Foster of the adjacent Copenhagen Zoo.","Langelinie, a park and promenade along the inner Øresund coast, is home to one of Copenhagen's most-visited tourist attractions, the Little Mermaid statue.","In Copenhagen, many cemeteries double as parks, though only for the more quiet activities such as sunbathing, reading and meditation.","Assistens Cemetery, the burial place of Hans Christian Andersen, is an important green space for the district of Inner Nørrebro and a Copenhagen institution.","The lesser known Vestre Kirkegaard is the largest cemetery in Denmark () and offers a maze of dense groves, open lawns, winding paths, hedges, overgrown tombs, monuments, tree-lined avenues, lakes and other garden features.","It is official municipal policy in Copenhagen that by 2015 all citizens must be able to reach a park or beach on foot in less than 15 minutes.","In line with this policy, several new parks, including the innovative Superkilen in the Nørrebro district, have been completed or are under development in areas lacking green spaces.","===Landmarks by district===\n\n====Indre By====\nThe historic centre of the city, Indre By or the Inner City, features many of Copenhagen's most popular monuments and attractions.","The area known as Frederiksstaden, developed by Frederik V in the second half of the 18th century in the Rococo style, has the four mansions of Amalienborg, the royal residence, and the wide-domed Marble Church at its centre.","Directly across the water from Amalienborg, the recently completed Copenhagen Opera stands on the island of Holmen.","To the south of Frederiksstaden, the Nyhavn canal is lined with colourful houses from the 17th and 18th centuries, many now with lively restaurants and bars.","The canal runs from the harbour front to the spacious square of Kongens Nytorv which was laid out by Christian V in 1670.","Important buildings include Charlottenborg Palace, famous for its art exhibitions, the Thott Palace (now the French embassy), the Royal Danish Theatre and the Hotel D'Angleterre, dated to 1755.","Other landmarks in Indre By include the parliament building of Christiansborg, the City Hall and Rundetårn, originally an observatory.","There are also several museums in the area including Thorvaldsen Museum dedicated to the 18th-century sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen.","Closed to traffic since 1964, Strøget, the world's oldest and longest pedestrian street, runs the from Rådhuspladsen to Kongens Nytorv.","With its speciality shops, cafés, restaurants, and buskers, it is always full of life and includes the old squares of Gammel Torv and Amagertorv, each with a fountain.","Rosenborg Castle on Øster Voldgade was built by Christian IV in 1606 as a summer residence in the Renaissance style.","It houses the Danish crown jewels and crown regalia, the coronation throne and tapestries illustrating Christian V's victories in the Scanian War.","====Christianshavn====\nChristianshavn Canal\nChristianshavn lies to the southeast of Indre By on the other side of the harbour.","The area was developed by Christian IV in the early 17th century.","Impressed by the city of Amsterdam, he employed Dutch architects to create canals within its ramparts which are still well preserved today.","The canals themselves, branching off the central Christianshavn Canal and lined with house boats and pleasure craft are one of the area's attractions.","Another interesting feature is Freetown Christiania, a fairly large area which was initially occupied by squatters during student unrest in 1971.","Today it still maintains a measure of autonomy.","The inhabitants openly sell drugs on \"Pusher Street\" as well as their arts and crafts.","Other buildings of interest in Christianshavn include the Church of Our Saviour with its spiralling steeple and the magnificent Rococo Christian's Church.","Once a warehouse, the North Atlantic House now displays culture from Iceland and Greenland and houses the Noma restaurant, known for its Nordic cuisine.","====Vesterbro====\nHalmtorvet in Vesterbro\nVesterbro, to the southwest of Indre By, begins with the Tivoli Gardens, the city's top tourist attraction with its fairground atmosphere, its Pantomime Theatre, its Concert Hall and its many rides and restaurants.","The Carlsberg neighbourhood has some interesting vestiges of the old brewery of the same name including the Elephant Gate and the Ny Carlsberg Brewhouse.","The Tycho Brahe Planetarium is located on the edge of Skt.","Jørgens Sø, one of the Copenhagen lakes.","Halmtorvet, the old haymarket behind the Central Station, is an increasingly popular area with its cafés and restaurants.","The former cattle market Øksnehallen has been converted into a modern exhibition centre for art and photography.","Radisson Blu Royal Hotel, built by Danish architect and designer Arne Jacobsen for the airline Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS) between 1956 and 1960 was once the tallest hotel in Denmark with a height of and the city's only skyscraper until 1969.","Completed in 1908, Det Ny Teater (the New Theatre) located in a passage between Vesterbrogade and Gammel Kongevej has become a popular venue for musicals since its reopening in 1994, attracting the largest audiences in the country.","====Nørrebro====\nDronning Louises Bro leading into Nørrebrogade\nNørrebro to the northwest of the city centre has recently developed from a working-class district into a colourful cosmopolitan area with antique shops, ethnic food stores and restaurants.","Much of the activity is centred on Sankt Hans Torv.","Copenhagen's historic cemetery, Assistens Kirkegård halfway up Nørrebrogade, is the resting place of many famous figures including Søren Kierkegaard, Niels Bohr, and Hans Christian Andersen but is also used by locals as a park and recreation area.","====Østerbro====\nThe Gefion Fountain\nJust north of the city centre, Østerbro is an upper middle-class district with a number of fine mansions, some now serving as embassies.","The district stretches from Nørrebro to the waterfront where ''The Little Mermaid'' statue can be seen from the promenade known as Langelinie.","Inspired by Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale, it was created by Edvard Eriksen and unveiled in 1913.","Not far from the Little Mermaid, the old Citadel (''Kastellet'') can be seen.","Built by Christian IV, it is one of northern Europe's best preserved fortifications.","There is also a windmill in the area.","The large Gefion Fountain (''Gefionspringvandet'') designed by Anders Bundgaard and completed in 1908 stands close to the southeast corner of Kastellet.","Its figures illustrate a Nordic legend.","====Frederiksberg====\nFrederiksberg Palace\nFrederiksberg, a separate municipality within the urban area of Copenhagen, lies to the west of Nørrebro and Indre By and north of Vesterbro.","Its landmarks include Copenhagen Zoo founded in 1869 with over 250 species from all over the world and Frederiksberg Palace built as a summer residence by Charles IV who was inspired by Italian architecture.","Now a military academy, it overlooks the extensive landscaped Frederiksberg Gardens with its follies, waterfalls, lakes and decorative buildings.","The wide tree-lined avenue of Frederiksberg Allé connecting Vesterbrogade with the Frederiksberg Gardens has long been associated with theatres and entertainment.","While a number of the earlier theatres are now closed, the Betty Nansen Theatre and Aveny-T are still active.","====Other districts====\nNot far from Copenhagen Airport on the Kastrup coast, The Blue Planet completed in March 2013 now houses the national aquarium.","With its 53 aquariums, it is the largest facility of its kind in Scandinavia.","Grundtvig's Church, located in the northern suburb of Bispebjerg, was designed by P.V.","Jensen Klint and completed in 1940.","A rare example of Expressionist church architecture, its striking west façade is reminiscent of a church organ.","The Little Mermaid'' statue, an icon of the city and a popular tourist attraction\nApart from being the national capital, Copenhagen also serves as the cultural hub of Denmark and wider Scandinavia.","Since the late 1990s, it has undergone a transformation from a modest Scandinavian capital into a metropolitan city of international appeal in the same league as Barcelona and Amsterdam.","This is a result of huge investments in infrastructure and culture as well as the work of successful new Danish architects, designers and chefs.","Copenhagen Fashion Week, the largest fashion event in Northern Europe, takes place every year in February and August.","===Museums===\n\n\nCopenhagen has a wide array of museums of international standing.","The National Museum, ''Nationalmuseet'', is Denmark's largest museum of archaeology and cultural history, comprising the histories of Danish and foreign cultures alike.","Denmark's National Gallery (''Statens Museum for Kunst'') is the national art museum with collections dating from the 12th century to the present.","In addition to Danish painters, artists represented in the collections include Rubens, Rembrandt, Picasso, Braque, Léger, Matisse, Emil Nolde, Olafur Eliasson, Elmgreen and Dragset, Superflex and Jens Haaning.","Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek art museum\nAnother important Copenhagen art museum is the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek founded by second generation Carlsberg philanthropist Carl Jacobsen and built around his personal collections.","Its main focus is classical Egyptian, Roman and Greek sculptures and antiquities and a collection of Rodin sculptures, the largest outside France.","Besides its sculpture collections, the museum also holds a comprehensive collection of paintings of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist painters such as Monet, Renoir, Cézanne, van Gogh and Toulouse-Lautrec as well as works by the Danish Golden Age painters.","Louisiana is a museum of modern art situated on the coast just north of Copenhagen.","It is located in the middle of a sculpture garden on a cliff overlooking Øresund.","Its collection of over 3,000 items includes works by Picasso, Giacometti and Dubuffet.","The Danish Design Museum is housed in the 18th-century former Frederiks Hospital and displays Danish design as well as international design and crafts.","Other museums include: the Thorvaldsens Museum, dedicated to the oeuvre of romantic Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen who lived and worked in Rome; the Cisternerne museum dedicated to modern glass art, located in former cisterns that come complete with stalactites formed by the changing water levels; and the Ordrupgaard Museum, located just north of Copenhagen, which features 19th-century French and Danish art and is noted for its works by Paul Gauguin.","===Entertainment and performing arts===\nThe Royal Danish Playhouse (left) and Opera House (background, right)\nThe new Copenhagen Concert Hall opened in January 2009.","Designed by Jean Nouvel, it has four halls with the main auditorium seating 1,800 people.","It serves as the home of the Danish National Symphony Orchestra and along with the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles is the most expensive concert hall ever built.","Another important venue for classical music is the Tivoli Concert Hall located in the Tivoli Gardens.","Designed by Henning Larsen, the Copenhagen Opera House (''Operaen'') opened in 2005.","It is among the most modern opera houses in the world.","The Royal Danish Theatre also stages opera in addition to its drama productions.","It is also home to the Royal Danish Ballet.","Founded in 1748 along with the theatre, it is one of the oldest ballet troupes in Europe, and is noted for its Bournonville style of ballet.","The Royal Danish Theatre main building\nCopenhagen has a significant jazz scene that has existed for many years.","It developed when a number of American jazz musicians such as Ben Webster, Thad Jones, Richard Boone, Ernie Wilkins, Kenny Drew, Ed Thigpen, Bob Rockwell, Dexter Gordon, and others such as rock guitarist Link Wray came to live in Copenhagen during the 1960s.","Every year in early July, Copenhagen's streets, squares, parks as well as cafés and concert halls fill up with big and small jazz concerts during the Copenhagen Jazz Festival.","One of Europe's top jazz festivals, the annual event features around 900 concerts at 100 venues with over 200,000 guests from Denmark and around the world.","The largest venue for popular music in Copenhagen is Vega in the Vesterbro district.","It was chosen as \"best concert venue in Europe\" by international music magazine ''Live''.","The venue has three concert halls: the great hall, Store Vega, accommodates audiences of 1,550, the middle hall, Lille Vega, has space for 500 and Ideal Bar Live has a capacity of 250.","Every September since 2006, the Festival of Endless Gratitude (FOEG) has taken place in Copenhagen.","This festival focuses on indie counterculture, experimental pop music and left field music combined with visual arts exhibitions.","Copenhagen is home to the \"K-Town\" punk and hardcore music community.","This community developed around the underground scene venue Ungdomshuset in the late 90's punk scene, with punk- and hardcore acts such as Snipers, Amdi Petersens Armé, Gorilla Angreb, Young Wasteners, and No Hope For The Kids emerging as significant bands.","The term \"K-town\" got international recognition within the punk-scene with the emergence of \"K-Town\" festivals.","In 2001, the first of these was held in Ungdomshuset, on Jagtvej 69, Nørrebro, Copenhagen.","The festival temporarily moved to Freetown Christiania after Ungdomshuset was evicted from its original location until a new Ungdomshuset location was opened on Dortheavej 61.","For free entertainment one can stroll along Strøget, especially between Nytorv and Højbro Plads, which in the late afternoon and evening is a bit like an impromptu three-ring circus with musicians, magicians, jugglers and other street performers.","===Literature===\nCopenhagen's main public library\nMost of Denmarks's major publishing houses are based in Copenhagen.","These include the book publishers Gyldendal and Akademisk Forlag and newspaper publishers Berlingske and Politiken (the latter also publishing books).","Many of the most important contributors to Danish literature such as Hans Christian Andersen (1805–1875) with his fairy tales, the philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) and playwright Ludvig Holberg (1684–1754) spent much of their lives in Copenhagen.","Novels set in Copenhagen include ''Baby'' (1973) by Kirsten Thorup, ''The Copenhagen Connection'' (1982) by Barbara Mertz, ''Number the Stars'' (1989) by Lois Lowry, ''Miss Smilla's Feeling for Snow'' (1992) and ''Borderliners'' (1993) by Peter Høeg, ''Music and Silence'' (1999) by Rose Tremain, ''The Danish Girl'' (2000) by David Ebershoff, and ''Sharpe's Prey'' (2001) by Bernard Cornwell.","Michael Frayn's 1998 play ''Copenhagen'' about the meeting between the physicists Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg in 1941 is also set in the city.","On 15–18 August 1973, an oral literature conference took place in Copenhagen as part of the 9th International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences.","The Royal Library, belonging to the University of Copenhagen, is the largest library in the Nordic countries with an almost complete collection of all printed Danish books since 1482.","Founded in 1648, the Royal Library is located at four sites in the city, the main one being on the Slotsholmen waterfront.","Copenhagen's public library network has over 20 outlets, the largest being the Central Library (''Københavns Hovedbibliotek'') on Krystalgade in the inner city.","===Art===\nInterior of the National Gallery (Statens Museum for Kunst), combining new and old architecture\nCopenhagen has a wide selection of art museums and galleries displaying both historic works and more modern contributions.","They include Statens Museum for Kunst, i.e.","the Danish national art gallery, in the Østre Anlæg park, and the adjacent Hirschsprung Collection specialising in the 19th and early 20th century.","Kunsthal Charlottenborg in the city centre exhibits national and international contemporary art.","Den Frie Udstilling near the Østerport Station exhibits paintings created and selected by contemporary artists themselves rather than by the official authorities.","The Arken Museum of Modern Art is located in southwestern Ishøj.","Among artists who have painted scenes of Copenhagen are Martinus Rørbye (1803–1848), Christen Købke (1810–1848) and the prolific Paul Gustav Fischer (1860–1934).","A number of notable sculptures can be seen in the city.","In addition to ''The Little Mermaid'' on the waterfront, there are two historic equestrian statues in the city centre: Jacques Saly's ''Frederik V on Horseback'' (1771) in Amalienborg Square and the statue of Christian V on Kongens Nytorv created by Abraham-César Lamoureux in 1688 who was inspired by the statue of Louis XIII in Paris.","Rosenborg Castle Gardens contains several sculptures and monuments including August Saabye's Hans Christian Andersen, Aksel Hansen's Echo, and Vilhelm Bissen's Dowager Queen Caroline Amalie.","Copenhagen is believed to have invented the photomarathon photography competition, which has been held in the City each year since 1989.","===Cuisine===\n\nNoma is an example of Copenhagen's renowned experimental restaurants, and has gained two Michelin stars.",", Copenhagen has 15 Michelin-starred restaurants, the most of any Scandinavian city.","The city is increasingly recognized internationally as a gourmet destination.","These include Den Røde Cottage, Formel B Restaurant, Grønbech & Churchill, Søllerød Kro, Kadeau, Kiin Kiin (Denmark's first Michelin-starred Asian gourmet restaurant), the French restaurant Kong Hans Kælder, Relæ, Restaurant AOC, Noma (short for Danish: ''no''rdisk ''ma''d, English: Nordic food) with two Stars and Geranium with three.","Noma, was ranked as the Best Restaurant in the World by ''Restaurant'' in 2010, 2011, 2012, and again in 2014, sparking interest in the New Nordic Cuisine.","Apart from the selection of upmarket restaurants, Copenhagen offers a great variety of Danish, ethnic and experimental restaurants.","It is possible to find modest eateries serving open sandwiches, known as smørrebrød – a traditional, Danish lunch dish; however, most restaurants serve international dishes.","Danish pastry can be sampled from any of numerous bakeries found in all parts of the city.","The Copenhagen Baker's Association dates back to the 1290s and Denmark's oldest confectioner's shop still operating, ''Conditori La Glace'', was founded in 1870 in Skoubogade by Nicolaus Henningsen, a trained master baker from Flensburg.","Copenhagen has long been associated with beer.","Carlsberg beer has been brewed at the brewery's premises on the border between the Vesterbro and Valby districts since 1847 and has long been almost synonymous with Danish beer production.","However, recent years have seen an explosive growth in the number of microbreweries so that Denmark today has more than 100 breweries, many of which are located in Copenhagen.","Some like ''Nørrebro Bryghus'' also act as brewpubs where it is also possible to eat on the premises.","===Nightlife and festivals===\nCopenhagen Pride Parade, 2008\nCopenhagen has one of the highest number of restaurants and bars per capita in the world.","The nightclubs and bars stay open until 5 or 6 in the morning, some even longer.","Denmark has a very liberal alcohol culture and a strong tradition for beer breweries, although binge drinking is frowned upon and the Danish Police take driving under the influence very seriously.","Inner city areas such as Istedgade and Enghave Plads in Vesterbro, Sankt Hans Torv in Nørrebro and certain places in Frederiksberg are especially noted for their nightlife.","Notable nightclubs include Bakken Kbh, ARCH (previously ZEN), Jolene, The Jane, Chateau Motel, KB3, At Dolores (previously Sunday Club), Rust, Vega Nightclub, Culture Box and Gefährlich, which also serves as a bar, café, restaurant, and art gallery.","Copenhagen has several recurring community festivals, mainly in the summer.","Copenhagen Carnival has taken place every year since 1982 during the Whitsun Holiday in Fælledparken and around the city with the participation of 120 bands, 2,000 dancers and 100,000 spectators.","Since 2010, the old B&W Shipyard at Refshaleøen in the harbour has been the location for Copenhell, a heavy metal rock music festival.","Copenhagen Pride is a gay pride festival taking place every year in August.","The Pride has a series of different activities all over Copenhagen, but it is at the City Hall Square that most of the celebration takes place.","During the Pride the square is renamed Pride Square.","Copenhagen Distortion has emerged to be one of the biggest street festivals in Europe with 100.000 people joining to parties in the beginning of June every year.","===Amusement parks===\nPantomime Theatre, opened in 1874, is the oldest building in the Tivoli Gardens\nCopenhagen has the two oldest amusement parks in the world.","Dyrehavsbakken, a fair-ground and pleasure-park established in 1583, is located in Klampenborg just north of Copenhagen in a forested area known as Dyrehaven.","Created as an amusement park complete with rides, games and restaurants by Christian IV, it is the oldest surviving amusement park in the world.","Pierrot (), a nitwit dressed in white with a scarlet grin wearing a boat-like hat while entertaining children, remains one of the park's key attractions.","In Danish, Dyrehavsbakken is often abbreviated as ''Bakken''.","There is no entrance fee to pay and Klampenborg Station on the C-line, is situated nearby.","The Tivoli Gardens is an amusement park and pleasure garden located in central Copenhagen between the City Hall Square and the Central Station.","It opened in 1843, making it the second oldest amusement park in the world.","Among its rides are the oldest still operating rollercoaster ''Rutschebanen'' from 1915 and the oldest ferris wheel still in use, opened in 1943.","Tivoli Gardens also serves as a venue for various performing arts and as an active part of the cultural scene in Copenhagen.","The main building of the University of Copenhagen\nCopenhagen has over 94,000 students enrolled in its largest universities and institutions: University of Copenhagen (38,867 students), Copenhagen Business School (19,999 students), Metropolitan University College and University College Capital (10,000 students each), Technical University of Denmark (7,000 students), KEA (c. 4,500 students), IT University of Copenhagen (2,000 students) and Aalborg University – Copenhagen (2,300 students).","The University of Copenhagen is Denmark's oldest university founded in 1479.","It attracts some 1,500 international and exchange students every year.","The Academic Ranking of World Universities placed it 30th in the world in 2016.","The Technical University of Denmark is located in Lyngby in the northern outskirts of Copenhagen.","In 2013, it was ranked as one of the leading technical universities in Northern Europe.","The IT University is Denmark's youngest university, a mono-faculty institution focusing on technical, societal and business aspects of information technology.","The Danish Academy of Fine Arts has provided education in the arts for more than 250 years.","It includes the historic School of Visual Arts, and has in later years come to include a School of Architecture, a School of Design and a School of Conservation.","Copenhagen Business School (CBS) is an EQUIS-accredited business school located in Frederiksberg.","There are also branches of both University College Capital and Metropolitan University College inside and outside Copenhagen.","The city has a variety of sporting teams.","The major football teams are the historically successful FC København and Brøndby.","FC København plays at Parken in Østerbro.","Formed in 1992, it is a merger of two older Copenhagen clubs, B 1903 (from the inner suburb Gentofte) and KB (from Frederiksberg).","Brøndby plays at Brøndby Stadion in the inner suburb of Brøndbyvester.","BK Frem is based in the southern part of Copenhagen (Sydhavnen, Valby).","Other teams are FC Nordsjælland (from suburban Farum), Fremad Amager, B93, AB, Lyngby and Hvidovre IF.","Copenhagen Marathon 2008\nCopenhagen has several handball teams—a sport which is particularly popular in Denmark.","Of clubs playing in the \"highest\" leagues, there are Ajax, Ydun, and HIK (Hellerup).","The København Håndbold women's club has recently been established.","Copenhagen also has ice hockey teams, of which three play in the top league, Rødovre Mighty Bulls, Herlev Eagles and Hvidovre Ligahockey all inner suburban clubs.","Copenhagen Ice Skating Club founded in 1869 is the oldest ice hockey team in Denmark but is no longer in the top league.","Rugby union is also played in the Danish capital with teams such as CSR-Nanok, Copenhagen Business School Sport Rugby, Frederiksberg RK, Exiles RUFC and Rugbyklubben Speed.","Rugby league is now played in Copenhagen, with the national team playing out of Gentofte Stadion.","The Danish Australian Football League, based in Copenhagen is the largest Australian rules football competition outside of the English-speaking world.","Copenhagen Marathon, Copenhagen's annual marathon event, was established in 1980.","Round Christiansborg Open Water Swim Race is a open water swimming competition taking place each year in late August.","This amateur event is combined with a Danish championship.","In 2009 the event included a FINA World Cup competition in the morning.","Copenhagen hosted the 2011 UCI Road World Championships in September 2011, taking advantage of its bicycle-friendly infrastructure.","It was the first time that Denmark had hosted the event since 1956, when it was also held in Copenhagen.","\n\nCopenhagen Airport, Kastrup\nThe greater Copenhagen area has a very well established transportation infrastructure making it a hub in Northern Europe.","Copenhagen Airport, opened in 1925, is Scandinavia's largest airport, located in Kastrup on the island of Amager.","It is connected to the city centre by metro and main line railway services.","October 2013 was a record month with 2.2 million passengers, and November 2013 figures reveal that the number of passengers is increasing by some 3% annually, about 50% more than the European average.","S-train at Copenhagen Central Station\nCopenhagen has an extensive road network including motorways connecting the city to other parts of Denmark and to Sweden over the Øresund Bridge.","The car is still the most popular form of transport within the city itself, representing two-thirds of all distances travelled.","This can however lead to serious congestion in rush hour traffic.","Copenhagen is also served by a daily ferry connection to Oslo in Norway.","In 2012, Copenhagen Harbour handled 372 cruise ships and 840,000 passengers.","The intense use of bicycles here illustrated at the Christianshavn Metro Station\nThe Copenhagen S-Train, Copenhagen Metro and the regional train networks are used by about half of the city's passengers, the remainder using bus services.","Nørreport Station near the city centre serves passengers travelling by main-line rail, S-train, regional train, metro and bus.","Some 750,000 passengers make use of public transport facilities every day.","Copenhagen Central Station is the hub of the DSB railway network serving Denmark and international destinations.","The Danish capital is known as one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world, with bicycles actually outnumbering its inhabitants.","In 2012 some 36% of all working or studying city-dwellers cycled to work, school, or university.","With 1.27 million km covered every working day by Copenhagen's cyclists (including both residents and commuters), and 75% of Copenhageners cycling throughout the year.","The city's bicycle paths are extensive and well used, boasting of cycle lanes not shared with cars or pedestrians, and sometimes have their own signal systems – giving the cyclists a lead of a couple of seconds to accelerate.","\n\nPromoting health is an extremely important issue for Copenhagen's municipal authorities.","Central to its sustainability mission is its \"Long Live Copenhagen\" (''Længe Leve København'') scheme in which it has the goal of increasing the life expectancy of citizens, improving quality of life through better standards of health, and encouraging more productive lives and equal opportunities.","The city has targets to encourage people to exercise regularly and to reduce the number who smoke and consume alcohol.","Rigshospitalet is one of the largest hospitals in Denmark.","Copenhagen University Hospital forms a conglomerate of several hospitals in Region Hovedstaden and Region Sjælland, together with the faculty of health sciences at the University of Copenhagen; Rigshospitalet and Bispebjerg Hospital in Copenhagen belong to this group of university hospitals.","Rigshospitalet began operating in March 1757 as Frederiks Hospital, and became state-owned in 1903.","With 1,120 beds, Rigshospitalet has responsibility for 65,000 inpatients and approximately 420,000 outpatients annually.","It seeks to be the number one specialist hospital in the country, with an extensive team of researchers into cancer treatment, surgery and radiotherapy.","In addition to its 8,000 personnel, the hospital has training and hosting functions.","It benefits from the presence of in-service students of medicine and other healthcare sciences, as well as scientists working under a variety of research grants.","The hospital became internationally famous as the location of Lars von Trier's television horror mini-series ''The Kingdom''.","Bispebjerg Hospital was built in 1913, and serves about 400,000 people in the Greater Copenhagen area, with some 3,000 employees.","Other large hospitals in the city include Amager Hospital (1997), Herlev Hospital (1976), Hvidovre Hospital (1970), and Gentofte Hospital (1927).","Aller Media conglomerate building in Havneholm\nMany Danish media corporations are located in Copenhagen.","DR, the major Danish public service broadcasting corporation collected their activities in a new headquarters, DR Byen, in 2006 and 2007.","Similarly TV2 which is based in Odense has concentrated its Copenhagen activities in a modern media house in Teglholmen.","The two national daily newspapers ''Politiken'' and ''Berlingske Tidende'' and the two tabloids ''Ekstra Bladet'' and ''B.T.''","are based in Copenhagen.","''Kristeligt Dagblad'' is based in Copenhagen and is published six days a week.","Other important media corporations include Aller Media which is the largest publisher of weekly and monthly magazines in Scandinavia, the Egmont media group and Gyldendal, the largest Danish publisher of books.","Copenhagen also has a sizable film and television industry.","Nordisk Film, established in Valby, Copenhagen in 1906 is the oldest continuously operating film production company in the world.","In 1992 it merged with the Egmont media group and currently runs the 17-screen Palads Cinema in Copenhagen.","Filmbyen (movie city), located in a former military camp in the suburb of Hvidovre, houses several movie companies and studios.","Among the movie companies is Zentropa, co-owned by Danish movie director Lars von Trier who is behind several international movie productions as well as a founding force behind the Dogme Movement.","CPH:PIX is Copenhagen's international feature film festival, established in 2009 as a fusion of the 20-year-old Natfilm festival and the four-year-old CIFF.","The CPH:PIX festival takes place in mid-April.","CPH:DOX is Copenhagen's international documentary film festival, every year in November.","On top of its documentary film programme of over 100 films, CPH:DOX includes a wide event programme with dozens of events, concerts, exhibitions and parties all over town.","\nCopenhagen is twinned or cooperating with several cities, including:\n\n\n* Beijing, China\n\n* Paris, France (friendship and cooperation agreement only)\n\n* Reykjavík, Iceland\n\n* Campeche, Mexico","\n*:Category: People from Copenhagen\n*2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen\n*Architecture in Copenhagen\n*Copenhagen Climate Council\n*Outline of Denmark\n*Ports of the Baltic Sea","*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*","* VisitCopenhagen.dk – Official VisitCopenhagen tourism website"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n'''Copenhagen''' ( ; ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark.\",\n \"The city has a population of 763,908 (), of whom 601,448 live in the Municipality of Copenhagen.\",\n \"The larger urban area has a population of 1,280,371 (), while the Copenhagen metropolitan area has just over 2 million inhabitants.\",\n \"Copenhagen is situated on the eastern coast of the island of Zealand; another small portion of the city is located on Amager, and is separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the strait of Øresund.\",\n \"The Øresund Bridge connects the two cities by rail and road.\",\n \"Originally a Viking fishing village founded in the 10th century, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark in the early 15th century.\",\n \"Beginning in the 17th century it consolidated its position as a regional centre of power with its institutions, defences and armed forces.\",\n \"After suffering from the effects of plague and fire in the 18th century, the city underwent a period of redevelopment.\",\n \"This included construction of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden and founding of such cultural institutions as the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts.\",\n \"After further disasters in the early 19th century when Nelson attacked the Dano-Norwegian fleet and bombarded the city, rebuilding during the Danish Golden Age brought a Neoclassical look to Copenhagen's architecture.\",\n \"Later, following the Second World War, the Finger Plan fostered the development of housing and businesses along the five urban railway routes stretching out from the city centre.\",\n \"Since the turn of the 21st century, Copenhagen has seen strong urban and cultural development, facilitated by investment in its institutions and infrastructure.\",\n \"The city is the cultural, economic and governmental centre of Denmark; it is one of the major financial centres of Northern Europe with the Copenhagen Stock Exchange.\",\n \"Copenhagen's economy has seen rapid developments in the service sector, especially through initiatives in information technology, pharmaceuticals and clean technology.\",\n \"Since the completion of the Øresund Bridge, Copenhagen has become increasingly integrated with the Swedish province of Scania and its largest city, Malmö, forming the Øresund Region.\",\n \"With a number of bridges connecting the various districts, the cityscape is characterized by parks, promenades and waterfronts.\",\n \"Copenhagen's landmarks such as Tivoli Gardens, ''The Little Mermaid'' statue, the Amalienborg and Christiansborg palaces, Rosenborg Castle Gardens, Frederik's Church, and many museums, restaurants and nightclubs are significant tourist attractions.\",\n \"Copenhagen is home to the University of Copenhagen, the Technical University of Denmark and Copenhagen Business School.\",\n \"The University of Copenhagen, founded in 1479, is the oldest university in Denmark.\",\n \"Copenhagen is home to the FC København and Brøndby football clubs.\",\n \"The annual Copenhagen Marathon was established in 1980.\",\n \"Copenhagen is one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world.\",\n \"The Copenhagen Metro launched in 2002 serves central Copenhagen while the Copenhagen S-train network serves and connects central Copenhagen to its outlying boroughs.\",\n \"Serving roughly two million passengers a month, Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup, is the busiest airport in the Nordic countries.\",\n \"The name of the city reflects its origin as a harbour and a place of commerce.\",\n \"The original designation, from which the contemporary Danish name derives, was ''Køpmannæhafn'', meaning \\\"merchants' harbour\\\", often simply ''Hafn'' or ''Havn'' (\\\"harbour\\\").\",\n \"The literal English translation would be \\\"Chapman's haven\\\".\",\n \"The English name for the city was adapted from its Low German name, ''Kopenhagen''.\",\n \"The abbreviations ''Kbh.''\",\n \"or ''Kbhvn'' are often used in Danish for ''København'', and ''kbh.''\",\n \"for ''københavnsk'' (of Copenhagen).\",\n \"The chemical element hafnium is named after Copenhagen (Latin name ''Hafnia''), where it was discovered.\",\n \"The bacterium ''Hafnia'' is also named after Copenhagen: Vagn Møller of the State Serum Institute in Copenhagen named it in 1954.\",\n \"\\nReconstruction of Copenhagen \\n\\n===Early history===\\nAlthough the earliest historical records of Copenhagen are from the end of the 12th century, recent archaeological finds in connection with work on the city's metropolitan rail system revealed the remains of a large merchant's mansion near today's Kongens Nytorv from c. 1020.\",\n \"Excavations in Pilestræde have also led to the discovery of a well from the late 12th century.\",\n \"The remains of an ancient church, with graves dating to the 11th century, have been unearthed near where Strøget meets Rådhuspladsen.\",\n \"These finds indicate that Copenhagen's origins as a city go back at least to the 11th century.\",\n \"Substantial discoveries of flint tools in the area provide evidence of human settlements dating to the Stone Age.\",\n \"Many historians believe the town dates to the late Viking Age, and was possibly founded by Sweyn I Forkbeard.\",\n \"The natural harbour and good herring stocks seem to have attracted fishermen and merchants to the area on a seasonal basis from the 11th century and more permanently in the 13th century.\",\n \"The first habitations were probably centred on Gammel Strand (literally \\\"old shore\\\") in the 11th century or even earlier.\",\n \"The earliest written mention of the town was in the 12th century when Saxo Grammaticus in Gesta Danorum referred to it as ''Portus Mercatorum'', meaning Merchants' Harbour or, in the Danish of the time, ''Købmannahavn''.\",\n \"Traditionally, Copenhagen's founding has been dated to Bishop Absalon's construction of a modest fortress on the little island of Slotsholmen in 1167 where Christiansborg Palace stands today.\",\n \"The construction of the fortress was in response to attacks by Wendish pirates who plagued the coastline during the 12th century.\",\n \"Defensive ramparts and moats were completed and by 1177 St. Clemens Church had been built.\",\n \"Attacks by the Germans continued, and after the original fortress was eventually destroyed by the marauders, islanders replaced it with Copenhagen Castle.\",\n \"===Middle Ages===\\n\\nIn 1186, a letter from Pope Urban III states that the castle of ''Hafn'' (Copenhagen) and its surrounding lands, including the town of Hafn, were given to Absalon, Bishop of Roskilde 1158–1191 and Archbishop of Lund 1177–1201, by King Valdemar I.\",\n \"On Absalon's death, the property was to come into the ownership of the Bishopric of Roskilde.\",\n \"Around 1200, the Church of Our Lady was constructed on higher ground to the northeast of the town, which began to develop around it.\",\n \"As the town became more prominent, it was repeatedly attacked by the Hanseatic League.\",\n \"As the fishing industry thrived in Copenhagen, particularly in the trade of herring, the city began expanding to the north of Slotsholmen.\",\n \"In 1254, it received a charter as a city under Bishop Jakob Erlandsen who garnered support from the local fishing merchants against the king by granting them special privileges.\",\n \"In the mid 1330s, the first land assessment of the city was published.\",\n \"With the establishment of the Kalmar Union (1397–1523) between Denmark, Norway and Sweden, by about 1416 Copenhagen had emerged as the capital of Denmark when Eric of Pomerania moved his seat to Copenhagen Castle.\",\n \"The University of Copenhagen was inaugurated on 1 June 1479 by King Christian I, following approval from Pope Sixtus IV.\",\n \"This makes it the oldest university in Denmark and one of the oldest in Europe.\",\n \"Originally controlled by the Catholic Church, the university's role in society was forced to change during the Reformation in Denmark in the late 1530s.\",\n \"===16th and 17th centuries===\\n\\n\\nIn disputes prior to the Reformation of 1536, the city which had been faithful to Christian II, who was Catholic, was successfully besieged in 1523 by the forces of Frederik I, who supported Lutheranism.\",\n \"Copenhagen's defences were reinforced with a series of towers along the city wall.\",\n \"After an extended siege from July 1535 to July 1536, during which the city supported Christian II's alliance with Malmö and Lübeck, it was finally forced to capitulate to Christian III.\",\n \"During the second half of the century, the city prospered from increased trade across the Baltic supported by Dutch shipping.\",\n \"Christoffer Valkendorff, a high-ranking statesman, defended the city's interests and contributed to its development.\",\n \"The Netherlands had also become primarily Protestant, as were northern German states.\",\n \"During the reign of Christian IV between 1588 and 1648, Copenhagen had dramatic growth as a city.\",\n \"On his initiative at the beginning of the 17th century, two important buildings were completed on Slotsholmen: the Tøjhus Arsenal and Børsen, the stock exchange.\",\n \"To foster international trade, the East India Company was founded in 1616.\",\n \"To the east of the city, inspired by Dutch planning, the king developed the district of Christianshavn with canals and ramparts.\",\n \"It was initially intended to be a fortified trading centre but ultimately became part of Copenhagen.\",\n \"Christian IV also sponsored an array of ambitious building projects including Rosenborg Slot and the Rundetårn.\",\n \"In 1658–59, the city withstood a siege by the Swedes under Charles X and successfully repelled a major assault.\",\n \"By 1661, Copenhagen had asserted its position as capital of Denmark and Norway.\",\n \"All the major institutions were located there, as was the fleet and most of the army.\",\n \"The defences were further enhanced with the completion of the Citadel in 1664 and the extension of Christianshavns Vold with its bastions in 1692, leading to the creation of a new base for the fleet at Nyholm.\",\n \"===18th century===\\nA mansion at Amalienborg in Frederiksstaden (1750), part of the Amalienborg Palace\\n\\nCopenhagen lost around 22,000 of its population of 65,000 to the plague in 1711.\",\n \"The city was also struck by two major fires which destroyed much of its infrastructure.\",\n \"The Copenhagen Fire of 1728 was the largest in the history of Copenhagen.\",\n \"It began on the evening of 20 October, and continued to burn until the morning of 23 October, destroying approximately 28% of the city, leaving some 20% of the population homeless.\",\n \"No less than 47% of the medieval section of the city was completely lost.\",\n \"Along with the 1795 fire, it is the main reason that few traces of the old town can be found in the modern city.\",\n \"A substantial amount of rebuilding followed.\",\n \"In 1733, work began on the royal residence of Christiansborg Palace which was completed in 1745.\",\n \"In 1749, development of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden was initiated.\",\n \"Designed by Nicolai Eigtved in the Rococo style, its centre contained the mansions which now form Amalienborg Palace.\",\n \"Major extensions to the naval base of Holmen were undertaken while the city's cultural importance was enhanced with the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts.\",\n \"In the second half of the 18th century, Copenhagen benefitted from Denmark's neutrality during the wars between Europe's main powers, allowing it to play an important role in trade between the states around the Baltic Sea.\",\n \"After Christiansborg was destroyed by fire in 1794 and another fire caused serious damage to the city in 1795, work began on the classical Copenhagen landmark of Højbro Plads while Nytorv and Gammel Torv were converged.\",\n \"===19th century===\\nOn 2 April 1801, a British fleet under the command of Admiral Sir Hyde Parker defeated a Danish-Norwegian fleet anchored near Copenhagen.\",\n \"Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson led the main attack.\",\n \"He famously disobeyed Parker's order to withdraw, destroying many of the Dano-Norwegian ships before a truce was agreed.\",\n \"Copenhagen is often considered to be Nelson's hardest-fought battle, surpassing even the heavy fighting at Trafalgar.\",\n \"It was during this battle that Lord Nelson was said to have \\\"put the telescope to the blind eye\\\" in order not to see Admiral Parker's signal to cease fire.\",\n \"Gottlieb Bindesbøll's Thorvaldsen Museum (1848)\\nThe Second Battle of Copenhagen (or the Bombardment of Copenhagen) (16 August – 5 September 1807) was from a British point of view a preemptive attack on Copenhagen, targeting the civilian population in order to seize the Dano-Norwegian fleet.\",\n \"But from a Danish point of view the battle was a terror bombardment on their capital.\",\n \"Particularly notable was the use of incendiary Congreve rockets (containing phosphorus, which cannot be extinguished with water) that randomly hit the city.\",\n \"Few houses with straw roofs remained after the bombardment.\",\n \"The largest church, ''Vor frue kirke'', was destroyed by the sea artillery.\",\n \"Several historians consider this battle the first terror attack against a major European city in modern times.\",\n \"Slotsholmen canal, as seen from the Børsen building ().\",\n \"In the background from left to right: Church of the Holy Ghost, Trinitatis Complex, St. Nicholas Church and Holmen Church The British landed 30,000 men, they surrounded Copenhagen and the attack continued for the next three days, killing some 2,000 civilians and destroying most of the city.\",\n \"The devastation was so great because Copenhagen relied on an old defence-line whose limited range could not reach the British ships and their longer-range artillery.\",\n \"Despite the disasters of the early 19th century, Copenhagen experienced a period of intense cultural creativity known as the Danish Golden Age.\",\n \"Painting prospered under C.W.\",\n \"Eckersberg and his students while C.F.\",\n \"Hansen and Gottlieb Bindesbøll brought a Neoclassical look to the city's architecture.\",\n \"In the early 1850s, the ramparts of the city were opened to allow new housing to be built around The Lakes () that bordered the old defences to the west.\",\n \"By the 1880s, the districts of Nørrebro and Vesterbro developed to accommodate those who came from the provinces to participate in the city's industrialization.\",\n \"This dramatic increase of space was long overdue, as not only were the old ramparts out of date as a defence system but bad sanitation in the old city had to be overcome.\",\n \"From 1886, the west rampart (Vestvolden) was flattened, allowing major extensions to the harbour leading to the establishment of the Freeport of Copenhagen 1892–94.\",\n \"Electricity came in 1892 with electric trams in 1897.\",\n \"The spread of housing to areas outside the old ramparts brought about a huge increase in the population.\",\n \"In 1840, Copenhagen was inhabited by approximately 120,000 people.\",\n \"By 1901, it had some 400,000 inhabitants.\",\n \"===20th century===\\nCentral Copenhagen in 1939\\nBy the beginning of the 20th century, Copenhagen had become a thriving industrial and administrative city.\",\n \"With its new city hall and railway station, its centre was drawn towards the west.\",\n \"New housing developments grew up in Brønshøj and Valby while Frederiksberg became an enclave within the city of Copenhagen.\",\n \"The northern part of Amager and Valby were also incorporated into the City of Copenhagen in 1901–02.\",\n \"As a result of Denmark's neutrality in the First World War, Copenhagen prospered from trade with both Britain and Germany while the city's defences were kept fully manned by some 40,000 soldiers for the duration of the war.\",\n \"In the 1920s there were serious shortages of goods and housing.\",\n \"Plans were drawn up to demolish the old part of Christianshavn and to get rid of the worst of the city's slum areas.\",\n \"However, it was not until the 1930s that substantial housing developments ensued, with the demolishment of one side of Christianhavn's Torvegade in order to build five large blocks of flats.\",\n \"====World War II====\\n\\nThe RAF's bombing of Gestapo headquarters in March 1945 was coordinated with the Danish resistance movement\\nPeople celebrating the liberation of Denmark at Strøget in Copenhagen, 5 May 1945.\",\n \"Germany surrendered two days later \\n\\nDuring World War II in Denmark, Copenhagen was occupied by German troops along with the rest of the country from 9 April 1940 until 4 May 1945.\",\n \"German leader Adolf Hitler hoped that Denmark would be \\\"a model protectorate\\\" and initially the Nazi authorities sought to arrive at an understanding with the Danish government.\",\n \"The 1943 Danish parliamentary election was also allowed to take place, with only the Communist Party excluded.\",\n \"But in August 1943, after the government's collaboration with the occupation forces collapsed, several ships were sunk in Copenhagen Harbor by the Royal Danish Navy to prevent their use by the Germans.\",\n \"Around that time the Nazis started to arrest Jews, although most managed to escape to Sweden.\",\n \"In 1945 Ole Lippman, leader of the Danish section of the Special Operations Executive, invited the British Royal Air Force to assist their operations by attacking Nazi headquarters in Copenhagen.\",\n \"Accordingly, Air Vice-Marshal Sir Basil Embry drew up plans for a spectacular precision attack on the Sicherheitsdienst and Gestapo building, the former offices of the Shell Oil Company.\",\n \"Political prisoners were kept in the attic to prevent an air raid, so the RAF had to bomb the lower levels of the building.\",\n \"The attack, known as \\\"Operation Carthage\\\", came on 22 March 1945, in three small waves.\",\n \"In the first wave, all six planes (carrying one bomb each) hit their target, but one of the aircraft crashed near Frederiksberg Girls School.\",\n \"Because of this crash four of the planes in the two following waves assumed the school was the military target, and aimed their bombs at the school leading to the death of 123 civilians (of which 87 were schoolchildren).\",\n \"However, 18 of the 26 political prisoners in the Shell Building managed to escape while the Gestapo archives were completely destroyed.\",\n \"On 8 May 1945 Copenhagen was officially liberated by British troops commanded by Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery who supervised the surrender of 30,000 Germans situated around the capital.\",\n \"====Post-war decades====\\nBlack Diamond (1999)\\nShortly after the end of the war, an innovative urban development project known as the Finger Plan was introduced in 1947, encouraging the creation of new housing and businesses interspersed with large green areas along five \\\"fingers\\\" stretching out from the city centre along the S-train routes.\",\n \"With the expansion of the welfare state and women entering the work force, schools, nurseries, sports facilities and hospitals were established across the city.\",\n \"As a result of student unrest in the late 1960s, the former Bådsmandsstræde Barracks in Christianshavn was occupied, leading to the establishment of Freetown Christiania in September 1971.\",\n \"Øresund Bridge (1999)\\nMotor traffic in the city grew significantly and in 1972 the trams were replaced by buses.\",\n \"From the 1960s, on the initiative of the young architect Jan Gehl, pedestrian streets and cycle tracks were created in the city centre.\",\n \"Activity in the port of Copenhagen declined with the closure of the Holmen naval base.\",\n \"Copenhagen Airport underwent considerable expansion, becoming a hub for the Nordic countries.\",\n \"In the 1990s, large-scale housing developments were realized in the harbour area and in the west of Amager.\",\n \"The national library's Black Diamond building on the waterfront was completed in 1999.\",\n \"===2000 to present===\\nCopenhagen Opera House (2004)\\nSince the summer of 2000, Copenhagen and the Swedish city of Malmö have been connected by the Øresund Bridge, which carries rail and road traffic.\",\n \"As a result, Copenhagen has become the centre of a larger metropolitan area spanning both nations.\",\n \"The bridge has brought about considerable changes in the public transport system and has led to the extensive redevelopment of Amager.\",\n \"The city's service and trade sectors have developed while a number of banking and financial institutions have been established.\",\n \"Educational institutions have also gained importance, especially the University of Copenhagen with its 35,000 students.\",\n \"Another important development for the city has been the Copenhagen Metro, the underground railway system which opened in 2000 with additions until 2007, transporting some 54 million passengers by 2011.\",\n \"On the cultural front, the lavish Copenhagen Opera House, a gift to the city from the shipping magnate Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller on behalf of the A.P.\",\n \"Møller foundation, was completed in 2004.\",\n \"In December 2009 Copenhagen gained international prominence when it hosted the worldwide climate meeting COP15.\",\n \"Satellite view\\nA view over Freetown Christiania\\nCopenhagen is part of the Øresund Region, which consists of Zealand, Lolland-Falster and Bornholm in Denmark and Scania in Sweden.\",\n \"It is located on the eastern shore of the island of Zealand, partly on the island of Amager and on a number of natural and artificial islets between the two.\",\n \"Copenhagen faces the Øresund to the east, the strait of water that separates Denmark from Sweden, and which connects the North Sea with the Baltic Sea.\",\n \"The Swedish towns of Malmö and Landskrona lie on the Swedish side of the sound directly across from Copenhagen.\",\n \"By road, Copenhagen is northwest of Malmö, Sweden, northeast of Næstved, northeast of Odense, east of Esbjerg and southeast of Aarhus by sea and road via Sjællands Odde.\",\n \"The city centre lies in the area originally defined by the old ramparts, which are still referred to as the Fortification Ring (''Fæstningsringen'') and kept as a partial green band around it.\",\n \"Then come the late 19th and early 20th century residential neighbourhoods of Østerbro, Nørrebro, Vesterbro and Amagerbro.\",\n \"The outlying areas of Kongens Enghave, Valby, Vigerslev, Vanløse, Brønshøj, Utterslev and Sundby followed from 1920 to 1960.\",\n \"They consist mainly of residential housing and apartments often enhanced with parks and greenery.\",\n \"===Topography===\\nThe central area of the city consists of relatively low-lying flat ground formed by moraines from the last ice age while the hilly areas to the north and west frequently rise to above sea level.\",\n \"The slopes of Valby and Brønshøj reach heights of over , divided by valleys running from the northeast to the southwest.\",\n \"Close to the centre are the Copenhagen lakes of Sortedams Sø, Peblinge Sø and Sankt Jørgens Sø.\",\n \"Copenhagen rests on a subsoil of flint-layered limestone deposited in the Danian period some 60 to 66 million years ago.\",\n \"Some greensand from the Selandian is also present.\",\n \"There are a few faults in the area, the most important of which is the Carlsberg fault which runs northwest to southeast through the centre of the city.\",\n \"During the last ice age, glaciers eroded the surface leaving a layer of moraines up to thick.\",\n \"===Beaches===\\nAmager Strandpark\\nAmager Strandpark, which opened in 2005, is a long artificial island, with a total of of beaches.\",\n \"It is located just 15 minutes by bicycle or a few minutes by metro from the city centre.\",\n \"In Klampenborg, about 10 kilometers from downtown Copenhagen, is Bellevue Beach.\",\n \"It is long and has both lifeguards and freshwater showers on the beach.\",\n \"The beaches are supplemented by a system of Harbour Baths along the Copenhagen waterfront.\",\n \"The first and most popular of these is located at Islands Brygge and has won international acclaim for its design.\",\n \"===Climate===\\nFrederiksberg Palace in the snow\\nCopenhagen is in the oceanic climate zone (Köppen: ''Cfb '').\",\n \"Its weather is subject to low-pressure systems from the Atlantic which result in unstable conditions throughout the year.\",\n \"Apart from slightly higher rainfall from July to September, precipitation is moderate.\",\n \"While snowfall occurs mainly from late December to early March, there can also be rain, with average temperatures around the freezing point.\",\n \"June is the sunniest month of the year with an average of about eight hours of sunshine a day.\",\n \"July is the warmest month with an average daytime high of 21 °C.\",\n \"By contrast, the average hours of sunshine are less than two per day in November and only one and a half per day from December to February.\",\n \"In the spring, it gets warmer again with from four to six hours of sunshine per day from March to May.\",\n \"February is the driest month of the year.\",\n \"Exceptional weather conditions can bring as much as 50 cm of snow to Copenhagen in a 24-hour period during the winter months while summer temperatures have been known to rise to heights of .\",\n \"Because of Copenhagen's northern latitude, the number of daylight hours varies considerably between summer and winter.\",\n \"On the summer solstice, the sun rises at 04:26 and sets at 21:58, providing 17 hours 32 minutes of daylight.\",\n \"On the winter solstice, it rises at 08:37 and sets at 15:39 with 7 hours and 1 minute of daylight.\",\n \"There is therefore a difference of 10 hours and 31 minutes in the length of days and nights between the summer and winter solstices.\",\n \"City Hall of Copenhagen Municipality\\n\\nAccording to Statistics Denmark, the urban area of Copenhagen () consists of the municipalities of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Albertslund, Brøndby, Gentofte, Gladsaxe, Glostrup, Herlev, Hvidovre, Lyngby-Taarbæk, Rødovre, Tårnby and Vallensbæk as well as parts of Ballerup, Rudersdal and Furesø municipalities, along with the cities of Ishøj and Greve Strand.\",\n \"They are located in the Capital Region ().\",\n \"Municipalities are responsible for a wide variety of public services, which include land-use planning, environmental planning, public housing, management and maintenance of local roads, and social security.\",\n \"Municipal administration is also conducted by a mayor, a council, and an executive.\",\n \"Copenhagen Municipality is by far the largest municipality, with the historic city at its core.\",\n \"The seat of Copenhagen's municipal council is the Copenhagen City Hall (''''), which is situated on City Hall Square.\",\n \"The second largest municipality is Frederiksberg, an enclave within Copenhagen Municipality.\",\n \"Copenhagen Municipality is divided into ten districts (''bydele''): Indre By, Østerbro, Nørrebro, Vesterbro/Kongens Enghave, Valby, Vanløse, Brønshøj-Husum, Bispebjerg, Amager Øst, and Amager Vest.\",\n \"Neighbourhoods of Copenhagen include Slotsholmen, Frederiksstaden, Islands Brygge, Holmen, Christiania, Carlsberg, Sluseholmen, Amagerbro, Ørestad, Nordhavnen, Bellahøj, Brønshøj, Ryparken, and Vigerslev.\",\n \"===Law and order===\\n\\nMost of Denmark's top legal courts and institutions are based in Copenhagen.\",\n \"A modern style court of justice, ''Hof- og Stadsretten'', was introduced in Denmark, specifically for Copenhagen, by Johann Friedrich Struensee in 1771.\",\n \"Now known as the City Court of Copenhagen (''Københavns Byret''), it is the largest of the 24 city courts in Denmark with jurisdiction over the municipalities of Copenhagen, Dragør and Tårnby.\",\n \"With its 42 judges, it has a Probate Division, an Enforcement Division and a Registration and Notorial Acts Division while bankruptcy is handled by the Maritime and Commercial Court of Copenhagen.\",\n \"Established in 1862, the Maritime and Commercial Court (''Sø- og Handelsretten'') also hears commercial cases including those relating to trade marks, marketing practices and competition for the whole of Denmark.\",\n \"Denmark's Supreme Court (''Højesteret''), located in Christiansborg Palace on Prins Jørgens Gård in the centre of Copenhagen, is the country's final court of appeal.\",\n \"Handling civil and criminal cases from the subordinate courts, it has two chambers which each hear all types of cases.\",\n \"The Danish National Police and Copenhagen Police headquarters is situated in the Neoclassical-inspired Politigården building built in 1918–24 under architects Hack Kampmann and Holger Alfred Jacobsen.\",\n \"The building also contains administration, management, emergency department and radio service offices.\",\n \"In their efforts to deal with drugs, the police have noted considerable success in the two special drug consumption rooms opened by the city where addicts can use sterile needles and receive help from nurses if necessary.\",\n \"Use of these rooms does not lead to prosecution; the city treats drug use as a public health issue, not a criminal one.\",\n \"The Copenhagen Fire Department forms the largest municipal fire brigade in Denmark with some 500 fire and ambulance personnel, 150 administration and service workers, and 35 workers in prevention.\",\n \"The brigade began as the Copenhagen Royal Fire Brigade on 9 July 1687 under King Christian V. After the passing of the Copenhagen Fire Act on 18 May 1868, on 1 August 1870 the Copenhagen Fire Brigade became a municipal institution in its own right.\",\n \"The fire department has its headquarters in the Copenhagen Central Fire Station which was designed by Ludvig Fenger in the Historicist style and inaugurated in 1892.\",\n \"=== Environmental planning ===\\n\\n\\nCopenhagen is recognized as one of the most environmentally friendly cities in the world.\",\n \"As a result of its commitment to high environmental standards, Copenhagen has been praised for its green economy, ranked as the top green city for the second time in the 2014 ''Global Green Economy Index (GGEI)''.\",\n \"In 2001 a large offshore wind farm was built just off the coast of Copenhagen at Middelgrunden.\",\n \"It produces about 4% of the city's energy.\",\n \"Years of substantial investment in sewage treatment have improved water quality in the harbour to an extent that the inner harbour can be used for swimming with facilities at a number of locations.\",\n \"Middelgrunden offshore wind farm\\n\\nCopenhagen aims to be carbon-neutral by 2025.\",\n \"Commercial and residential buildings are to reduce electricity consumption by 20 percent and 10 percent respectively, and total heat consumption is to fall by 20 percent by 2025.\",\n \"Renewable energy features such as solar panels are becoming increasingly common in the newest buildings in Copenhagen.\",\n \"District heating will be carbon-neutral by 2025, by waste incineration and biomass.\",\n \"New buildings must now be constructed according to Low Energy Class ratings and in 2020 near net-zero energy buildings.\",\n \"By 2025, 75% of trips should be made on foot, by bike, or by using public transit.\",\n \"The city plans that 20–30% of cars will run on electricity or biofuel by 2025.\",\n \"The investment is estimated at $472 million public funds and $4.78 billion private funds.\",\n \"The city's architectural planning authorities continue to take full account of these priorities.\",\n \"Special attention is given both to climate issues and efforts to ensure maximum application of low-energy standards.\",\n \"Priorities include sustainable drainage systems, recycling rainwater, green roofs and efficient waste management solutions.\",\n \"In city planning, streets and squares are to be designed to encourage cycling and walking rather than driving.\",\n \"\\n\\n\\n First-generation immigrants by country of origin (Q12016)\\n\\n '''Nationality''' \\n '''Population''' \\n\\n Pakistan \\n5,409\\n\\n Morocco \\n5,197\\n\\n Poland \\n4,767\\n\\n Germany \\n4,560\\t\\n\\n Iraq \\n4,407\\n\\n Turkey \\n4,168\\t\\n\\n Sweden \\n4,471\\n\\n Norway \\n3,836\\n\\n United Kingdom \\n3,292\\n\\n United States \\n3,244\\n\\n Italy \\n3,098\\t\\t\\n\\n China \\n3,002\\t\\t\\n\\n\\n\\nCopenhagen is the most populous city in Denmark and one of the most populous in the Nordic countries.\",\n \"For statistical purposes, Statistics Denmark considers the City of Copenhagen (''Byen København'') to consist of the Municipality of Copenhagen plus three adjacent municipalities, viz.\",\n \"Dragør, Frederiksberg, and Tårnby.\",\n \"Their combined population stands at 763,908 ().\",\n \"The Municipality of Copenhagen is by far the most populous in the country and one of the one of the most populous Nordic municipalities with 601,448 inhabitants ().\",\n \"There was a demographic boom in the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, largely due to immigration to Denmark.\",\n \"According to figures from the first quarter of 2016, approximately 76% of the municipality's population was of Danish descent, defined as having at least one parent who was born in Denmark and has Danish citizenship.\",\n \"Much of the remaining 24% were of a foreign background, defined as immigrants (18%) or descendants of recent immigrants (6%).\",\n \"There are no official statistics on ethnic groups.\",\n \"The table to the right shows the most common countries of birth of Copenhagen residents.\",\n \"According to Statistics Denmark, Copenhagen's urban area has a larger population of 1,280,371 ().\",\n \"The urban area consists of the municipalities of Copenhagen and Frederiksberg plus 16 of the 20 municipalities of the former counties Copenhagen and Roskilde, though five of them only partially.\",\n \"Metropolitan Copenhagen has a total of 2,016,285 inhabitants ().\",\n \"The area of Metropolitan Copenhagen is defined by the Finger Plan.\",\n \"Since the opening of the Øresund Bridge in 2000, commuting between Zealand and Scania in Sweden has increased rapidly, leading to a wider, integrated area.\",\n \"Known as the Øresund Region, it has 3.8 million inhabitants (of whom 2.5 million live in the Danish part of the region).\",\n \"===Religion===\\n\\nChurch of Our Lady, situated on Frue Plads\\nWith 58.1% a majority of those living in Copenhagen are members of the Lutheran Church of Denmark which is 1.2% lower than one year earlier according to 2017 figures.\",\n \"The National Cathedral, the Church of Our Lady, is one of the dozens of churches in Copenhagen.\",\n \"There are also several other Christian communities in the city, of which the largest is Roman Catholic.\",\n \"Foreign migration to Copenhagen, rising over the last three decades, has contributed to increasing religious diversity; the Grand Mosque of Copenhagen, the first in Denmark, opened in 2014.\",\n \"Islam is the second largest religion in Copenhagen, accounting for approximately 10% of the population.\",\n \"While there are no official statistics, a significant portion of the estimated 175,000–200,000 Muslims in the country live in the Copenhagen urban area, with the highest concentration in Nørrebro and the Vestegnen.\",\n \"There are also some 7,000 Jews in Denmark, most of them in the Copenhagen area where there are several synagogues.\",\n \"===Quality of living===\\nFor a number of years, Copenhagen has ranked high in international surveys for its quality of life.\",\n \"Its stable economy together with its education services and level of social safety make it attractive for locals and visitors alike.\",\n \"Although it is one of the world's most expensive cities, it is also one of the most liveable with its public transport, facilities for cyclists and its environmental policies.\",\n \"In elevating Copenhagen to \\\"most liveable city\\\" in 2013, ''Monocle'' pointed to its open spaces, increasing activity on the streets, city planning in favour of cyclists and pedestrians, and features to encourage inhabitants to enjoy city life with an emphasis on community, culture and cuisine.\",\n \"Other sources have ranked Copenhagen high for its business environment, accessibility, restaurants and environmental planning.\",\n \"However, Copenhagen ranks only 39th for student friendliness in 2012.\",\n \"Despite a top score for quality of living, its scores were low for employer activity and affordability.\",\n \"Copenhagen is the major economic and financial centre of Denmark.\",\n \"The city's economy is based largely on services and commerce.\",\n \"Statistics for 2010 show that the vast majority of the 350,000 workers in Copenhagen are employed in the service sector, especially transport and communications, trade, and finance, while less than 10,000 work in the manufacturing industries.\",\n \"The public sector workforce is around 110,000, including education and healthcare.\",\n \"From 2006 to 2011, the economy grew by 2.5% in Copenhagen, while it fell by some 4% in the rest of Denmark.\",\n \"In 2010, the wider Capital Region of Denmark had a gross domestic product (GDP) of €88,366 million, and the 15th largest GDP per capita of regions in the European Union.\",\n \"The Copenhagen Stock Exchange (CSE) was founded in 1620 and is now owned by Nasdaq, Inc.. Copenhagen is also home to a number of international companies including A.P.\",\n \"Møller-Mærsk, Novo Nordisk, Carlsberg and Novozymes.\",\n \"City authorities have encouraged the development of business clusters in several innovative sectors, which include information technology, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, clean technology and smart city solutions.\",\n \"Scandinavian headquarters for the Swiss pharmaceutical company Ferring Pharmaceuticals\\nLife science is a key sector with extensive research and development activities.\",\n \"Medicon Valley is a leading bi-national life sciences cluster in Europe, spanning the Øresund Region.\",\n \"Copenhagen is rich in companies and institutions with a focus on research and development within the field of biotechnology, and the Medicon Valley initiative aims to strengthen this position and to promote cooperation between companies and academia.\",\n \"Many major Danish companies like Novo Nordisk and Lundbeck, both of which are among the 50 largest pharmaceutical and biotech companies in the world, are located in this business cluster.\",\n \"Shipping is another import sector with Maersk, the world's largest shipping company, having their world headquarters in Copenhagen.\",\n \"The city has an industrial harbour, Copenhagen Port.\",\n \"Following decades of stagnation, it has experienced a resurgence since 1990 following a merger with Malmö harbour.\",\n \"Both ports are operated by Copenhagen Malmö Port (CMP).\",\n \"The central location in the Øresund Region allows the ports to act as a hub for freight that is transported onward to the Baltic countries.\",\n \"CMP annually receives about 8,000 ships and handled some 148,000 TEU in 2012.\",\n \"Copenhagen has some of the highest gross wages in the world.\",\n \"High taxes mean that wages are reduced after mandatory deduction.\",\n \"A ''beneficial researcher scheme'' with low taxation of foreign specialists has made Denmark an attractive location for foreign labour.\",\n \"It is however also among the most expensive cities in Europe.\",\n \"Denmark's Flexicurity model features some of the most flexible hiring and firing legislation in Europe, providing attractive conditions for foreign investment and international companies looking to locate in Copenhagen.\",\n \"In Dansk Industri's 2013 survey of employment factors in the ninety-six municipalities of Denmark, Copenhagen came in first place for educational qualifications and for the development of private companies in recent years, but fell to 86th place in local companies' assessment of the employment climate.\",\n \"The survey revealed considerable dissatisfaction in the level of dialogue companies enjoyed with the municipal authorities.\",\n \"===Tourism===\\n\\nTourism is a major contributor to Copenhagen's economy, attracting visitors due to the city's harbour, cultural attractions and award-winning restaurants.\",\n \"Since 2009, Copenhagen has been one of the fastest growing metropolitan destinations in Europe.\",\n \"Hotel capacity in the city is growing significantly.\",\n \"From 2009 to 2013, it experienced a 42% growth in international bed nights (total number of nights spent by tourists), tallying a rise of nearly 70% for Chinese visitors.\",\n \"The total number of bed nights in the Capital Region surpassed 9 million in 2013, while international bed nights reached 5 million.\",\n \"In 2010, it is estimated that city break tourism contributed to DKK 2 billion in turnover.\",\n \"However, 2010 was an exceptional year for city break tourism and turnover increased with 29% in that one year.\",\n \"680,000 cruise passengers visited the port in 2015.\",\n \"\\nThe city's appearance today is shaped by the key role it has played as a regional centre for centuries.\",\n \"Copenhagen has a multitude of districts, each with its distinctive character and representing its own period.\",\n \"Other distinctive features of Copenhagen include the abundance of water, its many parks, and the bicycle paths that line most streets.\",\n \"===Architecture===\\n\\n\\n\\nThe oldest section of Copenhagen's inner city is often referred to as ''Middelalderbyen'' (the medieval city).\",\n \"However, the city's most distinctive district is Frederiksstaden, developed during the reign of Frederick V. It has the Amalienborg Palace at its centre and is dominated by the dome of Frederik's Church (or the Marble Church) and several elegant 18th-century Rococo mansions.\",\n \"The inner city includes Slotsholmen, a little island on which Christiansborg Palace stands and Christianshavn with its canals.\",\n \"Børsen on Slotsholmen and Frederiksborg Palace in Hillerød are prominent examples of the Dutch Renaissance style in Copenhagen.\",\n \"Around the historical city centre lies a band of congenial residential boroughs (Vesterbro, Inner Nørrebro, Inner Østerbro) dating mainly from late 19th century.\",\n \"They were built outside the old ramparts when the city was finally allowed to expand beyond its fortifications.\",\n \"Sometimes referred to as \\\"the City of Spires\\\", Copenhagen is known for its horizontal skyline, broken only by the spires and towers of its churches and castles.\",\n \"Most characteristic of all is the Baroque spire of the Church of Our Saviour with its narrowing external spiral stairway that visitors can climb to the top.\",\n \"Other important spires are those of Christiansborg Palace, the City Hall and the former Church of St. Nikolaj that now houses a modern art venue.\",\n \"Not quite so high are the Renaissance spires of Rosenborg Castle and the \\\"dragon spire\\\" of Christian IV's former stock exchange, so named because it resembles the intertwined tails of four dragons.\",\n \"Copenhagen is recognised globally as an exemplar of best practice urban planning.\",\n \"Its thriving mixed use city centre is defined by striking contemporary architecture, engaging public spaces and an abundance of human activity.\",\n \"These design outcomes have been deliberately achieved through careful replanning in the second half of the 20th century.\",\n \"Recent years have seen a boom in modern architecture in Copenhagen both for Danish architecture and for works by international architects.\",\n \"For a few hundred years, virtually no foreign architects had worked in Copenhagen, but since the turn of the millennium the city and its immediate surroundings have seen buildings and projects designed by top international architects.\",\n \"British design magazine ''Monocle'' named Copenhagen the ''World's best design city 2008''.\",\n \"Copenhagen's urban development in the first half of the 20th century was heavily influenced by industrialisation.\",\n \"After World War II, Copenhagen Municipality adopted Fordism and repurposed its medieval centre to facilitate private automobile infrastructure in response to innovations in transport, trade and communication.\",\n \"Copenhagen’s spacial planning in this time frame was characterised by the separation of land uses: an approach which requires residents to travel by car to access facilities of different uses.\",\n \"The boom in urban development and modern architecture has brought some changes to the city's skyline.\",\n \"A political majority has decided to keep the historical centre free of high-rise buildings, but several areas will see or have already seen massive urban development.\",\n \"Ørestad now has seen most of the recent development.\",\n \"Located near Copenhagen Airport, it currently boasts one of the largest malls in Scandinavia and a variety of office and residential buildings as well as the IT University and a high school.\",\n \"===Parks, gardens and zoo===\\n\\nRosenborg Castle and park in central Copenhagen\\nCopenhagen is a green city with many parks, both large and small.\",\n \"King's Garden (''''), the garden of Rosenborg Castle, is the oldest and most frequented of them all.\",\n \"It was Christian IV who first developed its landscaping in 1606.\",\n \"Every year it sees more than 2.5 million visitors and in the summer months it is packed with sunbathers, picnickers and ballplayers.\",\n \"It serves as a sculpture garden with both a permanent display and temporary exhibits during the summer months.\",\n \"Also located in the city centre are the Botanical Gardens noted for their large complex of 19th-century greenhouses donated by Carlsberg founder J. C. Jacobsen.\",\n \"Fælledparken at is the largest park in Copenhagen.\",\n \"It is popular for sports fixtures and hosts several annual events including a free opera concert at the opening of the opera season, other open-air concerts, carnival and Labour Day celebrations, and the Copenhagen Historic Grand Prix, a race for antique cars.\",\n \"A historical green space in the northeastern part of the city is Kastellet, a well-preserved Renaissance citadel that now serves mainly as a park.\",\n \"Another popular park is the Frederiksberg Gardens, a 32-hectare romantic landscape park.\",\n \"It houses a colony of tame grey herons and other waterfowl.\",\n \"The park offers views of the elephants and the elephant house designed by world-famous British architect Norman Foster of the adjacent Copenhagen Zoo.\",\n \"Langelinie, a park and promenade along the inner Øresund coast, is home to one of Copenhagen's most-visited tourist attractions, the Little Mermaid statue.\",\n \"In Copenhagen, many cemeteries double as parks, though only for the more quiet activities such as sunbathing, reading and meditation.\",\n \"Assistens Cemetery, the burial place of Hans Christian Andersen, is an important green space for the district of Inner Nørrebro and a Copenhagen institution.\",\n \"The lesser known Vestre Kirkegaard is the largest cemetery in Denmark () and offers a maze of dense groves, open lawns, winding paths, hedges, overgrown tombs, monuments, tree-lined avenues, lakes and other garden features.\",\n \"It is official municipal policy in Copenhagen that by 2015 all citizens must be able to reach a park or beach on foot in less than 15 minutes.\",\n \"In line with this policy, several new parks, including the innovative Superkilen in the Nørrebro district, have been completed or are under development in areas lacking green spaces.\",\n \"===Landmarks by district===\\n\\n====Indre By====\\nThe historic centre of the city, Indre By or the Inner City, features many of Copenhagen's most popular monuments and attractions.\",\n \"The area known as Frederiksstaden, developed by Frederik V in the second half of the 18th century in the Rococo style, has the four mansions of Amalienborg, the royal residence, and the wide-domed Marble Church at its centre.\",\n \"Directly across the water from Amalienborg, the recently completed Copenhagen Opera stands on the island of Holmen.\",\n \"To the south of Frederiksstaden, the Nyhavn canal is lined with colourful houses from the 17th and 18th centuries, many now with lively restaurants and bars.\",\n \"The canal runs from the harbour front to the spacious square of Kongens Nytorv which was laid out by Christian V in 1670.\",\n \"Important buildings include Charlottenborg Palace, famous for its art exhibitions, the Thott Palace (now the French embassy), the Royal Danish Theatre and the Hotel D'Angleterre, dated to 1755.\",\n \"Other landmarks in Indre By include the parliament building of Christiansborg, the City Hall and Rundetårn, originally an observatory.\",\n \"There are also several museums in the area including Thorvaldsen Museum dedicated to the 18th-century sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen.\",\n \"Closed to traffic since 1964, Strøget, the world's oldest and longest pedestrian street, runs the from Rådhuspladsen to Kongens Nytorv.\",\n \"With its speciality shops, cafés, restaurants, and buskers, it is always full of life and includes the old squares of Gammel Torv and Amagertorv, each with a fountain.\",\n \"Rosenborg Castle on Øster Voldgade was built by Christian IV in 1606 as a summer residence in the Renaissance style.\",\n \"It houses the Danish crown jewels and crown regalia, the coronation throne and tapestries illustrating Christian V's victories in the Scanian War.\",\n \"====Christianshavn====\\nChristianshavn Canal\\nChristianshavn lies to the southeast of Indre By on the other side of the harbour.\",\n \"The area was developed by Christian IV in the early 17th century.\",\n \"Impressed by the city of Amsterdam, he employed Dutch architects to create canals within its ramparts which are still well preserved today.\",\n \"The canals themselves, branching off the central Christianshavn Canal and lined with house boats and pleasure craft are one of the area's attractions.\",\n \"Another interesting feature is Freetown Christiania, a fairly large area which was initially occupied by squatters during student unrest in 1971.\",\n \"Today it still maintains a measure of autonomy.\",\n \"The inhabitants openly sell drugs on \\\"Pusher Street\\\" as well as their arts and crafts.\",\n \"Other buildings of interest in Christianshavn include the Church of Our Saviour with its spiralling steeple and the magnificent Rococo Christian's Church.\",\n \"Once a warehouse, the North Atlantic House now displays culture from Iceland and Greenland and houses the Noma restaurant, known for its Nordic cuisine.\",\n \"====Vesterbro====\\nHalmtorvet in Vesterbro\\nVesterbro, to the southwest of Indre By, begins with the Tivoli Gardens, the city's top tourist attraction with its fairground atmosphere, its Pantomime Theatre, its Concert Hall and its many rides and restaurants.\",\n \"The Carlsberg neighbourhood has some interesting vestiges of the old brewery of the same name including the Elephant Gate and the Ny Carlsberg Brewhouse.\",\n \"The Tycho Brahe Planetarium is located on the edge of Skt.\",\n \"Jørgens Sø, one of the Copenhagen lakes.\",\n \"Halmtorvet, the old haymarket behind the Central Station, is an increasingly popular area with its cafés and restaurants.\",\n \"The former cattle market Øksnehallen has been converted into a modern exhibition centre for art and photography.\",\n \"Radisson Blu Royal Hotel, built by Danish architect and designer Arne Jacobsen for the airline Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS) between 1956 and 1960 was once the tallest hotel in Denmark with a height of and the city's only skyscraper until 1969.\",\n \"Completed in 1908, Det Ny Teater (the New Theatre) located in a passage between Vesterbrogade and Gammel Kongevej has become a popular venue for musicals since its reopening in 1994, attracting the largest audiences in the country.\",\n \"====Nørrebro====\\nDronning Louises Bro leading into Nørrebrogade\\nNørrebro to the northwest of the city centre has recently developed from a working-class district into a colourful cosmopolitan area with antique shops, ethnic food stores and restaurants.\",\n \"Much of the activity is centred on Sankt Hans Torv.\",\n \"Copenhagen's historic cemetery, Assistens Kirkegård halfway up Nørrebrogade, is the resting place of many famous figures including Søren Kierkegaard, Niels Bohr, and Hans Christian Andersen but is also used by locals as a park and recreation area.\",\n \"====Østerbro====\\nThe Gefion Fountain\\nJust north of the city centre, Østerbro is an upper middle-class district with a number of fine mansions, some now serving as embassies.\",\n \"The district stretches from Nørrebro to the waterfront where ''The Little Mermaid'' statue can be seen from the promenade known as Langelinie.\",\n \"Inspired by Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale, it was created by Edvard Eriksen and unveiled in 1913.\",\n \"Not far from the Little Mermaid, the old Citadel (''Kastellet'') can be seen.\",\n \"Built by Christian IV, it is one of northern Europe's best preserved fortifications.\",\n \"There is also a windmill in the area.\",\n \"The large Gefion Fountain (''Gefionspringvandet'') designed by Anders Bundgaard and completed in 1908 stands close to the southeast corner of Kastellet.\",\n \"Its figures illustrate a Nordic legend.\",\n \"====Frederiksberg====\\nFrederiksberg Palace\\nFrederiksberg, a separate municipality within the urban area of Copenhagen, lies to the west of Nørrebro and Indre By and north of Vesterbro.\",\n \"Its landmarks include Copenhagen Zoo founded in 1869 with over 250 species from all over the world and Frederiksberg Palace built as a summer residence by Charles IV who was inspired by Italian architecture.\",\n \"Now a military academy, it overlooks the extensive landscaped Frederiksberg Gardens with its follies, waterfalls, lakes and decorative buildings.\",\n \"The wide tree-lined avenue of Frederiksberg Allé connecting Vesterbrogade with the Frederiksberg Gardens has long been associated with theatres and entertainment.\",\n \"While a number of the earlier theatres are now closed, the Betty Nansen Theatre and Aveny-T are still active.\",\n \"====Other districts====\\nNot far from Copenhagen Airport on the Kastrup coast, The Blue Planet completed in March 2013 now houses the national aquarium.\",\n \"With its 53 aquariums, it is the largest facility of its kind in Scandinavia.\",\n \"Grundtvig's Church, located in the northern suburb of Bispebjerg, was designed by P.V.\",\n \"Jensen Klint and completed in 1940.\",\n \"A rare example of Expressionist church architecture, its striking west façade is reminiscent of a church organ.\",\n \"The Little Mermaid'' statue, an icon of the city and a popular tourist attraction\\nApart from being the national capital, Copenhagen also serves as the cultural hub of Denmark and wider Scandinavia.\",\n \"Since the late 1990s, it has undergone a transformation from a modest Scandinavian capital into a metropolitan city of international appeal in the same league as Barcelona and Amsterdam.\",\n \"This is a result of huge investments in infrastructure and culture as well as the work of successful new Danish architects, designers and chefs.\",\n \"Copenhagen Fashion Week, the largest fashion event in Northern Europe, takes place every year in February and August.\",\n \"===Museums===\\n\\n\\nCopenhagen has a wide array of museums of international standing.\",\n \"The National Museum, ''Nationalmuseet'', is Denmark's largest museum of archaeology and cultural history, comprising the histories of Danish and foreign cultures alike.\",\n \"Denmark's National Gallery (''Statens Museum for Kunst'') is the national art museum with collections dating from the 12th century to the present.\",\n \"In addition to Danish painters, artists represented in the collections include Rubens, Rembrandt, Picasso, Braque, Léger, Matisse, Emil Nolde, Olafur Eliasson, Elmgreen and Dragset, Superflex and Jens Haaning.\",\n \"Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek art museum\\nAnother important Copenhagen art museum is the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek founded by second generation Carlsberg philanthropist Carl Jacobsen and built around his personal collections.\",\n \"Its main focus is classical Egyptian, Roman and Greek sculptures and antiquities and a collection of Rodin sculptures, the largest outside France.\",\n \"Besides its sculpture collections, the museum also holds a comprehensive collection of paintings of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist painters such as Monet, Renoir, Cézanne, van Gogh and Toulouse-Lautrec as well as works by the Danish Golden Age painters.\",\n \"Louisiana is a museum of modern art situated on the coast just north of Copenhagen.\",\n \"It is located in the middle of a sculpture garden on a cliff overlooking Øresund.\",\n \"Its collection of over 3,000 items includes works by Picasso, Giacometti and Dubuffet.\",\n \"The Danish Design Museum is housed in the 18th-century former Frederiks Hospital and displays Danish design as well as international design and crafts.\",\n \"Other museums include: the Thorvaldsens Museum, dedicated to the oeuvre of romantic Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen who lived and worked in Rome; the Cisternerne museum dedicated to modern glass art, located in former cisterns that come complete with stalactites formed by the changing water levels; and the Ordrupgaard Museum, located just north of Copenhagen, which features 19th-century French and Danish art and is noted for its works by Paul Gauguin.\",\n \"===Entertainment and performing arts===\\nThe Royal Danish Playhouse (left) and Opera House (background, right)\\nThe new Copenhagen Concert Hall opened in January 2009.\",\n \"Designed by Jean Nouvel, it has four halls with the main auditorium seating 1,800 people.\",\n \"It serves as the home of the Danish National Symphony Orchestra and along with the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles is the most expensive concert hall ever built.\",\n \"Another important venue for classical music is the Tivoli Concert Hall located in the Tivoli Gardens.\",\n \"Designed by Henning Larsen, the Copenhagen Opera House (''Operaen'') opened in 2005.\",\n \"It is among the most modern opera houses in the world.\",\n \"The Royal Danish Theatre also stages opera in addition to its drama productions.\",\n \"It is also home to the Royal Danish Ballet.\",\n \"Founded in 1748 along with the theatre, it is one of the oldest ballet troupes in Europe, and is noted for its Bournonville style of ballet.\",\n \"The Royal Danish Theatre main building\\nCopenhagen has a significant jazz scene that has existed for many years.\",\n \"It developed when a number of American jazz musicians such as Ben Webster, Thad Jones, Richard Boone, Ernie Wilkins, Kenny Drew, Ed Thigpen, Bob Rockwell, Dexter Gordon, and others such as rock guitarist Link Wray came to live in Copenhagen during the 1960s.\",\n \"Every year in early July, Copenhagen's streets, squares, parks as well as cafés and concert halls fill up with big and small jazz concerts during the Copenhagen Jazz Festival.\",\n \"One of Europe's top jazz festivals, the annual event features around 900 concerts at 100 venues with over 200,000 guests from Denmark and around the world.\",\n \"The largest venue for popular music in Copenhagen is Vega in the Vesterbro district.\",\n \"It was chosen as \\\"best concert venue in Europe\\\" by international music magazine ''Live''.\",\n \"The venue has three concert halls: the great hall, Store Vega, accommodates audiences of 1,550, the middle hall, Lille Vega, has space for 500 and Ideal Bar Live has a capacity of 250.\",\n \"Every September since 2006, the Festival of Endless Gratitude (FOEG) has taken place in Copenhagen.\",\n \"This festival focuses on indie counterculture, experimental pop music and left field music combined with visual arts exhibitions.\",\n \"Copenhagen is home to the \\\"K-Town\\\" punk and hardcore music community.\",\n \"This community developed around the underground scene venue Ungdomshuset in the late 90's punk scene, with punk- and hardcore acts such as Snipers, Amdi Petersens Armé, Gorilla Angreb, Young Wasteners, and No Hope For The Kids emerging as significant bands.\",\n \"The term \\\"K-town\\\" got international recognition within the punk-scene with the emergence of \\\"K-Town\\\" festivals.\",\n \"In 2001, the first of these was held in Ungdomshuset, on Jagtvej 69, Nørrebro, Copenhagen.\",\n \"The festival temporarily moved to Freetown Christiania after Ungdomshuset was evicted from its original location until a new Ungdomshuset location was opened on Dortheavej 61.\",\n \"For free entertainment one can stroll along Strøget, especially between Nytorv and Højbro Plads, which in the late afternoon and evening is a bit like an impromptu three-ring circus with musicians, magicians, jugglers and other street performers.\",\n \"===Literature===\\nCopenhagen's main public library\\nMost of Denmarks's major publishing houses are based in Copenhagen.\",\n \"These include the book publishers Gyldendal and Akademisk Forlag and newspaper publishers Berlingske and Politiken (the latter also publishing books).\",\n \"Many of the most important contributors to Danish literature such as Hans Christian Andersen (1805–1875) with his fairy tales, the philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) and playwright Ludvig Holberg (1684–1754) spent much of their lives in Copenhagen.\",\n \"Novels set in Copenhagen include ''Baby'' (1973) by Kirsten Thorup, ''The Copenhagen Connection'' (1982) by Barbara Mertz, ''Number the Stars'' (1989) by Lois Lowry, ''Miss Smilla's Feeling for Snow'' (1992) and ''Borderliners'' (1993) by Peter Høeg, ''Music and Silence'' (1999) by Rose Tremain, ''The Danish Girl'' (2000) by David Ebershoff, and ''Sharpe's Prey'' (2001) by Bernard Cornwell.\",\n \"Michael Frayn's 1998 play ''Copenhagen'' about the meeting between the physicists Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg in 1941 is also set in the city.\",\n \"On 15–18 August 1973, an oral literature conference took place in Copenhagen as part of the 9th International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences.\",\n \"The Royal Library, belonging to the University of Copenhagen, is the largest library in the Nordic countries with an almost complete collection of all printed Danish books since 1482.\",\n \"Founded in 1648, the Royal Library is located at four sites in the city, the main one being on the Slotsholmen waterfront.\",\n \"Copenhagen's public library network has over 20 outlets, the largest being the Central Library (''Københavns Hovedbibliotek'') on Krystalgade in the inner city.\",\n \"===Art===\\nInterior of the National Gallery (Statens Museum for Kunst), combining new and old architecture\\nCopenhagen has a wide selection of art museums and galleries displaying both historic works and more modern contributions.\",\n \"They include Statens Museum for Kunst, i.e.\",\n \"the Danish national art gallery, in the Østre Anlæg park, and the adjacent Hirschsprung Collection specialising in the 19th and early 20th century.\",\n \"Kunsthal Charlottenborg in the city centre exhibits national and international contemporary art.\",\n \"Den Frie Udstilling near the Østerport Station exhibits paintings created and selected by contemporary artists themselves rather than by the official authorities.\",\n \"The Arken Museum of Modern Art is located in southwestern Ishøj.\",\n \"Among artists who have painted scenes of Copenhagen are Martinus Rørbye (1803–1848), Christen Købke (1810–1848) and the prolific Paul Gustav Fischer (1860–1934).\",\n \"A number of notable sculptures can be seen in the city.\",\n \"In addition to ''The Little Mermaid'' on the waterfront, there are two historic equestrian statues in the city centre: Jacques Saly's ''Frederik V on Horseback'' (1771) in Amalienborg Square and the statue of Christian V on Kongens Nytorv created by Abraham-César Lamoureux in 1688 who was inspired by the statue of Louis XIII in Paris.\",\n \"Rosenborg Castle Gardens contains several sculptures and monuments including August Saabye's Hans Christian Andersen, Aksel Hansen's Echo, and Vilhelm Bissen's Dowager Queen Caroline Amalie.\",\n \"Copenhagen is believed to have invented the photomarathon photography competition, which has been held in the City each year since 1989.\",\n \"===Cuisine===\\n\\nNoma is an example of Copenhagen's renowned experimental restaurants, and has gained two Michelin stars.\",\n \", Copenhagen has 15 Michelin-starred restaurants, the most of any Scandinavian city.\",\n \"The city is increasingly recognized internationally as a gourmet destination.\",\n \"These include Den Røde Cottage, Formel B Restaurant, Grønbech & Churchill, Søllerød Kro, Kadeau, Kiin Kiin (Denmark's first Michelin-starred Asian gourmet restaurant), the French restaurant Kong Hans Kælder, Relæ, Restaurant AOC, Noma (short for Danish: ''no''rdisk ''ma''d, English: Nordic food) with two Stars and Geranium with three.\",\n \"Noma, was ranked as the Best Restaurant in the World by ''Restaurant'' in 2010, 2011, 2012, and again in 2014, sparking interest in the New Nordic Cuisine.\",\n \"Apart from the selection of upmarket restaurants, Copenhagen offers a great variety of Danish, ethnic and experimental restaurants.\",\n \"It is possible to find modest eateries serving open sandwiches, known as smørrebrød – a traditional, Danish lunch dish; however, most restaurants serve international dishes.\",\n \"Danish pastry can be sampled from any of numerous bakeries found in all parts of the city.\",\n \"The Copenhagen Baker's Association dates back to the 1290s and Denmark's oldest confectioner's shop still operating, ''Conditori La Glace'', was founded in 1870 in Skoubogade by Nicolaus Henningsen, a trained master baker from Flensburg.\",\n \"Copenhagen has long been associated with beer.\",\n \"Carlsberg beer has been brewed at the brewery's premises on the border between the Vesterbro and Valby districts since 1847 and has long been almost synonymous with Danish beer production.\",\n \"However, recent years have seen an explosive growth in the number of microbreweries so that Denmark today has more than 100 breweries, many of which are located in Copenhagen.\",\n \"Some like ''Nørrebro Bryghus'' also act as brewpubs where it is also possible to eat on the premises.\",\n \"===Nightlife and festivals===\\nCopenhagen Pride Parade, 2008\\nCopenhagen has one of the highest number of restaurants and bars per capita in the world.\",\n \"The nightclubs and bars stay open until 5 or 6 in the morning, some even longer.\",\n \"Denmark has a very liberal alcohol culture and a strong tradition for beer breweries, although binge drinking is frowned upon and the Danish Police take driving under the influence very seriously.\",\n \"Inner city areas such as Istedgade and Enghave Plads in Vesterbro, Sankt Hans Torv in Nørrebro and certain places in Frederiksberg are especially noted for their nightlife.\",\n \"Notable nightclubs include Bakken Kbh, ARCH (previously ZEN), Jolene, The Jane, Chateau Motel, KB3, At Dolores (previously Sunday Club), Rust, Vega Nightclub, Culture Box and Gefährlich, which also serves as a bar, café, restaurant, and art gallery.\",\n \"Copenhagen has several recurring community festivals, mainly in the summer.\",\n \"Copenhagen Carnival has taken place every year since 1982 during the Whitsun Holiday in Fælledparken and around the city with the participation of 120 bands, 2,000 dancers and 100,000 spectators.\",\n \"Since 2010, the old B&W Shipyard at Refshaleøen in the harbour has been the location for Copenhell, a heavy metal rock music festival.\",\n \"Copenhagen Pride is a gay pride festival taking place every year in August.\",\n \"The Pride has a series of different activities all over Copenhagen, but it is at the City Hall Square that most of the celebration takes place.\",\n \"During the Pride the square is renamed Pride Square.\",\n \"Copenhagen Distortion has emerged to be one of the biggest street festivals in Europe with 100.000 people joining to parties in the beginning of June every year.\",\n \"===Amusement parks===\\nPantomime Theatre, opened in 1874, is the oldest building in the Tivoli Gardens\\nCopenhagen has the two oldest amusement parks in the world.\",\n \"Dyrehavsbakken, a fair-ground and pleasure-park established in 1583, is located in Klampenborg just north of Copenhagen in a forested area known as Dyrehaven.\",\n \"Created as an amusement park complete with rides, games and restaurants by Christian IV, it is the oldest surviving amusement park in the world.\",\n \"Pierrot (), a nitwit dressed in white with a scarlet grin wearing a boat-like hat while entertaining children, remains one of the park's key attractions.\",\n \"In Danish, Dyrehavsbakken is often abbreviated as ''Bakken''.\",\n \"There is no entrance fee to pay and Klampenborg Station on the C-line, is situated nearby.\",\n \"The Tivoli Gardens is an amusement park and pleasure garden located in central Copenhagen between the City Hall Square and the Central Station.\",\n \"It opened in 1843, making it the second oldest amusement park in the world.\",\n \"Among its rides are the oldest still operating rollercoaster ''Rutschebanen'' from 1915 and the oldest ferris wheel still in use, opened in 1943.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens also serves as a venue for various performing arts and as an active part of the cultural scene in Copenhagen.\",\n \"The main building of the University of Copenhagen\\nCopenhagen has over 94,000 students enrolled in its largest universities and institutions: University of Copenhagen (38,867 students), Copenhagen Business School (19,999 students), Metropolitan University College and University College Capital (10,000 students each), Technical University of Denmark (7,000 students), KEA (c. 4,500 students), IT University of Copenhagen (2,000 students) and Aalborg University – Copenhagen (2,300 students).\",\n \"The University of Copenhagen is Denmark's oldest university founded in 1479.\",\n \"It attracts some 1,500 international and exchange students every year.\",\n \"The Academic Ranking of World Universities placed it 30th in the world in 2016.\",\n \"The Technical University of Denmark is located in Lyngby in the northern outskirts of Copenhagen.\",\n \"In 2013, it was ranked as one of the leading technical universities in Northern Europe.\",\n \"The IT University is Denmark's youngest university, a mono-faculty institution focusing on technical, societal and business aspects of information technology.\",\n \"The Danish Academy of Fine Arts has provided education in the arts for more than 250 years.\",\n \"It includes the historic School of Visual Arts, and has in later years come to include a School of Architecture, a School of Design and a School of Conservation.\",\n \"Copenhagen Business School (CBS) is an EQUIS-accredited business school located in Frederiksberg.\",\n \"There are also branches of both University College Capital and Metropolitan University College inside and outside Copenhagen.\",\n \"The city has a variety of sporting teams.\",\n \"The major football teams are the historically successful FC København and Brøndby.\",\n \"FC København plays at Parken in Østerbro.\",\n \"Formed in 1992, it is a merger of two older Copenhagen clubs, B 1903 (from the inner suburb Gentofte) and KB (from Frederiksberg).\",\n \"Brøndby plays at Brøndby Stadion in the inner suburb of Brøndbyvester.\",\n \"BK Frem is based in the southern part of Copenhagen (Sydhavnen, Valby).\",\n \"Other teams are FC Nordsjælland (from suburban Farum), Fremad Amager, B93, AB, Lyngby and Hvidovre IF.\",\n \"Copenhagen Marathon 2008\\nCopenhagen has several handball teams—a sport which is particularly popular in Denmark.\",\n \"Of clubs playing in the \\\"highest\\\" leagues, there are Ajax, Ydun, and HIK (Hellerup).\",\n \"The København Håndbold women's club has recently been established.\",\n \"Copenhagen also has ice hockey teams, of which three play in the top league, Rødovre Mighty Bulls, Herlev Eagles and Hvidovre Ligahockey all inner suburban clubs.\",\n \"Copenhagen Ice Skating Club founded in 1869 is the oldest ice hockey team in Denmark but is no longer in the top league.\",\n \"Rugby union is also played in the Danish capital with teams such as CSR-Nanok, Copenhagen Business School Sport Rugby, Frederiksberg RK, Exiles RUFC and Rugbyklubben Speed.\",\n \"Rugby league is now played in Copenhagen, with the national team playing out of Gentofte Stadion.\",\n \"The Danish Australian Football League, based in Copenhagen is the largest Australian rules football competition outside of the English-speaking world.\",\n \"Copenhagen Marathon, Copenhagen's annual marathon event, was established in 1980.\",\n \"Round Christiansborg Open Water Swim Race is a open water swimming competition taking place each year in late August.\",\n \"This amateur event is combined with a Danish championship.\",\n \"In 2009 the event included a FINA World Cup competition in the morning.\",\n \"Copenhagen hosted the 2011 UCI Road World Championships in September 2011, taking advantage of its bicycle-friendly infrastructure.\",\n \"It was the first time that Denmark had hosted the event since 1956, when it was also held in Copenhagen.\",\n \"\\n\\nCopenhagen Airport, Kastrup\\nThe greater Copenhagen area has a very well established transportation infrastructure making it a hub in Northern Europe.\",\n \"Copenhagen Airport, opened in 1925, is Scandinavia's largest airport, located in Kastrup on the island of Amager.\",\n \"It is connected to the city centre by metro and main line railway services.\",\n \"October 2013 was a record month with 2.2 million passengers, and November 2013 figures reveal that the number of passengers is increasing by some 3% annually, about 50% more than the European average.\",\n \"S-train at Copenhagen Central Station\\nCopenhagen has an extensive road network including motorways connecting the city to other parts of Denmark and to Sweden over the Øresund Bridge.\",\n \"The car is still the most popular form of transport within the city itself, representing two-thirds of all distances travelled.\",\n \"This can however lead to serious congestion in rush hour traffic.\",\n \"Copenhagen is also served by a daily ferry connection to Oslo in Norway.\",\n \"In 2012, Copenhagen Harbour handled 372 cruise ships and 840,000 passengers.\",\n \"The intense use of bicycles here illustrated at the Christianshavn Metro Station\\nThe Copenhagen S-Train, Copenhagen Metro and the regional train networks are used by about half of the city's passengers, the remainder using bus services.\",\n \"Nørreport Station near the city centre serves passengers travelling by main-line rail, S-train, regional train, metro and bus.\",\n \"Some 750,000 passengers make use of public transport facilities every day.\",\n \"Copenhagen Central Station is the hub of the DSB railway network serving Denmark and international destinations.\",\n \"The Danish capital is known as one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world, with bicycles actually outnumbering its inhabitants.\",\n \"In 2012 some 36% of all working or studying city-dwellers cycled to work, school, or university.\",\n \"With 1.27 million km covered every working day by Copenhagen's cyclists (including both residents and commuters), and 75% of Copenhageners cycling throughout the year.\",\n \"The city's bicycle paths are extensive and well used, boasting of cycle lanes not shared with cars or pedestrians, and sometimes have their own signal systems – giving the cyclists a lead of a couple of seconds to accelerate.\",\n \"\\n\\nPromoting health is an extremely important issue for Copenhagen's municipal authorities.\",\n \"Central to its sustainability mission is its \\\"Long Live Copenhagen\\\" (''Længe Leve København'') scheme in which it has the goal of increasing the life expectancy of citizens, improving quality of life through better standards of health, and encouraging more productive lives and equal opportunities.\",\n \"The city has targets to encourage people to exercise regularly and to reduce the number who smoke and consume alcohol.\",\n \"Rigshospitalet is one of the largest hospitals in Denmark.\",\n \"Copenhagen University Hospital forms a conglomerate of several hospitals in Region Hovedstaden and Region Sjælland, together with the faculty of health sciences at the University of Copenhagen; Rigshospitalet and Bispebjerg Hospital in Copenhagen belong to this group of university hospitals.\",\n \"Rigshospitalet began operating in March 1757 as Frederiks Hospital, and became state-owned in 1903.\",\n \"With 1,120 beds, Rigshospitalet has responsibility for 65,000 inpatients and approximately 420,000 outpatients annually.\",\n \"It seeks to be the number one specialist hospital in the country, with an extensive team of researchers into cancer treatment, surgery and radiotherapy.\",\n \"In addition to its 8,000 personnel, the hospital has training and hosting functions.\",\n \"It benefits from the presence of in-service students of medicine and other healthcare sciences, as well as scientists working under a variety of research grants.\",\n \"The hospital became internationally famous as the location of Lars von Trier's television horror mini-series ''The Kingdom''.\",\n \"Bispebjerg Hospital was built in 1913, and serves about 400,000 people in the Greater Copenhagen area, with some 3,000 employees.\",\n \"Other large hospitals in the city include Amager Hospital (1997), Herlev Hospital (1976), Hvidovre Hospital (1970), and Gentofte Hospital (1927).\",\n \"Aller Media conglomerate building in Havneholm\\nMany Danish media corporations are located in Copenhagen.\",\n \"DR, the major Danish public service broadcasting corporation collected their activities in a new headquarters, DR Byen, in 2006 and 2007.\",\n \"Similarly TV2 which is based in Odense has concentrated its Copenhagen activities in a modern media house in Teglholmen.\",\n \"The two national daily newspapers ''Politiken'' and ''Berlingske Tidende'' and the two tabloids ''Ekstra Bladet'' and ''B.T.''\",\n \"are based in Copenhagen.\",\n \"''Kristeligt Dagblad'' is based in Copenhagen and is published six days a week.\",\n \"Other important media corporations include Aller Media which is the largest publisher of weekly and monthly magazines in Scandinavia, the Egmont media group and Gyldendal, the largest Danish publisher of books.\",\n \"Copenhagen also has a sizable film and television industry.\",\n \"Nordisk Film, established in Valby, Copenhagen in 1906 is the oldest continuously operating film production company in the world.\",\n \"In 1992 it merged with the Egmont media group and currently runs the 17-screen Palads Cinema in Copenhagen.\",\n \"Filmbyen (movie city), located in a former military camp in the suburb of Hvidovre, houses several movie companies and studios.\",\n \"Among the movie companies is Zentropa, co-owned by Danish movie director Lars von Trier who is behind several international movie productions as well as a founding force behind the Dogme Movement.\",\n \"CPH:PIX is Copenhagen's international feature film festival, established in 2009 as a fusion of the 20-year-old Natfilm festival and the four-year-old CIFF.\",\n \"The CPH:PIX festival takes place in mid-April.\",\n \"CPH:DOX is Copenhagen's international documentary film festival, every year in November.\",\n \"On top of its documentary film programme of over 100 films, CPH:DOX includes a wide event programme with dozens of events, concerts, exhibitions and parties all over town.\",\n \"\\nCopenhagen is twinned or cooperating with several cities, including:\\n\\n\\n* Beijing, China\\n\\n* Paris, France (friendship and cooperation agreement only)\\n\\n* Reykjavík, Iceland\\n\\n* Campeche, Mexico\",\n \"\\n*:Category: People from Copenhagen\\n*2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen\\n*Architecture in Copenhagen\\n*Copenhagen Climate Council\\n*Outline of Denmark\\n*Ports of the Baltic Sea\",\n \"*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\",\n \"* VisitCopenhagen.dk – Official VisitCopenhagen tourism website\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"finance"}}},{"rowIdx":290,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\n\n'''Capital''' may refer to:\n\n* Capital city, the area of a country, province, region, or state, regarded as enjoying primary status, usually but not always the seat of the government\n* Capital letter, an upper-case letter in a writing system\n** Capitals (typeface), a small-caps serif typeface\n** Illuminated capital in a manuscript\n* Capital punishment, the death sentence\n\n\n","\n* Capital (architecture), the crowning member of a column or a pilaster\n* Capital (fortification), a proportion of a bastion\n","\n* Capital Bible Seminary, the seminary component of Washington Bible College with its main campus in Lanham, Maryland\n* Capital Community College, a community college in Hartford, Connecticut\n* Capital University, a four-year private university in Columbus, Ohio\n* Capitol Technology University, a private, non-profit, and non-sectarian college located just south of Laurel, Maryland\n* Penn State Harrisburg, also called: ''The Capital College''citation needed an undergraduate college and graduate school of the Pennsylvania State University, in Middletown, Pennsylvania\n","\n* Capital (economics), a factor of production that is not wanted for itself but for its ability to help in producing other goods\n* Capital requirement or \"bank capital\", the requirement that banks keep certain monetary reserves\n* Cultural capital, the advantage individuals can gain from mastering the cultural tastes of a privileged group\n* Financial capital, any form of wealth capable of being employed in the production of more wealth\n* Human capital, workers' skills and abilities as regards their contribution to an economy\n* Intellectual capital, intangible assets, for example, knowledge, resource know-how and processes\n* Natural capital, the resources of an ecosystem that yields a flow of goods and services into the future\n* Physical capital, any non-human asset made by humans and then used in production\n* Political capital, means by which a politician or political party may gain support or popularity\n* Positive psychological capital, the value of an individual's level of optimism, hope, resilience, self-efficacy\n* Public capital, means of production other than natural capital\n* Social capital, the value of social networks to individuals embedded in them\n* Symbolic capital, it can be language and/or images that circulate as power. Or, symbolic capital is one of the four types of capital in Pierre Bourdieu's theory; it can be a type of capital that is strongly correlated to social capital, and it comes into existence once it is perceived and recognized as legitimate.\n* Working capital, short term capital needed by the company to finance its operations\n","\n===Films===\n*''Capital'' (film), 2012 French drama film\n\n===Literature===\n* ''Capital'' (novel), a novel by John Lanchester\n\n===Music===\n* Capital (band), a band from the UK\n* Capital Cities (band), a band from the US\n* \"Capital\", a song by We Stood Like Kings from the album ''USSR 1926'' (2015), a new soundtrack for the silent movie A Sixth Part of the World.\n\n===Publications===\n* ''Capital: Critique of Political Economy'', a work by political economist Karl Marx\n* ''Capital'' (French magazine), a French-language magazine\n* ''Capital'' (German magazine), a German-language magazine\n* ''Capital'' (newspaper), a Bulgarian business-oriented weekly newspaper\n* ''Capital'' (Romanian newspaper), a Romanian business-oriented weekly newspaper\n* ''Capital'' (Ukrainian newspaper), a Ukrainian weekly newspaper\n* ''Kapital'' (newspaper), a Macedonian weekly newspaper\n* ''Capital'', online newszine published in Albany, New York, United States\n* ''Capital Ethiopia'', also known as: ''Capital'', an Ethiopian business-oriented weekly English-language newspaper\n* ''Capital in the Twenty-First Century'' a 2013 bestselling book by French economist Thomas Piketty\n* ''Capital New York'', an online news site owned by ''Politico''\n* ''The Capital'', a daily newspaper based in Annapolis, Maryland, United States\n\n===Radio===\n* Capital Radio (disambiguation), various radio stations named Capital\n* Capital (radio network), a network of nine Independent Local Radio stations in the United Kingdom\n\n===Television===\n* ''Capital'', an Iranian TV Series\n*''Capital'', a three part BBC television adaptation of John Lanchester's novel of the same name.\n","* Capital Clube de Futebol, a Brazilian football (soccer) club\n* Delhi Capitals, an Indian basketball team\n* Edinburgh Capitals, a Scottish ice-hockey team\n* Edmonton Capitals, a baseball team\n* University of Canberra Capitals, an Australian women's basketball team\n* Vienna Capitals, an Austrian ice-hockey team\n* Washington Capitals, a National Hockey League team (USA)\n","* Capital Airlines (UK), was an airline based in the United Kingdom and self-proclaimed \"Yorkshire International Airlines\"\n* Capital ship, a classification of a naval vessel\n","* \n* \n* Capitalism\n* Capitalization (disambiguation)\n* List of national capitals\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n'''Capital''' may refer to:\\n\\n* Capital city, the area of a country, province, region, or state, regarded as enjoying primary status, usually but not always the seat of the government\\n* Capital letter, an upper-case letter in a writing system\\n** Capitals (typeface), a small-caps serif typeface\\n** Illuminated capital in a manuscript\\n* Capital punishment, the death sentence\\n\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n* Capital (architecture), the crowning member of a column or a pilaster\\n* Capital (fortification), a proportion of a bastion\\n\",\n \"\\n* Capital Bible Seminary, the seminary component of Washington Bible College with its main campus in Lanham, Maryland\\n* Capital Community College, a community college in Hartford, Connecticut\\n* Capital University, a four-year private university in Columbus, Ohio\\n* Capitol Technology University, a private, non-profit, and non-sectarian college located just south of Laurel, Maryland\\n* Penn State Harrisburg, also called: ''The Capital College''citation needed an undergraduate college and graduate school of the Pennsylvania State University, in Middletown, Pennsylvania\\n\",\n \"\\n* Capital (economics), a factor of production that is not wanted for itself but for its ability to help in producing other goods\\n* Capital requirement or \\\"bank capital\\\", the requirement that banks keep certain monetary reserves\\n* Cultural capital, the advantage individuals can gain from mastering the cultural tastes of a privileged group\\n* Financial capital, any form of wealth capable of being employed in the production of more wealth\\n* Human capital, workers' skills and abilities as regards their contribution to an economy\\n* Intellectual capital, intangible assets, for example, knowledge, resource know-how and processes\\n* Natural capital, the resources of an ecosystem that yields a flow of goods and services into the future\\n* Physical capital, any non-human asset made by humans and then used in production\\n* Political capital, means by which a politician or political party may gain support or popularity\\n* Positive psychological capital, the value of an individual's level of optimism, hope, resilience, self-efficacy\\n* Public capital, means of production other than natural capital\\n* Social capital, the value of social networks to individuals embedded in them\\n* Symbolic capital, it can be language and/or images that circulate as power. Or, symbolic capital is one of the four types of capital in Pierre Bourdieu's theory; it can be a type of capital that is strongly correlated to social capital, and it comes into existence once it is perceived and recognized as legitimate.\\n* Working capital, short term capital needed by the company to finance its operations\\n\",\n \"\\n===Films===\\n*''Capital'' (film), 2012 French drama film\\n\\n===Literature===\\n* ''Capital'' (novel), a novel by John Lanchester\\n\\n===Music===\\n* Capital (band), a band from the UK\\n* Capital Cities (band), a band from the US\\n* \\\"Capital\\\", a song by We Stood Like Kings from the album ''USSR 1926'' (2015), a new soundtrack for the silent movie A Sixth Part of the World.\\n\\n===Publications===\\n* ''Capital: Critique of Political Economy'', a work by political economist Karl Marx\\n* ''Capital'' (French magazine), a French-language magazine\\n* ''Capital'' (German magazine), a German-language magazine\\n* ''Capital'' (newspaper), a Bulgarian business-oriented weekly newspaper\\n* ''Capital'' (Romanian newspaper), a Romanian business-oriented weekly newspaper\\n* ''Capital'' (Ukrainian newspaper), a Ukrainian weekly newspaper\\n* ''Kapital'' (newspaper), a Macedonian weekly newspaper\\n* ''Capital'', online newszine published in Albany, New York, United States\\n* ''Capital Ethiopia'', also known as: ''Capital'', an Ethiopian business-oriented weekly English-language newspaper\\n* ''Capital in the Twenty-First Century'' a 2013 bestselling book by French economist Thomas Piketty\\n* ''Capital New York'', an online news site owned by ''Politico''\\n* ''The Capital'', a daily newspaper based in Annapolis, Maryland, United States\\n\\n===Radio===\\n* Capital Radio (disambiguation), various radio stations named Capital\\n* Capital (radio network), a network of nine Independent Local Radio stations in the United Kingdom\\n\\n===Television===\\n* ''Capital'', an Iranian TV Series\\n*''Capital'', a three part BBC television adaptation of John Lanchester's novel of the same name.\\n\",\n \"* Capital Clube de Futebol, a Brazilian football (soccer) club\\n* Delhi Capitals, an Indian basketball team\\n* Edinburgh Capitals, a Scottish ice-hockey team\\n* Edmonton Capitals, a baseball team\\n* University of Canberra Capitals, an Australian women's basketball team\\n* Vienna Capitals, an Austrian ice-hockey team\\n* Washington Capitals, a National Hockey League team (USA)\\n\",\n \"* Capital Airlines (UK), was an airline based in the United Kingdom and self-proclaimed \\\"Yorkshire International Airlines\\\"\\n* Capital ship, a classification of a naval vessel\\n\",\n \"* \\n* \\n* Capitalism\\n* Capitalization (disambiguation)\\n* List of national capitals\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction"," Architecture "," Colleges, seminaries, and universities "," Forms of capital ","Media "," Sports ","Transportation and vessels"," See also "],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \" Architecture \",\n \" Colleges, seminaries, and universities \",\n \" Forms of capital \",\n \"Media \",\n \" Sports \",\n \"Transportation and vessels\",\n \" See also \"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Capital"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n* Capital (economics), a factor of production that is not wanted for itself but for its ability to help in producing other goods\n* Capital requirement or \"bank capital\", the requirement that banks keep certain monetary reserves\n* Cultural capital, the advantage individuals can gain from mastering the cultural tastes of a privileged group\n* Financial capital, any form of wealth capable of being employed in the production of more wealth\n* Human capital, workers' skills and abilities as regards their contribution to an economy\n* Intellectual capital, intangible assets, for example, knowledge, resource know-how and processes\n* Natural capital, the resources of an ecosystem that yields a flow of goods and services into the future\n* Physical capital, any non-human asset made by humans and then used in production\n* Political capital, means by which a politician or political party may gain support or popularity\n* Positive psychological capital, the value of an individual's level of optimism, hope, resilience, self-efficacy\n* Public capital, means of production other than natural capital\n* Social capital, the value of social networks to individuals embedded in them\n* Symbolic capital, it can be language and/or images that circulate as power."],"string":"[\n \"\\n* Capital (economics), a factor of production that is not wanted for itself but for its ability to help in producing other goods\\n* Capital requirement or \\\"bank capital\\\", the requirement that banks keep certain monetary reserves\\n* Cultural capital, the advantage individuals can gain from mastering the cultural tastes of a privileged group\\n* Financial capital, any form of wealth capable of being employed in the production of more wealth\\n* Human capital, workers' skills and abilities as regards their contribution to an economy\\n* Intellectual capital, intangible assets, for example, knowledge, resource know-how and processes\\n* Natural capital, the resources of an ecosystem that yields a flow of goods and services into the future\\n* Physical capital, any non-human asset made by humans and then used in production\\n* Political capital, means by which a politician or political party may gain support or popularity\\n* Positive psychological capital, the value of an individual's level of optimism, hope, resilience, self-efficacy\\n* Public capital, means of production other than natural capital\\n* Social capital, the value of social networks to individuals embedded in them\\n* Symbolic capital, it can be language and/or images that circulate as power.\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\n\n'''Capital''' may refer to:\n\n* Capital city, the area of a country, province, region, or state, regarded as enjoying primary status, usually but not always the seat of the government\n* Capital letter, an upper-case letter in a writing system\n** Capitals (typeface), a small-caps serif typeface\n** Illuminated capital in a manuscript\n* Capital punishment, the death sentence","\n* Capital (architecture), the crowning member of a column or a pilaster\n* Capital (fortification), a proportion of a bastion","\n* Capital Bible Seminary, the seminary component of Washington Bible College with its main campus in Lanham, Maryland\n* Capital Community College, a community college in Hartford, Connecticut\n* Capital University, a four-year private university in Columbus, Ohio\n* Capitol Technology University, a private, non-profit, and non-sectarian college located just south of Laurel, Maryland\n* Penn State Harrisburg, also called: ''The Capital College''citation needed an undergraduate college and graduate school of the Pennsylvania State University, in Middletown, Pennsylvania","Or, symbolic capital is one of the four types of capital in Pierre Bourdieu's theory; it can be a type of capital that is strongly correlated to social capital, and it comes into existence once it is perceived and recognized as legitimate.","* Working capital, short term capital needed by the company to finance its operations","\n===Films===\n*''Capital'' (film), 2012 French drama film\n\n===Literature===\n* ''Capital'' (novel), a novel by John Lanchester\n\n===Music===\n* Capital (band), a band from the UK\n* Capital Cities (band), a band from the US\n* \"Capital\", a song by We Stood Like Kings from the album ''USSR 1926'' (2015), a new soundtrack for the silent movie A Sixth Part of the World.","===Publications===\n* ''Capital: Critique of Political Economy'', a work by political economist Karl Marx\n* ''Capital'' (French magazine), a French-language magazine\n* ''Capital'' (German magazine), a German-language magazine\n* ''Capital'' (newspaper), a Bulgarian business-oriented weekly newspaper\n* ''Capital'' (Romanian newspaper), a Romanian business-oriented weekly newspaper\n* ''Capital'' (Ukrainian newspaper), a Ukrainian weekly newspaper\n* ''Kapital'' (newspaper), a Macedonian weekly newspaper\n* ''Capital'', online newszine published in Albany, New York, United States\n* ''Capital Ethiopia'', also known as: ''Capital'', an Ethiopian business-oriented weekly English-language newspaper\n* ''Capital in the Twenty-First Century'' a 2013 bestselling book by French economist Thomas Piketty\n* ''Capital New York'', an online news site owned by ''Politico''\n* ''The Capital'', a daily newspaper based in Annapolis, Maryland, United States\n\n===Radio===\n* Capital Radio (disambiguation), various radio stations named Capital\n* Capital (radio network), a network of nine Independent Local Radio stations in the United Kingdom\n\n===Television===\n* ''Capital'', an Iranian TV Series\n*''Capital'', a three part BBC television adaptation of John Lanchester's novel of the same name.","* Capital Clube de Futebol, a Brazilian football (soccer) club\n* Delhi Capitals, an Indian basketball team\n* Edinburgh Capitals, a Scottish ice-hockey team\n* Edmonton Capitals, a baseball team\n* University of Canberra Capitals, an Australian women's basketball team\n* Vienna Capitals, an Austrian ice-hockey team\n* Washington Capitals, a National Hockey League team (USA)","* Capital Airlines (UK), was an airline based in the United Kingdom and self-proclaimed \"Yorkshire International Airlines\"\n* Capital ship, a classification of a naval vessel","* \n* \n* Capitalism\n* Capitalization (disambiguation)\n* List of national capitals"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n'''Capital''' may refer to:\\n\\n* Capital city, the area of a country, province, region, or state, regarded as enjoying primary status, usually but not always the seat of the government\\n* Capital letter, an upper-case letter in a writing system\\n** Capitals (typeface), a small-caps serif typeface\\n** Illuminated capital in a manuscript\\n* Capital punishment, the death sentence\",\n \"\\n* Capital (architecture), the crowning member of a column or a pilaster\\n* Capital (fortification), a proportion of a bastion\",\n \"\\n* Capital Bible Seminary, the seminary component of Washington Bible College with its main campus in Lanham, Maryland\\n* Capital Community College, a community college in Hartford, Connecticut\\n* Capital University, a four-year private university in Columbus, Ohio\\n* Capitol Technology University, a private, non-profit, and non-sectarian college located just south of Laurel, Maryland\\n* Penn State Harrisburg, also called: ''The Capital College''citation needed an undergraduate college and graduate school of the Pennsylvania State University, in Middletown, Pennsylvania\",\n \"Or, symbolic capital is one of the four types of capital in Pierre Bourdieu's theory; it can be a type of capital that is strongly correlated to social capital, and it comes into existence once it is perceived and recognized as legitimate.\",\n \"* Working capital, short term capital needed by the company to finance its operations\",\n \"\\n===Films===\\n*''Capital'' (film), 2012 French drama film\\n\\n===Literature===\\n* ''Capital'' (novel), a novel by John Lanchester\\n\\n===Music===\\n* Capital (band), a band from the UK\\n* Capital Cities (band), a band from the US\\n* \\\"Capital\\\", a song by We Stood Like Kings from the album ''USSR 1926'' (2015), a new soundtrack for the silent movie A Sixth Part of the World.\",\n \"===Publications===\\n* ''Capital: Critique of Political Economy'', a work by political economist Karl Marx\\n* ''Capital'' (French magazine), a French-language magazine\\n* ''Capital'' (German magazine), a German-language magazine\\n* ''Capital'' (newspaper), a Bulgarian business-oriented weekly newspaper\\n* ''Capital'' (Romanian newspaper), a Romanian business-oriented weekly newspaper\\n* ''Capital'' (Ukrainian newspaper), a Ukrainian weekly newspaper\\n* ''Kapital'' (newspaper), a Macedonian weekly newspaper\\n* ''Capital'', online newszine published in Albany, New York, United States\\n* ''Capital Ethiopia'', also known as: ''Capital'', an Ethiopian business-oriented weekly English-language newspaper\\n* ''Capital in the Twenty-First Century'' a 2013 bestselling book by French economist Thomas Piketty\\n* ''Capital New York'', an online news site owned by ''Politico''\\n* ''The Capital'', a daily newspaper based in Annapolis, Maryland, United States\\n\\n===Radio===\\n* Capital Radio (disambiguation), various radio stations named Capital\\n* Capital (radio network), a network of nine Independent Local Radio stations in the United Kingdom\\n\\n===Television===\\n* ''Capital'', an Iranian TV Series\\n*''Capital'', a three part BBC television adaptation of John Lanchester's novel of the same name.\",\n \"* Capital Clube de Futebol, a Brazilian football (soccer) club\\n* Delhi Capitals, an Indian basketball team\\n* Edinburgh Capitals, a Scottish ice-hockey team\\n* Edmonton Capitals, a baseball team\\n* University of Canberra Capitals, an Australian women's basketball team\\n* Vienna Capitals, an Austrian ice-hockey team\\n* Washington Capitals, a National Hockey League team (USA)\",\n \"* Capital Airlines (UK), was an airline based in the United Kingdom and self-proclaimed \\\"Yorkshire International Airlines\\\"\\n* Capital ship, a classification of a naval vessel\",\n \"* \\n* \\n* Capitalism\\n* Capitalization (disambiguation)\\n* List of national capitals\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"finance"}}},{"rowIdx":291,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\nThis article is about the demographic features of the population of Canada, including population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population, the People of Canada.\n","\nThe Canada 2016 Census had a total population count of 35,151,728 individuals, making up approximately 0.5% of the world's total population. Estimates have the population over 36 million as of July 2016.\n\n=== Provinces and territories ===\n\n\nProvince or territory\nPopulation,\n2016 Census\nPopulation,\n2011 Census\nPopulation \nChange (%),\n\n2011-2016\nTotal landarea (km2)\nDensity(people/km2)\nHouse ofCommons seats\nPeople perseat\n\nNumber\nPercentage\n Number\n Percentage\n\n \n13,448,494\n38.26%\n\n 38.39%\n4.6%\n\n 12.19\n 121\n \n\n \n8,164,361\n23.23%\n\n 23.61%\n3.3%\n\n 5.76\n 78\n \n\n \n4,648,055\n13.22%\n\n 13.14%\n5.6%\n\n 4.84\n 42\n \n\n \n4,067,175\n11.57%\n\n 10.89%\n11.6%\n\n 5.77\n 34\n \n\n \n1,278,365\n3.64%\n\n 3.61%\n5.8%\n\n 2.22\n 14\n \n\n \n1,098,352\n3.12%\n\n 3.09%\n6.3%\n\n 1.75\n 14\n \n\n \n923,598\n2.63%\n\n 2.75%\n0.2%\n\n 17.63\n 11\n \n\n \n747,101\n2.13%\n\n 2.24%\n\n\n 10.50\n 10\n \n\n \n519,716\n1.48%\n\n 1.54%\n1.0%\n\n 1.36\n 7\n \n\n \n142,907\n0.41%\n\n 0.42%\n1.9%\n\n 24.98\n 4\n \n\n \n41,786\n0.12%\n\n 0.12%\n0.8%\n\n 0.04\n 1\n \n\n \n35,944\n0.10%\n\n 0.09%\n12.7%\n\n 0.02\n 1\n \n\n \n35,874\n0.10%\n\n 0.10%\n5.8%\n\n 0.07\n 1\n \n\n \n35,151,728\n100%\n \n 100%\n5.0%\n \n 3.73\n 338\n \n\n\n:Sources: Statistics Canada\n\n=== Cities ===\n\n\n\n=== Census metropolitan areas ===\n\n\n\n===Population growth rates===\nAccording to OECD/World Bank, the population in Canada increased from 1990 to 2008 with 5.6 million and 20.4% growth in population, compared to 21.7% growth in the United States and 31.2% growth in Mexico. According to the OECD/World Bank population statistics, between 1990–2008 the world population growth was 27%, a total of 1,423 million people.\n\n\n\n Rank\n Province or territory\n Population(2011)\n Population(2006)\n Difference\n Change(%)\n\n 1\n Ontario\n\n\n''''''\n 5.7\n\n 2\n Quebec\n\n\n''''''\n 4.7\n\n 3\n British Columbia\n\n\n''''''\n 7.0\n\n 4\n Alberta\n\n\n''''''\n 10.8\n\n 5\n Manitoba\n\n\n''''''\n 5.2\n\n 6\n Saskatchewan\n\n\n''''''\n 6.7\n\n 7\n Nova Scotia\n\n\n''''''\n 0.9\n\n 8\n New Brunswick\n\n\n''''''\n 2.9\n\n 9\n Newfoundland and Labrador\n\n\n''''''\n 1.8\n\n 10\n Prince Edward Island\n\n\n''''''\n 3.2\n\n 11\n Northwest Territories\n\n\n''''''\n 0.0\n\n 12\n Yukon\n\n\n''''''\n 11.6\n\n 13\n Nunavut\n\n\n''''''\n 8.3\n\n Total\n Canada\n\n\n\n 5.9\n\n\n'''Derived from:''' Statistics Canada – (table) Population and Dwelling Counts, for Canada, Provinces and Territories, 2011 and 2006 Censuses – 100% Data\n\n===Population projection===\n\n\n\n\n\n\n","\n\n\n\n Average population (x 1,000)\n Live births\n Deaths\n Natural change\n Birth rate (per 1,000)\n Death rate (per 1,000)\n Natural change (per 1,000)\n\n 1900\n5,500\n150,000\n89,000\n61,000\n27.2\n16.2\n11.0\n\n 1901\n5,600\n175,000\n79,000\n96,000\n31.2\n14.1\n17.1\n\n 1902\n5,760\n180,000\n77,000\n103,000\n31.3\n13.4\n17.9\n\n 1903\n5,930\n186,000\n78,000\n108,000\n31.3\n13.2\n18.1\n\n 1904\n6,100\n192,000\n82,000\n110,000\n31.4\n13.5\n17.9\n\n 1905\n6,280\n195,000\n82,000\n113,000\n31.0\n13.0\n18.0\n\n 1906\n6,460\n193,000\n85,000\n108,000\n29.9\n13.2\n16.7\n\n 1907\n6,650\n196,000\n85,000\n111,000\n29.5\n12.8\n16.7\n\n 1908\n6,850\n208,000\n86,000\n122,000\n30.3\n12.6\n17.7\n\n 1909\n7,040\n213,000\n90,000\n123,000\n30.2\n12.8\n17.4\n\n 1910\n7,250\n220,000\n95,000\n125,000\n30.4\n13.1\n17.3\n\n 1911\n7,460\n225,000\n100,000\n125,000\n30.1\n13.4\n16.7\n\n 1912\n7,610\n238,000\n99,000\n139,000\n31.3\n13.0\n19.3\n\n 1913\n7,760\n246,000\n102,000\n144,000\n31.7\n13.1\n19.6\n\n 1914\n7,910\n252,000\n100,000\n152,000\n31.9\n12.6\n19.3\n\n 1915\n8,060\n257,000\n101,000\n156,000\n31.9\n12.5\n19.4\n\n 1916\n8,220\n252,000\n107,000\n145,000\n30.7\n13.0\n17.7\n\n 1917\n8,380\n244,000\n106,000\n138,000\n29.1\n12.7\n16.4\n\n 1918\n8,450\n243,000\n134,000\n109,000\n28.8\n15.9\n12.9\n\n 1919\n8,710\n241,000\n119,000\n122,000\n27.7\n13.7\n14.0\n\n 1920\n8,880\n259,000\n118,000\n141,000\n29.2\n13.3\n15.9\n\n 1921\n9,060\n265,000\n105,000\n160,000\n29.3\n11.6\n17.7\n\n 1922\n9,230\n261,000\n107,000\n154,000\n28.3\n11.6\n16.7\n\n 1923\n9,400\n251,000\n111,000\n140,000\n26.7\n11.8\n14.9\n\n 1924\n9,560\n255,000\n104,000\n151,000\n26.7\n10.9\n15.8\n\n 1925\n9,730\n254,000\n104,000\n150,000\n26.1\n10.7\n15.4\n\n 1926\n9,890\n244,000\n113,000\n131,000\n24.7\n11.4\n13.3\n\n 1927\n10,040\n244,000\n110,000\n134,000\n24.3\n11.0\n13.3\n\n 1928\n10,190\n246,000\n114,000\n132,000\n24.1\n11.2\n12.9\n\n 1929\n10,350\n243,000\n118,000\n125,000\n23.5\n11.4\n12.1\n\n 1930\n10,498\n251,000\n113,000\n138,000\n23.9\n10.8\n13.1\n\n 1931\n10,630\n247,000\n108,000\n139,000\n23.2\n10.2\n13.0\n\n 1932\n10,794\n243,000\n108,000\n135,000\n22.5\n10.0\n12.5\n\n 1933\n10,919\n229,000\n106,000\n123,000\n21.0\n9.7\n11.3\n\n 1934\n11,029\n228,296\n105,277\n123,019\n20.7\n9.5\n11.2\n\n 1935\n11,135\n228,396\n109,724\n118,672\n20.5\n9.9\n10.6\n\n 1936\n11,242\n227,980\n111,111\n116,869\n20.3\n9.9\n10.4\n\n 1937\n11,339\n227,878\n118,019\n109,859\n20.1\n10.4\n9.7\n\n 1938\n11,448\n237,091\n110,647\n126,444\n20.7\n9.7\n11.0\n\n 1939\n11,565\n237,991\n112,729\n125,262\n20.6\n9.7\n10.9\n\n 1940\n11,682\n252,577\n114,717\n137,860\n21.6\n9.8\n11.8\n\n 1941\n11,810\n263,993\n118,797\n145,196\n22.4\n10.1\n12.3\n\n 1942\n11,962\n281,569\n117,110\n164,459\n23.5\n9.8\n13.7\n\n 1943\n12,125\n292,943\n122,640\n170,303\n24.2\n10.1\n14.1\n\n 1944\n12,291\n283,967\n120,393\n163,574\n24.0\n9.8\n14.2\n\n 1945\n12,441\n300,570\n117,319\n183,251\n24.3\n9.5\n14.8\n\n 1946\n12,637\n343,504\n118,785\n224,719\n27.2\n9.4\n17.8\n\n 1947\n12,919\n372,443\n121,478\n250,965\n28.9\n9.4\n19.5\n\n 1948\n13,167\n359,860\n122,974\n236,886\n27.3\n9.3\n18.0\n\n 1949\n13,475\n367,092\n124,567\n242,525\n27.2\n9.2\n18.0\n\n 1950\n13,737\n372,009\n124,220\n247,789\n27.1\n9.0\n18.0\n\n 1951\n14,050\n381,092\n125,823\n255,269\n27.1\n9.0\n18.2\n\n 1952\n14,496\n403,559\n126,385\n277,174\n27.8\n8.7\n19.1\n\n 1953\n14,886\n417,884\n127,791\n290,093\n28.1\n8.6\n19.5\n\n 1954\n15,330\n436,198\n124,855\n311,343\n28.5\n8.1\n20.3\n\n 1955\n15,736\n442,937\n128,476\n314,461\n28.1\n8.2\n20.0\n\n 1956\n16,123\n450,739\n131,961\n318,778\n28.0\n8.2\n19.8\n\n 1957\n16,677\n469,093\n136,579\n332,514\n28.1\n8.2\n19.9\n\n 1958\n17,120\n470,118\n135,201\n334,917\n27.5\n7.9\n19.6\n\n 1959\n17,522\n479,275\n139,913\n339,362\n27.4\n8.0\n19.4\n\n 1960\n17,909\n478,551\n139,693\n338,858\n26.7\n7.8\n18.9\n\n 1961\n18,271\n475,700\n140,985\n334,715\n26.0\n7.7\n18.3\n\n 1962\n18,614\n469,693\n143,699\n325,994\n25.2\n7.7\n17.5\n\n 1963\n18,964\n465,767\n147,367\n318,400\n24.6\n7.8\n16.8\n\n 1964\n19,325\n452,915\n145,850\n307,065\n23.4\n7.5\n15.9\n\n 1965\n19,678\n418,595\n148,939\n269,656\n21.3\n7.6\n13.7\n\n 1966\n20,048\n387,710\n149,863\n237,847\n19.3\n7.5\n11.9\n\n 1967\n20,412\n370,894\n150,283\n220,611\n18.2\n7.4\n10.8\n\n 1968\n20,744\n364,310\n153,196\n211,114\n17.6\n7.4\n10.2\n\n 1969\n21,028\n369,647\n154,477\n215,170\n17.6\n7.3\n10.2\n\n 1970\n21,324\n371,988\n155,961\n216,027\n17.4\n7.3\n10.1\n\n 1971\n21,962\n362,187\n157,272\n204,915\n16.7\n7.3\n9.5\n\n 1972\n22,218\n347,319\n162,413\n184,906\n15.8\n7.4\n8.4\n\n 1973\n22,492\n343,373\n164,039\n179,334\n15.4\n7.4\n8.1\n\n 1974\n22,808\n350,650\n166,794\n178,851\n15.3\n7.4\n7.9\n\n 1975\n23,143\n359,323\n167,176\n191,919\n15.6\n7.3\n8.3\n\n 1976\n23,450\n359,987\n167,009\n192,978\n15.4\n7.2\n8.3\n\n 1977\n23,726\n361,400\n167,498\n193,902\n15.3\n7.1\n8.2\n\n 1978\n23,963\n358,852\n168,179\n190,673\n15.0\n7.0\n8.0\n\n 1979\n24,202\n366,064\n168,183\n197,881\n15.1\n6.9\n8.2\n\n 1980\n24,516\n370,709\n171,473\n199,236\n15.1\n7.0\n8.1\n\n 1981\n24,820\n371,346\n171,029\n200,317\n14.9\n6.8\n8.0\n\n 1982\n25,117\n373,082\n174,413\n198,669\n14.8\n6.9\n7.9\n\n 1983\n25,367\n373,689\n174,484\n199,205\n14.6\n6.8\n7.8\n\n 1984\n25,608\n377,031\n175,727\n201,304\n14.6\n6.8\n7.8\n\n 1985\n25,843\n375,727\n181,323\n194,404\n14.4\n7.0\n7.5\n\n 1986\n26,101\n372,913\n184,224\n188,689\n14.3\n7.1\n7.2\n\n 1987\n26,449\n369,742\n184,953\n184,789\n14.0\n7.0\n7.0\n\n 1988\n26,795\n376,795\n190,011\n186,784\n14.1\n7.1\n7.0\n\n 1989\n27,282\n392,661\n190,965\n201,696\n14.4\n7.0\n7.4\n\n 1990\n27,698\n405,486\n191,973\n213,513\n14.6\n6.9\n7.7\n\n 1991\n28,031\n402,533\n195,569\n206,964\n14.4\n7.0\n7.4\n\n 1992\n28,367\n398,643\n196,535\n202,108\n14.1\n6.9\n7.1\n\n 1993\n28,682\n388,394\n204,912\n183,482\n13.5\n7.1\n6.4\n\n 1994\n28,999\n385,114\n207,077\n178,037\n13.3\n7.1\n6.1\n\n 1995\n29,302\n378,016\n210,733\n167,283\n12.9\n7.2\n5.7\n\n 1996\n29,611\n366,200\n212,880\n153,320\n12.4\n7.2\n5.2\n\n 1997\n29,907\n348,598\n215,669\n132,929\n11.7\n7.2\n4.4\n\n 1998\n30,157\n342,418\n218,091\n124,327\n11.4\n7.2\n4.1\n\n 1999\n30,404\n337,249\n219,530\n117,719\n11.1\n7.2\n3.9\n\n 2000\n30,689\n327,882\n218,062\n109,820\n10.7\n7.1\n3.6\n\n 2001\n31,021\n333,744\n219,538\n114,206\n10.8\n7.1\n3.7\n\n 2002\n31,373\n328,802\n223,603\n105,199\n10.5\n7.1\n3.4\n\n 2003\n31,676\n335,202\n226,169\n109,033\n10.6\n7.1\n3.4\n\n 2004\n31,941\n337,072\n226,584\n110,488\n10.6\n7.1\n3.5\n\n 2005\n32,245\n342,176\n230,132\n112,044\n10.6\n7.1\n3.5\n\n 2006\n32,576\n354,617\n228,079\n126,538\n10.9\n7.0\n3.9\n\n 2007\n32,930\n367,864\n235,217\n132,647\n11.2\n7.1\n4.0\n\n 2008\n33,318\n377,886\n238,617\n139,269\n11.3\n7.2\n4.2\n\n 2009\n33,727\n380,863\n242,277\n138,586\n11.3\n7.2\n4.1\n\n 2010\n34,127\n377,213\n247,926\n129,287\n11.1\n7.3\n3.8\n\n 2011\n34,484\n377,636\n254,731\n122,905\n11.0\n7.4\n3.6\n\n 2012\n34,880\n381,429 \n256,965\n124,464\n10.9\n7.4\n3.6\n\n 2013\n35,293\n386,044 \n256,982\n129,062\n11.0\n7.4\n3.7\n\n2014\n35,667\n389,914\n266,164\n123,750\n10.9\n7.6\n3.3\n\n2015\n35,981\n390,836\n267,875\n122,961\n10.9\n7.6\n3.3\n\n2016(p)\n36,503\n395,065\n272,891\n122,174\n10.8\n7.5\n3.3\n\n\n(p)=January–September 2016\n\n===Current population growth===\n\n*Births from January–March 2016 = 94,517\n*Births from January–March 2017 = 94,851\n*Deaths from January–March 2016 = 71,278\n*Deaths from January–March 2017 = 74,985\n*Natural increase from January–March 2016 = 23,239\n*Natural increase from January–March 2017 = 19,866\n\n'''Age characteristics:'''\n\n Population by age and gender, 2011\n\nAge group\nMale\nFemale\nTotal\nPercent\n\n\n 0 to 4 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 5 to 9 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 10 to 14 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 15 to 19 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 20 to 24 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 25 to 29 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 30 to 34 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 35 to 39 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 40 to 44 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 45 to 49 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 50 to 54 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 55 to 59 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 60 to 64 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 65 to 69 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 70 to 74 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 75 to 79 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 80 to 84 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 85 years and over \n \n \n \n \n\nTotal \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 0 to 14 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 15 to 64 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 65 years and over \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n'''Net migration rate:''' 5.65 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2013 est.)\n\n'''Urbanization:'''\n* ''urban population:'' 81% of total population (2010)\n* ''rate of urbanization:'' 1.1% annual rate of change (2010-2015 est.)\n\nPopulation pyramid in 2010\n'''Sex ratio:'''\n* ''at birth:'' 1.06 male(s)/female\n* ''under 15 years:'' 1.05 male(s)/female\n* ''15 – 24 years:'' 1.06 male(s)/female\n* ''25 - 54 years:'' 1.03 male(s)/female\n* ''55 - 64 years:'' 0.98 male(s)/female\n* ''65 years and over:'' 0.79 male(s)/female\n* ''total population:'' 0.99 male(s)/female (2013 est.)\n\n'''Maternal mortality rate:''' 12 deaths/100,000 live births (2010 est.)\n\n'''Life expectancy:'''\n* ''total population'': 81.57 years\n* ''male'': 78.98 years\n* ''female'': 84.31 years (2013 est.)\n\n===Median age===\n* ''total:'' 40.6 years\n** ''male:'' 39.6 years\n** ''female:'' 41.5 years (2011)\n\n'''Median age by province and territory, 2011'''\n# Newfoundland and Labrador: 44.0\n# Nova Scotia: 43.7\n# New Brunswick:43.7\n# Prince Edward Island: 42.8\n# Quebec: 41.9\n# British Columbia: 41.9\n# Ontario: 40.4\n# Yukon: 39.1\n# Manitoba: 38.4\n# Saskatchewan: 38.2\n# Alberta: 36.5\n# Northwest Territories: 32.3\n# Nunavut: 24.1\n\n'''Total''': 40.6\n:Sources: Statistics Canada\n","\n===Ethnic origin===\n\nIn the 2006 census, Canadians could identify as being of one or more ethnicities. Percentages therefore add up to more than 100%. The most common response was \"Canadian\". As data is completely self-reported, and reporting individuals may have varying definitions of \"Ethnic origin\" (or may not know their ethnic origin), these figures should not be considered an exact record of the relative prevalence of different ethno-cultural ancestries but rather how Canadians self-identify.\n\nStatistics Canada projects that, by 2031, about 28% of the population will be foreign-born. The number of people belonging to visible minority groups will double, the majority of which will live in Toronto and Vancouver.\n\nCounting both single and multiple responses, the most commonly identified ethnic origins were (2011):\n\n\n Ethnic origin\n %\n Population\n Area of largest proportion\n\n Canadian\n 32.16%\n\n Quebec (59.1%)\n\n English\n 19.81%\n\n Newfoundland and Labrador (43.4%)\n\n French\n 15.42%\n\n Quebec (29.1%)\n\n Scottish\n 14.35%\n\n Prince Edward Island (39.3%)\n\n Irish\n 13.83%\n\n Prince Edward Island (30.4%)\n\n German\n 9.75%\n\n Saskatchewan (28.6%)\n\n Italian\n 4.53%\n\n Ontario (7.0%)\n\n Chinese\n 4.53%\n\n British Columbia (10.7%)\n\n First Nations\n 4.17%\n\n Northwest Territories (37.0%)\n\n Ukrainian\n 3.81%\n\n Manitoba (14.9%)\n\n East Indian\n 3.55%\n\n British Columbia (6.3%)\n\n Dutch (Netherlands)\n 3.25%\n\n Alberta (5.1%)\n\n Polish\n 3.08%\n\n Manitoba (7.3%)\n\n Filipino\n 2.02%\n\n Manitoba (5.2%)\n\n British, not included elsewhere\n 1.75%\n\n Yukon (2.4%)\n\n Russian\n 1.68%\n\n Manitoba (4.3%)\n\n Welsh\n 1.40%\n\n Yukon (2.8%)\n\n Norwegian\n 1.38%\n\n Saskatchewan (6.9%)\n\n Métis\n 1.36%\n\n Northwest Territories (6.7%)\n\n Portuguese\n 1.31%\n\n Ontario (2.3%)\n\n American\n 1.13%\n\n Yukon (2.2%)\n\n Spanish\n 1.12%\n\n British Columbia (1.4%)\n\n Swedish\n 1.04%\n\n Saskatchewan (3.2%)\n\n Hungarian\n 0.96%\n\n Saskatchewan (2.8%)\n\n Jewish\n 0.94%\n\n Ontario (1.4%)\n\n\nData from the same subject matter, though from 2001, is also grouped more geographically by Statistics Canada as follows:\n\n\n\n\n 2001\n\nNorth American (non-aboriginal)\n40.21%\n\nBritish Isles\n33.64%\n\nFrench\n15.89%\n\nWestern European\n12.78%\n\nEastern European\n8.50%\n\nSouthern European\n7.87%\n\n\n\n\n 2001\n\nEast and Southeast Asian\n6.03%\n\nAboriginal\n4.45%\n\nSouth Asian\n3.25%\n\nNorthern European\n3.22%\n\nCaribbean\n1.70%\n\nOther European\n1.28%\n\n\n\n\n 2001\n\nArab\n1.17%\n\nAfrican\n0.99%\n\nLatin, Central andSouth American\n0.82%\n\nWest Asian\n0.69%\n\nOceania\n0.16%\n\n\n:''Percentages are calculated as a proportion of the total number of respondents (32,852,325 in 2011) and total more than 100% due to dual responses. All ethnocultural ancestries with responses totalling to more than 1% of the total number of responses are listed in the table above according to the exact terminology used by Statistics Canada.''\n\nThe most common ethnic origins per province are as follows (total responses; only percentages 10% or higher shown; ordered by percentage of \"Canadian\"):\n* Quebec (7,723,525): '''Canadian''' (59.1%), '''French''' (29.1%)\n* New Brunswick (735,835): '''Canadian''' (50.3%), French (27.2%), English (25.9%), Irish (21.6%), Scottish (19.9%)\n* Newfoundland and Labrador (507,265): '''Canadian''' (49.0%), '''English''' (43.4%), Irish (21.8%)\n* Nova Scotia (906,170): '''Canadian''' (39.1%), Scottish (31.2%), English (30.8%), Irish (22.3%), French (17.0%), German (10.8%)\n* Prince Edward Island (137,375): '''Scottish''' (39.3%), Canadian (36.8%), English (31.1%), '''Irish''' (30.4%), French (21.1%)\n* Ontario (12,651,795): '''Canadian''' (23.3%), English (23.1%), Scottish (16.4%), Irish (16.4%), French (10.8%)\n* Alberta (3,567,980): '''English''' (24.9%), Canadian (21.8%), German (19.2%), Scottish (18.8%), Irish (15.8%), French (11.1%)\n* Manitoba (1,174,345): '''English''' (21.8%), German (18.6%), Canadian (18.5%), Scottish (18.0%), '''Ukrainian''' (14.9%), Irish (13.2%), French (12.6%), North American Indian (10.6%)\n* Saskatchewan (1,008,760): '''German''' (28.6%), English (24.9%), Scottish (18.9%), Canadian (18.8%), Irish (15.5%), Ukrainian (13.5%), French (12.2%), '''North American Indian''' (12.1%)\n* British Columbia (4,324,455): '''English''' (27.7%), Scottish (19.3%), Canadian (19.1%), German (13.1%), '''Chinese''' (10.7%)\n* Yukon (33,320): '''English''' (28.5%), Scottish (25.0%), Irish (22.0%), North American Indian (21.8%), Canadian (21.8%), German (15.6%), French (13.1%)\n* Northwest Territories (40,800): '''North American Indian''' (37.0%), Scottish (13.9%), English (13.7%), Canadian (12.8%), Irish (11.9%), Inuit (11.7%)\n* Nunavut (31,700): '''Inuit''' (85.4%)\n\n'''Bold''' indicates either that this response is dominant within this province, or that this province has the highest ratio (percentage) of this response among provinces.\n\n\n\n Ethnic origin \n Canadian\t\n English\n French\n Scottish\n Irish\n German\n Italian\n Chinese\n First Nations\n Ukrainian\n Dutch\n\n Canada\n 32.1\n 19.8\n 15.4\n 14.3\n 13.8\n 9.7\n 4.5\n 4.5\n 4.1\n 3.8\n 3.2\n\n Ontario \n 23\n 24.7\n 11.2\n 17.5\n 16.5\n 9.5\n 7.2\n 5.4\n 2.6\n 2.8\n 4.1\n\n Quebec \n 60.1 \n 3.3\n 28.8\n 2.7\n 5.5\n 1.8\n 4.0\n 1.2\n 3.0\n 0.4\n 0.3\n\n British Columbia \n 17.7\n 29.6\n 8.9\n 20.3\n 15.2\n 13.8\n 3.5\n 10.6\n 4.7\n 4.8\n 4.8\n\n Alberta \n 21.8\n 24.9\n 11.1\n 18.8\n 15.8\n 19.2\n 2.5\n 4.4\n 5.0\n 9.7\n 5.1\n\n Manitoba \n 18.2\n 22.1\n 13.1\n 18.5\n 13.4\n 19.1\n 1.6\n 1.5\n 10.6\n 14.7\n 4.9\n\n Newfoundland and Labrador\n 53.4\n 39.4\n 5.4\n 6.0\n 19.7\n 1.2\n 0.2\n 0.2\n 3.1\n 0.1\n 0.3\n\n Prince Edward Island\n 44.9\n 28.7\n 21.3\n 38\n 27.9\n 4.1\n 0.5\n 0.1\n 1.0\n 0.3\n 3.1\n\n Nova Scotia\n 37.6\n 34.2\n 18\n 29.8\n 24.5\n 12\n 1.8\n 1.0\n 3.4\n 1.1\n 4.0\n\n New Brunswick\n 57.8\n 23\n 26.8\n 17.7\n 18.9\n 3.8\n 1.7\n 1.1\n 3.3\n 0.1\n 1.8\n\n Saskatchewan\n 25\n 24.5\n 11.4\n 17.9\n 14.5\n 28.6\n 0.5\n 1.0\n 10.5\n 12.6\n 3.4\n\n\n=== Visible minority population ===\nStatistics Canada identifies visible minorities in accordance with the ''Employment Equity Act''. Statistics Canada states the \"''Employment Equity Act'' defines visible minorities as 'persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour.'\"\n\n\n Visible and non-visible minority populations by group, 1996–2011\n\n Group\n 1996\n 2001\n 2006 \n 2011\n\n Total\n \n Total\n \n Total\n \n Total\n \n\n Total visible minority population \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n South Asian \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Chinese \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Black \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Filipino \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Latin American \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Arab/West Asian \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Arab \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Southeast Asian \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n West Asian \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Korean \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Japanese \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Visible minority, \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Multiple visible minorities \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Not a visible minority \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Aboriginal identity (see breakdown below) \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Others (Caucasian or White) \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Total population in private households \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n==== By province and territory ====\n\n\n Visible minority population by province and territory, 2011\n\n Province/territory\n '''Not a visible minority'''\n South Asian\n Chinese\n Black\n Filipino\n Latin American\n Arab\n Southeast Asian\n West Asian\n Korean\n Japanese\n Visible minority, \n Multiple visible minorities\n '''Total visible minority population'''\n '''''Total population'''''\n '''Percent visible minority'''\n\n Alberta\n '''2,690,960'''\n 156,665\n 133,390\n 74,435\n 106,035\n 41,305\n 34,920\n 41,025\n 16,030\n 15,000\n 12,415\n 6,270\n 18,840\n '''656,325'''\n '''''3,567,980'''''\n '''18.39%'''\n\n British Columbia\n '''2,911,295'''\n 313,440\n 438,140\n 33,260\n 126,040\n 35,465\n 14,090\n 51,970\n 38,960\n 53,770\n 38,120\n 6,465\n 31,160\n '''1,180,870'''\n '''''4,324,455'''''\n '''27.31%'''\n\n Manitoba\n '''824,830'''\n 25,265\n 17,025\n 19,610\n 59,220\n 9,140\n 3,235\n 7,565\n 2,040\n 3,045\n 1,745\n 1,765\n 3,975\n '''153,625'''\n '''''1,174,350'''''\n '''13.08%'''\n\n New Brunswick\n '''696,080'''\n 2,445\n 2,540\n 4,870\n 1,100\n 1,160\n 1,380\n 730\n 305\n 1,855\n 305\n 85\n 360\n '''17,135'''\n '''''735,835'''''\n '''2.33%'''\n\n Newfoundland and Labrador\n '''464,540'''\n 1,855\n 1,645\n 1,455\n 350\n 185\n 370\n 320\n 155\n 80\n 60\n 205\n 250\n '''6,930'''\n '''''507,270'''''\n '''1.37%'''\n\n Northwest Territories\n '''16,920'''\n 185\n 380\n 555\n 895\n 105\n 115\n 230\n 60\n 50\n 45\n 75\n 30\n '''2,720'''\n '''''40,800'''''\n '''6.67%'''\n\n Nova Scotia\n '''825,055'''\n 4,965\n 6,050\n 20,790\n 1,890\n 1,360\n 6,290\n 1,155\n 1,365\n 960\n 445\n 720\n 1,290\n '''47,270'''\n '''''906,175'''''\n '''5.22%'''\n\n Nunavut\n '''3,825'''\n 95\n 65\n 120\n 130\n 25\n 15\n 30\n 0\n 10\n 0\n 10\n 0\n '''510'''\n '''''31,700'''''\n '''1.61%'''\n\n Ontario\n '''9,070,800'''\n 965,990\n 629,140\n 539,205\n 275,380\n 172,560\n 151,645\n 137,875\n 122,530\n 78,290\n 29,085\n 81,130\n 96,735\n '''3,279,565'''\n '''''12,651,795'''''\n '''25.92%'''\n\n Prince Edward Island\n '''130,890'''\n 485\n 1,830\n 390\n 85\n 235\n 200\n 205\n 345\n 140\n 210\n 75\n 70\n '''4,260'''\n '''''137,380'''''\n '''3.10%'''\n\n Quebec\n '''6,740,375'''\n 83,320\n 82,845\n 243,625\n 31,495\n 116,380\n 166,260\n 65,855\n 23,445\n 6,665\n 4,025\n 8,895\n 17,420\n '''850,235'''\n '''''7,732,525'''''\n '''11.00%'''\n\n Saskatchewan\n '''787,745'''\n 12,325\n 11,300\n 7,255\n 16,025\n 3,250\n 2,095\n 4,910\n 1,600\n 1,270\n 720\n 745\n 1,775\n '''63,275'''\n '''''1,008,760'''''\n '''6.27%'''\n\n Yukon\n '''23,590'''\n 365\n 400\n 100\n 675\n 110\n 0\n 210\n 0\n 0\n 80\n 35\n 35\n '''2,025'''\n '''''33,320'''''\n '''6.08%'''\n\n Canada\n '''25,186,890'''\n 1,567,400\n 1,324,750\n 945,665\n 619,310\n 381,280\n 380,620\n 312,075\n 206,840\n 161,130\n 87,270\n 106,475\n 171,935\n '''6,264,750'''\n '''''32,852,325'''''\n '''19.07%'''\n\nAll statistics are from the Canada 2011 Census.\n\n==== By city over 100,000 ====\n\n\n Visible minority in Canadian cities over 100,000 people, 2011\n\nCity\nPopulation\nEuropean\nVisible minority\nBlack\nEast Asian\nLatin American\nSouth Asian\nSoutheast Asian\nWest Asian\nArab \nMultiracial\nOther\n\nToronto\n2,576,025 \n50.2%\n'''49.1%'''\n8.5%\n12.7%\n2.8%\n12.3% \n7.0%\n2.0%\n1.1%\n1.5%\n1.3%\n\nMontreal\n1,612,640\n67.7%\n'''31.7%'''\n9.1%\n3.2%\n4.2%\n3.3%\n3.8%\n0.8%\n6.4%\n0.6%\n0.3%\n\nCalgary\n1,082,235\n67.3%\n'''30.1%'''\n2.9%\n8.1%\n1.8%\n7.5%\n6.3%\n0.8%\n1.5%\n0.8%\n0.3%\n\nOttawa\n867,090\n74.2%\n'''23.7%'''\n5.7%\n4.5%\n1.2%\n3.9%\n2.8%\n0.9%\n3.7%\n0.7%\n0.2%\n\nEdmonton\n795,675\n64.7%\n'''30.0%'''\n3.8%\n7.1%\n1.7%\n7.2%\n6.5%\n0.9%\n1.7%\n0.8%\n0.3%\n\nMississauga\n708,725\n45.8%\n'''53.7%'''\n6.3%\n8.3%\n2.2%\n21.8%\n7.8%\n1.1%\n3.5%\n1.5%\n1.3%\n\nWinnipeg\n649,995\n66.9%\n'''21.4%'''\n2.7%\n2.9%\n1.0%\n3.5%\n9.8%\n0.3%\n0.4%\n0.6%\n0.2%\n\nVancouver\n590,210\n46.2%\n'''51.8%'''\n1.0%\n30.9%\n1.6%\n6.0%\n9.0%\n1.2%\n0.5%\n1.5%\n0.2%\n\nBrampton\n521,315\n32.9%\n'''66.4%'''\n13.5%\n1.8%\n2.2%\n38.4%\n5.1%\n0.7%\n0.8%\n1.4%\n2.6%\n\nHamilton\n509,640\n82.3%\n'''15.7%'''\n3.2%\n2.2%\n1.4%\n3.4%\n2.6%\n0.8%\n1.4%\n0.4%\n0.3%\n\nQuebec City\n502,595\n95.0%\n'''4.0%'''\n1.1%\n0.4%\n1.0%\n0.2%\n0.4%\n0.1%\n0.7%\n0.1%\n0.1%\n\nSurrey\n463,340\n44.5%\n'''52.6%'''\n1.3%\n8.5%\n1.2%\n30.7%\n8.5%\n0.5%\n0.7%\n0.9%\n0.2%\n\nLaval\n392,725\n78.7%\n'''20.7%'''\n6.2%\n0.9%\n2.5%\n1.7%\n2.2%\n0.8%\n5.9%\n0.3%\n0.1%\n\nHalifax\n384,330\n88.4%\n'''9.1%'''\n3.6%\n1.5%\n0.3%\n1.0%\n0.6%\n0.4%\n1.4%\n0.3%\n0.1%\n\nLondon\n360,715\n82.0%\n'''16.1%'''\n2.4%\n2.9%\n2.7%\n2.2%\n1.7%\n0.8%\n2.6%\n0.5%\n0.2%\n\nMarkham\n300,135\n27.5%\n'''72.3%'''\n3.2%\n39.7%\n0.5%\n19.1%\n3.9%\n2.1%\n1.1%\n1.9%\n0.7%\n\nVaughan\n286,305\n68.4%\n'''31.4%'''\n2.7%\n6.3%\n2.1%\n9.7%\n5.7%\n2.1%\n1.0%\n1.0%\n0.8%\n\nGatineau\n261,665\n86.2%\n'''10.3%'''\n3.9%\n1.0%\n1.5%\n0.3%\n0.7%\n0.2%\n2.5%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n\nLongueuil\n227,970\n84.8%\n'''14.2%'''\n4.6%\n1.4%\n2.5%\n0.9%\n1.4%\n0.6%\n2.3%\n0.2%\n0.2%\n\nBurnaby\n220,255\n39.1%\n'''59.5%'''\n1.6%\n36.0%\n1.7%\n7.9%\n7.7%\n2.0%\n0.7%\n1.8%\n0.2%\n\nSaskatoon\n218,315\n77.4%\n'''12.8%'''\n1.1%\n2.7%\n0.6%\n2.7%\n3.9%\n0.5%\n0.6%\n0.4%\n0.2%\n\nKitchener\n215,950\n80.1%\n'''18.4%'''\n3.1%\n2.2%\n2.7%\n4.1%\n3.0%\n1.1%\n1.2%\n0.6%\n0.4%\n\nWindsor\n208,015\n74.8%\n'''22.9%'''\n4.6%\n3.2%\n1.1%\n3.9%\n3.1%\n0.8%\n5.5%\n0.5%\n0.4%\n\nRegina\n189,740\n78.6%\n'''11.5%'''\n1.6%\n2.2%\n0.7%\n2.6%\n3.5%\n0.3%\n0.3%\n0.3%\n0.0%\n\nRichmond\n189,305\n28.6%\n'''70.4%'''\n0.7%\n49.8%\n0.9%\n7.7%\n7.8%\n0.7%\n0.5%\n2.3%\n0.2%\n\nRichmond Hill\n184,370\n46.9%\n'''52.9%'''\n2.0%\n26.9%\n0.9%\n8.1%\n3.0%\n8.6%\n1.7%\n1.3%\n0.4%\n\nOakville\n180,430\n77.2%\n'''22.8%'''\n2.7%\n5.3%\n1.5%\n7.2%\n2.7%\n0.7%\n1.6%\n0.8%\n0.4%\n\nBurlington\n173,495\n87.1%\n'''12.0%'''\n1.6%\n2.4%\n1.0%\n3.6%\n1.3%\n0.5%\n0.9%\n0.5%\n0.2%\n\nGreater Sudbury\n157,765\n89.1%\n'''2.7%'''\n0.6%\n0.6%\n0.2%\n0.4%\n0.3%\n0.1%\n0.3%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n\nSherbrooke\n150,255\n93.6%\n'''5.5%'''\n1.7%\n0.3%\n1.4%\n0.3%\n0.4%\n0.3%\n0.9%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n\nOshawa\n147,680\n88.7%\n'''9.3%'''\n3.2%\n1.1%\n0.7%\n1.9%\n1.2%\n0.3%\n0.2%\n0.4%\n0.4%\n\nSaguenay\n141,335\n96.6%\n'''0.9%'''\n0.3%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n0.2%\n0.0%\n0.0%\n\nLévis\n135,835\n98.0%\n'''1.4%'''\n0.4%\n0.3%\n0.2%\n0.0%\n0.2%\n0.0%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n\nBarrie\n133,240\n89.8%\n'''7.6%'''\n1.9%\n1.3%\n0.8%\n1.3%\n1.0%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.4%\n0.4%\n\nAbbotsford\n130,950\n66.5%\n'''29.6%'''\n0.9%\n2.9%\n0.6%\n22.4%\n1.5%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.4%\n0.3%\n\nSt. Catharines\n128,770\n88.3%\n'''9.9%'''\n2.1%\n1.9%\n1.5%\n1.1%\n1.3%\n0.3%\n1.0%\n0.3%\n0.3%\n\nTrois-Rivières\n126,980\n96.3%\n'''2.5%'''\n0.9%\n0.2%\n0.6%\n0.0%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n0.5%\n0.0%\n0.0%\n\nCambridge\n125,060\n85.4%\n'''12.6%'''\n1.9%\n1.2%\n1.0%\n5.2%\n1.7%\n0.3%\n0.6%\n0.3%\n0.4%\n\nCoquitlam\n125,015\n54.1%\n'''43.8%'''\n1.0%\n24.1%\n1.5%\n4.2%\n5.1%\n5.1%\n0.8%\n1.3%\n0.2%\n\nKingston\n118,930\n89.7%\n'''7.4%'''\n0.9%\n2.1%\n0.7%\n1.7%\n0.9%\n0.3%\n0.6%\n0.1%\n0.1%\n\nWhitby\n120,285\n79.5%\n'''19.2%'''\n6.2%\n2.5%\n0.8%\n4.7%\n2.2%\n0.5%\n0.6%\n1.0%\n0.7%\n\nGuelph\n120,550\n82.7%\n'''15.7%'''\n1.4%\n3.1%\n1.0%\n4.1%\n4.0%\n0.8%\n0.5%\n0.5%\n0.2%\n\nKelowna\n114,570\n87.9%\n'''7.6%'''\n0.6%\n2.6%\n0.5%\n2.3%\n1.0%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.2%\n0.2%\n\nSaanich\n107,855\n79.3%\n'''18.0%'''\n1.1%\n8.6%\n0.7%\n3.8%\n2.4%\n0.3%\n0.4%\n0.4%\n0.2%\n\nAjax\n109,220\n53.2%\n'''45.8%'''\n16.0%\n2.8%\n1.0%\n13.8%\n5.0%\n1.6%\n1.1%\n2.0%\n2.6%\n\nThunder Bay\n105,950\n87.1%\n'''3.4%'''\n0.5%\n1.0%\n0.2%\n0.5%\n0.7%\n0.1%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n\nTerrebonne\n105,610\n91.7%\n'''7.6%'''\n4.5%\n0.2%\n1.3%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n1.1%\n0.1%\n0.1%\n\nSt. John's\n103,905\n93.3%\n'''4.4%'''\n0.9%\n1.1%\n0.1%\n1.2%\n0.3%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n0.1%\n\nLangley\n103,145\n83.2%\n'''13.4%'''\n0.5%\n6.3%\n0.6%\n2.7%\n2.4%\n0.2%\n0.2%\n0.5%\n0.1%\n\nChatham-Kent\n101,680\n93.2%\n'''3.9%'''\n1.9%\n0.5%\n0.3%\n0.5%\n0.5%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n\n\n=== Aboriginal population ===\n\n\n\n Aboriginal population in Canada, 1996–2011 censuses\n\n Group\n 1996\n 2001\n 2006 \n 2011\n\n %\n Total\n %\n Total\n %\n Total\n %\n Total\n\n'''Total Aboriginal'''\n'''2.8%'''\n'''799,005'''\n'''3.3%''' \n'''976,305'''\n'''3.8%''' \n'''1,172,785'''\n'''4.3%'''\n'''1,400,685'''\n\nFirst Nations\n1.8% \n529,040\n2.1%\n608,850\n2.2%\n698,025\n2.6% \n851,560\n\nMétis\n0.7%\n204,115\n1.0%\n292,305\n1.2%\n389,780\n1.4% \n451,795\n\nInuit\n0.14%\n40,220 \n\n \n0.16%\n50,485\n0.2%\n59,445\n\n\n''Note: Inuit, other Aboriginal and mixed Aboriginal groups are not listed as their own, but they are all accounted for in total Aboriginal''\n\n==== By province and territory ====\n\n\n Aboriginal population by province and territory, 2011\n\n Province/territory\n Not Aboriginal\n First Nations\n Métis\n Inuit\n Aboriginal, \n Multiple Aboriginal identities\n '''Total Aboriginal population'''\n '''''Total population'''''\n\n Alberta\n '''2,690,960'''\n 116,670\n 96,870\n 1,985\n 3,300\n 1,870\n '''220,695'''\n '''''3,567,980'''''\n\n British Columbia\n '''2,911,295'''\n 155,020\n 69,475\n 1,570\n 3,745\n 2,480\n '''232,290'''\n '''''4,324,455'''''\n\n Manitoba\n '''824,830'''\n 114,225\n 78,830\n 580\n 1,055\n 1,200\n '''195,895'''\n '''''1,174,350'''''\n\n New Brunswick\n '''696,080'''\n 16,120\n 4,850\n 485\n 1,020\n 150\n '''22,620'''\n '''''735,835'''''\n\n Newfoundland and Labrador\n '''464,540'''\n 19,315\n 7,660\n 6,265\n 2,300\n 260\n '''35,800'''\n '''''507,270'''''\n\n Northwest Territories\n '''16,920'''\n 13,350\n 3,250\n 4,335\n 185\n 45\n '''21,160'''\n '''''40,800'''''\n\n Nova Scotia\n '''825,055'''\n 21,895\n 10,050\n 695\n 980\n 225\n '''33,850'''\n '''''906,175'''''\n\n Nunavut\n '''3,825'''\n 125\n 130\n 27,070\n 15\n 20\n '''27,365'''\n '''''31,700'''''\n\n Ontario\n '''9,070,800'''\n\n 201,100\n 86,020\n 3,355\n 8,040\n 2,910\n '''301,430'''\n '''''12,651,795'''''\n\n Prince Edward Island\n '''130,890'''\n\n 1,520\n 410\n 55\n 235\n 0\n '''2,230'''\n '''''137,380'''''\n\n Quebec\n '''6,740,375'''\n\n 82,425\n 40,960\n 12,570\n 4,415\n 1,545\n '''141,915'''\n '''''7,732,525'''''\n\n Saskatchewan\n '''787,745'''\n\n 103,205\n 52,450\n 290\n 1,120\n 675\n '''157,740'''\n '''''1,008,760'''''\n\n Yukon\n '''23,590'''\n\n 6,585\n 845\n 175\n 70\n 25\n '''7,705'''\n '''''33,320'''''\n\n Canada\n '''25,186,890'''\n 851,560\n 451,795\n 59,440\n 26,475\n 11,415\n '''1,400,685'''\n '''''32,852,325'''''\n\nAll statistics are from the Canada 2011 Census.\n\n==== By city over 100,000 ====\n\n\n Aboriginal population in Canadian cities over 100,000 people, 2011\n\nCity\nPopulation\nEuropean\nTotal Aboriginal\nFirst Nations\nMétis\n\nToronto\n2,576,025 \n50.2%\n'''0.7%'''\n0.5%\n0.2%\n\nMontreal\n1,612,640\n67.7%\n'''0.6%'''\n0.3%\n0.2%\n\nCalgary\n1,082,235\n67.3%\n'''2.7%'''\n1.2%\n1.4%\n\nOttawa\n867,090\n74.2%\n'''2.1%'''\n1.2%\n0.7%\n\nEdmonton\n795,675\n64.7%\n'''5.3%'''\n2.4%\n2.7%\n\nMississauga\n708,725\n45.8%\n'''0.5%'''\n0.3%\n0.1%\n\nWinnipeg\n649,995\n66.9%\n'''11.7%'''\n5.9%\n6.3%\n\nVancouver\n590,210\n46.2%\n'''2.0%'''\n1.3%\n0.6%\n\nBrampton\n521,315\n32.9%\n'''0.7%'''\n0.4%\n0.2%\n\nHamilton\n509,640\n82.3%\n'''2.0%'''\n1.6%\n0.3%\n\nQuebec City\n502,595\n95.0%\n'''0.9%'''\n0.5%\n0.4%\n\nSurrey\n463,340\n44.5%\n'''2.9%'''\n1.9%\n1.0%\n\nLaval\n392,725\n78.7%\n'''0.6%'''\n0.3%\n0.2%\n\nHalifax\n384,330\n88.4%\n'''2.5%'''\n1.5%\n0.8%\n\nLondon\n360,715\n82.0%\n'''1.9%'''\n1.4%\n0.4%\n\nMarkham\n300,135\n27.5%\n'''0.2%'''\n0.1%\n0.1%\n\nVaughan\n286,305\n68.4%\n'''0.2%'''\n0.1%\n\n0.0%\n\nGatineau\n261,665\n86.2%\n'''3.5%'''\n1.8%\n1.5%\n\nLongueuil\n227,970\n84.8%\n'''1.0%'''\n0.6%\n0.0%\n\nBurnaby\n220,255\n39.1%\n'''1.5%'''\n0.9%\n0.5%\n\nSaskatoon\n218,315\n77.4%\n'''10.2%'''\n4.9%\n4.6%\n\nKitchener\n215,950\n80.1%\n'''1.5%'''\n0.9%\n0.5%\n\nWindsor\n208,015\n74.8%\n'''2.3%'''\n1.3%\n0.9%\n\nRegina\n189,740\n78.6%\n'''9.9%'''\n5.8%\n3.9%\n\nRichmond\n189,305\n28.6%\n'''1.0%'''\n0.7%\n0.3%\n\nRichmond Hill\n184,370\n46.9%\n'''0.2%'''\n0.1%\n0.0%\n\nOakville\n180,430\n77.2%\n'''0.6%'''\n0.4%\n0.2%\n\nBurlington\n173,495\n87.1%\n'''0.9%'''\n0.5%\n0.3%\n\nGreater Sudbury\n157,765\n89.1%\n\n'''8.2%'''\n3.8%\n4.1%\n\nSherbrooke\n150,255\n93.6%\n'''0.9%'''\n0.5%\n0.3%\n\nOshawa\n147,680\n88.7%\n'''2.0%'''\n1.2%\n0.8%\n\nSaguenay\n141,335\n96.6%\n'''2.5%'''\n0.8%\n1.6%\n\nLévis\n135,835\n98.0%\n'''0.5%'''\n0.2%\n0.2%\n\nBarrie\n133,240\n89.8%\n'''2.6%'''\n1.4%\n1.2%\n\nAbbotsford\n130,950\n66.5%\n'''4.0%'''\n2.5%\n1.6%\n\nSt. Catharines\n128,770\n88.3%\n'''1.9%'''\n1.2%\n0.6%\n\nTrois-Rivières\n126,980\n96.3%\n'''1.1%'''\n0.6%\n0.4%\n\nCambridge\n125,060\n85.4%\n'''2.0%'''\n1.2%\n0.6%\n\nCoquitlam\n125,015\n54.1%\n'''2.1%'''\n1.1%\n0.9%\n\nKingston\n118,930\n89.7%\n'''2.9%'''\n2.0%\n0.8%\n\nWhitby\n120,285\n79.5%\n'''1.2%'''\n0.7%\n0.4%\n\nGuelph\n120,550\n82.7%\n'''1.6%'''\n1.0%\n0.6%\n\nKelowna\n114,570\n87.9%\n'''4.5%'''\n2.1%\n2.3%\n\nSaanich\n107,855\n79.3%\n'''2.7%'''\n1.5%\n1.1%\n\nAjax\n109,220\n53.2%\n'''1.0%'''\n0.7%\n0.3%\n\nThunder Bay\n105,950\n87.1%\n'''9.5%'''\n7.3%\n2.0%\n\nTerrebonne\n105,610\n91.7%\n'''0.7%'''\n0.5%\n0.1%\n\nSt. John's\n103,905\n93.3%\n'''2.6%'''\n1.2%\n0.8%\n\nLangley\n103,145\n83.2%\n'''3.4%'''\n1.6%\n1.7%\n\nChatham-Kent\n101,680\n93.2%\n'''2.9%'''\n1.7%\n0.9%\n\n","\n\n\n'''Language used most often at work:'''\n* English: 78.3%\n* French: 21.7%\n* Non-official languages: 2%\n\n'''Languages by language used most often at home:'''\n* English: 67.1%\n* French: 21.5%\n* Non-official languages: 11.4%\n\n'''Languages by mother tongue:'''\n\n\nFirst language\nPopulation (2011)\n% of total population (2011)\nPopulation (2006)\n% of total population (2006)\nIncrease (2006–2011)\nNotes\n\n '''''Single language responses'''''\n '''''32,481,635'''''\n ''''''''''\n '''''30,848,270'''''\n '''''98.7%'''''\n ''''''''''\n\n\n ''Official languages''\n ''25,913,955''\n ''''\n ''24,700,425''\n ''79.1%''\n ''''\n\n\n English\n 18,858,980\n \n 17,882,775\n 57.2%\n \n\n\n French\n 7,054,975\n \n 6,817,650\n 21.8%\n \n\n\n ''Non-official languages''\n ''6,567,680''\n ''''\n ''6,147,840''\n ''19.7%''\n ''''\n\n\n Punjabi\n 430,705\n \n 367,505\n 1.2%\n \n\n\n Chinese, \n 425,210\n \n 456,705\n 1.5%\n \n\n\n Spanish\n 410,670\n \n 345,345\n 1.1%\n \n\n\n German\n 409,200\n \n 450,570\n 1.4%\n \n\n\n Italian\n 407,485\n \n 455,040\n 1.5%\n \n\n\n Cantonese\n 372,460\n \n 361,450\n 1.2%\n \n\n\n Arabic\n 327,870\n \n 261,640\n 0.8%\n \n\n\n Tagalog (Pilipino, Filipino)\n 327,445\n \n 235,615\n 0.8%\n \n\n\n Mandarin\n 248,705\n \n 170,950\n 0.5%\n \n\n\n Portuguese\n 211,335\n \n 219,275\n 0.7%\n \n\n\n Polish\n 191,645\n \n 211,175\n 0.7%\n \n\n\n Urdu\n 172,800\n \n 145,805\n 0.5%\n \n\n\n Persian\n 170,045\n \n 134,080\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Russian\n 164,330\n \n 133,580\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Vietnamese\n 144,880\n \n 141,625\n 0.5%\n \n\n\n Korean\n 137,925\n \n 125,570\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Tamil\n 131,265\n \n 115,880\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Ukrainian\n 111,540\n \n 134,500\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Dutch\n 110,490\n \n 128,900\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Greek\n 108,925\n \n 117,285\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Gujarati\n 91,450\n \n 81,465\n 0.3%\n \n\n\n Hindustani (Hindi)\n 90,545\n \n 78,240\n 0.3%\n \n\n\n Romanian\n 90,300\n \n 78,495\n 0.3%\n \n\n\n Cree, \n 77,900\n \n 78,855\n 0.3%\n \n In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to simply as 'Cree'.\n\n Hungarian\n 67,920\n \n 73,335\n 0.2%\n \n\n\n Creoles\n 61,725\n \n 53,515\n 0.2%\n \n\n\n Bengali\n 59,370\n \n 45,685\n 0.1%\n \n\n\n Serbian\n 56,420\n \n 51,665\n 0.2%\n \n\n\n Croatian\n 49,730\n \n 55,330\n 0.2%\n \n\n\n Japanese\n 39,985\n \n 40,200\n 0.1%\n \n\n\n Inuktitut\n 33,500\n \n 32,015\n 0.1%\n \n In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to as 'Inuktitut, '.\n\n Somali\n 31,380\n \n 27,320\n 0.09%\n \n\n\n Armenian\n 29,795\n \n 30,130\n 0.1%\n \n\n\n Turkish\n 29,640\n \n 24,745\n 0.08%\n \n\n\n Albanian\n 23,820\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Czech\n 23,585\n \n 24,450\n 0.08%\n \n\n\n Khmer (Cambodian)\n 19,440\n \n 19,105\n 0.06%\n \n\n\n Bulgarian\n 19,050\n \n 16,790\n 0.05%\n \n\n\n Hebrew\n 18,450\n \n 17,635\n 0.06%\n \n\n\n Amharic\n 18,020\n \n 14,555\n 0.05%\n \n\n\n Ilocano\n 17,915\n \n 13,450\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Ojibway\n 17,625\n \n 24,190\n 0.08%\n \n\n\n Slovak\n 17,580\n \n 18,820\n 0.06%\n \n\n\n Finnish\n 17,415\n \n 21,030\n 0.07%\n \n\n\n Macedonian\n 17,245\n \n 18,435\n 0.06%\n \n\n\n Semitic languages, \n 16,970\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Bisayan languages\n 16,240\n \n 11,240\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Malayalam\n 16,080\n \n 11,925\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Yiddish\n 15,205\n \n 16,295\n 0.05%\n \n\n\n Sinhala (Sinhalese)\n 14,185\n \n 10,180\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Danish\n 14,145\n \n 18,735\n 0.06%\n \n\n\n Niger–Congo languages, \n 14,075\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Lao\n 12,970\n \n 13,940\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Akan (Twi)\n 12,680\n \n 12,780\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Pashto\n 12,465\n \n 9,025\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Bosnian\n 11,685\n \n 12,790\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Sindhi\n 11,330\n \n 10,355\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Dene\n 11,215\n \n 9,745\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Oromo\n 11,140\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Malay\n 10,910\n \n 9,490\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Innu/Montagnais\n 10,785\n \n 10,975\n 0.04%\n \n In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to as 'Montagnais-Naskapi'.\n\n Slovenian\n 10,775\n \n 13,135\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Tigrigna\n 10,220\n \n 7,105\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Serbo-Croatian\n 10,155\n \n 12,510\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Swahili\n 10,090\n \n 7,935\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Oji-Cree\n 9,835\n \n 11,690\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Kurdish\n 9,805\n \n 7,660\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Taiwanese\n 9,635\n \n 9,620\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Telugu\n 9,315\n \n 6,625\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n African languages, \n 9,125\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Afrikaans\n 8,770\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Nepali\n 8,480\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Thai\n 7,935\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Mi'kmaq\n 7,635\n \n 7,365\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Swedish\n 7,350\n \n 8,220\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Lithuanian\n 7,245\n \n 8,335\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Bantu languages, \n 7,150\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Estonian\n 6,385\n \n 8,240\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Maltese\n 6,220\n \n 6,405\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Latvian\n 6,200\n \n 7,000\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Fukien\n 5,925\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Berber languages (Kabyle)\n 5,855\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Marathi\n 5,830\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Atikamekw\n 5,820\n \n 5,250\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Norwegian\n 5,800\n \n 7,225\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Indo-Iranian languages, \n 5,255\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Hakka\n 5,115\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Flemish\n 4,690\n \n 5,660\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Tibetan languages\n 4,640\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Sino-Tibetan languages, \n 4,360\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Rundi (Kirundi)\n 3,975\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Rwanda (Kinyarwanda)\n 3,895\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Sign languages, \n 3,815\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Slavic languages, \n 3,630\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Lingala\n 3,085\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Stoney\n 3,050\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Burmese\n 2,985\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Shanghainese\n 2,920\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Siouan languages (Dakota/Sioux)\n N/A\n N/A\n 5,585\n 0.02%\n N/A\n\n\n Blackfoot\n N/A\n N/A\n 3,085\n 0.01%\n N/A\n\n\n Frisian\n N/A\n N/A\n 2,890\n 0.009%\n N/A\n\n\n Dogrib\n N/A\n N/A\n 2,020\n 0.006%\n N/A\n\n\n Algonquin\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,920\n 0.006%\n N/A\n\n\n South Slave\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,605\n 0.005%\n N/A\n\n\n Carrier\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,560\n 0.005%\n N/A\n\n\n Gitksan\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,180\n 0.004%\n N/A\n\n\n Chilcotin\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,070\n 0.003%\n N/A\n\n\n North Slave (Hare)\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,065\n 0.003%\n N/A\n\n\n Shuswap\n N/A\n N/A\n 935\n 0.003%\n N/A\n\n\n Nisga’a\n N/A\n N/A\n 680\n 0.002%\n N/A\n\n\n Malecite\n N/A\n N/A\n 535\n 0.002%\n N/A\n\n\n Chipewyan\n N/A\n N/A\n 525\n 0.002%\n N/A\n\n\n Inuinnaqtun\n N/A\n N/A\n 365\n 0.001%\n N/A\n\n\n Kutchin-Gwich’in (Loucheux)\n N/A\n N/A\n 360\n 0.001%\n N/A\n\n\n Mohawk\n N/A\n N/A\n 290\n 0.0009%\n N/A\n\n\n Tlingit\n N/A\n N/A\n 80\n 0.0003%\n N/A\n\n\n Other languages\n 77,890\n \n 172,650\n 0.6%\n \n\n\n '''''Multiple language responses'''''\n '''''639,540'''''\n ''''''''''\n '''''392,760'''''\n '''''1.3%'''''\n ''''''''''\n\n\n English and French\n 144,685\n \n 98,630\n 0.3%\n \n\n\n English and a non-official language\n 396,330\n \n 240,005\n 0.8%\n \n\n\n French and a non-official language\n 74,430\n \n 43,335\n 0.1%\n \n\n\n English, French, and a non-official language\n 24,095\n \n 10,790\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n '''Total'''\n '''33,121,175'''\n ''''''\n '''31,241,030'''\n '''100%'''\n ''''''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n","\nStatistics Canada (StatCan) grouped responses to the 2011 National Household Survey (NHS) question on religion into nine core religious categories – Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, Traditional (Aboriginal) Spirituality, other religions and no religious affiliation. Among these, of Canadians were self-identified as Christians in 2011. The second and third-largest categories were of Canadians with no religious affiliation at and Canadian Muslims at .\n\nWithin the 2011 NHS results, StatCan further subcategorized Christianity in nine groups of its own – Anglican, Baptist, Catholic, Christian Orthodox, Lutheran, Pentecostal, Presbyterian, United Church and Other Christian. Among these, of Canadians were self-identified as Catholic in 2011. The second and third-largest ungrouped subcategories of Christian Canadians were United at and Anglican at , while of Christians were grouped into the Other Christian subcategory comprising numerous denominations.\n\nOf the 3,036,785 or of Canadians identified as Other Christians:\n*105,365 ( of Canadians) were identified as Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon);\n*137,775 ( of Canadians) were identified as Jehovah's Witness;\n*175,880 ( of Canadians) were identified as Mennonite;\n*550,965 ( of Canadians) were identified as Protestant; and\n*102,830 ( of Canadians) were identified as Reformed.\n\n\nReligion status of the Canadian Population in 2011\n\n Religion\n Total\n Percent\n\n Buddhist \n \n \n\n Christian \n \n \n\n Anglican \n \n \n\n Baptist \n \n \n\n Roman Catholic \n \n \n\n Christian Orthodox \n \n \n\n Lutheran \n \n \n\n Pentecostal \n \n \n\n Presbyterian \n \n \n\n United Church \n \n \n\n Other Christian \n \n \n\n Hindu \n \n 1.5%\n\n Jewish \n \n \n\n Muslim \n \n \n\n Sikh \n \n \n\n Traditional (Aboriginal) Spirituality \n \n \n\n Other religions \n \n \n\n No religious affiliation \n \n \n\n\n","\n\n* 1666 census of New France\n* Canada 1906 Census\n* Canada 1911 Census\n* Canada 1996 Census\n* Canada 2001 Census\n* Canada 2006 Census\n* Canada 2011 Census\n* List of Canadian census areas demographic extremes\n* ''Cahiers québécois de démographie'' academic journal\n* ''Canadian Studies in Population'' academic journal\n*\n","\n","\n","\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Roderic Beaujot and Don Kerr, (2007) '' The Changing Face of Canada: Essential Readings in Population'', Canadian Scholars' Press, .\n\n","\n* Canada Year Book (2010) – Statistics Canada\n* Population estimates and projections, 2010 – 2036 – Statistics Canada\n\n\n\n\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\nThis article is about the demographic features of the population of Canada, including population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population, the People of Canada.\\n\",\n \"\\nThe Canada 2016 Census had a total population count of 35,151,728 individuals, making up approximately 0.5% of the world's total population. Estimates have the population over 36 million as of July 2016.\\n\\n=== Provinces and territories ===\\n\\n\\nProvince or territory\\nPopulation,\\n2016 Census\\nPopulation,\\n2011 Census\\nPopulation \\nChange (%),\\n\\n2011-2016\\nTotal landarea (km2)\\nDensity(people/km2)\\nHouse ofCommons seats\\nPeople perseat\\n\\nNumber\\nPercentage\\n Number\\n Percentage\\n\\n \\n13,448,494\\n38.26%\\n\\n 38.39%\\n4.6%\\n\\n 12.19\\n 121\\n \\n\\n \\n8,164,361\\n23.23%\\n\\n 23.61%\\n3.3%\\n\\n 5.76\\n 78\\n \\n\\n \\n4,648,055\\n13.22%\\n\\n 13.14%\\n5.6%\\n\\n 4.84\\n 42\\n \\n\\n \\n4,067,175\\n11.57%\\n\\n 10.89%\\n11.6%\\n\\n 5.77\\n 34\\n \\n\\n \\n1,278,365\\n3.64%\\n\\n 3.61%\\n5.8%\\n\\n 2.22\\n 14\\n \\n\\n \\n1,098,352\\n3.12%\\n\\n 3.09%\\n6.3%\\n\\n 1.75\\n 14\\n \\n\\n \\n923,598\\n2.63%\\n\\n 2.75%\\n0.2%\\n\\n 17.63\\n 11\\n \\n\\n \\n747,101\\n2.13%\\n\\n 2.24%\\n\\n\\n 10.50\\n 10\\n \\n\\n \\n519,716\\n1.48%\\n\\n 1.54%\\n1.0%\\n\\n 1.36\\n 7\\n \\n\\n \\n142,907\\n0.41%\\n\\n 0.42%\\n1.9%\\n\\n 24.98\\n 4\\n \\n\\n \\n41,786\\n0.12%\\n\\n 0.12%\\n0.8%\\n\\n 0.04\\n 1\\n \\n\\n \\n35,944\\n0.10%\\n\\n 0.09%\\n12.7%\\n\\n 0.02\\n 1\\n \\n\\n \\n35,874\\n0.10%\\n\\n 0.10%\\n5.8%\\n\\n 0.07\\n 1\\n \\n\\n \\n35,151,728\\n100%\\n \\n 100%\\n5.0%\\n \\n 3.73\\n 338\\n \\n\\n\\n:Sources: Statistics Canada\\n\\n=== Cities ===\\n\\n\\n\\n=== Census metropolitan areas ===\\n\\n\\n\\n===Population growth rates===\\nAccording to OECD/World Bank, the population in Canada increased from 1990 to 2008 with 5.6 million and 20.4% growth in population, compared to 21.7% growth in the United States and 31.2% growth in Mexico. According to the OECD/World Bank population statistics, between 1990–2008 the world population growth was 27%, a total of 1,423 million people.\\n\\n\\n\\n Rank\\n Province or territory\\n Population(2011)\\n Population(2006)\\n Difference\\n Change(%)\\n\\n 1\\n Ontario\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 5.7\\n\\n 2\\n Quebec\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 4.7\\n\\n 3\\n British Columbia\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 7.0\\n\\n 4\\n Alberta\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 10.8\\n\\n 5\\n Manitoba\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 5.2\\n\\n 6\\n Saskatchewan\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 6.7\\n\\n 7\\n Nova Scotia\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 0.9\\n\\n 8\\n New Brunswick\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 2.9\\n\\n 9\\n Newfoundland and Labrador\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 1.8\\n\\n 10\\n Prince Edward Island\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 3.2\\n\\n 11\\n Northwest Territories\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 0.0\\n\\n 12\\n Yukon\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 11.6\\n\\n 13\\n Nunavut\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 8.3\\n\\n Total\\n Canada\\n\\n\\n\\n 5.9\\n\\n\\n'''Derived from:''' Statistics Canada – (table) Population and Dwelling Counts, for Canada, Provinces and Territories, 2011 and 2006 Censuses – 100% Data\\n\\n===Population projection===\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n Average population (x 1,000)\\n Live births\\n Deaths\\n Natural change\\n Birth rate (per 1,000)\\n Death rate (per 1,000)\\n Natural change (per 1,000)\\n\\n 1900\\n5,500\\n150,000\\n89,000\\n61,000\\n27.2\\n16.2\\n11.0\\n\\n 1901\\n5,600\\n175,000\\n79,000\\n96,000\\n31.2\\n14.1\\n17.1\\n\\n 1902\\n5,760\\n180,000\\n77,000\\n103,000\\n31.3\\n13.4\\n17.9\\n\\n 1903\\n5,930\\n186,000\\n78,000\\n108,000\\n31.3\\n13.2\\n18.1\\n\\n 1904\\n6,100\\n192,000\\n82,000\\n110,000\\n31.4\\n13.5\\n17.9\\n\\n 1905\\n6,280\\n195,000\\n82,000\\n113,000\\n31.0\\n13.0\\n18.0\\n\\n 1906\\n6,460\\n193,000\\n85,000\\n108,000\\n29.9\\n13.2\\n16.7\\n\\n 1907\\n6,650\\n196,000\\n85,000\\n111,000\\n29.5\\n12.8\\n16.7\\n\\n 1908\\n6,850\\n208,000\\n86,000\\n122,000\\n30.3\\n12.6\\n17.7\\n\\n 1909\\n7,040\\n213,000\\n90,000\\n123,000\\n30.2\\n12.8\\n17.4\\n\\n 1910\\n7,250\\n220,000\\n95,000\\n125,000\\n30.4\\n13.1\\n17.3\\n\\n 1911\\n7,460\\n225,000\\n100,000\\n125,000\\n30.1\\n13.4\\n16.7\\n\\n 1912\\n7,610\\n238,000\\n99,000\\n139,000\\n31.3\\n13.0\\n19.3\\n\\n 1913\\n7,760\\n246,000\\n102,000\\n144,000\\n31.7\\n13.1\\n19.6\\n\\n 1914\\n7,910\\n252,000\\n100,000\\n152,000\\n31.9\\n12.6\\n19.3\\n\\n 1915\\n8,060\\n257,000\\n101,000\\n156,000\\n31.9\\n12.5\\n19.4\\n\\n 1916\\n8,220\\n252,000\\n107,000\\n145,000\\n30.7\\n13.0\\n17.7\\n\\n 1917\\n8,380\\n244,000\\n106,000\\n138,000\\n29.1\\n12.7\\n16.4\\n\\n 1918\\n8,450\\n243,000\\n134,000\\n109,000\\n28.8\\n15.9\\n12.9\\n\\n 1919\\n8,710\\n241,000\\n119,000\\n122,000\\n27.7\\n13.7\\n14.0\\n\\n 1920\\n8,880\\n259,000\\n118,000\\n141,000\\n29.2\\n13.3\\n15.9\\n\\n 1921\\n9,060\\n265,000\\n105,000\\n160,000\\n29.3\\n11.6\\n17.7\\n\\n 1922\\n9,230\\n261,000\\n107,000\\n154,000\\n28.3\\n11.6\\n16.7\\n\\n 1923\\n9,400\\n251,000\\n111,000\\n140,000\\n26.7\\n11.8\\n14.9\\n\\n 1924\\n9,560\\n255,000\\n104,000\\n151,000\\n26.7\\n10.9\\n15.8\\n\\n 1925\\n9,730\\n254,000\\n104,000\\n150,000\\n26.1\\n10.7\\n15.4\\n\\n 1926\\n9,890\\n244,000\\n113,000\\n131,000\\n24.7\\n11.4\\n13.3\\n\\n 1927\\n10,040\\n244,000\\n110,000\\n134,000\\n24.3\\n11.0\\n13.3\\n\\n 1928\\n10,190\\n246,000\\n114,000\\n132,000\\n24.1\\n11.2\\n12.9\\n\\n 1929\\n10,350\\n243,000\\n118,000\\n125,000\\n23.5\\n11.4\\n12.1\\n\\n 1930\\n10,498\\n251,000\\n113,000\\n138,000\\n23.9\\n10.8\\n13.1\\n\\n 1931\\n10,630\\n247,000\\n108,000\\n139,000\\n23.2\\n10.2\\n13.0\\n\\n 1932\\n10,794\\n243,000\\n108,000\\n135,000\\n22.5\\n10.0\\n12.5\\n\\n 1933\\n10,919\\n229,000\\n106,000\\n123,000\\n21.0\\n9.7\\n11.3\\n\\n 1934\\n11,029\\n228,296\\n105,277\\n123,019\\n20.7\\n9.5\\n11.2\\n\\n 1935\\n11,135\\n228,396\\n109,724\\n118,672\\n20.5\\n9.9\\n10.6\\n\\n 1936\\n11,242\\n227,980\\n111,111\\n116,869\\n20.3\\n9.9\\n10.4\\n\\n 1937\\n11,339\\n227,878\\n118,019\\n109,859\\n20.1\\n10.4\\n9.7\\n\\n 1938\\n11,448\\n237,091\\n110,647\\n126,444\\n20.7\\n9.7\\n11.0\\n\\n 1939\\n11,565\\n237,991\\n112,729\\n125,262\\n20.6\\n9.7\\n10.9\\n\\n 1940\\n11,682\\n252,577\\n114,717\\n137,860\\n21.6\\n9.8\\n11.8\\n\\n 1941\\n11,810\\n263,993\\n118,797\\n145,196\\n22.4\\n10.1\\n12.3\\n\\n 1942\\n11,962\\n281,569\\n117,110\\n164,459\\n23.5\\n9.8\\n13.7\\n\\n 1943\\n12,125\\n292,943\\n122,640\\n170,303\\n24.2\\n10.1\\n14.1\\n\\n 1944\\n12,291\\n283,967\\n120,393\\n163,574\\n24.0\\n9.8\\n14.2\\n\\n 1945\\n12,441\\n300,570\\n117,319\\n183,251\\n24.3\\n9.5\\n14.8\\n\\n 1946\\n12,637\\n343,504\\n118,785\\n224,719\\n27.2\\n9.4\\n17.8\\n\\n 1947\\n12,919\\n372,443\\n121,478\\n250,965\\n28.9\\n9.4\\n19.5\\n\\n 1948\\n13,167\\n359,860\\n122,974\\n236,886\\n27.3\\n9.3\\n18.0\\n\\n 1949\\n13,475\\n367,092\\n124,567\\n242,525\\n27.2\\n9.2\\n18.0\\n\\n 1950\\n13,737\\n372,009\\n124,220\\n247,789\\n27.1\\n9.0\\n18.0\\n\\n 1951\\n14,050\\n381,092\\n125,823\\n255,269\\n27.1\\n9.0\\n18.2\\n\\n 1952\\n14,496\\n403,559\\n126,385\\n277,174\\n27.8\\n8.7\\n19.1\\n\\n 1953\\n14,886\\n417,884\\n127,791\\n290,093\\n28.1\\n8.6\\n19.5\\n\\n 1954\\n15,330\\n436,198\\n124,855\\n311,343\\n28.5\\n8.1\\n20.3\\n\\n 1955\\n15,736\\n442,937\\n128,476\\n314,461\\n28.1\\n8.2\\n20.0\\n\\n 1956\\n16,123\\n450,739\\n131,961\\n318,778\\n28.0\\n8.2\\n19.8\\n\\n 1957\\n16,677\\n469,093\\n136,579\\n332,514\\n28.1\\n8.2\\n19.9\\n\\n 1958\\n17,120\\n470,118\\n135,201\\n334,917\\n27.5\\n7.9\\n19.6\\n\\n 1959\\n17,522\\n479,275\\n139,913\\n339,362\\n27.4\\n8.0\\n19.4\\n\\n 1960\\n17,909\\n478,551\\n139,693\\n338,858\\n26.7\\n7.8\\n18.9\\n\\n 1961\\n18,271\\n475,700\\n140,985\\n334,715\\n26.0\\n7.7\\n18.3\\n\\n 1962\\n18,614\\n469,693\\n143,699\\n325,994\\n25.2\\n7.7\\n17.5\\n\\n 1963\\n18,964\\n465,767\\n147,367\\n318,400\\n24.6\\n7.8\\n16.8\\n\\n 1964\\n19,325\\n452,915\\n145,850\\n307,065\\n23.4\\n7.5\\n15.9\\n\\n 1965\\n19,678\\n418,595\\n148,939\\n269,656\\n21.3\\n7.6\\n13.7\\n\\n 1966\\n20,048\\n387,710\\n149,863\\n237,847\\n19.3\\n7.5\\n11.9\\n\\n 1967\\n20,412\\n370,894\\n150,283\\n220,611\\n18.2\\n7.4\\n10.8\\n\\n 1968\\n20,744\\n364,310\\n153,196\\n211,114\\n17.6\\n7.4\\n10.2\\n\\n 1969\\n21,028\\n369,647\\n154,477\\n215,170\\n17.6\\n7.3\\n10.2\\n\\n 1970\\n21,324\\n371,988\\n155,961\\n216,027\\n17.4\\n7.3\\n10.1\\n\\n 1971\\n21,962\\n362,187\\n157,272\\n204,915\\n16.7\\n7.3\\n9.5\\n\\n 1972\\n22,218\\n347,319\\n162,413\\n184,906\\n15.8\\n7.4\\n8.4\\n\\n 1973\\n22,492\\n343,373\\n164,039\\n179,334\\n15.4\\n7.4\\n8.1\\n\\n 1974\\n22,808\\n350,650\\n166,794\\n178,851\\n15.3\\n7.4\\n7.9\\n\\n 1975\\n23,143\\n359,323\\n167,176\\n191,919\\n15.6\\n7.3\\n8.3\\n\\n 1976\\n23,450\\n359,987\\n167,009\\n192,978\\n15.4\\n7.2\\n8.3\\n\\n 1977\\n23,726\\n361,400\\n167,498\\n193,902\\n15.3\\n7.1\\n8.2\\n\\n 1978\\n23,963\\n358,852\\n168,179\\n190,673\\n15.0\\n7.0\\n8.0\\n\\n 1979\\n24,202\\n366,064\\n168,183\\n197,881\\n15.1\\n6.9\\n8.2\\n\\n 1980\\n24,516\\n370,709\\n171,473\\n199,236\\n15.1\\n7.0\\n8.1\\n\\n 1981\\n24,820\\n371,346\\n171,029\\n200,317\\n14.9\\n6.8\\n8.0\\n\\n 1982\\n25,117\\n373,082\\n174,413\\n198,669\\n14.8\\n6.9\\n7.9\\n\\n 1983\\n25,367\\n373,689\\n174,484\\n199,205\\n14.6\\n6.8\\n7.8\\n\\n 1984\\n25,608\\n377,031\\n175,727\\n201,304\\n14.6\\n6.8\\n7.8\\n\\n 1985\\n25,843\\n375,727\\n181,323\\n194,404\\n14.4\\n7.0\\n7.5\\n\\n 1986\\n26,101\\n372,913\\n184,224\\n188,689\\n14.3\\n7.1\\n7.2\\n\\n 1987\\n26,449\\n369,742\\n184,953\\n184,789\\n14.0\\n7.0\\n7.0\\n\\n 1988\\n26,795\\n376,795\\n190,011\\n186,784\\n14.1\\n7.1\\n7.0\\n\\n 1989\\n27,282\\n392,661\\n190,965\\n201,696\\n14.4\\n7.0\\n7.4\\n\\n 1990\\n27,698\\n405,486\\n191,973\\n213,513\\n14.6\\n6.9\\n7.7\\n\\n 1991\\n28,031\\n402,533\\n195,569\\n206,964\\n14.4\\n7.0\\n7.4\\n\\n 1992\\n28,367\\n398,643\\n196,535\\n202,108\\n14.1\\n6.9\\n7.1\\n\\n 1993\\n28,682\\n388,394\\n204,912\\n183,482\\n13.5\\n7.1\\n6.4\\n\\n 1994\\n28,999\\n385,114\\n207,077\\n178,037\\n13.3\\n7.1\\n6.1\\n\\n 1995\\n29,302\\n378,016\\n210,733\\n167,283\\n12.9\\n7.2\\n5.7\\n\\n 1996\\n29,611\\n366,200\\n212,880\\n153,320\\n12.4\\n7.2\\n5.2\\n\\n 1997\\n29,907\\n348,598\\n215,669\\n132,929\\n11.7\\n7.2\\n4.4\\n\\n 1998\\n30,157\\n342,418\\n218,091\\n124,327\\n11.4\\n7.2\\n4.1\\n\\n 1999\\n30,404\\n337,249\\n219,530\\n117,719\\n11.1\\n7.2\\n3.9\\n\\n 2000\\n30,689\\n327,882\\n218,062\\n109,820\\n10.7\\n7.1\\n3.6\\n\\n 2001\\n31,021\\n333,744\\n219,538\\n114,206\\n10.8\\n7.1\\n3.7\\n\\n 2002\\n31,373\\n328,802\\n223,603\\n105,199\\n10.5\\n7.1\\n3.4\\n\\n 2003\\n31,676\\n335,202\\n226,169\\n109,033\\n10.6\\n7.1\\n3.4\\n\\n 2004\\n31,941\\n337,072\\n226,584\\n110,488\\n10.6\\n7.1\\n3.5\\n\\n 2005\\n32,245\\n342,176\\n230,132\\n112,044\\n10.6\\n7.1\\n3.5\\n\\n 2006\\n32,576\\n354,617\\n228,079\\n126,538\\n10.9\\n7.0\\n3.9\\n\\n 2007\\n32,930\\n367,864\\n235,217\\n132,647\\n11.2\\n7.1\\n4.0\\n\\n 2008\\n33,318\\n377,886\\n238,617\\n139,269\\n11.3\\n7.2\\n4.2\\n\\n 2009\\n33,727\\n380,863\\n242,277\\n138,586\\n11.3\\n7.2\\n4.1\\n\\n 2010\\n34,127\\n377,213\\n247,926\\n129,287\\n11.1\\n7.3\\n3.8\\n\\n 2011\\n34,484\\n377,636\\n254,731\\n122,905\\n11.0\\n7.4\\n3.6\\n\\n 2012\\n34,880\\n381,429 \\n256,965\\n124,464\\n10.9\\n7.4\\n3.6\\n\\n 2013\\n35,293\\n386,044 \\n256,982\\n129,062\\n11.0\\n7.4\\n3.7\\n\\n2014\\n35,667\\n389,914\\n266,164\\n123,750\\n10.9\\n7.6\\n3.3\\n\\n2015\\n35,981\\n390,836\\n267,875\\n122,961\\n10.9\\n7.6\\n3.3\\n\\n2016(p)\\n36,503\\n395,065\\n272,891\\n122,174\\n10.8\\n7.5\\n3.3\\n\\n\\n(p)=January–September 2016\\n\\n===Current population growth===\\n\\n*Births from January–March 2016 = 94,517\\n*Births from January–March 2017 = 94,851\\n*Deaths from January–March 2016 = 71,278\\n*Deaths from January–March 2017 = 74,985\\n*Natural increase from January–March 2016 = 23,239\\n*Natural increase from January–March 2017 = 19,866\\n\\n'''Age characteristics:'''\\n\\n Population by age and gender, 2011\\n\\nAge group\\nMale\\nFemale\\nTotal\\nPercent\\n\\n\\n 0 to 4 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 5 to 9 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 10 to 14 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 15 to 19 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 20 to 24 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 25 to 29 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 30 to 34 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 35 to 39 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 40 to 44 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 45 to 49 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 50 to 54 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 55 to 59 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 60 to 64 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 65 to 69 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 70 to 74 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 75 to 79 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 80 to 84 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 85 years and over \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\nTotal \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 0 to 14 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 15 to 64 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 65 years and over \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n\\n'''Net migration rate:''' 5.65 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2013 est.)\\n\\n'''Urbanization:'''\\n* ''urban population:'' 81% of total population (2010)\\n* ''rate of urbanization:'' 1.1% annual rate of change (2010-2015 est.)\\n\\nPopulation pyramid in 2010\\n'''Sex ratio:'''\\n* ''at birth:'' 1.06 male(s)/female\\n* ''under 15 years:'' 1.05 male(s)/female\\n* ''15 – 24 years:'' 1.06 male(s)/female\\n* ''25 - 54 years:'' 1.03 male(s)/female\\n* ''55 - 64 years:'' 0.98 male(s)/female\\n* ''65 years and over:'' 0.79 male(s)/female\\n* ''total population:'' 0.99 male(s)/female (2013 est.)\\n\\n'''Maternal mortality rate:''' 12 deaths/100,000 live births (2010 est.)\\n\\n'''Life expectancy:'''\\n* ''total population'': 81.57 years\\n* ''male'': 78.98 years\\n* ''female'': 84.31 years (2013 est.)\\n\\n===Median age===\\n* ''total:'' 40.6 years\\n** ''male:'' 39.6 years\\n** ''female:'' 41.5 years (2011)\\n\\n'''Median age by province and territory, 2011'''\\n# Newfoundland and Labrador: 44.0\\n# Nova Scotia: 43.7\\n# New Brunswick:43.7\\n# Prince Edward Island: 42.8\\n# Quebec: 41.9\\n# British Columbia: 41.9\\n# Ontario: 40.4\\n# Yukon: 39.1\\n# Manitoba: 38.4\\n# Saskatchewan: 38.2\\n# Alberta: 36.5\\n# Northwest Territories: 32.3\\n# Nunavut: 24.1\\n\\n'''Total''': 40.6\\n:Sources: Statistics Canada\\n\",\n \"\\n===Ethnic origin===\\n\\nIn the 2006 census, Canadians could identify as being of one or more ethnicities. Percentages therefore add up to more than 100%. The most common response was \\\"Canadian\\\". As data is completely self-reported, and reporting individuals may have varying definitions of \\\"Ethnic origin\\\" (or may not know their ethnic origin), these figures should not be considered an exact record of the relative prevalence of different ethno-cultural ancestries but rather how Canadians self-identify.\\n\\nStatistics Canada projects that, by 2031, about 28% of the population will be foreign-born. The number of people belonging to visible minority groups will double, the majority of which will live in Toronto and Vancouver.\\n\\nCounting both single and multiple responses, the most commonly identified ethnic origins were (2011):\\n\\n\\n Ethnic origin\\n %\\n Population\\n Area of largest proportion\\n\\n Canadian\\n 32.16%\\n\\n Quebec (59.1%)\\n\\n English\\n 19.81%\\n\\n Newfoundland and Labrador (43.4%)\\n\\n French\\n 15.42%\\n\\n Quebec (29.1%)\\n\\n Scottish\\n 14.35%\\n\\n Prince Edward Island (39.3%)\\n\\n Irish\\n 13.83%\\n\\n Prince Edward Island (30.4%)\\n\\n German\\n 9.75%\\n\\n Saskatchewan (28.6%)\\n\\n Italian\\n 4.53%\\n\\n Ontario (7.0%)\\n\\n Chinese\\n 4.53%\\n\\n British Columbia (10.7%)\\n\\n First Nations\\n 4.17%\\n\\n Northwest Territories (37.0%)\\n\\n Ukrainian\\n 3.81%\\n\\n Manitoba (14.9%)\\n\\n East Indian\\n 3.55%\\n\\n British Columbia (6.3%)\\n\\n Dutch (Netherlands)\\n 3.25%\\n\\n Alberta (5.1%)\\n\\n Polish\\n 3.08%\\n\\n Manitoba (7.3%)\\n\\n Filipino\\n 2.02%\\n\\n Manitoba (5.2%)\\n\\n British, not included elsewhere\\n 1.75%\\n\\n Yukon (2.4%)\\n\\n Russian\\n 1.68%\\n\\n Manitoba (4.3%)\\n\\n Welsh\\n 1.40%\\n\\n Yukon (2.8%)\\n\\n Norwegian\\n 1.38%\\n\\n Saskatchewan (6.9%)\\n\\n Métis\\n 1.36%\\n\\n Northwest Territories (6.7%)\\n\\n Portuguese\\n 1.31%\\n\\n Ontario (2.3%)\\n\\n American\\n 1.13%\\n\\n Yukon (2.2%)\\n\\n Spanish\\n 1.12%\\n\\n British Columbia (1.4%)\\n\\n Swedish\\n 1.04%\\n\\n Saskatchewan (3.2%)\\n\\n Hungarian\\n 0.96%\\n\\n Saskatchewan (2.8%)\\n\\n Jewish\\n 0.94%\\n\\n Ontario (1.4%)\\n\\n\\nData from the same subject matter, though from 2001, is also grouped more geographically by Statistics Canada as follows:\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n 2001\\n\\nNorth American (non-aboriginal)\\n40.21%\\n\\nBritish Isles\\n33.64%\\n\\nFrench\\n15.89%\\n\\nWestern European\\n12.78%\\n\\nEastern European\\n8.50%\\n\\nSouthern European\\n7.87%\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n 2001\\n\\nEast and Southeast Asian\\n6.03%\\n\\nAboriginal\\n4.45%\\n\\nSouth Asian\\n3.25%\\n\\nNorthern European\\n3.22%\\n\\nCaribbean\\n1.70%\\n\\nOther European\\n1.28%\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n 2001\\n\\nArab\\n1.17%\\n\\nAfrican\\n0.99%\\n\\nLatin, Central andSouth American\\n0.82%\\n\\nWest Asian\\n0.69%\\n\\nOceania\\n0.16%\\n\\n\\n:''Percentages are calculated as a proportion of the total number of respondents (32,852,325 in 2011) and total more than 100% due to dual responses. All ethnocultural ancestries with responses totalling to more than 1% of the total number of responses are listed in the table above according to the exact terminology used by Statistics Canada.''\\n\\nThe most common ethnic origins per province are as follows (total responses; only percentages 10% or higher shown; ordered by percentage of \\\"Canadian\\\"):\\n* Quebec (7,723,525): '''Canadian''' (59.1%), '''French''' (29.1%)\\n* New Brunswick (735,835): '''Canadian''' (50.3%), French (27.2%), English (25.9%), Irish (21.6%), Scottish (19.9%)\\n* Newfoundland and Labrador (507,265): '''Canadian''' (49.0%), '''English''' (43.4%), Irish (21.8%)\\n* Nova Scotia (906,170): '''Canadian''' (39.1%), Scottish (31.2%), English (30.8%), Irish (22.3%), French (17.0%), German (10.8%)\\n* Prince Edward Island (137,375): '''Scottish''' (39.3%), Canadian (36.8%), English (31.1%), '''Irish''' (30.4%), French (21.1%)\\n* Ontario (12,651,795): '''Canadian''' (23.3%), English (23.1%), Scottish (16.4%), Irish (16.4%), French (10.8%)\\n* Alberta (3,567,980): '''English''' (24.9%), Canadian (21.8%), German (19.2%), Scottish (18.8%), Irish (15.8%), French (11.1%)\\n* Manitoba (1,174,345): '''English''' (21.8%), German (18.6%), Canadian (18.5%), Scottish (18.0%), '''Ukrainian''' (14.9%), Irish (13.2%), French (12.6%), North American Indian (10.6%)\\n* Saskatchewan (1,008,760): '''German''' (28.6%), English (24.9%), Scottish (18.9%), Canadian (18.8%), Irish (15.5%), Ukrainian (13.5%), French (12.2%), '''North American Indian''' (12.1%)\\n* British Columbia (4,324,455): '''English''' (27.7%), Scottish (19.3%), Canadian (19.1%), German (13.1%), '''Chinese''' (10.7%)\\n* Yukon (33,320): '''English''' (28.5%), Scottish (25.0%), Irish (22.0%), North American Indian (21.8%), Canadian (21.8%), German (15.6%), French (13.1%)\\n* Northwest Territories (40,800): '''North American Indian''' (37.0%), Scottish (13.9%), English (13.7%), Canadian (12.8%), Irish (11.9%), Inuit (11.7%)\\n* Nunavut (31,700): '''Inuit''' (85.4%)\\n\\n'''Bold''' indicates either that this response is dominant within this province, or that this province has the highest ratio (percentage) of this response among provinces.\\n\\n\\n\\n Ethnic origin \\n Canadian\\t\\n English\\n French\\n Scottish\\n Irish\\n German\\n Italian\\n Chinese\\n First Nations\\n Ukrainian\\n Dutch\\n\\n Canada\\n 32.1\\n 19.8\\n 15.4\\n 14.3\\n 13.8\\n 9.7\\n 4.5\\n 4.5\\n 4.1\\n 3.8\\n 3.2\\n\\n Ontario \\n 23\\n 24.7\\n 11.2\\n 17.5\\n 16.5\\n 9.5\\n 7.2\\n 5.4\\n 2.6\\n 2.8\\n 4.1\\n\\n Quebec \\n 60.1 \\n 3.3\\n 28.8\\n 2.7\\n 5.5\\n 1.8\\n 4.0\\n 1.2\\n 3.0\\n 0.4\\n 0.3\\n\\n British Columbia \\n 17.7\\n 29.6\\n 8.9\\n 20.3\\n 15.2\\n 13.8\\n 3.5\\n 10.6\\n 4.7\\n 4.8\\n 4.8\\n\\n Alberta \\n 21.8\\n 24.9\\n 11.1\\n 18.8\\n 15.8\\n 19.2\\n 2.5\\n 4.4\\n 5.0\\n 9.7\\n 5.1\\n\\n Manitoba \\n 18.2\\n 22.1\\n 13.1\\n 18.5\\n 13.4\\n 19.1\\n 1.6\\n 1.5\\n 10.6\\n 14.7\\n 4.9\\n\\n Newfoundland and Labrador\\n 53.4\\n 39.4\\n 5.4\\n 6.0\\n 19.7\\n 1.2\\n 0.2\\n 0.2\\n 3.1\\n 0.1\\n 0.3\\n\\n Prince Edward Island\\n 44.9\\n 28.7\\n 21.3\\n 38\\n 27.9\\n 4.1\\n 0.5\\n 0.1\\n 1.0\\n 0.3\\n 3.1\\n\\n Nova Scotia\\n 37.6\\n 34.2\\n 18\\n 29.8\\n 24.5\\n 12\\n 1.8\\n 1.0\\n 3.4\\n 1.1\\n 4.0\\n\\n New Brunswick\\n 57.8\\n 23\\n 26.8\\n 17.7\\n 18.9\\n 3.8\\n 1.7\\n 1.1\\n 3.3\\n 0.1\\n 1.8\\n\\n Saskatchewan\\n 25\\n 24.5\\n 11.4\\n 17.9\\n 14.5\\n 28.6\\n 0.5\\n 1.0\\n 10.5\\n 12.6\\n 3.4\\n\\n\\n=== Visible minority population ===\\nStatistics Canada identifies visible minorities in accordance with the ''Employment Equity Act''. Statistics Canada states the \\\"''Employment Equity Act'' defines visible minorities as 'persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour.'\\\"\\n\\n\\n Visible and non-visible minority populations by group, 1996–2011\\n\\n Group\\n 1996\\n 2001\\n 2006 \\n 2011\\n\\n Total\\n \\n Total\\n \\n Total\\n \\n Total\\n \\n\\n Total visible minority population \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n South Asian \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Chinese \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Black \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Filipino \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Latin American \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Arab/West Asian \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Arab \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Southeast Asian \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n West Asian \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Korean \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Japanese \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Visible minority, \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Multiple visible minorities \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n Not a visible minority \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Aboriginal identity (see breakdown below) \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Others (Caucasian or White) \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n Total population in private households \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n\\n==== By province and territory ====\\n\\n\\n Visible minority population by province and territory, 2011\\n\\n Province/territory\\n '''Not a visible minority'''\\n South Asian\\n Chinese\\n Black\\n Filipino\\n Latin American\\n Arab\\n Southeast Asian\\n West Asian\\n Korean\\n Japanese\\n Visible minority, \\n Multiple visible minorities\\n '''Total visible minority population'''\\n '''''Total population'''''\\n '''Percent visible minority'''\\n\\n Alberta\\n '''2,690,960'''\\n 156,665\\n 133,390\\n 74,435\\n 106,035\\n 41,305\\n 34,920\\n 41,025\\n 16,030\\n 15,000\\n 12,415\\n 6,270\\n 18,840\\n '''656,325'''\\n '''''3,567,980'''''\\n '''18.39%'''\\n\\n British Columbia\\n '''2,911,295'''\\n 313,440\\n 438,140\\n 33,260\\n 126,040\\n 35,465\\n 14,090\\n 51,970\\n 38,960\\n 53,770\\n 38,120\\n 6,465\\n 31,160\\n '''1,180,870'''\\n '''''4,324,455'''''\\n '''27.31%'''\\n\\n Manitoba\\n '''824,830'''\\n 25,265\\n 17,025\\n 19,610\\n 59,220\\n 9,140\\n 3,235\\n 7,565\\n 2,040\\n 3,045\\n 1,745\\n 1,765\\n 3,975\\n '''153,625'''\\n '''''1,174,350'''''\\n '''13.08%'''\\n\\n New Brunswick\\n '''696,080'''\\n 2,445\\n 2,540\\n 4,870\\n 1,100\\n 1,160\\n 1,380\\n 730\\n 305\\n 1,855\\n 305\\n 85\\n 360\\n '''17,135'''\\n '''''735,835'''''\\n '''2.33%'''\\n\\n Newfoundland and Labrador\\n '''464,540'''\\n 1,855\\n 1,645\\n 1,455\\n 350\\n 185\\n 370\\n 320\\n 155\\n 80\\n 60\\n 205\\n 250\\n '''6,930'''\\n '''''507,270'''''\\n '''1.37%'''\\n\\n Northwest Territories\\n '''16,920'''\\n 185\\n 380\\n 555\\n 895\\n 105\\n 115\\n 230\\n 60\\n 50\\n 45\\n 75\\n 30\\n '''2,720'''\\n '''''40,800'''''\\n '''6.67%'''\\n\\n Nova Scotia\\n '''825,055'''\\n 4,965\\n 6,050\\n 20,790\\n 1,890\\n 1,360\\n 6,290\\n 1,155\\n 1,365\\n 960\\n 445\\n 720\\n 1,290\\n '''47,270'''\\n '''''906,175'''''\\n '''5.22%'''\\n\\n Nunavut\\n '''3,825'''\\n 95\\n 65\\n 120\\n 130\\n 25\\n 15\\n 30\\n 0\\n 10\\n 0\\n 10\\n 0\\n '''510'''\\n '''''31,700'''''\\n '''1.61%'''\\n\\n Ontario\\n '''9,070,800'''\\n 965,990\\n 629,140\\n 539,205\\n 275,380\\n 172,560\\n 151,645\\n 137,875\\n 122,530\\n 78,290\\n 29,085\\n 81,130\\n 96,735\\n '''3,279,565'''\\n '''''12,651,795'''''\\n '''25.92%'''\\n\\n Prince Edward Island\\n '''130,890'''\\n 485\\n 1,830\\n 390\\n 85\\n 235\\n 200\\n 205\\n 345\\n 140\\n 210\\n 75\\n 70\\n '''4,260'''\\n '''''137,380'''''\\n '''3.10%'''\\n\\n Quebec\\n '''6,740,375'''\\n 83,320\\n 82,845\\n 243,625\\n 31,495\\n 116,380\\n 166,260\\n 65,855\\n 23,445\\n 6,665\\n 4,025\\n 8,895\\n 17,420\\n '''850,235'''\\n '''''7,732,525'''''\\n '''11.00%'''\\n\\n Saskatchewan\\n '''787,745'''\\n 12,325\\n 11,300\\n 7,255\\n 16,025\\n 3,250\\n 2,095\\n 4,910\\n 1,600\\n 1,270\\n 720\\n 745\\n 1,775\\n '''63,275'''\\n '''''1,008,760'''''\\n '''6.27%'''\\n\\n Yukon\\n '''23,590'''\\n 365\\n 400\\n 100\\n 675\\n 110\\n 0\\n 210\\n 0\\n 0\\n 80\\n 35\\n 35\\n '''2,025'''\\n '''''33,320'''''\\n '''6.08%'''\\n\\n Canada\\n '''25,186,890'''\\n 1,567,400\\n 1,324,750\\n 945,665\\n 619,310\\n 381,280\\n 380,620\\n 312,075\\n 206,840\\n 161,130\\n 87,270\\n 106,475\\n 171,935\\n '''6,264,750'''\\n '''''32,852,325'''''\\n '''19.07%'''\\n\\nAll statistics are from the Canada 2011 Census.\\n\\n==== By city over 100,000 ====\\n\\n\\n Visible minority in Canadian cities over 100,000 people, 2011\\n\\nCity\\nPopulation\\nEuropean\\nVisible minority\\nBlack\\nEast Asian\\nLatin American\\nSouth Asian\\nSoutheast Asian\\nWest Asian\\nArab \\nMultiracial\\nOther\\n\\nToronto\\n2,576,025 \\n50.2%\\n'''49.1%'''\\n8.5%\\n12.7%\\n2.8%\\n12.3% \\n7.0%\\n2.0%\\n1.1%\\n1.5%\\n1.3%\\n\\nMontreal\\n1,612,640\\n67.7%\\n'''31.7%'''\\n9.1%\\n3.2%\\n4.2%\\n3.3%\\n3.8%\\n0.8%\\n6.4%\\n0.6%\\n0.3%\\n\\nCalgary\\n1,082,235\\n67.3%\\n'''30.1%'''\\n2.9%\\n8.1%\\n1.8%\\n7.5%\\n6.3%\\n0.8%\\n1.5%\\n0.8%\\n0.3%\\n\\nOttawa\\n867,090\\n74.2%\\n'''23.7%'''\\n5.7%\\n4.5%\\n1.2%\\n3.9%\\n2.8%\\n0.9%\\n3.7%\\n0.7%\\n0.2%\\n\\nEdmonton\\n795,675\\n64.7%\\n'''30.0%'''\\n3.8%\\n7.1%\\n1.7%\\n7.2%\\n6.5%\\n0.9%\\n1.7%\\n0.8%\\n0.3%\\n\\nMississauga\\n708,725\\n45.8%\\n'''53.7%'''\\n6.3%\\n8.3%\\n2.2%\\n21.8%\\n7.8%\\n1.1%\\n3.5%\\n1.5%\\n1.3%\\n\\nWinnipeg\\n649,995\\n66.9%\\n'''21.4%'''\\n2.7%\\n2.9%\\n1.0%\\n3.5%\\n9.8%\\n0.3%\\n0.4%\\n0.6%\\n0.2%\\n\\nVancouver\\n590,210\\n46.2%\\n'''51.8%'''\\n1.0%\\n30.9%\\n1.6%\\n6.0%\\n9.0%\\n1.2%\\n0.5%\\n1.5%\\n0.2%\\n\\nBrampton\\n521,315\\n32.9%\\n'''66.4%'''\\n13.5%\\n1.8%\\n2.2%\\n38.4%\\n5.1%\\n0.7%\\n0.8%\\n1.4%\\n2.6%\\n\\nHamilton\\n509,640\\n82.3%\\n'''15.7%'''\\n3.2%\\n2.2%\\n1.4%\\n3.4%\\n2.6%\\n0.8%\\n1.4%\\n0.4%\\n0.3%\\n\\nQuebec City\\n502,595\\n95.0%\\n'''4.0%'''\\n1.1%\\n0.4%\\n1.0%\\n0.2%\\n0.4%\\n0.1%\\n0.7%\\n0.1%\\n0.1%\\n\\nSurrey\\n463,340\\n44.5%\\n'''52.6%'''\\n1.3%\\n8.5%\\n1.2%\\n30.7%\\n8.5%\\n0.5%\\n0.7%\\n0.9%\\n0.2%\\n\\nLaval\\n392,725\\n78.7%\\n'''20.7%'''\\n6.2%\\n0.9%\\n2.5%\\n1.7%\\n2.2%\\n0.8%\\n5.9%\\n0.3%\\n0.1%\\n\\nHalifax\\n384,330\\n88.4%\\n'''9.1%'''\\n3.6%\\n1.5%\\n0.3%\\n1.0%\\n0.6%\\n0.4%\\n1.4%\\n0.3%\\n0.1%\\n\\nLondon\\n360,715\\n82.0%\\n'''16.1%'''\\n2.4%\\n2.9%\\n2.7%\\n2.2%\\n1.7%\\n0.8%\\n2.6%\\n0.5%\\n0.2%\\n\\nMarkham\\n300,135\\n27.5%\\n'''72.3%'''\\n3.2%\\n39.7%\\n0.5%\\n19.1%\\n3.9%\\n2.1%\\n1.1%\\n1.9%\\n0.7%\\n\\nVaughan\\n286,305\\n68.4%\\n'''31.4%'''\\n2.7%\\n6.3%\\n2.1%\\n9.7%\\n5.7%\\n2.1%\\n1.0%\\n1.0%\\n0.8%\\n\\nGatineau\\n261,665\\n86.2%\\n'''10.3%'''\\n3.9%\\n1.0%\\n1.5%\\n0.3%\\n0.7%\\n0.2%\\n2.5%\\n0.2%\\n0.1%\\n\\nLongueuil\\n227,970\\n84.8%\\n'''14.2%'''\\n4.6%\\n1.4%\\n2.5%\\n0.9%\\n1.4%\\n0.6%\\n2.3%\\n0.2%\\n0.2%\\n\\nBurnaby\\n220,255\\n39.1%\\n'''59.5%'''\\n1.6%\\n36.0%\\n1.7%\\n7.9%\\n7.7%\\n2.0%\\n0.7%\\n1.8%\\n0.2%\\n\\nSaskatoon\\n218,315\\n77.4%\\n'''12.8%'''\\n1.1%\\n2.7%\\n0.6%\\n2.7%\\n3.9%\\n0.5%\\n0.6%\\n0.4%\\n0.2%\\n\\nKitchener\\n215,950\\n80.1%\\n'''18.4%'''\\n3.1%\\n2.2%\\n2.7%\\n4.1%\\n3.0%\\n1.1%\\n1.2%\\n0.6%\\n0.4%\\n\\nWindsor\\n208,015\\n74.8%\\n'''22.9%'''\\n4.6%\\n3.2%\\n1.1%\\n3.9%\\n3.1%\\n0.8%\\n5.5%\\n0.5%\\n0.4%\\n\\nRegina\\n189,740\\n78.6%\\n'''11.5%'''\\n1.6%\\n2.2%\\n0.7%\\n2.6%\\n3.5%\\n0.3%\\n0.3%\\n0.3%\\n0.0%\\n\\nRichmond\\n189,305\\n28.6%\\n'''70.4%'''\\n0.7%\\n49.8%\\n0.9%\\n7.7%\\n7.8%\\n0.7%\\n0.5%\\n2.3%\\n0.2%\\n\\nRichmond Hill\\n184,370\\n46.9%\\n'''52.9%'''\\n2.0%\\n26.9%\\n0.9%\\n8.1%\\n3.0%\\n8.6%\\n1.7%\\n1.3%\\n0.4%\\n\\nOakville\\n180,430\\n77.2%\\n'''22.8%'''\\n2.7%\\n5.3%\\n1.5%\\n7.2%\\n2.7%\\n0.7%\\n1.6%\\n0.8%\\n0.4%\\n\\nBurlington\\n173,495\\n87.1%\\n'''12.0%'''\\n1.6%\\n2.4%\\n1.0%\\n3.6%\\n1.3%\\n0.5%\\n0.9%\\n0.5%\\n0.2%\\n\\nGreater Sudbury\\n157,765\\n89.1%\\n'''2.7%'''\\n0.6%\\n0.6%\\n0.2%\\n0.4%\\n0.3%\\n0.1%\\n0.3%\\n0.1%\\n0.0%\\n\\nSherbrooke\\n150,255\\n93.6%\\n'''5.5%'''\\n1.7%\\n0.3%\\n1.4%\\n0.3%\\n0.4%\\n0.3%\\n0.9%\\n0.1%\\n0.0%\\n\\nOshawa\\n147,680\\n88.7%\\n'''9.3%'''\\n3.2%\\n1.1%\\n0.7%\\n1.9%\\n1.2%\\n0.3%\\n0.2%\\n0.4%\\n0.4%\\n\\nSaguenay\\n141,335\\n96.6%\\n'''0.9%'''\\n0.3%\\n0.2%\\n0.1%\\n0.0%\\n0.1%\\n0.0%\\n0.2%\\n0.0%\\n0.0%\\n\\nLévis\\n135,835\\n98.0%\\n'''1.4%'''\\n0.4%\\n0.3%\\n0.2%\\n0.0%\\n0.2%\\n0.0%\\n0.2%\\n0.1%\\n0.0%\\n\\nBarrie\\n133,240\\n89.8%\\n'''7.6%'''\\n1.9%\\n1.3%\\n0.8%\\n1.3%\\n1.0%\\n0.1%\\n0.2%\\n0.4%\\n0.4%\\n\\nAbbotsford\\n130,950\\n66.5%\\n'''29.6%'''\\n0.9%\\n2.9%\\n0.6%\\n22.4%\\n1.5%\\n0.1%\\n0.2%\\n0.4%\\n0.3%\\n\\nSt. Catharines\\n128,770\\n88.3%\\n'''9.9%'''\\n2.1%\\n1.9%\\n1.5%\\n1.1%\\n1.3%\\n0.3%\\n1.0%\\n0.3%\\n0.3%\\n\\nTrois-Rivières\\n126,980\\n96.3%\\n'''2.5%'''\\n0.9%\\n0.2%\\n0.6%\\n0.0%\\n0.1%\\n0.0%\\n0.5%\\n0.0%\\n0.0%\\n\\nCambridge\\n125,060\\n85.4%\\n'''12.6%'''\\n1.9%\\n1.2%\\n1.0%\\n5.2%\\n1.7%\\n0.3%\\n0.6%\\n0.3%\\n0.4%\\n\\nCoquitlam\\n125,015\\n54.1%\\n'''43.8%'''\\n1.0%\\n24.1%\\n1.5%\\n4.2%\\n5.1%\\n5.1%\\n0.8%\\n1.3%\\n0.2%\\n\\nKingston\\n118,930\\n89.7%\\n'''7.4%'''\\n0.9%\\n2.1%\\n0.7%\\n1.7%\\n0.9%\\n0.3%\\n0.6%\\n0.1%\\n0.1%\\n\\nWhitby\\n120,285\\n79.5%\\n'''19.2%'''\\n6.2%\\n2.5%\\n0.8%\\n4.7%\\n2.2%\\n0.5%\\n0.6%\\n1.0%\\n0.7%\\n\\nGuelph\\n120,550\\n82.7%\\n'''15.7%'''\\n1.4%\\n3.1%\\n1.0%\\n4.1%\\n4.0%\\n0.8%\\n0.5%\\n0.5%\\n0.2%\\n\\nKelowna\\n114,570\\n87.9%\\n'''7.6%'''\\n0.6%\\n2.6%\\n0.5%\\n2.3%\\n1.0%\\n0.1%\\n0.2%\\n0.2%\\n0.2%\\n\\nSaanich\\n107,855\\n79.3%\\n'''18.0%'''\\n1.1%\\n8.6%\\n0.7%\\n3.8%\\n2.4%\\n0.3%\\n0.4%\\n0.4%\\n0.2%\\n\\nAjax\\n109,220\\n53.2%\\n'''45.8%'''\\n16.0%\\n2.8%\\n1.0%\\n13.8%\\n5.0%\\n1.6%\\n1.1%\\n2.0%\\n2.6%\\n\\nThunder Bay\\n105,950\\n87.1%\\n'''3.4%'''\\n0.5%\\n1.0%\\n0.2%\\n0.5%\\n0.7%\\n0.1%\\n0.1%\\n0.2%\\n0.1%\\n\\nTerrebonne\\n105,610\\n91.7%\\n'''7.6%'''\\n4.5%\\n0.2%\\n1.3%\\n0.1%\\n0.2%\\n0.1%\\n1.1%\\n0.1%\\n0.1%\\n\\nSt. John's\\n103,905\\n93.3%\\n'''4.4%'''\\n0.9%\\n1.1%\\n0.1%\\n1.2%\\n0.3%\\n0.1%\\n0.2%\\n0.1%\\n0.1%\\n\\nLangley\\n103,145\\n83.2%\\n'''13.4%'''\\n0.5%\\n6.3%\\n0.6%\\n2.7%\\n2.4%\\n0.2%\\n0.2%\\n0.5%\\n0.1%\\n\\nChatham-Kent\\n101,680\\n93.2%\\n'''3.9%'''\\n1.9%\\n0.5%\\n0.3%\\n0.5%\\n0.5%\\n0.1%\\n0.0%\\n0.1%\\n0.0%\\n\\n\\n=== Aboriginal population ===\\n\\n\\n\\n Aboriginal population in Canada, 1996–2011 censuses\\n\\n Group\\n 1996\\n 2001\\n 2006 \\n 2011\\n\\n %\\n Total\\n %\\n Total\\n %\\n Total\\n %\\n Total\\n\\n'''Total Aboriginal'''\\n'''2.8%'''\\n'''799,005'''\\n'''3.3%''' \\n'''976,305'''\\n'''3.8%''' \\n'''1,172,785'''\\n'''4.3%'''\\n'''1,400,685'''\\n\\nFirst Nations\\n1.8% \\n529,040\\n2.1%\\n608,850\\n2.2%\\n698,025\\n2.6% \\n851,560\\n\\nMétis\\n0.7%\\n204,115\\n1.0%\\n292,305\\n1.2%\\n389,780\\n1.4% \\n451,795\\n\\nInuit\\n0.14%\\n40,220 \\n\\n \\n0.16%\\n50,485\\n0.2%\\n59,445\\n\\n\\n''Note: Inuit, other Aboriginal and mixed Aboriginal groups are not listed as their own, but they are all accounted for in total Aboriginal''\\n\\n==== By province and territory ====\\n\\n\\n Aboriginal population by province and territory, 2011\\n\\n Province/territory\\n Not Aboriginal\\n First Nations\\n Métis\\n Inuit\\n Aboriginal, \\n Multiple Aboriginal identities\\n '''Total Aboriginal population'''\\n '''''Total population'''''\\n\\n Alberta\\n '''2,690,960'''\\n 116,670\\n 96,870\\n 1,985\\n 3,300\\n 1,870\\n '''220,695'''\\n '''''3,567,980'''''\\n\\n British Columbia\\n '''2,911,295'''\\n 155,020\\n 69,475\\n 1,570\\n 3,745\\n 2,480\\n '''232,290'''\\n '''''4,324,455'''''\\n\\n Manitoba\\n '''824,830'''\\n 114,225\\n 78,830\\n 580\\n 1,055\\n 1,200\\n '''195,895'''\\n '''''1,174,350'''''\\n\\n New Brunswick\\n '''696,080'''\\n 16,120\\n 4,850\\n 485\\n 1,020\\n 150\\n '''22,620'''\\n '''''735,835'''''\\n\\n Newfoundland and Labrador\\n '''464,540'''\\n 19,315\\n 7,660\\n 6,265\\n 2,300\\n 260\\n '''35,800'''\\n '''''507,270'''''\\n\\n Northwest Territories\\n '''16,920'''\\n 13,350\\n 3,250\\n 4,335\\n 185\\n 45\\n '''21,160'''\\n '''''40,800'''''\\n\\n Nova Scotia\\n '''825,055'''\\n 21,895\\n 10,050\\n 695\\n 980\\n 225\\n '''33,850'''\\n '''''906,175'''''\\n\\n Nunavut\\n '''3,825'''\\n 125\\n 130\\n 27,070\\n 15\\n 20\\n '''27,365'''\\n '''''31,700'''''\\n\\n Ontario\\n '''9,070,800'''\\n\\n 201,100\\n 86,020\\n 3,355\\n 8,040\\n 2,910\\n '''301,430'''\\n '''''12,651,795'''''\\n\\n Prince Edward Island\\n '''130,890'''\\n\\n 1,520\\n 410\\n 55\\n 235\\n 0\\n '''2,230'''\\n '''''137,380'''''\\n\\n Quebec\\n '''6,740,375'''\\n\\n 82,425\\n 40,960\\n 12,570\\n 4,415\\n 1,545\\n '''141,915'''\\n '''''7,732,525'''''\\n\\n Saskatchewan\\n '''787,745'''\\n\\n 103,205\\n 52,450\\n 290\\n 1,120\\n 675\\n '''157,740'''\\n '''''1,008,760'''''\\n\\n Yukon\\n '''23,590'''\\n\\n 6,585\\n 845\\n 175\\n 70\\n 25\\n '''7,705'''\\n '''''33,320'''''\\n\\n Canada\\n '''25,186,890'''\\n 851,560\\n 451,795\\n 59,440\\n 26,475\\n 11,415\\n '''1,400,685'''\\n '''''32,852,325'''''\\n\\nAll statistics are from the Canada 2011 Census.\\n\\n==== By city over 100,000 ====\\n\\n\\n Aboriginal population in Canadian cities over 100,000 people, 2011\\n\\nCity\\nPopulation\\nEuropean\\nTotal Aboriginal\\nFirst Nations\\nMétis\\n\\nToronto\\n2,576,025 \\n50.2%\\n'''0.7%'''\\n0.5%\\n0.2%\\n\\nMontreal\\n1,612,640\\n67.7%\\n'''0.6%'''\\n0.3%\\n0.2%\\n\\nCalgary\\n1,082,235\\n67.3%\\n'''2.7%'''\\n1.2%\\n1.4%\\n\\nOttawa\\n867,090\\n74.2%\\n'''2.1%'''\\n1.2%\\n0.7%\\n\\nEdmonton\\n795,675\\n64.7%\\n'''5.3%'''\\n2.4%\\n2.7%\\n\\nMississauga\\n708,725\\n45.8%\\n'''0.5%'''\\n0.3%\\n0.1%\\n\\nWinnipeg\\n649,995\\n66.9%\\n'''11.7%'''\\n5.9%\\n6.3%\\n\\nVancouver\\n590,210\\n46.2%\\n'''2.0%'''\\n1.3%\\n0.6%\\n\\nBrampton\\n521,315\\n32.9%\\n'''0.7%'''\\n0.4%\\n0.2%\\n\\nHamilton\\n509,640\\n82.3%\\n'''2.0%'''\\n1.6%\\n0.3%\\n\\nQuebec City\\n502,595\\n95.0%\\n'''0.9%'''\\n0.5%\\n0.4%\\n\\nSurrey\\n463,340\\n44.5%\\n'''2.9%'''\\n1.9%\\n1.0%\\n\\nLaval\\n392,725\\n78.7%\\n'''0.6%'''\\n0.3%\\n0.2%\\n\\nHalifax\\n384,330\\n88.4%\\n'''2.5%'''\\n1.5%\\n0.8%\\n\\nLondon\\n360,715\\n82.0%\\n'''1.9%'''\\n1.4%\\n0.4%\\n\\nMarkham\\n300,135\\n27.5%\\n'''0.2%'''\\n0.1%\\n0.1%\\n\\nVaughan\\n286,305\\n68.4%\\n'''0.2%'''\\n0.1%\\n\\n0.0%\\n\\nGatineau\\n261,665\\n86.2%\\n'''3.5%'''\\n1.8%\\n1.5%\\n\\nLongueuil\\n227,970\\n84.8%\\n'''1.0%'''\\n0.6%\\n0.0%\\n\\nBurnaby\\n220,255\\n39.1%\\n'''1.5%'''\\n0.9%\\n0.5%\\n\\nSaskatoon\\n218,315\\n77.4%\\n'''10.2%'''\\n4.9%\\n4.6%\\n\\nKitchener\\n215,950\\n80.1%\\n'''1.5%'''\\n0.9%\\n0.5%\\n\\nWindsor\\n208,015\\n74.8%\\n'''2.3%'''\\n1.3%\\n0.9%\\n\\nRegina\\n189,740\\n78.6%\\n'''9.9%'''\\n5.8%\\n3.9%\\n\\nRichmond\\n189,305\\n28.6%\\n'''1.0%'''\\n0.7%\\n0.3%\\n\\nRichmond Hill\\n184,370\\n46.9%\\n'''0.2%'''\\n0.1%\\n0.0%\\n\\nOakville\\n180,430\\n77.2%\\n'''0.6%'''\\n0.4%\\n0.2%\\n\\nBurlington\\n173,495\\n87.1%\\n'''0.9%'''\\n0.5%\\n0.3%\\n\\nGreater Sudbury\\n157,765\\n89.1%\\n\\n'''8.2%'''\\n3.8%\\n4.1%\\n\\nSherbrooke\\n150,255\\n93.6%\\n'''0.9%'''\\n0.5%\\n0.3%\\n\\nOshawa\\n147,680\\n88.7%\\n'''2.0%'''\\n1.2%\\n0.8%\\n\\nSaguenay\\n141,335\\n96.6%\\n'''2.5%'''\\n0.8%\\n1.6%\\n\\nLévis\\n135,835\\n98.0%\\n'''0.5%'''\\n0.2%\\n0.2%\\n\\nBarrie\\n133,240\\n89.8%\\n'''2.6%'''\\n1.4%\\n1.2%\\n\\nAbbotsford\\n130,950\\n66.5%\\n'''4.0%'''\\n2.5%\\n1.6%\\n\\nSt. Catharines\\n128,770\\n88.3%\\n'''1.9%'''\\n1.2%\\n0.6%\\n\\nTrois-Rivières\\n126,980\\n96.3%\\n'''1.1%'''\\n0.6%\\n0.4%\\n\\nCambridge\\n125,060\\n85.4%\\n'''2.0%'''\\n1.2%\\n0.6%\\n\\nCoquitlam\\n125,015\\n54.1%\\n'''2.1%'''\\n1.1%\\n0.9%\\n\\nKingston\\n118,930\\n89.7%\\n'''2.9%'''\\n2.0%\\n0.8%\\n\\nWhitby\\n120,285\\n79.5%\\n'''1.2%'''\\n0.7%\\n0.4%\\n\\nGuelph\\n120,550\\n82.7%\\n'''1.6%'''\\n1.0%\\n0.6%\\n\\nKelowna\\n114,570\\n87.9%\\n'''4.5%'''\\n2.1%\\n2.3%\\n\\nSaanich\\n107,855\\n79.3%\\n'''2.7%'''\\n1.5%\\n1.1%\\n\\nAjax\\n109,220\\n53.2%\\n'''1.0%'''\\n0.7%\\n0.3%\\n\\nThunder Bay\\n105,950\\n87.1%\\n'''9.5%'''\\n7.3%\\n2.0%\\n\\nTerrebonne\\n105,610\\n91.7%\\n'''0.7%'''\\n0.5%\\n0.1%\\n\\nSt. John's\\n103,905\\n93.3%\\n'''2.6%'''\\n1.2%\\n0.8%\\n\\nLangley\\n103,145\\n83.2%\\n'''3.4%'''\\n1.6%\\n1.7%\\n\\nChatham-Kent\\n101,680\\n93.2%\\n'''2.9%'''\\n1.7%\\n0.9%\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n\\n'''Language used most often at work:'''\\n* English: 78.3%\\n* French: 21.7%\\n* Non-official languages: 2%\\n\\n'''Languages by language used most often at home:'''\\n* English: 67.1%\\n* French: 21.5%\\n* Non-official languages: 11.4%\\n\\n'''Languages by mother tongue:'''\\n\\n\\nFirst language\\nPopulation (2011)\\n% of total population (2011)\\nPopulation (2006)\\n% of total population (2006)\\nIncrease (2006–2011)\\nNotes\\n\\n '''''Single language responses'''''\\n '''''32,481,635'''''\\n ''''''''''\\n '''''30,848,270'''''\\n '''''98.7%'''''\\n ''''''''''\\n\\n\\n ''Official languages''\\n ''25,913,955''\\n ''''\\n ''24,700,425''\\n ''79.1%''\\n ''''\\n\\n\\n English\\n 18,858,980\\n \\n 17,882,775\\n 57.2%\\n \\n\\n\\n French\\n 7,054,975\\n \\n 6,817,650\\n 21.8%\\n \\n\\n\\n ''Non-official languages''\\n ''6,567,680''\\n ''''\\n ''6,147,840''\\n ''19.7%''\\n ''''\\n\\n\\n Punjabi\\n 430,705\\n \\n 367,505\\n 1.2%\\n \\n\\n\\n Chinese, \\n 425,210\\n \\n 456,705\\n 1.5%\\n \\n\\n\\n Spanish\\n 410,670\\n \\n 345,345\\n 1.1%\\n \\n\\n\\n German\\n 409,200\\n \\n 450,570\\n 1.4%\\n \\n\\n\\n Italian\\n 407,485\\n \\n 455,040\\n 1.5%\\n \\n\\n\\n Cantonese\\n 372,460\\n \\n 361,450\\n 1.2%\\n \\n\\n\\n Arabic\\n 327,870\\n \\n 261,640\\n 0.8%\\n \\n\\n\\n Tagalog (Pilipino, Filipino)\\n 327,445\\n \\n 235,615\\n 0.8%\\n \\n\\n\\n Mandarin\\n 248,705\\n \\n 170,950\\n 0.5%\\n \\n\\n\\n Portuguese\\n 211,335\\n \\n 219,275\\n 0.7%\\n \\n\\n\\n Polish\\n 191,645\\n \\n 211,175\\n 0.7%\\n \\n\\n\\n Urdu\\n 172,800\\n \\n 145,805\\n 0.5%\\n \\n\\n\\n Persian\\n 170,045\\n \\n 134,080\\n 0.4%\\n \\n\\n\\n Russian\\n 164,330\\n \\n 133,580\\n 0.4%\\n \\n\\n\\n Vietnamese\\n 144,880\\n \\n 141,625\\n 0.5%\\n \\n\\n\\n Korean\\n 137,925\\n \\n 125,570\\n 0.4%\\n \\n\\n\\n Tamil\\n 131,265\\n \\n 115,880\\n 0.4%\\n \\n\\n\\n Ukrainian\\n 111,540\\n \\n 134,500\\n 0.4%\\n \\n\\n\\n Dutch\\n 110,490\\n \\n 128,900\\n 0.4%\\n \\n\\n\\n Greek\\n 108,925\\n \\n 117,285\\n 0.4%\\n \\n\\n\\n Gujarati\\n 91,450\\n \\n 81,465\\n 0.3%\\n \\n\\n\\n Hindustani (Hindi)\\n 90,545\\n \\n 78,240\\n 0.3%\\n \\n\\n\\n Romanian\\n 90,300\\n \\n 78,495\\n 0.3%\\n \\n\\n\\n Cree, \\n 77,900\\n \\n 78,855\\n 0.3%\\n \\n In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to simply as 'Cree'.\\n\\n Hungarian\\n 67,920\\n \\n 73,335\\n 0.2%\\n \\n\\n\\n Creoles\\n 61,725\\n \\n 53,515\\n 0.2%\\n \\n\\n\\n Bengali\\n 59,370\\n \\n 45,685\\n 0.1%\\n \\n\\n\\n Serbian\\n 56,420\\n \\n 51,665\\n 0.2%\\n \\n\\n\\n Croatian\\n 49,730\\n \\n 55,330\\n 0.2%\\n \\n\\n\\n Japanese\\n 39,985\\n \\n 40,200\\n 0.1%\\n \\n\\n\\n Inuktitut\\n 33,500\\n \\n 32,015\\n 0.1%\\n \\n In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to as 'Inuktitut, '.\\n\\n Somali\\n 31,380\\n \\n 27,320\\n 0.09%\\n \\n\\n\\n Armenian\\n 29,795\\n \\n 30,130\\n 0.1%\\n \\n\\n\\n Turkish\\n 29,640\\n \\n 24,745\\n 0.08%\\n \\n\\n\\n Albanian\\n 23,820\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Czech\\n 23,585\\n \\n 24,450\\n 0.08%\\n \\n\\n\\n Khmer (Cambodian)\\n 19,440\\n \\n 19,105\\n 0.06%\\n \\n\\n\\n Bulgarian\\n 19,050\\n \\n 16,790\\n 0.05%\\n \\n\\n\\n Hebrew\\n 18,450\\n \\n 17,635\\n 0.06%\\n \\n\\n\\n Amharic\\n 18,020\\n \\n 14,555\\n 0.05%\\n \\n\\n\\n Ilocano\\n 17,915\\n \\n 13,450\\n 0.04%\\n \\n\\n\\n Ojibway\\n 17,625\\n \\n 24,190\\n 0.08%\\n \\n\\n\\n Slovak\\n 17,580\\n \\n 18,820\\n 0.06%\\n \\n\\n\\n Finnish\\n 17,415\\n \\n 21,030\\n 0.07%\\n \\n\\n\\n Macedonian\\n 17,245\\n \\n 18,435\\n 0.06%\\n \\n\\n\\n Semitic languages, \\n 16,970\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Bisayan languages\\n 16,240\\n \\n 11,240\\n 0.04%\\n \\n\\n\\n Malayalam\\n 16,080\\n \\n 11,925\\n 0.04%\\n \\n\\n\\n Yiddish\\n 15,205\\n \\n 16,295\\n 0.05%\\n \\n\\n\\n Sinhala (Sinhalese)\\n 14,185\\n \\n 10,180\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n Danish\\n 14,145\\n \\n 18,735\\n 0.06%\\n \\n\\n\\n Niger–Congo languages, \\n 14,075\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Lao\\n 12,970\\n \\n 13,940\\n 0.04%\\n \\n\\n\\n Akan (Twi)\\n 12,680\\n \\n 12,780\\n 0.04%\\n \\n\\n\\n Pashto\\n 12,465\\n \\n 9,025\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n Bosnian\\n 11,685\\n \\n 12,790\\n 0.04%\\n \\n\\n\\n Sindhi\\n 11,330\\n \\n 10,355\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n Dene\\n 11,215\\n \\n 9,745\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n Oromo\\n 11,140\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Malay\\n 10,910\\n \\n 9,490\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n Innu/Montagnais\\n 10,785\\n \\n 10,975\\n 0.04%\\n \\n In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to as 'Montagnais-Naskapi'.\\n\\n Slovenian\\n 10,775\\n \\n 13,135\\n 0.04%\\n \\n\\n\\n Tigrigna\\n 10,220\\n \\n 7,105\\n 0.02%\\n \\n\\n\\n Serbo-Croatian\\n 10,155\\n \\n 12,510\\n 0.04%\\n \\n\\n\\n Swahili\\n 10,090\\n \\n 7,935\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n Oji-Cree\\n 9,835\\n \\n 11,690\\n 0.04%\\n \\n\\n\\n Kurdish\\n 9,805\\n \\n 7,660\\n 0.02%\\n \\n\\n\\n Taiwanese\\n 9,635\\n \\n 9,620\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n Telugu\\n 9,315\\n \\n 6,625\\n 0.02%\\n \\n\\n\\n African languages, \\n 9,125\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Afrikaans\\n 8,770\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Nepali\\n 8,480\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Thai\\n 7,935\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Mi'kmaq\\n 7,635\\n \\n 7,365\\n 0.02%\\n \\n\\n\\n Swedish\\n 7,350\\n \\n 8,220\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n Lithuanian\\n 7,245\\n \\n 8,335\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n Bantu languages, \\n 7,150\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Estonian\\n 6,385\\n \\n 8,240\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n Maltese\\n 6,220\\n \\n 6,405\\n 0.02%\\n \\n\\n\\n Latvian\\n 6,200\\n \\n 7,000\\n 0.02%\\n \\n\\n\\n Fukien\\n 5,925\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Berber languages (Kabyle)\\n 5,855\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Marathi\\n 5,830\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Atikamekw\\n 5,820\\n \\n 5,250\\n 0.02%\\n \\n\\n\\n Norwegian\\n 5,800\\n \\n 7,225\\n 0.02%\\n \\n\\n\\n Indo-Iranian languages, \\n 5,255\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Hakka\\n 5,115\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Flemish\\n 4,690\\n \\n 5,660\\n 0.02%\\n \\n\\n\\n Tibetan languages\\n 4,640\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Sino-Tibetan languages, \\n 4,360\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Rundi (Kirundi)\\n 3,975\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Rwanda (Kinyarwanda)\\n 3,895\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Sign languages, \\n 3,815\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Slavic languages, \\n 3,630\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Lingala\\n 3,085\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Stoney\\n 3,050\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Burmese\\n 2,985\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Shanghainese\\n 2,920\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Siouan languages (Dakota/Sioux)\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 5,585\\n 0.02%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Blackfoot\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 3,085\\n 0.01%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Frisian\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 2,890\\n 0.009%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Dogrib\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 2,020\\n 0.006%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Algonquin\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 1,920\\n 0.006%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n South Slave\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 1,605\\n 0.005%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Carrier\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 1,560\\n 0.005%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Gitksan\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 1,180\\n 0.004%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Chilcotin\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 1,070\\n 0.003%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n North Slave (Hare)\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 1,065\\n 0.003%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Shuswap\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 935\\n 0.003%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Nisga’a\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 680\\n 0.002%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Malecite\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 535\\n 0.002%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Chipewyan\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 525\\n 0.002%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Inuinnaqtun\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 365\\n 0.001%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Kutchin-Gwich’in (Loucheux)\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 360\\n 0.001%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Mohawk\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 290\\n 0.0009%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Tlingit\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 80\\n 0.0003%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Other languages\\n 77,890\\n \\n 172,650\\n 0.6%\\n \\n\\n\\n '''''Multiple language responses'''''\\n '''''639,540'''''\\n ''''''''''\\n '''''392,760'''''\\n '''''1.3%'''''\\n ''''''''''\\n\\n\\n English and French\\n 144,685\\n \\n 98,630\\n 0.3%\\n \\n\\n\\n English and a non-official language\\n 396,330\\n \\n 240,005\\n 0.8%\\n \\n\\n\\n French and a non-official language\\n 74,430\\n \\n 43,335\\n 0.1%\\n \\n\\n\\n English, French, and a non-official language\\n 24,095\\n \\n 10,790\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n '''Total'''\\n '''33,121,175'''\\n ''''''\\n '''31,241,030'''\\n '''100%'''\\n ''''''\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\",\n \"\\nStatistics Canada (StatCan) grouped responses to the 2011 National Household Survey (NHS) question on religion into nine core religious categories – Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, Traditional (Aboriginal) Spirituality, other religions and no religious affiliation. Among these, of Canadians were self-identified as Christians in 2011. The second and third-largest categories were of Canadians with no religious affiliation at and Canadian Muslims at .\\n\\nWithin the 2011 NHS results, StatCan further subcategorized Christianity in nine groups of its own – Anglican, Baptist, Catholic, Christian Orthodox, Lutheran, Pentecostal, Presbyterian, United Church and Other Christian. Among these, of Canadians were self-identified as Catholic in 2011. The second and third-largest ungrouped subcategories of Christian Canadians were United at and Anglican at , while of Christians were grouped into the Other Christian subcategory comprising numerous denominations.\\n\\nOf the 3,036,785 or of Canadians identified as Other Christians:\\n*105,365 ( of Canadians) were identified as Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon);\\n*137,775 ( of Canadians) were identified as Jehovah's Witness;\\n*175,880 ( of Canadians) were identified as Mennonite;\\n*550,965 ( of Canadians) were identified as Protestant; and\\n*102,830 ( of Canadians) were identified as Reformed.\\n\\n\\nReligion status of the Canadian Population in 2011\\n\\n Religion\\n Total\\n Percent\\n\\n Buddhist \\n \\n \\n\\n Christian \\n \\n \\n\\n Anglican \\n \\n \\n\\n Baptist \\n \\n \\n\\n Roman Catholic \\n \\n \\n\\n Christian Orthodox \\n \\n \\n\\n Lutheran \\n \\n \\n\\n Pentecostal \\n \\n \\n\\n Presbyterian \\n \\n \\n\\n United Church \\n \\n \\n\\n Other Christian \\n \\n \\n\\n Hindu \\n \\n 1.5%\\n\\n Jewish \\n \\n \\n\\n Muslim \\n \\n \\n\\n Sikh \\n \\n \\n\\n Traditional (Aboriginal) Spirituality \\n \\n \\n\\n Other religions \\n \\n \\n\\n No religious affiliation \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n* 1666 census of New France\\n* Canada 1906 Census\\n* Canada 1911 Census\\n* Canada 1996 Census\\n* Canada 2001 Census\\n* Canada 2006 Census\\n* Canada 2011 Census\\n* List of Canadian census areas demographic extremes\\n* ''Cahiers québécois de démographie'' academic journal\\n* ''Canadian Studies in Population'' academic journal\\n*\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* Roderic Beaujot and Don Kerr, (2007) '' The Changing Face of Canada: Essential Readings in Population'', Canadian Scholars' Press, .\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n* Canada Year Book (2010) – Statistics Canada\\n* Population estimates and projections, 2010 – 2036 – Statistics Canada\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction"," Population ","Vital statistics","Ethnicity","Languages","Religion","See also"," Notes ","References","Further reading","External links"],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \" Population \",\n \"Vital statistics\",\n \"Ethnicity\",\n \"Languages\",\n \"Religion\",\n \"See also\",\n \" Notes \",\n \"References\",\n \"Further reading\",\n \"External links\"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Demographics of Canada"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["=== Provinces and territories ===\n\n\nProvince or territory\nPopulation,\n2016 Census\nPopulation,\n2011 Census\nPopulation \nChange (%),\n\n2011-2016\nTotal landarea (km2)\nDensity(people/km2)\nHouse ofCommons seats\nPeople perseat\n\nNumber\nPercentage\n Number\n Percentage\n\n \n13,448,494\n38.26%\n\n 38.39%\n4.6%\n\n 12.19\n 121\n \n\n \n8,164,361\n23.23%\n\n 23.61%\n3.3%\n\n 5.76\n 78\n \n\n \n4,648,055\n13.22%\n\n 13.14%\n5.6%\n\n 4.84\n 42\n \n\n \n4,067,175\n11.57%\n\n 10.89%\n11.6%\n\n 5.77\n 34\n \n\n \n1,278,365\n3.64%\n\n 3.61%\n5.8%\n\n 2.22\n 14\n \n\n \n1,098,352\n3.12%\n\n 3.09%\n6.3%\n\n 1.75\n 14\n \n\n \n923,598\n2.63%\n\n 2.75%\n0.2%\n\n 17.63\n 11\n \n\n \n747,101\n2.13%\n\n 2.24%\n\n\n 10.50\n 10\n \n\n \n519,716\n1.48%\n\n 1.54%\n1.0%\n\n 1.36\n 7\n \n\n \n142,907\n0.41%\n\n 0.42%\n1.9%\n\n 24.98\n 4\n \n\n \n41,786\n0.12%\n\n 0.12%\n0.8%\n\n 0.04\n 1\n \n\n \n35,944\n0.10%\n\n 0.09%\n12.7%\n\n 0.02\n 1\n \n\n \n35,874\n0.10%\n\n 0.10%\n5.8%\n\n 0.07\n 1\n \n\n \n35,151,728\n100%\n \n 100%\n5.0%\n \n 3.73\n 338\n \n\n\n:Sources: Statistics Canada\n\n=== Cities ===\n\n\n\n=== Census metropolitan areas ===\n\n\n\n===Population growth rates===\nAccording to OECD/World Bank, the population in Canada increased from 1990 to 2008 with 5.6 million and 20.4% growth in population, compared to 21.7% growth in the United States and 31.2% growth in Mexico.","According to the OECD/World Bank population statistics, between 1990–2008 the world population growth was 27%, a total of 1,423 million people."],"string":"[\n \"=== Provinces and territories ===\\n\\n\\nProvince or territory\\nPopulation,\\n2016 Census\\nPopulation,\\n2011 Census\\nPopulation \\nChange (%),\\n\\n2011-2016\\nTotal landarea (km2)\\nDensity(people/km2)\\nHouse ofCommons seats\\nPeople perseat\\n\\nNumber\\nPercentage\\n Number\\n Percentage\\n\\n \\n13,448,494\\n38.26%\\n\\n 38.39%\\n4.6%\\n\\n 12.19\\n 121\\n \\n\\n \\n8,164,361\\n23.23%\\n\\n 23.61%\\n3.3%\\n\\n 5.76\\n 78\\n \\n\\n \\n4,648,055\\n13.22%\\n\\n 13.14%\\n5.6%\\n\\n 4.84\\n 42\\n \\n\\n \\n4,067,175\\n11.57%\\n\\n 10.89%\\n11.6%\\n\\n 5.77\\n 34\\n \\n\\n \\n1,278,365\\n3.64%\\n\\n 3.61%\\n5.8%\\n\\n 2.22\\n 14\\n \\n\\n \\n1,098,352\\n3.12%\\n\\n 3.09%\\n6.3%\\n\\n 1.75\\n 14\\n \\n\\n \\n923,598\\n2.63%\\n\\n 2.75%\\n0.2%\\n\\n 17.63\\n 11\\n \\n\\n \\n747,101\\n2.13%\\n\\n 2.24%\\n\\n\\n 10.50\\n 10\\n \\n\\n \\n519,716\\n1.48%\\n\\n 1.54%\\n1.0%\\n\\n 1.36\\n 7\\n \\n\\n \\n142,907\\n0.41%\\n\\n 0.42%\\n1.9%\\n\\n 24.98\\n 4\\n \\n\\n \\n41,786\\n0.12%\\n\\n 0.12%\\n0.8%\\n\\n 0.04\\n 1\\n \\n\\n \\n35,944\\n0.10%\\n\\n 0.09%\\n12.7%\\n\\n 0.02\\n 1\\n \\n\\n \\n35,874\\n0.10%\\n\\n 0.10%\\n5.8%\\n\\n 0.07\\n 1\\n \\n\\n \\n35,151,728\\n100%\\n \\n 100%\\n5.0%\\n \\n 3.73\\n 338\\n \\n\\n\\n:Sources: Statistics Canada\\n\\n=== Cities ===\\n\\n\\n\\n=== Census metropolitan areas ===\\n\\n\\n\\n===Population growth rates===\\nAccording to OECD/World Bank, the population in Canada increased from 1990 to 2008 with 5.6 million and 20.4% growth in population, compared to 21.7% growth in the United States and 31.2% growth in Mexico.\",\n \"According to the OECD/World Bank population statistics, between 1990–2008 the world population growth was 27%, a total of 1,423 million people.\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\nThis article is about the demographic features of the population of Canada, including population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population, the People of Canada.","\nThe Canada 2016 Census had a total population count of 35,151,728 individuals, making up approximately 0.5% of the world's total population.","Estimates have the population over 36 million as of July 2016.","Rank\n Province or territory\n Population(2011)\n Population(2006)\n Difference\n Change(%)\n\n 1\n Ontario\n\n\n''''''\n 5.7\n\n 2\n Quebec\n\n\n''''''\n 4.7\n\n 3\n British Columbia\n\n\n''''''\n 7.0\n\n 4\n Alberta\n\n\n''''''\n 10.8\n\n 5\n Manitoba\n\n\n''''''\n 5.2\n\n 6\n Saskatchewan\n\n\n''''''\n 6.7\n\n 7\n Nova Scotia\n\n\n''''''\n 0.9\n\n 8\n New Brunswick\n\n\n''''''\n 2.9\n\n 9\n Newfoundland and Labrador\n\n\n''''''\n 1.8\n\n 10\n Prince Edward Island\n\n\n''''''\n 3.2\n\n 11\n Northwest Territories\n\n\n''''''\n 0.0\n\n 12\n Yukon\n\n\n''''''\n 11.6\n\n 13\n Nunavut\n\n\n''''''\n 8.3\n\n Total\n Canada\n\n\n\n 5.9\n\n\n'''Derived from:''' Statistics Canada – (table) Population and Dwelling Counts, for Canada, Provinces and Territories, 2011 and 2006 Censuses – 100% Data\n\n===Population projection===","\n\n\n\n Average population (x 1,000)\n Live births\n Deaths\n Natural change\n Birth rate (per 1,000)\n Death rate (per 1,000)\n Natural change (per 1,000)\n\n 1900\n5,500\n150,000\n89,000\n61,000\n27.2\n16.2\n11.0\n\n 1901\n5,600\n175,000\n79,000\n96,000\n31.2\n14.1\n17.1\n\n 1902\n5,760\n180,000\n77,000\n103,000\n31.3\n13.4\n17.9\n\n 1903\n5,930\n186,000\n78,000\n108,000\n31.3\n13.2\n18.1\n\n 1904\n6,100\n192,000\n82,000\n110,000\n31.4\n13.5\n17.9\n\n 1905\n6,280\n195,000\n82,000\n113,000\n31.0\n13.0\n18.0\n\n 1906\n6,460\n193,000\n85,000\n108,000\n29.9\n13.2\n16.7\n\n 1907\n6,650\n196,000\n85,000\n111,000\n29.5\n12.8\n16.7\n\n 1908\n6,850\n208,000\n86,000\n122,000\n30.3\n12.6\n17.7\n\n 1909\n7,040\n213,000\n90,000\n123,000\n30.2\n12.8\n17.4\n\n 1910\n7,250\n220,000\n95,000\n125,000\n30.4\n13.1\n17.3\n\n 1911\n7,460\n225,000\n100,000\n125,000\n30.1\n13.4\n16.7\n\n 1912\n7,610\n238,000\n99,000\n139,000\n31.3\n13.0\n19.3\n\n 1913\n7,760\n246,000\n102,000\n144,000\n31.7\n13.1\n19.6\n\n 1914\n7,910\n252,000\n100,000\n152,000\n31.9\n12.6\n19.3\n\n 1915\n8,060\n257,000\n101,000\n156,000\n31.9\n12.5\n19.4\n\n 1916\n8,220\n252,000\n107,000\n145,000\n30.7\n13.0\n17.7\n\n 1917\n8,380\n244,000\n106,000\n138,000\n29.1\n12.7\n16.4\n\n 1918\n8,450\n243,000\n134,000\n109,000\n28.8\n15.9\n12.9\n\n 1919\n8,710\n241,000\n119,000\n122,000\n27.7\n13.7\n14.0\n\n 1920\n8,880\n259,000\n118,000\n141,000\n29.2\n13.3\n15.9\n\n 1921\n9,060\n265,000\n105,000\n160,000\n29.3\n11.6\n17.7\n\n 1922\n9,230\n261,000\n107,000\n154,000\n28.3\n11.6\n16.7\n\n 1923\n9,400\n251,000\n111,000\n140,000\n26.7\n11.8\n14.9\n\n 1924\n9,560\n255,000\n104,000\n151,000\n26.7\n10.9\n15.8\n\n 1925\n9,730\n254,000\n104,000\n150,000\n26.1\n10.7\n15.4\n\n 1926\n9,890\n244,000\n113,000\n131,000\n24.7\n11.4\n13.3\n\n 1927\n10,040\n244,000\n110,000\n134,000\n24.3\n11.0\n13.3\n\n 1928\n10,190\n246,000\n114,000\n132,000\n24.1\n11.2\n12.9\n\n 1929\n10,350\n243,000\n118,000\n125,000\n23.5\n11.4\n12.1\n\n 1930\n10,498\n251,000\n113,000\n138,000\n23.9\n10.8\n13.1\n\n 1931\n10,630\n247,000\n108,000\n139,000\n23.2\n10.2\n13.0\n\n 1932\n10,794\n243,000\n108,000\n135,000\n22.5\n10.0\n12.5\n\n 1933\n10,919\n229,000\n106,000\n123,000\n21.0\n9.7\n11.3\n\n 1934\n11,029\n228,296\n105,277\n123,019\n20.7\n9.5\n11.2\n\n 1935\n11,135\n228,396\n109,724\n118,672\n20.5\n9.9\n10.6\n\n 1936\n11,242\n227,980\n111,111\n116,869\n20.3\n9.9\n10.4\n\n 1937\n11,339\n227,878\n118,019\n109,859\n20.1\n10.4\n9.7\n\n 1938\n11,448\n237,091\n110,647\n126,444\n20.7\n9.7\n11.0\n\n 1939\n11,565\n237,991\n112,729\n125,262\n20.6\n9.7\n10.9\n\n 1940\n11,682\n252,577\n114,717\n137,860\n21.6\n9.8\n11.8\n\n 1941\n11,810\n263,993\n118,797\n145,196\n22.4\n10.1\n12.3\n\n 1942\n11,962\n281,569\n117,110\n164,459\n23.5\n9.8\n13.7\n\n 1943\n12,125\n292,943\n122,640\n170,303\n24.2\n10.1\n14.1\n\n 1944\n12,291\n283,967\n120,393\n163,574\n24.0\n9.8\n14.2\n\n 1945\n12,441\n300,570\n117,319\n183,251\n24.3\n9.5\n14.8\n\n 1946\n12,637\n343,504\n118,785\n224,719\n27.2\n9.4\n17.8\n\n 1947\n12,919\n372,443\n121,478\n250,965\n28.9\n9.4\n19.5\n\n 1948\n13,167\n359,860\n122,974\n236,886\n27.3\n9.3\n18.0\n\n 1949\n13,475\n367,092\n124,567\n242,525\n27.2\n9.2\n18.0\n\n 1950\n13,737\n372,009\n124,220\n247,789\n27.1\n9.0\n18.0\n\n 1951\n14,050\n381,092\n125,823\n255,269\n27.1\n9.0\n18.2\n\n 1952\n14,496\n403,559\n126,385\n277,174\n27.8\n8.7\n19.1\n\n 1953\n14,886\n417,884\n127,791\n290,093\n28.1\n8.6\n19.5\n\n 1954\n15,330\n436,198\n124,855\n311,343\n28.5\n8.1\n20.3\n\n 1955\n15,736\n442,937\n128,476\n314,461\n28.1\n8.2\n20.0\n\n 1956\n16,123\n450,739\n131,961\n318,778\n28.0\n8.2\n19.8\n\n 1957\n16,677\n469,093\n136,579\n332,514\n28.1\n8.2\n19.9\n\n 1958\n17,120\n470,118\n135,201\n334,917\n27.5\n7.9\n19.6\n\n 1959\n17,522\n479,275\n139,913\n339,362\n27.4\n8.0\n19.4\n\n 1960\n17,909\n478,551\n139,693\n338,858\n26.7\n7.8\n18.9\n\n 1961\n18,271\n475,700\n140,985\n334,715\n26.0\n7.7\n18.3\n\n 1962\n18,614\n469,693\n143,699\n325,994\n25.2\n7.7\n17.5\n\n 1963\n18,964\n465,767\n147,367\n318,400\n24.6\n7.8\n16.8\n\n 1964\n19,325\n452,915\n145,850\n307,065\n23.4\n7.5\n15.9\n\n 1965\n19,678\n418,595\n148,939\n269,656\n21.3\n7.6\n13.7\n\n 1966\n20,048\n387,710\n149,863\n237,847\n19.3\n7.5\n11.9\n\n 1967\n20,412\n370,894\n150,283\n220,611\n18.2\n7.4\n10.8\n\n 1968\n20,744\n364,310\n153,196\n211,114\n17.6\n7.4\n10.2\n\n 1969\n21,028\n369,647\n154,477\n215,170\n17.6\n7.3\n10.2\n\n 1970\n21,324\n371,988\n155,961\n216,027\n17.4\n7.3\n10.1\n\n 1971\n21,962\n362,187\n157,272\n204,915\n16.7\n7.3\n9.5\n\n 1972\n22,218\n347,319\n162,413\n184,906\n15.8\n7.4\n8.4\n\n 1973\n22,492\n343,373\n164,039\n179,334\n15.4\n7.4\n8.1\n\n 1974\n22,808\n350,650\n166,794\n178,851\n15.3\n7.4\n7.9\n\n 1975\n23,143\n359,323\n167,176\n191,919\n15.6\n7.3\n8.3\n\n 1976\n23,450\n359,987\n167,009\n192,978\n15.4\n7.2\n8.3\n\n 1977\n23,726\n361,400\n167,498\n193,902\n15.3\n7.1\n8.2\n\n 1978\n23,963\n358,852\n168,179\n190,673\n15.0\n7.0\n8.0\n\n 1979\n24,202\n366,064\n168,183\n197,881\n15.1\n6.9\n8.2\n\n 1980\n24,516\n370,709\n171,473\n199,236\n15.1\n7.0\n8.1\n\n 1981\n24,820\n371,346\n171,029\n200,317\n14.9\n6.8\n8.0\n\n 1982\n25,117\n373,082\n174,413\n198,669\n14.8\n6.9\n7.9\n\n 1983\n25,367\n373,689\n174,484\n199,205\n14.6\n6.8\n7.8\n\n 1984\n25,608\n377,031\n175,727\n201,304\n14.6\n6.8\n7.8\n\n 1985\n25,843\n375,727\n181,323\n194,404\n14.4\n7.0\n7.5\n\n 1986\n26,101\n372,913\n184,224\n188,689\n14.3\n7.1\n7.2\n\n 1987\n26,449\n369,742\n184,953\n184,789\n14.0\n7.0\n7.0\n\n 1988\n26,795\n376,795\n190,011\n186,784\n14.1\n7.1\n7.0\n\n 1989\n27,282\n392,661\n190,965\n201,696\n14.4\n7.0\n7.4\n\n 1990\n27,698\n405,486\n191,973\n213,513\n14.6\n6.9\n7.7\n\n 1991\n28,031\n402,533\n195,569\n206,964\n14.4\n7.0\n7.4\n\n 1992\n28,367\n398,643\n196,535\n202,108\n14.1\n6.9\n7.1\n\n 1993\n28,682\n388,394\n204,912\n183,482\n13.5\n7.1\n6.4\n\n 1994\n28,999\n385,114\n207,077\n178,037\n13.3\n7.1\n6.1\n\n 1995\n29,302\n378,016\n210,733\n167,283\n12.9\n7.2\n5.7\n\n 1996\n29,611\n366,200\n212,880\n153,320\n12.4\n7.2\n5.2\n\n 1997\n29,907\n348,598\n215,669\n132,929\n11.7\n7.2\n4.4\n\n 1998\n30,157\n342,418\n218,091\n124,327\n11.4\n7.2\n4.1\n\n 1999\n30,404\n337,249\n219,530\n117,719\n11.1\n7.2\n3.9\n\n 2000\n30,689\n327,882\n218,062\n109,820\n10.7\n7.1\n3.6\n\n 2001\n31,021\n333,744\n219,538\n114,206\n10.8\n7.1\n3.7\n\n 2002\n31,373\n328,802\n223,603\n105,199\n10.5\n7.1\n3.4\n\n 2003\n31,676\n335,202\n226,169\n109,033\n10.6\n7.1\n3.4\n\n 2004\n31,941\n337,072\n226,584\n110,488\n10.6\n7.1\n3.5\n\n 2005\n32,245\n342,176\n230,132\n112,044\n10.6\n7.1\n3.5\n\n 2006\n32,576\n354,617\n228,079\n126,538\n10.9\n7.0\n3.9\n\n 2007\n32,930\n367,864\n235,217\n132,647\n11.2\n7.1\n4.0\n\n 2008\n33,318\n377,886\n238,617\n139,269\n11.3\n7.2\n4.2\n\n 2009\n33,727\n380,863\n242,277\n138,586\n11.3\n7.2\n4.1\n\n 2010\n34,127\n377,213\n247,926\n129,287\n11.1\n7.3\n3.8\n\n 2011\n34,484\n377,636\n254,731\n122,905\n11.0\n7.4\n3.6\n\n 2012\n34,880\n381,429 \n256,965\n124,464\n10.9\n7.4\n3.6\n\n 2013\n35,293\n386,044 \n256,982\n129,062\n11.0\n7.4\n3.7\n\n2014\n35,667\n389,914\n266,164\n123,750\n10.9\n7.6\n3.3\n\n2015\n35,981\n390,836\n267,875\n122,961\n10.9\n7.6\n3.3\n\n2016(p)\n36,503\n395,065\n272,891\n122,174\n10.8\n7.5\n3.3\n\n\n(p)=January–September 2016\n\n===Current population growth===\n\n*Births from January–March 2016 = 94,517\n*Births from January–March 2017 = 94,851\n*Deaths from January–March 2016 = 71,278\n*Deaths from January–March 2017 = 74,985\n*Natural increase from January–March 2016 = 23,239\n*Natural increase from January–March 2017 = 19,866\n\n'''Age characteristics:'''\n\n Population by age and gender, 2011\n\nAge group\nMale\nFemale\nTotal\nPercent\n\n\n 0 to 4 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 5 to 9 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 10 to 14 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 15 to 19 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 20 to 24 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 25 to 29 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 30 to 34 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 35 to 39 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 40 to 44 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 45 to 49 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 50 to 54 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 55 to 59 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 60 to 64 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 65 to 69 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 70 to 74 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 75 to 79 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 80 to 84 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 85 years and over \n \n \n \n \n\nTotal \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 0 to 14 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 15 to 64 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 65 years and over \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n'''Net migration rate:''' 5.65 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2013 est.)","'''Urbanization:'''\n* ''urban population:'' 81% of total population (2010)\n* ''rate of urbanization:'' 1.1% annual rate of change (2010-2015 est.)","Population pyramid in 2010\n'''Sex ratio:'''\n* ''at birth:'' 1.06 male(s)/female\n* ''under 15 years:'' 1.05 male(s)/female\n* ''15 – 24 years:'' 1.06 male(s)/female\n* ''25 - 54 years:'' 1.03 male(s)/female\n* ''55 - 64 years:'' 0.98 male(s)/female\n* ''65 years and over:'' 0.79 male(s)/female\n* ''total population:'' 0.99 male(s)/female (2013 est.)","'''Maternal mortality rate:''' 12 deaths/100,000 live births (2010 est.)","'''Life expectancy:'''\n* ''total population'': 81.57 years\n* ''male'': 78.98 years\n* ''female'': 84.31 years (2013 est.)","===Median age===\n* ''total:'' 40.6 years\n** ''male:'' 39.6 years\n** ''female:'' 41.5 years (2011)\n\n'''Median age by province and territory, 2011'''\n# Newfoundland and Labrador: 44.0\n# Nova Scotia: 43.7\n# New Brunswick:43.7\n# Prince Edward Island: 42.8\n# Quebec: 41.9\n# British Columbia: 41.9\n# Ontario: 40.4\n# Yukon: 39.1\n# Manitoba: 38.4\n# Saskatchewan: 38.2\n# Alberta: 36.5\n# Northwest Territories: 32.3\n# Nunavut: 24.1\n\n'''Total''': 40.6\n:Sources: Statistics Canada","\n===Ethnic origin===\n\nIn the 2006 census, Canadians could identify as being of one or more ethnicities.","Percentages therefore add up to more than 100%.","The most common response was \"Canadian\".","As data is completely self-reported, and reporting individuals may have varying definitions of \"Ethnic origin\" (or may not know their ethnic origin), these figures should not be considered an exact record of the relative prevalence of different ethno-cultural ancestries but rather how Canadians self-identify.","Statistics Canada projects that, by 2031, about 28% of the population will be foreign-born.","The number of people belonging to visible minority groups will double, the majority of which will live in Toronto and Vancouver.","Counting both single and multiple responses, the most commonly identified ethnic origins were (2011):\n\n\n Ethnic origin\n %\n Population\n Area of largest proportion\n\n Canadian\n 32.16%\n\n Quebec (59.1%)\n\n English\n 19.81%\n\n Newfoundland and Labrador (43.4%)\n\n French\n 15.42%\n\n Quebec (29.1%)\n\n Scottish\n 14.35%\n\n Prince Edward Island (39.3%)\n\n Irish\n 13.83%\n\n Prince Edward Island (30.4%)\n\n German\n 9.75%\n\n Saskatchewan (28.6%)\n\n Italian\n 4.53%\n\n Ontario (7.0%)\n\n Chinese\n 4.53%\n\n British Columbia (10.7%)\n\n First Nations\n 4.17%\n\n Northwest Territories (37.0%)\n\n Ukrainian\n 3.81%\n\n Manitoba (14.9%)\n\n East Indian\n 3.55%\n\n British Columbia (6.3%)\n\n Dutch (Netherlands)\n 3.25%\n\n Alberta (5.1%)\n\n Polish\n 3.08%\n\n Manitoba (7.3%)\n\n Filipino\n 2.02%\n\n Manitoba (5.2%)\n\n British, not included elsewhere\n 1.75%\n\n Yukon (2.4%)\n\n Russian\n 1.68%\n\n Manitoba (4.3%)\n\n Welsh\n 1.40%\n\n Yukon (2.8%)\n\n Norwegian\n 1.38%\n\n Saskatchewan (6.9%)\n\n Métis\n 1.36%\n\n Northwest Territories (6.7%)\n\n Portuguese\n 1.31%\n\n Ontario (2.3%)\n\n American\n 1.13%\n\n Yukon (2.2%)\n\n Spanish\n 1.12%\n\n British Columbia (1.4%)\n\n Swedish\n 1.04%\n\n Saskatchewan (3.2%)\n\n Hungarian\n 0.96%\n\n Saskatchewan (2.8%)\n\n Jewish\n 0.94%\n\n Ontario (1.4%)\n\n\nData from the same subject matter, though from 2001, is also grouped more geographically by Statistics Canada as follows:\n\n\n\n\n 2001\n\nNorth American (non-aboriginal)\n40.21%\n\nBritish Isles\n33.64%\n\nFrench\n15.89%\n\nWestern European\n12.78%\n\nEastern European\n8.50%\n\nSouthern European\n7.87%\n\n\n\n\n 2001\n\nEast and Southeast Asian\n6.03%\n\nAboriginal\n4.45%\n\nSouth Asian\n3.25%\n\nNorthern European\n3.22%\n\nCaribbean\n1.70%\n\nOther European\n1.28%\n\n\n\n\n 2001\n\nArab\n1.17%\n\nAfrican\n0.99%\n\nLatin, Central andSouth American\n0.82%\n\nWest Asian\n0.69%\n\nOceania\n0.16%\n\n\n:''Percentages are calculated as a proportion of the total number of respondents (32,852,325 in 2011) and total more than 100% due to dual responses.","All ethnocultural ancestries with responses totalling to more than 1% of the total number of responses are listed in the table above according to the exact terminology used by Statistics Canada.''","The most common ethnic origins per province are as follows (total responses; only percentages 10% or higher shown; ordered by percentage of \"Canadian\"):\n* Quebec (7,723,525): '''Canadian''' (59.1%), '''French''' (29.1%)\n* New Brunswick (735,835): '''Canadian''' (50.3%), French (27.2%), English (25.9%), Irish (21.6%), Scottish (19.9%)\n* Newfoundland and Labrador (507,265): '''Canadian''' (49.0%), '''English''' (43.4%), Irish (21.8%)\n* Nova Scotia (906,170): '''Canadian''' (39.1%), Scottish (31.2%), English (30.8%), Irish (22.3%), French (17.0%), German (10.8%)\n* Prince Edward Island (137,375): '''Scottish''' (39.3%), Canadian (36.8%), English (31.1%), '''Irish''' (30.4%), French (21.1%)\n* Ontario (12,651,795): '''Canadian''' (23.3%), English (23.1%), Scottish (16.4%), Irish (16.4%), French (10.8%)\n* Alberta (3,567,980): '''English''' (24.9%), Canadian (21.8%), German (19.2%), Scottish (18.8%), Irish (15.8%), French (11.1%)\n* Manitoba (1,174,345): '''English''' (21.8%), German (18.6%), Canadian (18.5%), Scottish (18.0%), '''Ukrainian''' (14.9%), Irish (13.2%), French (12.6%), North American Indian (10.6%)\n* Saskatchewan (1,008,760): '''German''' (28.6%), English (24.9%), Scottish (18.9%), Canadian (18.8%), Irish (15.5%), Ukrainian (13.5%), French (12.2%), '''North American Indian''' (12.1%)\n* British Columbia (4,324,455): '''English''' (27.7%), Scottish (19.3%), Canadian (19.1%), German (13.1%), '''Chinese''' (10.7%)\n* Yukon (33,320): '''English''' (28.5%), Scottish (25.0%), Irish (22.0%), North American Indian (21.8%), Canadian (21.8%), German (15.6%), French (13.1%)\n* Northwest Territories (40,800): '''North American Indian''' (37.0%), Scottish (13.9%), English (13.7%), Canadian (12.8%), Irish (11.9%), Inuit (11.7%)\n* Nunavut (31,700): '''Inuit''' (85.4%)\n\n'''Bold''' indicates either that this response is dominant within this province, or that this province has the highest ratio (percentage) of this response among provinces.","Ethnic origin \n Canadian\t\n English\n French\n Scottish\n Irish\n German\n Italian\n Chinese\n First Nations\n Ukrainian\n Dutch\n\n Canada\n 32.1\n 19.8\n 15.4\n 14.3\n 13.8\n 9.7\n 4.5\n 4.5\n 4.1\n 3.8\n 3.2\n\n Ontario \n 23\n 24.7\n 11.2\n 17.5\n 16.5\n 9.5\n 7.2\n 5.4\n 2.6\n 2.8\n 4.1\n\n Quebec \n 60.1 \n 3.3\n 28.8\n 2.7\n 5.5\n 1.8\n 4.0\n 1.2\n 3.0\n 0.4\n 0.3\n\n British Columbia \n 17.7\n 29.6\n 8.9\n 20.3\n 15.2\n 13.8\n 3.5\n 10.6\n 4.7\n 4.8\n 4.8\n\n Alberta \n 21.8\n 24.9\n 11.1\n 18.8\n 15.8\n 19.2\n 2.5\n 4.4\n 5.0\n 9.7\n 5.1\n\n Manitoba \n 18.2\n 22.1\n 13.1\n 18.5\n 13.4\n 19.1\n 1.6\n 1.5\n 10.6\n 14.7\n 4.9\n\n Newfoundland and Labrador\n 53.4\n 39.4\n 5.4\n 6.0\n 19.7\n 1.2\n 0.2\n 0.2\n 3.1\n 0.1\n 0.3\n\n Prince Edward Island\n 44.9\n 28.7\n 21.3\n 38\n 27.9\n 4.1\n 0.5\n 0.1\n 1.0\n 0.3\n 3.1\n\n Nova Scotia\n 37.6\n 34.2\n 18\n 29.8\n 24.5\n 12\n 1.8\n 1.0\n 3.4\n 1.1\n 4.0\n\n New Brunswick\n 57.8\n 23\n 26.8\n 17.7\n 18.9\n 3.8\n 1.7\n 1.1\n 3.3\n 0.1\n 1.8\n\n Saskatchewan\n 25\n 24.5\n 11.4\n 17.9\n 14.5\n 28.6\n 0.5\n 1.0\n 10.5\n 12.6\n 3.4\n\n\n=== Visible minority population ===\nStatistics Canada identifies visible minorities in accordance with the ''Employment Equity Act''.","Statistics Canada states the \"''Employment Equity Act'' defines visible minorities as 'persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour.'\"","Visible and non-visible minority populations by group, 1996–2011\n\n Group\n 1996\n 2001\n 2006 \n 2011\n\n Total\n \n Total\n \n Total\n \n Total\n \n\n Total visible minority population \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n South Asian \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Chinese \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Black \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Filipino \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Latin American \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Arab/West Asian \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Arab \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Southeast Asian \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n West Asian \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Korean \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Japanese \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Visible minority, \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Multiple visible minorities \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Not a visible minority \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Aboriginal identity (see breakdown below) \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Others (Caucasian or White) \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Total population in private households \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n==== By province and territory ====\n\n\n Visible minority population by province and territory, 2011\n\n Province/territory\n '''Not a visible minority'''\n South Asian\n Chinese\n Black\n Filipino\n Latin American\n Arab\n Southeast Asian\n West Asian\n Korean\n Japanese\n Visible minority, \n Multiple visible minorities\n '''Total visible minority population'''\n '''''Total population'''''\n '''Percent visible minority'''\n\n Alberta\n '''2,690,960'''\n 156,665\n 133,390\n 74,435\n 106,035\n 41,305\n 34,920\n 41,025\n 16,030\n 15,000\n 12,415\n 6,270\n 18,840\n '''656,325'''\n '''''3,567,980'''''\n '''18.39%'''\n\n British Columbia\n '''2,911,295'''\n 313,440\n 438,140\n 33,260\n 126,040\n 35,465\n 14,090\n 51,970\n 38,960\n 53,770\n 38,120\n 6,465\n 31,160\n '''1,180,870'''\n '''''4,324,455'''''\n '''27.31%'''\n\n Manitoba\n '''824,830'''\n 25,265\n 17,025\n 19,610\n 59,220\n 9,140\n 3,235\n 7,565\n 2,040\n 3,045\n 1,745\n 1,765\n 3,975\n '''153,625'''\n '''''1,174,350'''''\n '''13.08%'''\n\n New Brunswick\n '''696,080'''\n 2,445\n 2,540\n 4,870\n 1,100\n 1,160\n 1,380\n 730\n 305\n 1,855\n 305\n 85\n 360\n '''17,135'''\n '''''735,835'''''\n '''2.33%'''\n\n Newfoundland and Labrador\n '''464,540'''\n 1,855\n 1,645\n 1,455\n 350\n 185\n 370\n 320\n 155\n 80\n 60\n 205\n 250\n '''6,930'''\n '''''507,270'''''\n '''1.37%'''\n\n Northwest Territories\n '''16,920'''\n 185\n 380\n 555\n 895\n 105\n 115\n 230\n 60\n 50\n 45\n 75\n 30\n '''2,720'''\n '''''40,800'''''\n '''6.67%'''\n\n Nova Scotia\n '''825,055'''\n 4,965\n 6,050\n 20,790\n 1,890\n 1,360\n 6,290\n 1,155\n 1,365\n 960\n 445\n 720\n 1,290\n '''47,270'''\n '''''906,175'''''\n '''5.22%'''\n\n Nunavut\n '''3,825'''\n 95\n 65\n 120\n 130\n 25\n 15\n 30\n 0\n 10\n 0\n 10\n 0\n '''510'''\n '''''31,700'''''\n '''1.61%'''\n\n Ontario\n '''9,070,800'''\n 965,990\n 629,140\n 539,205\n 275,380\n 172,560\n 151,645\n 137,875\n 122,530\n 78,290\n 29,085\n 81,130\n 96,735\n '''3,279,565'''\n '''''12,651,795'''''\n '''25.92%'''\n\n Prince Edward Island\n '''130,890'''\n 485\n 1,830\n 390\n 85\n 235\n 200\n 205\n 345\n 140\n 210\n 75\n 70\n '''4,260'''\n '''''137,380'''''\n '''3.10%'''\n\n Quebec\n '''6,740,375'''\n 83,320\n 82,845\n 243,625\n 31,495\n 116,380\n 166,260\n 65,855\n 23,445\n 6,665\n 4,025\n 8,895\n 17,420\n '''850,235'''\n '''''7,732,525'''''\n '''11.00%'''\n\n Saskatchewan\n '''787,745'''\n 12,325\n 11,300\n 7,255\n 16,025\n 3,250\n 2,095\n 4,910\n 1,600\n 1,270\n 720\n 745\n 1,775\n '''63,275'''\n '''''1,008,760'''''\n '''6.27%'''\n\n Yukon\n '''23,590'''\n 365\n 400\n 100\n 675\n 110\n 0\n 210\n 0\n 0\n 80\n 35\n 35\n '''2,025'''\n '''''33,320'''''\n '''6.08%'''\n\n Canada\n '''25,186,890'''\n 1,567,400\n 1,324,750\n 945,665\n 619,310\n 381,280\n 380,620\n 312,075\n 206,840\n 161,130\n 87,270\n 106,475\n 171,935\n '''6,264,750'''\n '''''32,852,325'''''\n '''19.07%'''\n\nAll statistics are from the Canada 2011 Census.","==== By city over 100,000 ====\n\n\n Visible minority in Canadian cities over 100,000 people, 2011\n\nCity\nPopulation\nEuropean\nVisible minority\nBlack\nEast Asian\nLatin American\nSouth Asian\nSoutheast Asian\nWest Asian\nArab \nMultiracial\nOther\n\nToronto\n2,576,025 \n50.2%\n'''49.1%'''\n8.5%\n12.7%\n2.8%\n12.3% \n7.0%\n2.0%\n1.1%\n1.5%\n1.3%\n\nMontreal\n1,612,640\n67.7%\n'''31.7%'''\n9.1%\n3.2%\n4.2%\n3.3%\n3.8%\n0.8%\n6.4%\n0.6%\n0.3%\n\nCalgary\n1,082,235\n67.3%\n'''30.1%'''\n2.9%\n8.1%\n1.8%\n7.5%\n6.3%\n0.8%\n1.5%\n0.8%\n0.3%\n\nOttawa\n867,090\n74.2%\n'''23.7%'''\n5.7%\n4.5%\n1.2%\n3.9%\n2.8%\n0.9%\n3.7%\n0.7%\n0.2%\n\nEdmonton\n795,675\n64.7%\n'''30.0%'''\n3.8%\n7.1%\n1.7%\n7.2%\n6.5%\n0.9%\n1.7%\n0.8%\n0.3%\n\nMississauga\n708,725\n45.8%\n'''53.7%'''\n6.3%\n8.3%\n2.2%\n21.8%\n7.8%\n1.1%\n3.5%\n1.5%\n1.3%\n\nWinnipeg\n649,995\n66.9%\n'''21.4%'''\n2.7%\n2.9%\n1.0%\n3.5%\n9.8%\n0.3%\n0.4%\n0.6%\n0.2%\n\nVancouver\n590,210\n46.2%\n'''51.8%'''\n1.0%\n30.9%\n1.6%\n6.0%\n9.0%\n1.2%\n0.5%\n1.5%\n0.2%\n\nBrampton\n521,315\n32.9%\n'''66.4%'''\n13.5%\n1.8%\n2.2%\n38.4%\n5.1%\n0.7%\n0.8%\n1.4%\n2.6%\n\nHamilton\n509,640\n82.3%\n'''15.7%'''\n3.2%\n2.2%\n1.4%\n3.4%\n2.6%\n0.8%\n1.4%\n0.4%\n0.3%\n\nQuebec City\n502,595\n95.0%\n'''4.0%'''\n1.1%\n0.4%\n1.0%\n0.2%\n0.4%\n0.1%\n0.7%\n0.1%\n0.1%\n\nSurrey\n463,340\n44.5%\n'''52.6%'''\n1.3%\n8.5%\n1.2%\n30.7%\n8.5%\n0.5%\n0.7%\n0.9%\n0.2%\n\nLaval\n392,725\n78.7%\n'''20.7%'''\n6.2%\n0.9%\n2.5%\n1.7%\n2.2%\n0.8%\n5.9%\n0.3%\n0.1%\n\nHalifax\n384,330\n88.4%\n'''9.1%'''\n3.6%\n1.5%\n0.3%\n1.0%\n0.6%\n0.4%\n1.4%\n0.3%\n0.1%\n\nLondon\n360,715\n82.0%\n'''16.1%'''\n2.4%\n2.9%\n2.7%\n2.2%\n1.7%\n0.8%\n2.6%\n0.5%\n0.2%\n\nMarkham\n300,135\n27.5%\n'''72.3%'''\n3.2%\n39.7%\n0.5%\n19.1%\n3.9%\n2.1%\n1.1%\n1.9%\n0.7%\n\nVaughan\n286,305\n68.4%\n'''31.4%'''\n2.7%\n6.3%\n2.1%\n9.7%\n5.7%\n2.1%\n1.0%\n1.0%\n0.8%\n\nGatineau\n261,665\n86.2%\n'''10.3%'''\n3.9%\n1.0%\n1.5%\n0.3%\n0.7%\n0.2%\n2.5%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n\nLongueuil\n227,970\n84.8%\n'''14.2%'''\n4.6%\n1.4%\n2.5%\n0.9%\n1.4%\n0.6%\n2.3%\n0.2%\n0.2%\n\nBurnaby\n220,255\n39.1%\n'''59.5%'''\n1.6%\n36.0%\n1.7%\n7.9%\n7.7%\n2.0%\n0.7%\n1.8%\n0.2%\n\nSaskatoon\n218,315\n77.4%\n'''12.8%'''\n1.1%\n2.7%\n0.6%\n2.7%\n3.9%\n0.5%\n0.6%\n0.4%\n0.2%\n\nKitchener\n215,950\n80.1%\n'''18.4%'''\n3.1%\n2.2%\n2.7%\n4.1%\n3.0%\n1.1%\n1.2%\n0.6%\n0.4%\n\nWindsor\n208,015\n74.8%\n'''22.9%'''\n4.6%\n3.2%\n1.1%\n3.9%\n3.1%\n0.8%\n5.5%\n0.5%\n0.4%\n\nRegina\n189,740\n78.6%\n'''11.5%'''\n1.6%\n2.2%\n0.7%\n2.6%\n3.5%\n0.3%\n0.3%\n0.3%\n0.0%\n\nRichmond\n189,305\n28.6%\n'''70.4%'''\n0.7%\n49.8%\n0.9%\n7.7%\n7.8%\n0.7%\n0.5%\n2.3%\n0.2%\n\nRichmond Hill\n184,370\n46.9%\n'''52.9%'''\n2.0%\n26.9%\n0.9%\n8.1%\n3.0%\n8.6%\n1.7%\n1.3%\n0.4%\n\nOakville\n180,430\n77.2%\n'''22.8%'''\n2.7%\n5.3%\n1.5%\n7.2%\n2.7%\n0.7%\n1.6%\n0.8%\n0.4%\n\nBurlington\n173,495\n87.1%\n'''12.0%'''\n1.6%\n2.4%\n1.0%\n3.6%\n1.3%\n0.5%\n0.9%\n0.5%\n0.2%\n\nGreater Sudbury\n157,765\n89.1%\n'''2.7%'''\n0.6%\n0.6%\n0.2%\n0.4%\n0.3%\n0.1%\n0.3%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n\nSherbrooke\n150,255\n93.6%\n'''5.5%'''\n1.7%\n0.3%\n1.4%\n0.3%\n0.4%\n0.3%\n0.9%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n\nOshawa\n147,680\n88.7%\n'''9.3%'''\n3.2%\n1.1%\n0.7%\n1.9%\n1.2%\n0.3%\n0.2%\n0.4%\n0.4%\n\nSaguenay\n141,335\n96.6%\n'''0.9%'''\n0.3%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n0.2%\n0.0%\n0.0%\n\nLévis\n135,835\n98.0%\n'''1.4%'''\n0.4%\n0.3%\n0.2%\n0.0%\n0.2%\n0.0%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n\nBarrie\n133,240\n89.8%\n'''7.6%'''\n1.9%\n1.3%\n0.8%\n1.3%\n1.0%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.4%\n0.4%\n\nAbbotsford\n130,950\n66.5%\n'''29.6%'''\n0.9%\n2.9%\n0.6%\n22.4%\n1.5%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.4%\n0.3%\n\nSt. Catharines\n128,770\n88.3%\n'''9.9%'''\n2.1%\n1.9%\n1.5%\n1.1%\n1.3%\n0.3%\n1.0%\n0.3%\n0.3%\n\nTrois-Rivières\n126,980\n96.3%\n'''2.5%'''\n0.9%\n0.2%\n0.6%\n0.0%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n0.5%\n0.0%\n0.0%\n\nCambridge\n125,060\n85.4%\n'''12.6%'''\n1.9%\n1.2%\n1.0%\n5.2%\n1.7%\n0.3%\n0.6%\n0.3%\n0.4%\n\nCoquitlam\n125,015\n54.1%\n'''43.8%'''\n1.0%\n24.1%\n1.5%\n4.2%\n5.1%\n5.1%\n0.8%\n1.3%\n0.2%\n\nKingston\n118,930\n89.7%\n'''7.4%'''\n0.9%\n2.1%\n0.7%\n1.7%\n0.9%\n0.3%\n0.6%\n0.1%\n0.1%\n\nWhitby\n120,285\n79.5%\n'''19.2%'''\n6.2%\n2.5%\n0.8%\n4.7%\n2.2%\n0.5%\n0.6%\n1.0%\n0.7%\n\nGuelph\n120,550\n82.7%\n'''15.7%'''\n1.4%\n3.1%\n1.0%\n4.1%\n4.0%\n0.8%\n0.5%\n0.5%\n0.2%\n\nKelowna\n114,570\n87.9%\n'''7.6%'''\n0.6%\n2.6%\n0.5%\n2.3%\n1.0%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.2%\n0.2%\n\nSaanich\n107,855\n79.3%\n'''18.0%'''\n1.1%\n8.6%\n0.7%\n3.8%\n2.4%\n0.3%\n0.4%\n0.4%\n0.2%\n\nAjax\n109,220\n53.2%\n'''45.8%'''\n16.0%\n2.8%\n1.0%\n13.8%\n5.0%\n1.6%\n1.1%\n2.0%\n2.6%\n\nThunder Bay\n105,950\n87.1%\n'''3.4%'''\n0.5%\n1.0%\n0.2%\n0.5%\n0.7%\n0.1%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n\nTerrebonne\n105,610\n91.7%\n'''7.6%'''\n4.5%\n0.2%\n1.3%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n1.1%\n0.1%\n0.1%\n\nSt. John's\n103,905\n93.3%\n'''4.4%'''\n0.9%\n1.1%\n0.1%\n1.2%\n0.3%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n0.1%\n\nLangley\n103,145\n83.2%\n'''13.4%'''\n0.5%\n6.3%\n0.6%\n2.7%\n2.4%\n0.2%\n0.2%\n0.5%\n0.1%\n\nChatham-Kent\n101,680\n93.2%\n'''3.9%'''\n1.9%\n0.5%\n0.3%\n0.5%\n0.5%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n\n\n=== Aboriginal population ===\n\n\n\n Aboriginal population in Canada, 1996–2011 censuses\n\n Group\n 1996\n 2001\n 2006 \n 2011\n\n %\n Total\n %\n Total\n %\n Total\n %\n Total\n\n'''Total Aboriginal'''\n'''2.8%'''\n'''799,005'''\n'''3.3%''' \n'''976,305'''\n'''3.8%''' \n'''1,172,785'''\n'''4.3%'''\n'''1,400,685'''\n\nFirst Nations\n1.8% \n529,040\n2.1%\n608,850\n2.2%\n698,025\n2.6% \n851,560\n\nMétis\n0.7%\n204,115\n1.0%\n292,305\n1.2%\n389,780\n1.4% \n451,795\n\nInuit\n0.14%\n40,220 \n\n \n0.16%\n50,485\n0.2%\n59,445\n\n\n''Note: Inuit, other Aboriginal and mixed Aboriginal groups are not listed as their own, but they are all accounted for in total Aboriginal''\n\n==== By province and territory ====\n\n\n Aboriginal population by province and territory, 2011\n\n Province/territory\n Not Aboriginal\n First Nations\n Métis\n Inuit\n Aboriginal, \n Multiple Aboriginal identities\n '''Total Aboriginal population'''\n '''''Total population'''''\n\n Alberta\n '''2,690,960'''\n 116,670\n 96,870\n 1,985\n 3,300\n 1,870\n '''220,695'''\n '''''3,567,980'''''\n\n British Columbia\n '''2,911,295'''\n 155,020\n 69,475\n 1,570\n 3,745\n 2,480\n '''232,290'''\n '''''4,324,455'''''\n\n Manitoba\n '''824,830'''\n 114,225\n 78,830\n 580\n 1,055\n 1,200\n '''195,895'''\n '''''1,174,350'''''\n\n New Brunswick\n '''696,080'''\n 16,120\n 4,850\n 485\n 1,020\n 150\n '''22,620'''\n '''''735,835'''''\n\n Newfoundland and Labrador\n '''464,540'''\n 19,315\n 7,660\n 6,265\n 2,300\n 260\n '''35,800'''\n '''''507,270'''''\n\n Northwest Territories\n '''16,920'''\n 13,350\n 3,250\n 4,335\n 185\n 45\n '''21,160'''\n '''''40,800'''''\n\n Nova Scotia\n '''825,055'''\n 21,895\n 10,050\n 695\n 980\n 225\n '''33,850'''\n '''''906,175'''''\n\n Nunavut\n '''3,825'''\n 125\n 130\n 27,070\n 15\n 20\n '''27,365'''\n '''''31,700'''''\n\n Ontario\n '''9,070,800'''\n\n 201,100\n 86,020\n 3,355\n 8,040\n 2,910\n '''301,430'''\n '''''12,651,795'''''\n\n Prince Edward Island\n '''130,890'''\n\n 1,520\n 410\n 55\n 235\n 0\n '''2,230'''\n '''''137,380'''''\n\n Quebec\n '''6,740,375'''\n\n 82,425\n 40,960\n 12,570\n 4,415\n 1,545\n '''141,915'''\n '''''7,732,525'''''\n\n Saskatchewan\n '''787,745'''\n\n 103,205\n 52,450\n 290\n 1,120\n 675\n '''157,740'''\n '''''1,008,760'''''\n\n Yukon\n '''23,590'''\n\n 6,585\n 845\n 175\n 70\n 25\n '''7,705'''\n '''''33,320'''''\n\n Canada\n '''25,186,890'''\n 851,560\n 451,795\n 59,440\n 26,475\n 11,415\n '''1,400,685'''\n '''''32,852,325'''''\n\nAll statistics are from the Canada 2011 Census.","==== By city over 100,000 ====\n\n\n Aboriginal population in Canadian cities over 100,000 people, 2011\n\nCity\nPopulation\nEuropean\nTotal Aboriginal\nFirst Nations\nMétis\n\nToronto\n2,576,025 \n50.2%\n'''0.7%'''\n0.5%\n0.2%\n\nMontreal\n1,612,640\n67.7%\n'''0.6%'''\n0.3%\n0.2%\n\nCalgary\n1,082,235\n67.3%\n'''2.7%'''\n1.2%\n1.4%\n\nOttawa\n867,090\n74.2%\n'''2.1%'''\n1.2%\n0.7%\n\nEdmonton\n795,675\n64.7%\n'''5.3%'''\n2.4%\n2.7%\n\nMississauga\n708,725\n45.8%\n'''0.5%'''\n0.3%\n0.1%\n\nWinnipeg\n649,995\n66.9%\n'''11.7%'''\n5.9%\n6.3%\n\nVancouver\n590,210\n46.2%\n'''2.0%'''\n1.3%\n0.6%\n\nBrampton\n521,315\n32.9%\n'''0.7%'''\n0.4%\n0.2%\n\nHamilton\n509,640\n82.3%\n'''2.0%'''\n1.6%\n0.3%\n\nQuebec City\n502,595\n95.0%\n'''0.9%'''\n0.5%\n0.4%\n\nSurrey\n463,340\n44.5%\n'''2.9%'''\n1.9%\n1.0%\n\nLaval\n392,725\n78.7%\n'''0.6%'''\n0.3%\n0.2%\n\nHalifax\n384,330\n88.4%\n'''2.5%'''\n1.5%\n0.8%\n\nLondon\n360,715\n82.0%\n'''1.9%'''\n1.4%\n0.4%\n\nMarkham\n300,135\n27.5%\n'''0.2%'''\n0.1%\n0.1%\n\nVaughan\n286,305\n68.4%\n'''0.2%'''\n0.1%\n\n0.0%\n\nGatineau\n261,665\n86.2%\n'''3.5%'''\n1.8%\n1.5%\n\nLongueuil\n227,970\n84.8%\n'''1.0%'''\n0.6%\n0.0%\n\nBurnaby\n220,255\n39.1%\n'''1.5%'''\n0.9%\n0.5%\n\nSaskatoon\n218,315\n77.4%\n'''10.2%'''\n4.9%\n4.6%\n\nKitchener\n215,950\n80.1%\n'''1.5%'''\n0.9%\n0.5%\n\nWindsor\n208,015\n74.8%\n'''2.3%'''\n1.3%\n0.9%\n\nRegina\n189,740\n78.6%\n'''9.9%'''\n5.8%\n3.9%\n\nRichmond\n189,305\n28.6%\n'''1.0%'''\n0.7%\n0.3%\n\nRichmond Hill\n184,370\n46.9%\n'''0.2%'''\n0.1%\n0.0%\n\nOakville\n180,430\n77.2%\n'''0.6%'''\n0.4%\n0.2%\n\nBurlington\n173,495\n87.1%\n'''0.9%'''\n0.5%\n0.3%\n\nGreater Sudbury\n157,765\n89.1%\n\n'''8.2%'''\n3.8%\n4.1%\n\nSherbrooke\n150,255\n93.6%\n'''0.9%'''\n0.5%\n0.3%\n\nOshawa\n147,680\n88.7%\n'''2.0%'''\n1.2%\n0.8%\n\nSaguenay\n141,335\n96.6%\n'''2.5%'''\n0.8%\n1.6%\n\nLévis\n135,835\n98.0%\n'''0.5%'''\n0.2%\n0.2%\n\nBarrie\n133,240\n89.8%\n'''2.6%'''\n1.4%\n1.2%\n\nAbbotsford\n130,950\n66.5%\n'''4.0%'''\n2.5%\n1.6%\n\nSt. Catharines\n128,770\n88.3%\n'''1.9%'''\n1.2%\n0.6%\n\nTrois-Rivières\n126,980\n96.3%\n'''1.1%'''\n0.6%\n0.4%\n\nCambridge\n125,060\n85.4%\n'''2.0%'''\n1.2%\n0.6%\n\nCoquitlam\n125,015\n54.1%\n'''2.1%'''\n1.1%\n0.9%\n\nKingston\n118,930\n89.7%\n'''2.9%'''\n2.0%\n0.8%\n\nWhitby\n120,285\n79.5%\n'''1.2%'''\n0.7%\n0.4%\n\nGuelph\n120,550\n82.7%\n'''1.6%'''\n1.0%\n0.6%\n\nKelowna\n114,570\n87.9%\n'''4.5%'''\n2.1%\n2.3%\n\nSaanich\n107,855\n79.3%\n'''2.7%'''\n1.5%\n1.1%\n\nAjax\n109,220\n53.2%\n'''1.0%'''\n0.7%\n0.3%\n\nThunder Bay\n105,950\n87.1%\n'''9.5%'''\n7.3%\n2.0%\n\nTerrebonne\n105,610\n91.7%\n'''0.7%'''\n0.5%\n0.1%\n\nSt. John's\n103,905\n93.3%\n'''2.6%'''\n1.2%\n0.8%\n\nLangley\n103,145\n83.2%\n'''3.4%'''\n1.6%\n1.7%\n\nChatham-Kent\n101,680\n93.2%\n'''2.9%'''\n1.7%\n0.9%","\n\n\n'''Language used most often at work:'''\n* English: 78.3%\n* French: 21.7%\n* Non-official languages: 2%\n\n'''Languages by language used most often at home:'''\n* English: 67.1%\n* French: 21.5%\n* Non-official languages: 11.4%\n\n'''Languages by mother tongue:'''\n\n\nFirst language\nPopulation (2011)\n% of total population (2011)\nPopulation (2006)\n% of total population (2006)\nIncrease (2006–2011)\nNotes\n\n '''''Single language responses'''''\n '''''32,481,635'''''\n ''''''''''\n '''''30,848,270'''''\n '''''98.7%'''''\n ''''''''''\n\n\n ''Official languages''\n ''25,913,955''\n ''''\n ''24,700,425''\n ''79.1%''\n ''''\n\n\n English\n 18,858,980\n \n 17,882,775\n 57.2%\n \n\n\n French\n 7,054,975\n \n 6,817,650\n 21.8%\n \n\n\n ''Non-official languages''\n ''6,567,680''\n ''''\n ''6,147,840''\n ''19.7%''\n ''''\n\n\n Punjabi\n 430,705\n \n 367,505\n 1.2%\n \n\n\n Chinese, \n 425,210\n \n 456,705\n 1.5%\n \n\n\n Spanish\n 410,670\n \n 345,345\n 1.1%\n \n\n\n German\n 409,200\n \n 450,570\n 1.4%\n \n\n\n Italian\n 407,485\n \n 455,040\n 1.5%\n \n\n\n Cantonese\n 372,460\n \n 361,450\n 1.2%\n \n\n\n Arabic\n 327,870\n \n 261,640\n 0.8%\n \n\n\n Tagalog (Pilipino, Filipino)\n 327,445\n \n 235,615\n 0.8%\n \n\n\n Mandarin\n 248,705\n \n 170,950\n 0.5%\n \n\n\n Portuguese\n 211,335\n \n 219,275\n 0.7%\n \n\n\n Polish\n 191,645\n \n 211,175\n 0.7%\n \n\n\n Urdu\n 172,800\n \n 145,805\n 0.5%\n \n\n\n Persian\n 170,045\n \n 134,080\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Russian\n 164,330\n \n 133,580\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Vietnamese\n 144,880\n \n 141,625\n 0.5%\n \n\n\n Korean\n 137,925\n \n 125,570\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Tamil\n 131,265\n \n 115,880\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Ukrainian\n 111,540\n \n 134,500\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Dutch\n 110,490\n \n 128,900\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Greek\n 108,925\n \n 117,285\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Gujarati\n 91,450\n \n 81,465\n 0.3%\n \n\n\n Hindustani (Hindi)\n 90,545\n \n 78,240\n 0.3%\n \n\n\n Romanian\n 90,300\n \n 78,495\n 0.3%\n \n\n\n Cree, \n 77,900\n \n 78,855\n 0.3%\n \n In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to simply as 'Cree'.","Hungarian\n 67,920\n \n 73,335\n 0.2%\n \n\n\n Creoles\n 61,725\n \n 53,515\n 0.2%\n \n\n\n Bengali\n 59,370\n \n 45,685\n 0.1%\n \n\n\n Serbian\n 56,420\n \n 51,665\n 0.2%\n \n\n\n Croatian\n 49,730\n \n 55,330\n 0.2%\n \n\n\n Japanese\n 39,985\n \n 40,200\n 0.1%\n \n\n\n Inuktitut\n 33,500\n \n 32,015\n 0.1%\n \n In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to as 'Inuktitut, '.","Somali\n 31,380\n \n 27,320\n 0.09%\n \n\n\n Armenian\n 29,795\n \n 30,130\n 0.1%\n \n\n\n Turkish\n 29,640\n \n 24,745\n 0.08%\n \n\n\n Albanian\n 23,820\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Czech\n 23,585\n \n 24,450\n 0.08%\n \n\n\n Khmer (Cambodian)\n 19,440\n \n 19,105\n 0.06%\n \n\n\n Bulgarian\n 19,050\n \n 16,790\n 0.05%\n \n\n\n Hebrew\n 18,450\n \n 17,635\n 0.06%\n \n\n\n Amharic\n 18,020\n \n 14,555\n 0.05%\n \n\n\n Ilocano\n 17,915\n \n 13,450\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Ojibway\n 17,625\n \n 24,190\n 0.08%\n \n\n\n Slovak\n 17,580\n \n 18,820\n 0.06%\n \n\n\n Finnish\n 17,415\n \n 21,030\n 0.07%\n \n\n\n Macedonian\n 17,245\n \n 18,435\n 0.06%\n \n\n\n Semitic languages, \n 16,970\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Bisayan languages\n 16,240\n \n 11,240\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Malayalam\n 16,080\n \n 11,925\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Yiddish\n 15,205\n \n 16,295\n 0.05%\n \n\n\n Sinhala (Sinhalese)\n 14,185\n \n 10,180\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Danish\n 14,145\n \n 18,735\n 0.06%\n \n\n\n Niger–Congo languages, \n 14,075\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Lao\n 12,970\n \n 13,940\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Akan (Twi)\n 12,680\n \n 12,780\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Pashto\n 12,465\n \n 9,025\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Bosnian\n 11,685\n \n 12,790\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Sindhi\n 11,330\n \n 10,355\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Dene\n 11,215\n \n 9,745\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Oromo\n 11,140\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Malay\n 10,910\n \n 9,490\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Innu/Montagnais\n 10,785\n \n 10,975\n 0.04%\n \n In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to as 'Montagnais-Naskapi'.","Slovenian\n 10,775\n \n 13,135\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Tigrigna\n 10,220\n \n 7,105\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Serbo-Croatian\n 10,155\n \n 12,510\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Swahili\n 10,090\n \n 7,935\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Oji-Cree\n 9,835\n \n 11,690\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Kurdish\n 9,805\n \n 7,660\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Taiwanese\n 9,635\n \n 9,620\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Telugu\n 9,315\n \n 6,625\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n African languages, \n 9,125\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Afrikaans\n 8,770\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Nepali\n 8,480\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Thai\n 7,935\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Mi'kmaq\n 7,635\n \n 7,365\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Swedish\n 7,350\n \n 8,220\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Lithuanian\n 7,245\n \n 8,335\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Bantu languages, \n 7,150\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Estonian\n 6,385\n \n 8,240\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Maltese\n 6,220\n \n 6,405\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Latvian\n 6,200\n \n 7,000\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Fukien\n 5,925\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Berber languages (Kabyle)\n 5,855\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Marathi\n 5,830\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Atikamekw\n 5,820\n \n 5,250\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Norwegian\n 5,800\n \n 7,225\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Indo-Iranian languages, \n 5,255\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Hakka\n 5,115\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Flemish\n 4,690\n \n 5,660\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Tibetan languages\n 4,640\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Sino-Tibetan languages, \n 4,360\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Rundi (Kirundi)\n 3,975\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Rwanda (Kinyarwanda)\n 3,895\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Sign languages, \n 3,815\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Slavic languages, \n 3,630\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Lingala\n 3,085\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Stoney\n 3,050\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Burmese\n 2,985\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Shanghainese\n 2,920\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Siouan languages (Dakota/Sioux)\n N/A\n N/A\n 5,585\n 0.02%\n N/A\n\n\n Blackfoot\n N/A\n N/A\n 3,085\n 0.01%\n N/A\n\n\n Frisian\n N/A\n N/A\n 2,890\n 0.009%\n N/A\n\n\n Dogrib\n N/A\n N/A\n 2,020\n 0.006%\n N/A\n\n\n Algonquin\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,920\n 0.006%\n N/A\n\n\n South Slave\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,605\n 0.005%\n N/A\n\n\n Carrier\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,560\n 0.005%\n N/A\n\n\n Gitksan\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,180\n 0.004%\n N/A\n\n\n Chilcotin\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,070\n 0.003%\n N/A\n\n\n North Slave (Hare)\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,065\n 0.003%\n N/A\n\n\n Shuswap\n N/A\n N/A\n 935\n 0.003%\n N/A\n\n\n Nisga’a\n N/A\n N/A\n 680\n 0.002%\n N/A\n\n\n Malecite\n N/A\n N/A\n 535\n 0.002%\n N/A\n\n\n Chipewyan\n N/A\n N/A\n 525\n 0.002%\n N/A\n\n\n Inuinnaqtun\n N/A\n N/A\n 365\n 0.001%\n N/A\n\n\n Kutchin-Gwich’in (Loucheux)\n N/A\n N/A\n 360\n 0.001%\n N/A\n\n\n Mohawk\n N/A\n N/A\n 290\n 0.0009%\n N/A\n\n\n Tlingit\n N/A\n N/A\n 80\n 0.0003%\n N/A\n\n\n Other languages\n 77,890\n \n 172,650\n 0.6%\n \n\n\n '''''Multiple language responses'''''\n '''''639,540'''''\n ''''''''''\n '''''392,760'''''\n '''''1.3%'''''\n ''''''''''\n\n\n English and French\n 144,685\n \n 98,630\n 0.3%\n \n\n\n English and a non-official language\n 396,330\n \n 240,005\n 0.8%\n \n\n\n French and a non-official language\n 74,430\n \n 43,335\n 0.1%\n \n\n\n English, French, and a non-official language\n 24,095\n \n 10,790\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n '''Total'''\n '''33,121,175'''\n ''''''\n '''31,241,030'''\n '''100%'''\n ''''''","\nStatistics Canada (StatCan) grouped responses to the 2011 National Household Survey (NHS) question on religion into nine core religious categories – Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, Traditional (Aboriginal) Spirituality, other religions and no religious affiliation.","Among these, of Canadians were self-identified as Christians in 2011.","The second and third-largest categories were of Canadians with no religious affiliation at and Canadian Muslims at .","Within the 2011 NHS results, StatCan further subcategorized Christianity in nine groups of its own – Anglican, Baptist, Catholic, Christian Orthodox, Lutheran, Pentecostal, Presbyterian, United Church and Other Christian.","Among these, of Canadians were self-identified as Catholic in 2011.","The second and third-largest ungrouped subcategories of Christian Canadians were United at and Anglican at , while of Christians were grouped into the Other Christian subcategory comprising numerous denominations.","Of the 3,036,785 or of Canadians identified as Other Christians:\n*105,365 ( of Canadians) were identified as Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon);\n*137,775 ( of Canadians) were identified as Jehovah's Witness;\n*175,880 ( of Canadians) were identified as Mennonite;\n*550,965 ( of Canadians) were identified as Protestant; and\n*102,830 ( of Canadians) were identified as Reformed.","Religion status of the Canadian Population in 2011\n\n Religion\n Total\n Percent\n\n Buddhist \n \n \n\n Christian \n \n \n\n Anglican \n \n \n\n Baptist \n \n \n\n Roman Catholic \n \n \n\n Christian Orthodox \n \n \n\n Lutheran \n \n \n\n Pentecostal \n \n \n\n Presbyterian \n \n \n\n United Church \n \n \n\n Other Christian \n \n \n\n Hindu \n \n 1.5%\n\n Jewish \n \n \n\n Muslim \n \n \n\n Sikh \n \n \n\n Traditional (Aboriginal) Spirituality \n \n \n\n Other religions \n \n \n\n No religious affiliation","\n\n* 1666 census of New France\n* Canada 1906 Census\n* Canada 1911 Census\n* Canada 1996 Census\n* Canada 2001 Census\n* Canada 2006 Census\n* Canada 2011 Census\n* List of Canadian census areas demographic extremes\n* ''Cahiers québécois de démographie'' academic journal\n* ''Canadian Studies in Population'' academic journal\n*","\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Roderic Beaujot and Don Kerr, (2007) '' The Changing Face of Canada: Essential Readings in Population'', Canadian Scholars' Press, .","\n* Canada Year Book (2010) – Statistics Canada\n* Population estimates and projections, 2010 – 2036 – Statistics Canada"],"string":"[\n \"\\nThis article is about the demographic features of the population of Canada, including population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population, the People of Canada.\",\n \"\\nThe Canada 2016 Census had a total population count of 35,151,728 individuals, making up approximately 0.5% of the world's total population.\",\n \"Estimates have the population over 36 million as of July 2016.\",\n \"Rank\\n Province or territory\\n Population(2011)\\n Population(2006)\\n Difference\\n Change(%)\\n\\n 1\\n Ontario\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 5.7\\n\\n 2\\n Quebec\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 4.7\\n\\n 3\\n British Columbia\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 7.0\\n\\n 4\\n Alberta\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 10.8\\n\\n 5\\n Manitoba\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 5.2\\n\\n 6\\n Saskatchewan\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 6.7\\n\\n 7\\n Nova Scotia\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 0.9\\n\\n 8\\n New Brunswick\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 2.9\\n\\n 9\\n Newfoundland and Labrador\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 1.8\\n\\n 10\\n Prince Edward Island\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 3.2\\n\\n 11\\n Northwest Territories\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 0.0\\n\\n 12\\n Yukon\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 11.6\\n\\n 13\\n Nunavut\\n\\n\\n''''''\\n 8.3\\n\\n Total\\n Canada\\n\\n\\n\\n 5.9\\n\\n\\n'''Derived from:''' Statistics Canada – (table) Population and Dwelling Counts, for Canada, Provinces and Territories, 2011 and 2006 Censuses – 100% Data\\n\\n===Population projection===\",\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n Average population (x 1,000)\\n Live births\\n Deaths\\n Natural change\\n Birth rate (per 1,000)\\n Death rate (per 1,000)\\n Natural change (per 1,000)\\n\\n 1900\\n5,500\\n150,000\\n89,000\\n61,000\\n27.2\\n16.2\\n11.0\\n\\n 1901\\n5,600\\n175,000\\n79,000\\n96,000\\n31.2\\n14.1\\n17.1\\n\\n 1902\\n5,760\\n180,000\\n77,000\\n103,000\\n31.3\\n13.4\\n17.9\\n\\n 1903\\n5,930\\n186,000\\n78,000\\n108,000\\n31.3\\n13.2\\n18.1\\n\\n 1904\\n6,100\\n192,000\\n82,000\\n110,000\\n31.4\\n13.5\\n17.9\\n\\n 1905\\n6,280\\n195,000\\n82,000\\n113,000\\n31.0\\n13.0\\n18.0\\n\\n 1906\\n6,460\\n193,000\\n85,000\\n108,000\\n29.9\\n13.2\\n16.7\\n\\n 1907\\n6,650\\n196,000\\n85,000\\n111,000\\n29.5\\n12.8\\n16.7\\n\\n 1908\\n6,850\\n208,000\\n86,000\\n122,000\\n30.3\\n12.6\\n17.7\\n\\n 1909\\n7,040\\n213,000\\n90,000\\n123,000\\n30.2\\n12.8\\n17.4\\n\\n 1910\\n7,250\\n220,000\\n95,000\\n125,000\\n30.4\\n13.1\\n17.3\\n\\n 1911\\n7,460\\n225,000\\n100,000\\n125,000\\n30.1\\n13.4\\n16.7\\n\\n 1912\\n7,610\\n238,000\\n99,000\\n139,000\\n31.3\\n13.0\\n19.3\\n\\n 1913\\n7,760\\n246,000\\n102,000\\n144,000\\n31.7\\n13.1\\n19.6\\n\\n 1914\\n7,910\\n252,000\\n100,000\\n152,000\\n31.9\\n12.6\\n19.3\\n\\n 1915\\n8,060\\n257,000\\n101,000\\n156,000\\n31.9\\n12.5\\n19.4\\n\\n 1916\\n8,220\\n252,000\\n107,000\\n145,000\\n30.7\\n13.0\\n17.7\\n\\n 1917\\n8,380\\n244,000\\n106,000\\n138,000\\n29.1\\n12.7\\n16.4\\n\\n 1918\\n8,450\\n243,000\\n134,000\\n109,000\\n28.8\\n15.9\\n12.9\\n\\n 1919\\n8,710\\n241,000\\n119,000\\n122,000\\n27.7\\n13.7\\n14.0\\n\\n 1920\\n8,880\\n259,000\\n118,000\\n141,000\\n29.2\\n13.3\\n15.9\\n\\n 1921\\n9,060\\n265,000\\n105,000\\n160,000\\n29.3\\n11.6\\n17.7\\n\\n 1922\\n9,230\\n261,000\\n107,000\\n154,000\\n28.3\\n11.6\\n16.7\\n\\n 1923\\n9,400\\n251,000\\n111,000\\n140,000\\n26.7\\n11.8\\n14.9\\n\\n 1924\\n9,560\\n255,000\\n104,000\\n151,000\\n26.7\\n10.9\\n15.8\\n\\n 1925\\n9,730\\n254,000\\n104,000\\n150,000\\n26.1\\n10.7\\n15.4\\n\\n 1926\\n9,890\\n244,000\\n113,000\\n131,000\\n24.7\\n11.4\\n13.3\\n\\n 1927\\n10,040\\n244,000\\n110,000\\n134,000\\n24.3\\n11.0\\n13.3\\n\\n 1928\\n10,190\\n246,000\\n114,000\\n132,000\\n24.1\\n11.2\\n12.9\\n\\n 1929\\n10,350\\n243,000\\n118,000\\n125,000\\n23.5\\n11.4\\n12.1\\n\\n 1930\\n10,498\\n251,000\\n113,000\\n138,000\\n23.9\\n10.8\\n13.1\\n\\n 1931\\n10,630\\n247,000\\n108,000\\n139,000\\n23.2\\n10.2\\n13.0\\n\\n 1932\\n10,794\\n243,000\\n108,000\\n135,000\\n22.5\\n10.0\\n12.5\\n\\n 1933\\n10,919\\n229,000\\n106,000\\n123,000\\n21.0\\n9.7\\n11.3\\n\\n 1934\\n11,029\\n228,296\\n105,277\\n123,019\\n20.7\\n9.5\\n11.2\\n\\n 1935\\n11,135\\n228,396\\n109,724\\n118,672\\n20.5\\n9.9\\n10.6\\n\\n 1936\\n11,242\\n227,980\\n111,111\\n116,869\\n20.3\\n9.9\\n10.4\\n\\n 1937\\n11,339\\n227,878\\n118,019\\n109,859\\n20.1\\n10.4\\n9.7\\n\\n 1938\\n11,448\\n237,091\\n110,647\\n126,444\\n20.7\\n9.7\\n11.0\\n\\n 1939\\n11,565\\n237,991\\n112,729\\n125,262\\n20.6\\n9.7\\n10.9\\n\\n 1940\\n11,682\\n252,577\\n114,717\\n137,860\\n21.6\\n9.8\\n11.8\\n\\n 1941\\n11,810\\n263,993\\n118,797\\n145,196\\n22.4\\n10.1\\n12.3\\n\\n 1942\\n11,962\\n281,569\\n117,110\\n164,459\\n23.5\\n9.8\\n13.7\\n\\n 1943\\n12,125\\n292,943\\n122,640\\n170,303\\n24.2\\n10.1\\n14.1\\n\\n 1944\\n12,291\\n283,967\\n120,393\\n163,574\\n24.0\\n9.8\\n14.2\\n\\n 1945\\n12,441\\n300,570\\n117,319\\n183,251\\n24.3\\n9.5\\n14.8\\n\\n 1946\\n12,637\\n343,504\\n118,785\\n224,719\\n27.2\\n9.4\\n17.8\\n\\n 1947\\n12,919\\n372,443\\n121,478\\n250,965\\n28.9\\n9.4\\n19.5\\n\\n 1948\\n13,167\\n359,860\\n122,974\\n236,886\\n27.3\\n9.3\\n18.0\\n\\n 1949\\n13,475\\n367,092\\n124,567\\n242,525\\n27.2\\n9.2\\n18.0\\n\\n 1950\\n13,737\\n372,009\\n124,220\\n247,789\\n27.1\\n9.0\\n18.0\\n\\n 1951\\n14,050\\n381,092\\n125,823\\n255,269\\n27.1\\n9.0\\n18.2\\n\\n 1952\\n14,496\\n403,559\\n126,385\\n277,174\\n27.8\\n8.7\\n19.1\\n\\n 1953\\n14,886\\n417,884\\n127,791\\n290,093\\n28.1\\n8.6\\n19.5\\n\\n 1954\\n15,330\\n436,198\\n124,855\\n311,343\\n28.5\\n8.1\\n20.3\\n\\n 1955\\n15,736\\n442,937\\n128,476\\n314,461\\n28.1\\n8.2\\n20.0\\n\\n 1956\\n16,123\\n450,739\\n131,961\\n318,778\\n28.0\\n8.2\\n19.8\\n\\n 1957\\n16,677\\n469,093\\n136,579\\n332,514\\n28.1\\n8.2\\n19.9\\n\\n 1958\\n17,120\\n470,118\\n135,201\\n334,917\\n27.5\\n7.9\\n19.6\\n\\n 1959\\n17,522\\n479,275\\n139,913\\n339,362\\n27.4\\n8.0\\n19.4\\n\\n 1960\\n17,909\\n478,551\\n139,693\\n338,858\\n26.7\\n7.8\\n18.9\\n\\n 1961\\n18,271\\n475,700\\n140,985\\n334,715\\n26.0\\n7.7\\n18.3\\n\\n 1962\\n18,614\\n469,693\\n143,699\\n325,994\\n25.2\\n7.7\\n17.5\\n\\n 1963\\n18,964\\n465,767\\n147,367\\n318,400\\n24.6\\n7.8\\n16.8\\n\\n 1964\\n19,325\\n452,915\\n145,850\\n307,065\\n23.4\\n7.5\\n15.9\\n\\n 1965\\n19,678\\n418,595\\n148,939\\n269,656\\n21.3\\n7.6\\n13.7\\n\\n 1966\\n20,048\\n387,710\\n149,863\\n237,847\\n19.3\\n7.5\\n11.9\\n\\n 1967\\n20,412\\n370,894\\n150,283\\n220,611\\n18.2\\n7.4\\n10.8\\n\\n 1968\\n20,744\\n364,310\\n153,196\\n211,114\\n17.6\\n7.4\\n10.2\\n\\n 1969\\n21,028\\n369,647\\n154,477\\n215,170\\n17.6\\n7.3\\n10.2\\n\\n 1970\\n21,324\\n371,988\\n155,961\\n216,027\\n17.4\\n7.3\\n10.1\\n\\n 1971\\n21,962\\n362,187\\n157,272\\n204,915\\n16.7\\n7.3\\n9.5\\n\\n 1972\\n22,218\\n347,319\\n162,413\\n184,906\\n15.8\\n7.4\\n8.4\\n\\n 1973\\n22,492\\n343,373\\n164,039\\n179,334\\n15.4\\n7.4\\n8.1\\n\\n 1974\\n22,808\\n350,650\\n166,794\\n178,851\\n15.3\\n7.4\\n7.9\\n\\n 1975\\n23,143\\n359,323\\n167,176\\n191,919\\n15.6\\n7.3\\n8.3\\n\\n 1976\\n23,450\\n359,987\\n167,009\\n192,978\\n15.4\\n7.2\\n8.3\\n\\n 1977\\n23,726\\n361,400\\n167,498\\n193,902\\n15.3\\n7.1\\n8.2\\n\\n 1978\\n23,963\\n358,852\\n168,179\\n190,673\\n15.0\\n7.0\\n8.0\\n\\n 1979\\n24,202\\n366,064\\n168,183\\n197,881\\n15.1\\n6.9\\n8.2\\n\\n 1980\\n24,516\\n370,709\\n171,473\\n199,236\\n15.1\\n7.0\\n8.1\\n\\n 1981\\n24,820\\n371,346\\n171,029\\n200,317\\n14.9\\n6.8\\n8.0\\n\\n 1982\\n25,117\\n373,082\\n174,413\\n198,669\\n14.8\\n6.9\\n7.9\\n\\n 1983\\n25,367\\n373,689\\n174,484\\n199,205\\n14.6\\n6.8\\n7.8\\n\\n 1984\\n25,608\\n377,031\\n175,727\\n201,304\\n14.6\\n6.8\\n7.8\\n\\n 1985\\n25,843\\n375,727\\n181,323\\n194,404\\n14.4\\n7.0\\n7.5\\n\\n 1986\\n26,101\\n372,913\\n184,224\\n188,689\\n14.3\\n7.1\\n7.2\\n\\n 1987\\n26,449\\n369,742\\n184,953\\n184,789\\n14.0\\n7.0\\n7.0\\n\\n 1988\\n26,795\\n376,795\\n190,011\\n186,784\\n14.1\\n7.1\\n7.0\\n\\n 1989\\n27,282\\n392,661\\n190,965\\n201,696\\n14.4\\n7.0\\n7.4\\n\\n 1990\\n27,698\\n405,486\\n191,973\\n213,513\\n14.6\\n6.9\\n7.7\\n\\n 1991\\n28,031\\n402,533\\n195,569\\n206,964\\n14.4\\n7.0\\n7.4\\n\\n 1992\\n28,367\\n398,643\\n196,535\\n202,108\\n14.1\\n6.9\\n7.1\\n\\n 1993\\n28,682\\n388,394\\n204,912\\n183,482\\n13.5\\n7.1\\n6.4\\n\\n 1994\\n28,999\\n385,114\\n207,077\\n178,037\\n13.3\\n7.1\\n6.1\\n\\n 1995\\n29,302\\n378,016\\n210,733\\n167,283\\n12.9\\n7.2\\n5.7\\n\\n 1996\\n29,611\\n366,200\\n212,880\\n153,320\\n12.4\\n7.2\\n5.2\\n\\n 1997\\n29,907\\n348,598\\n215,669\\n132,929\\n11.7\\n7.2\\n4.4\\n\\n 1998\\n30,157\\n342,418\\n218,091\\n124,327\\n11.4\\n7.2\\n4.1\\n\\n 1999\\n30,404\\n337,249\\n219,530\\n117,719\\n11.1\\n7.2\\n3.9\\n\\n 2000\\n30,689\\n327,882\\n218,062\\n109,820\\n10.7\\n7.1\\n3.6\\n\\n 2001\\n31,021\\n333,744\\n219,538\\n114,206\\n10.8\\n7.1\\n3.7\\n\\n 2002\\n31,373\\n328,802\\n223,603\\n105,199\\n10.5\\n7.1\\n3.4\\n\\n 2003\\n31,676\\n335,202\\n226,169\\n109,033\\n10.6\\n7.1\\n3.4\\n\\n 2004\\n31,941\\n337,072\\n226,584\\n110,488\\n10.6\\n7.1\\n3.5\\n\\n 2005\\n32,245\\n342,176\\n230,132\\n112,044\\n10.6\\n7.1\\n3.5\\n\\n 2006\\n32,576\\n354,617\\n228,079\\n126,538\\n10.9\\n7.0\\n3.9\\n\\n 2007\\n32,930\\n367,864\\n235,217\\n132,647\\n11.2\\n7.1\\n4.0\\n\\n 2008\\n33,318\\n377,886\\n238,617\\n139,269\\n11.3\\n7.2\\n4.2\\n\\n 2009\\n33,727\\n380,863\\n242,277\\n138,586\\n11.3\\n7.2\\n4.1\\n\\n 2010\\n34,127\\n377,213\\n247,926\\n129,287\\n11.1\\n7.3\\n3.8\\n\\n 2011\\n34,484\\n377,636\\n254,731\\n122,905\\n11.0\\n7.4\\n3.6\\n\\n 2012\\n34,880\\n381,429 \\n256,965\\n124,464\\n10.9\\n7.4\\n3.6\\n\\n 2013\\n35,293\\n386,044 \\n256,982\\n129,062\\n11.0\\n7.4\\n3.7\\n\\n2014\\n35,667\\n389,914\\n266,164\\n123,750\\n10.9\\n7.6\\n3.3\\n\\n2015\\n35,981\\n390,836\\n267,875\\n122,961\\n10.9\\n7.6\\n3.3\\n\\n2016(p)\\n36,503\\n395,065\\n272,891\\n122,174\\n10.8\\n7.5\\n3.3\\n\\n\\n(p)=January–September 2016\\n\\n===Current population growth===\\n\\n*Births from January–March 2016 = 94,517\\n*Births from January–March 2017 = 94,851\\n*Deaths from January–March 2016 = 71,278\\n*Deaths from January–March 2017 = 74,985\\n*Natural increase from January–March 2016 = 23,239\\n*Natural increase from January–March 2017 = 19,866\\n\\n'''Age characteristics:'''\\n\\n Population by age and gender, 2011\\n\\nAge group\\nMale\\nFemale\\nTotal\\nPercent\\n\\n\\n 0 to 4 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 5 to 9 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 10 to 14 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 15 to 19 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 20 to 24 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 25 to 29 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 30 to 34 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 35 to 39 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 40 to 44 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 45 to 49 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 50 to 54 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 55 to 59 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 60 to 64 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 65 to 69 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 70 to 74 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 75 to 79 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 80 to 84 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 85 years and over \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\nTotal \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 0 to 14 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 15 to 64 years \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n 65 years and over \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n\\n'''Net migration rate:''' 5.65 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2013 est.)\",\n \"'''Urbanization:'''\\n* ''urban population:'' 81% of total population (2010)\\n* ''rate of urbanization:'' 1.1% annual rate of change (2010-2015 est.)\",\n \"Population pyramid in 2010\\n'''Sex ratio:'''\\n* ''at birth:'' 1.06 male(s)/female\\n* ''under 15 years:'' 1.05 male(s)/female\\n* ''15 – 24 years:'' 1.06 male(s)/female\\n* ''25 - 54 years:'' 1.03 male(s)/female\\n* ''55 - 64 years:'' 0.98 male(s)/female\\n* ''65 years and over:'' 0.79 male(s)/female\\n* ''total population:'' 0.99 male(s)/female (2013 est.)\",\n \"'''Maternal mortality rate:''' 12 deaths/100,000 live births (2010 est.)\",\n \"'''Life expectancy:'''\\n* ''total population'': 81.57 years\\n* ''male'': 78.98 years\\n* ''female'': 84.31 years (2013 est.)\",\n \"===Median age===\\n* ''total:'' 40.6 years\\n** ''male:'' 39.6 years\\n** ''female:'' 41.5 years (2011)\\n\\n'''Median age by province and territory, 2011'''\\n# Newfoundland and Labrador: 44.0\\n# Nova Scotia: 43.7\\n# New Brunswick:43.7\\n# Prince Edward Island: 42.8\\n# Quebec: 41.9\\n# British Columbia: 41.9\\n# Ontario: 40.4\\n# Yukon: 39.1\\n# Manitoba: 38.4\\n# Saskatchewan: 38.2\\n# Alberta: 36.5\\n# Northwest Territories: 32.3\\n# Nunavut: 24.1\\n\\n'''Total''': 40.6\\n:Sources: Statistics Canada\",\n \"\\n===Ethnic origin===\\n\\nIn the 2006 census, Canadians could identify as being of one or more ethnicities.\",\n \"Percentages therefore add up to more than 100%.\",\n \"The most common response was \\\"Canadian\\\".\",\n \"As data is completely self-reported, and reporting individuals may have varying definitions of \\\"Ethnic origin\\\" (or may not know their ethnic origin), these figures should not be considered an exact record of the relative prevalence of different ethno-cultural ancestries but rather how Canadians self-identify.\",\n \"Statistics Canada projects that, by 2031, about 28% of the population will be foreign-born.\",\n \"The number of people belonging to visible minority groups will double, the majority of which will live in Toronto and Vancouver.\",\n \"Counting both single and multiple responses, the most commonly identified ethnic origins were (2011):\\n\\n\\n Ethnic origin\\n %\\n Population\\n Area of largest proportion\\n\\n Canadian\\n 32.16%\\n\\n Quebec (59.1%)\\n\\n English\\n 19.81%\\n\\n Newfoundland and Labrador (43.4%)\\n\\n French\\n 15.42%\\n\\n Quebec (29.1%)\\n\\n Scottish\\n 14.35%\\n\\n Prince Edward Island (39.3%)\\n\\n Irish\\n 13.83%\\n\\n Prince Edward Island (30.4%)\\n\\n German\\n 9.75%\\n\\n Saskatchewan (28.6%)\\n\\n Italian\\n 4.53%\\n\\n Ontario (7.0%)\\n\\n Chinese\\n 4.53%\\n\\n British Columbia (10.7%)\\n\\n First Nations\\n 4.17%\\n\\n Northwest Territories (37.0%)\\n\\n Ukrainian\\n 3.81%\\n\\n Manitoba (14.9%)\\n\\n East Indian\\n 3.55%\\n\\n British Columbia (6.3%)\\n\\n Dutch (Netherlands)\\n 3.25%\\n\\n Alberta (5.1%)\\n\\n Polish\\n 3.08%\\n\\n Manitoba (7.3%)\\n\\n Filipino\\n 2.02%\\n\\n Manitoba (5.2%)\\n\\n British, not included elsewhere\\n 1.75%\\n\\n Yukon (2.4%)\\n\\n Russian\\n 1.68%\\n\\n Manitoba (4.3%)\\n\\n Welsh\\n 1.40%\\n\\n Yukon (2.8%)\\n\\n Norwegian\\n 1.38%\\n\\n Saskatchewan (6.9%)\\n\\n Métis\\n 1.36%\\n\\n Northwest Territories (6.7%)\\n\\n Portuguese\\n 1.31%\\n\\n Ontario (2.3%)\\n\\n American\\n 1.13%\\n\\n Yukon (2.2%)\\n\\n Spanish\\n 1.12%\\n\\n British Columbia (1.4%)\\n\\n Swedish\\n 1.04%\\n\\n Saskatchewan (3.2%)\\n\\n Hungarian\\n 0.96%\\n\\n Saskatchewan (2.8%)\\n\\n Jewish\\n 0.94%\\n\\n Ontario (1.4%)\\n\\n\\nData from the same subject matter, though from 2001, is also grouped more geographically by Statistics Canada as follows:\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n 2001\\n\\nNorth American (non-aboriginal)\\n40.21%\\n\\nBritish Isles\\n33.64%\\n\\nFrench\\n15.89%\\n\\nWestern European\\n12.78%\\n\\nEastern European\\n8.50%\\n\\nSouthern European\\n7.87%\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n 2001\\n\\nEast and Southeast Asian\\n6.03%\\n\\nAboriginal\\n4.45%\\n\\nSouth Asian\\n3.25%\\n\\nNorthern European\\n3.22%\\n\\nCaribbean\\n1.70%\\n\\nOther European\\n1.28%\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n 2001\\n\\nArab\\n1.17%\\n\\nAfrican\\n0.99%\\n\\nLatin, Central andSouth American\\n0.82%\\n\\nWest Asian\\n0.69%\\n\\nOceania\\n0.16%\\n\\n\\n:''Percentages are calculated as a proportion of the total number of respondents (32,852,325 in 2011) and total more than 100% due to dual responses.\",\n \"All ethnocultural ancestries with responses totalling to more than 1% of the total number of responses are listed in the table above according to the exact terminology used by Statistics Canada.''\",\n \"The most common ethnic origins per province are as follows (total responses; only percentages 10% or higher shown; ordered by percentage of \\\"Canadian\\\"):\\n* Quebec (7,723,525): '''Canadian''' (59.1%), '''French''' (29.1%)\\n* New Brunswick (735,835): '''Canadian''' (50.3%), French (27.2%), English (25.9%), Irish (21.6%), Scottish (19.9%)\\n* Newfoundland and Labrador (507,265): '''Canadian''' (49.0%), '''English''' (43.4%), Irish (21.8%)\\n* Nova Scotia (906,170): '''Canadian''' (39.1%), Scottish (31.2%), English (30.8%), Irish (22.3%), French (17.0%), German (10.8%)\\n* Prince Edward Island (137,375): '''Scottish''' (39.3%), Canadian (36.8%), English (31.1%), '''Irish''' (30.4%), French (21.1%)\\n* Ontario (12,651,795): '''Canadian''' (23.3%), English (23.1%), Scottish (16.4%), Irish (16.4%), French (10.8%)\\n* Alberta (3,567,980): '''English''' (24.9%), Canadian (21.8%), German (19.2%), Scottish (18.8%), Irish (15.8%), French (11.1%)\\n* Manitoba (1,174,345): '''English''' (21.8%), German (18.6%), Canadian (18.5%), Scottish (18.0%), '''Ukrainian''' (14.9%), Irish (13.2%), French (12.6%), North American Indian (10.6%)\\n* Saskatchewan (1,008,760): '''German''' (28.6%), English (24.9%), Scottish (18.9%), Canadian (18.8%), Irish (15.5%), Ukrainian (13.5%), French (12.2%), '''North American Indian''' (12.1%)\\n* British Columbia (4,324,455): '''English''' (27.7%), Scottish (19.3%), Canadian (19.1%), German (13.1%), '''Chinese''' (10.7%)\\n* Yukon (33,320): '''English''' (28.5%), Scottish (25.0%), Irish (22.0%), North American Indian (21.8%), Canadian (21.8%), German (15.6%), French (13.1%)\\n* Northwest Territories (40,800): '''North American Indian''' (37.0%), Scottish (13.9%), English (13.7%), Canadian (12.8%), Irish (11.9%), Inuit (11.7%)\\n* Nunavut (31,700): '''Inuit''' (85.4%)\\n\\n'''Bold''' indicates either that this response is dominant within this province, or that this province has the highest ratio (percentage) of this response among provinces.\",\n \"Ethnic origin \\n Canadian\\t\\n English\\n French\\n Scottish\\n Irish\\n German\\n Italian\\n Chinese\\n First Nations\\n Ukrainian\\n Dutch\\n\\n Canada\\n 32.1\\n 19.8\\n 15.4\\n 14.3\\n 13.8\\n 9.7\\n 4.5\\n 4.5\\n 4.1\\n 3.8\\n 3.2\\n\\n Ontario \\n 23\\n 24.7\\n 11.2\\n 17.5\\n 16.5\\n 9.5\\n 7.2\\n 5.4\\n 2.6\\n 2.8\\n 4.1\\n\\n Quebec \\n 60.1 \\n 3.3\\n 28.8\\n 2.7\\n 5.5\\n 1.8\\n 4.0\\n 1.2\\n 3.0\\n 0.4\\n 0.3\\n\\n British Columbia \\n 17.7\\n 29.6\\n 8.9\\n 20.3\\n 15.2\\n 13.8\\n 3.5\\n 10.6\\n 4.7\\n 4.8\\n 4.8\\n\\n Alberta \\n 21.8\\n 24.9\\n 11.1\\n 18.8\\n 15.8\\n 19.2\\n 2.5\\n 4.4\\n 5.0\\n 9.7\\n 5.1\\n\\n Manitoba \\n 18.2\\n 22.1\\n 13.1\\n 18.5\\n 13.4\\n 19.1\\n 1.6\\n 1.5\\n 10.6\\n 14.7\\n 4.9\\n\\n Newfoundland and Labrador\\n 53.4\\n 39.4\\n 5.4\\n 6.0\\n 19.7\\n 1.2\\n 0.2\\n 0.2\\n 3.1\\n 0.1\\n 0.3\\n\\n Prince Edward Island\\n 44.9\\n 28.7\\n 21.3\\n 38\\n 27.9\\n 4.1\\n 0.5\\n 0.1\\n 1.0\\n 0.3\\n 3.1\\n\\n Nova Scotia\\n 37.6\\n 34.2\\n 18\\n 29.8\\n 24.5\\n 12\\n 1.8\\n 1.0\\n 3.4\\n 1.1\\n 4.0\\n\\n New Brunswick\\n 57.8\\n 23\\n 26.8\\n 17.7\\n 18.9\\n 3.8\\n 1.7\\n 1.1\\n 3.3\\n 0.1\\n 1.8\\n\\n Saskatchewan\\n 25\\n 24.5\\n 11.4\\n 17.9\\n 14.5\\n 28.6\\n 0.5\\n 1.0\\n 10.5\\n 12.6\\n 3.4\\n\\n\\n=== Visible minority population ===\\nStatistics Canada identifies visible minorities in accordance with the ''Employment Equity Act''.\",\n \"Statistics Canada states the \\\"''Employment Equity Act'' defines visible minorities as 'persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour.'\\\"\",\n \"Visible and non-visible minority populations by group, 1996–2011\\n\\n Group\\n 1996\\n 2001\\n 2006 \\n 2011\\n\\n Total\\n \\n Total\\n \\n Total\\n \\n Total\\n \\n\\n Total visible minority population \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n South Asian \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Chinese \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Black \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Filipino \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Latin American \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Arab/West Asian \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Arab \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Southeast Asian \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n West Asian \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Korean \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Japanese \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Visible minority, \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Multiple visible minorities \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n Not a visible minority \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Aboriginal identity (see breakdown below) \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n Others (Caucasian or White) \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n Total population in private households \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n \\n\\n\\n\\n==== By province and territory ====\\n\\n\\n Visible minority population by province and territory, 2011\\n\\n Province/territory\\n '''Not a visible minority'''\\n South Asian\\n Chinese\\n Black\\n Filipino\\n Latin American\\n Arab\\n Southeast Asian\\n West Asian\\n Korean\\n Japanese\\n Visible minority, \\n Multiple visible minorities\\n '''Total visible minority population'''\\n '''''Total population'''''\\n '''Percent visible minority'''\\n\\n Alberta\\n '''2,690,960'''\\n 156,665\\n 133,390\\n 74,435\\n 106,035\\n 41,305\\n 34,920\\n 41,025\\n 16,030\\n 15,000\\n 12,415\\n 6,270\\n 18,840\\n '''656,325'''\\n '''''3,567,980'''''\\n '''18.39%'''\\n\\n British Columbia\\n '''2,911,295'''\\n 313,440\\n 438,140\\n 33,260\\n 126,040\\n 35,465\\n 14,090\\n 51,970\\n 38,960\\n 53,770\\n 38,120\\n 6,465\\n 31,160\\n '''1,180,870'''\\n '''''4,324,455'''''\\n '''27.31%'''\\n\\n Manitoba\\n '''824,830'''\\n 25,265\\n 17,025\\n 19,610\\n 59,220\\n 9,140\\n 3,235\\n 7,565\\n 2,040\\n 3,045\\n 1,745\\n 1,765\\n 3,975\\n '''153,625'''\\n '''''1,174,350'''''\\n '''13.08%'''\\n\\n New Brunswick\\n '''696,080'''\\n 2,445\\n 2,540\\n 4,870\\n 1,100\\n 1,160\\n 1,380\\n 730\\n 305\\n 1,855\\n 305\\n 85\\n 360\\n '''17,135'''\\n '''''735,835'''''\\n '''2.33%'''\\n\\n Newfoundland and Labrador\\n '''464,540'''\\n 1,855\\n 1,645\\n 1,455\\n 350\\n 185\\n 370\\n 320\\n 155\\n 80\\n 60\\n 205\\n 250\\n '''6,930'''\\n '''''507,270'''''\\n '''1.37%'''\\n\\n Northwest Territories\\n '''16,920'''\\n 185\\n 380\\n 555\\n 895\\n 105\\n 115\\n 230\\n 60\\n 50\\n 45\\n 75\\n 30\\n '''2,720'''\\n '''''40,800'''''\\n '''6.67%'''\\n\\n Nova Scotia\\n '''825,055'''\\n 4,965\\n 6,050\\n 20,790\\n 1,890\\n 1,360\\n 6,290\\n 1,155\\n 1,365\\n 960\\n 445\\n 720\\n 1,290\\n '''47,270'''\\n '''''906,175'''''\\n '''5.22%'''\\n\\n Nunavut\\n '''3,825'''\\n 95\\n 65\\n 120\\n 130\\n 25\\n 15\\n 30\\n 0\\n 10\\n 0\\n 10\\n 0\\n '''510'''\\n '''''31,700'''''\\n '''1.61%'''\\n\\n Ontario\\n '''9,070,800'''\\n 965,990\\n 629,140\\n 539,205\\n 275,380\\n 172,560\\n 151,645\\n 137,875\\n 122,530\\n 78,290\\n 29,085\\n 81,130\\n 96,735\\n '''3,279,565'''\\n '''''12,651,795'''''\\n '''25.92%'''\\n\\n Prince Edward Island\\n '''130,890'''\\n 485\\n 1,830\\n 390\\n 85\\n 235\\n 200\\n 205\\n 345\\n 140\\n 210\\n 75\\n 70\\n '''4,260'''\\n '''''137,380'''''\\n '''3.10%'''\\n\\n Quebec\\n '''6,740,375'''\\n 83,320\\n 82,845\\n 243,625\\n 31,495\\n 116,380\\n 166,260\\n 65,855\\n 23,445\\n 6,665\\n 4,025\\n 8,895\\n 17,420\\n '''850,235'''\\n '''''7,732,525'''''\\n '''11.00%'''\\n\\n Saskatchewan\\n '''787,745'''\\n 12,325\\n 11,300\\n 7,255\\n 16,025\\n 3,250\\n 2,095\\n 4,910\\n 1,600\\n 1,270\\n 720\\n 745\\n 1,775\\n '''63,275'''\\n '''''1,008,760'''''\\n '''6.27%'''\\n\\n Yukon\\n '''23,590'''\\n 365\\n 400\\n 100\\n 675\\n 110\\n 0\\n 210\\n 0\\n 0\\n 80\\n 35\\n 35\\n '''2,025'''\\n '''''33,320'''''\\n '''6.08%'''\\n\\n Canada\\n '''25,186,890'''\\n 1,567,400\\n 1,324,750\\n 945,665\\n 619,310\\n 381,280\\n 380,620\\n 312,075\\n 206,840\\n 161,130\\n 87,270\\n 106,475\\n 171,935\\n '''6,264,750'''\\n '''''32,852,325'''''\\n '''19.07%'''\\n\\nAll statistics are from the Canada 2011 Census.\",\n \"==== By city over 100,000 ====\\n\\n\\n Visible minority in Canadian cities over 100,000 people, 2011\\n\\nCity\\nPopulation\\nEuropean\\nVisible minority\\nBlack\\nEast Asian\\nLatin American\\nSouth Asian\\nSoutheast Asian\\nWest Asian\\nArab \\nMultiracial\\nOther\\n\\nToronto\\n2,576,025 \\n50.2%\\n'''49.1%'''\\n8.5%\\n12.7%\\n2.8%\\n12.3% \\n7.0%\\n2.0%\\n1.1%\\n1.5%\\n1.3%\\n\\nMontreal\\n1,612,640\\n67.7%\\n'''31.7%'''\\n9.1%\\n3.2%\\n4.2%\\n3.3%\\n3.8%\\n0.8%\\n6.4%\\n0.6%\\n0.3%\\n\\nCalgary\\n1,082,235\\n67.3%\\n'''30.1%'''\\n2.9%\\n8.1%\\n1.8%\\n7.5%\\n6.3%\\n0.8%\\n1.5%\\n0.8%\\n0.3%\\n\\nOttawa\\n867,090\\n74.2%\\n'''23.7%'''\\n5.7%\\n4.5%\\n1.2%\\n3.9%\\n2.8%\\n0.9%\\n3.7%\\n0.7%\\n0.2%\\n\\nEdmonton\\n795,675\\n64.7%\\n'''30.0%'''\\n3.8%\\n7.1%\\n1.7%\\n7.2%\\n6.5%\\n0.9%\\n1.7%\\n0.8%\\n0.3%\\n\\nMississauga\\n708,725\\n45.8%\\n'''53.7%'''\\n6.3%\\n8.3%\\n2.2%\\n21.8%\\n7.8%\\n1.1%\\n3.5%\\n1.5%\\n1.3%\\n\\nWinnipeg\\n649,995\\n66.9%\\n'''21.4%'''\\n2.7%\\n2.9%\\n1.0%\\n3.5%\\n9.8%\\n0.3%\\n0.4%\\n0.6%\\n0.2%\\n\\nVancouver\\n590,210\\n46.2%\\n'''51.8%'''\\n1.0%\\n30.9%\\n1.6%\\n6.0%\\n9.0%\\n1.2%\\n0.5%\\n1.5%\\n0.2%\\n\\nBrampton\\n521,315\\n32.9%\\n'''66.4%'''\\n13.5%\\n1.8%\\n2.2%\\n38.4%\\n5.1%\\n0.7%\\n0.8%\\n1.4%\\n2.6%\\n\\nHamilton\\n509,640\\n82.3%\\n'''15.7%'''\\n3.2%\\n2.2%\\n1.4%\\n3.4%\\n2.6%\\n0.8%\\n1.4%\\n0.4%\\n0.3%\\n\\nQuebec City\\n502,595\\n95.0%\\n'''4.0%'''\\n1.1%\\n0.4%\\n1.0%\\n0.2%\\n0.4%\\n0.1%\\n0.7%\\n0.1%\\n0.1%\\n\\nSurrey\\n463,340\\n44.5%\\n'''52.6%'''\\n1.3%\\n8.5%\\n1.2%\\n30.7%\\n8.5%\\n0.5%\\n0.7%\\n0.9%\\n0.2%\\n\\nLaval\\n392,725\\n78.7%\\n'''20.7%'''\\n6.2%\\n0.9%\\n2.5%\\n1.7%\\n2.2%\\n0.8%\\n5.9%\\n0.3%\\n0.1%\\n\\nHalifax\\n384,330\\n88.4%\\n'''9.1%'''\\n3.6%\\n1.5%\\n0.3%\\n1.0%\\n0.6%\\n0.4%\\n1.4%\\n0.3%\\n0.1%\\n\\nLondon\\n360,715\\n82.0%\\n'''16.1%'''\\n2.4%\\n2.9%\\n2.7%\\n2.2%\\n1.7%\\n0.8%\\n2.6%\\n0.5%\\n0.2%\\n\\nMarkham\\n300,135\\n27.5%\\n'''72.3%'''\\n3.2%\\n39.7%\\n0.5%\\n19.1%\\n3.9%\\n2.1%\\n1.1%\\n1.9%\\n0.7%\\n\\nVaughan\\n286,305\\n68.4%\\n'''31.4%'''\\n2.7%\\n6.3%\\n2.1%\\n9.7%\\n5.7%\\n2.1%\\n1.0%\\n1.0%\\n0.8%\\n\\nGatineau\\n261,665\\n86.2%\\n'''10.3%'''\\n3.9%\\n1.0%\\n1.5%\\n0.3%\\n0.7%\\n0.2%\\n2.5%\\n0.2%\\n0.1%\\n\\nLongueuil\\n227,970\\n84.8%\\n'''14.2%'''\\n4.6%\\n1.4%\\n2.5%\\n0.9%\\n1.4%\\n0.6%\\n2.3%\\n0.2%\\n0.2%\\n\\nBurnaby\\n220,255\\n39.1%\\n'''59.5%'''\\n1.6%\\n36.0%\\n1.7%\\n7.9%\\n7.7%\\n2.0%\\n0.7%\\n1.8%\\n0.2%\\n\\nSaskatoon\\n218,315\\n77.4%\\n'''12.8%'''\\n1.1%\\n2.7%\\n0.6%\\n2.7%\\n3.9%\\n0.5%\\n0.6%\\n0.4%\\n0.2%\\n\\nKitchener\\n215,950\\n80.1%\\n'''18.4%'''\\n3.1%\\n2.2%\\n2.7%\\n4.1%\\n3.0%\\n1.1%\\n1.2%\\n0.6%\\n0.4%\\n\\nWindsor\\n208,015\\n74.8%\\n'''22.9%'''\\n4.6%\\n3.2%\\n1.1%\\n3.9%\\n3.1%\\n0.8%\\n5.5%\\n0.5%\\n0.4%\\n\\nRegina\\n189,740\\n78.6%\\n'''11.5%'''\\n1.6%\\n2.2%\\n0.7%\\n2.6%\\n3.5%\\n0.3%\\n0.3%\\n0.3%\\n0.0%\\n\\nRichmond\\n189,305\\n28.6%\\n'''70.4%'''\\n0.7%\\n49.8%\\n0.9%\\n7.7%\\n7.8%\\n0.7%\\n0.5%\\n2.3%\\n0.2%\\n\\nRichmond Hill\\n184,370\\n46.9%\\n'''52.9%'''\\n2.0%\\n26.9%\\n0.9%\\n8.1%\\n3.0%\\n8.6%\\n1.7%\\n1.3%\\n0.4%\\n\\nOakville\\n180,430\\n77.2%\\n'''22.8%'''\\n2.7%\\n5.3%\\n1.5%\\n7.2%\\n2.7%\\n0.7%\\n1.6%\\n0.8%\\n0.4%\\n\\nBurlington\\n173,495\\n87.1%\\n'''12.0%'''\\n1.6%\\n2.4%\\n1.0%\\n3.6%\\n1.3%\\n0.5%\\n0.9%\\n0.5%\\n0.2%\\n\\nGreater Sudbury\\n157,765\\n89.1%\\n'''2.7%'''\\n0.6%\\n0.6%\\n0.2%\\n0.4%\\n0.3%\\n0.1%\\n0.3%\\n0.1%\\n0.0%\\n\\nSherbrooke\\n150,255\\n93.6%\\n'''5.5%'''\\n1.7%\\n0.3%\\n1.4%\\n0.3%\\n0.4%\\n0.3%\\n0.9%\\n0.1%\\n0.0%\\n\\nOshawa\\n147,680\\n88.7%\\n'''9.3%'''\\n3.2%\\n1.1%\\n0.7%\\n1.9%\\n1.2%\\n0.3%\\n0.2%\\n0.4%\\n0.4%\\n\\nSaguenay\\n141,335\\n96.6%\\n'''0.9%'''\\n0.3%\\n0.2%\\n0.1%\\n0.0%\\n0.1%\\n0.0%\\n0.2%\\n0.0%\\n0.0%\\n\\nLévis\\n135,835\\n98.0%\\n'''1.4%'''\\n0.4%\\n0.3%\\n0.2%\\n0.0%\\n0.2%\\n0.0%\\n0.2%\\n0.1%\\n0.0%\\n\\nBarrie\\n133,240\\n89.8%\\n'''7.6%'''\\n1.9%\\n1.3%\\n0.8%\\n1.3%\\n1.0%\\n0.1%\\n0.2%\\n0.4%\\n0.4%\\n\\nAbbotsford\\n130,950\\n66.5%\\n'''29.6%'''\\n0.9%\\n2.9%\\n0.6%\\n22.4%\\n1.5%\\n0.1%\\n0.2%\\n0.4%\\n0.3%\\n\\nSt. Catharines\\n128,770\\n88.3%\\n'''9.9%'''\\n2.1%\\n1.9%\\n1.5%\\n1.1%\\n1.3%\\n0.3%\\n1.0%\\n0.3%\\n0.3%\\n\\nTrois-Rivières\\n126,980\\n96.3%\\n'''2.5%'''\\n0.9%\\n0.2%\\n0.6%\\n0.0%\\n0.1%\\n0.0%\\n0.5%\\n0.0%\\n0.0%\\n\\nCambridge\\n125,060\\n85.4%\\n'''12.6%'''\\n1.9%\\n1.2%\\n1.0%\\n5.2%\\n1.7%\\n0.3%\\n0.6%\\n0.3%\\n0.4%\\n\\nCoquitlam\\n125,015\\n54.1%\\n'''43.8%'''\\n1.0%\\n24.1%\\n1.5%\\n4.2%\\n5.1%\\n5.1%\\n0.8%\\n1.3%\\n0.2%\\n\\nKingston\\n118,930\\n89.7%\\n'''7.4%'''\\n0.9%\\n2.1%\\n0.7%\\n1.7%\\n0.9%\\n0.3%\\n0.6%\\n0.1%\\n0.1%\\n\\nWhitby\\n120,285\\n79.5%\\n'''19.2%'''\\n6.2%\\n2.5%\\n0.8%\\n4.7%\\n2.2%\\n0.5%\\n0.6%\\n1.0%\\n0.7%\\n\\nGuelph\\n120,550\\n82.7%\\n'''15.7%'''\\n1.4%\\n3.1%\\n1.0%\\n4.1%\\n4.0%\\n0.8%\\n0.5%\\n0.5%\\n0.2%\\n\\nKelowna\\n114,570\\n87.9%\\n'''7.6%'''\\n0.6%\\n2.6%\\n0.5%\\n2.3%\\n1.0%\\n0.1%\\n0.2%\\n0.2%\\n0.2%\\n\\nSaanich\\n107,855\\n79.3%\\n'''18.0%'''\\n1.1%\\n8.6%\\n0.7%\\n3.8%\\n2.4%\\n0.3%\\n0.4%\\n0.4%\\n0.2%\\n\\nAjax\\n109,220\\n53.2%\\n'''45.8%'''\\n16.0%\\n2.8%\\n1.0%\\n13.8%\\n5.0%\\n1.6%\\n1.1%\\n2.0%\\n2.6%\\n\\nThunder Bay\\n105,950\\n87.1%\\n'''3.4%'''\\n0.5%\\n1.0%\\n0.2%\\n0.5%\\n0.7%\\n0.1%\\n0.1%\\n0.2%\\n0.1%\\n\\nTerrebonne\\n105,610\\n91.7%\\n'''7.6%'''\\n4.5%\\n0.2%\\n1.3%\\n0.1%\\n0.2%\\n0.1%\\n1.1%\\n0.1%\\n0.1%\\n\\nSt. John's\\n103,905\\n93.3%\\n'''4.4%'''\\n0.9%\\n1.1%\\n0.1%\\n1.2%\\n0.3%\\n0.1%\\n0.2%\\n0.1%\\n0.1%\\n\\nLangley\\n103,145\\n83.2%\\n'''13.4%'''\\n0.5%\\n6.3%\\n0.6%\\n2.7%\\n2.4%\\n0.2%\\n0.2%\\n0.5%\\n0.1%\\n\\nChatham-Kent\\n101,680\\n93.2%\\n'''3.9%'''\\n1.9%\\n0.5%\\n0.3%\\n0.5%\\n0.5%\\n0.1%\\n0.0%\\n0.1%\\n0.0%\\n\\n\\n=== Aboriginal population ===\\n\\n\\n\\n Aboriginal population in Canada, 1996–2011 censuses\\n\\n Group\\n 1996\\n 2001\\n 2006 \\n 2011\\n\\n %\\n Total\\n %\\n Total\\n %\\n Total\\n %\\n Total\\n\\n'''Total Aboriginal'''\\n'''2.8%'''\\n'''799,005'''\\n'''3.3%''' \\n'''976,305'''\\n'''3.8%''' \\n'''1,172,785'''\\n'''4.3%'''\\n'''1,400,685'''\\n\\nFirst Nations\\n1.8% \\n529,040\\n2.1%\\n608,850\\n2.2%\\n698,025\\n2.6% \\n851,560\\n\\nMétis\\n0.7%\\n204,115\\n1.0%\\n292,305\\n1.2%\\n389,780\\n1.4% \\n451,795\\n\\nInuit\\n0.14%\\n40,220 \\n\\n \\n0.16%\\n50,485\\n0.2%\\n59,445\\n\\n\\n''Note: Inuit, other Aboriginal and mixed Aboriginal groups are not listed as their own, but they are all accounted for in total Aboriginal''\\n\\n==== By province and territory ====\\n\\n\\n Aboriginal population by province and territory, 2011\\n\\n Province/territory\\n Not Aboriginal\\n First Nations\\n Métis\\n Inuit\\n Aboriginal, \\n Multiple Aboriginal identities\\n '''Total Aboriginal population'''\\n '''''Total population'''''\\n\\n Alberta\\n '''2,690,960'''\\n 116,670\\n 96,870\\n 1,985\\n 3,300\\n 1,870\\n '''220,695'''\\n '''''3,567,980'''''\\n\\n British Columbia\\n '''2,911,295'''\\n 155,020\\n 69,475\\n 1,570\\n 3,745\\n 2,480\\n '''232,290'''\\n '''''4,324,455'''''\\n\\n Manitoba\\n '''824,830'''\\n 114,225\\n 78,830\\n 580\\n 1,055\\n 1,200\\n '''195,895'''\\n '''''1,174,350'''''\\n\\n New Brunswick\\n '''696,080'''\\n 16,120\\n 4,850\\n 485\\n 1,020\\n 150\\n '''22,620'''\\n '''''735,835'''''\\n\\n Newfoundland and Labrador\\n '''464,540'''\\n 19,315\\n 7,660\\n 6,265\\n 2,300\\n 260\\n '''35,800'''\\n '''''507,270'''''\\n\\n Northwest Territories\\n '''16,920'''\\n 13,350\\n 3,250\\n 4,335\\n 185\\n 45\\n '''21,160'''\\n '''''40,800'''''\\n\\n Nova Scotia\\n '''825,055'''\\n 21,895\\n 10,050\\n 695\\n 980\\n 225\\n '''33,850'''\\n '''''906,175'''''\\n\\n Nunavut\\n '''3,825'''\\n 125\\n 130\\n 27,070\\n 15\\n 20\\n '''27,365'''\\n '''''31,700'''''\\n\\n Ontario\\n '''9,070,800'''\\n\\n 201,100\\n 86,020\\n 3,355\\n 8,040\\n 2,910\\n '''301,430'''\\n '''''12,651,795'''''\\n\\n Prince Edward Island\\n '''130,890'''\\n\\n 1,520\\n 410\\n 55\\n 235\\n 0\\n '''2,230'''\\n '''''137,380'''''\\n\\n Quebec\\n '''6,740,375'''\\n\\n 82,425\\n 40,960\\n 12,570\\n 4,415\\n 1,545\\n '''141,915'''\\n '''''7,732,525'''''\\n\\n Saskatchewan\\n '''787,745'''\\n\\n 103,205\\n 52,450\\n 290\\n 1,120\\n 675\\n '''157,740'''\\n '''''1,008,760'''''\\n\\n Yukon\\n '''23,590'''\\n\\n 6,585\\n 845\\n 175\\n 70\\n 25\\n '''7,705'''\\n '''''33,320'''''\\n\\n Canada\\n '''25,186,890'''\\n 851,560\\n 451,795\\n 59,440\\n 26,475\\n 11,415\\n '''1,400,685'''\\n '''''32,852,325'''''\\n\\nAll statistics are from the Canada 2011 Census.\",\n \"==== By city over 100,000 ====\\n\\n\\n Aboriginal population in Canadian cities over 100,000 people, 2011\\n\\nCity\\nPopulation\\nEuropean\\nTotal Aboriginal\\nFirst Nations\\nMétis\\n\\nToronto\\n2,576,025 \\n50.2%\\n'''0.7%'''\\n0.5%\\n0.2%\\n\\nMontreal\\n1,612,640\\n67.7%\\n'''0.6%'''\\n0.3%\\n0.2%\\n\\nCalgary\\n1,082,235\\n67.3%\\n'''2.7%'''\\n1.2%\\n1.4%\\n\\nOttawa\\n867,090\\n74.2%\\n'''2.1%'''\\n1.2%\\n0.7%\\n\\nEdmonton\\n795,675\\n64.7%\\n'''5.3%'''\\n2.4%\\n2.7%\\n\\nMississauga\\n708,725\\n45.8%\\n'''0.5%'''\\n0.3%\\n0.1%\\n\\nWinnipeg\\n649,995\\n66.9%\\n'''11.7%'''\\n5.9%\\n6.3%\\n\\nVancouver\\n590,210\\n46.2%\\n'''2.0%'''\\n1.3%\\n0.6%\\n\\nBrampton\\n521,315\\n32.9%\\n'''0.7%'''\\n0.4%\\n0.2%\\n\\nHamilton\\n509,640\\n82.3%\\n'''2.0%'''\\n1.6%\\n0.3%\\n\\nQuebec City\\n502,595\\n95.0%\\n'''0.9%'''\\n0.5%\\n0.4%\\n\\nSurrey\\n463,340\\n44.5%\\n'''2.9%'''\\n1.9%\\n1.0%\\n\\nLaval\\n392,725\\n78.7%\\n'''0.6%'''\\n0.3%\\n0.2%\\n\\nHalifax\\n384,330\\n88.4%\\n'''2.5%'''\\n1.5%\\n0.8%\\n\\nLondon\\n360,715\\n82.0%\\n'''1.9%'''\\n1.4%\\n0.4%\\n\\nMarkham\\n300,135\\n27.5%\\n'''0.2%'''\\n0.1%\\n0.1%\\n\\nVaughan\\n286,305\\n68.4%\\n'''0.2%'''\\n0.1%\\n\\n0.0%\\n\\nGatineau\\n261,665\\n86.2%\\n'''3.5%'''\\n1.8%\\n1.5%\\n\\nLongueuil\\n227,970\\n84.8%\\n'''1.0%'''\\n0.6%\\n0.0%\\n\\nBurnaby\\n220,255\\n39.1%\\n'''1.5%'''\\n0.9%\\n0.5%\\n\\nSaskatoon\\n218,315\\n77.4%\\n'''10.2%'''\\n4.9%\\n4.6%\\n\\nKitchener\\n215,950\\n80.1%\\n'''1.5%'''\\n0.9%\\n0.5%\\n\\nWindsor\\n208,015\\n74.8%\\n'''2.3%'''\\n1.3%\\n0.9%\\n\\nRegina\\n189,740\\n78.6%\\n'''9.9%'''\\n5.8%\\n3.9%\\n\\nRichmond\\n189,305\\n28.6%\\n'''1.0%'''\\n0.7%\\n0.3%\\n\\nRichmond Hill\\n184,370\\n46.9%\\n'''0.2%'''\\n0.1%\\n0.0%\\n\\nOakville\\n180,430\\n77.2%\\n'''0.6%'''\\n0.4%\\n0.2%\\n\\nBurlington\\n173,495\\n87.1%\\n'''0.9%'''\\n0.5%\\n0.3%\\n\\nGreater Sudbury\\n157,765\\n89.1%\\n\\n'''8.2%'''\\n3.8%\\n4.1%\\n\\nSherbrooke\\n150,255\\n93.6%\\n'''0.9%'''\\n0.5%\\n0.3%\\n\\nOshawa\\n147,680\\n88.7%\\n'''2.0%'''\\n1.2%\\n0.8%\\n\\nSaguenay\\n141,335\\n96.6%\\n'''2.5%'''\\n0.8%\\n1.6%\\n\\nLévis\\n135,835\\n98.0%\\n'''0.5%'''\\n0.2%\\n0.2%\\n\\nBarrie\\n133,240\\n89.8%\\n'''2.6%'''\\n1.4%\\n1.2%\\n\\nAbbotsford\\n130,950\\n66.5%\\n'''4.0%'''\\n2.5%\\n1.6%\\n\\nSt. Catharines\\n128,770\\n88.3%\\n'''1.9%'''\\n1.2%\\n0.6%\\n\\nTrois-Rivières\\n126,980\\n96.3%\\n'''1.1%'''\\n0.6%\\n0.4%\\n\\nCambridge\\n125,060\\n85.4%\\n'''2.0%'''\\n1.2%\\n0.6%\\n\\nCoquitlam\\n125,015\\n54.1%\\n'''2.1%'''\\n1.1%\\n0.9%\\n\\nKingston\\n118,930\\n89.7%\\n'''2.9%'''\\n2.0%\\n0.8%\\n\\nWhitby\\n120,285\\n79.5%\\n'''1.2%'''\\n0.7%\\n0.4%\\n\\nGuelph\\n120,550\\n82.7%\\n'''1.6%'''\\n1.0%\\n0.6%\\n\\nKelowna\\n114,570\\n87.9%\\n'''4.5%'''\\n2.1%\\n2.3%\\n\\nSaanich\\n107,855\\n79.3%\\n'''2.7%'''\\n1.5%\\n1.1%\\n\\nAjax\\n109,220\\n53.2%\\n'''1.0%'''\\n0.7%\\n0.3%\\n\\nThunder Bay\\n105,950\\n87.1%\\n'''9.5%'''\\n7.3%\\n2.0%\\n\\nTerrebonne\\n105,610\\n91.7%\\n'''0.7%'''\\n0.5%\\n0.1%\\n\\nSt. John's\\n103,905\\n93.3%\\n'''2.6%'''\\n1.2%\\n0.8%\\n\\nLangley\\n103,145\\n83.2%\\n'''3.4%'''\\n1.6%\\n1.7%\\n\\nChatham-Kent\\n101,680\\n93.2%\\n'''2.9%'''\\n1.7%\\n0.9%\",\n \"\\n\\n\\n'''Language used most often at work:'''\\n* English: 78.3%\\n* French: 21.7%\\n* Non-official languages: 2%\\n\\n'''Languages by language used most often at home:'''\\n* English: 67.1%\\n* French: 21.5%\\n* Non-official languages: 11.4%\\n\\n'''Languages by mother tongue:'''\\n\\n\\nFirst language\\nPopulation (2011)\\n% of total population (2011)\\nPopulation (2006)\\n% of total population (2006)\\nIncrease (2006–2011)\\nNotes\\n\\n '''''Single language responses'''''\\n '''''32,481,635'''''\\n ''''''''''\\n '''''30,848,270'''''\\n '''''98.7%'''''\\n ''''''''''\\n\\n\\n ''Official languages''\\n ''25,913,955''\\n ''''\\n ''24,700,425''\\n ''79.1%''\\n ''''\\n\\n\\n English\\n 18,858,980\\n \\n 17,882,775\\n 57.2%\\n \\n\\n\\n French\\n 7,054,975\\n \\n 6,817,650\\n 21.8%\\n \\n\\n\\n ''Non-official languages''\\n ''6,567,680''\\n ''''\\n ''6,147,840''\\n ''19.7%''\\n ''''\\n\\n\\n Punjabi\\n 430,705\\n \\n 367,505\\n 1.2%\\n \\n\\n\\n Chinese, \\n 425,210\\n \\n 456,705\\n 1.5%\\n \\n\\n\\n Spanish\\n 410,670\\n \\n 345,345\\n 1.1%\\n \\n\\n\\n German\\n 409,200\\n \\n 450,570\\n 1.4%\\n \\n\\n\\n Italian\\n 407,485\\n \\n 455,040\\n 1.5%\\n \\n\\n\\n Cantonese\\n 372,460\\n \\n 361,450\\n 1.2%\\n \\n\\n\\n Arabic\\n 327,870\\n \\n 261,640\\n 0.8%\\n \\n\\n\\n Tagalog (Pilipino, Filipino)\\n 327,445\\n \\n 235,615\\n 0.8%\\n \\n\\n\\n Mandarin\\n 248,705\\n \\n 170,950\\n 0.5%\\n \\n\\n\\n Portuguese\\n 211,335\\n \\n 219,275\\n 0.7%\\n \\n\\n\\n Polish\\n 191,645\\n \\n 211,175\\n 0.7%\\n \\n\\n\\n Urdu\\n 172,800\\n \\n 145,805\\n 0.5%\\n \\n\\n\\n Persian\\n 170,045\\n \\n 134,080\\n 0.4%\\n \\n\\n\\n Russian\\n 164,330\\n \\n 133,580\\n 0.4%\\n \\n\\n\\n Vietnamese\\n 144,880\\n \\n 141,625\\n 0.5%\\n \\n\\n\\n Korean\\n 137,925\\n \\n 125,570\\n 0.4%\\n \\n\\n\\n Tamil\\n 131,265\\n \\n 115,880\\n 0.4%\\n \\n\\n\\n Ukrainian\\n 111,540\\n \\n 134,500\\n 0.4%\\n \\n\\n\\n Dutch\\n 110,490\\n \\n 128,900\\n 0.4%\\n \\n\\n\\n Greek\\n 108,925\\n \\n 117,285\\n 0.4%\\n \\n\\n\\n Gujarati\\n 91,450\\n \\n 81,465\\n 0.3%\\n \\n\\n\\n Hindustani (Hindi)\\n 90,545\\n \\n 78,240\\n 0.3%\\n \\n\\n\\n Romanian\\n 90,300\\n \\n 78,495\\n 0.3%\\n \\n\\n\\n Cree, \\n 77,900\\n \\n 78,855\\n 0.3%\\n \\n In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to simply as 'Cree'.\",\n \"Hungarian\\n 67,920\\n \\n 73,335\\n 0.2%\\n \\n\\n\\n Creoles\\n 61,725\\n \\n 53,515\\n 0.2%\\n \\n\\n\\n Bengali\\n 59,370\\n \\n 45,685\\n 0.1%\\n \\n\\n\\n Serbian\\n 56,420\\n \\n 51,665\\n 0.2%\\n \\n\\n\\n Croatian\\n 49,730\\n \\n 55,330\\n 0.2%\\n \\n\\n\\n Japanese\\n 39,985\\n \\n 40,200\\n 0.1%\\n \\n\\n\\n Inuktitut\\n 33,500\\n \\n 32,015\\n 0.1%\\n \\n In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to as 'Inuktitut, '.\",\n \"Somali\\n 31,380\\n \\n 27,320\\n 0.09%\\n \\n\\n\\n Armenian\\n 29,795\\n \\n 30,130\\n 0.1%\\n \\n\\n\\n Turkish\\n 29,640\\n \\n 24,745\\n 0.08%\\n \\n\\n\\n Albanian\\n 23,820\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Czech\\n 23,585\\n \\n 24,450\\n 0.08%\\n \\n\\n\\n Khmer (Cambodian)\\n 19,440\\n \\n 19,105\\n 0.06%\\n \\n\\n\\n Bulgarian\\n 19,050\\n \\n 16,790\\n 0.05%\\n \\n\\n\\n Hebrew\\n 18,450\\n \\n 17,635\\n 0.06%\\n \\n\\n\\n Amharic\\n 18,020\\n \\n 14,555\\n 0.05%\\n \\n\\n\\n Ilocano\\n 17,915\\n \\n 13,450\\n 0.04%\\n \\n\\n\\n Ojibway\\n 17,625\\n \\n 24,190\\n 0.08%\\n \\n\\n\\n Slovak\\n 17,580\\n \\n 18,820\\n 0.06%\\n \\n\\n\\n Finnish\\n 17,415\\n \\n 21,030\\n 0.07%\\n \\n\\n\\n Macedonian\\n 17,245\\n \\n 18,435\\n 0.06%\\n \\n\\n\\n Semitic languages, \\n 16,970\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Bisayan languages\\n 16,240\\n \\n 11,240\\n 0.04%\\n \\n\\n\\n Malayalam\\n 16,080\\n \\n 11,925\\n 0.04%\\n \\n\\n\\n Yiddish\\n 15,205\\n \\n 16,295\\n 0.05%\\n \\n\\n\\n Sinhala (Sinhalese)\\n 14,185\\n \\n 10,180\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n Danish\\n 14,145\\n \\n 18,735\\n 0.06%\\n \\n\\n\\n Niger–Congo languages, \\n 14,075\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Lao\\n 12,970\\n \\n 13,940\\n 0.04%\\n \\n\\n\\n Akan (Twi)\\n 12,680\\n \\n 12,780\\n 0.04%\\n \\n\\n\\n Pashto\\n 12,465\\n \\n 9,025\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n Bosnian\\n 11,685\\n \\n 12,790\\n 0.04%\\n \\n\\n\\n Sindhi\\n 11,330\\n \\n 10,355\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n Dene\\n 11,215\\n \\n 9,745\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n Oromo\\n 11,140\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Malay\\n 10,910\\n \\n 9,490\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n Innu/Montagnais\\n 10,785\\n \\n 10,975\\n 0.04%\\n \\n In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to as 'Montagnais-Naskapi'.\",\n \"Slovenian\\n 10,775\\n \\n 13,135\\n 0.04%\\n \\n\\n\\n Tigrigna\\n 10,220\\n \\n 7,105\\n 0.02%\\n \\n\\n\\n Serbo-Croatian\\n 10,155\\n \\n 12,510\\n 0.04%\\n \\n\\n\\n Swahili\\n 10,090\\n \\n 7,935\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n Oji-Cree\\n 9,835\\n \\n 11,690\\n 0.04%\\n \\n\\n\\n Kurdish\\n 9,805\\n \\n 7,660\\n 0.02%\\n \\n\\n\\n Taiwanese\\n 9,635\\n \\n 9,620\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n Telugu\\n 9,315\\n \\n 6,625\\n 0.02%\\n \\n\\n\\n African languages, \\n 9,125\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Afrikaans\\n 8,770\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Nepali\\n 8,480\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Thai\\n 7,935\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Mi'kmaq\\n 7,635\\n \\n 7,365\\n 0.02%\\n \\n\\n\\n Swedish\\n 7,350\\n \\n 8,220\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n Lithuanian\\n 7,245\\n \\n 8,335\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n Bantu languages, \\n 7,150\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Estonian\\n 6,385\\n \\n 8,240\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n Maltese\\n 6,220\\n \\n 6,405\\n 0.02%\\n \\n\\n\\n Latvian\\n 6,200\\n \\n 7,000\\n 0.02%\\n \\n\\n\\n Fukien\\n 5,925\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Berber languages (Kabyle)\\n 5,855\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Marathi\\n 5,830\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Atikamekw\\n 5,820\\n \\n 5,250\\n 0.02%\\n \\n\\n\\n Norwegian\\n 5,800\\n \\n 7,225\\n 0.02%\\n \\n\\n\\n Indo-Iranian languages, \\n 5,255\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Hakka\\n 5,115\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Flemish\\n 4,690\\n \\n 5,660\\n 0.02%\\n \\n\\n\\n Tibetan languages\\n 4,640\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Sino-Tibetan languages, \\n 4,360\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Rundi (Kirundi)\\n 3,975\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Rwanda (Kinyarwanda)\\n 3,895\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Sign languages, \\n 3,815\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Slavic languages, \\n 3,630\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Lingala\\n 3,085\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Stoney\\n 3,050\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Burmese\\n 2,985\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Shanghainese\\n 2,920\\n \\n N/A\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Siouan languages (Dakota/Sioux)\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 5,585\\n 0.02%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Blackfoot\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 3,085\\n 0.01%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Frisian\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 2,890\\n 0.009%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Dogrib\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 2,020\\n 0.006%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Algonquin\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 1,920\\n 0.006%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n South Slave\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 1,605\\n 0.005%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Carrier\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 1,560\\n 0.005%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Gitksan\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 1,180\\n 0.004%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Chilcotin\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 1,070\\n 0.003%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n North Slave (Hare)\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 1,065\\n 0.003%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Shuswap\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 935\\n 0.003%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Nisga’a\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 680\\n 0.002%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Malecite\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 535\\n 0.002%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Chipewyan\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 525\\n 0.002%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Inuinnaqtun\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 365\\n 0.001%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Kutchin-Gwich’in (Loucheux)\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 360\\n 0.001%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Mohawk\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 290\\n 0.0009%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Tlingit\\n N/A\\n N/A\\n 80\\n 0.0003%\\n N/A\\n\\n\\n Other languages\\n 77,890\\n \\n 172,650\\n 0.6%\\n \\n\\n\\n '''''Multiple language responses'''''\\n '''''639,540'''''\\n ''''''''''\\n '''''392,760'''''\\n '''''1.3%'''''\\n ''''''''''\\n\\n\\n English and French\\n 144,685\\n \\n 98,630\\n 0.3%\\n \\n\\n\\n English and a non-official language\\n 396,330\\n \\n 240,005\\n 0.8%\\n \\n\\n\\n French and a non-official language\\n 74,430\\n \\n 43,335\\n 0.1%\\n \\n\\n\\n English, French, and a non-official language\\n 24,095\\n \\n 10,790\\n 0.03%\\n \\n\\n\\n '''Total'''\\n '''33,121,175'''\\n ''''''\\n '''31,241,030'''\\n '''100%'''\\n ''''''\",\n \"\\nStatistics Canada (StatCan) grouped responses to the 2011 National Household Survey (NHS) question on religion into nine core religious categories – Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, Traditional (Aboriginal) Spirituality, other religions and no religious affiliation.\",\n \"Among these, of Canadians were self-identified as Christians in 2011.\",\n \"The second and third-largest categories were of Canadians with no religious affiliation at and Canadian Muslims at .\",\n \"Within the 2011 NHS results, StatCan further subcategorized Christianity in nine groups of its own – Anglican, Baptist, Catholic, Christian Orthodox, Lutheran, Pentecostal, Presbyterian, United Church and Other Christian.\",\n \"Among these, of Canadians were self-identified as Catholic in 2011.\",\n \"The second and third-largest ungrouped subcategories of Christian Canadians were United at and Anglican at , while of Christians were grouped into the Other Christian subcategory comprising numerous denominations.\",\n \"Of the 3,036,785 or of Canadians identified as Other Christians:\\n*105,365 ( of Canadians) were identified as Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon);\\n*137,775 ( of Canadians) were identified as Jehovah's Witness;\\n*175,880 ( of Canadians) were identified as Mennonite;\\n*550,965 ( of Canadians) were identified as Protestant; and\\n*102,830 ( of Canadians) were identified as Reformed.\",\n \"Religion status of the Canadian Population in 2011\\n\\n Religion\\n Total\\n Percent\\n\\n Buddhist \\n \\n \\n\\n Christian \\n \\n \\n\\n Anglican \\n \\n \\n\\n Baptist \\n \\n \\n\\n Roman Catholic \\n \\n \\n\\n Christian Orthodox \\n \\n \\n\\n Lutheran \\n \\n \\n\\n Pentecostal \\n \\n \\n\\n Presbyterian \\n \\n \\n\\n United Church \\n \\n \\n\\n Other Christian \\n \\n \\n\\n Hindu \\n \\n 1.5%\\n\\n Jewish \\n \\n \\n\\n Muslim \\n \\n \\n\\n Sikh \\n \\n \\n\\n Traditional (Aboriginal) Spirituality \\n \\n \\n\\n Other religions \\n \\n \\n\\n No religious affiliation\",\n \"\\n\\n* 1666 census of New France\\n* Canada 1906 Census\\n* Canada 1911 Census\\n* Canada 1996 Census\\n* Canada 2001 Census\\n* Canada 2006 Census\\n* Canada 2011 Census\\n* List of Canadian census areas demographic extremes\\n* ''Cahiers québécois de démographie'' academic journal\\n* ''Canadian Studies in Population'' academic journal\\n*\",\n \"\\n\\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* Roderic Beaujot and Don Kerr, (2007) '' The Changing Face of Canada: Essential Readings in Population'', Canadian Scholars' Press, .\",\n \"\\n* Canada Year Book (2010) – Statistics Canada\\n* Population estimates and projections, 2010 – 2036 – Statistics Canada\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"finance"}}},{"rowIdx":292,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":[" \n \n\n\nThe '''economy of Canada''' is a highly developed mixed economy with 10th largest GDP by nominal and 17th largest GDP by PPP in the world. Canada is one of the world's wealthiest nations with high standard of living and quality of life. As with other developed nations, the country's economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three quarters of Canadians. Canada has fourth highest total estimated value of natural resources, valued at US$33.2 trillion in 2016. It has the world's third largest proven petroleum reserves and fourth largest exporter of petroleum. It is also the fourth largest exporter of natural gas. Canada is considered an \"energy superpower\" due to its abundant natural resources. \n\nCanada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of the primary sector, with the logging and oil industries being two of Canada's most important. Canada also has a sizable manufacturing sector, based in Central Canada, with the automobile industry and aircraft industry being especially important. With a long coastline, Canada has the 8th largest commercial fishing and seafood industry in the world. Canada is one of the global leaders of the entertainment software industry. It is a member of the APEC, NAFTA, G7, G20, OECD and WTO. \n","With the exception of a few island nations in the Caribbean, Canada is the only major parliamentary democracy in the western hemisphere. As a result, Canada has developed its own social and political institutions, distinct from most other countries in the world. Though the Canadian economy is closely integrated with the American economy, it has developed unique economic institutions.\n\nThe Canadian economic system generally combines elements of private enterprise and public enterprise. Many aspects of public enterprise, most notably the development of an extensive social welfare system to redress social and economic inequities, were adopted after the end of World War Two in 1945.\n\nCanada has a private to public (Crown) property ratio of 60:40 and one of the highest levels of economic freedom in the world. Today Canada closely resembles the U.S. in its market-oriented economic system and pattern of production. According to the Forbes Global 2000 list of the world's largest companies in 2008, Canada has 69 companies in the list, ranking 5th next to France.\n\nInternational trade makes up a large part of the Canadian economy, particularly of its natural resources. In 2009, agriculture, energy, forestry and mining exports accounted for about 58% of Canada's total exports. Machinery, equipment, automotive products and other manufactures accounted for a further 38% of exports in 2009. In 2009, exports accounted for approximately 30% of Canada's GDP. The United States is by far its largest trading partner, accounting for about 73% of exports and 63% of imports as of 2009. Canada's combined exports and imports ranked 8th among all nations in 2006.\n\nApproximately 4% of Canadians are directly employed in primary resource fields, and they account for 6.2% of GDP. They are still paramount in many parts of the country. Many, if not most, towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, exist because of a nearby mine or source of timber. Canada is a world leader in the production of many natural resources such as gold, nickel, uranium, diamonds, lead, and in recent years, crude petroleum, which, with the world's second-largest oil reserves, is taking an increasingly prominent position in natural resources extraction. Several of Canada's largest companies are based in natural resource industries, such as EnCana, Cameco, Goldcorp, and Barrick Gold. The vast majority of these products are exported, mainly to the United States. There are also many secondary and service industries that are directly linked to primary ones. For instance one of Canada's largest manufacturing industries is the pulp and paper sector, which is directly linked to the logging business.\n\nThe reliance on natural resources has several effects on the Canadian economy and Canadian society. While manufacturing and service industries are easy to standardize, natural resources vary greatly by region. This ensures that differing economic structures developed in each region of Canada, contributing to Canada's strong regionalism. At the same time the vast majority of these resources are exported, integrating Canada closely into the international economy. Howlett and Ramesh argue that the inherent instability of such industries also contributes to greater government intervention in the economy, to reduce the social impact of market changes.\n\nNatural resource industries also raise important questions of sustainability. Despite many decades as a leading producer, there is little risk of depletion. Large discoveries continue to be made, such as the massive nickel find at Voisey's Bay. Moreover, the far north remains largely undeveloped as producers await higher prices or new technologies as many operations in this region are not yet cost effective. In recent decades Canadians have become less willing to accept the environmental destruction associated with exploiting natural resources. High wages and Aboriginal land claims have also curbed expansion. Instead many Canadian companies have focused their exploration, exploitation and expansion activities overseas where prices are lower and governments more amenable. Canadian companies are increasingly playing important roles in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa.\n\nThe depletion of renewable resources has raised concerns in recent years. After decades of escalating overutilization the cod fishery all but collapsed in the 1990s, and the Pacific salmon industry also suffered greatly. The logging industry, after many years of activism, has in recent years moved to a more sustainable model, or to other countries.\n\n===Unemployment rate===\n\n\n Province\n Unemployment ratepercentage of population\n\n Newfoundland and Labrador\n15.7\n\n Prince Edward Island\n10.0\n\n Nova Scotia\n7.9\n\n10.1\n New Brunswick\n6.5\n\n Quebec\n5.8\n\n Ontario\n6.1\n\n Manitoba\n5.0\n\n Saskatchewan\n6.6\n\n Alberta\n7.8\n\n British Columbia\n5.3\n\n '''Canada (national)'''\n6.3\n\n","\nProductivity measures are key indicators of economic performance and a key source of economic growth and competitiveness. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) The OECD Compendium of Productivity Indicators, published annually, presents a broad overview of productivity levels and growth in member nations, highlighting key measurement issues. It analyses the role of \"productivity as the main driver of economic growth and convergence\" and the \"contributions of labour, capital and MFP in driving economic growth.\" According to the definition above \"MFP is often interpreted as the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation\" (OECD 2008,11). Measures of productivity include Gross Domestic Product (GDP)(OECD 2008,11) and multifactor productivity.\n\n===Gross Domestic Product (GDP)===\n\nThe OECD provides data for example comparing labour productivity levels in the total economy of each member nation. In their 2011 report Canada's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was $CDN 1,720,748 million.\n\nIn the International Monetary Fund's (IMF) quarterly World Economic Outlook released in April 2015, the IMF forecast that Canada’s real gross domestic product (GDP) would grow 2.2 percent. In the July World Economic Outlook the IMF forecast that Canada's real GDP would grow by 1.5 per cent in 2015.\n\nAccording to CTV News real estate accounts for half of all GDP growth.\n\n===Multifactor productivity (MFP)===\n\nAnother productivity measure, used by the OECD, is the long-term trend in multifactor productivity (MFP) also known as total factor productivity (TFP). This indicator assesses an economy’s \"underlying productive capacity (\"potential output\"), itself an important measure of the growth possibilities of economies and of inflationary pressures.\" MFP measures the residual growth that cannot be explained by the rate of change in the services of labour, capital and intermediate outputs, and is often interpreted as the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation. (OECD 2008,11)\n\nAccording to the OECD's annual economic survey of Canada in June 2012, Canada has experienced weak growth of multi-factor productivity (MFP) and has been declining further since 2002. One of the ways MFP growth is raised is by boosting innovation and Canada's innovation indicators such as business R&D and patenting rates were poor. Raising MFP growth, is \"needed to sustain rising living standards, especially as the population ages.\"\n","\n===Inflation targeting===\nThe Bank of Canada, a federal crown corporation, has the responsibility of Canada's monetary system. During the period that John Crow was Governor of the Bank of Canada—1987 to 1994— there was a worldwide recession and the bank rate rose to around 14% and unemployment topped 11%. In 1991, with Prime Minister Brian Mulroney in office, the federal government and the Bank of Canada announced a new inflation targeting monetary policy that has been the cornerstone of Canada's monetary and fiscal policy ever since. Although since that time inflation-targeting has been adopted by \"most advanced-world central banks\", in 1991 it was innovative and Canada was an early adopter when the then-Finance Minister Michael Wilson approved the Bank of Canada's first inflation-targeting in the 1991 federal budget. The inflation target was set at 2 per cent, which is the midpoint of an inflation range of 1 to 3 per cent. They established a set of inflation-reduction targets in order to keep inflation \"low, stable and predictable\" and to foster \"confidence in the value of money,\" contribute to Canada's sustained growth, employment gains and improved standard of living. Inflation is measured by the total consumer price index (CPI). In 2011 the Government of Canada and the Bank of Canada extended Canada's inflation-control target to December 31, 2016. The Bank of Canada uses three unconventional instruments to achieve the inflation target: \"a conditional statement on the future path of the policy rate,\" quantitative easing, and credit easing.\n\nAs a result, interest rates and inflation eventually came down along with the value of the Canadian dollar. From 1991 to 2011 the inflation-targeting regime kept \"price gains fairly reliable.\"\n\nFollowing the Financial crisis of 2007–08 the narrow focus of inflation-targeting as a means of providing stable growth in the Canadian economy, was questioned. By 2011, the then-Bank of Canada Governor Mark Carney argued that the central bank’s mandate would allow for a more flexible inflation-targeting in specific situations where he would consider taking longer \"than the typical six to eight quarters to return inflation to 2 per cent.\"\n\nThe central bank— the Bank of Canada— issues its rate announcement through its Monetary Policy Report which is released eight times a year. On July 15, 2015 the Bank of Canada announced that it was lowering its target for the overnight rate by another one-quarter percentage point, to 0.5 per cent \"to try to stimulate an economy that appears to have failed to rebound meaningfully from the oil shock woes that dragged it into decline in the first quarter.\" According to the Bank of Canada announcement, in the first quarter of 2015, the total Consumer price index (CPI) inflation was about 1 per cent. This reflects \"year-over-year price declines for consumer energy products.\" Core inflation in the first quarter of 2015 was about 2 per cent with an underlying trend in inflation at about 1.5 to 1.7 per cent.\n\nIn response to the Bank of Canada's July 15, 2015 rate adjustment, Prime Minister Stephen Harper explained that the Canadian economy was being dragged down by forces beyond Canadian borders such as global oil prices, the European debt crisis, and China's economic slowdown\" which has made the global economy \"fragile.\"\n\nThe Chinese stock market had lost about US$3 trillion of wealth by July 2015 when panicked investors sold stocks, which created declines in the commodities markets, which in turn negatively impacted resource-producing countries like Canada.\n\nThe Bank's main priority has been to keep inflation at a moderate level. As part of that strategy, interest rates were kept at a low level for almost seven years. Since September 2010, the key interest rate (overnight rate) was 0.5%. In mid 2017, inflation remained below the Bank's 2% target, (at 1.6%) mostly because of reductions in the cost of energy, food and automobiles; as well, the economy was in a continuing spurt with a predicted GDP growth of 2.8 percent by year end. Early on 12 July 2017, the bank issued a statement that the benchmark rate would be increased to 0.75%. \"The economy can handle very well this move we have today and of course you need to preface that with an acknowledgment that of course interest rates are still very low,\" Governor Stephen Poloz subsequently said. In its press release, the bank had confirmed that the rate would continue to be evaluated at least partly on the basis of inflation. \"Future adjustments to the target for the overnight rate will be guided by incoming data as they inform the bank's inflation outlook, keeping in mind continued uncertainty and financial system vulnerabilities.\" Poloz refused to speculate on the future of the economy but said, \"I don't doubt that interest rates will move higher, but there's no predetermined path in mind at this stage\".\n","\nIn 2012, the Canadian economy had the following relative weighting by industry, as percentage value of GDP:\n\n* 12.34 Real estate and rental and leasing\n* 10.86 Manufacturing\n* 07.96 Mining, quarrying and oil or gas extraction\n* 07.03 Health care and social assistance\n* 06.90 Public administration\n* 06.55 Finance and insurance\n* 05.41 Wholesale trade\n* 05.41 Retail trade\n* 05.38 Educational services\n* 05.21 Professional scientific and technical services\n* 04.20 Transportation and warehousing\n* 03.31 Information and cultural industries\n* 02.58 Administrative and support, waste management and remediation services\n* 02.46 Utilities\n* 02.10 Accommodation and food services\n* 02.04 Other services (except public administration)\n* 01.59 Agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting\n* 00.76 Management of companies and enterprises\n* 00.75 Arts, entertainment and recreation\n\n===Service sector===\nThe Toronto-Dominion Centre in Toronto\n\nThe service sector in Canada is vast and multifaceted, employing about three quarters of Canadians and accounting for 70% of GDP. The largest employer is the retail sector, employing almost 12% of Canadians. The retail industry is mainly concentrated in a small number of chain stores clustered together in shopping malls. In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of big-box stores, such as Wal-Mart (of the United States), Real Canadian Superstore, and Best Buy (of the United States). This has led to fewer workers in this sector and a migration of retail jobs to the suburbs.\n\nThe second largest portion of the service sector is the business service and hire only a slightly smaller percentage of the population. This includes the financial services, real estate, and communications industries. This portion of the economy has been rapidly growing in recent years. It is largely concentrated in the major urban centres, especially Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver (see Banking in Canada).\n\nThe education and health sectors are two of Canada's largest, but both are largely under the influence of the government. The health care industry has been quickly growing, and is the third largest in Canada. Its rapid growth has led to problems for governments who must find money to fund it.\n\nCanada has an important high tech industry, and a burgeoning film, television, and entertainment industry creating content for local and international consumption (see Media in Canada). Tourism is of ever increasing importance, with the vast majority of international visitors coming from the United States. Though the recent strength of the Canadian Dollar has hurt this sector, other nations such as China have increased tourism to Canada. Casino gaming is currently the fastest-growing component of the Canadian tourism industry, contributing $5 billion in profits for Canadian governments and employing 41,000 Canadians as of 2001.\n\n===Manufacturing===\n Bombardier Aerospace is the 3rd largest manufacturer of commercial aircraft in the world. Pictured here is a CRJ-900 airplane of Scandinavian Airlines (Y-KFA) built in Canada\nCseries family of aircraft to better compete with narrow-body aircraft from Airbus and Boeing. Pictured here is a CS300 prototype C-FFDK in testing\n\nTreemap of Canada's goods exports in 2014\n\nThe general pattern of development for wealthy nations was a transition from a primary industry based economy to a manufacturing based one, and then to a service based economy. Canada did not escape this pattern - at its (abnormally high World War II) peak in 1944, manufacturing accounted for 29% of GDP, declining to 15.6% in 2005. Canada has not suffered as greatly as most other rich, industrialized nations from the pains of the relative decline in the importance of manufacturing since the 1960s. A 2009 study by Statistics Canada also found that, while manufacturing declined as a relative percentage of GDP from 24.3% in the 1960s to 15.6% in 2005, manufacturing volumes between 1961 and 2005 kept pace with the overall growth in the volume index of GDP. Manufacturing in Canada was especially hit hard by the financial crisis of 2007–08. As of 2010, manufacturing accounts for 13% of Canada's GDP, a relative decline of more than 2% of GDP since 2005.\n\nCentral Canada is home to branch plants to all the major American and Japanese automobile makers and many parts factories owned by Canadian firms such as Magna International and Linamar Corporation. Central Canada today produces more vehicles each year than the neighbouring U.S. state of Michigan, the heart of the American automobile industry. Manufacturers have been attracted to Canada due to the highly educated population with lower labour costs than the United States. Canada's publicly funded health care system is also an important attraction, as companies are exempt from the high health insurance costs US firms pay, though they are offset by corporate health care taxes.\n\nMuch of the Canadian manufacturing industry consists of branch plants of United States firms, though there are some important domestic manufacturers, such as Bombardier Inc.. This has raised several concerns for Canadians. Branch plants provide mainly blue collar jobs, with research and executive positions confined to the United States.\n\n===Energy===\n\n\nPumpjack pumping an oil well near Sarnia, OntarioCanada is one of the few developed nations that is a net exporter of energy - in 2009 net exports of energy products amounted to 2.9% of GDP. Most important are the large oil and gas resources centred in Alberta and the Northern Territories, but also present in neighbouring British Columbia and Saskatchewan. The vast Athabasca oil sands give Canada the world's third largest reserves of oil after Saudi Arabia and Venezuela according to USGS. In British Columbia and Quebec, as well as Ontario, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and the Labrador region, hydroelectric power is an inexpensive and relatively environmentally friendly source of abundant energy. In part because of this, Canada is also one of the world's highest per capita consumers of energy. Cheap energy has enabled the creation of several important industries, such as the large aluminium industries in British Columbia and Quebec.\n\nHistorically, an important issue in Canadian politics is the interplay between the oil and energy industry in Western Canada and the industrial heartland of Southern Ontario. Foreign investment in Western oil projects has fueled Canada's rising dollar. This has raised the price of Ontario's manufacturing exports and made them less competitive, a problem similar to the decline of the manufacturing sector in the Netherlands. Also, Ontario has relatively fewer native sources of power. However, it is cheaper for Alberta to ship its oil to the western United States than to eastern Canada. The eastern Canadian ports thus import significant quantities of oil from overseas, and Ontario makes significant use of nuclear power.\n\nThe National Energy Policy of the early 1980s attempted to force Alberta to sell low priced oil to eastern Canada. This policy proved deeply divisive, and quickly lost its importance as oil prices collapsed in the mid-1980s. One of the most controversial sections of the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement of 1988 was a promise that Canada would never charge the United States more for energy than fellow Canadians.\n\n===Agriculture===\n\nAn inland grain terminal in Alberta\nCanada is also one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products, particularly of wheat and other grains. Canada is a major exporter of agricultural products, to the United States and Asia. As with all other developed nations the proportion of the population and GDP devoted to agriculture fell dramatically over the 20th century.\n\nAs with other developed nations, the Canadian agriculture industry receives significant government subsidies and supports. However, Canada has been a strong supporter of reducing market influencing subsidies through the World Trade Organization. In 2000, Canada spent approximately CDN$4.6 billion on supports for the industry. Of this, $2.32 billion was classified under the WTO designation of \"green box\" support, meaning it did not directly influence the market, such as money for research or disaster relief. All but $848.2 million were subsidies worth less than 5% of the value of the crops they were provided for.\n","\n\n\n===Free Trade Agreements in force===\n\n*Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement (Signed 12-Oct-1987, entered into force 01-Jan-1989, later superseded by NAFTA)\n*North American Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Jan-1994, includes Canada, U.S. and Mexico)\n*Canada-Israel Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Jan-1997, modernization ongoing)\n*Canada-Chile Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 05-Jul-1997)\n*Canada-Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Nov-2002, modernization ongoing)\n*Canada-European Free Trade Association Free Trade Agreement (Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein; entered into force 01-Jul-2009)\n*Canada-Peru Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Aug-2009)\n*Canada-Colombia Free Trade Agreement (Signed 21-Nov-2008, entered into force 15-Aug-2011; Canada's ratification of this FTA had been dependent upon Colombia's ratification of the \"Agreement Concerning Annual Reports on Human Rights and Free Trade Between Canada and the Republic of Colombia\" signed on 27-May-2010)\n*Canada-Jordan Free Trade Agreement (Signed on 28-June-2009, entered into force 01-Oct-2012)\n*Canada-Panama Free Trade Agreement (Signed on 14-May-2010, entered into force 01-April-2013)\n*Canada-South Korea Free Trade Agreement (Signed on 11-March-2014, entered into force 01-January-2015)\n\n===Free Trade Agreements concluded===\n*Trans-Pacific Partnership (concluded 05-October-2015)\n*Canada-Ukraine Free Trade Agreement (concluded 14-July-2015)\n*Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (concluded 05-August-2014)\n\n===Ongoing Free Trade Agreements Negotiations===\n\nCanada is negotiating bilateral FTAs with the following countries and trade blocs:\n*Caribbean Community (CARICOM)\n*Guatemala, Nicaragua and El Salvador\n*Dominican Republic\n*India\n*Japan\n*Morocco\n*Singapore\n*Andean Community (FTA's are already in force with Peru and Colombia)\n\nCanada has been involved in negotiations to create the following regional trade blocks:\n\n*Canada-Central American Free Trade Agreement\n*Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA)\n","\n\n=== Relations with the U.S. ===\n\nCanada and the United States share a common trading relationship. Canada's job market continues to perform well along with the US, reaching a 30-year low in the unemployment rate in December 2006, following 14 consecutive years of employment growth.\nFlags of Canada and the United States\nThe United States is by far Canada's largest trading partner, with more than $1.7 billion CAD in trade per day in 2005. In 2009, 73% of Canada's exports went to the United States, and 63% of Canada's imports were from the United States. Trade with Canada makes up 23% of the United States' exports and 17% of its imports. By comparison, in 2005 this was more than U.S. trade with all countries in the European Union combined, and well over twice U.S. trade with all the countries of Latin America combined. Just the two-way trade that crosses the Ambassador Bridge between Michigan and Ontario equals all U.S. exports to Japan. Canada's importance to the United States is not just a border-state phenomenon: Canada is the leading export market for 35 of 50 U.S. states, and is the United States' largest foreign supplier of energy.\n\nBilateral trade increased by 52% between 1989, when the U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA) went into effect, and 1994, when the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) superseded it. Trade has since increased by 40%. NAFTA continues the FTA's moves toward reducing trade barriers and establishing agreed-upon trade rules. It also resolves some long-standing bilateral irritants and liberalizes rules in several areas, including agriculture, services, energy, financial services, investment, and government procurement. NAFTA forms the largest trading area in the world, embracing the 405 million people of the three North American countries.\n\nThe largest component of U.S.-Canada trade is in the commodity sector.\n\nThe U.S. is Canada's largest agricultural export market, taking well over half of all Canadian food exports. Similarly, Canada is the largest market for U.S. agricultural goods, with nearly 20% of American food exports going to its northern neighbour. Nearly two-thirds of Canada's forest products, including pulp and paper, are exported to the United States; 72% of Canada's total newsprint production also is exported to the U.S.\n\nAt $73.6 billion in 2004, U.S.-Canada trade in energy is the largest U.S. energy trading relationship, with the overwhelming majority ($66.7 billion) being exports from Canada. The primary components of U.S. energy trade with Canada are petroleum, natural gas, and electricity. Canada is the United States' largest oil supplier and the fifth-largest energy producing country in the world. Canada provides about 16% of U.S. oil imports and 14% of total U.S. consumption of natural gas. The United States and Canada's national electricity grids are linked, and both countries share hydropower facilities on the western borders.\n\nWhile most of U.S.-Canada trade flows smoothly, there are occasionally bilateral trade disputes, particularly in the agricultural and cultural fields. Usually these issues are resolved through bilateral consultative forums or referral to World Trade Organization (WTO) or NAFTA dispute resolution. In May 1999, the U.S. and Canadian governments negotiated an agreement on magazines that provides increased access for the U.S. publishing industry to the Canadian market. The United States and Canada also have resolved several major issues involving fisheries. By common agreement, the two countries submitted a Gulf of Maine boundary dispute to the International Court of Justice in 1981; both accepted the court's 12 October 1984 ruling which demarcated the territorial sea boundary. A current issue between the United States and Canada is the ongoing softwood lumber dispute, as the U.S. alleges that Canada unfairly subsidizes its forestry industry.\n\nIn 1990, the United States and Canada signed a bilateral Fisheries Enforcement Agreement, which has served to deter illegal fishing activity and reduce the risk of injury during fisheries enforcement incidents. The U.S. and Canada signed a Pacific Salmon Agreement in June 1999 that settled differences over implementation of the 1985 Pacific Salmon Treaty for the next decade.\n\nCanada and the United States signed an aviation agreement during Bill Clinton's visit to Canada in February 1995, and air traffic between the two countries has increased dramatically as a result. The two countries also share in operation of the St. Lawrence Seaway, connecting the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean.\n\nThe U.S. is Canada's largest foreign investor and the most popular destination for Canadian foreign investments; at the end of 2007, the stock of U.S. direct investment in Canada was estimated at $293 billion, while Canadian direct investment (stock) in the United States was valued at $213 billion. U.S. FDI accounts for 59.5% of total foreign direct investment in Canada while Canadian FDI in the U.S. accounts for 10% (5th largest foreign investor). US investments are primarily directed at Canada's mining and smelting industries, petroleum, chemicals, the manufacture of machinery and transportation equipment, and finance, while Canadian investment in the United States is concentrated in manufacturing, wholesale trade, real estate, petroleum, finance, and insurance and other services.\n","\n===Central Government Debt===\nThe OECD reports the Central Government Debt as percentage of the GDP. In 2000 Canada's was 40.9 percent, in 2007 it was 25.2 percent, in 2008 it was 28.6 percent and by 2010 it was 36.1 percent. The OECD reports ''net'' financial liabilities measure used by the OECD, reports the net number at 25.2%, as of 2008, making Canada’s total government debt burden as the lowest in the G8. The gross number was 68% in 2011.\n\nThe CIA World Factbook, updated weekly, measures financial liabilities by using gross general government debt, as opposed to net federal debt used by the OECD and the Canadian federal government. Gross general government debt includes both \"intragovernmental debt and the debt of public entities at the sub-national level.\" For example, the CIA measured Canada's public debt as 84.1% of GDP in 2012 and 87.4% of GDP in 2011 making it 22nd in the world.\n\n===Household Debt===\nIn March 2015 the International Monetary Fund reported that Canada's high household debt was one of two vulnerable domestic areas in Canada's economy; the second is its overheated housing market.\n\nAccording to a July 2015 report by Laura Cooper, an economist with the RBC—the largest financial institution in Canada— \"outstanding household credit balances\" had reached $1.83 trillion. Canadian household credit growth had reached a peak in 2009 then plummeted to a cycle-low in late 2013. There was a quickened pace of growth in household debt in December 2012 and another in April and May 2015.\n\n====Household debt in 2013====\nAccording to the August 2013 third annual Ipsos Reid Debt Poll only 24 per cent of Canadians were debt free in 2013 compared to 26 per cent in 2012. The average personal non-mortgage debt in 2013 was $15,920 up from $13,141 in 2012. According to an IPSOS chart produced in 2013 debt levels increased \"a staggering 35 per cent\" in Western Canada compared to 10 per cent in Eastern Canada since 2012 even before the Alberta floods. In Alberta in 2013 household debt rose 63 per cent to $24,271 per household from 2012 after the 2013 Alberta floods. In 2013 the average personal debt load in British Columbia was \"up 38 per cent to $15,549;\" in \"Manitoba and Saskatchewan, up 32 per cent to $16,145;\" in Ontario, \"up 13 per cent to $17,416,\" in Quebec up \"3 per cent to $10,458;\" and in Atlantic Canada, \"up 12 per cent to $15,243.\"\n\n====Household debt in 2014====\n\nStatistics Canada announced in December 2014 that Canada's household debt-to-income ratio \"hit a record high in the third quarter of 2014, climbing to 162.6 percent from 161.5 percent in the second quarter.\" However \"household assets and net worth increased much faster than debt,\" with the national net worth at C$8.12 trillion in the third quarter of 2014, a increase of 2.8 percent from the second quarter. Also through the inflation-targeting policy of the Bank of Canada, interest rates are kept low improving the ability of households to service their debt. \"The debt-service ratio, or interest paid as a proportion of disposable income, fell to a record low 6.8 percent in the third quarter.\"\n\n====Household debt in 2015====\n\nBy 2015 according to the Globe and Mail, \"The total debt owed by all Canadians at the end of March 2015 was a record $1.8-trillion with mortgage debt making up $1.29-trillion.\"\n\nAccording to Philip Cross of the Fraser Institute, in May 2015, while the Canadian household debt-to-income ratio is similar to that in the US, however lending standards in Canada are tighter than those in the United States to protect against high-risk borrowers taking out unsustainable debt.\n\nHousehold debt, the amount of money that all adults in the household owe financial institutions, includes consumer debt and mortgage loans. Paul Krugman argued that by 2007 household debt in the United States, prior to the financial crisis, had reached 130 percent of household income. Krugman distinguished between the total domestic non-financial debt (public plus private) relative to GDP which is \"money we owe to ourselves\" and net foreign debt. Statistics Canada reported in March 2013 that \"credit-market debt such as mortgages rose to 165% of disposable income, compared with 164.7% in the prior three-month period\" in 2013 According to the IMF in 2012, \"Housing-related debt (mortgages) comprises about 70 percent of gross household debt in advanced economies. The remainder consists mainly of credit card debt and auto loans.\"\n","\nAs shown in the table below—based on the RBC Economic and Financial Market Outlook March 11, 2016 report—in Canada in 2015—while business investments decreased—consumption, housing and government spending along with net exports contributed to a real GDP increase at a subpar 1.2% pace. In December 2015 export volumes reached $1.2 billion—the sixth time since 2010 with sales growing by such a large amount-evidence that the Canadian economy is transitioning. In November and December 2015, with the weakening in the Canadian dollar, manufacturing sales and exports increased and employment rose. Job losses in construction, mining, oil and gas were countered by gains in the service sector.\n\nBetween early December, 2015 and mid-January the price of oil unexpectedly dropped 24%. RBC economists argued that fear not fundamentals led the shift in financial conditions. Risk adverse investors contributed to a global double-digit decline in the first six weeks of 2016. In Canada, the US, UK and Euro-area yields on long-term government bonds reached an all-time low. As financial market volatility continued in March 2016 the Bank of Canada and Bank of England held their policy rate at 0.5%.\n\n\n+ RBC Economic Forecast March 2016 \n Type \n 2014 YR \n2015 YR \n Q1 2015 \n Q2 2015 \n Q3 2015 \n Q4 2015 \n\n Household consumption \n 2.6 \n1.9 \n 0.6 \n 1.9 \n 2.2 \n 1.0 \n\n * Durables \n 4.3 \n3.3 \n -5.6 \n 5.1 \n 10.3 \n 1.7 \n\n * Semi-Durables \n 3.1 \n2.4 \n 0.2 \n 3.0 \n 1.2 \n 2.6 \n\n * Non-durables \n 2.4\n0.7 \n 2.7 \n -2.9 \n 1.7 \n -1.0 \n\n * Services \n 2.3 \n2.1 \n 1.2 \n 3.3 \n 0.8 \n 1.5 \n\n NPISH consumption \n 0.2 \n1.4 \n -5.3 \n 6.7 \n -0.9 \n -0.1 \n\n Government expenditures \n 0.3 \n1.4 \n 3.8 \n 2.4 \n 0.1 \n 1.5\n\n Government Fixed investment \n 2.1 \n2.6 \n 2.8 \n 0.5 \n -1.8 \n -5.1\n\n Residential investment \n 2.5 \n3.9 \n 5.9 \n 1.3 \n 2.7 \n 1.8\n\n Non-residential investment \n 0.0 \n\n -19.4 \n -13.0 \n -10.1 \n -12.4\n\n * Non-residential structures \n -0.4 \n\n -27.7 \n -12.8 \n -11.7 \n -14.6 \n\n * Machinery and equipment \n 1.0 \n\n -2.1 \n -13.4 \n -7.5 \n -9.0\n\n Intellectual property \n -4.2 \n\n -32.4 \n -12.5 \n -6.4 \n -4.7\n\n Final domestic demand \n 1.6 \n0.5 \n -1.5 \n 0.1 \n 10.8 \n -2.2 \n\n Exports \n 5.3 \n3.0 \n -0.6 \n -0.1 \n 10.8 \n -2.2\n\n Imports \n 1.8 \n0.1 \n 0.5 \n -1.7 \n -2.4 \n -8.9 \n\n Inventories (change in $b) \n 9.9 \n4.5 \n 12.7 \n 8.4 \n 1.1 \n -4.0 \n\n Real gross domestic product \n 2.5 \n1.2 \n -0.9 \n -0.4 \n 2.4 \n 0.8 \n\n","\n\n*Canada's Global Markets Action Plan\n*Comparison of Canadian and American economies\n*Economy of Alberta\n*Economy of Ontario\n*Economy of Quebec\n*Economy of Saskatchewan\n*Free trade agreements of Canada\n*History of the petroleum industry in Canada\n*List of Median household income of cities in Canada\n*List of Commonwealth of Nations countries by GDP\n*List of Canadian provinces and territories by gross domestic product\n*List of companies of Canada\n*Taxation in Canada\n*Trans-Pacific Partnership\n*Transport in Canada\n*Tourism in Canada\n","\n"," \n","\n\n* Howlett, Michael and M. Ramesh. ''Political Economy of Canada: An Introduction.'' Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1992.\n* Wallace, Iain, ''A Geography of the Canadian Economy.'' Don Mills: Oxford University Press, 2002. \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n","\n \n* Statistics Canada \n* Department of Finance Canada \n* Bank of Canada \n* World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Canada \n* Canada - OECD \n* Canada profile at the CIA World Factbook\n* Canada profile at The World Bank \n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n"],"string":"[\n \" \\n \\n\\n\\nThe '''economy of Canada''' is a highly developed mixed economy with 10th largest GDP by nominal and 17th largest GDP by PPP in the world. Canada is one of the world's wealthiest nations with high standard of living and quality of life. As with other developed nations, the country's economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three quarters of Canadians. Canada has fourth highest total estimated value of natural resources, valued at US$33.2 trillion in 2016. It has the world's third largest proven petroleum reserves and fourth largest exporter of petroleum. It is also the fourth largest exporter of natural gas. Canada is considered an \\\"energy superpower\\\" due to its abundant natural resources. \\n\\nCanada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of the primary sector, with the logging and oil industries being two of Canada's most important. Canada also has a sizable manufacturing sector, based in Central Canada, with the automobile industry and aircraft industry being especially important. With a long coastline, Canada has the 8th largest commercial fishing and seafood industry in the world. Canada is one of the global leaders of the entertainment software industry. It is a member of the APEC, NAFTA, G7, G20, OECD and WTO. \\n\",\n \"With the exception of a few island nations in the Caribbean, Canada is the only major parliamentary democracy in the western hemisphere. As a result, Canada has developed its own social and political institutions, distinct from most other countries in the world. Though the Canadian economy is closely integrated with the American economy, it has developed unique economic institutions.\\n\\nThe Canadian economic system generally combines elements of private enterprise and public enterprise. Many aspects of public enterprise, most notably the development of an extensive social welfare system to redress social and economic inequities, were adopted after the end of World War Two in 1945.\\n\\nCanada has a private to public (Crown) property ratio of 60:40 and one of the highest levels of economic freedom in the world. Today Canada closely resembles the U.S. in its market-oriented economic system and pattern of production. According to the Forbes Global 2000 list of the world's largest companies in 2008, Canada has 69 companies in the list, ranking 5th next to France.\\n\\nInternational trade makes up a large part of the Canadian economy, particularly of its natural resources. In 2009, agriculture, energy, forestry and mining exports accounted for about 58% of Canada's total exports. Machinery, equipment, automotive products and other manufactures accounted for a further 38% of exports in 2009. In 2009, exports accounted for approximately 30% of Canada's GDP. The United States is by far its largest trading partner, accounting for about 73% of exports and 63% of imports as of 2009. Canada's combined exports and imports ranked 8th among all nations in 2006.\\n\\nApproximately 4% of Canadians are directly employed in primary resource fields, and they account for 6.2% of GDP. They are still paramount in many parts of the country. Many, if not most, towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, exist because of a nearby mine or source of timber. Canada is a world leader in the production of many natural resources such as gold, nickel, uranium, diamonds, lead, and in recent years, crude petroleum, which, with the world's second-largest oil reserves, is taking an increasingly prominent position in natural resources extraction. Several of Canada's largest companies are based in natural resource industries, such as EnCana, Cameco, Goldcorp, and Barrick Gold. The vast majority of these products are exported, mainly to the United States. There are also many secondary and service industries that are directly linked to primary ones. For instance one of Canada's largest manufacturing industries is the pulp and paper sector, which is directly linked to the logging business.\\n\\nThe reliance on natural resources has several effects on the Canadian economy and Canadian society. While manufacturing and service industries are easy to standardize, natural resources vary greatly by region. This ensures that differing economic structures developed in each region of Canada, contributing to Canada's strong regionalism. At the same time the vast majority of these resources are exported, integrating Canada closely into the international economy. Howlett and Ramesh argue that the inherent instability of such industries also contributes to greater government intervention in the economy, to reduce the social impact of market changes.\\n\\nNatural resource industries also raise important questions of sustainability. Despite many decades as a leading producer, there is little risk of depletion. Large discoveries continue to be made, such as the massive nickel find at Voisey's Bay. Moreover, the far north remains largely undeveloped as producers await higher prices or new technologies as many operations in this region are not yet cost effective. In recent decades Canadians have become less willing to accept the environmental destruction associated with exploiting natural resources. High wages and Aboriginal land claims have also curbed expansion. Instead many Canadian companies have focused their exploration, exploitation and expansion activities overseas where prices are lower and governments more amenable. Canadian companies are increasingly playing important roles in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa.\\n\\nThe depletion of renewable resources has raised concerns in recent years. After decades of escalating overutilization the cod fishery all but collapsed in the 1990s, and the Pacific salmon industry also suffered greatly. The logging industry, after many years of activism, has in recent years moved to a more sustainable model, or to other countries.\\n\\n===Unemployment rate===\\n\\n\\n Province\\n Unemployment ratepercentage of population\\n\\n Newfoundland and Labrador\\n15.7\\n\\n Prince Edward Island\\n10.0\\n\\n Nova Scotia\\n7.9\\n\\n10.1\\n New Brunswick\\n6.5\\n\\n Quebec\\n5.8\\n\\n Ontario\\n6.1\\n\\n Manitoba\\n5.0\\n\\n Saskatchewan\\n6.6\\n\\n Alberta\\n7.8\\n\\n British Columbia\\n5.3\\n\\n '''Canada (national)'''\\n6.3\\n\\n\",\n \"\\nProductivity measures are key indicators of economic performance and a key source of economic growth and competitiveness. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) The OECD Compendium of Productivity Indicators, published annually, presents a broad overview of productivity levels and growth in member nations, highlighting key measurement issues. It analyses the role of \\\"productivity as the main driver of economic growth and convergence\\\" and the \\\"contributions of labour, capital and MFP in driving economic growth.\\\" According to the definition above \\\"MFP is often interpreted as the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation\\\" (OECD 2008,11). Measures of productivity include Gross Domestic Product (GDP)(OECD 2008,11) and multifactor productivity.\\n\\n===Gross Domestic Product (GDP)===\\n\\nThe OECD provides data for example comparing labour productivity levels in the total economy of each member nation. In their 2011 report Canada's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was $CDN 1,720,748 million.\\n\\nIn the International Monetary Fund's (IMF) quarterly World Economic Outlook released in April 2015, the IMF forecast that Canada’s real gross domestic product (GDP) would grow 2.2 percent. In the July World Economic Outlook the IMF forecast that Canada's real GDP would grow by 1.5 per cent in 2015.\\n\\nAccording to CTV News real estate accounts for half of all GDP growth.\\n\\n===Multifactor productivity (MFP)===\\n\\nAnother productivity measure, used by the OECD, is the long-term trend in multifactor productivity (MFP) also known as total factor productivity (TFP). This indicator assesses an economy’s \\\"underlying productive capacity (\\\"potential output\\\"), itself an important measure of the growth possibilities of economies and of inflationary pressures.\\\" MFP measures the residual growth that cannot be explained by the rate of change in the services of labour, capital and intermediate outputs, and is often interpreted as the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation. (OECD 2008,11)\\n\\nAccording to the OECD's annual economic survey of Canada in June 2012, Canada has experienced weak growth of multi-factor productivity (MFP) and has been declining further since 2002. One of the ways MFP growth is raised is by boosting innovation and Canada's innovation indicators such as business R&D and patenting rates were poor. Raising MFP growth, is \\\"needed to sustain rising living standards, especially as the population ages.\\\"\\n\",\n \"\\n===Inflation targeting===\\nThe Bank of Canada, a federal crown corporation, has the responsibility of Canada's monetary system. During the period that John Crow was Governor of the Bank of Canada—1987 to 1994— there was a worldwide recession and the bank rate rose to around 14% and unemployment topped 11%. In 1991, with Prime Minister Brian Mulroney in office, the federal government and the Bank of Canada announced a new inflation targeting monetary policy that has been the cornerstone of Canada's monetary and fiscal policy ever since. Although since that time inflation-targeting has been adopted by \\\"most advanced-world central banks\\\", in 1991 it was innovative and Canada was an early adopter when the then-Finance Minister Michael Wilson approved the Bank of Canada's first inflation-targeting in the 1991 federal budget. The inflation target was set at 2 per cent, which is the midpoint of an inflation range of 1 to 3 per cent. They established a set of inflation-reduction targets in order to keep inflation \\\"low, stable and predictable\\\" and to foster \\\"confidence in the value of money,\\\" contribute to Canada's sustained growth, employment gains and improved standard of living. Inflation is measured by the total consumer price index (CPI). In 2011 the Government of Canada and the Bank of Canada extended Canada's inflation-control target to December 31, 2016. The Bank of Canada uses three unconventional instruments to achieve the inflation target: \\\"a conditional statement on the future path of the policy rate,\\\" quantitative easing, and credit easing.\\n\\nAs a result, interest rates and inflation eventually came down along with the value of the Canadian dollar. From 1991 to 2011 the inflation-targeting regime kept \\\"price gains fairly reliable.\\\"\\n\\nFollowing the Financial crisis of 2007–08 the narrow focus of inflation-targeting as a means of providing stable growth in the Canadian economy, was questioned. By 2011, the then-Bank of Canada Governor Mark Carney argued that the central bank’s mandate would allow for a more flexible inflation-targeting in specific situations where he would consider taking longer \\\"than the typical six to eight quarters to return inflation to 2 per cent.\\\"\\n\\nThe central bank— the Bank of Canada— issues its rate announcement through its Monetary Policy Report which is released eight times a year. On July 15, 2015 the Bank of Canada announced that it was lowering its target for the overnight rate by another one-quarter percentage point, to 0.5 per cent \\\"to try to stimulate an economy that appears to have failed to rebound meaningfully from the oil shock woes that dragged it into decline in the first quarter.\\\" According to the Bank of Canada announcement, in the first quarter of 2015, the total Consumer price index (CPI) inflation was about 1 per cent. This reflects \\\"year-over-year price declines for consumer energy products.\\\" Core inflation in the first quarter of 2015 was about 2 per cent with an underlying trend in inflation at about 1.5 to 1.7 per cent.\\n\\nIn response to the Bank of Canada's July 15, 2015 rate adjustment, Prime Minister Stephen Harper explained that the Canadian economy was being dragged down by forces beyond Canadian borders such as global oil prices, the European debt crisis, and China's economic slowdown\\\" which has made the global economy \\\"fragile.\\\"\\n\\nThe Chinese stock market had lost about US$3 trillion of wealth by July 2015 when panicked investors sold stocks, which created declines in the commodities markets, which in turn negatively impacted resource-producing countries like Canada.\\n\\nThe Bank's main priority has been to keep inflation at a moderate level. As part of that strategy, interest rates were kept at a low level for almost seven years. Since September 2010, the key interest rate (overnight rate) was 0.5%. In mid 2017, inflation remained below the Bank's 2% target, (at 1.6%) mostly because of reductions in the cost of energy, food and automobiles; as well, the economy was in a continuing spurt with a predicted GDP growth of 2.8 percent by year end. Early on 12 July 2017, the bank issued a statement that the benchmark rate would be increased to 0.75%. \\\"The economy can handle very well this move we have today and of course you need to preface that with an acknowledgment that of course interest rates are still very low,\\\" Governor Stephen Poloz subsequently said. In its press release, the bank had confirmed that the rate would continue to be evaluated at least partly on the basis of inflation. \\\"Future adjustments to the target for the overnight rate will be guided by incoming data as they inform the bank's inflation outlook, keeping in mind continued uncertainty and financial system vulnerabilities.\\\" Poloz refused to speculate on the future of the economy but said, \\\"I don't doubt that interest rates will move higher, but there's no predetermined path in mind at this stage\\\".\\n\",\n \"\\nIn 2012, the Canadian economy had the following relative weighting by industry, as percentage value of GDP:\\n\\n* 12.34 Real estate and rental and leasing\\n* 10.86 Manufacturing\\n* 07.96 Mining, quarrying and oil or gas extraction\\n* 07.03 Health care and social assistance\\n* 06.90 Public administration\\n* 06.55 Finance and insurance\\n* 05.41 Wholesale trade\\n* 05.41 Retail trade\\n* 05.38 Educational services\\n* 05.21 Professional scientific and technical services\\n* 04.20 Transportation and warehousing\\n* 03.31 Information and cultural industries\\n* 02.58 Administrative and support, waste management and remediation services\\n* 02.46 Utilities\\n* 02.10 Accommodation and food services\\n* 02.04 Other services (except public administration)\\n* 01.59 Agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting\\n* 00.76 Management of companies and enterprises\\n* 00.75 Arts, entertainment and recreation\\n\\n===Service sector===\\nThe Toronto-Dominion Centre in Toronto\\n\\nThe service sector in Canada is vast and multifaceted, employing about three quarters of Canadians and accounting for 70% of GDP. The largest employer is the retail sector, employing almost 12% of Canadians. The retail industry is mainly concentrated in a small number of chain stores clustered together in shopping malls. In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of big-box stores, such as Wal-Mart (of the United States), Real Canadian Superstore, and Best Buy (of the United States). This has led to fewer workers in this sector and a migration of retail jobs to the suburbs.\\n\\nThe second largest portion of the service sector is the business service and hire only a slightly smaller percentage of the population. This includes the financial services, real estate, and communications industries. This portion of the economy has been rapidly growing in recent years. It is largely concentrated in the major urban centres, especially Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver (see Banking in Canada).\\n\\nThe education and health sectors are two of Canada's largest, but both are largely under the influence of the government. The health care industry has been quickly growing, and is the third largest in Canada. Its rapid growth has led to problems for governments who must find money to fund it.\\n\\nCanada has an important high tech industry, and a burgeoning film, television, and entertainment industry creating content for local and international consumption (see Media in Canada). Tourism is of ever increasing importance, with the vast majority of international visitors coming from the United States. Though the recent strength of the Canadian Dollar has hurt this sector, other nations such as China have increased tourism to Canada. Casino gaming is currently the fastest-growing component of the Canadian tourism industry, contributing $5 billion in profits for Canadian governments and employing 41,000 Canadians as of 2001.\\n\\n===Manufacturing===\\n Bombardier Aerospace is the 3rd largest manufacturer of commercial aircraft in the world. Pictured here is a CRJ-900 airplane of Scandinavian Airlines (Y-KFA) built in Canada\\nCseries family of aircraft to better compete with narrow-body aircraft from Airbus and Boeing. Pictured here is a CS300 prototype C-FFDK in testing\\n\\nTreemap of Canada's goods exports in 2014\\n\\nThe general pattern of development for wealthy nations was a transition from a primary industry based economy to a manufacturing based one, and then to a service based economy. Canada did not escape this pattern - at its (abnormally high World War II) peak in 1944, manufacturing accounted for 29% of GDP, declining to 15.6% in 2005. Canada has not suffered as greatly as most other rich, industrialized nations from the pains of the relative decline in the importance of manufacturing since the 1960s. A 2009 study by Statistics Canada also found that, while manufacturing declined as a relative percentage of GDP from 24.3% in the 1960s to 15.6% in 2005, manufacturing volumes between 1961 and 2005 kept pace with the overall growth in the volume index of GDP. Manufacturing in Canada was especially hit hard by the financial crisis of 2007–08. As of 2010, manufacturing accounts for 13% of Canada's GDP, a relative decline of more than 2% of GDP since 2005.\\n\\nCentral Canada is home to branch plants to all the major American and Japanese automobile makers and many parts factories owned by Canadian firms such as Magna International and Linamar Corporation. Central Canada today produces more vehicles each year than the neighbouring U.S. state of Michigan, the heart of the American automobile industry. Manufacturers have been attracted to Canada due to the highly educated population with lower labour costs than the United States. Canada's publicly funded health care system is also an important attraction, as companies are exempt from the high health insurance costs US firms pay, though they are offset by corporate health care taxes.\\n\\nMuch of the Canadian manufacturing industry consists of branch plants of United States firms, though there are some important domestic manufacturers, such as Bombardier Inc.. This has raised several concerns for Canadians. Branch plants provide mainly blue collar jobs, with research and executive positions confined to the United States.\\n\\n===Energy===\\n\\n\\nPumpjack pumping an oil well near Sarnia, OntarioCanada is one of the few developed nations that is a net exporter of energy - in 2009 net exports of energy products amounted to 2.9% of GDP. Most important are the large oil and gas resources centred in Alberta and the Northern Territories, but also present in neighbouring British Columbia and Saskatchewan. The vast Athabasca oil sands give Canada the world's third largest reserves of oil after Saudi Arabia and Venezuela according to USGS. In British Columbia and Quebec, as well as Ontario, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and the Labrador region, hydroelectric power is an inexpensive and relatively environmentally friendly source of abundant energy. In part because of this, Canada is also one of the world's highest per capita consumers of energy. Cheap energy has enabled the creation of several important industries, such as the large aluminium industries in British Columbia and Quebec.\\n\\nHistorically, an important issue in Canadian politics is the interplay between the oil and energy industry in Western Canada and the industrial heartland of Southern Ontario. Foreign investment in Western oil projects has fueled Canada's rising dollar. This has raised the price of Ontario's manufacturing exports and made them less competitive, a problem similar to the decline of the manufacturing sector in the Netherlands. Also, Ontario has relatively fewer native sources of power. However, it is cheaper for Alberta to ship its oil to the western United States than to eastern Canada. The eastern Canadian ports thus import significant quantities of oil from overseas, and Ontario makes significant use of nuclear power.\\n\\nThe National Energy Policy of the early 1980s attempted to force Alberta to sell low priced oil to eastern Canada. This policy proved deeply divisive, and quickly lost its importance as oil prices collapsed in the mid-1980s. One of the most controversial sections of the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement of 1988 was a promise that Canada would never charge the United States more for energy than fellow Canadians.\\n\\n===Agriculture===\\n\\nAn inland grain terminal in Alberta\\nCanada is also one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products, particularly of wheat and other grains. Canada is a major exporter of agricultural products, to the United States and Asia. As with all other developed nations the proportion of the population and GDP devoted to agriculture fell dramatically over the 20th century.\\n\\nAs with other developed nations, the Canadian agriculture industry receives significant government subsidies and supports. However, Canada has been a strong supporter of reducing market influencing subsidies through the World Trade Organization. In 2000, Canada spent approximately CDN$4.6 billion on supports for the industry. Of this, $2.32 billion was classified under the WTO designation of \\\"green box\\\" support, meaning it did not directly influence the market, such as money for research or disaster relief. All but $848.2 million were subsidies worth less than 5% of the value of the crops they were provided for.\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n\\n===Free Trade Agreements in force===\\n\\n*Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement (Signed 12-Oct-1987, entered into force 01-Jan-1989, later superseded by NAFTA)\\n*North American Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Jan-1994, includes Canada, U.S. and Mexico)\\n*Canada-Israel Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Jan-1997, modernization ongoing)\\n*Canada-Chile Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 05-Jul-1997)\\n*Canada-Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Nov-2002, modernization ongoing)\\n*Canada-European Free Trade Association Free Trade Agreement (Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein; entered into force 01-Jul-2009)\\n*Canada-Peru Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Aug-2009)\\n*Canada-Colombia Free Trade Agreement (Signed 21-Nov-2008, entered into force 15-Aug-2011; Canada's ratification of this FTA had been dependent upon Colombia's ratification of the \\\"Agreement Concerning Annual Reports on Human Rights and Free Trade Between Canada and the Republic of Colombia\\\" signed on 27-May-2010)\\n*Canada-Jordan Free Trade Agreement (Signed on 28-June-2009, entered into force 01-Oct-2012)\\n*Canada-Panama Free Trade Agreement (Signed on 14-May-2010, entered into force 01-April-2013)\\n*Canada-South Korea Free Trade Agreement (Signed on 11-March-2014, entered into force 01-January-2015)\\n\\n===Free Trade Agreements concluded===\\n*Trans-Pacific Partnership (concluded 05-October-2015)\\n*Canada-Ukraine Free Trade Agreement (concluded 14-July-2015)\\n*Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (concluded 05-August-2014)\\n\\n===Ongoing Free Trade Agreements Negotiations===\\n\\nCanada is negotiating bilateral FTAs with the following countries and trade blocs:\\n*Caribbean Community (CARICOM)\\n*Guatemala, Nicaragua and El Salvador\\n*Dominican Republic\\n*India\\n*Japan\\n*Morocco\\n*Singapore\\n*Andean Community (FTA's are already in force with Peru and Colombia)\\n\\nCanada has been involved in negotiations to create the following regional trade blocks:\\n\\n*Canada-Central American Free Trade Agreement\\n*Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA)\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n=== Relations with the U.S. ===\\n\\nCanada and the United States share a common trading relationship. Canada's job market continues to perform well along with the US, reaching a 30-year low in the unemployment rate in December 2006, following 14 consecutive years of employment growth.\\nFlags of Canada and the United States\\nThe United States is by far Canada's largest trading partner, with more than $1.7 billion CAD in trade per day in 2005. In 2009, 73% of Canada's exports went to the United States, and 63% of Canada's imports were from the United States. Trade with Canada makes up 23% of the United States' exports and 17% of its imports. By comparison, in 2005 this was more than U.S. trade with all countries in the European Union combined, and well over twice U.S. trade with all the countries of Latin America combined. Just the two-way trade that crosses the Ambassador Bridge between Michigan and Ontario equals all U.S. exports to Japan. Canada's importance to the United States is not just a border-state phenomenon: Canada is the leading export market for 35 of 50 U.S. states, and is the United States' largest foreign supplier of energy.\\n\\nBilateral trade increased by 52% between 1989, when the U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA) went into effect, and 1994, when the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) superseded it. Trade has since increased by 40%. NAFTA continues the FTA's moves toward reducing trade barriers and establishing agreed-upon trade rules. It also resolves some long-standing bilateral irritants and liberalizes rules in several areas, including agriculture, services, energy, financial services, investment, and government procurement. NAFTA forms the largest trading area in the world, embracing the 405 million people of the three North American countries.\\n\\nThe largest component of U.S.-Canada trade is in the commodity sector.\\n\\nThe U.S. is Canada's largest agricultural export market, taking well over half of all Canadian food exports. Similarly, Canada is the largest market for U.S. agricultural goods, with nearly 20% of American food exports going to its northern neighbour. Nearly two-thirds of Canada's forest products, including pulp and paper, are exported to the United States; 72% of Canada's total newsprint production also is exported to the U.S.\\n\\nAt $73.6 billion in 2004, U.S.-Canada trade in energy is the largest U.S. energy trading relationship, with the overwhelming majority ($66.7 billion) being exports from Canada. The primary components of U.S. energy trade with Canada are petroleum, natural gas, and electricity. Canada is the United States' largest oil supplier and the fifth-largest energy producing country in the world. Canada provides about 16% of U.S. oil imports and 14% of total U.S. consumption of natural gas. The United States and Canada's national electricity grids are linked, and both countries share hydropower facilities on the western borders.\\n\\nWhile most of U.S.-Canada trade flows smoothly, there are occasionally bilateral trade disputes, particularly in the agricultural and cultural fields. Usually these issues are resolved through bilateral consultative forums or referral to World Trade Organization (WTO) or NAFTA dispute resolution. In May 1999, the U.S. and Canadian governments negotiated an agreement on magazines that provides increased access for the U.S. publishing industry to the Canadian market. The United States and Canada also have resolved several major issues involving fisheries. By common agreement, the two countries submitted a Gulf of Maine boundary dispute to the International Court of Justice in 1981; both accepted the court's 12 October 1984 ruling which demarcated the territorial sea boundary. A current issue between the United States and Canada is the ongoing softwood lumber dispute, as the U.S. alleges that Canada unfairly subsidizes its forestry industry.\\n\\nIn 1990, the United States and Canada signed a bilateral Fisheries Enforcement Agreement, which has served to deter illegal fishing activity and reduce the risk of injury during fisheries enforcement incidents. The U.S. and Canada signed a Pacific Salmon Agreement in June 1999 that settled differences over implementation of the 1985 Pacific Salmon Treaty for the next decade.\\n\\nCanada and the United States signed an aviation agreement during Bill Clinton's visit to Canada in February 1995, and air traffic between the two countries has increased dramatically as a result. The two countries also share in operation of the St. Lawrence Seaway, connecting the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean.\\n\\nThe U.S. is Canada's largest foreign investor and the most popular destination for Canadian foreign investments; at the end of 2007, the stock of U.S. direct investment in Canada was estimated at $293 billion, while Canadian direct investment (stock) in the United States was valued at $213 billion. U.S. FDI accounts for 59.5% of total foreign direct investment in Canada while Canadian FDI in the U.S. accounts for 10% (5th largest foreign investor). US investments are primarily directed at Canada's mining and smelting industries, petroleum, chemicals, the manufacture of machinery and transportation equipment, and finance, while Canadian investment in the United States is concentrated in manufacturing, wholesale trade, real estate, petroleum, finance, and insurance and other services.\\n\",\n \"\\n===Central Government Debt===\\nThe OECD reports the Central Government Debt as percentage of the GDP. In 2000 Canada's was 40.9 percent, in 2007 it was 25.2 percent, in 2008 it was 28.6 percent and by 2010 it was 36.1 percent. The OECD reports ''net'' financial liabilities measure used by the OECD, reports the net number at 25.2%, as of 2008, making Canada’s total government debt burden as the lowest in the G8. The gross number was 68% in 2011.\\n\\nThe CIA World Factbook, updated weekly, measures financial liabilities by using gross general government debt, as opposed to net federal debt used by the OECD and the Canadian federal government. Gross general government debt includes both \\\"intragovernmental debt and the debt of public entities at the sub-national level.\\\" For example, the CIA measured Canada's public debt as 84.1% of GDP in 2012 and 87.4% of GDP in 2011 making it 22nd in the world.\\n\\n===Household Debt===\\nIn March 2015 the International Monetary Fund reported that Canada's high household debt was one of two vulnerable domestic areas in Canada's economy; the second is its overheated housing market.\\n\\nAccording to a July 2015 report by Laura Cooper, an economist with the RBC—the largest financial institution in Canada— \\\"outstanding household credit balances\\\" had reached $1.83 trillion. Canadian household credit growth had reached a peak in 2009 then plummeted to a cycle-low in late 2013. There was a quickened pace of growth in household debt in December 2012 and another in April and May 2015.\\n\\n====Household debt in 2013====\\nAccording to the August 2013 third annual Ipsos Reid Debt Poll only 24 per cent of Canadians were debt free in 2013 compared to 26 per cent in 2012. The average personal non-mortgage debt in 2013 was $15,920 up from $13,141 in 2012. According to an IPSOS chart produced in 2013 debt levels increased \\\"a staggering 35 per cent\\\" in Western Canada compared to 10 per cent in Eastern Canada since 2012 even before the Alberta floods. In Alberta in 2013 household debt rose 63 per cent to $24,271 per household from 2012 after the 2013 Alberta floods. In 2013 the average personal debt load in British Columbia was \\\"up 38 per cent to $15,549;\\\" in \\\"Manitoba and Saskatchewan, up 32 per cent to $16,145;\\\" in Ontario, \\\"up 13 per cent to $17,416,\\\" in Quebec up \\\"3 per cent to $10,458;\\\" and in Atlantic Canada, \\\"up 12 per cent to $15,243.\\\"\\n\\n====Household debt in 2014====\\n\\nStatistics Canada announced in December 2014 that Canada's household debt-to-income ratio \\\"hit a record high in the third quarter of 2014, climbing to 162.6 percent from 161.5 percent in the second quarter.\\\" However \\\"household assets and net worth increased much faster than debt,\\\" with the national net worth at C$8.12 trillion in the third quarter of 2014, a increase of 2.8 percent from the second quarter. Also through the inflation-targeting policy of the Bank of Canada, interest rates are kept low improving the ability of households to service their debt. \\\"The debt-service ratio, or interest paid as a proportion of disposable income, fell to a record low 6.8 percent in the third quarter.\\\"\\n\\n====Household debt in 2015====\\n\\nBy 2015 according to the Globe and Mail, \\\"The total debt owed by all Canadians at the end of March 2015 was a record $1.8-trillion with mortgage debt making up $1.29-trillion.\\\"\\n\\nAccording to Philip Cross of the Fraser Institute, in May 2015, while the Canadian household debt-to-income ratio is similar to that in the US, however lending standards in Canada are tighter than those in the United States to protect against high-risk borrowers taking out unsustainable debt.\\n\\nHousehold debt, the amount of money that all adults in the household owe financial institutions, includes consumer debt and mortgage loans. Paul Krugman argued that by 2007 household debt in the United States, prior to the financial crisis, had reached 130 percent of household income. Krugman distinguished between the total domestic non-financial debt (public plus private) relative to GDP which is \\\"money we owe to ourselves\\\" and net foreign debt. Statistics Canada reported in March 2013 that \\\"credit-market debt such as mortgages rose to 165% of disposable income, compared with 164.7% in the prior three-month period\\\" in 2013 According to the IMF in 2012, \\\"Housing-related debt (mortgages) comprises about 70 percent of gross household debt in advanced economies. The remainder consists mainly of credit card debt and auto loans.\\\"\\n\",\n \"\\nAs shown in the table below—based on the RBC Economic and Financial Market Outlook March 11, 2016 report—in Canada in 2015—while business investments decreased—consumption, housing and government spending along with net exports contributed to a real GDP increase at a subpar 1.2% pace. In December 2015 export volumes reached $1.2 billion—the sixth time since 2010 with sales growing by such a large amount-evidence that the Canadian economy is transitioning. In November and December 2015, with the weakening in the Canadian dollar, manufacturing sales and exports increased and employment rose. Job losses in construction, mining, oil and gas were countered by gains in the service sector.\\n\\nBetween early December, 2015 and mid-January the price of oil unexpectedly dropped 24%. RBC economists argued that fear not fundamentals led the shift in financial conditions. Risk adverse investors contributed to a global double-digit decline in the first six weeks of 2016. In Canada, the US, UK and Euro-area yields on long-term government bonds reached an all-time low. As financial market volatility continued in March 2016 the Bank of Canada and Bank of England held their policy rate at 0.5%.\\n\\n\\n+ RBC Economic Forecast March 2016 \\n Type \\n 2014 YR \\n2015 YR \\n Q1 2015 \\n Q2 2015 \\n Q3 2015 \\n Q4 2015 \\n\\n Household consumption \\n 2.6 \\n1.9 \\n 0.6 \\n 1.9 \\n 2.2 \\n 1.0 \\n\\n * Durables \\n 4.3 \\n3.3 \\n -5.6 \\n 5.1 \\n 10.3 \\n 1.7 \\n\\n * Semi-Durables \\n 3.1 \\n2.4 \\n 0.2 \\n 3.0 \\n 1.2 \\n 2.6 \\n\\n * Non-durables \\n 2.4\\n0.7 \\n 2.7 \\n -2.9 \\n 1.7 \\n -1.0 \\n\\n * Services \\n 2.3 \\n2.1 \\n 1.2 \\n 3.3 \\n 0.8 \\n 1.5 \\n\\n NPISH consumption \\n 0.2 \\n1.4 \\n -5.3 \\n 6.7 \\n -0.9 \\n -0.1 \\n\\n Government expenditures \\n 0.3 \\n1.4 \\n 3.8 \\n 2.4 \\n 0.1 \\n 1.5\\n\\n Government Fixed investment \\n 2.1 \\n2.6 \\n 2.8 \\n 0.5 \\n -1.8 \\n -5.1\\n\\n Residential investment \\n 2.5 \\n3.9 \\n 5.9 \\n 1.3 \\n 2.7 \\n 1.8\\n\\n Non-residential investment \\n 0.0 \\n\\n -19.4 \\n -13.0 \\n -10.1 \\n -12.4\\n\\n * Non-residential structures \\n -0.4 \\n\\n -27.7 \\n -12.8 \\n -11.7 \\n -14.6 \\n\\n * Machinery and equipment \\n 1.0 \\n\\n -2.1 \\n -13.4 \\n -7.5 \\n -9.0\\n\\n Intellectual property \\n -4.2 \\n\\n -32.4 \\n -12.5 \\n -6.4 \\n -4.7\\n\\n Final domestic demand \\n 1.6 \\n0.5 \\n -1.5 \\n 0.1 \\n 10.8 \\n -2.2 \\n\\n Exports \\n 5.3 \\n3.0 \\n -0.6 \\n -0.1 \\n 10.8 \\n -2.2\\n\\n Imports \\n 1.8 \\n0.1 \\n 0.5 \\n -1.7 \\n -2.4 \\n -8.9 \\n\\n Inventories (change in $b) \\n 9.9 \\n4.5 \\n 12.7 \\n 8.4 \\n 1.1 \\n -4.0 \\n\\n Real gross domestic product \\n 2.5 \\n1.2 \\n -0.9 \\n -0.4 \\n 2.4 \\n 0.8 \\n\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n*Canada's Global Markets Action Plan\\n*Comparison of Canadian and American economies\\n*Economy of Alberta\\n*Economy of Ontario\\n*Economy of Quebec\\n*Economy of Saskatchewan\\n*Free trade agreements of Canada\\n*History of the petroleum industry in Canada\\n*List of Median household income of cities in Canada\\n*List of Commonwealth of Nations countries by GDP\\n*List of Canadian provinces and territories by gross domestic product\\n*List of companies of Canada\\n*Taxation in Canada\\n*Trans-Pacific Partnership\\n*Transport in Canada\\n*Tourism in Canada\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \" \\n\",\n \"\\n\\n* Howlett, Michael and M. Ramesh. ''Political Economy of Canada: An Introduction.'' Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1992.\\n* Wallace, Iain, ''A Geography of the Canadian Economy.'' Don Mills: Oxford University Press, 2002. \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n\\n\",\n \"\\n \\n* Statistics Canada \\n* Department of Finance Canada \\n* Bank of Canada \\n* World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Canada \\n* Canada - OECD \\n* Canada profile at the CIA World Factbook\\n* Canada profile at The World Bank \\n\\n \\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction","Overview","Measuring productivity","Bank of Canada","Key industries","Free trade agreements","Political issues","Debt issue","Royal Bank of Canada 2016 report","See also","Notes","References","Further reading","External links"],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \"Overview\",\n \"Measuring productivity\",\n \"Bank of Canada\",\n \"Key industries\",\n \"Free trade agreements\",\n \"Political issues\",\n \"Debt issue\",\n \"Royal Bank of Canada 2016 report\",\n \"See also\",\n \"Notes\",\n \"References\",\n \"Further reading\",\n \"External links\"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Economy of Canada"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n===Inflation targeting===\nThe Bank of Canada, a federal crown corporation, has the responsibility of Canada's monetary system.","During the period that John Crow was Governor of the Bank of Canada—1987 to 1994— there was a worldwide recession and the bank rate rose to around 14% and unemployment topped 11%.","In 1991, with Prime Minister Brian Mulroney in office, the federal government and the Bank of Canada announced a new inflation targeting monetary policy that has been the cornerstone of Canada's monetary and fiscal policy ever since.","Although since that time inflation-targeting has been adopted by \"most advanced-world central banks\", in 1991 it was innovative and Canada was an early adopter when the then-Finance Minister Michael Wilson approved the Bank of Canada's first inflation-targeting in the 1991 federal budget.","In 2011 the Government of Canada and the Bank of Canada extended Canada's inflation-control target to December 31, 2016.","The Bank of Canada uses three unconventional instruments to achieve the inflation target: \"a conditional statement on the future path of the policy rate,\" quantitative easing, and credit easing.","By 2011, the then-Bank of Canada Governor Mark Carney argued that the central bank’s mandate would allow for a more flexible inflation-targeting in specific situations where he would consider taking longer \"than the typical six to eight quarters to return inflation to 2 per cent.\"","The central bank— the Bank of Canada— issues its rate announcement through its Monetary Policy Report which is released eight times a year.","On July 15, 2015 the Bank of Canada announced that it was lowering its target for the overnight rate by another one-quarter percentage point, to 0.5 per cent \"to try to stimulate an economy that appears to have failed to rebound meaningfully from the oil shock woes that dragged it into decline in the first quarter.\"","According to the Bank of Canada announcement, in the first quarter of 2015, the total Consumer price index (CPI) inflation was about 1 per cent.","In response to the Bank of Canada's July 15, 2015 rate adjustment, Prime Minister Stephen Harper explained that the Canadian economy was being dragged down by forces beyond Canadian borders such as global oil prices, the European debt crisis, and China's economic slowdown\" which has made the global economy \"fragile.\"","The Bank's main priority has been to keep inflation at a moderate level.","In mid 2017, inflation remained below the Bank's 2% target, (at 1.6%) mostly because of reductions in the cost of energy, food and automobiles; as well, the economy was in a continuing spurt with a predicted GDP growth of 2.8 percent by year end.","Early on 12 July 2017, the bank issued a statement that the benchmark rate would be increased to 0.75%.","In its press release, the bank had confirmed that the rate would continue to be evaluated at least partly on the basis of inflation.","\"Future adjustments to the target for the overnight rate will be guided by incoming data as they inform the bank's inflation outlook, keeping in mind continued uncertainty and financial system vulnerabilities.\"","Also through the inflation-targeting policy of the Bank of Canada, interest rates are kept low improving the ability of households to service their debt.","As financial market volatility continued in March 2016 the Bank of Canada and Bank of England held their policy rate at 0.5%.","\n \n* Statistics Canada \n* Department of Finance Canada \n* Bank of Canada \n* World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Canada \n* Canada - OECD \n* Canada profile at the CIA World Factbook\n* Canada profile at The World Bank"],"string":"[\n \"\\n===Inflation targeting===\\nThe Bank of Canada, a federal crown corporation, has the responsibility of Canada's monetary system.\",\n \"During the period that John Crow was Governor of the Bank of Canada—1987 to 1994— there was a worldwide recession and the bank rate rose to around 14% and unemployment topped 11%.\",\n \"In 1991, with Prime Minister Brian Mulroney in office, the federal government and the Bank of Canada announced a new inflation targeting monetary policy that has been the cornerstone of Canada's monetary and fiscal policy ever since.\",\n \"Although since that time inflation-targeting has been adopted by \\\"most advanced-world central banks\\\", in 1991 it was innovative and Canada was an early adopter when the then-Finance Minister Michael Wilson approved the Bank of Canada's first inflation-targeting in the 1991 federal budget.\",\n \"In 2011 the Government of Canada and the Bank of Canada extended Canada's inflation-control target to December 31, 2016.\",\n \"The Bank of Canada uses three unconventional instruments to achieve the inflation target: \\\"a conditional statement on the future path of the policy rate,\\\" quantitative easing, and credit easing.\",\n \"By 2011, the then-Bank of Canada Governor Mark Carney argued that the central bank’s mandate would allow for a more flexible inflation-targeting in specific situations where he would consider taking longer \\\"than the typical six to eight quarters to return inflation to 2 per cent.\\\"\",\n \"The central bank— the Bank of Canada— issues its rate announcement through its Monetary Policy Report which is released eight times a year.\",\n \"On July 15, 2015 the Bank of Canada announced that it was lowering its target for the overnight rate by another one-quarter percentage point, to 0.5 per cent \\\"to try to stimulate an economy that appears to have failed to rebound meaningfully from the oil shock woes that dragged it into decline in the first quarter.\\\"\",\n \"According to the Bank of Canada announcement, in the first quarter of 2015, the total Consumer price index (CPI) inflation was about 1 per cent.\",\n \"In response to the Bank of Canada's July 15, 2015 rate adjustment, Prime Minister Stephen Harper explained that the Canadian economy was being dragged down by forces beyond Canadian borders such as global oil prices, the European debt crisis, and China's economic slowdown\\\" which has made the global economy \\\"fragile.\\\"\",\n \"The Bank's main priority has been to keep inflation at a moderate level.\",\n \"In mid 2017, inflation remained below the Bank's 2% target, (at 1.6%) mostly because of reductions in the cost of energy, food and automobiles; as well, the economy was in a continuing spurt with a predicted GDP growth of 2.8 percent by year end.\",\n \"Early on 12 July 2017, the bank issued a statement that the benchmark rate would be increased to 0.75%.\",\n \"In its press release, the bank had confirmed that the rate would continue to be evaluated at least partly on the basis of inflation.\",\n \"\\\"Future adjustments to the target for the overnight rate will be guided by incoming data as they inform the bank's inflation outlook, keeping in mind continued uncertainty and financial system vulnerabilities.\\\"\",\n \"Also through the inflation-targeting policy of the Bank of Canada, interest rates are kept low improving the ability of households to service their debt.\",\n \"As financial market volatility continued in March 2016 the Bank of Canada and Bank of England held their policy rate at 0.5%.\",\n \"\\n \\n* Statistics Canada \\n* Department of Finance Canada \\n* Bank of Canada \\n* World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Canada \\n* Canada - OECD \\n* Canada profile at the CIA World Factbook\\n* Canada profile at The World Bank\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":[" \n \n\n\nThe '''economy of Canada''' is a highly developed mixed economy with 10th largest GDP by nominal and 17th largest GDP by PPP in the world.","Canada is one of the world's wealthiest nations with high standard of living and quality of life.","As with other developed nations, the country's economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three quarters of Canadians.","Canada has fourth highest total estimated value of natural resources, valued at US$33.2 trillion in 2016.","It has the world's third largest proven petroleum reserves and fourth largest exporter of petroleum.","It is also the fourth largest exporter of natural gas.","Canada is considered an \"energy superpower\" due to its abundant natural resources.","Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of the primary sector, with the logging and oil industries being two of Canada's most important.","Canada also has a sizable manufacturing sector, based in Central Canada, with the automobile industry and aircraft industry being especially important.","With a long coastline, Canada has the 8th largest commercial fishing and seafood industry in the world.","Canada is one of the global leaders of the entertainment software industry.","It is a member of the APEC, NAFTA, G7, G20, OECD and WTO.","With the exception of a few island nations in the Caribbean, Canada is the only major parliamentary democracy in the western hemisphere.","As a result, Canada has developed its own social and political institutions, distinct from most other countries in the world.","Though the Canadian economy is closely integrated with the American economy, it has developed unique economic institutions.","The Canadian economic system generally combines elements of private enterprise and public enterprise.","Many aspects of public enterprise, most notably the development of an extensive social welfare system to redress social and economic inequities, were adopted after the end of World War Two in 1945.","Canada has a private to public (Crown) property ratio of 60:40 and one of the highest levels of economic freedom in the world.","Today Canada closely resembles the U.S. in its market-oriented economic system and pattern of production.","According to the Forbes Global 2000 list of the world's largest companies in 2008, Canada has 69 companies in the list, ranking 5th next to France.","International trade makes up a large part of the Canadian economy, particularly of its natural resources.","In 2009, agriculture, energy, forestry and mining exports accounted for about 58% of Canada's total exports.","Machinery, equipment, automotive products and other manufactures accounted for a further 38% of exports in 2009.","In 2009, exports accounted for approximately 30% of Canada's GDP.","The United States is by far its largest trading partner, accounting for about 73% of exports and 63% of imports as of 2009.","Canada's combined exports and imports ranked 8th among all nations in 2006.","Approximately 4% of Canadians are directly employed in primary resource fields, and they account for 6.2% of GDP.","They are still paramount in many parts of the country.","Many, if not most, towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, exist because of a nearby mine or source of timber.","Canada is a world leader in the production of many natural resources such as gold, nickel, uranium, diamonds, lead, and in recent years, crude petroleum, which, with the world's second-largest oil reserves, is taking an increasingly prominent position in natural resources extraction.","Several of Canada's largest companies are based in natural resource industries, such as EnCana, Cameco, Goldcorp, and Barrick Gold.","The vast majority of these products are exported, mainly to the United States.","There are also many secondary and service industries that are directly linked to primary ones.","For instance one of Canada's largest manufacturing industries is the pulp and paper sector, which is directly linked to the logging business.","The reliance on natural resources has several effects on the Canadian economy and Canadian society.","While manufacturing and service industries are easy to standardize, natural resources vary greatly by region.","This ensures that differing economic structures developed in each region of Canada, contributing to Canada's strong regionalism.","At the same time the vast majority of these resources are exported, integrating Canada closely into the international economy.","Howlett and Ramesh argue that the inherent instability of such industries also contributes to greater government intervention in the economy, to reduce the social impact of market changes.","Natural resource industries also raise important questions of sustainability.","Despite many decades as a leading producer, there is little risk of depletion.","Large discoveries continue to be made, such as the massive nickel find at Voisey's Bay.","Moreover, the far north remains largely undeveloped as producers await higher prices or new technologies as many operations in this region are not yet cost effective.","In recent decades Canadians have become less willing to accept the environmental destruction associated with exploiting natural resources.","High wages and Aboriginal land claims have also curbed expansion.","Instead many Canadian companies have focused their exploration, exploitation and expansion activities overseas where prices are lower and governments more amenable.","Canadian companies are increasingly playing important roles in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa.","The depletion of renewable resources has raised concerns in recent years.","After decades of escalating overutilization the cod fishery all but collapsed in the 1990s, and the Pacific salmon industry also suffered greatly.","The logging industry, after many years of activism, has in recent years moved to a more sustainable model, or to other countries.","===Unemployment rate===\n\n\n Province\n Unemployment ratepercentage of population\n\n Newfoundland and Labrador\n15.7\n\n Prince Edward Island\n10.0\n\n Nova Scotia\n7.9\n\n10.1\n New Brunswick\n6.5\n\n Quebec\n5.8\n\n Ontario\n6.1\n\n Manitoba\n5.0\n\n Saskatchewan\n6.6\n\n Alberta\n7.8\n\n British Columbia\n5.3\n\n '''Canada (national)'''\n6.3","\nProductivity measures are key indicators of economic performance and a key source of economic growth and competitiveness.","The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) The OECD Compendium of Productivity Indicators, published annually, presents a broad overview of productivity levels and growth in member nations, highlighting key measurement issues.","It analyses the role of \"productivity as the main driver of economic growth and convergence\" and the \"contributions of labour, capital and MFP in driving economic growth.\"","According to the definition above \"MFP is often interpreted as the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation\" (OECD 2008,11).","Measures of productivity include Gross Domestic Product (GDP)(OECD 2008,11) and multifactor productivity.","===Gross Domestic Product (GDP)===\n\nThe OECD provides data for example comparing labour productivity levels in the total economy of each member nation.","In their 2011 report Canada's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was $CDN 1,720,748 million.","In the International Monetary Fund's (IMF) quarterly World Economic Outlook released in April 2015, the IMF forecast that Canada’s real gross domestic product (GDP) would grow 2.2 percent.","In the July World Economic Outlook the IMF forecast that Canada's real GDP would grow by 1.5 per cent in 2015.","According to CTV News real estate accounts for half of all GDP growth.","===Multifactor productivity (MFP)===\n\nAnother productivity measure, used by the OECD, is the long-term trend in multifactor productivity (MFP) also known as total factor productivity (TFP).","This indicator assesses an economy’s \"underlying productive capacity (\"potential output\"), itself an important measure of the growth possibilities of economies and of inflationary pressures.\"","MFP measures the residual growth that cannot be explained by the rate of change in the services of labour, capital and intermediate outputs, and is often interpreted as the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation.","(OECD 2008,11)\n\nAccording to the OECD's annual economic survey of Canada in June 2012, Canada has experienced weak growth of multi-factor productivity (MFP) and has been declining further since 2002.","One of the ways MFP growth is raised is by boosting innovation and Canada's innovation indicators such as business R&D and patenting rates were poor.","Raising MFP growth, is \"needed to sustain rising living standards, especially as the population ages.\"","The inflation target was set at 2 per cent, which is the midpoint of an inflation range of 1 to 3 per cent.","They established a set of inflation-reduction targets in order to keep inflation \"low, stable and predictable\" and to foster \"confidence in the value of money,\" contribute to Canada's sustained growth, employment gains and improved standard of living.","Inflation is measured by the total consumer price index (CPI).","As a result, interest rates and inflation eventually came down along with the value of the Canadian dollar.","From 1991 to 2011 the inflation-targeting regime kept \"price gains fairly reliable.\"","Following the Financial crisis of 2007–08 the narrow focus of inflation-targeting as a means of providing stable growth in the Canadian economy, was questioned.","This reflects \"year-over-year price declines for consumer energy products.\"","Core inflation in the first quarter of 2015 was about 2 per cent with an underlying trend in inflation at about 1.5 to 1.7 per cent.","The Chinese stock market had lost about US$3 trillion of wealth by July 2015 when panicked investors sold stocks, which created declines in the commodities markets, which in turn negatively impacted resource-producing countries like Canada.","As part of that strategy, interest rates were kept at a low level for almost seven years.","Since September 2010, the key interest rate (overnight rate) was 0.5%.","\"The economy can handle very well this move we have today and of course you need to preface that with an acknowledgment that of course interest rates are still very low,\" Governor Stephen Poloz subsequently said.","Poloz refused to speculate on the future of the economy but said, \"I don't doubt that interest rates will move higher, but there's no predetermined path in mind at this stage\".","\nIn 2012, the Canadian economy had the following relative weighting by industry, as percentage value of GDP:\n\n* 12.34 Real estate and rental and leasing\n* 10.86 Manufacturing\n* 07.96 Mining, quarrying and oil or gas extraction\n* 07.03 Health care and social assistance\n* 06.90 Public administration\n* 06.55 Finance and insurance\n* 05.41 Wholesale trade\n* 05.41 Retail trade\n* 05.38 Educational services\n* 05.21 Professional scientific and technical services\n* 04.20 Transportation and warehousing\n* 03.31 Information and cultural industries\n* 02.58 Administrative and support, waste management and remediation services\n* 02.46 Utilities\n* 02.10 Accommodation and food services\n* 02.04 Other services (except public administration)\n* 01.59 Agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting\n* 00.76 Management of companies and enterprises\n* 00.75 Arts, entertainment and recreation\n\n===Service sector===\nThe Toronto-Dominion Centre in Toronto\n\nThe service sector in Canada is vast and multifaceted, employing about three quarters of Canadians and accounting for 70% of GDP.","The largest employer is the retail sector, employing almost 12% of Canadians.","The retail industry is mainly concentrated in a small number of chain stores clustered together in shopping malls.","In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of big-box stores, such as Wal-Mart (of the United States), Real Canadian Superstore, and Best Buy (of the United States).","This has led to fewer workers in this sector and a migration of retail jobs to the suburbs.","The second largest portion of the service sector is the business service and hire only a slightly smaller percentage of the population.","This includes the financial services, real estate, and communications industries.","This portion of the economy has been rapidly growing in recent years.","It is largely concentrated in the major urban centres, especially Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver (see Banking in Canada).","The education and health sectors are two of Canada's largest, but both are largely under the influence of the government.","The health care industry has been quickly growing, and is the third largest in Canada.","Its rapid growth has led to problems for governments who must find money to fund it.","Canada has an important high tech industry, and a burgeoning film, television, and entertainment industry creating content for local and international consumption (see Media in Canada).","Tourism is of ever increasing importance, with the vast majority of international visitors coming from the United States.","Though the recent strength of the Canadian Dollar has hurt this sector, other nations such as China have increased tourism to Canada.","Casino gaming is currently the fastest-growing component of the Canadian tourism industry, contributing $5 billion in profits for Canadian governments and employing 41,000 Canadians as of 2001.","===Manufacturing===\n Bombardier Aerospace is the 3rd largest manufacturer of commercial aircraft in the world.","Pictured here is a CRJ-900 airplane of Scandinavian Airlines (Y-KFA) built in Canada\nCseries family of aircraft to better compete with narrow-body aircraft from Airbus and Boeing.","Pictured here is a CS300 prototype C-FFDK in testing\n\nTreemap of Canada's goods exports in 2014\n\nThe general pattern of development for wealthy nations was a transition from a primary industry based economy to a manufacturing based one, and then to a service based economy.","Canada did not escape this pattern - at its (abnormally high World War II) peak in 1944, manufacturing accounted for 29% of GDP, declining to 15.6% in 2005.","Canada has not suffered as greatly as most other rich, industrialized nations from the pains of the relative decline in the importance of manufacturing since the 1960s.","A 2009 study by Statistics Canada also found that, while manufacturing declined as a relative percentage of GDP from 24.3% in the 1960s to 15.6% in 2005, manufacturing volumes between 1961 and 2005 kept pace with the overall growth in the volume index of GDP.","Manufacturing in Canada was especially hit hard by the financial crisis of 2007–08.","As of 2010, manufacturing accounts for 13% of Canada's GDP, a relative decline of more than 2% of GDP since 2005.","Central Canada is home to branch plants to all the major American and Japanese automobile makers and many parts factories owned by Canadian firms such as Magna International and Linamar Corporation.","Central Canada today produces more vehicles each year than the neighbouring U.S. state of Michigan, the heart of the American automobile industry.","Manufacturers have been attracted to Canada due to the highly educated population with lower labour costs than the United States.","Canada's publicly funded health care system is also an important attraction, as companies are exempt from the high health insurance costs US firms pay, though they are offset by corporate health care taxes.","Much of the Canadian manufacturing industry consists of branch plants of United States firms, though there are some important domestic manufacturers, such as Bombardier Inc..","This has raised several concerns for Canadians.","Branch plants provide mainly blue collar jobs, with research and executive positions confined to the United States.","===Energy===\n\n\nPumpjack pumping an oil well near Sarnia, OntarioCanada is one of the few developed nations that is a net exporter of energy - in 2009 net exports of energy products amounted to 2.9% of GDP.","Most important are the large oil and gas resources centred in Alberta and the Northern Territories, but also present in neighbouring British Columbia and Saskatchewan.","The vast Athabasca oil sands give Canada the world's third largest reserves of oil after Saudi Arabia and Venezuela according to USGS.","In British Columbia and Quebec, as well as Ontario, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and the Labrador region, hydroelectric power is an inexpensive and relatively environmentally friendly source of abundant energy.","In part because of this, Canada is also one of the world's highest per capita consumers of energy.","Cheap energy has enabled the creation of several important industries, such as the large aluminium industries in British Columbia and Quebec.","Historically, an important issue in Canadian politics is the interplay between the oil and energy industry in Western Canada and the industrial heartland of Southern Ontario.","Foreign investment in Western oil projects has fueled Canada's rising dollar.","This has raised the price of Ontario's manufacturing exports and made them less competitive, a problem similar to the decline of the manufacturing sector in the Netherlands.","Also, Ontario has relatively fewer native sources of power.","However, it is cheaper for Alberta to ship its oil to the western United States than to eastern Canada.","The eastern Canadian ports thus import significant quantities of oil from overseas, and Ontario makes significant use of nuclear power.","The National Energy Policy of the early 1980s attempted to force Alberta to sell low priced oil to eastern Canada.","This policy proved deeply divisive, and quickly lost its importance as oil prices collapsed in the mid-1980s.","One of the most controversial sections of the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement of 1988 was a promise that Canada would never charge the United States more for energy than fellow Canadians.","===Agriculture===\n\nAn inland grain terminal in Alberta\nCanada is also one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products, particularly of wheat and other grains.","Canada is a major exporter of agricultural products, to the United States and Asia.","As with all other developed nations the proportion of the population and GDP devoted to agriculture fell dramatically over the 20th century.","As with other developed nations, the Canadian agriculture industry receives significant government subsidies and supports.","However, Canada has been a strong supporter of reducing market influencing subsidies through the World Trade Organization.","In 2000, Canada spent approximately CDN$4.6 billion on supports for the industry.","Of this, $2.32 billion was classified under the WTO designation of \"green box\" support, meaning it did not directly influence the market, such as money for research or disaster relief.","All but $848.2 million were subsidies worth less than 5% of the value of the crops they were provided for.","\n\n\n===Free Trade Agreements in force===\n\n*Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement (Signed 12-Oct-1987, entered into force 01-Jan-1989, later superseded by NAFTA)\n*North American Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Jan-1994, includes Canada, U.S. and Mexico)\n*Canada-Israel Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Jan-1997, modernization ongoing)\n*Canada-Chile Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 05-Jul-1997)\n*Canada-Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Nov-2002, modernization ongoing)\n*Canada-European Free Trade Association Free Trade Agreement (Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein; entered into force 01-Jul-2009)\n*Canada-Peru Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Aug-2009)\n*Canada-Colombia Free Trade Agreement (Signed 21-Nov-2008, entered into force 15-Aug-2011; Canada's ratification of this FTA had been dependent upon Colombia's ratification of the \"Agreement Concerning Annual Reports on Human Rights and Free Trade Between Canada and the Republic of Colombia\" signed on 27-May-2010)\n*Canada-Jordan Free Trade Agreement (Signed on 28-June-2009, entered into force 01-Oct-2012)\n*Canada-Panama Free Trade Agreement (Signed on 14-May-2010, entered into force 01-April-2013)\n*Canada-South Korea Free Trade Agreement (Signed on 11-March-2014, entered into force 01-January-2015)\n\n===Free Trade Agreements concluded===\n*Trans-Pacific Partnership (concluded 05-October-2015)\n*Canada-Ukraine Free Trade Agreement (concluded 14-July-2015)\n*Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (concluded 05-August-2014)\n\n===Ongoing Free Trade Agreements Negotiations===\n\nCanada is negotiating bilateral FTAs with the following countries and trade blocs:\n*Caribbean Community (CARICOM)\n*Guatemala, Nicaragua and El Salvador\n*Dominican Republic\n*India\n*Japan\n*Morocco\n*Singapore\n*Andean Community (FTA's are already in force with Peru and Colombia)\n\nCanada has been involved in negotiations to create the following regional trade blocks:\n\n*Canada-Central American Free Trade Agreement\n*Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA)","\n\n=== Relations with the U.S. ===\n\nCanada and the United States share a common trading relationship.","Canada's job market continues to perform well along with the US, reaching a 30-year low in the unemployment rate in December 2006, following 14 consecutive years of employment growth.","Flags of Canada and the United States\nThe United States is by far Canada's largest trading partner, with more than $1.7 billion CAD in trade per day in 2005.","In 2009, 73% of Canada's exports went to the United States, and 63% of Canada's imports were from the United States.","Trade with Canada makes up 23% of the United States' exports and 17% of its imports.","By comparison, in 2005 this was more than U.S. trade with all countries in the European Union combined, and well over twice U.S. trade with all the countries of Latin America combined.","Just the two-way trade that crosses the Ambassador Bridge between Michigan and Ontario equals all U.S. exports to Japan.","Canada's importance to the United States is not just a border-state phenomenon: Canada is the leading export market for 35 of 50 U.S. states, and is the United States' largest foreign supplier of energy.","Bilateral trade increased by 52% between 1989, when the U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA) went into effect, and 1994, when the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) superseded it.","Trade has since increased by 40%.","NAFTA continues the FTA's moves toward reducing trade barriers and establishing agreed-upon trade rules.","It also resolves some long-standing bilateral irritants and liberalizes rules in several areas, including agriculture, services, energy, financial services, investment, and government procurement.","NAFTA forms the largest trading area in the world, embracing the 405 million people of the three North American countries.","The largest component of U.S.-Canada trade is in the commodity sector.","The U.S. is Canada's largest agricultural export market, taking well over half of all Canadian food exports.","Similarly, Canada is the largest market for U.S. agricultural goods, with nearly 20% of American food exports going to its northern neighbour.","Nearly two-thirds of Canada's forest products, including pulp and paper, are exported to the United States; 72% of Canada's total newsprint production also is exported to the U.S.\n\nAt $73.6 billion in 2004, U.S.-Canada trade in energy is the largest U.S. energy trading relationship, with the overwhelming majority ($66.7 billion) being exports from Canada.","The primary components of U.S. energy trade with Canada are petroleum, natural gas, and electricity.","Canada is the United States' largest oil supplier and the fifth-largest energy producing country in the world.","Canada provides about 16% of U.S. oil imports and 14% of total U.S. consumption of natural gas.","The United States and Canada's national electricity grids are linked, and both countries share hydropower facilities on the western borders.","While most of U.S.-Canada trade flows smoothly, there are occasionally bilateral trade disputes, particularly in the agricultural and cultural fields.","Usually these issues are resolved through bilateral consultative forums or referral to World Trade Organization (WTO) or NAFTA dispute resolution.","In May 1999, the U.S. and Canadian governments negotiated an agreement on magazines that provides increased access for the U.S. publishing industry to the Canadian market.","The United States and Canada also have resolved several major issues involving fisheries.","By common agreement, the two countries submitted a Gulf of Maine boundary dispute to the International Court of Justice in 1981; both accepted the court's 12 October 1984 ruling which demarcated the territorial sea boundary.","A current issue between the United States and Canada is the ongoing softwood lumber dispute, as the U.S. alleges that Canada unfairly subsidizes its forestry industry.","In 1990, the United States and Canada signed a bilateral Fisheries Enforcement Agreement, which has served to deter illegal fishing activity and reduce the risk of injury during fisheries enforcement incidents.","The U.S. and Canada signed a Pacific Salmon Agreement in June 1999 that settled differences over implementation of the 1985 Pacific Salmon Treaty for the next decade.","Canada and the United States signed an aviation agreement during Bill Clinton's visit to Canada in February 1995, and air traffic between the two countries has increased dramatically as a result.","The two countries also share in operation of the St. Lawrence Seaway, connecting the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean.","The U.S. is Canada's largest foreign investor and the most popular destination for Canadian foreign investments; at the end of 2007, the stock of U.S. direct investment in Canada was estimated at $293 billion, while Canadian direct investment (stock) in the United States was valued at $213 billion.","U.S. FDI accounts for 59.5% of total foreign direct investment in Canada while Canadian FDI in the U.S. accounts for 10% (5th largest foreign investor).","US investments are primarily directed at Canada's mining and smelting industries, petroleum, chemicals, the manufacture of machinery and transportation equipment, and finance, while Canadian investment in the United States is concentrated in manufacturing, wholesale trade, real estate, petroleum, finance, and insurance and other services.","\n===Central Government Debt===\nThe OECD reports the Central Government Debt as percentage of the GDP.","In 2000 Canada's was 40.9 percent, in 2007 it was 25.2 percent, in 2008 it was 28.6 percent and by 2010 it was 36.1 percent.","The OECD reports ''net'' financial liabilities measure used by the OECD, reports the net number at 25.2%, as of 2008, making Canada’s total government debt burden as the lowest in the G8.","The gross number was 68% in 2011.","The CIA World Factbook, updated weekly, measures financial liabilities by using gross general government debt, as opposed to net federal debt used by the OECD and the Canadian federal government.","Gross general government debt includes both \"intragovernmental debt and the debt of public entities at the sub-national level.\"","For example, the CIA measured Canada's public debt as 84.1% of GDP in 2012 and 87.4% of GDP in 2011 making it 22nd in the world.","===Household Debt===\nIn March 2015 the International Monetary Fund reported that Canada's high household debt was one of two vulnerable domestic areas in Canada's economy; the second is its overheated housing market.","According to a July 2015 report by Laura Cooper, an economist with the RBC—the largest financial institution in Canada— \"outstanding household credit balances\" had reached $1.83 trillion.","Canadian household credit growth had reached a peak in 2009 then plummeted to a cycle-low in late 2013.","There was a quickened pace of growth in household debt in December 2012 and another in April and May 2015.","====Household debt in 2013====\nAccording to the August 2013 third annual Ipsos Reid Debt Poll only 24 per cent of Canadians were debt free in 2013 compared to 26 per cent in 2012.","The average personal non-mortgage debt in 2013 was $15,920 up from $13,141 in 2012.","According to an IPSOS chart produced in 2013 debt levels increased \"a staggering 35 per cent\" in Western Canada compared to 10 per cent in Eastern Canada since 2012 even before the Alberta floods.","In Alberta in 2013 household debt rose 63 per cent to $24,271 per household from 2012 after the 2013 Alberta floods.","In 2013 the average personal debt load in British Columbia was \"up 38 per cent to $15,549;\" in \"Manitoba and Saskatchewan, up 32 per cent to $16,145;\" in Ontario, \"up 13 per cent to $17,416,\" in Quebec up \"3 per cent to $10,458;\" and in Atlantic Canada, \"up 12 per cent to $15,243.\"","====Household debt in 2014====\n\nStatistics Canada announced in December 2014 that Canada's household debt-to-income ratio \"hit a record high in the third quarter of 2014, climbing to 162.6 percent from 161.5 percent in the second quarter.\"","However \"household assets and net worth increased much faster than debt,\" with the national net worth at C$8.12 trillion in the third quarter of 2014, a increase of 2.8 percent from the second quarter.","\"The debt-service ratio, or interest paid as a proportion of disposable income, fell to a record low 6.8 percent in the third quarter.\"","====Household debt in 2015====\n\nBy 2015 according to the Globe and Mail, \"The total debt owed by all Canadians at the end of March 2015 was a record $1.8-trillion with mortgage debt making up $1.29-trillion.\"","According to Philip Cross of the Fraser Institute, in May 2015, while the Canadian household debt-to-income ratio is similar to that in the US, however lending standards in Canada are tighter than those in the United States to protect against high-risk borrowers taking out unsustainable debt.","Household debt, the amount of money that all adults in the household owe financial institutions, includes consumer debt and mortgage loans.","Paul Krugman argued that by 2007 household debt in the United States, prior to the financial crisis, had reached 130 percent of household income.","Krugman distinguished between the total domestic non-financial debt (public plus private) relative to GDP which is \"money we owe to ourselves\" and net foreign debt.","Statistics Canada reported in March 2013 that \"credit-market debt such as mortgages rose to 165% of disposable income, compared with 164.7% in the prior three-month period\" in 2013 According to the IMF in 2012, \"Housing-related debt (mortgages) comprises about 70 percent of gross household debt in advanced economies.","The remainder consists mainly of credit card debt and auto loans.\"","\nAs shown in the table below—based on the RBC Economic and Financial Market Outlook March 11, 2016 report—in Canada in 2015—while business investments decreased—consumption, housing and government spending along with net exports contributed to a real GDP increase at a subpar 1.2% pace.","In December 2015 export volumes reached $1.2 billion—the sixth time since 2010 with sales growing by such a large amount-evidence that the Canadian economy is transitioning.","In November and December 2015, with the weakening in the Canadian dollar, manufacturing sales and exports increased and employment rose.","Job losses in construction, mining, oil and gas were countered by gains in the service sector.","Between early December, 2015 and mid-January the price of oil unexpectedly dropped 24%.","RBC economists argued that fear not fundamentals led the shift in financial conditions.","Risk adverse investors contributed to a global double-digit decline in the first six weeks of 2016.","In Canada, the US, UK and Euro-area yields on long-term government bonds reached an all-time low.","+ RBC Economic Forecast March 2016 \n Type \n 2014 YR \n2015 YR \n Q1 2015 \n Q2 2015 \n Q3 2015 \n Q4 2015 \n\n Household consumption \n 2.6 \n1.9 \n 0.6 \n 1.9 \n 2.2 \n 1.0 \n\n * Durables \n 4.3 \n3.3 \n -5.6 \n 5.1 \n 10.3 \n 1.7 \n\n * Semi-Durables \n 3.1 \n2.4 \n 0.2 \n 3.0 \n 1.2 \n 2.6 \n\n * Non-durables \n 2.4\n0.7 \n 2.7 \n -2.9 \n 1.7 \n -1.0 \n\n * Services \n 2.3 \n2.1 \n 1.2 \n 3.3 \n 0.8 \n 1.5 \n\n NPISH consumption \n 0.2 \n1.4 \n -5.3 \n 6.7 \n -0.9 \n -0.1 \n\n Government expenditures \n 0.3 \n1.4 \n 3.8 \n 2.4 \n 0.1 \n 1.5\n\n Government Fixed investment \n 2.1 \n2.6 \n 2.8 \n 0.5 \n -1.8 \n -5.1\n\n Residential investment \n 2.5 \n3.9 \n 5.9 \n 1.3 \n 2.7 \n 1.8\n\n Non-residential investment \n 0.0 \n\n -19.4 \n -13.0 \n -10.1 \n -12.4\n\n * Non-residential structures \n -0.4 \n\n -27.7 \n -12.8 \n -11.7 \n -14.6 \n\n * Machinery and equipment \n 1.0 \n\n -2.1 \n -13.4 \n -7.5 \n -9.0\n\n Intellectual property \n -4.2 \n\n -32.4 \n -12.5 \n -6.4 \n -4.7\n\n Final domestic demand \n 1.6 \n0.5 \n -1.5 \n 0.1 \n 10.8 \n -2.2 \n\n Exports \n 5.3 \n3.0 \n -0.6 \n -0.1 \n 10.8 \n -2.2\n\n Imports \n 1.8 \n0.1 \n 0.5 \n -1.7 \n -2.4 \n -8.9 \n\n Inventories (change in $b) \n 9.9 \n4.5 \n 12.7 \n 8.4 \n 1.1 \n -4.0 \n\n Real gross domestic product \n 2.5 \n1.2 \n -0.9 \n -0.4 \n 2.4 \n 0.8","\n\n*Canada's Global Markets Action Plan\n*Comparison of Canadian and American economies\n*Economy of Alberta\n*Economy of Ontario\n*Economy of Quebec\n*Economy of Saskatchewan\n*Free trade agreements of Canada\n*History of the petroleum industry in Canada\n*List of Median household income of cities in Canada\n*List of Commonwealth of Nations countries by GDP\n*List of Canadian provinces and territories by gross domestic product\n*List of companies of Canada\n*Taxation in Canada\n*Trans-Pacific Partnership\n*Transport in Canada\n*Tourism in Canada","\n\n* Howlett, Michael and M. Ramesh.","''Political Economy of Canada: An Introduction.''","Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1992.","* Wallace, Iain, ''A Geography of the Canadian Economy.''","Don Mills: Oxford University Press, 2002.","* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*"],"string":"[\n \" \\n \\n\\n\\nThe '''economy of Canada''' is a highly developed mixed economy with 10th largest GDP by nominal and 17th largest GDP by PPP in the world.\",\n \"Canada is one of the world's wealthiest nations with high standard of living and quality of life.\",\n \"As with other developed nations, the country's economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three quarters of Canadians.\",\n \"Canada has fourth highest total estimated value of natural resources, valued at US$33.2 trillion in 2016.\",\n \"It has the world's third largest proven petroleum reserves and fourth largest exporter of petroleum.\",\n \"It is also the fourth largest exporter of natural gas.\",\n \"Canada is considered an \\\"energy superpower\\\" due to its abundant natural resources.\",\n \"Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of the primary sector, with the logging and oil industries being two of Canada's most important.\",\n \"Canada also has a sizable manufacturing sector, based in Central Canada, with the automobile industry and aircraft industry being especially important.\",\n \"With a long coastline, Canada has the 8th largest commercial fishing and seafood industry in the world.\",\n \"Canada is one of the global leaders of the entertainment software industry.\",\n \"It is a member of the APEC, NAFTA, G7, G20, OECD and WTO.\",\n \"With the exception of a few island nations in the Caribbean, Canada is the only major parliamentary democracy in the western hemisphere.\",\n \"As a result, Canada has developed its own social and political institutions, distinct from most other countries in the world.\",\n \"Though the Canadian economy is closely integrated with the American economy, it has developed unique economic institutions.\",\n \"The Canadian economic system generally combines elements of private enterprise and public enterprise.\",\n \"Many aspects of public enterprise, most notably the development of an extensive social welfare system to redress social and economic inequities, were adopted after the end of World War Two in 1945.\",\n \"Canada has a private to public (Crown) property ratio of 60:40 and one of the highest levels of economic freedom in the world.\",\n \"Today Canada closely resembles the U.S. in its market-oriented economic system and pattern of production.\",\n \"According to the Forbes Global 2000 list of the world's largest companies in 2008, Canada has 69 companies in the list, ranking 5th next to France.\",\n \"International trade makes up a large part of the Canadian economy, particularly of its natural resources.\",\n \"In 2009, agriculture, energy, forestry and mining exports accounted for about 58% of Canada's total exports.\",\n \"Machinery, equipment, automotive products and other manufactures accounted for a further 38% of exports in 2009.\",\n \"In 2009, exports accounted for approximately 30% of Canada's GDP.\",\n \"The United States is by far its largest trading partner, accounting for about 73% of exports and 63% of imports as of 2009.\",\n \"Canada's combined exports and imports ranked 8th among all nations in 2006.\",\n \"Approximately 4% of Canadians are directly employed in primary resource fields, and they account for 6.2% of GDP.\",\n \"They are still paramount in many parts of the country.\",\n \"Many, if not most, towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, exist because of a nearby mine or source of timber.\",\n \"Canada is a world leader in the production of many natural resources such as gold, nickel, uranium, diamonds, lead, and in recent years, crude petroleum, which, with the world's second-largest oil reserves, is taking an increasingly prominent position in natural resources extraction.\",\n \"Several of Canada's largest companies are based in natural resource industries, such as EnCana, Cameco, Goldcorp, and Barrick Gold.\",\n \"The vast majority of these products are exported, mainly to the United States.\",\n \"There are also many secondary and service industries that are directly linked to primary ones.\",\n \"For instance one of Canada's largest manufacturing industries is the pulp and paper sector, which is directly linked to the logging business.\",\n \"The reliance on natural resources has several effects on the Canadian economy and Canadian society.\",\n \"While manufacturing and service industries are easy to standardize, natural resources vary greatly by region.\",\n \"This ensures that differing economic structures developed in each region of Canada, contributing to Canada's strong regionalism.\",\n \"At the same time the vast majority of these resources are exported, integrating Canada closely into the international economy.\",\n \"Howlett and Ramesh argue that the inherent instability of such industries also contributes to greater government intervention in the economy, to reduce the social impact of market changes.\",\n \"Natural resource industries also raise important questions of sustainability.\",\n \"Despite many decades as a leading producer, there is little risk of depletion.\",\n \"Large discoveries continue to be made, such as the massive nickel find at Voisey's Bay.\",\n \"Moreover, the far north remains largely undeveloped as producers await higher prices or new technologies as many operations in this region are not yet cost effective.\",\n \"In recent decades Canadians have become less willing to accept the environmental destruction associated with exploiting natural resources.\",\n \"High wages and Aboriginal land claims have also curbed expansion.\",\n \"Instead many Canadian companies have focused their exploration, exploitation and expansion activities overseas where prices are lower and governments more amenable.\",\n \"Canadian companies are increasingly playing important roles in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa.\",\n \"The depletion of renewable resources has raised concerns in recent years.\",\n \"After decades of escalating overutilization the cod fishery all but collapsed in the 1990s, and the Pacific salmon industry also suffered greatly.\",\n \"The logging industry, after many years of activism, has in recent years moved to a more sustainable model, or to other countries.\",\n \"===Unemployment rate===\\n\\n\\n Province\\n Unemployment ratepercentage of population\\n\\n Newfoundland and Labrador\\n15.7\\n\\n Prince Edward Island\\n10.0\\n\\n Nova Scotia\\n7.9\\n\\n10.1\\n New Brunswick\\n6.5\\n\\n Quebec\\n5.8\\n\\n Ontario\\n6.1\\n\\n Manitoba\\n5.0\\n\\n Saskatchewan\\n6.6\\n\\n Alberta\\n7.8\\n\\n British Columbia\\n5.3\\n\\n '''Canada (national)'''\\n6.3\",\n \"\\nProductivity measures are key indicators of economic performance and a key source of economic growth and competitiveness.\",\n \"The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) The OECD Compendium of Productivity Indicators, published annually, presents a broad overview of productivity levels and growth in member nations, highlighting key measurement issues.\",\n \"It analyses the role of \\\"productivity as the main driver of economic growth and convergence\\\" and the \\\"contributions of labour, capital and MFP in driving economic growth.\\\"\",\n \"According to the definition above \\\"MFP is often interpreted as the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation\\\" (OECD 2008,11).\",\n \"Measures of productivity include Gross Domestic Product (GDP)(OECD 2008,11) and multifactor productivity.\",\n \"===Gross Domestic Product (GDP)===\\n\\nThe OECD provides data for example comparing labour productivity levels in the total economy of each member nation.\",\n \"In their 2011 report Canada's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was $CDN 1,720,748 million.\",\n \"In the International Monetary Fund's (IMF) quarterly World Economic Outlook released in April 2015, the IMF forecast that Canada’s real gross domestic product (GDP) would grow 2.2 percent.\",\n \"In the July World Economic Outlook the IMF forecast that Canada's real GDP would grow by 1.5 per cent in 2015.\",\n \"According to CTV News real estate accounts for half of all GDP growth.\",\n \"===Multifactor productivity (MFP)===\\n\\nAnother productivity measure, used by the OECD, is the long-term trend in multifactor productivity (MFP) also known as total factor productivity (TFP).\",\n \"This indicator assesses an economy’s \\\"underlying productive capacity (\\\"potential output\\\"), itself an important measure of the growth possibilities of economies and of inflationary pressures.\\\"\",\n \"MFP measures the residual growth that cannot be explained by the rate of change in the services of labour, capital and intermediate outputs, and is often interpreted as the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation.\",\n \"(OECD 2008,11)\\n\\nAccording to the OECD's annual economic survey of Canada in June 2012, Canada has experienced weak growth of multi-factor productivity (MFP) and has been declining further since 2002.\",\n \"One of the ways MFP growth is raised is by boosting innovation and Canada's innovation indicators such as business R&D and patenting rates were poor.\",\n \"Raising MFP growth, is \\\"needed to sustain rising living standards, especially as the population ages.\\\"\",\n \"The inflation target was set at 2 per cent, which is the midpoint of an inflation range of 1 to 3 per cent.\",\n \"They established a set of inflation-reduction targets in order to keep inflation \\\"low, stable and predictable\\\" and to foster \\\"confidence in the value of money,\\\" contribute to Canada's sustained growth, employment gains and improved standard of living.\",\n \"Inflation is measured by the total consumer price index (CPI).\",\n \"As a result, interest rates and inflation eventually came down along with the value of the Canadian dollar.\",\n \"From 1991 to 2011 the inflation-targeting regime kept \\\"price gains fairly reliable.\\\"\",\n \"Following the Financial crisis of 2007–08 the narrow focus of inflation-targeting as a means of providing stable growth in the Canadian economy, was questioned.\",\n \"This reflects \\\"year-over-year price declines for consumer energy products.\\\"\",\n \"Core inflation in the first quarter of 2015 was about 2 per cent with an underlying trend in inflation at about 1.5 to 1.7 per cent.\",\n \"The Chinese stock market had lost about US$3 trillion of wealth by July 2015 when panicked investors sold stocks, which created declines in the commodities markets, which in turn negatively impacted resource-producing countries like Canada.\",\n \"As part of that strategy, interest rates were kept at a low level for almost seven years.\",\n \"Since September 2010, the key interest rate (overnight rate) was 0.5%.\",\n \"\\\"The economy can handle very well this move we have today and of course you need to preface that with an acknowledgment that of course interest rates are still very low,\\\" Governor Stephen Poloz subsequently said.\",\n \"Poloz refused to speculate on the future of the economy but said, \\\"I don't doubt that interest rates will move higher, but there's no predetermined path in mind at this stage\\\".\",\n \"\\nIn 2012, the Canadian economy had the following relative weighting by industry, as percentage value of GDP:\\n\\n* 12.34 Real estate and rental and leasing\\n* 10.86 Manufacturing\\n* 07.96 Mining, quarrying and oil or gas extraction\\n* 07.03 Health care and social assistance\\n* 06.90 Public administration\\n* 06.55 Finance and insurance\\n* 05.41 Wholesale trade\\n* 05.41 Retail trade\\n* 05.38 Educational services\\n* 05.21 Professional scientific and technical services\\n* 04.20 Transportation and warehousing\\n* 03.31 Information and cultural industries\\n* 02.58 Administrative and support, waste management and remediation services\\n* 02.46 Utilities\\n* 02.10 Accommodation and food services\\n* 02.04 Other services (except public administration)\\n* 01.59 Agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting\\n* 00.76 Management of companies and enterprises\\n* 00.75 Arts, entertainment and recreation\\n\\n===Service sector===\\nThe Toronto-Dominion Centre in Toronto\\n\\nThe service sector in Canada is vast and multifaceted, employing about three quarters of Canadians and accounting for 70% of GDP.\",\n \"The largest employer is the retail sector, employing almost 12% of Canadians.\",\n \"The retail industry is mainly concentrated in a small number of chain stores clustered together in shopping malls.\",\n \"In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of big-box stores, such as Wal-Mart (of the United States), Real Canadian Superstore, and Best Buy (of the United States).\",\n \"This has led to fewer workers in this sector and a migration of retail jobs to the suburbs.\",\n \"The second largest portion of the service sector is the business service and hire only a slightly smaller percentage of the population.\",\n \"This includes the financial services, real estate, and communications industries.\",\n \"This portion of the economy has been rapidly growing in recent years.\",\n \"It is largely concentrated in the major urban centres, especially Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver (see Banking in Canada).\",\n \"The education and health sectors are two of Canada's largest, but both are largely under the influence of the government.\",\n \"The health care industry has been quickly growing, and is the third largest in Canada.\",\n \"Its rapid growth has led to problems for governments who must find money to fund it.\",\n \"Canada has an important high tech industry, and a burgeoning film, television, and entertainment industry creating content for local and international consumption (see Media in Canada).\",\n \"Tourism is of ever increasing importance, with the vast majority of international visitors coming from the United States.\",\n \"Though the recent strength of the Canadian Dollar has hurt this sector, other nations such as China have increased tourism to Canada.\",\n \"Casino gaming is currently the fastest-growing component of the Canadian tourism industry, contributing $5 billion in profits for Canadian governments and employing 41,000 Canadians as of 2001.\",\n \"===Manufacturing===\\n Bombardier Aerospace is the 3rd largest manufacturer of commercial aircraft in the world.\",\n \"Pictured here is a CRJ-900 airplane of Scandinavian Airlines (Y-KFA) built in Canada\\nCseries family of aircraft to better compete with narrow-body aircraft from Airbus and Boeing.\",\n \"Pictured here is a CS300 prototype C-FFDK in testing\\n\\nTreemap of Canada's goods exports in 2014\\n\\nThe general pattern of development for wealthy nations was a transition from a primary industry based economy to a manufacturing based one, and then to a service based economy.\",\n \"Canada did not escape this pattern - at its (abnormally high World War II) peak in 1944, manufacturing accounted for 29% of GDP, declining to 15.6% in 2005.\",\n \"Canada has not suffered as greatly as most other rich, industrialized nations from the pains of the relative decline in the importance of manufacturing since the 1960s.\",\n \"A 2009 study by Statistics Canada also found that, while manufacturing declined as a relative percentage of GDP from 24.3% in the 1960s to 15.6% in 2005, manufacturing volumes between 1961 and 2005 kept pace with the overall growth in the volume index of GDP.\",\n \"Manufacturing in Canada was especially hit hard by the financial crisis of 2007–08.\",\n \"As of 2010, manufacturing accounts for 13% of Canada's GDP, a relative decline of more than 2% of GDP since 2005.\",\n \"Central Canada is home to branch plants to all the major American and Japanese automobile makers and many parts factories owned by Canadian firms such as Magna International and Linamar Corporation.\",\n \"Central Canada today produces more vehicles each year than the neighbouring U.S. state of Michigan, the heart of the American automobile industry.\",\n \"Manufacturers have been attracted to Canada due to the highly educated population with lower labour costs than the United States.\",\n \"Canada's publicly funded health care system is also an important attraction, as companies are exempt from the high health insurance costs US firms pay, though they are offset by corporate health care taxes.\",\n \"Much of the Canadian manufacturing industry consists of branch plants of United States firms, though there are some important domestic manufacturers, such as Bombardier Inc..\",\n \"This has raised several concerns for Canadians.\",\n \"Branch plants provide mainly blue collar jobs, with research and executive positions confined to the United States.\",\n \"===Energy===\\n\\n\\nPumpjack pumping an oil well near Sarnia, OntarioCanada is one of the few developed nations that is a net exporter of energy - in 2009 net exports of energy products amounted to 2.9% of GDP.\",\n \"Most important are the large oil and gas resources centred in Alberta and the Northern Territories, but also present in neighbouring British Columbia and Saskatchewan.\",\n \"The vast Athabasca oil sands give Canada the world's third largest reserves of oil after Saudi Arabia and Venezuela according to USGS.\",\n \"In British Columbia and Quebec, as well as Ontario, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and the Labrador region, hydroelectric power is an inexpensive and relatively environmentally friendly source of abundant energy.\",\n \"In part because of this, Canada is also one of the world's highest per capita consumers of energy.\",\n \"Cheap energy has enabled the creation of several important industries, such as the large aluminium industries in British Columbia and Quebec.\",\n \"Historically, an important issue in Canadian politics is the interplay between the oil and energy industry in Western Canada and the industrial heartland of Southern Ontario.\",\n \"Foreign investment in Western oil projects has fueled Canada's rising dollar.\",\n \"This has raised the price of Ontario's manufacturing exports and made them less competitive, a problem similar to the decline of the manufacturing sector in the Netherlands.\",\n \"Also, Ontario has relatively fewer native sources of power.\",\n \"However, it is cheaper for Alberta to ship its oil to the western United States than to eastern Canada.\",\n \"The eastern Canadian ports thus import significant quantities of oil from overseas, and Ontario makes significant use of nuclear power.\",\n \"The National Energy Policy of the early 1980s attempted to force Alberta to sell low priced oil to eastern Canada.\",\n \"This policy proved deeply divisive, and quickly lost its importance as oil prices collapsed in the mid-1980s.\",\n \"One of the most controversial sections of the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement of 1988 was a promise that Canada would never charge the United States more for energy than fellow Canadians.\",\n \"===Agriculture===\\n\\nAn inland grain terminal in Alberta\\nCanada is also one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products, particularly of wheat and other grains.\",\n \"Canada is a major exporter of agricultural products, to the United States and Asia.\",\n \"As with all other developed nations the proportion of the population and GDP devoted to agriculture fell dramatically over the 20th century.\",\n \"As with other developed nations, the Canadian agriculture industry receives significant government subsidies and supports.\",\n \"However, Canada has been a strong supporter of reducing market influencing subsidies through the World Trade Organization.\",\n \"In 2000, Canada spent approximately CDN$4.6 billion on supports for the industry.\",\n \"Of this, $2.32 billion was classified under the WTO designation of \\\"green box\\\" support, meaning it did not directly influence the market, such as money for research or disaster relief.\",\n \"All but $848.2 million were subsidies worth less than 5% of the value of the crops they were provided for.\",\n \"\\n\\n\\n===Free Trade Agreements in force===\\n\\n*Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement (Signed 12-Oct-1987, entered into force 01-Jan-1989, later superseded by NAFTA)\\n*North American Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Jan-1994, includes Canada, U.S. and Mexico)\\n*Canada-Israel Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Jan-1997, modernization ongoing)\\n*Canada-Chile Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 05-Jul-1997)\\n*Canada-Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Nov-2002, modernization ongoing)\\n*Canada-European Free Trade Association Free Trade Agreement (Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein; entered into force 01-Jul-2009)\\n*Canada-Peru Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Aug-2009)\\n*Canada-Colombia Free Trade Agreement (Signed 21-Nov-2008, entered into force 15-Aug-2011; Canada's ratification of this FTA had been dependent upon Colombia's ratification of the \\\"Agreement Concerning Annual Reports on Human Rights and Free Trade Between Canada and the Republic of Colombia\\\" signed on 27-May-2010)\\n*Canada-Jordan Free Trade Agreement (Signed on 28-June-2009, entered into force 01-Oct-2012)\\n*Canada-Panama Free Trade Agreement (Signed on 14-May-2010, entered into force 01-April-2013)\\n*Canada-South Korea Free Trade Agreement (Signed on 11-March-2014, entered into force 01-January-2015)\\n\\n===Free Trade Agreements concluded===\\n*Trans-Pacific Partnership (concluded 05-October-2015)\\n*Canada-Ukraine Free Trade Agreement (concluded 14-July-2015)\\n*Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (concluded 05-August-2014)\\n\\n===Ongoing Free Trade Agreements Negotiations===\\n\\nCanada is negotiating bilateral FTAs with the following countries and trade blocs:\\n*Caribbean Community (CARICOM)\\n*Guatemala, Nicaragua and El Salvador\\n*Dominican Republic\\n*India\\n*Japan\\n*Morocco\\n*Singapore\\n*Andean Community (FTA's are already in force with Peru and Colombia)\\n\\nCanada has been involved in negotiations to create the following regional trade blocks:\\n\\n*Canada-Central American Free Trade Agreement\\n*Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA)\",\n \"\\n\\n=== Relations with the U.S. ===\\n\\nCanada and the United States share a common trading relationship.\",\n \"Canada's job market continues to perform well along with the US, reaching a 30-year low in the unemployment rate in December 2006, following 14 consecutive years of employment growth.\",\n \"Flags of Canada and the United States\\nThe United States is by far Canada's largest trading partner, with more than $1.7 billion CAD in trade per day in 2005.\",\n \"In 2009, 73% of Canada's exports went to the United States, and 63% of Canada's imports were from the United States.\",\n \"Trade with Canada makes up 23% of the United States' exports and 17% of its imports.\",\n \"By comparison, in 2005 this was more than U.S. trade with all countries in the European Union combined, and well over twice U.S. trade with all the countries of Latin America combined.\",\n \"Just the two-way trade that crosses the Ambassador Bridge between Michigan and Ontario equals all U.S. exports to Japan.\",\n \"Canada's importance to the United States is not just a border-state phenomenon: Canada is the leading export market for 35 of 50 U.S. states, and is the United States' largest foreign supplier of energy.\",\n \"Bilateral trade increased by 52% between 1989, when the U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA) went into effect, and 1994, when the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) superseded it.\",\n \"Trade has since increased by 40%.\",\n \"NAFTA continues the FTA's moves toward reducing trade barriers and establishing agreed-upon trade rules.\",\n \"It also resolves some long-standing bilateral irritants and liberalizes rules in several areas, including agriculture, services, energy, financial services, investment, and government procurement.\",\n \"NAFTA forms the largest trading area in the world, embracing the 405 million people of the three North American countries.\",\n \"The largest component of U.S.-Canada trade is in the commodity sector.\",\n \"The U.S. is Canada's largest agricultural export market, taking well over half of all Canadian food exports.\",\n \"Similarly, Canada is the largest market for U.S. agricultural goods, with nearly 20% of American food exports going to its northern neighbour.\",\n \"Nearly two-thirds of Canada's forest products, including pulp and paper, are exported to the United States; 72% of Canada's total newsprint production also is exported to the U.S.\\n\\nAt $73.6 billion in 2004, U.S.-Canada trade in energy is the largest U.S. energy trading relationship, with the overwhelming majority ($66.7 billion) being exports from Canada.\",\n \"The primary components of U.S. energy trade with Canada are petroleum, natural gas, and electricity.\",\n \"Canada is the United States' largest oil supplier and the fifth-largest energy producing country in the world.\",\n \"Canada provides about 16% of U.S. oil imports and 14% of total U.S. consumption of natural gas.\",\n \"The United States and Canada's national electricity grids are linked, and both countries share hydropower facilities on the western borders.\",\n \"While most of U.S.-Canada trade flows smoothly, there are occasionally bilateral trade disputes, particularly in the agricultural and cultural fields.\",\n \"Usually these issues are resolved through bilateral consultative forums or referral to World Trade Organization (WTO) or NAFTA dispute resolution.\",\n \"In May 1999, the U.S. and Canadian governments negotiated an agreement on magazines that provides increased access for the U.S. publishing industry to the Canadian market.\",\n \"The United States and Canada also have resolved several major issues involving fisheries.\",\n \"By common agreement, the two countries submitted a Gulf of Maine boundary dispute to the International Court of Justice in 1981; both accepted the court's 12 October 1984 ruling which demarcated the territorial sea boundary.\",\n \"A current issue between the United States and Canada is the ongoing softwood lumber dispute, as the U.S. alleges that Canada unfairly subsidizes its forestry industry.\",\n \"In 1990, the United States and Canada signed a bilateral Fisheries Enforcement Agreement, which has served to deter illegal fishing activity and reduce the risk of injury during fisheries enforcement incidents.\",\n \"The U.S. and Canada signed a Pacific Salmon Agreement in June 1999 that settled differences over implementation of the 1985 Pacific Salmon Treaty for the next decade.\",\n \"Canada and the United States signed an aviation agreement during Bill Clinton's visit to Canada in February 1995, and air traffic between the two countries has increased dramatically as a result.\",\n \"The two countries also share in operation of the St. Lawrence Seaway, connecting the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean.\",\n \"The U.S. is Canada's largest foreign investor and the most popular destination for Canadian foreign investments; at the end of 2007, the stock of U.S. direct investment in Canada was estimated at $293 billion, while Canadian direct investment (stock) in the United States was valued at $213 billion.\",\n \"U.S. FDI accounts for 59.5% of total foreign direct investment in Canada while Canadian FDI in the U.S. accounts for 10% (5th largest foreign investor).\",\n \"US investments are primarily directed at Canada's mining and smelting industries, petroleum, chemicals, the manufacture of machinery and transportation equipment, and finance, while Canadian investment in the United States is concentrated in manufacturing, wholesale trade, real estate, petroleum, finance, and insurance and other services.\",\n \"\\n===Central Government Debt===\\nThe OECD reports the Central Government Debt as percentage of the GDP.\",\n \"In 2000 Canada's was 40.9 percent, in 2007 it was 25.2 percent, in 2008 it was 28.6 percent and by 2010 it was 36.1 percent.\",\n \"The OECD reports ''net'' financial liabilities measure used by the OECD, reports the net number at 25.2%, as of 2008, making Canada’s total government debt burden as the lowest in the G8.\",\n \"The gross number was 68% in 2011.\",\n \"The CIA World Factbook, updated weekly, measures financial liabilities by using gross general government debt, as opposed to net federal debt used by the OECD and the Canadian federal government.\",\n \"Gross general government debt includes both \\\"intragovernmental debt and the debt of public entities at the sub-national level.\\\"\",\n \"For example, the CIA measured Canada's public debt as 84.1% of GDP in 2012 and 87.4% of GDP in 2011 making it 22nd in the world.\",\n \"===Household Debt===\\nIn March 2015 the International Monetary Fund reported that Canada's high household debt was one of two vulnerable domestic areas in Canada's economy; the second is its overheated housing market.\",\n \"According to a July 2015 report by Laura Cooper, an economist with the RBC—the largest financial institution in Canada— \\\"outstanding household credit balances\\\" had reached $1.83 trillion.\",\n \"Canadian household credit growth had reached a peak in 2009 then plummeted to a cycle-low in late 2013.\",\n \"There was a quickened pace of growth in household debt in December 2012 and another in April and May 2015.\",\n \"====Household debt in 2013====\\nAccording to the August 2013 third annual Ipsos Reid Debt Poll only 24 per cent of Canadians were debt free in 2013 compared to 26 per cent in 2012.\",\n \"The average personal non-mortgage debt in 2013 was $15,920 up from $13,141 in 2012.\",\n \"According to an IPSOS chart produced in 2013 debt levels increased \\\"a staggering 35 per cent\\\" in Western Canada compared to 10 per cent in Eastern Canada since 2012 even before the Alberta floods.\",\n \"In Alberta in 2013 household debt rose 63 per cent to $24,271 per household from 2012 after the 2013 Alberta floods.\",\n \"In 2013 the average personal debt load in British Columbia was \\\"up 38 per cent to $15,549;\\\" in \\\"Manitoba and Saskatchewan, up 32 per cent to $16,145;\\\" in Ontario, \\\"up 13 per cent to $17,416,\\\" in Quebec up \\\"3 per cent to $10,458;\\\" and in Atlantic Canada, \\\"up 12 per cent to $15,243.\\\"\",\n \"====Household debt in 2014====\\n\\nStatistics Canada announced in December 2014 that Canada's household debt-to-income ratio \\\"hit a record high in the third quarter of 2014, climbing to 162.6 percent from 161.5 percent in the second quarter.\\\"\",\n \"However \\\"household assets and net worth increased much faster than debt,\\\" with the national net worth at C$8.12 trillion in the third quarter of 2014, a increase of 2.8 percent from the second quarter.\",\n \"\\\"The debt-service ratio, or interest paid as a proportion of disposable income, fell to a record low 6.8 percent in the third quarter.\\\"\",\n \"====Household debt in 2015====\\n\\nBy 2015 according to the Globe and Mail, \\\"The total debt owed by all Canadians at the end of March 2015 was a record $1.8-trillion with mortgage debt making up $1.29-trillion.\\\"\",\n \"According to Philip Cross of the Fraser Institute, in May 2015, while the Canadian household debt-to-income ratio is similar to that in the US, however lending standards in Canada are tighter than those in the United States to protect against high-risk borrowers taking out unsustainable debt.\",\n \"Household debt, the amount of money that all adults in the household owe financial institutions, includes consumer debt and mortgage loans.\",\n \"Paul Krugman argued that by 2007 household debt in the United States, prior to the financial crisis, had reached 130 percent of household income.\",\n \"Krugman distinguished between the total domestic non-financial debt (public plus private) relative to GDP which is \\\"money we owe to ourselves\\\" and net foreign debt.\",\n \"Statistics Canada reported in March 2013 that \\\"credit-market debt such as mortgages rose to 165% of disposable income, compared with 164.7% in the prior three-month period\\\" in 2013 According to the IMF in 2012, \\\"Housing-related debt (mortgages) comprises about 70 percent of gross household debt in advanced economies.\",\n \"The remainder consists mainly of credit card debt and auto loans.\\\"\",\n \"\\nAs shown in the table below—based on the RBC Economic and Financial Market Outlook March 11, 2016 report—in Canada in 2015—while business investments decreased—consumption, housing and government spending along with net exports contributed to a real GDP increase at a subpar 1.2% pace.\",\n \"In December 2015 export volumes reached $1.2 billion—the sixth time since 2010 with sales growing by such a large amount-evidence that the Canadian economy is transitioning.\",\n \"In November and December 2015, with the weakening in the Canadian dollar, manufacturing sales and exports increased and employment rose.\",\n \"Job losses in construction, mining, oil and gas were countered by gains in the service sector.\",\n \"Between early December, 2015 and mid-January the price of oil unexpectedly dropped 24%.\",\n \"RBC economists argued that fear not fundamentals led the shift in financial conditions.\",\n \"Risk adverse investors contributed to a global double-digit decline in the first six weeks of 2016.\",\n \"In Canada, the US, UK and Euro-area yields on long-term government bonds reached an all-time low.\",\n \"+ RBC Economic Forecast March 2016 \\n Type \\n 2014 YR \\n2015 YR \\n Q1 2015 \\n Q2 2015 \\n Q3 2015 \\n Q4 2015 \\n\\n Household consumption \\n 2.6 \\n1.9 \\n 0.6 \\n 1.9 \\n 2.2 \\n 1.0 \\n\\n * Durables \\n 4.3 \\n3.3 \\n -5.6 \\n 5.1 \\n 10.3 \\n 1.7 \\n\\n * Semi-Durables \\n 3.1 \\n2.4 \\n 0.2 \\n 3.0 \\n 1.2 \\n 2.6 \\n\\n * Non-durables \\n 2.4\\n0.7 \\n 2.7 \\n -2.9 \\n 1.7 \\n -1.0 \\n\\n * Services \\n 2.3 \\n2.1 \\n 1.2 \\n 3.3 \\n 0.8 \\n 1.5 \\n\\n NPISH consumption \\n 0.2 \\n1.4 \\n -5.3 \\n 6.7 \\n -0.9 \\n -0.1 \\n\\n Government expenditures \\n 0.3 \\n1.4 \\n 3.8 \\n 2.4 \\n 0.1 \\n 1.5\\n\\n Government Fixed investment \\n 2.1 \\n2.6 \\n 2.8 \\n 0.5 \\n -1.8 \\n -5.1\\n\\n Residential investment \\n 2.5 \\n3.9 \\n 5.9 \\n 1.3 \\n 2.7 \\n 1.8\\n\\n Non-residential investment \\n 0.0 \\n\\n -19.4 \\n -13.0 \\n -10.1 \\n -12.4\\n\\n * Non-residential structures \\n -0.4 \\n\\n -27.7 \\n -12.8 \\n -11.7 \\n -14.6 \\n\\n * Machinery and equipment \\n 1.0 \\n\\n -2.1 \\n -13.4 \\n -7.5 \\n -9.0\\n\\n Intellectual property \\n -4.2 \\n\\n -32.4 \\n -12.5 \\n -6.4 \\n -4.7\\n\\n Final domestic demand \\n 1.6 \\n0.5 \\n -1.5 \\n 0.1 \\n 10.8 \\n -2.2 \\n\\n Exports \\n 5.3 \\n3.0 \\n -0.6 \\n -0.1 \\n 10.8 \\n -2.2\\n\\n Imports \\n 1.8 \\n0.1 \\n 0.5 \\n -1.7 \\n -2.4 \\n -8.9 \\n\\n Inventories (change in $b) \\n 9.9 \\n4.5 \\n 12.7 \\n 8.4 \\n 1.1 \\n -4.0 \\n\\n Real gross domestic product \\n 2.5 \\n1.2 \\n -0.9 \\n -0.4 \\n 2.4 \\n 0.8\",\n \"\\n\\n*Canada's Global Markets Action Plan\\n*Comparison of Canadian and American economies\\n*Economy of Alberta\\n*Economy of Ontario\\n*Economy of Quebec\\n*Economy of Saskatchewan\\n*Free trade agreements of Canada\\n*History of the petroleum industry in Canada\\n*List of Median household income of cities in Canada\\n*List of Commonwealth of Nations countries by GDP\\n*List of Canadian provinces and territories by gross domestic product\\n*List of companies of Canada\\n*Taxation in Canada\\n*Trans-Pacific Partnership\\n*Transport in Canada\\n*Tourism in Canada\",\n \"\\n\\n* Howlett, Michael and M. Ramesh.\",\n \"''Political Economy of Canada: An Introduction.''\",\n \"Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1992.\",\n \"* Wallace, Iain, ''A Geography of the Canadian Economy.''\",\n \"Don Mills: Oxford University Press, 2002.\",\n \"* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n*\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"finance"}}},{"rowIdx":293,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\nPrime Minister Justin Trudeau and President Donald Trump meet in Washington, February 2017.\n'''Relations between Canada and the United States of America''' historically have been extensive, given a shared border and ever-increasing close cultural, economical ties and similarities. The shared historical and cultural heritage has resulted in one of the most stable and mutually beneficial international relationships in the world. For both countries, the level of trade with the other is at the top of the annual combined import-export total. Tourism and migration between the two nations have increased rapport, but border security was heightened after the terrorist attacks in the United States on September 11, 2001. The U.S. is ten times larger in population and has the dominant cultural and economic influence in the world. Starting with the American Revolution, when anti-American Loyalists fled to Canada, a vocal element in Canada has warned against US dominance or annexation. The War of 1812 saw invasions across the border. In 1815, the war ended with the border unchanged and demilitarized, as were the Great Lakes. The British ceased aiding First Nation attacks on American territory, and the United States never again attempted to invade Canada. Apart from minor raids, it has remained peaceful.\n\nAs Britain decided to disengage, fears of an American takeover played a role in the formation of the Dominion of Canada (1867), and Canada's rejection of free trade (1911). Military collaboration was close during World War II and continued throughout the Cold War, bilaterally through NORAD and multilaterally through NATO. A very high volume of trade and migration continues between the two nations, as well as a heavy overlapping of popular and elite culture, a dynamic which has generated closer ties, especially after the signing of the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement in 1988.\n\nCanada and the United States are the world's largest trading partners. The two nations have the world's longest shared border (), and also have significant interoperability within the defense sphere. Recent difficulties have included repeated trade disputes, environmental concerns, Canadian concern for the future of oil exports, and issues of illegal immigration and the threat of terrorism. Trade has continued to expand, especially following the 1988 FTA and North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994 which has further merged the two economies.\nCo-operation on many fronts, such as the ease of the flow of goods, services, and people across borders are to be even more extended, as well as the establishment of joint border inspection agencies, relocation of U.S. food inspectors agents to Canadian plants and vice versa, greater sharing of intelligence, and harmonizing regulations on everything from food to manufactured goods, thus further increasing the American-Canadian assemblage.\n\nThe foreign policies of the neighbours have been closely aligned since the Cold War. Canada has disagreed with American policies regarding the Vietnam War, the status of Cuba, the Iraq War, Missile Defense, and the War on Terror. A diplomatic debate has been underway in recent years on whether the Northwest Passage is in international waters or under Canadian sovereignty.\n\nToday there are close cultural ties, many similar and identical traits and according to Gallup's annual public opinion polls, Canada has consistently been Americans' favorite nation, with 96% of Americans viewing Canada favorably in 2012. According to a 2013 BBC World Service Poll, 84% of Americans view their northern neighbor's influence positively, with only 5% expressing a negative view, the most favorable perception of Canada in the world. As of spring 2013, 64% of Canadians had a favorable view of the U.S. and 81% expressed confidence in then-US President Obama to do the right thing in international matters. According to the same poll, 30% viewed the U.S. negatively. Also, according to a 2014 BBC World Service Poll, 86% of Americans view Canada's influence positively, with only 5% expressing a negative view. However, according to the same poll, 43% of Canadians view U.S. influence positively, with 52% expressing a negative view. In addition, according to Spring 2017 Global Attitudes Survey, 43% of Canadians view U.S. positively, while 51% hold a negative view.\n","{| class=\"wikitable\"\n\n\n '''United States of America'''''''''\n '''Canada'''\n\n '''Flag'''\n \n \n\n '''Populations'''\n 325,090,579 (March 2017) (3rd)\n 35,151,728 (2016 census) (38th)\n\n '''Area'''\n 9,833,634 km2 (3,796,787 sq mi)\n 9,984,670 km2 (3,855,103 sq mi)\n\n '''Population density'''\n 35/km2 (87.4/sq mi)\n 3.41/km2 (8.3/sq mi)\n\n '''Time zones'''\n 9\n 6\n\n '''Capital'''\n Washington, D.C.\n Ottawa\n\n '''Largest cities'''\n New York CityLos AngelesChicagoHouston\n TorontoMontrealVancouverCalgary\n\n '''Government'''\n Federal presidentialconstitutional republic\n Federal parliamentary democraticconstitutional monarchy\n\n '''First leader'''\n George Washington\n Sir John A. Macdonald\n\n '''Current leader(s)'''\n President Donald Trump\n\n* Queen Elizabeth II (head of state)Represented by Governor General David Johnston\n* Prime Minister Justin Trudeau (head of government)\n\n '''Ruling political party'''\n Republican Party\n Liberal Party\n\n '''Official languages'''\n None at federal level, but English ''de facto''\n English and French\n\n '''Main religions'''\n 70.6% Christianity, 22.8% non-Religious, 1.9% Judaism, 0.9% Islam, 0.7% Buddhism, 0.7% Hinduism\n 67.3% Christianity, 23.9% Unaffiliated, 3.2% Islam, 1.5% Hinduism, 1.4% Sikhism, 1.1% Buddhism, 1.0% Judaism\n\n '''Human Development Index (2015)'''\n 0.920 (very high)\n 0.920 (very high)\n\n '''GDP (nominal) (2014)'''\n $17.416 trillion ($54,390 per capita)\n $1.793 trillion ($50,577 per capita)\n\n '''GDP (PPP) (2014)'''\n $17.416 trillion ($54,390 per capita)\n $1.578 trillion ($44,519 per capita)\n\n '''Military expenditures(2015)'''\n $596 billion (3.3% of GDP)\n $15 billion (1.0% of GDP)\n\n\nLeaders of Canada and the United States from 1950\n\n\nImageSize = width:800 height:auto barincrement:70\nPlotArea = left:80 right:15 bottom:80 top:5\n\nDateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy\nDefine $start = 01/01/1950\nDefine $end = 31/12/2017\nPeriod = from:$start till:$end\nTimeAxis = orientation:horizontal\nScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:01/01/1955\nScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:01/01/1950\nLegend = orientation:horizontal position:bottom\nColors =\n id:lib value:coral legend:Liberals_(Canada)\n id:con value:blue legend:Conservatives_(Canada)\n id:dem value:skyblue legend:Democratic_Party_(United_States)\n id:gop value:pink legend:Republican_Party_(United_States)\n\nBarData =\n bar:ca text:Canada\n bar:us text:United States\n\nPlotData=\n align:center mark:(line,black)\n bar:ca\n from: 04/11/2015 till: $end color:lib text:\"J.Trudeau\n from: 06/02/2006 till: 04/11/2015 color:con text:\"Harper\n from: 12/12/2003 till: 06/02/2006 color:lib text:\"Martin\n from: 04/11/1993 till: 12/12/2003 color:lib text:\"Chretien\n from: 25/06/1993 till: 04/11/1993 color:con text:\"C.\n from: 17/09/1984 till: 25/06/1993 color:con text:\"Mulroney\n from: 30/06/1984 till: 17/09/1984 color:lib text:\"T.\n from: 03/03/1980 till: 30/06/1984 color:lib text:\"P.Trudeau\n from: 04/06/1979 till: 03/03/1980 color:con text:\"Clark\n from: 20/04/1968 till: 03/06/1979 color:lib text:\"P.Trudeau\n from: 22/04/1963 till: 20/04/1968 color:lib text:\"Pearson\n from: 21/06/1957 till: 22/04/1963 color:con text:\"Diefenbaker\n from: $start till: 21/06/1957 color:lib text:\"Laurent\n\n bar:us\n from: 20/01/2017 till: $end color:gop text:\"Trump\"\n from: 20/01/2009 till: 20/01/2017 color:dem text:\"Obama\"\n from: 20/01/2001 till: 20/01/2009 color:gop text:\"G.W.Bush\"\n from: 20/01/1993 till: 20/01/2001 color:dem text:\"Clinton\"\n from: 20/01/1989 till: 20/01/1993 color:gop text:\"G.H.W.Bush\"\n from: 20/01/1981 till: 20/01/1989 color:gop text:\"Reagan\"\n from: 20/01/1977 till: 20/01/1981 color:dem text:\"Carter\"\n from: 09/08/1974 till: 20/01/1977 color:gop text:\"Ford\"\n from: 20/01/1969 till: 09/08/1974 color:gop text:\"Nixon\"\n from: 22/11/1963 till: 20/01/1969 color:dem text:\"Johnson\"\n from: 20/01/1961 till: 22/11/1963 color:dem text:\"Kennedy\"\n from: 20/01/1953 till: 20/01/1961 color:gop text:\"Eisenhower\"\n from: $Start till: 20/01/1953 color:dem text:\"Truman\"\n\n","\n===Colonial wars===\nBefore the British conquest of French Canada in 1760, there had been a series of wars between the British and the French which were fought out in the colonies as well as in Europe and the high seas. In general, the British heavily relied on American colonial militia units, while the French heavily relied on their First Nation allies. The Iroquois Nation were important allies of the British. Much of the fighting involved ambushes and small-scale warfare in the villages along the border between New England and Quebec. The New England colonies had a much larger population than Quebec, so major invasions came from south to north. The First Nation allies, only loosely controlled by the French, repeatedly raided New England villages to kidnap women and children, and torture and kill the men. Those who survived were brought up as Francophone Catholics. The tension along the border was exacerbated by religion, the French Catholics and English Protestants had a deep mutual distrust. There was a naval dimension as well, involving privateers attacking enemy merchant ships.\n\nEngland seized Quebec from 1629 to 1632, and Acadia in 1613 and again from 1654 to 1670; These territories were returned to France by the peace treaties. The major wars were (to use American names), King William's War (1689–1697); Queen Anne's War (1702–1713); King George's War (1744–1748), and the French and Indian War (1755–1763). In Canada, as in Europe, this era is known as the Seven Years' War.\n\nNew England soldiers and sailors were critical to the successful British campaign to capture the French fortress of Louisbourg in 1745, and (after it had been returned by treaty) to capture it again in 1758.\n\n===Mingling of peoples===\nFrom the 1750s to the 21st century, there has been extensive mingling of the Canadian and American populations, with large movements in both directions.\n\nNew England Yankees settled large parts of Nova Scotia before 1775, and were neutral during the American Revolution. At the end of the Revolution, about 75,000 Loyalists moved out of the new United States to Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the lands of Quebec, east and south of Montreal. From 1790 to 1812 many farmers moved from New York and New England into Ontario (mostly to Niagara, and the north shore of Lake Ontario). In the mid and late 19th century gold rushes attracted American prospectors, mostly to British Columbia after the Cariboo Gold Rush, Fraser Canyon Gold Rush, and later to the Yukon. In the early 20th century, the opening of land blocks in the Prairie Provinces attracted many farmers from the American Midwest. Many Mennonites immigrated from Pennsylvania and formed their own colonies. In the 1890s some Mormons went north to form communities in Alberta after The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints rejected plural marriage. The 1960s saw the arrival of about 50,000 draft-dodgers who opposed the Vietnam War.\n\nIn the late 19th and early 20th centuries, about 900,000 French Canadians moved to the U.S., with 395,000 residents there in 1900. Two-thirds went to mill towns in New England, where they formed distinctive ethnic communities. By the late 20th century, they had abandoned the French language, but most kept the Catholic religion. About twice as many English Canadians came to the U.S., but they did not form distinctive ethnic settlements.\n\nCanada was a way-station through which immigrants from other lands stopped for a while, ultimately heading to the U.S. In 1851–1951, 7.1 million people arrived in Canada (mostly from Continental Europe), and 6.6 million left Canada, most of them to the U.S.\n\n===American Revolutionary War===\nAt the outset of the American Revolutionary War, the American revolutionaries hoped the French Canadians in Quebec and the Colonists in Nova Scotia would join their rebellion and they were pre-approved for joining the United States in the Articles of Confederation. When Canada was invaded, thousands joined the American cause and formed regiments that fought during the war; however most remained neutral and some joined the British effort. Britain advised the French Canadians that the British Empire already enshrined their rights in the Quebec Act, which the American colonies had viewed as one of the Intolerable Acts. The American invasion was a fiasco and Britain tightened its grip on its northern possessions; in 1777, a major British invasion into New York led to the surrender of the entire British army at Saratoga, and led France to enter the war as an ally of the U.S. The French Canadians largely ignored France's appeals for solidarity. After the war Canada became a refuge for about 75,000 Loyalists who either wanted to leave the U.S., or were compelled by Patriot reprisals to do so.\n\nAmong the original Loyalists there were 3,500 free blacks. Most went to Nova Scotia and in 1792, 1200 migrated to Sierra Leone. About 2000 black slaves were brought in by Loyalist owners; they remained slaves in Canada until the Empire abolished slavery in 1833. Before 1860, about 30,000–40,000 blacks entered Canada; many were already free and others were escaped slaves who came through the Underground Railroad.\n\n===War of 1812===\n\nThe Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war, called for British forces to vacate all their forts south of the Great Lakes border. Britain refused to do so, citing failure of the United States to provide financial restitution for Loyalists who had lost property in the war. The Jay Treaty in 1795 with Great Britain resolved that lingering issue and the British departed the forts. Thomas Jefferson saw the nearby British imperial presence as a threat to the United States, and so he opposed the Jay Treaty, and it became one of the major political issues in the United States at the time. Thousands of Americans immigrated to Upper Canada (Ontario) from 1785 to 1812 to obtain cheaper land and better tax rates prevalent in that province; despite expectations that they would be loyal to the U.S. if a war broke out, in the event they were largely non-political.\n\nTensions mounted again after 1805, erupting into the War of 1812, when the Americans declared war on Britain. The Americans were angered by British harassment of U.S. ships on the high seas and seizure (\"Impressment\") of 6,000 sailors from American ships, severe restrictions against neutral American trade with France, and British support for hostile Indian tribes in Ohio and territories the U.S. had gained in 1783. American \"honor\" was an implicit issue. The Americans were outgunned by more than 10 to 1 by the Royal Navy, but could call on an army much larger than the British garrison in Canada, and so a land invasion of Canada was proposed as the only feasible, and most advantegous means of attacking the British Empire. Americans on the western frontier also hoped an invasion would bring an end to British support of Native American resistance to the westward expansion of the United States, typified by Tecumseh's coalition of tribes. Americans may also have wanted to annex Canada.\n\nOnce war broke out, the American strategy was to seize Canada—perhaps as a means of forcing concessions from the British Empire, or perhaps in order to annex it. There was some hope that settlers in western Canada—most of them recent immigrants from the U.S.—would welcome the chance to overthrow their British rulers. However, the American invasions were defeated primarily by British regulars with support from Native Americans and Upper Canada (Ontario) militia. Aided by the powerful Royal Navy, a series of British raids on the American coast were highly successful, culminating with an attack on Washington that resulted in the British burning of the White House, Capitol, and other public buildings. Major British invasions of New York in 1814 and Louisiana in 1814–15 were fiascoes, with the British retreating from New York and decisively defeated at the Battle of New Orleans. At the end of the war, Britain's American Indian allies had largely been defeated, and the Americans controlled a strip of Western Ontario centered on Fort Malden. However, Britain held much of Maine, and, with the support of their remaining American Indian allies, huge areas of the Old Northwest, including Wisconsin and much of Michigan and Illinois. With the surrender of Napoleon in 1814, Britain ended naval policies that angered Americans; with the defeat of the Indian tribes the threat to American expansion was ended. The upshot was both sides had asserted their honour, Canada was not annexed, and London and Washington had nothing more to fight over. The war was ended by the Treaty of Ghent, which took effect in February 1815. A series of postwar agreements further stabilized peaceful relations along the Canadian-US border. Canada reduced American immigration for fear of undue American influence, and built up the Anglican church as a counterweight to the largely American Methodist and Baptist churches.\n\nIn later years, Anglophone Canadians, especially in Ontario, viewed the War of 1812 as a heroic and successful resistance against invasion and as a victory that defined them as a people. The myth that the Canadian militia had defeated the invasion almost single-handed, known logically as the \"militia myth\", became highly prevalent after the war, having been propounded by John Strachan, Anglican Bishop of York. Meanwhile, the United States celebrated victory in its \"Second War of Independence,\" and war heroes such as Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison headed to the White House.\n\n===Conservative reaction===\nIn the aftermath of the War of 1812, pro-imperial conservatives led by Anglican Bishop John Strachan took control in Ontario (\"Upper Canada\"), and promoted the Anglican religion as opposed to the more republican Methodist and Baptist churches. A small interlocking elite, known as the Family Compact took full political control. Democracy, as practiced in the US, was ridiculed. The policies had the desired effect of deterring immigration from United States. Revolts in favor of democracy in Ontario and Quebec (\"Lower Canada\") in 1837 were suppressed; many of the leaders fled to the US. The American policy was to largely ignore the rebellions, and indeed ignore Canada generally in favor of westward expansion of the American Frontier.\n\n===Alabama claims===\nAn editorial cartoon on Canada–United States relations, 1886. It reads: Mrs. Britannia.—\"Is it possible, my dear, that you have ever given your cousin Jonathan any encouragement?\" Miss Canada.—\"Encouragement! Certainly not, Mamma. I have told him that we can never be united.\"\nAt the end of the American Civil War in 1865, Americans were angry at British support for the Confederacy. One result was toleration of Fenian efforts to use the U.S. as a base to attack Canada. More serious was the demand for a huge payment to cover the damages caused, on the notion that British involvement had lengthened the war. Senator Charles Sumner, the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, originally wanted to ask for $2 billion, or alternatively the ceding of all of Canada to the United States. When American Secretary of State William H. Seward negotiated the Alaska Purchase with Russia in 1867, he intended it as the first step in a comprehensive plan to gain control of the entire northwest Pacific Coast. Seward was a firm believer in Manifest Destiny, primarily for its commercial advantages to the U.S. Seward expected British Columbia to seek annexation to the U.S. and thought Britain might accept this in exchange for the ''Alabama'' claims. Soon other elements endorsed annexation, Their plan was to annex British Columbia, Red River Colony (Manitoba), and Nova Scotia, in exchange for the dropping the damage claims. The idea reached a peak in the spring and summer of 1870, with American expansionists, Canadian separatists, and British anti-imperialists seemingly combining forces. The plan was dropped for multiple reasons. London continued to stall, American commercial and financial groups pressed Washington for a quick settlement of the dispute on a cash basis, growing Canadian nationalist sentiment in British Columbia called for staying inside the British Empire, Congress became preoccupied with Reconstruction, and most Americans showed little interest in territorial expansion. The \"Alabama Claims\" dispute went to international arbitration. In one of the first major cases of arbitration, the tribunal in 1872 supported the American claims and ordered Britain to pay $15.5 million. Britain paid and the episode ended in peaceful relations.\n\n===Dominion of Canada===\nCanada became a self-governing dominion in 1867 in internal affairs while Britain controlled diplomacy and defense policy. Prior to Confederation, there was an Oregon boundary dispute in which the Americans claimed the 54th degree latitude. That issue was resolved by splitting the disputed territory; the northern half became British Columbia, and the southern half the states of Washington and Oregon. Strained relations with America continued, however, due to a series of small-scale armed incursions named the Fenian raids by Irish-American Civil War veterans across the border from 1866 to 1871 in an attempt to trade Canada for Irish independence. The American government, angry at Canadian tolerance of Confederate raiders during the American Civil War, moved very slowly to disarm the Fenians. The British government, in charge of diplomatic relations, protested cautiously, as Anglo-American relations were tense. Much of the tension was relieved as the Fenians faded away and in 1872 by the settlement of the Alabama Claims, when Britain paid the U.S. $15.5 million for war losses caused by warships built in Britain and sold to the Confederacy.\n\nDisputes over ocean boundaries on Georges Bank and over fishing, whaling, and sealing rights in the Pacific were settled by international arbitration, setting an important precedent.\n\n===Emigration to and from the United States===\n\nAfter 1850, the pace of industrialization and urbanization was much faster in the United States, drawing a wide range of immigrants from the North. By 1870, 1/6 of all the people born in Canada had moved to the United States, with the highest concentrations in New England, which was the destination of Francophone emigrants from Quebec and Anglophone emigrants from the Maritimes. It was common for people to move back and forth across the border, such as seasonal lumberjacks, entrepreneurs looking for larger markets, and families looking for jobs in the textile mills that paid much higher wages than in Canada.\n\nThe southward migration slacked off after 1890, as Canadian industry began a growth spurt. By then, the American frontier was closing, and thousands of farmers looking for fresh land moved from the United States north into the Prairie Provinces. The net result of the flows were that in 1901 there were 128,000 American-born residents in Canada (3.5% of the Canadian population) and 1.18 million Canadian-born residents in the United States (1.6% of the U.S. population).\n\n===Alaska boundary===\nA short-lived controversy was the Alaska boundary dispute, settled in favor of the United States in 1903. No one cared until a gold rush brought tens of thousands of men to Canada's Yukon, and they had to arrive through American ports. Canada needed its port and claimed that it had a legal right to a port near the present American town of Haines, Alaska. It would provide an all-Canadian route to the rich goldfields. The dispute was settled by arbitration, and the British delegate voted with the Americans—to the astonishment and disgust of Canadians who suddenly realized that Britain considered its relations with the United States paramount compared to those with Canada. The arbitrartion validated the status quo, but made Canada angry at Britain.\n\n1907 saw a minor controversy over USS ''Nashville'' sailing into the Great Lakes via Canada without Canadian permission. To head off future embarrassments, in 1909 the two sides signed the International Boundary Waters Treaty and the International Joint Commission was established to manage the Great Lakes and keep them disarmed. It was amended in World War II to allow the building and training of warships.\n\n===Reciprocal trade with U.S.===\nA 1911 Conservative campaign poster warns that the big American companies (\"trusts\") will hog all the benefits of reciprocity as proposed by Liberals, leaving little left over for Canadian interests\nAnti-Americanism reached a shrill peak in 1911 in Canada. The Liberal government in 1911 negotiated a Reciprocity treaty with the U.S. that would lower trade barriers. Canadian manufacturing interests were alarmed that free trade would allow the bigger and more efficient American factories to take their markets. The Conservatives made it a central campaign issue in the 1911 election, warning that it would be a \"sell out\" to the United States with economic annexation a special danger. Conservative slogan was \"No truck or trade with the Yankees\", as they appealed to Canadian nationalism and nostalgia for the British Empire to win a major victory.\n\n===Canadian autonomy===\nCanada demanded and received permission from London to send its own delegation to the Versailles Peace Talks in 1919, with the proviso that it sign the treaty under the British Empire. Canada subsequently took responsibility for its own foreign and military affairs in the 1920s. Its first ambassador to the United States, Vincent Massey, was named in 1927. The United States first ambassador to Canada was William Phillips. Canada became an active member of the British Commonwealth, the League of Nations, and the World Court, none of which included the U.S.\n\nIn July 1923, as part of his Pacific Northwest tour and a week before his death, US President Warren Harding visited Vancouver, making him the first head of state of the United States to visit Canada. The then Premier of British Columbia, John Oliver, and then mayor of Vancouver, Charles Tisdall, hosted a lunch in his honor at the Hotel Vancouver. Over 50,000 people heard Harding speak in Stanley Park. A monument to Harding designed by Charles Marega was unveiled in Stanley Park in 1925.\n\nRelations with the United States were cordial until 1930, when Canada vehemently protested the new Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act by which the U.S. raised tariffs (taxes) on products imported from Canada. Canada retaliated with higher tariffs of its own against American products, and moved toward more trade within the British Commonwealth. U.S.–Canadian trade fell 75% as the Great Depression dragged both countries down.\n\nDown to the 1920s the war and naval departments of both nations designed hypothetical war game scenarios with the other as an enemy. These were primarily exercises; the departments were never told to get ready for a real war. In 1921, Canada developed Defence Scheme No. 1 for an attack on American cities and for forestalling invasion by the United States until Imperial reinforcements arrived. Through the later 1920s and 1930s, the United States Army War College developed a plan for a war with the British Empire waged largely on North American territory, in War Plan Red.\n\nHerbert Hoover meeting in 1927 with British Ambassador Sir Esme Howard agreed on the \"absurdity of contemplating the possibility of war between the United States and the British Empire.\"\n\nIn 1938, as the roots of World War II were set in motion, U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt gave a public speech at Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, declaring that the United States would not sit idly by if another power tried to dominate Canada. Diplomats saw it as a clear warning to Germany not to attack Canada.\n\n===World War II===\nMountie and a Vermont State Trooper on their respective sides of the Canada–United States (Quebec–Vermont) border in 1941\nThe two nations cooperated closely in World War II, as both nations saw new levels of prosperity and a determination to defeat the Axis powers. Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King and President Franklin D. Roosevelt were determined not to repeat the mistakes of their predecessors. They met in August 1940 at Ogdensburg, issuing a declaration calling for close cooperation, and formed the Permanent Joint Board on Defense (PJBD).\n\nKing sought to raise Canada's international visibility by hosting the August 1943 Quadrant conference in Quebec on military and political strategy; he was a gracious host but was kept out of the important meetings by Winston Churchill and Roosevelt.\n\nCanada allowed the construction of the Alaska Highway and participated in the building of the atomic bomb. 49,000 Americans joined the RCAF (Canadian) or RAF (British) air forces through the Clayton Knight Committee, which had Roosevelt's permission to recruit in the U.S. in 1940–42.\n\nAmerican attempts in the mid-1930s to integrate British Columbia into a united West Coast military command had aroused Canadian opposition. Fearing a Japanese invasion of Canada's vulnerable coast, American officials urged the creation of a united military command for an eastern Pacific Ocean theater of war. Canadian leaders feared American imperialism and the loss of autonomy more than a Japanese invasion. In 1941, Canadians successfully argued within the PJBD for mutual cooperation rather than unified command for the West Coast.\n\n====Newfoundland====\nThe United States built large military bases in Newfoundland, at the time, a British dominion. The American involvement ended the depression and brought new prosperity; Newfoundland's business community sought closer ties with the United States as expressed by the Economic Union Party. Ottawa took notice and wanted Newfoundland to join Canada, which it did after hotly contested referenda. There was little demand in the United States for the acquisition of Newfoundland, so the United States did not protest the British decision not to allow an American option on the Newfoundland referendum.\n\n===Cold War===\nFollowing co-operation in the two World Wars, Canada and the United States lost much of their previous animosity. As Britain's influence as a global imperial power declined, Canada and the United States became extremely close partners. Canada was a close ally of the United States during the Cold War.\n\n===Nixon Shock 1971===\naddresses a joint session of the Parliament of Canada, 1972\nThe United States had become Canada's largest market, and after the war the Canadian economy became dependent on smooth trade flows with the United States so much that in 1971 when the United States enacted the \"Nixon Shock\" economic policies (including a 10% tariff on all imports) it put the Canadian government into a panic. This led in a large part to the articulation of Prime Minister Trudeau's \"Third Option\" policy of diversifying Canada's trade and downgrading the importance of Canada – United States relations. In a 1972 speech in Ottawa, Nixon declared the \"special relationship\" between Canada and the United States dead.\n\n===1990s===\nThe main issues in Canada–U.S. relations in the 1990s focused on the NAFTA agreement, which was signed in 1994. It created a common market that by 2014 was worth $19 trillion, encompassed 470 million people, and had created millions of jobs. Wilson says, \"Few dispute that NAFTA has produced\nlarge and measurable gains for Canadian consumers, workers, and businesses.\" However, he adds, \"NAFTA has fallen well short of expectations.\"\n\n","\nSince the arrival of the Loyalists as refugees from the American Revolution in the 1780s, historians have identified a constant theme of Canadian fear of the United States and of \"Americanization\" or a cultural takeover. In the War of 1812, for example, the enthusiastic response by French militia to defend Lower Canada reflected, according to Heidler and Heidler (2004), \"the fear of Americanization.\" Scholars have traced this attitude over time in Ontario and Quebec.\n\nCanadian intellectuals who wrote about the U.S. in the first half of the 20th century identified America as the world center of modernity, and deplored it. Imperialists (who admired the British Empire) explained that Canadians had narrowly escaped American conquest with its rejection of tradition, its worship of \"progress\" and technology, and its mass culture; they explained that Canada was much better because of its commitment to orderly government and societal harmony. There were a few ardent defenders of the nation to the south, notably liberal and socialist intellectuals such as F. R. Scott and Jean-Charles Harvey (1891–1967).\n\nLooking at television, Collins (1990) finds that it is in English Canada that fear of cultural Americanization is most powerful, for there the attractions of the U.S. are strongest. Meren (2009) argues that after 1945, the emergence of Quebec nationalism and the desire to preserve French-Canadian cultural heritage led to growing anxiety regarding American cultural imperialism and Americanization. In 2006 surveys showed that 60 percent of Quebecers had a fear of Americanization, while other surveys showed they preferred their current situation to that of the Americans in the realms of health care, quality of life as seniors, environmental quality, poverty, educational system, racism and standard of living. While agreeing that job opportunities are greater in America, 89 percent disagreed with the notion that they would rather be in the United States, and they were more likely to feel closer to English Canadians than to Americans. However, there is evidence that the elites and Quebec are much less fearful of Americanization, and much more open to economic integration than the general public.\n\nThe history has been traced in detail by a leading Canadian historian J.L. Granatstein in ''Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism'' (1997). Current studies report the phenomenon persists. Two scholars report, \"Anti-Americanism is alive and well in Canada today, strengthened by, among other things, disputes related to NAFTA, American involvement in the Middle East, and the ever-increasing Americanization of Canadian culture.\" Jamie Glazov writes, \"More than anything else, Diefenbaker became the tragic victim of Canadian anti-Americanism, a sentiment the prime minister had fully embraced by 1962. He was unable to imagine himself (or his foreign policy) without enemies.\" Historian J. M. Bumsted says, \"In its most extreme form, Canadian suspicion of the United States has led to outbreaks of overt anti-Americanism, usually spilling over against American residents in Canada.\" John R. Wennersten writes, \"But at the heart of Canadian anti-Americanism lies a cultural bitterness that takes an American expatriate unaware. Canadians fear the American media's influence on their culture and talk critically about how Americans are exporting a culture of violence in its television programming and movies.\" However Kim Nossal points out that the Canadian variety is much milder than anti-Americanism in some other countries. By contrast Americans show very little knowledge or interest one way or the other regarding Canadian affairs. Canadian historian Frank Underhill, quoting Canadian playwright Merrill Denison summed it up: \"Americans are benevolently ignorant about Canada, whereas Canadians are malevolently informed about the United States.\"\n","The executive of each country is represented differently. The President of the United States serves as both the head of state and head of government, and his \"administration\" is the executive, while the Prime Minister of Canada is head of government only, and his or her \"government\" or \"ministry\" directs the executive.\n\n\n===W.L. Mackenzie King and Franklin D. Roosevelt (October 1935 – April 1945)===\n\n\n===W.L. Mackenzie King and Harry S. Truman (April 1945 – November 1948)===\n\n\n===Louis St. Laurent and Harry S. Truman (November 1948 – January 1953)===\n\n\n===Louis St. Laurent and Dwight D. Eisenhower (January 1953 – June 1957)===\n\n\n===John G. Diefenbaker and Dwight D. Eisenhower (June 1957 – January 1961)===\n\n\n===John G. Diefenbaker and John F. Kennedy (January 1961 – April 1963)===\n\n\n===Lester B. Pearson and John F. Kennedy (April–November 1963)===\n\n\n===Lester B. Pearson and Lyndon B. Johnson (November 1963 – April 1968)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Lyndon B. Johnson (April 1968 – January 1969)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Richard Nixon (January 1969 – August 1974)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Gerald Ford (August 1974 – January 1977)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Jimmy Carter (January 1977 – June 1979)===\n\n\n===Joe Clark and Jimmy Carter (June 1979 – March 1980)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Jimmy Carter (March 1980 – January 1981)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Ronald Reagan (January 1981 – June 1984)===\n\n\n===John Turner and Ronald Reagan (June–September 1984)===\n\n\n===Brian Mulroney and Ronald Reagan (September 1984 – January 1989)===\nRonald Reagan (left) and Brian Mulroney (right) at the Hotel Cipriani in Venice, Italy, June 11, 1987\nRelations between Brian Mulroney and Ronald Reagan were famously close. This relationship resulted in negotiations for the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement, and the U.S.–Canada Air Quality Agreement to reduce acid-rain-causing emissions, both major policy goals of Mulroney, that would be finalized under the presidency of George H. W. Bush.\n\n===Brian Mulroney and George H. W. Bush (January 1989 – January 1993)===\n\n\n===Brian Mulroney and Bill Clinton (January–June 1993)===\n\n\n===Kim Campbell and Bill Clinton (June–November 1993)===\n\n\n===Jean Chrétien and Bill Clinton (November 1993 – January 2001)===\nAlthough Jean Chrétien was wary of appearing too close to the President, personally, he and Bill Clinton were known to be golfing partners. Their governments had many small trade quarrels over the Canadian content of American magazines, softwood lumber, and so on, but on the whole were quite friendly. Both leaders had run on reforming or abolishing NAFTA, but the agreement went ahead with the addition of environmental and labor side agreements. Crucially, the Clinton administration lent rhetorical support to Canadian unity during the 1995 referendum in Quebec on separation from Canada.\n\n===Jean Chrétien and George W. Bush (January 2001 – December 2003)===\nRelations between Chrétien and George W. Bush were strained throughout their overlapping times in office. After the September 11 attacks terror attacks, Jean Chrétien publicly mused that U.S. foreign policy might be part of the \"root causes\" of terrorism. Some Americans criticized his \"smug moralism\", and Chrétien's public refusal to support the 2003 Iraq war was met drew responses in the United States, especially among conservatives.\n\n===Paul Martin and George W. Bush (December 2003 – February 2006)===\n\n\n===Stephen Harper and George W. Bush (February 2006 – January 2009)===\nPrime Minister Stephen Harper (left) and President George W. Bush (right) meet in Washington in July 2006\nStephen Harper and George W. Bush were thought to share warm personal relations and also close ties between their administrations. Because Bush was so unpopular among liberals in Canada (particularly in the media), this was underplayed by the Harper government.\n\nShortly after being congratulated by Bush for his victory in February 2006, Harper rebuked U.S. ambassador to Canada David Wilkins for criticizing the Conservatives' plans to assert Canada's sovereignty over the Arctic Ocean waters with military force.\n\n===Stephen Harper and Barack Obama (January 2009 – November 2015)===\nBarack Obama boards Air Force One in Ottawa 2-19-09\nPresident Barack Obama's first international trip was to Canada on February 19, 2009, thereby sending a strong message of peace and cooperation. With the exception of Canadian lobbying against \"Buy American\" provisions in the U.S. stimulus package, relations between the two administrations were smooth.\n\nThey also held friendly bets on hockey games during the Winter Olympic season. In the 2010 Winter Olympics hosted by Canada in Vancouver, Canada defeated the US in both gold medal matches, entitling Stephen Harper to receive a case of Molson Canadian beer from Barack Obama; in reverse, if Canada had lost, Harper would have provided a case of Yuengling beer to Obama. During the 2014 Winter Olympics, alongside U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry & Minister of Foreign Affairs John Baird, Stephen Harper was given a case of Samuel Adams beer by Obama for the Canadian gold medal victory over the US in women's hockey, and the semi-final victory over the US in men's hockey.\n\n====Canada-United States Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) (2011)====\nOn February 4, 2011, Harper and Obama issued a \"Declaration on a Shared Vision for Perimeter Security and Economic Competitiveness\" and announced the creation of the Canada–United States Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) \"to increase regulatory transparency and coordination between the two countries.\"\n\nHealth Canada and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under the RCC mandate, undertook the \"first of its kind\" initiative by selecting \"as its first area of alignment common cold indications for certain over-the-counter antihistamine ingredients (GC 2013-01-10).\"\n\nOn December 7, 2011, Harper flew to Washington, met with Obama and signed an agreement to implement the joint action plans that had been developed since the initial meeting in February. The plans called on both countries to spend more on border infrastructure, share more information on people who cross the border, and acknowledge more of each other's safety and security inspection on third-country traffic. An editorial in ''The Globe and Mail'' praised the agreement for giving Canada the ability to track whether failed refugee claimants have left Canada via the U.S. and for eliminating \"duplicated baggage screenings on connecting flights\". The agreement is not a legally binding treaty, and relies on the political will and ability of the executives of both governments to implement the terms of the agreement. These types of executive agreements are routine—on both sides of the Canada–U.S. border.\n\n===Justin Trudeau and Barack Obama (November 2015 – January 2017)===\nPrime Minister Justin Trudeau (left) and President Barack Obama (right) meet in Washington in March 2016\nPresident Barack Obama and Prime Minister Justin Trudeau first met formally at the APEC summit meeting in Manila, Philippines in November 2015, nearly a week after the latter was sworn into the office. Both leaders expressed eagerness for increased cooperation and coordination between the two countries during the course of Trudeau's government with Trudeau promising an \"enhanced Canada–U.S. partnership\".\n\nOn November 6, 2015, Obama announced the U.S. State Department's rejection of the proposed Keystone XL pipeline, the fourth phase of the Keystone oil pipeline system running between Canada and the United States, to which Trudeau expressed disappointment but said that the rejection would not damage Canada–U.S. relations and would instead provide a \"fresh start\" to strengthening ties through cooperation and coordination, saying that \"the Canada–U.S. relationship is much bigger than any one project.\" Obama has since praised Trudeau's efforts to prioritize the reduction of climate change, calling it \"extraordinarily helpful\" to establish a worldwide consensus on addressing the issue.\n\nAlthough Trudeau has told Obama his plans to withdraw Canada's McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet jets assisting in the American-led intervention against ISIL, Trudeau said that Canada will still \"do more than its part\" in combating the terrorist group by increasing the number of Canadian special forces members training and fighting on ground in Iraq and Syria.\n\nTrudeau visited the White House for an official visit and state dinner on March 10, 2016. Trudeau and Obama were reported to have shared warm personal relations during the visit, making humorous remarks about which country was better at hockey and which country had better beer. Obama complimented Trudeau's 2015 election campaign for its \"message of hope and change\" and \"positive and optimistic vision\". Obama and Trudeau also held \"productive\" discussions on climate change and relations between the two countries, and Trudeau invited Obama to speak in the Canadian parliament in Ottawa later in the year.\n\n===Justin Trudeau and Donald Trump (January 2017–present)===\nFollowing the victory of Donald Trump in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, Trudeau congratulated him and invited him to visit Canada at the \"earliest opportunity.\" Prime Minister Trudeau and President Trump formally met for the first time at the White House on February 13, 2017, nearly a month after Trump was sworn into the office. Trump has ruffled relations with Canada with tariffs on softwood lumber. Diafiltered Milk has also been brought up by Trump as an area that needs to be negotiated. Trump is expected to renegotiate NAFTA with Canada.\n","North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), long headquartered in the Cheyenne Mountain Complex in Colorado, exemplifies military co-operation between Canada and the U.S.\nCanadian embassy in Washington saying \"Friends, Neighbours, Partners, Allies\"\nThe Canadian military, like forces of other NATO countries, fought alongside the United States in most major conflicts since World War II, including the Korean War, the Gulf War, the Kosovo War, and most recently the war in Afghanistan. The main exceptions to this were the Canadian government's opposition to the Vietnam War and the Iraq War, which caused some brief diplomatic tensions. Despite these issues, military relations have remained close.\n\nAmerican defense arrangements with Canada are more extensive than with any other country. The Permanent Joint Board of Defense, established in 1940, provides policy-level consultation on bilateral defense matters. The United States and Canada share North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) mutual security commitments. In addition, American and Canadian military forces have cooperated since 1958 on continental air defense within the framework of the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD). Canadian forces have provided indirect support for the American invasion of Iraq that began in 2003. Moreover, interoperability with the American armed forces has been a guiding principle of Canadian military force structuring and doctrine since the end of the Cold War. Canadian navy frigates, for instance, integrate seamlessly into American carrier battle groups.\n\nIn commemoration of the 200th Anniversary of the War of 1812 ambassadors from Canada and the US, and naval officers from both countries gathered at the Pritzker Military Library on August 17, 2012, for a panel discussion on Canada-US relations with emphasis on national security-related matters. Also as part of the commemoration, the navies of both countries sailed together throughout the Great Lakes region.\n\n===War in Afghanistan===\n\nCanada's elite JTF2 unit joined American special forces in Afghanistan shortly after the al-Qaida attacks on September 11, 2001. Canadian forces joined the multinational coalition in Operation Anaconda in January 2002. On April 18, 2002, an American pilot bombed Canadian forces involved in a training exercise, killing four and wounding eight Canadians. A joint American-Canadian inquiry determined the cause of the incident to be pilot error, in which the pilot interpreted ground fire as an attack; the pilot ignored orders that he felt were \"second-guessing\" his field tactical decision. Canadian forces assumed a six-month command rotation of the International Security Assistance Force in 2003; in 2005, Canadians assumed operational command of the multi-national Brigade in Kandahar, with 2,300 troops, and supervises the Provincial Reconstruction Team in Kandahar, where al-Qaida forces are most active. Canada has also deployed naval forces in the Persian Gulf since 1991 in support of the UN Gulf Multinational Interdiction Force.\n\nThe Canadian Embassy in Washington, DC maintains a public relations website named CanadianAlly.com, which is intended \"to give American citizens a better sense of the scope of Canada's role in North American and Global Security and the War on Terror\".\n\nThe New Democratic Party and some recent Liberal leadership candidates have expressed opposition to Canada's expanded role in the Afghan conflict on the ground that it is inconsistent with Canada's historic role (since the Second World War) of peacekeeping operations.\n\n===2003 Invasion of Iraq===\n\n\nAccording to contemporary polls, 71% of Canadians were opposed to the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Many Canadians, and the former Liberal Cabinet headed by Paul Martin (as well as many Americans such as Bill Clinton and Barack Obama), made a policy distinction between conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq, unlike the Bush Doctrine, which linked these together in a \"Global war on terror\".\n\n=== Responding to ISIS/Daesh ===\nCanada has been involved in international responses to the threats from Daesh/ISIS/ISIL in Syria and Iraq, and is a member of the Global Coalition to Counter Daesh. In October 2016, Foreign Affairs Minister Dion and National Defence Minister Sajjan meet U.S. special envoy for this coalition. The Americans thanked Canada \"for the role of Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) in providing training and assistance to Iraqi security forces, as well as the CAF's role in improving essential capacity-building capabilities with regional forces.\"\n","\nCanada and the United States have the world's largest trading relationship, with huge quantities of goods and people flowing across the border each year. Since the 1987 Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement, there have been no tariffs on most goods passed between the two countries.\n\nIn the course of the softwood lumber dispute, the U.S. has placed tariffs on Canadian softwood lumber because of what it argues is an unfair Canadian government subsidy, a claim which Canada disputes. The dispute has cycled through several agreements and arbitration cases. Other notable disputes include the Canadian Wheat Board, and Canadian cultural \"restrictions\" on magazines and television (See CRTC, CBC, and National Film Board of Canada). Canadians have been criticized about such things as the ban on beef since a case of Mad Cow disease was discovered in 2003 in cows from the United States (and a few subsequent cases) and the high American agricultural subsidies. Concerns in Canada also run high over aspects of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) such as Chapter 11.\n","A Canadian BC Parks Ranger and a U.S. National Park Service Ranger work to remove a bear from a campground along the international boundary in British Columbia and Washington state\n\nA principal instrument of this cooperation is the International Joint Commission (IJC), established as part of the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909 to resolve differences and promote international cooperation on boundary waters. The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1972 is another historic example of joint cooperation in controlling trans-border water pollution. However, there have been some disputes. Most recently, the Devil's Lake Outlet, a project instituted by North Dakota, has angered Manitobans who fear that their water may soon become polluted as a result of this project.\n\nBeginning in 1986 the Canadian government of Brian Mulroney began pressing the Reagan administration for an \"Acid Rain Treaty\" in order to do something about U.S. industrial air pollution causing acid rain in Canada. The Reagan administration was hesitant, and questioned the science behind Mulroney's claims. However, Mulroney was able to prevail. The product was the signing and ratification of the Air Quality Agreement of 1991 by the first Bush administration. Under that treaty, the two governments consult semi-annually on trans-border air pollution, which has demonstrably reduced acid rain, and they have since signed an annex to the treaty dealing with ground level ozone in 2000. Despite this, trans-border air pollution remains an issue, particularly in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence watershed during the summer. The main source of this trans-border pollution results from coal-fired power stations, most of them located in the Midwestern United States. As part of the negotiations to create NAFTA, Canada and the U.S. signed, along with Mexico, the North American Agreement On Environmental Cooperation which created the Commission for Environmental Cooperation which monitors environmental issues across the continent, publishing the North American Environmental Atlas as one aspect of its monitoring duties.\n\nCurrently neither of the countries' governments support the Kyoto Protocol, which set out time scheduled curbing of greenhouse gas emissions. Unlike the United States, Canada has ratified the agreement. Yet after ratification, due to internal political conflict within Canada, the Canadian government does not enforce the Kyoto Protocol, and has received criticism from environmental groups and from other governments for its climate change positions. In January 2011, the Canadian minister of the environment, Peter Kent, explicitly stated that the policy of his government with regards to greenhouse gas emissions reductions is to wait for the United States to act first, and then try to harmonize with that action – a position that has been condemned by environmentalists and Canadian nationalists, and as well as scientists and government think-tanks.\n\n===Newfoundland fisheries dispute===\nThe United States and Britain, had a long-standing dispute about the rights of Americans fishing in the waters near Newfoundland. Before 1776, there was no question that American fishermen, mostly from Massachusetts, had rights to use the waters off Newfoundland. In the peace treaty negotiations of 1783, the Americans insisted on a statement of these rights. However, France, an American ally, disputed the American position because France had its own specified rights in the area and wanted them to be exclusive. The Treaty of Paris (1783) gave the Americans not rights, but rather \"liberties\" to fish within the territorial waters of British North America and to dry fish on certain coasts.\n\nAfter the War of 1812, the Convention of 1818 between the United States and Britain specified exactly what liberties were involved. Canadian and Newfoundland fishermen contested these liberties in the 1830s and 1840s. The Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty of 1854, and the Treaty of Washington of 1871 spelled-out the liberties in more detail. However the Treaty of Washington expired in 1885, and there was a continuous round of disputes over jurisdictions and liberties. Britain and the United States sent the issue to the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague in 1909. It produced a compromise settlement that permanently ended the problems.\n","\nIn 2003 the American government became concerned when members of the Canadian government announced plans to decriminalize marijuana. David Murray, an assistant to U.S. Drug Czar John P. Walters, said in a CBC interview that, \"We would have to respond. We would be forced to respond.\" However the election of the Conservative Party in early 2006 halted the liberalization of marijuana laws for the foreseeable future.\n\nA 2007 joint report by American and Canadian officials on cross-border drug smuggling indicated that, despite their best efforts, \"drug trafficking still occurs in significant quantities in both directions across the border. The principal illicit substances smuggled across our shared border are MDMA (''Ecstasy''), cocaine, and marijuana.\" The report indicated that Canada was a major producer of ''Ecstasy'' and marijuana for the U.S. market, while the U.S. was a transit country for cocaine entering Canada.\n","RCMP honor guards wait for Air Force One in Ottawa.\n===Views of presidents and prime ministers===\nPresidents and prime ministers typically make formal or informal statements that indicate the diplomatic policy of their administration. Diplomats and journalists at the time—and historians since—dissect the nuances and tone to detect the warmth or coolness of the relationship.\n* Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, speaking at the beginning of the 1891 election (fought mostly over Canadian free trade with the United States), arguing against closer trade relations with the U.S. stated \"As for myself, my course is clear. A British subject I was born—a British subject I will die. With my utmost effort, with my latest breath, will I oppose the ‘veiled treason’ which attempts by sordid means and mercenary proffers to lure our people from their allegiance.\" (February 3, 1891.)\n\nCanada's first Prime Minister also said:\n\n* Prime Minister John Sparrow Thompson, angry at failed trade talks in 1888, privately complained to his wife, Lady Thompson, that \"These Yankee politicians are the lowest race of thieves in existence.\"\n* After the World War II years of close military and economic cooperation, President Harry S. Truman said in 1947 that \"Canada and the United States have reached the point where we can no longer think of each other as 'foreign' countries.\"\n* President John F. Kennedy told Parliament in Ottawa in May 1961 that \"Geography has made us neighbors. History has made us friends. Economics has made us partners. And necessity has made us allies. Those whom nature hath so joined together, let no man put asunder.\"\n* President Lyndon Johnson helped open Expo '67 with an upbeat theme, saying that \"We of the United States consider ourselves blessed. We have much to give thanks for. But the gift of providence we cherish most is that we were given as our neighbours on this wonderful continent the people and the nation of Canada.\" Remarks at Expo '67, Montreal, May 25, 1967.\n\n\n* Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau famously said that being America's neighbour \"is like sleeping with an elephant. No matter how friendly and even-tempered the beast, if one can call it that, one is affected by every twitch and grunt.\"\n* Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau, sharply at odds with the U.S. over Cold War policy, warned at a press conference in 1971 that the overwhelming American presence posed \"a danger to our national identity from a cultural, economic and perhaps even military point of view.\"\n* President Richard Nixon, in a speech to Parliament in 1972 was angry at Trudeau, declared that the \"special relationship\" between Canada and the United States was dead. \"It is time for us to recognize,\" he stated, \"that we have very separate identities; that we have significant differences; and that nobody's interests are furthered when these realities are obscured.\"\n* In late 2001, President George W. Bush did not mention Canada during a speech in which he thanked a list of countries who had assisted in responding to the events of September 11, although Canada had provided military, financial, and other support. Ten years later, David Frum, one of President Bush's speechwriters, stated that it was an unintentional omission.\n* Prime Minister Stephen Harper, in a statement congratulating Barack Obama on his inauguration, stated that \"The United States remains Canada's most important ally, closest friend and largest trading partner and I look forward to working with President Obama and his administration as we build on this special relationship.\"\n* President Barack Obama, speaking in Ottawa at his first official international visit in February 19, 2009, said, \"I love this country. We could not have a better friend and ally.\"\n\n===Canadian public opinion on U.S. presidents===\nUnited States President George W. Bush was \"deeply disliked\" by a majority of Canadians according to the ''Arizona Daily Sun''. A 2004 poll found that more than two thirds of Canadians favoured Democrat John Kerry over Bush in the 2004 presidential election, with Bush's lowest approval ratings in Canada being in the province of Quebec where just 11% of the population supported him. Canadian public opinion of Barack Obama was significantly more positive. A 2012 poll found that 65% of Canadians would vote for Obama in the 2012 presidential election \"if they could\" while only 9% of Canadians would vote for his Republican opponent Mitt Romney. The same study found that 61% of Canadians felt that the Obama administration had been \"good\" for America, while only 12% felt it had been \"bad\". Similarly, a Pew Research poll conducted in June 2016 found that 83% of Canadians were \"confident in Obama to do the right thing regarding world affairs\". The study also found that a majority of members of all three major Canadian political parties supported Obama, and also found that Obama had slightly higher approval ratings in Canada in 2012 than he did in 2008. John Ibbitson of ''The Globe and Mail'' stated in 2012 that Canadians generally supported Democratic presidents over Republican presidents, citing how President Richard Nixon was \"never liked\" in Canada and that Canadians generally did not approve of Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's friendship with President Ronald Reagan.\n\nA January 2017 poll found that 66% of Canadians \"disapproved\" of Donald Trump, with 23% approving of him and 11% being \"unsure\". The poll also found that only 18% of Canadians believed Trump's presidency would have a positive impact on Canada, while 63% believed it would have a negative effect.\n\n===Territorial disputes===\n\n\nThese include maritime boundary disputes:\n* Dixon Entrance\n* Beaufort Sea\n* Strait of Juan de Fuca\n* San Juan Islands\n* Machias Seal Island and North Rock\n\nTerritorial land disputes:\n* Aroostook War (Maine boundary)\n* Alaska Boundary Dispute\n* Pig War\n\nand disputes over the international status of the:\n* Northwest Passage\n* Inside Passage\n\n====Arctic disputes====\n\nA long-simmering dispute between Canada and the U.S. involves the issue of Canadian sovereignty over the Northwest Passage (the sea passages in the Arctic). Canada's assertion that the Northwest Passage represents internal (territorial) waters has been challenged by other countries, especially the U.S., which argue that these waters constitute an international strait (international waters). Canadians were alarmed when Americans drove the reinforced oil tanker through the Northwest Passage in 1969, followed by the icebreaker Polar Sea in 1985, which actually resulted in a minor diplomatic incident. In 1970, the Canadian parliament enacted the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, which asserts Canadian regulatory control over pollution within a 100-mile zone. In response, the United States in 1970 stated, \"We cannot accept the assertion of a Canadian claim that the Arctic waters are internal waters of Canada. ... Such acceptance would jeopardize the freedom of navigation essential for United States naval activities worldwide.\" A compromise of sorts was reached in 1988, by an agreement on \"Arctic Cooperation,\" which pledges that voyages of American icebreakers \"will be undertaken with the consent of the Government of Canada.\" However the agreement did not alter either country's basic legal position. Paul Cellucci, the American ambassador to Canada, in 2005 suggested to Washington that it should recognize the straits as belonging to Canada. His advice was rejected and Harper took opposite positions. The U.S. opposes Harper's proposed plan to deploy military icebreakers in the Arctic to detect interlopers and assert Canadian sovereignty over those waters.\n\n===Common memberships===\n\nCanada and the United States both hold membership in a number of multinational organizations such as:\n* Arctic Council\n* Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation\n* Canadian Football League\n* CONCACAF\n* FIBA\n* FIFA\n* Food and Agriculture Organization\n* G7\n* G-10\n* G-20 major economies\n* International Chamber of Commerce\n* International Development Association\n* International Ice Hockey Federation\n* International Monetary Fund\n* International Olympic Committee\n* Interpol\n* Major League Baseball\n* Major League Soccer\n* National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing\n* National Basketball Association\n* National Football League\n* National Hockey League\n* National Lacrosse League\n* North American Free Trade Agreement\n* North American Aerospace Defense Command\n* North American Numbering Plan\n* North Atlantic Treaty Organization\n* Organization of American States\n* Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development\n* Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America\n* UKUSA Community\n* United Nations\n* UNESCO\n* World Bowling\n* World Health Organization\n* World Trade Organization\n* World Bank\n","\n===Canadian missions in the United States===\n\nCanada's chief diplomatic mission to the United States is the Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C.. It is further supported by many consulates located through United States.\nThe Canadian Government maintains consulates-general in several major U.S. cities including: Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Detroit, Los Angeles, Miami, Minneapolis, New York City, San Francisco and Seattle. Canadian consular services are also available in Honolulu at the consulate of Australia through the Canada–Australia Consular Services Sharing Agreement.\n\nThere are also Canadian trade offices located in Houston, Palo Alto and San Diego.\n\n===U.S. missions in Canada===\nThe United States's chief diplomatic mission to Canada is the United States Embassy in Ottawa. It is further supported by many consulates located throughout Canada.\nThe U.S government maintains consulates-general in several major Canadian cities including:\nCalgary, Halifax, Montreal, Quebec City, Toronto, Vancouver and Winnipeg.\n\nThe United States also maintains Virtual Presence Posts (VPP) in the: Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Southwestern Ontario and Yukon.\n","\n* Borders of Canada\n* Comparison of Canadian and American economies\n* Continental One Highway\n* Etiquette in North America\n* Foreign relations of Canada\n* Foreign relations of the United States\n* Garrison mentality\n* Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America\n* United States Border Patrol interior checkpoints\n","\n","\n* \n* Azzi, Stephen. ''Reconcilable Differences: A History of Canada-US Relations'' (Oxford University Press, 2014)\n* Behiels, Michael D. and Reginald C. Stuart, eds. ''Transnationalism: Canada-United States History into the Twenty-First Century'' (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2010) 312 pp. online 2012 review\n* Bothwell, Robert. ''Your Country, My Country: A Unified History of the United States and Canada'' (2015), 400 pages; traces relations, shared values, and differences across the centuries\n* Doran, Charles F., and James Patrick Sewell, \"Anti-Americanism in Canada,\" ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,'' Vol. 497, Anti-Americanism: Origins and Context (May 1988), pp. 105–119 in JSTOR\n* Clarkson, Stephen. ''Uncle Sam and Us: Globalization, Neoconservatism and the Canadian State'' (University of Toronto Press, 2002)\n* Engler, Yves\n* Ek, Carl, and Ian F. Fergusson. ''Canada-U.S. Relations'' (Congressional Research Service, 2010) 2010 Report, by an agency of the U.S. Congress\n** \"Report Highlight\" of 2010 report\n* Granatstein, J. L. ''Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism'' (1997)\n* Granatstein, J. L. and Norman Hillmer, ''For Better or for Worse: Canada and the United States to the 1990s'' (1991)\n* Gravelle, Timothy B. \"Partisanship, Border Proximity, and Canadian Attitudes toward North American Integration.\" ''International Journal of Public Opinion Research'' (2014) 26#4 pp: 453–474.\n* Gravelle, Timothy B. \"Love Thy Neighbo (u) r? Political Attitudes, Proximity and the Mutual Perceptions of the Canadian and American Publics.\" ''Canadian Journal of Political Science'' (2014) 47#1 pp: 135–157.\n* Hale, Geoffrey. ''So Near Yet So Far: The Public and Hidden Worlds of Canada-US Relations'' (University of British Columbia Press, 2012); 352 pages focus on 2001–2011\n* Holland, Kenneth. \"The Canada–United States defence relationship: a partnership for the twenty-first century.\" ''Canadian Foreign Policy Journal'' ahead-of-print (2015): 1–6. online\n* Holmes, Ken. \"The Canadian Cognitive Bias and its Influence on Canada/US Relations.\" ''International Social Science Review'' (2015) 90#1 online.\n* Holmes, John W. \"Impact of Domestic Political Factors on Canadian-American Relations: Canada,\" ''International Organization,'' Vol. 28, No. 4, Canada and the United States: Transnational and Transgovernmental Relations (Autumn, 1974), pp. 611–635 in JSTOR\n* Innes, Hugh, ed. ''Americanization: Issues for the Seventies'' (McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1972). ; re 1970s\n* Lennox, Patrick. ''At Home and Abroad: The Canada-U.S. Relationship and Canada's Place in the World'' (University of British Columbia Press; 2010) 192 pages; the post–World War II period.\n* Little, John Michael. \"Canada Discovered: Continentalist Perceptions of the Roosevelt Administration, 1939–1945,\" PhD dissertation. ''Dissertation Abstracts International,'' 1978, Vol. 38 Issue 9, p5696-5697\n* Lumsden, Ian, ed. ''The Americanization of Canada'', ed. ... for the University League for Social Reform (U of Toronto Press, 1970). \n* McKercher, Asa. ''Camelot and Canada: Canadian-American Relations in the Kennedy Era'' (Oxford UP, 2016). xii, 298 pp. \n* Graeme S. Mount and Edelgard Mahant, ''An Introduction to Canadian-American Relations'' (1984, updated 1989)\n* Molloy, Patricia. ''Canada/US and Other Unfriendly Relations: Before and After 9/11'' (Palgrave Macmillan; 2012) 192 pages; essays on various \"myths\"\n* Mount, Graeme S. and Edelgard Mahant, ''Invisible and Inaudible in Washington: American Policies toward Canada during the Cold War'' (1999)\n* Muirhead, Bruce. \"From Special Relationship to Third Option: Canada, the U.S., and the Nixon Shock,\" ''American Review of Canadian Studies,'' Vol. 34, 2004 online edition\n* Myers, Phillip E. ''Dissolving Tensions: Rapprochement and Resolution in British-American-Canadian Relations in the Treaty of Washington Era, 1865–1914'' (Kent State UP, 2015). x, 326 pp.\n* Pederson, William D. ed. ''A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt'' (2011) online pp 517–41, covers FDR's policies\n* Stuart, Reginald C. ''Dispersed Relations: Americans and Canadians in Upper North America'' (2007) excerpt and text search\n* Tagg, James.. \"'And, We Burned down the White House, Too': American History, Canadian Undergraduates, and Nationalism,\" ''The History Teacher,'' 37#3 (May 2004), pp. 309–334 in JSTOR\n* Tansill, C. C. ''Canadian-American Relations, 1875–1911'' (1943)\n* Thompson, John Herd, and Stephen J. Randall. ''Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies'' (4th ed. McGill-Queen's UP, 2008), 387pp, the standard scholarly survey\n\n===Primary sources===\n* Gallagher, Connell. \"The Senator George D. Aiken Papers: Sources for the Study of Canadian-American Relations, 1930–1974.\" ''Archivaria'' 1#21 (1985) pp 176–79 online.\n\n","* History of Canada – U.S. relations\n* Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C.\n* U.S. Embassy & Consulates in Canada\n* Canadian Association of New York\n* Canada and the United States, by Stephen Azzi and J.L. Granatstein\n* Canadian-American Relations, by John English\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\nPrime Minister Justin Trudeau and President Donald Trump meet in Washington, February 2017.\\n'''Relations between Canada and the United States of America''' historically have been extensive, given a shared border and ever-increasing close cultural, economical ties and similarities. The shared historical and cultural heritage has resulted in one of the most stable and mutually beneficial international relationships in the world. For both countries, the level of trade with the other is at the top of the annual combined import-export total. Tourism and migration between the two nations have increased rapport, but border security was heightened after the terrorist attacks in the United States on September 11, 2001. The U.S. is ten times larger in population and has the dominant cultural and economic influence in the world. Starting with the American Revolution, when anti-American Loyalists fled to Canada, a vocal element in Canada has warned against US dominance or annexation. The War of 1812 saw invasions across the border. In 1815, the war ended with the border unchanged and demilitarized, as were the Great Lakes. The British ceased aiding First Nation attacks on American territory, and the United States never again attempted to invade Canada. Apart from minor raids, it has remained peaceful.\\n\\nAs Britain decided to disengage, fears of an American takeover played a role in the formation of the Dominion of Canada (1867), and Canada's rejection of free trade (1911). Military collaboration was close during World War II and continued throughout the Cold War, bilaterally through NORAD and multilaterally through NATO. A very high volume of trade and migration continues between the two nations, as well as a heavy overlapping of popular and elite culture, a dynamic which has generated closer ties, especially after the signing of the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement in 1988.\\n\\nCanada and the United States are the world's largest trading partners. The two nations have the world's longest shared border (), and also have significant interoperability within the defense sphere. Recent difficulties have included repeated trade disputes, environmental concerns, Canadian concern for the future of oil exports, and issues of illegal immigration and the threat of terrorism. Trade has continued to expand, especially following the 1988 FTA and North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994 which has further merged the two economies.\\nCo-operation on many fronts, such as the ease of the flow of goods, services, and people across borders are to be even more extended, as well as the establishment of joint border inspection agencies, relocation of U.S. food inspectors agents to Canadian plants and vice versa, greater sharing of intelligence, and harmonizing regulations on everything from food to manufactured goods, thus further increasing the American-Canadian assemblage.\\n\\nThe foreign policies of the neighbours have been closely aligned since the Cold War. Canada has disagreed with American policies regarding the Vietnam War, the status of Cuba, the Iraq War, Missile Defense, and the War on Terror. A diplomatic debate has been underway in recent years on whether the Northwest Passage is in international waters or under Canadian sovereignty.\\n\\nToday there are close cultural ties, many similar and identical traits and according to Gallup's annual public opinion polls, Canada has consistently been Americans' favorite nation, with 96% of Americans viewing Canada favorably in 2012. According to a 2013 BBC World Service Poll, 84% of Americans view their northern neighbor's influence positively, with only 5% expressing a negative view, the most favorable perception of Canada in the world. As of spring 2013, 64% of Canadians had a favorable view of the U.S. and 81% expressed confidence in then-US President Obama to do the right thing in international matters. According to the same poll, 30% viewed the U.S. negatively. Also, according to a 2014 BBC World Service Poll, 86% of Americans view Canada's influence positively, with only 5% expressing a negative view. However, according to the same poll, 43% of Canadians view U.S. influence positively, with 52% expressing a negative view. In addition, according to Spring 2017 Global Attitudes Survey, 43% of Canadians view U.S. positively, while 51% hold a negative view.\\n\",\n \"{| class=\\\"wikitable\\\"\\n\\n\\n '''United States of America'''''''''\\n '''Canada'''\\n\\n '''Flag'''\\n \\n \\n\\n '''Populations'''\\n 325,090,579 (March 2017) (3rd)\\n 35,151,728 (2016 census) (38th)\\n\\n '''Area'''\\n 9,833,634 km2 (3,796,787 sq mi)\\n 9,984,670 km2 (3,855,103 sq mi)\\n\\n '''Population density'''\\n 35/km2 (87.4/sq mi)\\n 3.41/km2 (8.3/sq mi)\\n\\n '''Time zones'''\\n 9\\n 6\\n\\n '''Capital'''\\n Washington, D.C.\\n Ottawa\\n\\n '''Largest cities'''\\n New York CityLos AngelesChicagoHouston\\n TorontoMontrealVancouverCalgary\\n\\n '''Government'''\\n Federal presidentialconstitutional republic\\n Federal parliamentary democraticconstitutional monarchy\\n\\n '''First leader'''\\n George Washington\\n Sir John A. Macdonald\\n\\n '''Current leader(s)'''\\n President Donald Trump\\n\\n* Queen Elizabeth II (head of state)Represented by Governor General David Johnston\\n* Prime Minister Justin Trudeau (head of government)\\n\\n '''Ruling political party'''\\n Republican Party\\n Liberal Party\\n\\n '''Official languages'''\\n None at federal level, but English ''de facto''\\n English and French\\n\\n '''Main religions'''\\n 70.6% Christianity, 22.8% non-Religious, 1.9% Judaism, 0.9% Islam, 0.7% Buddhism, 0.7% Hinduism\\n 67.3% Christianity, 23.9% Unaffiliated, 3.2% Islam, 1.5% Hinduism, 1.4% Sikhism, 1.1% Buddhism, 1.0% Judaism\\n\\n '''Human Development Index (2015)'''\\n 0.920 (very high)\\n 0.920 (very high)\\n\\n '''GDP (nominal) (2014)'''\\n $17.416 trillion ($54,390 per capita)\\n $1.793 trillion ($50,577 per capita)\\n\\n '''GDP (PPP) (2014)'''\\n $17.416 trillion ($54,390 per capita)\\n $1.578 trillion ($44,519 per capita)\\n\\n '''Military expenditures(2015)'''\\n $596 billion (3.3% of GDP)\\n $15 billion (1.0% of GDP)\\n\\n\\nLeaders of Canada and the United States from 1950\\n\\n\\nImageSize = width:800 height:auto barincrement:70\\nPlotArea = left:80 right:15 bottom:80 top:5\\n\\nDateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy\\nDefine $start = 01/01/1950\\nDefine $end = 31/12/2017\\nPeriod = from:$start till:$end\\nTimeAxis = orientation:horizontal\\nScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:01/01/1955\\nScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:01/01/1950\\nLegend = orientation:horizontal position:bottom\\nColors =\\n id:lib value:coral legend:Liberals_(Canada)\\n id:con value:blue legend:Conservatives_(Canada)\\n id:dem value:skyblue legend:Democratic_Party_(United_States)\\n id:gop value:pink legend:Republican_Party_(United_States)\\n\\nBarData =\\n bar:ca text:Canada\\n bar:us text:United States\\n\\nPlotData=\\n align:center mark:(line,black)\\n bar:ca\\n from: 04/11/2015 till: $end color:lib text:\\\"J.Trudeau\\n from: 06/02/2006 till: 04/11/2015 color:con text:\\\"Harper\\n from: 12/12/2003 till: 06/02/2006 color:lib text:\\\"Martin\\n from: 04/11/1993 till: 12/12/2003 color:lib text:\\\"Chretien\\n from: 25/06/1993 till: 04/11/1993 color:con text:\\\"C.\\n from: 17/09/1984 till: 25/06/1993 color:con text:\\\"Mulroney\\n from: 30/06/1984 till: 17/09/1984 color:lib text:\\\"T.\\n from: 03/03/1980 till: 30/06/1984 color:lib text:\\\"P.Trudeau\\n from: 04/06/1979 till: 03/03/1980 color:con text:\\\"Clark\\n from: 20/04/1968 till: 03/06/1979 color:lib text:\\\"P.Trudeau\\n from: 22/04/1963 till: 20/04/1968 color:lib text:\\\"Pearson\\n from: 21/06/1957 till: 22/04/1963 color:con text:\\\"Diefenbaker\\n from: $start till: 21/06/1957 color:lib text:\\\"Laurent\\n\\n bar:us\\n from: 20/01/2017 till: $end color:gop text:\\\"Trump\\\"\\n from: 20/01/2009 till: 20/01/2017 color:dem text:\\\"Obama\\\"\\n from: 20/01/2001 till: 20/01/2009 color:gop text:\\\"G.W.Bush\\\"\\n from: 20/01/1993 till: 20/01/2001 color:dem text:\\\"Clinton\\\"\\n from: 20/01/1989 till: 20/01/1993 color:gop text:\\\"G.H.W.Bush\\\"\\n from: 20/01/1981 till: 20/01/1989 color:gop text:\\\"Reagan\\\"\\n from: 20/01/1977 till: 20/01/1981 color:dem text:\\\"Carter\\\"\\n from: 09/08/1974 till: 20/01/1977 color:gop text:\\\"Ford\\\"\\n from: 20/01/1969 till: 09/08/1974 color:gop text:\\\"Nixon\\\"\\n from: 22/11/1963 till: 20/01/1969 color:dem text:\\\"Johnson\\\"\\n from: 20/01/1961 till: 22/11/1963 color:dem text:\\\"Kennedy\\\"\\n from: 20/01/1953 till: 20/01/1961 color:gop text:\\\"Eisenhower\\\"\\n from: $Start till: 20/01/1953 color:dem text:\\\"Truman\\\"\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n===Colonial wars===\\nBefore the British conquest of French Canada in 1760, there had been a series of wars between the British and the French which were fought out in the colonies as well as in Europe and the high seas. In general, the British heavily relied on American colonial militia units, while the French heavily relied on their First Nation allies. The Iroquois Nation were important allies of the British. Much of the fighting involved ambushes and small-scale warfare in the villages along the border between New England and Quebec. The New England colonies had a much larger population than Quebec, so major invasions came from south to north. The First Nation allies, only loosely controlled by the French, repeatedly raided New England villages to kidnap women and children, and torture and kill the men. Those who survived were brought up as Francophone Catholics. The tension along the border was exacerbated by religion, the French Catholics and English Protestants had a deep mutual distrust. There was a naval dimension as well, involving privateers attacking enemy merchant ships.\\n\\nEngland seized Quebec from 1629 to 1632, and Acadia in 1613 and again from 1654 to 1670; These territories were returned to France by the peace treaties. The major wars were (to use American names), King William's War (1689–1697); Queen Anne's War (1702–1713); King George's War (1744–1748), and the French and Indian War (1755–1763). In Canada, as in Europe, this era is known as the Seven Years' War.\\n\\nNew England soldiers and sailors were critical to the successful British campaign to capture the French fortress of Louisbourg in 1745, and (after it had been returned by treaty) to capture it again in 1758.\\n\\n===Mingling of peoples===\\nFrom the 1750s to the 21st century, there has been extensive mingling of the Canadian and American populations, with large movements in both directions.\\n\\nNew England Yankees settled large parts of Nova Scotia before 1775, and were neutral during the American Revolution. At the end of the Revolution, about 75,000 Loyalists moved out of the new United States to Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the lands of Quebec, east and south of Montreal. From 1790 to 1812 many farmers moved from New York and New England into Ontario (mostly to Niagara, and the north shore of Lake Ontario). In the mid and late 19th century gold rushes attracted American prospectors, mostly to British Columbia after the Cariboo Gold Rush, Fraser Canyon Gold Rush, and later to the Yukon. In the early 20th century, the opening of land blocks in the Prairie Provinces attracted many farmers from the American Midwest. Many Mennonites immigrated from Pennsylvania and formed their own colonies. In the 1890s some Mormons went north to form communities in Alberta after The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints rejected plural marriage. The 1960s saw the arrival of about 50,000 draft-dodgers who opposed the Vietnam War.\\n\\nIn the late 19th and early 20th centuries, about 900,000 French Canadians moved to the U.S., with 395,000 residents there in 1900. Two-thirds went to mill towns in New England, where they formed distinctive ethnic communities. By the late 20th century, they had abandoned the French language, but most kept the Catholic religion. About twice as many English Canadians came to the U.S., but they did not form distinctive ethnic settlements.\\n\\nCanada was a way-station through which immigrants from other lands stopped for a while, ultimately heading to the U.S. In 1851–1951, 7.1 million people arrived in Canada (mostly from Continental Europe), and 6.6 million left Canada, most of them to the U.S.\\n\\n===American Revolutionary War===\\nAt the outset of the American Revolutionary War, the American revolutionaries hoped the French Canadians in Quebec and the Colonists in Nova Scotia would join their rebellion and they were pre-approved for joining the United States in the Articles of Confederation. When Canada was invaded, thousands joined the American cause and formed regiments that fought during the war; however most remained neutral and some joined the British effort. Britain advised the French Canadians that the British Empire already enshrined their rights in the Quebec Act, which the American colonies had viewed as one of the Intolerable Acts. The American invasion was a fiasco and Britain tightened its grip on its northern possessions; in 1777, a major British invasion into New York led to the surrender of the entire British army at Saratoga, and led France to enter the war as an ally of the U.S. The French Canadians largely ignored France's appeals for solidarity. After the war Canada became a refuge for about 75,000 Loyalists who either wanted to leave the U.S., or were compelled by Patriot reprisals to do so.\\n\\nAmong the original Loyalists there were 3,500 free blacks. Most went to Nova Scotia and in 1792, 1200 migrated to Sierra Leone. About 2000 black slaves were brought in by Loyalist owners; they remained slaves in Canada until the Empire abolished slavery in 1833. Before 1860, about 30,000–40,000 blacks entered Canada; many were already free and others were escaped slaves who came through the Underground Railroad.\\n\\n===War of 1812===\\n\\nThe Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war, called for British forces to vacate all their forts south of the Great Lakes border. Britain refused to do so, citing failure of the United States to provide financial restitution for Loyalists who had lost property in the war. The Jay Treaty in 1795 with Great Britain resolved that lingering issue and the British departed the forts. Thomas Jefferson saw the nearby British imperial presence as a threat to the United States, and so he opposed the Jay Treaty, and it became one of the major political issues in the United States at the time. Thousands of Americans immigrated to Upper Canada (Ontario) from 1785 to 1812 to obtain cheaper land and better tax rates prevalent in that province; despite expectations that they would be loyal to the U.S. if a war broke out, in the event they were largely non-political.\\n\\nTensions mounted again after 1805, erupting into the War of 1812, when the Americans declared war on Britain. The Americans were angered by British harassment of U.S. ships on the high seas and seizure (\\\"Impressment\\\") of 6,000 sailors from American ships, severe restrictions against neutral American trade with France, and British support for hostile Indian tribes in Ohio and territories the U.S. had gained in 1783. American \\\"honor\\\" was an implicit issue. The Americans were outgunned by more than 10 to 1 by the Royal Navy, but could call on an army much larger than the British garrison in Canada, and so a land invasion of Canada was proposed as the only feasible, and most advantegous means of attacking the British Empire. Americans on the western frontier also hoped an invasion would bring an end to British support of Native American resistance to the westward expansion of the United States, typified by Tecumseh's coalition of tribes. Americans may also have wanted to annex Canada.\\n\\nOnce war broke out, the American strategy was to seize Canada—perhaps as a means of forcing concessions from the British Empire, or perhaps in order to annex it. There was some hope that settlers in western Canada—most of them recent immigrants from the U.S.—would welcome the chance to overthrow their British rulers. However, the American invasions were defeated primarily by British regulars with support from Native Americans and Upper Canada (Ontario) militia. Aided by the powerful Royal Navy, a series of British raids on the American coast were highly successful, culminating with an attack on Washington that resulted in the British burning of the White House, Capitol, and other public buildings. Major British invasions of New York in 1814 and Louisiana in 1814–15 were fiascoes, with the British retreating from New York and decisively defeated at the Battle of New Orleans. At the end of the war, Britain's American Indian allies had largely been defeated, and the Americans controlled a strip of Western Ontario centered on Fort Malden. However, Britain held much of Maine, and, with the support of their remaining American Indian allies, huge areas of the Old Northwest, including Wisconsin and much of Michigan and Illinois. With the surrender of Napoleon in 1814, Britain ended naval policies that angered Americans; with the defeat of the Indian tribes the threat to American expansion was ended. The upshot was both sides had asserted their honour, Canada was not annexed, and London and Washington had nothing more to fight over. The war was ended by the Treaty of Ghent, which took effect in February 1815. A series of postwar agreements further stabilized peaceful relations along the Canadian-US border. Canada reduced American immigration for fear of undue American influence, and built up the Anglican church as a counterweight to the largely American Methodist and Baptist churches.\\n\\nIn later years, Anglophone Canadians, especially in Ontario, viewed the War of 1812 as a heroic and successful resistance against invasion and as a victory that defined them as a people. The myth that the Canadian militia had defeated the invasion almost single-handed, known logically as the \\\"militia myth\\\", became highly prevalent after the war, having been propounded by John Strachan, Anglican Bishop of York. Meanwhile, the United States celebrated victory in its \\\"Second War of Independence,\\\" and war heroes such as Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison headed to the White House.\\n\\n===Conservative reaction===\\nIn the aftermath of the War of 1812, pro-imperial conservatives led by Anglican Bishop John Strachan took control in Ontario (\\\"Upper Canada\\\"), and promoted the Anglican religion as opposed to the more republican Methodist and Baptist churches. A small interlocking elite, known as the Family Compact took full political control. Democracy, as practiced in the US, was ridiculed. The policies had the desired effect of deterring immigration from United States. Revolts in favor of democracy in Ontario and Quebec (\\\"Lower Canada\\\") in 1837 were suppressed; many of the leaders fled to the US. The American policy was to largely ignore the rebellions, and indeed ignore Canada generally in favor of westward expansion of the American Frontier.\\n\\n===Alabama claims===\\nAn editorial cartoon on Canada–United States relations, 1886. It reads: Mrs. Britannia.—\\\"Is it possible, my dear, that you have ever given your cousin Jonathan any encouragement?\\\" Miss Canada.—\\\"Encouragement! Certainly not, Mamma. I have told him that we can never be united.\\\"\\nAt the end of the American Civil War in 1865, Americans were angry at British support for the Confederacy. One result was toleration of Fenian efforts to use the U.S. as a base to attack Canada. More serious was the demand for a huge payment to cover the damages caused, on the notion that British involvement had lengthened the war. Senator Charles Sumner, the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, originally wanted to ask for $2 billion, or alternatively the ceding of all of Canada to the United States. When American Secretary of State William H. Seward negotiated the Alaska Purchase with Russia in 1867, he intended it as the first step in a comprehensive plan to gain control of the entire northwest Pacific Coast. Seward was a firm believer in Manifest Destiny, primarily for its commercial advantages to the U.S. Seward expected British Columbia to seek annexation to the U.S. and thought Britain might accept this in exchange for the ''Alabama'' claims. Soon other elements endorsed annexation, Their plan was to annex British Columbia, Red River Colony (Manitoba), and Nova Scotia, in exchange for the dropping the damage claims. The idea reached a peak in the spring and summer of 1870, with American expansionists, Canadian separatists, and British anti-imperialists seemingly combining forces. The plan was dropped for multiple reasons. London continued to stall, American commercial and financial groups pressed Washington for a quick settlement of the dispute on a cash basis, growing Canadian nationalist sentiment in British Columbia called for staying inside the British Empire, Congress became preoccupied with Reconstruction, and most Americans showed little interest in territorial expansion. The \\\"Alabama Claims\\\" dispute went to international arbitration. In one of the first major cases of arbitration, the tribunal in 1872 supported the American claims and ordered Britain to pay $15.5 million. Britain paid and the episode ended in peaceful relations.\\n\\n===Dominion of Canada===\\nCanada became a self-governing dominion in 1867 in internal affairs while Britain controlled diplomacy and defense policy. Prior to Confederation, there was an Oregon boundary dispute in which the Americans claimed the 54th degree latitude. That issue was resolved by splitting the disputed territory; the northern half became British Columbia, and the southern half the states of Washington and Oregon. Strained relations with America continued, however, due to a series of small-scale armed incursions named the Fenian raids by Irish-American Civil War veterans across the border from 1866 to 1871 in an attempt to trade Canada for Irish independence. The American government, angry at Canadian tolerance of Confederate raiders during the American Civil War, moved very slowly to disarm the Fenians. The British government, in charge of diplomatic relations, protested cautiously, as Anglo-American relations were tense. Much of the tension was relieved as the Fenians faded away and in 1872 by the settlement of the Alabama Claims, when Britain paid the U.S. $15.5 million for war losses caused by warships built in Britain and sold to the Confederacy.\\n\\nDisputes over ocean boundaries on Georges Bank and over fishing, whaling, and sealing rights in the Pacific were settled by international arbitration, setting an important precedent.\\n\\n===Emigration to and from the United States===\\n\\nAfter 1850, the pace of industrialization and urbanization was much faster in the United States, drawing a wide range of immigrants from the North. By 1870, 1/6 of all the people born in Canada had moved to the United States, with the highest concentrations in New England, which was the destination of Francophone emigrants from Quebec and Anglophone emigrants from the Maritimes. It was common for people to move back and forth across the border, such as seasonal lumberjacks, entrepreneurs looking for larger markets, and families looking for jobs in the textile mills that paid much higher wages than in Canada.\\n\\nThe southward migration slacked off after 1890, as Canadian industry began a growth spurt. By then, the American frontier was closing, and thousands of farmers looking for fresh land moved from the United States north into the Prairie Provinces. The net result of the flows were that in 1901 there were 128,000 American-born residents in Canada (3.5% of the Canadian population) and 1.18 million Canadian-born residents in the United States (1.6% of the U.S. population).\\n\\n===Alaska boundary===\\nA short-lived controversy was the Alaska boundary dispute, settled in favor of the United States in 1903. No one cared until a gold rush brought tens of thousands of men to Canada's Yukon, and they had to arrive through American ports. Canada needed its port and claimed that it had a legal right to a port near the present American town of Haines, Alaska. It would provide an all-Canadian route to the rich goldfields. The dispute was settled by arbitration, and the British delegate voted with the Americans—to the astonishment and disgust of Canadians who suddenly realized that Britain considered its relations with the United States paramount compared to those with Canada. The arbitrartion validated the status quo, but made Canada angry at Britain.\\n\\n1907 saw a minor controversy over USS ''Nashville'' sailing into the Great Lakes via Canada without Canadian permission. To head off future embarrassments, in 1909 the two sides signed the International Boundary Waters Treaty and the International Joint Commission was established to manage the Great Lakes and keep them disarmed. It was amended in World War II to allow the building and training of warships.\\n\\n===Reciprocal trade with U.S.===\\nA 1911 Conservative campaign poster warns that the big American companies (\\\"trusts\\\") will hog all the benefits of reciprocity as proposed by Liberals, leaving little left over for Canadian interests\\nAnti-Americanism reached a shrill peak in 1911 in Canada. The Liberal government in 1911 negotiated a Reciprocity treaty with the U.S. that would lower trade barriers. Canadian manufacturing interests were alarmed that free trade would allow the bigger and more efficient American factories to take their markets. The Conservatives made it a central campaign issue in the 1911 election, warning that it would be a \\\"sell out\\\" to the United States with economic annexation a special danger. Conservative slogan was \\\"No truck or trade with the Yankees\\\", as they appealed to Canadian nationalism and nostalgia for the British Empire to win a major victory.\\n\\n===Canadian autonomy===\\nCanada demanded and received permission from London to send its own delegation to the Versailles Peace Talks in 1919, with the proviso that it sign the treaty under the British Empire. Canada subsequently took responsibility for its own foreign and military affairs in the 1920s. Its first ambassador to the United States, Vincent Massey, was named in 1927. The United States first ambassador to Canada was William Phillips. Canada became an active member of the British Commonwealth, the League of Nations, and the World Court, none of which included the U.S.\\n\\nIn July 1923, as part of his Pacific Northwest tour and a week before his death, US President Warren Harding visited Vancouver, making him the first head of state of the United States to visit Canada. The then Premier of British Columbia, John Oliver, and then mayor of Vancouver, Charles Tisdall, hosted a lunch in his honor at the Hotel Vancouver. Over 50,000 people heard Harding speak in Stanley Park. A monument to Harding designed by Charles Marega was unveiled in Stanley Park in 1925.\\n\\nRelations with the United States were cordial until 1930, when Canada vehemently protested the new Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act by which the U.S. raised tariffs (taxes) on products imported from Canada. Canada retaliated with higher tariffs of its own against American products, and moved toward more trade within the British Commonwealth. U.S.–Canadian trade fell 75% as the Great Depression dragged both countries down.\\n\\nDown to the 1920s the war and naval departments of both nations designed hypothetical war game scenarios with the other as an enemy. These were primarily exercises; the departments were never told to get ready for a real war. In 1921, Canada developed Defence Scheme No. 1 for an attack on American cities and for forestalling invasion by the United States until Imperial reinforcements arrived. Through the later 1920s and 1930s, the United States Army War College developed a plan for a war with the British Empire waged largely on North American territory, in War Plan Red.\\n\\nHerbert Hoover meeting in 1927 with British Ambassador Sir Esme Howard agreed on the \\\"absurdity of contemplating the possibility of war between the United States and the British Empire.\\\"\\n\\nIn 1938, as the roots of World War II were set in motion, U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt gave a public speech at Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, declaring that the United States would not sit idly by if another power tried to dominate Canada. Diplomats saw it as a clear warning to Germany not to attack Canada.\\n\\n===World War II===\\nMountie and a Vermont State Trooper on their respective sides of the Canada–United States (Quebec–Vermont) border in 1941\\nThe two nations cooperated closely in World War II, as both nations saw new levels of prosperity and a determination to defeat the Axis powers. Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King and President Franklin D. Roosevelt were determined not to repeat the mistakes of their predecessors. They met in August 1940 at Ogdensburg, issuing a declaration calling for close cooperation, and formed the Permanent Joint Board on Defense (PJBD).\\n\\nKing sought to raise Canada's international visibility by hosting the August 1943 Quadrant conference in Quebec on military and political strategy; he was a gracious host but was kept out of the important meetings by Winston Churchill and Roosevelt.\\n\\nCanada allowed the construction of the Alaska Highway and participated in the building of the atomic bomb. 49,000 Americans joined the RCAF (Canadian) or RAF (British) air forces through the Clayton Knight Committee, which had Roosevelt's permission to recruit in the U.S. in 1940–42.\\n\\nAmerican attempts in the mid-1930s to integrate British Columbia into a united West Coast military command had aroused Canadian opposition. Fearing a Japanese invasion of Canada's vulnerable coast, American officials urged the creation of a united military command for an eastern Pacific Ocean theater of war. Canadian leaders feared American imperialism and the loss of autonomy more than a Japanese invasion. In 1941, Canadians successfully argued within the PJBD for mutual cooperation rather than unified command for the West Coast.\\n\\n====Newfoundland====\\nThe United States built large military bases in Newfoundland, at the time, a British dominion. The American involvement ended the depression and brought new prosperity; Newfoundland's business community sought closer ties with the United States as expressed by the Economic Union Party. Ottawa took notice and wanted Newfoundland to join Canada, which it did after hotly contested referenda. There was little demand in the United States for the acquisition of Newfoundland, so the United States did not protest the British decision not to allow an American option on the Newfoundland referendum.\\n\\n===Cold War===\\nFollowing co-operation in the two World Wars, Canada and the United States lost much of their previous animosity. As Britain's influence as a global imperial power declined, Canada and the United States became extremely close partners. Canada was a close ally of the United States during the Cold War.\\n\\n===Nixon Shock 1971===\\naddresses a joint session of the Parliament of Canada, 1972\\nThe United States had become Canada's largest market, and after the war the Canadian economy became dependent on smooth trade flows with the United States so much that in 1971 when the United States enacted the \\\"Nixon Shock\\\" economic policies (including a 10% tariff on all imports) it put the Canadian government into a panic. This led in a large part to the articulation of Prime Minister Trudeau's \\\"Third Option\\\" policy of diversifying Canada's trade and downgrading the importance of Canada – United States relations. In a 1972 speech in Ottawa, Nixon declared the \\\"special relationship\\\" between Canada and the United States dead.\\n\\n===1990s===\\nThe main issues in Canada–U.S. relations in the 1990s focused on the NAFTA agreement, which was signed in 1994. It created a common market that by 2014 was worth $19 trillion, encompassed 470 million people, and had created millions of jobs. Wilson says, \\\"Few dispute that NAFTA has produced\\nlarge and measurable gains for Canadian consumers, workers, and businesses.\\\" However, he adds, \\\"NAFTA has fallen well short of expectations.\\\"\\n\\n\",\n \"\\nSince the arrival of the Loyalists as refugees from the American Revolution in the 1780s, historians have identified a constant theme of Canadian fear of the United States and of \\\"Americanization\\\" or a cultural takeover. In the War of 1812, for example, the enthusiastic response by French militia to defend Lower Canada reflected, according to Heidler and Heidler (2004), \\\"the fear of Americanization.\\\" Scholars have traced this attitude over time in Ontario and Quebec.\\n\\nCanadian intellectuals who wrote about the U.S. in the first half of the 20th century identified America as the world center of modernity, and deplored it. Imperialists (who admired the British Empire) explained that Canadians had narrowly escaped American conquest with its rejection of tradition, its worship of \\\"progress\\\" and technology, and its mass culture; they explained that Canada was much better because of its commitment to orderly government and societal harmony. There were a few ardent defenders of the nation to the south, notably liberal and socialist intellectuals such as F. R. Scott and Jean-Charles Harvey (1891–1967).\\n\\nLooking at television, Collins (1990) finds that it is in English Canada that fear of cultural Americanization is most powerful, for there the attractions of the U.S. are strongest. Meren (2009) argues that after 1945, the emergence of Quebec nationalism and the desire to preserve French-Canadian cultural heritage led to growing anxiety regarding American cultural imperialism and Americanization. In 2006 surveys showed that 60 percent of Quebecers had a fear of Americanization, while other surveys showed they preferred their current situation to that of the Americans in the realms of health care, quality of life as seniors, environmental quality, poverty, educational system, racism and standard of living. While agreeing that job opportunities are greater in America, 89 percent disagreed with the notion that they would rather be in the United States, and they were more likely to feel closer to English Canadians than to Americans. However, there is evidence that the elites and Quebec are much less fearful of Americanization, and much more open to economic integration than the general public.\\n\\nThe history has been traced in detail by a leading Canadian historian J.L. Granatstein in ''Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism'' (1997). Current studies report the phenomenon persists. Two scholars report, \\\"Anti-Americanism is alive and well in Canada today, strengthened by, among other things, disputes related to NAFTA, American involvement in the Middle East, and the ever-increasing Americanization of Canadian culture.\\\" Jamie Glazov writes, \\\"More than anything else, Diefenbaker became the tragic victim of Canadian anti-Americanism, a sentiment the prime minister had fully embraced by 1962. He was unable to imagine himself (or his foreign policy) without enemies.\\\" Historian J. M. Bumsted says, \\\"In its most extreme form, Canadian suspicion of the United States has led to outbreaks of overt anti-Americanism, usually spilling over against American residents in Canada.\\\" John R. Wennersten writes, \\\"But at the heart of Canadian anti-Americanism lies a cultural bitterness that takes an American expatriate unaware. Canadians fear the American media's influence on their culture and talk critically about how Americans are exporting a culture of violence in its television programming and movies.\\\" However Kim Nossal points out that the Canadian variety is much milder than anti-Americanism in some other countries. By contrast Americans show very little knowledge or interest one way or the other regarding Canadian affairs. Canadian historian Frank Underhill, quoting Canadian playwright Merrill Denison summed it up: \\\"Americans are benevolently ignorant about Canada, whereas Canadians are malevolently informed about the United States.\\\"\\n\",\n \"The executive of each country is represented differently. The President of the United States serves as both the head of state and head of government, and his \\\"administration\\\" is the executive, while the Prime Minister of Canada is head of government only, and his or her \\\"government\\\" or \\\"ministry\\\" directs the executive.\\n\\n\\n===W.L. Mackenzie King and Franklin D. Roosevelt (October 1935 – April 1945)===\\n\\n\\n===W.L. Mackenzie King and Harry S. Truman (April 1945 – November 1948)===\\n\\n\\n===Louis St. Laurent and Harry S. Truman (November 1948 – January 1953)===\\n\\n\\n===Louis St. Laurent and Dwight D. Eisenhower (January 1953 – June 1957)===\\n\\n\\n===John G. Diefenbaker and Dwight D. Eisenhower (June 1957 – January 1961)===\\n\\n\\n===John G. Diefenbaker and John F. Kennedy (January 1961 – April 1963)===\\n\\n\\n===Lester B. Pearson and John F. Kennedy (April–November 1963)===\\n\\n\\n===Lester B. Pearson and Lyndon B. Johnson (November 1963 – April 1968)===\\n\\n\\n===Pierre Trudeau and Lyndon B. Johnson (April 1968 – January 1969)===\\n\\n\\n===Pierre Trudeau and Richard Nixon (January 1969 – August 1974)===\\n\\n\\n===Pierre Trudeau and Gerald Ford (August 1974 – January 1977)===\\n\\n\\n===Pierre Trudeau and Jimmy Carter (January 1977 – June 1979)===\\n\\n\\n===Joe Clark and Jimmy Carter (June 1979 – March 1980)===\\n\\n\\n===Pierre Trudeau and Jimmy Carter (March 1980 – January 1981)===\\n\\n\\n===Pierre Trudeau and Ronald Reagan (January 1981 – June 1984)===\\n\\n\\n===John Turner and Ronald Reagan (June–September 1984)===\\n\\n\\n===Brian Mulroney and Ronald Reagan (September 1984 – January 1989)===\\nRonald Reagan (left) and Brian Mulroney (right) at the Hotel Cipriani in Venice, Italy, June 11, 1987\\nRelations between Brian Mulroney and Ronald Reagan were famously close. This relationship resulted in negotiations for the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement, and the U.S.–Canada Air Quality Agreement to reduce acid-rain-causing emissions, both major policy goals of Mulroney, that would be finalized under the presidency of George H. W. Bush.\\n\\n===Brian Mulroney and George H. W. Bush (January 1989 – January 1993)===\\n\\n\\n===Brian Mulroney and Bill Clinton (January–June 1993)===\\n\\n\\n===Kim Campbell and Bill Clinton (June–November 1993)===\\n\\n\\n===Jean Chrétien and Bill Clinton (November 1993 – January 2001)===\\nAlthough Jean Chrétien was wary of appearing too close to the President, personally, he and Bill Clinton were known to be golfing partners. Their governments had many small trade quarrels over the Canadian content of American magazines, softwood lumber, and so on, but on the whole were quite friendly. Both leaders had run on reforming or abolishing NAFTA, but the agreement went ahead with the addition of environmental and labor side agreements. Crucially, the Clinton administration lent rhetorical support to Canadian unity during the 1995 referendum in Quebec on separation from Canada.\\n\\n===Jean Chrétien and George W. Bush (January 2001 – December 2003)===\\nRelations between Chrétien and George W. Bush were strained throughout their overlapping times in office. After the September 11 attacks terror attacks, Jean Chrétien publicly mused that U.S. foreign policy might be part of the \\\"root causes\\\" of terrorism. Some Americans criticized his \\\"smug moralism\\\", and Chrétien's public refusal to support the 2003 Iraq war was met drew responses in the United States, especially among conservatives.\\n\\n===Paul Martin and George W. Bush (December 2003 – February 2006)===\\n\\n\\n===Stephen Harper and George W. Bush (February 2006 – January 2009)===\\nPrime Minister Stephen Harper (left) and President George W. Bush (right) meet in Washington in July 2006\\nStephen Harper and George W. Bush were thought to share warm personal relations and also close ties between their administrations. Because Bush was so unpopular among liberals in Canada (particularly in the media), this was underplayed by the Harper government.\\n\\nShortly after being congratulated by Bush for his victory in February 2006, Harper rebuked U.S. ambassador to Canada David Wilkins for criticizing the Conservatives' plans to assert Canada's sovereignty over the Arctic Ocean waters with military force.\\n\\n===Stephen Harper and Barack Obama (January 2009 – November 2015)===\\nBarack Obama boards Air Force One in Ottawa 2-19-09\\nPresident Barack Obama's first international trip was to Canada on February 19, 2009, thereby sending a strong message of peace and cooperation. With the exception of Canadian lobbying against \\\"Buy American\\\" provisions in the U.S. stimulus package, relations between the two administrations were smooth.\\n\\nThey also held friendly bets on hockey games during the Winter Olympic season. In the 2010 Winter Olympics hosted by Canada in Vancouver, Canada defeated the US in both gold medal matches, entitling Stephen Harper to receive a case of Molson Canadian beer from Barack Obama; in reverse, if Canada had lost, Harper would have provided a case of Yuengling beer to Obama. During the 2014 Winter Olympics, alongside U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry & Minister of Foreign Affairs John Baird, Stephen Harper was given a case of Samuel Adams beer by Obama for the Canadian gold medal victory over the US in women's hockey, and the semi-final victory over the US in men's hockey.\\n\\n====Canada-United States Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) (2011)====\\nOn February 4, 2011, Harper and Obama issued a \\\"Declaration on a Shared Vision for Perimeter Security and Economic Competitiveness\\\" and announced the creation of the Canada–United States Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) \\\"to increase regulatory transparency and coordination between the two countries.\\\"\\n\\nHealth Canada and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under the RCC mandate, undertook the \\\"first of its kind\\\" initiative by selecting \\\"as its first area of alignment common cold indications for certain over-the-counter antihistamine ingredients (GC 2013-01-10).\\\"\\n\\nOn December 7, 2011, Harper flew to Washington, met with Obama and signed an agreement to implement the joint action plans that had been developed since the initial meeting in February. The plans called on both countries to spend more on border infrastructure, share more information on people who cross the border, and acknowledge more of each other's safety and security inspection on third-country traffic. An editorial in ''The Globe and Mail'' praised the agreement for giving Canada the ability to track whether failed refugee claimants have left Canada via the U.S. and for eliminating \\\"duplicated baggage screenings on connecting flights\\\". The agreement is not a legally binding treaty, and relies on the political will and ability of the executives of both governments to implement the terms of the agreement. These types of executive agreements are routine—on both sides of the Canada–U.S. border.\\n\\n===Justin Trudeau and Barack Obama (November 2015 – January 2017)===\\nPrime Minister Justin Trudeau (left) and President Barack Obama (right) meet in Washington in March 2016\\nPresident Barack Obama and Prime Minister Justin Trudeau first met formally at the APEC summit meeting in Manila, Philippines in November 2015, nearly a week after the latter was sworn into the office. Both leaders expressed eagerness for increased cooperation and coordination between the two countries during the course of Trudeau's government with Trudeau promising an \\\"enhanced Canada–U.S. partnership\\\".\\n\\nOn November 6, 2015, Obama announced the U.S. State Department's rejection of the proposed Keystone XL pipeline, the fourth phase of the Keystone oil pipeline system running between Canada and the United States, to which Trudeau expressed disappointment but said that the rejection would not damage Canada–U.S. relations and would instead provide a \\\"fresh start\\\" to strengthening ties through cooperation and coordination, saying that \\\"the Canada–U.S. relationship is much bigger than any one project.\\\" Obama has since praised Trudeau's efforts to prioritize the reduction of climate change, calling it \\\"extraordinarily helpful\\\" to establish a worldwide consensus on addressing the issue.\\n\\nAlthough Trudeau has told Obama his plans to withdraw Canada's McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet jets assisting in the American-led intervention against ISIL, Trudeau said that Canada will still \\\"do more than its part\\\" in combating the terrorist group by increasing the number of Canadian special forces members training and fighting on ground in Iraq and Syria.\\n\\nTrudeau visited the White House for an official visit and state dinner on March 10, 2016. Trudeau and Obama were reported to have shared warm personal relations during the visit, making humorous remarks about which country was better at hockey and which country had better beer. Obama complimented Trudeau's 2015 election campaign for its \\\"message of hope and change\\\" and \\\"positive and optimistic vision\\\". Obama and Trudeau also held \\\"productive\\\" discussions on climate change and relations between the two countries, and Trudeau invited Obama to speak in the Canadian parliament in Ottawa later in the year.\\n\\n===Justin Trudeau and Donald Trump (January 2017–present)===\\nFollowing the victory of Donald Trump in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, Trudeau congratulated him and invited him to visit Canada at the \\\"earliest opportunity.\\\" Prime Minister Trudeau and President Trump formally met for the first time at the White House on February 13, 2017, nearly a month after Trump was sworn into the office. Trump has ruffled relations with Canada with tariffs on softwood lumber. Diafiltered Milk has also been brought up by Trump as an area that needs to be negotiated. Trump is expected to renegotiate NAFTA with Canada.\\n\",\n \"North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), long headquartered in the Cheyenne Mountain Complex in Colorado, exemplifies military co-operation between Canada and the U.S.\\nCanadian embassy in Washington saying \\\"Friends, Neighbours, Partners, Allies\\\"\\nThe Canadian military, like forces of other NATO countries, fought alongside the United States in most major conflicts since World War II, including the Korean War, the Gulf War, the Kosovo War, and most recently the war in Afghanistan. The main exceptions to this were the Canadian government's opposition to the Vietnam War and the Iraq War, which caused some brief diplomatic tensions. Despite these issues, military relations have remained close.\\n\\nAmerican defense arrangements with Canada are more extensive than with any other country. The Permanent Joint Board of Defense, established in 1940, provides policy-level consultation on bilateral defense matters. The United States and Canada share North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) mutual security commitments. In addition, American and Canadian military forces have cooperated since 1958 on continental air defense within the framework of the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD). Canadian forces have provided indirect support for the American invasion of Iraq that began in 2003. Moreover, interoperability with the American armed forces has been a guiding principle of Canadian military force structuring and doctrine since the end of the Cold War. Canadian navy frigates, for instance, integrate seamlessly into American carrier battle groups.\\n\\nIn commemoration of the 200th Anniversary of the War of 1812 ambassadors from Canada and the US, and naval officers from both countries gathered at the Pritzker Military Library on August 17, 2012, for a panel discussion on Canada-US relations with emphasis on national security-related matters. Also as part of the commemoration, the navies of both countries sailed together throughout the Great Lakes region.\\n\\n===War in Afghanistan===\\n\\nCanada's elite JTF2 unit joined American special forces in Afghanistan shortly after the al-Qaida attacks on September 11, 2001. Canadian forces joined the multinational coalition in Operation Anaconda in January 2002. On April 18, 2002, an American pilot bombed Canadian forces involved in a training exercise, killing four and wounding eight Canadians. A joint American-Canadian inquiry determined the cause of the incident to be pilot error, in which the pilot interpreted ground fire as an attack; the pilot ignored orders that he felt were \\\"second-guessing\\\" his field tactical decision. Canadian forces assumed a six-month command rotation of the International Security Assistance Force in 2003; in 2005, Canadians assumed operational command of the multi-national Brigade in Kandahar, with 2,300 troops, and supervises the Provincial Reconstruction Team in Kandahar, where al-Qaida forces are most active. Canada has also deployed naval forces in the Persian Gulf since 1991 in support of the UN Gulf Multinational Interdiction Force.\\n\\nThe Canadian Embassy in Washington, DC maintains a public relations website named CanadianAlly.com, which is intended \\\"to give American citizens a better sense of the scope of Canada's role in North American and Global Security and the War on Terror\\\".\\n\\nThe New Democratic Party and some recent Liberal leadership candidates have expressed opposition to Canada's expanded role in the Afghan conflict on the ground that it is inconsistent with Canada's historic role (since the Second World War) of peacekeeping operations.\\n\\n===2003 Invasion of Iraq===\\n\\n\\nAccording to contemporary polls, 71% of Canadians were opposed to the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Many Canadians, and the former Liberal Cabinet headed by Paul Martin (as well as many Americans such as Bill Clinton and Barack Obama), made a policy distinction between conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq, unlike the Bush Doctrine, which linked these together in a \\\"Global war on terror\\\".\\n\\n=== Responding to ISIS/Daesh ===\\nCanada has been involved in international responses to the threats from Daesh/ISIS/ISIL in Syria and Iraq, and is a member of the Global Coalition to Counter Daesh. In October 2016, Foreign Affairs Minister Dion and National Defence Minister Sajjan meet U.S. special envoy for this coalition. The Americans thanked Canada \\\"for the role of Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) in providing training and assistance to Iraqi security forces, as well as the CAF's role in improving essential capacity-building capabilities with regional forces.\\\"\\n\",\n \"\\nCanada and the United States have the world's largest trading relationship, with huge quantities of goods and people flowing across the border each year. Since the 1987 Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement, there have been no tariffs on most goods passed between the two countries.\\n\\nIn the course of the softwood lumber dispute, the U.S. has placed tariffs on Canadian softwood lumber because of what it argues is an unfair Canadian government subsidy, a claim which Canada disputes. The dispute has cycled through several agreements and arbitration cases. Other notable disputes include the Canadian Wheat Board, and Canadian cultural \\\"restrictions\\\" on magazines and television (See CRTC, CBC, and National Film Board of Canada). Canadians have been criticized about such things as the ban on beef since a case of Mad Cow disease was discovered in 2003 in cows from the United States (and a few subsequent cases) and the high American agricultural subsidies. Concerns in Canada also run high over aspects of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) such as Chapter 11.\\n\",\n \"A Canadian BC Parks Ranger and a U.S. National Park Service Ranger work to remove a bear from a campground along the international boundary in British Columbia and Washington state\\n\\nA principal instrument of this cooperation is the International Joint Commission (IJC), established as part of the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909 to resolve differences and promote international cooperation on boundary waters. The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1972 is another historic example of joint cooperation in controlling trans-border water pollution. However, there have been some disputes. Most recently, the Devil's Lake Outlet, a project instituted by North Dakota, has angered Manitobans who fear that their water may soon become polluted as a result of this project.\\n\\nBeginning in 1986 the Canadian government of Brian Mulroney began pressing the Reagan administration for an \\\"Acid Rain Treaty\\\" in order to do something about U.S. industrial air pollution causing acid rain in Canada. The Reagan administration was hesitant, and questioned the science behind Mulroney's claims. However, Mulroney was able to prevail. The product was the signing and ratification of the Air Quality Agreement of 1991 by the first Bush administration. Under that treaty, the two governments consult semi-annually on trans-border air pollution, which has demonstrably reduced acid rain, and they have since signed an annex to the treaty dealing with ground level ozone in 2000. Despite this, trans-border air pollution remains an issue, particularly in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence watershed during the summer. The main source of this trans-border pollution results from coal-fired power stations, most of them located in the Midwestern United States. As part of the negotiations to create NAFTA, Canada and the U.S. signed, along with Mexico, the North American Agreement On Environmental Cooperation which created the Commission for Environmental Cooperation which monitors environmental issues across the continent, publishing the North American Environmental Atlas as one aspect of its monitoring duties.\\n\\nCurrently neither of the countries' governments support the Kyoto Protocol, which set out time scheduled curbing of greenhouse gas emissions. Unlike the United States, Canada has ratified the agreement. Yet after ratification, due to internal political conflict within Canada, the Canadian government does not enforce the Kyoto Protocol, and has received criticism from environmental groups and from other governments for its climate change positions. In January 2011, the Canadian minister of the environment, Peter Kent, explicitly stated that the policy of his government with regards to greenhouse gas emissions reductions is to wait for the United States to act first, and then try to harmonize with that action – a position that has been condemned by environmentalists and Canadian nationalists, and as well as scientists and government think-tanks.\\n\\n===Newfoundland fisheries dispute===\\nThe United States and Britain, had a long-standing dispute about the rights of Americans fishing in the waters near Newfoundland. Before 1776, there was no question that American fishermen, mostly from Massachusetts, had rights to use the waters off Newfoundland. In the peace treaty negotiations of 1783, the Americans insisted on a statement of these rights. However, France, an American ally, disputed the American position because France had its own specified rights in the area and wanted them to be exclusive. The Treaty of Paris (1783) gave the Americans not rights, but rather \\\"liberties\\\" to fish within the territorial waters of British North America and to dry fish on certain coasts.\\n\\nAfter the War of 1812, the Convention of 1818 between the United States and Britain specified exactly what liberties were involved. Canadian and Newfoundland fishermen contested these liberties in the 1830s and 1840s. The Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty of 1854, and the Treaty of Washington of 1871 spelled-out the liberties in more detail. However the Treaty of Washington expired in 1885, and there was a continuous round of disputes over jurisdictions and liberties. Britain and the United States sent the issue to the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague in 1909. It produced a compromise settlement that permanently ended the problems.\\n\",\n \"\\nIn 2003 the American government became concerned when members of the Canadian government announced plans to decriminalize marijuana. David Murray, an assistant to U.S. Drug Czar John P. Walters, said in a CBC interview that, \\\"We would have to respond. We would be forced to respond.\\\" However the election of the Conservative Party in early 2006 halted the liberalization of marijuana laws for the foreseeable future.\\n\\nA 2007 joint report by American and Canadian officials on cross-border drug smuggling indicated that, despite their best efforts, \\\"drug trafficking still occurs in significant quantities in both directions across the border. The principal illicit substances smuggled across our shared border are MDMA (''Ecstasy''), cocaine, and marijuana.\\\" The report indicated that Canada was a major producer of ''Ecstasy'' and marijuana for the U.S. market, while the U.S. was a transit country for cocaine entering Canada.\\n\",\n \"RCMP honor guards wait for Air Force One in Ottawa.\\n===Views of presidents and prime ministers===\\nPresidents and prime ministers typically make formal or informal statements that indicate the diplomatic policy of their administration. Diplomats and journalists at the time—and historians since—dissect the nuances and tone to detect the warmth or coolness of the relationship.\\n* Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, speaking at the beginning of the 1891 election (fought mostly over Canadian free trade with the United States), arguing against closer trade relations with the U.S. stated \\\"As for myself, my course is clear. A British subject I was born—a British subject I will die. With my utmost effort, with my latest breath, will I oppose the ‘veiled treason’ which attempts by sordid means and mercenary proffers to lure our people from their allegiance.\\\" (February 3, 1891.)\\n\\nCanada's first Prime Minister also said:\\n\\n* Prime Minister John Sparrow Thompson, angry at failed trade talks in 1888, privately complained to his wife, Lady Thompson, that \\\"These Yankee politicians are the lowest race of thieves in existence.\\\"\\n* After the World War II years of close military and economic cooperation, President Harry S. Truman said in 1947 that \\\"Canada and the United States have reached the point where we can no longer think of each other as 'foreign' countries.\\\"\\n* President John F. Kennedy told Parliament in Ottawa in May 1961 that \\\"Geography has made us neighbors. History has made us friends. Economics has made us partners. And necessity has made us allies. Those whom nature hath so joined together, let no man put asunder.\\\"\\n* President Lyndon Johnson helped open Expo '67 with an upbeat theme, saying that \\\"We of the United States consider ourselves blessed. We have much to give thanks for. But the gift of providence we cherish most is that we were given as our neighbours on this wonderful continent the people and the nation of Canada.\\\" Remarks at Expo '67, Montreal, May 25, 1967.\\n\\n\\n* Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau famously said that being America's neighbour \\\"is like sleeping with an elephant. No matter how friendly and even-tempered the beast, if one can call it that, one is affected by every twitch and grunt.\\\"\\n* Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau, sharply at odds with the U.S. over Cold War policy, warned at a press conference in 1971 that the overwhelming American presence posed \\\"a danger to our national identity from a cultural, economic and perhaps even military point of view.\\\"\\n* President Richard Nixon, in a speech to Parliament in 1972 was angry at Trudeau, declared that the \\\"special relationship\\\" between Canada and the United States was dead. \\\"It is time for us to recognize,\\\" he stated, \\\"that we have very separate identities; that we have significant differences; and that nobody's interests are furthered when these realities are obscured.\\\"\\n* In late 2001, President George W. Bush did not mention Canada during a speech in which he thanked a list of countries who had assisted in responding to the events of September 11, although Canada had provided military, financial, and other support. Ten years later, David Frum, one of President Bush's speechwriters, stated that it was an unintentional omission.\\n* Prime Minister Stephen Harper, in a statement congratulating Barack Obama on his inauguration, stated that \\\"The United States remains Canada's most important ally, closest friend and largest trading partner and I look forward to working with President Obama and his administration as we build on this special relationship.\\\"\\n* President Barack Obama, speaking in Ottawa at his first official international visit in February 19, 2009, said, \\\"I love this country. We could not have a better friend and ally.\\\"\\n\\n===Canadian public opinion on U.S. presidents===\\nUnited States President George W. Bush was \\\"deeply disliked\\\" by a majority of Canadians according to the ''Arizona Daily Sun''. A 2004 poll found that more than two thirds of Canadians favoured Democrat John Kerry over Bush in the 2004 presidential election, with Bush's lowest approval ratings in Canada being in the province of Quebec where just 11% of the population supported him. Canadian public opinion of Barack Obama was significantly more positive. A 2012 poll found that 65% of Canadians would vote for Obama in the 2012 presidential election \\\"if they could\\\" while only 9% of Canadians would vote for his Republican opponent Mitt Romney. The same study found that 61% of Canadians felt that the Obama administration had been \\\"good\\\" for America, while only 12% felt it had been \\\"bad\\\". Similarly, a Pew Research poll conducted in June 2016 found that 83% of Canadians were \\\"confident in Obama to do the right thing regarding world affairs\\\". The study also found that a majority of members of all three major Canadian political parties supported Obama, and also found that Obama had slightly higher approval ratings in Canada in 2012 than he did in 2008. John Ibbitson of ''The Globe and Mail'' stated in 2012 that Canadians generally supported Democratic presidents over Republican presidents, citing how President Richard Nixon was \\\"never liked\\\" in Canada and that Canadians generally did not approve of Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's friendship with President Ronald Reagan.\\n\\nA January 2017 poll found that 66% of Canadians \\\"disapproved\\\" of Donald Trump, with 23% approving of him and 11% being \\\"unsure\\\". The poll also found that only 18% of Canadians believed Trump's presidency would have a positive impact on Canada, while 63% believed it would have a negative effect.\\n\\n===Territorial disputes===\\n\\n\\nThese include maritime boundary disputes:\\n* Dixon Entrance\\n* Beaufort Sea\\n* Strait of Juan de Fuca\\n* San Juan Islands\\n* Machias Seal Island and North Rock\\n\\nTerritorial land disputes:\\n* Aroostook War (Maine boundary)\\n* Alaska Boundary Dispute\\n* Pig War\\n\\nand disputes over the international status of the:\\n* Northwest Passage\\n* Inside Passage\\n\\n====Arctic disputes====\\n\\nA long-simmering dispute between Canada and the U.S. involves the issue of Canadian sovereignty over the Northwest Passage (the sea passages in the Arctic). Canada's assertion that the Northwest Passage represents internal (territorial) waters has been challenged by other countries, especially the U.S., which argue that these waters constitute an international strait (international waters). Canadians were alarmed when Americans drove the reinforced oil tanker through the Northwest Passage in 1969, followed by the icebreaker Polar Sea in 1985, which actually resulted in a minor diplomatic incident. In 1970, the Canadian parliament enacted the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, which asserts Canadian regulatory control over pollution within a 100-mile zone. In response, the United States in 1970 stated, \\\"We cannot accept the assertion of a Canadian claim that the Arctic waters are internal waters of Canada. ... Such acceptance would jeopardize the freedom of navigation essential for United States naval activities worldwide.\\\" A compromise of sorts was reached in 1988, by an agreement on \\\"Arctic Cooperation,\\\" which pledges that voyages of American icebreakers \\\"will be undertaken with the consent of the Government of Canada.\\\" However the agreement did not alter either country's basic legal position. Paul Cellucci, the American ambassador to Canada, in 2005 suggested to Washington that it should recognize the straits as belonging to Canada. His advice was rejected and Harper took opposite positions. The U.S. opposes Harper's proposed plan to deploy military icebreakers in the Arctic to detect interlopers and assert Canadian sovereignty over those waters.\\n\\n===Common memberships===\\n\\nCanada and the United States both hold membership in a number of multinational organizations such as:\\n* Arctic Council\\n* Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation\\n* Canadian Football League\\n* CONCACAF\\n* FIBA\\n* FIFA\\n* Food and Agriculture Organization\\n* G7\\n* G-10\\n* G-20 major economies\\n* International Chamber of Commerce\\n* International Development Association\\n* International Ice Hockey Federation\\n* International Monetary Fund\\n* International Olympic Committee\\n* Interpol\\n* Major League Baseball\\n* Major League Soccer\\n* National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing\\n* National Basketball Association\\n* National Football League\\n* National Hockey League\\n* National Lacrosse League\\n* North American Free Trade Agreement\\n* North American Aerospace Defense Command\\n* North American Numbering Plan\\n* North Atlantic Treaty Organization\\n* Organization of American States\\n* Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development\\n* Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America\\n* UKUSA Community\\n* United Nations\\n* UNESCO\\n* World Bowling\\n* World Health Organization\\n* World Trade Organization\\n* World Bank\\n\",\n \"\\n===Canadian missions in the United States===\\n\\nCanada's chief diplomatic mission to the United States is the Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C.. It is further supported by many consulates located through United States.\\nThe Canadian Government maintains consulates-general in several major U.S. cities including: Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Detroit, Los Angeles, Miami, Minneapolis, New York City, San Francisco and Seattle. Canadian consular services are also available in Honolulu at the consulate of Australia through the Canada–Australia Consular Services Sharing Agreement.\\n\\nThere are also Canadian trade offices located in Houston, Palo Alto and San Diego.\\n\\n===U.S. missions in Canada===\\nThe United States's chief diplomatic mission to Canada is the United States Embassy in Ottawa. It is further supported by many consulates located throughout Canada.\\nThe U.S government maintains consulates-general in several major Canadian cities including:\\nCalgary, Halifax, Montreal, Quebec City, Toronto, Vancouver and Winnipeg.\\n\\nThe United States also maintains Virtual Presence Posts (VPP) in the: Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Southwestern Ontario and Yukon.\\n\",\n \"\\n* Borders of Canada\\n* Comparison of Canadian and American economies\\n* Continental One Highway\\n* Etiquette in North America\\n* Foreign relations of Canada\\n* Foreign relations of the United States\\n* Garrison mentality\\n* Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America\\n* United States Border Patrol interior checkpoints\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"\\n* \\n* Azzi, Stephen. ''Reconcilable Differences: A History of Canada-US Relations'' (Oxford University Press, 2014)\\n* Behiels, Michael D. and Reginald C. Stuart, eds. ''Transnationalism: Canada-United States History into the Twenty-First Century'' (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2010) 312 pp. online 2012 review\\n* Bothwell, Robert. ''Your Country, My Country: A Unified History of the United States and Canada'' (2015), 400 pages; traces relations, shared values, and differences across the centuries\\n* Doran, Charles F., and James Patrick Sewell, \\\"Anti-Americanism in Canada,\\\" ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,'' Vol. 497, Anti-Americanism: Origins and Context (May 1988), pp. 105–119 in JSTOR\\n* Clarkson, Stephen. ''Uncle Sam and Us: Globalization, Neoconservatism and the Canadian State'' (University of Toronto Press, 2002)\\n* Engler, Yves\\n* Ek, Carl, and Ian F. Fergusson. ''Canada-U.S. Relations'' (Congressional Research Service, 2010) 2010 Report, by an agency of the U.S. Congress\\n** \\\"Report Highlight\\\" of 2010 report\\n* Granatstein, J. L. ''Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism'' (1997)\\n* Granatstein, J. L. and Norman Hillmer, ''For Better or for Worse: Canada and the United States to the 1990s'' (1991)\\n* Gravelle, Timothy B. \\\"Partisanship, Border Proximity, and Canadian Attitudes toward North American Integration.\\\" ''International Journal of Public Opinion Research'' (2014) 26#4 pp: 453–474.\\n* Gravelle, Timothy B. \\\"Love Thy Neighbo (u) r? Political Attitudes, Proximity and the Mutual Perceptions of the Canadian and American Publics.\\\" ''Canadian Journal of Political Science'' (2014) 47#1 pp: 135–157.\\n* Hale, Geoffrey. ''So Near Yet So Far: The Public and Hidden Worlds of Canada-US Relations'' (University of British Columbia Press, 2012); 352 pages focus on 2001–2011\\n* Holland, Kenneth. \\\"The Canada–United States defence relationship: a partnership for the twenty-first century.\\\" ''Canadian Foreign Policy Journal'' ahead-of-print (2015): 1–6. online\\n* Holmes, Ken. \\\"The Canadian Cognitive Bias and its Influence on Canada/US Relations.\\\" ''International Social Science Review'' (2015) 90#1 online.\\n* Holmes, John W. \\\"Impact of Domestic Political Factors on Canadian-American Relations: Canada,\\\" ''International Organization,'' Vol. 28, No. 4, Canada and the United States: Transnational and Transgovernmental Relations (Autumn, 1974), pp. 611–635 in JSTOR\\n* Innes, Hugh, ed. ''Americanization: Issues for the Seventies'' (McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1972). ; re 1970s\\n* Lennox, Patrick. ''At Home and Abroad: The Canada-U.S. Relationship and Canada's Place in the World'' (University of British Columbia Press; 2010) 192 pages; the post–World War II period.\\n* Little, John Michael. \\\"Canada Discovered: Continentalist Perceptions of the Roosevelt Administration, 1939–1945,\\\" PhD dissertation. ''Dissertation Abstracts International,'' 1978, Vol. 38 Issue 9, p5696-5697\\n* Lumsden, Ian, ed. ''The Americanization of Canada'', ed. ... for the University League for Social Reform (U of Toronto Press, 1970). \\n* McKercher, Asa. ''Camelot and Canada: Canadian-American Relations in the Kennedy Era'' (Oxford UP, 2016). xii, 298 pp. \\n* Graeme S. Mount and Edelgard Mahant, ''An Introduction to Canadian-American Relations'' (1984, updated 1989)\\n* Molloy, Patricia. ''Canada/US and Other Unfriendly Relations: Before and After 9/11'' (Palgrave Macmillan; 2012) 192 pages; essays on various \\\"myths\\\"\\n* Mount, Graeme S. and Edelgard Mahant, ''Invisible and Inaudible in Washington: American Policies toward Canada during the Cold War'' (1999)\\n* Muirhead, Bruce. \\\"From Special Relationship to Third Option: Canada, the U.S., and the Nixon Shock,\\\" ''American Review of Canadian Studies,'' Vol. 34, 2004 online edition\\n* Myers, Phillip E. ''Dissolving Tensions: Rapprochement and Resolution in British-American-Canadian Relations in the Treaty of Washington Era, 1865–1914'' (Kent State UP, 2015). x, 326 pp.\\n* Pederson, William D. ed. ''A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt'' (2011) online pp 517–41, covers FDR's policies\\n* Stuart, Reginald C. ''Dispersed Relations: Americans and Canadians in Upper North America'' (2007) excerpt and text search\\n* Tagg, James.. \\\"'And, We Burned down the White House, Too': American History, Canadian Undergraduates, and Nationalism,\\\" ''The History Teacher,'' 37#3 (May 2004), pp. 309–334 in JSTOR\\n* Tansill, C. C. ''Canadian-American Relations, 1875–1911'' (1943)\\n* Thompson, John Herd, and Stephen J. Randall. ''Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies'' (4th ed. McGill-Queen's UP, 2008), 387pp, the standard scholarly survey\\n\\n===Primary sources===\\n* Gallagher, Connell. \\\"The Senator George D. Aiken Papers: Sources for the Study of Canadian-American Relations, 1930–1974.\\\" ''Archivaria'' 1#21 (1985) pp 176–79 online.\\n\\n\",\n \"* History of Canada – U.S. relations\\n* Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C.\\n* U.S. Embassy & Consulates in Canada\\n* Canadian Association of New York\\n* Canada and the United States, by Stephen Azzi and J.L. Granatstein\\n* Canadian-American Relations, by John English\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction","Country comparison","History","Anti-Americanism","Relations between political executives","Military and security","Trade","Environmental issues","Illicit drugs","Diplomacy","Diplomatic missions","See also","References","Further reading","External links"],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \"Country comparison\",\n \"History\",\n \"Anti-Americanism\",\n \"Relations between political executives\",\n \"Military and security\",\n \"Trade\",\n \"Environmental issues\",\n \"Illicit drugs\",\n \"Diplomacy\",\n \"Diplomatic missions\",\n \"See also\",\n \"References\",\n \"Further reading\",\n \"External links\"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Canada–United States relations"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["Disputes over ocean boundaries on Georges Bank and over fishing, whaling, and sealing rights in the Pacific were settled by international arbitration, setting an important precedent.","===Common memberships===\n\nCanada and the United States both hold membership in a number of multinational organizations such as:\n* Arctic Council\n* Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation\n* Canadian Football League\n* CONCACAF\n* FIBA\n* FIFA\n* Food and Agriculture Organization\n* G7\n* G-10\n* G-20 major economies\n* International Chamber of Commerce\n* International Development Association\n* International Ice Hockey Federation\n* International Monetary Fund\n* International Olympic Committee\n* Interpol\n* Major League Baseball\n* Major League Soccer\n* National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing\n* National Basketball Association\n* National Football League\n* National Hockey League\n* National Lacrosse League\n* North American Free Trade Agreement\n* North American Aerospace Defense Command\n* North American Numbering Plan\n* North Atlantic Treaty Organization\n* Organization of American States\n* Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development\n* Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America\n* UKUSA Community\n* United Nations\n* UNESCO\n* World Bowling\n* World Health Organization\n* World Trade Organization\n* World Bank"],"string":"[\n \"Disputes over ocean boundaries on Georges Bank and over fishing, whaling, and sealing rights in the Pacific were settled by international arbitration, setting an important precedent.\",\n \"===Common memberships===\\n\\nCanada and the United States both hold membership in a number of multinational organizations such as:\\n* Arctic Council\\n* Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation\\n* Canadian Football League\\n* CONCACAF\\n* FIBA\\n* FIFA\\n* Food and Agriculture Organization\\n* G7\\n* G-10\\n* G-20 major economies\\n* International Chamber of Commerce\\n* International Development Association\\n* International Ice Hockey Federation\\n* International Monetary Fund\\n* International Olympic Committee\\n* Interpol\\n* Major League Baseball\\n* Major League Soccer\\n* National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing\\n* National Basketball Association\\n* National Football League\\n* National Hockey League\\n* National Lacrosse League\\n* North American Free Trade Agreement\\n* North American Aerospace Defense Command\\n* North American Numbering Plan\\n* North Atlantic Treaty Organization\\n* Organization of American States\\n* Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development\\n* Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America\\n* UKUSA Community\\n* United Nations\\n* UNESCO\\n* World Bowling\\n* World Health Organization\\n* World Trade Organization\\n* World Bank\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\nPrime Minister Justin Trudeau and President Donald Trump meet in Washington, February 2017.","'''Relations between Canada and the United States of America''' historically have been extensive, given a shared border and ever-increasing close cultural, economical ties and similarities.","The shared historical and cultural heritage has resulted in one of the most stable and mutually beneficial international relationships in the world.","For both countries, the level of trade with the other is at the top of the annual combined import-export total.","Tourism and migration between the two nations have increased rapport, but border security was heightened after the terrorist attacks in the United States on September 11, 2001.","The U.S. is ten times larger in population and has the dominant cultural and economic influence in the world.","Starting with the American Revolution, when anti-American Loyalists fled to Canada, a vocal element in Canada has warned against US dominance or annexation.","The War of 1812 saw invasions across the border.","In 1815, the war ended with the border unchanged and demilitarized, as were the Great Lakes.","The British ceased aiding First Nation attacks on American territory, and the United States never again attempted to invade Canada.","Apart from minor raids, it has remained peaceful.","As Britain decided to disengage, fears of an American takeover played a role in the formation of the Dominion of Canada (1867), and Canada's rejection of free trade (1911).","Military collaboration was close during World War II and continued throughout the Cold War, bilaterally through NORAD and multilaterally through NATO.","A very high volume of trade and migration continues between the two nations, as well as a heavy overlapping of popular and elite culture, a dynamic which has generated closer ties, especially after the signing of the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement in 1988.","Canada and the United States are the world's largest trading partners.","The two nations have the world's longest shared border (), and also have significant interoperability within the defense sphere.","Recent difficulties have included repeated trade disputes, environmental concerns, Canadian concern for the future of oil exports, and issues of illegal immigration and the threat of terrorism.","Trade has continued to expand, especially following the 1988 FTA and North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994 which has further merged the two economies.","Co-operation on many fronts, such as the ease of the flow of goods, services, and people across borders are to be even more extended, as well as the establishment of joint border inspection agencies, relocation of U.S. food inspectors agents to Canadian plants and vice versa, greater sharing of intelligence, and harmonizing regulations on everything from food to manufactured goods, thus further increasing the American-Canadian assemblage.","The foreign policies of the neighbours have been closely aligned since the Cold War.","Canada has disagreed with American policies regarding the Vietnam War, the status of Cuba, the Iraq War, Missile Defense, and the War on Terror.","A diplomatic debate has been underway in recent years on whether the Northwest Passage is in international waters or under Canadian sovereignty.","Today there are close cultural ties, many similar and identical traits and according to Gallup's annual public opinion polls, Canada has consistently been Americans' favorite nation, with 96% of Americans viewing Canada favorably in 2012.","According to a 2013 BBC World Service Poll, 84% of Americans view their northern neighbor's influence positively, with only 5% expressing a negative view, the most favorable perception of Canada in the world.","As of spring 2013, 64% of Canadians had a favorable view of the U.S. and 81% expressed confidence in then-US President Obama to do the right thing in international matters.","According to the same poll, 30% viewed the U.S. negatively.","Also, according to a 2014 BBC World Service Poll, 86% of Americans view Canada's influence positively, with only 5% expressing a negative view.","However, according to the same poll, 43% of Canadians view U.S. influence positively, with 52% expressing a negative view.","In addition, according to Spring 2017 Global Attitudes Survey, 43% of Canadians view U.S. positively, while 51% hold a negative view.","{| class=\"wikitable\"\n\n\n '''United States of America'''''''''\n '''Canada'''\n\n '''Flag'''\n \n \n\n '''Populations'''\n 325,090,579 (March 2017) (3rd)\n 35,151,728 (2016 census) (38th)\n\n '''Area'''\n 9,833,634 km2 (3,796,787 sq mi)\n 9,984,670 km2 (3,855,103 sq mi)\n\n '''Population density'''\n 35/km2 (87.4/sq mi)\n 3.41/km2 (8.3/sq mi)\n\n '''Time zones'''\n 9\n 6\n\n '''Capital'''\n Washington, D.C.\n Ottawa\n\n '''Largest cities'''\n New York CityLos AngelesChicagoHouston\n TorontoMontrealVancouverCalgary\n\n '''Government'''\n Federal presidentialconstitutional republic\n Federal parliamentary democraticconstitutional monarchy\n\n '''First leader'''\n George Washington\n Sir John A. Macdonald\n\n '''Current leader(s)'''\n President Donald Trump\n\n* Queen Elizabeth II (head of state)Represented by Governor General David Johnston\n* Prime Minister Justin Trudeau (head of government)\n\n '''Ruling political party'''\n Republican Party\n Liberal Party\n\n '''Official languages'''\n None at federal level, but English ''de facto''\n English and French\n\n '''Main religions'''\n 70.6% Christianity, 22.8% non-Religious, 1.9% Judaism, 0.9% Islam, 0.7% Buddhism, 0.7% Hinduism\n 67.3% Christianity, 23.9% Unaffiliated, 3.2% Islam, 1.5% Hinduism, 1.4% Sikhism, 1.1% Buddhism, 1.0% Judaism\n\n '''Human Development Index (2015)'''\n 0.920 (very high)\n 0.920 (very high)\n\n '''GDP (nominal) (2014)'''\n $17.416 trillion ($54,390 per capita)\n $1.793 trillion ($50,577 per capita)\n\n '''GDP (PPP) (2014)'''\n $17.416 trillion ($54,390 per capita)\n $1.578 trillion ($44,519 per capita)\n\n '''Military expenditures(2015)'''\n $596 billion (3.3% of GDP)\n $15 billion (1.0% of GDP)\n\n\nLeaders of Canada and the United States from 1950\n\n\nImageSize = width:800 height:auto barincrement:70\nPlotArea = left:80 right:15 bottom:80 top:5\n\nDateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy\nDefine $start = 01/01/1950\nDefine $end = 31/12/2017\nPeriod = from:$start till:$end\nTimeAxis = orientation:horizontal\nScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:01/01/1955\nScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:01/01/1950\nLegend = orientation:horizontal position:bottom\nColors =\n id:lib value:coral legend:Liberals_(Canada)\n id:con value:blue legend:Conservatives_(Canada)\n id:dem value:skyblue legend:Democratic_Party_(United_States)\n id:gop value:pink legend:Republican_Party_(United_States)\n\nBarData =\n bar:ca text:Canada\n bar:us text:United States\n\nPlotData=\n align:center mark:(line,black)\n bar:ca\n from: 04/11/2015 till: $end color:lib text:\"J.Trudeau\n from: 06/02/2006 till: 04/11/2015 color:con text:\"Harper\n from: 12/12/2003 till: 06/02/2006 color:lib text:\"Martin\n from: 04/11/1993 till: 12/12/2003 color:lib text:\"Chretien\n from: 25/06/1993 till: 04/11/1993 color:con text:\"C.\n from: 17/09/1984 till: 25/06/1993 color:con text:\"Mulroney\n from: 30/06/1984 till: 17/09/1984 color:lib text:\"T.\n from: 03/03/1980 till: 30/06/1984 color:lib text:\"P.Trudeau\n from: 04/06/1979 till: 03/03/1980 color:con text:\"Clark\n from: 20/04/1968 till: 03/06/1979 color:lib text:\"P.Trudeau\n from: 22/04/1963 till: 20/04/1968 color:lib text:\"Pearson\n from: 21/06/1957 till: 22/04/1963 color:con text:\"Diefenbaker\n from: $start till: 21/06/1957 color:lib text:\"Laurent\n\n bar:us\n from: 20/01/2017 till: $end color:gop text:\"Trump\"\n from: 20/01/2009 till: 20/01/2017 color:dem text:\"Obama\"\n from: 20/01/2001 till: 20/01/2009 color:gop text:\"G.W.Bush\"\n from: 20/01/1993 till: 20/01/2001 color:dem text:\"Clinton\"\n from: 20/01/1989 till: 20/01/1993 color:gop text:\"G.H.W.Bush\"\n from: 20/01/1981 till: 20/01/1989 color:gop text:\"Reagan\"\n from: 20/01/1977 till: 20/01/1981 color:dem text:\"Carter\"\n from: 09/08/1974 till: 20/01/1977 color:gop text:\"Ford\"\n from: 20/01/1969 till: 09/08/1974 color:gop text:\"Nixon\"\n from: 22/11/1963 till: 20/01/1969 color:dem text:\"Johnson\"\n from: 20/01/1961 till: 22/11/1963 color:dem text:\"Kennedy\"\n from: 20/01/1953 till: 20/01/1961 color:gop text:\"Eisenhower\"\n from: $Start till: 20/01/1953 color:dem text:\"Truman\"","\n===Colonial wars===\nBefore the British conquest of French Canada in 1760, there had been a series of wars between the British and the French which were fought out in the colonies as well as in Europe and the high seas.","In general, the British heavily relied on American colonial militia units, while the French heavily relied on their First Nation allies.","The Iroquois Nation were important allies of the British.","Much of the fighting involved ambushes and small-scale warfare in the villages along the border between New England and Quebec.","The New England colonies had a much larger population than Quebec, so major invasions came from south to north.","The First Nation allies, only loosely controlled by the French, repeatedly raided New England villages to kidnap women and children, and torture and kill the men.","Those who survived were brought up as Francophone Catholics.","The tension along the border was exacerbated by religion, the French Catholics and English Protestants had a deep mutual distrust.","There was a naval dimension as well, involving privateers attacking enemy merchant ships.","England seized Quebec from 1629 to 1632, and Acadia in 1613 and again from 1654 to 1670; These territories were returned to France by the peace treaties.","The major wars were (to use American names), King William's War (1689–1697); Queen Anne's War (1702–1713); King George's War (1744–1748), and the French and Indian War (1755–1763).","In Canada, as in Europe, this era is known as the Seven Years' War.","New England soldiers and sailors were critical to the successful British campaign to capture the French fortress of Louisbourg in 1745, and (after it had been returned by treaty) to capture it again in 1758.","===Mingling of peoples===\nFrom the 1750s to the 21st century, there has been extensive mingling of the Canadian and American populations, with large movements in both directions.","New England Yankees settled large parts of Nova Scotia before 1775, and were neutral during the American Revolution.","At the end of the Revolution, about 75,000 Loyalists moved out of the new United States to Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the lands of Quebec, east and south of Montreal.","From 1790 to 1812 many farmers moved from New York and New England into Ontario (mostly to Niagara, and the north shore of Lake Ontario).","In the mid and late 19th century gold rushes attracted American prospectors, mostly to British Columbia after the Cariboo Gold Rush, Fraser Canyon Gold Rush, and later to the Yukon.","In the early 20th century, the opening of land blocks in the Prairie Provinces attracted many farmers from the American Midwest.","Many Mennonites immigrated from Pennsylvania and formed their own colonies.","In the 1890s some Mormons went north to form communities in Alberta after The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints rejected plural marriage.","The 1960s saw the arrival of about 50,000 draft-dodgers who opposed the Vietnam War.","In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, about 900,000 French Canadians moved to the U.S., with 395,000 residents there in 1900.","Two-thirds went to mill towns in New England, where they formed distinctive ethnic communities.","By the late 20th century, they had abandoned the French language, but most kept the Catholic religion.","About twice as many English Canadians came to the U.S., but they did not form distinctive ethnic settlements.","Canada was a way-station through which immigrants from other lands stopped for a while, ultimately heading to the U.S.","In 1851–1951, 7.1 million people arrived in Canada (mostly from Continental Europe), and 6.6 million left Canada, most of them to the U.S.\n\n===American Revolutionary War===\nAt the outset of the American Revolutionary War, the American revolutionaries hoped the French Canadians in Quebec and the Colonists in Nova Scotia would join their rebellion and they were pre-approved for joining the United States in the Articles of Confederation.","When Canada was invaded, thousands joined the American cause and formed regiments that fought during the war; however most remained neutral and some joined the British effort.","Britain advised the French Canadians that the British Empire already enshrined their rights in the Quebec Act, which the American colonies had viewed as one of the Intolerable Acts.","The American invasion was a fiasco and Britain tightened its grip on its northern possessions; in 1777, a major British invasion into New York led to the surrender of the entire British army at Saratoga, and led France to enter the war as an ally of the U.S.","The French Canadians largely ignored France's appeals for solidarity.","After the war Canada became a refuge for about 75,000 Loyalists who either wanted to leave the U.S., or were compelled by Patriot reprisals to do so.","Among the original Loyalists there were 3,500 free blacks.","Most went to Nova Scotia and in 1792, 1200 migrated to Sierra Leone.","About 2000 black slaves were brought in by Loyalist owners; they remained slaves in Canada until the Empire abolished slavery in 1833.","Before 1860, about 30,000–40,000 blacks entered Canada; many were already free and others were escaped slaves who came through the Underground Railroad.","===War of 1812===\n\nThe Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war, called for British forces to vacate all their forts south of the Great Lakes border.","Britain refused to do so, citing failure of the United States to provide financial restitution for Loyalists who had lost property in the war.","The Jay Treaty in 1795 with Great Britain resolved that lingering issue and the British departed the forts.","Thomas Jefferson saw the nearby British imperial presence as a threat to the United States, and so he opposed the Jay Treaty, and it became one of the major political issues in the United States at the time.","Thousands of Americans immigrated to Upper Canada (Ontario) from 1785 to 1812 to obtain cheaper land and better tax rates prevalent in that province; despite expectations that they would be loyal to the U.S. if a war broke out, in the event they were largely non-political.","Tensions mounted again after 1805, erupting into the War of 1812, when the Americans declared war on Britain.","The Americans were angered by British harassment of U.S. ships on the high seas and seizure (\"Impressment\") of 6,000 sailors from American ships, severe restrictions against neutral American trade with France, and British support for hostile Indian tribes in Ohio and territories the U.S. had gained in 1783.","American \"honor\" was an implicit issue.","The Americans were outgunned by more than 10 to 1 by the Royal Navy, but could call on an army much larger than the British garrison in Canada, and so a land invasion of Canada was proposed as the only feasible, and most advantegous means of attacking the British Empire.","Americans on the western frontier also hoped an invasion would bring an end to British support of Native American resistance to the westward expansion of the United States, typified by Tecumseh's coalition of tribes.","Americans may also have wanted to annex Canada.","Once war broke out, the American strategy was to seize Canada—perhaps as a means of forcing concessions from the British Empire, or perhaps in order to annex it.","There was some hope that settlers in western Canada—most of them recent immigrants from the U.S.—would welcome the chance to overthrow their British rulers.","However, the American invasions were defeated primarily by British regulars with support from Native Americans and Upper Canada (Ontario) militia.","Aided by the powerful Royal Navy, a series of British raids on the American coast were highly successful, culminating with an attack on Washington that resulted in the British burning of the White House, Capitol, and other public buildings.","Major British invasions of New York in 1814 and Louisiana in 1814–15 were fiascoes, with the British retreating from New York and decisively defeated at the Battle of New Orleans.","At the end of the war, Britain's American Indian allies had largely been defeated, and the Americans controlled a strip of Western Ontario centered on Fort Malden.","However, Britain held much of Maine, and, with the support of their remaining American Indian allies, huge areas of the Old Northwest, including Wisconsin and much of Michigan and Illinois.","With the surrender of Napoleon in 1814, Britain ended naval policies that angered Americans; with the defeat of the Indian tribes the threat to American expansion was ended.","The upshot was both sides had asserted their honour, Canada was not annexed, and London and Washington had nothing more to fight over.","The war was ended by the Treaty of Ghent, which took effect in February 1815.","A series of postwar agreements further stabilized peaceful relations along the Canadian-US border.","Canada reduced American immigration for fear of undue American influence, and built up the Anglican church as a counterweight to the largely American Methodist and Baptist churches.","In later years, Anglophone Canadians, especially in Ontario, viewed the War of 1812 as a heroic and successful resistance against invasion and as a victory that defined them as a people.","The myth that the Canadian militia had defeated the invasion almost single-handed, known logically as the \"militia myth\", became highly prevalent after the war, having been propounded by John Strachan, Anglican Bishop of York.","Meanwhile, the United States celebrated victory in its \"Second War of Independence,\" and war heroes such as Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison headed to the White House.","===Conservative reaction===\nIn the aftermath of the War of 1812, pro-imperial conservatives led by Anglican Bishop John Strachan took control in Ontario (\"Upper Canada\"), and promoted the Anglican religion as opposed to the more republican Methodist and Baptist churches.","A small interlocking elite, known as the Family Compact took full political control.","Democracy, as practiced in the US, was ridiculed.","The policies had the desired effect of deterring immigration from United States.","Revolts in favor of democracy in Ontario and Quebec (\"Lower Canada\") in 1837 were suppressed; many of the leaders fled to the US.","The American policy was to largely ignore the rebellions, and indeed ignore Canada generally in favor of westward expansion of the American Frontier.","===Alabama claims===\nAn editorial cartoon on Canada–United States relations, 1886.","It reads: Mrs. Britannia.—\"Is it possible, my dear, that you have ever given your cousin Jonathan any encouragement?\"","Miss Canada.—\"Encouragement!","Certainly not, Mamma.","I have told him that we can never be united.\"","At the end of the American Civil War in 1865, Americans were angry at British support for the Confederacy.","One result was toleration of Fenian efforts to use the U.S. as a base to attack Canada.","More serious was the demand for a huge payment to cover the damages caused, on the notion that British involvement had lengthened the war.","Senator Charles Sumner, the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, originally wanted to ask for $2 billion, or alternatively the ceding of all of Canada to the United States.","When American Secretary of State William H. Seward negotiated the Alaska Purchase with Russia in 1867, he intended it as the first step in a comprehensive plan to gain control of the entire northwest Pacific Coast.","Seward was a firm believer in Manifest Destiny, primarily for its commercial advantages to the U.S. Seward expected British Columbia to seek annexation to the U.S. and thought Britain might accept this in exchange for the ''Alabama'' claims.","Soon other elements endorsed annexation, Their plan was to annex British Columbia, Red River Colony (Manitoba), and Nova Scotia, in exchange for the dropping the damage claims.","The idea reached a peak in the spring and summer of 1870, with American expansionists, Canadian separatists, and British anti-imperialists seemingly combining forces.","The plan was dropped for multiple reasons.","London continued to stall, American commercial and financial groups pressed Washington for a quick settlement of the dispute on a cash basis, growing Canadian nationalist sentiment in British Columbia called for staying inside the British Empire, Congress became preoccupied with Reconstruction, and most Americans showed little interest in territorial expansion.","The \"Alabama Claims\" dispute went to international arbitration.","In one of the first major cases of arbitration, the tribunal in 1872 supported the American claims and ordered Britain to pay $15.5 million.","Britain paid and the episode ended in peaceful relations.","===Dominion of Canada===\nCanada became a self-governing dominion in 1867 in internal affairs while Britain controlled diplomacy and defense policy.","Prior to Confederation, there was an Oregon boundary dispute in which the Americans claimed the 54th degree latitude.","That issue was resolved by splitting the disputed territory; the northern half became British Columbia, and the southern half the states of Washington and Oregon.","Strained relations with America continued, however, due to a series of small-scale armed incursions named the Fenian raids by Irish-American Civil War veterans across the border from 1866 to 1871 in an attempt to trade Canada for Irish independence.","The American government, angry at Canadian tolerance of Confederate raiders during the American Civil War, moved very slowly to disarm the Fenians.","The British government, in charge of diplomatic relations, protested cautiously, as Anglo-American relations were tense.","Much of the tension was relieved as the Fenians faded away and in 1872 by the settlement of the Alabama Claims, when Britain paid the U.S. $15.5 million for war losses caused by warships built in Britain and sold to the Confederacy.","===Emigration to and from the United States===\n\nAfter 1850, the pace of industrialization and urbanization was much faster in the United States, drawing a wide range of immigrants from the North.","By 1870, 1/6 of all the people born in Canada had moved to the United States, with the highest concentrations in New England, which was the destination of Francophone emigrants from Quebec and Anglophone emigrants from the Maritimes.","It was common for people to move back and forth across the border, such as seasonal lumberjacks, entrepreneurs looking for larger markets, and families looking for jobs in the textile mills that paid much higher wages than in Canada.","The southward migration slacked off after 1890, as Canadian industry began a growth spurt.","By then, the American frontier was closing, and thousands of farmers looking for fresh land moved from the United States north into the Prairie Provinces.","The net result of the flows were that in 1901 there were 128,000 American-born residents in Canada (3.5% of the Canadian population) and 1.18 million Canadian-born residents in the United States (1.6% of the U.S. population).","===Alaska boundary===\nA short-lived controversy was the Alaska boundary dispute, settled in favor of the United States in 1903.","No one cared until a gold rush brought tens of thousands of men to Canada's Yukon, and they had to arrive through American ports.","Canada needed its port and claimed that it had a legal right to a port near the present American town of Haines, Alaska.","It would provide an all-Canadian route to the rich goldfields.","The dispute was settled by arbitration, and the British delegate voted with the Americans—to the astonishment and disgust of Canadians who suddenly realized that Britain considered its relations with the United States paramount compared to those with Canada.","The arbitrartion validated the status quo, but made Canada angry at Britain.","1907 saw a minor controversy over USS ''Nashville'' sailing into the Great Lakes via Canada without Canadian permission.","To head off future embarrassments, in 1909 the two sides signed the International Boundary Waters Treaty and the International Joint Commission was established to manage the Great Lakes and keep them disarmed.","It was amended in World War II to allow the building and training of warships.","===Reciprocal trade with U.S.===\nA 1911 Conservative campaign poster warns that the big American companies (\"trusts\") will hog all the benefits of reciprocity as proposed by Liberals, leaving little left over for Canadian interests\nAnti-Americanism reached a shrill peak in 1911 in Canada.","The Liberal government in 1911 negotiated a Reciprocity treaty with the U.S. that would lower trade barriers.","Canadian manufacturing interests were alarmed that free trade would allow the bigger and more efficient American factories to take their markets.","The Conservatives made it a central campaign issue in the 1911 election, warning that it would be a \"sell out\" to the United States with economic annexation a special danger.","Conservative slogan was \"No truck or trade with the Yankees\", as they appealed to Canadian nationalism and nostalgia for the British Empire to win a major victory.","===Canadian autonomy===\nCanada demanded and received permission from London to send its own delegation to the Versailles Peace Talks in 1919, with the proviso that it sign the treaty under the British Empire.","Canada subsequently took responsibility for its own foreign and military affairs in the 1920s.","Its first ambassador to the United States, Vincent Massey, was named in 1927.","The United States first ambassador to Canada was William Phillips.","Canada became an active member of the British Commonwealth, the League of Nations, and the World Court, none of which included the U.S.","In July 1923, as part of his Pacific Northwest tour and a week before his death, US President Warren Harding visited Vancouver, making him the first head of state of the United States to visit Canada.","The then Premier of British Columbia, John Oliver, and then mayor of Vancouver, Charles Tisdall, hosted a lunch in his honor at the Hotel Vancouver.","Over 50,000 people heard Harding speak in Stanley Park.","A monument to Harding designed by Charles Marega was unveiled in Stanley Park in 1925.","Relations with the United States were cordial until 1930, when Canada vehemently protested the new Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act by which the U.S. raised tariffs (taxes) on products imported from Canada.","Canada retaliated with higher tariffs of its own against American products, and moved toward more trade within the British Commonwealth.","U.S.–Canadian trade fell 75% as the Great Depression dragged both countries down.","Down to the 1920s the war and naval departments of both nations designed hypothetical war game scenarios with the other as an enemy.","These were primarily exercises; the departments were never told to get ready for a real war.","In 1921, Canada developed Defence Scheme No.","1 for an attack on American cities and for forestalling invasion by the United States until Imperial reinforcements arrived.","Through the later 1920s and 1930s, the United States Army War College developed a plan for a war with the British Empire waged largely on North American territory, in War Plan Red.","Herbert Hoover meeting in 1927 with British Ambassador Sir Esme Howard agreed on the \"absurdity of contemplating the possibility of war between the United States and the British Empire.\"","In 1938, as the roots of World War II were set in motion, U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt gave a public speech at Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, declaring that the United States would not sit idly by if another power tried to dominate Canada.","Diplomats saw it as a clear warning to Germany not to attack Canada.","===World War II===\nMountie and a Vermont State Trooper on their respective sides of the Canada–United States (Quebec–Vermont) border in 1941\nThe two nations cooperated closely in World War II, as both nations saw new levels of prosperity and a determination to defeat the Axis powers.","Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King and President Franklin D. Roosevelt were determined not to repeat the mistakes of their predecessors.","They met in August 1940 at Ogdensburg, issuing a declaration calling for close cooperation, and formed the Permanent Joint Board on Defense (PJBD).","King sought to raise Canada's international visibility by hosting the August 1943 Quadrant conference in Quebec on military and political strategy; he was a gracious host but was kept out of the important meetings by Winston Churchill and Roosevelt.","Canada allowed the construction of the Alaska Highway and participated in the building of the atomic bomb.","49,000 Americans joined the RCAF (Canadian) or RAF (British) air forces through the Clayton Knight Committee, which had Roosevelt's permission to recruit in the U.S. in 1940–42.","American attempts in the mid-1930s to integrate British Columbia into a united West Coast military command had aroused Canadian opposition.","Fearing a Japanese invasion of Canada's vulnerable coast, American officials urged the creation of a united military command for an eastern Pacific Ocean theater of war.","Canadian leaders feared American imperialism and the loss of autonomy more than a Japanese invasion.","In 1941, Canadians successfully argued within the PJBD for mutual cooperation rather than unified command for the West Coast.","====Newfoundland====\nThe United States built large military bases in Newfoundland, at the time, a British dominion.","The American involvement ended the depression and brought new prosperity; Newfoundland's business community sought closer ties with the United States as expressed by the Economic Union Party.","Ottawa took notice and wanted Newfoundland to join Canada, which it did after hotly contested referenda.","There was little demand in the United States for the acquisition of Newfoundland, so the United States did not protest the British decision not to allow an American option on the Newfoundland referendum.","===Cold War===\nFollowing co-operation in the two World Wars, Canada and the United States lost much of their previous animosity.","As Britain's influence as a global imperial power declined, Canada and the United States became extremely close partners.","Canada was a close ally of the United States during the Cold War.","===Nixon Shock 1971===\naddresses a joint session of the Parliament of Canada, 1972\nThe United States had become Canada's largest market, and after the war the Canadian economy became dependent on smooth trade flows with the United States so much that in 1971 when the United States enacted the \"Nixon Shock\" economic policies (including a 10% tariff on all imports) it put the Canadian government into a panic.","This led in a large part to the articulation of Prime Minister Trudeau's \"Third Option\" policy of diversifying Canada's trade and downgrading the importance of Canada – United States relations.","In a 1972 speech in Ottawa, Nixon declared the \"special relationship\" between Canada and the United States dead.","===1990s===\nThe main issues in Canada–U.S.","relations in the 1990s focused on the NAFTA agreement, which was signed in 1994.","It created a common market that by 2014 was worth $19 trillion, encompassed 470 million people, and had created millions of jobs.","Wilson says, \"Few dispute that NAFTA has produced\nlarge and measurable gains for Canadian consumers, workers, and businesses.\"","However, he adds, \"NAFTA has fallen well short of expectations.\"","\nSince the arrival of the Loyalists as refugees from the American Revolution in the 1780s, historians have identified a constant theme of Canadian fear of the United States and of \"Americanization\" or a cultural takeover.","In the War of 1812, for example, the enthusiastic response by French militia to defend Lower Canada reflected, according to Heidler and Heidler (2004), \"the fear of Americanization.\"","Scholars have traced this attitude over time in Ontario and Quebec.","Canadian intellectuals who wrote about the U.S. in the first half of the 20th century identified America as the world center of modernity, and deplored it.","Imperialists (who admired the British Empire) explained that Canadians had narrowly escaped American conquest with its rejection of tradition, its worship of \"progress\" and technology, and its mass culture; they explained that Canada was much better because of its commitment to orderly government and societal harmony.","There were a few ardent defenders of the nation to the south, notably liberal and socialist intellectuals such as F. R. Scott and Jean-Charles Harvey (1891–1967).","Looking at television, Collins (1990) finds that it is in English Canada that fear of cultural Americanization is most powerful, for there the attractions of the U.S. are strongest.","Meren (2009) argues that after 1945, the emergence of Quebec nationalism and the desire to preserve French-Canadian cultural heritage led to growing anxiety regarding American cultural imperialism and Americanization.","In 2006 surveys showed that 60 percent of Quebecers had a fear of Americanization, while other surveys showed they preferred their current situation to that of the Americans in the realms of health care, quality of life as seniors, environmental quality, poverty, educational system, racism and standard of living.","While agreeing that job opportunities are greater in America, 89 percent disagreed with the notion that they would rather be in the United States, and they were more likely to feel closer to English Canadians than to Americans.","However, there is evidence that the elites and Quebec are much less fearful of Americanization, and much more open to economic integration than the general public.","The history has been traced in detail by a leading Canadian historian J.L.","Granatstein in ''Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism'' (1997).","Current studies report the phenomenon persists.","Two scholars report, \"Anti-Americanism is alive and well in Canada today, strengthened by, among other things, disputes related to NAFTA, American involvement in the Middle East, and the ever-increasing Americanization of Canadian culture.\"","Jamie Glazov writes, \"More than anything else, Diefenbaker became the tragic victim of Canadian anti-Americanism, a sentiment the prime minister had fully embraced by 1962.","He was unable to imagine himself (or his foreign policy) without enemies.\"","Historian J. M. Bumsted says, \"In its most extreme form, Canadian suspicion of the United States has led to outbreaks of overt anti-Americanism, usually spilling over against American residents in Canada.\"","John R. Wennersten writes, \"But at the heart of Canadian anti-Americanism lies a cultural bitterness that takes an American expatriate unaware.","Canadians fear the American media's influence on their culture and talk critically about how Americans are exporting a culture of violence in its television programming and movies.\"","However Kim Nossal points out that the Canadian variety is much milder than anti-Americanism in some other countries.","By contrast Americans show very little knowledge or interest one way or the other regarding Canadian affairs.","Canadian historian Frank Underhill, quoting Canadian playwright Merrill Denison summed it up: \"Americans are benevolently ignorant about Canada, whereas Canadians are malevolently informed about the United States.\"","The executive of each country is represented differently.","The President of the United States serves as both the head of state and head of government, and his \"administration\" is the executive, while the Prime Minister of Canada is head of government only, and his or her \"government\" or \"ministry\" directs the executive.","===W.L.","Mackenzie King and Franklin D. Roosevelt (October 1935 – April 1945)===\n\n\n===W.L.","Mackenzie King and Harry S. Truman (April 1945 – November 1948)===\n\n\n===Louis St. Laurent and Harry S. Truman (November 1948 – January 1953)===\n\n\n===Louis St. Laurent and Dwight D. Eisenhower (January 1953 – June 1957)===\n\n\n===John G. Diefenbaker and Dwight D. Eisenhower (June 1957 – January 1961)===\n\n\n===John G. Diefenbaker and John F. Kennedy (January 1961 – April 1963)===\n\n\n===Lester B. Pearson and John F. Kennedy (April–November 1963)===\n\n\n===Lester B. Pearson and Lyndon B. Johnson (November 1963 – April 1968)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Lyndon B. Johnson (April 1968 – January 1969)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Richard Nixon (January 1969 – August 1974)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Gerald Ford (August 1974 – January 1977)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Jimmy Carter (January 1977 – June 1979)===\n\n\n===Joe Clark and Jimmy Carter (June 1979 – March 1980)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Jimmy Carter (March 1980 – January 1981)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Ronald Reagan (January 1981 – June 1984)===\n\n\n===John Turner and Ronald Reagan (June–September 1984)===\n\n\n===Brian Mulroney and Ronald Reagan (September 1984 – January 1989)===\nRonald Reagan (left) and Brian Mulroney (right) at the Hotel Cipriani in Venice, Italy, June 11, 1987\nRelations between Brian Mulroney and Ronald Reagan were famously close.","This relationship resulted in negotiations for the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement, and the U.S.–Canada Air Quality Agreement to reduce acid-rain-causing emissions, both major policy goals of Mulroney, that would be finalized under the presidency of George H. W. Bush.","===Brian Mulroney and George H. W. Bush (January 1989 – January 1993)===\n\n\n===Brian Mulroney and Bill Clinton (January–June 1993)===\n\n\n===Kim Campbell and Bill Clinton (June–November 1993)===\n\n\n===Jean Chrétien and Bill Clinton (November 1993 – January 2001)===\nAlthough Jean Chrétien was wary of appearing too close to the President, personally, he and Bill Clinton were known to be golfing partners.","Their governments had many small trade quarrels over the Canadian content of American magazines, softwood lumber, and so on, but on the whole were quite friendly.","Both leaders had run on reforming or abolishing NAFTA, but the agreement went ahead with the addition of environmental and labor side agreements.","Crucially, the Clinton administration lent rhetorical support to Canadian unity during the 1995 referendum in Quebec on separation from Canada.","===Jean Chrétien and George W. Bush (January 2001 – December 2003)===\nRelations between Chrétien and George W. Bush were strained throughout their overlapping times in office.","After the September 11 attacks terror attacks, Jean Chrétien publicly mused that U.S. foreign policy might be part of the \"root causes\" of terrorism.","Some Americans criticized his \"smug moralism\", and Chrétien's public refusal to support the 2003 Iraq war was met drew responses in the United States, especially among conservatives.","===Paul Martin and George W. Bush (December 2003 – February 2006)===\n\n\n===Stephen Harper and George W. Bush (February 2006 – January 2009)===\nPrime Minister Stephen Harper (left) and President George W. Bush (right) meet in Washington in July 2006\nStephen Harper and George W. Bush were thought to share warm personal relations and also close ties between their administrations.","Because Bush was so unpopular among liberals in Canada (particularly in the media), this was underplayed by the Harper government.","Shortly after being congratulated by Bush for his victory in February 2006, Harper rebuked U.S. ambassador to Canada David Wilkins for criticizing the Conservatives' plans to assert Canada's sovereignty over the Arctic Ocean waters with military force.","===Stephen Harper and Barack Obama (January 2009 – November 2015)===\nBarack Obama boards Air Force One in Ottawa 2-19-09\nPresident Barack Obama's first international trip was to Canada on February 19, 2009, thereby sending a strong message of peace and cooperation.","With the exception of Canadian lobbying against \"Buy American\" provisions in the U.S. stimulus package, relations between the two administrations were smooth.","They also held friendly bets on hockey games during the Winter Olympic season.","In the 2010 Winter Olympics hosted by Canada in Vancouver, Canada defeated the US in both gold medal matches, entitling Stephen Harper to receive a case of Molson Canadian beer from Barack Obama; in reverse, if Canada had lost, Harper would have provided a case of Yuengling beer to Obama.","During the 2014 Winter Olympics, alongside U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry & Minister of Foreign Affairs John Baird, Stephen Harper was given a case of Samuel Adams beer by Obama for the Canadian gold medal victory over the US in women's hockey, and the semi-final victory over the US in men's hockey.","====Canada-United States Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) (2011)====\nOn February 4, 2011, Harper and Obama issued a \"Declaration on a Shared Vision for Perimeter Security and Economic Competitiveness\" and announced the creation of the Canada–United States Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) \"to increase regulatory transparency and coordination between the two countries.\"","Health Canada and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under the RCC mandate, undertook the \"first of its kind\" initiative by selecting \"as its first area of alignment common cold indications for certain over-the-counter antihistamine ingredients (GC 2013-01-10).\"","On December 7, 2011, Harper flew to Washington, met with Obama and signed an agreement to implement the joint action plans that had been developed since the initial meeting in February.","The plans called on both countries to spend more on border infrastructure, share more information on people who cross the border, and acknowledge more of each other's safety and security inspection on third-country traffic.","An editorial in ''The Globe and Mail'' praised the agreement for giving Canada the ability to track whether failed refugee claimants have left Canada via the U.S. and for eliminating \"duplicated baggage screenings on connecting flights\".","The agreement is not a legally binding treaty, and relies on the political will and ability of the executives of both governments to implement the terms of the agreement.","These types of executive agreements are routine—on both sides of the Canada–U.S.","border.","===Justin Trudeau and Barack Obama (November 2015 – January 2017)===\nPrime Minister Justin Trudeau (left) and President Barack Obama (right) meet in Washington in March 2016\nPresident Barack Obama and Prime Minister Justin Trudeau first met formally at the APEC summit meeting in Manila, Philippines in November 2015, nearly a week after the latter was sworn into the office.","Both leaders expressed eagerness for increased cooperation and coordination between the two countries during the course of Trudeau's government with Trudeau promising an \"enhanced Canada–U.S.","partnership\".","On November 6, 2015, Obama announced the U.S. State Department's rejection of the proposed Keystone XL pipeline, the fourth phase of the Keystone oil pipeline system running between Canada and the United States, to which Trudeau expressed disappointment but said that the rejection would not damage Canada–U.S.","relations and would instead provide a \"fresh start\" to strengthening ties through cooperation and coordination, saying that \"the Canada–U.S.","relationship is much bigger than any one project.\"","Obama has since praised Trudeau's efforts to prioritize the reduction of climate change, calling it \"extraordinarily helpful\" to establish a worldwide consensus on addressing the issue.","Although Trudeau has told Obama his plans to withdraw Canada's McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet jets assisting in the American-led intervention against ISIL, Trudeau said that Canada will still \"do more than its part\" in combating the terrorist group by increasing the number of Canadian special forces members training and fighting on ground in Iraq and Syria.","Trudeau visited the White House for an official visit and state dinner on March 10, 2016.","Trudeau and Obama were reported to have shared warm personal relations during the visit, making humorous remarks about which country was better at hockey and which country had better beer.","Obama complimented Trudeau's 2015 election campaign for its \"message of hope and change\" and \"positive and optimistic vision\".","Obama and Trudeau also held \"productive\" discussions on climate change and relations between the two countries, and Trudeau invited Obama to speak in the Canadian parliament in Ottawa later in the year.","===Justin Trudeau and Donald Trump (January 2017–present)===\nFollowing the victory of Donald Trump in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, Trudeau congratulated him and invited him to visit Canada at the \"earliest opportunity.\"","Prime Minister Trudeau and President Trump formally met for the first time at the White House on February 13, 2017, nearly a month after Trump was sworn into the office.","Trump has ruffled relations with Canada with tariffs on softwood lumber.","Diafiltered Milk has also been brought up by Trump as an area that needs to be negotiated.","Trump is expected to renegotiate NAFTA with Canada.","North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), long headquartered in the Cheyenne Mountain Complex in Colorado, exemplifies military co-operation between Canada and the U.S.\nCanadian embassy in Washington saying \"Friends, Neighbours, Partners, Allies\"\nThe Canadian military, like forces of other NATO countries, fought alongside the United States in most major conflicts since World War II, including the Korean War, the Gulf War, the Kosovo War, and most recently the war in Afghanistan.","The main exceptions to this were the Canadian government's opposition to the Vietnam War and the Iraq War, which caused some brief diplomatic tensions.","Despite these issues, military relations have remained close.","American defense arrangements with Canada are more extensive than with any other country.","The Permanent Joint Board of Defense, established in 1940, provides policy-level consultation on bilateral defense matters.","The United States and Canada share North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) mutual security commitments.","In addition, American and Canadian military forces have cooperated since 1958 on continental air defense within the framework of the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD).","Canadian forces have provided indirect support for the American invasion of Iraq that began in 2003.","Moreover, interoperability with the American armed forces has been a guiding principle of Canadian military force structuring and doctrine since the end of the Cold War.","Canadian navy frigates, for instance, integrate seamlessly into American carrier battle groups.","In commemoration of the 200th Anniversary of the War of 1812 ambassadors from Canada and the US, and naval officers from both countries gathered at the Pritzker Military Library on August 17, 2012, for a panel discussion on Canada-US relations with emphasis on national security-related matters.","Also as part of the commemoration, the navies of both countries sailed together throughout the Great Lakes region.","===War in Afghanistan===\n\nCanada's elite JTF2 unit joined American special forces in Afghanistan shortly after the al-Qaida attacks on September 11, 2001.","Canadian forces joined the multinational coalition in Operation Anaconda in January 2002.","On April 18, 2002, an American pilot bombed Canadian forces involved in a training exercise, killing four and wounding eight Canadians.","A joint American-Canadian inquiry determined the cause of the incident to be pilot error, in which the pilot interpreted ground fire as an attack; the pilot ignored orders that he felt were \"second-guessing\" his field tactical decision.","Canadian forces assumed a six-month command rotation of the International Security Assistance Force in 2003; in 2005, Canadians assumed operational command of the multi-national Brigade in Kandahar, with 2,300 troops, and supervises the Provincial Reconstruction Team in Kandahar, where al-Qaida forces are most active.","Canada has also deployed naval forces in the Persian Gulf since 1991 in support of the UN Gulf Multinational Interdiction Force.","The Canadian Embassy in Washington, DC maintains a public relations website named CanadianAlly.com, which is intended \"to give American citizens a better sense of the scope of Canada's role in North American and Global Security and the War on Terror\".","The New Democratic Party and some recent Liberal leadership candidates have expressed opposition to Canada's expanded role in the Afghan conflict on the ground that it is inconsistent with Canada's historic role (since the Second World War) of peacekeeping operations.","===2003 Invasion of Iraq===\n\n\nAccording to contemporary polls, 71% of Canadians were opposed to the 2003 invasion of Iraq.","Many Canadians, and the former Liberal Cabinet headed by Paul Martin (as well as many Americans such as Bill Clinton and Barack Obama), made a policy distinction between conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq, unlike the Bush Doctrine, which linked these together in a \"Global war on terror\".","=== Responding to ISIS/Daesh ===\nCanada has been involved in international responses to the threats from Daesh/ISIS/ISIL in Syria and Iraq, and is a member of the Global Coalition to Counter Daesh.","In October 2016, Foreign Affairs Minister Dion and National Defence Minister Sajjan meet U.S. special envoy for this coalition.","The Americans thanked Canada \"for the role of Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) in providing training and assistance to Iraqi security forces, as well as the CAF's role in improving essential capacity-building capabilities with regional forces.\"","\nCanada and the United States have the world's largest trading relationship, with huge quantities of goods and people flowing across the border each year.","Since the 1987 Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement, there have been no tariffs on most goods passed between the two countries.","In the course of the softwood lumber dispute, the U.S. has placed tariffs on Canadian softwood lumber because of what it argues is an unfair Canadian government subsidy, a claim which Canada disputes.","The dispute has cycled through several agreements and arbitration cases.","Other notable disputes include the Canadian Wheat Board, and Canadian cultural \"restrictions\" on magazines and television (See CRTC, CBC, and National Film Board of Canada).","Canadians have been criticized about such things as the ban on beef since a case of Mad Cow disease was discovered in 2003 in cows from the United States (and a few subsequent cases) and the high American agricultural subsidies.","Concerns in Canada also run high over aspects of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) such as Chapter 11.","A Canadian BC Parks Ranger and a U.S. National Park Service Ranger work to remove a bear from a campground along the international boundary in British Columbia and Washington state\n\nA principal instrument of this cooperation is the International Joint Commission (IJC), established as part of the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909 to resolve differences and promote international cooperation on boundary waters.","The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1972 is another historic example of joint cooperation in controlling trans-border water pollution.","However, there have been some disputes.","Most recently, the Devil's Lake Outlet, a project instituted by North Dakota, has angered Manitobans who fear that their water may soon become polluted as a result of this project.","Beginning in 1986 the Canadian government of Brian Mulroney began pressing the Reagan administration for an \"Acid Rain Treaty\" in order to do something about U.S. industrial air pollution causing acid rain in Canada.","The Reagan administration was hesitant, and questioned the science behind Mulroney's claims.","However, Mulroney was able to prevail.","The product was the signing and ratification of the Air Quality Agreement of 1991 by the first Bush administration.","Under that treaty, the two governments consult semi-annually on trans-border air pollution, which has demonstrably reduced acid rain, and they have since signed an annex to the treaty dealing with ground level ozone in 2000.","Despite this, trans-border air pollution remains an issue, particularly in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence watershed during the summer.","The main source of this trans-border pollution results from coal-fired power stations, most of them located in the Midwestern United States.","As part of the negotiations to create NAFTA, Canada and the U.S. signed, along with Mexico, the North American Agreement On Environmental Cooperation which created the Commission for Environmental Cooperation which monitors environmental issues across the continent, publishing the North American Environmental Atlas as one aspect of its monitoring duties.","Currently neither of the countries' governments support the Kyoto Protocol, which set out time scheduled curbing of greenhouse gas emissions.","Unlike the United States, Canada has ratified the agreement.","Yet after ratification, due to internal political conflict within Canada, the Canadian government does not enforce the Kyoto Protocol, and has received criticism from environmental groups and from other governments for its climate change positions.","In January 2011, the Canadian minister of the environment, Peter Kent, explicitly stated that the policy of his government with regards to greenhouse gas emissions reductions is to wait for the United States to act first, and then try to harmonize with that action – a position that has been condemned by environmentalists and Canadian nationalists, and as well as scientists and government think-tanks.","===Newfoundland fisheries dispute===\nThe United States and Britain, had a long-standing dispute about the rights of Americans fishing in the waters near Newfoundland.","Before 1776, there was no question that American fishermen, mostly from Massachusetts, had rights to use the waters off Newfoundland.","In the peace treaty negotiations of 1783, the Americans insisted on a statement of these rights.","However, France, an American ally, disputed the American position because France had its own specified rights in the area and wanted them to be exclusive.","The Treaty of Paris (1783) gave the Americans not rights, but rather \"liberties\" to fish within the territorial waters of British North America and to dry fish on certain coasts.","After the War of 1812, the Convention of 1818 between the United States and Britain specified exactly what liberties were involved.","Canadian and Newfoundland fishermen contested these liberties in the 1830s and 1840s.","The Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty of 1854, and the Treaty of Washington of 1871 spelled-out the liberties in more detail.","However the Treaty of Washington expired in 1885, and there was a continuous round of disputes over jurisdictions and liberties.","Britain and the United States sent the issue to the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague in 1909.","It produced a compromise settlement that permanently ended the problems.","\nIn 2003 the American government became concerned when members of the Canadian government announced plans to decriminalize marijuana.","David Murray, an assistant to U.S. Drug Czar John P. Walters, said in a CBC interview that, \"We would have to respond.","We would be forced to respond.\"","However the election of the Conservative Party in early 2006 halted the liberalization of marijuana laws for the foreseeable future.","A 2007 joint report by American and Canadian officials on cross-border drug smuggling indicated that, despite their best efforts, \"drug trafficking still occurs in significant quantities in both directions across the border.","The principal illicit substances smuggled across our shared border are MDMA (''Ecstasy''), cocaine, and marijuana.\"","The report indicated that Canada was a major producer of ''Ecstasy'' and marijuana for the U.S. market, while the U.S. was a transit country for cocaine entering Canada.","RCMP honor guards wait for Air Force One in Ottawa.","===Views of presidents and prime ministers===\nPresidents and prime ministers typically make formal or informal statements that indicate the diplomatic policy of their administration.","Diplomats and journalists at the time—and historians since—dissect the nuances and tone to detect the warmth or coolness of the relationship.","* Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, speaking at the beginning of the 1891 election (fought mostly over Canadian free trade with the United States), arguing against closer trade relations with the U.S. stated \"As for myself, my course is clear.","A British subject I was born—a British subject I will die.","With my utmost effort, with my latest breath, will I oppose the ‘veiled treason’ which attempts by sordid means and mercenary proffers to lure our people from their allegiance.\"","(February 3, 1891.)","Canada's first Prime Minister also said:\n\n* Prime Minister John Sparrow Thompson, angry at failed trade talks in 1888, privately complained to his wife, Lady Thompson, that \"These Yankee politicians are the lowest race of thieves in existence.\"","* After the World War II years of close military and economic cooperation, President Harry S. Truman said in 1947 that \"Canada and the United States have reached the point where we can no longer think of each other as 'foreign' countries.\"","* President John F. Kennedy told Parliament in Ottawa in May 1961 that \"Geography has made us neighbors.","History has made us friends.","Economics has made us partners.","And necessity has made us allies.","Those whom nature hath so joined together, let no man put asunder.\"","* President Lyndon Johnson helped open Expo '67 with an upbeat theme, saying that \"We of the United States consider ourselves blessed.","We have much to give thanks for.","But the gift of providence we cherish most is that we were given as our neighbours on this wonderful continent the people and the nation of Canada.\"","Remarks at Expo '67, Montreal, May 25, 1967.","* Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau famously said that being America's neighbour \"is like sleeping with an elephant.","No matter how friendly and even-tempered the beast, if one can call it that, one is affected by every twitch and grunt.\"","* Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau, sharply at odds with the U.S. over Cold War policy, warned at a press conference in 1971 that the overwhelming American presence posed \"a danger to our national identity from a cultural, economic and perhaps even military point of view.\"","* President Richard Nixon, in a speech to Parliament in 1972 was angry at Trudeau, declared that the \"special relationship\" between Canada and the United States was dead.","\"It is time for us to recognize,\" he stated, \"that we have very separate identities; that we have significant differences; and that nobody's interests are furthered when these realities are obscured.\"","* In late 2001, President George W. Bush did not mention Canada during a speech in which he thanked a list of countries who had assisted in responding to the events of September 11, although Canada had provided military, financial, and other support.","Ten years later, David Frum, one of President Bush's speechwriters, stated that it was an unintentional omission.","* Prime Minister Stephen Harper, in a statement congratulating Barack Obama on his inauguration, stated that \"The United States remains Canada's most important ally, closest friend and largest trading partner and I look forward to working with President Obama and his administration as we build on this special relationship.\"","* President Barack Obama, speaking in Ottawa at his first official international visit in February 19, 2009, said, \"I love this country.","We could not have a better friend and ally.\"","===Canadian public opinion on U.S. presidents===\nUnited States President George W. Bush was \"deeply disliked\" by a majority of Canadians according to the ''Arizona Daily Sun''.","A 2004 poll found that more than two thirds of Canadians favoured Democrat John Kerry over Bush in the 2004 presidential election, with Bush's lowest approval ratings in Canada being in the province of Quebec where just 11% of the population supported him.","Canadian public opinion of Barack Obama was significantly more positive.","A 2012 poll found that 65% of Canadians would vote for Obama in the 2012 presidential election \"if they could\" while only 9% of Canadians would vote for his Republican opponent Mitt Romney.","The same study found that 61% of Canadians felt that the Obama administration had been \"good\" for America, while only 12% felt it had been \"bad\".","Similarly, a Pew Research poll conducted in June 2016 found that 83% of Canadians were \"confident in Obama to do the right thing regarding world affairs\".","The study also found that a majority of members of all three major Canadian political parties supported Obama, and also found that Obama had slightly higher approval ratings in Canada in 2012 than he did in 2008.","John Ibbitson of ''The Globe and Mail'' stated in 2012 that Canadians generally supported Democratic presidents over Republican presidents, citing how President Richard Nixon was \"never liked\" in Canada and that Canadians generally did not approve of Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's friendship with President Ronald Reagan.","A January 2017 poll found that 66% of Canadians \"disapproved\" of Donald Trump, with 23% approving of him and 11% being \"unsure\".","The poll also found that only 18% of Canadians believed Trump's presidency would have a positive impact on Canada, while 63% believed it would have a negative effect.","===Territorial disputes===\n\n\nThese include maritime boundary disputes:\n* Dixon Entrance\n* Beaufort Sea\n* Strait of Juan de Fuca\n* San Juan Islands\n* Machias Seal Island and North Rock\n\nTerritorial land disputes:\n* Aroostook War (Maine boundary)\n* Alaska Boundary Dispute\n* Pig War\n\nand disputes over the international status of the:\n* Northwest Passage\n* Inside Passage\n\n====Arctic disputes====\n\nA long-simmering dispute between Canada and the U.S. involves the issue of Canadian sovereignty over the Northwest Passage (the sea passages in the Arctic).","Canada's assertion that the Northwest Passage represents internal (territorial) waters has been challenged by other countries, especially the U.S., which argue that these waters constitute an international strait (international waters).","Canadians were alarmed when Americans drove the reinforced oil tanker through the Northwest Passage in 1969, followed by the icebreaker Polar Sea in 1985, which actually resulted in a minor diplomatic incident.","In 1970, the Canadian parliament enacted the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, which asserts Canadian regulatory control over pollution within a 100-mile zone.","In response, the United States in 1970 stated, \"We cannot accept the assertion of a Canadian claim that the Arctic waters are internal waters of Canada.","...","Such acceptance would jeopardize the freedom of navigation essential for United States naval activities worldwide.\"","A compromise of sorts was reached in 1988, by an agreement on \"Arctic Cooperation,\" which pledges that voyages of American icebreakers \"will be undertaken with the consent of the Government of Canada.\"","However the agreement did not alter either country's basic legal position.","Paul Cellucci, the American ambassador to Canada, in 2005 suggested to Washington that it should recognize the straits as belonging to Canada.","His advice was rejected and Harper took opposite positions.","The U.S. opposes Harper's proposed plan to deploy military icebreakers in the Arctic to detect interlopers and assert Canadian sovereignty over those waters.","\n===Canadian missions in the United States===\n\nCanada's chief diplomatic mission to the United States is the Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C..","It is further supported by many consulates located through United States.","The Canadian Government maintains consulates-general in several major U.S. cities including: Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Detroit, Los Angeles, Miami, Minneapolis, New York City, San Francisco and Seattle.","Canadian consular services are also available in Honolulu at the consulate of Australia through the Canada–Australia Consular Services Sharing Agreement.","There are also Canadian trade offices located in Houston, Palo Alto and San Diego.","===U.S.","missions in Canada===\nThe United States's chief diplomatic mission to Canada is the United States Embassy in Ottawa.","It is further supported by many consulates located throughout Canada.","The U.S government maintains consulates-general in several major Canadian cities including:\nCalgary, Halifax, Montreal, Quebec City, Toronto, Vancouver and Winnipeg.","The United States also maintains Virtual Presence Posts (VPP) in the: Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Southwestern Ontario and Yukon.","\n* Borders of Canada\n* Comparison of Canadian and American economies\n* Continental One Highway\n* Etiquette in North America\n* Foreign relations of Canada\n* Foreign relations of the United States\n* Garrison mentality\n* Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America\n* United States Border Patrol interior checkpoints","\n* \n* Azzi, Stephen.","''Reconcilable Differences: A History of Canada-US Relations'' (Oxford University Press, 2014)\n* Behiels, Michael D. and Reginald C. Stuart, eds.","''Transnationalism: Canada-United States History into the Twenty-First Century'' (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2010) 312 pp.","online 2012 review\n* Bothwell, Robert.","''Your Country, My Country: A Unified History of the United States and Canada'' (2015), 400 pages; traces relations, shared values, and differences across the centuries\n* Doran, Charles F., and James Patrick Sewell, \"Anti-Americanism in Canada,\" ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,'' Vol.","497, Anti-Americanism: Origins and Context (May 1988), pp.","105–119 in JSTOR\n* Clarkson, Stephen.","''Uncle Sam and Us: Globalization, Neoconservatism and the Canadian State'' (University of Toronto Press, 2002)\n* Engler, Yves\n* Ek, Carl, and Ian F. Fergusson.","''Canada-U.S. Relations'' (Congressional Research Service, 2010) 2010 Report, by an agency of the U.S. Congress\n** \"Report Highlight\" of 2010 report\n* Granatstein, J. L. ''Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism'' (1997)\n* Granatstein, J. L. and Norman Hillmer, ''For Better or for Worse: Canada and the United States to the 1990s'' (1991)\n* Gravelle, Timothy B.","\"Partisanship, Border Proximity, and Canadian Attitudes toward North American Integration.\"","''International Journal of Public Opinion Research'' (2014) 26#4 pp: 453–474.","* Gravelle, Timothy B.","\"Love Thy Neighbo (u) r?","Political Attitudes, Proximity and the Mutual Perceptions of the Canadian and American Publics.\"","''Canadian Journal of Political Science'' (2014) 47#1 pp: 135–157.","* Hale, Geoffrey.","''So Near Yet So Far: The Public and Hidden Worlds of Canada-US Relations'' (University of British Columbia Press, 2012); 352 pages focus on 2001–2011\n* Holland, Kenneth.","\"The Canada–United States defence relationship: a partnership for the twenty-first century.\"","''Canadian Foreign Policy Journal'' ahead-of-print (2015): 1–6.","online\n* Holmes, Ken.","\"The Canadian Cognitive Bias and its Influence on Canada/US Relations.\"","''International Social Science Review'' (2015) 90#1 online.","* Holmes, John W. \"Impact of Domestic Political Factors on Canadian-American Relations: Canada,\" ''International Organization,'' Vol.","28, No.","4, Canada and the United States: Transnational and Transgovernmental Relations (Autumn, 1974), pp.","611–635 in JSTOR\n* Innes, Hugh, ed.","''Americanization: Issues for the Seventies'' (McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1972).","; re 1970s\n* Lennox, Patrick.","''At Home and Abroad: The Canada-U.S.","Relationship and Canada's Place in the World'' (University of British Columbia Press; 2010) 192 pages; the post–World War II period.","* Little, John Michael.","\"Canada Discovered: Continentalist Perceptions of the Roosevelt Administration, 1939–1945,\" PhD dissertation.","''Dissertation Abstracts International,'' 1978, Vol.","38 Issue 9, p5696-5697\n* Lumsden, Ian, ed.","''The Americanization of Canada'', ed.","... for the University League for Social Reform (U of Toronto Press, 1970).","* McKercher, Asa.","''Camelot and Canada: Canadian-American Relations in the Kennedy Era'' (Oxford UP, 2016).","xii, 298 pp.","* Graeme S. Mount and Edelgard Mahant, ''An Introduction to Canadian-American Relations'' (1984, updated 1989)\n* Molloy, Patricia.","''Canada/US and Other Unfriendly Relations: Before and After 9/11'' (Palgrave Macmillan; 2012) 192 pages; essays on various \"myths\"\n* Mount, Graeme S. and Edelgard Mahant, ''Invisible and Inaudible in Washington: American Policies toward Canada during the Cold War'' (1999)\n* Muirhead, Bruce.","\"From Special Relationship to Third Option: Canada, the U.S., and the Nixon Shock,\" ''American Review of Canadian Studies,'' Vol.","34, 2004 online edition\n* Myers, Phillip E. ''Dissolving Tensions: Rapprochement and Resolution in British-American-Canadian Relations in the Treaty of Washington Era, 1865–1914'' (Kent State UP, 2015).","x, 326 pp.","* Pederson, William D. ed.","''A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt'' (2011) online pp 517–41, covers FDR's policies\n* Stuart, Reginald C. ''Dispersed Relations: Americans and Canadians in Upper North America'' (2007) excerpt and text search\n* Tagg, James.. \"'And, We Burned down the White House, Too': American History, Canadian Undergraduates, and Nationalism,\" ''The History Teacher,'' 37#3 (May 2004), pp.","309–334 in JSTOR\n* Tansill, C. C. ''Canadian-American Relations, 1875–1911'' (1943)\n* Thompson, John Herd, and Stephen J. Randall.","''Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies'' (4th ed.","McGill-Queen's UP, 2008), 387pp, the standard scholarly survey\n\n===Primary sources===\n* Gallagher, Connell.","\"The Senator George D. Aiken Papers: Sources for the Study of Canadian-American Relations, 1930–1974.\"","''Archivaria'' 1#21 (1985) pp 176–79 online.","* History of Canada – U.S. relations\n* Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C.\n* U.S. Embassy & Consulates in Canada\n* Canadian Association of New York\n* Canada and the United States, by Stephen Azzi and J.L.","Granatstein\n* Canadian-American Relations, by John English"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\nPrime Minister Justin Trudeau and President Donald Trump meet in Washington, February 2017.\",\n \"'''Relations between Canada and the United States of America''' historically have been extensive, given a shared border and ever-increasing close cultural, economical ties and similarities.\",\n \"The shared historical and cultural heritage has resulted in one of the most stable and mutually beneficial international relationships in the world.\",\n \"For both countries, the level of trade with the other is at the top of the annual combined import-export total.\",\n \"Tourism and migration between the two nations have increased rapport, but border security was heightened after the terrorist attacks in the United States on September 11, 2001.\",\n \"The U.S. is ten times larger in population and has the dominant cultural and economic influence in the world.\",\n \"Starting with the American Revolution, when anti-American Loyalists fled to Canada, a vocal element in Canada has warned against US dominance or annexation.\",\n \"The War of 1812 saw invasions across the border.\",\n \"In 1815, the war ended with the border unchanged and demilitarized, as were the Great Lakes.\",\n \"The British ceased aiding First Nation attacks on American territory, and the United States never again attempted to invade Canada.\",\n \"Apart from minor raids, it has remained peaceful.\",\n \"As Britain decided to disengage, fears of an American takeover played a role in the formation of the Dominion of Canada (1867), and Canada's rejection of free trade (1911).\",\n \"Military collaboration was close during World War II and continued throughout the Cold War, bilaterally through NORAD and multilaterally through NATO.\",\n \"A very high volume of trade and migration continues between the two nations, as well as a heavy overlapping of popular and elite culture, a dynamic which has generated closer ties, especially after the signing of the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement in 1988.\",\n \"Canada and the United States are the world's largest trading partners.\",\n \"The two nations have the world's longest shared border (), and also have significant interoperability within the defense sphere.\",\n \"Recent difficulties have included repeated trade disputes, environmental concerns, Canadian concern for the future of oil exports, and issues of illegal immigration and the threat of terrorism.\",\n \"Trade has continued to expand, especially following the 1988 FTA and North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994 which has further merged the two economies.\",\n \"Co-operation on many fronts, such as the ease of the flow of goods, services, and people across borders are to be even more extended, as well as the establishment of joint border inspection agencies, relocation of U.S. food inspectors agents to Canadian plants and vice versa, greater sharing of intelligence, and harmonizing regulations on everything from food to manufactured goods, thus further increasing the American-Canadian assemblage.\",\n \"The foreign policies of the neighbours have been closely aligned since the Cold War.\",\n \"Canada has disagreed with American policies regarding the Vietnam War, the status of Cuba, the Iraq War, Missile Defense, and the War on Terror.\",\n \"A diplomatic debate has been underway in recent years on whether the Northwest Passage is in international waters or under Canadian sovereignty.\",\n \"Today there are close cultural ties, many similar and identical traits and according to Gallup's annual public opinion polls, Canada has consistently been Americans' favorite nation, with 96% of Americans viewing Canada favorably in 2012.\",\n \"According to a 2013 BBC World Service Poll, 84% of Americans view their northern neighbor's influence positively, with only 5% expressing a negative view, the most favorable perception of Canada in the world.\",\n \"As of spring 2013, 64% of Canadians had a favorable view of the U.S. and 81% expressed confidence in then-US President Obama to do the right thing in international matters.\",\n \"According to the same poll, 30% viewed the U.S. negatively.\",\n \"Also, according to a 2014 BBC World Service Poll, 86% of Americans view Canada's influence positively, with only 5% expressing a negative view.\",\n \"However, according to the same poll, 43% of Canadians view U.S. influence positively, with 52% expressing a negative view.\",\n \"In addition, according to Spring 2017 Global Attitudes Survey, 43% of Canadians view U.S. positively, while 51% hold a negative view.\",\n \"{| class=\\\"wikitable\\\"\\n\\n\\n '''United States of America'''''''''\\n '''Canada'''\\n\\n '''Flag'''\\n \\n \\n\\n '''Populations'''\\n 325,090,579 (March 2017) (3rd)\\n 35,151,728 (2016 census) (38th)\\n\\n '''Area'''\\n 9,833,634 km2 (3,796,787 sq mi)\\n 9,984,670 km2 (3,855,103 sq mi)\\n\\n '''Population density'''\\n 35/km2 (87.4/sq mi)\\n 3.41/km2 (8.3/sq mi)\\n\\n '''Time zones'''\\n 9\\n 6\\n\\n '''Capital'''\\n Washington, D.C.\\n Ottawa\\n\\n '''Largest cities'''\\n New York CityLos AngelesChicagoHouston\\n TorontoMontrealVancouverCalgary\\n\\n '''Government'''\\n Federal presidentialconstitutional republic\\n Federal parliamentary democraticconstitutional monarchy\\n\\n '''First leader'''\\n George Washington\\n Sir John A. Macdonald\\n\\n '''Current leader(s)'''\\n President Donald Trump\\n\\n* Queen Elizabeth II (head of state)Represented by Governor General David Johnston\\n* Prime Minister Justin Trudeau (head of government)\\n\\n '''Ruling political party'''\\n Republican Party\\n Liberal Party\\n\\n '''Official languages'''\\n None at federal level, but English ''de facto''\\n English and French\\n\\n '''Main religions'''\\n 70.6% Christianity, 22.8% non-Religious, 1.9% Judaism, 0.9% Islam, 0.7% Buddhism, 0.7% Hinduism\\n 67.3% Christianity, 23.9% Unaffiliated, 3.2% Islam, 1.5% Hinduism, 1.4% Sikhism, 1.1% Buddhism, 1.0% Judaism\\n\\n '''Human Development Index (2015)'''\\n 0.920 (very high)\\n 0.920 (very high)\\n\\n '''GDP (nominal) (2014)'''\\n $17.416 trillion ($54,390 per capita)\\n $1.793 trillion ($50,577 per capita)\\n\\n '''GDP (PPP) (2014)'''\\n $17.416 trillion ($54,390 per capita)\\n $1.578 trillion ($44,519 per capita)\\n\\n '''Military expenditures(2015)'''\\n $596 billion (3.3% of GDP)\\n $15 billion (1.0% of GDP)\\n\\n\\nLeaders of Canada and the United States from 1950\\n\\n\\nImageSize = width:800 height:auto barincrement:70\\nPlotArea = left:80 right:15 bottom:80 top:5\\n\\nDateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy\\nDefine $start = 01/01/1950\\nDefine $end = 31/12/2017\\nPeriod = from:$start till:$end\\nTimeAxis = orientation:horizontal\\nScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:01/01/1955\\nScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:01/01/1950\\nLegend = orientation:horizontal position:bottom\\nColors =\\n id:lib value:coral legend:Liberals_(Canada)\\n id:con value:blue legend:Conservatives_(Canada)\\n id:dem value:skyblue legend:Democratic_Party_(United_States)\\n id:gop value:pink legend:Republican_Party_(United_States)\\n\\nBarData =\\n bar:ca text:Canada\\n bar:us text:United States\\n\\nPlotData=\\n align:center mark:(line,black)\\n bar:ca\\n from: 04/11/2015 till: $end color:lib text:\\\"J.Trudeau\\n from: 06/02/2006 till: 04/11/2015 color:con text:\\\"Harper\\n from: 12/12/2003 till: 06/02/2006 color:lib text:\\\"Martin\\n from: 04/11/1993 till: 12/12/2003 color:lib text:\\\"Chretien\\n from: 25/06/1993 till: 04/11/1993 color:con text:\\\"C.\\n from: 17/09/1984 till: 25/06/1993 color:con text:\\\"Mulroney\\n from: 30/06/1984 till: 17/09/1984 color:lib text:\\\"T.\\n from: 03/03/1980 till: 30/06/1984 color:lib text:\\\"P.Trudeau\\n from: 04/06/1979 till: 03/03/1980 color:con text:\\\"Clark\\n from: 20/04/1968 till: 03/06/1979 color:lib text:\\\"P.Trudeau\\n from: 22/04/1963 till: 20/04/1968 color:lib text:\\\"Pearson\\n from: 21/06/1957 till: 22/04/1963 color:con text:\\\"Diefenbaker\\n from: $start till: 21/06/1957 color:lib text:\\\"Laurent\\n\\n bar:us\\n from: 20/01/2017 till: $end color:gop text:\\\"Trump\\\"\\n from: 20/01/2009 till: 20/01/2017 color:dem text:\\\"Obama\\\"\\n from: 20/01/2001 till: 20/01/2009 color:gop text:\\\"G.W.Bush\\\"\\n from: 20/01/1993 till: 20/01/2001 color:dem text:\\\"Clinton\\\"\\n from: 20/01/1989 till: 20/01/1993 color:gop text:\\\"G.H.W.Bush\\\"\\n from: 20/01/1981 till: 20/01/1989 color:gop text:\\\"Reagan\\\"\\n from: 20/01/1977 till: 20/01/1981 color:dem text:\\\"Carter\\\"\\n from: 09/08/1974 till: 20/01/1977 color:gop text:\\\"Ford\\\"\\n from: 20/01/1969 till: 09/08/1974 color:gop text:\\\"Nixon\\\"\\n from: 22/11/1963 till: 20/01/1969 color:dem text:\\\"Johnson\\\"\\n from: 20/01/1961 till: 22/11/1963 color:dem text:\\\"Kennedy\\\"\\n from: 20/01/1953 till: 20/01/1961 color:gop text:\\\"Eisenhower\\\"\\n from: $Start till: 20/01/1953 color:dem text:\\\"Truman\\\"\",\n \"\\n===Colonial wars===\\nBefore the British conquest of French Canada in 1760, there had been a series of wars between the British and the French which were fought out in the colonies as well as in Europe and the high seas.\",\n \"In general, the British heavily relied on American colonial militia units, while the French heavily relied on their First Nation allies.\",\n \"The Iroquois Nation were important allies of the British.\",\n \"Much of the fighting involved ambushes and small-scale warfare in the villages along the border between New England and Quebec.\",\n \"The New England colonies had a much larger population than Quebec, so major invasions came from south to north.\",\n \"The First Nation allies, only loosely controlled by the French, repeatedly raided New England villages to kidnap women and children, and torture and kill the men.\",\n \"Those who survived were brought up as Francophone Catholics.\",\n \"The tension along the border was exacerbated by religion, the French Catholics and English Protestants had a deep mutual distrust.\",\n \"There was a naval dimension as well, involving privateers attacking enemy merchant ships.\",\n \"England seized Quebec from 1629 to 1632, and Acadia in 1613 and again from 1654 to 1670; These territories were returned to France by the peace treaties.\",\n \"The major wars were (to use American names), King William's War (1689–1697); Queen Anne's War (1702–1713); King George's War (1744–1748), and the French and Indian War (1755–1763).\",\n \"In Canada, as in Europe, this era is known as the Seven Years' War.\",\n \"New England soldiers and sailors were critical to the successful British campaign to capture the French fortress of Louisbourg in 1745, and (after it had been returned by treaty) to capture it again in 1758.\",\n \"===Mingling of peoples===\\nFrom the 1750s to the 21st century, there has been extensive mingling of the Canadian and American populations, with large movements in both directions.\",\n \"New England Yankees settled large parts of Nova Scotia before 1775, and were neutral during the American Revolution.\",\n \"At the end of the Revolution, about 75,000 Loyalists moved out of the new United States to Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the lands of Quebec, east and south of Montreal.\",\n \"From 1790 to 1812 many farmers moved from New York and New England into Ontario (mostly to Niagara, and the north shore of Lake Ontario).\",\n \"In the mid and late 19th century gold rushes attracted American prospectors, mostly to British Columbia after the Cariboo Gold Rush, Fraser Canyon Gold Rush, and later to the Yukon.\",\n \"In the early 20th century, the opening of land blocks in the Prairie Provinces attracted many farmers from the American Midwest.\",\n \"Many Mennonites immigrated from Pennsylvania and formed their own colonies.\",\n \"In the 1890s some Mormons went north to form communities in Alberta after The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints rejected plural marriage.\",\n \"The 1960s saw the arrival of about 50,000 draft-dodgers who opposed the Vietnam War.\",\n \"In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, about 900,000 French Canadians moved to the U.S., with 395,000 residents there in 1900.\",\n \"Two-thirds went to mill towns in New England, where they formed distinctive ethnic communities.\",\n \"By the late 20th century, they had abandoned the French language, but most kept the Catholic religion.\",\n \"About twice as many English Canadians came to the U.S., but they did not form distinctive ethnic settlements.\",\n \"Canada was a way-station through which immigrants from other lands stopped for a while, ultimately heading to the U.S.\",\n \"In 1851–1951, 7.1 million people arrived in Canada (mostly from Continental Europe), and 6.6 million left Canada, most of them to the U.S.\\n\\n===American Revolutionary War===\\nAt the outset of the American Revolutionary War, the American revolutionaries hoped the French Canadians in Quebec and the Colonists in Nova Scotia would join their rebellion and they were pre-approved for joining the United States in the Articles of Confederation.\",\n \"When Canada was invaded, thousands joined the American cause and formed regiments that fought during the war; however most remained neutral and some joined the British effort.\",\n \"Britain advised the French Canadians that the British Empire already enshrined their rights in the Quebec Act, which the American colonies had viewed as one of the Intolerable Acts.\",\n \"The American invasion was a fiasco and Britain tightened its grip on its northern possessions; in 1777, a major British invasion into New York led to the surrender of the entire British army at Saratoga, and led France to enter the war as an ally of the U.S.\",\n \"The French Canadians largely ignored France's appeals for solidarity.\",\n \"After the war Canada became a refuge for about 75,000 Loyalists who either wanted to leave the U.S., or were compelled by Patriot reprisals to do so.\",\n \"Among the original Loyalists there were 3,500 free blacks.\",\n \"Most went to Nova Scotia and in 1792, 1200 migrated to Sierra Leone.\",\n \"About 2000 black slaves were brought in by Loyalist owners; they remained slaves in Canada until the Empire abolished slavery in 1833.\",\n \"Before 1860, about 30,000–40,000 blacks entered Canada; many were already free and others were escaped slaves who came through the Underground Railroad.\",\n \"===War of 1812===\\n\\nThe Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war, called for British forces to vacate all their forts south of the Great Lakes border.\",\n \"Britain refused to do so, citing failure of the United States to provide financial restitution for Loyalists who had lost property in the war.\",\n \"The Jay Treaty in 1795 with Great Britain resolved that lingering issue and the British departed the forts.\",\n \"Thomas Jefferson saw the nearby British imperial presence as a threat to the United States, and so he opposed the Jay Treaty, and it became one of the major political issues in the United States at the time.\",\n \"Thousands of Americans immigrated to Upper Canada (Ontario) from 1785 to 1812 to obtain cheaper land and better tax rates prevalent in that province; despite expectations that they would be loyal to the U.S. if a war broke out, in the event they were largely non-political.\",\n \"Tensions mounted again after 1805, erupting into the War of 1812, when the Americans declared war on Britain.\",\n \"The Americans were angered by British harassment of U.S. ships on the high seas and seizure (\\\"Impressment\\\") of 6,000 sailors from American ships, severe restrictions against neutral American trade with France, and British support for hostile Indian tribes in Ohio and territories the U.S. had gained in 1783.\",\n \"American \\\"honor\\\" was an implicit issue.\",\n \"The Americans were outgunned by more than 10 to 1 by the Royal Navy, but could call on an army much larger than the British garrison in Canada, and so a land invasion of Canada was proposed as the only feasible, and most advantegous means of attacking the British Empire.\",\n \"Americans on the western frontier also hoped an invasion would bring an end to British support of Native American resistance to the westward expansion of the United States, typified by Tecumseh's coalition of tribes.\",\n \"Americans may also have wanted to annex Canada.\",\n \"Once war broke out, the American strategy was to seize Canada—perhaps as a means of forcing concessions from the British Empire, or perhaps in order to annex it.\",\n \"There was some hope that settlers in western Canada—most of them recent immigrants from the U.S.—would welcome the chance to overthrow their British rulers.\",\n \"However, the American invasions were defeated primarily by British regulars with support from Native Americans and Upper Canada (Ontario) militia.\",\n \"Aided by the powerful Royal Navy, a series of British raids on the American coast were highly successful, culminating with an attack on Washington that resulted in the British burning of the White House, Capitol, and other public buildings.\",\n \"Major British invasions of New York in 1814 and Louisiana in 1814–15 were fiascoes, with the British retreating from New York and decisively defeated at the Battle of New Orleans.\",\n \"At the end of the war, Britain's American Indian allies had largely been defeated, and the Americans controlled a strip of Western Ontario centered on Fort Malden.\",\n \"However, Britain held much of Maine, and, with the support of their remaining American Indian allies, huge areas of the Old Northwest, including Wisconsin and much of Michigan and Illinois.\",\n \"With the surrender of Napoleon in 1814, Britain ended naval policies that angered Americans; with the defeat of the Indian tribes the threat to American expansion was ended.\",\n \"The upshot was both sides had asserted their honour, Canada was not annexed, and London and Washington had nothing more to fight over.\",\n \"The war was ended by the Treaty of Ghent, which took effect in February 1815.\",\n \"A series of postwar agreements further stabilized peaceful relations along the Canadian-US border.\",\n \"Canada reduced American immigration for fear of undue American influence, and built up the Anglican church as a counterweight to the largely American Methodist and Baptist churches.\",\n \"In later years, Anglophone Canadians, especially in Ontario, viewed the War of 1812 as a heroic and successful resistance against invasion and as a victory that defined them as a people.\",\n \"The myth that the Canadian militia had defeated the invasion almost single-handed, known logically as the \\\"militia myth\\\", became highly prevalent after the war, having been propounded by John Strachan, Anglican Bishop of York.\",\n \"Meanwhile, the United States celebrated victory in its \\\"Second War of Independence,\\\" and war heroes such as Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison headed to the White House.\",\n \"===Conservative reaction===\\nIn the aftermath of the War of 1812, pro-imperial conservatives led by Anglican Bishop John Strachan took control in Ontario (\\\"Upper Canada\\\"), and promoted the Anglican religion as opposed to the more republican Methodist and Baptist churches.\",\n \"A small interlocking elite, known as the Family Compact took full political control.\",\n \"Democracy, as practiced in the US, was ridiculed.\",\n \"The policies had the desired effect of deterring immigration from United States.\",\n \"Revolts in favor of democracy in Ontario and Quebec (\\\"Lower Canada\\\") in 1837 were suppressed; many of the leaders fled to the US.\",\n \"The American policy was to largely ignore the rebellions, and indeed ignore Canada generally in favor of westward expansion of the American Frontier.\",\n \"===Alabama claims===\\nAn editorial cartoon on Canada–United States relations, 1886.\",\n \"It reads: Mrs. Britannia.—\\\"Is it possible, my dear, that you have ever given your cousin Jonathan any encouragement?\\\"\",\n \"Miss Canada.—\\\"Encouragement!\",\n \"Certainly not, Mamma.\",\n \"I have told him that we can never be united.\\\"\",\n \"At the end of the American Civil War in 1865, Americans were angry at British support for the Confederacy.\",\n \"One result was toleration of Fenian efforts to use the U.S. as a base to attack Canada.\",\n \"More serious was the demand for a huge payment to cover the damages caused, on the notion that British involvement had lengthened the war.\",\n \"Senator Charles Sumner, the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, originally wanted to ask for $2 billion, or alternatively the ceding of all of Canada to the United States.\",\n \"When American Secretary of State William H. Seward negotiated the Alaska Purchase with Russia in 1867, he intended it as the first step in a comprehensive plan to gain control of the entire northwest Pacific Coast.\",\n \"Seward was a firm believer in Manifest Destiny, primarily for its commercial advantages to the U.S. Seward expected British Columbia to seek annexation to the U.S. and thought Britain might accept this in exchange for the ''Alabama'' claims.\",\n \"Soon other elements endorsed annexation, Their plan was to annex British Columbia, Red River Colony (Manitoba), and Nova Scotia, in exchange for the dropping the damage claims.\",\n \"The idea reached a peak in the spring and summer of 1870, with American expansionists, Canadian separatists, and British anti-imperialists seemingly combining forces.\",\n \"The plan was dropped for multiple reasons.\",\n \"London continued to stall, American commercial and financial groups pressed Washington for a quick settlement of the dispute on a cash basis, growing Canadian nationalist sentiment in British Columbia called for staying inside the British Empire, Congress became preoccupied with Reconstruction, and most Americans showed little interest in territorial expansion.\",\n \"The \\\"Alabama Claims\\\" dispute went to international arbitration.\",\n \"In one of the first major cases of arbitration, the tribunal in 1872 supported the American claims and ordered Britain to pay $15.5 million.\",\n \"Britain paid and the episode ended in peaceful relations.\",\n \"===Dominion of Canada===\\nCanada became a self-governing dominion in 1867 in internal affairs while Britain controlled diplomacy and defense policy.\",\n \"Prior to Confederation, there was an Oregon boundary dispute in which the Americans claimed the 54th degree latitude.\",\n \"That issue was resolved by splitting the disputed territory; the northern half became British Columbia, and the southern half the states of Washington and Oregon.\",\n \"Strained relations with America continued, however, due to a series of small-scale armed incursions named the Fenian raids by Irish-American Civil War veterans across the border from 1866 to 1871 in an attempt to trade Canada for Irish independence.\",\n \"The American government, angry at Canadian tolerance of Confederate raiders during the American Civil War, moved very slowly to disarm the Fenians.\",\n \"The British government, in charge of diplomatic relations, protested cautiously, as Anglo-American relations were tense.\",\n \"Much of the tension was relieved as the Fenians faded away and in 1872 by the settlement of the Alabama Claims, when Britain paid the U.S. $15.5 million for war losses caused by warships built in Britain and sold to the Confederacy.\",\n \"===Emigration to and from the United States===\\n\\nAfter 1850, the pace of industrialization and urbanization was much faster in the United States, drawing a wide range of immigrants from the North.\",\n \"By 1870, 1/6 of all the people born in Canada had moved to the United States, with the highest concentrations in New England, which was the destination of Francophone emigrants from Quebec and Anglophone emigrants from the Maritimes.\",\n \"It was common for people to move back and forth across the border, such as seasonal lumberjacks, entrepreneurs looking for larger markets, and families looking for jobs in the textile mills that paid much higher wages than in Canada.\",\n \"The southward migration slacked off after 1890, as Canadian industry began a growth spurt.\",\n \"By then, the American frontier was closing, and thousands of farmers looking for fresh land moved from the United States north into the Prairie Provinces.\",\n \"The net result of the flows were that in 1901 there were 128,000 American-born residents in Canada (3.5% of the Canadian population) and 1.18 million Canadian-born residents in the United States (1.6% of the U.S. population).\",\n \"===Alaska boundary===\\nA short-lived controversy was the Alaska boundary dispute, settled in favor of the United States in 1903.\",\n \"No one cared until a gold rush brought tens of thousands of men to Canada's Yukon, and they had to arrive through American ports.\",\n \"Canada needed its port and claimed that it had a legal right to a port near the present American town of Haines, Alaska.\",\n \"It would provide an all-Canadian route to the rich goldfields.\",\n \"The dispute was settled by arbitration, and the British delegate voted with the Americans—to the astonishment and disgust of Canadians who suddenly realized that Britain considered its relations with the United States paramount compared to those with Canada.\",\n \"The arbitrartion validated the status quo, but made Canada angry at Britain.\",\n \"1907 saw a minor controversy over USS ''Nashville'' sailing into the Great Lakes via Canada without Canadian permission.\",\n \"To head off future embarrassments, in 1909 the two sides signed the International Boundary Waters Treaty and the International Joint Commission was established to manage the Great Lakes and keep them disarmed.\",\n \"It was amended in World War II to allow the building and training of warships.\",\n \"===Reciprocal trade with U.S.===\\nA 1911 Conservative campaign poster warns that the big American companies (\\\"trusts\\\") will hog all the benefits of reciprocity as proposed by Liberals, leaving little left over for Canadian interests\\nAnti-Americanism reached a shrill peak in 1911 in Canada.\",\n \"The Liberal government in 1911 negotiated a Reciprocity treaty with the U.S. that would lower trade barriers.\",\n \"Canadian manufacturing interests were alarmed that free trade would allow the bigger and more efficient American factories to take their markets.\",\n \"The Conservatives made it a central campaign issue in the 1911 election, warning that it would be a \\\"sell out\\\" to the United States with economic annexation a special danger.\",\n \"Conservative slogan was \\\"No truck or trade with the Yankees\\\", as they appealed to Canadian nationalism and nostalgia for the British Empire to win a major victory.\",\n \"===Canadian autonomy===\\nCanada demanded and received permission from London to send its own delegation to the Versailles Peace Talks in 1919, with the proviso that it sign the treaty under the British Empire.\",\n \"Canada subsequently took responsibility for its own foreign and military affairs in the 1920s.\",\n \"Its first ambassador to the United States, Vincent Massey, was named in 1927.\",\n \"The United States first ambassador to Canada was William Phillips.\",\n \"Canada became an active member of the British Commonwealth, the League of Nations, and the World Court, none of which included the U.S.\",\n \"In July 1923, as part of his Pacific Northwest tour and a week before his death, US President Warren Harding visited Vancouver, making him the first head of state of the United States to visit Canada.\",\n \"The then Premier of British Columbia, John Oliver, and then mayor of Vancouver, Charles Tisdall, hosted a lunch in his honor at the Hotel Vancouver.\",\n \"Over 50,000 people heard Harding speak in Stanley Park.\",\n \"A monument to Harding designed by Charles Marega was unveiled in Stanley Park in 1925.\",\n \"Relations with the United States were cordial until 1930, when Canada vehemently protested the new Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act by which the U.S. raised tariffs (taxes) on products imported from Canada.\",\n \"Canada retaliated with higher tariffs of its own against American products, and moved toward more trade within the British Commonwealth.\",\n \"U.S.–Canadian trade fell 75% as the Great Depression dragged both countries down.\",\n \"Down to the 1920s the war and naval departments of both nations designed hypothetical war game scenarios with the other as an enemy.\",\n \"These were primarily exercises; the departments were never told to get ready for a real war.\",\n \"In 1921, Canada developed Defence Scheme No.\",\n \"1 for an attack on American cities and for forestalling invasion by the United States until Imperial reinforcements arrived.\",\n \"Through the later 1920s and 1930s, the United States Army War College developed a plan for a war with the British Empire waged largely on North American territory, in War Plan Red.\",\n \"Herbert Hoover meeting in 1927 with British Ambassador Sir Esme Howard agreed on the \\\"absurdity of contemplating the possibility of war between the United States and the British Empire.\\\"\",\n \"In 1938, as the roots of World War II were set in motion, U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt gave a public speech at Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, declaring that the United States would not sit idly by if another power tried to dominate Canada.\",\n \"Diplomats saw it as a clear warning to Germany not to attack Canada.\",\n \"===World War II===\\nMountie and a Vermont State Trooper on their respective sides of the Canada–United States (Quebec–Vermont) border in 1941\\nThe two nations cooperated closely in World War II, as both nations saw new levels of prosperity and a determination to defeat the Axis powers.\",\n \"Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King and President Franklin D. Roosevelt were determined not to repeat the mistakes of their predecessors.\",\n \"They met in August 1940 at Ogdensburg, issuing a declaration calling for close cooperation, and formed the Permanent Joint Board on Defense (PJBD).\",\n \"King sought to raise Canada's international visibility by hosting the August 1943 Quadrant conference in Quebec on military and political strategy; he was a gracious host but was kept out of the important meetings by Winston Churchill and Roosevelt.\",\n \"Canada allowed the construction of the Alaska Highway and participated in the building of the atomic bomb.\",\n \"49,000 Americans joined the RCAF (Canadian) or RAF (British) air forces through the Clayton Knight Committee, which had Roosevelt's permission to recruit in the U.S. in 1940–42.\",\n \"American attempts in the mid-1930s to integrate British Columbia into a united West Coast military command had aroused Canadian opposition.\",\n \"Fearing a Japanese invasion of Canada's vulnerable coast, American officials urged the creation of a united military command for an eastern Pacific Ocean theater of war.\",\n \"Canadian leaders feared American imperialism and the loss of autonomy more than a Japanese invasion.\",\n \"In 1941, Canadians successfully argued within the PJBD for mutual cooperation rather than unified command for the West Coast.\",\n \"====Newfoundland====\\nThe United States built large military bases in Newfoundland, at the time, a British dominion.\",\n \"The American involvement ended the depression and brought new prosperity; Newfoundland's business community sought closer ties with the United States as expressed by the Economic Union Party.\",\n \"Ottawa took notice and wanted Newfoundland to join Canada, which it did after hotly contested referenda.\",\n \"There was little demand in the United States for the acquisition of Newfoundland, so the United States did not protest the British decision not to allow an American option on the Newfoundland referendum.\",\n \"===Cold War===\\nFollowing co-operation in the two World Wars, Canada and the United States lost much of their previous animosity.\",\n \"As Britain's influence as a global imperial power declined, Canada and the United States became extremely close partners.\",\n \"Canada was a close ally of the United States during the Cold War.\",\n \"===Nixon Shock 1971===\\naddresses a joint session of the Parliament of Canada, 1972\\nThe United States had become Canada's largest market, and after the war the Canadian economy became dependent on smooth trade flows with the United States so much that in 1971 when the United States enacted the \\\"Nixon Shock\\\" economic policies (including a 10% tariff on all imports) it put the Canadian government into a panic.\",\n \"This led in a large part to the articulation of Prime Minister Trudeau's \\\"Third Option\\\" policy of diversifying Canada's trade and downgrading the importance of Canada – United States relations.\",\n \"In a 1972 speech in Ottawa, Nixon declared the \\\"special relationship\\\" between Canada and the United States dead.\",\n \"===1990s===\\nThe main issues in Canada–U.S.\",\n \"relations in the 1990s focused on the NAFTA agreement, which was signed in 1994.\",\n \"It created a common market that by 2014 was worth $19 trillion, encompassed 470 million people, and had created millions of jobs.\",\n \"Wilson says, \\\"Few dispute that NAFTA has produced\\nlarge and measurable gains for Canadian consumers, workers, and businesses.\\\"\",\n \"However, he adds, \\\"NAFTA has fallen well short of expectations.\\\"\",\n \"\\nSince the arrival of the Loyalists as refugees from the American Revolution in the 1780s, historians have identified a constant theme of Canadian fear of the United States and of \\\"Americanization\\\" or a cultural takeover.\",\n \"In the War of 1812, for example, the enthusiastic response by French militia to defend Lower Canada reflected, according to Heidler and Heidler (2004), \\\"the fear of Americanization.\\\"\",\n \"Scholars have traced this attitude over time in Ontario and Quebec.\",\n \"Canadian intellectuals who wrote about the U.S. in the first half of the 20th century identified America as the world center of modernity, and deplored it.\",\n \"Imperialists (who admired the British Empire) explained that Canadians had narrowly escaped American conquest with its rejection of tradition, its worship of \\\"progress\\\" and technology, and its mass culture; they explained that Canada was much better because of its commitment to orderly government and societal harmony.\",\n \"There were a few ardent defenders of the nation to the south, notably liberal and socialist intellectuals such as F. R. Scott and Jean-Charles Harvey (1891–1967).\",\n \"Looking at television, Collins (1990) finds that it is in English Canada that fear of cultural Americanization is most powerful, for there the attractions of the U.S. are strongest.\",\n \"Meren (2009) argues that after 1945, the emergence of Quebec nationalism and the desire to preserve French-Canadian cultural heritage led to growing anxiety regarding American cultural imperialism and Americanization.\",\n \"In 2006 surveys showed that 60 percent of Quebecers had a fear of Americanization, while other surveys showed they preferred their current situation to that of the Americans in the realms of health care, quality of life as seniors, environmental quality, poverty, educational system, racism and standard of living.\",\n \"While agreeing that job opportunities are greater in America, 89 percent disagreed with the notion that they would rather be in the United States, and they were more likely to feel closer to English Canadians than to Americans.\",\n \"However, there is evidence that the elites and Quebec are much less fearful of Americanization, and much more open to economic integration than the general public.\",\n \"The history has been traced in detail by a leading Canadian historian J.L.\",\n \"Granatstein in ''Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism'' (1997).\",\n \"Current studies report the phenomenon persists.\",\n \"Two scholars report, \\\"Anti-Americanism is alive and well in Canada today, strengthened by, among other things, disputes related to NAFTA, American involvement in the Middle East, and the ever-increasing Americanization of Canadian culture.\\\"\",\n \"Jamie Glazov writes, \\\"More than anything else, Diefenbaker became the tragic victim of Canadian anti-Americanism, a sentiment the prime minister had fully embraced by 1962.\",\n \"He was unable to imagine himself (or his foreign policy) without enemies.\\\"\",\n \"Historian J. M. Bumsted says, \\\"In its most extreme form, Canadian suspicion of the United States has led to outbreaks of overt anti-Americanism, usually spilling over against American residents in Canada.\\\"\",\n \"John R. Wennersten writes, \\\"But at the heart of Canadian anti-Americanism lies a cultural bitterness that takes an American expatriate unaware.\",\n \"Canadians fear the American media's influence on their culture and talk critically about how Americans are exporting a culture of violence in its television programming and movies.\\\"\",\n \"However Kim Nossal points out that the Canadian variety is much milder than anti-Americanism in some other countries.\",\n \"By contrast Americans show very little knowledge or interest one way or the other regarding Canadian affairs.\",\n \"Canadian historian Frank Underhill, quoting Canadian playwright Merrill Denison summed it up: \\\"Americans are benevolently ignorant about Canada, whereas Canadians are malevolently informed about the United States.\\\"\",\n \"The executive of each country is represented differently.\",\n \"The President of the United States serves as both the head of state and head of government, and his \\\"administration\\\" is the executive, while the Prime Minister of Canada is head of government only, and his or her \\\"government\\\" or \\\"ministry\\\" directs the executive.\",\n \"===W.L.\",\n \"Mackenzie King and Franklin D. Roosevelt (October 1935 – April 1945)===\\n\\n\\n===W.L.\",\n \"Mackenzie King and Harry S. Truman (April 1945 – November 1948)===\\n\\n\\n===Louis St. Laurent and Harry S. Truman (November 1948 – January 1953)===\\n\\n\\n===Louis St. Laurent and Dwight D. Eisenhower (January 1953 – June 1957)===\\n\\n\\n===John G. Diefenbaker and Dwight D. Eisenhower (June 1957 – January 1961)===\\n\\n\\n===John G. Diefenbaker and John F. Kennedy (January 1961 – April 1963)===\\n\\n\\n===Lester B. Pearson and John F. Kennedy (April–November 1963)===\\n\\n\\n===Lester B. Pearson and Lyndon B. Johnson (November 1963 – April 1968)===\\n\\n\\n===Pierre Trudeau and Lyndon B. Johnson (April 1968 – January 1969)===\\n\\n\\n===Pierre Trudeau and Richard Nixon (January 1969 – August 1974)===\\n\\n\\n===Pierre Trudeau and Gerald Ford (August 1974 – January 1977)===\\n\\n\\n===Pierre Trudeau and Jimmy Carter (January 1977 – June 1979)===\\n\\n\\n===Joe Clark and Jimmy Carter (June 1979 – March 1980)===\\n\\n\\n===Pierre Trudeau and Jimmy Carter (March 1980 – January 1981)===\\n\\n\\n===Pierre Trudeau and Ronald Reagan (January 1981 – June 1984)===\\n\\n\\n===John Turner and Ronald Reagan (June–September 1984)===\\n\\n\\n===Brian Mulroney and Ronald Reagan (September 1984 – January 1989)===\\nRonald Reagan (left) and Brian Mulroney (right) at the Hotel Cipriani in Venice, Italy, June 11, 1987\\nRelations between Brian Mulroney and Ronald Reagan were famously close.\",\n \"This relationship resulted in negotiations for the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement, and the U.S.–Canada Air Quality Agreement to reduce acid-rain-causing emissions, both major policy goals of Mulroney, that would be finalized under the presidency of George H. W. Bush.\",\n \"===Brian Mulroney and George H. W. Bush (January 1989 – January 1993)===\\n\\n\\n===Brian Mulroney and Bill Clinton (January–June 1993)===\\n\\n\\n===Kim Campbell and Bill Clinton (June–November 1993)===\\n\\n\\n===Jean Chrétien and Bill Clinton (November 1993 – January 2001)===\\nAlthough Jean Chrétien was wary of appearing too close to the President, personally, he and Bill Clinton were known to be golfing partners.\",\n \"Their governments had many small trade quarrels over the Canadian content of American magazines, softwood lumber, and so on, but on the whole were quite friendly.\",\n \"Both leaders had run on reforming or abolishing NAFTA, but the agreement went ahead with the addition of environmental and labor side agreements.\",\n \"Crucially, the Clinton administration lent rhetorical support to Canadian unity during the 1995 referendum in Quebec on separation from Canada.\",\n \"===Jean Chrétien and George W. Bush (January 2001 – December 2003)===\\nRelations between Chrétien and George W. Bush were strained throughout their overlapping times in office.\",\n \"After the September 11 attacks terror attacks, Jean Chrétien publicly mused that U.S. foreign policy might be part of the \\\"root causes\\\" of terrorism.\",\n \"Some Americans criticized his \\\"smug moralism\\\", and Chrétien's public refusal to support the 2003 Iraq war was met drew responses in the United States, especially among conservatives.\",\n \"===Paul Martin and George W. Bush (December 2003 – February 2006)===\\n\\n\\n===Stephen Harper and George W. Bush (February 2006 – January 2009)===\\nPrime Minister Stephen Harper (left) and President George W. Bush (right) meet in Washington in July 2006\\nStephen Harper and George W. Bush were thought to share warm personal relations and also close ties between their administrations.\",\n \"Because Bush was so unpopular among liberals in Canada (particularly in the media), this was underplayed by the Harper government.\",\n \"Shortly after being congratulated by Bush for his victory in February 2006, Harper rebuked U.S. ambassador to Canada David Wilkins for criticizing the Conservatives' plans to assert Canada's sovereignty over the Arctic Ocean waters with military force.\",\n \"===Stephen Harper and Barack Obama (January 2009 – November 2015)===\\nBarack Obama boards Air Force One in Ottawa 2-19-09\\nPresident Barack Obama's first international trip was to Canada on February 19, 2009, thereby sending a strong message of peace and cooperation.\",\n \"With the exception of Canadian lobbying against \\\"Buy American\\\" provisions in the U.S. stimulus package, relations between the two administrations were smooth.\",\n \"They also held friendly bets on hockey games during the Winter Olympic season.\",\n \"In the 2010 Winter Olympics hosted by Canada in Vancouver, Canada defeated the US in both gold medal matches, entitling Stephen Harper to receive a case of Molson Canadian beer from Barack Obama; in reverse, if Canada had lost, Harper would have provided a case of Yuengling beer to Obama.\",\n \"During the 2014 Winter Olympics, alongside U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry & Minister of Foreign Affairs John Baird, Stephen Harper was given a case of Samuel Adams beer by Obama for the Canadian gold medal victory over the US in women's hockey, and the semi-final victory over the US in men's hockey.\",\n \"====Canada-United States Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) (2011)====\\nOn February 4, 2011, Harper and Obama issued a \\\"Declaration on a Shared Vision for Perimeter Security and Economic Competitiveness\\\" and announced the creation of the Canada–United States Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) \\\"to increase regulatory transparency and coordination between the two countries.\\\"\",\n \"Health Canada and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under the RCC mandate, undertook the \\\"first of its kind\\\" initiative by selecting \\\"as its first area of alignment common cold indications for certain over-the-counter antihistamine ingredients (GC 2013-01-10).\\\"\",\n \"On December 7, 2011, Harper flew to Washington, met with Obama and signed an agreement to implement the joint action plans that had been developed since the initial meeting in February.\",\n \"The plans called on both countries to spend more on border infrastructure, share more information on people who cross the border, and acknowledge more of each other's safety and security inspection on third-country traffic.\",\n \"An editorial in ''The Globe and Mail'' praised the agreement for giving Canada the ability to track whether failed refugee claimants have left Canada via the U.S. and for eliminating \\\"duplicated baggage screenings on connecting flights\\\".\",\n \"The agreement is not a legally binding treaty, and relies on the political will and ability of the executives of both governments to implement the terms of the agreement.\",\n \"These types of executive agreements are routine—on both sides of the Canada–U.S.\",\n \"border.\",\n \"===Justin Trudeau and Barack Obama (November 2015 – January 2017)===\\nPrime Minister Justin Trudeau (left) and President Barack Obama (right) meet in Washington in March 2016\\nPresident Barack Obama and Prime Minister Justin Trudeau first met formally at the APEC summit meeting in Manila, Philippines in November 2015, nearly a week after the latter was sworn into the office.\",\n \"Both leaders expressed eagerness for increased cooperation and coordination between the two countries during the course of Trudeau's government with Trudeau promising an \\\"enhanced Canada–U.S.\",\n \"partnership\\\".\",\n \"On November 6, 2015, Obama announced the U.S. State Department's rejection of the proposed Keystone XL pipeline, the fourth phase of the Keystone oil pipeline system running between Canada and the United States, to which Trudeau expressed disappointment but said that the rejection would not damage Canada–U.S.\",\n \"relations and would instead provide a \\\"fresh start\\\" to strengthening ties through cooperation and coordination, saying that \\\"the Canada–U.S.\",\n \"relationship is much bigger than any one project.\\\"\",\n \"Obama has since praised Trudeau's efforts to prioritize the reduction of climate change, calling it \\\"extraordinarily helpful\\\" to establish a worldwide consensus on addressing the issue.\",\n \"Although Trudeau has told Obama his plans to withdraw Canada's McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet jets assisting in the American-led intervention against ISIL, Trudeau said that Canada will still \\\"do more than its part\\\" in combating the terrorist group by increasing the number of Canadian special forces members training and fighting on ground in Iraq and Syria.\",\n \"Trudeau visited the White House for an official visit and state dinner on March 10, 2016.\",\n \"Trudeau and Obama were reported to have shared warm personal relations during the visit, making humorous remarks about which country was better at hockey and which country had better beer.\",\n \"Obama complimented Trudeau's 2015 election campaign for its \\\"message of hope and change\\\" and \\\"positive and optimistic vision\\\".\",\n \"Obama and Trudeau also held \\\"productive\\\" discussions on climate change and relations between the two countries, and Trudeau invited Obama to speak in the Canadian parliament in Ottawa later in the year.\",\n \"===Justin Trudeau and Donald Trump (January 2017–present)===\\nFollowing the victory of Donald Trump in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, Trudeau congratulated him and invited him to visit Canada at the \\\"earliest opportunity.\\\"\",\n \"Prime Minister Trudeau and President Trump formally met for the first time at the White House on February 13, 2017, nearly a month after Trump was sworn into the office.\",\n \"Trump has ruffled relations with Canada with tariffs on softwood lumber.\",\n \"Diafiltered Milk has also been brought up by Trump as an area that needs to be negotiated.\",\n \"Trump is expected to renegotiate NAFTA with Canada.\",\n \"North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), long headquartered in the Cheyenne Mountain Complex in Colorado, exemplifies military co-operation between Canada and the U.S.\\nCanadian embassy in Washington saying \\\"Friends, Neighbours, Partners, Allies\\\"\\nThe Canadian military, like forces of other NATO countries, fought alongside the United States in most major conflicts since World War II, including the Korean War, the Gulf War, the Kosovo War, and most recently the war in Afghanistan.\",\n \"The main exceptions to this were the Canadian government's opposition to the Vietnam War and the Iraq War, which caused some brief diplomatic tensions.\",\n \"Despite these issues, military relations have remained close.\",\n \"American defense arrangements with Canada are more extensive than with any other country.\",\n \"The Permanent Joint Board of Defense, established in 1940, provides policy-level consultation on bilateral defense matters.\",\n \"The United States and Canada share North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) mutual security commitments.\",\n \"In addition, American and Canadian military forces have cooperated since 1958 on continental air defense within the framework of the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD).\",\n \"Canadian forces have provided indirect support for the American invasion of Iraq that began in 2003.\",\n \"Moreover, interoperability with the American armed forces has been a guiding principle of Canadian military force structuring and doctrine since the end of the Cold War.\",\n \"Canadian navy frigates, for instance, integrate seamlessly into American carrier battle groups.\",\n \"In commemoration of the 200th Anniversary of the War of 1812 ambassadors from Canada and the US, and naval officers from both countries gathered at the Pritzker Military Library on August 17, 2012, for a panel discussion on Canada-US relations with emphasis on national security-related matters.\",\n \"Also as part of the commemoration, the navies of both countries sailed together throughout the Great Lakes region.\",\n \"===War in Afghanistan===\\n\\nCanada's elite JTF2 unit joined American special forces in Afghanistan shortly after the al-Qaida attacks on September 11, 2001.\",\n \"Canadian forces joined the multinational coalition in Operation Anaconda in January 2002.\",\n \"On April 18, 2002, an American pilot bombed Canadian forces involved in a training exercise, killing four and wounding eight Canadians.\",\n \"A joint American-Canadian inquiry determined the cause of the incident to be pilot error, in which the pilot interpreted ground fire as an attack; the pilot ignored orders that he felt were \\\"second-guessing\\\" his field tactical decision.\",\n \"Canadian forces assumed a six-month command rotation of the International Security Assistance Force in 2003; in 2005, Canadians assumed operational command of the multi-national Brigade in Kandahar, with 2,300 troops, and supervises the Provincial Reconstruction Team in Kandahar, where al-Qaida forces are most active.\",\n \"Canada has also deployed naval forces in the Persian Gulf since 1991 in support of the UN Gulf Multinational Interdiction Force.\",\n \"The Canadian Embassy in Washington, DC maintains a public relations website named CanadianAlly.com, which is intended \\\"to give American citizens a better sense of the scope of Canada's role in North American and Global Security and the War on Terror\\\".\",\n \"The New Democratic Party and some recent Liberal leadership candidates have expressed opposition to Canada's expanded role in the Afghan conflict on the ground that it is inconsistent with Canada's historic role (since the Second World War) of peacekeeping operations.\",\n \"===2003 Invasion of Iraq===\\n\\n\\nAccording to contemporary polls, 71% of Canadians were opposed to the 2003 invasion of Iraq.\",\n \"Many Canadians, and the former Liberal Cabinet headed by Paul Martin (as well as many Americans such as Bill Clinton and Barack Obama), made a policy distinction between conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq, unlike the Bush Doctrine, which linked these together in a \\\"Global war on terror\\\".\",\n \"=== Responding to ISIS/Daesh ===\\nCanada has been involved in international responses to the threats from Daesh/ISIS/ISIL in Syria and Iraq, and is a member of the Global Coalition to Counter Daesh.\",\n \"In October 2016, Foreign Affairs Minister Dion and National Defence Minister Sajjan meet U.S. special envoy for this coalition.\",\n \"The Americans thanked Canada \\\"for the role of Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) in providing training and assistance to Iraqi security forces, as well as the CAF's role in improving essential capacity-building capabilities with regional forces.\\\"\",\n \"\\nCanada and the United States have the world's largest trading relationship, with huge quantities of goods and people flowing across the border each year.\",\n \"Since the 1987 Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement, there have been no tariffs on most goods passed between the two countries.\",\n \"In the course of the softwood lumber dispute, the U.S. has placed tariffs on Canadian softwood lumber because of what it argues is an unfair Canadian government subsidy, a claim which Canada disputes.\",\n \"The dispute has cycled through several agreements and arbitration cases.\",\n \"Other notable disputes include the Canadian Wheat Board, and Canadian cultural \\\"restrictions\\\" on magazines and television (See CRTC, CBC, and National Film Board of Canada).\",\n \"Canadians have been criticized about such things as the ban on beef since a case of Mad Cow disease was discovered in 2003 in cows from the United States (and a few subsequent cases) and the high American agricultural subsidies.\",\n \"Concerns in Canada also run high over aspects of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) such as Chapter 11.\",\n \"A Canadian BC Parks Ranger and a U.S. National Park Service Ranger work to remove a bear from a campground along the international boundary in British Columbia and Washington state\\n\\nA principal instrument of this cooperation is the International Joint Commission (IJC), established as part of the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909 to resolve differences and promote international cooperation on boundary waters.\",\n \"The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1972 is another historic example of joint cooperation in controlling trans-border water pollution.\",\n \"However, there have been some disputes.\",\n \"Most recently, the Devil's Lake Outlet, a project instituted by North Dakota, has angered Manitobans who fear that their water may soon become polluted as a result of this project.\",\n \"Beginning in 1986 the Canadian government of Brian Mulroney began pressing the Reagan administration for an \\\"Acid Rain Treaty\\\" in order to do something about U.S. industrial air pollution causing acid rain in Canada.\",\n \"The Reagan administration was hesitant, and questioned the science behind Mulroney's claims.\",\n \"However, Mulroney was able to prevail.\",\n \"The product was the signing and ratification of the Air Quality Agreement of 1991 by the first Bush administration.\",\n \"Under that treaty, the two governments consult semi-annually on trans-border air pollution, which has demonstrably reduced acid rain, and they have since signed an annex to the treaty dealing with ground level ozone in 2000.\",\n \"Despite this, trans-border air pollution remains an issue, particularly in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence watershed during the summer.\",\n \"The main source of this trans-border pollution results from coal-fired power stations, most of them located in the Midwestern United States.\",\n \"As part of the negotiations to create NAFTA, Canada and the U.S. signed, along with Mexico, the North American Agreement On Environmental Cooperation which created the Commission for Environmental Cooperation which monitors environmental issues across the continent, publishing the North American Environmental Atlas as one aspect of its monitoring duties.\",\n \"Currently neither of the countries' governments support the Kyoto Protocol, which set out time scheduled curbing of greenhouse gas emissions.\",\n \"Unlike the United States, Canada has ratified the agreement.\",\n \"Yet after ratification, due to internal political conflict within Canada, the Canadian government does not enforce the Kyoto Protocol, and has received criticism from environmental groups and from other governments for its climate change positions.\",\n \"In January 2011, the Canadian minister of the environment, Peter Kent, explicitly stated that the policy of his government with regards to greenhouse gas emissions reductions is to wait for the United States to act first, and then try to harmonize with that action – a position that has been condemned by environmentalists and Canadian nationalists, and as well as scientists and government think-tanks.\",\n \"===Newfoundland fisheries dispute===\\nThe United States and Britain, had a long-standing dispute about the rights of Americans fishing in the waters near Newfoundland.\",\n \"Before 1776, there was no question that American fishermen, mostly from Massachusetts, had rights to use the waters off Newfoundland.\",\n \"In the peace treaty negotiations of 1783, the Americans insisted on a statement of these rights.\",\n \"However, France, an American ally, disputed the American position because France had its own specified rights in the area and wanted them to be exclusive.\",\n \"The Treaty of Paris (1783) gave the Americans not rights, but rather \\\"liberties\\\" to fish within the territorial waters of British North America and to dry fish on certain coasts.\",\n \"After the War of 1812, the Convention of 1818 between the United States and Britain specified exactly what liberties were involved.\",\n \"Canadian and Newfoundland fishermen contested these liberties in the 1830s and 1840s.\",\n \"The Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty of 1854, and the Treaty of Washington of 1871 spelled-out the liberties in more detail.\",\n \"However the Treaty of Washington expired in 1885, and there was a continuous round of disputes over jurisdictions and liberties.\",\n \"Britain and the United States sent the issue to the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague in 1909.\",\n \"It produced a compromise settlement that permanently ended the problems.\",\n \"\\nIn 2003 the American government became concerned when members of the Canadian government announced plans to decriminalize marijuana.\",\n \"David Murray, an assistant to U.S. Drug Czar John P. Walters, said in a CBC interview that, \\\"We would have to respond.\",\n \"We would be forced to respond.\\\"\",\n \"However the election of the Conservative Party in early 2006 halted the liberalization of marijuana laws for the foreseeable future.\",\n \"A 2007 joint report by American and Canadian officials on cross-border drug smuggling indicated that, despite their best efforts, \\\"drug trafficking still occurs in significant quantities in both directions across the border.\",\n \"The principal illicit substances smuggled across our shared border are MDMA (''Ecstasy''), cocaine, and marijuana.\\\"\",\n \"The report indicated that Canada was a major producer of ''Ecstasy'' and marijuana for the U.S. market, while the U.S. was a transit country for cocaine entering Canada.\",\n \"RCMP honor guards wait for Air Force One in Ottawa.\",\n \"===Views of presidents and prime ministers===\\nPresidents and prime ministers typically make formal or informal statements that indicate the diplomatic policy of their administration.\",\n \"Diplomats and journalists at the time—and historians since—dissect the nuances and tone to detect the warmth or coolness of the relationship.\",\n \"* Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, speaking at the beginning of the 1891 election (fought mostly over Canadian free trade with the United States), arguing against closer trade relations with the U.S. stated \\\"As for myself, my course is clear.\",\n \"A British subject I was born—a British subject I will die.\",\n \"With my utmost effort, with my latest breath, will I oppose the ‘veiled treason’ which attempts by sordid means and mercenary proffers to lure our people from their allegiance.\\\"\",\n \"(February 3, 1891.)\",\n \"Canada's first Prime Minister also said:\\n\\n* Prime Minister John Sparrow Thompson, angry at failed trade talks in 1888, privately complained to his wife, Lady Thompson, that \\\"These Yankee politicians are the lowest race of thieves in existence.\\\"\",\n \"* After the World War II years of close military and economic cooperation, President Harry S. Truman said in 1947 that \\\"Canada and the United States have reached the point where we can no longer think of each other as 'foreign' countries.\\\"\",\n \"* President John F. Kennedy told Parliament in Ottawa in May 1961 that \\\"Geography has made us neighbors.\",\n \"History has made us friends.\",\n \"Economics has made us partners.\",\n \"And necessity has made us allies.\",\n \"Those whom nature hath so joined together, let no man put asunder.\\\"\",\n \"* President Lyndon Johnson helped open Expo '67 with an upbeat theme, saying that \\\"We of the United States consider ourselves blessed.\",\n \"We have much to give thanks for.\",\n \"But the gift of providence we cherish most is that we were given as our neighbours on this wonderful continent the people and the nation of Canada.\\\"\",\n \"Remarks at Expo '67, Montreal, May 25, 1967.\",\n \"* Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau famously said that being America's neighbour \\\"is like sleeping with an elephant.\",\n \"No matter how friendly and even-tempered the beast, if one can call it that, one is affected by every twitch and grunt.\\\"\",\n \"* Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau, sharply at odds with the U.S. over Cold War policy, warned at a press conference in 1971 that the overwhelming American presence posed \\\"a danger to our national identity from a cultural, economic and perhaps even military point of view.\\\"\",\n \"* President Richard Nixon, in a speech to Parliament in 1972 was angry at Trudeau, declared that the \\\"special relationship\\\" between Canada and the United States was dead.\",\n \"\\\"It is time for us to recognize,\\\" he stated, \\\"that we have very separate identities; that we have significant differences; and that nobody's interests are furthered when these realities are obscured.\\\"\",\n \"* In late 2001, President George W. Bush did not mention Canada during a speech in which he thanked a list of countries who had assisted in responding to the events of September 11, although Canada had provided military, financial, and other support.\",\n \"Ten years later, David Frum, one of President Bush's speechwriters, stated that it was an unintentional omission.\",\n \"* Prime Minister Stephen Harper, in a statement congratulating Barack Obama on his inauguration, stated that \\\"The United States remains Canada's most important ally, closest friend and largest trading partner and I look forward to working with President Obama and his administration as we build on this special relationship.\\\"\",\n \"* President Barack Obama, speaking in Ottawa at his first official international visit in February 19, 2009, said, \\\"I love this country.\",\n \"We could not have a better friend and ally.\\\"\",\n \"===Canadian public opinion on U.S. presidents===\\nUnited States President George W. Bush was \\\"deeply disliked\\\" by a majority of Canadians according to the ''Arizona Daily Sun''.\",\n \"A 2004 poll found that more than two thirds of Canadians favoured Democrat John Kerry over Bush in the 2004 presidential election, with Bush's lowest approval ratings in Canada being in the province of Quebec where just 11% of the population supported him.\",\n \"Canadian public opinion of Barack Obama was significantly more positive.\",\n \"A 2012 poll found that 65% of Canadians would vote for Obama in the 2012 presidential election \\\"if they could\\\" while only 9% of Canadians would vote for his Republican opponent Mitt Romney.\",\n \"The same study found that 61% of Canadians felt that the Obama administration had been \\\"good\\\" for America, while only 12% felt it had been \\\"bad\\\".\",\n \"Similarly, a Pew Research poll conducted in June 2016 found that 83% of Canadians were \\\"confident in Obama to do the right thing regarding world affairs\\\".\",\n \"The study also found that a majority of members of all three major Canadian political parties supported Obama, and also found that Obama had slightly higher approval ratings in Canada in 2012 than he did in 2008.\",\n \"John Ibbitson of ''The Globe and Mail'' stated in 2012 that Canadians generally supported Democratic presidents over Republican presidents, citing how President Richard Nixon was \\\"never liked\\\" in Canada and that Canadians generally did not approve of Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's friendship with President Ronald Reagan.\",\n \"A January 2017 poll found that 66% of Canadians \\\"disapproved\\\" of Donald Trump, with 23% approving of him and 11% being \\\"unsure\\\".\",\n \"The poll also found that only 18% of Canadians believed Trump's presidency would have a positive impact on Canada, while 63% believed it would have a negative effect.\",\n \"===Territorial disputes===\\n\\n\\nThese include maritime boundary disputes:\\n* Dixon Entrance\\n* Beaufort Sea\\n* Strait of Juan de Fuca\\n* San Juan Islands\\n* Machias Seal Island and North Rock\\n\\nTerritorial land disputes:\\n* Aroostook War (Maine boundary)\\n* Alaska Boundary Dispute\\n* Pig War\\n\\nand disputes over the international status of the:\\n* Northwest Passage\\n* Inside Passage\\n\\n====Arctic disputes====\\n\\nA long-simmering dispute between Canada and the U.S. involves the issue of Canadian sovereignty over the Northwest Passage (the sea passages in the Arctic).\",\n \"Canada's assertion that the Northwest Passage represents internal (territorial) waters has been challenged by other countries, especially the U.S., which argue that these waters constitute an international strait (international waters).\",\n \"Canadians were alarmed when Americans drove the reinforced oil tanker through the Northwest Passage in 1969, followed by the icebreaker Polar Sea in 1985, which actually resulted in a minor diplomatic incident.\",\n \"In 1970, the Canadian parliament enacted the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, which asserts Canadian regulatory control over pollution within a 100-mile zone.\",\n \"In response, the United States in 1970 stated, \\\"We cannot accept the assertion of a Canadian claim that the Arctic waters are internal waters of Canada.\",\n \"...\",\n \"Such acceptance would jeopardize the freedom of navigation essential for United States naval activities worldwide.\\\"\",\n \"A compromise of sorts was reached in 1988, by an agreement on \\\"Arctic Cooperation,\\\" which pledges that voyages of American icebreakers \\\"will be undertaken with the consent of the Government of Canada.\\\"\",\n \"However the agreement did not alter either country's basic legal position.\",\n \"Paul Cellucci, the American ambassador to Canada, in 2005 suggested to Washington that it should recognize the straits as belonging to Canada.\",\n \"His advice was rejected and Harper took opposite positions.\",\n \"The U.S. opposes Harper's proposed plan to deploy military icebreakers in the Arctic to detect interlopers and assert Canadian sovereignty over those waters.\",\n \"\\n===Canadian missions in the United States===\\n\\nCanada's chief diplomatic mission to the United States is the Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C..\",\n \"It is further supported by many consulates located through United States.\",\n \"The Canadian Government maintains consulates-general in several major U.S. cities including: Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Detroit, Los Angeles, Miami, Minneapolis, New York City, San Francisco and Seattle.\",\n \"Canadian consular services are also available in Honolulu at the consulate of Australia through the Canada–Australia Consular Services Sharing Agreement.\",\n \"There are also Canadian trade offices located in Houston, Palo Alto and San Diego.\",\n \"===U.S.\",\n \"missions in Canada===\\nThe United States's chief diplomatic mission to Canada is the United States Embassy in Ottawa.\",\n \"It is further supported by many consulates located throughout Canada.\",\n \"The U.S government maintains consulates-general in several major Canadian cities including:\\nCalgary, Halifax, Montreal, Quebec City, Toronto, Vancouver and Winnipeg.\",\n \"The United States also maintains Virtual Presence Posts (VPP) in the: Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Southwestern Ontario and Yukon.\",\n \"\\n* Borders of Canada\\n* Comparison of Canadian and American economies\\n* Continental One Highway\\n* Etiquette in North America\\n* Foreign relations of Canada\\n* Foreign relations of the United States\\n* Garrison mentality\\n* Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America\\n* United States Border Patrol interior checkpoints\",\n \"\\n* \\n* Azzi, Stephen.\",\n \"''Reconcilable Differences: A History of Canada-US Relations'' (Oxford University Press, 2014)\\n* Behiels, Michael D. and Reginald C. Stuart, eds.\",\n \"''Transnationalism: Canada-United States History into the Twenty-First Century'' (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2010) 312 pp.\",\n \"online 2012 review\\n* Bothwell, Robert.\",\n \"''Your Country, My Country: A Unified History of the United States and Canada'' (2015), 400 pages; traces relations, shared values, and differences across the centuries\\n* Doran, Charles F., and James Patrick Sewell, \\\"Anti-Americanism in Canada,\\\" ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,'' Vol.\",\n \"497, Anti-Americanism: Origins and Context (May 1988), pp.\",\n \"105–119 in JSTOR\\n* Clarkson, Stephen.\",\n \"''Uncle Sam and Us: Globalization, Neoconservatism and the Canadian State'' (University of Toronto Press, 2002)\\n* Engler, Yves\\n* Ek, Carl, and Ian F. Fergusson.\",\n \"''Canada-U.S. Relations'' (Congressional Research Service, 2010) 2010 Report, by an agency of the U.S. Congress\\n** \\\"Report Highlight\\\" of 2010 report\\n* Granatstein, J. L. ''Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism'' (1997)\\n* Granatstein, J. L. and Norman Hillmer, ''For Better or for Worse: Canada and the United States to the 1990s'' (1991)\\n* Gravelle, Timothy B.\",\n \"\\\"Partisanship, Border Proximity, and Canadian Attitudes toward North American Integration.\\\"\",\n \"''International Journal of Public Opinion Research'' (2014) 26#4 pp: 453–474.\",\n \"* Gravelle, Timothy B.\",\n \"\\\"Love Thy Neighbo (u) r?\",\n \"Political Attitudes, Proximity and the Mutual Perceptions of the Canadian and American Publics.\\\"\",\n \"''Canadian Journal of Political Science'' (2014) 47#1 pp: 135–157.\",\n \"* Hale, Geoffrey.\",\n \"''So Near Yet So Far: The Public and Hidden Worlds of Canada-US Relations'' (University of British Columbia Press, 2012); 352 pages focus on 2001–2011\\n* Holland, Kenneth.\",\n \"\\\"The Canada–United States defence relationship: a partnership for the twenty-first century.\\\"\",\n \"''Canadian Foreign Policy Journal'' ahead-of-print (2015): 1–6.\",\n \"online\\n* Holmes, Ken.\",\n \"\\\"The Canadian Cognitive Bias and its Influence on Canada/US Relations.\\\"\",\n \"''International Social Science Review'' (2015) 90#1 online.\",\n \"* Holmes, John W. \\\"Impact of Domestic Political Factors on Canadian-American Relations: Canada,\\\" ''International Organization,'' Vol.\",\n \"28, No.\",\n \"4, Canada and the United States: Transnational and Transgovernmental Relations (Autumn, 1974), pp.\",\n \"611–635 in JSTOR\\n* Innes, Hugh, ed.\",\n \"''Americanization: Issues for the Seventies'' (McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1972).\",\n \"; re 1970s\\n* Lennox, Patrick.\",\n \"''At Home and Abroad: The Canada-U.S.\",\n \"Relationship and Canada's Place in the World'' (University of British Columbia Press; 2010) 192 pages; the post–World War II period.\",\n \"* Little, John Michael.\",\n \"\\\"Canada Discovered: Continentalist Perceptions of the Roosevelt Administration, 1939–1945,\\\" PhD dissertation.\",\n \"''Dissertation Abstracts International,'' 1978, Vol.\",\n \"38 Issue 9, p5696-5697\\n* Lumsden, Ian, ed.\",\n \"''The Americanization of Canada'', ed.\",\n \"... for the University League for Social Reform (U of Toronto Press, 1970).\",\n \"* McKercher, Asa.\",\n \"''Camelot and Canada: Canadian-American Relations in the Kennedy Era'' (Oxford UP, 2016).\",\n \"xii, 298 pp.\",\n \"* Graeme S. Mount and Edelgard Mahant, ''An Introduction to Canadian-American Relations'' (1984, updated 1989)\\n* Molloy, Patricia.\",\n \"''Canada/US and Other Unfriendly Relations: Before and After 9/11'' (Palgrave Macmillan; 2012) 192 pages; essays on various \\\"myths\\\"\\n* Mount, Graeme S. and Edelgard Mahant, ''Invisible and Inaudible in Washington: American Policies toward Canada during the Cold War'' (1999)\\n* Muirhead, Bruce.\",\n \"\\\"From Special Relationship to Third Option: Canada, the U.S., and the Nixon Shock,\\\" ''American Review of Canadian Studies,'' Vol.\",\n \"34, 2004 online edition\\n* Myers, Phillip E. ''Dissolving Tensions: Rapprochement and Resolution in British-American-Canadian Relations in the Treaty of Washington Era, 1865–1914'' (Kent State UP, 2015).\",\n \"x, 326 pp.\",\n \"* Pederson, William D. ed.\",\n \"''A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt'' (2011) online pp 517–41, covers FDR's policies\\n* Stuart, Reginald C. ''Dispersed Relations: Americans and Canadians in Upper North America'' (2007) excerpt and text search\\n* Tagg, James.. \\\"'And, We Burned down the White House, Too': American History, Canadian Undergraduates, and Nationalism,\\\" ''The History Teacher,'' 37#3 (May 2004), pp.\",\n \"309–334 in JSTOR\\n* Tansill, C. C. ''Canadian-American Relations, 1875–1911'' (1943)\\n* Thompson, John Herd, and Stephen J. Randall.\",\n \"''Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies'' (4th ed.\",\n \"McGill-Queen's UP, 2008), 387pp, the standard scholarly survey\\n\\n===Primary sources===\\n* Gallagher, Connell.\",\n \"\\\"The Senator George D. Aiken Papers: Sources for the Study of Canadian-American Relations, 1930–1974.\\\"\",\n \"''Archivaria'' 1#21 (1985) pp 176–79 online.\",\n \"* History of Canada – U.S. relations\\n* Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C.\\n* U.S. Embassy & Consulates in Canada\\n* Canadian Association of New York\\n* Canada and the United States, by Stephen Azzi and J.L.\",\n \"Granatstein\\n* Canadian-American Relations, by John English\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"river"}}},{"rowIdx":294,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\nThe Las Vegas Strip is renowned for its high concentration of casino resort hotels\n\nA '''casino''' is a facility which houses and accommodates certain types of gambling activities. The industry that deals in casinos is called the '''gaming industry'''. Casinos are most commonly built near or combined with hotels, restaurants, retail shopping, cruise ships or other tourist attractions. There is much debate over whether or not the social and economic consequences of casino gambling outweigh the initial revenue that may be generated. Some casinos are also known for hosting live entertainment events, such as stand-up comedy, concerts, and sporting events.\n","The term \"casino\" is a confusing linguistic false friend for translators.\n\n''Casino'' is of Italian origin; the root ''casa'' (house) originally meant a small country villa, summerhouse, or social club. During the 19th century, the term ''casino'' came to include other public buildings where pleasurable activities took place; such edifices were usually built on the grounds of a larger Italian villa or palazzo, and were used to host civic town functions, including dancing, gambling, music listening, and sports; examples in Italy include Villa Farnese and Villa Giulia, and in the US the Newport Casino in Newport, Rhode Island. In modern-day Italian, the term ''casino'' designates a bordello (also called ''casa chiusa'', literally \"closed house\"), while the gambling house is spelled ''casinò'' with an accent.\n\nNot all casinos were used for gaming. The Catalina Casino, a famous landmark overlooking Avalon Harbor on Santa Catalina Island, California, has never been used for traditional games of chance, which were already outlawed in California by the time it was built. The Copenhagen Casino was a theatre, known for the mass public meetings often held in its hall during the 1848 Revolution, which made Denmark a constitutional monarchy. Until 1937, it was a well-known Danish theatre. The Hanko Casino in Hanko, Finland—one of that town's most conspicuous landmarks—was never used for gambling. Rather, it was a banquet hall for the Russian nobility which frequented this spa resort in the late 19th century and is now used as a restaurant.\n\nIn military and non-military usage in German and Spanish, a ''casino'' or ''kasino'' is an officers' mess. In Italian—the source-language of the word—a ''casino'' is either a brothel, a mess, or a noisy environment, while a gaming house is called a ''casinò''.\n","The precise origin of gambling is unknown. It is generally believed that gambling in some form or another has been seen in almost every society in history. From the Ancient Greeks and Romans to Napoleon's France and Elizabethan England, much of history is filled with stories of entertainment based on games of chance.\n\nThe first known European gambling house, not called a casino although meeting the modern definition, was the Ridotto, established in Venice, Italy in 1638 by the Great Council of Venice to provide controlled gambling during the carnival season. It was closed in 1774 as the city government felt it was impoverishing the local gentry.\n\nIn American history, early gambling establishments were known as saloons. The creation and importance of saloons was greatly influenced by four major cities: New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago and San Francisco. It was in the saloons that travelers could find people to talk to, drink with, and often gamble with. During the early 20th century in America, gambling became outlawed and banned by state legislation and social reformers of the time. However, in 1931, gambling was legalized throughout the state of Nevada. America's first legalized casinos were set up in those places. In 1976 New Jersey allowed gambling in Atlantic City, now America's second largest gambling city.\n","Slot machines in Atlantic City. Slot machines are a standard attraction of casinos\nMost jurisdictions worldwide have a minimum gambling age (16 to 21 years of age in most countries which permit the operation of casinos).\n\nCustomers gamble by playing games of chance, in some cases with an element of skill, such as craps, roulette, baccarat, blackjack, and video poker. Most games played have mathematically determined odds that ensure the house has at all times an overall advantage over the players. This can be expressed more precisely by the notion of expected value, which is uniformly negative (from the player's perspective). This advantage is called the ''house edge''. In games such as poker where players play against each other, the house takes a commission called the rake. Casinos sometimes give out complimentary items or comps to gamblers.\n\n''Payout'' is the percentage of funds (\"winnings\") returned to players.\n\nCasinos in the United States say that a player staking money won from the casino is ''playing with the house's money''.\n\nVideo Lottery Machines (slot machines) have become one of the most popular forms of gambling in casinos. investigative reports have started calling into question whether the modern-day slot-machine is addictive.\n\n","Casino design—regarded as a psychological exercise—is an intricate process that involves optimising floor plan, décor and atmospherics to encourage consumer gambling.\n\nFactors influencing consumer gambling tendencies include sound, odour and lighting. Natasha Dow Schüll, an anthropologist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, highlights the audio directors at Silicon Gaming’s decision to make its slot machines resonate in, “the universally pleasant tone of C, sampling existing casino soundscapes to create a sound that would please but not clash”.\n\nDr. Alan Hirsch, founder of the Smell & Taste Treatment and Research Foundation in Chicago, studied the impact of certain scents on gamblers, discerning that a pleasant albeit unidentifiable odour released by Las Vegas slots machines generated approximately 50% more in daily revenue. He suggested that the scent acted as an aphrodisiac, facilitating a more aggressive form of gambling.\n\nCasino designer Roger Thomas is credited with implementing a successful, disruptive design for the Las Vegas Wynn Resorts’ casinos in 2008. He broke casino design convention by introducing natural sunlight and flora to appeal to a female demographic. Thomas inserted skylights and antique clocks, defying the commonplace notion that a casino should be a timeless space.\n","The following lists major casino markets in the world with casino revenue of over $1 billion USD as published in PricewaterhouseCoopers's report on \nthe outlook for the global casino market:\n\n===By region===\n\n\n Rank !! Location !! Casinos !! Revenue (2009)US$M !! Revenue (2010 Projected)US$M !! Revenue (2011 Projected)US$M\n\n 1 \n United States \n \n57,240\n56,500\n58,030\n\n 2 \n Asia Pacific \n \n21,845\n32,305\n41,259\n\n 3 \n Europe, Middle East, Africa \n \n17,259\n16,186\n16,452\n\n 4 \n Canada \n \n3,712\n3,835\n4,045\n\n 5 \n Latin America \n \n425\n528\n594\n\n \n '''Total'''\n \n'''100,481'''\n'''109,354'''\n'''120,380'''\n\n\n===By markets===\n\n\n Rank !! Location !! Casinos !! Revenue (2009)US$M !! Revenue (2010 Projected)US$M !! Revenue (2011 Projected)US$M\n\n 1 \n Macau \n 33 \n14,955\n22,445\n28,379\n\n 2 \n Las Vegas, Nevada \n 122 \n 10,247\n9,950\n10,300\n\n 3 \n Singapore \n 2 \n 2,119 \n2,750\n5,479\n\n 4 \n France \n 189 \n3,965\n3,909\n3,957\n\n 5 \n Atlantic City, New Jersey \n 12 \n3,943\n3,550\n3,330\n\n 6 \n Australia \n 11 \n2,697\n2,769\n2,847\n\n 7 \n South Korea \n 17 \n2,401\n2,430\n2,512\n\n 8 \n Germany \n 76 \n2,073\n2,055\n2,081\n\n 9 \n South Africa \n 36 \n1,845\n1,782\n2,012\n\n 10 \n United Kingdom \n 141 \n1,212\n1,193\n1,209\n\n 11 \n Poland \n 36 \n1,089\n1,091\n1,126\n\n 12 \n Niagara Falls, Canada \n 2 \n1,102\n1,114\n1,203\n\n\n===By company===\nAccording to Bloomberg, accumulated revenue of biggest casino operator companies worldwide amounted almost 55 billion US dollars as per 2011. SJM Holdings ltd. was the leading company in this field and earned 9.7 billion in 2011, followed by Las Vegas Sands Corp. (7.4 bn). The third biggest casino operator company (based on revenue) was Caesars Entertainment with revenue of 6.2 bn US dollar.\n\n===Significant sites===\nWhile there are casinos in many places, a few places have become well-known specifically for gambling. Perhaps the place almost defined by its casino is Monte Carlo, but other places are known as gambling centers.\n\n====Monte Carlo, Monaco====\n\nMonte Carlo has a famous casino popular with well-off visitors and is a tourist attraction in its own right. A song and a film named ''The Man Who Broke the Bank at Monte Carlo'' need no explanation—they clearly refer to the casino.\n\nMonte Carlo's Casino has also been depicted in many books including Ben Mezrich's ''Busting Vegas'', where a group of Massachusetts Institute of Technology students beat the casino out of nearly $1 000 000. This book is based on real people and events; however, many of those events are contested by main character Semyon Dukach.\n\nThe casino has made Monte Carlo so well known for games of chance that mathematical methods for solving various problems using many quasi-random numbers—numbers with the statistical distribution of numbers generated by chance—are formally known as Monte Carlo methods. Monte Carlo was part of the plot in a few James Bond novels and films.\n\n====Macau====\n\nThe Venetian Macao\nThe former Portuguese colony of Macau, a special administrative region of China since 1999, is a popular destination for visitors who wish to gamble. This started in Portuguese times, when Macau was popular with visitors from nearby British Hong Kong where gambling was more closely regulated. The Venetian Macao is currently the largest casino in the world. Macau also surpassed Las Vegas as the largest gambling market in the world.\n\n====Singapore====\nThe Marina Bay Sands\nSingapore is an up-and-coming destination for visitors wanting to gamble, although there are currently only two casinos (both foreign owned), in Singapore. The Marina Bay Sands is the most expensive standalone casino in the world, at a price of US$8 billion, and is among the world's ten most expensive buildings. The Resorts World Sentosa has the world's largest oceanarium.\n\n====United States====\n\nWith currently over 1,000 casinos, the United States has the largest number of casinos in the world. The number continues to grow steadily as more states seek to legalize casinos. 40 states now have some form of casino gambling. Relatively small places such as Las Vegas are best known for gambling; larger cities such as Chicago are not defined by their casinos in spite of the large turnover.\n\nThe Las Vegas Valley has the largest concentration of casinos in the United States. Based on revenue, Atlantic City, New Jersey ranks second, and the Chicago region third.\n\nTop American casino markets by revenue (2015 annual revenues):\n\n# Las Vegas Strip $6.348 billion\n# Atlantic City $2.426 billion\n# Chicago region $2.002 billion\n# New York City $1.400 billion\n# Detroit $1.376 billion\n# Baltimore–Washington Metropolitan Area $1.306 billion\n# Philadelphia $1.192 billion\n# Mississippi Gulf Coast $1.135 billion\n# St. Louis $1.007 billion\n# The Poconos $965.56 million\n# Lake Charles, Louisiana $907.51 million\n# Boulder Strip $784.35 million\n# Kansas City $782.05 million\n# Shreveport $732.51 million\n\nThe Nevada Gaming Control Board divides Clark County, which is coextensive with the Las Vegas metropolitan area, into seven market regions for reporting purposes.\n\nIndian gaming has been responsible for a rise in the number of casinos outside of Las Vegas and Atlantic City.\n","\nThousand Islands Casino\nGiven the large amounts of currency handled within a casino, both patrons and staff may be tempted to cheat and steal, in collusion or independently; most casinos have security measures to prevent this. Security cameras located throughout the casino are the most basic measure.\n\nModern casino security is usually divided between a physical security force and a specialized surveillance department. The physical security force usually patrols the casino and responds to calls for assistance and reports of suspicious or definite criminal activity. A specialized surveillance department operates the casino's closed circuit television system, known in the industry as the eye in the sky. Both of these specialized casino security departments work very closely with each other to ensure the safety of both guests and the casino's assets, and have been quite successful in preventing crime. Some casinos also have catwalks in the ceiling above the casino floor, which allow surveillance personnel to look directly down, through one way glass, on the activities at the tables and slot machines.\n\nWhen it opened in 1989, The Mirage was the first casino to use cameras full-time on all table games.\n\nIn addition to cameras and other technological measures, casinos also enforce security through rules of conduct and behavior; for example, players at card games are required to keep the cards they are holding in their hands visible at all times.\n","Over the past few decades, casinos have developed many different marketing techniques for attracting and maintaining loyal patrons. Many casinos use a loyalty rewards program used to track players' spending habits and target their patrons more effectively, by sending mailings with free slot play and other promotions.\n","One area of controversy surrounding casinos is their relationship to crime rates. Economic studies that show a positive relationship between casinos and crime usually fail to consider the visiting population at risk when they calculate the crime rate in casino areas. Such studies thus count the crimes committed by visitors, but do not count visitors in the population measure, and this overstates the crime rates in casino areas. Part of the reason this methodology is used, despite it leading to an overstatement of crime rates is that reliable data on tourist count are often not available.\nIn a 2004 report by the US Department of Justice, researchers interviewed people who had been arrested in Las Vegas and Des Moines and found that the percentage of problem or pathological gamblers among the arrestees was three to five times higher than in the general population. According to some police reports, incidences of reported crime often double and triple in communities within three years of a casino opening.\n","\nFile:Casino Estoril.jpg|Portugal's Casino Estoril, near Lisbon, is the largest in Europe\nFile:Casino at RWS.jpg|Entrance to the casino at Resorts World Sentosa, Singapore\nFile:ResortsWorldManilajfjf9934_08.JPG|Entrance to the casino at Resort World Manila, Philippines\nFile:Casino Royale & hotel.jpg|The Casino Royale Hotel & Casino in Paradise, Nevada, United States\nFile:Marina Bay Sands in the evening - 20101120.jpg|View of the Marina Bay Sands in Marina Bay, Singapore\nFile:Venetian Las Vegas, NV.jpg|The Venetian in Paradise is also the headquarters of casino giant Las Vegas Sands.\nFile:The venetian macao outside night.jpg|The Venetian Macau in Macau owned by Las Vegas Sands.\nFile:Real Monte Carlo Casino.jpg|View of the Monte Carlo Casino, Monaco.\nFile:Borgata_Slots,_Atlantic_City,_Feb_2016.jpg|Slot machines at the Borgata Hotel Casino & Spa in Atlantic City, New Jersey, USA.\nFile:Bally's Casino- Poker Table (26741374976).jpg|Bally's Casino- Poker Table, Las Vegas USA.\n\n","\n* American Gaming Association\n* Black Book (gaming)\n* Casino hotel\n** List of casino hotels\n* Casino token\n* European Gaming & Amusement Federation\n* Gambling in Macau\n* Gaming in Mexico\n* Gambling in the United States\n* Gambling in Manila\n* Gaming Control Boards\n* Gaming law\n* Global Gaming Expo\n* List of casinos\n* Locals casino\n* Native American gaming\n* Online casino\n* Online gambling\n* Online poker\n* Sports betting\n\n","\n","\n\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\nThe Las Vegas Strip is renowned for its high concentration of casino resort hotels\\n\\nA '''casino''' is a facility which houses and accommodates certain types of gambling activities. The industry that deals in casinos is called the '''gaming industry'''. Casinos are most commonly built near or combined with hotels, restaurants, retail shopping, cruise ships or other tourist attractions. There is much debate over whether or not the social and economic consequences of casino gambling outweigh the initial revenue that may be generated. Some casinos are also known for hosting live entertainment events, such as stand-up comedy, concerts, and sporting events.\\n\",\n \"The term \\\"casino\\\" is a confusing linguistic false friend for translators.\\n\\n''Casino'' is of Italian origin; the root ''casa'' (house) originally meant a small country villa, summerhouse, or social club. During the 19th century, the term ''casino'' came to include other public buildings where pleasurable activities took place; such edifices were usually built on the grounds of a larger Italian villa or palazzo, and were used to host civic town functions, including dancing, gambling, music listening, and sports; examples in Italy include Villa Farnese and Villa Giulia, and in the US the Newport Casino in Newport, Rhode Island. In modern-day Italian, the term ''casino'' designates a bordello (also called ''casa chiusa'', literally \\\"closed house\\\"), while the gambling house is spelled ''casinò'' with an accent.\\n\\nNot all casinos were used for gaming. The Catalina Casino, a famous landmark overlooking Avalon Harbor on Santa Catalina Island, California, has never been used for traditional games of chance, which were already outlawed in California by the time it was built. The Copenhagen Casino was a theatre, known for the mass public meetings often held in its hall during the 1848 Revolution, which made Denmark a constitutional monarchy. Until 1937, it was a well-known Danish theatre. The Hanko Casino in Hanko, Finland—one of that town's most conspicuous landmarks—was never used for gambling. Rather, it was a banquet hall for the Russian nobility which frequented this spa resort in the late 19th century and is now used as a restaurant.\\n\\nIn military and non-military usage in German and Spanish, a ''casino'' or ''kasino'' is an officers' mess. In Italian—the source-language of the word—a ''casino'' is either a brothel, a mess, or a noisy environment, while a gaming house is called a ''casinò''.\\n\",\n \"The precise origin of gambling is unknown. It is generally believed that gambling in some form or another has been seen in almost every society in history. From the Ancient Greeks and Romans to Napoleon's France and Elizabethan England, much of history is filled with stories of entertainment based on games of chance.\\n\\nThe first known European gambling house, not called a casino although meeting the modern definition, was the Ridotto, established in Venice, Italy in 1638 by the Great Council of Venice to provide controlled gambling during the carnival season. It was closed in 1774 as the city government felt it was impoverishing the local gentry.\\n\\nIn American history, early gambling establishments were known as saloons. The creation and importance of saloons was greatly influenced by four major cities: New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago and San Francisco. It was in the saloons that travelers could find people to talk to, drink with, and often gamble with. During the early 20th century in America, gambling became outlawed and banned by state legislation and social reformers of the time. However, in 1931, gambling was legalized throughout the state of Nevada. America's first legalized casinos were set up in those places. In 1976 New Jersey allowed gambling in Atlantic City, now America's second largest gambling city.\\n\",\n \"Slot machines in Atlantic City. Slot machines are a standard attraction of casinos\\nMost jurisdictions worldwide have a minimum gambling age (16 to 21 years of age in most countries which permit the operation of casinos).\\n\\nCustomers gamble by playing games of chance, in some cases with an element of skill, such as craps, roulette, baccarat, blackjack, and video poker. Most games played have mathematically determined odds that ensure the house has at all times an overall advantage over the players. This can be expressed more precisely by the notion of expected value, which is uniformly negative (from the player's perspective). This advantage is called the ''house edge''. In games such as poker where players play against each other, the house takes a commission called the rake. Casinos sometimes give out complimentary items or comps to gamblers.\\n\\n''Payout'' is the percentage of funds (\\\"winnings\\\") returned to players.\\n\\nCasinos in the United States say that a player staking money won from the casino is ''playing with the house's money''.\\n\\nVideo Lottery Machines (slot machines) have become one of the most popular forms of gambling in casinos. investigative reports have started calling into question whether the modern-day slot-machine is addictive.\\n\\n\",\n \"Casino design—regarded as a psychological exercise—is an intricate process that involves optimising floor plan, décor and atmospherics to encourage consumer gambling.\\n\\nFactors influencing consumer gambling tendencies include sound, odour and lighting. Natasha Dow Schüll, an anthropologist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, highlights the audio directors at Silicon Gaming’s decision to make its slot machines resonate in, “the universally pleasant tone of C, sampling existing casino soundscapes to create a sound that would please but not clash”.\\n\\nDr. Alan Hirsch, founder of the Smell & Taste Treatment and Research Foundation in Chicago, studied the impact of certain scents on gamblers, discerning that a pleasant albeit unidentifiable odour released by Las Vegas slots machines generated approximately 50% more in daily revenue. He suggested that the scent acted as an aphrodisiac, facilitating a more aggressive form of gambling.\\n\\nCasino designer Roger Thomas is credited with implementing a successful, disruptive design for the Las Vegas Wynn Resorts’ casinos in 2008. He broke casino design convention by introducing natural sunlight and flora to appeal to a female demographic. Thomas inserted skylights and antique clocks, defying the commonplace notion that a casino should be a timeless space.\\n\",\n \"The following lists major casino markets in the world with casino revenue of over $1 billion USD as published in PricewaterhouseCoopers's report on \\nthe outlook for the global casino market:\\n\\n===By region===\\n\\n\\n Rank !! Location !! Casinos !! Revenue (2009)US$M !! Revenue (2010 Projected)US$M !! Revenue (2011 Projected)US$M\\n\\n 1 \\n United States \\n \\n57,240\\n56,500\\n58,030\\n\\n 2 \\n Asia Pacific \\n \\n21,845\\n32,305\\n41,259\\n\\n 3 \\n Europe, Middle East, Africa \\n \\n17,259\\n16,186\\n16,452\\n\\n 4 \\n Canada \\n \\n3,712\\n3,835\\n4,045\\n\\n 5 \\n Latin America \\n \\n425\\n528\\n594\\n\\n \\n '''Total'''\\n \\n'''100,481'''\\n'''109,354'''\\n'''120,380'''\\n\\n\\n===By markets===\\n\\n\\n Rank !! Location !! Casinos !! Revenue (2009)US$M !! Revenue (2010 Projected)US$M !! Revenue (2011 Projected)US$M\\n\\n 1 \\n Macau \\n 33 \\n14,955\\n22,445\\n28,379\\n\\n 2 \\n Las Vegas, Nevada \\n 122 \\n 10,247\\n9,950\\n10,300\\n\\n 3 \\n Singapore \\n 2 \\n 2,119 \\n2,750\\n5,479\\n\\n 4 \\n France \\n 189 \\n3,965\\n3,909\\n3,957\\n\\n 5 \\n Atlantic City, New Jersey \\n 12 \\n3,943\\n3,550\\n3,330\\n\\n 6 \\n Australia \\n 11 \\n2,697\\n2,769\\n2,847\\n\\n 7 \\n South Korea \\n 17 \\n2,401\\n2,430\\n2,512\\n\\n 8 \\n Germany \\n 76 \\n2,073\\n2,055\\n2,081\\n\\n 9 \\n South Africa \\n 36 \\n1,845\\n1,782\\n2,012\\n\\n 10 \\n United Kingdom \\n 141 \\n1,212\\n1,193\\n1,209\\n\\n 11 \\n Poland \\n 36 \\n1,089\\n1,091\\n1,126\\n\\n 12 \\n Niagara Falls, Canada \\n 2 \\n1,102\\n1,114\\n1,203\\n\\n\\n===By company===\\nAccording to Bloomberg, accumulated revenue of biggest casino operator companies worldwide amounted almost 55 billion US dollars as per 2011. SJM Holdings ltd. was the leading company in this field and earned 9.7 billion in 2011, followed by Las Vegas Sands Corp. (7.4 bn). The third biggest casino operator company (based on revenue) was Caesars Entertainment with revenue of 6.2 bn US dollar.\\n\\n===Significant sites===\\nWhile there are casinos in many places, a few places have become well-known specifically for gambling. Perhaps the place almost defined by its casino is Monte Carlo, but other places are known as gambling centers.\\n\\n====Monte Carlo, Monaco====\\n\\nMonte Carlo has a famous casino popular with well-off visitors and is a tourist attraction in its own right. A song and a film named ''The Man Who Broke the Bank at Monte Carlo'' need no explanation—they clearly refer to the casino.\\n\\nMonte Carlo's Casino has also been depicted in many books including Ben Mezrich's ''Busting Vegas'', where a group of Massachusetts Institute of Technology students beat the casino out of nearly $1 000 000. This book is based on real people and events; however, many of those events are contested by main character Semyon Dukach.\\n\\nThe casino has made Monte Carlo so well known for games of chance that mathematical methods for solving various problems using many quasi-random numbers—numbers with the statistical distribution of numbers generated by chance—are formally known as Monte Carlo methods. Monte Carlo was part of the plot in a few James Bond novels and films.\\n\\n====Macau====\\n\\nThe Venetian Macao\\nThe former Portuguese colony of Macau, a special administrative region of China since 1999, is a popular destination for visitors who wish to gamble. This started in Portuguese times, when Macau was popular with visitors from nearby British Hong Kong where gambling was more closely regulated. The Venetian Macao is currently the largest casino in the world. Macau also surpassed Las Vegas as the largest gambling market in the world.\\n\\n====Singapore====\\nThe Marina Bay Sands\\nSingapore is an up-and-coming destination for visitors wanting to gamble, although there are currently only two casinos (both foreign owned), in Singapore. The Marina Bay Sands is the most expensive standalone casino in the world, at a price of US$8 billion, and is among the world's ten most expensive buildings. The Resorts World Sentosa has the world's largest oceanarium.\\n\\n====United States====\\n\\nWith currently over 1,000 casinos, the United States has the largest number of casinos in the world. The number continues to grow steadily as more states seek to legalize casinos. 40 states now have some form of casino gambling. Relatively small places such as Las Vegas are best known for gambling; larger cities such as Chicago are not defined by their casinos in spite of the large turnover.\\n\\nThe Las Vegas Valley has the largest concentration of casinos in the United States. Based on revenue, Atlantic City, New Jersey ranks second, and the Chicago region third.\\n\\nTop American casino markets by revenue (2015 annual revenues):\\n\\n# Las Vegas Strip $6.348 billion\\n# Atlantic City $2.426 billion\\n# Chicago region $2.002 billion\\n# New York City $1.400 billion\\n# Detroit $1.376 billion\\n# Baltimore–Washington Metropolitan Area $1.306 billion\\n# Philadelphia $1.192 billion\\n# Mississippi Gulf Coast $1.135 billion\\n# St. Louis $1.007 billion\\n# The Poconos $965.56 million\\n# Lake Charles, Louisiana $907.51 million\\n# Boulder Strip $784.35 million\\n# Kansas City $782.05 million\\n# Shreveport $732.51 million\\n\\nThe Nevada Gaming Control Board divides Clark County, which is coextensive with the Las Vegas metropolitan area, into seven market regions for reporting purposes.\\n\\nIndian gaming has been responsible for a rise in the number of casinos outside of Las Vegas and Atlantic City.\\n\",\n \"\\nThousand Islands Casino\\nGiven the large amounts of currency handled within a casino, both patrons and staff may be tempted to cheat and steal, in collusion or independently; most casinos have security measures to prevent this. Security cameras located throughout the casino are the most basic measure.\\n\\nModern casino security is usually divided between a physical security force and a specialized surveillance department. The physical security force usually patrols the casino and responds to calls for assistance and reports of suspicious or definite criminal activity. A specialized surveillance department operates the casino's closed circuit television system, known in the industry as the eye in the sky. Both of these specialized casino security departments work very closely with each other to ensure the safety of both guests and the casino's assets, and have been quite successful in preventing crime. Some casinos also have catwalks in the ceiling above the casino floor, which allow surveillance personnel to look directly down, through one way glass, on the activities at the tables and slot machines.\\n\\nWhen it opened in 1989, The Mirage was the first casino to use cameras full-time on all table games.\\n\\nIn addition to cameras and other technological measures, casinos also enforce security through rules of conduct and behavior; for example, players at card games are required to keep the cards they are holding in their hands visible at all times.\\n\",\n \"Over the past few decades, casinos have developed many different marketing techniques for attracting and maintaining loyal patrons. Many casinos use a loyalty rewards program used to track players' spending habits and target their patrons more effectively, by sending mailings with free slot play and other promotions.\\n\",\n \"One area of controversy surrounding casinos is their relationship to crime rates. Economic studies that show a positive relationship between casinos and crime usually fail to consider the visiting population at risk when they calculate the crime rate in casino areas. Such studies thus count the crimes committed by visitors, but do not count visitors in the population measure, and this overstates the crime rates in casino areas. Part of the reason this methodology is used, despite it leading to an overstatement of crime rates is that reliable data on tourist count are often not available.\\nIn a 2004 report by the US Department of Justice, researchers interviewed people who had been arrested in Las Vegas and Des Moines and found that the percentage of problem or pathological gamblers among the arrestees was three to five times higher than in the general population. According to some police reports, incidences of reported crime often double and triple in communities within three years of a casino opening.\\n\",\n \"\\nFile:Casino Estoril.jpg|Portugal's Casino Estoril, near Lisbon, is the largest in Europe\\nFile:Casino at RWS.jpg|Entrance to the casino at Resorts World Sentosa, Singapore\\nFile:ResortsWorldManilajfjf9934_08.JPG|Entrance to the casino at Resort World Manila, Philippines\\nFile:Casino Royale & hotel.jpg|The Casino Royale Hotel & Casino in Paradise, Nevada, United States\\nFile:Marina Bay Sands in the evening - 20101120.jpg|View of the Marina Bay Sands in Marina Bay, Singapore\\nFile:Venetian Las Vegas, NV.jpg|The Venetian in Paradise is also the headquarters of casino giant Las Vegas Sands.\\nFile:The venetian macao outside night.jpg|The Venetian Macau in Macau owned by Las Vegas Sands.\\nFile:Real Monte Carlo Casino.jpg|View of the Monte Carlo Casino, Monaco.\\nFile:Borgata_Slots,_Atlantic_City,_Feb_2016.jpg|Slot machines at the Borgata Hotel Casino & Spa in Atlantic City, New Jersey, USA.\\nFile:Bally's Casino- Poker Table (26741374976).jpg|Bally's Casino- Poker Table, Las Vegas USA.\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n* American Gaming Association\\n* Black Book (gaming)\\n* Casino hotel\\n** List of casino hotels\\n* Casino token\\n* European Gaming & Amusement Federation\\n* Gambling in Macau\\n* Gaming in Mexico\\n* Gambling in the United States\\n* Gambling in Manila\\n* Gaming Control Boards\\n* Gaming law\\n* Global Gaming Expo\\n* List of casinos\\n* Locals casino\\n* Native American gaming\\n* Online casino\\n* Online gambling\\n* Online poker\\n* Sports betting\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n* \\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction","Etymology and usage","History of gambling houses","Gambling in casinos","Design","Markets","Security","Business practices","Crime","Gallery","See also","References","External links"],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \"Etymology and usage\",\n \"History of gambling houses\",\n \"Gambling in casinos\",\n \"Design\",\n \"Markets\",\n \"Security\",\n \"Business practices\",\n \"Crime\",\n \"Gallery\",\n \"See also\",\n \"References\",\n \"External links\"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Casino"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["A song and a film named ''The Man Who Broke the Bank at Monte Carlo'' need no explanation—they clearly refer to the casino."],"string":"[\n \"A song and a film named ''The Man Who Broke the Bank at Monte Carlo'' need no explanation—they clearly refer to the casino.\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\nThe Las Vegas Strip is renowned for its high concentration of casino resort hotels\n\nA '''casino''' is a facility which houses and accommodates certain types of gambling activities.","The industry that deals in casinos is called the '''gaming industry'''.","Casinos are most commonly built near or combined with hotels, restaurants, retail shopping, cruise ships or other tourist attractions.","There is much debate over whether or not the social and economic consequences of casino gambling outweigh the initial revenue that may be generated.","Some casinos are also known for hosting live entertainment events, such as stand-up comedy, concerts, and sporting events.","The term \"casino\" is a confusing linguistic false friend for translators.","''Casino'' is of Italian origin; the root ''casa'' (house) originally meant a small country villa, summerhouse, or social club.","During the 19th century, the term ''casino'' came to include other public buildings where pleasurable activities took place; such edifices were usually built on the grounds of a larger Italian villa or palazzo, and were used to host civic town functions, including dancing, gambling, music listening, and sports; examples in Italy include Villa Farnese and Villa Giulia, and in the US the Newport Casino in Newport, Rhode Island.","In modern-day Italian, the term ''casino'' designates a bordello (also called ''casa chiusa'', literally \"closed house\"), while the gambling house is spelled ''casinò'' with an accent.","Not all casinos were used for gaming.","The Catalina Casino, a famous landmark overlooking Avalon Harbor on Santa Catalina Island, California, has never been used for traditional games of chance, which were already outlawed in California by the time it was built.","The Copenhagen Casino was a theatre, known for the mass public meetings often held in its hall during the 1848 Revolution, which made Denmark a constitutional monarchy.","Until 1937, it was a well-known Danish theatre.","The Hanko Casino in Hanko, Finland—one of that town's most conspicuous landmarks—was never used for gambling.","Rather, it was a banquet hall for the Russian nobility which frequented this spa resort in the late 19th century and is now used as a restaurant.","In military and non-military usage in German and Spanish, a ''casino'' or ''kasino'' is an officers' mess.","In Italian—the source-language of the word—a ''casino'' is either a brothel, a mess, or a noisy environment, while a gaming house is called a ''casinò''.","The precise origin of gambling is unknown.","It is generally believed that gambling in some form or another has been seen in almost every society in history.","From the Ancient Greeks and Romans to Napoleon's France and Elizabethan England, much of history is filled with stories of entertainment based on games of chance.","The first known European gambling house, not called a casino although meeting the modern definition, was the Ridotto, established in Venice, Italy in 1638 by the Great Council of Venice to provide controlled gambling during the carnival season.","It was closed in 1774 as the city government felt it was impoverishing the local gentry.","In American history, early gambling establishments were known as saloons.","The creation and importance of saloons was greatly influenced by four major cities: New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago and San Francisco.","It was in the saloons that travelers could find people to talk to, drink with, and often gamble with.","During the early 20th century in America, gambling became outlawed and banned by state legislation and social reformers of the time.","However, in 1931, gambling was legalized throughout the state of Nevada.","America's first legalized casinos were set up in those places.","In 1976 New Jersey allowed gambling in Atlantic City, now America's second largest gambling city.","Slot machines in Atlantic City.","Slot machines are a standard attraction of casinos\nMost jurisdictions worldwide have a minimum gambling age (16 to 21 years of age in most countries which permit the operation of casinos).","Customers gamble by playing games of chance, in some cases with an element of skill, such as craps, roulette, baccarat, blackjack, and video poker.","Most games played have mathematically determined odds that ensure the house has at all times an overall advantage over the players.","This can be expressed more precisely by the notion of expected value, which is uniformly negative (from the player's perspective).","This advantage is called the ''house edge''.","In games such as poker where players play against each other, the house takes a commission called the rake.","Casinos sometimes give out complimentary items or comps to gamblers.","''Payout'' is the percentage of funds (\"winnings\") returned to players.","Casinos in the United States say that a player staking money won from the casino is ''playing with the house's money''.","Video Lottery Machines (slot machines) have become one of the most popular forms of gambling in casinos.","investigative reports have started calling into question whether the modern-day slot-machine is addictive.","Casino design—regarded as a psychological exercise—is an intricate process that involves optimising floor plan, décor and atmospherics to encourage consumer gambling.","Factors influencing consumer gambling tendencies include sound, odour and lighting.","Natasha Dow Schüll, an anthropologist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, highlights the audio directors at Silicon Gaming’s decision to make its slot machines resonate in, “the universally pleasant tone of C, sampling existing casino soundscapes to create a sound that would please but not clash”.","Dr. Alan Hirsch, founder of the Smell & Taste Treatment and Research Foundation in Chicago, studied the impact of certain scents on gamblers, discerning that a pleasant albeit unidentifiable odour released by Las Vegas slots machines generated approximately 50% more in daily revenue.","He suggested that the scent acted as an aphrodisiac, facilitating a more aggressive form of gambling.","Casino designer Roger Thomas is credited with implementing a successful, disruptive design for the Las Vegas Wynn Resorts’ casinos in 2008.","He broke casino design convention by introducing natural sunlight and flora to appeal to a female demographic.","Thomas inserted skylights and antique clocks, defying the commonplace notion that a casino should be a timeless space.","The following lists major casino markets in the world with casino revenue of over $1 billion USD as published in PricewaterhouseCoopers's report on \nthe outlook for the global casino market:\n\n===By region===\n\n\n Rank !","!","Location !","!","Casinos !","!","Revenue (2009)US$M !","!","Revenue (2010 Projected)US$M !","!","Revenue (2011 Projected)US$M\n\n 1 \n United States \n \n57,240\n56,500\n58,030\n\n 2 \n Asia Pacific \n \n21,845\n32,305\n41,259\n\n 3 \n Europe, Middle East, Africa \n \n17,259\n16,186\n16,452\n\n 4 \n Canada \n \n3,712\n3,835\n4,045\n\n 5 \n Latin America \n \n425\n528\n594\n\n \n '''Total'''\n \n'''100,481'''\n'''109,354'''\n'''120,380'''\n\n\n===By markets===\n\n\n Rank !","!","Location !","!","Casinos !","!","Revenue (2009)US$M !","!","Revenue (2010 Projected)US$M !","!","Revenue (2011 Projected)US$M\n\n 1 \n Macau \n 33 \n14,955\n22,445\n28,379\n\n 2 \n Las Vegas, Nevada \n 122 \n 10,247\n9,950\n10,300\n\n 3 \n Singapore \n 2 \n 2,119 \n2,750\n5,479\n\n 4 \n France \n 189 \n3,965\n3,909\n3,957\n\n 5 \n Atlantic City, New Jersey \n 12 \n3,943\n3,550\n3,330\n\n 6 \n Australia \n 11 \n2,697\n2,769\n2,847\n\n 7 \n South Korea \n 17 \n2,401\n2,430\n2,512\n\n 8 \n Germany \n 76 \n2,073\n2,055\n2,081\n\n 9 \n South Africa \n 36 \n1,845\n1,782\n2,012\n\n 10 \n United Kingdom \n 141 \n1,212\n1,193\n1,209\n\n 11 \n Poland \n 36 \n1,089\n1,091\n1,126\n\n 12 \n Niagara Falls, Canada \n 2 \n1,102\n1,114\n1,203\n\n\n===By company===\nAccording to Bloomberg, accumulated revenue of biggest casino operator companies worldwide amounted almost 55 billion US dollars as per 2011.","SJM Holdings ltd. was the leading company in this field and earned 9.7 billion in 2011, followed by Las Vegas Sands Corp. (7.4 bn).","The third biggest casino operator company (based on revenue) was Caesars Entertainment with revenue of 6.2 bn US dollar.","===Significant sites===\nWhile there are casinos in many places, a few places have become well-known specifically for gambling.","Perhaps the place almost defined by its casino is Monte Carlo, but other places are known as gambling centers.","====Monte Carlo, Monaco====\n\nMonte Carlo has a famous casino popular with well-off visitors and is a tourist attraction in its own right.","Monte Carlo's Casino has also been depicted in many books including Ben Mezrich's ''Busting Vegas'', where a group of Massachusetts Institute of Technology students beat the casino out of nearly $1 000 000.","This book is based on real people and events; however, many of those events are contested by main character Semyon Dukach.","The casino has made Monte Carlo so well known for games of chance that mathematical methods for solving various problems using many quasi-random numbers—numbers with the statistical distribution of numbers generated by chance—are formally known as Monte Carlo methods.","Monte Carlo was part of the plot in a few James Bond novels and films.","====Macau====\n\nThe Venetian Macao\nThe former Portuguese colony of Macau, a special administrative region of China since 1999, is a popular destination for visitors who wish to gamble.","This started in Portuguese times, when Macau was popular with visitors from nearby British Hong Kong where gambling was more closely regulated.","The Venetian Macao is currently the largest casino in the world.","Macau also surpassed Las Vegas as the largest gambling market in the world.","====Singapore====\nThe Marina Bay Sands\nSingapore is an up-and-coming destination for visitors wanting to gamble, although there are currently only two casinos (both foreign owned), in Singapore.","The Marina Bay Sands is the most expensive standalone casino in the world, at a price of US$8 billion, and is among the world's ten most expensive buildings.","The Resorts World Sentosa has the world's largest oceanarium.","====United States====\n\nWith currently over 1,000 casinos, the United States has the largest number of casinos in the world.","The number continues to grow steadily as more states seek to legalize casinos.","40 states now have some form of casino gambling.","Relatively small places such as Las Vegas are best known for gambling; larger cities such as Chicago are not defined by their casinos in spite of the large turnover.","The Las Vegas Valley has the largest concentration of casinos in the United States.","Based on revenue, Atlantic City, New Jersey ranks second, and the Chicago region third.","Top American casino markets by revenue (2015 annual revenues):\n\n# Las Vegas Strip $6.348 billion\n# Atlantic City $2.426 billion\n# Chicago region $2.002 billion\n# New York City $1.400 billion\n# Detroit $1.376 billion\n# Baltimore–Washington Metropolitan Area $1.306 billion\n# Philadelphia $1.192 billion\n# Mississippi Gulf Coast $1.135 billion\n# St. Louis $1.007 billion\n# The Poconos $965.56 million\n# Lake Charles, Louisiana $907.51 million\n# Boulder Strip $784.35 million\n# Kansas City $782.05 million\n# Shreveport $732.51 million\n\nThe Nevada Gaming Control Board divides Clark County, which is coextensive with the Las Vegas metropolitan area, into seven market regions for reporting purposes.","Indian gaming has been responsible for a rise in the number of casinos outside of Las Vegas and Atlantic City.","\nThousand Islands Casino\nGiven the large amounts of currency handled within a casino, both patrons and staff may be tempted to cheat and steal, in collusion or independently; most casinos have security measures to prevent this.","Security cameras located throughout the casino are the most basic measure.","Modern casino security is usually divided between a physical security force and a specialized surveillance department.","The physical security force usually patrols the casino and responds to calls for assistance and reports of suspicious or definite criminal activity.","A specialized surveillance department operates the casino's closed circuit television system, known in the industry as the eye in the sky.","Both of these specialized casino security departments work very closely with each other to ensure the safety of both guests and the casino's assets, and have been quite successful in preventing crime.","Some casinos also have catwalks in the ceiling above the casino floor, which allow surveillance personnel to look directly down, through one way glass, on the activities at the tables and slot machines.","When it opened in 1989, The Mirage was the first casino to use cameras full-time on all table games.","In addition to cameras and other technological measures, casinos also enforce security through rules of conduct and behavior; for example, players at card games are required to keep the cards they are holding in their hands visible at all times.","Over the past few decades, casinos have developed many different marketing techniques for attracting and maintaining loyal patrons.","Many casinos use a loyalty rewards program used to track players' spending habits and target their patrons more effectively, by sending mailings with free slot play and other promotions.","One area of controversy surrounding casinos is their relationship to crime rates.","Economic studies that show a positive relationship between casinos and crime usually fail to consider the visiting population at risk when they calculate the crime rate in casino areas.","Such studies thus count the crimes committed by visitors, but do not count visitors in the population measure, and this overstates the crime rates in casino areas.","Part of the reason this methodology is used, despite it leading to an overstatement of crime rates is that reliable data on tourist count are often not available.","In a 2004 report by the US Department of Justice, researchers interviewed people who had been arrested in Las Vegas and Des Moines and found that the percentage of problem or pathological gamblers among the arrestees was three to five times higher than in the general population.","According to some police reports, incidences of reported crime often double and triple in communities within three years of a casino opening.","\nFile:Casino Estoril.jpg|Portugal's Casino Estoril, near Lisbon, is the largest in Europe\nFile:Casino at RWS.jpg|Entrance to the casino at Resorts World Sentosa, Singapore\nFile:ResortsWorldManilajfjf9934_08.JPG|Entrance to the casino at Resort World Manila, Philippines\nFile:Casino Royale & hotel.jpg|The Casino Royale Hotel & Casino in Paradise, Nevada, United States\nFile:Marina Bay Sands in the evening - 20101120.jpg|View of the Marina Bay Sands in Marina Bay, Singapore\nFile:Venetian Las Vegas, NV.jpg|The Venetian in Paradise is also the headquarters of casino giant Las Vegas Sands.","File:The venetian macao outside night.jpg|The Venetian Macau in Macau owned by Las Vegas Sands.","File:Real Monte Carlo Casino.jpg|View of the Monte Carlo Casino, Monaco.","File:Borgata_Slots,_Atlantic_City,_Feb_2016.jpg|Slot machines at the Borgata Hotel Casino & Spa in Atlantic City, New Jersey, USA.","File:Bally's Casino- Poker Table (26741374976).jpg|Bally's Casino- Poker Table, Las Vegas USA.","\n* American Gaming Association\n* Black Book (gaming)\n* Casino hotel\n** List of casino hotels\n* Casino token\n* European Gaming & Amusement Federation\n* Gambling in Macau\n* Gaming in Mexico\n* Gambling in the United States\n* Gambling in Manila\n* Gaming Control Boards\n* Gaming law\n* Global Gaming Expo\n* List of casinos\n* Locals casino\n* Native American gaming\n* Online casino\n* Online gambling\n* Online poker\n* Sports betting","\n\n*"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\nThe Las Vegas Strip is renowned for its high concentration of casino resort hotels\\n\\nA '''casino''' is a facility which houses and accommodates certain types of gambling activities.\",\n \"The industry that deals in casinos is called the '''gaming industry'''.\",\n \"Casinos are most commonly built near or combined with hotels, restaurants, retail shopping, cruise ships or other tourist attractions.\",\n \"There is much debate over whether or not the social and economic consequences of casino gambling outweigh the initial revenue that may be generated.\",\n \"Some casinos are also known for hosting live entertainment events, such as stand-up comedy, concerts, and sporting events.\",\n \"The term \\\"casino\\\" is a confusing linguistic false friend for translators.\",\n \"''Casino'' is of Italian origin; the root ''casa'' (house) originally meant a small country villa, summerhouse, or social club.\",\n \"During the 19th century, the term ''casino'' came to include other public buildings where pleasurable activities took place; such edifices were usually built on the grounds of a larger Italian villa or palazzo, and were used to host civic town functions, including dancing, gambling, music listening, and sports; examples in Italy include Villa Farnese and Villa Giulia, and in the US the Newport Casino in Newport, Rhode Island.\",\n \"In modern-day Italian, the term ''casino'' designates a bordello (also called ''casa chiusa'', literally \\\"closed house\\\"), while the gambling house is spelled ''casinò'' with an accent.\",\n \"Not all casinos were used for gaming.\",\n \"The Catalina Casino, a famous landmark overlooking Avalon Harbor on Santa Catalina Island, California, has never been used for traditional games of chance, which were already outlawed in California by the time it was built.\",\n \"The Copenhagen Casino was a theatre, known for the mass public meetings often held in its hall during the 1848 Revolution, which made Denmark a constitutional monarchy.\",\n \"Until 1937, it was a well-known Danish theatre.\",\n \"The Hanko Casino in Hanko, Finland—one of that town's most conspicuous landmarks—was never used for gambling.\",\n \"Rather, it was a banquet hall for the Russian nobility which frequented this spa resort in the late 19th century and is now used as a restaurant.\",\n \"In military and non-military usage in German and Spanish, a ''casino'' or ''kasino'' is an officers' mess.\",\n \"In Italian—the source-language of the word—a ''casino'' is either a brothel, a mess, or a noisy environment, while a gaming house is called a ''casinò''.\",\n \"The precise origin of gambling is unknown.\",\n \"It is generally believed that gambling in some form or another has been seen in almost every society in history.\",\n \"From the Ancient Greeks and Romans to Napoleon's France and Elizabethan England, much of history is filled with stories of entertainment based on games of chance.\",\n \"The first known European gambling house, not called a casino although meeting the modern definition, was the Ridotto, established in Venice, Italy in 1638 by the Great Council of Venice to provide controlled gambling during the carnival season.\",\n \"It was closed in 1774 as the city government felt it was impoverishing the local gentry.\",\n \"In American history, early gambling establishments were known as saloons.\",\n \"The creation and importance of saloons was greatly influenced by four major cities: New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago and San Francisco.\",\n \"It was in the saloons that travelers could find people to talk to, drink with, and often gamble with.\",\n \"During the early 20th century in America, gambling became outlawed and banned by state legislation and social reformers of the time.\",\n \"However, in 1931, gambling was legalized throughout the state of Nevada.\",\n \"America's first legalized casinos were set up in those places.\",\n \"In 1976 New Jersey allowed gambling in Atlantic City, now America's second largest gambling city.\",\n \"Slot machines in Atlantic City.\",\n \"Slot machines are a standard attraction of casinos\\nMost jurisdictions worldwide have a minimum gambling age (16 to 21 years of age in most countries which permit the operation of casinos).\",\n \"Customers gamble by playing games of chance, in some cases with an element of skill, such as craps, roulette, baccarat, blackjack, and video poker.\",\n \"Most games played have mathematically determined odds that ensure the house has at all times an overall advantage over the players.\",\n \"This can be expressed more precisely by the notion of expected value, which is uniformly negative (from the player's perspective).\",\n \"This advantage is called the ''house edge''.\",\n \"In games such as poker where players play against each other, the house takes a commission called the rake.\",\n \"Casinos sometimes give out complimentary items or comps to gamblers.\",\n \"''Payout'' is the percentage of funds (\\\"winnings\\\") returned to players.\",\n \"Casinos in the United States say that a player staking money won from the casino is ''playing with the house's money''.\",\n \"Video Lottery Machines (slot machines) have become one of the most popular forms of gambling in casinos.\",\n \"investigative reports have started calling into question whether the modern-day slot-machine is addictive.\",\n \"Casino design—regarded as a psychological exercise—is an intricate process that involves optimising floor plan, décor and atmospherics to encourage consumer gambling.\",\n \"Factors influencing consumer gambling tendencies include sound, odour and lighting.\",\n \"Natasha Dow Schüll, an anthropologist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, highlights the audio directors at Silicon Gaming’s decision to make its slot machines resonate in, “the universally pleasant tone of C, sampling existing casino soundscapes to create a sound that would please but not clash”.\",\n \"Dr. Alan Hirsch, founder of the Smell & Taste Treatment and Research Foundation in Chicago, studied the impact of certain scents on gamblers, discerning that a pleasant albeit unidentifiable odour released by Las Vegas slots machines generated approximately 50% more in daily revenue.\",\n \"He suggested that the scent acted as an aphrodisiac, facilitating a more aggressive form of gambling.\",\n \"Casino designer Roger Thomas is credited with implementing a successful, disruptive design for the Las Vegas Wynn Resorts’ casinos in 2008.\",\n \"He broke casino design convention by introducing natural sunlight and flora to appeal to a female demographic.\",\n \"Thomas inserted skylights and antique clocks, defying the commonplace notion that a casino should be a timeless space.\",\n \"The following lists major casino markets in the world with casino revenue of over $1 billion USD as published in PricewaterhouseCoopers's report on \\nthe outlook for the global casino market:\\n\\n===By region===\\n\\n\\n Rank !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Location !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Casinos !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Revenue (2009)US$M !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Revenue (2010 Projected)US$M !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Revenue (2011 Projected)US$M\\n\\n 1 \\n United States \\n \\n57,240\\n56,500\\n58,030\\n\\n 2 \\n Asia Pacific \\n \\n21,845\\n32,305\\n41,259\\n\\n 3 \\n Europe, Middle East, Africa \\n \\n17,259\\n16,186\\n16,452\\n\\n 4 \\n Canada \\n \\n3,712\\n3,835\\n4,045\\n\\n 5 \\n Latin America \\n \\n425\\n528\\n594\\n\\n \\n '''Total'''\\n \\n'''100,481'''\\n'''109,354'''\\n'''120,380'''\\n\\n\\n===By markets===\\n\\n\\n Rank !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Location !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Casinos !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Revenue (2009)US$M !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Revenue (2010 Projected)US$M !\",\n \"!\",\n \"Revenue (2011 Projected)US$M\\n\\n 1 \\n Macau \\n 33 \\n14,955\\n22,445\\n28,379\\n\\n 2 \\n Las Vegas, Nevada \\n 122 \\n 10,247\\n9,950\\n10,300\\n\\n 3 \\n Singapore \\n 2 \\n 2,119 \\n2,750\\n5,479\\n\\n 4 \\n France \\n 189 \\n3,965\\n3,909\\n3,957\\n\\n 5 \\n Atlantic City, New Jersey \\n 12 \\n3,943\\n3,550\\n3,330\\n\\n 6 \\n Australia \\n 11 \\n2,697\\n2,769\\n2,847\\n\\n 7 \\n South Korea \\n 17 \\n2,401\\n2,430\\n2,512\\n\\n 8 \\n Germany \\n 76 \\n2,073\\n2,055\\n2,081\\n\\n 9 \\n South Africa \\n 36 \\n1,845\\n1,782\\n2,012\\n\\n 10 \\n United Kingdom \\n 141 \\n1,212\\n1,193\\n1,209\\n\\n 11 \\n Poland \\n 36 \\n1,089\\n1,091\\n1,126\\n\\n 12 \\n Niagara Falls, Canada \\n 2 \\n1,102\\n1,114\\n1,203\\n\\n\\n===By company===\\nAccording to Bloomberg, accumulated revenue of biggest casino operator companies worldwide amounted almost 55 billion US dollars as per 2011.\",\n \"SJM Holdings ltd. was the leading company in this field and earned 9.7 billion in 2011, followed by Las Vegas Sands Corp. (7.4 bn).\",\n \"The third biggest casino operator company (based on revenue) was Caesars Entertainment with revenue of 6.2 bn US dollar.\",\n \"===Significant sites===\\nWhile there are casinos in many places, a few places have become well-known specifically for gambling.\",\n \"Perhaps the place almost defined by its casino is Monte Carlo, but other places are known as gambling centers.\",\n \"====Monte Carlo, Monaco====\\n\\nMonte Carlo has a famous casino popular with well-off visitors and is a tourist attraction in its own right.\",\n \"Monte Carlo's Casino has also been depicted in many books including Ben Mezrich's ''Busting Vegas'', where a group of Massachusetts Institute of Technology students beat the casino out of nearly $1 000 000.\",\n \"This book is based on real people and events; however, many of those events are contested by main character Semyon Dukach.\",\n \"The casino has made Monte Carlo so well known for games of chance that mathematical methods for solving various problems using many quasi-random numbers—numbers with the statistical distribution of numbers generated by chance—are formally known as Monte Carlo methods.\",\n \"Monte Carlo was part of the plot in a few James Bond novels and films.\",\n \"====Macau====\\n\\nThe Venetian Macao\\nThe former Portuguese colony of Macau, a special administrative region of China since 1999, is a popular destination for visitors who wish to gamble.\",\n \"This started in Portuguese times, when Macau was popular with visitors from nearby British Hong Kong where gambling was more closely regulated.\",\n \"The Venetian Macao is currently the largest casino in the world.\",\n \"Macau also surpassed Las Vegas as the largest gambling market in the world.\",\n \"====Singapore====\\nThe Marina Bay Sands\\nSingapore is an up-and-coming destination for visitors wanting to gamble, although there are currently only two casinos (both foreign owned), in Singapore.\",\n \"The Marina Bay Sands is the most expensive standalone casino in the world, at a price of US$8 billion, and is among the world's ten most expensive buildings.\",\n \"The Resorts World Sentosa has the world's largest oceanarium.\",\n \"====United States====\\n\\nWith currently over 1,000 casinos, the United States has the largest number of casinos in the world.\",\n \"The number continues to grow steadily as more states seek to legalize casinos.\",\n \"40 states now have some form of casino gambling.\",\n \"Relatively small places such as Las Vegas are best known for gambling; larger cities such as Chicago are not defined by their casinos in spite of the large turnover.\",\n \"The Las Vegas Valley has the largest concentration of casinos in the United States.\",\n \"Based on revenue, Atlantic City, New Jersey ranks second, and the Chicago region third.\",\n \"Top American casino markets by revenue (2015 annual revenues):\\n\\n# Las Vegas Strip $6.348 billion\\n# Atlantic City $2.426 billion\\n# Chicago region $2.002 billion\\n# New York City $1.400 billion\\n# Detroit $1.376 billion\\n# Baltimore–Washington Metropolitan Area $1.306 billion\\n# Philadelphia $1.192 billion\\n# Mississippi Gulf Coast $1.135 billion\\n# St. Louis $1.007 billion\\n# The Poconos $965.56 million\\n# Lake Charles, Louisiana $907.51 million\\n# Boulder Strip $784.35 million\\n# Kansas City $782.05 million\\n# Shreveport $732.51 million\\n\\nThe Nevada Gaming Control Board divides Clark County, which is coextensive with the Las Vegas metropolitan area, into seven market regions for reporting purposes.\",\n \"Indian gaming has been responsible for a rise in the number of casinos outside of Las Vegas and Atlantic City.\",\n \"\\nThousand Islands Casino\\nGiven the large amounts of currency handled within a casino, both patrons and staff may be tempted to cheat and steal, in collusion or independently; most casinos have security measures to prevent this.\",\n \"Security cameras located throughout the casino are the most basic measure.\",\n \"Modern casino security is usually divided between a physical security force and a specialized surveillance department.\",\n \"The physical security force usually patrols the casino and responds to calls for assistance and reports of suspicious or definite criminal activity.\",\n \"A specialized surveillance department operates the casino's closed circuit television system, known in the industry as the eye in the sky.\",\n \"Both of these specialized casino security departments work very closely with each other to ensure the safety of both guests and the casino's assets, and have been quite successful in preventing crime.\",\n \"Some casinos also have catwalks in the ceiling above the casino floor, which allow surveillance personnel to look directly down, through one way glass, on the activities at the tables and slot machines.\",\n \"When it opened in 1989, The Mirage was the first casino to use cameras full-time on all table games.\",\n \"In addition to cameras and other technological measures, casinos also enforce security through rules of conduct and behavior; for example, players at card games are required to keep the cards they are holding in their hands visible at all times.\",\n \"Over the past few decades, casinos have developed many different marketing techniques for attracting and maintaining loyal patrons.\",\n \"Many casinos use a loyalty rewards program used to track players' spending habits and target their patrons more effectively, by sending mailings with free slot play and other promotions.\",\n \"One area of controversy surrounding casinos is their relationship to crime rates.\",\n \"Economic studies that show a positive relationship between casinos and crime usually fail to consider the visiting population at risk when they calculate the crime rate in casino areas.\",\n \"Such studies thus count the crimes committed by visitors, but do not count visitors in the population measure, and this overstates the crime rates in casino areas.\",\n \"Part of the reason this methodology is used, despite it leading to an overstatement of crime rates is that reliable data on tourist count are often not available.\",\n \"In a 2004 report by the US Department of Justice, researchers interviewed people who had been arrested in Las Vegas and Des Moines and found that the percentage of problem or pathological gamblers among the arrestees was three to five times higher than in the general population.\",\n \"According to some police reports, incidences of reported crime often double and triple in communities within three years of a casino opening.\",\n \"\\nFile:Casino Estoril.jpg|Portugal's Casino Estoril, near Lisbon, is the largest in Europe\\nFile:Casino at RWS.jpg|Entrance to the casino at Resorts World Sentosa, Singapore\\nFile:ResortsWorldManilajfjf9934_08.JPG|Entrance to the casino at Resort World Manila, Philippines\\nFile:Casino Royale & hotel.jpg|The Casino Royale Hotel & Casino in Paradise, Nevada, United States\\nFile:Marina Bay Sands in the evening - 20101120.jpg|View of the Marina Bay Sands in Marina Bay, Singapore\\nFile:Venetian Las Vegas, NV.jpg|The Venetian in Paradise is also the headquarters of casino giant Las Vegas Sands.\",\n \"File:The venetian macao outside night.jpg|The Venetian Macau in Macau owned by Las Vegas Sands.\",\n \"File:Real Monte Carlo Casino.jpg|View of the Monte Carlo Casino, Monaco.\",\n \"File:Borgata_Slots,_Atlantic_City,_Feb_2016.jpg|Slot machines at the Borgata Hotel Casino & Spa in Atlantic City, New Jersey, USA.\",\n \"File:Bally's Casino- Poker Table (26741374976).jpg|Bally's Casino- Poker Table, Las Vegas USA.\",\n \"\\n* American Gaming Association\\n* Black Book (gaming)\\n* Casino hotel\\n** List of casino hotels\\n* Casino token\\n* European Gaming & Amusement Federation\\n* Gambling in Macau\\n* Gaming in Mexico\\n* Gambling in the United States\\n* Gambling in Manila\\n* Gaming Control Boards\\n* Gaming law\\n* Global Gaming Expo\\n* List of casinos\\n* Locals casino\\n* Native American gaming\\n* Online casino\\n* Online gambling\\n* Online poker\\n* Sports betting\",\n \"\\n\\n*\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"finance"}}},{"rowIdx":295,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\nA '''central processing unit''' ('''CPU''') is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions. The computer industry has used the term \"central processing unit\" at least since the early 1960s. Traditionally, the term \"CPU\" refers to a '''processor''', more specifically to its processing unit and control unit (CU), distinguishing these core elements of a computer from external components such as main memory and I/O circuitry.\n\nThe form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, but their fundamental operation remains almost unchanged. Principal components of a CPU include the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that performs arithmetic and logic operations, processor registers that supply operands to the ALU and store the results of ALU operations, and a control unit that orchestrates the fetching (from memory) and execution of instructions by directing the coordinated operations of the ALU, registers and other components.\n\nMost modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit (IC) chip. An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, and other components of a computer; such integrated devices are variously called microcontrollers or systems on a chip (SoC). Some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called \"cores\"; in that context, one can speak of such single chips as \"sockets\". Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, with no unit considered central. There also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources.\n","\nEDVAC, one of the first stored-program computers\n\nEarly computers such as the ENIAC had to be physically rewired to perform different tasks, which caused these machines to be called \"fixed-program computers\". Since the term \"CPU\" is generally defined as a device for software (computer program) execution, the earliest devices that could rightly be called CPUs came with the advent of the stored-program computer.\n\nThe idea of a stored-program computer was already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchly's ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner. On June 30, 1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed the paper entitled ''First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC''. It was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949. EDVAC was designed to perform a certain number of instructions (or operations) of various types. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the physical wiring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time and effort required to reconfigure the computer to perform a new task. With von Neumann's design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory. EDVAC, however, was not the first stored-program computer; the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine, a small prototype stored-program computer, ran its first program on 21 June 1948 and the Manchester Mark 1 ran its first program during the night of 16–17 June 1949.\n\nEarly CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger and sometimes distinctive computer. However, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities. This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC). The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers. Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, and sometimes even in toys.\n\nWhile von Neumann is most often credited with the design of the stored-program computer because of his design of EDVAC, and the design became known as the von Neumann architecture, others before him, such as Konrad Zuse, had suggested and implemented similar ideas. The so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory. The key difference between the von Neumann and Harvard architectures is that the latter separates the storage and treatment of CPU instructions and data, while the former uses the same memory space for both. Most modern CPUs are primarily von Neumann in design, but CPUs with the Harvard architecture are seen as well, especially in embedded applications; for instance, the Atmel AVR microcontrollers are Harvard architecture processors.\n\nRelays and vacuum tubes (thermionic tubes) were commonly used as switching elements; a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches. Tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the (slower, but earlier) Harvard Mark I failed very rarely. In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems. Most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs. Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, limited largely by the speed of the switching devices they were built with.\n\n===Transistor CPUs===\nIBM PowerPC 604e processor\n\nThe design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices. The first such improvement came with the advent of the transistor. Transistorized CPUs during the 1950s and 1960s no longer had to be built out of bulky, unreliable, and fragile switching elements like vacuum tubes and relays. With this improvement more complex and reliable CPUs were built onto one or several printed circuit boards containing discrete (individual) components.\n\nIn 1964, IBM introduced its IBM System/360 computer architecture that was used in a series of computers capable of running the same programs with different speed and performance. This was significant at a time when most electronic computers were incompatible with one another, even those made by the same manufacturer. To facilitate this improvement, IBM utilized the concept of a microprogram (often called \"microcode\"), which still sees widespread usage in modern CPUs. The System/360 architecture was so popular that it dominated the mainframe computer market for decades and left a legacy that is still continued by similar modern computers like the IBM zSeries. In 1965, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced another influential computer aimed at the scientific and research markets, the PDP-8.\nFujitsu board with SPARC64 VIIIfx processors\nTransistor-based computers had several distinct advantages over their predecessors. Aside from facilitating increased reliability and lower power consumption, transistors also allowed CPUs to operate at much higher speeds because of the short switching time of a transistor in comparison to a tube or relay. The increased reliability and dramatically increased speed of the switching elements (which were almost exclusively transistors by this time), CPU clock rates in the tens of megahertz were easily obtained during this period. Additionally while discrete transistor and IC CPUs were in heavy usage, new high-performance designs like SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) vector processors began to appear. These early experimental designs later gave rise to the era of specialized supercomputers like those made by Cray Inc and Fujitsu Ltd.\n\n===Small-scale integration CPUs===\ncore memory, and external bus interface of a DEC PDP-8/I. Made of medium-scale integrated circuits.\n\nDuring this period, a method of manufacturing many interconnected transistors in a compact space was developed. The integrated circuit (IC) allowed a large number of transistors to be manufactured on a single semiconductor-based die, or \"chip\". At first, only very basic non-specialized digital circuits such as NOR gates were miniaturized into ICs. CPUs based on these \"building block\" ICs are generally referred to as \"small-scale integration\" (SSI) devices. SSI ICs, such as the ones used in the Apollo guidance computer, usually contained up to a few dozen transistors. To build an entire CPU out of SSI ICs required thousands of individual chips, but still consumed much less space and power than earlier discrete transistor designs.\n\nIBM's System/370 follow-on to the System/360 used SSI ICs rather than Solid Logic Technology discrete-transistor modules. DEC's PDP-8/I and KI10 PDP-10 also switched from the individual transistors used by the PDP-8 and PDP-10 to SSI ICs, and their extremely popular PDP-11 line was originally built with SSI ICs but was eventually implemented with LSI components once these became practical.\n\n===Large-scale integration CPUs===\nLee Boysel published influential articles, including a 1967 \"manifesto\", which described how to build the equivalent of a 32-bit mainframe computer from a relatively small number of large-scale integration circuits (LSI). At the time, the only way to build LSI chips, which are chips with a hundred or more gates, was to build them using a MOS process (i.e., PMOS logic, NMOS logic, or CMOS logic). However, some companies continued to build processors out of bipolar chips because bipolar junction transistors were so much faster than MOS chips; for example, Datapoint built processors out of transistor–transistor logic (TTL) chips until the early 1980s. At the time, MOS ICs were so slow that they were considered useful only in a few niche applications that required low power.\n\nAs the microelectronic technology advanced, an increasing number of transistors were placed on ICs, decreasing the number of individual ICs needed for a complete CPU. MSI and LSI ICs increased transistor counts to hundreds, and then thousands. By 1968, the number of ICs required to build a complete CPU had been reduced to 24 ICs of eight different types, with each IC containing roughly 1000 MOSFETs. In stark contrast with its SSI and MSI predecessors, the first LSI implementation of the PDP-11 contained a CPU composed of only four LSI integrated circuits.\n\n===Microprocessors===\n\n\n\nSince the introduction of the first commercially available microprocessor, the Intel 4004 in 1970, and the first widely used microprocessor, the Intel 8080 in 1974, this class of CPUs has almost completely overtaken all other central processing unit implementation methods. Mainframe and minicomputer manufacturers of the time launched proprietary IC development programs to upgrade their older computer architectures, and eventually produced instruction set compatible microprocessors that were backward-compatible with their older hardware and software. Combined with the advent and eventual success of the ubiquitous personal computer, the term ''CPU'' is now applied almost exclusively to microprocessors. Several CPUs (denoted ''cores'') can be combined in a single processing chip.\n\n\nPrevious generations of CPUs were implemented as discrete components and numerous small integrated circuits (ICs) on one or more circuit boards. Microprocessors, on the other hand, are CPUs manufactured on a very small number of ICs; usually just one. The overall smaller CPU size, as a result of being implemented on a single die, means faster switching time because of physical factors like decreased gate parasitic capacitance. This has allowed synchronous microprocessors to have clock rates ranging from tens of megahertz to several gigahertz. Additionally, the ability to construct exceedingly small transistors on an IC has increased the complexity and number of transistors in a single CPU many fold. This widely observed trend is described by Moore's law, which has proven to be a fairly accurate predictor of the growth of CPU (and other IC) complexity.\n\nWhile the complexity, size, construction, and general form of CPUs have changed enormously since 1950, it is notable that the basic design and function has not changed much at all. Almost all common CPUs today can be very accurately described as von Neumann stored-program machines. As the aforementioned Moore's law continues to hold true, concerns have arisen about the limits of integrated circuit transistor technology. Extreme miniaturization of electronic gates is causing the effects of phenomena like electromigration and subthreshold leakage to become much more significant. These newer concerns are among the many factors causing researchers to investigate new methods of computing such as the quantum computer, as well as to expand the usage of parallelism and other methods that extend the usefulness of the classical von Neumann model.\n","The fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless of the physical form they take, is to execute a sequence of stored instructions that is called a program. The instructions to be executed are kept in some kind of computer memory. Nearly all CPUs follow the fetch, decode and execute steps in their operation, which are collectively known as the instruction cycle.\n\nAfter the execution of an instruction, the entire process repeats, with the next instruction cycle normally fetching the next-in-sequence instruction because of the incremented value in the program counter. If a jump instruction was executed, the program counter will be modified to contain the address of the instruction that was jumped to and program execution continues normally. In more complex CPUs, multiple instructions can be fetched, decoded, and executed simultaneously. This section describes what is generally referred to as the \"classic RISC pipeline\", which is quite common among the simple CPUs used in many electronic devices (often called microcontroller). It largely ignores the important role of CPU cache, and therefore the access stage of the pipeline.\n\nSome instructions manipulate the program counter rather than producing result data directly; such instructions are generally called \"jumps\" and facilitate program behavior like loops, conditional program execution (through the use of a conditional jump), and existence of functions. In some processors, some other instructions change the state of bits in a \"flags\" register. These flags can be used to influence how a program behaves, since they often indicate the outcome of various operations. For example, in such processors a \"compare\" instruction evaluates two values and sets or clears bits in the flags register to indicate which one is greater or whether they are equal; one of these flags could then be used by a later jump instruction to determine program flow.\n\n===Fetch===\nThe first step, fetch, involves retrieving an instruction (which is represented by a number or sequence of numbers) from program memory. The instruction's location (address) in program memory is determined by a program counter (PC), which stores a number that identifies the address of the next instruction to be fetched. After an instruction is fetched, the PC is incremented by the length of the instruction so that it will contain the address of the next instruction in the sequence. Often, the instruction to be fetched must be retrieved from relatively slow memory, causing the CPU to stall while waiting for the instruction to be returned. This issue is largely addressed in modern processors by caches and pipeline architectures (see below).\n\n===Decode===\nThe instruction that the CPU fetches from memory determines what the CPU will do. In the decode step, performed by the circuitry known as the ''instruction decoder'', the instruction is converted into signals that control other parts of the CPU.\n\nThe way in which the instruction is interpreted is defined by the CPU's instruction set architecture (ISA). Often, one group of bits (that is, a \"field\") within the instruction, called the opcode, indicates which operation is to be performed, while the remaining fields usually provide supplemental information required for the operation, such as the operands. Those operands may be specified as a constant value (called an immediate value), or as the location of a value that may be a processor register or a memory address, as determined by some addressing mode.\n\nIn some CPU designs the instruction decoder is implemented as a hardwired, unchangeable circuit. In others, a microprogram is used to translate instructions into sets of CPU configuration signals that are applied sequentially over multiple clock pulses. In some cases the memory that stores the microprogram is rewritable, making it possible to change the way in which the CPU decodes instructions.\n\n===Execute===\nAfter the fetch and decode steps, the execute step is performed. Depending on the CPU architecture, this may consist of a single action or a sequence of actions. During each action, various parts of the CPU are electrically connected so they can perform all or part of the desired operation and then the action is completed, typically in response to a clock pulse. Very often the results are written to an internal CPU register for quick access by subsequent instructions. In other cases results may be written to slower, but less expensive and higher capacity main memory.\n\nFor example, if an addition instruction is to be executed, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) inputs are connected to a pair of operand sources (numbers to be summed), the ALU is configured to perform an addition operation so that the sum of its operand inputs will appear at its output, and the ALU output is connected to storage (e.g., a register or memory) that will receive the sum. When the clock pulse occurs, the sum will be transferred to storage and, if the resulting sum is too large (i.e., it is larger than the ALU's output word size), an arithmetic overflow flag will be set.\n","\nBlock diagram of a basic uniprocessor-CPU computer. Black lines indicate data flow, whereas red lines indicate control flow; arrows indicate flow directions.\n\nHardwired into a CPU's circuitry is a set of basic operations it can perform, called an instruction set. Such operations may involve, for example, adding or subtracting two numbers, comparing two numbers, or jumping to a different part of a program. Each basic operation is represented by a particular combination of bits, known as the machine language opcode; while executing instructions in a machine language program, the CPU decides which operation to perform by \"decoding\" the opcode. A complete machine language instruction consists of an opcode and, in many cases, additional bits that specify arguments for the operation (for example, the numbers to be summed in the case of an addition operation). Going up the complexity scale, a machine language program is a collection of machine language instructions that the CPU executes.\n\nThe actual mathematical operation for each instruction is performed by a combinational logic circuit within the CPU's processor known as the arithmetic logic unit or ALU. In general, a CPU executes an instruction by fetching it from memory, using its ALU to perform an operation, and then storing the result to memory. Beside the instructions for integer mathematics and logic operations, various other machine instructions exist, such as those for loading data from memory and storing it back, branching operations, and mathematical operations on floating-point numbers performed by the CPU's floating-point unit (FPU).\n\n===Control unit===\n\nThe control unit of the CPU contains circuitry that uses electrical signals to direct the entire computer system to carry out stored program instructions. The control unit does not execute program instructions; rather, it directs other parts of the system to do so. The control unit communicates with both the ALU and memory.\n\n===Arithmetic logic unit===\n\nSymbolic representation of an ALU and its input and output signals\n\nThe arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit within the processor that performs integer arithmetic and bitwise logic operations. The inputs to the ALU are the data words to be operated on (called operands), status information from previous operations, and a code from the control unit indicating which operation to perform. Depending on the instruction being executed, the operands may come from internal CPU registers or external memory, or they may be constants generated by the ALU itself.\n\nWhen all input signals have settled and propagated through the ALU circuitry, the result of the performed operation appears at the ALU's outputs. The result consists of both a data word, which may be stored in a register or memory, and status information that is typically stored in a special, internal CPU register reserved for this purpose.\n\n===Memory management unit===\n\n\nMost high-end microprocessors (in desktop, laptop, server computers) have a memory management unit, translating logical addresses into physical RAM addresses, providing memory protection and paging abilities, useful for virtual memory. Simpler processors, especially microcontrollers, usually don't include an MMU.\n\n===Clock rate===\n\nMost CPUs are synchronous circuits, which means they employ a clock signal to pace their sequential operations. The clock signal is produced by an external oscillator circuit that generates a consistent number of pulses each second in the form of a periodic square wave. The frequency of the clock pulses determines the rate at which a CPU executes instructions and, consequently, the faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU will execute each second.\n\nTo ensure proper operation of the CPU, the clock period is longer than the maximum time needed for all signals to propagate (move) through the CPU. In setting the clock period to a value well above the worst-case propagation delay, it is possible to design the entire CPU and the way it moves data around the \"edges\" of the rising and falling clock signal. This has the advantage of simplifying the CPU significantly, both from a design perspective and a component-count perspective. However, it also carries the disadvantage that the entire CPU must wait on its slowest elements, even though some portions of it are much faster. This limitation has largely been compensated for by various methods of increasing CPU parallelism (see below).\n\nHowever, architectural improvements alone do not solve all of the drawbacks of globally synchronous CPUs. For example, a clock signal is subject to the delays of any other electrical signal. Higher clock rates in increasingly complex CPUs make it more difficult to keep the clock signal in phase (synchronized) throughout the entire unit. This has led many modern CPUs to require multiple identical clock signals to be provided to avoid delaying a single signal significantly enough to cause the CPU to malfunction. Another major issue, as clock rates increase dramatically, is the amount of heat that is dissipated by the CPU. The constantly changing clock causes many components to switch regardless of whether they are being used at that time. In general, a component that is switching uses more energy than an element in a static state. Therefore, as clock rate increases, so does energy consumption, causing the CPU to require more heat dissipation in the form of CPU cooling solutions.\n\nOne method of dealing with the switching of unneeded components is called clock gating, which involves turning off the clock signal to unneeded components (effectively disabling them). However, this is often regarded as difficult to implement and therefore does not see common usage outside of very low-power designs. One notable recent CPU design that uses extensive clock gating is the IBM PowerPC-based Xenon used in the Xbox 360; that way, power requirements of the Xbox 360 are greatly reduced. Another method of addressing some of the problems with a global clock signal is the removal of the clock signal altogether. While removing the global clock signal makes the design process considerably more complex in many ways, asynchronous (or clockless) designs carry marked advantages in power consumption and heat dissipation in comparison with similar synchronous designs. While somewhat uncommon, entire asynchronous CPUs have been built without utilizing a global clock signal. Two notable examples of this are the ARM compliant AMULET and the MIPS R3000 compatible MiniMIPS.\n\nRather than totally removing the clock signal, some CPU designs allow certain portions of the device to be asynchronous, such as using asynchronous ALUs in conjunction with superscalar pipelining to achieve some arithmetic performance gains. While it is not altogether clear whether totally asynchronous designs can perform at a comparable or better level than their synchronous counterparts, it is evident that they do at least excel in simpler math operations. This, combined with their excellent power consumption and heat dissipation properties, makes them very suitable for embedded computers.\n\n===Integer range===\nEvery CPU represents numerical values in a specific way. For example, some early digital computers represented numbers as familiar decimal (base 10) numeral system values, and others have employed more unusual representations such as ternary (base three). Nearly all modern CPUs represent numbers in binary form, with each digit being represented by some two-valued physical quantity such as a \"high\" or \"low\" voltage.\n\nA six-bit word containing the binary encoded representation of decimal value 40. Most modern CPUs employ word sizes that are a power of two, for example 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits.\n\nRelated to numeric representation is the size and precision of integer numbers that a CPU can represent. In the case of a binary CPU, this is measured by the number of bits (significant digits of a binary encoded integer) that the CPU can process in one operation, which is commonly called \"word size\", \"bit width\", \"data path width\", \"integer precision\", or \"integer size\". A CPU's integer size determines the range of integer values it can directly operate on. For example, an 8-bit CPU can directly manipulate integers represented by eight bits, which have a range of 256 (28) discrete integer values.\n\nInteger range can also affect the number of memory locations the CPU can directly address (an address is an integer value representing a specific memory location). For example, if a binary CPU uses 32 bits to represent a memory address then it can directly address 232 memory locations. To circumvent this limitation and for various other reasons, some CPUs use mechanisms (such as bank switching) that allow additional memory to be addressed.\n\nCPUs with larger word sizes require more circuitry and consequently are physically larger, cost more, and consume more power (and therefore generate more heat). As a result, smaller 4- or 8-bit microcontrollers are commonly used in modern applications even though CPUs with much larger word sizes (such as 16, 32, 64, even 128-bit) are available. When higher performance is required, however, the benefits of a larger word size (larger data ranges and address spaces) may outweigh the disadvantages. A CPU can have internal data paths shorter than the word size to reduce size and cost. For example, even though the IBM System/360 instruction set was a 32-bit instruction set, the System/360 Model 30 and Model 40 had 8-bit data paths in the arithmetic logical unit, so that a 32-bit add required four cycles, one for each 8 bits of the operands, and, even though the Motorola 68000 series instruction set was a 32-bit instruction set, the Motorola 68000 and Motorola 68010 had 16-bit data paths in the arithmetic logical unit, so that a 32-bit add required two cycles.\n\nTo gain some of the advantages afforded by both lower and higher bit lengths, many instruction sets have different bit widths for integer and floating-point data, allowing CPUs implementing that instruction set to have different bit widths for different portions of the device. For example, the IBM System/360 instruction set was primarily 32 bit, but supported 64-bit floating point values to facilitate greater accuracy and range in floating point numbers. The System/360 Model 65 had an 8-bit adder for decimal and fixed-point binary arithmetic and a 60-bit adder for floating-point arithmetic. Many later CPU designs use similar mixed bit width, especially when the processor is meant for general-purpose usage where a reasonable balance of integer and floating point capability is required.\n\n===Parallelism===\n\nModel of a subscalar CPU, in which it takes fifteen clock cycles to complete three instructions.\n\nThe description of the basic operation of a CPU offered in the previous section describes the simplest form that a CPU can take. This type of CPU, usually referred to as ''subscalar'', operates on and executes one instruction on one or two pieces of data at a time, that is less than one instruction per clock cycle ().\n\nThis process gives rise to an inherent inefficiency in subscalar CPUs. Since only one instruction is executed at a time, the entire CPU must wait for that instruction to complete before proceeding to the next instruction. As a result, the subscalar CPU gets \"hung up\" on instructions which take more than one clock cycle to complete execution. Even adding a second execution unit (see below) does not improve performance much; rather than one pathway being hung up, now two pathways are hung up and the number of unused transistors is increased. This design, wherein the CPU's execution resources can operate on only one instruction at a time, can only possibly reach ''scalar'' performance (one instruction per clock cycle, ). However, the performance is nearly always subscalar (less than one instruction per clock cycle, ).\n\nAttempts to achieve scalar and better performance have resulted in a variety of design methodologies that cause the CPU to behave less linearly and more in parallel. When referring to parallelism in CPUs, two terms are generally used to classify these design techniques:\n* ''instruction-level parallelism'' (ILP), which seeks to increase the rate at which instructions are executed within a CPU (that is, to increase the utilization of on-die execution resources);\n* ''task-level parallelism'' (TLP), which purposes to increase the number of threads or processes that a CPU can execute simultaneously.\n\nEach methodology differs both in the ways in which they are implemented, as well as the relative effectiveness they afford in increasing the CPU's performance for an application.\n\n====Instruction-level parallelism====\n\nBasic five-stage pipeline. In the best case scenario, this pipeline can sustain a completion rate of one instruction per clock cycle.\n\nOne of the simplest methods used to accomplish increased parallelism is to begin the first steps of instruction fetching and decoding before the prior instruction finishes executing. This is the simplest form of a technique known as instruction pipelining, and is utilized in almost all modern general-purpose CPUs. Pipelining allows more than one instruction to be executed at any given time by breaking down the execution pathway into discrete stages. This separation can be compared to an assembly line, in which an instruction is made more complete at each stage until it exits the execution pipeline and is retired.\n\nPipelining does, however, introduce the possibility for a situation where the result of the previous operation is needed to complete the next operation; a condition often termed data dependency conflict. To cope with this, additional care must be taken to check for these sorts of conditions and delay a portion of the instruction pipeline if this occurs. Naturally, accomplishing this requires additional circuitry, so pipelined processors are more complex than subscalar ones (though not very significantly so). A pipelined processor can become very nearly scalar, inhibited only by pipeline stalls (an instruction spending more than one clock cycle in a stage).\n\nA simple superscalar pipeline. By fetching and dispatching two instructions at a time, a maximum of two instructions per clock cycle can be completed.\n\nFurther improvement upon the idea of instruction pipelining led to the development of a method that decreases the idle time of CPU components even further. Designs that are said to be ''superscalar'' include a long instruction pipeline and multiple identical execution units. In a superscalar pipeline, multiple instructions are read and passed to a dispatcher, which decides whether or not the instructions can be executed in parallel (simultaneously). If so they are dispatched to available execution units, resulting in the ability for several instructions to be executed simultaneously. In general, the more instructions a superscalar CPU is able to dispatch simultaneously to waiting execution units, the more instructions will be completed in a given cycle.\n\nMost of the difficulty in the design of a superscalar CPU architecture lies in creating an effective dispatcher. The dispatcher needs to be able to quickly and correctly determine whether instructions can be executed in parallel, as well as dispatch them in such a way as to keep as many execution units busy as possible. This requires that the instruction pipeline is filled as often as possible and gives rise to the need in superscalar architectures for significant amounts of CPU cache. It also makes hazard-avoiding techniques like branch prediction, speculative execution, and out-of-order execution crucial to maintaining high levels of performance. By attempting to predict which branch (or path) a conditional instruction will take, the CPU can minimize the number of times that the entire pipeline must wait until a conditional instruction is completed. Speculative execution often provides modest performance increases by executing portions of code that may not be needed after a conditional operation completes. Out-of-order execution somewhat rearranges the order in which instructions are executed to reduce delays due to data dependencies. Also in case of single instruction stream, multiple data stream—a case when a lot of data from the same type has to be processed—, modern processors can disable parts of the pipeline so that when a single instruction is executed many times, the CPU skips the fetch and decode phases and thus greatly increases performance on certain occasions, especially in highly monotonous program engines such as video creation software and photo processing.\n\nIn the case where a portion of the CPU is superscalar and part is not, the part which is not suffers a performance penalty due to scheduling stalls. The Intel P5 Pentium had two superscalar ALUs which could accept one instruction per clock cycle each, but its FPU could not accept one instruction per clock cycle. Thus the P5 was integer superscalar but not floating point superscalar. Intel's successor to the P5 architecture, P6, added superscalar capabilities to its floating point features, and therefore afforded a significant increase in floating point instruction performance.\n\nBoth simple pipelining and superscalar design increase a CPU's ILP by allowing a single processor to complete execution of instructions at rates surpassing one instruction per clock cycle. Most modern CPU designs are at least somewhat superscalar, and nearly all general purpose CPUs designed in the last decade are superscalar. In later years some of the emphasis in designing high-ILP computers has been moved out of the CPU's hardware and into its software interface, or ISA. The strategy of the very long instruction word (VLIW) causes some ILP to become implied directly by the software, reducing the amount of work the CPU must perform to boost ILP and thereby reducing the design's complexity.\n\n====Task-level parallelism====\n\nAnother strategy of achieving performance is to execute multiple threads or processes in parallel. This area of research is known as parallel computing. In Flynn's taxonomy, this strategy is known as multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream (MIMD).\n\nOne technology used for this purpose was multiprocessing (MP). The initial flavor of this technology is known as symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), where a small number of CPUs share a coherent view of their memory system. In this scheme, each CPU has additional hardware to maintain a constantly up-to-date view of memory. By avoiding stale views of memory, the CPUs can cooperate on the same program and programs can migrate from one CPU to another. To increase the number of cooperating CPUs beyond a handful, schemes such as non-uniform memory access (NUMA) and directory-based coherence protocols were introduced in the 1990s. SMP systems are limited to a small number of CPUs while NUMA systems have been built with thousands of processors. Initially, multiprocessing was built using multiple discrete CPUs and boards to implement the interconnect between the processors. When the processors and their interconnect are all implemented on a single chip, the technology is known as chip-level multiprocessing (CMP) and the single chip as a multi-core processor.\n\nIt was later recognized that finer-grain parallelism existed with a single program. A single program might have several threads (or functions) that could be executed separately or in parallel. Some of the earliest examples of this technology implemented input/output processing such as direct memory access as a separate thread from the computation thread. A more general approach to this technology was introduced in the 1970s when systems were designed to run multiple computation threads in parallel. This technology is known as multi-threading (MT). This approach is considered more cost-effective than multiprocessing, as only a small number of components within a CPU is replicated to support MT as opposed to the entire CPU in the case of MP. In MT, the execution units and the memory system including the caches are shared among multiple threads. The downside of MT is that the hardware support for multithreading is more visible to software than that of MP and thus supervisor software like operating systems have to undergo larger changes to support MT. One type of MT that was implemented is known as temporal multithreading, where one thread is executed until it is stalled waiting for data to return from external memory. In this scheme, the CPU would then quickly context switch to another thread which is ready to run, the switch often done in one CPU clock cycle, such as the UltraSPARC T1. Another type of MT is simultaneous multithreading, where instructions from multiple threads are executed in parallel within one CPU clock cycle.\n\nFor several decades from the 1970s to early 2000s, the focus in designing high performance general purpose CPUs was largely on achieving high ILP through technologies such as pipelining, caches, superscalar execution, out-of-order execution, etc. This trend culminated in large, power-hungry CPUs such as the Intel Pentium 4. By the early 2000s, CPU designers were thwarted from achieving higher performance from ILP techniques due to the growing disparity between CPU operating frequencies and main memory operating frequencies as well as escalating CPU power dissipation owing to more esoteric ILP techniques.\n\nCPU designers then borrowed ideas from commercial computing markets such as transaction processing, where the aggregate performance of multiple programs, also known as throughput computing, was more important than the performance of a single thread or process.\n\nThis reversal of emphasis is evidenced by the proliferation of dual and more core processor designs and notably, Intel's newer designs resembling its less superscalar P6 architecture. Late designs in several processor families exhibit CMP, including the x86-64 Opteron and Athlon 64 X2, the SPARC UltraSPARC T1, IBM POWER4 and POWER5, as well as several video game console CPUs like the Xbox 360's triple-core PowerPC design, and the PlayStation 3's 7-core Cell microprocessor.\n\n====Data parallelism====\n\nA less common but increasingly important paradigm of processors (and indeed, computing in general) deals with data parallelism. The processors discussed earlier are all referred to as some type of scalar device. As the name implies, vector processors deal with multiple pieces of data in the context of one instruction. This contrasts with scalar processors, which deal with one piece of data for every instruction. Using Flynn's taxonomy, these two schemes of dealing with data are generally referred to as single instruction stream, multiple data stream (SIMD) and single instruction stream, single data stream (SISD), respectively. The great utility in creating processors that deal with vectors of data lies in optimizing tasks that tend to require the same operation (for example, a sum or a dot product) to be performed on a large set of data. Some classic examples of these types of tasks include multimedia applications (images, video, and sound), as well as many types of scientific and engineering tasks. Whereas a scalar processor must complete the entire process of fetching, decoding, and executing each instruction and value in a set of data, a vector processor can perform a single operation on a comparatively large set of data with one instruction. Of course, this is only possible when the application tends to require many steps which apply one operation to a large set of data.\n\nMost early vector processors, such as the Cray-1, were associated almost exclusively with scientific research and cryptography applications. However, as multimedia has largely shifted to digital media, the need for some form of SIMD in general-purpose processors has become significant. Shortly after inclusion of floating-point units started to become commonplace in general-purpose processors, specifications for and implementations of SIMD execution units also began to appear for general-purpose processors. Some of these early SIMD specifications - like HP's Multimedia Acceleration eXtensions (MAX) and Intel's MMX - were integer-only. This proved to be a significant impediment for some software developers, since many of the applications that benefit from SIMD primarily deal with floating-point numbers. Progressively, developers refined and remade these early designs into some of the common modern SIMD specifications, which are usually associated with one ISA. Some notable modern examples include Intel's SSE and the PowerPC-related AltiVec (also known as VMX).\n\n===Virtual CPUs===\n\nCloud computing can involve subdividing CPU operation into '''virtual central processing units''' (vCPUs).\n\nA host is the virtual equivalent of a physical machine, on which a virtual system is operating. When there are several physical machines operating in tandem and managed as a whole, the grouped computing and memory resources form a cluster. In some systems it is possible to dynamically add and remove from a cluster. Resources available at a host and cluster level can be partitioned out into resources pools with fine granularity.\n","\nThe ''performance'' or ''speed'' of a processor depends on, among many other factors, the clock rate (generally given in multiples of hertz) and the instructions per clock (IPC), which together are the factors for the instructions per second (IPS) that the CPU can perform.\nMany reported IPS values have represented \"peak\" execution rates on artificial instruction sequences with few branches, whereas realistic workloads consist of a mix of instructions and applications, some of which take longer to execute than others. The performance of the memory hierarchy also greatly affects processor performance, an issue barely considered in MIPS calculations. Because of these problems, various standardized tests, often called \"benchmarks\" for this purposesuch as SPECinthave been developed to attempt to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications.\n\nProcessing performance of computers is increased by using multi-core processors, which essentially is plugging two or more individual processors (called ''cores'' in this sense) into one integrated circuit. Ideally, a dual core processor would be nearly twice as powerful as a single core processor. In practice, the performance gain is far smaller, only about 50%, due to imperfect software algorithms and implementation. Increasing the number of cores in a processor (i.e. dual-core, quad-core, etc.) increases the workload that can be handled. This means that the processor can now handle numerous asynchronous events, interrupts, etc. which can take a toll on the CPU when overwhelmed. These cores can be thought of as different floors in a processing plant, with each floor handling a different task. Sometimes, these cores will handle the same tasks as cores adjacent to them if a single core is not enough to handle the information.\n\nDue to specific capabilities of modern CPUs, such as hyper-threading and uncore, which involve sharing of actual CPU resources while aiming at increased utilization, monitoring performance levels and hardware utilization gradually became a more complex task. As a response, some CPUs implement additional hardware logic that monitors actual utilization of various parts of a CPU and provides various counters accessible to software; an example is Intel's ''Performance Counter Monitor'' technology.\n","\n\n* Addressing mode\n* AMD Accelerated Processing Unit\n* CISC\n* Computer bus\n* Computer engineering\n* CPU core voltage\n* CPU socket\n* Digital signal processor\n* Hyper-threading\n* List of CPU architectures\n* Microprocessor\n* Multi-core processor\n* Protection ring\n* RISC\n* Stream processing\n* True Performance Index\n* Wait state\n\n","\n","\n","\n\n\n\n* .\n* 25 Microchips that shook the world – an article by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.\n\n\n\n\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\nA '''central processing unit''' ('''CPU''') is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions. The computer industry has used the term \\\"central processing unit\\\" at least since the early 1960s. Traditionally, the term \\\"CPU\\\" refers to a '''processor''', more specifically to its processing unit and control unit (CU), distinguishing these core elements of a computer from external components such as main memory and I/O circuitry.\\n\\nThe form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, but their fundamental operation remains almost unchanged. Principal components of a CPU include the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that performs arithmetic and logic operations, processor registers that supply operands to the ALU and store the results of ALU operations, and a control unit that orchestrates the fetching (from memory) and execution of instructions by directing the coordinated operations of the ALU, registers and other components.\\n\\nMost modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit (IC) chip. An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, and other components of a computer; such integrated devices are variously called microcontrollers or systems on a chip (SoC). Some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called \\\"cores\\\"; in that context, one can speak of such single chips as \\\"sockets\\\". Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, with no unit considered central. There also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources.\\n\",\n \"\\nEDVAC, one of the first stored-program computers\\n\\nEarly computers such as the ENIAC had to be physically rewired to perform different tasks, which caused these machines to be called \\\"fixed-program computers\\\". Since the term \\\"CPU\\\" is generally defined as a device for software (computer program) execution, the earliest devices that could rightly be called CPUs came with the advent of the stored-program computer.\\n\\nThe idea of a stored-program computer was already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchly's ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner. On June 30, 1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed the paper entitled ''First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC''. It was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949. EDVAC was designed to perform a certain number of instructions (or operations) of various types. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the physical wiring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time and effort required to reconfigure the computer to perform a new task. With von Neumann's design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory. EDVAC, however, was not the first stored-program computer; the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine, a small prototype stored-program computer, ran its first program on 21 June 1948 and the Manchester Mark 1 ran its first program during the night of 16–17 June 1949.\\n\\nEarly CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger and sometimes distinctive computer. However, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities. This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC). The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers. Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, and sometimes even in toys.\\n\\nWhile von Neumann is most often credited with the design of the stored-program computer because of his design of EDVAC, and the design became known as the von Neumann architecture, others before him, such as Konrad Zuse, had suggested and implemented similar ideas. The so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory. The key difference between the von Neumann and Harvard architectures is that the latter separates the storage and treatment of CPU instructions and data, while the former uses the same memory space for both. Most modern CPUs are primarily von Neumann in design, but CPUs with the Harvard architecture are seen as well, especially in embedded applications; for instance, the Atmel AVR microcontrollers are Harvard architecture processors.\\n\\nRelays and vacuum tubes (thermionic tubes) were commonly used as switching elements; a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches. Tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the (slower, but earlier) Harvard Mark I failed very rarely. In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems. Most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs. Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, limited largely by the speed of the switching devices they were built with.\\n\\n===Transistor CPUs===\\nIBM PowerPC 604e processor\\n\\nThe design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices. The first such improvement came with the advent of the transistor. Transistorized CPUs during the 1950s and 1960s no longer had to be built out of bulky, unreliable, and fragile switching elements like vacuum tubes and relays. With this improvement more complex and reliable CPUs were built onto one or several printed circuit boards containing discrete (individual) components.\\n\\nIn 1964, IBM introduced its IBM System/360 computer architecture that was used in a series of computers capable of running the same programs with different speed and performance. This was significant at a time when most electronic computers were incompatible with one another, even those made by the same manufacturer. To facilitate this improvement, IBM utilized the concept of a microprogram (often called \\\"microcode\\\"), which still sees widespread usage in modern CPUs. The System/360 architecture was so popular that it dominated the mainframe computer market for decades and left a legacy that is still continued by similar modern computers like the IBM zSeries. In 1965, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced another influential computer aimed at the scientific and research markets, the PDP-8.\\nFujitsu board with SPARC64 VIIIfx processors\\nTransistor-based computers had several distinct advantages over their predecessors. Aside from facilitating increased reliability and lower power consumption, transistors also allowed CPUs to operate at much higher speeds because of the short switching time of a transistor in comparison to a tube or relay. The increased reliability and dramatically increased speed of the switching elements (which were almost exclusively transistors by this time), CPU clock rates in the tens of megahertz were easily obtained during this period. Additionally while discrete transistor and IC CPUs were in heavy usage, new high-performance designs like SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) vector processors began to appear. These early experimental designs later gave rise to the era of specialized supercomputers like those made by Cray Inc and Fujitsu Ltd.\\n\\n===Small-scale integration CPUs===\\ncore memory, and external bus interface of a DEC PDP-8/I. Made of medium-scale integrated circuits.\\n\\nDuring this period, a method of manufacturing many interconnected transistors in a compact space was developed. The integrated circuit (IC) allowed a large number of transistors to be manufactured on a single semiconductor-based die, or \\\"chip\\\". At first, only very basic non-specialized digital circuits such as NOR gates were miniaturized into ICs. CPUs based on these \\\"building block\\\" ICs are generally referred to as \\\"small-scale integration\\\" (SSI) devices. SSI ICs, such as the ones used in the Apollo guidance computer, usually contained up to a few dozen transistors. To build an entire CPU out of SSI ICs required thousands of individual chips, but still consumed much less space and power than earlier discrete transistor designs.\\n\\nIBM's System/370 follow-on to the System/360 used SSI ICs rather than Solid Logic Technology discrete-transistor modules. DEC's PDP-8/I and KI10 PDP-10 also switched from the individual transistors used by the PDP-8 and PDP-10 to SSI ICs, and their extremely popular PDP-11 line was originally built with SSI ICs but was eventually implemented with LSI components once these became practical.\\n\\n===Large-scale integration CPUs===\\nLee Boysel published influential articles, including a 1967 \\\"manifesto\\\", which described how to build the equivalent of a 32-bit mainframe computer from a relatively small number of large-scale integration circuits (LSI). At the time, the only way to build LSI chips, which are chips with a hundred or more gates, was to build them using a MOS process (i.e., PMOS logic, NMOS logic, or CMOS logic). However, some companies continued to build processors out of bipolar chips because bipolar junction transistors were so much faster than MOS chips; for example, Datapoint built processors out of transistor–transistor logic (TTL) chips until the early 1980s. At the time, MOS ICs were so slow that they were considered useful only in a few niche applications that required low power.\\n\\nAs the microelectronic technology advanced, an increasing number of transistors were placed on ICs, decreasing the number of individual ICs needed for a complete CPU. MSI and LSI ICs increased transistor counts to hundreds, and then thousands. By 1968, the number of ICs required to build a complete CPU had been reduced to 24 ICs of eight different types, with each IC containing roughly 1000 MOSFETs. In stark contrast with its SSI and MSI predecessors, the first LSI implementation of the PDP-11 contained a CPU composed of only four LSI integrated circuits.\\n\\n===Microprocessors===\\n\\n\\n\\nSince the introduction of the first commercially available microprocessor, the Intel 4004 in 1970, and the first widely used microprocessor, the Intel 8080 in 1974, this class of CPUs has almost completely overtaken all other central processing unit implementation methods. Mainframe and minicomputer manufacturers of the time launched proprietary IC development programs to upgrade their older computer architectures, and eventually produced instruction set compatible microprocessors that were backward-compatible with their older hardware and software. Combined with the advent and eventual success of the ubiquitous personal computer, the term ''CPU'' is now applied almost exclusively to microprocessors. Several CPUs (denoted ''cores'') can be combined in a single processing chip.\\n\\n\\nPrevious generations of CPUs were implemented as discrete components and numerous small integrated circuits (ICs) on one or more circuit boards. Microprocessors, on the other hand, are CPUs manufactured on a very small number of ICs; usually just one. The overall smaller CPU size, as a result of being implemented on a single die, means faster switching time because of physical factors like decreased gate parasitic capacitance. This has allowed synchronous microprocessors to have clock rates ranging from tens of megahertz to several gigahertz. Additionally, the ability to construct exceedingly small transistors on an IC has increased the complexity and number of transistors in a single CPU many fold. This widely observed trend is described by Moore's law, which has proven to be a fairly accurate predictor of the growth of CPU (and other IC) complexity.\\n\\nWhile the complexity, size, construction, and general form of CPUs have changed enormously since 1950, it is notable that the basic design and function has not changed much at all. Almost all common CPUs today can be very accurately described as von Neumann stored-program machines. As the aforementioned Moore's law continues to hold true, concerns have arisen about the limits of integrated circuit transistor technology. Extreme miniaturization of electronic gates is causing the effects of phenomena like electromigration and subthreshold leakage to become much more significant. These newer concerns are among the many factors causing researchers to investigate new methods of computing such as the quantum computer, as well as to expand the usage of parallelism and other methods that extend the usefulness of the classical von Neumann model.\\n\",\n \"The fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless of the physical form they take, is to execute a sequence of stored instructions that is called a program. The instructions to be executed are kept in some kind of computer memory. Nearly all CPUs follow the fetch, decode and execute steps in their operation, which are collectively known as the instruction cycle.\\n\\nAfter the execution of an instruction, the entire process repeats, with the next instruction cycle normally fetching the next-in-sequence instruction because of the incremented value in the program counter. If a jump instruction was executed, the program counter will be modified to contain the address of the instruction that was jumped to and program execution continues normally. In more complex CPUs, multiple instructions can be fetched, decoded, and executed simultaneously. This section describes what is generally referred to as the \\\"classic RISC pipeline\\\", which is quite common among the simple CPUs used in many electronic devices (often called microcontroller). It largely ignores the important role of CPU cache, and therefore the access stage of the pipeline.\\n\\nSome instructions manipulate the program counter rather than producing result data directly; such instructions are generally called \\\"jumps\\\" and facilitate program behavior like loops, conditional program execution (through the use of a conditional jump), and existence of functions. In some processors, some other instructions change the state of bits in a \\\"flags\\\" register. These flags can be used to influence how a program behaves, since they often indicate the outcome of various operations. For example, in such processors a \\\"compare\\\" instruction evaluates two values and sets or clears bits in the flags register to indicate which one is greater or whether they are equal; one of these flags could then be used by a later jump instruction to determine program flow.\\n\\n===Fetch===\\nThe first step, fetch, involves retrieving an instruction (which is represented by a number or sequence of numbers) from program memory. The instruction's location (address) in program memory is determined by a program counter (PC), which stores a number that identifies the address of the next instruction to be fetched. After an instruction is fetched, the PC is incremented by the length of the instruction so that it will contain the address of the next instruction in the sequence. Often, the instruction to be fetched must be retrieved from relatively slow memory, causing the CPU to stall while waiting for the instruction to be returned. This issue is largely addressed in modern processors by caches and pipeline architectures (see below).\\n\\n===Decode===\\nThe instruction that the CPU fetches from memory determines what the CPU will do. In the decode step, performed by the circuitry known as the ''instruction decoder'', the instruction is converted into signals that control other parts of the CPU.\\n\\nThe way in which the instruction is interpreted is defined by the CPU's instruction set architecture (ISA). Often, one group of bits (that is, a \\\"field\\\") within the instruction, called the opcode, indicates which operation is to be performed, while the remaining fields usually provide supplemental information required for the operation, such as the operands. Those operands may be specified as a constant value (called an immediate value), or as the location of a value that may be a processor register or a memory address, as determined by some addressing mode.\\n\\nIn some CPU designs the instruction decoder is implemented as a hardwired, unchangeable circuit. In others, a microprogram is used to translate instructions into sets of CPU configuration signals that are applied sequentially over multiple clock pulses. In some cases the memory that stores the microprogram is rewritable, making it possible to change the way in which the CPU decodes instructions.\\n\\n===Execute===\\nAfter the fetch and decode steps, the execute step is performed. Depending on the CPU architecture, this may consist of a single action or a sequence of actions. During each action, various parts of the CPU are electrically connected so they can perform all or part of the desired operation and then the action is completed, typically in response to a clock pulse. Very often the results are written to an internal CPU register for quick access by subsequent instructions. In other cases results may be written to slower, but less expensive and higher capacity main memory.\\n\\nFor example, if an addition instruction is to be executed, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) inputs are connected to a pair of operand sources (numbers to be summed), the ALU is configured to perform an addition operation so that the sum of its operand inputs will appear at its output, and the ALU output is connected to storage (e.g., a register or memory) that will receive the sum. When the clock pulse occurs, the sum will be transferred to storage and, if the resulting sum is too large (i.e., it is larger than the ALU's output word size), an arithmetic overflow flag will be set.\\n\",\n \"\\nBlock diagram of a basic uniprocessor-CPU computer. Black lines indicate data flow, whereas red lines indicate control flow; arrows indicate flow directions.\\n\\nHardwired into a CPU's circuitry is a set of basic operations it can perform, called an instruction set. Such operations may involve, for example, adding or subtracting two numbers, comparing two numbers, or jumping to a different part of a program. Each basic operation is represented by a particular combination of bits, known as the machine language opcode; while executing instructions in a machine language program, the CPU decides which operation to perform by \\\"decoding\\\" the opcode. A complete machine language instruction consists of an opcode and, in many cases, additional bits that specify arguments for the operation (for example, the numbers to be summed in the case of an addition operation). Going up the complexity scale, a machine language program is a collection of machine language instructions that the CPU executes.\\n\\nThe actual mathematical operation for each instruction is performed by a combinational logic circuit within the CPU's processor known as the arithmetic logic unit or ALU. In general, a CPU executes an instruction by fetching it from memory, using its ALU to perform an operation, and then storing the result to memory. Beside the instructions for integer mathematics and logic operations, various other machine instructions exist, such as those for loading data from memory and storing it back, branching operations, and mathematical operations on floating-point numbers performed by the CPU's floating-point unit (FPU).\\n\\n===Control unit===\\n\\nThe control unit of the CPU contains circuitry that uses electrical signals to direct the entire computer system to carry out stored program instructions. The control unit does not execute program instructions; rather, it directs other parts of the system to do so. The control unit communicates with both the ALU and memory.\\n\\n===Arithmetic logic unit===\\n\\nSymbolic representation of an ALU and its input and output signals\\n\\nThe arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit within the processor that performs integer arithmetic and bitwise logic operations. The inputs to the ALU are the data words to be operated on (called operands), status information from previous operations, and a code from the control unit indicating which operation to perform. Depending on the instruction being executed, the operands may come from internal CPU registers or external memory, or they may be constants generated by the ALU itself.\\n\\nWhen all input signals have settled and propagated through the ALU circuitry, the result of the performed operation appears at the ALU's outputs. The result consists of both a data word, which may be stored in a register or memory, and status information that is typically stored in a special, internal CPU register reserved for this purpose.\\n\\n===Memory management unit===\\n\\n\\nMost high-end microprocessors (in desktop, laptop, server computers) have a memory management unit, translating logical addresses into physical RAM addresses, providing memory protection and paging abilities, useful for virtual memory. Simpler processors, especially microcontrollers, usually don't include an MMU.\\n\\n===Clock rate===\\n\\nMost CPUs are synchronous circuits, which means they employ a clock signal to pace their sequential operations. The clock signal is produced by an external oscillator circuit that generates a consistent number of pulses each second in the form of a periodic square wave. The frequency of the clock pulses determines the rate at which a CPU executes instructions and, consequently, the faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU will execute each second.\\n\\nTo ensure proper operation of the CPU, the clock period is longer than the maximum time needed for all signals to propagate (move) through the CPU. In setting the clock period to a value well above the worst-case propagation delay, it is possible to design the entire CPU and the way it moves data around the \\\"edges\\\" of the rising and falling clock signal. This has the advantage of simplifying the CPU significantly, both from a design perspective and a component-count perspective. However, it also carries the disadvantage that the entire CPU must wait on its slowest elements, even though some portions of it are much faster. This limitation has largely been compensated for by various methods of increasing CPU parallelism (see below).\\n\\nHowever, architectural improvements alone do not solve all of the drawbacks of globally synchronous CPUs. For example, a clock signal is subject to the delays of any other electrical signal. Higher clock rates in increasingly complex CPUs make it more difficult to keep the clock signal in phase (synchronized) throughout the entire unit. This has led many modern CPUs to require multiple identical clock signals to be provided to avoid delaying a single signal significantly enough to cause the CPU to malfunction. Another major issue, as clock rates increase dramatically, is the amount of heat that is dissipated by the CPU. The constantly changing clock causes many components to switch regardless of whether they are being used at that time. In general, a component that is switching uses more energy than an element in a static state. Therefore, as clock rate increases, so does energy consumption, causing the CPU to require more heat dissipation in the form of CPU cooling solutions.\\n\\nOne method of dealing with the switching of unneeded components is called clock gating, which involves turning off the clock signal to unneeded components (effectively disabling them). However, this is often regarded as difficult to implement and therefore does not see common usage outside of very low-power designs. One notable recent CPU design that uses extensive clock gating is the IBM PowerPC-based Xenon used in the Xbox 360; that way, power requirements of the Xbox 360 are greatly reduced. Another method of addressing some of the problems with a global clock signal is the removal of the clock signal altogether. While removing the global clock signal makes the design process considerably more complex in many ways, asynchronous (or clockless) designs carry marked advantages in power consumption and heat dissipation in comparison with similar synchronous designs. While somewhat uncommon, entire asynchronous CPUs have been built without utilizing a global clock signal. Two notable examples of this are the ARM compliant AMULET and the MIPS R3000 compatible MiniMIPS.\\n\\nRather than totally removing the clock signal, some CPU designs allow certain portions of the device to be asynchronous, such as using asynchronous ALUs in conjunction with superscalar pipelining to achieve some arithmetic performance gains. While it is not altogether clear whether totally asynchronous designs can perform at a comparable or better level than their synchronous counterparts, it is evident that they do at least excel in simpler math operations. This, combined with their excellent power consumption and heat dissipation properties, makes them very suitable for embedded computers.\\n\\n===Integer range===\\nEvery CPU represents numerical values in a specific way. For example, some early digital computers represented numbers as familiar decimal (base 10) numeral system values, and others have employed more unusual representations such as ternary (base three). Nearly all modern CPUs represent numbers in binary form, with each digit being represented by some two-valued physical quantity such as a \\\"high\\\" or \\\"low\\\" voltage.\\n\\nA six-bit word containing the binary encoded representation of decimal value 40. Most modern CPUs employ word sizes that are a power of two, for example 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits.\\n\\nRelated to numeric representation is the size and precision of integer numbers that a CPU can represent. In the case of a binary CPU, this is measured by the number of bits (significant digits of a binary encoded integer) that the CPU can process in one operation, which is commonly called \\\"word size\\\", \\\"bit width\\\", \\\"data path width\\\", \\\"integer precision\\\", or \\\"integer size\\\". A CPU's integer size determines the range of integer values it can directly operate on. For example, an 8-bit CPU can directly manipulate integers represented by eight bits, which have a range of 256 (28) discrete integer values.\\n\\nInteger range can also affect the number of memory locations the CPU can directly address (an address is an integer value representing a specific memory location). For example, if a binary CPU uses 32 bits to represent a memory address then it can directly address 232 memory locations. To circumvent this limitation and for various other reasons, some CPUs use mechanisms (such as bank switching) that allow additional memory to be addressed.\\n\\nCPUs with larger word sizes require more circuitry and consequently are physically larger, cost more, and consume more power (and therefore generate more heat). As a result, smaller 4- or 8-bit microcontrollers are commonly used in modern applications even though CPUs with much larger word sizes (such as 16, 32, 64, even 128-bit) are available. When higher performance is required, however, the benefits of a larger word size (larger data ranges and address spaces) may outweigh the disadvantages. A CPU can have internal data paths shorter than the word size to reduce size and cost. For example, even though the IBM System/360 instruction set was a 32-bit instruction set, the System/360 Model 30 and Model 40 had 8-bit data paths in the arithmetic logical unit, so that a 32-bit add required four cycles, one for each 8 bits of the operands, and, even though the Motorola 68000 series instruction set was a 32-bit instruction set, the Motorola 68000 and Motorola 68010 had 16-bit data paths in the arithmetic logical unit, so that a 32-bit add required two cycles.\\n\\nTo gain some of the advantages afforded by both lower and higher bit lengths, many instruction sets have different bit widths for integer and floating-point data, allowing CPUs implementing that instruction set to have different bit widths for different portions of the device. For example, the IBM System/360 instruction set was primarily 32 bit, but supported 64-bit floating point values to facilitate greater accuracy and range in floating point numbers. The System/360 Model 65 had an 8-bit adder for decimal and fixed-point binary arithmetic and a 60-bit adder for floating-point arithmetic. Many later CPU designs use similar mixed bit width, especially when the processor is meant for general-purpose usage where a reasonable balance of integer and floating point capability is required.\\n\\n===Parallelism===\\n\\nModel of a subscalar CPU, in which it takes fifteen clock cycles to complete three instructions.\\n\\nThe description of the basic operation of a CPU offered in the previous section describes the simplest form that a CPU can take. This type of CPU, usually referred to as ''subscalar'', operates on and executes one instruction on one or two pieces of data at a time, that is less than one instruction per clock cycle ().\\n\\nThis process gives rise to an inherent inefficiency in subscalar CPUs. Since only one instruction is executed at a time, the entire CPU must wait for that instruction to complete before proceeding to the next instruction. As a result, the subscalar CPU gets \\\"hung up\\\" on instructions which take more than one clock cycle to complete execution. Even adding a second execution unit (see below) does not improve performance much; rather than one pathway being hung up, now two pathways are hung up and the number of unused transistors is increased. This design, wherein the CPU's execution resources can operate on only one instruction at a time, can only possibly reach ''scalar'' performance (one instruction per clock cycle, ). However, the performance is nearly always subscalar (less than one instruction per clock cycle, ).\\n\\nAttempts to achieve scalar and better performance have resulted in a variety of design methodologies that cause the CPU to behave less linearly and more in parallel. When referring to parallelism in CPUs, two terms are generally used to classify these design techniques:\\n* ''instruction-level parallelism'' (ILP), which seeks to increase the rate at which instructions are executed within a CPU (that is, to increase the utilization of on-die execution resources);\\n* ''task-level parallelism'' (TLP), which purposes to increase the number of threads or processes that a CPU can execute simultaneously.\\n\\nEach methodology differs both in the ways in which they are implemented, as well as the relative effectiveness they afford in increasing the CPU's performance for an application.\\n\\n====Instruction-level parallelism====\\n\\nBasic five-stage pipeline. In the best case scenario, this pipeline can sustain a completion rate of one instruction per clock cycle.\\n\\nOne of the simplest methods used to accomplish increased parallelism is to begin the first steps of instruction fetching and decoding before the prior instruction finishes executing. This is the simplest form of a technique known as instruction pipelining, and is utilized in almost all modern general-purpose CPUs. Pipelining allows more than one instruction to be executed at any given time by breaking down the execution pathway into discrete stages. This separation can be compared to an assembly line, in which an instruction is made more complete at each stage until it exits the execution pipeline and is retired.\\n\\nPipelining does, however, introduce the possibility for a situation where the result of the previous operation is needed to complete the next operation; a condition often termed data dependency conflict. To cope with this, additional care must be taken to check for these sorts of conditions and delay a portion of the instruction pipeline if this occurs. Naturally, accomplishing this requires additional circuitry, so pipelined processors are more complex than subscalar ones (though not very significantly so). A pipelined processor can become very nearly scalar, inhibited only by pipeline stalls (an instruction spending more than one clock cycle in a stage).\\n\\nA simple superscalar pipeline. By fetching and dispatching two instructions at a time, a maximum of two instructions per clock cycle can be completed.\\n\\nFurther improvement upon the idea of instruction pipelining led to the development of a method that decreases the idle time of CPU components even further. Designs that are said to be ''superscalar'' include a long instruction pipeline and multiple identical execution units. In a superscalar pipeline, multiple instructions are read and passed to a dispatcher, which decides whether or not the instructions can be executed in parallel (simultaneously). If so they are dispatched to available execution units, resulting in the ability for several instructions to be executed simultaneously. In general, the more instructions a superscalar CPU is able to dispatch simultaneously to waiting execution units, the more instructions will be completed in a given cycle.\\n\\nMost of the difficulty in the design of a superscalar CPU architecture lies in creating an effective dispatcher. The dispatcher needs to be able to quickly and correctly determine whether instructions can be executed in parallel, as well as dispatch them in such a way as to keep as many execution units busy as possible. This requires that the instruction pipeline is filled as often as possible and gives rise to the need in superscalar architectures for significant amounts of CPU cache. It also makes hazard-avoiding techniques like branch prediction, speculative execution, and out-of-order execution crucial to maintaining high levels of performance. By attempting to predict which branch (or path) a conditional instruction will take, the CPU can minimize the number of times that the entire pipeline must wait until a conditional instruction is completed. Speculative execution often provides modest performance increases by executing portions of code that may not be needed after a conditional operation completes. Out-of-order execution somewhat rearranges the order in which instructions are executed to reduce delays due to data dependencies. Also in case of single instruction stream, multiple data stream—a case when a lot of data from the same type has to be processed—, modern processors can disable parts of the pipeline so that when a single instruction is executed many times, the CPU skips the fetch and decode phases and thus greatly increases performance on certain occasions, especially in highly monotonous program engines such as video creation software and photo processing.\\n\\nIn the case where a portion of the CPU is superscalar and part is not, the part which is not suffers a performance penalty due to scheduling stalls. The Intel P5 Pentium had two superscalar ALUs which could accept one instruction per clock cycle each, but its FPU could not accept one instruction per clock cycle. Thus the P5 was integer superscalar but not floating point superscalar. Intel's successor to the P5 architecture, P6, added superscalar capabilities to its floating point features, and therefore afforded a significant increase in floating point instruction performance.\\n\\nBoth simple pipelining and superscalar design increase a CPU's ILP by allowing a single processor to complete execution of instructions at rates surpassing one instruction per clock cycle. Most modern CPU designs are at least somewhat superscalar, and nearly all general purpose CPUs designed in the last decade are superscalar. In later years some of the emphasis in designing high-ILP computers has been moved out of the CPU's hardware and into its software interface, or ISA. The strategy of the very long instruction word (VLIW) causes some ILP to become implied directly by the software, reducing the amount of work the CPU must perform to boost ILP and thereby reducing the design's complexity.\\n\\n====Task-level parallelism====\\n\\nAnother strategy of achieving performance is to execute multiple threads or processes in parallel. This area of research is known as parallel computing. In Flynn's taxonomy, this strategy is known as multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream (MIMD).\\n\\nOne technology used for this purpose was multiprocessing (MP). The initial flavor of this technology is known as symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), where a small number of CPUs share a coherent view of their memory system. In this scheme, each CPU has additional hardware to maintain a constantly up-to-date view of memory. By avoiding stale views of memory, the CPUs can cooperate on the same program and programs can migrate from one CPU to another. To increase the number of cooperating CPUs beyond a handful, schemes such as non-uniform memory access (NUMA) and directory-based coherence protocols were introduced in the 1990s. SMP systems are limited to a small number of CPUs while NUMA systems have been built with thousands of processors. Initially, multiprocessing was built using multiple discrete CPUs and boards to implement the interconnect between the processors. When the processors and their interconnect are all implemented on a single chip, the technology is known as chip-level multiprocessing (CMP) and the single chip as a multi-core processor.\\n\\nIt was later recognized that finer-grain parallelism existed with a single program. A single program might have several threads (or functions) that could be executed separately or in parallel. Some of the earliest examples of this technology implemented input/output processing such as direct memory access as a separate thread from the computation thread. A more general approach to this technology was introduced in the 1970s when systems were designed to run multiple computation threads in parallel. This technology is known as multi-threading (MT). This approach is considered more cost-effective than multiprocessing, as only a small number of components within a CPU is replicated to support MT as opposed to the entire CPU in the case of MP. In MT, the execution units and the memory system including the caches are shared among multiple threads. The downside of MT is that the hardware support for multithreading is more visible to software than that of MP and thus supervisor software like operating systems have to undergo larger changes to support MT. One type of MT that was implemented is known as temporal multithreading, where one thread is executed until it is stalled waiting for data to return from external memory. In this scheme, the CPU would then quickly context switch to another thread which is ready to run, the switch often done in one CPU clock cycle, such as the UltraSPARC T1. Another type of MT is simultaneous multithreading, where instructions from multiple threads are executed in parallel within one CPU clock cycle.\\n\\nFor several decades from the 1970s to early 2000s, the focus in designing high performance general purpose CPUs was largely on achieving high ILP through technologies such as pipelining, caches, superscalar execution, out-of-order execution, etc. This trend culminated in large, power-hungry CPUs such as the Intel Pentium 4. By the early 2000s, CPU designers were thwarted from achieving higher performance from ILP techniques due to the growing disparity between CPU operating frequencies and main memory operating frequencies as well as escalating CPU power dissipation owing to more esoteric ILP techniques.\\n\\nCPU designers then borrowed ideas from commercial computing markets such as transaction processing, where the aggregate performance of multiple programs, also known as throughput computing, was more important than the performance of a single thread or process.\\n\\nThis reversal of emphasis is evidenced by the proliferation of dual and more core processor designs and notably, Intel's newer designs resembling its less superscalar P6 architecture. Late designs in several processor families exhibit CMP, including the x86-64 Opteron and Athlon 64 X2, the SPARC UltraSPARC T1, IBM POWER4 and POWER5, as well as several video game console CPUs like the Xbox 360's triple-core PowerPC design, and the PlayStation 3's 7-core Cell microprocessor.\\n\\n====Data parallelism====\\n\\nA less common but increasingly important paradigm of processors (and indeed, computing in general) deals with data parallelism. The processors discussed earlier are all referred to as some type of scalar device. As the name implies, vector processors deal with multiple pieces of data in the context of one instruction. This contrasts with scalar processors, which deal with one piece of data for every instruction. Using Flynn's taxonomy, these two schemes of dealing with data are generally referred to as single instruction stream, multiple data stream (SIMD) and single instruction stream, single data stream (SISD), respectively. The great utility in creating processors that deal with vectors of data lies in optimizing tasks that tend to require the same operation (for example, a sum or a dot product) to be performed on a large set of data. Some classic examples of these types of tasks include multimedia applications (images, video, and sound), as well as many types of scientific and engineering tasks. Whereas a scalar processor must complete the entire process of fetching, decoding, and executing each instruction and value in a set of data, a vector processor can perform a single operation on a comparatively large set of data with one instruction. Of course, this is only possible when the application tends to require many steps which apply one operation to a large set of data.\\n\\nMost early vector processors, such as the Cray-1, were associated almost exclusively with scientific research and cryptography applications. However, as multimedia has largely shifted to digital media, the need for some form of SIMD in general-purpose processors has become significant. Shortly after inclusion of floating-point units started to become commonplace in general-purpose processors, specifications for and implementations of SIMD execution units also began to appear for general-purpose processors. Some of these early SIMD specifications - like HP's Multimedia Acceleration eXtensions (MAX) and Intel's MMX - were integer-only. This proved to be a significant impediment for some software developers, since many of the applications that benefit from SIMD primarily deal with floating-point numbers. Progressively, developers refined and remade these early designs into some of the common modern SIMD specifications, which are usually associated with one ISA. Some notable modern examples include Intel's SSE and the PowerPC-related AltiVec (also known as VMX).\\n\\n===Virtual CPUs===\\n\\nCloud computing can involve subdividing CPU operation into '''virtual central processing units''' (vCPUs).\\n\\nA host is the virtual equivalent of a physical machine, on which a virtual system is operating. When there are several physical machines operating in tandem and managed as a whole, the grouped computing and memory resources form a cluster. In some systems it is possible to dynamically add and remove from a cluster. Resources available at a host and cluster level can be partitioned out into resources pools with fine granularity.\\n\",\n \"\\nThe ''performance'' or ''speed'' of a processor depends on, among many other factors, the clock rate (generally given in multiples of hertz) and the instructions per clock (IPC), which together are the factors for the instructions per second (IPS) that the CPU can perform.\\nMany reported IPS values have represented \\\"peak\\\" execution rates on artificial instruction sequences with few branches, whereas realistic workloads consist of a mix of instructions and applications, some of which take longer to execute than others. The performance of the memory hierarchy also greatly affects processor performance, an issue barely considered in MIPS calculations. Because of these problems, various standardized tests, often called \\\"benchmarks\\\" for this purposesuch as SPECinthave been developed to attempt to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications.\\n\\nProcessing performance of computers is increased by using multi-core processors, which essentially is plugging two or more individual processors (called ''cores'' in this sense) into one integrated circuit. Ideally, a dual core processor would be nearly twice as powerful as a single core processor. In practice, the performance gain is far smaller, only about 50%, due to imperfect software algorithms and implementation. Increasing the number of cores in a processor (i.e. dual-core, quad-core, etc.) increases the workload that can be handled. This means that the processor can now handle numerous asynchronous events, interrupts, etc. which can take a toll on the CPU when overwhelmed. These cores can be thought of as different floors in a processing plant, with each floor handling a different task. Sometimes, these cores will handle the same tasks as cores adjacent to them if a single core is not enough to handle the information.\\n\\nDue to specific capabilities of modern CPUs, such as hyper-threading and uncore, which involve sharing of actual CPU resources while aiming at increased utilization, monitoring performance levels and hardware utilization gradually became a more complex task. As a response, some CPUs implement additional hardware logic that monitors actual utilization of various parts of a CPU and provides various counters accessible to software; an example is Intel's ''Performance Counter Monitor'' technology.\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n* Addressing mode\\n* AMD Accelerated Processing Unit\\n* CISC\\n* Computer bus\\n* Computer engineering\\n* CPU core voltage\\n* CPU socket\\n* Digital signal processor\\n* Hyper-threading\\n* List of CPU architectures\\n* Microprocessor\\n* Multi-core processor\\n* Protection ring\\n* RISC\\n* Stream processing\\n* True Performance Index\\n* Wait state\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n* .\\n* 25 Microchips that shook the world – an article by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction","History","Operation","Structure and implementation","{{anchor|PCM}}Performance","See also","Notes","References","External links"],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \"History\",\n \"Operation\",\n \"Structure and implementation\",\n \"{{anchor|PCM}}Performance\",\n \"See also\",\n \"Notes\",\n \"References\",\n \"External links\"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Central processing unit"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["To circumvent this limitation and for various other reasons, some CPUs use mechanisms (such as bank switching) that allow additional memory to be addressed."],"string":"[\n \"To circumvent this limitation and for various other reasons, some CPUs use mechanisms (such as bank switching) that allow additional memory to be addressed.\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\nA '''central processing unit''' ('''CPU''') is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions.","The computer industry has used the term \"central processing unit\" at least since the early 1960s.","Traditionally, the term \"CPU\" refers to a '''processor''', more specifically to its processing unit and control unit (CU), distinguishing these core elements of a computer from external components such as main memory and I/O circuitry.","The form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, but their fundamental operation remains almost unchanged.","Principal components of a CPU include the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that performs arithmetic and logic operations, processor registers that supply operands to the ALU and store the results of ALU operations, and a control unit that orchestrates the fetching (from memory) and execution of instructions by directing the coordinated operations of the ALU, registers and other components.","Most modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit (IC) chip.","An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, and other components of a computer; such integrated devices are variously called microcontrollers or systems on a chip (SoC).","Some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called \"cores\"; in that context, one can speak of such single chips as \"sockets\".","Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, with no unit considered central.","There also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources.","\nEDVAC, one of the first stored-program computers\n\nEarly computers such as the ENIAC had to be physically rewired to perform different tasks, which caused these machines to be called \"fixed-program computers\".","Since the term \"CPU\" is generally defined as a device for software (computer program) execution, the earliest devices that could rightly be called CPUs came with the advent of the stored-program computer.","The idea of a stored-program computer was already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchly's ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner.","On June 30, 1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed the paper entitled ''First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC''.","It was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949.","EDVAC was designed to perform a certain number of instructions (or operations) of various types.","Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the physical wiring of the computer.","This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time and effort required to reconfigure the computer to perform a new task.","With von Neumann's design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory.","EDVAC, however, was not the first stored-program computer; the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine, a small prototype stored-program computer, ran its first program on 21 June 1948 and the Manchester Mark 1 ran its first program during the night of 16–17 June 1949.","Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger and sometimes distinctive computer.","However, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities.","This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC).","The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers.","Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines.","Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, and sometimes even in toys.","While von Neumann is most often credited with the design of the stored-program computer because of his design of EDVAC, and the design became known as the von Neumann architecture, others before him, such as Konrad Zuse, had suggested and implemented similar ideas.","The so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory.","The key difference between the von Neumann and Harvard architectures is that the latter separates the storage and treatment of CPU instructions and data, while the former uses the same memory space for both.","Most modern CPUs are primarily von Neumann in design, but CPUs with the Harvard architecture are seen as well, especially in embedded applications; for instance, the Atmel AVR microcontrollers are Harvard architecture processors.","Relays and vacuum tubes (thermionic tubes) were commonly used as switching elements; a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices.","The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches.","Tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the (slower, but earlier) Harvard Mark I failed very rarely.","In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems.","Most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs.","Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, limited largely by the speed of the switching devices they were built with.","===Transistor CPUs===\nIBM PowerPC 604e processor\n\nThe design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices.","The first such improvement came with the advent of the transistor.","Transistorized CPUs during the 1950s and 1960s no longer had to be built out of bulky, unreliable, and fragile switching elements like vacuum tubes and relays.","With this improvement more complex and reliable CPUs were built onto one or several printed circuit boards containing discrete (individual) components.","In 1964, IBM introduced its IBM System/360 computer architecture that was used in a series of computers capable of running the same programs with different speed and performance.","This was significant at a time when most electronic computers were incompatible with one another, even those made by the same manufacturer.","To facilitate this improvement, IBM utilized the concept of a microprogram (often called \"microcode\"), which still sees widespread usage in modern CPUs.","The System/360 architecture was so popular that it dominated the mainframe computer market for decades and left a legacy that is still continued by similar modern computers like the IBM zSeries.","In 1965, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced another influential computer aimed at the scientific and research markets, the PDP-8.","Fujitsu board with SPARC64 VIIIfx processors\nTransistor-based computers had several distinct advantages over their predecessors.","Aside from facilitating increased reliability and lower power consumption, transistors also allowed CPUs to operate at much higher speeds because of the short switching time of a transistor in comparison to a tube or relay.","The increased reliability and dramatically increased speed of the switching elements (which were almost exclusively transistors by this time), CPU clock rates in the tens of megahertz were easily obtained during this period.","Additionally while discrete transistor and IC CPUs were in heavy usage, new high-performance designs like SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) vector processors began to appear.","These early experimental designs later gave rise to the era of specialized supercomputers like those made by Cray Inc and Fujitsu Ltd.\n\n===Small-scale integration CPUs===\ncore memory, and external bus interface of a DEC PDP-8/I.","Made of medium-scale integrated circuits.","During this period, a method of manufacturing many interconnected transistors in a compact space was developed.","The integrated circuit (IC) allowed a large number of transistors to be manufactured on a single semiconductor-based die, or \"chip\".","At first, only very basic non-specialized digital circuits such as NOR gates were miniaturized into ICs.","CPUs based on these \"building block\" ICs are generally referred to as \"small-scale integration\" (SSI) devices.","SSI ICs, such as the ones used in the Apollo guidance computer, usually contained up to a few dozen transistors.","To build an entire CPU out of SSI ICs required thousands of individual chips, but still consumed much less space and power than earlier discrete transistor designs.","IBM's System/370 follow-on to the System/360 used SSI ICs rather than Solid Logic Technology discrete-transistor modules.","DEC's PDP-8/I and KI10 PDP-10 also switched from the individual transistors used by the PDP-8 and PDP-10 to SSI ICs, and their extremely popular PDP-11 line was originally built with SSI ICs but was eventually implemented with LSI components once these became practical.","===Large-scale integration CPUs===\nLee Boysel published influential articles, including a 1967 \"manifesto\", which described how to build the equivalent of a 32-bit mainframe computer from a relatively small number of large-scale integration circuits (LSI).","At the time, the only way to build LSI chips, which are chips with a hundred or more gates, was to build them using a MOS process (i.e., PMOS logic, NMOS logic, or CMOS logic).","However, some companies continued to build processors out of bipolar chips because bipolar junction transistors were so much faster than MOS chips; for example, Datapoint built processors out of transistor–transistor logic (TTL) chips until the early 1980s.","At the time, MOS ICs were so slow that they were considered useful only in a few niche applications that required low power.","As the microelectronic technology advanced, an increasing number of transistors were placed on ICs, decreasing the number of individual ICs needed for a complete CPU.","MSI and LSI ICs increased transistor counts to hundreds, and then thousands.","By 1968, the number of ICs required to build a complete CPU had been reduced to 24 ICs of eight different types, with each IC containing roughly 1000 MOSFETs.","In stark contrast with its SSI and MSI predecessors, the first LSI implementation of the PDP-11 contained a CPU composed of only four LSI integrated circuits.","===Microprocessors===\n\n\n\nSince the introduction of the first commercially available microprocessor, the Intel 4004 in 1970, and the first widely used microprocessor, the Intel 8080 in 1974, this class of CPUs has almost completely overtaken all other central processing unit implementation methods.","Mainframe and minicomputer manufacturers of the time launched proprietary IC development programs to upgrade their older computer architectures, and eventually produced instruction set compatible microprocessors that were backward-compatible with their older hardware and software.","Combined with the advent and eventual success of the ubiquitous personal computer, the term ''CPU'' is now applied almost exclusively to microprocessors.","Several CPUs (denoted ''cores'') can be combined in a single processing chip.","Previous generations of CPUs were implemented as discrete components and numerous small integrated circuits (ICs) on one or more circuit boards.","Microprocessors, on the other hand, are CPUs manufactured on a very small number of ICs; usually just one.","The overall smaller CPU size, as a result of being implemented on a single die, means faster switching time because of physical factors like decreased gate parasitic capacitance.","This has allowed synchronous microprocessors to have clock rates ranging from tens of megahertz to several gigahertz.","Additionally, the ability to construct exceedingly small transistors on an IC has increased the complexity and number of transistors in a single CPU many fold.","This widely observed trend is described by Moore's law, which has proven to be a fairly accurate predictor of the growth of CPU (and other IC) complexity.","While the complexity, size, construction, and general form of CPUs have changed enormously since 1950, it is notable that the basic design and function has not changed much at all.","Almost all common CPUs today can be very accurately described as von Neumann stored-program machines.","As the aforementioned Moore's law continues to hold true, concerns have arisen about the limits of integrated circuit transistor technology.","Extreme miniaturization of electronic gates is causing the effects of phenomena like electromigration and subthreshold leakage to become much more significant.","These newer concerns are among the many factors causing researchers to investigate new methods of computing such as the quantum computer, as well as to expand the usage of parallelism and other methods that extend the usefulness of the classical von Neumann model.","The fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless of the physical form they take, is to execute a sequence of stored instructions that is called a program.","The instructions to be executed are kept in some kind of computer memory.","Nearly all CPUs follow the fetch, decode and execute steps in their operation, which are collectively known as the instruction cycle.","After the execution of an instruction, the entire process repeats, with the next instruction cycle normally fetching the next-in-sequence instruction because of the incremented value in the program counter.","If a jump instruction was executed, the program counter will be modified to contain the address of the instruction that was jumped to and program execution continues normally.","In more complex CPUs, multiple instructions can be fetched, decoded, and executed simultaneously.","This section describes what is generally referred to as the \"classic RISC pipeline\", which is quite common among the simple CPUs used in many electronic devices (often called microcontroller).","It largely ignores the important role of CPU cache, and therefore the access stage of the pipeline.","Some instructions manipulate the program counter rather than producing result data directly; such instructions are generally called \"jumps\" and facilitate program behavior like loops, conditional program execution (through the use of a conditional jump), and existence of functions.","In some processors, some other instructions change the state of bits in a \"flags\" register.","These flags can be used to influence how a program behaves, since they often indicate the outcome of various operations.","For example, in such processors a \"compare\" instruction evaluates two values and sets or clears bits in the flags register to indicate which one is greater or whether they are equal; one of these flags could then be used by a later jump instruction to determine program flow.","===Fetch===\nThe first step, fetch, involves retrieving an instruction (which is represented by a number or sequence of numbers) from program memory.","The instruction's location (address) in program memory is determined by a program counter (PC), which stores a number that identifies the address of the next instruction to be fetched.","After an instruction is fetched, the PC is incremented by the length of the instruction so that it will contain the address of the next instruction in the sequence.","Often, the instruction to be fetched must be retrieved from relatively slow memory, causing the CPU to stall while waiting for the instruction to be returned.","This issue is largely addressed in modern processors by caches and pipeline architectures (see below).","===Decode===\nThe instruction that the CPU fetches from memory determines what the CPU will do.","In the decode step, performed by the circuitry known as the ''instruction decoder'', the instruction is converted into signals that control other parts of the CPU.","The way in which the instruction is interpreted is defined by the CPU's instruction set architecture (ISA).","Often, one group of bits (that is, a \"field\") within the instruction, called the opcode, indicates which operation is to be performed, while the remaining fields usually provide supplemental information required for the operation, such as the operands.","Those operands may be specified as a constant value (called an immediate value), or as the location of a value that may be a processor register or a memory address, as determined by some addressing mode.","In some CPU designs the instruction decoder is implemented as a hardwired, unchangeable circuit.","In others, a microprogram is used to translate instructions into sets of CPU configuration signals that are applied sequentially over multiple clock pulses.","In some cases the memory that stores the microprogram is rewritable, making it possible to change the way in which the CPU decodes instructions.","===Execute===\nAfter the fetch and decode steps, the execute step is performed.","Depending on the CPU architecture, this may consist of a single action or a sequence of actions.","During each action, various parts of the CPU are electrically connected so they can perform all or part of the desired operation and then the action is completed, typically in response to a clock pulse.","Very often the results are written to an internal CPU register for quick access by subsequent instructions.","In other cases results may be written to slower, but less expensive and higher capacity main memory.","For example, if an addition instruction is to be executed, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) inputs are connected to a pair of operand sources (numbers to be summed), the ALU is configured to perform an addition operation so that the sum of its operand inputs will appear at its output, and the ALU output is connected to storage (e.g., a register or memory) that will receive the sum.","When the clock pulse occurs, the sum will be transferred to storage and, if the resulting sum is too large (i.e., it is larger than the ALU's output word size), an arithmetic overflow flag will be set.","\nBlock diagram of a basic uniprocessor-CPU computer.","Black lines indicate data flow, whereas red lines indicate control flow; arrows indicate flow directions.","Hardwired into a CPU's circuitry is a set of basic operations it can perform, called an instruction set.","Such operations may involve, for example, adding or subtracting two numbers, comparing two numbers, or jumping to a different part of a program.","Each basic operation is represented by a particular combination of bits, known as the machine language opcode; while executing instructions in a machine language program, the CPU decides which operation to perform by \"decoding\" the opcode.","A complete machine language instruction consists of an opcode and, in many cases, additional bits that specify arguments for the operation (for example, the numbers to be summed in the case of an addition operation).","Going up the complexity scale, a machine language program is a collection of machine language instructions that the CPU executes.","The actual mathematical operation for each instruction is performed by a combinational logic circuit within the CPU's processor known as the arithmetic logic unit or ALU.","In general, a CPU executes an instruction by fetching it from memory, using its ALU to perform an operation, and then storing the result to memory.","Beside the instructions for integer mathematics and logic operations, various other machine instructions exist, such as those for loading data from memory and storing it back, branching operations, and mathematical operations on floating-point numbers performed by the CPU's floating-point unit (FPU).","===Control unit===\n\nThe control unit of the CPU contains circuitry that uses electrical signals to direct the entire computer system to carry out stored program instructions.","The control unit does not execute program instructions; rather, it directs other parts of the system to do so.","The control unit communicates with both the ALU and memory.","===Arithmetic logic unit===\n\nSymbolic representation of an ALU and its input and output signals\n\nThe arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit within the processor that performs integer arithmetic and bitwise logic operations.","The inputs to the ALU are the data words to be operated on (called operands), status information from previous operations, and a code from the control unit indicating which operation to perform.","Depending on the instruction being executed, the operands may come from internal CPU registers or external memory, or they may be constants generated by the ALU itself.","When all input signals have settled and propagated through the ALU circuitry, the result of the performed operation appears at the ALU's outputs.","The result consists of both a data word, which may be stored in a register or memory, and status information that is typically stored in a special, internal CPU register reserved for this purpose.","===Memory management unit===\n\n\nMost high-end microprocessors (in desktop, laptop, server computers) have a memory management unit, translating logical addresses into physical RAM addresses, providing memory protection and paging abilities, useful for virtual memory.","Simpler processors, especially microcontrollers, usually don't include an MMU.","===Clock rate===\n\nMost CPUs are synchronous circuits, which means they employ a clock signal to pace their sequential operations.","The clock signal is produced by an external oscillator circuit that generates a consistent number of pulses each second in the form of a periodic square wave.","The frequency of the clock pulses determines the rate at which a CPU executes instructions and, consequently, the faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU will execute each second.","To ensure proper operation of the CPU, the clock period is longer than the maximum time needed for all signals to propagate (move) through the CPU.","In setting the clock period to a value well above the worst-case propagation delay, it is possible to design the entire CPU and the way it moves data around the \"edges\" of the rising and falling clock signal.","This has the advantage of simplifying the CPU significantly, both from a design perspective and a component-count perspective.","However, it also carries the disadvantage that the entire CPU must wait on its slowest elements, even though some portions of it are much faster.","This limitation has largely been compensated for by various methods of increasing CPU parallelism (see below).","However, architectural improvements alone do not solve all of the drawbacks of globally synchronous CPUs.","For example, a clock signal is subject to the delays of any other electrical signal.","Higher clock rates in increasingly complex CPUs make it more difficult to keep the clock signal in phase (synchronized) throughout the entire unit.","This has led many modern CPUs to require multiple identical clock signals to be provided to avoid delaying a single signal significantly enough to cause the CPU to malfunction.","Another major issue, as clock rates increase dramatically, is the amount of heat that is dissipated by the CPU.","The constantly changing clock causes many components to switch regardless of whether they are being used at that time.","In general, a component that is switching uses more energy than an element in a static state.","Therefore, as clock rate increases, so does energy consumption, causing the CPU to require more heat dissipation in the form of CPU cooling solutions.","One method of dealing with the switching of unneeded components is called clock gating, which involves turning off the clock signal to unneeded components (effectively disabling them).","However, this is often regarded as difficult to implement and therefore does not see common usage outside of very low-power designs.","One notable recent CPU design that uses extensive clock gating is the IBM PowerPC-based Xenon used in the Xbox 360; that way, power requirements of the Xbox 360 are greatly reduced.","Another method of addressing some of the problems with a global clock signal is the removal of the clock signal altogether.","While removing the global clock signal makes the design process considerably more complex in many ways, asynchronous (or clockless) designs carry marked advantages in power consumption and heat dissipation in comparison with similar synchronous designs.","While somewhat uncommon, entire asynchronous CPUs have been built without utilizing a global clock signal.","Two notable examples of this are the ARM compliant AMULET and the MIPS R3000 compatible MiniMIPS.","Rather than totally removing the clock signal, some CPU designs allow certain portions of the device to be asynchronous, such as using asynchronous ALUs in conjunction with superscalar pipelining to achieve some arithmetic performance gains.","While it is not altogether clear whether totally asynchronous designs can perform at a comparable or better level than their synchronous counterparts, it is evident that they do at least excel in simpler math operations.","This, combined with their excellent power consumption and heat dissipation properties, makes them very suitable for embedded computers.","===Integer range===\nEvery CPU represents numerical values in a specific way.","For example, some early digital computers represented numbers as familiar decimal (base 10) numeral system values, and others have employed more unusual representations such as ternary (base three).","Nearly all modern CPUs represent numbers in binary form, with each digit being represented by some two-valued physical quantity such as a \"high\" or \"low\" voltage.","A six-bit word containing the binary encoded representation of decimal value 40.","Most modern CPUs employ word sizes that are a power of two, for example 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits.","Related to numeric representation is the size and precision of integer numbers that a CPU can represent.","In the case of a binary CPU, this is measured by the number of bits (significant digits of a binary encoded integer) that the CPU can process in one operation, which is commonly called \"word size\", \"bit width\", \"data path width\", \"integer precision\", or \"integer size\".","A CPU's integer size determines the range of integer values it can directly operate on.","For example, an 8-bit CPU can directly manipulate integers represented by eight bits, which have a range of 256 (28) discrete integer values.","Integer range can also affect the number of memory locations the CPU can directly address (an address is an integer value representing a specific memory location).","For example, if a binary CPU uses 32 bits to represent a memory address then it can directly address 232 memory locations.","CPUs with larger word sizes require more circuitry and consequently are physically larger, cost more, and consume more power (and therefore generate more heat).","As a result, smaller 4- or 8-bit microcontrollers are commonly used in modern applications even though CPUs with much larger word sizes (such as 16, 32, 64, even 128-bit) are available.","When higher performance is required, however, the benefits of a larger word size (larger data ranges and address spaces) may outweigh the disadvantages.","A CPU can have internal data paths shorter than the word size to reduce size and cost.","For example, even though the IBM System/360 instruction set was a 32-bit instruction set, the System/360 Model 30 and Model 40 had 8-bit data paths in the arithmetic logical unit, so that a 32-bit add required four cycles, one for each 8 bits of the operands, and, even though the Motorola 68000 series instruction set was a 32-bit instruction set, the Motorola 68000 and Motorola 68010 had 16-bit data paths in the arithmetic logical unit, so that a 32-bit add required two cycles.","To gain some of the advantages afforded by both lower and higher bit lengths, many instruction sets have different bit widths for integer and floating-point data, allowing CPUs implementing that instruction set to have different bit widths for different portions of the device.","For example, the IBM System/360 instruction set was primarily 32 bit, but supported 64-bit floating point values to facilitate greater accuracy and range in floating point numbers.","The System/360 Model 65 had an 8-bit adder for decimal and fixed-point binary arithmetic and a 60-bit adder for floating-point arithmetic.","Many later CPU designs use similar mixed bit width, especially when the processor is meant for general-purpose usage where a reasonable balance of integer and floating point capability is required.","===Parallelism===\n\nModel of a subscalar CPU, in which it takes fifteen clock cycles to complete three instructions.","The description of the basic operation of a CPU offered in the previous section describes the simplest form that a CPU can take.","This type of CPU, usually referred to as ''subscalar'', operates on and executes one instruction on one or two pieces of data at a time, that is less than one instruction per clock cycle ().","This process gives rise to an inherent inefficiency in subscalar CPUs.","Since only one instruction is executed at a time, the entire CPU must wait for that instruction to complete before proceeding to the next instruction.","As a result, the subscalar CPU gets \"hung up\" on instructions which take more than one clock cycle to complete execution.","Even adding a second execution unit (see below) does not improve performance much; rather than one pathway being hung up, now two pathways are hung up and the number of unused transistors is increased.","This design, wherein the CPU's execution resources can operate on only one instruction at a time, can only possibly reach ''scalar'' performance (one instruction per clock cycle, ).","However, the performance is nearly always subscalar (less than one instruction per clock cycle, ).","Attempts to achieve scalar and better performance have resulted in a variety of design methodologies that cause the CPU to behave less linearly and more in parallel.","When referring to parallelism in CPUs, two terms are generally used to classify these design techniques:\n* ''instruction-level parallelism'' (ILP), which seeks to increase the rate at which instructions are executed within a CPU (that is, to increase the utilization of on-die execution resources);\n* ''task-level parallelism'' (TLP), which purposes to increase the number of threads or processes that a CPU can execute simultaneously.","Each methodology differs both in the ways in which they are implemented, as well as the relative effectiveness they afford in increasing the CPU's performance for an application.","====Instruction-level parallelism====\n\nBasic five-stage pipeline.","In the best case scenario, this pipeline can sustain a completion rate of one instruction per clock cycle.","One of the simplest methods used to accomplish increased parallelism is to begin the first steps of instruction fetching and decoding before the prior instruction finishes executing.","This is the simplest form of a technique known as instruction pipelining, and is utilized in almost all modern general-purpose CPUs.","Pipelining allows more than one instruction to be executed at any given time by breaking down the execution pathway into discrete stages.","This separation can be compared to an assembly line, in which an instruction is made more complete at each stage until it exits the execution pipeline and is retired.","Pipelining does, however, introduce the possibility for a situation where the result of the previous operation is needed to complete the next operation; a condition often termed data dependency conflict.","To cope with this, additional care must be taken to check for these sorts of conditions and delay a portion of the instruction pipeline if this occurs.","Naturally, accomplishing this requires additional circuitry, so pipelined processors are more complex than subscalar ones (though not very significantly so).","A pipelined processor can become very nearly scalar, inhibited only by pipeline stalls (an instruction spending more than one clock cycle in a stage).","A simple superscalar pipeline.","By fetching and dispatching two instructions at a time, a maximum of two instructions per clock cycle can be completed.","Further improvement upon the idea of instruction pipelining led to the development of a method that decreases the idle time of CPU components even further.","Designs that are said to be ''superscalar'' include a long instruction pipeline and multiple identical execution units.","In a superscalar pipeline, multiple instructions are read and passed to a dispatcher, which decides whether or not the instructions can be executed in parallel (simultaneously).","If so they are dispatched to available execution units, resulting in the ability for several instructions to be executed simultaneously.","In general, the more instructions a superscalar CPU is able to dispatch simultaneously to waiting execution units, the more instructions will be completed in a given cycle.","Most of the difficulty in the design of a superscalar CPU architecture lies in creating an effective dispatcher.","The dispatcher needs to be able to quickly and correctly determine whether instructions can be executed in parallel, as well as dispatch them in such a way as to keep as many execution units busy as possible.","This requires that the instruction pipeline is filled as often as possible and gives rise to the need in superscalar architectures for significant amounts of CPU cache.","It also makes hazard-avoiding techniques like branch prediction, speculative execution, and out-of-order execution crucial to maintaining high levels of performance.","By attempting to predict which branch (or path) a conditional instruction will take, the CPU can minimize the number of times that the entire pipeline must wait until a conditional instruction is completed.","Speculative execution often provides modest performance increases by executing portions of code that may not be needed after a conditional operation completes.","Out-of-order execution somewhat rearranges the order in which instructions are executed to reduce delays due to data dependencies.","Also in case of single instruction stream, multiple data stream—a case when a lot of data from the same type has to be processed—, modern processors can disable parts of the pipeline so that when a single instruction is executed many times, the CPU skips the fetch and decode phases and thus greatly increases performance on certain occasions, especially in highly monotonous program engines such as video creation software and photo processing.","In the case where a portion of the CPU is superscalar and part is not, the part which is not suffers a performance penalty due to scheduling stalls.","The Intel P5 Pentium had two superscalar ALUs which could accept one instruction per clock cycle each, but its FPU could not accept one instruction per clock cycle.","Thus the P5 was integer superscalar but not floating point superscalar.","Intel's successor to the P5 architecture, P6, added superscalar capabilities to its floating point features, and therefore afforded a significant increase in floating point instruction performance.","Both simple pipelining and superscalar design increase a CPU's ILP by allowing a single processor to complete execution of instructions at rates surpassing one instruction per clock cycle.","Most modern CPU designs are at least somewhat superscalar, and nearly all general purpose CPUs designed in the last decade are superscalar.","In later years some of the emphasis in designing high-ILP computers has been moved out of the CPU's hardware and into its software interface, or ISA.","The strategy of the very long instruction word (VLIW) causes some ILP to become implied directly by the software, reducing the amount of work the CPU must perform to boost ILP and thereby reducing the design's complexity.","====Task-level parallelism====\n\nAnother strategy of achieving performance is to execute multiple threads or processes in parallel.","This area of research is known as parallel computing.","In Flynn's taxonomy, this strategy is known as multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream (MIMD).","One technology used for this purpose was multiprocessing (MP).","The initial flavor of this technology is known as symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), where a small number of CPUs share a coherent view of their memory system.","In this scheme, each CPU has additional hardware to maintain a constantly up-to-date view of memory.","By avoiding stale views of memory, the CPUs can cooperate on the same program and programs can migrate from one CPU to another.","To increase the number of cooperating CPUs beyond a handful, schemes such as non-uniform memory access (NUMA) and directory-based coherence protocols were introduced in the 1990s.","SMP systems are limited to a small number of CPUs while NUMA systems have been built with thousands of processors.","Initially, multiprocessing was built using multiple discrete CPUs and boards to implement the interconnect between the processors.","When the processors and their interconnect are all implemented on a single chip, the technology is known as chip-level multiprocessing (CMP) and the single chip as a multi-core processor.","It was later recognized that finer-grain parallelism existed with a single program.","A single program might have several threads (or functions) that could be executed separately or in parallel.","Some of the earliest examples of this technology implemented input/output processing such as direct memory access as a separate thread from the computation thread.","A more general approach to this technology was introduced in the 1970s when systems were designed to run multiple computation threads in parallel.","This technology is known as multi-threading (MT).","This approach is considered more cost-effective than multiprocessing, as only a small number of components within a CPU is replicated to support MT as opposed to the entire CPU in the case of MP.","In MT, the execution units and the memory system including the caches are shared among multiple threads.","The downside of MT is that the hardware support for multithreading is more visible to software than that of MP and thus supervisor software like operating systems have to undergo larger changes to support MT.","One type of MT that was implemented is known as temporal multithreading, where one thread is executed until it is stalled waiting for data to return from external memory.","In this scheme, the CPU would then quickly context switch to another thread which is ready to run, the switch often done in one CPU clock cycle, such as the UltraSPARC T1.","Another type of MT is simultaneous multithreading, where instructions from multiple threads are executed in parallel within one CPU clock cycle.","For several decades from the 1970s to early 2000s, the focus in designing high performance general purpose CPUs was largely on achieving high ILP through technologies such as pipelining, caches, superscalar execution, out-of-order execution, etc.","This trend culminated in large, power-hungry CPUs such as the Intel Pentium 4.","By the early 2000s, CPU designers were thwarted from achieving higher performance from ILP techniques due to the growing disparity between CPU operating frequencies and main memory operating frequencies as well as escalating CPU power dissipation owing to more esoteric ILP techniques.","CPU designers then borrowed ideas from commercial computing markets such as transaction processing, where the aggregate performance of multiple programs, also known as throughput computing, was more important than the performance of a single thread or process.","This reversal of emphasis is evidenced by the proliferation of dual and more core processor designs and notably, Intel's newer designs resembling its less superscalar P6 architecture.","Late designs in several processor families exhibit CMP, including the x86-64 Opteron and Athlon 64 X2, the SPARC UltraSPARC T1, IBM POWER4 and POWER5, as well as several video game console CPUs like the Xbox 360's triple-core PowerPC design, and the PlayStation 3's 7-core Cell microprocessor.","====Data parallelism====\n\nA less common but increasingly important paradigm of processors (and indeed, computing in general) deals with data parallelism.","The processors discussed earlier are all referred to as some type of scalar device.","As the name implies, vector processors deal with multiple pieces of data in the context of one instruction.","This contrasts with scalar processors, which deal with one piece of data for every instruction.","Using Flynn's taxonomy, these two schemes of dealing with data are generally referred to as single instruction stream, multiple data stream (SIMD) and single instruction stream, single data stream (SISD), respectively.","The great utility in creating processors that deal with vectors of data lies in optimizing tasks that tend to require the same operation (for example, a sum or a dot product) to be performed on a large set of data.","Some classic examples of these types of tasks include multimedia applications (images, video, and sound), as well as many types of scientific and engineering tasks.","Whereas a scalar processor must complete the entire process of fetching, decoding, and executing each instruction and value in a set of data, a vector processor can perform a single operation on a comparatively large set of data with one instruction.","Of course, this is only possible when the application tends to require many steps which apply one operation to a large set of data.","Most early vector processors, such as the Cray-1, were associated almost exclusively with scientific research and cryptography applications.","However, as multimedia has largely shifted to digital media, the need for some form of SIMD in general-purpose processors has become significant.","Shortly after inclusion of floating-point units started to become commonplace in general-purpose processors, specifications for and implementations of SIMD execution units also began to appear for general-purpose processors.","Some of these early SIMD specifications - like HP's Multimedia Acceleration eXtensions (MAX) and Intel's MMX - were integer-only.","This proved to be a significant impediment for some software developers, since many of the applications that benefit from SIMD primarily deal with floating-point numbers.","Progressively, developers refined and remade these early designs into some of the common modern SIMD specifications, which are usually associated with one ISA.","Some notable modern examples include Intel's SSE and the PowerPC-related AltiVec (also known as VMX).","===Virtual CPUs===\n\nCloud computing can involve subdividing CPU operation into '''virtual central processing units''' (vCPUs).","A host is the virtual equivalent of a physical machine, on which a virtual system is operating.","When there are several physical machines operating in tandem and managed as a whole, the grouped computing and memory resources form a cluster.","In some systems it is possible to dynamically add and remove from a cluster.","Resources available at a host and cluster level can be partitioned out into resources pools with fine granularity.","\nThe ''performance'' or ''speed'' of a processor depends on, among many other factors, the clock rate (generally given in multiples of hertz) and the instructions per clock (IPC), which together are the factors for the instructions per second (IPS) that the CPU can perform.","Many reported IPS values have represented \"peak\" execution rates on artificial instruction sequences with few branches, whereas realistic workloads consist of a mix of instructions and applications, some of which take longer to execute than others.","The performance of the memory hierarchy also greatly affects processor performance, an issue barely considered in MIPS calculations.","Because of these problems, various standardized tests, often called \"benchmarks\" for this purposesuch as SPECinthave been developed to attempt to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications.","Processing performance of computers is increased by using multi-core processors, which essentially is plugging two or more individual processors (called ''cores'' in this sense) into one integrated circuit.","Ideally, a dual core processor would be nearly twice as powerful as a single core processor.","In practice, the performance gain is far smaller, only about 50%, due to imperfect software algorithms and implementation.","Increasing the number of cores in a processor (i.e.","dual-core, quad-core, etc.)","increases the workload that can be handled.","This means that the processor can now handle numerous asynchronous events, interrupts, etc.","which can take a toll on the CPU when overwhelmed.","These cores can be thought of as different floors in a processing plant, with each floor handling a different task.","Sometimes, these cores will handle the same tasks as cores adjacent to them if a single core is not enough to handle the information.","Due to specific capabilities of modern CPUs, such as hyper-threading and uncore, which involve sharing of actual CPU resources while aiming at increased utilization, monitoring performance levels and hardware utilization gradually became a more complex task.","As a response, some CPUs implement additional hardware logic that monitors actual utilization of various parts of a CPU and provides various counters accessible to software; an example is Intel's ''Performance Counter Monitor'' technology.","\n\n* Addressing mode\n* AMD Accelerated Processing Unit\n* CISC\n* Computer bus\n* Computer engineering\n* CPU core voltage\n* CPU socket\n* Digital signal processor\n* Hyper-threading\n* List of CPU architectures\n* Microprocessor\n* Multi-core processor\n* Protection ring\n* RISC\n* Stream processing\n* True Performance Index\n* Wait state","\n\n\n\n* .","* 25 Microchips that shook the world – an article by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers."],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\nA '''central processing unit''' ('''CPU''') is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions.\",\n \"The computer industry has used the term \\\"central processing unit\\\" at least since the early 1960s.\",\n \"Traditionally, the term \\\"CPU\\\" refers to a '''processor''', more specifically to its processing unit and control unit (CU), distinguishing these core elements of a computer from external components such as main memory and I/O circuitry.\",\n \"The form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, but their fundamental operation remains almost unchanged.\",\n \"Principal components of a CPU include the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that performs arithmetic and logic operations, processor registers that supply operands to the ALU and store the results of ALU operations, and a control unit that orchestrates the fetching (from memory) and execution of instructions by directing the coordinated operations of the ALU, registers and other components.\",\n \"Most modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit (IC) chip.\",\n \"An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, and other components of a computer; such integrated devices are variously called microcontrollers or systems on a chip (SoC).\",\n \"Some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called \\\"cores\\\"; in that context, one can speak of such single chips as \\\"sockets\\\".\",\n \"Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, with no unit considered central.\",\n \"There also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources.\",\n \"\\nEDVAC, one of the first stored-program computers\\n\\nEarly computers such as the ENIAC had to be physically rewired to perform different tasks, which caused these machines to be called \\\"fixed-program computers\\\".\",\n \"Since the term \\\"CPU\\\" is generally defined as a device for software (computer program) execution, the earliest devices that could rightly be called CPUs came with the advent of the stored-program computer.\",\n \"The idea of a stored-program computer was already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchly's ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner.\",\n \"On June 30, 1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed the paper entitled ''First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC''.\",\n \"It was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949.\",\n \"EDVAC was designed to perform a certain number of instructions (or operations) of various types.\",\n \"Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the physical wiring of the computer.\",\n \"This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time and effort required to reconfigure the computer to perform a new task.\",\n \"With von Neumann's design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory.\",\n \"EDVAC, however, was not the first stored-program computer; the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine, a small prototype stored-program computer, ran its first program on 21 June 1948 and the Manchester Mark 1 ran its first program during the night of 16–17 June 1949.\",\n \"Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger and sometimes distinctive computer.\",\n \"However, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities.\",\n \"This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC).\",\n \"The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers.\",\n \"Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines.\",\n \"Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, and sometimes even in toys.\",\n \"While von Neumann is most often credited with the design of the stored-program computer because of his design of EDVAC, and the design became known as the von Neumann architecture, others before him, such as Konrad Zuse, had suggested and implemented similar ideas.\",\n \"The so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory.\",\n \"The key difference between the von Neumann and Harvard architectures is that the latter separates the storage and treatment of CPU instructions and data, while the former uses the same memory space for both.\",\n \"Most modern CPUs are primarily von Neumann in design, but CPUs with the Harvard architecture are seen as well, especially in embedded applications; for instance, the Atmel AVR microcontrollers are Harvard architecture processors.\",\n \"Relays and vacuum tubes (thermionic tubes) were commonly used as switching elements; a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices.\",\n \"The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches.\",\n \"Tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the (slower, but earlier) Harvard Mark I failed very rarely.\",\n \"In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems.\",\n \"Most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs.\",\n \"Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, limited largely by the speed of the switching devices they were built with.\",\n \"===Transistor CPUs===\\nIBM PowerPC 604e processor\\n\\nThe design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices.\",\n \"The first such improvement came with the advent of the transistor.\",\n \"Transistorized CPUs during the 1950s and 1960s no longer had to be built out of bulky, unreliable, and fragile switching elements like vacuum tubes and relays.\",\n \"With this improvement more complex and reliable CPUs were built onto one or several printed circuit boards containing discrete (individual) components.\",\n \"In 1964, IBM introduced its IBM System/360 computer architecture that was used in a series of computers capable of running the same programs with different speed and performance.\",\n \"This was significant at a time when most electronic computers were incompatible with one another, even those made by the same manufacturer.\",\n \"To facilitate this improvement, IBM utilized the concept of a microprogram (often called \\\"microcode\\\"), which still sees widespread usage in modern CPUs.\",\n \"The System/360 architecture was so popular that it dominated the mainframe computer market for decades and left a legacy that is still continued by similar modern computers like the IBM zSeries.\",\n \"In 1965, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced another influential computer aimed at the scientific and research markets, the PDP-8.\",\n \"Fujitsu board with SPARC64 VIIIfx processors\\nTransistor-based computers had several distinct advantages over their predecessors.\",\n \"Aside from facilitating increased reliability and lower power consumption, transistors also allowed CPUs to operate at much higher speeds because of the short switching time of a transistor in comparison to a tube or relay.\",\n \"The increased reliability and dramatically increased speed of the switching elements (which were almost exclusively transistors by this time), CPU clock rates in the tens of megahertz were easily obtained during this period.\",\n \"Additionally while discrete transistor and IC CPUs were in heavy usage, new high-performance designs like SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) vector processors began to appear.\",\n \"These early experimental designs later gave rise to the era of specialized supercomputers like those made by Cray Inc and Fujitsu Ltd.\\n\\n===Small-scale integration CPUs===\\ncore memory, and external bus interface of a DEC PDP-8/I.\",\n \"Made of medium-scale integrated circuits.\",\n \"During this period, a method of manufacturing many interconnected transistors in a compact space was developed.\",\n \"The integrated circuit (IC) allowed a large number of transistors to be manufactured on a single semiconductor-based die, or \\\"chip\\\".\",\n \"At first, only very basic non-specialized digital circuits such as NOR gates were miniaturized into ICs.\",\n \"CPUs based on these \\\"building block\\\" ICs are generally referred to as \\\"small-scale integration\\\" (SSI) devices.\",\n \"SSI ICs, such as the ones used in the Apollo guidance computer, usually contained up to a few dozen transistors.\",\n \"To build an entire CPU out of SSI ICs required thousands of individual chips, but still consumed much less space and power than earlier discrete transistor designs.\",\n \"IBM's System/370 follow-on to the System/360 used SSI ICs rather than Solid Logic Technology discrete-transistor modules.\",\n \"DEC's PDP-8/I and KI10 PDP-10 also switched from the individual transistors used by the PDP-8 and PDP-10 to SSI ICs, and their extremely popular PDP-11 line was originally built with SSI ICs but was eventually implemented with LSI components once these became practical.\",\n \"===Large-scale integration CPUs===\\nLee Boysel published influential articles, including a 1967 \\\"manifesto\\\", which described how to build the equivalent of a 32-bit mainframe computer from a relatively small number of large-scale integration circuits (LSI).\",\n \"At the time, the only way to build LSI chips, which are chips with a hundred or more gates, was to build them using a MOS process (i.e., PMOS logic, NMOS logic, or CMOS logic).\",\n \"However, some companies continued to build processors out of bipolar chips because bipolar junction transistors were so much faster than MOS chips; for example, Datapoint built processors out of transistor–transistor logic (TTL) chips until the early 1980s.\",\n \"At the time, MOS ICs were so slow that they were considered useful only in a few niche applications that required low power.\",\n \"As the microelectronic technology advanced, an increasing number of transistors were placed on ICs, decreasing the number of individual ICs needed for a complete CPU.\",\n \"MSI and LSI ICs increased transistor counts to hundreds, and then thousands.\",\n \"By 1968, the number of ICs required to build a complete CPU had been reduced to 24 ICs of eight different types, with each IC containing roughly 1000 MOSFETs.\",\n \"In stark contrast with its SSI and MSI predecessors, the first LSI implementation of the PDP-11 contained a CPU composed of only four LSI integrated circuits.\",\n \"===Microprocessors===\\n\\n\\n\\nSince the introduction of the first commercially available microprocessor, the Intel 4004 in 1970, and the first widely used microprocessor, the Intel 8080 in 1974, this class of CPUs has almost completely overtaken all other central processing unit implementation methods.\",\n \"Mainframe and minicomputer manufacturers of the time launched proprietary IC development programs to upgrade their older computer architectures, and eventually produced instruction set compatible microprocessors that were backward-compatible with their older hardware and software.\",\n \"Combined with the advent and eventual success of the ubiquitous personal computer, the term ''CPU'' is now applied almost exclusively to microprocessors.\",\n \"Several CPUs (denoted ''cores'') can be combined in a single processing chip.\",\n \"Previous generations of CPUs were implemented as discrete components and numerous small integrated circuits (ICs) on one or more circuit boards.\",\n \"Microprocessors, on the other hand, are CPUs manufactured on a very small number of ICs; usually just one.\",\n \"The overall smaller CPU size, as a result of being implemented on a single die, means faster switching time because of physical factors like decreased gate parasitic capacitance.\",\n \"This has allowed synchronous microprocessors to have clock rates ranging from tens of megahertz to several gigahertz.\",\n \"Additionally, the ability to construct exceedingly small transistors on an IC has increased the complexity and number of transistors in a single CPU many fold.\",\n \"This widely observed trend is described by Moore's law, which has proven to be a fairly accurate predictor of the growth of CPU (and other IC) complexity.\",\n \"While the complexity, size, construction, and general form of CPUs have changed enormously since 1950, it is notable that the basic design and function has not changed much at all.\",\n \"Almost all common CPUs today can be very accurately described as von Neumann stored-program machines.\",\n \"As the aforementioned Moore's law continues to hold true, concerns have arisen about the limits of integrated circuit transistor technology.\",\n \"Extreme miniaturization of electronic gates is causing the effects of phenomena like electromigration and subthreshold leakage to become much more significant.\",\n \"These newer concerns are among the many factors causing researchers to investigate new methods of computing such as the quantum computer, as well as to expand the usage of parallelism and other methods that extend the usefulness of the classical von Neumann model.\",\n \"The fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless of the physical form they take, is to execute a sequence of stored instructions that is called a program.\",\n \"The instructions to be executed are kept in some kind of computer memory.\",\n \"Nearly all CPUs follow the fetch, decode and execute steps in their operation, which are collectively known as the instruction cycle.\",\n \"After the execution of an instruction, the entire process repeats, with the next instruction cycle normally fetching the next-in-sequence instruction because of the incremented value in the program counter.\",\n \"If a jump instruction was executed, the program counter will be modified to contain the address of the instruction that was jumped to and program execution continues normally.\",\n \"In more complex CPUs, multiple instructions can be fetched, decoded, and executed simultaneously.\",\n \"This section describes what is generally referred to as the \\\"classic RISC pipeline\\\", which is quite common among the simple CPUs used in many electronic devices (often called microcontroller).\",\n \"It largely ignores the important role of CPU cache, and therefore the access stage of the pipeline.\",\n \"Some instructions manipulate the program counter rather than producing result data directly; such instructions are generally called \\\"jumps\\\" and facilitate program behavior like loops, conditional program execution (through the use of a conditional jump), and existence of functions.\",\n \"In some processors, some other instructions change the state of bits in a \\\"flags\\\" register.\",\n \"These flags can be used to influence how a program behaves, since they often indicate the outcome of various operations.\",\n \"For example, in such processors a \\\"compare\\\" instruction evaluates two values and sets or clears bits in the flags register to indicate which one is greater or whether they are equal; one of these flags could then be used by a later jump instruction to determine program flow.\",\n \"===Fetch===\\nThe first step, fetch, involves retrieving an instruction (which is represented by a number or sequence of numbers) from program memory.\",\n \"The instruction's location (address) in program memory is determined by a program counter (PC), which stores a number that identifies the address of the next instruction to be fetched.\",\n \"After an instruction is fetched, the PC is incremented by the length of the instruction so that it will contain the address of the next instruction in the sequence.\",\n \"Often, the instruction to be fetched must be retrieved from relatively slow memory, causing the CPU to stall while waiting for the instruction to be returned.\",\n \"This issue is largely addressed in modern processors by caches and pipeline architectures (see below).\",\n \"===Decode===\\nThe instruction that the CPU fetches from memory determines what the CPU will do.\",\n \"In the decode step, performed by the circuitry known as the ''instruction decoder'', the instruction is converted into signals that control other parts of the CPU.\",\n \"The way in which the instruction is interpreted is defined by the CPU's instruction set architecture (ISA).\",\n \"Often, one group of bits (that is, a \\\"field\\\") within the instruction, called the opcode, indicates which operation is to be performed, while the remaining fields usually provide supplemental information required for the operation, such as the operands.\",\n \"Those operands may be specified as a constant value (called an immediate value), or as the location of a value that may be a processor register or a memory address, as determined by some addressing mode.\",\n \"In some CPU designs the instruction decoder is implemented as a hardwired, unchangeable circuit.\",\n \"In others, a microprogram is used to translate instructions into sets of CPU configuration signals that are applied sequentially over multiple clock pulses.\",\n \"In some cases the memory that stores the microprogram is rewritable, making it possible to change the way in which the CPU decodes instructions.\",\n \"===Execute===\\nAfter the fetch and decode steps, the execute step is performed.\",\n \"Depending on the CPU architecture, this may consist of a single action or a sequence of actions.\",\n \"During each action, various parts of the CPU are electrically connected so they can perform all or part of the desired operation and then the action is completed, typically in response to a clock pulse.\",\n \"Very often the results are written to an internal CPU register for quick access by subsequent instructions.\",\n \"In other cases results may be written to slower, but less expensive and higher capacity main memory.\",\n \"For example, if an addition instruction is to be executed, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) inputs are connected to a pair of operand sources (numbers to be summed), the ALU is configured to perform an addition operation so that the sum of its operand inputs will appear at its output, and the ALU output is connected to storage (e.g., a register or memory) that will receive the sum.\",\n \"When the clock pulse occurs, the sum will be transferred to storage and, if the resulting sum is too large (i.e., it is larger than the ALU's output word size), an arithmetic overflow flag will be set.\",\n \"\\nBlock diagram of a basic uniprocessor-CPU computer.\",\n \"Black lines indicate data flow, whereas red lines indicate control flow; arrows indicate flow directions.\",\n \"Hardwired into a CPU's circuitry is a set of basic operations it can perform, called an instruction set.\",\n \"Such operations may involve, for example, adding or subtracting two numbers, comparing two numbers, or jumping to a different part of a program.\",\n \"Each basic operation is represented by a particular combination of bits, known as the machine language opcode; while executing instructions in a machine language program, the CPU decides which operation to perform by \\\"decoding\\\" the opcode.\",\n \"A complete machine language instruction consists of an opcode and, in many cases, additional bits that specify arguments for the operation (for example, the numbers to be summed in the case of an addition operation).\",\n \"Going up the complexity scale, a machine language program is a collection of machine language instructions that the CPU executes.\",\n \"The actual mathematical operation for each instruction is performed by a combinational logic circuit within the CPU's processor known as the arithmetic logic unit or ALU.\",\n \"In general, a CPU executes an instruction by fetching it from memory, using its ALU to perform an operation, and then storing the result to memory.\",\n \"Beside the instructions for integer mathematics and logic operations, various other machine instructions exist, such as those for loading data from memory and storing it back, branching operations, and mathematical operations on floating-point numbers performed by the CPU's floating-point unit (FPU).\",\n \"===Control unit===\\n\\nThe control unit of the CPU contains circuitry that uses electrical signals to direct the entire computer system to carry out stored program instructions.\",\n \"The control unit does not execute program instructions; rather, it directs other parts of the system to do so.\",\n \"The control unit communicates with both the ALU and memory.\",\n \"===Arithmetic logic unit===\\n\\nSymbolic representation of an ALU and its input and output signals\\n\\nThe arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit within the processor that performs integer arithmetic and bitwise logic operations.\",\n \"The inputs to the ALU are the data words to be operated on (called operands), status information from previous operations, and a code from the control unit indicating which operation to perform.\",\n \"Depending on the instruction being executed, the operands may come from internal CPU registers or external memory, or they may be constants generated by the ALU itself.\",\n \"When all input signals have settled and propagated through the ALU circuitry, the result of the performed operation appears at the ALU's outputs.\",\n \"The result consists of both a data word, which may be stored in a register or memory, and status information that is typically stored in a special, internal CPU register reserved for this purpose.\",\n \"===Memory management unit===\\n\\n\\nMost high-end microprocessors (in desktop, laptop, server computers) have a memory management unit, translating logical addresses into physical RAM addresses, providing memory protection and paging abilities, useful for virtual memory.\",\n \"Simpler processors, especially microcontrollers, usually don't include an MMU.\",\n \"===Clock rate===\\n\\nMost CPUs are synchronous circuits, which means they employ a clock signal to pace their sequential operations.\",\n \"The clock signal is produced by an external oscillator circuit that generates a consistent number of pulses each second in the form of a periodic square wave.\",\n \"The frequency of the clock pulses determines the rate at which a CPU executes instructions and, consequently, the faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU will execute each second.\",\n \"To ensure proper operation of the CPU, the clock period is longer than the maximum time needed for all signals to propagate (move) through the CPU.\",\n \"In setting the clock period to a value well above the worst-case propagation delay, it is possible to design the entire CPU and the way it moves data around the \\\"edges\\\" of the rising and falling clock signal.\",\n \"This has the advantage of simplifying the CPU significantly, both from a design perspective and a component-count perspective.\",\n \"However, it also carries the disadvantage that the entire CPU must wait on its slowest elements, even though some portions of it are much faster.\",\n \"This limitation has largely been compensated for by various methods of increasing CPU parallelism (see below).\",\n \"However, architectural improvements alone do not solve all of the drawbacks of globally synchronous CPUs.\",\n \"For example, a clock signal is subject to the delays of any other electrical signal.\",\n \"Higher clock rates in increasingly complex CPUs make it more difficult to keep the clock signal in phase (synchronized) throughout the entire unit.\",\n \"This has led many modern CPUs to require multiple identical clock signals to be provided to avoid delaying a single signal significantly enough to cause the CPU to malfunction.\",\n \"Another major issue, as clock rates increase dramatically, is the amount of heat that is dissipated by the CPU.\",\n \"The constantly changing clock causes many components to switch regardless of whether they are being used at that time.\",\n \"In general, a component that is switching uses more energy than an element in a static state.\",\n \"Therefore, as clock rate increases, so does energy consumption, causing the CPU to require more heat dissipation in the form of CPU cooling solutions.\",\n \"One method of dealing with the switching of unneeded components is called clock gating, which involves turning off the clock signal to unneeded components (effectively disabling them).\",\n \"However, this is often regarded as difficult to implement and therefore does not see common usage outside of very low-power designs.\",\n \"One notable recent CPU design that uses extensive clock gating is the IBM PowerPC-based Xenon used in the Xbox 360; that way, power requirements of the Xbox 360 are greatly reduced.\",\n \"Another method of addressing some of the problems with a global clock signal is the removal of the clock signal altogether.\",\n \"While removing the global clock signal makes the design process considerably more complex in many ways, asynchronous (or clockless) designs carry marked advantages in power consumption and heat dissipation in comparison with similar synchronous designs.\",\n \"While somewhat uncommon, entire asynchronous CPUs have been built without utilizing a global clock signal.\",\n \"Two notable examples of this are the ARM compliant AMULET and the MIPS R3000 compatible MiniMIPS.\",\n \"Rather than totally removing the clock signal, some CPU designs allow certain portions of the device to be asynchronous, such as using asynchronous ALUs in conjunction with superscalar pipelining to achieve some arithmetic performance gains.\",\n \"While it is not altogether clear whether totally asynchronous designs can perform at a comparable or better level than their synchronous counterparts, it is evident that they do at least excel in simpler math operations.\",\n \"This, combined with their excellent power consumption and heat dissipation properties, makes them very suitable for embedded computers.\",\n \"===Integer range===\\nEvery CPU represents numerical values in a specific way.\",\n \"For example, some early digital computers represented numbers as familiar decimal (base 10) numeral system values, and others have employed more unusual representations such as ternary (base three).\",\n \"Nearly all modern CPUs represent numbers in binary form, with each digit being represented by some two-valued physical quantity such as a \\\"high\\\" or \\\"low\\\" voltage.\",\n \"A six-bit word containing the binary encoded representation of decimal value 40.\",\n \"Most modern CPUs employ word sizes that are a power of two, for example 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits.\",\n \"Related to numeric representation is the size and precision of integer numbers that a CPU can represent.\",\n \"In the case of a binary CPU, this is measured by the number of bits (significant digits of a binary encoded integer) that the CPU can process in one operation, which is commonly called \\\"word size\\\", \\\"bit width\\\", \\\"data path width\\\", \\\"integer precision\\\", or \\\"integer size\\\".\",\n \"A CPU's integer size determines the range of integer values it can directly operate on.\",\n \"For example, an 8-bit CPU can directly manipulate integers represented by eight bits, which have a range of 256 (28) discrete integer values.\",\n \"Integer range can also affect the number of memory locations the CPU can directly address (an address is an integer value representing a specific memory location).\",\n \"For example, if a binary CPU uses 32 bits to represent a memory address then it can directly address 232 memory locations.\",\n \"CPUs with larger word sizes require more circuitry and consequently are physically larger, cost more, and consume more power (and therefore generate more heat).\",\n \"As a result, smaller 4- or 8-bit microcontrollers are commonly used in modern applications even though CPUs with much larger word sizes (such as 16, 32, 64, even 128-bit) are available.\",\n \"When higher performance is required, however, the benefits of a larger word size (larger data ranges and address spaces) may outweigh the disadvantages.\",\n \"A CPU can have internal data paths shorter than the word size to reduce size and cost.\",\n \"For example, even though the IBM System/360 instruction set was a 32-bit instruction set, the System/360 Model 30 and Model 40 had 8-bit data paths in the arithmetic logical unit, so that a 32-bit add required four cycles, one for each 8 bits of the operands, and, even though the Motorola 68000 series instruction set was a 32-bit instruction set, the Motorola 68000 and Motorola 68010 had 16-bit data paths in the arithmetic logical unit, so that a 32-bit add required two cycles.\",\n \"To gain some of the advantages afforded by both lower and higher bit lengths, many instruction sets have different bit widths for integer and floating-point data, allowing CPUs implementing that instruction set to have different bit widths for different portions of the device.\",\n \"For example, the IBM System/360 instruction set was primarily 32 bit, but supported 64-bit floating point values to facilitate greater accuracy and range in floating point numbers.\",\n \"The System/360 Model 65 had an 8-bit adder for decimal and fixed-point binary arithmetic and a 60-bit adder for floating-point arithmetic.\",\n \"Many later CPU designs use similar mixed bit width, especially when the processor is meant for general-purpose usage where a reasonable balance of integer and floating point capability is required.\",\n \"===Parallelism===\\n\\nModel of a subscalar CPU, in which it takes fifteen clock cycles to complete three instructions.\",\n \"The description of the basic operation of a CPU offered in the previous section describes the simplest form that a CPU can take.\",\n \"This type of CPU, usually referred to as ''subscalar'', operates on and executes one instruction on one or two pieces of data at a time, that is less than one instruction per clock cycle ().\",\n \"This process gives rise to an inherent inefficiency in subscalar CPUs.\",\n \"Since only one instruction is executed at a time, the entire CPU must wait for that instruction to complete before proceeding to the next instruction.\",\n \"As a result, the subscalar CPU gets \\\"hung up\\\" on instructions which take more than one clock cycle to complete execution.\",\n \"Even adding a second execution unit (see below) does not improve performance much; rather than one pathway being hung up, now two pathways are hung up and the number of unused transistors is increased.\",\n \"This design, wherein the CPU's execution resources can operate on only one instruction at a time, can only possibly reach ''scalar'' performance (one instruction per clock cycle, ).\",\n \"However, the performance is nearly always subscalar (less than one instruction per clock cycle, ).\",\n \"Attempts to achieve scalar and better performance have resulted in a variety of design methodologies that cause the CPU to behave less linearly and more in parallel.\",\n \"When referring to parallelism in CPUs, two terms are generally used to classify these design techniques:\\n* ''instruction-level parallelism'' (ILP), which seeks to increase the rate at which instructions are executed within a CPU (that is, to increase the utilization of on-die execution resources);\\n* ''task-level parallelism'' (TLP), which purposes to increase the number of threads or processes that a CPU can execute simultaneously.\",\n \"Each methodology differs both in the ways in which they are implemented, as well as the relative effectiveness they afford in increasing the CPU's performance for an application.\",\n \"====Instruction-level parallelism====\\n\\nBasic five-stage pipeline.\",\n \"In the best case scenario, this pipeline can sustain a completion rate of one instruction per clock cycle.\",\n \"One of the simplest methods used to accomplish increased parallelism is to begin the first steps of instruction fetching and decoding before the prior instruction finishes executing.\",\n \"This is the simplest form of a technique known as instruction pipelining, and is utilized in almost all modern general-purpose CPUs.\",\n \"Pipelining allows more than one instruction to be executed at any given time by breaking down the execution pathway into discrete stages.\",\n \"This separation can be compared to an assembly line, in which an instruction is made more complete at each stage until it exits the execution pipeline and is retired.\",\n \"Pipelining does, however, introduce the possibility for a situation where the result of the previous operation is needed to complete the next operation; a condition often termed data dependency conflict.\",\n \"To cope with this, additional care must be taken to check for these sorts of conditions and delay a portion of the instruction pipeline if this occurs.\",\n \"Naturally, accomplishing this requires additional circuitry, so pipelined processors are more complex than subscalar ones (though not very significantly so).\",\n \"A pipelined processor can become very nearly scalar, inhibited only by pipeline stalls (an instruction spending more than one clock cycle in a stage).\",\n \"A simple superscalar pipeline.\",\n \"By fetching and dispatching two instructions at a time, a maximum of two instructions per clock cycle can be completed.\",\n \"Further improvement upon the idea of instruction pipelining led to the development of a method that decreases the idle time of CPU components even further.\",\n \"Designs that are said to be ''superscalar'' include a long instruction pipeline and multiple identical execution units.\",\n \"In a superscalar pipeline, multiple instructions are read and passed to a dispatcher, which decides whether or not the instructions can be executed in parallel (simultaneously).\",\n \"If so they are dispatched to available execution units, resulting in the ability for several instructions to be executed simultaneously.\",\n \"In general, the more instructions a superscalar CPU is able to dispatch simultaneously to waiting execution units, the more instructions will be completed in a given cycle.\",\n \"Most of the difficulty in the design of a superscalar CPU architecture lies in creating an effective dispatcher.\",\n \"The dispatcher needs to be able to quickly and correctly determine whether instructions can be executed in parallel, as well as dispatch them in such a way as to keep as many execution units busy as possible.\",\n \"This requires that the instruction pipeline is filled as often as possible and gives rise to the need in superscalar architectures for significant amounts of CPU cache.\",\n \"It also makes hazard-avoiding techniques like branch prediction, speculative execution, and out-of-order execution crucial to maintaining high levels of performance.\",\n \"By attempting to predict which branch (or path) a conditional instruction will take, the CPU can minimize the number of times that the entire pipeline must wait until a conditional instruction is completed.\",\n \"Speculative execution often provides modest performance increases by executing portions of code that may not be needed after a conditional operation completes.\",\n \"Out-of-order execution somewhat rearranges the order in which instructions are executed to reduce delays due to data dependencies.\",\n \"Also in case of single instruction stream, multiple data stream—a case when a lot of data from the same type has to be processed—, modern processors can disable parts of the pipeline so that when a single instruction is executed many times, the CPU skips the fetch and decode phases and thus greatly increases performance on certain occasions, especially in highly monotonous program engines such as video creation software and photo processing.\",\n \"In the case where a portion of the CPU is superscalar and part is not, the part which is not suffers a performance penalty due to scheduling stalls.\",\n \"The Intel P5 Pentium had two superscalar ALUs which could accept one instruction per clock cycle each, but its FPU could not accept one instruction per clock cycle.\",\n \"Thus the P5 was integer superscalar but not floating point superscalar.\",\n \"Intel's successor to the P5 architecture, P6, added superscalar capabilities to its floating point features, and therefore afforded a significant increase in floating point instruction performance.\",\n \"Both simple pipelining and superscalar design increase a CPU's ILP by allowing a single processor to complete execution of instructions at rates surpassing one instruction per clock cycle.\",\n \"Most modern CPU designs are at least somewhat superscalar, and nearly all general purpose CPUs designed in the last decade are superscalar.\",\n \"In later years some of the emphasis in designing high-ILP computers has been moved out of the CPU's hardware and into its software interface, or ISA.\",\n \"The strategy of the very long instruction word (VLIW) causes some ILP to become implied directly by the software, reducing the amount of work the CPU must perform to boost ILP and thereby reducing the design's complexity.\",\n \"====Task-level parallelism====\\n\\nAnother strategy of achieving performance is to execute multiple threads or processes in parallel.\",\n \"This area of research is known as parallel computing.\",\n \"In Flynn's taxonomy, this strategy is known as multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream (MIMD).\",\n \"One technology used for this purpose was multiprocessing (MP).\",\n \"The initial flavor of this technology is known as symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), where a small number of CPUs share a coherent view of their memory system.\",\n \"In this scheme, each CPU has additional hardware to maintain a constantly up-to-date view of memory.\",\n \"By avoiding stale views of memory, the CPUs can cooperate on the same program and programs can migrate from one CPU to another.\",\n \"To increase the number of cooperating CPUs beyond a handful, schemes such as non-uniform memory access (NUMA) and directory-based coherence protocols were introduced in the 1990s.\",\n \"SMP systems are limited to a small number of CPUs while NUMA systems have been built with thousands of processors.\",\n \"Initially, multiprocessing was built using multiple discrete CPUs and boards to implement the interconnect between the processors.\",\n \"When the processors and their interconnect are all implemented on a single chip, the technology is known as chip-level multiprocessing (CMP) and the single chip as a multi-core processor.\",\n \"It was later recognized that finer-grain parallelism existed with a single program.\",\n \"A single program might have several threads (or functions) that could be executed separately or in parallel.\",\n \"Some of the earliest examples of this technology implemented input/output processing such as direct memory access as a separate thread from the computation thread.\",\n \"A more general approach to this technology was introduced in the 1970s when systems were designed to run multiple computation threads in parallel.\",\n \"This technology is known as multi-threading (MT).\",\n \"This approach is considered more cost-effective than multiprocessing, as only a small number of components within a CPU is replicated to support MT as opposed to the entire CPU in the case of MP.\",\n \"In MT, the execution units and the memory system including the caches are shared among multiple threads.\",\n \"The downside of MT is that the hardware support for multithreading is more visible to software than that of MP and thus supervisor software like operating systems have to undergo larger changes to support MT.\",\n \"One type of MT that was implemented is known as temporal multithreading, where one thread is executed until it is stalled waiting for data to return from external memory.\",\n \"In this scheme, the CPU would then quickly context switch to another thread which is ready to run, the switch often done in one CPU clock cycle, such as the UltraSPARC T1.\",\n \"Another type of MT is simultaneous multithreading, where instructions from multiple threads are executed in parallel within one CPU clock cycle.\",\n \"For several decades from the 1970s to early 2000s, the focus in designing high performance general purpose CPUs was largely on achieving high ILP through technologies such as pipelining, caches, superscalar execution, out-of-order execution, etc.\",\n \"This trend culminated in large, power-hungry CPUs such as the Intel Pentium 4.\",\n \"By the early 2000s, CPU designers were thwarted from achieving higher performance from ILP techniques due to the growing disparity between CPU operating frequencies and main memory operating frequencies as well as escalating CPU power dissipation owing to more esoteric ILP techniques.\",\n \"CPU designers then borrowed ideas from commercial computing markets such as transaction processing, where the aggregate performance of multiple programs, also known as throughput computing, was more important than the performance of a single thread or process.\",\n \"This reversal of emphasis is evidenced by the proliferation of dual and more core processor designs and notably, Intel's newer designs resembling its less superscalar P6 architecture.\",\n \"Late designs in several processor families exhibit CMP, including the x86-64 Opteron and Athlon 64 X2, the SPARC UltraSPARC T1, IBM POWER4 and POWER5, as well as several video game console CPUs like the Xbox 360's triple-core PowerPC design, and the PlayStation 3's 7-core Cell microprocessor.\",\n \"====Data parallelism====\\n\\nA less common but increasingly important paradigm of processors (and indeed, computing in general) deals with data parallelism.\",\n \"The processors discussed earlier are all referred to as some type of scalar device.\",\n \"As the name implies, vector processors deal with multiple pieces of data in the context of one instruction.\",\n \"This contrasts with scalar processors, which deal with one piece of data for every instruction.\",\n \"Using Flynn's taxonomy, these two schemes of dealing with data are generally referred to as single instruction stream, multiple data stream (SIMD) and single instruction stream, single data stream (SISD), respectively.\",\n \"The great utility in creating processors that deal with vectors of data lies in optimizing tasks that tend to require the same operation (for example, a sum or a dot product) to be performed on a large set of data.\",\n \"Some classic examples of these types of tasks include multimedia applications (images, video, and sound), as well as many types of scientific and engineering tasks.\",\n \"Whereas a scalar processor must complete the entire process of fetching, decoding, and executing each instruction and value in a set of data, a vector processor can perform a single operation on a comparatively large set of data with one instruction.\",\n \"Of course, this is only possible when the application tends to require many steps which apply one operation to a large set of data.\",\n \"Most early vector processors, such as the Cray-1, were associated almost exclusively with scientific research and cryptography applications.\",\n \"However, as multimedia has largely shifted to digital media, the need for some form of SIMD in general-purpose processors has become significant.\",\n \"Shortly after inclusion of floating-point units started to become commonplace in general-purpose processors, specifications for and implementations of SIMD execution units also began to appear for general-purpose processors.\",\n \"Some of these early SIMD specifications - like HP's Multimedia Acceleration eXtensions (MAX) and Intel's MMX - were integer-only.\",\n \"This proved to be a significant impediment for some software developers, since many of the applications that benefit from SIMD primarily deal with floating-point numbers.\",\n \"Progressively, developers refined and remade these early designs into some of the common modern SIMD specifications, which are usually associated with one ISA.\",\n \"Some notable modern examples include Intel's SSE and the PowerPC-related AltiVec (also known as VMX).\",\n \"===Virtual CPUs===\\n\\nCloud computing can involve subdividing CPU operation into '''virtual central processing units''' (vCPUs).\",\n \"A host is the virtual equivalent of a physical machine, on which a virtual system is operating.\",\n \"When there are several physical machines operating in tandem and managed as a whole, the grouped computing and memory resources form a cluster.\",\n \"In some systems it is possible to dynamically add and remove from a cluster.\",\n \"Resources available at a host and cluster level can be partitioned out into resources pools with fine granularity.\",\n \"\\nThe ''performance'' or ''speed'' of a processor depends on, among many other factors, the clock rate (generally given in multiples of hertz) and the instructions per clock (IPC), which together are the factors for the instructions per second (IPS) that the CPU can perform.\",\n \"Many reported IPS values have represented \\\"peak\\\" execution rates on artificial instruction sequences with few branches, whereas realistic workloads consist of a mix of instructions and applications, some of which take longer to execute than others.\",\n \"The performance of the memory hierarchy also greatly affects processor performance, an issue barely considered in MIPS calculations.\",\n \"Because of these problems, various standardized tests, often called \\\"benchmarks\\\" for this purposesuch as SPECinthave been developed to attempt to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications.\",\n \"Processing performance of computers is increased by using multi-core processors, which essentially is plugging two or more individual processors (called ''cores'' in this sense) into one integrated circuit.\",\n \"Ideally, a dual core processor would be nearly twice as powerful as a single core processor.\",\n \"In practice, the performance gain is far smaller, only about 50%, due to imperfect software algorithms and implementation.\",\n \"Increasing the number of cores in a processor (i.e.\",\n \"dual-core, quad-core, etc.)\",\n \"increases the workload that can be handled.\",\n \"This means that the processor can now handle numerous asynchronous events, interrupts, etc.\",\n \"which can take a toll on the CPU when overwhelmed.\",\n \"These cores can be thought of as different floors in a processing plant, with each floor handling a different task.\",\n \"Sometimes, these cores will handle the same tasks as cores adjacent to them if a single core is not enough to handle the information.\",\n \"Due to specific capabilities of modern CPUs, such as hyper-threading and uncore, which involve sharing of actual CPU resources while aiming at increased utilization, monitoring performance levels and hardware utilization gradually became a more complex task.\",\n \"As a response, some CPUs implement additional hardware logic that monitors actual utilization of various parts of a CPU and provides various counters accessible to software; an example is Intel's ''Performance Counter Monitor'' technology.\",\n \"\\n\\n* Addressing mode\\n* AMD Accelerated Processing Unit\\n* CISC\\n* Computer bus\\n* Computer engineering\\n* CPU core voltage\\n* CPU socket\\n* Digital signal processor\\n* Hyper-threading\\n* List of CPU architectures\\n* Microprocessor\\n* Multi-core processor\\n* Protection ring\\n* RISC\\n* Stream processing\\n* True Performance Index\\n* Wait state\",\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n* .\",\n \"* 25 Microchips that shook the world – an article by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"river"}}},{"rowIdx":296,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Colombia''' ( or ; ), officially the '''Republic of Colombia''' (), is a sovereign state largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and Peru. It shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments. The territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples, with as most advanced the Muisca, Quimbaya and the Tairona.\n\nThe Spanish set foot on Colombian soil for the first time in 1499 and in the first half of the 16th century initiated a period of conquest and colonization, ultimately creating the New Kingdom of Granada, with as capital Santafé de Bogotá. Independence from Spain was acquired in 1819, but by 1830 the \"Gran Colombia\" Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada. The new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation (1858), and then the United States of Colombia (1863), before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Panama seceded in 1903. Since the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, which escalated in the 1990s but then decreased from 2005 onward. Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. The urban centres are mostly located in the highlands of the Andes mountains.\n\nColombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines. Ecologically, it is one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a middle power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is a member of the UN, the WTO, the OAS, the Pacific Alliance, and other international organizations. Colombia has a diversified economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run.\n","''Colombia'' is named after Christopher Columbus\nThe name \"Colombia\" is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus (, ). It was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was later adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819, formed from the territories of the old Viceroyalty of New Granada (modern-day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, and northwest Brazil).\n\nWhen Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, the former Department of Cundinamarca adopted the name \"Republic of New Granada\". New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was again changed, this time to United States of Colombia, before finally adopting its present name – the Republic of Colombia – in 1886.\n\nTo refer to this country, the Colombian government uses the terms ''Colombia'' and ''República de Colombia''.\n","\n\n=== Pre-Columbian era ===\n\nOwing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica and the Caribbean to the Andes and Amazon basin. The oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period (18,000–8000 BCE). At Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period (~8000–2000 BCE) have been found. Vestiges indicate that there was also early occupation in the regions of El Abra and Tequendama in Cundinamarca. The oldest pottery discovered in the Americas, found at San Jacinto, dates to 5000–4000 BCE.\nMuisca raft. The figure refers to the ceremony of the legend of El Dorado.\n\nIndigenous people inhabited the territory that is now Colombia by 12,500 BCE. Nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes at the El Abra, Tibitó and Tequendama sites near present-day Bogotá traded with one another and with other cultures from the Magdalena River Valley. Between 5000 and 1000 BCE, hunter-gatherer tribes transitioned to agrarian societies; fixed settlements were established, and pottery appeared. Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE, groups of Amerindians including the Muisca, Quimbaya, and Tairona developed the political system of ''cacicazgos'' with a pyramidal structure of power headed by caciques. The Muisca inhabited mainly the area of what is now the Departments of Boyacá and Cundinamarca high plateau (''Altiplano Cundiboyacense'') where they formed the Muisca Confederation. They farmed maize, potato, quinoa and cotton, and traded gold, emeralds, blankets, ceramic handicrafts, coca and especially rock salt with neighboring nations. The Tairona inhabited northern Colombia in the isolated mountain range of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. The Quimbaya inhabited regions of the Cauca River Valley between the Western and Central Ranges of the Colombian Andes. Most of the Amerindians practiced agriculture and the social structure of each indigenous community was different. Some groups of indigenous people such as the Caribs lived in a state of permanent war, but others had less bellicose attitudes. The Incas expanded their empire onto the southwest part of the country.\n\n=== Spanish conquest ===\nMap of Juan de la Cosa. It is the oldest known European cartographic representation of the New World.\nAlonso de Ojeda (who had sailed with Columbus) reached the Guajira Peninsula in 1499. Spanish explorers, led by Rodrigo de Bastidas, made the first exploration of the Caribbean coast in 1500. Christopher Columbus navigated near the Caribbean in 1502. In 1508, Vasco Núñez de Balboa accompanied an expedition to the territory through the region of Gulf of Urabá and they founded the town of Santa María la Antigua del Darién in 1510, the first stable settlement on the continent. \n\nSanta Marta was founded in 1525, and Cartagena in 1533. Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada led an expedition to the interior in April 1536, and christened the districts through which he passed \"New Kingdom of Granada\". In August 1538, he founded provisionally its capital near the Muisca cacicazgo of Bacatá, and named it \"Santa Fe\". The name soon acquired a suffix and was called Santa Fe de Bogotá. Two other notable journeys by early conquistadors to the interior took place in the same period. Sebastián de Belalcázar, conqueror of Quito, traveled north and founded Cali, in 1536, and Popayán, in 1537; from 1536 to 1539, German conquistador Nikolaus Federmann crossed the Llanos Orientales and went over the Cordillera Oriental in a search for El Dorado, the \"city of gold\". The legend and the gold would play a pivotal role in luring the Spanish and other Europeans to New Granada during the 16th and 17th centuries.\n\nThe conquistadors made frequent alliances with the enemies of different indigenous communities. Indigenous allies were crucial to conquest, as well as to creating and maintaining empire. Indigenous peoples in New Granada experienced a decline in population due to conquest as well as Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox, to which they had no immunity. With the risk that the land was deserted, the Spanish Crown sold properties to all persons interested in colonise territories creating large farms and possession of mines.\n\nIn the 16th century, the nautical science in Spain reached a great development thanks to numerous scientific figures of the Casa de Contratación and nautical science was an essential pillar of the Iberian expansion.\n\n=== Colonial period ===\nIn 1542, the region of New Granada, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America, became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, with its capital at Lima. In 1547, New Granada became the Captaincy-General of New Granada within the viceroyalty.\n\nIn 1549, the Royal Audiencia was created by a royal decree, and New Granada was ruled by the Royal Audience of Santa Fe de Bogotá, which at that time comprised the provinces of Santa Marta, Rio de San Juan, Popayán, Guayana and Cartagena. But important decisions were taken from the colony to Spain by the Council of the Indies.\nThe battle resulted in a major defeat for the British Navy and Army during the War of Jenkins' Ear, 1739–48.\n\nIn the 16th century, Europeans began to bring slaves from Africa. Spain was the only European power that could not establish factories in Africa to purchase slaves and therefore the Spanish empire relied on the asiento system, awarding merchants (mostly from Portugal, France, England and the Dutch Empire) the license to trade enslaved people to their overseas territories. Also there were people who defended the human rights and freedoms of oppressed peoples. The indigenous peoples could not be enslaved because they were legally subjects of the Spanish Crown and to protect the indigenous peoples, several forms of land ownership and regulation were established: ''resguardos'', ''encomiendas'' and ''haciendas''.\nMany intellectual leaders of the independence process participated in the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada.\n\nIn 1717 the Viceroyalty of New Granada was originally created, and then it was temporarily removed, to finally be reestablished in 1739. The Viceroyalty had Santa Fé de Bogotá as its capital. This Viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America which had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalties of New Spain or Peru and correspond mainly to today's Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama. So, Bogotá became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with Lima and Mexico City, though it remained somewhat backward compared to those two cities in several economic and logistical ways.\n\nAfter Great Britain declared war on Spain in 1739, Cartagena quickly became the British forces' top target but an upset Spanish victory during the War of Jenkins' Ear, a war with Great Britain for economic control of the Caribbean, cemented Spanish dominance in the Caribbean until the Seven Years' War.\n\nThe 18th-century priest, botanist and mathematician José Celestino Mutis was delegated by Viceroy Antonio Caballero y Góngora to conduct an inventory of the nature of the New Granada. Started in 1783, this became known as the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada which classified plants, wildlife and founded the first astronomical observatory in the city of Santa Fe de Bogotá. In July 1801 the Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt reached Santa Fe de Bogotá where he met with Mutis. In addition, historical figures in the process of independence in New Granada emerged from the expedition as the astronomer Francisco José de Caldas, the scientist Francisco Antonio Zea, the zoologist Jorge Tadeo Lozano and the painter Salvador Rizo.\n\n=== Independence ===\nThe Battle of Boyacá was the decisive battle which would ensure the success of the liberation campaign of New Granada.\nSince the beginning of the periods of conquest and colonization, there were several rebel movements against Spanish rule, but most were either crushed or remained too weak to change the overall situation. The last one that sought outright independence from Spain sprang up around 1810, following the independence of St. Domingue (present-day Haiti) in 1804, which provided some support to an eventual leader of this rebellion: Simón Bolívar. Francisco de Paula Santander also would play a decisive role.\nThe Socorro Province was the site of the genesis of the independence process.\nA movement was initiated by Antonio Nariño, who opposed Spanish centralism and led the opposition against the Viceroyalty. Cartagena became independent in November 1811. In 1811 the United Provinces of New Granada were proclaimed, headed by Camilo Torres Tenorio. The emergence of two distinct ideological currents among the patriots (federalism and centralism) gave rise to a period of instability. Shortly after the Napoleonic Wars ended, Ferdinand VII, recently restored to the throne in Spain, unexpectedly decided to send military forces to retake most of northern South America. The viceroyalty was restored under the command of Juan Sámano, whose regime punished those who participated in the patriotic movements, ignoring the political nuances of the juntas. The retribution stoked renewed rebellion, which, combined with a weakened Spain, made possible a successful rebellion led by the Venezuelan-born Simón Bolívar, who finally proclaimed independence in 1819. The pro-Spanish resistance was defeated in 1822 in the present territory of Colombia and in 1823 in Venezuela.\n\nThe territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada became the Republic of Colombia, organized as a union of the current territories of Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, Venezuela, parts of Guyana and Brazil and north of Marañón River. The Congress of Cúcuta in 1821 adopted a constitution for the new Republic. Simón Bolívar became the first President of Colombia, and Francisco de Paula Santander was made Vice President. However, the new republic was unstable and three countries emerged from the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (New Granada, Ecuador and Venezuela).\nFormation of the present Colombia since the Viceroyalty of New Granada's independence from the Spanish Empire\nColombia was the first constitutional government in South America, and the Liberal and Conservative parties, founded in 1848 and 1849 respectively, are two of the oldest surviving political parties in the Americas. Slavery was abolished in the country in 1851.\n\nInternal political and territorial divisions led to the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1830. The so-called \"Department of Cundinamarca\" adopted the name \"New Granada\", which it kept until 1858 when it became the \"Confederación Granadina\" (Granadine Confederation). After a two-year civil war in 1863, the \"United States of Colombia\" was created, lasting until 1886, when the country finally became known as the Republic of Colombia. Internal divisions remained between the bipartisan political forces, occasionally igniting very bloody civil wars, the most significant being the Thousand Days' War (1899–1902).\n\n=== 20th century ===\nThe United States of America's intentions to influence the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to the separation of the Department of Panama in 1903 and the establishment of it as a nation. The United States paid Colombia $25,000,000 in 1921, seven years after completion of the canal, for redress of President Roosevelt's role in the creation of Panama, and Colombia recognized Panama under the terms of the Thomson–Urrutia Treaty. Colombia and Peru went to war because of territory disputes far in the Amazon basin. The war ended with a peace deal brokered by the League of Nations. The League finally awarded the disputed area to Colombia in June 1934.\nThe Bogotazo in 1948\nSoon after, Colombia achieved some degree of political stability, which was interrupted by a bloody conflict that took place between the late 1940s and the early 1950s, a period known as ''La Violencia'' (\"The Violence\"). Its cause was mainly mounting tensions between the two leading political parties, which subsequently ignited after the assassination of the Liberal presidential candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán on 9 April 1948. The ensuing riots in Bogotá, known as El Bogotazo, spread throughout the country and claimed the lives of at least 180,000 Colombians.\n\nColombia entered the Korean War when Laureano Gómez was elected president. It was the only Latin American country to join the war in a direct military role as an ally of the United States. Particularly important was the resistance of the Colombian troops at Old Baldy.\n\nThe violence between the two political parties decreased first when Gustavo Rojas deposed the President of Colombia in a coup d'état and negotiated with the guerrillas, and then under the military junta of General Gabriel París.\nThe Axis of Peace and Memory: A “memorial” in recognition of the victims of the conflict\nAfter Rojas' deposition, the Colombian Conservative Party and Colombian Liberal Party agreed to create the \"National Front\", a coalition which would jointly govern the country. Under the deal, the presidency would alternate between conservatives and liberals every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices. The National Front ended \"La Violencia\", and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress. Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political problems continued, and guerrilla groups were formally created such as the FARC, the ELN and the M-19 to fight the government and political apparatus.\n\nSince the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict between the government forces, left-wing guerrilla groups and right-wing paramilitaries. The conflict escalated in the 1990s, mainly in remote rural areas. Since the beginning of the armed conflict, human rights defenders have fought for the respect for human rights, despite staggering opposition. Several guerrillas' organizations decided to demobilize after peace negotiations in 1989–1994.\n\nThe United States has been heavily involved in the conflict since its beginnings, when in the early 1960s the U.S. government encouraged the Colombian military to attack leftist militias in rural Colombia. This was part of the U.S. fight against communism. Mercenaries and multinational corporations such as Chiquita Brands International are some of the international actors that have contributed to the violence of the conflict. \n\nOn 4 July 1991, a new Constitution was promulgated. The changes generated by the new constitution are viewed as positive by Colombian society.\n\n===21st century===\nColombia's President Juan Manuel Santos signed a historic peace accord.\nThe administration of President Álvaro Uribe (2002–10), adopted the democratic security policy which included an integrated counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency campaign. The Government economic plan also promoted confidence in investors. As part of a controversial peace process the AUC (right-wing paramilitaries) as a formal organization had ceased to function. In February 2008, millions of Colombians demonstrated against FARC and other outlawed groups.\n\nAfter peace negotiations in Cuba, the Colombian government of President Juan Manuel Santos and guerrilla of FARC-EP announced a final agreement to end the conflict. However, a referendum to ratify the deal was unsuccessful. Afterward, the Colombian government and the FARC signed a revised peace deal in November 2016, which the Colombian congress approved. In 2016, President Santos was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. The Government began a process of attention and comprehensive reparation for victims of conflict. Colombia shows modest progress in the struggle to defend human rights, as expressed by HRW. A Special Jurisdiction for Peace will be created to investigate, clarify, prosecute and punish serious human rights violations and grave breaches of international humanitarian law which occurred during the armed conflict and to satisfy victims' right to justice.\n\nIn terms of international relations, Colombia and Venezuela have agreed to restore diplomatic relations. Latin America, with a long memory of U.S. interventions such as the infamous Operation Condor, rejects US military threat against Venezuela. Colombia's Foreign Ministry said that all efforts to resolve Venezuela's crisis should be peaceful and respect its sovereignty. Colombia will not recognize result of Venezuela assembly vote, amid opposition concerns that the election will lead to dictatorship. Colombia with a very clean electricity generation matrix reaffirms its support for the Paris Climate Agreement. During his visit to Colombia, Pope Francis brought with him a message of peace and paid tribute to the victims of the conflict.\n","\n\nRelief map\nThe geography of Colombia is characterized by its six main natural regions that present their own unique characteristics, from the Andes mountain range region shared with Ecuador and Venezuela; the Pacific coastal region shared with Panama and Ecuador; the Caribbean coastal region shared with Venezuela and Panama; the ''Llanos'' (plains) shared with Venezuela; the Amazon Rainforest region shared with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Ecuador; to the insular area, comprising islands in both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.\n\nColombia is bordered to the northwest by Panama; to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; it established its maritime boundaries with neighboring countries through seven agreements on the Caribbean Sea and three on the Pacific Ocean. It lies between latitudes 12°N and 4°S, and longitudes 67° and 79°W.\nColombia map of Köppen climate classification\nPart of the Ring of Fire, a region of the world subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, In the interior of Colombia the Andes are the prevailing geographical feature. Most of Colombia's population centers are located in these interior highlands. Beyond the Colombian Massif (in the south-western departments of Cauca and Nariño) these are divided into three branches known as ''cordilleras'' (mountain ranges): the Cordillera Occidental, running adjacent to the Pacific coast and including the city of Cali; the Cordillera Central, running between the Cauca and Magdalena River valleys (to the west and east respectively) and including the cities of Medellín, Manizales, Pereira and Armenia; and the Cordillera Oriental, extending north east to the Guajira Peninsula and including Bogotá, Bucaramanga and Cúcuta.\n\nPeaks in the Cordillera Occidental exceed , and in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental they reach . At , Bogotá is the highest city of its size in the world.\n\nEast of the Andes lies the savanna of the ''Llanos'', part of the Orinoco River basin, and, in the far south east, the jungle of the Amazon rainforest. Together these lowlands comprise over half Colombia's territory, but they contain less than 6% of the population. To the north the Caribbean coast, home to 21.9% of the population and the location of the major port cities of Barranquilla and Cartagena, generally consists of low-lying plains, but it also contains the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range, which includes the country's tallest peaks (Pico Cristóbal Colón and Pico Simón Bolívar), and the La Guajira Desert. By contrast the narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, backed by the Serranía de Baudó mountains, are sparsely populated and covered in dense vegetation. The principal Pacific port is Buenaventura.\n\nThe main rivers of Colombia are Magdalena, Cauca, Guaviare, Atrato, Meta, Putumayo and Caquetá. Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin. The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers mark limits with Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively.\n\nProtected areas and the \"National Park System\" cover an area of about and account for 12.77% of the Colombian territory. Compared to neighboring countries, rates of deforestation in Colombia are still relatively low. Colombia is the sixth country in the world by magnitude of total renewable freshwater supply, and still has large reserves of freshwater.\n\n=== Climate ===\n\nThe climate of Colombia is characterized for being tropical presenting variations within six natural regions and depending on the altitude, temperature, humidity, winds and rainfall. The diversity of climate zones in Colombia is characterized for having tropical rainforests, savannas, steppes, deserts and mountain climate.\n\nMountain climate is one of the unique features of the Andes and other high altitude reliefs where climate is determined by elevation. Below in elevation is the warm altitudinal zone, where temperatures are above . About 82.5% of the country's total area lies in the warm altitudinal zone. The temperate climate altitudinal zone located between ) is characterized for presenting an average temperature ranging between . The cold climate is present between and the temperatures vary between . Beyond the cold land lie the alpine conditions of the forested zone and then the treeless grasslands of the páramos. Above , where temperatures are below freezing, the climate is glacial, a zone of permanent snow and ice.\n\n\nFile:Nevado del Ruiz en Colombia.jpg|Ice cap climate in the Nevado del Ruiz\nFile:Páramo de Sumapaz.jpg |Alpine tundra climate in the Sumapaz Paramo\nFile:Tota Lake 1.JPG|Oceanic climate in Tota Lake\nFile:Desierto Frio en Boyacá.jpg|Cold desert climate near Villa de Leyva\nFile:Chiribiquete view.jpg|Tropical wet climate in the tepuis of the Serranía de Chiribiquete\nFile:Paisaje rural en Tinjacá.jpg|Mediterranean climate in Boyacá Department\nFile:Sunset on the Amazon (7613489930).jpg|Tropical rainforest climate in the Amazon Rainforest\nFile:NP Llanos36 lo (5853389005).jpg|Tropical savanna climate in Los Llanos\nFile:Cabo de La vela.JPG|Hot desert climate in the Guajira Peninsula\nFile:Johny Cay.jpg|Tropical wet and dry climate in San Andrés y Providencia\nFile:CAÑO CRISTALES – LOS OCHOS 01.jpg| Warm and wet climate in Caño Cristales\nFile:Munchique2.jpg|Mountain climate in the Cordillera Occidental\n\n\n=== Biodiversity ===\n''Chlorochrysa nitidissima''. Colombia is home to more bird species than any other country in the world.\n\n\nThe national flower of Colombia is the orchid ''Cattleya trianae'', which was named after the Colombian botanist and physician José Jerónimo Triana.\nColombia is one of the megadiverse countries in biodiversity, ranking first in bird species. As for plants, the country has between 40,000 and 45,000 plant species, equivalent to 10 or 20% of total global species, this is even more remarkable given that Colombia is considered a country of intermediate size. Colombia is the second most biodiverse country in the world, lagging only after Brazil which is approximately 7 times bigger.\n\nColombia is the country in the planet more characterized by a high biodiversity, with the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide and it has the largest number of endemisms (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country. About 10% of the species of the Earth live in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined, Colombia has 10% of the world’s mammals species, 14% of the amphibian species and 18% of the bird species of the world.\n\nColombia has about 2,000 species of marine fish and is the second most diverse country in freshwater fish. Colombia is the country with more endemic species of butterflies, number 1 in terms of orchid species and approximately 7,000 species of beetles. Colombia is second in the number of amphibian species and is the third most diverse country in reptiles and palms. There are about 1,900 species of mollusks and according to estimates there are about 300,000 species of invertebrates in the country. In Colombia there are 32 terrestrial biomes and 314 types of ecosystems.\n","\n\nCasa de Nariño is the official home and principal workplace of the President of Colombia.\nThe government of Colombia takes place within the framework of a presidential participatory democratic republic as established in the Constitution of 1991. In accordance with the principle of separation of powers, government is divided into three branches: the executive branch, the legislative branch and the judicial branch.\n\nAs the head of the executive branch, the President of Colombia serves as both head of state and head of government, followed by the Vice President and the Council of Ministers. The president is elected by popular vote to serve four-year term (In 2015, Colombia’s Congress approved the repeal of a 2004 constitutional amendment that eliminated the one-term limit for presidents). At the provincial level executive power is vested in department governors, municipal mayors and local administrators for smaller administrative subdivisions, such as ''corregimientos'' or ''comunas''. All regional elections are held one year and five months after the presidential election.\n\nThe legislative branch of government is represented nationally by the Congress, a bicameral institution comprising a 166-seat Chamber of Representatives and a 102-seat Senate. The Senate is elected nationally and the Chamber of Representatives is elected in electoral districts. Members of both houses are elected to serve four-year terms two months before the president, also by popular vote.\nColombia's Palace of Justice\nThe judicial branch is headed by four high courts, consisting of the Supreme Court which deals with penal and civil matters, the Council of State, which has special responsibility for administrative law and also provides legal advice to the executive, the Constitutional Court, responsible for assuring the integrity of the Colombian constitution, and the Superior Council of Judicature, responsible for auditing the judicial branch. Colombia operates a system of civil law, which since 2005 has been applied through an adversarial system.\n\nDespite a number of controversies, the democratic security policy has ensured that former President Uribe remained popular among Colombian people, with his approval rating peaking at 76%, according to a poll in 2009. However, having served two terms, he was constitutionally barred from seeking re-election in 2010. In the run-off elections on 20 June 2010 the former Minister of defense Juan Manuel Santos won with 69% of the vote against the second most popular candidate, Antanas Mockus. A second round was required since no candidate received over the 50% winning threshold of votes. Santos won nearly 51% of the vote in second-round elections on 15 June 2014, beating right-wing rival Óscar Iván Zuluaga, who won 45%. His term as Colombia's president runs for four years beginning 7 August 2014.\n\n=== Foreign affairs ===\nThe VI Summit of the Pacific Alliance: President of Colombia, Juan Manuel Santos is second from the left.\n\n\nThe foreign affairs of Colombia are headed by the President, as head of state, and managed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Colombia has diplomatic missions in all continents.\n\nColombia was one of the 4 founding members of the Pacific Alliance, which is a political, economic and co-operative integration mechanism that promotes the free circulation of goods, services, capital and persons between the members, as well as a common stock exchange and joint embassies in several countries. Colombia is also a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Organization of American States, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the Union of South American Nations and the Andean Community of Nations. Colombia is a global partner of NATO. Colombia is currently in the accession process with the OECD.\n\n=== Military ===\nArpía III of the Colombian Air Force\n\nThe executive branch of government is responsible for managing the defense of Colombia, with the President commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The Ministry of Defence exercises day-to-day control of the military and the Colombian National Police. Colombia has 455,461 active military personnel. And in 2016 3.4% of the country's GDP went towards military expenditure, placing it 24th in the world. Colombia's armed forces are the largest in Latin America, and it is the second largest spender on its military after Brazil.\n\nThe Colombian military is divided into three branches: the National Army of Colombia; the Colombian Air Force; and the Colombian Navy. The National Police functions as a gendarmerie, operating independently from the military as the law enforcement agency for the entire country. Each of these operates with their own intelligence apparatus separate from the National Intelligence Directorate (DNI, in Spanish).\n\nThe National Army is formed by divisions, brigades, special brigades and special units; the Colombian Navy by the Naval Infantry, the Naval Force of the Caribbean, the Naval Force of the Pacific, the Naval Force of the South, the Naval Force of the East, Colombia Coast Guards, Naval Aviation and the Specific Command of San Andres y Providencia; and the Air Force by 15 air units. The National Police has a presence in all municipalities.\n\n=== Administrative divisions ===\n\n\nColombia is divided into 32 departments and one capital district, which is treated as a department (Bogotá also serves as the capital of the department of Cundinamarca). Departments are subdivided into municipalities, each of which is assigned a municipal seat, and municipalities are in turn subdivided into ''corregimientos'' in rural areas and into ''comunas'' in urban areas. Each department has a local government with a governor and assembly directly elected to four-year terms, and each municipality is headed by a mayor and council. There is a popularly elected local administrative board in each of the ''corregimientos'' or ''comunas''.\n\nIn addition to the capital four other cities have been designated districts (in effect special municipalities), on the basis of special distinguishing features. These are Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta and Buenaventura. Some departments have local administrative subdivisions, where towns have a large concentration of population and municipalities are near each other (for example in Antioquia and Cundinamarca). Where departments have a low population (for example Amazonas, Vaupés and Vichada), special administrative divisions are employed, such as \"department ''corregimientos''\", which are a hybrid of a municipality and a ''corregimiento''.\n\nClick on a department on the map below to go to its article.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n \n Department \n Capital city\n\n 1 \n Flag of the Department of Amazonas Amazonas \n Leticia\n\n 2 \n Flag of the Department of Antioquia Antioquia \n Medellín\n\n 3 \n Flag of the Department of Arauca Arauca \n Arauca\n\n 4 \n Flag of the Department of Atlántico Atlántico \n Barranquilla\n\n 5 \n Flag of the Department of Bolívar Bolívar \n Cartagena\n\n 6 \n Flag of the Department of Boyacá Boyacá \n Tunja\n\n 7 \n Flag of the Department of Caldas Caldas \n Manizales\n\n 8 \n Flag of the Department of Caquetá Caquetá \n Florencia\n\n 9 \n Flag of the Department of Casanare Casanare\n\n\n 10 \n Flag of the Department of Cauca Cauca \n Popayán\n\n 11 \n Flag of the Department of Cesar Cesar \n Valledupar\n\n 12 \n Flag of the Department of Chocó Chocó \n Quibdó\n\n 13 \n Flag of the Department of Córdoba Córdoba \n Montería\n\n 14 \n Flag of the Department of Cundinamarca Cundinamarca \n Bogotá\n\n 15 \n Flag of the Department of Guainía Guainía \n Inírida\n\n 16 \n Flag of the Department of Guaviare Guaviare \n San José del Guaviare\n\n 17 \n Flag of the Department of Huila Huila \n Neiva\n\n\n\n\n \n Department \n Capital city\n\n 18 \n Flag of La Guajira La Guajira\n\n\n 19 \n Flag of the Department of Magdalena Magdalena \n Santa Marta\n\n 20 \n Flag of the Department of Meta Meta \n Villavicencio\n\n 21 \n Flag of the Department of Nariño Nariño \n Pasto\n\n 22 \n Flag of the Department of Norte de Santander Norte de Santander \n Cúcuta\n\n 23 \n Flag of the Department of Putumayo Putumayo \n Mocoa\n\n 24 \n Flag of the Department of Quindío Quindío \n Armenia\n\n 25 \n Flag of the Department of Risaralda Risaralda \n Pereira\n\n 26 \n Flag of the Department of San Andres, Providencia and Santa Catalina San Andrés, Providenciaand Santa Catalina \n San Andrés\n\n 27 \n Flag of the Department of Santander Santander \n Bucaramanga\n\n 28 \n Flag of the Department of Sucre Sucre \n Sincelejo\n\n 29 \n Flag of the Department of Tolima Tolima \n Ibagué\n\n 30 \n Flag of the Department of Valle del Cauca Valle del Cauca \n Cali\n\n 31 \n Flag of the Department of Vichada Vaupés \n Mitú\n\n 32 \n Flag of the Department of Vichada Vichada \n Puerto Carreño\n\n 33 \n Flag of Bogotá Bogotá \n Bogotá\n\n\n","\n\nColombia's gross domestic product by sector for the second half of the year 2015\nHistorically an agrarian economy, Colombia urbanised rapidly in the 20th century, by the end of which just 15.8% of the workforce were employed in agriculture, generating just 6.8% of GDP; 19.6% of the workforce were employed in industry and 64.6% in services, responsible for 34.0% and 59.2% of GDP respectively. The country's economic production is dominated by its strong domestic demand. Consumption expenditure by households is the largest component of GDP.\n\nColombia's market economy grew steadily in the latter part of the 20th century, with gross domestic product (GDP) increasing at an average rate of over 4% per year between 1970 and 1998. The country suffered a recession in 1999 (the first full year of negative growth since the Great Depression), and the recovery from that recession was long and painful. However, in recent years growth has been impressive, reaching 6.9% in 2007, one of the highest rates of growth in Latin America. According to International Monetary Fund estimates, in 2012 Colombia's GDP (PPP) was US$500 billion (28th in the world and third in South America).\n\nTotal government expenditures account for 28.7 percent of the domestic economy. Public debt equals 41 percent of gross domestic product. A strong fiscal climate was reaffirmed by a boost in bond ratings. Annual inflation closed 2016 at 5.75% YoY (vs. 6.77% YoY in 2015). The average national unemployment rate in 2016 was 9.2%, although the informality is the biggest problem facing the labour market (the income of formal workers climbed 24.8% in 5 years while labor incomes of informal workers rose only 9%). Colombia has Free trade Zone (FTZ), such as Zona Franca del Pacifico, located in the Valle del Cauca, one of the most striking areas for foreign investment.\n\nThe financial sector has grown favorably due to good liquidity in the economy, the growth of credit and the positive performance of the Colombian economy. The Colombian Stock Exchange through the Latin American Integrated Market (MILA) offers a regional market to trade equities. Colombia is now one of only three economies with a perfect score on the strength of legal rights index, according to the World Bank.\nThe Colombian Stock Exchange is part of the Latin American Integrated Market (MILA).\nThe electricity production in Colombia comes mainly from renewable energy sources. 69.97% is obtained from the hydroelectric generation. Colombia's commitment to renewable energy was recognized in the 2014 ''Global Green Economy Index (GGEI)'', ranking among the top 10 nations in the world in terms of greening efficiency sectors.\n\nColombia is rich in natural resources, and its main exports include mineral fuels, oils, distillation products, fruit and other agricultural products, sugars and sugar confectionery, food products, plastics, precious stones, metals, forest products, chemical goods, pharmaceuticals, vehicles, electronic products, electrical equipments, perfumery and cosmetics, machinery, manufactured articles, textile and fabrics, clothing and footwear, glass and glassware, furniture, prefabricated buildings, military products, home and office material, construction equipment, software, among others. Principal trading partners are the United States, China, the European Union and some Latin American countries.\n\nNon-traditional exports have boosted the growth of Colombian foreign sales as well as the diversification of destinations of export thanks to new free trade agreements.\n\nIn 2016, the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) reported that 28.0% of the population were living below the poverty line, of which 8.5% in \"extreme poverty\". The multidimensional poverty rate stands at 17.8 percent of the population. The Government has also been developing a process of financial inclusion within the country's most vulnerable population.\n\nRecent economic growth has led to a considerable increase of new millionaires, including the new entrepreneurs, Colombians with a net worth exceeding US $1 billion.\n\nThe contribution of Travel & Tourism to GDP was USD5,880.3bn (2.0% of total GDP) in 2016. Tourism generated 556,135 jobs (2.5% of total employment) in 2016. Foreign tourist visits were predicted to have risen from 0.6 million in 2007 to 3.3 million in 2016.\n\n=== Science and technology ===\n\nCOLCIENCIAS is a Colombian Government agency that supports fundamental and applied research.\nColombia has more than 3,950 research groups in science and technology. iNNpulsa, a government body that promotes entrepreneurship and innovation in the country, provides grants to startups, in addition to other services it and institutions like Apps.co provide. Co-working spaces have arisen to serve as communities for startups large and small. Organizations such as the Corporation for Biological Research (CIB) for the support of young people interested in scientific work has been successfully developed in Colombia. The International Center for Tropical Agriculture based in Colombia investigates the increasing challenge of global warming and food security.\n\nImportant inventions related to the medicine have been made in Colombia, such as the first external artificial pacemaker with internal electrodes, invented by the electronics engineer Jorge Reynolds Pombo, invention of great importance for those who suffer from heart failure. Also invented in Colombia were the microkeratome and keratomileusis technique, which form the fundamental basis of what now is known as LASIK (one of the most important techniques for the correction of refractive errors of vision) and the Hakim valve for the treatment of Hydrocephalus, among others. Colombia has begun to innovate in military technology for its army and other armies of the world; especially in the design and creation of personal ballistic protection products, military hardware, military robots, bombs, simulators and radar.\n\nSome leading Colombian scientists are Joseph M. Tohme, researcher recognized for his work on the genetic diversity of food, Manuel Elkin Patarroyo who is known for his groundbreaking work on synthetic vaccines for malaria, Francisco Lopera who discovered the \"Paisa Mutation\" or a type of early-onset Alzheimer's, Rodolfo Llinás known for his study of the intrinsic neurons properties and the theory of a syndrome that had changed the way of understanding the functioning of the brain, Jairo Quiroga Puello recognized for his studies on the characterization of synthetic substances which can be used to fight fungus, tumors, tuberculosis and even some viruses and Ángela Restrepo who established accurate diagnoses and treatments to combat the effects of a disease caused by the ''Paracoccidioides brasiliensis'', among other scientists.\n\n=== Infrastructure ===\n\nCartagena.\nTransportation in Colombia is regulated within the functions of the Ministry of Transport and entities such as the National Roads Institute (INVÍAS) responsible for the Highways in Colombia, the Aerocivil, responsible for civil aviation and airports, the National Infrastructure Agency, in charge of concessions through public–private partnerships, for the design, construction, maintenance, operation, and administration of the transport infrastructure, the General Maritime Directorate (Dimar) has the responsibility of coordinating maritime traffic control along with the Colombian Navy, among others and under the supervision of the Superintendency of Ports and Transport. The road network in Colombia has a length of about 215,000 km of which 23,000 are paved. Rail transportation in Colombia is dedicated almost entirely to freight shipments and the railway network has a length of 1,700 km of potentially active rails. Colombia has 3,960 kilometers of gas pipelines, 4,900 kilometers of oil pipelines, and 2,990 kilometers of refined-products pipelines.\n\nThe target of Colombia’s government is to build 7,000 km of roads for the 2016–2020 period and reduce travel times by 30 per cent and transport costs by 20 per cent. A toll road concession programme will comprise 40 projects, and is part of a larger strategic goal to invest nearly $50bn in transport infrastructure, including: railway systems; making the Magdalena river navigable again; improving port facilities; as well as an expansion of Bogotá’s airport.\n","\n\nPopulation density of Colombia\nWith an estimated 49 million people in 2017, Colombia is the third-most populous country in Latin America, after Brazil and Mexico. It is also home to the third-largest number of Spanish speakers in the world after Mexico and the United States. At the beginning of the 20th century, Colombia's population was approximately 4 million. Since the early 1970s Colombia has experienced steady declines in its fertility, mortality, and population growth rates. The population growth rate for 2015 is estimated to be 0.9%. The total fertility rate was 1.9 births per woman in 2015. About 26.8% of the population were 15 years old or younger, 65.7% were between 15 and 64 years old, and 7.4% were over 65 years old. The proportion of older persons in the total population has begun to increase substantially. Colombia is projected to have a population of 50.2 million by 2020 and 55.3 million by 2050.\n\nThe population is concentrated in the Andean highlands and along the Caribbean coast, also the population densities are generally higher in the Andean region. The nine eastern lowland departments, comprising about 54% of Colombia's area, have less than 6% of the population. Traditionally a rural society, movement to urban areas was very heavy in the mid-20th century, and Colombia is now one of the most urbanized countries in Latin America. The urban population increased from 31% of the total in 1938 to nearly 60% in 1973, and by 2014 the figure stood at 76%. The population of Bogotá alone has increased from just over 300,000 in 1938 to approximately 8 million today. In total seventy-two cities now have populations of 100,000 or more (2015). Colombia has the world's largest populations of internally displaced persons (IDPs), estimated to be up to 4.9 million people.\n\nThe life expectancy is 74.8 years in 2015 and infant mortality is 13.6 per thousand in 2015. In 2015, 94.58% of adults and 98.66% of youth are literate and the government spends about 4.49% of its GDP in education.\n\nColombia is ranked third in the world in the Happy Planet Index.\n\n===Languages===\n\n\nMore than 99.2% of Colombians speak Spanish, also called Castilian; 65 Amerindian languages, two Creole languages, the Romani language and Colombian Sign Language are also spoken in the country. English has official status in the archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina.\n\nIncluding Spanish, a total of 101 languages are listed for Colombia in the Ethnologue database. The specific number of spoken languages varies slightly since some authors consider as different languages what others consider to be varieties or dialects of the same language. Best estimates recorded 71 languages that are spoken in-country today—most of which belong to the Chibchan, Tucanoan, Bora–Witoto, Guajiboan, Arawakan, Cariban, Barbacoan, and Saliban language families. There are currently about 850,000 speakers of native languages.\n\n=== Ethnic groups ===\n\n\nColombia is ethnically diverse, its people descending from the original native inhabitants, Spanish colonists, Africans originally brought to the country as slaves, and 20th-century immigrants from Europe and the Middle East, all contributing to a diverse cultural heritage. The demographic distribution reflects a pattern that is influenced by colonial history. Whites tend to live mainly in urban centers, like Bogotá, Medellín or Cali, and the burgeoning highland cities. The populations of the major cities also include mestizos. Mestizo ''campesinos'' (people living in rural areas) also live in the Andean highlands where some Spanish conquerors mixed with the women of Amerindian chiefdoms. Mestizos include artisans and small tradesmen that have played a major part in the urban expansion of recent decades.\n\nThe 2005 census reported that the \"non-ethnic population\", consisting of whites and mestizos (those of mixed white European and Amerindian ancestry), constituted 86% of the national population. 10.6% is of African ancestry. Indigenous Amerindians comprise 3.4% of the population. 0.01% of the population are Roma. An extraofficial estimate considers that the 49% of the Colombian population is Mestizo or of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry, and that approximately 37% is White, mainly of Spanish lineage, but there is also a large population of Middle East descent; in some sectors of society there is a considerable input of Italian and German ancestry.\n\nMany of the Indigenous peoples experienced a reduction in population during the Spanish rule and many others were absorbed into the mestizo population, but the remainder currently represents over eighty distinct cultures. Reserves (''resguardos'') established for indigenous peoples occupy (27% of the country's total) and are inhabited by more than 800,000 people. Some of the largest indigenous groups are the Wayuu, the Paez, the Pastos, the Emberá and the Zenú. The departments of La Guajira, Cauca, Nariño, Córdoba and Sucre have the largest indigenous populations.\n\nThe Organización Nacional Indígena de Colombia (ONIC), founded at the first National Indigenous Congress in 1982, is an organization representing the indigenous peoples of Colombia. In 1991, Colombia signed and ratified the current international law concerning indigenous peoples, Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989.\n\nBlack Africans were brought as slaves, mostly to the coastal lowlands, beginning early in the 16th century and continuing into the 19th century. Large Afro-Colombian communities are found today on the Caribbean and Pacific coasts. The population of the department of Chocó, running along the northern portion of Colombia's Pacific coast, is over 80% black. British and Jamaicans migrated mainly to the islands of San Andres and Providencia. A number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including people from the former USSR during and after the Second World War.\n\nMany immigrant communities have settled on the Caribbean coast, in particular recent immigrants from the Middle East. Barranquilla (the largest city of the Colombian Caribbean) and other Caribbean cities have the largest populations of Lebanese, Palestinian, and other Arabs. There are also important communities of Chinese, Japanese, Romanis and Jews. There is a major migration trend of Venezuelans, due to the political and economic situation in Venezuela.\n\n=== Religion ===\n\n\nThe Las Lajas Sanctuary in the southern Colombian Department of Nariño\n\nThe National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) does not collect religious statistics, and accurate reports are difficult to obtain. However, based on various studies and a survey, about 90% of the population adheres to Christianity, the majority of which (70.9%) are Roman Catholic, while a significant minority (16.7%) adhere to Protestantism (primarily Evangelicalism). Some 4.7% of the population is atheist or agnostic, while 3.5% claim to believe in God but do not follow a specific religion. 1.8% of Colombians adhere to Jehovah's Witnesses and Adventism and less than 1% adhere to other religions, such as Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Mormonism, Hinduism, Indigenous religions, Hare Krishna movement, Rastafari movement, Orthodox Catholic Church, and spiritual studies. The remaining people either did not respond or replied that they did not know. In addition to the above statistics, 35.9% of Colombians reported that they did not practice their faith actively.\n\nWhile Colombia remains a mostly Roman Catholic country by baptism numbers, the 1991 Colombian constitution guarantees freedom of religion and all religious faiths and churches are equally free before the law.\n\n===Largest cities===\nColombia is a highly urbanized country. The largest cities in the country are Bogotá, with an estimated 8 million inhabitants, Medellín, with an estimated 2.5 million inhabitants, Cali, with an estimated 2.4 million inhabitants, and Barranquilla, with an estimated 1.2 million inhabitants. Cartagena highlights in number of inhabitants and the city of Bucaramanga is relevant in terms of metropolitan area population.\n\n","\n\nColombia lies at the crossroads of Latin America and the broader American continent, and as such has been hit by a wide range of cultural influences. Native American, Spanish and other European, African, American, Caribbean, and Middle Eastern influences, as well as other Latin American cultural influences, are all present in Colombia's modern culture. Urban migration, industrialization, globalization, and other political, social and economic changes have also left an impression.\n\nMany national symbols, both objects and themes, have arisen from Colombia's diverse cultural traditions and aim to represent what Colombia, and the Colombian people, have in common. Cultural expressions in Colombia are promoted by the government through the Ministry of Culture.\n\n=== Literature ===\n\nNobel literature prize winner Gabriel García Márquez\nJorge Isaacs was one of the greatest exponents of Colombian literature in the nineteenth century.\nColombian literature dates back to pre-Columbian era; a notable example of the period is the epic poem known as the ''Legend of Yurupary''. In Spanish colonial times, notable writers include Juan de Castellanos (''Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias''), Hernando Domínguez Camargo and his epic poem to San Ignacio de Loyola, Pedro Simón, Juan Rodríguez Freyle (''El Carnero''), Lucas Fernández de Piedrahita, and the nun Francisca Josefa de Castillo, representative of mysticism.\n\nPost-independence literature linked to Romanticism highlighted Antonio Nariño, José Fernández Madrid, Camilo Torres Tenorio and Francisco Antonio Zea. In the second half of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century the literary genre known as ''costumbrismo'' became popular; great writers of this period were Tomás Carrasquilla, Jorge Isaacs and Rafael Pombo (the latter of whom wrote notable works of children's literature). Within that period, authors such as José Asunción Silva, José Eustasio Rivera, León de Greiff, Porfirio Barba-Jacob and José María Vargas Vila developed the modernist movement. In 1872, Colombia established the Colombian Academy of Language, the first Spanish language academy in the Americas. Candelario Obeso wrote the groundbreaking ''Cantos Populares de mi Tierra'' (1877), the first book of poetry by an Afro-Colombian author.\n\nBetween 1939 and 1940 seven books of poetry were published under the name ''Stone and Sky'' in the city of Bogotá that significantly impacted the country; they were edited by the poet Jorge Rojas. In the following decade, Gonzalo Arango founded the movement of \"nothingness\" in response to the violence of the time; he was influenced by nihilism, existentialism, and the thought of another great Colombian writer: Fernando González Ochoa. During the boom in Latin American literature, successful writers emerged, led by Nobel laureate Gabriel García Márquez and his magnum opus, ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', Eduardo Caballero Calderón, Manuel Mejía Vallejo, and Álvaro Mutis, a writer who was awarded the Cervantes Prize and the Prince of Asturias Award for Letters. Other leading contemporary authors are Fernando Vallejo, William Ospina (Rómulo Gallegos Prize) and Germán Castro Caycedo.\n\n=== Visual arts ===\n\nVargas Swamp Lancers, artwork by Rodrigo Arenas Betancourt\n\nColombian art has over 3,000 years of history. Colombian artists have captured the country's changing political and cultural backdrop using a range of styles and mediums. There is archeological evidence of ceramics being produced earlier in Colombia than anywhere else in the Americas, dating as early as 3,000 BCE.\n\nThe earliest examples of gold craftsmanship have been attributed to the Tumaco people of the Pacific coast and date to around 325 BCE. Roughly between 200 BCE and 800 CE, the San Agustín culture, masters of stonecutting, entered its “classical period\". They erected raised ceremonial centres, sarcophagi, and large stone monoliths depicting anthropomorphic and zoomorphhic forms out of stone.\n\nColombian art has followed the trends of the time, so during the 16th to 18th centuries, Spanish Catholicism had a huge influence on Colombian art, and the popular baroque style was replaced with rococo when the Bourbons ascended to the Spanish crown. More recently, Colombian artists Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago Martínez Delgado started the Colombian Murial Movement in the 1940s, featuring the neoclassical features of Art Deco.\n\nSince the 1950s, the Colombian art started to have a distinctive point of view, reinventing traditional elements under the concepts of the 20th century. Examples of this are the Greiff portraits by Ignacio Gómez Jaramillo, showing what the Colombian art could do with the new techniques applied to typical Colombian themes. Carlos Correa, with his paradigmatic “Naturaleza muerta en silencio” (silent dead nature), combines geometrical abstraction and cubism. Alejandro Obregón is often considered as the father of modern Colombian painting, and one of the most influential artist in this period, due to his originality, the painting of Colombian landscapes with symbolic and expressionist use of animals, (specially the Andean condor). Fernando Botero, Omar Rayo, Enrique Grau, Édgar Negret, David Manzur, Rodrigo Arenas Betancourt and Oscar Murillo are some of the Colombian artists featured at the international level.\n\n\nThe Colombian sculpture from the sixteenth to 18th centuries was mostly devoted to religious depictions of ecclesiastic art, strongly influenced by the Spanish schools of sacred sculpture. During the early period of the Colombian republic, the national artists were focused in the production of sculptural portraits of politicians and public figures, in a plain neoclassicist trend. During the 20th century, the Colombian sculpture began to develop a bold and innovative work with the aim of reaching a better understanding of national sensitivity.\n\nColombian photography was marked by the arrival of the daguerreotype. Jean-Baptiste Louis Gros was who brought the daguerreotype process to Colombia in 1841. The Piloto public library has Latin America’s largest archive of negatives, containing 1.7 million antique photographs covering Colombia 1848 until 2005.\n\nThe Colombian press has promoted the work of the cartoonists. In recent decades, fanzines, internet and independent publishers have been fundamental to the growth of the comic in Colombia.\n\n=== Architecture ===\n\n\n\nThroughout the times, there have been a variety of architectural styles, from those of indigenous peoples to contemporary ones, passing through colonial (military and religious), Republican, transition and modern styles.\n\nAncient habitation areas, longhouses, crop terraces, roads as the Inca road system, cemeteries, hypogeums and necropolises are all part of the architectural heritage of indigenous peoples. Some prominent indigenous structures are the preceramic and ceramic archaeological site of Tequendama, Tierradentro (a park that contains the largest concentration of pre-Columbian monumental shaft tombs with side chambers), the largest collection of religious monuments and megalithic sculptures in South America, located in San Agustín, Huila. Lost city (an archaeological site with a series of terraces carved into the mountainside, a net of tiled roads and several circular plazas) and also stand out the large villages mainly built with stone, wood, cane and mud.\nHistoric Centre of Santa Cruz de Mompox, an architectural site with colonial elements\nArchitecture during the period of conquest and colonization is mainly derived of adapting European styles to local conditions, and Spanish influence, especially Andalusian and Extremaduran, can be easily seen. When Europeans founded cities two things were making simultaneously: the dimensioning of geometrical space (town square, street), and the location of a tangible point of orientation. The construction of forts was common throughout the Caribbean and in some cities of the interior, because of the dangers that represented the English, French, and Dutch pirates and the hostile indigenous groups. Churches, chapels, schools, and hospitals belonging to religious orders cause a great urban impact. Baroque architecture is used in military buildings and public spaces. Marcelino Arroyo, Francisco José de Caldas and Domingo de Petrés were great representatives of neo-classical architecture.\n\nThe National Capitol is a great representative of romanticism. Wood is extensively used in doors, windows, railings and ceilings during the colonization of Antioquia. The Caribbean architecture acquires a strong Arabic influence. The Teatro Colón in Bogotá is a lavish example of architecture from the 19th century. The quintas houses with innovations in the volumetric conception are some of the best examples of the Republican architecture; the Republican action in the city focused on the design of three types of spaces: parks with forests, small urban parks and avenues and the Gothic style was most commonly used for the design of churches.\n\nDeco style, modern neoclassicism, eclecticism folklorist and art deco ornamental resources significantly influenced the architecture of Colombia, especially during the transition period. Modernism contributed with new construction technologies and new materials (steel, reinforced concrete, glass and synthetic materials) and the topology architecture and lightened slabs system also have a great influence. The most influential architects of the modern movement were Rogelio Salmona and Fernando Martínez Sanabria.\n\nThe contemporary architecture of Colombia is designed to give greater importance to the materials, this architecture takes into account the specific natural and artificial geographies and is also an architecture that appeals to the senses. The conservation of the architectural and urban heritage of Colombia has been promoted in recent years.\n\n=== Music ===\n\n \nColombian music blends European-influenced guitar and song structure with large gaita flutes and percussion instruments from the indigenous population, while its percussion structure and dance forms come from Africa. Colombia has a diverse and dynamic musical environment. Musicians, composers, music producers and singers from Colombia are recognized internationally such as Shakira, Juanes, Carlos Vives and others.\n\nGuillermo Uribe Holguín, an important cultural figure in the National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia, Luis Antonio Calvo and Blas Emilio Atehortúa are some of the greatest exponents of the art music. The Bogotá Philharmonic Orchestra is one of the most active orchestras in Colombia.\n\nCaribbean music has many vibrant rhythms, such as cumbia (it is played by the maracas, the drums, the gaitas and guacharaca), porro (it is a monotonous but joyful rhythm), mapalé (with its fast rhythm and constant clapping) and the \"vallenato\", which originated in the northern part of the Caribbean coast (the rhythm is mainly played by the caja, the guacharaca, and accordion).\n\nThe music from the Pacific coast, such as the currulao is characterized by its strong use of drums (instruments such as the native marimba, the conunos, the bass drum, the side drum and the cuatro guasas or tubular rattle). An important rhythm of the south region of the Pacific coast is the contradanza (it is used in dance shows, as a result of the striking colours of the costumes). Marimba music, traditional chants and dances from the Colombia South Pacific region are on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.\n\nImportant musical rhythms of the Andean Region are the danza (dance of Andean folklore arising from the transformation of the European contredance), the bambuco (it is played with guitar, tiple and mandolin, the rhythm is danced by couples), the pasillo (a rhythm inspired by the Austrian waltz and the Colombian \"danza\", the lyrics have been composed by well-known poets), the guabina (the tiple, the bandola and the requinto are the basic instruments), the sanjuanero (it originated in Tolima and Huila Departments, the rhythm is joyful and fast). Apart from these traditional rhythms, salsa music has spread throughout the country, and the city of Cali is considered by many salsa singers to be 'The New Salsa Capital of the World'.\nColombian-style salsa dancing\nThe instruments that distinguish the music of the Eastern Plains are the harp, the cuatro (a type of four-stringed guitar) and maracas. Important rhythms of this region are the joropo (a fast rhythm and there is also tapping as a result of its flamenco ancestry) and the galeron (it is heard a lot while cowboys are working).\n\nThe music of the Amazon region is strongly influenced by the indigenous religious practices. Some of the musical instruments used are the manguaré (a musical instrument of ceremonial type, consisting of a pair of large cylindrical drums), the quena (melodic instrument), the rondador, the congas, bells, and different types of flutes.\n\nThe music of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina is usually accompanied by a mandolin, a tub-bass, a jawbone, a guitar and maracas. Some popular archipelago rhythms are the Schottische, the Calypso, the Polka and the Mento.\n\n=== Popular culture ===\n\nThe Ibero-American Theater Festival of Bogotá is one of the biggest theater festivals in the world.\nTheater was introduced in Colombia during the Spanish colonization in 1550 through zarzuela companies. Colombian theater is supported by the Ministry of Culture and a number of private and state owned organizations. The Ibero-American Theater Festival of Bogotá is the cultural event of the highest importance in Colombia and one of the biggest theater festivals in the world. Other important theater events are: The Festival of Puppet The Fanfare (Medellín), The Manizales Theater Festival, The Caribbean Theatre Festival (Santa Marta) and The Art Festival of Popular Culture \"Cultural Invasion\" (Bogotá).\nThe Cartagena Film Festival is the oldest cinema event in Latin America. The central focus is on films from Ibero-America.\nAlthough the Colombian cinema is young as an industry, more recently the film industry was growing with support from the Film Act passed in 2003. Many film festivals take place in Colombia, but the two most important are the Cartagena Film Festival, which is the oldest film festival in Latin America, and the Bogotá Film Festival.\n\nSome important national circulation newspapers are ''El Tiempo'' and ''El Espectador''. Television in Colombia has two privately owned TV networks and three state-owned TV networks with national coverage, as well as six regional TV networks and dozens of local TV stations. Private channels, RCN and Caracol are the highest-rated. The regional channels and regional newspapers cover a department or more and its content is made in these particular areas.\n\nColombia has three major national radio networks: Radiodifusora Nacional de Colombia, a state-run national radio; Caracol Radio and RCN Radio, privately owned networks with hundreds of affiliates. There are other national networks, including Cadena Super, Todelar, and Colmundo. Many hundreds of radio stations are registered with the Ministry of Information Technologies and Communications.\n\n=== Cuisine ===\n\nSancocho de gallina criolla is a traditional soup in Colombia.\n\nColombia's varied cuisine is influenced by its diverse fauna and flora as well as the cultural traditions of the ethnic groups. Colombian dishes and ingredients vary widely by region. Some of the most common ingredients are: cereals such as rice and maize; tubers such as potato and cassava; assorted legumes; meats, including beef, chicken, pork and goat; fish; and seafood. Colombia cuisine also features a variety of tropical fruits such as cape gooseberry, feijoa, arazá, dragon fruit, mangostino, granadilla, papaya, guava, mora (blackberry), lulo, soursop and passionfruit. Colombia is one of the world's largest consumers of fruit juices.\n\nAmong the most representative appetizers and soups are patacones (fried green plantains), sancocho de gallina (chicken soup with root vegetables) and ajiaco (potato and corn soup). Representative snacks and breads are pandebono, arepas (corn cakes), aborrajados (fried sweet plantains with cheese), torta de choclo, empanadas and almojábanas. Representative main courses are bandeja paisa, lechona tolimense, mamona, tamales and fish dishes (such as arroz de lisa), especially in coastal regions where kibbeh, suero, costeño cheese and carimañolas are also eaten. Representative side dishes are papas chorreadas (potatoes with cheese), remolachas rellenas con huevo duro (beets stuffed with hard-boiled egg) and arroz con coco (coconut rice). Organic food is a current trend in big cities, although in general across the country the fruits and veggies are very natural and fresh.\n\nRepresentative desserts are buñuelos, natillas, Maria Luisa cake, bocadillo made of guayaba (guava jelly), cocadas (coconut balls), casquitos de guayaba (candied guava peels), torta de natas, obleas, flan de mango, roscón, milhoja, manjar blanco, dulce de feijoa, dulce de papayuela, torta de mojicón, and esponjado de curuba. Typical sauces (salsas) are hogao (tomato and onion sauce) and Colombian-style ají.\n\nSome representative beverages are coffee (Tinto), champús, cholado, lulada, avena colombiana, sugarcane juice, aguapanela, aguardiente, hot chocolate and fresh fruit juices (often made with water or milk).\n\n===Sports===\n\nNairo Quintana: Colombian Champion of the Giro d'Italia and the Vuelta a España\nWorld Roller Speed Skating Championships.\nTejo is Colombia’s national sport and is a team sport that involves launching projectiles to hit a target. But of all sports in Colombia, football is the most popular. Colombia was the champion of the 2001 Copa América, in which they set a new record of being undefeated, conceding no goals and winning each match. Interestingly, Colombia has been awarded “mover of the year” twice.\n\nColombia is a mecca for roller skaters. The national team is a perennial powerhouse at the World Roller Speed Skating Championships. Colombia has traditionally been very good in cycling and a large number of Colombian cyclists have triumphed in major competitions of cycling.\n\nIn baseball, another sport rooted in the Caribbean Coast, Colombia was world amateur champion in 1947 and 1965.\nBaseball is popular in the Caribbean, mainly in the cities Cartagena, Barranquilla and Santa Marta. Of those cities have come good players like: Orlando Cabrera, Édgar Rentería who was champion of the World Series in 1997 and 2010, and others who have played in Major League Baseball.\n\nBoxing is one of the sports that more world champions has produced for Colombia.\nMotorsports also occupies an important place in the sporting preferences of Colombians; Juan Pablo Montoya is a race car driver known for winning 7 Formula One events. Colombia also has excelled in sports such as BMX, judo, shooting sport, taekwondo, wrestling, high diving and athletics, also has a long tradition in weightlifting and bowling.\n","\n\nThe overall life expectancy in Colombia at birth is 74.8 years (71.2 years for males and 78.4 years for females). Health standards in Colombia have improved very much since the 1980s, healthcare reforms have led to the massive improvements in the healthcare systems of the country. Although this new system has widened population coverage by the social and health security system from 21% (pre-1993) to 96% in 2012, health disparities persist.\n\nThrough health tourism, many people from over the world travel from their places of residence to other countries in search of medical treatment and the attractions in the countries visited. Colombia is projected as one of Latin America’s main destinations in terms of health tourism due to the quality of its health care professionals, a good number of institutions devoted to health, and an immense inventory of natural and architectural sites. Cities such as Bogotá, Cali, Medellín and Bucaramanga are the most visited in cardiology procedures, neurology, dental treatments, stem cell therapy, ENT, ophthalmology and joint replacements among others for the medical services of high quality.\n\nA study conducted by ''América Economía'' magazine ranked 21 Colombian health care institutions among the top 44 in Latin America, amounting to 48 percent of the total.\n","\nM5 building – National University of Colombia, designed by Pedro Nel Gómez\nUniversity of Los Andes\nThe educational experience of many Colombian children begins with attendance at a preschool academy until age five (''Educación preescolar''). Basic education (''Educación básica'') is compulsory by law. It has two stages: Primary basic education (''Educación básica primaria'') which goes from first to fifth grade – children from six to ten years old, and Secondary basic education (''Educación básica secundaria''), which goes from sixth to ninth grade. Basic education is followed by Middle vocational education (''Educación media vocacional'') that comprises the tenth and eleventh grades. It may have different vocational training modalities or specialties (academic, technical, business, and so on.) according to the curriculum adopted by each school.\n\nAfter the successful completion of all the basic and middle education years, a high-school diploma is awarded. The high-school graduate is known as a ''bachiller'', because secondary basic school and middle education are traditionally considered together as a unit called ''bachillerato'' (sixth to eleventh grade). Students in their final year of middle education take the ICFES test (now renamed Saber 11) in order to gain access to higher education (''Educación superior''). This higher education includes undergraduate professional studies, technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies. Technical professional institutions of Higher Education are also opened to students holder of a qualification in Arts and Business. This qualification is usually awarded by the SENA after a two years curriculum.\n\n''Bachilleres'' (high-school graduates) may enter into a professional undergraduate career program offered by a university; these programs last up to five years (or less for technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies), even as much to six to seven years for some careers, such as medicine. In Colombia, there is not an institution such as college; students go directly into a career program at a university or any other educational institution to obtain a professional, technical or technological title. Once graduated from the university, people are granted a (professional, technical or technological) diploma and licensed (if required) to practice the career they have chosen. For some professional career programs, students are required to take the Saber-Pro test, in their final year of undergraduate academic education.\n\nPublic spending on education as a proportion of gross domestic product in 2015 was 4.49%. This represented 15.05% of total government expenditure. The primary and secondary gross enrolment ratios stood at 113.56% and 98.09% respectively. School-life expectancy was 14.42 years. A total of 94.58% of the population aged 15 and older were recorded as literate, including 98.66% of those aged 15–24.\n","* Index of Colombia-related articles\n* Outline of Colombia\n* \n* \n* \n\n","\n","\n","\n\n'''General information'''\n* Colombia at Encyclopædia Britannica\n* Colombia at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''\n* \n* \n* Key Development Forecasts for Colombia from International Futures\n* Official investment portal\n* Official Colombia Tourism Website\n* Study Spanish in Colombia\n* National Administrative Department of Statistics\n\n'''Government'''\n* Colombia Online Government website\n\n'''Culture'''\n* Ministry of Culture\n\n'''Geography'''\n* National parks of Colombia\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n'''Colombia''' ( or ; ), officially the '''Republic of Colombia''' (), is a sovereign state largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and Peru. It shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments. The territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples, with as most advanced the Muisca, Quimbaya and the Tairona.\\n\\nThe Spanish set foot on Colombian soil for the first time in 1499 and in the first half of the 16th century initiated a period of conquest and colonization, ultimately creating the New Kingdom of Granada, with as capital Santafé de Bogotá. Independence from Spain was acquired in 1819, but by 1830 the \\\"Gran Colombia\\\" Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada. The new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation (1858), and then the United States of Colombia (1863), before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Panama seceded in 1903. Since the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, which escalated in the 1990s but then decreased from 2005 onward. Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. The urban centres are mostly located in the highlands of the Andes mountains.\\n\\nColombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines. Ecologically, it is one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a middle power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is a member of the UN, the WTO, the OAS, the Pacific Alliance, and other international organizations. Colombia has a diversified economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run.\\n\",\n \"''Colombia'' is named after Christopher Columbus\\nThe name \\\"Colombia\\\" is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus (, ). It was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was later adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819, formed from the territories of the old Viceroyalty of New Granada (modern-day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, and northwest Brazil).\\n\\nWhen Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, the former Department of Cundinamarca adopted the name \\\"Republic of New Granada\\\". New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was again changed, this time to United States of Colombia, before finally adopting its present name – the Republic of Colombia – in 1886.\\n\\nTo refer to this country, the Colombian government uses the terms ''Colombia'' and ''República de Colombia''.\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n=== Pre-Columbian era ===\\n\\nOwing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica and the Caribbean to the Andes and Amazon basin. The oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period (18,000–8000 BCE). At Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period (~8000–2000 BCE) have been found. Vestiges indicate that there was also early occupation in the regions of El Abra and Tequendama in Cundinamarca. The oldest pottery discovered in the Americas, found at San Jacinto, dates to 5000–4000 BCE.\\nMuisca raft. The figure refers to the ceremony of the legend of El Dorado.\\n\\nIndigenous people inhabited the territory that is now Colombia by 12,500 BCE. Nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes at the El Abra, Tibitó and Tequendama sites near present-day Bogotá traded with one another and with other cultures from the Magdalena River Valley. Between 5000 and 1000 BCE, hunter-gatherer tribes transitioned to agrarian societies; fixed settlements were established, and pottery appeared. Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE, groups of Amerindians including the Muisca, Quimbaya, and Tairona developed the political system of ''cacicazgos'' with a pyramidal structure of power headed by caciques. The Muisca inhabited mainly the area of what is now the Departments of Boyacá and Cundinamarca high plateau (''Altiplano Cundiboyacense'') where they formed the Muisca Confederation. They farmed maize, potato, quinoa and cotton, and traded gold, emeralds, blankets, ceramic handicrafts, coca and especially rock salt with neighboring nations. The Tairona inhabited northern Colombia in the isolated mountain range of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. The Quimbaya inhabited regions of the Cauca River Valley between the Western and Central Ranges of the Colombian Andes. Most of the Amerindians practiced agriculture and the social structure of each indigenous community was different. Some groups of indigenous people such as the Caribs lived in a state of permanent war, but others had less bellicose attitudes. The Incas expanded their empire onto the southwest part of the country.\\n\\n=== Spanish conquest ===\\nMap of Juan de la Cosa. It is the oldest known European cartographic representation of the New World.\\nAlonso de Ojeda (who had sailed with Columbus) reached the Guajira Peninsula in 1499. Spanish explorers, led by Rodrigo de Bastidas, made the first exploration of the Caribbean coast in 1500. Christopher Columbus navigated near the Caribbean in 1502. In 1508, Vasco Núñez de Balboa accompanied an expedition to the territory through the region of Gulf of Urabá and they founded the town of Santa María la Antigua del Darién in 1510, the first stable settlement on the continent. \\n\\nSanta Marta was founded in 1525, and Cartagena in 1533. Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada led an expedition to the interior in April 1536, and christened the districts through which he passed \\\"New Kingdom of Granada\\\". In August 1538, he founded provisionally its capital near the Muisca cacicazgo of Bacatá, and named it \\\"Santa Fe\\\". The name soon acquired a suffix and was called Santa Fe de Bogotá. Two other notable journeys by early conquistadors to the interior took place in the same period. Sebastián de Belalcázar, conqueror of Quito, traveled north and founded Cali, in 1536, and Popayán, in 1537; from 1536 to 1539, German conquistador Nikolaus Federmann crossed the Llanos Orientales and went over the Cordillera Oriental in a search for El Dorado, the \\\"city of gold\\\". The legend and the gold would play a pivotal role in luring the Spanish and other Europeans to New Granada during the 16th and 17th centuries.\\n\\nThe conquistadors made frequent alliances with the enemies of different indigenous communities. Indigenous allies were crucial to conquest, as well as to creating and maintaining empire. Indigenous peoples in New Granada experienced a decline in population due to conquest as well as Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox, to which they had no immunity. With the risk that the land was deserted, the Spanish Crown sold properties to all persons interested in colonise territories creating large farms and possession of mines.\\n\\nIn the 16th century, the nautical science in Spain reached a great development thanks to numerous scientific figures of the Casa de Contratación and nautical science was an essential pillar of the Iberian expansion.\\n\\n=== Colonial period ===\\nIn 1542, the region of New Granada, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America, became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, with its capital at Lima. In 1547, New Granada became the Captaincy-General of New Granada within the viceroyalty.\\n\\nIn 1549, the Royal Audiencia was created by a royal decree, and New Granada was ruled by the Royal Audience of Santa Fe de Bogotá, which at that time comprised the provinces of Santa Marta, Rio de San Juan, Popayán, Guayana and Cartagena. But important decisions were taken from the colony to Spain by the Council of the Indies.\\nThe battle resulted in a major defeat for the British Navy and Army during the War of Jenkins' Ear, 1739–48.\\n\\nIn the 16th century, Europeans began to bring slaves from Africa. Spain was the only European power that could not establish factories in Africa to purchase slaves and therefore the Spanish empire relied on the asiento system, awarding merchants (mostly from Portugal, France, England and the Dutch Empire) the license to trade enslaved people to their overseas territories. Also there were people who defended the human rights and freedoms of oppressed peoples. The indigenous peoples could not be enslaved because they were legally subjects of the Spanish Crown and to protect the indigenous peoples, several forms of land ownership and regulation were established: ''resguardos'', ''encomiendas'' and ''haciendas''.\\nMany intellectual leaders of the independence process participated in the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada.\\n\\nIn 1717 the Viceroyalty of New Granada was originally created, and then it was temporarily removed, to finally be reestablished in 1739. The Viceroyalty had Santa Fé de Bogotá as its capital. This Viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America which had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalties of New Spain or Peru and correspond mainly to today's Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama. So, Bogotá became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with Lima and Mexico City, though it remained somewhat backward compared to those two cities in several economic and logistical ways.\\n\\nAfter Great Britain declared war on Spain in 1739, Cartagena quickly became the British forces' top target but an upset Spanish victory during the War of Jenkins' Ear, a war with Great Britain for economic control of the Caribbean, cemented Spanish dominance in the Caribbean until the Seven Years' War.\\n\\nThe 18th-century priest, botanist and mathematician José Celestino Mutis was delegated by Viceroy Antonio Caballero y Góngora to conduct an inventory of the nature of the New Granada. Started in 1783, this became known as the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada which classified plants, wildlife and founded the first astronomical observatory in the city of Santa Fe de Bogotá. In July 1801 the Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt reached Santa Fe de Bogotá where he met with Mutis. In addition, historical figures in the process of independence in New Granada emerged from the expedition as the astronomer Francisco José de Caldas, the scientist Francisco Antonio Zea, the zoologist Jorge Tadeo Lozano and the painter Salvador Rizo.\\n\\n=== Independence ===\\nThe Battle of Boyacá was the decisive battle which would ensure the success of the liberation campaign of New Granada.\\nSince the beginning of the periods of conquest and colonization, there were several rebel movements against Spanish rule, but most were either crushed or remained too weak to change the overall situation. The last one that sought outright independence from Spain sprang up around 1810, following the independence of St. Domingue (present-day Haiti) in 1804, which provided some support to an eventual leader of this rebellion: Simón Bolívar. Francisco de Paula Santander also would play a decisive role.\\nThe Socorro Province was the site of the genesis of the independence process.\\nA movement was initiated by Antonio Nariño, who opposed Spanish centralism and led the opposition against the Viceroyalty. Cartagena became independent in November 1811. In 1811 the United Provinces of New Granada were proclaimed, headed by Camilo Torres Tenorio. The emergence of two distinct ideological currents among the patriots (federalism and centralism) gave rise to a period of instability. Shortly after the Napoleonic Wars ended, Ferdinand VII, recently restored to the throne in Spain, unexpectedly decided to send military forces to retake most of northern South America. The viceroyalty was restored under the command of Juan Sámano, whose regime punished those who participated in the patriotic movements, ignoring the political nuances of the juntas. The retribution stoked renewed rebellion, which, combined with a weakened Spain, made possible a successful rebellion led by the Venezuelan-born Simón Bolívar, who finally proclaimed independence in 1819. The pro-Spanish resistance was defeated in 1822 in the present territory of Colombia and in 1823 in Venezuela.\\n\\nThe territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada became the Republic of Colombia, organized as a union of the current territories of Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, Venezuela, parts of Guyana and Brazil and north of Marañón River. The Congress of Cúcuta in 1821 adopted a constitution for the new Republic. Simón Bolívar became the first President of Colombia, and Francisco de Paula Santander was made Vice President. However, the new republic was unstable and three countries emerged from the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (New Granada, Ecuador and Venezuela).\\nFormation of the present Colombia since the Viceroyalty of New Granada's independence from the Spanish Empire\\nColombia was the first constitutional government in South America, and the Liberal and Conservative parties, founded in 1848 and 1849 respectively, are two of the oldest surviving political parties in the Americas. Slavery was abolished in the country in 1851.\\n\\nInternal political and territorial divisions led to the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1830. The so-called \\\"Department of Cundinamarca\\\" adopted the name \\\"New Granada\\\", which it kept until 1858 when it became the \\\"Confederación Granadina\\\" (Granadine Confederation). After a two-year civil war in 1863, the \\\"United States of Colombia\\\" was created, lasting until 1886, when the country finally became known as the Republic of Colombia. Internal divisions remained between the bipartisan political forces, occasionally igniting very bloody civil wars, the most significant being the Thousand Days' War (1899–1902).\\n\\n=== 20th century ===\\nThe United States of America's intentions to influence the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to the separation of the Department of Panama in 1903 and the establishment of it as a nation. The United States paid Colombia $25,000,000 in 1921, seven years after completion of the canal, for redress of President Roosevelt's role in the creation of Panama, and Colombia recognized Panama under the terms of the Thomson–Urrutia Treaty. Colombia and Peru went to war because of territory disputes far in the Amazon basin. The war ended with a peace deal brokered by the League of Nations. The League finally awarded the disputed area to Colombia in June 1934.\\nThe Bogotazo in 1948\\nSoon after, Colombia achieved some degree of political stability, which was interrupted by a bloody conflict that took place between the late 1940s and the early 1950s, a period known as ''La Violencia'' (\\\"The Violence\\\"). Its cause was mainly mounting tensions between the two leading political parties, which subsequently ignited after the assassination of the Liberal presidential candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán on 9 April 1948. The ensuing riots in Bogotá, known as El Bogotazo, spread throughout the country and claimed the lives of at least 180,000 Colombians.\\n\\nColombia entered the Korean War when Laureano Gómez was elected president. It was the only Latin American country to join the war in a direct military role as an ally of the United States. Particularly important was the resistance of the Colombian troops at Old Baldy.\\n\\nThe violence between the two political parties decreased first when Gustavo Rojas deposed the President of Colombia in a coup d'état and negotiated with the guerrillas, and then under the military junta of General Gabriel París.\\nThe Axis of Peace and Memory: A “memorial” in recognition of the victims of the conflict\\nAfter Rojas' deposition, the Colombian Conservative Party and Colombian Liberal Party agreed to create the \\\"National Front\\\", a coalition which would jointly govern the country. Under the deal, the presidency would alternate between conservatives and liberals every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices. The National Front ended \\\"La Violencia\\\", and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress. Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political problems continued, and guerrilla groups were formally created such as the FARC, the ELN and the M-19 to fight the government and political apparatus.\\n\\nSince the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict between the government forces, left-wing guerrilla groups and right-wing paramilitaries. The conflict escalated in the 1990s, mainly in remote rural areas. Since the beginning of the armed conflict, human rights defenders have fought for the respect for human rights, despite staggering opposition. Several guerrillas' organizations decided to demobilize after peace negotiations in 1989–1994.\\n\\nThe United States has been heavily involved in the conflict since its beginnings, when in the early 1960s the U.S. government encouraged the Colombian military to attack leftist militias in rural Colombia. This was part of the U.S. fight against communism. Mercenaries and multinational corporations such as Chiquita Brands International are some of the international actors that have contributed to the violence of the conflict. \\n\\nOn 4 July 1991, a new Constitution was promulgated. The changes generated by the new constitution are viewed as positive by Colombian society.\\n\\n===21st century===\\nColombia's President Juan Manuel Santos signed a historic peace accord.\\nThe administration of President Álvaro Uribe (2002–10), adopted the democratic security policy which included an integrated counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency campaign. The Government economic plan also promoted confidence in investors. As part of a controversial peace process the AUC (right-wing paramilitaries) as a formal organization had ceased to function. In February 2008, millions of Colombians demonstrated against FARC and other outlawed groups.\\n\\nAfter peace negotiations in Cuba, the Colombian government of President Juan Manuel Santos and guerrilla of FARC-EP announced a final agreement to end the conflict. However, a referendum to ratify the deal was unsuccessful. Afterward, the Colombian government and the FARC signed a revised peace deal in November 2016, which the Colombian congress approved. In 2016, President Santos was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. The Government began a process of attention and comprehensive reparation for victims of conflict. Colombia shows modest progress in the struggle to defend human rights, as expressed by HRW. A Special Jurisdiction for Peace will be created to investigate, clarify, prosecute and punish serious human rights violations and grave breaches of international humanitarian law which occurred during the armed conflict and to satisfy victims' right to justice.\\n\\nIn terms of international relations, Colombia and Venezuela have agreed to restore diplomatic relations. Latin America, with a long memory of U.S. interventions such as the infamous Operation Condor, rejects US military threat against Venezuela. Colombia's Foreign Ministry said that all efforts to resolve Venezuela's crisis should be peaceful and respect its sovereignty. Colombia will not recognize result of Venezuela assembly vote, amid opposition concerns that the election will lead to dictatorship. Colombia with a very clean electricity generation matrix reaffirms its support for the Paris Climate Agreement. During his visit to Colombia, Pope Francis brought with him a message of peace and paid tribute to the victims of the conflict.\\n\",\n \"\\n\\nRelief map\\nThe geography of Colombia is characterized by its six main natural regions that present their own unique characteristics, from the Andes mountain range region shared with Ecuador and Venezuela; the Pacific coastal region shared with Panama and Ecuador; the Caribbean coastal region shared with Venezuela and Panama; the ''Llanos'' (plains) shared with Venezuela; the Amazon Rainforest region shared with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Ecuador; to the insular area, comprising islands in both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.\\n\\nColombia is bordered to the northwest by Panama; to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; it established its maritime boundaries with neighboring countries through seven agreements on the Caribbean Sea and three on the Pacific Ocean. It lies between latitudes 12°N and 4°S, and longitudes 67° and 79°W.\\nColombia map of Köppen climate classification\\nPart of the Ring of Fire, a region of the world subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, In the interior of Colombia the Andes are the prevailing geographical feature. Most of Colombia's population centers are located in these interior highlands. Beyond the Colombian Massif (in the south-western departments of Cauca and Nariño) these are divided into three branches known as ''cordilleras'' (mountain ranges): the Cordillera Occidental, running adjacent to the Pacific coast and including the city of Cali; the Cordillera Central, running between the Cauca and Magdalena River valleys (to the west and east respectively) and including the cities of Medellín, Manizales, Pereira and Armenia; and the Cordillera Oriental, extending north east to the Guajira Peninsula and including Bogotá, Bucaramanga and Cúcuta.\\n\\nPeaks in the Cordillera Occidental exceed , and in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental they reach . At , Bogotá is the highest city of its size in the world.\\n\\nEast of the Andes lies the savanna of the ''Llanos'', part of the Orinoco River basin, and, in the far south east, the jungle of the Amazon rainforest. Together these lowlands comprise over half Colombia's territory, but they contain less than 6% of the population. To the north the Caribbean coast, home to 21.9% of the population and the location of the major port cities of Barranquilla and Cartagena, generally consists of low-lying plains, but it also contains the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range, which includes the country's tallest peaks (Pico Cristóbal Colón and Pico Simón Bolívar), and the La Guajira Desert. By contrast the narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, backed by the Serranía de Baudó mountains, are sparsely populated and covered in dense vegetation. The principal Pacific port is Buenaventura.\\n\\nThe main rivers of Colombia are Magdalena, Cauca, Guaviare, Atrato, Meta, Putumayo and Caquetá. Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin. The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers mark limits with Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively.\\n\\nProtected areas and the \\\"National Park System\\\" cover an area of about and account for 12.77% of the Colombian territory. Compared to neighboring countries, rates of deforestation in Colombia are still relatively low. Colombia is the sixth country in the world by magnitude of total renewable freshwater supply, and still has large reserves of freshwater.\\n\\n=== Climate ===\\n\\nThe climate of Colombia is characterized for being tropical presenting variations within six natural regions and depending on the altitude, temperature, humidity, winds and rainfall. The diversity of climate zones in Colombia is characterized for having tropical rainforests, savannas, steppes, deserts and mountain climate.\\n\\nMountain climate is one of the unique features of the Andes and other high altitude reliefs where climate is determined by elevation. Below in elevation is the warm altitudinal zone, where temperatures are above . About 82.5% of the country's total area lies in the warm altitudinal zone. The temperate climate altitudinal zone located between ) is characterized for presenting an average temperature ranging between . The cold climate is present between and the temperatures vary between . Beyond the cold land lie the alpine conditions of the forested zone and then the treeless grasslands of the páramos. Above , where temperatures are below freezing, the climate is glacial, a zone of permanent snow and ice.\\n\\n\\nFile:Nevado del Ruiz en Colombia.jpg|Ice cap climate in the Nevado del Ruiz\\nFile:Páramo de Sumapaz.jpg |Alpine tundra climate in the Sumapaz Paramo\\nFile:Tota Lake 1.JPG|Oceanic climate in Tota Lake\\nFile:Desierto Frio en Boyacá.jpg|Cold desert climate near Villa de Leyva\\nFile:Chiribiquete view.jpg|Tropical wet climate in the tepuis of the Serranía de Chiribiquete\\nFile:Paisaje rural en Tinjacá.jpg|Mediterranean climate in Boyacá Department\\nFile:Sunset on the Amazon (7613489930).jpg|Tropical rainforest climate in the Amazon Rainforest\\nFile:NP Llanos36 lo (5853389005).jpg|Tropical savanna climate in Los Llanos\\nFile:Cabo de La vela.JPG|Hot desert climate in the Guajira Peninsula\\nFile:Johny Cay.jpg|Tropical wet and dry climate in San Andrés y Providencia\\nFile:CAÑO CRISTALES – LOS OCHOS 01.jpg| Warm and wet climate in Caño Cristales\\nFile:Munchique2.jpg|Mountain climate in the Cordillera Occidental\\n\\n\\n=== Biodiversity ===\\n''Chlorochrysa nitidissima''. Colombia is home to more bird species than any other country in the world.\\n\\n\\nThe national flower of Colombia is the orchid ''Cattleya trianae'', which was named after the Colombian botanist and physician José Jerónimo Triana.\\nColombia is one of the megadiverse countries in biodiversity, ranking first in bird species. As for plants, the country has between 40,000 and 45,000 plant species, equivalent to 10 or 20% of total global species, this is even more remarkable given that Colombia is considered a country of intermediate size. Colombia is the second most biodiverse country in the world, lagging only after Brazil which is approximately 7 times bigger.\\n\\nColombia is the country in the planet more characterized by a high biodiversity, with the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide and it has the largest number of endemisms (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country. About 10% of the species of the Earth live in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined, Colombia has 10% of the world’s mammals species, 14% of the amphibian species and 18% of the bird species of the world.\\n\\nColombia has about 2,000 species of marine fish and is the second most diverse country in freshwater fish. Colombia is the country with more endemic species of butterflies, number 1 in terms of orchid species and approximately 7,000 species of beetles. Colombia is second in the number of amphibian species and is the third most diverse country in reptiles and palms. There are about 1,900 species of mollusks and according to estimates there are about 300,000 species of invertebrates in the country. In Colombia there are 32 terrestrial biomes and 314 types of ecosystems.\\n\",\n \"\\n\\nCasa de Nariño is the official home and principal workplace of the President of Colombia.\\nThe government of Colombia takes place within the framework of a presidential participatory democratic republic as established in the Constitution of 1991. In accordance with the principle of separation of powers, government is divided into three branches: the executive branch, the legislative branch and the judicial branch.\\n\\nAs the head of the executive branch, the President of Colombia serves as both head of state and head of government, followed by the Vice President and the Council of Ministers. The president is elected by popular vote to serve four-year term (In 2015, Colombia’s Congress approved the repeal of a 2004 constitutional amendment that eliminated the one-term limit for presidents). At the provincial level executive power is vested in department governors, municipal mayors and local administrators for smaller administrative subdivisions, such as ''corregimientos'' or ''comunas''. All regional elections are held one year and five months after the presidential election.\\n\\nThe legislative branch of government is represented nationally by the Congress, a bicameral institution comprising a 166-seat Chamber of Representatives and a 102-seat Senate. The Senate is elected nationally and the Chamber of Representatives is elected in electoral districts. Members of both houses are elected to serve four-year terms two months before the president, also by popular vote.\\nColombia's Palace of Justice\\nThe judicial branch is headed by four high courts, consisting of the Supreme Court which deals with penal and civil matters, the Council of State, which has special responsibility for administrative law and also provides legal advice to the executive, the Constitutional Court, responsible for assuring the integrity of the Colombian constitution, and the Superior Council of Judicature, responsible for auditing the judicial branch. Colombia operates a system of civil law, which since 2005 has been applied through an adversarial system.\\n\\nDespite a number of controversies, the democratic security policy has ensured that former President Uribe remained popular among Colombian people, with his approval rating peaking at 76%, according to a poll in 2009. However, having served two terms, he was constitutionally barred from seeking re-election in 2010. In the run-off elections on 20 June 2010 the former Minister of defense Juan Manuel Santos won with 69% of the vote against the second most popular candidate, Antanas Mockus. A second round was required since no candidate received over the 50% winning threshold of votes. Santos won nearly 51% of the vote in second-round elections on 15 June 2014, beating right-wing rival Óscar Iván Zuluaga, who won 45%. His term as Colombia's president runs for four years beginning 7 August 2014.\\n\\n=== Foreign affairs ===\\nThe VI Summit of the Pacific Alliance: President of Colombia, Juan Manuel Santos is second from the left.\\n\\n\\nThe foreign affairs of Colombia are headed by the President, as head of state, and managed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Colombia has diplomatic missions in all continents.\\n\\nColombia was one of the 4 founding members of the Pacific Alliance, which is a political, economic and co-operative integration mechanism that promotes the free circulation of goods, services, capital and persons between the members, as well as a common stock exchange and joint embassies in several countries. Colombia is also a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Organization of American States, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the Union of South American Nations and the Andean Community of Nations. Colombia is a global partner of NATO. Colombia is currently in the accession process with the OECD.\\n\\n=== Military ===\\nArpía III of the Colombian Air Force\\n\\nThe executive branch of government is responsible for managing the defense of Colombia, with the President commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The Ministry of Defence exercises day-to-day control of the military and the Colombian National Police. Colombia has 455,461 active military personnel. And in 2016 3.4% of the country's GDP went towards military expenditure, placing it 24th in the world. Colombia's armed forces are the largest in Latin America, and it is the second largest spender on its military after Brazil.\\n\\nThe Colombian military is divided into three branches: the National Army of Colombia; the Colombian Air Force; and the Colombian Navy. The National Police functions as a gendarmerie, operating independently from the military as the law enforcement agency for the entire country. Each of these operates with their own intelligence apparatus separate from the National Intelligence Directorate (DNI, in Spanish).\\n\\nThe National Army is formed by divisions, brigades, special brigades and special units; the Colombian Navy by the Naval Infantry, the Naval Force of the Caribbean, the Naval Force of the Pacific, the Naval Force of the South, the Naval Force of the East, Colombia Coast Guards, Naval Aviation and the Specific Command of San Andres y Providencia; and the Air Force by 15 air units. The National Police has a presence in all municipalities.\\n\\n=== Administrative divisions ===\\n\\n\\nColombia is divided into 32 departments and one capital district, which is treated as a department (Bogotá also serves as the capital of the department of Cundinamarca). Departments are subdivided into municipalities, each of which is assigned a municipal seat, and municipalities are in turn subdivided into ''corregimientos'' in rural areas and into ''comunas'' in urban areas. Each department has a local government with a governor and assembly directly elected to four-year terms, and each municipality is headed by a mayor and council. There is a popularly elected local administrative board in each of the ''corregimientos'' or ''comunas''.\\n\\nIn addition to the capital four other cities have been designated districts (in effect special municipalities), on the basis of special distinguishing features. These are Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta and Buenaventura. Some departments have local administrative subdivisions, where towns have a large concentration of population and municipalities are near each other (for example in Antioquia and Cundinamarca). Where departments have a low population (for example Amazonas, Vaupés and Vichada), special administrative divisions are employed, such as \\\"department ''corregimientos''\\\", which are a hybrid of a municipality and a ''corregimiento''.\\n\\nClick on a department on the map below to go to its article.\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n \\n Department \\n Capital city\\n\\n 1 \\n Flag of the Department of Amazonas Amazonas \\n Leticia\\n\\n 2 \\n Flag of the Department of Antioquia Antioquia \\n Medellín\\n\\n 3 \\n Flag of the Department of Arauca Arauca \\n Arauca\\n\\n 4 \\n Flag of the Department of Atlántico Atlántico \\n Barranquilla\\n\\n 5 \\n Flag of the Department of Bolívar Bolívar \\n Cartagena\\n\\n 6 \\n Flag of the Department of Boyacá Boyacá \\n Tunja\\n\\n 7 \\n Flag of the Department of Caldas Caldas \\n Manizales\\n\\n 8 \\n Flag of the Department of Caquetá Caquetá \\n Florencia\\n\\n 9 \\n Flag of the Department of Casanare Casanare\\n\\n\\n 10 \\n Flag of the Department of Cauca Cauca \\n Popayán\\n\\n 11 \\n Flag of the Department of Cesar Cesar \\n Valledupar\\n\\n 12 \\n Flag of the Department of Chocó Chocó \\n Quibdó\\n\\n 13 \\n Flag of the Department of Córdoba Córdoba \\n Montería\\n\\n 14 \\n Flag of the Department of Cundinamarca Cundinamarca \\n Bogotá\\n\\n 15 \\n Flag of the Department of Guainía Guainía \\n Inírida\\n\\n 16 \\n Flag of the Department of Guaviare Guaviare \\n San José del Guaviare\\n\\n 17 \\n Flag of the Department of Huila Huila \\n Neiva\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n \\n Department \\n Capital city\\n\\n 18 \\n Flag of La Guajira La Guajira\\n\\n\\n 19 \\n Flag of the Department of Magdalena Magdalena \\n Santa Marta\\n\\n 20 \\n Flag of the Department of Meta Meta \\n Villavicencio\\n\\n 21 \\n Flag of the Department of Nariño Nariño \\n Pasto\\n\\n 22 \\n Flag of the Department of Norte de Santander Norte de Santander \\n Cúcuta\\n\\n 23 \\n Flag of the Department of Putumayo Putumayo \\n Mocoa\\n\\n 24 \\n Flag of the Department of Quindío Quindío \\n Armenia\\n\\n 25 \\n Flag of the Department of Risaralda Risaralda \\n Pereira\\n\\n 26 \\n Flag of the Department of San Andres, Providencia and Santa Catalina San Andrés, Providenciaand Santa Catalina \\n San Andrés\\n\\n 27 \\n Flag of the Department of Santander Santander \\n Bucaramanga\\n\\n 28 \\n Flag of the Department of Sucre Sucre \\n Sincelejo\\n\\n 29 \\n Flag of the Department of Tolima Tolima \\n Ibagué\\n\\n 30 \\n Flag of the Department of Valle del Cauca Valle del Cauca \\n Cali\\n\\n 31 \\n Flag of the Department of Vichada Vaupés \\n Mitú\\n\\n 32 \\n Flag of the Department of Vichada Vichada \\n Puerto Carreño\\n\\n 33 \\n Flag of Bogotá Bogotá \\n Bogotá\\n\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n\\nColombia's gross domestic product by sector for the second half of the year 2015\\nHistorically an agrarian economy, Colombia urbanised rapidly in the 20th century, by the end of which just 15.8% of the workforce were employed in agriculture, generating just 6.8% of GDP; 19.6% of the workforce were employed in industry and 64.6% in services, responsible for 34.0% and 59.2% of GDP respectively. The country's economic production is dominated by its strong domestic demand. Consumption expenditure by households is the largest component of GDP.\\n\\nColombia's market economy grew steadily in the latter part of the 20th century, with gross domestic product (GDP) increasing at an average rate of over 4% per year between 1970 and 1998. The country suffered a recession in 1999 (the first full year of negative growth since the Great Depression), and the recovery from that recession was long and painful. However, in recent years growth has been impressive, reaching 6.9% in 2007, one of the highest rates of growth in Latin America. According to International Monetary Fund estimates, in 2012 Colombia's GDP (PPP) was US$500 billion (28th in the world and third in South America).\\n\\nTotal government expenditures account for 28.7 percent of the domestic economy. Public debt equals 41 percent of gross domestic product. A strong fiscal climate was reaffirmed by a boost in bond ratings. Annual inflation closed 2016 at 5.75% YoY (vs. 6.77% YoY in 2015). The average national unemployment rate in 2016 was 9.2%, although the informality is the biggest problem facing the labour market (the income of formal workers climbed 24.8% in 5 years while labor incomes of informal workers rose only 9%). Colombia has Free trade Zone (FTZ), such as Zona Franca del Pacifico, located in the Valle del Cauca, one of the most striking areas for foreign investment.\\n\\nThe financial sector has grown favorably due to good liquidity in the economy, the growth of credit and the positive performance of the Colombian economy. The Colombian Stock Exchange through the Latin American Integrated Market (MILA) offers a regional market to trade equities. Colombia is now one of only three economies with a perfect score on the strength of legal rights index, according to the World Bank.\\nThe Colombian Stock Exchange is part of the Latin American Integrated Market (MILA).\\nThe electricity production in Colombia comes mainly from renewable energy sources. 69.97% is obtained from the hydroelectric generation. Colombia's commitment to renewable energy was recognized in the 2014 ''Global Green Economy Index (GGEI)'', ranking among the top 10 nations in the world in terms of greening efficiency sectors.\\n\\nColombia is rich in natural resources, and its main exports include mineral fuels, oils, distillation products, fruit and other agricultural products, sugars and sugar confectionery, food products, plastics, precious stones, metals, forest products, chemical goods, pharmaceuticals, vehicles, electronic products, electrical equipments, perfumery and cosmetics, machinery, manufactured articles, textile and fabrics, clothing and footwear, glass and glassware, furniture, prefabricated buildings, military products, home and office material, construction equipment, software, among others. Principal trading partners are the United States, China, the European Union and some Latin American countries.\\n\\nNon-traditional exports have boosted the growth of Colombian foreign sales as well as the diversification of destinations of export thanks to new free trade agreements.\\n\\nIn 2016, the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) reported that 28.0% of the population were living below the poverty line, of which 8.5% in \\\"extreme poverty\\\". The multidimensional poverty rate stands at 17.8 percent of the population. The Government has also been developing a process of financial inclusion within the country's most vulnerable population.\\n\\nRecent economic growth has led to a considerable increase of new millionaires, including the new entrepreneurs, Colombians with a net worth exceeding US $1 billion.\\n\\nThe contribution of Travel & Tourism to GDP was USD5,880.3bn (2.0% of total GDP) in 2016. Tourism generated 556,135 jobs (2.5% of total employment) in 2016. Foreign tourist visits were predicted to have risen from 0.6 million in 2007 to 3.3 million in 2016.\\n\\n=== Science and technology ===\\n\\nCOLCIENCIAS is a Colombian Government agency that supports fundamental and applied research.\\nColombia has more than 3,950 research groups in science and technology. iNNpulsa, a government body that promotes entrepreneurship and innovation in the country, provides grants to startups, in addition to other services it and institutions like Apps.co provide. Co-working spaces have arisen to serve as communities for startups large and small. Organizations such as the Corporation for Biological Research (CIB) for the support of young people interested in scientific work has been successfully developed in Colombia. The International Center for Tropical Agriculture based in Colombia investigates the increasing challenge of global warming and food security.\\n\\nImportant inventions related to the medicine have been made in Colombia, such as the first external artificial pacemaker with internal electrodes, invented by the electronics engineer Jorge Reynolds Pombo, invention of great importance for those who suffer from heart failure. Also invented in Colombia were the microkeratome and keratomileusis technique, which form the fundamental basis of what now is known as LASIK (one of the most important techniques for the correction of refractive errors of vision) and the Hakim valve for the treatment of Hydrocephalus, among others. Colombia has begun to innovate in military technology for its army and other armies of the world; especially in the design and creation of personal ballistic protection products, military hardware, military robots, bombs, simulators and radar.\\n\\nSome leading Colombian scientists are Joseph M. Tohme, researcher recognized for his work on the genetic diversity of food, Manuel Elkin Patarroyo who is known for his groundbreaking work on synthetic vaccines for malaria, Francisco Lopera who discovered the \\\"Paisa Mutation\\\" or a type of early-onset Alzheimer's, Rodolfo Llinás known for his study of the intrinsic neurons properties and the theory of a syndrome that had changed the way of understanding the functioning of the brain, Jairo Quiroga Puello recognized for his studies on the characterization of synthetic substances which can be used to fight fungus, tumors, tuberculosis and even some viruses and Ángela Restrepo who established accurate diagnoses and treatments to combat the effects of a disease caused by the ''Paracoccidioides brasiliensis'', among other scientists.\\n\\n=== Infrastructure ===\\n\\nCartagena.\\nTransportation in Colombia is regulated within the functions of the Ministry of Transport and entities such as the National Roads Institute (INVÍAS) responsible for the Highways in Colombia, the Aerocivil, responsible for civil aviation and airports, the National Infrastructure Agency, in charge of concessions through public–private partnerships, for the design, construction, maintenance, operation, and administration of the transport infrastructure, the General Maritime Directorate (Dimar) has the responsibility of coordinating maritime traffic control along with the Colombian Navy, among others and under the supervision of the Superintendency of Ports and Transport. The road network in Colombia has a length of about 215,000 km of which 23,000 are paved. Rail transportation in Colombia is dedicated almost entirely to freight shipments and the railway network has a length of 1,700 km of potentially active rails. Colombia has 3,960 kilometers of gas pipelines, 4,900 kilometers of oil pipelines, and 2,990 kilometers of refined-products pipelines.\\n\\nThe target of Colombia’s government is to build 7,000 km of roads for the 2016–2020 period and reduce travel times by 30 per cent and transport costs by 20 per cent. A toll road concession programme will comprise 40 projects, and is part of a larger strategic goal to invest nearly $50bn in transport infrastructure, including: railway systems; making the Magdalena river navigable again; improving port facilities; as well as an expansion of Bogotá’s airport.\\n\",\n \"\\n\\nPopulation density of Colombia\\nWith an estimated 49 million people in 2017, Colombia is the third-most populous country in Latin America, after Brazil and Mexico. It is also home to the third-largest number of Spanish speakers in the world after Mexico and the United States. At the beginning of the 20th century, Colombia's population was approximately 4 million. Since the early 1970s Colombia has experienced steady declines in its fertility, mortality, and population growth rates. The population growth rate for 2015 is estimated to be 0.9%. The total fertility rate was 1.9 births per woman in 2015. About 26.8% of the population were 15 years old or younger, 65.7% were between 15 and 64 years old, and 7.4% were over 65 years old. The proportion of older persons in the total population has begun to increase substantially. Colombia is projected to have a population of 50.2 million by 2020 and 55.3 million by 2050.\\n\\nThe population is concentrated in the Andean highlands and along the Caribbean coast, also the population densities are generally higher in the Andean region. The nine eastern lowland departments, comprising about 54% of Colombia's area, have less than 6% of the population. Traditionally a rural society, movement to urban areas was very heavy in the mid-20th century, and Colombia is now one of the most urbanized countries in Latin America. The urban population increased from 31% of the total in 1938 to nearly 60% in 1973, and by 2014 the figure stood at 76%. The population of Bogotá alone has increased from just over 300,000 in 1938 to approximately 8 million today. In total seventy-two cities now have populations of 100,000 or more (2015). Colombia has the world's largest populations of internally displaced persons (IDPs), estimated to be up to 4.9 million people.\\n\\nThe life expectancy is 74.8 years in 2015 and infant mortality is 13.6 per thousand in 2015. In 2015, 94.58% of adults and 98.66% of youth are literate and the government spends about 4.49% of its GDP in education.\\n\\nColombia is ranked third in the world in the Happy Planet Index.\\n\\n===Languages===\\n\\n\\nMore than 99.2% of Colombians speak Spanish, also called Castilian; 65 Amerindian languages, two Creole languages, the Romani language and Colombian Sign Language are also spoken in the country. English has official status in the archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina.\\n\\nIncluding Spanish, a total of 101 languages are listed for Colombia in the Ethnologue database. The specific number of spoken languages varies slightly since some authors consider as different languages what others consider to be varieties or dialects of the same language. Best estimates recorded 71 languages that are spoken in-country today—most of which belong to the Chibchan, Tucanoan, Bora–Witoto, Guajiboan, Arawakan, Cariban, Barbacoan, and Saliban language families. There are currently about 850,000 speakers of native languages.\\n\\n=== Ethnic groups ===\\n\\n\\nColombia is ethnically diverse, its people descending from the original native inhabitants, Spanish colonists, Africans originally brought to the country as slaves, and 20th-century immigrants from Europe and the Middle East, all contributing to a diverse cultural heritage. The demographic distribution reflects a pattern that is influenced by colonial history. Whites tend to live mainly in urban centers, like Bogotá, Medellín or Cali, and the burgeoning highland cities. The populations of the major cities also include mestizos. Mestizo ''campesinos'' (people living in rural areas) also live in the Andean highlands where some Spanish conquerors mixed with the women of Amerindian chiefdoms. Mestizos include artisans and small tradesmen that have played a major part in the urban expansion of recent decades.\\n\\nThe 2005 census reported that the \\\"non-ethnic population\\\", consisting of whites and mestizos (those of mixed white European and Amerindian ancestry), constituted 86% of the national population. 10.6% is of African ancestry. Indigenous Amerindians comprise 3.4% of the population. 0.01% of the population are Roma. An extraofficial estimate considers that the 49% of the Colombian population is Mestizo or of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry, and that approximately 37% is White, mainly of Spanish lineage, but there is also a large population of Middle East descent; in some sectors of society there is a considerable input of Italian and German ancestry.\\n\\nMany of the Indigenous peoples experienced a reduction in population during the Spanish rule and many others were absorbed into the mestizo population, but the remainder currently represents over eighty distinct cultures. Reserves (''resguardos'') established for indigenous peoples occupy (27% of the country's total) and are inhabited by more than 800,000 people. Some of the largest indigenous groups are the Wayuu, the Paez, the Pastos, the Emberá and the Zenú. The departments of La Guajira, Cauca, Nariño, Córdoba and Sucre have the largest indigenous populations.\\n\\nThe Organización Nacional Indígena de Colombia (ONIC), founded at the first National Indigenous Congress in 1982, is an organization representing the indigenous peoples of Colombia. In 1991, Colombia signed and ratified the current international law concerning indigenous peoples, Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989.\\n\\nBlack Africans were brought as slaves, mostly to the coastal lowlands, beginning early in the 16th century and continuing into the 19th century. Large Afro-Colombian communities are found today on the Caribbean and Pacific coasts. The population of the department of Chocó, running along the northern portion of Colombia's Pacific coast, is over 80% black. British and Jamaicans migrated mainly to the islands of San Andres and Providencia. A number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including people from the former USSR during and after the Second World War.\\n\\nMany immigrant communities have settled on the Caribbean coast, in particular recent immigrants from the Middle East. Barranquilla (the largest city of the Colombian Caribbean) and other Caribbean cities have the largest populations of Lebanese, Palestinian, and other Arabs. There are also important communities of Chinese, Japanese, Romanis and Jews. There is a major migration trend of Venezuelans, due to the political and economic situation in Venezuela.\\n\\n=== Religion ===\\n\\n\\nThe Las Lajas Sanctuary in the southern Colombian Department of Nariño\\n\\nThe National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) does not collect religious statistics, and accurate reports are difficult to obtain. However, based on various studies and a survey, about 90% of the population adheres to Christianity, the majority of which (70.9%) are Roman Catholic, while a significant minority (16.7%) adhere to Protestantism (primarily Evangelicalism). Some 4.7% of the population is atheist or agnostic, while 3.5% claim to believe in God but do not follow a specific religion. 1.8% of Colombians adhere to Jehovah's Witnesses and Adventism and less than 1% adhere to other religions, such as Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Mormonism, Hinduism, Indigenous religions, Hare Krishna movement, Rastafari movement, Orthodox Catholic Church, and spiritual studies. The remaining people either did not respond or replied that they did not know. In addition to the above statistics, 35.9% of Colombians reported that they did not practice their faith actively.\\n\\nWhile Colombia remains a mostly Roman Catholic country by baptism numbers, the 1991 Colombian constitution guarantees freedom of religion and all religious faiths and churches are equally free before the law.\\n\\n===Largest cities===\\nColombia is a highly urbanized country. The largest cities in the country are Bogotá, with an estimated 8 million inhabitants, Medellín, with an estimated 2.5 million inhabitants, Cali, with an estimated 2.4 million inhabitants, and Barranquilla, with an estimated 1.2 million inhabitants. Cartagena highlights in number of inhabitants and the city of Bucaramanga is relevant in terms of metropolitan area population.\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n\\nColombia lies at the crossroads of Latin America and the broader American continent, and as such has been hit by a wide range of cultural influences. Native American, Spanish and other European, African, American, Caribbean, and Middle Eastern influences, as well as other Latin American cultural influences, are all present in Colombia's modern culture. Urban migration, industrialization, globalization, and other political, social and economic changes have also left an impression.\\n\\nMany national symbols, both objects and themes, have arisen from Colombia's diverse cultural traditions and aim to represent what Colombia, and the Colombian people, have in common. Cultural expressions in Colombia are promoted by the government through the Ministry of Culture.\\n\\n=== Literature ===\\n\\nNobel literature prize winner Gabriel García Márquez\\nJorge Isaacs was one of the greatest exponents of Colombian literature in the nineteenth century.\\nColombian literature dates back to pre-Columbian era; a notable example of the period is the epic poem known as the ''Legend of Yurupary''. In Spanish colonial times, notable writers include Juan de Castellanos (''Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias''), Hernando Domínguez Camargo and his epic poem to San Ignacio de Loyola, Pedro Simón, Juan Rodríguez Freyle (''El Carnero''), Lucas Fernández de Piedrahita, and the nun Francisca Josefa de Castillo, representative of mysticism.\\n\\nPost-independence literature linked to Romanticism highlighted Antonio Nariño, José Fernández Madrid, Camilo Torres Tenorio and Francisco Antonio Zea. In the second half of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century the literary genre known as ''costumbrismo'' became popular; great writers of this period were Tomás Carrasquilla, Jorge Isaacs and Rafael Pombo (the latter of whom wrote notable works of children's literature). Within that period, authors such as José Asunción Silva, José Eustasio Rivera, León de Greiff, Porfirio Barba-Jacob and José María Vargas Vila developed the modernist movement. In 1872, Colombia established the Colombian Academy of Language, the first Spanish language academy in the Americas. Candelario Obeso wrote the groundbreaking ''Cantos Populares de mi Tierra'' (1877), the first book of poetry by an Afro-Colombian author.\\n\\nBetween 1939 and 1940 seven books of poetry were published under the name ''Stone and Sky'' in the city of Bogotá that significantly impacted the country; they were edited by the poet Jorge Rojas. In the following decade, Gonzalo Arango founded the movement of \\\"nothingness\\\" in response to the violence of the time; he was influenced by nihilism, existentialism, and the thought of another great Colombian writer: Fernando González Ochoa. During the boom in Latin American literature, successful writers emerged, led by Nobel laureate Gabriel García Márquez and his magnum opus, ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', Eduardo Caballero Calderón, Manuel Mejía Vallejo, and Álvaro Mutis, a writer who was awarded the Cervantes Prize and the Prince of Asturias Award for Letters. Other leading contemporary authors are Fernando Vallejo, William Ospina (Rómulo Gallegos Prize) and Germán Castro Caycedo.\\n\\n=== Visual arts ===\\n\\nVargas Swamp Lancers, artwork by Rodrigo Arenas Betancourt\\n\\nColombian art has over 3,000 years of history. Colombian artists have captured the country's changing political and cultural backdrop using a range of styles and mediums. There is archeological evidence of ceramics being produced earlier in Colombia than anywhere else in the Americas, dating as early as 3,000 BCE.\\n\\nThe earliest examples of gold craftsmanship have been attributed to the Tumaco people of the Pacific coast and date to around 325 BCE. Roughly between 200 BCE and 800 CE, the San Agustín culture, masters of stonecutting, entered its “classical period\\\". They erected raised ceremonial centres, sarcophagi, and large stone monoliths depicting anthropomorphic and zoomorphhic forms out of stone.\\n\\nColombian art has followed the trends of the time, so during the 16th to 18th centuries, Spanish Catholicism had a huge influence on Colombian art, and the popular baroque style was replaced with rococo when the Bourbons ascended to the Spanish crown. More recently, Colombian artists Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago Martínez Delgado started the Colombian Murial Movement in the 1940s, featuring the neoclassical features of Art Deco.\\n\\nSince the 1950s, the Colombian art started to have a distinctive point of view, reinventing traditional elements under the concepts of the 20th century. Examples of this are the Greiff portraits by Ignacio Gómez Jaramillo, showing what the Colombian art could do with the new techniques applied to typical Colombian themes. Carlos Correa, with his paradigmatic “Naturaleza muerta en silencio” (silent dead nature), combines geometrical abstraction and cubism. Alejandro Obregón is often considered as the father of modern Colombian painting, and one of the most influential artist in this period, due to his originality, the painting of Colombian landscapes with symbolic and expressionist use of animals, (specially the Andean condor). Fernando Botero, Omar Rayo, Enrique Grau, Édgar Negret, David Manzur, Rodrigo Arenas Betancourt and Oscar Murillo are some of the Colombian artists featured at the international level.\\n\\n\\nThe Colombian sculpture from the sixteenth to 18th centuries was mostly devoted to religious depictions of ecclesiastic art, strongly influenced by the Spanish schools of sacred sculpture. During the early period of the Colombian republic, the national artists were focused in the production of sculptural portraits of politicians and public figures, in a plain neoclassicist trend. During the 20th century, the Colombian sculpture began to develop a bold and innovative work with the aim of reaching a better understanding of national sensitivity.\\n\\nColombian photography was marked by the arrival of the daguerreotype. Jean-Baptiste Louis Gros was who brought the daguerreotype process to Colombia in 1841. The Piloto public library has Latin America’s largest archive of negatives, containing 1.7 million antique photographs covering Colombia 1848 until 2005.\\n\\nThe Colombian press has promoted the work of the cartoonists. In recent decades, fanzines, internet and independent publishers have been fundamental to the growth of the comic in Colombia.\\n\\n=== Architecture ===\\n\\n\\n\\nThroughout the times, there have been a variety of architectural styles, from those of indigenous peoples to contemporary ones, passing through colonial (military and religious), Republican, transition and modern styles.\\n\\nAncient habitation areas, longhouses, crop terraces, roads as the Inca road system, cemeteries, hypogeums and necropolises are all part of the architectural heritage of indigenous peoples. Some prominent indigenous structures are the preceramic and ceramic archaeological site of Tequendama, Tierradentro (a park that contains the largest concentration of pre-Columbian monumental shaft tombs with side chambers), the largest collection of religious monuments and megalithic sculptures in South America, located in San Agustín, Huila. Lost city (an archaeological site with a series of terraces carved into the mountainside, a net of tiled roads and several circular plazas) and also stand out the large villages mainly built with stone, wood, cane and mud.\\nHistoric Centre of Santa Cruz de Mompox, an architectural site with colonial elements\\nArchitecture during the period of conquest and colonization is mainly derived of adapting European styles to local conditions, and Spanish influence, especially Andalusian and Extremaduran, can be easily seen. When Europeans founded cities two things were making simultaneously: the dimensioning of geometrical space (town square, street), and the location of a tangible point of orientation. The construction of forts was common throughout the Caribbean and in some cities of the interior, because of the dangers that represented the English, French, and Dutch pirates and the hostile indigenous groups. Churches, chapels, schools, and hospitals belonging to religious orders cause a great urban impact. Baroque architecture is used in military buildings and public spaces. Marcelino Arroyo, Francisco José de Caldas and Domingo de Petrés were great representatives of neo-classical architecture.\\n\\nThe National Capitol is a great representative of romanticism. Wood is extensively used in doors, windows, railings and ceilings during the colonization of Antioquia. The Caribbean architecture acquires a strong Arabic influence. The Teatro Colón in Bogotá is a lavish example of architecture from the 19th century. The quintas houses with innovations in the volumetric conception are some of the best examples of the Republican architecture; the Republican action in the city focused on the design of three types of spaces: parks with forests, small urban parks and avenues and the Gothic style was most commonly used for the design of churches.\\n\\nDeco style, modern neoclassicism, eclecticism folklorist and art deco ornamental resources significantly influenced the architecture of Colombia, especially during the transition period. Modernism contributed with new construction technologies and new materials (steel, reinforced concrete, glass and synthetic materials) and the topology architecture and lightened slabs system also have a great influence. The most influential architects of the modern movement were Rogelio Salmona and Fernando Martínez Sanabria.\\n\\nThe contemporary architecture of Colombia is designed to give greater importance to the materials, this architecture takes into account the specific natural and artificial geographies and is also an architecture that appeals to the senses. The conservation of the architectural and urban heritage of Colombia has been promoted in recent years.\\n\\n=== Music ===\\n\\n \\nColombian music blends European-influenced guitar and song structure with large gaita flutes and percussion instruments from the indigenous population, while its percussion structure and dance forms come from Africa. Colombia has a diverse and dynamic musical environment. Musicians, composers, music producers and singers from Colombia are recognized internationally such as Shakira, Juanes, Carlos Vives and others.\\n\\nGuillermo Uribe Holguín, an important cultural figure in the National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia, Luis Antonio Calvo and Blas Emilio Atehortúa are some of the greatest exponents of the art music. The Bogotá Philharmonic Orchestra is one of the most active orchestras in Colombia.\\n\\nCaribbean music has many vibrant rhythms, such as cumbia (it is played by the maracas, the drums, the gaitas and guacharaca), porro (it is a monotonous but joyful rhythm), mapalé (with its fast rhythm and constant clapping) and the \\\"vallenato\\\", which originated in the northern part of the Caribbean coast (the rhythm is mainly played by the caja, the guacharaca, and accordion).\\n\\nThe music from the Pacific coast, such as the currulao is characterized by its strong use of drums (instruments such as the native marimba, the conunos, the bass drum, the side drum and the cuatro guasas or tubular rattle). An important rhythm of the south region of the Pacific coast is the contradanza (it is used in dance shows, as a result of the striking colours of the costumes). Marimba music, traditional chants and dances from the Colombia South Pacific region are on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.\\n\\nImportant musical rhythms of the Andean Region are the danza (dance of Andean folklore arising from the transformation of the European contredance), the bambuco (it is played with guitar, tiple and mandolin, the rhythm is danced by couples), the pasillo (a rhythm inspired by the Austrian waltz and the Colombian \\\"danza\\\", the lyrics have been composed by well-known poets), the guabina (the tiple, the bandola and the requinto are the basic instruments), the sanjuanero (it originated in Tolima and Huila Departments, the rhythm is joyful and fast). Apart from these traditional rhythms, salsa music has spread throughout the country, and the city of Cali is considered by many salsa singers to be 'The New Salsa Capital of the World'.\\nColombian-style salsa dancing\\nThe instruments that distinguish the music of the Eastern Plains are the harp, the cuatro (a type of four-stringed guitar) and maracas. Important rhythms of this region are the joropo (a fast rhythm and there is also tapping as a result of its flamenco ancestry) and the galeron (it is heard a lot while cowboys are working).\\n\\nThe music of the Amazon region is strongly influenced by the indigenous religious practices. Some of the musical instruments used are the manguaré (a musical instrument of ceremonial type, consisting of a pair of large cylindrical drums), the quena (melodic instrument), the rondador, the congas, bells, and different types of flutes.\\n\\nThe music of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina is usually accompanied by a mandolin, a tub-bass, a jawbone, a guitar and maracas. Some popular archipelago rhythms are the Schottische, the Calypso, the Polka and the Mento.\\n\\n=== Popular culture ===\\n\\nThe Ibero-American Theater Festival of Bogotá is one of the biggest theater festivals in the world.\\nTheater was introduced in Colombia during the Spanish colonization in 1550 through zarzuela companies. Colombian theater is supported by the Ministry of Culture and a number of private and state owned organizations. The Ibero-American Theater Festival of Bogotá is the cultural event of the highest importance in Colombia and one of the biggest theater festivals in the world. Other important theater events are: The Festival of Puppet The Fanfare (Medellín), The Manizales Theater Festival, The Caribbean Theatre Festival (Santa Marta) and The Art Festival of Popular Culture \\\"Cultural Invasion\\\" (Bogotá).\\nThe Cartagena Film Festival is the oldest cinema event in Latin America. The central focus is on films from Ibero-America.\\nAlthough the Colombian cinema is young as an industry, more recently the film industry was growing with support from the Film Act passed in 2003. Many film festivals take place in Colombia, but the two most important are the Cartagena Film Festival, which is the oldest film festival in Latin America, and the Bogotá Film Festival.\\n\\nSome important national circulation newspapers are ''El Tiempo'' and ''El Espectador''. Television in Colombia has two privately owned TV networks and three state-owned TV networks with national coverage, as well as six regional TV networks and dozens of local TV stations. Private channels, RCN and Caracol are the highest-rated. The regional channels and regional newspapers cover a department or more and its content is made in these particular areas.\\n\\nColombia has three major national radio networks: Radiodifusora Nacional de Colombia, a state-run national radio; Caracol Radio and RCN Radio, privately owned networks with hundreds of affiliates. There are other national networks, including Cadena Super, Todelar, and Colmundo. Many hundreds of radio stations are registered with the Ministry of Information Technologies and Communications.\\n\\n=== Cuisine ===\\n\\nSancocho de gallina criolla is a traditional soup in Colombia.\\n\\nColombia's varied cuisine is influenced by its diverse fauna and flora as well as the cultural traditions of the ethnic groups. Colombian dishes and ingredients vary widely by region. Some of the most common ingredients are: cereals such as rice and maize; tubers such as potato and cassava; assorted legumes; meats, including beef, chicken, pork and goat; fish; and seafood. Colombia cuisine also features a variety of tropical fruits such as cape gooseberry, feijoa, arazá, dragon fruit, mangostino, granadilla, papaya, guava, mora (blackberry), lulo, soursop and passionfruit. Colombia is one of the world's largest consumers of fruit juices.\\n\\nAmong the most representative appetizers and soups are patacones (fried green plantains), sancocho de gallina (chicken soup with root vegetables) and ajiaco (potato and corn soup). Representative snacks and breads are pandebono, arepas (corn cakes), aborrajados (fried sweet plantains with cheese), torta de choclo, empanadas and almojábanas. Representative main courses are bandeja paisa, lechona tolimense, mamona, tamales and fish dishes (such as arroz de lisa), especially in coastal regions where kibbeh, suero, costeño cheese and carimañolas are also eaten. Representative side dishes are papas chorreadas (potatoes with cheese), remolachas rellenas con huevo duro (beets stuffed with hard-boiled egg) and arroz con coco (coconut rice). Organic food is a current trend in big cities, although in general across the country the fruits and veggies are very natural and fresh.\\n\\nRepresentative desserts are buñuelos, natillas, Maria Luisa cake, bocadillo made of guayaba (guava jelly), cocadas (coconut balls), casquitos de guayaba (candied guava peels), torta de natas, obleas, flan de mango, roscón, milhoja, manjar blanco, dulce de feijoa, dulce de papayuela, torta de mojicón, and esponjado de curuba. Typical sauces (salsas) are hogao (tomato and onion sauce) and Colombian-style ají.\\n\\nSome representative beverages are coffee (Tinto), champús, cholado, lulada, avena colombiana, sugarcane juice, aguapanela, aguardiente, hot chocolate and fresh fruit juices (often made with water or milk).\\n\\n===Sports===\\n\\nNairo Quintana: Colombian Champion of the Giro d'Italia and the Vuelta a España\\nWorld Roller Speed Skating Championships.\\nTejo is Colombia’s national sport and is a team sport that involves launching projectiles to hit a target. But of all sports in Colombia, football is the most popular. Colombia was the champion of the 2001 Copa América, in which they set a new record of being undefeated, conceding no goals and winning each match. Interestingly, Colombia has been awarded “mover of the year” twice.\\n\\nColombia is a mecca for roller skaters. The national team is a perennial powerhouse at the World Roller Speed Skating Championships. Colombia has traditionally been very good in cycling and a large number of Colombian cyclists have triumphed in major competitions of cycling.\\n\\nIn baseball, another sport rooted in the Caribbean Coast, Colombia was world amateur champion in 1947 and 1965.\\nBaseball is popular in the Caribbean, mainly in the cities Cartagena, Barranquilla and Santa Marta. Of those cities have come good players like: Orlando Cabrera, Édgar Rentería who was champion of the World Series in 1997 and 2010, and others who have played in Major League Baseball.\\n\\nBoxing is one of the sports that more world champions has produced for Colombia.\\nMotorsports also occupies an important place in the sporting preferences of Colombians; Juan Pablo Montoya is a race car driver known for winning 7 Formula One events. Colombia also has excelled in sports such as BMX, judo, shooting sport, taekwondo, wrestling, high diving and athletics, also has a long tradition in weightlifting and bowling.\\n\",\n \"\\n\\nThe overall life expectancy in Colombia at birth is 74.8 years (71.2 years for males and 78.4 years for females). Health standards in Colombia have improved very much since the 1980s, healthcare reforms have led to the massive improvements in the healthcare systems of the country. Although this new system has widened population coverage by the social and health security system from 21% (pre-1993) to 96% in 2012, health disparities persist.\\n\\nThrough health tourism, many people from over the world travel from their places of residence to other countries in search of medical treatment and the attractions in the countries visited. Colombia is projected as one of Latin America’s main destinations in terms of health tourism due to the quality of its health care professionals, a good number of institutions devoted to health, and an immense inventory of natural and architectural sites. Cities such as Bogotá, Cali, Medellín and Bucaramanga are the most visited in cardiology procedures, neurology, dental treatments, stem cell therapy, ENT, ophthalmology and joint replacements among others for the medical services of high quality.\\n\\nA study conducted by ''América Economía'' magazine ranked 21 Colombian health care institutions among the top 44 in Latin America, amounting to 48 percent of the total.\\n\",\n \"\\nM5 building – National University of Colombia, designed by Pedro Nel Gómez\\nUniversity of Los Andes\\nThe educational experience of many Colombian children begins with attendance at a preschool academy until age five (''Educación preescolar''). Basic education (''Educación básica'') is compulsory by law. It has two stages: Primary basic education (''Educación básica primaria'') which goes from first to fifth grade – children from six to ten years old, and Secondary basic education (''Educación básica secundaria''), which goes from sixth to ninth grade. Basic education is followed by Middle vocational education (''Educación media vocacional'') that comprises the tenth and eleventh grades. It may have different vocational training modalities or specialties (academic, technical, business, and so on.) according to the curriculum adopted by each school.\\n\\nAfter the successful completion of all the basic and middle education years, a high-school diploma is awarded. The high-school graduate is known as a ''bachiller'', because secondary basic school and middle education are traditionally considered together as a unit called ''bachillerato'' (sixth to eleventh grade). Students in their final year of middle education take the ICFES test (now renamed Saber 11) in order to gain access to higher education (''Educación superior''). This higher education includes undergraduate professional studies, technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies. Technical professional institutions of Higher Education are also opened to students holder of a qualification in Arts and Business. This qualification is usually awarded by the SENA after a two years curriculum.\\n\\n''Bachilleres'' (high-school graduates) may enter into a professional undergraduate career program offered by a university; these programs last up to five years (or less for technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies), even as much to six to seven years for some careers, such as medicine. In Colombia, there is not an institution such as college; students go directly into a career program at a university or any other educational institution to obtain a professional, technical or technological title. Once graduated from the university, people are granted a (professional, technical or technological) diploma and licensed (if required) to practice the career they have chosen. For some professional career programs, students are required to take the Saber-Pro test, in their final year of undergraduate academic education.\\n\\nPublic spending on education as a proportion of gross domestic product in 2015 was 4.49%. This represented 15.05% of total government expenditure. The primary and secondary gross enrolment ratios stood at 113.56% and 98.09% respectively. School-life expectancy was 14.42 years. A total of 94.58% of the population aged 15 and older were recorded as literate, including 98.66% of those aged 15–24.\\n\",\n \"* Index of Colombia-related articles\\n* Outline of Colombia\\n* \\n* \\n* \\n\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n'''General information'''\\n* Colombia at Encyclopædia Britannica\\n* Colombia at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''\\n* \\n* \\n* Key Development Forecasts for Colombia from International Futures\\n* Official investment portal\\n* Official Colombia Tourism Website\\n* Study Spanish in Colombia\\n* National Administrative Department of Statistics\\n\\n'''Government'''\\n* Colombia Online Government website\\n\\n'''Culture'''\\n* Ministry of Culture\\n\\n'''Geography'''\\n* National parks of Colombia\\n* \\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction"," Etymology "," History "," Geography "," Government and politics "," Economy "," Demographics "," Culture ","Health"," Education "," See also "," Notes "," References "," External links "],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \" Etymology \",\n \" History \",\n \" Geography \",\n \" Government and politics \",\n \" Economy \",\n \" Demographics \",\n \" Culture \",\n \"Health\",\n \" Education \",\n \" See also \",\n \" Notes \",\n \" References \",\n \" External links \"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Colombia"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["Colombia is now one of only three economies with a perfect score on the strength of legal rights index, according to the World Bank."],"string":"[\n \"Colombia is now one of only three economies with a perfect score on the strength of legal rights index, according to the World Bank.\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Colombia''' ( or ; ), officially the '''Republic of Colombia''' (), is a sovereign state largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America.","Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and Peru.","It shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic.","It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments.","The territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples, with as most advanced the Muisca, Quimbaya and the Tairona.","The Spanish set foot on Colombian soil for the first time in 1499 and in the first half of the 16th century initiated a period of conquest and colonization, ultimately creating the New Kingdom of Granada, with as capital Santafé de Bogotá.","Independence from Spain was acquired in 1819, but by 1830 the \"Gran Colombia\" Federation was dissolved.","What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada.","The new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation (1858), and then the United States of Colombia (1863), before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886.","Panama seceded in 1903.","Since the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, which escalated in the 1990s but then decreased from 2005 onward.","Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage.","The urban centres are mostly located in the highlands of the Andes mountains.","Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines.","Ecologically, it is one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer.","Colombia is a middle power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is a member of the UN, the WTO, the OAS, the Pacific Alliance, and other international organizations.","Colombia has a diversified economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run.","''Colombia'' is named after Christopher Columbus\nThe name \"Colombia\" is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus (, ).","It was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule.","The name was later adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819, formed from the territories of the old Viceroyalty of New Granada (modern-day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, and northwest Brazil).","When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, the former Department of Cundinamarca adopted the name \"Republic of New Granada\".","New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation.","In 1863 the name was again changed, this time to United States of Colombia, before finally adopting its present name – the Republic of Colombia – in 1886.","To refer to this country, the Colombian government uses the terms ''Colombia'' and ''República de Colombia''.","\n\n=== Pre-Columbian era ===\n\nOwing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica and the Caribbean to the Andes and Amazon basin.","The oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley southwest of Bogotá.","These sites date from the Paleoindian period (18,000–8000 BCE).","At Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period (~8000–2000 BCE) have been found.","Vestiges indicate that there was also early occupation in the regions of El Abra and Tequendama in Cundinamarca.","The oldest pottery discovered in the Americas, found at San Jacinto, dates to 5000–4000 BCE.","Muisca raft.","The figure refers to the ceremony of the legend of El Dorado.","Indigenous people inhabited the territory that is now Colombia by 12,500 BCE.","Nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes at the El Abra, Tibitó and Tequendama sites near present-day Bogotá traded with one another and with other cultures from the Magdalena River Valley.","Between 5000 and 1000 BCE, hunter-gatherer tribes transitioned to agrarian societies; fixed settlements were established, and pottery appeared.","Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE, groups of Amerindians including the Muisca, Quimbaya, and Tairona developed the political system of ''cacicazgos'' with a pyramidal structure of power headed by caciques.","The Muisca inhabited mainly the area of what is now the Departments of Boyacá and Cundinamarca high plateau (''Altiplano Cundiboyacense'') where they formed the Muisca Confederation.","They farmed maize, potato, quinoa and cotton, and traded gold, emeralds, blankets, ceramic handicrafts, coca and especially rock salt with neighboring nations.","The Tairona inhabited northern Colombia in the isolated mountain range of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.","The Quimbaya inhabited regions of the Cauca River Valley between the Western and Central Ranges of the Colombian Andes.","Most of the Amerindians practiced agriculture and the social structure of each indigenous community was different.","Some groups of indigenous people such as the Caribs lived in a state of permanent war, but others had less bellicose attitudes.","The Incas expanded their empire onto the southwest part of the country.","=== Spanish conquest ===\nMap of Juan de la Cosa.","It is the oldest known European cartographic representation of the New World.","Alonso de Ojeda (who had sailed with Columbus) reached the Guajira Peninsula in 1499.","Spanish explorers, led by Rodrigo de Bastidas, made the first exploration of the Caribbean coast in 1500.","Christopher Columbus navigated near the Caribbean in 1502.","In 1508, Vasco Núñez de Balboa accompanied an expedition to the territory through the region of Gulf of Urabá and they founded the town of Santa María la Antigua del Darién in 1510, the first stable settlement on the continent.","Santa Marta was founded in 1525, and Cartagena in 1533.","Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada led an expedition to the interior in April 1536, and christened the districts through which he passed \"New Kingdom of Granada\".","In August 1538, he founded provisionally its capital near the Muisca cacicazgo of Bacatá, and named it \"Santa Fe\".","The name soon acquired a suffix and was called Santa Fe de Bogotá.","Two other notable journeys by early conquistadors to the interior took place in the same period.","Sebastián de Belalcázar, conqueror of Quito, traveled north and founded Cali, in 1536, and Popayán, in 1537; from 1536 to 1539, German conquistador Nikolaus Federmann crossed the Llanos Orientales and went over the Cordillera Oriental in a search for El Dorado, the \"city of gold\".","The legend and the gold would play a pivotal role in luring the Spanish and other Europeans to New Granada during the 16th and 17th centuries.","The conquistadors made frequent alliances with the enemies of different indigenous communities.","Indigenous allies were crucial to conquest, as well as to creating and maintaining empire.","Indigenous peoples in New Granada experienced a decline in population due to conquest as well as Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox, to which they had no immunity.","With the risk that the land was deserted, the Spanish Crown sold properties to all persons interested in colonise territories creating large farms and possession of mines.","In the 16th century, the nautical science in Spain reached a great development thanks to numerous scientific figures of the Casa de Contratación and nautical science was an essential pillar of the Iberian expansion.","=== Colonial period ===\nIn 1542, the region of New Granada, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America, became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, with its capital at Lima.","In 1547, New Granada became the Captaincy-General of New Granada within the viceroyalty.","In 1549, the Royal Audiencia was created by a royal decree, and New Granada was ruled by the Royal Audience of Santa Fe de Bogotá, which at that time comprised the provinces of Santa Marta, Rio de San Juan, Popayán, Guayana and Cartagena.","But important decisions were taken from the colony to Spain by the Council of the Indies.","The battle resulted in a major defeat for the British Navy and Army during the War of Jenkins' Ear, 1739–48.","In the 16th century, Europeans began to bring slaves from Africa.","Spain was the only European power that could not establish factories in Africa to purchase slaves and therefore the Spanish empire relied on the asiento system, awarding merchants (mostly from Portugal, France, England and the Dutch Empire) the license to trade enslaved people to their overseas territories.","Also there were people who defended the human rights and freedoms of oppressed peoples.","The indigenous peoples could not be enslaved because they were legally subjects of the Spanish Crown and to protect the indigenous peoples, several forms of land ownership and regulation were established: ''resguardos'', ''encomiendas'' and ''haciendas''.","Many intellectual leaders of the independence process participated in the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada.","In 1717 the Viceroyalty of New Granada was originally created, and then it was temporarily removed, to finally be reestablished in 1739.","The Viceroyalty had Santa Fé de Bogotá as its capital.","This Viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America which had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalties of New Spain or Peru and correspond mainly to today's Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama.","So, Bogotá became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with Lima and Mexico City, though it remained somewhat backward compared to those two cities in several economic and logistical ways.","After Great Britain declared war on Spain in 1739, Cartagena quickly became the British forces' top target but an upset Spanish victory during the War of Jenkins' Ear, a war with Great Britain for economic control of the Caribbean, cemented Spanish dominance in the Caribbean until the Seven Years' War.","The 18th-century priest, botanist and mathematician José Celestino Mutis was delegated by Viceroy Antonio Caballero y Góngora to conduct an inventory of the nature of the New Granada.","Started in 1783, this became known as the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada which classified plants, wildlife and founded the first astronomical observatory in the city of Santa Fe de Bogotá.","In July 1801 the Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt reached Santa Fe de Bogotá where he met with Mutis.","In addition, historical figures in the process of independence in New Granada emerged from the expedition as the astronomer Francisco José de Caldas, the scientist Francisco Antonio Zea, the zoologist Jorge Tadeo Lozano and the painter Salvador Rizo.","=== Independence ===\nThe Battle of Boyacá was the decisive battle which would ensure the success of the liberation campaign of New Granada.","Since the beginning of the periods of conquest and colonization, there were several rebel movements against Spanish rule, but most were either crushed or remained too weak to change the overall situation.","The last one that sought outright independence from Spain sprang up around 1810, following the independence of St. Domingue (present-day Haiti) in 1804, which provided some support to an eventual leader of this rebellion: Simón Bolívar.","Francisco de Paula Santander also would play a decisive role.","The Socorro Province was the site of the genesis of the independence process.","A movement was initiated by Antonio Nariño, who opposed Spanish centralism and led the opposition against the Viceroyalty.","Cartagena became independent in November 1811.","In 1811 the United Provinces of New Granada were proclaimed, headed by Camilo Torres Tenorio.","The emergence of two distinct ideological currents among the patriots (federalism and centralism) gave rise to a period of instability.","Shortly after the Napoleonic Wars ended, Ferdinand VII, recently restored to the throne in Spain, unexpectedly decided to send military forces to retake most of northern South America.","The viceroyalty was restored under the command of Juan Sámano, whose regime punished those who participated in the patriotic movements, ignoring the political nuances of the juntas.","The retribution stoked renewed rebellion, which, combined with a weakened Spain, made possible a successful rebellion led by the Venezuelan-born Simón Bolívar, who finally proclaimed independence in 1819.","The pro-Spanish resistance was defeated in 1822 in the present territory of Colombia and in 1823 in Venezuela.","The territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada became the Republic of Colombia, organized as a union of the current territories of Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, Venezuela, parts of Guyana and Brazil and north of Marañón River.","The Congress of Cúcuta in 1821 adopted a constitution for the new Republic.","Simón Bolívar became the first President of Colombia, and Francisco de Paula Santander was made Vice President.","However, the new republic was unstable and three countries emerged from the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (New Granada, Ecuador and Venezuela).","Formation of the present Colombia since the Viceroyalty of New Granada's independence from the Spanish Empire\nColombia was the first constitutional government in South America, and the Liberal and Conservative parties, founded in 1848 and 1849 respectively, are two of the oldest surviving political parties in the Americas.","Slavery was abolished in the country in 1851.","Internal political and territorial divisions led to the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1830.","The so-called \"Department of Cundinamarca\" adopted the name \"New Granada\", which it kept until 1858 when it became the \"Confederación Granadina\" (Granadine Confederation).","After a two-year civil war in 1863, the \"United States of Colombia\" was created, lasting until 1886, when the country finally became known as the Republic of Colombia.","Internal divisions remained between the bipartisan political forces, occasionally igniting very bloody civil wars, the most significant being the Thousand Days' War (1899–1902).","=== 20th century ===\nThe United States of America's intentions to influence the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to the separation of the Department of Panama in 1903 and the establishment of it as a nation.","The United States paid Colombia $25,000,000 in 1921, seven years after completion of the canal, for redress of President Roosevelt's role in the creation of Panama, and Colombia recognized Panama under the terms of the Thomson–Urrutia Treaty.","Colombia and Peru went to war because of territory disputes far in the Amazon basin.","The war ended with a peace deal brokered by the League of Nations.","The League finally awarded the disputed area to Colombia in June 1934.","The Bogotazo in 1948\nSoon after, Colombia achieved some degree of political stability, which was interrupted by a bloody conflict that took place between the late 1940s and the early 1950s, a period known as ''La Violencia'' (\"The Violence\").","Its cause was mainly mounting tensions between the two leading political parties, which subsequently ignited after the assassination of the Liberal presidential candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán on 9 April 1948.","The ensuing riots in Bogotá, known as El Bogotazo, spread throughout the country and claimed the lives of at least 180,000 Colombians.","Colombia entered the Korean War when Laureano Gómez was elected president.","It was the only Latin American country to join the war in a direct military role as an ally of the United States.","Particularly important was the resistance of the Colombian troops at Old Baldy.","The violence between the two political parties decreased first when Gustavo Rojas deposed the President of Colombia in a coup d'état and negotiated with the guerrillas, and then under the military junta of General Gabriel París.","The Axis of Peace and Memory: A “memorial” in recognition of the victims of the conflict\nAfter Rojas' deposition, the Colombian Conservative Party and Colombian Liberal Party agreed to create the \"National Front\", a coalition which would jointly govern the country.","Under the deal, the presidency would alternate between conservatives and liberals every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices.","The National Front ended \"La Violencia\", and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress.","Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political problems continued, and guerrilla groups were formally created such as the FARC, the ELN and the M-19 to fight the government and political apparatus.","Since the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict between the government forces, left-wing guerrilla groups and right-wing paramilitaries.","The conflict escalated in the 1990s, mainly in remote rural areas.","Since the beginning of the armed conflict, human rights defenders have fought for the respect for human rights, despite staggering opposition.","Several guerrillas' organizations decided to demobilize after peace negotiations in 1989–1994.","The United States has been heavily involved in the conflict since its beginnings, when in the early 1960s the U.S. government encouraged the Colombian military to attack leftist militias in rural Colombia.","This was part of the U.S. fight against communism.","Mercenaries and multinational corporations such as Chiquita Brands International are some of the international actors that have contributed to the violence of the conflict.","On 4 July 1991, a new Constitution was promulgated.","The changes generated by the new constitution are viewed as positive by Colombian society.","===21st century===\nColombia's President Juan Manuel Santos signed a historic peace accord.","The administration of President Álvaro Uribe (2002–10), adopted the democratic security policy which included an integrated counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency campaign.","The Government economic plan also promoted confidence in investors.","As part of a controversial peace process the AUC (right-wing paramilitaries) as a formal organization had ceased to function.","In February 2008, millions of Colombians demonstrated against FARC and other outlawed groups.","After peace negotiations in Cuba, the Colombian government of President Juan Manuel Santos and guerrilla of FARC-EP announced a final agreement to end the conflict.","However, a referendum to ratify the deal was unsuccessful.","Afterward, the Colombian government and the FARC signed a revised peace deal in November 2016, which the Colombian congress approved.","In 2016, President Santos was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.","The Government began a process of attention and comprehensive reparation for victims of conflict.","Colombia shows modest progress in the struggle to defend human rights, as expressed by HRW.","A Special Jurisdiction for Peace will be created to investigate, clarify, prosecute and punish serious human rights violations and grave breaches of international humanitarian law which occurred during the armed conflict and to satisfy victims' right to justice.","In terms of international relations, Colombia and Venezuela have agreed to restore diplomatic relations.","Latin America, with a long memory of U.S. interventions such as the infamous Operation Condor, rejects US military threat against Venezuela.","Colombia's Foreign Ministry said that all efforts to resolve Venezuela's crisis should be peaceful and respect its sovereignty.","Colombia will not recognize result of Venezuela assembly vote, amid opposition concerns that the election will lead to dictatorship.","Colombia with a very clean electricity generation matrix reaffirms its support for the Paris Climate Agreement.","During his visit to Colombia, Pope Francis brought with him a message of peace and paid tribute to the victims of the conflict.","\n\nRelief map\nThe geography of Colombia is characterized by its six main natural regions that present their own unique characteristics, from the Andes mountain range region shared with Ecuador and Venezuela; the Pacific coastal region shared with Panama and Ecuador; the Caribbean coastal region shared with Venezuela and Panama; the ''Llanos'' (plains) shared with Venezuela; the Amazon Rainforest region shared with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Ecuador; to the insular area, comprising islands in both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.","Colombia is bordered to the northwest by Panama; to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; it established its maritime boundaries with neighboring countries through seven agreements on the Caribbean Sea and three on the Pacific Ocean.","It lies between latitudes 12°N and 4°S, and longitudes 67° and 79°W.","Colombia map of Köppen climate classification\nPart of the Ring of Fire, a region of the world subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, In the interior of Colombia the Andes are the prevailing geographical feature.","Most of Colombia's population centers are located in these interior highlands.","Beyond the Colombian Massif (in the south-western departments of Cauca and Nariño) these are divided into three branches known as ''cordilleras'' (mountain ranges): the Cordillera Occidental, running adjacent to the Pacific coast and including the city of Cali; the Cordillera Central, running between the Cauca and Magdalena River valleys (to the west and east respectively) and including the cities of Medellín, Manizales, Pereira and Armenia; and the Cordillera Oriental, extending north east to the Guajira Peninsula and including Bogotá, Bucaramanga and Cúcuta.","Peaks in the Cordillera Occidental exceed , and in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental they reach .","At , Bogotá is the highest city of its size in the world.","East of the Andes lies the savanna of the ''Llanos'', part of the Orinoco River basin, and, in the far south east, the jungle of the Amazon rainforest.","Together these lowlands comprise over half Colombia's territory, but they contain less than 6% of the population.","To the north the Caribbean coast, home to 21.9% of the population and the location of the major port cities of Barranquilla and Cartagena, generally consists of low-lying plains, but it also contains the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range, which includes the country's tallest peaks (Pico Cristóbal Colón and Pico Simón Bolívar), and the La Guajira Desert.","By contrast the narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, backed by the Serranía de Baudó mountains, are sparsely populated and covered in dense vegetation.","The principal Pacific port is Buenaventura.","The main rivers of Colombia are Magdalena, Cauca, Guaviare, Atrato, Meta, Putumayo and Caquetá.","Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin.","The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers mark limits with Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively.","Protected areas and the \"National Park System\" cover an area of about and account for 12.77% of the Colombian territory.","Compared to neighboring countries, rates of deforestation in Colombia are still relatively low.","Colombia is the sixth country in the world by magnitude of total renewable freshwater supply, and still has large reserves of freshwater.","=== Climate ===\n\nThe climate of Colombia is characterized for being tropical presenting variations within six natural regions and depending on the altitude, temperature, humidity, winds and rainfall.","The diversity of climate zones in Colombia is characterized for having tropical rainforests, savannas, steppes, deserts and mountain climate.","Mountain climate is one of the unique features of the Andes and other high altitude reliefs where climate is determined by elevation.","Below in elevation is the warm altitudinal zone, where temperatures are above .","About 82.5% of the country's total area lies in the warm altitudinal zone.","The temperate climate altitudinal zone located between ) is characterized for presenting an average temperature ranging between .","The cold climate is present between and the temperatures vary between .","Beyond the cold land lie the alpine conditions of the forested zone and then the treeless grasslands of the páramos.","Above , where temperatures are below freezing, the climate is glacial, a zone of permanent snow and ice.","File:Nevado del Ruiz en Colombia.jpg|Ice cap climate in the Nevado del Ruiz\nFile:Páramo de Sumapaz.jpg |Alpine tundra climate in the Sumapaz Paramo\nFile:Tota Lake 1.JPG|Oceanic climate in Tota Lake\nFile:Desierto Frio en Boyacá.jpg|Cold desert climate near Villa de Leyva\nFile:Chiribiquete view.jpg|Tropical wet climate in the tepuis of the Serranía de Chiribiquete\nFile:Paisaje rural en Tinjacá.jpg|Mediterranean climate in Boyacá Department\nFile:Sunset on the Amazon (7613489930).jpg|Tropical rainforest climate in the Amazon Rainforest\nFile:NP Llanos36 lo (5853389005).jpg|Tropical savanna climate in Los Llanos\nFile:Cabo de La vela.JPG|Hot desert climate in the Guajira Peninsula\nFile:Johny Cay.jpg|Tropical wet and dry climate in San Andrés y Providencia\nFile:CAÑO CRISTALES – LOS OCHOS 01.jpg| Warm and wet climate in Caño Cristales\nFile:Munchique2.jpg|Mountain climate in the Cordillera Occidental\n\n\n=== Biodiversity ===\n''Chlorochrysa nitidissima''.","Colombia is home to more bird species than any other country in the world.","The national flower of Colombia is the orchid ''Cattleya trianae'', which was named after the Colombian botanist and physician José Jerónimo Triana.","Colombia is one of the megadiverse countries in biodiversity, ranking first in bird species.","As for plants, the country has between 40,000 and 45,000 plant species, equivalent to 10 or 20% of total global species, this is even more remarkable given that Colombia is considered a country of intermediate size.","Colombia is the second most biodiverse country in the world, lagging only after Brazil which is approximately 7 times bigger.","Colombia is the country in the planet more characterized by a high biodiversity, with the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide and it has the largest number of endemisms (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country.","About 10% of the species of the Earth live in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined, Colombia has 10% of the world’s mammals species, 14% of the amphibian species and 18% of the bird species of the world.","Colombia has about 2,000 species of marine fish and is the second most diverse country in freshwater fish.","Colombia is the country with more endemic species of butterflies, number 1 in terms of orchid species and approximately 7,000 species of beetles.","Colombia is second in the number of amphibian species and is the third most diverse country in reptiles and palms.","There are about 1,900 species of mollusks and according to estimates there are about 300,000 species of invertebrates in the country.","In Colombia there are 32 terrestrial biomes and 314 types of ecosystems.","\n\nCasa de Nariño is the official home and principal workplace of the President of Colombia.","The government of Colombia takes place within the framework of a presidential participatory democratic republic as established in the Constitution of 1991.","In accordance with the principle of separation of powers, government is divided into three branches: the executive branch, the legislative branch and the judicial branch.","As the head of the executive branch, the President of Colombia serves as both head of state and head of government, followed by the Vice President and the Council of Ministers.","The president is elected by popular vote to serve four-year term (In 2015, Colombia’s Congress approved the repeal of a 2004 constitutional amendment that eliminated the one-term limit for presidents).","At the provincial level executive power is vested in department governors, municipal mayors and local administrators for smaller administrative subdivisions, such as ''corregimientos'' or ''comunas''.","All regional elections are held one year and five months after the presidential election.","The legislative branch of government is represented nationally by the Congress, a bicameral institution comprising a 166-seat Chamber of Representatives and a 102-seat Senate.","The Senate is elected nationally and the Chamber of Representatives is elected in electoral districts.","Members of both houses are elected to serve four-year terms two months before the president, also by popular vote.","Colombia's Palace of Justice\nThe judicial branch is headed by four high courts, consisting of the Supreme Court which deals with penal and civil matters, the Council of State, which has special responsibility for administrative law and also provides legal advice to the executive, the Constitutional Court, responsible for assuring the integrity of the Colombian constitution, and the Superior Council of Judicature, responsible for auditing the judicial branch.","Colombia operates a system of civil law, which since 2005 has been applied through an adversarial system.","Despite a number of controversies, the democratic security policy has ensured that former President Uribe remained popular among Colombian people, with his approval rating peaking at 76%, according to a poll in 2009.","However, having served two terms, he was constitutionally barred from seeking re-election in 2010.","In the run-off elections on 20 June 2010 the former Minister of defense Juan Manuel Santos won with 69% of the vote against the second most popular candidate, Antanas Mockus.","A second round was required since no candidate received over the 50% winning threshold of votes.","Santos won nearly 51% of the vote in second-round elections on 15 June 2014, beating right-wing rival Óscar Iván Zuluaga, who won 45%.","His term as Colombia's president runs for four years beginning 7 August 2014.","=== Foreign affairs ===\nThe VI Summit of the Pacific Alliance: President of Colombia, Juan Manuel Santos is second from the left.","The foreign affairs of Colombia are headed by the President, as head of state, and managed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs.","Colombia has diplomatic missions in all continents.","Colombia was one of the 4 founding members of the Pacific Alliance, which is a political, economic and co-operative integration mechanism that promotes the free circulation of goods, services, capital and persons between the members, as well as a common stock exchange and joint embassies in several countries.","Colombia is also a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Organization of American States, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the Union of South American Nations and the Andean Community of Nations.","Colombia is a global partner of NATO.","Colombia is currently in the accession process with the OECD.","=== Military ===\nArpía III of the Colombian Air Force\n\nThe executive branch of government is responsible for managing the defense of Colombia, with the President commander-in-chief of the armed forces.","The Ministry of Defence exercises day-to-day control of the military and the Colombian National Police.","Colombia has 455,461 active military personnel.","And in 2016 3.4% of the country's GDP went towards military expenditure, placing it 24th in the world.","Colombia's armed forces are the largest in Latin America, and it is the second largest spender on its military after Brazil.","The Colombian military is divided into three branches: the National Army of Colombia; the Colombian Air Force; and the Colombian Navy.","The National Police functions as a gendarmerie, operating independently from the military as the law enforcement agency for the entire country.","Each of these operates with their own intelligence apparatus separate from the National Intelligence Directorate (DNI, in Spanish).","The National Army is formed by divisions, brigades, special brigades and special units; the Colombian Navy by the Naval Infantry, the Naval Force of the Caribbean, the Naval Force of the Pacific, the Naval Force of the South, the Naval Force of the East, Colombia Coast Guards, Naval Aviation and the Specific Command of San Andres y Providencia; and the Air Force by 15 air units.","The National Police has a presence in all municipalities.","=== Administrative divisions ===\n\n\nColombia is divided into 32 departments and one capital district, which is treated as a department (Bogotá also serves as the capital of the department of Cundinamarca).","Departments are subdivided into municipalities, each of which is assigned a municipal seat, and municipalities are in turn subdivided into ''corregimientos'' in rural areas and into ''comunas'' in urban areas.","Each department has a local government with a governor and assembly directly elected to four-year terms, and each municipality is headed by a mayor and council.","There is a popularly elected local administrative board in each of the ''corregimientos'' or ''comunas''.","In addition to the capital four other cities have been designated districts (in effect special municipalities), on the basis of special distinguishing features.","These are Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta and Buenaventura.","Some departments have local administrative subdivisions, where towns have a large concentration of population and municipalities are near each other (for example in Antioquia and Cundinamarca).","Where departments have a low population (for example Amazonas, Vaupés and Vichada), special administrative divisions are employed, such as \"department ''corregimientos''\", which are a hybrid of a municipality and a ''corregimiento''.","Click on a department on the map below to go to its article.","Department \n Capital city\n\n 1 \n Flag of the Department of Amazonas Amazonas \n Leticia\n\n 2 \n Flag of the Department of Antioquia Antioquia \n Medellín\n\n 3 \n Flag of the Department of Arauca Arauca \n Arauca\n\n 4 \n Flag of the Department of Atlántico Atlántico \n Barranquilla\n\n 5 \n Flag of the Department of Bolívar Bolívar \n Cartagena\n\n 6 \n Flag of the Department of Boyacá Boyacá \n Tunja\n\n 7 \n Flag of the Department of Caldas Caldas \n Manizales\n\n 8 \n Flag of the Department of Caquetá Caquetá \n Florencia\n\n 9 \n Flag of the Department of Casanare Casanare\n\n\n 10 \n Flag of the Department of Cauca Cauca \n Popayán\n\n 11 \n Flag of the Department of Cesar Cesar \n Valledupar\n\n 12 \n Flag of the Department of Chocó Chocó \n Quibdó\n\n 13 \n Flag of the Department of Córdoba Córdoba \n Montería\n\n 14 \n Flag of the Department of Cundinamarca Cundinamarca \n Bogotá\n\n 15 \n Flag of the Department of Guainía Guainía \n Inírida\n\n 16 \n Flag of the Department of Guaviare Guaviare \n San José del Guaviare\n\n 17 \n Flag of the Department of Huila Huila \n Neiva\n\n\n\n\n \n Department \n Capital city\n\n 18 \n Flag of La Guajira La Guajira\n\n\n 19 \n Flag of the Department of Magdalena Magdalena \n Santa Marta\n\n 20 \n Flag of the Department of Meta Meta \n Villavicencio\n\n 21 \n Flag of the Department of Nariño Nariño \n Pasto\n\n 22 \n Flag of the Department of Norte de Santander Norte de Santander \n Cúcuta\n\n 23 \n Flag of the Department of Putumayo Putumayo \n Mocoa\n\n 24 \n Flag of the Department of Quindío Quindío \n Armenia\n\n 25 \n Flag of the Department of Risaralda Risaralda \n Pereira\n\n 26 \n Flag of the Department of San Andres, Providencia and Santa Catalina San Andrés, Providenciaand Santa Catalina \n San Andrés\n\n 27 \n Flag of the Department of Santander Santander \n Bucaramanga\n\n 28 \n Flag of the Department of Sucre Sucre \n Sincelejo\n\n 29 \n Flag of the Department of Tolima Tolima \n Ibagué\n\n 30 \n Flag of the Department of Valle del Cauca Valle del Cauca \n Cali\n\n 31 \n Flag of the Department of Vichada Vaupés \n Mitú\n\n 32 \n Flag of the Department of Vichada Vichada \n Puerto Carreño\n\n 33 \n Flag of Bogotá Bogotá \n Bogotá","\n\nColombia's gross domestic product by sector for the second half of the year 2015\nHistorically an agrarian economy, Colombia urbanised rapidly in the 20th century, by the end of which just 15.8% of the workforce were employed in agriculture, generating just 6.8% of GDP; 19.6% of the workforce were employed in industry and 64.6% in services, responsible for 34.0% and 59.2% of GDP respectively.","The country's economic production is dominated by its strong domestic demand.","Consumption expenditure by households is the largest component of GDP.","Colombia's market economy grew steadily in the latter part of the 20th century, with gross domestic product (GDP) increasing at an average rate of over 4% per year between 1970 and 1998.","The country suffered a recession in 1999 (the first full year of negative growth since the Great Depression), and the recovery from that recession was long and painful.","However, in recent years growth has been impressive, reaching 6.9% in 2007, one of the highest rates of growth in Latin America.","According to International Monetary Fund estimates, in 2012 Colombia's GDP (PPP) was US$500 billion (28th in the world and third in South America).","Total government expenditures account for 28.7 percent of the domestic economy.","Public debt equals 41 percent of gross domestic product.","A strong fiscal climate was reaffirmed by a boost in bond ratings.","Annual inflation closed 2016 at 5.75% YoY (vs. 6.77% YoY in 2015).","The average national unemployment rate in 2016 was 9.2%, although the informality is the biggest problem facing the labour market (the income of formal workers climbed 24.8% in 5 years while labor incomes of informal workers rose only 9%).","Colombia has Free trade Zone (FTZ), such as Zona Franca del Pacifico, located in the Valle del Cauca, one of the most striking areas for foreign investment.","The financial sector has grown favorably due to good liquidity in the economy, the growth of credit and the positive performance of the Colombian economy.","The Colombian Stock Exchange through the Latin American Integrated Market (MILA) offers a regional market to trade equities.","The Colombian Stock Exchange is part of the Latin American Integrated Market (MILA).","The electricity production in Colombia comes mainly from renewable energy sources.","69.97% is obtained from the hydroelectric generation.","Colombia's commitment to renewable energy was recognized in the 2014 ''Global Green Economy Index (GGEI)'', ranking among the top 10 nations in the world in terms of greening efficiency sectors.","Colombia is rich in natural resources, and its main exports include mineral fuels, oils, distillation products, fruit and other agricultural products, sugars and sugar confectionery, food products, plastics, precious stones, metals, forest products, chemical goods, pharmaceuticals, vehicles, electronic products, electrical equipments, perfumery and cosmetics, machinery, manufactured articles, textile and fabrics, clothing and footwear, glass and glassware, furniture, prefabricated buildings, military products, home and office material, construction equipment, software, among others.","Principal trading partners are the United States, China, the European Union and some Latin American countries.","Non-traditional exports have boosted the growth of Colombian foreign sales as well as the diversification of destinations of export thanks to new free trade agreements.","In 2016, the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) reported that 28.0% of the population were living below the poverty line, of which 8.5% in \"extreme poverty\".","The multidimensional poverty rate stands at 17.8 percent of the population.","The Government has also been developing a process of financial inclusion within the country's most vulnerable population.","Recent economic growth has led to a considerable increase of new millionaires, including the new entrepreneurs, Colombians with a net worth exceeding US $1 billion.","The contribution of Travel & Tourism to GDP was USD5,880.3bn (2.0% of total GDP) in 2016.","Tourism generated 556,135 jobs (2.5% of total employment) in 2016.","Foreign tourist visits were predicted to have risen from 0.6 million in 2007 to 3.3 million in 2016.","=== Science and technology ===\n\nCOLCIENCIAS is a Colombian Government agency that supports fundamental and applied research.","Colombia has more than 3,950 research groups in science and technology.","iNNpulsa, a government body that promotes entrepreneurship and innovation in the country, provides grants to startups, in addition to other services it and institutions like Apps.co provide.","Co-working spaces have arisen to serve as communities for startups large and small.","Organizations such as the Corporation for Biological Research (CIB) for the support of young people interested in scientific work has been successfully developed in Colombia.","The International Center for Tropical Agriculture based in Colombia investigates the increasing challenge of global warming and food security.","Important inventions related to the medicine have been made in Colombia, such as the first external artificial pacemaker with internal electrodes, invented by the electronics engineer Jorge Reynolds Pombo, invention of great importance for those who suffer from heart failure.","Also invented in Colombia were the microkeratome and keratomileusis technique, which form the fundamental basis of what now is known as LASIK (one of the most important techniques for the correction of refractive errors of vision) and the Hakim valve for the treatment of Hydrocephalus, among others.","Colombia has begun to innovate in military technology for its army and other armies of the world; especially in the design and creation of personal ballistic protection products, military hardware, military robots, bombs, simulators and radar.","Some leading Colombian scientists are Joseph M. Tohme, researcher recognized for his work on the genetic diversity of food, Manuel Elkin Patarroyo who is known for his groundbreaking work on synthetic vaccines for malaria, Francisco Lopera who discovered the \"Paisa Mutation\" or a type of early-onset Alzheimer's, Rodolfo Llinás known for his study of the intrinsic neurons properties and the theory of a syndrome that had changed the way of understanding the functioning of the brain, Jairo Quiroga Puello recognized for his studies on the characterization of synthetic substances which can be used to fight fungus, tumors, tuberculosis and even some viruses and Ángela Restrepo who established accurate diagnoses and treatments to combat the effects of a disease caused by the ''Paracoccidioides brasiliensis'', among other scientists.","=== Infrastructure ===\n\nCartagena.","Transportation in Colombia is regulated within the functions of the Ministry of Transport and entities such as the National Roads Institute (INVÍAS) responsible for the Highways in Colombia, the Aerocivil, responsible for civil aviation and airports, the National Infrastructure Agency, in charge of concessions through public–private partnerships, for the design, construction, maintenance, operation, and administration of the transport infrastructure, the General Maritime Directorate (Dimar) has the responsibility of coordinating maritime traffic control along with the Colombian Navy, among others and under the supervision of the Superintendency of Ports and Transport.","The road network in Colombia has a length of about 215,000 km of which 23,000 are paved.","Rail transportation in Colombia is dedicated almost entirely to freight shipments and the railway network has a length of 1,700 km of potentially active rails.","Colombia has 3,960 kilometers of gas pipelines, 4,900 kilometers of oil pipelines, and 2,990 kilometers of refined-products pipelines.","The target of Colombia’s government is to build 7,000 km of roads for the 2016–2020 period and reduce travel times by 30 per cent and transport costs by 20 per cent.","A toll road concession programme will comprise 40 projects, and is part of a larger strategic goal to invest nearly $50bn in transport infrastructure, including: railway systems; making the Magdalena river navigable again; improving port facilities; as well as an expansion of Bogotá’s airport.","\n\nPopulation density of Colombia\nWith an estimated 49 million people in 2017, Colombia is the third-most populous country in Latin America, after Brazil and Mexico.","It is also home to the third-largest number of Spanish speakers in the world after Mexico and the United States.","At the beginning of the 20th century, Colombia's population was approximately 4 million.","Since the early 1970s Colombia has experienced steady declines in its fertility, mortality, and population growth rates.","The population growth rate for 2015 is estimated to be 0.9%.","The total fertility rate was 1.9 births per woman in 2015.","About 26.8% of the population were 15 years old or younger, 65.7% were between 15 and 64 years old, and 7.4% were over 65 years old.","The proportion of older persons in the total population has begun to increase substantially.","Colombia is projected to have a population of 50.2 million by 2020 and 55.3 million by 2050.","The population is concentrated in the Andean highlands and along the Caribbean coast, also the population densities are generally higher in the Andean region.","The nine eastern lowland departments, comprising about 54% of Colombia's area, have less than 6% of the population.","Traditionally a rural society, movement to urban areas was very heavy in the mid-20th century, and Colombia is now one of the most urbanized countries in Latin America.","The urban population increased from 31% of the total in 1938 to nearly 60% in 1973, and by 2014 the figure stood at 76%.","The population of Bogotá alone has increased from just over 300,000 in 1938 to approximately 8 million today.","In total seventy-two cities now have populations of 100,000 or more (2015).","Colombia has the world's largest populations of internally displaced persons (IDPs), estimated to be up to 4.9 million people.","The life expectancy is 74.8 years in 2015 and infant mortality is 13.6 per thousand in 2015.","In 2015, 94.58% of adults and 98.66% of youth are literate and the government spends about 4.49% of its GDP in education.","Colombia is ranked third in the world in the Happy Planet Index.","===Languages===\n\n\nMore than 99.2% of Colombians speak Spanish, also called Castilian; 65 Amerindian languages, two Creole languages, the Romani language and Colombian Sign Language are also spoken in the country.","English has official status in the archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina.","Including Spanish, a total of 101 languages are listed for Colombia in the Ethnologue database.","The specific number of spoken languages varies slightly since some authors consider as different languages what others consider to be varieties or dialects of the same language.","Best estimates recorded 71 languages that are spoken in-country today—most of which belong to the Chibchan, Tucanoan, Bora–Witoto, Guajiboan, Arawakan, Cariban, Barbacoan, and Saliban language families.","There are currently about 850,000 speakers of native languages.","=== Ethnic groups ===\n\n\nColombia is ethnically diverse, its people descending from the original native inhabitants, Spanish colonists, Africans originally brought to the country as slaves, and 20th-century immigrants from Europe and the Middle East, all contributing to a diverse cultural heritage.","The demographic distribution reflects a pattern that is influenced by colonial history.","Whites tend to live mainly in urban centers, like Bogotá, Medellín or Cali, and the burgeoning highland cities.","The populations of the major cities also include mestizos.","Mestizo ''campesinos'' (people living in rural areas) also live in the Andean highlands where some Spanish conquerors mixed with the women of Amerindian chiefdoms.","Mestizos include artisans and small tradesmen that have played a major part in the urban expansion of recent decades.","The 2005 census reported that the \"non-ethnic population\", consisting of whites and mestizos (those of mixed white European and Amerindian ancestry), constituted 86% of the national population.","10.6% is of African ancestry.","Indigenous Amerindians comprise 3.4% of the population.","0.01% of the population are Roma.","An extraofficial estimate considers that the 49% of the Colombian population is Mestizo or of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry, and that approximately 37% is White, mainly of Spanish lineage, but there is also a large population of Middle East descent; in some sectors of society there is a considerable input of Italian and German ancestry.","Many of the Indigenous peoples experienced a reduction in population during the Spanish rule and many others were absorbed into the mestizo population, but the remainder currently represents over eighty distinct cultures.","Reserves (''resguardos'') established for indigenous peoples occupy (27% of the country's total) and are inhabited by more than 800,000 people.","Some of the largest indigenous groups are the Wayuu, the Paez, the Pastos, the Emberá and the Zenú.","The departments of La Guajira, Cauca, Nariño, Córdoba and Sucre have the largest indigenous populations.","The Organización Nacional Indígena de Colombia (ONIC), founded at the first National Indigenous Congress in 1982, is an organization representing the indigenous peoples of Colombia.","In 1991, Colombia signed and ratified the current international law concerning indigenous peoples, Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989.","Black Africans were brought as slaves, mostly to the coastal lowlands, beginning early in the 16th century and continuing into the 19th century.","Large Afro-Colombian communities are found today on the Caribbean and Pacific coasts.","The population of the department of Chocó, running along the northern portion of Colombia's Pacific coast, is over 80% black.","British and Jamaicans migrated mainly to the islands of San Andres and Providencia.","A number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including people from the former USSR during and after the Second World War.","Many immigrant communities have settled on the Caribbean coast, in particular recent immigrants from the Middle East.","Barranquilla (the largest city of the Colombian Caribbean) and other Caribbean cities have the largest populations of Lebanese, Palestinian, and other Arabs.","There are also important communities of Chinese, Japanese, Romanis and Jews.","There is a major migration trend of Venezuelans, due to the political and economic situation in Venezuela.","=== Religion ===\n\n\nThe Las Lajas Sanctuary in the southern Colombian Department of Nariño\n\nThe National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) does not collect religious statistics, and accurate reports are difficult to obtain.","However, based on various studies and a survey, about 90% of the population adheres to Christianity, the majority of which (70.9%) are Roman Catholic, while a significant minority (16.7%) adhere to Protestantism (primarily Evangelicalism).","Some 4.7% of the population is atheist or agnostic, while 3.5% claim to believe in God but do not follow a specific religion.","1.8% of Colombians adhere to Jehovah's Witnesses and Adventism and less than 1% adhere to other religions, such as Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Mormonism, Hinduism, Indigenous religions, Hare Krishna movement, Rastafari movement, Orthodox Catholic Church, and spiritual studies.","The remaining people either did not respond or replied that they did not know.","In addition to the above statistics, 35.9% of Colombians reported that they did not practice their faith actively.","While Colombia remains a mostly Roman Catholic country by baptism numbers, the 1991 Colombian constitution guarantees freedom of religion and all religious faiths and churches are equally free before the law.","===Largest cities===\nColombia is a highly urbanized country.","The largest cities in the country are Bogotá, with an estimated 8 million inhabitants, Medellín, with an estimated 2.5 million inhabitants, Cali, with an estimated 2.4 million inhabitants, and Barranquilla, with an estimated 1.2 million inhabitants.","Cartagena highlights in number of inhabitants and the city of Bucaramanga is relevant in terms of metropolitan area population.","\n\nColombia lies at the crossroads of Latin America and the broader American continent, and as such has been hit by a wide range of cultural influences.","Native American, Spanish and other European, African, American, Caribbean, and Middle Eastern influences, as well as other Latin American cultural influences, are all present in Colombia's modern culture.","Urban migration, industrialization, globalization, and other political, social and economic changes have also left an impression.","Many national symbols, both objects and themes, have arisen from Colombia's diverse cultural traditions and aim to represent what Colombia, and the Colombian people, have in common.","Cultural expressions in Colombia are promoted by the government through the Ministry of Culture.","=== Literature ===\n\nNobel literature prize winner Gabriel García Márquez\nJorge Isaacs was one of the greatest exponents of Colombian literature in the nineteenth century.","Colombian literature dates back to pre-Columbian era; a notable example of the period is the epic poem known as the ''Legend of Yurupary''.","In Spanish colonial times, notable writers include Juan de Castellanos (''Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias''), Hernando Domínguez Camargo and his epic poem to San Ignacio de Loyola, Pedro Simón, Juan Rodríguez Freyle (''El Carnero''), Lucas Fernández de Piedrahita, and the nun Francisca Josefa de Castillo, representative of mysticism.","Post-independence literature linked to Romanticism highlighted Antonio Nariño, José Fernández Madrid, Camilo Torres Tenorio and Francisco Antonio Zea.","In the second half of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century the literary genre known as ''costumbrismo'' became popular; great writers of this period were Tomás Carrasquilla, Jorge Isaacs and Rafael Pombo (the latter of whom wrote notable works of children's literature).","Within that period, authors such as José Asunción Silva, José Eustasio Rivera, León de Greiff, Porfirio Barba-Jacob and José María Vargas Vila developed the modernist movement.","In 1872, Colombia established the Colombian Academy of Language, the first Spanish language academy in the Americas.","Candelario Obeso wrote the groundbreaking ''Cantos Populares de mi Tierra'' (1877), the first book of poetry by an Afro-Colombian author.","Between 1939 and 1940 seven books of poetry were published under the name ''Stone and Sky'' in the city of Bogotá that significantly impacted the country; they were edited by the poet Jorge Rojas.","In the following decade, Gonzalo Arango founded the movement of \"nothingness\" in response to the violence of the time; he was influenced by nihilism, existentialism, and the thought of another great Colombian writer: Fernando González Ochoa.","During the boom in Latin American literature, successful writers emerged, led by Nobel laureate Gabriel García Márquez and his magnum opus, ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', Eduardo Caballero Calderón, Manuel Mejía Vallejo, and Álvaro Mutis, a writer who was awarded the Cervantes Prize and the Prince of Asturias Award for Letters.","Other leading contemporary authors are Fernando Vallejo, William Ospina (Rómulo Gallegos Prize) and Germán Castro Caycedo.","=== Visual arts ===\n\nVargas Swamp Lancers, artwork by Rodrigo Arenas Betancourt\n\nColombian art has over 3,000 years of history.","Colombian artists have captured the country's changing political and cultural backdrop using a range of styles and mediums.","There is archeological evidence of ceramics being produced earlier in Colombia than anywhere else in the Americas, dating as early as 3,000 BCE.","The earliest examples of gold craftsmanship have been attributed to the Tumaco people of the Pacific coast and date to around 325 BCE.","Roughly between 200 BCE and 800 CE, the San Agustín culture, masters of stonecutting, entered its “classical period\".","They erected raised ceremonial centres, sarcophagi, and large stone monoliths depicting anthropomorphic and zoomorphhic forms out of stone.","Colombian art has followed the trends of the time, so during the 16th to 18th centuries, Spanish Catholicism had a huge influence on Colombian art, and the popular baroque style was replaced with rococo when the Bourbons ascended to the Spanish crown.","More recently, Colombian artists Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago Martínez Delgado started the Colombian Murial Movement in the 1940s, featuring the neoclassical features of Art Deco.","Since the 1950s, the Colombian art started to have a distinctive point of view, reinventing traditional elements under the concepts of the 20th century.","Examples of this are the Greiff portraits by Ignacio Gómez Jaramillo, showing what the Colombian art could do with the new techniques applied to typical Colombian themes.","Carlos Correa, with his paradigmatic “Naturaleza muerta en silencio” (silent dead nature), combines geometrical abstraction and cubism.","Alejandro Obregón is often considered as the father of modern Colombian painting, and one of the most influential artist in this period, due to his originality, the painting of Colombian landscapes with symbolic and expressionist use of animals, (specially the Andean condor).","Fernando Botero, Omar Rayo, Enrique Grau, Édgar Negret, David Manzur, Rodrigo Arenas Betancourt and Oscar Murillo are some of the Colombian artists featured at the international level.","The Colombian sculpture from the sixteenth to 18th centuries was mostly devoted to religious depictions of ecclesiastic art, strongly influenced by the Spanish schools of sacred sculpture.","During the early period of the Colombian republic, the national artists were focused in the production of sculptural portraits of politicians and public figures, in a plain neoclassicist trend.","During the 20th century, the Colombian sculpture began to develop a bold and innovative work with the aim of reaching a better understanding of national sensitivity.","Colombian photography was marked by the arrival of the daguerreotype.","Jean-Baptiste Louis Gros was who brought the daguerreotype process to Colombia in 1841.","The Piloto public library has Latin America’s largest archive of negatives, containing 1.7 million antique photographs covering Colombia 1848 until 2005.","The Colombian press has promoted the work of the cartoonists.","In recent decades, fanzines, internet and independent publishers have been fundamental to the growth of the comic in Colombia.","=== Architecture ===\n\n\n\nThroughout the times, there have been a variety of architectural styles, from those of indigenous peoples to contemporary ones, passing through colonial (military and religious), Republican, transition and modern styles.","Ancient habitation areas, longhouses, crop terraces, roads as the Inca road system, cemeteries, hypogeums and necropolises are all part of the architectural heritage of indigenous peoples.","Some prominent indigenous structures are the preceramic and ceramic archaeological site of Tequendama, Tierradentro (a park that contains the largest concentration of pre-Columbian monumental shaft tombs with side chambers), the largest collection of religious monuments and megalithic sculptures in South America, located in San Agustín, Huila.","Lost city (an archaeological site with a series of terraces carved into the mountainside, a net of tiled roads and several circular plazas) and also stand out the large villages mainly built with stone, wood, cane and mud.","Historic Centre of Santa Cruz de Mompox, an architectural site with colonial elements\nArchitecture during the period of conquest and colonization is mainly derived of adapting European styles to local conditions, and Spanish influence, especially Andalusian and Extremaduran, can be easily seen.","When Europeans founded cities two things were making simultaneously: the dimensioning of geometrical space (town square, street), and the location of a tangible point of orientation.","The construction of forts was common throughout the Caribbean and in some cities of the interior, because of the dangers that represented the English, French, and Dutch pirates and the hostile indigenous groups.","Churches, chapels, schools, and hospitals belonging to religious orders cause a great urban impact.","Baroque architecture is used in military buildings and public spaces.","Marcelino Arroyo, Francisco José de Caldas and Domingo de Petrés were great representatives of neo-classical architecture.","The National Capitol is a great representative of romanticism.","Wood is extensively used in doors, windows, railings and ceilings during the colonization of Antioquia.","The Caribbean architecture acquires a strong Arabic influence.","The Teatro Colón in Bogotá is a lavish example of architecture from the 19th century.","The quintas houses with innovations in the volumetric conception are some of the best examples of the Republican architecture; the Republican action in the city focused on the design of three types of spaces: parks with forests, small urban parks and avenues and the Gothic style was most commonly used for the design of churches.","Deco style, modern neoclassicism, eclecticism folklorist and art deco ornamental resources significantly influenced the architecture of Colombia, especially during the transition period.","Modernism contributed with new construction technologies and new materials (steel, reinforced concrete, glass and synthetic materials) and the topology architecture and lightened slabs system also have a great influence.","The most influential architects of the modern movement were Rogelio Salmona and Fernando Martínez Sanabria.","The contemporary architecture of Colombia is designed to give greater importance to the materials, this architecture takes into account the specific natural and artificial geographies and is also an architecture that appeals to the senses.","The conservation of the architectural and urban heritage of Colombia has been promoted in recent years.","=== Music ===\n\n \nColombian music blends European-influenced guitar and song structure with large gaita flutes and percussion instruments from the indigenous population, while its percussion structure and dance forms come from Africa.","Colombia has a diverse and dynamic musical environment.","Musicians, composers, music producers and singers from Colombia are recognized internationally such as Shakira, Juanes, Carlos Vives and others.","Guillermo Uribe Holguín, an important cultural figure in the National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia, Luis Antonio Calvo and Blas Emilio Atehortúa are some of the greatest exponents of the art music.","The Bogotá Philharmonic Orchestra is one of the most active orchestras in Colombia.","Caribbean music has many vibrant rhythms, such as cumbia (it is played by the maracas, the drums, the gaitas and guacharaca), porro (it is a monotonous but joyful rhythm), mapalé (with its fast rhythm and constant clapping) and the \"vallenato\", which originated in the northern part of the Caribbean coast (the rhythm is mainly played by the caja, the guacharaca, and accordion).","The music from the Pacific coast, such as the currulao is characterized by its strong use of drums (instruments such as the native marimba, the conunos, the bass drum, the side drum and the cuatro guasas or tubular rattle).","An important rhythm of the south region of the Pacific coast is the contradanza (it is used in dance shows, as a result of the striking colours of the costumes).","Marimba music, traditional chants and dances from the Colombia South Pacific region are on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.","Important musical rhythms of the Andean Region are the danza (dance of Andean folklore arising from the transformation of the European contredance), the bambuco (it is played with guitar, tiple and mandolin, the rhythm is danced by couples), the pasillo (a rhythm inspired by the Austrian waltz and the Colombian \"danza\", the lyrics have been composed by well-known poets), the guabina (the tiple, the bandola and the requinto are the basic instruments), the sanjuanero (it originated in Tolima and Huila Departments, the rhythm is joyful and fast).","Apart from these traditional rhythms, salsa music has spread throughout the country, and the city of Cali is considered by many salsa singers to be 'The New Salsa Capital of the World'.","Colombian-style salsa dancing\nThe instruments that distinguish the music of the Eastern Plains are the harp, the cuatro (a type of four-stringed guitar) and maracas.","Important rhythms of this region are the joropo (a fast rhythm and there is also tapping as a result of its flamenco ancestry) and the galeron (it is heard a lot while cowboys are working).","The music of the Amazon region is strongly influenced by the indigenous religious practices.","Some of the musical instruments used are the manguaré (a musical instrument of ceremonial type, consisting of a pair of large cylindrical drums), the quena (melodic instrument), the rondador, the congas, bells, and different types of flutes.","The music of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina is usually accompanied by a mandolin, a tub-bass, a jawbone, a guitar and maracas.","Some popular archipelago rhythms are the Schottische, the Calypso, the Polka and the Mento.","=== Popular culture ===\n\nThe Ibero-American Theater Festival of Bogotá is one of the biggest theater festivals in the world.","Theater was introduced in Colombia during the Spanish colonization in 1550 through zarzuela companies.","Colombian theater is supported by the Ministry of Culture and a number of private and state owned organizations.","The Ibero-American Theater Festival of Bogotá is the cultural event of the highest importance in Colombia and one of the biggest theater festivals in the world.","Other important theater events are: The Festival of Puppet The Fanfare (Medellín), The Manizales Theater Festival, The Caribbean Theatre Festival (Santa Marta) and The Art Festival of Popular Culture \"Cultural Invasion\" (Bogotá).","The Cartagena Film Festival is the oldest cinema event in Latin America.","The central focus is on films from Ibero-America.","Although the Colombian cinema is young as an industry, more recently the film industry was growing with support from the Film Act passed in 2003.","Many film festivals take place in Colombia, but the two most important are the Cartagena Film Festival, which is the oldest film festival in Latin America, and the Bogotá Film Festival.","Some important national circulation newspapers are ''El Tiempo'' and ''El Espectador''.","Television in Colombia has two privately owned TV networks and three state-owned TV networks with national coverage, as well as six regional TV networks and dozens of local TV stations.","Private channels, RCN and Caracol are the highest-rated.","The regional channels and regional newspapers cover a department or more and its content is made in these particular areas.","Colombia has three major national radio networks: Radiodifusora Nacional de Colombia, a state-run national radio; Caracol Radio and RCN Radio, privately owned networks with hundreds of affiliates.","There are other national networks, including Cadena Super, Todelar, and Colmundo.","Many hundreds of radio stations are registered with the Ministry of Information Technologies and Communications.","=== Cuisine ===\n\nSancocho de gallina criolla is a traditional soup in Colombia.","Colombia's varied cuisine is influenced by its diverse fauna and flora as well as the cultural traditions of the ethnic groups.","Colombian dishes and ingredients vary widely by region.","Some of the most common ingredients are: cereals such as rice and maize; tubers such as potato and cassava; assorted legumes; meats, including beef, chicken, pork and goat; fish; and seafood.","Colombia cuisine also features a variety of tropical fruits such as cape gooseberry, feijoa, arazá, dragon fruit, mangostino, granadilla, papaya, guava, mora (blackberry), lulo, soursop and passionfruit.","Colombia is one of the world's largest consumers of fruit juices.","Among the most representative appetizers and soups are patacones (fried green plantains), sancocho de gallina (chicken soup with root vegetables) and ajiaco (potato and corn soup).","Representative snacks and breads are pandebono, arepas (corn cakes), aborrajados (fried sweet plantains with cheese), torta de choclo, empanadas and almojábanas.","Representative main courses are bandeja paisa, lechona tolimense, mamona, tamales and fish dishes (such as arroz de lisa), especially in coastal regions where kibbeh, suero, costeño cheese and carimañolas are also eaten.","Representative side dishes are papas chorreadas (potatoes with cheese), remolachas rellenas con huevo duro (beets stuffed with hard-boiled egg) and arroz con coco (coconut rice).","Organic food is a current trend in big cities, although in general across the country the fruits and veggies are very natural and fresh.","Representative desserts are buñuelos, natillas, Maria Luisa cake, bocadillo made of guayaba (guava jelly), cocadas (coconut balls), casquitos de guayaba (candied guava peels), torta de natas, obleas, flan de mango, roscón, milhoja, manjar blanco, dulce de feijoa, dulce de papayuela, torta de mojicón, and esponjado de curuba.","Typical sauces (salsas) are hogao (tomato and onion sauce) and Colombian-style ají.","Some representative beverages are coffee (Tinto), champús, cholado, lulada, avena colombiana, sugarcane juice, aguapanela, aguardiente, hot chocolate and fresh fruit juices (often made with water or milk).","===Sports===\n\nNairo Quintana: Colombian Champion of the Giro d'Italia and the Vuelta a España\nWorld Roller Speed Skating Championships.","Tejo is Colombia’s national sport and is a team sport that involves launching projectiles to hit a target.","But of all sports in Colombia, football is the most popular.","Colombia was the champion of the 2001 Copa América, in which they set a new record of being undefeated, conceding no goals and winning each match.","Interestingly, Colombia has been awarded “mover of the year” twice.","Colombia is a mecca for roller skaters.","The national team is a perennial powerhouse at the World Roller Speed Skating Championships.","Colombia has traditionally been very good in cycling and a large number of Colombian cyclists have triumphed in major competitions of cycling.","In baseball, another sport rooted in the Caribbean Coast, Colombia was world amateur champion in 1947 and 1965.","Baseball is popular in the Caribbean, mainly in the cities Cartagena, Barranquilla and Santa Marta.","Of those cities have come good players like: Orlando Cabrera, Édgar Rentería who was champion of the World Series in 1997 and 2010, and others who have played in Major League Baseball.","Boxing is one of the sports that more world champions has produced for Colombia.","Motorsports also occupies an important place in the sporting preferences of Colombians; Juan Pablo Montoya is a race car driver known for winning 7 Formula One events.","Colombia also has excelled in sports such as BMX, judo, shooting sport, taekwondo, wrestling, high diving and athletics, also has a long tradition in weightlifting and bowling.","\n\nThe overall life expectancy in Colombia at birth is 74.8 years (71.2 years for males and 78.4 years for females).","Health standards in Colombia have improved very much since the 1980s, healthcare reforms have led to the massive improvements in the healthcare systems of the country.","Although this new system has widened population coverage by the social and health security system from 21% (pre-1993) to 96% in 2012, health disparities persist.","Through health tourism, many people from over the world travel from their places of residence to other countries in search of medical treatment and the attractions in the countries visited.","Colombia is projected as one of Latin America’s main destinations in terms of health tourism due to the quality of its health care professionals, a good number of institutions devoted to health, and an immense inventory of natural and architectural sites.","Cities such as Bogotá, Cali, Medellín and Bucaramanga are the most visited in cardiology procedures, neurology, dental treatments, stem cell therapy, ENT, ophthalmology and joint replacements among others for the medical services of high quality.","A study conducted by ''América Economía'' magazine ranked 21 Colombian health care institutions among the top 44 in Latin America, amounting to 48 percent of the total.","\nM5 building – National University of Colombia, designed by Pedro Nel Gómez\nUniversity of Los Andes\nThe educational experience of many Colombian children begins with attendance at a preschool academy until age five (''Educación preescolar'').","Basic education (''Educación básica'') is compulsory by law.","It has two stages: Primary basic education (''Educación básica primaria'') which goes from first to fifth grade – children from six to ten years old, and Secondary basic education (''Educación básica secundaria''), which goes from sixth to ninth grade.","Basic education is followed by Middle vocational education (''Educación media vocacional'') that comprises the tenth and eleventh grades.","It may have different vocational training modalities or specialties (academic, technical, business, and so on.)","according to the curriculum adopted by each school.","After the successful completion of all the basic and middle education years, a high-school diploma is awarded.","The high-school graduate is known as a ''bachiller'', because secondary basic school and middle education are traditionally considered together as a unit called ''bachillerato'' (sixth to eleventh grade).","Students in their final year of middle education take the ICFES test (now renamed Saber 11) in order to gain access to higher education (''Educación superior'').","This higher education includes undergraduate professional studies, technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies.","Technical professional institutions of Higher Education are also opened to students holder of a qualification in Arts and Business.","This qualification is usually awarded by the SENA after a two years curriculum.","''Bachilleres'' (high-school graduates) may enter into a professional undergraduate career program offered by a university; these programs last up to five years (or less for technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies), even as much to six to seven years for some careers, such as medicine.","In Colombia, there is not an institution such as college; students go directly into a career program at a university or any other educational institution to obtain a professional, technical or technological title.","Once graduated from the university, people are granted a (professional, technical or technological) diploma and licensed (if required) to practice the career they have chosen.","For some professional career programs, students are required to take the Saber-Pro test, in their final year of undergraduate academic education.","Public spending on education as a proportion of gross domestic product in 2015 was 4.49%.","This represented 15.05% of total government expenditure.","The primary and secondary gross enrolment ratios stood at 113.56% and 98.09% respectively.","School-life expectancy was 14.42 years.","A total of 94.58% of the population aged 15 and older were recorded as literate, including 98.66% of those aged 15–24.","* Index of Colombia-related articles\n* Outline of Colombia\n* \n* \n*","\n\n'''General information'''\n* Colombia at Encyclopædia Britannica\n* Colombia at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''\n* \n* \n* Key Development Forecasts for Colombia from International Futures\n* Official investment portal\n* Official Colombia Tourism Website\n* Study Spanish in Colombia\n* National Administrative Department of Statistics\n\n'''Government'''\n* Colombia Online Government website\n\n'''Culture'''\n* Ministry of Culture\n\n'''Geography'''\n* National parks of Colombia\n*"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n'''Colombia''' ( or ; ), officially the '''Republic of Colombia''' (), is a sovereign state largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America.\",\n \"Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and Peru.\",\n \"It shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic.\",\n \"It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments.\",\n \"The territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples, with as most advanced the Muisca, Quimbaya and the Tairona.\",\n \"The Spanish set foot on Colombian soil for the first time in 1499 and in the first half of the 16th century initiated a period of conquest and colonization, ultimately creating the New Kingdom of Granada, with as capital Santafé de Bogotá.\",\n \"Independence from Spain was acquired in 1819, but by 1830 the \\\"Gran Colombia\\\" Federation was dissolved.\",\n \"What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada.\",\n \"The new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation (1858), and then the United States of Colombia (1863), before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886.\",\n \"Panama seceded in 1903.\",\n \"Since the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, which escalated in the 1990s but then decreased from 2005 onward.\",\n \"Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage.\",\n \"The urban centres are mostly located in the highlands of the Andes mountains.\",\n \"Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines.\",\n \"Ecologically, it is one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer.\",\n \"Colombia is a middle power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is a member of the UN, the WTO, the OAS, the Pacific Alliance, and other international organizations.\",\n \"Colombia has a diversified economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run.\",\n \"''Colombia'' is named after Christopher Columbus\\nThe name \\\"Colombia\\\" is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus (, ).\",\n \"It was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule.\",\n \"The name was later adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819, formed from the territories of the old Viceroyalty of New Granada (modern-day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, and northwest Brazil).\",\n \"When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, the former Department of Cundinamarca adopted the name \\\"Republic of New Granada\\\".\",\n \"New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation.\",\n \"In 1863 the name was again changed, this time to United States of Colombia, before finally adopting its present name – the Republic of Colombia – in 1886.\",\n \"To refer to this country, the Colombian government uses the terms ''Colombia'' and ''República de Colombia''.\",\n \"\\n\\n=== Pre-Columbian era ===\\n\\nOwing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica and the Caribbean to the Andes and Amazon basin.\",\n \"The oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley southwest of Bogotá.\",\n \"These sites date from the Paleoindian period (18,000–8000 BCE).\",\n \"At Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period (~8000–2000 BCE) have been found.\",\n \"Vestiges indicate that there was also early occupation in the regions of El Abra and Tequendama in Cundinamarca.\",\n \"The oldest pottery discovered in the Americas, found at San Jacinto, dates to 5000–4000 BCE.\",\n \"Muisca raft.\",\n \"The figure refers to the ceremony of the legend of El Dorado.\",\n \"Indigenous people inhabited the territory that is now Colombia by 12,500 BCE.\",\n \"Nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes at the El Abra, Tibitó and Tequendama sites near present-day Bogotá traded with one another and with other cultures from the Magdalena River Valley.\",\n \"Between 5000 and 1000 BCE, hunter-gatherer tribes transitioned to agrarian societies; fixed settlements were established, and pottery appeared.\",\n \"Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE, groups of Amerindians including the Muisca, Quimbaya, and Tairona developed the political system of ''cacicazgos'' with a pyramidal structure of power headed by caciques.\",\n \"The Muisca inhabited mainly the area of what is now the Departments of Boyacá and Cundinamarca high plateau (''Altiplano Cundiboyacense'') where they formed the Muisca Confederation.\",\n \"They farmed maize, potato, quinoa and cotton, and traded gold, emeralds, blankets, ceramic handicrafts, coca and especially rock salt with neighboring nations.\",\n \"The Tairona inhabited northern Colombia in the isolated mountain range of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.\",\n \"The Quimbaya inhabited regions of the Cauca River Valley between the Western and Central Ranges of the Colombian Andes.\",\n \"Most of the Amerindians practiced agriculture and the social structure of each indigenous community was different.\",\n \"Some groups of indigenous people such as the Caribs lived in a state of permanent war, but others had less bellicose attitudes.\",\n \"The Incas expanded their empire onto the southwest part of the country.\",\n \"=== Spanish conquest ===\\nMap of Juan de la Cosa.\",\n \"It is the oldest known European cartographic representation of the New World.\",\n \"Alonso de Ojeda (who had sailed with Columbus) reached the Guajira Peninsula in 1499.\",\n \"Spanish explorers, led by Rodrigo de Bastidas, made the first exploration of the Caribbean coast in 1500.\",\n \"Christopher Columbus navigated near the Caribbean in 1502.\",\n \"In 1508, Vasco Núñez de Balboa accompanied an expedition to the territory through the region of Gulf of Urabá and they founded the town of Santa María la Antigua del Darién in 1510, the first stable settlement on the continent.\",\n \"Santa Marta was founded in 1525, and Cartagena in 1533.\",\n \"Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada led an expedition to the interior in April 1536, and christened the districts through which he passed \\\"New Kingdom of Granada\\\".\",\n \"In August 1538, he founded provisionally its capital near the Muisca cacicazgo of Bacatá, and named it \\\"Santa Fe\\\".\",\n \"The name soon acquired a suffix and was called Santa Fe de Bogotá.\",\n \"Two other notable journeys by early conquistadors to the interior took place in the same period.\",\n \"Sebastián de Belalcázar, conqueror of Quito, traveled north and founded Cali, in 1536, and Popayán, in 1537; from 1536 to 1539, German conquistador Nikolaus Federmann crossed the Llanos Orientales and went over the Cordillera Oriental in a search for El Dorado, the \\\"city of gold\\\".\",\n \"The legend and the gold would play a pivotal role in luring the Spanish and other Europeans to New Granada during the 16th and 17th centuries.\",\n \"The conquistadors made frequent alliances with the enemies of different indigenous communities.\",\n \"Indigenous allies were crucial to conquest, as well as to creating and maintaining empire.\",\n \"Indigenous peoples in New Granada experienced a decline in population due to conquest as well as Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox, to which they had no immunity.\",\n \"With the risk that the land was deserted, the Spanish Crown sold properties to all persons interested in colonise territories creating large farms and possession of mines.\",\n \"In the 16th century, the nautical science in Spain reached a great development thanks to numerous scientific figures of the Casa de Contratación and nautical science was an essential pillar of the Iberian expansion.\",\n \"=== Colonial period ===\\nIn 1542, the region of New Granada, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America, became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, with its capital at Lima.\",\n \"In 1547, New Granada became the Captaincy-General of New Granada within the viceroyalty.\",\n \"In 1549, the Royal Audiencia was created by a royal decree, and New Granada was ruled by the Royal Audience of Santa Fe de Bogotá, which at that time comprised the provinces of Santa Marta, Rio de San Juan, Popayán, Guayana and Cartagena.\",\n \"But important decisions were taken from the colony to Spain by the Council of the Indies.\",\n \"The battle resulted in a major defeat for the British Navy and Army during the War of Jenkins' Ear, 1739–48.\",\n \"In the 16th century, Europeans began to bring slaves from Africa.\",\n \"Spain was the only European power that could not establish factories in Africa to purchase slaves and therefore the Spanish empire relied on the asiento system, awarding merchants (mostly from Portugal, France, England and the Dutch Empire) the license to trade enslaved people to their overseas territories.\",\n \"Also there were people who defended the human rights and freedoms of oppressed peoples.\",\n \"The indigenous peoples could not be enslaved because they were legally subjects of the Spanish Crown and to protect the indigenous peoples, several forms of land ownership and regulation were established: ''resguardos'', ''encomiendas'' and ''haciendas''.\",\n \"Many intellectual leaders of the independence process participated in the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada.\",\n \"In 1717 the Viceroyalty of New Granada was originally created, and then it was temporarily removed, to finally be reestablished in 1739.\",\n \"The Viceroyalty had Santa Fé de Bogotá as its capital.\",\n \"This Viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America which had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalties of New Spain or Peru and correspond mainly to today's Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama.\",\n \"So, Bogotá became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with Lima and Mexico City, though it remained somewhat backward compared to those two cities in several economic and logistical ways.\",\n \"After Great Britain declared war on Spain in 1739, Cartagena quickly became the British forces' top target but an upset Spanish victory during the War of Jenkins' Ear, a war with Great Britain for economic control of the Caribbean, cemented Spanish dominance in the Caribbean until the Seven Years' War.\",\n \"The 18th-century priest, botanist and mathematician José Celestino Mutis was delegated by Viceroy Antonio Caballero y Góngora to conduct an inventory of the nature of the New Granada.\",\n \"Started in 1783, this became known as the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada which classified plants, wildlife and founded the first astronomical observatory in the city of Santa Fe de Bogotá.\",\n \"In July 1801 the Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt reached Santa Fe de Bogotá where he met with Mutis.\",\n \"In addition, historical figures in the process of independence in New Granada emerged from the expedition as the astronomer Francisco José de Caldas, the scientist Francisco Antonio Zea, the zoologist Jorge Tadeo Lozano and the painter Salvador Rizo.\",\n \"=== Independence ===\\nThe Battle of Boyacá was the decisive battle which would ensure the success of the liberation campaign of New Granada.\",\n \"Since the beginning of the periods of conquest and colonization, there were several rebel movements against Spanish rule, but most were either crushed or remained too weak to change the overall situation.\",\n \"The last one that sought outright independence from Spain sprang up around 1810, following the independence of St. Domingue (present-day Haiti) in 1804, which provided some support to an eventual leader of this rebellion: Simón Bolívar.\",\n \"Francisco de Paula Santander also would play a decisive role.\",\n \"The Socorro Province was the site of the genesis of the independence process.\",\n \"A movement was initiated by Antonio Nariño, who opposed Spanish centralism and led the opposition against the Viceroyalty.\",\n \"Cartagena became independent in November 1811.\",\n \"In 1811 the United Provinces of New Granada were proclaimed, headed by Camilo Torres Tenorio.\",\n \"The emergence of two distinct ideological currents among the patriots (federalism and centralism) gave rise to a period of instability.\",\n \"Shortly after the Napoleonic Wars ended, Ferdinand VII, recently restored to the throne in Spain, unexpectedly decided to send military forces to retake most of northern South America.\",\n \"The viceroyalty was restored under the command of Juan Sámano, whose regime punished those who participated in the patriotic movements, ignoring the political nuances of the juntas.\",\n \"The retribution stoked renewed rebellion, which, combined with a weakened Spain, made possible a successful rebellion led by the Venezuelan-born Simón Bolívar, who finally proclaimed independence in 1819.\",\n \"The pro-Spanish resistance was defeated in 1822 in the present territory of Colombia and in 1823 in Venezuela.\",\n \"The territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada became the Republic of Colombia, organized as a union of the current territories of Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, Venezuela, parts of Guyana and Brazil and north of Marañón River.\",\n \"The Congress of Cúcuta in 1821 adopted a constitution for the new Republic.\",\n \"Simón Bolívar became the first President of Colombia, and Francisco de Paula Santander was made Vice President.\",\n \"However, the new republic was unstable and three countries emerged from the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (New Granada, Ecuador and Venezuela).\",\n \"Formation of the present Colombia since the Viceroyalty of New Granada's independence from the Spanish Empire\\nColombia was the first constitutional government in South America, and the Liberal and Conservative parties, founded in 1848 and 1849 respectively, are two of the oldest surviving political parties in the Americas.\",\n \"Slavery was abolished in the country in 1851.\",\n \"Internal political and territorial divisions led to the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1830.\",\n \"The so-called \\\"Department of Cundinamarca\\\" adopted the name \\\"New Granada\\\", which it kept until 1858 when it became the \\\"Confederación Granadina\\\" (Granadine Confederation).\",\n \"After a two-year civil war in 1863, the \\\"United States of Colombia\\\" was created, lasting until 1886, when the country finally became known as the Republic of Colombia.\",\n \"Internal divisions remained between the bipartisan political forces, occasionally igniting very bloody civil wars, the most significant being the Thousand Days' War (1899–1902).\",\n \"=== 20th century ===\\nThe United States of America's intentions to influence the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to the separation of the Department of Panama in 1903 and the establishment of it as a nation.\",\n \"The United States paid Colombia $25,000,000 in 1921, seven years after completion of the canal, for redress of President Roosevelt's role in the creation of Panama, and Colombia recognized Panama under the terms of the Thomson–Urrutia Treaty.\",\n \"Colombia and Peru went to war because of territory disputes far in the Amazon basin.\",\n \"The war ended with a peace deal brokered by the League of Nations.\",\n \"The League finally awarded the disputed area to Colombia in June 1934.\",\n \"The Bogotazo in 1948\\nSoon after, Colombia achieved some degree of political stability, which was interrupted by a bloody conflict that took place between the late 1940s and the early 1950s, a period known as ''La Violencia'' (\\\"The Violence\\\").\",\n \"Its cause was mainly mounting tensions between the two leading political parties, which subsequently ignited after the assassination of the Liberal presidential candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán on 9 April 1948.\",\n \"The ensuing riots in Bogotá, known as El Bogotazo, spread throughout the country and claimed the lives of at least 180,000 Colombians.\",\n \"Colombia entered the Korean War when Laureano Gómez was elected president.\",\n \"It was the only Latin American country to join the war in a direct military role as an ally of the United States.\",\n \"Particularly important was the resistance of the Colombian troops at Old Baldy.\",\n \"The violence between the two political parties decreased first when Gustavo Rojas deposed the President of Colombia in a coup d'état and negotiated with the guerrillas, and then under the military junta of General Gabriel París.\",\n \"The Axis of Peace and Memory: A “memorial” in recognition of the victims of the conflict\\nAfter Rojas' deposition, the Colombian Conservative Party and Colombian Liberal Party agreed to create the \\\"National Front\\\", a coalition which would jointly govern the country.\",\n \"Under the deal, the presidency would alternate between conservatives and liberals every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices.\",\n \"The National Front ended \\\"La Violencia\\\", and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress.\",\n \"Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political problems continued, and guerrilla groups were formally created such as the FARC, the ELN and the M-19 to fight the government and political apparatus.\",\n \"Since the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict between the government forces, left-wing guerrilla groups and right-wing paramilitaries.\",\n \"The conflict escalated in the 1990s, mainly in remote rural areas.\",\n \"Since the beginning of the armed conflict, human rights defenders have fought for the respect for human rights, despite staggering opposition.\",\n \"Several guerrillas' organizations decided to demobilize after peace negotiations in 1989–1994.\",\n \"The United States has been heavily involved in the conflict since its beginnings, when in the early 1960s the U.S. government encouraged the Colombian military to attack leftist militias in rural Colombia.\",\n \"This was part of the U.S. fight against communism.\",\n \"Mercenaries and multinational corporations such as Chiquita Brands International are some of the international actors that have contributed to the violence of the conflict.\",\n \"On 4 July 1991, a new Constitution was promulgated.\",\n \"The changes generated by the new constitution are viewed as positive by Colombian society.\",\n \"===21st century===\\nColombia's President Juan Manuel Santos signed a historic peace accord.\",\n \"The administration of President Álvaro Uribe (2002–10), adopted the democratic security policy which included an integrated counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency campaign.\",\n \"The Government economic plan also promoted confidence in investors.\",\n \"As part of a controversial peace process the AUC (right-wing paramilitaries) as a formal organization had ceased to function.\",\n \"In February 2008, millions of Colombians demonstrated against FARC and other outlawed groups.\",\n \"After peace negotiations in Cuba, the Colombian government of President Juan Manuel Santos and guerrilla of FARC-EP announced a final agreement to end the conflict.\",\n \"However, a referendum to ratify the deal was unsuccessful.\",\n \"Afterward, the Colombian government and the FARC signed a revised peace deal in November 2016, which the Colombian congress approved.\",\n \"In 2016, President Santos was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.\",\n \"The Government began a process of attention and comprehensive reparation for victims of conflict.\",\n \"Colombia shows modest progress in the struggle to defend human rights, as expressed by HRW.\",\n \"A Special Jurisdiction for Peace will be created to investigate, clarify, prosecute and punish serious human rights violations and grave breaches of international humanitarian law which occurred during the armed conflict and to satisfy victims' right to justice.\",\n \"In terms of international relations, Colombia and Venezuela have agreed to restore diplomatic relations.\",\n \"Latin America, with a long memory of U.S. interventions such as the infamous Operation Condor, rejects US military threat against Venezuela.\",\n \"Colombia's Foreign Ministry said that all efforts to resolve Venezuela's crisis should be peaceful and respect its sovereignty.\",\n \"Colombia will not recognize result of Venezuela assembly vote, amid opposition concerns that the election will lead to dictatorship.\",\n \"Colombia with a very clean electricity generation matrix reaffirms its support for the Paris Climate Agreement.\",\n \"During his visit to Colombia, Pope Francis brought with him a message of peace and paid tribute to the victims of the conflict.\",\n \"\\n\\nRelief map\\nThe geography of Colombia is characterized by its six main natural regions that present their own unique characteristics, from the Andes mountain range region shared with Ecuador and Venezuela; the Pacific coastal region shared with Panama and Ecuador; the Caribbean coastal region shared with Venezuela and Panama; the ''Llanos'' (plains) shared with Venezuela; the Amazon Rainforest region shared with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Ecuador; to the insular area, comprising islands in both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.\",\n \"Colombia is bordered to the northwest by Panama; to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; it established its maritime boundaries with neighboring countries through seven agreements on the Caribbean Sea and three on the Pacific Ocean.\",\n \"It lies between latitudes 12°N and 4°S, and longitudes 67° and 79°W.\",\n \"Colombia map of Köppen climate classification\\nPart of the Ring of Fire, a region of the world subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, In the interior of Colombia the Andes are the prevailing geographical feature.\",\n \"Most of Colombia's population centers are located in these interior highlands.\",\n \"Beyond the Colombian Massif (in the south-western departments of Cauca and Nariño) these are divided into three branches known as ''cordilleras'' (mountain ranges): the Cordillera Occidental, running adjacent to the Pacific coast and including the city of Cali; the Cordillera Central, running between the Cauca and Magdalena River valleys (to the west and east respectively) and including the cities of Medellín, Manizales, Pereira and Armenia; and the Cordillera Oriental, extending north east to the Guajira Peninsula and including Bogotá, Bucaramanga and Cúcuta.\",\n \"Peaks in the Cordillera Occidental exceed , and in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental they reach .\",\n \"At , Bogotá is the highest city of its size in the world.\",\n \"East of the Andes lies the savanna of the ''Llanos'', part of the Orinoco River basin, and, in the far south east, the jungle of the Amazon rainforest.\",\n \"Together these lowlands comprise over half Colombia's territory, but they contain less than 6% of the population.\",\n \"To the north the Caribbean coast, home to 21.9% of the population and the location of the major port cities of Barranquilla and Cartagena, generally consists of low-lying plains, but it also contains the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range, which includes the country's tallest peaks (Pico Cristóbal Colón and Pico Simón Bolívar), and the La Guajira Desert.\",\n \"By contrast the narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, backed by the Serranía de Baudó mountains, are sparsely populated and covered in dense vegetation.\",\n \"The principal Pacific port is Buenaventura.\",\n \"The main rivers of Colombia are Magdalena, Cauca, Guaviare, Atrato, Meta, Putumayo and Caquetá.\",\n \"Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin.\",\n \"The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers mark limits with Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively.\",\n \"Protected areas and the \\\"National Park System\\\" cover an area of about and account for 12.77% of the Colombian territory.\",\n \"Compared to neighboring countries, rates of deforestation in Colombia are still relatively low.\",\n \"Colombia is the sixth country in the world by magnitude of total renewable freshwater supply, and still has large reserves of freshwater.\",\n \"=== Climate ===\\n\\nThe climate of Colombia is characterized for being tropical presenting variations within six natural regions and depending on the altitude, temperature, humidity, winds and rainfall.\",\n \"The diversity of climate zones in Colombia is characterized for having tropical rainforests, savannas, steppes, deserts and mountain climate.\",\n \"Mountain climate is one of the unique features of the Andes and other high altitude reliefs where climate is determined by elevation.\",\n \"Below in elevation is the warm altitudinal zone, where temperatures are above .\",\n \"About 82.5% of the country's total area lies in the warm altitudinal zone.\",\n \"The temperate climate altitudinal zone located between ) is characterized for presenting an average temperature ranging between .\",\n \"The cold climate is present between and the temperatures vary between .\",\n \"Beyond the cold land lie the alpine conditions of the forested zone and then the treeless grasslands of the páramos.\",\n \"Above , where temperatures are below freezing, the climate is glacial, a zone of permanent snow and ice.\",\n \"File:Nevado del Ruiz en Colombia.jpg|Ice cap climate in the Nevado del Ruiz\\nFile:Páramo de Sumapaz.jpg |Alpine tundra climate in the Sumapaz Paramo\\nFile:Tota Lake 1.JPG|Oceanic climate in Tota Lake\\nFile:Desierto Frio en Boyacá.jpg|Cold desert climate near Villa de Leyva\\nFile:Chiribiquete view.jpg|Tropical wet climate in the tepuis of the Serranía de Chiribiquete\\nFile:Paisaje rural en Tinjacá.jpg|Mediterranean climate in Boyacá Department\\nFile:Sunset on the Amazon (7613489930).jpg|Tropical rainforest climate in the Amazon Rainforest\\nFile:NP Llanos36 lo (5853389005).jpg|Tropical savanna climate in Los Llanos\\nFile:Cabo de La vela.JPG|Hot desert climate in the Guajira Peninsula\\nFile:Johny Cay.jpg|Tropical wet and dry climate in San Andrés y Providencia\\nFile:CAÑO CRISTALES – LOS OCHOS 01.jpg| Warm and wet climate in Caño Cristales\\nFile:Munchique2.jpg|Mountain climate in the Cordillera Occidental\\n\\n\\n=== Biodiversity ===\\n''Chlorochrysa nitidissima''.\",\n \"Colombia is home to more bird species than any other country in the world.\",\n \"The national flower of Colombia is the orchid ''Cattleya trianae'', which was named after the Colombian botanist and physician José Jerónimo Triana.\",\n \"Colombia is one of the megadiverse countries in biodiversity, ranking first in bird species.\",\n \"As for plants, the country has between 40,000 and 45,000 plant species, equivalent to 10 or 20% of total global species, this is even more remarkable given that Colombia is considered a country of intermediate size.\",\n \"Colombia is the second most biodiverse country in the world, lagging only after Brazil which is approximately 7 times bigger.\",\n \"Colombia is the country in the planet more characterized by a high biodiversity, with the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide and it has the largest number of endemisms (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country.\",\n \"About 10% of the species of the Earth live in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined, Colombia has 10% of the world’s mammals species, 14% of the amphibian species and 18% of the bird species of the world.\",\n \"Colombia has about 2,000 species of marine fish and is the second most diverse country in freshwater fish.\",\n \"Colombia is the country with more endemic species of butterflies, number 1 in terms of orchid species and approximately 7,000 species of beetles.\",\n \"Colombia is second in the number of amphibian species and is the third most diverse country in reptiles and palms.\",\n \"There are about 1,900 species of mollusks and according to estimates there are about 300,000 species of invertebrates in the country.\",\n \"In Colombia there are 32 terrestrial biomes and 314 types of ecosystems.\",\n \"\\n\\nCasa de Nariño is the official home and principal workplace of the President of Colombia.\",\n \"The government of Colombia takes place within the framework of a presidential participatory democratic republic as established in the Constitution of 1991.\",\n \"In accordance with the principle of separation of powers, government is divided into three branches: the executive branch, the legislative branch and the judicial branch.\",\n \"As the head of the executive branch, the President of Colombia serves as both head of state and head of government, followed by the Vice President and the Council of Ministers.\",\n \"The president is elected by popular vote to serve four-year term (In 2015, Colombia’s Congress approved the repeal of a 2004 constitutional amendment that eliminated the one-term limit for presidents).\",\n \"At the provincial level executive power is vested in department governors, municipal mayors and local administrators for smaller administrative subdivisions, such as ''corregimientos'' or ''comunas''.\",\n \"All regional elections are held one year and five months after the presidential election.\",\n \"The legislative branch of government is represented nationally by the Congress, a bicameral institution comprising a 166-seat Chamber of Representatives and a 102-seat Senate.\",\n \"The Senate is elected nationally and the Chamber of Representatives is elected in electoral districts.\",\n \"Members of both houses are elected to serve four-year terms two months before the president, also by popular vote.\",\n \"Colombia's Palace of Justice\\nThe judicial branch is headed by four high courts, consisting of the Supreme Court which deals with penal and civil matters, the Council of State, which has special responsibility for administrative law and also provides legal advice to the executive, the Constitutional Court, responsible for assuring the integrity of the Colombian constitution, and the Superior Council of Judicature, responsible for auditing the judicial branch.\",\n \"Colombia operates a system of civil law, which since 2005 has been applied through an adversarial system.\",\n \"Despite a number of controversies, the democratic security policy has ensured that former President Uribe remained popular among Colombian people, with his approval rating peaking at 76%, according to a poll in 2009.\",\n \"However, having served two terms, he was constitutionally barred from seeking re-election in 2010.\",\n \"In the run-off elections on 20 June 2010 the former Minister of defense Juan Manuel Santos won with 69% of the vote against the second most popular candidate, Antanas Mockus.\",\n \"A second round was required since no candidate received over the 50% winning threshold of votes.\",\n \"Santos won nearly 51% of the vote in second-round elections on 15 June 2014, beating right-wing rival Óscar Iván Zuluaga, who won 45%.\",\n \"His term as Colombia's president runs for four years beginning 7 August 2014.\",\n \"=== Foreign affairs ===\\nThe VI Summit of the Pacific Alliance: President of Colombia, Juan Manuel Santos is second from the left.\",\n \"The foreign affairs of Colombia are headed by the President, as head of state, and managed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs.\",\n \"Colombia has diplomatic missions in all continents.\",\n \"Colombia was one of the 4 founding members of the Pacific Alliance, which is a political, economic and co-operative integration mechanism that promotes the free circulation of goods, services, capital and persons between the members, as well as a common stock exchange and joint embassies in several countries.\",\n \"Colombia is also a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Organization of American States, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the Union of South American Nations and the Andean Community of Nations.\",\n \"Colombia is a global partner of NATO.\",\n \"Colombia is currently in the accession process with the OECD.\",\n \"=== Military ===\\nArpía III of the Colombian Air Force\\n\\nThe executive branch of government is responsible for managing the defense of Colombia, with the President commander-in-chief of the armed forces.\",\n \"The Ministry of Defence exercises day-to-day control of the military and the Colombian National Police.\",\n \"Colombia has 455,461 active military personnel.\",\n \"And in 2016 3.4% of the country's GDP went towards military expenditure, placing it 24th in the world.\",\n \"Colombia's armed forces are the largest in Latin America, and it is the second largest spender on its military after Brazil.\",\n \"The Colombian military is divided into three branches: the National Army of Colombia; the Colombian Air Force; and the Colombian Navy.\",\n \"The National Police functions as a gendarmerie, operating independently from the military as the law enforcement agency for the entire country.\",\n \"Each of these operates with their own intelligence apparatus separate from the National Intelligence Directorate (DNI, in Spanish).\",\n \"The National Army is formed by divisions, brigades, special brigades and special units; the Colombian Navy by the Naval Infantry, the Naval Force of the Caribbean, the Naval Force of the Pacific, the Naval Force of the South, the Naval Force of the East, Colombia Coast Guards, Naval Aviation and the Specific Command of San Andres y Providencia; and the Air Force by 15 air units.\",\n \"The National Police has a presence in all municipalities.\",\n \"=== Administrative divisions ===\\n\\n\\nColombia is divided into 32 departments and one capital district, which is treated as a department (Bogotá also serves as the capital of the department of Cundinamarca).\",\n \"Departments are subdivided into municipalities, each of which is assigned a municipal seat, and municipalities are in turn subdivided into ''corregimientos'' in rural areas and into ''comunas'' in urban areas.\",\n \"Each department has a local government with a governor and assembly directly elected to four-year terms, and each municipality is headed by a mayor and council.\",\n \"There is a popularly elected local administrative board in each of the ''corregimientos'' or ''comunas''.\",\n \"In addition to the capital four other cities have been designated districts (in effect special municipalities), on the basis of special distinguishing features.\",\n \"These are Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta and Buenaventura.\",\n \"Some departments have local administrative subdivisions, where towns have a large concentration of population and municipalities are near each other (for example in Antioquia and Cundinamarca).\",\n \"Where departments have a low population (for example Amazonas, Vaupés and Vichada), special administrative divisions are employed, such as \\\"department ''corregimientos''\\\", which are a hybrid of a municipality and a ''corregimiento''.\",\n \"Click on a department on the map below to go to its article.\",\n \"Department \\n Capital city\\n\\n 1 \\n Flag of the Department of Amazonas Amazonas \\n Leticia\\n\\n 2 \\n Flag of the Department of Antioquia Antioquia \\n Medellín\\n\\n 3 \\n Flag of the Department of Arauca Arauca \\n Arauca\\n\\n 4 \\n Flag of the Department of Atlántico Atlántico \\n Barranquilla\\n\\n 5 \\n Flag of the Department of Bolívar Bolívar \\n Cartagena\\n\\n 6 \\n Flag of the Department of Boyacá Boyacá \\n Tunja\\n\\n 7 \\n Flag of the Department of Caldas Caldas \\n Manizales\\n\\n 8 \\n Flag of the Department of Caquetá Caquetá \\n Florencia\\n\\n 9 \\n Flag of the Department of Casanare Casanare\\n\\n\\n 10 \\n Flag of the Department of Cauca Cauca \\n Popayán\\n\\n 11 \\n Flag of the Department of Cesar Cesar \\n Valledupar\\n\\n 12 \\n Flag of the Department of Chocó Chocó \\n Quibdó\\n\\n 13 \\n Flag of the Department of Córdoba Córdoba \\n Montería\\n\\n 14 \\n Flag of the Department of Cundinamarca Cundinamarca \\n Bogotá\\n\\n 15 \\n Flag of the Department of Guainía Guainía \\n Inírida\\n\\n 16 \\n Flag of the Department of Guaviare Guaviare \\n San José del Guaviare\\n\\n 17 \\n Flag of the Department of Huila Huila \\n Neiva\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n \\n Department \\n Capital city\\n\\n 18 \\n Flag of La Guajira La Guajira\\n\\n\\n 19 \\n Flag of the Department of Magdalena Magdalena \\n Santa Marta\\n\\n 20 \\n Flag of the Department of Meta Meta \\n Villavicencio\\n\\n 21 \\n Flag of the Department of Nariño Nariño \\n Pasto\\n\\n 22 \\n Flag of the Department of Norte de Santander Norte de Santander \\n Cúcuta\\n\\n 23 \\n Flag of the Department of Putumayo Putumayo \\n Mocoa\\n\\n 24 \\n Flag of the Department of Quindío Quindío \\n Armenia\\n\\n 25 \\n Flag of the Department of Risaralda Risaralda \\n Pereira\\n\\n 26 \\n Flag of the Department of San Andres, Providencia and Santa Catalina San Andrés, Providenciaand Santa Catalina \\n San Andrés\\n\\n 27 \\n Flag of the Department of Santander Santander \\n Bucaramanga\\n\\n 28 \\n Flag of the Department of Sucre Sucre \\n Sincelejo\\n\\n 29 \\n Flag of the Department of Tolima Tolima \\n Ibagué\\n\\n 30 \\n Flag of the Department of Valle del Cauca Valle del Cauca \\n Cali\\n\\n 31 \\n Flag of the Department of Vichada Vaupés \\n Mitú\\n\\n 32 \\n Flag of the Department of Vichada Vichada \\n Puerto Carreño\\n\\n 33 \\n Flag of Bogotá Bogotá \\n Bogotá\",\n \"\\n\\nColombia's gross domestic product by sector for the second half of the year 2015\\nHistorically an agrarian economy, Colombia urbanised rapidly in the 20th century, by the end of which just 15.8% of the workforce were employed in agriculture, generating just 6.8% of GDP; 19.6% of the workforce were employed in industry and 64.6% in services, responsible for 34.0% and 59.2% of GDP respectively.\",\n \"The country's economic production is dominated by its strong domestic demand.\",\n \"Consumption expenditure by households is the largest component of GDP.\",\n \"Colombia's market economy grew steadily in the latter part of the 20th century, with gross domestic product (GDP) increasing at an average rate of over 4% per year between 1970 and 1998.\",\n \"The country suffered a recession in 1999 (the first full year of negative growth since the Great Depression), and the recovery from that recession was long and painful.\",\n \"However, in recent years growth has been impressive, reaching 6.9% in 2007, one of the highest rates of growth in Latin America.\",\n \"According to International Monetary Fund estimates, in 2012 Colombia's GDP (PPP) was US$500 billion (28th in the world and third in South America).\",\n \"Total government expenditures account for 28.7 percent of the domestic economy.\",\n \"Public debt equals 41 percent of gross domestic product.\",\n \"A strong fiscal climate was reaffirmed by a boost in bond ratings.\",\n \"Annual inflation closed 2016 at 5.75% YoY (vs. 6.77% YoY in 2015).\",\n \"The average national unemployment rate in 2016 was 9.2%, although the informality is the biggest problem facing the labour market (the income of formal workers climbed 24.8% in 5 years while labor incomes of informal workers rose only 9%).\",\n \"Colombia has Free trade Zone (FTZ), such as Zona Franca del Pacifico, located in the Valle del Cauca, one of the most striking areas for foreign investment.\",\n \"The financial sector has grown favorably due to good liquidity in the economy, the growth of credit and the positive performance of the Colombian economy.\",\n \"The Colombian Stock Exchange through the Latin American Integrated Market (MILA) offers a regional market to trade equities.\",\n \"The Colombian Stock Exchange is part of the Latin American Integrated Market (MILA).\",\n \"The electricity production in Colombia comes mainly from renewable energy sources.\",\n \"69.97% is obtained from the hydroelectric generation.\",\n \"Colombia's commitment to renewable energy was recognized in the 2014 ''Global Green Economy Index (GGEI)'', ranking among the top 10 nations in the world in terms of greening efficiency sectors.\",\n \"Colombia is rich in natural resources, and its main exports include mineral fuels, oils, distillation products, fruit and other agricultural products, sugars and sugar confectionery, food products, plastics, precious stones, metals, forest products, chemical goods, pharmaceuticals, vehicles, electronic products, electrical equipments, perfumery and cosmetics, machinery, manufactured articles, textile and fabrics, clothing and footwear, glass and glassware, furniture, prefabricated buildings, military products, home and office material, construction equipment, software, among others.\",\n \"Principal trading partners are the United States, China, the European Union and some Latin American countries.\",\n \"Non-traditional exports have boosted the growth of Colombian foreign sales as well as the diversification of destinations of export thanks to new free trade agreements.\",\n \"In 2016, the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) reported that 28.0% of the population were living below the poverty line, of which 8.5% in \\\"extreme poverty\\\".\",\n \"The multidimensional poverty rate stands at 17.8 percent of the population.\",\n \"The Government has also been developing a process of financial inclusion within the country's most vulnerable population.\",\n \"Recent economic growth has led to a considerable increase of new millionaires, including the new entrepreneurs, Colombians with a net worth exceeding US $1 billion.\",\n \"The contribution of Travel & Tourism to GDP was USD5,880.3bn (2.0% of total GDP) in 2016.\",\n \"Tourism generated 556,135 jobs (2.5% of total employment) in 2016.\",\n \"Foreign tourist visits were predicted to have risen from 0.6 million in 2007 to 3.3 million in 2016.\",\n \"=== Science and technology ===\\n\\nCOLCIENCIAS is a Colombian Government agency that supports fundamental and applied research.\",\n \"Colombia has more than 3,950 research groups in science and technology.\",\n \"iNNpulsa, a government body that promotes entrepreneurship and innovation in the country, provides grants to startups, in addition to other services it and institutions like Apps.co provide.\",\n \"Co-working spaces have arisen to serve as communities for startups large and small.\",\n \"Organizations such as the Corporation for Biological Research (CIB) for the support of young people interested in scientific work has been successfully developed in Colombia.\",\n \"The International Center for Tropical Agriculture based in Colombia investigates the increasing challenge of global warming and food security.\",\n \"Important inventions related to the medicine have been made in Colombia, such as the first external artificial pacemaker with internal electrodes, invented by the electronics engineer Jorge Reynolds Pombo, invention of great importance for those who suffer from heart failure.\",\n \"Also invented in Colombia were the microkeratome and keratomileusis technique, which form the fundamental basis of what now is known as LASIK (one of the most important techniques for the correction of refractive errors of vision) and the Hakim valve for the treatment of Hydrocephalus, among others.\",\n \"Colombia has begun to innovate in military technology for its army and other armies of the world; especially in the design and creation of personal ballistic protection products, military hardware, military robots, bombs, simulators and radar.\",\n \"Some leading Colombian scientists are Joseph M. Tohme, researcher recognized for his work on the genetic diversity of food, Manuel Elkin Patarroyo who is known for his groundbreaking work on synthetic vaccines for malaria, Francisco Lopera who discovered the \\\"Paisa Mutation\\\" or a type of early-onset Alzheimer's, Rodolfo Llinás known for his study of the intrinsic neurons properties and the theory of a syndrome that had changed the way of understanding the functioning of the brain, Jairo Quiroga Puello recognized for his studies on the characterization of synthetic substances which can be used to fight fungus, tumors, tuberculosis and even some viruses and Ángela Restrepo who established accurate diagnoses and treatments to combat the effects of a disease caused by the ''Paracoccidioides brasiliensis'', among other scientists.\",\n \"=== Infrastructure ===\\n\\nCartagena.\",\n \"Transportation in Colombia is regulated within the functions of the Ministry of Transport and entities such as the National Roads Institute (INVÍAS) responsible for the Highways in Colombia, the Aerocivil, responsible for civil aviation and airports, the National Infrastructure Agency, in charge of concessions through public–private partnerships, for the design, construction, maintenance, operation, and administration of the transport infrastructure, the General Maritime Directorate (Dimar) has the responsibility of coordinating maritime traffic control along with the Colombian Navy, among others and under the supervision of the Superintendency of Ports and Transport.\",\n \"The road network in Colombia has a length of about 215,000 km of which 23,000 are paved.\",\n \"Rail transportation in Colombia is dedicated almost entirely to freight shipments and the railway network has a length of 1,700 km of potentially active rails.\",\n \"Colombia has 3,960 kilometers of gas pipelines, 4,900 kilometers of oil pipelines, and 2,990 kilometers of refined-products pipelines.\",\n \"The target of Colombia’s government is to build 7,000 km of roads for the 2016–2020 period and reduce travel times by 30 per cent and transport costs by 20 per cent.\",\n \"A toll road concession programme will comprise 40 projects, and is part of a larger strategic goal to invest nearly $50bn in transport infrastructure, including: railway systems; making the Magdalena river navigable again; improving port facilities; as well as an expansion of Bogotá’s airport.\",\n \"\\n\\nPopulation density of Colombia\\nWith an estimated 49 million people in 2017, Colombia is the third-most populous country in Latin America, after Brazil and Mexico.\",\n \"It is also home to the third-largest number of Spanish speakers in the world after Mexico and the United States.\",\n \"At the beginning of the 20th century, Colombia's population was approximately 4 million.\",\n \"Since the early 1970s Colombia has experienced steady declines in its fertility, mortality, and population growth rates.\",\n \"The population growth rate for 2015 is estimated to be 0.9%.\",\n \"The total fertility rate was 1.9 births per woman in 2015.\",\n \"About 26.8% of the population were 15 years old or younger, 65.7% were between 15 and 64 years old, and 7.4% were over 65 years old.\",\n \"The proportion of older persons in the total population has begun to increase substantially.\",\n \"Colombia is projected to have a population of 50.2 million by 2020 and 55.3 million by 2050.\",\n \"The population is concentrated in the Andean highlands and along the Caribbean coast, also the population densities are generally higher in the Andean region.\",\n \"The nine eastern lowland departments, comprising about 54% of Colombia's area, have less than 6% of the population.\",\n \"Traditionally a rural society, movement to urban areas was very heavy in the mid-20th century, and Colombia is now one of the most urbanized countries in Latin America.\",\n \"The urban population increased from 31% of the total in 1938 to nearly 60% in 1973, and by 2014 the figure stood at 76%.\",\n \"The population of Bogotá alone has increased from just over 300,000 in 1938 to approximately 8 million today.\",\n \"In total seventy-two cities now have populations of 100,000 or more (2015).\",\n \"Colombia has the world's largest populations of internally displaced persons (IDPs), estimated to be up to 4.9 million people.\",\n \"The life expectancy is 74.8 years in 2015 and infant mortality is 13.6 per thousand in 2015.\",\n \"In 2015, 94.58% of adults and 98.66% of youth are literate and the government spends about 4.49% of its GDP in education.\",\n \"Colombia is ranked third in the world in the Happy Planet Index.\",\n \"===Languages===\\n\\n\\nMore than 99.2% of Colombians speak Spanish, also called Castilian; 65 Amerindian languages, two Creole languages, the Romani language and Colombian Sign Language are also spoken in the country.\",\n \"English has official status in the archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina.\",\n \"Including Spanish, a total of 101 languages are listed for Colombia in the Ethnologue database.\",\n \"The specific number of spoken languages varies slightly since some authors consider as different languages what others consider to be varieties or dialects of the same language.\",\n \"Best estimates recorded 71 languages that are spoken in-country today—most of which belong to the Chibchan, Tucanoan, Bora–Witoto, Guajiboan, Arawakan, Cariban, Barbacoan, and Saliban language families.\",\n \"There are currently about 850,000 speakers of native languages.\",\n \"=== Ethnic groups ===\\n\\n\\nColombia is ethnically diverse, its people descending from the original native inhabitants, Spanish colonists, Africans originally brought to the country as slaves, and 20th-century immigrants from Europe and the Middle East, all contributing to a diverse cultural heritage.\",\n \"The demographic distribution reflects a pattern that is influenced by colonial history.\",\n \"Whites tend to live mainly in urban centers, like Bogotá, Medellín or Cali, and the burgeoning highland cities.\",\n \"The populations of the major cities also include mestizos.\",\n \"Mestizo ''campesinos'' (people living in rural areas) also live in the Andean highlands where some Spanish conquerors mixed with the women of Amerindian chiefdoms.\",\n \"Mestizos include artisans and small tradesmen that have played a major part in the urban expansion of recent decades.\",\n \"The 2005 census reported that the \\\"non-ethnic population\\\", consisting of whites and mestizos (those of mixed white European and Amerindian ancestry), constituted 86% of the national population.\",\n \"10.6% is of African ancestry.\",\n \"Indigenous Amerindians comprise 3.4% of the population.\",\n \"0.01% of the population are Roma.\",\n \"An extraofficial estimate considers that the 49% of the Colombian population is Mestizo or of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry, and that approximately 37% is White, mainly of Spanish lineage, but there is also a large population of Middle East descent; in some sectors of society there is a considerable input of Italian and German ancestry.\",\n \"Many of the Indigenous peoples experienced a reduction in population during the Spanish rule and many others were absorbed into the mestizo population, but the remainder currently represents over eighty distinct cultures.\",\n \"Reserves (''resguardos'') established for indigenous peoples occupy (27% of the country's total) and are inhabited by more than 800,000 people.\",\n \"Some of the largest indigenous groups are the Wayuu, the Paez, the Pastos, the Emberá and the Zenú.\",\n \"The departments of La Guajira, Cauca, Nariño, Córdoba and Sucre have the largest indigenous populations.\",\n \"The Organización Nacional Indígena de Colombia (ONIC), founded at the first National Indigenous Congress in 1982, is an organization representing the indigenous peoples of Colombia.\",\n \"In 1991, Colombia signed and ratified the current international law concerning indigenous peoples, Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989.\",\n \"Black Africans were brought as slaves, mostly to the coastal lowlands, beginning early in the 16th century and continuing into the 19th century.\",\n \"Large Afro-Colombian communities are found today on the Caribbean and Pacific coasts.\",\n \"The population of the department of Chocó, running along the northern portion of Colombia's Pacific coast, is over 80% black.\",\n \"British and Jamaicans migrated mainly to the islands of San Andres and Providencia.\",\n \"A number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including people from the former USSR during and after the Second World War.\",\n \"Many immigrant communities have settled on the Caribbean coast, in particular recent immigrants from the Middle East.\",\n \"Barranquilla (the largest city of the Colombian Caribbean) and other Caribbean cities have the largest populations of Lebanese, Palestinian, and other Arabs.\",\n \"There are also important communities of Chinese, Japanese, Romanis and Jews.\",\n \"There is a major migration trend of Venezuelans, due to the political and economic situation in Venezuela.\",\n \"=== Religion ===\\n\\n\\nThe Las Lajas Sanctuary in the southern Colombian Department of Nariño\\n\\nThe National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) does not collect religious statistics, and accurate reports are difficult to obtain.\",\n \"However, based on various studies and a survey, about 90% of the population adheres to Christianity, the majority of which (70.9%) are Roman Catholic, while a significant minority (16.7%) adhere to Protestantism (primarily Evangelicalism).\",\n \"Some 4.7% of the population is atheist or agnostic, while 3.5% claim to believe in God but do not follow a specific religion.\",\n \"1.8% of Colombians adhere to Jehovah's Witnesses and Adventism and less than 1% adhere to other religions, such as Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Mormonism, Hinduism, Indigenous religions, Hare Krishna movement, Rastafari movement, Orthodox Catholic Church, and spiritual studies.\",\n \"The remaining people either did not respond or replied that they did not know.\",\n \"In addition to the above statistics, 35.9% of Colombians reported that they did not practice their faith actively.\",\n \"While Colombia remains a mostly Roman Catholic country by baptism numbers, the 1991 Colombian constitution guarantees freedom of religion and all religious faiths and churches are equally free before the law.\",\n \"===Largest cities===\\nColombia is a highly urbanized country.\",\n \"The largest cities in the country are Bogotá, with an estimated 8 million inhabitants, Medellín, with an estimated 2.5 million inhabitants, Cali, with an estimated 2.4 million inhabitants, and Barranquilla, with an estimated 1.2 million inhabitants.\",\n \"Cartagena highlights in number of inhabitants and the city of Bucaramanga is relevant in terms of metropolitan area population.\",\n \"\\n\\nColombia lies at the crossroads of Latin America and the broader American continent, and as such has been hit by a wide range of cultural influences.\",\n \"Native American, Spanish and other European, African, American, Caribbean, and Middle Eastern influences, as well as other Latin American cultural influences, are all present in Colombia's modern culture.\",\n \"Urban migration, industrialization, globalization, and other political, social and economic changes have also left an impression.\",\n \"Many national symbols, both objects and themes, have arisen from Colombia's diverse cultural traditions and aim to represent what Colombia, and the Colombian people, have in common.\",\n \"Cultural expressions in Colombia are promoted by the government through the Ministry of Culture.\",\n \"=== Literature ===\\n\\nNobel literature prize winner Gabriel García Márquez\\nJorge Isaacs was one of the greatest exponents of Colombian literature in the nineteenth century.\",\n \"Colombian literature dates back to pre-Columbian era; a notable example of the period is the epic poem known as the ''Legend of Yurupary''.\",\n \"In Spanish colonial times, notable writers include Juan de Castellanos (''Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias''), Hernando Domínguez Camargo and his epic poem to San Ignacio de Loyola, Pedro Simón, Juan Rodríguez Freyle (''El Carnero''), Lucas Fernández de Piedrahita, and the nun Francisca Josefa de Castillo, representative of mysticism.\",\n \"Post-independence literature linked to Romanticism highlighted Antonio Nariño, José Fernández Madrid, Camilo Torres Tenorio and Francisco Antonio Zea.\",\n \"In the second half of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century the literary genre known as ''costumbrismo'' became popular; great writers of this period were Tomás Carrasquilla, Jorge Isaacs and Rafael Pombo (the latter of whom wrote notable works of children's literature).\",\n \"Within that period, authors such as José Asunción Silva, José Eustasio Rivera, León de Greiff, Porfirio Barba-Jacob and José María Vargas Vila developed the modernist movement.\",\n \"In 1872, Colombia established the Colombian Academy of Language, the first Spanish language academy in the Americas.\",\n \"Candelario Obeso wrote the groundbreaking ''Cantos Populares de mi Tierra'' (1877), the first book of poetry by an Afro-Colombian author.\",\n \"Between 1939 and 1940 seven books of poetry were published under the name ''Stone and Sky'' in the city of Bogotá that significantly impacted the country; they were edited by the poet Jorge Rojas.\",\n \"In the following decade, Gonzalo Arango founded the movement of \\\"nothingness\\\" in response to the violence of the time; he was influenced by nihilism, existentialism, and the thought of another great Colombian writer: Fernando González Ochoa.\",\n \"During the boom in Latin American literature, successful writers emerged, led by Nobel laureate Gabriel García Márquez and his magnum opus, ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', Eduardo Caballero Calderón, Manuel Mejía Vallejo, and Álvaro Mutis, a writer who was awarded the Cervantes Prize and the Prince of Asturias Award for Letters.\",\n \"Other leading contemporary authors are Fernando Vallejo, William Ospina (Rómulo Gallegos Prize) and Germán Castro Caycedo.\",\n \"=== Visual arts ===\\n\\nVargas Swamp Lancers, artwork by Rodrigo Arenas Betancourt\\n\\nColombian art has over 3,000 years of history.\",\n \"Colombian artists have captured the country's changing political and cultural backdrop using a range of styles and mediums.\",\n \"There is archeological evidence of ceramics being produced earlier in Colombia than anywhere else in the Americas, dating as early as 3,000 BCE.\",\n \"The earliest examples of gold craftsmanship have been attributed to the Tumaco people of the Pacific coast and date to around 325 BCE.\",\n \"Roughly between 200 BCE and 800 CE, the San Agustín culture, masters of stonecutting, entered its “classical period\\\".\",\n \"They erected raised ceremonial centres, sarcophagi, and large stone monoliths depicting anthropomorphic and zoomorphhic forms out of stone.\",\n \"Colombian art has followed the trends of the time, so during the 16th to 18th centuries, Spanish Catholicism had a huge influence on Colombian art, and the popular baroque style was replaced with rococo when the Bourbons ascended to the Spanish crown.\",\n \"More recently, Colombian artists Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago Martínez Delgado started the Colombian Murial Movement in the 1940s, featuring the neoclassical features of Art Deco.\",\n \"Since the 1950s, the Colombian art started to have a distinctive point of view, reinventing traditional elements under the concepts of the 20th century.\",\n \"Examples of this are the Greiff portraits by Ignacio Gómez Jaramillo, showing what the Colombian art could do with the new techniques applied to typical Colombian themes.\",\n \"Carlos Correa, with his paradigmatic “Naturaleza muerta en silencio” (silent dead nature), combines geometrical abstraction and cubism.\",\n \"Alejandro Obregón is often considered as the father of modern Colombian painting, and one of the most influential artist in this period, due to his originality, the painting of Colombian landscapes with symbolic and expressionist use of animals, (specially the Andean condor).\",\n \"Fernando Botero, Omar Rayo, Enrique Grau, Édgar Negret, David Manzur, Rodrigo Arenas Betancourt and Oscar Murillo are some of the Colombian artists featured at the international level.\",\n \"The Colombian sculpture from the sixteenth to 18th centuries was mostly devoted to religious depictions of ecclesiastic art, strongly influenced by the Spanish schools of sacred sculpture.\",\n \"During the early period of the Colombian republic, the national artists were focused in the production of sculptural portraits of politicians and public figures, in a plain neoclassicist trend.\",\n \"During the 20th century, the Colombian sculpture began to develop a bold and innovative work with the aim of reaching a better understanding of national sensitivity.\",\n \"Colombian photography was marked by the arrival of the daguerreotype.\",\n \"Jean-Baptiste Louis Gros was who brought the daguerreotype process to Colombia in 1841.\",\n \"The Piloto public library has Latin America’s largest archive of negatives, containing 1.7 million antique photographs covering Colombia 1848 until 2005.\",\n \"The Colombian press has promoted the work of the cartoonists.\",\n \"In recent decades, fanzines, internet and independent publishers have been fundamental to the growth of the comic in Colombia.\",\n \"=== Architecture ===\\n\\n\\n\\nThroughout the times, there have been a variety of architectural styles, from those of indigenous peoples to contemporary ones, passing through colonial (military and religious), Republican, transition and modern styles.\",\n \"Ancient habitation areas, longhouses, crop terraces, roads as the Inca road system, cemeteries, hypogeums and necropolises are all part of the architectural heritage of indigenous peoples.\",\n \"Some prominent indigenous structures are the preceramic and ceramic archaeological site of Tequendama, Tierradentro (a park that contains the largest concentration of pre-Columbian monumental shaft tombs with side chambers), the largest collection of religious monuments and megalithic sculptures in South America, located in San Agustín, Huila.\",\n \"Lost city (an archaeological site with a series of terraces carved into the mountainside, a net of tiled roads and several circular plazas) and also stand out the large villages mainly built with stone, wood, cane and mud.\",\n \"Historic Centre of Santa Cruz de Mompox, an architectural site with colonial elements\\nArchitecture during the period of conquest and colonization is mainly derived of adapting European styles to local conditions, and Spanish influence, especially Andalusian and Extremaduran, can be easily seen.\",\n \"When Europeans founded cities two things were making simultaneously: the dimensioning of geometrical space (town square, street), and the location of a tangible point of orientation.\",\n \"The construction of forts was common throughout the Caribbean and in some cities of the interior, because of the dangers that represented the English, French, and Dutch pirates and the hostile indigenous groups.\",\n \"Churches, chapels, schools, and hospitals belonging to religious orders cause a great urban impact.\",\n \"Baroque architecture is used in military buildings and public spaces.\",\n \"Marcelino Arroyo, Francisco José de Caldas and Domingo de Petrés were great representatives of neo-classical architecture.\",\n \"The National Capitol is a great representative of romanticism.\",\n \"Wood is extensively used in doors, windows, railings and ceilings during the colonization of Antioquia.\",\n \"The Caribbean architecture acquires a strong Arabic influence.\",\n \"The Teatro Colón in Bogotá is a lavish example of architecture from the 19th century.\",\n \"The quintas houses with innovations in the volumetric conception are some of the best examples of the Republican architecture; the Republican action in the city focused on the design of three types of spaces: parks with forests, small urban parks and avenues and the Gothic style was most commonly used for the design of churches.\",\n \"Deco style, modern neoclassicism, eclecticism folklorist and art deco ornamental resources significantly influenced the architecture of Colombia, especially during the transition period.\",\n \"Modernism contributed with new construction technologies and new materials (steel, reinforced concrete, glass and synthetic materials) and the topology architecture and lightened slabs system also have a great influence.\",\n \"The most influential architects of the modern movement were Rogelio Salmona and Fernando Martínez Sanabria.\",\n \"The contemporary architecture of Colombia is designed to give greater importance to the materials, this architecture takes into account the specific natural and artificial geographies and is also an architecture that appeals to the senses.\",\n \"The conservation of the architectural and urban heritage of Colombia has been promoted in recent years.\",\n \"=== Music ===\\n\\n \\nColombian music blends European-influenced guitar and song structure with large gaita flutes and percussion instruments from the indigenous population, while its percussion structure and dance forms come from Africa.\",\n \"Colombia has a diverse and dynamic musical environment.\",\n \"Musicians, composers, music producers and singers from Colombia are recognized internationally such as Shakira, Juanes, Carlos Vives and others.\",\n \"Guillermo Uribe Holguín, an important cultural figure in the National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia, Luis Antonio Calvo and Blas Emilio Atehortúa are some of the greatest exponents of the art music.\",\n \"The Bogotá Philharmonic Orchestra is one of the most active orchestras in Colombia.\",\n \"Caribbean music has many vibrant rhythms, such as cumbia (it is played by the maracas, the drums, the gaitas and guacharaca), porro (it is a monotonous but joyful rhythm), mapalé (with its fast rhythm and constant clapping) and the \\\"vallenato\\\", which originated in the northern part of the Caribbean coast (the rhythm is mainly played by the caja, the guacharaca, and accordion).\",\n \"The music from the Pacific coast, such as the currulao is characterized by its strong use of drums (instruments such as the native marimba, the conunos, the bass drum, the side drum and the cuatro guasas or tubular rattle).\",\n \"An important rhythm of the south region of the Pacific coast is the contradanza (it is used in dance shows, as a result of the striking colours of the costumes).\",\n \"Marimba music, traditional chants and dances from the Colombia South Pacific region are on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.\",\n \"Important musical rhythms of the Andean Region are the danza (dance of Andean folklore arising from the transformation of the European contredance), the bambuco (it is played with guitar, tiple and mandolin, the rhythm is danced by couples), the pasillo (a rhythm inspired by the Austrian waltz and the Colombian \\\"danza\\\", the lyrics have been composed by well-known poets), the guabina (the tiple, the bandola and the requinto are the basic instruments), the sanjuanero (it originated in Tolima and Huila Departments, the rhythm is joyful and fast).\",\n \"Apart from these traditional rhythms, salsa music has spread throughout the country, and the city of Cali is considered by many salsa singers to be 'The New Salsa Capital of the World'.\",\n \"Colombian-style salsa dancing\\nThe instruments that distinguish the music of the Eastern Plains are the harp, the cuatro (a type of four-stringed guitar) and maracas.\",\n \"Important rhythms of this region are the joropo (a fast rhythm and there is also tapping as a result of its flamenco ancestry) and the galeron (it is heard a lot while cowboys are working).\",\n \"The music of the Amazon region is strongly influenced by the indigenous religious practices.\",\n \"Some of the musical instruments used are the manguaré (a musical instrument of ceremonial type, consisting of a pair of large cylindrical drums), the quena (melodic instrument), the rondador, the congas, bells, and different types of flutes.\",\n \"The music of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina is usually accompanied by a mandolin, a tub-bass, a jawbone, a guitar and maracas.\",\n \"Some popular archipelago rhythms are the Schottische, the Calypso, the Polka and the Mento.\",\n \"=== Popular culture ===\\n\\nThe Ibero-American Theater Festival of Bogotá is one of the biggest theater festivals in the world.\",\n \"Theater was introduced in Colombia during the Spanish colonization in 1550 through zarzuela companies.\",\n \"Colombian theater is supported by the Ministry of Culture and a number of private and state owned organizations.\",\n \"The Ibero-American Theater Festival of Bogotá is the cultural event of the highest importance in Colombia and one of the biggest theater festivals in the world.\",\n \"Other important theater events are: The Festival of Puppet The Fanfare (Medellín), The Manizales Theater Festival, The Caribbean Theatre Festival (Santa Marta) and The Art Festival of Popular Culture \\\"Cultural Invasion\\\" (Bogotá).\",\n \"The Cartagena Film Festival is the oldest cinema event in Latin America.\",\n \"The central focus is on films from Ibero-America.\",\n \"Although the Colombian cinema is young as an industry, more recently the film industry was growing with support from the Film Act passed in 2003.\",\n \"Many film festivals take place in Colombia, but the two most important are the Cartagena Film Festival, which is the oldest film festival in Latin America, and the Bogotá Film Festival.\",\n \"Some important national circulation newspapers are ''El Tiempo'' and ''El Espectador''.\",\n \"Television in Colombia has two privately owned TV networks and three state-owned TV networks with national coverage, as well as six regional TV networks and dozens of local TV stations.\",\n \"Private channels, RCN and Caracol are the highest-rated.\",\n \"The regional channels and regional newspapers cover a department or more and its content is made in these particular areas.\",\n \"Colombia has three major national radio networks: Radiodifusora Nacional de Colombia, a state-run national radio; Caracol Radio and RCN Radio, privately owned networks with hundreds of affiliates.\",\n \"There are other national networks, including Cadena Super, Todelar, and Colmundo.\",\n \"Many hundreds of radio stations are registered with the Ministry of Information Technologies and Communications.\",\n \"=== Cuisine ===\\n\\nSancocho de gallina criolla is a traditional soup in Colombia.\",\n \"Colombia's varied cuisine is influenced by its diverse fauna and flora as well as the cultural traditions of the ethnic groups.\",\n \"Colombian dishes and ingredients vary widely by region.\",\n \"Some of the most common ingredients are: cereals such as rice and maize; tubers such as potato and cassava; assorted legumes; meats, including beef, chicken, pork and goat; fish; and seafood.\",\n \"Colombia cuisine also features a variety of tropical fruits such as cape gooseberry, feijoa, arazá, dragon fruit, mangostino, granadilla, papaya, guava, mora (blackberry), lulo, soursop and passionfruit.\",\n \"Colombia is one of the world's largest consumers of fruit juices.\",\n \"Among the most representative appetizers and soups are patacones (fried green plantains), sancocho de gallina (chicken soup with root vegetables) and ajiaco (potato and corn soup).\",\n \"Representative snacks and breads are pandebono, arepas (corn cakes), aborrajados (fried sweet plantains with cheese), torta de choclo, empanadas and almojábanas.\",\n \"Representative main courses are bandeja paisa, lechona tolimense, mamona, tamales and fish dishes (such as arroz de lisa), especially in coastal regions where kibbeh, suero, costeño cheese and carimañolas are also eaten.\",\n \"Representative side dishes are papas chorreadas (potatoes with cheese), remolachas rellenas con huevo duro (beets stuffed with hard-boiled egg) and arroz con coco (coconut rice).\",\n \"Organic food is a current trend in big cities, although in general across the country the fruits and veggies are very natural and fresh.\",\n \"Representative desserts are buñuelos, natillas, Maria Luisa cake, bocadillo made of guayaba (guava jelly), cocadas (coconut balls), casquitos de guayaba (candied guava peels), torta de natas, obleas, flan de mango, roscón, milhoja, manjar blanco, dulce de feijoa, dulce de papayuela, torta de mojicón, and esponjado de curuba.\",\n \"Typical sauces (salsas) are hogao (tomato and onion sauce) and Colombian-style ají.\",\n \"Some representative beverages are coffee (Tinto), champús, cholado, lulada, avena colombiana, sugarcane juice, aguapanela, aguardiente, hot chocolate and fresh fruit juices (often made with water or milk).\",\n \"===Sports===\\n\\nNairo Quintana: Colombian Champion of the Giro d'Italia and the Vuelta a España\\nWorld Roller Speed Skating Championships.\",\n \"Tejo is Colombia’s national sport and is a team sport that involves launching projectiles to hit a target.\",\n \"But of all sports in Colombia, football is the most popular.\",\n \"Colombia was the champion of the 2001 Copa América, in which they set a new record of being undefeated, conceding no goals and winning each match.\",\n \"Interestingly, Colombia has been awarded “mover of the year” twice.\",\n \"Colombia is a mecca for roller skaters.\",\n \"The national team is a perennial powerhouse at the World Roller Speed Skating Championships.\",\n \"Colombia has traditionally been very good in cycling and a large number of Colombian cyclists have triumphed in major competitions of cycling.\",\n \"In baseball, another sport rooted in the Caribbean Coast, Colombia was world amateur champion in 1947 and 1965.\",\n \"Baseball is popular in the Caribbean, mainly in the cities Cartagena, Barranquilla and Santa Marta.\",\n \"Of those cities have come good players like: Orlando Cabrera, Édgar Rentería who was champion of the World Series in 1997 and 2010, and others who have played in Major League Baseball.\",\n \"Boxing is one of the sports that more world champions has produced for Colombia.\",\n \"Motorsports also occupies an important place in the sporting preferences of Colombians; Juan Pablo Montoya is a race car driver known for winning 7 Formula One events.\",\n \"Colombia also has excelled in sports such as BMX, judo, shooting sport, taekwondo, wrestling, high diving and athletics, also has a long tradition in weightlifting and bowling.\",\n \"\\n\\nThe overall life expectancy in Colombia at birth is 74.8 years (71.2 years for males and 78.4 years for females).\",\n \"Health standards in Colombia have improved very much since the 1980s, healthcare reforms have led to the massive improvements in the healthcare systems of the country.\",\n \"Although this new system has widened population coverage by the social and health security system from 21% (pre-1993) to 96% in 2012, health disparities persist.\",\n \"Through health tourism, many people from over the world travel from their places of residence to other countries in search of medical treatment and the attractions in the countries visited.\",\n \"Colombia is projected as one of Latin America’s main destinations in terms of health tourism due to the quality of its health care professionals, a good number of institutions devoted to health, and an immense inventory of natural and architectural sites.\",\n \"Cities such as Bogotá, Cali, Medellín and Bucaramanga are the most visited in cardiology procedures, neurology, dental treatments, stem cell therapy, ENT, ophthalmology and joint replacements among others for the medical services of high quality.\",\n \"A study conducted by ''América Economía'' magazine ranked 21 Colombian health care institutions among the top 44 in Latin America, amounting to 48 percent of the total.\",\n \"\\nM5 building – National University of Colombia, designed by Pedro Nel Gómez\\nUniversity of Los Andes\\nThe educational experience of many Colombian children begins with attendance at a preschool academy until age five (''Educación preescolar'').\",\n \"Basic education (''Educación básica'') is compulsory by law.\",\n \"It has two stages: Primary basic education (''Educación básica primaria'') which goes from first to fifth grade – children from six to ten years old, and Secondary basic education (''Educación básica secundaria''), which goes from sixth to ninth grade.\",\n \"Basic education is followed by Middle vocational education (''Educación media vocacional'') that comprises the tenth and eleventh grades.\",\n \"It may have different vocational training modalities or specialties (academic, technical, business, and so on.)\",\n \"according to the curriculum adopted by each school.\",\n \"After the successful completion of all the basic and middle education years, a high-school diploma is awarded.\",\n \"The high-school graduate is known as a ''bachiller'', because secondary basic school and middle education are traditionally considered together as a unit called ''bachillerato'' (sixth to eleventh grade).\",\n \"Students in their final year of middle education take the ICFES test (now renamed Saber 11) in order to gain access to higher education (''Educación superior'').\",\n \"This higher education includes undergraduate professional studies, technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies.\",\n \"Technical professional institutions of Higher Education are also opened to students holder of a qualification in Arts and Business.\",\n \"This qualification is usually awarded by the SENA after a two years curriculum.\",\n \"''Bachilleres'' (high-school graduates) may enter into a professional undergraduate career program offered by a university; these programs last up to five years (or less for technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies), even as much to six to seven years for some careers, such as medicine.\",\n \"In Colombia, there is not an institution such as college; students go directly into a career program at a university or any other educational institution to obtain a professional, technical or technological title.\",\n \"Once graduated from the university, people are granted a (professional, technical or technological) diploma and licensed (if required) to practice the career they have chosen.\",\n \"For some professional career programs, students are required to take the Saber-Pro test, in their final year of undergraduate academic education.\",\n \"Public spending on education as a proportion of gross domestic product in 2015 was 4.49%.\",\n \"This represented 15.05% of total government expenditure.\",\n \"The primary and secondary gross enrolment ratios stood at 113.56% and 98.09% respectively.\",\n \"School-life expectancy was 14.42 years.\",\n \"A total of 94.58% of the population aged 15 and older were recorded as literate, including 98.66% of those aged 15–24.\",\n \"* Index of Colombia-related articles\\n* Outline of Colombia\\n* \\n* \\n*\",\n \"\\n\\n'''General information'''\\n* Colombia at Encyclopædia Britannica\\n* Colombia at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''\\n* \\n* \\n* Key Development Forecasts for Colombia from International Futures\\n* Official investment portal\\n* Official Colombia Tourism Website\\n* Study Spanish in Colombia\\n* National Administrative Department of Statistics\\n\\n'''Government'''\\n* Colombia Online Government website\\n\\n'''Culture'''\\n* Ministry of Culture\\n\\n'''Geography'''\\n* National parks of Colombia\\n*\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"river"}}},{"rowIdx":297,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\nRugged coastline of the West Coast Region of New Zealand\nA '''coastline''' or a '''seashore''' is the area where land meets the sea or ocean, or a line that forms the boundary between the land and the ocean or a lake. A precise line that can be called a coastline cannot be determined due to the Coastline paradox.\n\nThe term ''coastal zone'' is a region where interaction of the sea and land processes occurs. Both the terms coast and coastal are often used to describe a geographic location or region; for example, New Zealand's West Coast, or the East and West Coasts of the United States. Edinburgh for example is a city on the coast of Scotland.\n\nA pelagic coast refers to a coast which fronts the open ocean, as opposed to a more sheltered coast in a gulf or bay. A shore, on the other hand, can refer to parts of the land which adjoin any large body of water, including oceans (sea shore) and lakes (lake shore). Similarly, the somewhat related term \"Stream bed/bank\" refers to the land alongside or sloping down to a river (riverbank) or to a body of water smaller than a lake. \"Bank\" is also used in some parts of the world to refer to an artificial ridge of earth intended to retain the water of a river or pond; in other places this may be called a levee.\n \nWhile many scientific experts might agree on a common definition of the term \"coast\", the delineation of the extents of a coast differ according to jurisdiction, with many scientific and government authorities in various countries differing for economic and social policy reasons. According to the UN atlas, 44% of people live within of the sea.\n","Atlantic rocky coastline, showing a surf area. Porto Covo, west coast of Portugal\nTides often determine the range over which sediment is deposited or eroded. Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce deprossosition at a smaller elevation interval. The tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline. Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however, tidal bores can erode as the waves surge up river estuaries from the ocean.\n\nWaves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves. Coastlines with longer shores have more room for the waves to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed. In these areas the wave energy breaking against the cliffs is higher, and air and water are compressed into cracks in the rock, forcing the rock apart, breaking it down. Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and is moved along the coastline by the waves. This forms an abrasion or cliffed coast.\n\nSediment deposited by rivers is the dominant influence on the amount of sediment located on a coastline. Today riverine deposition at the coast is often blocked by dams and other human regulatory devices, which remove the sediment from the stream by causing it to be deposited inland.\n\nLike the ocean which shapes them, coasts are a dynamic environment with constant change. The Earth's natural processes, particularly sea level rises, waves and various weather phenomena, have resulted in the erosion, accretion and reshaping of coasts as well as flooding and creation of continental shelves and drowned river valleys (rias).\n","Somalia has the longest coastline in Africa\nThe coast and its adjacent areas on and off shore are an important part of a local ecosystem: the mixture of fresh water and salt water (brackish water) in estuaries provides many nutrients for marine life. Salt marshes and beaches also support a diversity of plants, animals and insects crucial to the food chain.\n\nThe high level of biodiversity creates a high level of biological activity, which has attracted human activity for thousands of years.\n","\n===Human uses of coasts===\nThe Coastal Hazard Wheel system published by UNEP for global coastal management\nA settled coastline in Marblehead, Massachusetts. Once a fishing port, the harbor is now dedicated to tourism and pleasure boating. Observe that the sand and rocks have been darkened by oil slick up to the high-water line.\nThis stretch of coast in Tanzania's capital Dar es Salaam serves as a public waste dump.\nHouses close to the coast, like these in Tiburon, California, may be especially desirable properties.\nView of sea coast from top of a hill at Visakhapatnam in India\n\nMore and more of the world's people live in coastal regions. Many major cities are on or near good harbors and have port facilities. Some landlocked places have achieved port status by building canals.\n\nThe coast is a frontier that nations have typically defended against military invaders, smugglers and illegal migrants. Fixed coastal defenses have long been erected in many nations and coastal countries typically have a navy and some form of coast guard.\n\nCoasts, especially those with beaches and warm water, attract tourists. In many island nations such as those of the Mediterranean, South Pacific and Caribbean, tourism is central to the economy. Coasts offer recreational activities such as swimming, fishing, surfing, boating, and sunbathing. Growth management can be a challenge for coastal local authorities who often struggle to provide the infrastructure required by new residents.\n\n===Threats to a coast===\nCoasts also face many human-induced environmental impacts. The human influence on climate change is thought to contribute to an accelerated trend in sea level rise which threatens coastal habitats.\n\nPollution can occur from a number of sources: garbage and industrial debris; the transportation of petroleum in tankers, increasing the probability of large oil spills; small oil spills created by large and small vessels, which flush bilge water into the ocean.\n\nFishing has declined due to habitat degradation, overfishing, trawling, bycatch and climate change. Since the growth of global fishing enterprises after the 1950s, intensive fishing has spread from a few concentrated areas to encompass nearly all fisheries. The scraping of the ocean floor in bottom dragging is devastating to coral, sponges and other long-lived species that do not recover quickly. This destruction alters the functioning of the ecosystem and can permanently alter species composition and biodiversity. Bycatch, the capture of unintended species in the course of fishing, is typically returned to the ocean only to die from injuries or exposure. Bycatch represents about a quarter of all marine catch. In the case of shrimp capture, the bycatch is five times larger than the shrimp caught.\n\nIt is believed that melting Arctic ice will cause sea levels to rise and flood coastal areas.\n\n\n===Conservation===\nExtraordinary population growth in the 21st century has placed stress on the planet's ecosystems. For example, on Saint Lucia, harvesting mangrove for timber and clearing for fishing reduced the mangrove forests, resulting in a loss of habitat and spawning grounds for marine life that was unique to the area. These forests also helped to stabilize the coastline. Conservation efforts since the 1980s have partially restored the ecosystem.\n","According to one principle of classification, an emergent coastline is a coastline which has experienced a fall in sea level, because of either a global sea level change, or local uplift. Emergent coastlines are identifiable by the coastal landforms, which are above the high tide mark, such as raised beaches. In contrast, a submergent coastline is one where the sea level has risen, due to a global sea level change, local subsidence, or isostatic rebound. Submergent coastlines are identifiable by their submerged, or \"drowned\" landforms, such as rias (drowned valleys) and fjords.\n\n\nAccording to a second principle of classification, a concordant coastline is a coastline where bands of different rock types run parallel to the shore. These rock types are usually of varying resistance, so the coastline forms distinctive landforms, such as coves. Discordant coastlines feature distinctive landforms because the rocks are eroded by ocean waves. The less resistant rocks erode faster, creating inlets or bay; the more resistant rocks erode more slowly, remaining as headlands or outcroppings.\n\n\nOther coastal categories:\n*A cliffed coast or abrasion coast is one where marine action has produced steep declivities known as cliffs.\n*A flat coast is one where the land gradually descends into the sea.\n*A graded shoreline is one where wind and water action has produced a flat and straight coastline.\n","Coastal landforms. The feature shown here as a bay would, in certain (mainly southern) parts of Britain, be called a cove. That between the cuspate foreland and the tombolo is a British bay.\nThe following articles describe some coastal landforms\n\n\n*Bay\n*Headland\n*Cove\n*Peninsula\n\n\n===Cliff erosion===\n* Much of the sediment deposited along a coast is the result of erosion of a surrounding cliff, or bluff. Sea cliffs retreat landward because of the constant undercutting of slopes by waves. If the slope/cliff being undercut is made of unconsolidated sediment it will erode at a much faster rate then a cliff made of bedrock.\n*A natural arch is formed when a headland is eroded through by waves.\n*Sea caves are made when certain rock beds are more susceptible to erosion than the surrounding rock beds because of different areas of weakness. These areas are eroded at a faster pace creating a hole or crevice that, through time, by means of wave action and erosion, becomes a cave.\n*A stack is formed when a headland is eroded away by wave and wind action.\n*A stump is a shortened sea stack that has been eroded away or fallen because of instability.\n* Wave-cut notches are caused by the undercutting of overhanging slopes which leads to increased stress on cliff material and a greater probability that the slope material will fall. The fallen debris accumulates at the bottom of the cliff and is eventually removed by waves.\n*A wave-cut platform forms after erosion and retreat of a sea cliff has been occurring for a long time. Gently sloping wave-cut platforms develop early on in the first stages of cliff retreat. Later, the length of the platform decreases because the waves lose their energy as they break further off shore.\n\n===Coastal features formed by sediment===\n\n*Beach\n*Beach cusps\n*Raised beach\n*Cuspate foreland\n*Dune system\n*Mudflat\n*Ria\n*Shoal\n*Strand plain\n*Spit\n*Surge channel\n*Tombolo\n\n\n===Coastal features formed by another feature===\n*Lagoon\n*Salt marsh\n\n===Other features on the coast===\n\n*Concordant coastline\n*Discordant coastline\n*Fjord\n*Island\n*Island arc\n*Machair\n\n","The following articles describe the various geologic processes that affect a coastal zone:\n\n*Attrition\n*Currents\n*Denudation\n*Deposition\n*Erosion\n*Flooding\n*Longshore drift\n*Saltation\n*Sea level change\n**eustatic\n**isostatic\n*Sedimentation\n* Coastal sediment supply\n**sediment transport\n**solution\n**subaerial processes\n**suspension\n*Tides\n*Water waves\n**diffraction\n**refraction\n**wave breaking\n**wave shoaling\n*Weathering\n\n","\n\n===Animals===\nSome of the animals live along a typical coast. There are animals like puffins, sea turtles and rockhopper penguins. Sea snails and various kinds of barnacles live on the coast and scavenge on food deposited by the sea. Most coastal animals are used to humans in developed areas, such as dolphins and seagulls who eat food thrown for them by tourists. Since the coastal areas are all part of the littoral zone, there is a profusion of marine life found just off-coast.\n\nThere are many kinds of seabirds on the coast. Pelicans and cormorants join up with terns and oystercatchers to forage for fish and shellfish on the coast. There are sea lions on the coast of Wales and other countries.\n\n===Plants===\nCoastal areas are famous for their kelp beds. Kelp is a fast-growing seaweed that grows up to a metre a day. Corals and sea anemones are true animals, but live a lifestyle similar to that of plants. Mangroves, seagrasses and salt marsh are important coastal vegetation types in tropical and temperate environments respectively.\n","\n===Coastline problem===\n\n\nShortly before 1951, Lewis Fry Richardson, in researching the possible effect of border lengths on the probability of war, noticed that the Portuguese reported their measured border with Spain to be 987 km, but the Spanish reported it as 1214 km. This was the beginning of the coastline problem, which is a mathematical uncertainty inherent in the measurement of boundaries that are irregular.\n\nThe prevailing method of estimating the length of a border (or coastline) was to lay out ''n'' equal straight-line segments of length ''ℓ'' with dividers on a map or aerial photograph. Each end of the segment must be on the boundary. Investigating the discrepancies in border estimation, Richardson discovered what is now termed the '''Richardson Effect''': the sum of the segments is inversely proportional to the common length of the segments. In effect, the shorter the ruler, the longer the measured border; the Spanish and Portuguese geographers were simply using different-length rulers.\n\nThe result most astounding to Richardson is that, under certain circumstances, as ''ℓ'' approaches zero, the length of the coastline approaches infinity. Richardson had believed, based on Euclidean geometry, that a coastline would approach a fixed length, as do similar estimations of regular geometric figures. For example, the perimeter of a regular polygon inscribed in a circle approaches the circumference with increasing numbers of sides (and decrease in the length of one side). In geometric measure theory such a smooth curve as the circle that can be approximated by small straight segments with a definite limit is termed a rectifiable curve.\n\n===Measuring a coastline===\nMore than a decade after Richardson completed his work, Benoit Mandelbrot developed a new branch of mathematics, fractal geometry, to describe just such non-rectifiable complexes in nature as the infinite coastline. His own definition of the new figure serving as the basis for his study is:\n\nA key property of the fractal is self-similarity; that is, at any scale the same general configuration appears. A coastline is perceived as bays alternating with promontories. In the hypothetical situation that a given coastline has this property of self-similarity, then no matter how greatly any one small section of coastline is magnified, a similar pattern of smaller bays and promontories superimposed on larger bays and promontories appears, right down to the grains of sand. At that scale the coastline appears as a momentarily shifting, potentially infinitely long thread with a stochastic arrangement of bays and promontories formed from the small objects at hand. In such an environment (as opposed to smooth curves) Mandelbrot asserts \"coastline length turns out to be an elusive notion that slips between the fingers of those who want to grasp it.\"\n\nThere are different kinds of fractals. A coastline with the stated property is in \"a first category of fractals, namely curves whose fractal dimension is greater than 1.\" That last statement represents an extension by Mandelbrot of Richardson's thought. Mandelbrot's statement of the Richardson Effect is:\n\n:\n\nwhere L, coastline length, a function of the measurement unit, ε, is approximated by the expression. F is a constant and D is a parameter that Richardson found depended on the coastline approximated by L. He gave no theoretical explanation but Mandelbrot identified D with a non-integer form of the Hausdorff dimension, later the fractal dimension. Rearranging the right side of the expression obtains:\n\n:\n\nwhere Fε−D must be the number of units ε required to obtain L. The fractal dimension is the number of the dimensions of the figure being used to approximate the fractal: 0 for a dot, 1 for a line, 2 for a square. D in the expression is between 1 and 2, for coastlines typically less than 1.5. The broken line measuring the coast does not extend in one direction nor does it represent an area, but is intermediate. It can be interpreted as a thick line or band of width 2ε. More broken coastlines have greater D and therefore L is longer for the same ε. Mandelbrot showed that D is independent of ε.\n\n\n","\n*Ballantine scale\n*Coastal and Estuarine Research Federation\n*Coastal biogeomorphology\n*Coastal development hazards\n*Coastline of the North Sea\n*European Atlas of the Seas\n*How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension\n*Land reclamation\n*List of beaches\n*List of countries by length of coastline\n*List of U.S. states by coastline\n*Marine debris\n*National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Climate and Societal Interactions Program\n*Nautical chart\n*Pole of inaccessibility\n*Seaside resort\n*Tombolo\n\n","\n","* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n","\n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\nRugged coastline of the West Coast Region of New Zealand\\nA '''coastline''' or a '''seashore''' is the area where land meets the sea or ocean, or a line that forms the boundary between the land and the ocean or a lake. A precise line that can be called a coastline cannot be determined due to the Coastline paradox.\\n\\nThe term ''coastal zone'' is a region where interaction of the sea and land processes occurs. Both the terms coast and coastal are often used to describe a geographic location or region; for example, New Zealand's West Coast, or the East and West Coasts of the United States. Edinburgh for example is a city on the coast of Scotland.\\n\\nA pelagic coast refers to a coast which fronts the open ocean, as opposed to a more sheltered coast in a gulf or bay. A shore, on the other hand, can refer to parts of the land which adjoin any large body of water, including oceans (sea shore) and lakes (lake shore). Similarly, the somewhat related term \\\"Stream bed/bank\\\" refers to the land alongside or sloping down to a river (riverbank) or to a body of water smaller than a lake. \\\"Bank\\\" is also used in some parts of the world to refer to an artificial ridge of earth intended to retain the water of a river or pond; in other places this may be called a levee.\\n \\nWhile many scientific experts might agree on a common definition of the term \\\"coast\\\", the delineation of the extents of a coast differ according to jurisdiction, with many scientific and government authorities in various countries differing for economic and social policy reasons. According to the UN atlas, 44% of people live within of the sea.\\n\",\n \"Atlantic rocky coastline, showing a surf area. Porto Covo, west coast of Portugal\\nTides often determine the range over which sediment is deposited or eroded. Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce deprossosition at a smaller elevation interval. The tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline. Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however, tidal bores can erode as the waves surge up river estuaries from the ocean.\\n\\nWaves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves. Coastlines with longer shores have more room for the waves to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed. In these areas the wave energy breaking against the cliffs is higher, and air and water are compressed into cracks in the rock, forcing the rock apart, breaking it down. Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and is moved along the coastline by the waves. This forms an abrasion or cliffed coast.\\n\\nSediment deposited by rivers is the dominant influence on the amount of sediment located on a coastline. Today riverine deposition at the coast is often blocked by dams and other human regulatory devices, which remove the sediment from the stream by causing it to be deposited inland.\\n\\nLike the ocean which shapes them, coasts are a dynamic environment with constant change. The Earth's natural processes, particularly sea level rises, waves and various weather phenomena, have resulted in the erosion, accretion and reshaping of coasts as well as flooding and creation of continental shelves and drowned river valleys (rias).\\n\",\n \"Somalia has the longest coastline in Africa\\nThe coast and its adjacent areas on and off shore are an important part of a local ecosystem: the mixture of fresh water and salt water (brackish water) in estuaries provides many nutrients for marine life. Salt marshes and beaches also support a diversity of plants, animals and insects crucial to the food chain.\\n\\nThe high level of biodiversity creates a high level of biological activity, which has attracted human activity for thousands of years.\\n\",\n \"\\n===Human uses of coasts===\\nThe Coastal Hazard Wheel system published by UNEP for global coastal management\\nA settled coastline in Marblehead, Massachusetts. Once a fishing port, the harbor is now dedicated to tourism and pleasure boating. Observe that the sand and rocks have been darkened by oil slick up to the high-water line.\\nThis stretch of coast in Tanzania's capital Dar es Salaam serves as a public waste dump.\\nHouses close to the coast, like these in Tiburon, California, may be especially desirable properties.\\nView of sea coast from top of a hill at Visakhapatnam in India\\n\\nMore and more of the world's people live in coastal regions. Many major cities are on or near good harbors and have port facilities. Some landlocked places have achieved port status by building canals.\\n\\nThe coast is a frontier that nations have typically defended against military invaders, smugglers and illegal migrants. Fixed coastal defenses have long been erected in many nations and coastal countries typically have a navy and some form of coast guard.\\n\\nCoasts, especially those with beaches and warm water, attract tourists. In many island nations such as those of the Mediterranean, South Pacific and Caribbean, tourism is central to the economy. Coasts offer recreational activities such as swimming, fishing, surfing, boating, and sunbathing. Growth management can be a challenge for coastal local authorities who often struggle to provide the infrastructure required by new residents.\\n\\n===Threats to a coast===\\nCoasts also face many human-induced environmental impacts. The human influence on climate change is thought to contribute to an accelerated trend in sea level rise which threatens coastal habitats.\\n\\nPollution can occur from a number of sources: garbage and industrial debris; the transportation of petroleum in tankers, increasing the probability of large oil spills; small oil spills created by large and small vessels, which flush bilge water into the ocean.\\n\\nFishing has declined due to habitat degradation, overfishing, trawling, bycatch and climate change. Since the growth of global fishing enterprises after the 1950s, intensive fishing has spread from a few concentrated areas to encompass nearly all fisheries. The scraping of the ocean floor in bottom dragging is devastating to coral, sponges and other long-lived species that do not recover quickly. This destruction alters the functioning of the ecosystem and can permanently alter species composition and biodiversity. Bycatch, the capture of unintended species in the course of fishing, is typically returned to the ocean only to die from injuries or exposure. Bycatch represents about a quarter of all marine catch. In the case of shrimp capture, the bycatch is five times larger than the shrimp caught.\\n\\nIt is believed that melting Arctic ice will cause sea levels to rise and flood coastal areas.\\n\\n\\n===Conservation===\\nExtraordinary population growth in the 21st century has placed stress on the planet's ecosystems. For example, on Saint Lucia, harvesting mangrove for timber and clearing for fishing reduced the mangrove forests, resulting in a loss of habitat and spawning grounds for marine life that was unique to the area. These forests also helped to stabilize the coastline. Conservation efforts since the 1980s have partially restored the ecosystem.\\n\",\n \"According to one principle of classification, an emergent coastline is a coastline which has experienced a fall in sea level, because of either a global sea level change, or local uplift. Emergent coastlines are identifiable by the coastal landforms, which are above the high tide mark, such as raised beaches. In contrast, a submergent coastline is one where the sea level has risen, due to a global sea level change, local subsidence, or isostatic rebound. Submergent coastlines are identifiable by their submerged, or \\\"drowned\\\" landforms, such as rias (drowned valleys) and fjords.\\n\\n\\nAccording to a second principle of classification, a concordant coastline is a coastline where bands of different rock types run parallel to the shore. These rock types are usually of varying resistance, so the coastline forms distinctive landforms, such as coves. Discordant coastlines feature distinctive landforms because the rocks are eroded by ocean waves. The less resistant rocks erode faster, creating inlets or bay; the more resistant rocks erode more slowly, remaining as headlands or outcroppings.\\n\\n\\nOther coastal categories:\\n*A cliffed coast or abrasion coast is one where marine action has produced steep declivities known as cliffs.\\n*A flat coast is one where the land gradually descends into the sea.\\n*A graded shoreline is one where wind and water action has produced a flat and straight coastline.\\n\",\n \"Coastal landforms. The feature shown here as a bay would, in certain (mainly southern) parts of Britain, be called a cove. That between the cuspate foreland and the tombolo is a British bay.\\nThe following articles describe some coastal landforms\\n\\n\\n*Bay\\n*Headland\\n*Cove\\n*Peninsula\\n\\n\\n===Cliff erosion===\\n* Much of the sediment deposited along a coast is the result of erosion of a surrounding cliff, or bluff. Sea cliffs retreat landward because of the constant undercutting of slopes by waves. If the slope/cliff being undercut is made of unconsolidated sediment it will erode at a much faster rate then a cliff made of bedrock.\\n*A natural arch is formed when a headland is eroded through by waves.\\n*Sea caves are made when certain rock beds are more susceptible to erosion than the surrounding rock beds because of different areas of weakness. These areas are eroded at a faster pace creating a hole or crevice that, through time, by means of wave action and erosion, becomes a cave.\\n*A stack is formed when a headland is eroded away by wave and wind action.\\n*A stump is a shortened sea stack that has been eroded away or fallen because of instability.\\n* Wave-cut notches are caused by the undercutting of overhanging slopes which leads to increased stress on cliff material and a greater probability that the slope material will fall. The fallen debris accumulates at the bottom of the cliff and is eventually removed by waves.\\n*A wave-cut platform forms after erosion and retreat of a sea cliff has been occurring for a long time. Gently sloping wave-cut platforms develop early on in the first stages of cliff retreat. Later, the length of the platform decreases because the waves lose their energy as they break further off shore.\\n\\n===Coastal features formed by sediment===\\n\\n*Beach\\n*Beach cusps\\n*Raised beach\\n*Cuspate foreland\\n*Dune system\\n*Mudflat\\n*Ria\\n*Shoal\\n*Strand plain\\n*Spit\\n*Surge channel\\n*Tombolo\\n\\n\\n===Coastal features formed by another feature===\\n*Lagoon\\n*Salt marsh\\n\\n===Other features on the coast===\\n\\n*Concordant coastline\\n*Discordant coastline\\n*Fjord\\n*Island\\n*Island arc\\n*Machair\\n\\n\",\n \"The following articles describe the various geologic processes that affect a coastal zone:\\n\\n*Attrition\\n*Currents\\n*Denudation\\n*Deposition\\n*Erosion\\n*Flooding\\n*Longshore drift\\n*Saltation\\n*Sea level change\\n**eustatic\\n**isostatic\\n*Sedimentation\\n* Coastal sediment supply\\n**sediment transport\\n**solution\\n**subaerial processes\\n**suspension\\n*Tides\\n*Water waves\\n**diffraction\\n**refraction\\n**wave breaking\\n**wave shoaling\\n*Weathering\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n===Animals===\\nSome of the animals live along a typical coast. There are animals like puffins, sea turtles and rockhopper penguins. Sea snails and various kinds of barnacles live on the coast and scavenge on food deposited by the sea. Most coastal animals are used to humans in developed areas, such as dolphins and seagulls who eat food thrown for them by tourists. Since the coastal areas are all part of the littoral zone, there is a profusion of marine life found just off-coast.\\n\\nThere are many kinds of seabirds on the coast. Pelicans and cormorants join up with terns and oystercatchers to forage for fish and shellfish on the coast. There are sea lions on the coast of Wales and other countries.\\n\\n===Plants===\\nCoastal areas are famous for their kelp beds. Kelp is a fast-growing seaweed that grows up to a metre a day. Corals and sea anemones are true animals, but live a lifestyle similar to that of plants. Mangroves, seagrasses and salt marsh are important coastal vegetation types in tropical and temperate environments respectively.\\n\",\n \"\\n===Coastline problem===\\n\\n\\nShortly before 1951, Lewis Fry Richardson, in researching the possible effect of border lengths on the probability of war, noticed that the Portuguese reported their measured border with Spain to be 987 km, but the Spanish reported it as 1214 km. This was the beginning of the coastline problem, which is a mathematical uncertainty inherent in the measurement of boundaries that are irregular.\\n\\nThe prevailing method of estimating the length of a border (or coastline) was to lay out ''n'' equal straight-line segments of length ''ℓ'' with dividers on a map or aerial photograph. Each end of the segment must be on the boundary. Investigating the discrepancies in border estimation, Richardson discovered what is now termed the '''Richardson Effect''': the sum of the segments is inversely proportional to the common length of the segments. In effect, the shorter the ruler, the longer the measured border; the Spanish and Portuguese geographers were simply using different-length rulers.\\n\\nThe result most astounding to Richardson is that, under certain circumstances, as ''ℓ'' approaches zero, the length of the coastline approaches infinity. Richardson had believed, based on Euclidean geometry, that a coastline would approach a fixed length, as do similar estimations of regular geometric figures. For example, the perimeter of a regular polygon inscribed in a circle approaches the circumference with increasing numbers of sides (and decrease in the length of one side). In geometric measure theory such a smooth curve as the circle that can be approximated by small straight segments with a definite limit is termed a rectifiable curve.\\n\\n===Measuring a coastline===\\nMore than a decade after Richardson completed his work, Benoit Mandelbrot developed a new branch of mathematics, fractal geometry, to describe just such non-rectifiable complexes in nature as the infinite coastline. His own definition of the new figure serving as the basis for his study is:\\n\\nA key property of the fractal is self-similarity; that is, at any scale the same general configuration appears. A coastline is perceived as bays alternating with promontories. In the hypothetical situation that a given coastline has this property of self-similarity, then no matter how greatly any one small section of coastline is magnified, a similar pattern of smaller bays and promontories superimposed on larger bays and promontories appears, right down to the grains of sand. At that scale the coastline appears as a momentarily shifting, potentially infinitely long thread with a stochastic arrangement of bays and promontories formed from the small objects at hand. In such an environment (as opposed to smooth curves) Mandelbrot asserts \\\"coastline length turns out to be an elusive notion that slips between the fingers of those who want to grasp it.\\\"\\n\\nThere are different kinds of fractals. A coastline with the stated property is in \\\"a first category of fractals, namely curves whose fractal dimension is greater than 1.\\\" That last statement represents an extension by Mandelbrot of Richardson's thought. Mandelbrot's statement of the Richardson Effect is:\\n\\n:\\n\\nwhere L, coastline length, a function of the measurement unit, ε, is approximated by the expression. F is a constant and D is a parameter that Richardson found depended on the coastline approximated by L. He gave no theoretical explanation but Mandelbrot identified D with a non-integer form of the Hausdorff dimension, later the fractal dimension. Rearranging the right side of the expression obtains:\\n\\n:\\n\\nwhere Fε−D must be the number of units ε required to obtain L. The fractal dimension is the number of the dimensions of the figure being used to approximate the fractal: 0 for a dot, 1 for a line, 2 for a square. D in the expression is between 1 and 2, for coastlines typically less than 1.5. The broken line measuring the coast does not extend in one direction nor does it represent an area, but is intermediate. It can be interpreted as a thick line or band of width 2ε. More broken coastlines have greater D and therefore L is longer for the same ε. Mandelbrot showed that D is independent of ε.\\n\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n*Ballantine scale\\n*Coastal and Estuarine Research Federation\\n*Coastal biogeomorphology\\n*Coastal development hazards\\n*Coastline of the North Sea\\n*European Atlas of the Seas\\n*How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension\\n*Land reclamation\\n*List of beaches\\n*List of countries by length of coastline\\n*List of U.S. states by coastline\\n*Marine debris\\n*National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Climate and Societal Interactions Program\\n*Nautical chart\\n*Pole of inaccessibility\\n*Seaside resort\\n*Tombolo\\n\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n\",\n \"\\n* \\n* \\n* \\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction","Formation {{anchor|Formation of Coasts}}","Environmental importance","Human impacts","Types of coast"," Coastal landforms ","Coastal processes","Wildlife","Coastline statistics","See also","Notes","References","External links"],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \"Formation {{anchor|Formation of Coasts}}\",\n \"Environmental importance\",\n \"Human impacts\",\n \"Types of coast\",\n \" Coastal landforms \",\n \"Coastal processes\",\n \"Wildlife\",\n \"Coastline statistics\",\n \"See also\",\n \"Notes\",\n \"References\",\n \"External links\"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Coast"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["Similarly, the somewhat related term \"Stream bed/bank\" refers to the land alongside or sloping down to a river (riverbank) or to a body of water smaller than a lake.","\"Bank\" is also used in some parts of the world to refer to an artificial ridge of earth intended to retain the water of a river or pond; in other places this may be called a levee."],"string":"[\n \"Similarly, the somewhat related term \\\"Stream bed/bank\\\" refers to the land alongside or sloping down to a river (riverbank) or to a body of water smaller than a lake.\",\n \"\\\"Bank\\\" is also used in some parts of the world to refer to an artificial ridge of earth intended to retain the water of a river or pond; in other places this may be called a levee.\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\n\nRugged coastline of the West Coast Region of New Zealand\nA '''coastline''' or a '''seashore''' is the area where land meets the sea or ocean, or a line that forms the boundary between the land and the ocean or a lake.","A precise line that can be called a coastline cannot be determined due to the Coastline paradox.","The term ''coastal zone'' is a region where interaction of the sea and land processes occurs.","Both the terms coast and coastal are often used to describe a geographic location or region; for example, New Zealand's West Coast, or the East and West Coasts of the United States.","Edinburgh for example is a city on the coast of Scotland.","A pelagic coast refers to a coast which fronts the open ocean, as opposed to a more sheltered coast in a gulf or bay.","A shore, on the other hand, can refer to parts of the land which adjoin any large body of water, including oceans (sea shore) and lakes (lake shore).","While many scientific experts might agree on a common definition of the term \"coast\", the delineation of the extents of a coast differ according to jurisdiction, with many scientific and government authorities in various countries differing for economic and social policy reasons.","According to the UN atlas, 44% of people live within of the sea.","Atlantic rocky coastline, showing a surf area.","Porto Covo, west coast of Portugal\nTides often determine the range over which sediment is deposited or eroded.","Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce deprossosition at a smaller elevation interval.","The tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline.","Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however, tidal bores can erode as the waves surge up river estuaries from the ocean.","Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves.","Coastlines with longer shores have more room for the waves to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed.","In these areas the wave energy breaking against the cliffs is higher, and air and water are compressed into cracks in the rock, forcing the rock apart, breaking it down.","Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and is moved along the coastline by the waves.","This forms an abrasion or cliffed coast.","Sediment deposited by rivers is the dominant influence on the amount of sediment located on a coastline.","Today riverine deposition at the coast is often blocked by dams and other human regulatory devices, which remove the sediment from the stream by causing it to be deposited inland.","Like the ocean which shapes them, coasts are a dynamic environment with constant change.","The Earth's natural processes, particularly sea level rises, waves and various weather phenomena, have resulted in the erosion, accretion and reshaping of coasts as well as flooding and creation of continental shelves and drowned river valleys (rias).","Somalia has the longest coastline in Africa\nThe coast and its adjacent areas on and off shore are an important part of a local ecosystem: the mixture of fresh water and salt water (brackish water) in estuaries provides many nutrients for marine life.","Salt marshes and beaches also support a diversity of plants, animals and insects crucial to the food chain.","The high level of biodiversity creates a high level of biological activity, which has attracted human activity for thousands of years.","\n===Human uses of coasts===\nThe Coastal Hazard Wheel system published by UNEP for global coastal management\nA settled coastline in Marblehead, Massachusetts.","Once a fishing port, the harbor is now dedicated to tourism and pleasure boating.","Observe that the sand and rocks have been darkened by oil slick up to the high-water line.","This stretch of coast in Tanzania's capital Dar es Salaam serves as a public waste dump.","Houses close to the coast, like these in Tiburon, California, may be especially desirable properties.","View of sea coast from top of a hill at Visakhapatnam in India\n\nMore and more of the world's people live in coastal regions.","Many major cities are on or near good harbors and have port facilities.","Some landlocked places have achieved port status by building canals.","The coast is a frontier that nations have typically defended against military invaders, smugglers and illegal migrants.","Fixed coastal defenses have long been erected in many nations and coastal countries typically have a navy and some form of coast guard.","Coasts, especially those with beaches and warm water, attract tourists.","In many island nations such as those of the Mediterranean, South Pacific and Caribbean, tourism is central to the economy.","Coasts offer recreational activities such as swimming, fishing, surfing, boating, and sunbathing.","Growth management can be a challenge for coastal local authorities who often struggle to provide the infrastructure required by new residents.","===Threats to a coast===\nCoasts also face many human-induced environmental impacts.","The human influence on climate change is thought to contribute to an accelerated trend in sea level rise which threatens coastal habitats.","Pollution can occur from a number of sources: garbage and industrial debris; the transportation of petroleum in tankers, increasing the probability of large oil spills; small oil spills created by large and small vessels, which flush bilge water into the ocean.","Fishing has declined due to habitat degradation, overfishing, trawling, bycatch and climate change.","Since the growth of global fishing enterprises after the 1950s, intensive fishing has spread from a few concentrated areas to encompass nearly all fisheries.","The scraping of the ocean floor in bottom dragging is devastating to coral, sponges and other long-lived species that do not recover quickly.","This destruction alters the functioning of the ecosystem and can permanently alter species composition and biodiversity.","Bycatch, the capture of unintended species in the course of fishing, is typically returned to the ocean only to die from injuries or exposure.","Bycatch represents about a quarter of all marine catch.","In the case of shrimp capture, the bycatch is five times larger than the shrimp caught.","It is believed that melting Arctic ice will cause sea levels to rise and flood coastal areas.","===Conservation===\nExtraordinary population growth in the 21st century has placed stress on the planet's ecosystems.","For example, on Saint Lucia, harvesting mangrove for timber and clearing for fishing reduced the mangrove forests, resulting in a loss of habitat and spawning grounds for marine life that was unique to the area.","These forests also helped to stabilize the coastline.","Conservation efforts since the 1980s have partially restored the ecosystem.","According to one principle of classification, an emergent coastline is a coastline which has experienced a fall in sea level, because of either a global sea level change, or local uplift.","Emergent coastlines are identifiable by the coastal landforms, which are above the high tide mark, such as raised beaches.","In contrast, a submergent coastline is one where the sea level has risen, due to a global sea level change, local subsidence, or isostatic rebound.","Submergent coastlines are identifiable by their submerged, or \"drowned\" landforms, such as rias (drowned valleys) and fjords.","According to a second principle of classification, a concordant coastline is a coastline where bands of different rock types run parallel to the shore.","These rock types are usually of varying resistance, so the coastline forms distinctive landforms, such as coves.","Discordant coastlines feature distinctive landforms because the rocks are eroded by ocean waves.","The less resistant rocks erode faster, creating inlets or bay; the more resistant rocks erode more slowly, remaining as headlands or outcroppings.","Other coastal categories:\n*A cliffed coast or abrasion coast is one where marine action has produced steep declivities known as cliffs.","*A flat coast is one where the land gradually descends into the sea.","*A graded shoreline is one where wind and water action has produced a flat and straight coastline.","Coastal landforms.","The feature shown here as a bay would, in certain (mainly southern) parts of Britain, be called a cove.","That between the cuspate foreland and the tombolo is a British bay.","The following articles describe some coastal landforms\n\n\n*Bay\n*Headland\n*Cove\n*Peninsula\n\n\n===Cliff erosion===\n* Much of the sediment deposited along a coast is the result of erosion of a surrounding cliff, or bluff.","Sea cliffs retreat landward because of the constant undercutting of slopes by waves.","If the slope/cliff being undercut is made of unconsolidated sediment it will erode at a much faster rate then a cliff made of bedrock.","*A natural arch is formed when a headland is eroded through by waves.","*Sea caves are made when certain rock beds are more susceptible to erosion than the surrounding rock beds because of different areas of weakness.","These areas are eroded at a faster pace creating a hole or crevice that, through time, by means of wave action and erosion, becomes a cave.","*A stack is formed when a headland is eroded away by wave and wind action.","*A stump is a shortened sea stack that has been eroded away or fallen because of instability.","* Wave-cut notches are caused by the undercutting of overhanging slopes which leads to increased stress on cliff material and a greater probability that the slope material will fall.","The fallen debris accumulates at the bottom of the cliff and is eventually removed by waves.","*A wave-cut platform forms after erosion and retreat of a sea cliff has been occurring for a long time.","Gently sloping wave-cut platforms develop early on in the first stages of cliff retreat.","Later, the length of the platform decreases because the waves lose their energy as they break further off shore.","===Coastal features formed by sediment===\n\n*Beach\n*Beach cusps\n*Raised beach\n*Cuspate foreland\n*Dune system\n*Mudflat\n*Ria\n*Shoal\n*Strand plain\n*Spit\n*Surge channel\n*Tombolo\n\n\n===Coastal features formed by another feature===\n*Lagoon\n*Salt marsh\n\n===Other features on the coast===\n\n*Concordant coastline\n*Discordant coastline\n*Fjord\n*Island\n*Island arc\n*Machair","The following articles describe the various geologic processes that affect a coastal zone:\n\n*Attrition\n*Currents\n*Denudation\n*Deposition\n*Erosion\n*Flooding\n*Longshore drift\n*Saltation\n*Sea level change\n**eustatic\n**isostatic\n*Sedimentation\n* Coastal sediment supply\n**sediment transport\n**solution\n**subaerial processes\n**suspension\n*Tides\n*Water waves\n**diffraction\n**refraction\n**wave breaking\n**wave shoaling\n*Weathering","\n\n===Animals===\nSome of the animals live along a typical coast.","There are animals like puffins, sea turtles and rockhopper penguins.","Sea snails and various kinds of barnacles live on the coast and scavenge on food deposited by the sea.","Most coastal animals are used to humans in developed areas, such as dolphins and seagulls who eat food thrown for them by tourists.","Since the coastal areas are all part of the littoral zone, there is a profusion of marine life found just off-coast.","There are many kinds of seabirds on the coast.","Pelicans and cormorants join up with terns and oystercatchers to forage for fish and shellfish on the coast.","There are sea lions on the coast of Wales and other countries.","===Plants===\nCoastal areas are famous for their kelp beds.","Kelp is a fast-growing seaweed that grows up to a metre a day.","Corals and sea anemones are true animals, but live a lifestyle similar to that of plants.","Mangroves, seagrasses and salt marsh are important coastal vegetation types in tropical and temperate environments respectively.","\n===Coastline problem===\n\n\nShortly before 1951, Lewis Fry Richardson, in researching the possible effect of border lengths on the probability of war, noticed that the Portuguese reported their measured border with Spain to be 987 km, but the Spanish reported it as 1214 km.","This was the beginning of the coastline problem, which is a mathematical uncertainty inherent in the measurement of boundaries that are irregular.","The prevailing method of estimating the length of a border (or coastline) was to lay out ''n'' equal straight-line segments of length ''ℓ'' with dividers on a map or aerial photograph.","Each end of the segment must be on the boundary.","Investigating the discrepancies in border estimation, Richardson discovered what is now termed the '''Richardson Effect''': the sum of the segments is inversely proportional to the common length of the segments.","In effect, the shorter the ruler, the longer the measured border; the Spanish and Portuguese geographers were simply using different-length rulers.","The result most astounding to Richardson is that, under certain circumstances, as ''ℓ'' approaches zero, the length of the coastline approaches infinity.","Richardson had believed, based on Euclidean geometry, that a coastline would approach a fixed length, as do similar estimations of regular geometric figures.","For example, the perimeter of a regular polygon inscribed in a circle approaches the circumference with increasing numbers of sides (and decrease in the length of one side).","In geometric measure theory such a smooth curve as the circle that can be approximated by small straight segments with a definite limit is termed a rectifiable curve.","===Measuring a coastline===\nMore than a decade after Richardson completed his work, Benoit Mandelbrot developed a new branch of mathematics, fractal geometry, to describe just such non-rectifiable complexes in nature as the infinite coastline.","His own definition of the new figure serving as the basis for his study is:\n\nA key property of the fractal is self-similarity; that is, at any scale the same general configuration appears.","A coastline is perceived as bays alternating with promontories.","In the hypothetical situation that a given coastline has this property of self-similarity, then no matter how greatly any one small section of coastline is magnified, a similar pattern of smaller bays and promontories superimposed on larger bays and promontories appears, right down to the grains of sand.","At that scale the coastline appears as a momentarily shifting, potentially infinitely long thread with a stochastic arrangement of bays and promontories formed from the small objects at hand.","In such an environment (as opposed to smooth curves) Mandelbrot asserts \"coastline length turns out to be an elusive notion that slips between the fingers of those who want to grasp it.\"","There are different kinds of fractals.","A coastline with the stated property is in \"a first category of fractals, namely curves whose fractal dimension is greater than 1.\"","That last statement represents an extension by Mandelbrot of Richardson's thought.","Mandelbrot's statement of the Richardson Effect is:\n\n:\n\nwhere L, coastline length, a function of the measurement unit, ε, is approximated by the expression.","F is a constant and D is a parameter that Richardson found depended on the coastline approximated by L. He gave no theoretical explanation but Mandelbrot identified D with a non-integer form of the Hausdorff dimension, later the fractal dimension.","Rearranging the right side of the expression obtains:\n\n:\n\nwhere Fε−D must be the number of units ε required to obtain L. The fractal dimension is the number of the dimensions of the figure being used to approximate the fractal: 0 for a dot, 1 for a line, 2 for a square.","D in the expression is between 1 and 2, for coastlines typically less than 1.5.","The broken line measuring the coast does not extend in one direction nor does it represent an area, but is intermediate.","It can be interpreted as a thick line or band of width 2ε.","More broken coastlines have greater D and therefore L is longer for the same ε. Mandelbrot showed that D is independent of ε.","\n*Ballantine scale\n*Coastal and Estuarine Research Federation\n*Coastal biogeomorphology\n*Coastal development hazards\n*Coastline of the North Sea\n*European Atlas of the Seas\n*How Long Is the Coast of Britain?","Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension\n*Land reclamation\n*List of beaches\n*List of countries by length of coastline\n*List of U.S. states by coastline\n*Marine debris\n*National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Climate and Societal Interactions Program\n*Nautical chart\n*Pole of inaccessibility\n*Seaside resort\n*Tombolo","* \n* \n* \n* \n*","\n* \n* \n*"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\n\\nRugged coastline of the West Coast Region of New Zealand\\nA '''coastline''' or a '''seashore''' is the area where land meets the sea or ocean, or a line that forms the boundary between the land and the ocean or a lake.\",\n \"A precise line that can be called a coastline cannot be determined due to the Coastline paradox.\",\n \"The term ''coastal zone'' is a region where interaction of the sea and land processes occurs.\",\n \"Both the terms coast and coastal are often used to describe a geographic location or region; for example, New Zealand's West Coast, or the East and West Coasts of the United States.\",\n \"Edinburgh for example is a city on the coast of Scotland.\",\n \"A pelagic coast refers to a coast which fronts the open ocean, as opposed to a more sheltered coast in a gulf or bay.\",\n \"A shore, on the other hand, can refer to parts of the land which adjoin any large body of water, including oceans (sea shore) and lakes (lake shore).\",\n \"While many scientific experts might agree on a common definition of the term \\\"coast\\\", the delineation of the extents of a coast differ according to jurisdiction, with many scientific and government authorities in various countries differing for economic and social policy reasons.\",\n \"According to the UN atlas, 44% of people live within of the sea.\",\n \"Atlantic rocky coastline, showing a surf area.\",\n \"Porto Covo, west coast of Portugal\\nTides often determine the range over which sediment is deposited or eroded.\",\n \"Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce deprossosition at a smaller elevation interval.\",\n \"The tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline.\",\n \"Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however, tidal bores can erode as the waves surge up river estuaries from the ocean.\",\n \"Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves.\",\n \"Coastlines with longer shores have more room for the waves to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed.\",\n \"In these areas the wave energy breaking against the cliffs is higher, and air and water are compressed into cracks in the rock, forcing the rock apart, breaking it down.\",\n \"Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and is moved along the coastline by the waves.\",\n \"This forms an abrasion or cliffed coast.\",\n \"Sediment deposited by rivers is the dominant influence on the amount of sediment located on a coastline.\",\n \"Today riverine deposition at the coast is often blocked by dams and other human regulatory devices, which remove the sediment from the stream by causing it to be deposited inland.\",\n \"Like the ocean which shapes them, coasts are a dynamic environment with constant change.\",\n \"The Earth's natural processes, particularly sea level rises, waves and various weather phenomena, have resulted in the erosion, accretion and reshaping of coasts as well as flooding and creation of continental shelves and drowned river valleys (rias).\",\n \"Somalia has the longest coastline in Africa\\nThe coast and its adjacent areas on and off shore are an important part of a local ecosystem: the mixture of fresh water and salt water (brackish water) in estuaries provides many nutrients for marine life.\",\n \"Salt marshes and beaches also support a diversity of plants, animals and insects crucial to the food chain.\",\n \"The high level of biodiversity creates a high level of biological activity, which has attracted human activity for thousands of years.\",\n \"\\n===Human uses of coasts===\\nThe Coastal Hazard Wheel system published by UNEP for global coastal management\\nA settled coastline in Marblehead, Massachusetts.\",\n \"Once a fishing port, the harbor is now dedicated to tourism and pleasure boating.\",\n \"Observe that the sand and rocks have been darkened by oil slick up to the high-water line.\",\n \"This stretch of coast in Tanzania's capital Dar es Salaam serves as a public waste dump.\",\n \"Houses close to the coast, like these in Tiburon, California, may be especially desirable properties.\",\n \"View of sea coast from top of a hill at Visakhapatnam in India\\n\\nMore and more of the world's people live in coastal regions.\",\n \"Many major cities are on or near good harbors and have port facilities.\",\n \"Some landlocked places have achieved port status by building canals.\",\n \"The coast is a frontier that nations have typically defended against military invaders, smugglers and illegal migrants.\",\n \"Fixed coastal defenses have long been erected in many nations and coastal countries typically have a navy and some form of coast guard.\",\n \"Coasts, especially those with beaches and warm water, attract tourists.\",\n \"In many island nations such as those of the Mediterranean, South Pacific and Caribbean, tourism is central to the economy.\",\n \"Coasts offer recreational activities such as swimming, fishing, surfing, boating, and sunbathing.\",\n \"Growth management can be a challenge for coastal local authorities who often struggle to provide the infrastructure required by new residents.\",\n \"===Threats to a coast===\\nCoasts also face many human-induced environmental impacts.\",\n \"The human influence on climate change is thought to contribute to an accelerated trend in sea level rise which threatens coastal habitats.\",\n \"Pollution can occur from a number of sources: garbage and industrial debris; the transportation of petroleum in tankers, increasing the probability of large oil spills; small oil spills created by large and small vessels, which flush bilge water into the ocean.\",\n \"Fishing has declined due to habitat degradation, overfishing, trawling, bycatch and climate change.\",\n \"Since the growth of global fishing enterprises after the 1950s, intensive fishing has spread from a few concentrated areas to encompass nearly all fisheries.\",\n \"The scraping of the ocean floor in bottom dragging is devastating to coral, sponges and other long-lived species that do not recover quickly.\",\n \"This destruction alters the functioning of the ecosystem and can permanently alter species composition and biodiversity.\",\n \"Bycatch, the capture of unintended species in the course of fishing, is typically returned to the ocean only to die from injuries or exposure.\",\n \"Bycatch represents about a quarter of all marine catch.\",\n \"In the case of shrimp capture, the bycatch is five times larger than the shrimp caught.\",\n \"It is believed that melting Arctic ice will cause sea levels to rise and flood coastal areas.\",\n \"===Conservation===\\nExtraordinary population growth in the 21st century has placed stress on the planet's ecosystems.\",\n \"For example, on Saint Lucia, harvesting mangrove for timber and clearing for fishing reduced the mangrove forests, resulting in a loss of habitat and spawning grounds for marine life that was unique to the area.\",\n \"These forests also helped to stabilize the coastline.\",\n \"Conservation efforts since the 1980s have partially restored the ecosystem.\",\n \"According to one principle of classification, an emergent coastline is a coastline which has experienced a fall in sea level, because of either a global sea level change, or local uplift.\",\n \"Emergent coastlines are identifiable by the coastal landforms, which are above the high tide mark, such as raised beaches.\",\n \"In contrast, a submergent coastline is one where the sea level has risen, due to a global sea level change, local subsidence, or isostatic rebound.\",\n \"Submergent coastlines are identifiable by their submerged, or \\\"drowned\\\" landforms, such as rias (drowned valleys) and fjords.\",\n \"According to a second principle of classification, a concordant coastline is a coastline where bands of different rock types run parallel to the shore.\",\n \"These rock types are usually of varying resistance, so the coastline forms distinctive landforms, such as coves.\",\n \"Discordant coastlines feature distinctive landforms because the rocks are eroded by ocean waves.\",\n \"The less resistant rocks erode faster, creating inlets or bay; the more resistant rocks erode more slowly, remaining as headlands or outcroppings.\",\n \"Other coastal categories:\\n*A cliffed coast or abrasion coast is one where marine action has produced steep declivities known as cliffs.\",\n \"*A flat coast is one where the land gradually descends into the sea.\",\n \"*A graded shoreline is one where wind and water action has produced a flat and straight coastline.\",\n \"Coastal landforms.\",\n \"The feature shown here as a bay would, in certain (mainly southern) parts of Britain, be called a cove.\",\n \"That between the cuspate foreland and the tombolo is a British bay.\",\n \"The following articles describe some coastal landforms\\n\\n\\n*Bay\\n*Headland\\n*Cove\\n*Peninsula\\n\\n\\n===Cliff erosion===\\n* Much of the sediment deposited along a coast is the result of erosion of a surrounding cliff, or bluff.\",\n \"Sea cliffs retreat landward because of the constant undercutting of slopes by waves.\",\n \"If the slope/cliff being undercut is made of unconsolidated sediment it will erode at a much faster rate then a cliff made of bedrock.\",\n \"*A natural arch is formed when a headland is eroded through by waves.\",\n \"*Sea caves are made when certain rock beds are more susceptible to erosion than the surrounding rock beds because of different areas of weakness.\",\n \"These areas are eroded at a faster pace creating a hole or crevice that, through time, by means of wave action and erosion, becomes a cave.\",\n \"*A stack is formed when a headland is eroded away by wave and wind action.\",\n \"*A stump is a shortened sea stack that has been eroded away or fallen because of instability.\",\n \"* Wave-cut notches are caused by the undercutting of overhanging slopes which leads to increased stress on cliff material and a greater probability that the slope material will fall.\",\n \"The fallen debris accumulates at the bottom of the cliff and is eventually removed by waves.\",\n \"*A wave-cut platform forms after erosion and retreat of a sea cliff has been occurring for a long time.\",\n \"Gently sloping wave-cut platforms develop early on in the first stages of cliff retreat.\",\n \"Later, the length of the platform decreases because the waves lose their energy as they break further off shore.\",\n \"===Coastal features formed by sediment===\\n\\n*Beach\\n*Beach cusps\\n*Raised beach\\n*Cuspate foreland\\n*Dune system\\n*Mudflat\\n*Ria\\n*Shoal\\n*Strand plain\\n*Spit\\n*Surge channel\\n*Tombolo\\n\\n\\n===Coastal features formed by another feature===\\n*Lagoon\\n*Salt marsh\\n\\n===Other features on the coast===\\n\\n*Concordant coastline\\n*Discordant coastline\\n*Fjord\\n*Island\\n*Island arc\\n*Machair\",\n \"The following articles describe the various geologic processes that affect a coastal zone:\\n\\n*Attrition\\n*Currents\\n*Denudation\\n*Deposition\\n*Erosion\\n*Flooding\\n*Longshore drift\\n*Saltation\\n*Sea level change\\n**eustatic\\n**isostatic\\n*Sedimentation\\n* Coastal sediment supply\\n**sediment transport\\n**solution\\n**subaerial processes\\n**suspension\\n*Tides\\n*Water waves\\n**diffraction\\n**refraction\\n**wave breaking\\n**wave shoaling\\n*Weathering\",\n \"\\n\\n===Animals===\\nSome of the animals live along a typical coast.\",\n \"There are animals like puffins, sea turtles and rockhopper penguins.\",\n \"Sea snails and various kinds of barnacles live on the coast and scavenge on food deposited by the sea.\",\n \"Most coastal animals are used to humans in developed areas, such as dolphins and seagulls who eat food thrown for them by tourists.\",\n \"Since the coastal areas are all part of the littoral zone, there is a profusion of marine life found just off-coast.\",\n \"There are many kinds of seabirds on the coast.\",\n \"Pelicans and cormorants join up with terns and oystercatchers to forage for fish and shellfish on the coast.\",\n \"There are sea lions on the coast of Wales and other countries.\",\n \"===Plants===\\nCoastal areas are famous for their kelp beds.\",\n \"Kelp is a fast-growing seaweed that grows up to a metre a day.\",\n \"Corals and sea anemones are true animals, but live a lifestyle similar to that of plants.\",\n \"Mangroves, seagrasses and salt marsh are important coastal vegetation types in tropical and temperate environments respectively.\",\n \"\\n===Coastline problem===\\n\\n\\nShortly before 1951, Lewis Fry Richardson, in researching the possible effect of border lengths on the probability of war, noticed that the Portuguese reported their measured border with Spain to be 987 km, but the Spanish reported it as 1214 km.\",\n \"This was the beginning of the coastline problem, which is a mathematical uncertainty inherent in the measurement of boundaries that are irregular.\",\n \"The prevailing method of estimating the length of a border (or coastline) was to lay out ''n'' equal straight-line segments of length ''ℓ'' with dividers on a map or aerial photograph.\",\n \"Each end of the segment must be on the boundary.\",\n \"Investigating the discrepancies in border estimation, Richardson discovered what is now termed the '''Richardson Effect''': the sum of the segments is inversely proportional to the common length of the segments.\",\n \"In effect, the shorter the ruler, the longer the measured border; the Spanish and Portuguese geographers were simply using different-length rulers.\",\n \"The result most astounding to Richardson is that, under certain circumstances, as ''ℓ'' approaches zero, the length of the coastline approaches infinity.\",\n \"Richardson had believed, based on Euclidean geometry, that a coastline would approach a fixed length, as do similar estimations of regular geometric figures.\",\n \"For example, the perimeter of a regular polygon inscribed in a circle approaches the circumference with increasing numbers of sides (and decrease in the length of one side).\",\n \"In geometric measure theory such a smooth curve as the circle that can be approximated by small straight segments with a definite limit is termed a rectifiable curve.\",\n \"===Measuring a coastline===\\nMore than a decade after Richardson completed his work, Benoit Mandelbrot developed a new branch of mathematics, fractal geometry, to describe just such non-rectifiable complexes in nature as the infinite coastline.\",\n \"His own definition of the new figure serving as the basis for his study is:\\n\\nA key property of the fractal is self-similarity; that is, at any scale the same general configuration appears.\",\n \"A coastline is perceived as bays alternating with promontories.\",\n \"In the hypothetical situation that a given coastline has this property of self-similarity, then no matter how greatly any one small section of coastline is magnified, a similar pattern of smaller bays and promontories superimposed on larger bays and promontories appears, right down to the grains of sand.\",\n \"At that scale the coastline appears as a momentarily shifting, potentially infinitely long thread with a stochastic arrangement of bays and promontories formed from the small objects at hand.\",\n \"In such an environment (as opposed to smooth curves) Mandelbrot asserts \\\"coastline length turns out to be an elusive notion that slips between the fingers of those who want to grasp it.\\\"\",\n \"There are different kinds of fractals.\",\n \"A coastline with the stated property is in \\\"a first category of fractals, namely curves whose fractal dimension is greater than 1.\\\"\",\n \"That last statement represents an extension by Mandelbrot of Richardson's thought.\",\n \"Mandelbrot's statement of the Richardson Effect is:\\n\\n:\\n\\nwhere L, coastline length, a function of the measurement unit, ε, is approximated by the expression.\",\n \"F is a constant and D is a parameter that Richardson found depended on the coastline approximated by L. He gave no theoretical explanation but Mandelbrot identified D with a non-integer form of the Hausdorff dimension, later the fractal dimension.\",\n \"Rearranging the right side of the expression obtains:\\n\\n:\\n\\nwhere Fε−D must be the number of units ε required to obtain L. The fractal dimension is the number of the dimensions of the figure being used to approximate the fractal: 0 for a dot, 1 for a line, 2 for a square.\",\n \"D in the expression is between 1 and 2, for coastlines typically less than 1.5.\",\n \"The broken line measuring the coast does not extend in one direction nor does it represent an area, but is intermediate.\",\n \"It can be interpreted as a thick line or band of width 2ε.\",\n \"More broken coastlines have greater D and therefore L is longer for the same ε. Mandelbrot showed that D is independent of ε.\",\n \"\\n*Ballantine scale\\n*Coastal and Estuarine Research Federation\\n*Coastal biogeomorphology\\n*Coastal development hazards\\n*Coastline of the North Sea\\n*European Atlas of the Seas\\n*How Long Is the Coast of Britain?\",\n \"Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension\\n*Land reclamation\\n*List of beaches\\n*List of countries by length of coastline\\n*List of U.S. states by coastline\\n*Marine debris\\n*National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Climate and Societal Interactions Program\\n*Nautical chart\\n*Pole of inaccessibility\\n*Seaside resort\\n*Tombolo\",\n \"* \\n* \\n* \\n* \\n*\",\n \"\\n* \\n* \\n*\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"river"}}},{"rowIdx":298,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n'''Crony capitalism''' is an economy in which businesses thrive not as a result of risk taken for them, but rather, as a return on money amassed through a nexus between a business class and the political class. This is done using state power to crush genuine competition in handing out permits, government grants, special tax breaks, or other forms of state intervention over resources where the state exercises monopolist control over public goods, for example, mining concessions for primary commodities or contracts for public works. Money is then made not merely by making a profit in the market, but by profiteering by 'rent seeking' using this monopoly or oligopoly. Entrepreneurship and innovative practices, which seek to reward risk are stifled, since the value-add is little by crony businesses as hardly anything of significant value is created by them, with transactions taking the form of 'trading'.\n\nCrony capitalism spills over into the government, the politics and the media, when this nexus distorts the economy and affects society to an extent it corrupts public-serving economic, political and social ideals.\n\nThe term \"crony capitalism\" made a significant impact in the public, as an explanation of the Asian financial crisis. It is also used to describe governmental decisions favoring \"cronies\" of governmental officials. In this context, the term is often used comparatively with corporate welfare, a technical term often used to assess government bailouts and favoritistic monetary policy, as opposed to the economic theory, described by \"crony capitalism\". The extent of difference between these terms is whether a government action can be said to benefit the individuals rather than the industry.\n","\n\n\nCrony capitalism exists along a continuum. In its lightest form, crony capitalism consists of collusion among market players which is officially tolerated or encouraged by the government. While perhaps lightly competing against each other, they will present a unified front (sometimes called a trade association or industry trade group) to the government in requesting subsidies or aid or regulation. Newcomers to a market then need to surmount significant \"barriers to entry\" for instance, in seeking loans, acquire shelf space, or receive official sanction. Some such systems are very formalized, such as sports leagues and the Medallion System of the taxicabs of New York City, but often the process is more subtle, such as expanding training and certification exams to make it more expensive for new entrants to enter a market and thereby limit competition. In technological fields, there may evolve a system whereby new entrants may be accused of infringing on patents that the established competitors never assert against each other. In spite of this, some competitors may succeed when the legal barriers are light. \n\nThe term crony capitalism is generally used when these practices come to dominate the economy as a whole or to dominate the most valuable industries in an economy. Intentionally ambiguous laws and regulations are common in such systems. Taken strictly, such laws would greatly impede practically all business; in practice, they are only erratically enforced. The specter of having such laws suddenly brought down upon a business provides incentive to stay in the good graces of political officials. Troublesome rivals who have overstepped their bounds can have the laws suddenly enforced against them, leading to fines or even jail time. Even in high-income democracies with well-established legal systems and freedom of the press in place, a larger state is associated with more political corruption.\n\nThe term ''crony capitalism'' was initially applied to states involved in the 1997 Asian financial crisis such as Thailand and Indonesia. In these cases, the term was used to point out how family members of the ruling leaders become extremely wealthy with no non-political justification. Southeast Asian nations still score very poorly in rankings measuring this. Hong Kong, and Malaysia are perhaps most noted for this, and the term has also been applied to the system of oligarchs in Russia.\n \nOther states to which the term has been applied include India, in particular, the system after the 1990s liberalization whereby land and other resources were given at throwaway prices in the name of public private partnerships, the more recent coal-gate scam and cheap allocation of land and resources to Adani SEZ under the Congress and BJP governments.\n\nSimilar references to crony capitalism have been made to other countries such as Argentina and Greece. Wu Jinglian, one of China's leading economists and a longtime advocate of its transition to free markets, says that it faces two starkly contrasting futures: a market economy under the rule of law or crony capitalism.\n\nMany prosperous nations have also had varying amounts of cronyism throughout their history including the United Kingdom, especially in the 1600s and 1700s, United States, and Japan.\n\n=== Crony capitalism index ===\n''The Economist'' benchmarks countries based on a \"crony-capitalism index\" calculated via how much economic activity occurs in industries prone to cronyism. Its 2014 Crony Capitalism Index ranking listed Hong Kong, Russia and Malaysia in the top 3 spots.\n","Crony capitalism in finance was found in the Second Bank of the United States. It was a private company, but its largest stockholder was the federal government which owned 20%. It was an early bank regulator and grew to be one being the most powerful organizations in the country due largely to being the depository of the government's revenue.\n\nThe Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act in 1999 completely removed Glass-Steagall’s separation between commercial banks and investment banks. After this repeal, commercial banks, investment banks, and insurance companies combined their lobbying efforts. Critics claim this was instrumental in the passage of the Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act of 2005.\n","\n\nMore direct government involvement in a specific sector can also lead to specific areas of crony capitalism, even if the economy as a whole may be competitive. This is most common in natural resource sectors through the granting of mining or drilling concessions, but it is also possible through a process known as regulatory capture where the government agencies in charge of regulating an industry come to be controlled by that industry. Governments will often, in good faith, establish government agencies to regulate an industry. However, the members of an industry have a very strong interest in the actions of that regulatory body, while the rest of the citizenry are only lightly affected. As a result, it is not uncommon for current industry players to gain control of the \"watchdog\" and to use it against competitors. This typically takes the form of making it very expensive for a new entrant to enter the market.\nAn 1824 landmark U.S. Supreme Court ruling overturned a New York State-granted monopoly (\"a veritable model of state munificence\" facilitated by one of the Founding Fathers, Robert R. Livingston) for the then-revolutionary technology of steamboats. Leveraging the Supreme Court's establishment of Congressional supremacy over commerce, the Interstate Commerce Commission was established in 1887 with the intent of regulating railroad \"robber barons\". President Grover Cleveland appointed Thomas M. Cooley, a railroad ally, as its first chairman and a permit system was used to deny access to new entrants and legalize price fixing.\n\nThe defense industry in the United States is often described as an example of crony capitalism in an industry. Connections with the Pentagon and lobbyists in Washington are described by critics as more important than actual competition, due to the political and secretive nature of defense contracts. In the Airbus-Boeing WTO dispute, Airbus (which receives outright subsidies from European governments) has stated Boeing receives similar subsidies, which are hidden as inefficient defense contracts. Other American defense companies were put under scrutiny for no-bid contracts for Iraq war and Hurricane Katrina related contracts purportedly due to having cronies in the Bush administration.\n\nGerald P. O'Driscoll, former vice president at the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, stated that Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac became examples of crony capitalism. Government backing let Fannie and Freddie dominate mortgage underwriting. \"The politicians created the mortgage giants, which then returned some of the profits to the pols—sometimes directly, as campaign funds; sometimes as \"contributions\" to favored constituents.\"\n","\nIn its worst form, crony capitalism can devolve into simple corruption, where any pretense of a free market is dispensed with. Bribes to government officials are considered ''de rigueur'' and tax evasion is common; this is seen in many parts of Africa, for instance. This is sometimes called plutocracy (rule by wealth) or kleptocracy (rule by theft).\n\nCorrupt governments may favor one set of business owners who have close ties to the government over others. This may also be done with racial, religious, or ethnic favoritism; for instance, Alawites in Syria have a disproportionate share of power in the government and business there. (President Assad is an Alawite.) This can be explained by considering personal relationships as a social network. As government and business leaders try to accomplish various things, they naturally turn to other powerful people for support in their endeavors. These people form hubs in the network. In a developing country those hubs may be very few, thus concentrating economic and political power in a small interlocking group.\n\nNormally, this will be untenable to maintain in business; new entrants will affect the market. However, if business and government are entwined, then the government can maintain the small-hub network.\n\nRaymond Vernon, specialist in economics and international affairs,\nwrote that the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, because they were the first to successfully limit the power of veto groups (typically cronies of those with power in government) to block innovations. \"Unlike most other national environments, the British environment of the early 19th century contained relatively few threats to those who improved and applied existing inventions, whether from business competitors, labor, or the government itself. In other European countries, by contrast, the merchant guilds ... were a pervasive source of veto for many centuries. This power was typically bestowed upon them by government\". For example, a Russian inventor produced a steam engine in 1766 and disappeared without a trace. \"A steam powered horseless carriage produced in France in 1769 was officially suppressed.\" James Watt began experimenting with steam in 1763, got a patent in 1769, and began commercial production in 1775.\n\nRaghuram Rajan, former governor of the Reserve Bank of India, has said \"One of the greatest dangers to the growth of developing countries is the middle income trap, where crony capitalism creates oligarchies that slow down growth. If the debate during the elections is any pointer, this is a very real concern of the public in India today.\" Tavleen Singh, columnist for ''The Indian Express'' has disagreed. According to her, India's corporate success is not a product of crony capitalism, but because India is no longer under the influence of crony socialism.\n","\nWhile the problem is generally accepted across the political spectrum, ideology shades the view of the problem's causes and therefore its solutions. Political views mostly fall into two camps which might be called the socialist and capitalist critique. The socialist position is that broadly democratic government must regulate economic, or wealthy, interests in order to restrict monopoly. The capitalist position is that \"natural monopolies\" are rare, therefore governmental regulations generally abet established wealthy interests by restricting competition.\n\n===Socialist critique===\nCritics of crony capitalism including socialists and anti-capitalists often assert that crony capitalism is the inevitable result of ''any'' strictly capitalist system. Jane Jacobs described it as a natural consequence of collusion between those managing power and trade, while Noam Chomsky has argued that the word \"crony\" is superfluous when describing capitalism. Since businesses make money and money leads to political power, business will inevitably use their power to influence governments. Much of the impetus behind campaign finance reform in the United States and in other countries is an attempt to prevent economic power being used to take political power.\n\nRavi Batra argues that \"all official economic measures adopted since 1981...have devastated the middle class\" and that the Occupy Wall Street movement should push for their repeal and thus end the influence of the super wealthy in the political process, which he considers a manifestation of crony capitalism.\n\nSocialist economists, such as Robin Hahnel, have criticized the term as an ideologically motivated attempt to cast what is in their view the fundamental problems of capitalism as avoidable irregularities. Socialist economists dismiss the term as an apologetic for failures of neoliberal policy and, more fundamentally, their perception of the weaknesses of market allocation.\n\n===Capitalist critique===\nSupporters of capitalism generally oppose crony capitalism as well, and consider it an aberration brought on by governmental favors incompatible with free market. In this view, crony capitalism is the result of an excess of socialist-style interference in the market, which inherently will result in a toxic combination of corporations and government officials running the sector of the economy. Some advocates prefer to equate this problem with terms such as \"corporatism, a modern form of mercantilism\" to emphasize that the only way to run a profitable business in such a system is to have help from corrupt government officials.\n\nEven if the initial regulation was well-intentioned (to curb actual abuses), and even if the initial lobbying by corporations was well-intentioned (to reduce illogical regulations), the mixture of business and government stifle competition, a collusive result called regulatory capture. Burton W. Folsom, Jr. distinguishes those that engage in crony capitalism—designated by him \"political entrepreneurs\"—from those who compete in the marketplace without special aid from government, whom he calls \"market entrepreneurs\". The market entrepreneurs, such as Hill, Vanderbilt, and Rockefeller, succeeded by producing a quality product at a competitive price. The political entrepreneurs, for example, Edward Collins in steamships and the leaders of the Union Pacific Railroad in railroads, were men who used the power of government to succeed. They tried to gain subsidies or in some way use government to stop competitors.\n","\n","\n","*\n","*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n* Khatri, Naresh (2013). Anatomy of Indian Brand of Crony Capitalism. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2335201.\n* http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/19626/1/WP0802.pdf\n","* New York Times, \"The Global Cost of Crony Capitalism\"\n* New York Times, \"Vladivostok Journal: Out of Russia's Gangland, and Into Cafe Society.\"\n* Joseph Stiglitz, \"Crony capitalism American-style\".\n* William Anderson, The Mises Institute, \"Myths About Enron\"\n* Crony capitalism: The actors of change towards neoliberalism in Chile, by Patricio Imbert and Patricio Morales\n* Will Africa Finally Take Off? Becker\n* Crony Chronicles – The Cronyism Resource\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n'''Crony capitalism''' is an economy in which businesses thrive not as a result of risk taken for them, but rather, as a return on money amassed through a nexus between a business class and the political class. This is done using state power to crush genuine competition in handing out permits, government grants, special tax breaks, or other forms of state intervention over resources where the state exercises monopolist control over public goods, for example, mining concessions for primary commodities or contracts for public works. Money is then made not merely by making a profit in the market, but by profiteering by 'rent seeking' using this monopoly or oligopoly. Entrepreneurship and innovative practices, which seek to reward risk are stifled, since the value-add is little by crony businesses as hardly anything of significant value is created by them, with transactions taking the form of 'trading'.\\n\\nCrony capitalism spills over into the government, the politics and the media, when this nexus distorts the economy and affects society to an extent it corrupts public-serving economic, political and social ideals.\\n\\nThe term \\\"crony capitalism\\\" made a significant impact in the public, as an explanation of the Asian financial crisis. It is also used to describe governmental decisions favoring \\\"cronies\\\" of governmental officials. In this context, the term is often used comparatively with corporate welfare, a technical term often used to assess government bailouts and favoritistic monetary policy, as opposed to the economic theory, described by \\\"crony capitalism\\\". The extent of difference between these terms is whether a government action can be said to benefit the individuals rather than the industry.\\n\",\n \"\\n\\n\\nCrony capitalism exists along a continuum. In its lightest form, crony capitalism consists of collusion among market players which is officially tolerated or encouraged by the government. While perhaps lightly competing against each other, they will present a unified front (sometimes called a trade association or industry trade group) to the government in requesting subsidies or aid or regulation. Newcomers to a market then need to surmount significant \\\"barriers to entry\\\" for instance, in seeking loans, acquire shelf space, or receive official sanction. Some such systems are very formalized, such as sports leagues and the Medallion System of the taxicabs of New York City, but often the process is more subtle, such as expanding training and certification exams to make it more expensive for new entrants to enter a market and thereby limit competition. In technological fields, there may evolve a system whereby new entrants may be accused of infringing on patents that the established competitors never assert against each other. In spite of this, some competitors may succeed when the legal barriers are light. \\n\\nThe term crony capitalism is generally used when these practices come to dominate the economy as a whole or to dominate the most valuable industries in an economy. Intentionally ambiguous laws and regulations are common in such systems. Taken strictly, such laws would greatly impede practically all business; in practice, they are only erratically enforced. The specter of having such laws suddenly brought down upon a business provides incentive to stay in the good graces of political officials. Troublesome rivals who have overstepped their bounds can have the laws suddenly enforced against them, leading to fines or even jail time. Even in high-income democracies with well-established legal systems and freedom of the press in place, a larger state is associated with more political corruption.\\n\\nThe term ''crony capitalism'' was initially applied to states involved in the 1997 Asian financial crisis such as Thailand and Indonesia. In these cases, the term was used to point out how family members of the ruling leaders become extremely wealthy with no non-political justification. Southeast Asian nations still score very poorly in rankings measuring this. Hong Kong, and Malaysia are perhaps most noted for this, and the term has also been applied to the system of oligarchs in Russia.\\n \\nOther states to which the term has been applied include India, in particular, the system after the 1990s liberalization whereby land and other resources were given at throwaway prices in the name of public private partnerships, the more recent coal-gate scam and cheap allocation of land and resources to Adani SEZ under the Congress and BJP governments.\\n\\nSimilar references to crony capitalism have been made to other countries such as Argentina and Greece. Wu Jinglian, one of China's leading economists and a longtime advocate of its transition to free markets, says that it faces two starkly contrasting futures: a market economy under the rule of law or crony capitalism.\\n\\nMany prosperous nations have also had varying amounts of cronyism throughout their history including the United Kingdom, especially in the 1600s and 1700s, United States, and Japan.\\n\\n=== Crony capitalism index ===\\n''The Economist'' benchmarks countries based on a \\\"crony-capitalism index\\\" calculated via how much economic activity occurs in industries prone to cronyism. Its 2014 Crony Capitalism Index ranking listed Hong Kong, Russia and Malaysia in the top 3 spots.\\n\",\n \"Crony capitalism in finance was found in the Second Bank of the United States. It was a private company, but its largest stockholder was the federal government which owned 20%. It was an early bank regulator and grew to be one being the most powerful organizations in the country due largely to being the depository of the government's revenue.\\n\\nThe Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act in 1999 completely removed Glass-Steagall’s separation between commercial banks and investment banks. After this repeal, commercial banks, investment banks, and insurance companies combined their lobbying efforts. Critics claim this was instrumental in the passage of the Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act of 2005.\\n\",\n \"\\n\\nMore direct government involvement in a specific sector can also lead to specific areas of crony capitalism, even if the economy as a whole may be competitive. This is most common in natural resource sectors through the granting of mining or drilling concessions, but it is also possible through a process known as regulatory capture where the government agencies in charge of regulating an industry come to be controlled by that industry. Governments will often, in good faith, establish government agencies to regulate an industry. However, the members of an industry have a very strong interest in the actions of that regulatory body, while the rest of the citizenry are only lightly affected. As a result, it is not uncommon for current industry players to gain control of the \\\"watchdog\\\" and to use it against competitors. This typically takes the form of making it very expensive for a new entrant to enter the market.\\nAn 1824 landmark U.S. Supreme Court ruling overturned a New York State-granted monopoly (\\\"a veritable model of state munificence\\\" facilitated by one of the Founding Fathers, Robert R. Livingston) for the then-revolutionary technology of steamboats. Leveraging the Supreme Court's establishment of Congressional supremacy over commerce, the Interstate Commerce Commission was established in 1887 with the intent of regulating railroad \\\"robber barons\\\". President Grover Cleveland appointed Thomas M. Cooley, a railroad ally, as its first chairman and a permit system was used to deny access to new entrants and legalize price fixing.\\n\\nThe defense industry in the United States is often described as an example of crony capitalism in an industry. Connections with the Pentagon and lobbyists in Washington are described by critics as more important than actual competition, due to the political and secretive nature of defense contracts. In the Airbus-Boeing WTO dispute, Airbus (which receives outright subsidies from European governments) has stated Boeing receives similar subsidies, which are hidden as inefficient defense contracts. Other American defense companies were put under scrutiny for no-bid contracts for Iraq war and Hurricane Katrina related contracts purportedly due to having cronies in the Bush administration.\\n\\nGerald P. O'Driscoll, former vice president at the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, stated that Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac became examples of crony capitalism. Government backing let Fannie and Freddie dominate mortgage underwriting. \\\"The politicians created the mortgage giants, which then returned some of the profits to the pols—sometimes directly, as campaign funds; sometimes as \\\"contributions\\\" to favored constituents.\\\"\\n\",\n \"\\nIn its worst form, crony capitalism can devolve into simple corruption, where any pretense of a free market is dispensed with. Bribes to government officials are considered ''de rigueur'' and tax evasion is common; this is seen in many parts of Africa, for instance. This is sometimes called plutocracy (rule by wealth) or kleptocracy (rule by theft).\\n\\nCorrupt governments may favor one set of business owners who have close ties to the government over others. This may also be done with racial, religious, or ethnic favoritism; for instance, Alawites in Syria have a disproportionate share of power in the government and business there. (President Assad is an Alawite.) This can be explained by considering personal relationships as a social network. As government and business leaders try to accomplish various things, they naturally turn to other powerful people for support in their endeavors. These people form hubs in the network. In a developing country those hubs may be very few, thus concentrating economic and political power in a small interlocking group.\\n\\nNormally, this will be untenable to maintain in business; new entrants will affect the market. However, if business and government are entwined, then the government can maintain the small-hub network.\\n\\nRaymond Vernon, specialist in economics and international affairs,\\nwrote that the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, because they were the first to successfully limit the power of veto groups (typically cronies of those with power in government) to block innovations. \\\"Unlike most other national environments, the British environment of the early 19th century contained relatively few threats to those who improved and applied existing inventions, whether from business competitors, labor, or the government itself. In other European countries, by contrast, the merchant guilds ... were a pervasive source of veto for many centuries. This power was typically bestowed upon them by government\\\". For example, a Russian inventor produced a steam engine in 1766 and disappeared without a trace. \\\"A steam powered horseless carriage produced in France in 1769 was officially suppressed.\\\" James Watt began experimenting with steam in 1763, got a patent in 1769, and began commercial production in 1775.\\n\\nRaghuram Rajan, former governor of the Reserve Bank of India, has said \\\"One of the greatest dangers to the growth of developing countries is the middle income trap, where crony capitalism creates oligarchies that slow down growth. If the debate during the elections is any pointer, this is a very real concern of the public in India today.\\\" Tavleen Singh, columnist for ''The Indian Express'' has disagreed. According to her, India's corporate success is not a product of crony capitalism, but because India is no longer under the influence of crony socialism.\\n\",\n \"\\nWhile the problem is generally accepted across the political spectrum, ideology shades the view of the problem's causes and therefore its solutions. Political views mostly fall into two camps which might be called the socialist and capitalist critique. The socialist position is that broadly democratic government must regulate economic, or wealthy, interests in order to restrict monopoly. The capitalist position is that \\\"natural monopolies\\\" are rare, therefore governmental regulations generally abet established wealthy interests by restricting competition.\\n\\n===Socialist critique===\\nCritics of crony capitalism including socialists and anti-capitalists often assert that crony capitalism is the inevitable result of ''any'' strictly capitalist system. Jane Jacobs described it as a natural consequence of collusion between those managing power and trade, while Noam Chomsky has argued that the word \\\"crony\\\" is superfluous when describing capitalism. Since businesses make money and money leads to political power, business will inevitably use their power to influence governments. Much of the impetus behind campaign finance reform in the United States and in other countries is an attempt to prevent economic power being used to take political power.\\n\\nRavi Batra argues that \\\"all official economic measures adopted since 1981...have devastated the middle class\\\" and that the Occupy Wall Street movement should push for their repeal and thus end the influence of the super wealthy in the political process, which he considers a manifestation of crony capitalism.\\n\\nSocialist economists, such as Robin Hahnel, have criticized the term as an ideologically motivated attempt to cast what is in their view the fundamental problems of capitalism as avoidable irregularities. Socialist economists dismiss the term as an apologetic for failures of neoliberal policy and, more fundamentally, their perception of the weaknesses of market allocation.\\n\\n===Capitalist critique===\\nSupporters of capitalism generally oppose crony capitalism as well, and consider it an aberration brought on by governmental favors incompatible with free market. In this view, crony capitalism is the result of an excess of socialist-style interference in the market, which inherently will result in a toxic combination of corporations and government officials running the sector of the economy. Some advocates prefer to equate this problem with terms such as \\\"corporatism, a modern form of mercantilism\\\" to emphasize that the only way to run a profitable business in such a system is to have help from corrupt government officials.\\n\\nEven if the initial regulation was well-intentioned (to curb actual abuses), and even if the initial lobbying by corporations was well-intentioned (to reduce illogical regulations), the mixture of business and government stifle competition, a collusive result called regulatory capture. Burton W. Folsom, Jr. distinguishes those that engage in crony capitalism—designated by him \\\"political entrepreneurs\\\"—from those who compete in the marketplace without special aid from government, whom he calls \\\"market entrepreneurs\\\". The market entrepreneurs, such as Hill, Vanderbilt, and Rockefeller, succeeded by producing a quality product at a competitive price. The political entrepreneurs, for example, Edward Collins in steamships and the leaders of the Union Pacific Railroad in railroads, were men who used the power of government to succeed. They tried to gain subsidies or in some way use government to stop competitors.\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"\\n\",\n \"*\\n\",\n \"*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n* Khatri, Naresh (2013). Anatomy of Indian Brand of Crony Capitalism. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2335201.\\n* http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/19626/1/WP0802.pdf\\n\",\n \"* New York Times, \\\"The Global Cost of Crony Capitalism\\\"\\n* New York Times, \\\"Vladivostok Journal: Out of Russia's Gangland, and Into Cafe Society.\\\"\\n* Joseph Stiglitz, \\\"Crony capitalism American-style\\\".\\n* William Anderson, The Mises Institute, \\\"Myths About Enron\\\"\\n* Crony capitalism: The actors of change towards neoliberalism in Chile, by Patricio Imbert and Patricio Morales\\n* Will Africa Finally Take Off? Becker\\n* Crony Chronicles – The Cronyism Resource\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction","In practice"," In finance ","In sections of an economy","In developing economies","Political viewpoints","See also","Notes","References","Further reading","External links"],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \"In practice\",\n \" In finance \",\n \"In sections of an economy\",\n \"In developing economies\",\n \"Political viewpoints\",\n \"See also\",\n \"Notes\",\n \"References\",\n \"Further reading\",\n \"External links\"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Crony capitalism"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["Crony capitalism in finance was found in the Second Bank of the United States.","It was an early bank regulator and grew to be one being the most powerful organizations in the country due largely to being the depository of the government's revenue.","Gerald P. O'Driscoll, former vice president at the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, stated that Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac became examples of crony capitalism.","Raghuram Rajan, former governor of the Reserve Bank of India, has said \"One of the greatest dangers to the growth of developing countries is the middle income trap, where crony capitalism creates oligarchies that slow down growth."],"string":"[\n \"Crony capitalism in finance was found in the Second Bank of the United States.\",\n \"It was an early bank regulator and grew to be one being the most powerful organizations in the country due largely to being the depository of the government's revenue.\",\n \"Gerald P. O'Driscoll, former vice president at the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, stated that Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac became examples of crony capitalism.\",\n \"Raghuram Rajan, former governor of the Reserve Bank of India, has said \\\"One of the greatest dangers to the growth of developing countries is the middle income trap, where crony capitalism creates oligarchies that slow down growth.\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n'''Crony capitalism''' is an economy in which businesses thrive not as a result of risk taken for them, but rather, as a return on money amassed through a nexus between a business class and the political class.","This is done using state power to crush genuine competition in handing out permits, government grants, special tax breaks, or other forms of state intervention over resources where the state exercises monopolist control over public goods, for example, mining concessions for primary commodities or contracts for public works.","Money is then made not merely by making a profit in the market, but by profiteering by 'rent seeking' using this monopoly or oligopoly.","Entrepreneurship and innovative practices, which seek to reward risk are stifled, since the value-add is little by crony businesses as hardly anything of significant value is created by them, with transactions taking the form of 'trading'.","Crony capitalism spills over into the government, the politics and the media, when this nexus distorts the economy and affects society to an extent it corrupts public-serving economic, political and social ideals.","The term \"crony capitalism\" made a significant impact in the public, as an explanation of the Asian financial crisis.","It is also used to describe governmental decisions favoring \"cronies\" of governmental officials.","In this context, the term is often used comparatively with corporate welfare, a technical term often used to assess government bailouts and favoritistic monetary policy, as opposed to the economic theory, described by \"crony capitalism\".","The extent of difference between these terms is whether a government action can be said to benefit the individuals rather than the industry.","\n\n\nCrony capitalism exists along a continuum.","In its lightest form, crony capitalism consists of collusion among market players which is officially tolerated or encouraged by the government.","While perhaps lightly competing against each other, they will present a unified front (sometimes called a trade association or industry trade group) to the government in requesting subsidies or aid or regulation.","Newcomers to a market then need to surmount significant \"barriers to entry\" for instance, in seeking loans, acquire shelf space, or receive official sanction.","Some such systems are very formalized, such as sports leagues and the Medallion System of the taxicabs of New York City, but often the process is more subtle, such as expanding training and certification exams to make it more expensive for new entrants to enter a market and thereby limit competition.","In technological fields, there may evolve a system whereby new entrants may be accused of infringing on patents that the established competitors never assert against each other.","In spite of this, some competitors may succeed when the legal barriers are light.","The term crony capitalism is generally used when these practices come to dominate the economy as a whole or to dominate the most valuable industries in an economy.","Intentionally ambiguous laws and regulations are common in such systems.","Taken strictly, such laws would greatly impede practically all business; in practice, they are only erratically enforced.","The specter of having such laws suddenly brought down upon a business provides incentive to stay in the good graces of political officials.","Troublesome rivals who have overstepped their bounds can have the laws suddenly enforced against them, leading to fines or even jail time.","Even in high-income democracies with well-established legal systems and freedom of the press in place, a larger state is associated with more political corruption.","The term ''crony capitalism'' was initially applied to states involved in the 1997 Asian financial crisis such as Thailand and Indonesia.","In these cases, the term was used to point out how family members of the ruling leaders become extremely wealthy with no non-political justification.","Southeast Asian nations still score very poorly in rankings measuring this.","Hong Kong, and Malaysia are perhaps most noted for this, and the term has also been applied to the system of oligarchs in Russia.","Other states to which the term has been applied include India, in particular, the system after the 1990s liberalization whereby land and other resources were given at throwaway prices in the name of public private partnerships, the more recent coal-gate scam and cheap allocation of land and resources to Adani SEZ under the Congress and BJP governments.","Similar references to crony capitalism have been made to other countries such as Argentina and Greece.","Wu Jinglian, one of China's leading economists and a longtime advocate of its transition to free markets, says that it faces two starkly contrasting futures: a market economy under the rule of law or crony capitalism.","Many prosperous nations have also had varying amounts of cronyism throughout their history including the United Kingdom, especially in the 1600s and 1700s, United States, and Japan.","=== Crony capitalism index ===\n''The Economist'' benchmarks countries based on a \"crony-capitalism index\" calculated via how much economic activity occurs in industries prone to cronyism.","Its 2014 Crony Capitalism Index ranking listed Hong Kong, Russia and Malaysia in the top 3 spots.","It was a private company, but its largest stockholder was the federal government which owned 20%.","The Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act in 1999 completely removed Glass-Steagall’s separation between commercial banks and investment banks.","After this repeal, commercial banks, investment banks, and insurance companies combined their lobbying efforts.","Critics claim this was instrumental in the passage of the Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act of 2005.","\n\nMore direct government involvement in a specific sector can also lead to specific areas of crony capitalism, even if the economy as a whole may be competitive.","This is most common in natural resource sectors through the granting of mining or drilling concessions, but it is also possible through a process known as regulatory capture where the government agencies in charge of regulating an industry come to be controlled by that industry.","Governments will often, in good faith, establish government agencies to regulate an industry.","However, the members of an industry have a very strong interest in the actions of that regulatory body, while the rest of the citizenry are only lightly affected.","As a result, it is not uncommon for current industry players to gain control of the \"watchdog\" and to use it against competitors.","This typically takes the form of making it very expensive for a new entrant to enter the market.","An 1824 landmark U.S. Supreme Court ruling overturned a New York State-granted monopoly (\"a veritable model of state munificence\" facilitated by one of the Founding Fathers, Robert R. Livingston) for the then-revolutionary technology of steamboats.","Leveraging the Supreme Court's establishment of Congressional supremacy over commerce, the Interstate Commerce Commission was established in 1887 with the intent of regulating railroad \"robber barons\".","President Grover Cleveland appointed Thomas M. Cooley, a railroad ally, as its first chairman and a permit system was used to deny access to new entrants and legalize price fixing.","The defense industry in the United States is often described as an example of crony capitalism in an industry.","Connections with the Pentagon and lobbyists in Washington are described by critics as more important than actual competition, due to the political and secretive nature of defense contracts.","In the Airbus-Boeing WTO dispute, Airbus (which receives outright subsidies from European governments) has stated Boeing receives similar subsidies, which are hidden as inefficient defense contracts.","Other American defense companies were put under scrutiny for no-bid contracts for Iraq war and Hurricane Katrina related contracts purportedly due to having cronies in the Bush administration.","Government backing let Fannie and Freddie dominate mortgage underwriting.","\"The politicians created the mortgage giants, which then returned some of the profits to the pols—sometimes directly, as campaign funds; sometimes as \"contributions\" to favored constituents.\"","\nIn its worst form, crony capitalism can devolve into simple corruption, where any pretense of a free market is dispensed with.","Bribes to government officials are considered ''de rigueur'' and tax evasion is common; this is seen in many parts of Africa, for instance.","This is sometimes called plutocracy (rule by wealth) or kleptocracy (rule by theft).","Corrupt governments may favor one set of business owners who have close ties to the government over others.","This may also be done with racial, religious, or ethnic favoritism; for instance, Alawites in Syria have a disproportionate share of power in the government and business there.","(President Assad is an Alawite.)","This can be explained by considering personal relationships as a social network.","As government and business leaders try to accomplish various things, they naturally turn to other powerful people for support in their endeavors.","These people form hubs in the network.","In a developing country those hubs may be very few, thus concentrating economic and political power in a small interlocking group.","Normally, this will be untenable to maintain in business; new entrants will affect the market.","However, if business and government are entwined, then the government can maintain the small-hub network.","Raymond Vernon, specialist in economics and international affairs,\nwrote that the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, because they were the first to successfully limit the power of veto groups (typically cronies of those with power in government) to block innovations.","\"Unlike most other national environments, the British environment of the early 19th century contained relatively few threats to those who improved and applied existing inventions, whether from business competitors, labor, or the government itself.","In other European countries, by contrast, the merchant guilds ... were a pervasive source of veto for many centuries.","This power was typically bestowed upon them by government\".","For example, a Russian inventor produced a steam engine in 1766 and disappeared without a trace.","\"A steam powered horseless carriage produced in France in 1769 was officially suppressed.\"","James Watt began experimenting with steam in 1763, got a patent in 1769, and began commercial production in 1775.","If the debate during the elections is any pointer, this is a very real concern of the public in India today.\"","Tavleen Singh, columnist for ''The Indian Express'' has disagreed.","According to her, India's corporate success is not a product of crony capitalism, but because India is no longer under the influence of crony socialism.","\nWhile the problem is generally accepted across the political spectrum, ideology shades the view of the problem's causes and therefore its solutions.","Political views mostly fall into two camps which might be called the socialist and capitalist critique.","The socialist position is that broadly democratic government must regulate economic, or wealthy, interests in order to restrict monopoly.","The capitalist position is that \"natural monopolies\" are rare, therefore governmental regulations generally abet established wealthy interests by restricting competition.","===Socialist critique===\nCritics of crony capitalism including socialists and anti-capitalists often assert that crony capitalism is the inevitable result of ''any'' strictly capitalist system.","Jane Jacobs described it as a natural consequence of collusion between those managing power and trade, while Noam Chomsky has argued that the word \"crony\" is superfluous when describing capitalism.","Since businesses make money and money leads to political power, business will inevitably use their power to influence governments.","Much of the impetus behind campaign finance reform in the United States and in other countries is an attempt to prevent economic power being used to take political power.","Ravi Batra argues that \"all official economic measures adopted since 1981...have devastated the middle class\" and that the Occupy Wall Street movement should push for their repeal and thus end the influence of the super wealthy in the political process, which he considers a manifestation of crony capitalism.","Socialist economists, such as Robin Hahnel, have criticized the term as an ideologically motivated attempt to cast what is in their view the fundamental problems of capitalism as avoidable irregularities.","Socialist economists dismiss the term as an apologetic for failures of neoliberal policy and, more fundamentally, their perception of the weaknesses of market allocation.","===Capitalist critique===\nSupporters of capitalism generally oppose crony capitalism as well, and consider it an aberration brought on by governmental favors incompatible with free market.","In this view, crony capitalism is the result of an excess of socialist-style interference in the market, which inherently will result in a toxic combination of corporations and government officials running the sector of the economy.","Some advocates prefer to equate this problem with terms such as \"corporatism, a modern form of mercantilism\" to emphasize that the only way to run a profitable business in such a system is to have help from corrupt government officials.","Even if the initial regulation was well-intentioned (to curb actual abuses), and even if the initial lobbying by corporations was well-intentioned (to reduce illogical regulations), the mixture of business and government stifle competition, a collusive result called regulatory capture.","Burton W. Folsom, Jr. distinguishes those that engage in crony capitalism—designated by him \"political entrepreneurs\"—from those who compete in the marketplace without special aid from government, whom he calls \"market entrepreneurs\".","The market entrepreneurs, such as Hill, Vanderbilt, and Rockefeller, succeeded by producing a quality product at a competitive price.","The political entrepreneurs, for example, Edward Collins in steamships and the leaders of the Union Pacific Railroad in railroads, were men who used the power of government to succeed.","They tried to gain subsidies or in some way use government to stop competitors.","*","*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n* Khatri, Naresh (2013).","Anatomy of Indian Brand of Crony Capitalism.","http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2335201.","* http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/19626/1/WP0802.pdf","* New York Times, \"The Global Cost of Crony Capitalism\"\n* New York Times, \"Vladivostok Journal: Out of Russia's Gangland, and Into Cafe Society.\"","* Joseph Stiglitz, \"Crony capitalism American-style\".","* William Anderson, The Mises Institute, \"Myths About Enron\"\n* Crony capitalism: The actors of change towards neoliberalism in Chile, by Patricio Imbert and Patricio Morales\n* Will Africa Finally Take Off?","Becker\n* Crony Chronicles – The Cronyism Resource"],"string":"[\n \"\\n'''Crony capitalism''' is an economy in which businesses thrive not as a result of risk taken for them, but rather, as a return on money amassed through a nexus between a business class and the political class.\",\n \"This is done using state power to crush genuine competition in handing out permits, government grants, special tax breaks, or other forms of state intervention over resources where the state exercises monopolist control over public goods, for example, mining concessions for primary commodities or contracts for public works.\",\n \"Money is then made not merely by making a profit in the market, but by profiteering by 'rent seeking' using this monopoly or oligopoly.\",\n \"Entrepreneurship and innovative practices, which seek to reward risk are stifled, since the value-add is little by crony businesses as hardly anything of significant value is created by them, with transactions taking the form of 'trading'.\",\n \"Crony capitalism spills over into the government, the politics and the media, when this nexus distorts the economy and affects society to an extent it corrupts public-serving economic, political and social ideals.\",\n \"The term \\\"crony capitalism\\\" made a significant impact in the public, as an explanation of the Asian financial crisis.\",\n \"It is also used to describe governmental decisions favoring \\\"cronies\\\" of governmental officials.\",\n \"In this context, the term is often used comparatively with corporate welfare, a technical term often used to assess government bailouts and favoritistic monetary policy, as opposed to the economic theory, described by \\\"crony capitalism\\\".\",\n \"The extent of difference between these terms is whether a government action can be said to benefit the individuals rather than the industry.\",\n \"\\n\\n\\nCrony capitalism exists along a continuum.\",\n \"In its lightest form, crony capitalism consists of collusion among market players which is officially tolerated or encouraged by the government.\",\n \"While perhaps lightly competing against each other, they will present a unified front (sometimes called a trade association or industry trade group) to the government in requesting subsidies or aid or regulation.\",\n \"Newcomers to a market then need to surmount significant \\\"barriers to entry\\\" for instance, in seeking loans, acquire shelf space, or receive official sanction.\",\n \"Some such systems are very formalized, such as sports leagues and the Medallion System of the taxicabs of New York City, but often the process is more subtle, such as expanding training and certification exams to make it more expensive for new entrants to enter a market and thereby limit competition.\",\n \"In technological fields, there may evolve a system whereby new entrants may be accused of infringing on patents that the established competitors never assert against each other.\",\n \"In spite of this, some competitors may succeed when the legal barriers are light.\",\n \"The term crony capitalism is generally used when these practices come to dominate the economy as a whole or to dominate the most valuable industries in an economy.\",\n \"Intentionally ambiguous laws and regulations are common in such systems.\",\n \"Taken strictly, such laws would greatly impede practically all business; in practice, they are only erratically enforced.\",\n \"The specter of having such laws suddenly brought down upon a business provides incentive to stay in the good graces of political officials.\",\n \"Troublesome rivals who have overstepped their bounds can have the laws suddenly enforced against them, leading to fines or even jail time.\",\n \"Even in high-income democracies with well-established legal systems and freedom of the press in place, a larger state is associated with more political corruption.\",\n \"The term ''crony capitalism'' was initially applied to states involved in the 1997 Asian financial crisis such as Thailand and Indonesia.\",\n \"In these cases, the term was used to point out how family members of the ruling leaders become extremely wealthy with no non-political justification.\",\n \"Southeast Asian nations still score very poorly in rankings measuring this.\",\n \"Hong Kong, and Malaysia are perhaps most noted for this, and the term has also been applied to the system of oligarchs in Russia.\",\n \"Other states to which the term has been applied include India, in particular, the system after the 1990s liberalization whereby land and other resources were given at throwaway prices in the name of public private partnerships, the more recent coal-gate scam and cheap allocation of land and resources to Adani SEZ under the Congress and BJP governments.\",\n \"Similar references to crony capitalism have been made to other countries such as Argentina and Greece.\",\n \"Wu Jinglian, one of China's leading economists and a longtime advocate of its transition to free markets, says that it faces two starkly contrasting futures: a market economy under the rule of law or crony capitalism.\",\n \"Many prosperous nations have also had varying amounts of cronyism throughout their history including the United Kingdom, especially in the 1600s and 1700s, United States, and Japan.\",\n \"=== Crony capitalism index ===\\n''The Economist'' benchmarks countries based on a \\\"crony-capitalism index\\\" calculated via how much economic activity occurs in industries prone to cronyism.\",\n \"Its 2014 Crony Capitalism Index ranking listed Hong Kong, Russia and Malaysia in the top 3 spots.\",\n \"It was a private company, but its largest stockholder was the federal government which owned 20%.\",\n \"The Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act in 1999 completely removed Glass-Steagall’s separation between commercial banks and investment banks.\",\n \"After this repeal, commercial banks, investment banks, and insurance companies combined their lobbying efforts.\",\n \"Critics claim this was instrumental in the passage of the Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act of 2005.\",\n \"\\n\\nMore direct government involvement in a specific sector can also lead to specific areas of crony capitalism, even if the economy as a whole may be competitive.\",\n \"This is most common in natural resource sectors through the granting of mining or drilling concessions, but it is also possible through a process known as regulatory capture where the government agencies in charge of regulating an industry come to be controlled by that industry.\",\n \"Governments will often, in good faith, establish government agencies to regulate an industry.\",\n \"However, the members of an industry have a very strong interest in the actions of that regulatory body, while the rest of the citizenry are only lightly affected.\",\n \"As a result, it is not uncommon for current industry players to gain control of the \\\"watchdog\\\" and to use it against competitors.\",\n \"This typically takes the form of making it very expensive for a new entrant to enter the market.\",\n \"An 1824 landmark U.S. Supreme Court ruling overturned a New York State-granted monopoly (\\\"a veritable model of state munificence\\\" facilitated by one of the Founding Fathers, Robert R. Livingston) for the then-revolutionary technology of steamboats.\",\n \"Leveraging the Supreme Court's establishment of Congressional supremacy over commerce, the Interstate Commerce Commission was established in 1887 with the intent of regulating railroad \\\"robber barons\\\".\",\n \"President Grover Cleveland appointed Thomas M. Cooley, a railroad ally, as its first chairman and a permit system was used to deny access to new entrants and legalize price fixing.\",\n \"The defense industry in the United States is often described as an example of crony capitalism in an industry.\",\n \"Connections with the Pentagon and lobbyists in Washington are described by critics as more important than actual competition, due to the political and secretive nature of defense contracts.\",\n \"In the Airbus-Boeing WTO dispute, Airbus (which receives outright subsidies from European governments) has stated Boeing receives similar subsidies, which are hidden as inefficient defense contracts.\",\n \"Other American defense companies were put under scrutiny for no-bid contracts for Iraq war and Hurricane Katrina related contracts purportedly due to having cronies in the Bush administration.\",\n \"Government backing let Fannie and Freddie dominate mortgage underwriting.\",\n \"\\\"The politicians created the mortgage giants, which then returned some of the profits to the pols—sometimes directly, as campaign funds; sometimes as \\\"contributions\\\" to favored constituents.\\\"\",\n \"\\nIn its worst form, crony capitalism can devolve into simple corruption, where any pretense of a free market is dispensed with.\",\n \"Bribes to government officials are considered ''de rigueur'' and tax evasion is common; this is seen in many parts of Africa, for instance.\",\n \"This is sometimes called plutocracy (rule by wealth) or kleptocracy (rule by theft).\",\n \"Corrupt governments may favor one set of business owners who have close ties to the government over others.\",\n \"This may also be done with racial, religious, or ethnic favoritism; for instance, Alawites in Syria have a disproportionate share of power in the government and business there.\",\n \"(President Assad is an Alawite.)\",\n \"This can be explained by considering personal relationships as a social network.\",\n \"As government and business leaders try to accomplish various things, they naturally turn to other powerful people for support in their endeavors.\",\n \"These people form hubs in the network.\",\n \"In a developing country those hubs may be very few, thus concentrating economic and political power in a small interlocking group.\",\n \"Normally, this will be untenable to maintain in business; new entrants will affect the market.\",\n \"However, if business and government are entwined, then the government can maintain the small-hub network.\",\n \"Raymond Vernon, specialist in economics and international affairs,\\nwrote that the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, because they were the first to successfully limit the power of veto groups (typically cronies of those with power in government) to block innovations.\",\n \"\\\"Unlike most other national environments, the British environment of the early 19th century contained relatively few threats to those who improved and applied existing inventions, whether from business competitors, labor, or the government itself.\",\n \"In other European countries, by contrast, the merchant guilds ... were a pervasive source of veto for many centuries.\",\n \"This power was typically bestowed upon them by government\\\".\",\n \"For example, a Russian inventor produced a steam engine in 1766 and disappeared without a trace.\",\n \"\\\"A steam powered horseless carriage produced in France in 1769 was officially suppressed.\\\"\",\n \"James Watt began experimenting with steam in 1763, got a patent in 1769, and began commercial production in 1775.\",\n \"If the debate during the elections is any pointer, this is a very real concern of the public in India today.\\\"\",\n \"Tavleen Singh, columnist for ''The Indian Express'' has disagreed.\",\n \"According to her, India's corporate success is not a product of crony capitalism, but because India is no longer under the influence of crony socialism.\",\n \"\\nWhile the problem is generally accepted across the political spectrum, ideology shades the view of the problem's causes and therefore its solutions.\",\n \"Political views mostly fall into two camps which might be called the socialist and capitalist critique.\",\n \"The socialist position is that broadly democratic government must regulate economic, or wealthy, interests in order to restrict monopoly.\",\n \"The capitalist position is that \\\"natural monopolies\\\" are rare, therefore governmental regulations generally abet established wealthy interests by restricting competition.\",\n \"===Socialist critique===\\nCritics of crony capitalism including socialists and anti-capitalists often assert that crony capitalism is the inevitable result of ''any'' strictly capitalist system.\",\n \"Jane Jacobs described it as a natural consequence of collusion between those managing power and trade, while Noam Chomsky has argued that the word \\\"crony\\\" is superfluous when describing capitalism.\",\n \"Since businesses make money and money leads to political power, business will inevitably use their power to influence governments.\",\n \"Much of the impetus behind campaign finance reform in the United States and in other countries is an attempt to prevent economic power being used to take political power.\",\n \"Ravi Batra argues that \\\"all official economic measures adopted since 1981...have devastated the middle class\\\" and that the Occupy Wall Street movement should push for their repeal and thus end the influence of the super wealthy in the political process, which he considers a manifestation of crony capitalism.\",\n \"Socialist economists, such as Robin Hahnel, have criticized the term as an ideologically motivated attempt to cast what is in their view the fundamental problems of capitalism as avoidable irregularities.\",\n \"Socialist economists dismiss the term as an apologetic for failures of neoliberal policy and, more fundamentally, their perception of the weaknesses of market allocation.\",\n \"===Capitalist critique===\\nSupporters of capitalism generally oppose crony capitalism as well, and consider it an aberration brought on by governmental favors incompatible with free market.\",\n \"In this view, crony capitalism is the result of an excess of socialist-style interference in the market, which inherently will result in a toxic combination of corporations and government officials running the sector of the economy.\",\n \"Some advocates prefer to equate this problem with terms such as \\\"corporatism, a modern form of mercantilism\\\" to emphasize that the only way to run a profitable business in such a system is to have help from corrupt government officials.\",\n \"Even if the initial regulation was well-intentioned (to curb actual abuses), and even if the initial lobbying by corporations was well-intentioned (to reduce illogical regulations), the mixture of business and government stifle competition, a collusive result called regulatory capture.\",\n \"Burton W. Folsom, Jr. distinguishes those that engage in crony capitalism—designated by him \\\"political entrepreneurs\\\"—from those who compete in the marketplace without special aid from government, whom he calls \\\"market entrepreneurs\\\".\",\n \"The market entrepreneurs, such as Hill, Vanderbilt, and Rockefeller, succeeded by producing a quality product at a competitive price.\",\n \"The political entrepreneurs, for example, Edward Collins in steamships and the leaders of the Union Pacific Railroad in railroads, were men who used the power of government to succeed.\",\n \"They tried to gain subsidies or in some way use government to stop competitors.\",\n \"*\",\n \"*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n* Khatri, Naresh (2013).\",\n \"Anatomy of Indian Brand of Crony Capitalism.\",\n \"http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2335201.\",\n \"* http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/19626/1/WP0802.pdf\",\n \"* New York Times, \\\"The Global Cost of Crony Capitalism\\\"\\n* New York Times, \\\"Vladivostok Journal: Out of Russia's Gangland, and Into Cafe Society.\\\"\",\n \"* Joseph Stiglitz, \\\"Crony capitalism American-style\\\".\",\n \"* William Anderson, The Mises Institute, \\\"Myths About Enron\\\"\\n* Crony capitalism: The actors of change towards neoliberalism in Chile, by Patricio Imbert and Patricio Morales\\n* Will Africa Finally Take Off?\",\n \"Becker\\n* Crony Chronicles – The Cronyism Resource\"\n]"},"labels":{"kind":"string","value":"finance"}}},{"rowIdx":299,"cells":{"section_texts":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\nA '''car''' is a wheeled motor vehicle used for transporting passengers.\n\n'''Car''', '''Cars''', '''CAR''' or '''CARs''' may also refer to:\n\n","* Central African Republic\n* Cordillera Administrative Region, a region of the Philippines\n* Car, Azerbaijan, a village\n* Čar, a village in Serbia\n* Cars, Gironde, France, a commune\n* Les Cars, Haute-Vienne, France, a commune\n","* Railroad car\n* The cab of an elevator\n* A streetcar or trolley car\n* In capital letters, Canada Atlantic Railway, 1879–1914\n* In capital letters, Canadian Atlantic Railway, 1986–1994\n","===Films===\n* ''The Car'', a 1977 suspense-horror film\n* ''The Car'' (1997 film), a Malayalam film\n* ''Cars'' (franchise), a Disney/Pixar film series\n** ''Cars'' (film), a 2006 computer animated film from Disney and Pixar\n** ''Cars 2'', the 2011 sequel\n** ''Cars 3'', the 2017 sequel\n** ''Cars'' (video game), a video game based on the film\n** ''Cars 2'' (video game), a video game based on the sequel\n* ''Cars 3'' (2009 film), a 2008 comedy action film not related to the Disney/Pixar series\n\n===Music===\n* The Cars, an American rock band\n** ''The Cars'' (album)\n* ''C.A.R.'' (album), a 2012 album by American hip hop artist Serengeti\n* ''Peter Gabriel'' (1977 album), one of four albums of that name, often distinguished as \"Car\" because of its cover illustration\n* ''Cars'' (Now, Now Every Children album), a 2008 album\n** \"Cars\", a song on the album\n* ''Cars'', an album by Kris Delmhorst \n* ''Cars'', a soundtrack album for the film ''Cars''\n* \"Car\", a song by Built to Spill on their 1994 album ''There's Nothing Wrong with Love''\n* \"The Car\" (song), by Jeff Carson\n* \"Cars\" (song), a 1979 single by Gary Numan and covered by Fear Factory\n\n===Other===\n* ''Cars'' (painting), a series of paintings by Andy Warhol\n* ''The Car'' (Brack), a 1955 painting by John Brack\n* ''The Car'' (novel), by Gary Paulsen\n* \"The Car\" (''The Assistants'' episode), the first episode of the Nickelodeon sitcom\n* ''Car'' (magazine), a British auto-enthusiast publication\n* Car, a television ident for BBC Two\n","* Capital adequacy ratio, a ratio of a bank's capital to its risk\n* Cost Accrual Ratio, an accounting formula\n* Cumulative average return, a financial concept related to the time value of money\n* Cumulative abnormal return\n","* Carina (constellation), astronomical constellation abbreviation \"Car\"\n* Canonical anticommutation relation, a concept in quantum field theory\n* Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy\n* Catecholamine releaser, a hormone releaser\n* Cocksackie Adenovirus Receptor, alternative symbol CAR for the human gene CXADR\n* Constitutive androstane receptor\n* Cortisol awakening response, a physiological response when a person wakes up\n* Chimeric antigen receptor, artificial T cell receptors\n* Childhood Autism Rating Scale\n* Clock with Adaptive Replacement, a page replacement algorithm\n* CAR and CDR, computer programming operations first introduced in the LISP language\n* Computer-assisted reporting, the use of computers in researching news stories\n* Computer-assisted reviewing, the use of computer software for more effective text reviewing\n* C.a.R. (Z.u.L.) \"compass and ruler\", geometry software\n","* Canadian Airborne Regiment, a Canadian Forces formation\n* Combat Action Ribbon, a United States military decoration\n* Colt Automatic Rifle, a 5.56mm NATO firearm\n* CAR-15, a family of AR-15 and M16 rifle-based firearms\n* U.S. Army Combat Arms Regimental System a 1950s reorganisation of the regiments of the US Army\n","* Action Committee for Renewal (''Comité d'Action pour la Renouveau''), a political party of Togo\n* Children of the American Revolution, a genealogical society\n* Rugby Africa, formerly known as Confederation of African Rugby\n* Confederation of Asia Roller Sports, a sports federation\n* Carolina Panthers, a professional football team in Charlotte, North Carolina\n","* Car (King of Caria)\n* Car (King of Megara)\n* Car (surname)\n* Jean-François Cars (1670–1739), a French engraver\n* Laurent Cars (1699–1771), a French designer and engraver\n","* Car language, the most widely spoken of the Nicobarese languages\n* Central apparatus room, an equipment room found at broadcasting facilities\n* Contractor's all risk (CAR) insurance, see builder's risk insurance\n* Criminal Appeal Reports\n* Cable television relay service station\n* CARs or Canadian Aviation Regulations\n* Caucasian Achievement and Recognition Scholarship\n* Car Allowance Rebate System, a.k.a. the Consumer Assistance to Recycle and Save program\n* Customer Access and Retrieval System\n* The spelling of tsar in several Slavic languages\n","* Carr (disambiguation)\n* Le Car (disambiguation)\n* Passenger car (disambiguation)\n* \n* \n\n"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\nA '''car''' is a wheeled motor vehicle used for transporting passengers.\\n\\n'''Car''', '''Cars''', '''CAR''' or '''CARs''' may also refer to:\\n\\n\",\n \"* Central African Republic\\n* Cordillera Administrative Region, a region of the Philippines\\n* Car, Azerbaijan, a village\\n* Čar, a village in Serbia\\n* Cars, Gironde, France, a commune\\n* Les Cars, Haute-Vienne, France, a commune\\n\",\n \"* Railroad car\\n* The cab of an elevator\\n* A streetcar or trolley car\\n* In capital letters, Canada Atlantic Railway, 1879–1914\\n* In capital letters, Canadian Atlantic Railway, 1986–1994\\n\",\n \"===Films===\\n* ''The Car'', a 1977 suspense-horror film\\n* ''The Car'' (1997 film), a Malayalam film\\n* ''Cars'' (franchise), a Disney/Pixar film series\\n** ''Cars'' (film), a 2006 computer animated film from Disney and Pixar\\n** ''Cars 2'', the 2011 sequel\\n** ''Cars 3'', the 2017 sequel\\n** ''Cars'' (video game), a video game based on the film\\n** ''Cars 2'' (video game), a video game based on the sequel\\n* ''Cars 3'' (2009 film), a 2008 comedy action film not related to the Disney/Pixar series\\n\\n===Music===\\n* The Cars, an American rock band\\n** ''The Cars'' (album)\\n* ''C.A.R.'' (album), a 2012 album by American hip hop artist Serengeti\\n* ''Peter Gabriel'' (1977 album), one of four albums of that name, often distinguished as \\\"Car\\\" because of its cover illustration\\n* ''Cars'' (Now, Now Every Children album), a 2008 album\\n** \\\"Cars\\\", a song on the album\\n* ''Cars'', an album by Kris Delmhorst \\n* ''Cars'', a soundtrack album for the film ''Cars''\\n* \\\"Car\\\", a song by Built to Spill on their 1994 album ''There's Nothing Wrong with Love''\\n* \\\"The Car\\\" (song), by Jeff Carson\\n* \\\"Cars\\\" (song), a 1979 single by Gary Numan and covered by Fear Factory\\n\\n===Other===\\n* ''Cars'' (painting), a series of paintings by Andy Warhol\\n* ''The Car'' (Brack), a 1955 painting by John Brack\\n* ''The Car'' (novel), by Gary Paulsen\\n* \\\"The Car\\\" (''The Assistants'' episode), the first episode of the Nickelodeon sitcom\\n* ''Car'' (magazine), a British auto-enthusiast publication\\n* Car, a television ident for BBC Two\\n\",\n \"* Capital adequacy ratio, a ratio of a bank's capital to its risk\\n* Cost Accrual Ratio, an accounting formula\\n* Cumulative average return, a financial concept related to the time value of money\\n* Cumulative abnormal return\\n\",\n \"* Carina (constellation), astronomical constellation abbreviation \\\"Car\\\"\\n* Canonical anticommutation relation, a concept in quantum field theory\\n* Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy\\n* Catecholamine releaser, a hormone releaser\\n* Cocksackie Adenovirus Receptor, alternative symbol CAR for the human gene CXADR\\n* Constitutive androstane receptor\\n* Cortisol awakening response, a physiological response when a person wakes up\\n* Chimeric antigen receptor, artificial T cell receptors\\n* Childhood Autism Rating Scale\\n* Clock with Adaptive Replacement, a page replacement algorithm\\n* CAR and CDR, computer programming operations first introduced in the LISP language\\n* Computer-assisted reporting, the use of computers in researching news stories\\n* Computer-assisted reviewing, the use of computer software for more effective text reviewing\\n* C.a.R. (Z.u.L.) \\\"compass and ruler\\\", geometry software\\n\",\n \"* Canadian Airborne Regiment, a Canadian Forces formation\\n* Combat Action Ribbon, a United States military decoration\\n* Colt Automatic Rifle, a 5.56mm NATO firearm\\n* CAR-15, a family of AR-15 and M16 rifle-based firearms\\n* U.S. Army Combat Arms Regimental System a 1950s reorganisation of the regiments of the US Army\\n\",\n \"* Action Committee for Renewal (''Comité d'Action pour la Renouveau''), a political party of Togo\\n* Children of the American Revolution, a genealogical society\\n* Rugby Africa, formerly known as Confederation of African Rugby\\n* Confederation of Asia Roller Sports, a sports federation\\n* Carolina Panthers, a professional football team in Charlotte, North Carolina\\n\",\n \"* Car (King of Caria)\\n* Car (King of Megara)\\n* Car (surname)\\n* Jean-François Cars (1670–1739), a French engraver\\n* Laurent Cars (1699–1771), a French designer and engraver\\n\",\n \"* Car language, the most widely spoken of the Nicobarese languages\\n* Central apparatus room, an equipment room found at broadcasting facilities\\n* Contractor's all risk (CAR) insurance, see builder's risk insurance\\n* Criminal Appeal Reports\\n* Cable television relay service station\\n* CARs or Canadian Aviation Regulations\\n* Caucasian Achievement and Recognition Scholarship\\n* Car Allowance Rebate System, a.k.a. the Consumer Assistance to Recycle and Save program\\n* Customer Access and Retrieval System\\n* The spelling of tsar in several Slavic languages\\n\",\n \"* Carr (disambiguation)\\n* Le Car (disambiguation)\\n* Passenger car (disambiguation)\\n* \\n* \\n\\n\"\n]"},"section_titles":{"kind":"list like","value":["Introduction","Places","Transportation","Arts and entertainment","Economics and finance","Science and technology","Military and firearms","Organisations","People","Other","See also"],"string":"[\n \"Introduction\",\n \"Places\",\n \"Transportation\",\n \"Arts and entertainment\",\n \"Economics and finance\",\n \"Science and technology\",\n \"Military and firearms\",\n \"Organisations\",\n \"People\",\n \"Other\",\n \"See also\"\n]"},"title":{"kind":"string","value":"Car (disambiguation)"},"soi":{"kind":"list like","value":["* Capital adequacy ratio, a ratio of a bank's capital to its risk\n* Cost Accrual Ratio, an accounting formula\n* Cumulative average return, a financial concept related to the time value of money\n* Cumulative abnormal return"],"string":"[\n \"* Capital adequacy ratio, a ratio of a bank's capital to its risk\\n* Cost Accrual Ratio, an accounting formula\\n* Cumulative average return, a financial concept related to the time value of money\\n* Cumulative abnormal return\"\n]"},"other":{"kind":"list like","value":["\n\nA '''car''' is a wheeled motor vehicle used for transporting passengers.","'''Car''', '''Cars''', '''CAR''' or '''CARs''' may also refer to:","* Central African Republic\n* Cordillera Administrative Region, a region of the Philippines\n* Car, Azerbaijan, a village\n* Čar, a village in Serbia\n* Cars, Gironde, France, a commune\n* Les Cars, Haute-Vienne, France, a commune","* Railroad car\n* The cab of an elevator\n* A streetcar or trolley car\n* In capital letters, Canada Atlantic Railway, 1879–1914\n* In capital letters, Canadian Atlantic Railway, 1986–1994","===Films===\n* ''The Car'', a 1977 suspense-horror film\n* ''The Car'' (1997 film), a Malayalam film\n* ''Cars'' (franchise), a Disney/Pixar film series\n** ''Cars'' (film), a 2006 computer animated film from Disney and Pixar\n** ''Cars 2'', the 2011 sequel\n** ''Cars 3'', the 2017 sequel\n** ''Cars'' (video game), a video game based on the film\n** ''Cars 2'' (video game), a video game based on the sequel\n* ''Cars 3'' (2009 film), a 2008 comedy action film not related to the Disney/Pixar series\n\n===Music===\n* The Cars, an American rock band\n** ''The Cars'' (album)\n* ''C.A.R.''","(album), a 2012 album by American hip hop artist Serengeti\n* ''Peter Gabriel'' (1977 album), one of four albums of that name, often distinguished as \"Car\" because of its cover illustration\n* ''Cars'' (Now, Now Every Children album), a 2008 album\n** \"Cars\", a song on the album\n* ''Cars'', an album by Kris Delmhorst \n* ''Cars'', a soundtrack album for the film ''Cars''\n* \"Car\", a song by Built to Spill on their 1994 album ''There's Nothing Wrong with Love''\n* \"The Car\" (song), by Jeff Carson\n* \"Cars\" (song), a 1979 single by Gary Numan and covered by Fear Factory\n\n===Other===\n* ''Cars'' (painting), a series of paintings by Andy Warhol\n* ''The Car'' (Brack), a 1955 painting by John Brack\n* ''The Car'' (novel), by Gary Paulsen\n* \"The Car\" (''The Assistants'' episode), the first episode of the Nickelodeon sitcom\n* ''Car'' (magazine), a British auto-enthusiast publication\n* Car, a television ident for BBC Two","* Carina (constellation), astronomical constellation abbreviation \"Car\"\n* Canonical anticommutation relation, a concept in quantum field theory\n* Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy\n* Catecholamine releaser, a hormone releaser\n* Cocksackie Adenovirus Receptor, alternative symbol CAR for the human gene CXADR\n* Constitutive androstane receptor\n* Cortisol awakening response, a physiological response when a person wakes up\n* Chimeric antigen receptor, artificial T cell receptors\n* Childhood Autism Rating Scale\n* Clock with Adaptive Replacement, a page replacement algorithm\n* CAR and CDR, computer programming operations first introduced in the LISP language\n* Computer-assisted reporting, the use of computers in researching news stories\n* Computer-assisted reviewing, the use of computer software for more effective text reviewing\n* C.a.R.","(Z.u.L.)","\"compass and ruler\", geometry software","* Canadian Airborne Regiment, a Canadian Forces formation\n* Combat Action Ribbon, a United States military decoration\n* Colt Automatic Rifle, a 5.56mm NATO firearm\n* CAR-15, a family of AR-15 and M16 rifle-based firearms\n* U.S. Army Combat Arms Regimental System a 1950s reorganisation of the regiments of the US Army","* Action Committee for Renewal (''Comité d'Action pour la Renouveau''), a political party of Togo\n* Children of the American Revolution, a genealogical society\n* Rugby Africa, formerly known as Confederation of African Rugby\n* Confederation of Asia Roller Sports, a sports federation\n* Carolina Panthers, a professional football team in Charlotte, North Carolina","* Car (King of Caria)\n* Car (King of Megara)\n* Car (surname)\n* Jean-François Cars (1670–1739), a French engraver\n* Laurent Cars (1699–1771), a French designer and engraver","* Car language, the most widely spoken of the Nicobarese languages\n* Central apparatus room, an equipment room found at broadcasting facilities\n* Contractor's all risk (CAR) insurance, see builder's risk insurance\n* Criminal Appeal Reports\n* Cable television relay service station\n* CARs or Canadian Aviation Regulations\n* Caucasian Achievement and Recognition Scholarship\n* Car Allowance Rebate System, a.k.a.","the Consumer Assistance to Recycle and Save program\n* Customer Access and Retrieval System\n* The spelling of tsar in several Slavic languages","* Carr (disambiguation)\n* Le Car (disambiguation)\n* Passenger car (disambiguation)\n* \n*"],"string":"[\n \"\\n\\nA '''car''' is a wheeled motor vehicle used for transporting passengers.\",\n \"'''Car''', '''Cars''', '''CAR''' or '''CARs''' may also refer to:\",\n \"* Central African Republic\\n* Cordillera Administrative Region, a region of the Philippines\\n* Car, Azerbaijan, a village\\n* Čar, a village in Serbia\\n* Cars, Gironde, France, a commune\\n* Les Cars, Haute-Vienne, France, a commune\",\n \"* Railroad car\\n* The cab of an elevator\\n* A streetcar or trolley car\\n* In capital letters, Canada Atlantic Railway, 1879–1914\\n* In capital letters, Canadian Atlantic Railway, 1986–1994\",\n \"===Films===\\n* ''The Car'', a 1977 suspense-horror film\\n* ''The Car'' (1997 film), a Malayalam film\\n* ''Cars'' (franchise), a Disney/Pixar film series\\n** ''Cars'' (film), a 2006 computer animated film from Disney and Pixar\\n** ''Cars 2'', the 2011 sequel\\n** ''Cars 3'', the 2017 sequel\\n** ''Cars'' (video game), a video game based on the film\\n** ''Cars 2'' (video game), a video game based on the sequel\\n* ''Cars 3'' (2009 film), a 2008 comedy action film not related to the Disney/Pixar series\\n\\n===Music===\\n* The Cars, an American rock band\\n** ''The Cars'' (album)\\n* ''C.A.R.''\",\n \"(album), a 2012 album by American hip hop artist Serengeti\\n* ''Peter Gabriel'' (1977 album), one of four albums of that name, often distinguished as \\\"Car\\\" because of its cover illustration\\n* ''Cars'' (Now, Now Every Children album), a 2008 album\\n** \\\"Cars\\\", a song on the album\\n* ''Cars'', an album by Kris Delmhorst \\n* ''Cars'', a soundtrack album for the film ''Cars''\\n* \\\"Car\\\", a song by Built to Spill on their 1994 album ''There's Nothing Wrong with Love''\\n* \\\"The Car\\\" (song), by Jeff Carson\\n* \\\"Cars\\\" (song), a 1979 single by Gary Numan and covered by Fear Factory\\n\\n===Other===\\n* ''Cars'' (painting), a series of paintings by Andy Warhol\\n* ''The Car'' (Brack), a 1955 painting by John Brack\\n* ''The Car'' (novel), by Gary Paulsen\\n* \\\"The Car\\\" (''The Assistants'' episode), the first episode of the Nickelodeon sitcom\\n* ''Car'' (magazine), a British auto-enthusiast publication\\n* Car, a television ident for BBC Two\",\n \"* Carina (constellation), astronomical constellation abbreviation \\\"Car\\\"\\n* Canonical anticommutation relation, a concept in quantum field theory\\n* Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy\\n* Catecholamine releaser, a hormone releaser\\n* Cocksackie Adenovirus Receptor, alternative symbol CAR for the human gene CXADR\\n* Constitutive androstane receptor\\n* Cortisol awakening response, a physiological response when a person wakes up\\n* Chimeric antigen receptor, artificial T cell receptors\\n* Childhood Autism Rating Scale\\n* Clock with Adaptive Replacement, a page replacement algorithm\\n* CAR and CDR, computer programming operations first introduced in the LISP language\\n* Computer-assisted reporting, the use of computers in researching news stories\\n* Computer-assisted reviewing, the use of computer software for more effective text reviewing\\n* C.a.R.\",\n \"(Z.u.L.)\",\n \"\\\"compass and ruler\\\", geometry software\",\n \"* Canadian Airborne Regiment, a Canadian Forces formation\\n* Combat Action Ribbon, a United States military decoration\\n* Colt Automatic Rifle, a 5.56mm NATO firearm\\n* CAR-15, a family of AR-15 and M16 rifle-based firearms\\n* U.S. Army Combat Arms Regimental System a 1950s reorganisation of the regiments of the US Army\",\n \"* Action Committee for Renewal (''Comité d'Action pour la Renouveau''), a political party of Togo\\n* Children of the American Revolution, a genealogical society\\n* Rugby Africa, formerly known as Confederation of African Rugby\\n* Confederation of Asia Roller Sports, a sports federation\\n* Carolina Panthers, a professional football team in Charlotte, North Carolina\",\n \"* Car (King of Caria)\\n* Car (King of Megara)\\n* Car (surname)\\n* Jean-François Cars (1670–1739), a French engraver\\n* Laurent Cars (1699–1771), a French designer and engraver\",\n \"* Car language, the most widely spoken of the Nicobarese languages\\n* Central apparatus room, an equipment room found at broadcasting facilities\\n* Contractor's all risk (CAR) insurance, see builder's risk insurance\\n* Criminal Appeal Reports\\n* Cable television relay service station\\n* CARs or Canadian Aviation Regulations\\n* Caucasian Achievement and Recognition Scholarship\\n* Car Allowance Rebate System, a.k.a.\",\n \"the Consumer Assistance to Recycle and Save program\\n* Customer Access and Retrieval System\\n* The spelling of tsar in several Slavic 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"\n\n\n'''Boney M.''' is a vocal group created by German record producer Frank Farian. Originally based in West Germany, the four original members of the group's official line-up were Liz Mitchell and Marcia Barrett from Jamaica, Maizie Williams from Montserrat and Bobby Farrell from Aruba. The group was formed in 1976 and achieved popularity during the disco era of the late 1970s. Since the 1980s, various line-ups of the band have performed with different personnel.\n\nWith more than 150 million records sold, they are one of the best-selling artists of all time.\n",
"\n=== 1970s === \nGerman singer-songwriter Frank Farian (real name Franz Reuther) recorded the dance track \"Baby Do You Wanna Bump\" in December 1974. Farian sang the repeated line \"Do you do you wanna bump?\" in a deep voice (entirely studio created) as well as performing the high falsetto chorus. When the record was released as a single, it was credited to \"Boney M.\", a pseudonym Farian had created for himself after watching the Australian detective show ''Boney''.\n\n:I turned on the TV one day and it was the end of a detective series. I just caught the credits and it said Boney. Nice name, I thought – Boney, Boney, Boney... Boney M. Boney, Boney, Boney M. Nice sound. Simple.\n\nAfter a slow start, the song became a hit in the Netherlands and Belgium. It was then that Farian decided to hire performers to 'front' the group for TV performances. Farian found Maizie Williams (originally from Montserrat) who brought in Bobby Farrell, a male exotic dancer from Aruba. Singer Marcia Barrett (also from Jamaica) joined the group, who brought in Liz Mitchell, former member of the Les Humphries Singers and Boney M was finalised.\n\n==== ''Take the Heat off Me'' ====\nBoney M.'s first album, ''Take the Heat off Me'', was released in 1976. It contained tracks that Marcia Barrett had already recorded with Farian, including the title track and \"Lovin' or Leavin'\", both of which were previously recorded in German by another Farian act, Gilla. As Maizie Williams' voice wasn't considered suitable for recording purposes by Farian, and a try-out with Bobby Farrell performing \"No Woman No Cry\" didn't work, Farian decided to use only Liz Mitchell and Marcia Barrett along with his own studio-enhanced voice to create the Boney M. sound.\n\nThe album's commercial performance was initially lukewarm. However, the group rigorously toured discos, clubs and even country fairs to earn a reputation for themselves. The group's big break came when, at the end of summer 1976, German television producer Michael 'Mike' Leckebusch (of Radio Bremen) requested the group for his show ''Musikladen''. Boney M. appeared on the live music show on 18 September 1976, after 10 pm and in their daring stage costumes, where they performed the song \"Daddy Cool\". The song quickly went to no.1 in Germany, with the album following the success of the single. Another single, \"Sunny\" (a cover of the 1966 Bobby Hebb song) gave the group their second no.1 hit. The group's popularity had also grown throughout Europe, with \"Daddy Cool\" reaching no.1 in Switzerland, Sweden, Norway, and Austria. Both singles were also Top 10 hits in the UK, which would become one of their biggest markets.\n\n==== ''Love for Sale'' ====\nIn 1977, Boney M. released their second album, ''Love for Sale'', which contained the hits \"Ma Baker\" and \"Belfast\". The group embarked on their first major concert tours with a live band of musicians called 'The Black Beauty Circus' (given their name after Maizie Williams' first band, 'Black Beautiful People'). ''Love for Sale'' was certified Gold a year after its release in the UK. Both singles from the album reached no.1 in Germany and the UK Top 10.\n\n==== ''Nightflight to Venus'' ====\n1978 was the group's biggest year. They released a new double A-sided single, \"Rivers of Babylon/Brown Girl in the Ring\", which became a massive hit all over Europe, reaching No. 1 in several countries as well as becoming one of the biggest selling singles of all time in the UK. It also became their most successful single in the United States, peaking at No. 30 on the U.S. pop singles chart. Following this came their biggest-selling album, ''Nightflight to Venus'', which spawned further hit singles with \"Rasputin\" and \"Painter Man\". Continuing with their success, they released \"Mary's Boy Child – Oh My Lord\", which was the 1978 Christmas number one single in the United Kingdom and became another of the biggest selling singles of all time there. Also during 1978, Boney M. made a much publicized promotional visit to the Soviet Union, one of the very few Western acts along with Elton John to do so, although tracks like \"Rasputin\" were not released in the Soviet Union due to their lyrics.\n\nWhile it had never been a secret that Bobby Farrell never sang on the group's records (Farian did the male vocals in the studio), in 1978 it became public knowledge that Maizie Williams did not sing on the studio recordings either since \"her voice wasn't suited for this kind of music\", as Farian stated in an interview with German teen magazine ''Bravo''. Since this had become common practice within the disco genre of the late '70s, few people cared – unlike when Farian did the same thing with Milli Vanilli in the late 1980s. While only two of Boney M.'s official members actually contributed to the band's records, all four members of the group, including Williams and Farrell, performed the vocals live at Boney M. concerts. The band's live sound was also augmented by several backing vocalists, which served to enhance any vocal deficiencies the group may have had compared with the studio productions.\n\n==== ''Oceans of Fantasy'' ====\n1979 saw Boney M. release a brand new single, \"Hooray! Hooray! It's a Holi-Holiday\", which became another Top 10 hit across Europe. Later in the year they released their fourth album, ''Oceans of Fantasy'', containing two hit singles – \"Gotta Go Home\"/\"El Lute\" and \"I'm Born Again\"/\"Bahama Mama\". The album also included a \"Lead\" and \"Backing Vocals\" credit for the first time. ''Oceans of Fantasy'' reached no.1 in the UK and was certified Platinum, though their run of Top 10 singles had now ended with \"Gotta Go Home\" peaking at no.12 and \"I'm Born Again\" peaking at 35.\n\n=== 1980s ===\nIn 1980, Boney M. released a greatest hits album, ''The Magic of Boney M. – 20 Golden Hits'', which also contained two new songs, \"My Friend Jack\" and \"I See a Boat on the River\". It made the No. 1 spot in the UK, reaching Gold status within six weeks of release, though it was their last big-selling album in the UK.\n\n==== ''Boonoonoonoos'' ====\nBoney M.'s fifth album had been scheduled for release in November 1980 but the recording sessions dragged on all through 1981. When ''Boonoonoonoos'' was finally released by the end of that year, Bobby Farrell was fired from the group due to his unreliability. While still a healthy seller in continental Europe, \"Boonoonoonoos\" failed to crack the UK Top 100 after three consecutive No. 1 albums, and Farrell's departure left the group unable to promote it. Following this, the group released a ''Christmas Album''.\n\n==== ''Ten Thousand Lightyears'' ====\nReggie Tsiboe was hired to replace Farrell as the new male member of Boney M. in 1982 but the singles \"The Carnival Is Over\" and \"Jambo\" fared poorly, and the group's seventh album ''Ten Thousand Lightyears'', issued in 1984, marked another commercial low point peaking at #23 in the German album charts. The group, however, returned to the German Top 20 in the autumn of 1984 with \"Kalimba de Luna\" (a Top 10 hit in France) and \"Happy Song\", the latter seeing Bobby Farrell return to the group. Both songs were carbon-copies of the original Italian hits by Tony Esposito and Baby's Gang respectively.\n\n==== ''Eye Dance'' ====\nBy 1985, Farian clearly began losing interest in the group, and their final and eighth studio album ''Eye Dance'' was widely regarded as uninspired and disappointing. After celebrating Boney M.'s 10th anniversary in early 1986, the group officially disbanded after the release of the commercially unsuccessful single 'Young, Free and Single' (still: #49 in the German charts).\n\n=== Later years ===\nFrom this point, different versions of the group were formed by members, some with cooperation of Farian, others without (for example by independently obtaining the rights to use the Boney M. name in a different country). One version began touring in the first half of 1987 with Marilyn Scharbaai (Carrilho) taking Liz Mitchell's place. Mitchell returned for a second leg of the tour late 1987, and Marcia Barrett soon left the band. At the same time, Bobby Farrell had set up a deal for a new Boney M. album to be recorded without Farian in Belgium. When Farrell failed to show up for either recording or tour, and Maizie Williams had never sung on record, the album ended up being released as Liz Mitchell's first solo album ''No One Will Force You''. Mitchell and Williams completed a tour during 1987–88, adding singer Celena Duncan and Ron Gale as replacements for Barrett and Farrell. Carol Grey later replaced Celena Duncan and Curt De Daran later replaced Ron Gale.\n\nIn October 1988, the classic Boney M. line-up reunited without producer Frank Farian for the album ''Greatest Hits of All Times – Remix '88'' but tensions ran high between the members, and Liz Mitchell left in the spring of 1989 to be replaced by Madeleine Davis. While Mitchell promoted her solo album, the group recorded the single \"Everybody Wants to Dance Like Josephine Baker\", without Farian's knowledge or approval. Threatened with legal action by the producer over the use of the Boney M. name, the single was subsequently withdrawn and Farian issued \"Stories\" with his own new Boney M. line-up featuring Liz Mitchell, Reggie Tsiboe and two new members, Sharon Stevens and Patty Onoyewenjo, \"Stories\" peaked at #11 in the Swiss charts. A second remix album ''Greatest Hits of All Times – Remix '89 – Volume II'' was released but fared poorly.\n\n=== 1990s ===\n1992 saw a renewed interest in Boney M.'s music with the \"Boney M. Megamix\" single returning the group to the UK Top 10 for the first time since 1980, and a subsequent Greatest Hits album reaching the UK Top 20 in 1993. While Marcia Barrett, now residing in Florida, was battling cancer and unable to perform, Boney M. toured the world with a line-up of Liz Mitchell, Carol Grey, Patricia Lorna Foster and Curt Dee Daran (replaced by Tony Ashcroft in 1994). They released the single ‘Papa Chico’ but failed to chart. Maizie Williams assembled her own Boney M. line-up with her friend and short-time Boney M. member in the early days in 1975, Sheyla Bonnick, and two others. Bobby Farrell also toured with three ever changing female performers.\n\n=== 2000s ===\nBoney M. featuring Maizie Williams performing at a concert\n\nLiz Mitchell was touring the world with her line-up of Boney M., which is the only line-up officially supported by Farian (the court ruling of 1990 stated that all four members are entitled to perform their own Boney M. shows). Bobby Farrell and Liz Mitchell have released solo albums containing their own re-recordings of Boney M.'s classic hits. Maizie Williams released her first solo album in 2006 and her own single version of Boney M.'s \"Sunny\". In 2007 her rendition of 'Daddy Cool' with Melo-M hit the number one spot in the Latvian (LMK) Charts. Marcia Barrett has released two solo albums with a third scheduled for release in 2010.\n\nAs recounted in his 1988 book ''Touching the Void'', the British climber Joe Simpson was subsequently to find the catchy tune of \"Brown Girl in the Ring\" haunting him in the final hours of his struggle to survive the descent of Siula Grande in the Andes, and the song was later used in the 2003 film of ''Touching the Void'' made by Kevin Macdonald. Simpson recalls: \"I remember thinking, bloody hell, I'm going to die to Boney M\".\n\nA musical based on the music of Boney M., ''Daddy Cool'', opened in London in August 2006 to mixed reviews and sluggish ticket sales, causing it to close in February 2007. From April to July 2007, the show played in a mobile theatre in Berlin, which was specially designed for it.\n\nIn April 2007, Australian pop singer Peter Wilson released a song co-written by Frank Farian entitled \"Doin' Fine\". It is described as \"paying tribute to the sound of Boney M.\" and features the famous string arrangement from their first number 1 hit, \"Daddy Cool\".\n\nBoney M. (featuring Marcia Barrett) made a live appearance at the 37th International Film Festival of India (IFFI), which took place on 23 November 2006 in Panaji, the state capital of Goa, India. The group is also popular in the Vietnamese diaspora, and was featured in Thuy Nga music productions.\n\nIn the UK, a new album of their greatest hits, entitled ''The Magic of Boney M.'' was released via BMG on 27 November 2006. Special additions to this release were a Mousse T. remix of \"Sunny\" and a brand new song from 2006, featuring Liz Mitchell, entitled \"A Moment of Love\".\n\nOn 10 April 2007, Boney M.'s first four albums were reissued on compact disc with bonus tracks, this time also in the United States (the first time these were available to the U.S. music market since their original releases in the 1970s).\n\nIn September 2007, Boney M.'s last four original albums, ''Boonoonoonoos'', ''Ten Thousand Lightyears, Kalimba de Luna - 16 Happy Songs'' and ''Eye Dance'' were reissued on compact disc in Europe and the United States, all including bonus tracks. In November 2007, a new Christmas compilation was scheduled for release as well as the DVD ''Fantastic Boney M. – On Stage and on the Road'' featuring a live performance recorded in Vienna on 1 November 1977 (the DVD cover erroneously states it to be a live show from Hamburg), and a film from the band's 1981 visit to Jamaica (made to promote the ''Boonoonoonoos'' album that year).\n\nBobby Farrell's Boney M. performed a concert at the Amphi in Ra'anana, Israel in May 2007. On 28 June 2007 Boney M. featuring Matthew Felsenfeld and Liz Mitchell performed at the \"Oktiabrsky\" concert hall in St. Petersburg, Russia. In September 2007, Maizie Williams' Boney M. line-up performed live at the Royal Albert Hall, UK, to raise awareness of HIV/AIDS in Africa, performing her own renditions of \"Brown Girl in the Ring\" and \"Hooray! Hooray! It's a Holi-Holiday\".\n\nThe legal rights to the name \"Boney M.\" have been a matter of controversy, and even court cases, between the former members of the band and producer Frank Farian ever since the late 1980s. Farian, the man who in effect created the group, has continued to work with Liz Mitchell and her line-up all through the 1990s and 2000s. In January 2007, Zanillya Farrell (daughter of Bobby Farrell) and Yasmina Ayad-Saban (ex-wife of Farrell) renewed the trademark to the name Boney M. in Germany for a 10-year period.\n\nIn November 2008, French disco star Amanda Lear recorded a version of \"Doin' Fine\" for her new studio album, which she announced on French television is scheduled for release in spring 2009.\n\nIn January 2009 Frank Farian released a brand new single called ''Felicidad America (Obama Obama)'' under the name-check ''Boney M. feat. Sherita O. & Yulee B.'' featuring two new vocalists. The song is a remake of the 1980 Boney M. classic Felicidad (Margherita) with new vocals and re-written lyrics now referring to the new US president Barack Obama.\n\n=== 2010s ===\nIn July 2010, Maizie Williams headlined a Boney M. performance at Ramallah's Cultural Palace, in the West Bank, as part of the Palestine International Festival. The band played \"Daddy Cool\", \"Ma Baker\" and \"Brown Girl in the Ring\", but refrained from playing \"Rivers of Babylon\", rumored to be at the event organizers' request because of its description of the Jewish yearning for Zion.\n\nBobby Farrell died at the age of 61 from heart failure on December 30th, 2010. His agent said Farrell was complaining of breathing problems after performing with his band the evening before. Farrell lived in Amsterdam until his death. The singer was found dead in a hotel room in Saint Petersburg, Russia, where he had been performing.\n\nIt was announced in February 2014 that Maizie Williams' line-up of Boney M. would be touring Australia in June. They sang at Guilfest, Guildford, UK on 20 July, and Watchet Live music festival UK, on 24 August.\n\nIn March 2015 Farian released ''Diamonds'', a 3CD box celebrating the 40th anniversary of Boney M. It contained remastered versions of the original hit singles or of previously unreleased versions, a remix disc and the new digital single ''Song of Joy'' featuring Liz Mitchell. A major DVD set was also released.\n\nThey performed at Sligo's Summer Festival on 7 August 2015.\n\nIn February 2017, they also performed at the closing ceremony of Patras Carnival in Patras, Greece.\n",
"In 1978, \"Rivers of Babylon\", a cover of a track by The Melodians with lyrics partly based on Psalm 137 and partly on Psalm 19, became (at the time) the second highest-selling single of all time in the UK. After reaching No.1 for five weeks, \"Rivers of Babylon\" began dropping down the chart, at which point the B-side \"Brown Girl in the Ring\" was given extensive radio airplay, and the single climbed back up the chart to No. 2. The single spent six months in the UK Top 40, including 19 weeks in the Top 10. It eventually sold over two million copies, the second single to do so, and is still one of only 7 to achieve this feat. (see List of million-selling singles in the United Kingdom)\n\nThe group achieved a second UK million-seller with their version of the calypso classic \"Mary's Boy Child\", released as a medley \"Mary's Boy Child – Oh My Lord\", which was previously a million-seller for Harry Belafonte. The single sold over 1.8 million copies, 1.6 million of which were in the four weeks the song was at No.1 in December 1978.\n\nBoney M. are the only artists to appear twice in the top 11 best selling singles of all time in the UK, with \"Rivers of Babylon\" in 7th place and \"Mary's Boy Child/Oh My Lord\" at number 11. They are also one of six artists to sell a million copies with two singles in the same year.\n",
"Compared to other best-selling artists of the 1970s like ABBA, Donna Summer, and the Bee Gees, the Boney M. discography is quite unusual – while the greater part of the band's back catalogue has been remixed, remade, remodeled and reissued all through the 80s, 90s and 2000s by producer Frank Farian and record company BMG-Ariola (now Sony Music), most of the original 7\" and 12\" versions issued on vinyl in the 70s and early 80s remained unavailable on CD until 2008 and the release of the box set ''The Collection'' and the single CD compilation ''Rivers of Babylon (A Best of Collection)''.\n",
"During the 2002 presidential election campaign of South Korea, then-candidate Roh Moo-hyun, who eventually won the presidency at that event, took ''Bahama Mama'' to promote his aim of positive political reform.\n\nThe 2005 Chinese film ''Shanghai Dreams'' features a scene depicting a rural Chinese disco in 1983, with teenagers dancing to \"Rivers of Babylon\" and \"Gotta Go Home\".\n\nIn the 2008 Kazakh film ''Tulpan'', the tractor driver Boni continually plays a cassette of ''Rivers of Babylon'', an example of his fascination for all things Western.\n\nIn the 2008 Chinese film ''Cheung Gong 7 hou'' (English title: ''CJ7''), \"Sunny\" is a vital part of the soundtrack.\n\nBoney M was hugely popular in the Soviet Union in the 1970s, although the song \"Rasputin\" was banned by the Soviet authorities during the group's concert in Moscow in December 1978. In the Soviet film ''Repentance'' (1987), \"Sunny\" is played at a party of high-ranked communist officials. \"Sunny\" is played during a few parts of the successful Korean film of the same name ''Sunny'' (2011). It is the theme song of the 2011 Taiwanese drama starring Rainie Yang and Wu Chun, ''Sunshine Angel''.\n",
"\n=== Original members ===\n\n* Liz Mitchell – lead and backing vocals (1976–1986, 1987–1989, 1989, 1992–1994, 2016–current) \n* Marcia Barrett – lead and backing vocals (1975–1986, 1987, 1988–1989)\n* Maizie Williams – dancer, live vocals (1975–1986, 1987–1989, 2012)\n* Bobby Farrell – dancer, rap, live vocals (1975–81, 1984–1986, 1987, 1988–1989; died 2010)\n* Reggie Tsiboe - lead and backing vocals (1982–1986, 1989)\n\n=== Other members ===\n indicates members not included in any official Boney M recording or original line-up\n\n\n* Sheyla Bonnick (1975) *\n* Claudja Barry - lead and backing vocals (1975–1976) *\n* Nathalie - lead and backing vocals (1975) *\n* Marilyn Scharbaai (Carrilho) - lead and backing vocals (1987) *\n* Celena Duncan - lead and backing vocals (1987–1988) *\n* Curt De Daran - dancer, rap, live vocals (1987–1988, 1992–1994)\n* Madeleine Davis - lead and backing vocals (1989)\n* Sharon Stevens - lead and backing vocals (1989)\n* Patty Onoyewenjo - lead and backing vocals (1989)\n* Carol Grey - lead and backing vocals (1992–1994)\n* Patricia Lorna Foster - lead and backing vocals (1992-1994)\n* Tony Ashcroft - dancer, rap, live vocals (1994) *\n* Peter Jarrette - lead and backing vocals (2012)\n* Geoffrey Sung - dancer, rap, live vocals (2012)\n* Samantha Gareth - lead and backing vocals (2012)\n* Eileen Quintanilla - lead and backing vocals (2012)\n*Patricia Dick - lead and backing vocals (2016–current)\n*Yvonne Michèle - lead and backing vocals (2012–current)\n",
"\n\n;Studio albums\n\n Release date\n Title\n\n 1976\n ''Take the Heat off Me''\n\n 1977\n ''Love for Sale''\n\n 1978\n ''Nightflight to Venus''\n\n 1979\n ''Oceans of Fantasy''\n\n 1981\n ''Boonoonoonoos''\n\n 1981\n ''Christmas Album''\n\n 1984\n ''Ten Thousand Lightyears''\n\n 1985\n ''Eye Dance''\n\n\n",
"\n",
"\n* Official bookings site of Marcia Barrett's Boney M -Show.\n* Liz Mitchell \"BONEY M.\" in Moscow 28.01.2013\n* Official website Sheyla Bonnick\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" History ",
" UK sales mark ",
" Back catalogue ",
" Popularity outside the West ",
" Personnel ",
" Discography ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Boney M. | [
"=== 2010s ===\nIn July 2010, Maizie Williams headlined a Boney M. performance at Ramallah's Cultural Palace, in the West Bank, as part of the Palestine International Festival."
] | [
"\n\n\n'''Boney M.''' is a vocal group created by German record producer Frank Farian.",
"Originally based in West Germany, the four original members of the group's official line-up were Liz Mitchell and Marcia Barrett from Jamaica, Maizie Williams from Montserrat and Bobby Farrell from Aruba.",
"The group was formed in 1976 and achieved popularity during the disco era of the late 1970s.",
"Since the 1980s, various line-ups of the band have performed with different personnel.",
"With more than 150 million records sold, they are one of the best-selling artists of all time.",
"\n=== 1970s === \nGerman singer-songwriter Frank Farian (real name Franz Reuther) recorded the dance track \"Baby Do You Wanna Bump\" in December 1974.",
"Farian sang the repeated line \"Do you do you wanna bump?\"",
"in a deep voice (entirely studio created) as well as performing the high falsetto chorus.",
"When the record was released as a single, it was credited to \"Boney M.\", a pseudonym Farian had created for himself after watching the Australian detective show ''Boney''.",
":I turned on the TV one day and it was the end of a detective series.",
"I just caught the credits and it said Boney.",
"Nice name, I thought – Boney, Boney, Boney... Boney M. Boney, Boney, Boney M. Nice sound.",
"Simple.",
"After a slow start, the song became a hit in the Netherlands and Belgium.",
"It was then that Farian decided to hire performers to 'front' the group for TV performances.",
"Farian found Maizie Williams (originally from Montserrat) who brought in Bobby Farrell, a male exotic dancer from Aruba.",
"Singer Marcia Barrett (also from Jamaica) joined the group, who brought in Liz Mitchell, former member of the Les Humphries Singers and Boney M was finalised.",
"==== ''Take the Heat off Me'' ====\nBoney M.'s first album, ''Take the Heat off Me'', was released in 1976.",
"It contained tracks that Marcia Barrett had already recorded with Farian, including the title track and \"Lovin' or Leavin'\", both of which were previously recorded in German by another Farian act, Gilla.",
"As Maizie Williams' voice wasn't considered suitable for recording purposes by Farian, and a try-out with Bobby Farrell performing \"No Woman No Cry\" didn't work, Farian decided to use only Liz Mitchell and Marcia Barrett along with his own studio-enhanced voice to create the Boney M. sound.",
"The album's commercial performance was initially lukewarm.",
"However, the group rigorously toured discos, clubs and even country fairs to earn a reputation for themselves.",
"The group's big break came when, at the end of summer 1976, German television producer Michael 'Mike' Leckebusch (of Radio Bremen) requested the group for his show ''Musikladen''.",
"Boney M. appeared on the live music show on 18 September 1976, after 10 pm and in their daring stage costumes, where they performed the song \"Daddy Cool\".",
"The song quickly went to no.1 in Germany, with the album following the success of the single.",
"Another single, \"Sunny\" (a cover of the 1966 Bobby Hebb song) gave the group their second no.1 hit.",
"The group's popularity had also grown throughout Europe, with \"Daddy Cool\" reaching no.1 in Switzerland, Sweden, Norway, and Austria.",
"Both singles were also Top 10 hits in the UK, which would become one of their biggest markets.",
"==== ''Love for Sale'' ====\nIn 1977, Boney M. released their second album, ''Love for Sale'', which contained the hits \"Ma Baker\" and \"Belfast\".",
"The group embarked on their first major concert tours with a live band of musicians called 'The Black Beauty Circus' (given their name after Maizie Williams' first band, 'Black Beautiful People').",
"''Love for Sale'' was certified Gold a year after its release in the UK.",
"Both singles from the album reached no.1 in Germany and the UK Top 10.",
"==== ''Nightflight to Venus'' ====\n1978 was the group's biggest year.",
"They released a new double A-sided single, \"Rivers of Babylon/Brown Girl in the Ring\", which became a massive hit all over Europe, reaching No.",
"1 in several countries as well as becoming one of the biggest selling singles of all time in the UK.",
"It also became their most successful single in the United States, peaking at No.",
"30 on the U.S. pop singles chart.",
"Following this came their biggest-selling album, ''Nightflight to Venus'', which spawned further hit singles with \"Rasputin\" and \"Painter Man\".",
"Continuing with their success, they released \"Mary's Boy Child – Oh My Lord\", which was the 1978 Christmas number one single in the United Kingdom and became another of the biggest selling singles of all time there.",
"Also during 1978, Boney M. made a much publicized promotional visit to the Soviet Union, one of the very few Western acts along with Elton John to do so, although tracks like \"Rasputin\" were not released in the Soviet Union due to their lyrics.",
"While it had never been a secret that Bobby Farrell never sang on the group's records (Farian did the male vocals in the studio), in 1978 it became public knowledge that Maizie Williams did not sing on the studio recordings either since \"her voice wasn't suited for this kind of music\", as Farian stated in an interview with German teen magazine ''Bravo''.",
"Since this had become common practice within the disco genre of the late '70s, few people cared – unlike when Farian did the same thing with Milli Vanilli in the late 1980s.",
"While only two of Boney M.'s official members actually contributed to the band's records, all four members of the group, including Williams and Farrell, performed the vocals live at Boney M. concerts.",
"The band's live sound was also augmented by several backing vocalists, which served to enhance any vocal deficiencies the group may have had compared with the studio productions.",
"==== ''Oceans of Fantasy'' ====\n1979 saw Boney M. release a brand new single, \"Hooray!",
"Hooray!",
"It's a Holi-Holiday\", which became another Top 10 hit across Europe.",
"Later in the year they released their fourth album, ''Oceans of Fantasy'', containing two hit singles – \"Gotta Go Home\"/\"El Lute\" and \"I'm Born Again\"/\"Bahama Mama\".",
"The album also included a \"Lead\" and \"Backing Vocals\" credit for the first time.",
"''Oceans of Fantasy'' reached no.1 in the UK and was certified Platinum, though their run of Top 10 singles had now ended with \"Gotta Go Home\" peaking at no.12 and \"I'm Born Again\" peaking at 35.",
"=== 1980s ===\nIn 1980, Boney M. released a greatest hits album, ''The Magic of Boney M. – 20 Golden Hits'', which also contained two new songs, \"My Friend Jack\" and \"I See a Boat on the River\".",
"It made the No.",
"1 spot in the UK, reaching Gold status within six weeks of release, though it was their last big-selling album in the UK.",
"==== ''Boonoonoonoos'' ====\nBoney M.'s fifth album had been scheduled for release in November 1980 but the recording sessions dragged on all through 1981.",
"When ''Boonoonoonoos'' was finally released by the end of that year, Bobby Farrell was fired from the group due to his unreliability.",
"While still a healthy seller in continental Europe, \"Boonoonoonoos\" failed to crack the UK Top 100 after three consecutive No.",
"1 albums, and Farrell's departure left the group unable to promote it.",
"Following this, the group released a ''Christmas Album''.",
"==== ''Ten Thousand Lightyears'' ====\nReggie Tsiboe was hired to replace Farrell as the new male member of Boney M. in 1982 but the singles \"The Carnival Is Over\" and \"Jambo\" fared poorly, and the group's seventh album ''Ten Thousand Lightyears'', issued in 1984, marked another commercial low point peaking at #23 in the German album charts.",
"The group, however, returned to the German Top 20 in the autumn of 1984 with \"Kalimba de Luna\" (a Top 10 hit in France) and \"Happy Song\", the latter seeing Bobby Farrell return to the group.",
"Both songs were carbon-copies of the original Italian hits by Tony Esposito and Baby's Gang respectively.",
"==== ''Eye Dance'' ====\nBy 1985, Farian clearly began losing interest in the group, and their final and eighth studio album ''Eye Dance'' was widely regarded as uninspired and disappointing.",
"After celebrating Boney M.'s 10th anniversary in early 1986, the group officially disbanded after the release of the commercially unsuccessful single 'Young, Free and Single' (still: #49 in the German charts).",
"=== Later years ===\nFrom this point, different versions of the group were formed by members, some with cooperation of Farian, others without (for example by independently obtaining the rights to use the Boney M. name in a different country).",
"One version began touring in the first half of 1987 with Marilyn Scharbaai (Carrilho) taking Liz Mitchell's place.",
"Mitchell returned for a second leg of the tour late 1987, and Marcia Barrett soon left the band.",
"At the same time, Bobby Farrell had set up a deal for a new Boney M. album to be recorded without Farian in Belgium.",
"When Farrell failed to show up for either recording or tour, and Maizie Williams had never sung on record, the album ended up being released as Liz Mitchell's first solo album ''No One Will Force You''.",
"Mitchell and Williams completed a tour during 1987–88, adding singer Celena Duncan and Ron Gale as replacements for Barrett and Farrell.",
"Carol Grey later replaced Celena Duncan and Curt De Daran later replaced Ron Gale.",
"In October 1988, the classic Boney M. line-up reunited without producer Frank Farian for the album ''Greatest Hits of All Times – Remix '88'' but tensions ran high between the members, and Liz Mitchell left in the spring of 1989 to be replaced by Madeleine Davis.",
"While Mitchell promoted her solo album, the group recorded the single \"Everybody Wants to Dance Like Josephine Baker\", without Farian's knowledge or approval.",
"Threatened with legal action by the producer over the use of the Boney M. name, the single was subsequently withdrawn and Farian issued \"Stories\" with his own new Boney M. line-up featuring Liz Mitchell, Reggie Tsiboe and two new members, Sharon Stevens and Patty Onoyewenjo, \"Stories\" peaked at #11 in the Swiss charts.",
"A second remix album ''Greatest Hits of All Times – Remix '89 – Volume II'' was released but fared poorly.",
"=== 1990s ===\n1992 saw a renewed interest in Boney M.'s music with the \"Boney M. Megamix\" single returning the group to the UK Top 10 for the first time since 1980, and a subsequent Greatest Hits album reaching the UK Top 20 in 1993.",
"While Marcia Barrett, now residing in Florida, was battling cancer and unable to perform, Boney M. toured the world with a line-up of Liz Mitchell, Carol Grey, Patricia Lorna Foster and Curt Dee Daran (replaced by Tony Ashcroft in 1994).",
"They released the single ‘Papa Chico’ but failed to chart.",
"Maizie Williams assembled her own Boney M. line-up with her friend and short-time Boney M. member in the early days in 1975, Sheyla Bonnick, and two others.",
"Bobby Farrell also toured with three ever changing female performers.",
"=== 2000s ===\nBoney M. featuring Maizie Williams performing at a concert\n\nLiz Mitchell was touring the world with her line-up of Boney M., which is the only line-up officially supported by Farian (the court ruling of 1990 stated that all four members are entitled to perform their own Boney M. shows).",
"Bobby Farrell and Liz Mitchell have released solo albums containing their own re-recordings of Boney M.'s classic hits.",
"Maizie Williams released her first solo album in 2006 and her own single version of Boney M.'s \"Sunny\".",
"In 2007 her rendition of 'Daddy Cool' with Melo-M hit the number one spot in the Latvian (LMK) Charts.",
"Marcia Barrett has released two solo albums with a third scheduled for release in 2010.",
"As recounted in his 1988 book ''Touching the Void'', the British climber Joe Simpson was subsequently to find the catchy tune of \"Brown Girl in the Ring\" haunting him in the final hours of his struggle to survive the descent of Siula Grande in the Andes, and the song was later used in the 2003 film of ''Touching the Void'' made by Kevin Macdonald.",
"Simpson recalls: \"I remember thinking, bloody hell, I'm going to die to Boney M\".",
"A musical based on the music of Boney M., ''Daddy Cool'', opened in London in August 2006 to mixed reviews and sluggish ticket sales, causing it to close in February 2007.",
"From April to July 2007, the show played in a mobile theatre in Berlin, which was specially designed for it.",
"In April 2007, Australian pop singer Peter Wilson released a song co-written by Frank Farian entitled \"Doin' Fine\".",
"It is described as \"paying tribute to the sound of Boney M.\" and features the famous string arrangement from their first number 1 hit, \"Daddy Cool\".",
"Boney M. (featuring Marcia Barrett) made a live appearance at the 37th International Film Festival of India (IFFI), which took place on 23 November 2006 in Panaji, the state capital of Goa, India.",
"The group is also popular in the Vietnamese diaspora, and was featured in Thuy Nga music productions.",
"In the UK, a new album of their greatest hits, entitled ''The Magic of Boney M.'' was released via BMG on 27 November 2006.",
"Special additions to this release were a Mousse T. remix of \"Sunny\" and a brand new song from 2006, featuring Liz Mitchell, entitled \"A Moment of Love\".",
"On 10 April 2007, Boney M.'s first four albums were reissued on compact disc with bonus tracks, this time also in the United States (the first time these were available to the U.S. music market since their original releases in the 1970s).",
"In September 2007, Boney M.'s last four original albums, ''Boonoonoonoos'', ''Ten Thousand Lightyears, Kalimba de Luna - 16 Happy Songs'' and ''Eye Dance'' were reissued on compact disc in Europe and the United States, all including bonus tracks.",
"In November 2007, a new Christmas compilation was scheduled for release as well as the DVD ''Fantastic Boney M. – On Stage and on the Road'' featuring a live performance recorded in Vienna on 1 November 1977 (the DVD cover erroneously states it to be a live show from Hamburg), and a film from the band's 1981 visit to Jamaica (made to promote the ''Boonoonoonoos'' album that year).",
"Bobby Farrell's Boney M. performed a concert at the Amphi in Ra'anana, Israel in May 2007.",
"On 28 June 2007 Boney M. featuring Matthew Felsenfeld and Liz Mitchell performed at the \"Oktiabrsky\" concert hall in St. Petersburg, Russia.",
"In September 2007, Maizie Williams' Boney M. line-up performed live at the Royal Albert Hall, UK, to raise awareness of HIV/AIDS in Africa, performing her own renditions of \"Brown Girl in the Ring\" and \"Hooray!",
"Hooray!",
"It's a Holi-Holiday\".",
"The legal rights to the name \"Boney M.\" have been a matter of controversy, and even court cases, between the former members of the band and producer Frank Farian ever since the late 1980s.",
"Farian, the man who in effect created the group, has continued to work with Liz Mitchell and her line-up all through the 1990s and 2000s.",
"In January 2007, Zanillya Farrell (daughter of Bobby Farrell) and Yasmina Ayad-Saban (ex-wife of Farrell) renewed the trademark to the name Boney M. in Germany for a 10-year period.",
"In November 2008, French disco star Amanda Lear recorded a version of \"Doin' Fine\" for her new studio album, which she announced on French television is scheduled for release in spring 2009.",
"In January 2009 Frank Farian released a brand new single called ''Felicidad America (Obama Obama)'' under the name-check ''Boney M. feat.",
"Sherita O.",
"& Yulee B.''",
"featuring two new vocalists.",
"The song is a remake of the 1980 Boney M. classic Felicidad (Margherita) with new vocals and re-written lyrics now referring to the new US president Barack Obama.",
"The band played \"Daddy Cool\", \"Ma Baker\" and \"Brown Girl in the Ring\", but refrained from playing \"Rivers of Babylon\", rumored to be at the event organizers' request because of its description of the Jewish yearning for Zion.",
"Bobby Farrell died at the age of 61 from heart failure on December 30th, 2010.",
"His agent said Farrell was complaining of breathing problems after performing with his band the evening before.",
"Farrell lived in Amsterdam until his death.",
"The singer was found dead in a hotel room in Saint Petersburg, Russia, where he had been performing.",
"It was announced in February 2014 that Maizie Williams' line-up of Boney M. would be touring Australia in June.",
"They sang at Guilfest, Guildford, UK on 20 July, and Watchet Live music festival UK, on 24 August.",
"In March 2015 Farian released ''Diamonds'', a 3CD box celebrating the 40th anniversary of Boney M. It contained remastered versions of the original hit singles or of previously unreleased versions, a remix disc and the new digital single ''Song of Joy'' featuring Liz Mitchell.",
"A major DVD set was also released.",
"They performed at Sligo's Summer Festival on 7 August 2015.",
"In February 2017, they also performed at the closing ceremony of Patras Carnival in Patras, Greece.",
"In 1978, \"Rivers of Babylon\", a cover of a track by The Melodians with lyrics partly based on Psalm 137 and partly on Psalm 19, became (at the time) the second highest-selling single of all time in the UK.",
"After reaching No.1 for five weeks, \"Rivers of Babylon\" began dropping down the chart, at which point the B-side \"Brown Girl in the Ring\" was given extensive radio airplay, and the single climbed back up the chart to No.",
"2.",
"The single spent six months in the UK Top 40, including 19 weeks in the Top 10.",
"It eventually sold over two million copies, the second single to do so, and is still one of only 7 to achieve this feat.",
"(see List of million-selling singles in the United Kingdom)\n\nThe group achieved a second UK million-seller with their version of the calypso classic \"Mary's Boy Child\", released as a medley \"Mary's Boy Child – Oh My Lord\", which was previously a million-seller for Harry Belafonte.",
"The single sold over 1.8 million copies, 1.6 million of which were in the four weeks the song was at No.1 in December 1978.",
"Boney M. are the only artists to appear twice in the top 11 best selling singles of all time in the UK, with \"Rivers of Babylon\" in 7th place and \"Mary's Boy Child/Oh My Lord\" at number 11.",
"They are also one of six artists to sell a million copies with two singles in the same year.",
"Compared to other best-selling artists of the 1970s like ABBA, Donna Summer, and the Bee Gees, the Boney M. discography is quite unusual – while the greater part of the band's back catalogue has been remixed, remade, remodeled and reissued all through the 80s, 90s and 2000s by producer Frank Farian and record company BMG-Ariola (now Sony Music), most of the original 7\" and 12\" versions issued on vinyl in the 70s and early 80s remained unavailable on CD until 2008 and the release of the box set ''The Collection'' and the single CD compilation ''Rivers of Babylon (A Best of Collection)''.",
"During the 2002 presidential election campaign of South Korea, then-candidate Roh Moo-hyun, who eventually won the presidency at that event, took ''Bahama Mama'' to promote his aim of positive political reform.",
"The 2005 Chinese film ''Shanghai Dreams'' features a scene depicting a rural Chinese disco in 1983, with teenagers dancing to \"Rivers of Babylon\" and \"Gotta Go Home\".",
"In the 2008 Kazakh film ''Tulpan'', the tractor driver Boni continually plays a cassette of ''Rivers of Babylon'', an example of his fascination for all things Western.",
"In the 2008 Chinese film ''Cheung Gong 7 hou'' (English title: ''CJ7''), \"Sunny\" is a vital part of the soundtrack.",
"Boney M was hugely popular in the Soviet Union in the 1970s, although the song \"Rasputin\" was banned by the Soviet authorities during the group's concert in Moscow in December 1978.",
"In the Soviet film ''Repentance'' (1987), \"Sunny\" is played at a party of high-ranked communist officials.",
"\"Sunny\" is played during a few parts of the successful Korean film of the same name ''Sunny'' (2011).",
"It is the theme song of the 2011 Taiwanese drama starring Rainie Yang and Wu Chun, ''Sunshine Angel''.",
"\n=== Original members ===\n\n* Liz Mitchell – lead and backing vocals (1976–1986, 1987–1989, 1989, 1992–1994, 2016–current) \n* Marcia Barrett – lead and backing vocals (1975–1986, 1987, 1988–1989)\n* Maizie Williams – dancer, live vocals (1975–1986, 1987–1989, 2012)\n* Bobby Farrell – dancer, rap, live vocals (1975–81, 1984–1986, 1987, 1988–1989; died 2010)\n* Reggie Tsiboe - lead and backing vocals (1982–1986, 1989)\n\n=== Other members ===\n indicates members not included in any official Boney M recording or original line-up\n\n\n* Sheyla Bonnick (1975) *\n* Claudja Barry - lead and backing vocals (1975–1976) *\n* Nathalie - lead and backing vocals (1975) *\n* Marilyn Scharbaai (Carrilho) - lead and backing vocals (1987) *\n* Celena Duncan - lead and backing vocals (1987–1988) *\n* Curt De Daran - dancer, rap, live vocals (1987–1988, 1992–1994)\n* Madeleine Davis - lead and backing vocals (1989)\n* Sharon Stevens - lead and backing vocals (1989)\n* Patty Onoyewenjo - lead and backing vocals (1989)\n* Carol Grey - lead and backing vocals (1992–1994)\n* Patricia Lorna Foster - lead and backing vocals (1992-1994)\n* Tony Ashcroft - dancer, rap, live vocals (1994) *\n* Peter Jarrette - lead and backing vocals (2012)\n* Geoffrey Sung - dancer, rap, live vocals (2012)\n* Samantha Gareth - lead and backing vocals (2012)\n* Eileen Quintanilla - lead and backing vocals (2012)\n*Patricia Dick - lead and backing vocals (2016–current)\n*Yvonne Michèle - lead and backing vocals (2012–current)",
"\n\n;Studio albums\n\n Release date\n Title\n\n 1976\n ''Take the Heat off Me''\n\n 1977\n ''Love for Sale''\n\n 1978\n ''Nightflight to Venus''\n\n 1979\n ''Oceans of Fantasy''\n\n 1981\n ''Boonoonoonoos''\n\n 1981\n ''Christmas Album''\n\n 1984\n ''Ten Thousand Lightyears''\n\n 1985\n ''Eye Dance''",
"\n* Official bookings site of Marcia Barrett's Boney M -Show.",
"* Liz Mitchell \"BONEY M.\" in Moscow 28.01.2013\n* Official website Sheyla Bonnick"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''William Henry Gates III''' (born October 28, 1955) is a co-founder of the Microsoft Corporation and is an American business magnate, investor, author and philanthropist.\n\nIn 1975, Gates and Paul Allen launched Microsoft, which became the world's largest PC software company. During his career at Microsoft, Gates held the positions of chairman, CEO and chief software architect, while also being the largest individual shareholder until May 2014. Gates stepped down as chief executive officer of Microsoft in January 2000, but he remained as chairman and created the position of chief software architect for himself. In June 2006, Gates announced that he would be transitioning from full-time work at Microsoft to part-time work and full-time work at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. He gradually transferred his duties to Ray Ozzie and Craig Mundie. He stepped down as chairman of Microsoft in February 2014 and assumed a new post as technology adviser to support the newly appointed CEO Satya Nadella.\n\nGates is one of the best-known entrepreneurs of the personal computer revolution. He has been criticized for his business tactics, which have been considered anti-competitive. This opinion has been upheld by numerous court rulings. Later in his career, Gates pursued a number of philanthropic endeavors. He donated large amounts of money to various charitable organizations and scientific research programs through the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, which was established in 2000.\n\nSince 1987, Gates has been included in the ''Forbes'' list of the world's wealthiest people. , he is the richest person in the world, with an estimated net worth of US$84.8 billion. In 2009, Gates and Warren Buffett founded The Giving Pledge, whereby they and other billionaires pledge to give at least half of their wealth to philanthropy. The foundation works to save lives and improve global health, and is working with Rotary International to eliminate polio.\n",
"Gates was born in Seattle, Washington on October 28, 1955. He is the son of William H. Gates Sr. (b. 1925) and Mary Maxwell Gates (1929–1994). His ancestry includes English, German, Irish, and Scots-Irish. His father was a prominent lawyer, and his mother served on the board of directors for First Interstate BancSystem and the United Way. Gates' maternal grandfather was JW Maxwell, a national bank president. Gates has one elder sister, Kristi (Kristianne), and one younger sister, Libby. He is the fourth of his name in his family, but is known as William Gates III or \"Trey\" because his father had the \"II\" suffix. Early on in his life, Gates' parents had a law career in mind for him. When Gates was young, his family regularly attended a church of the Congregational Christian Churches, a Protestant Reformed denomination. The family encouraged competition; one visitor reported that \"it didn't matter whether it was hearts or pickleball or swimming to the dock ... there was always a reward for winning and there was always a penalty for losing\".\nCurrier House at Harvard College\n\nAt 13, he enrolled in the Lakeside School, a private preparatory school. When he was in the eighth grade, the Mothers' Club at the school used proceeds from Lakeside School's rummage sale to buy a Teletype Model 33 ASR terminal and a block of computer time on a General Electric (GE) computer for the school's students. Gates took an interest in programming the GE system in BASIC, and was excused from math classes to pursue his interest. He wrote his first computer program on this machine: an implementation of tic-tac-toe that allowed users to play games against the computer. Gates was fascinated by the machine and how it would always execute software code perfectly. When he reflected back on that moment, he said, \"There was just something neat about the machine.\" After the Mothers Club donation was exhausted, he and other students sought time on systems including DEC PDP minicomputers. One of these systems was a PDP-10 belonging to Computer Center Corporation (CCC), which banned four Lakeside students Gates, Paul Allen, Ric Weiland, and Kent Evans for the summer after it caught them exploiting bugs in the operating system to obtain free computer time.\n\nAt the end of the ban, the four students offered to find bugs in CCC's software in exchange for extra computer time. Rather than use the system via Teletype. Subsequently, Gates went to CCC's offices and studied source code for various programs that ran on the system, including programs in Fortran, Lisp, and machine language. The arrangement with CCC continued until 1970, when the company went out of business. The following year, Information Sciences, Inc. hired the four Lakeside students to write a payroll program in COBOL, providing them computer time and royalties. After his administrators became aware of his programming abilities, Gates wrote the school's computer program to schedule students in classes. He modified the code so that he was placed in classes with \"a disproportionate number of interesting girls.\" He later stated that \"it was hard to tear myself away from a machine at which I could so unambiguously demonstrate success.\" At age 17, Gates formed a venture with Allen, called Traf-O-Data, to make traffic counters based on the Intel 8008 processor. In early 1973, Bill Gates served as a congressional page in the U.S. House of Representatives.\n\nGates was a National Merit Scholar when he graduated from Lakeside School in 1973. He scored 1590 out of 1600 on the Scholastic Aptitude Tests (SAT) and enrolled at Harvard College in the autumn of 1973. He chose a pre-law major but took mathematics and graduate level computer science courses. While at Harvard, he met fellow student Steve Ballmer. Gates left Harvard after two years while Ballmer would stay and graduate ''magna cum laude''. Years later, Ballmer succeeded Gates as Microsoft's CEO. He maintained that position from 2000 until his resignation from the company in 2014.\n\nIn his second year, Gates devised an algorithm for pancake sorting as a solution to one of a series of unsolved problems presented in a combinatorics class by Harry Lewis, one of his professors. Gates' solution held the record as the fastest version for over thirty years; its successor is faster by only one percent. His solution was later formalized in a published paper in collaboration with Harvard computer scientist Christos Papadimitriou.\n\nWhile Gates was a student at Harvard, he did not have a definite study plan, and he spent a lot of time using the school's computers. Gates remained in contact with Paul Allen, and he joined him at Honeywell during the summer of 1974. The MITS Altair 8800 was released the following year. The new computer was based on the Intel 8080 CPU, and Gates and Allen saw this as the opportunity to start their own computer software company. Gates dropped out of Harvard at this time. He had talked over this decision with his parents, who were supportive of him after seeing how much their son wanted to start his own company. Gates explained his decision to leave Harvard, saying \"...if things Microsoft hadn't worked out, I could always go back to school. I was officially on a leave of absence.\"\n",
"\n\n=== BASIC ===\nMITS Altair 8800 Computer with floppy disk system\nAfter Gates read the January 1975 issue of ''Popular Electronics'', which demonstrated the Altair 8800, he contacted Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS), the creators of the new microcomputer, to inform them that he and others were working on a BASIC interpreter for the platform. In reality, Gates and Allen did not have an Altair and had not written code for it; they merely wanted to gauge MITS's interest. MITS president Ed Roberts agreed to meet them for a demo, and over the course of a few weeks they developed an Altair emulator that ran on a minicomputer, and then the BASIC interpreter. The demonstration, held at MITS's offices in Albuquerque, was a success and resulted in a deal with MITS to distribute the interpreter as Altair BASIC. Paul Allen was hired into MITS, and Gates took a leave of absence from Harvard to work with Allen at MITS in Albuquerque in November 1975. They named their partnership \"Micro-Soft\" and had their first office located in Albuquerque. Within a year, the hyphen was dropped, and on November 26, 1976, the trade name \"Microsoft\" was registered with the Office of the Secretary of the State of New Mexico. Gates never returned to Harvard to complete his studies.\n\nMicrosoft's Altair BASIC was popular with computer hobbyists, but Gates discovered that a pre-market copy had leaked into the community and was being widely copied and distributed. In February 1976, Gates wrote an Open Letter to Hobbyists in the MITS newsletter in which he asserted that more than 90 percent of the users of Microsoft Altair BASIC had not paid Microsoft for it and by doing so the Altair \"hobby market\" was in danger of eliminating the incentive for any professional developers to produce, distribute, and maintain high-quality software. This letter was unpopular with many computer hobbyists, but Gates persisted in his belief that software developers should be able to demand payment. Microsoft became independent of MITS in late 1976, and it continued to develop programming language software for various systems. The company moved from Albuquerque to its new home in Bellevue, Washington, on January 1, 1979.\n\nDuring Microsoft's early years, all employees had broad responsibility for the company's business. Gates oversaw the business details, but continued to write code as well. In the first five years, Gates personally reviewed every line of code the company shipped, and often rewrote parts of it as he saw fit.\n\n=== IBM partnership ===\nIBM approached Microsoft in July 1980 in reference to an operating system for its upcoming personal computer, the IBM PC. Big Blue first proposed that Microsoft write the BASIC interpreter. When IBM's representatives mentioned that they needed an operating system, Gates referred them to Digital Research (DRI), makers of the widely used CP/M operating system. IBM's discussions with Digital Research went poorly, and they did not reach a licensing agreement. IBM representative Jack Sams mentioned the licensing difficulties during a subsequent meeting with Gates and told him to get an acceptable operating system. A few weeks later, Gates proposed using 86-DOS (QDOS), an operating system similar to CP/M that Tim Paterson of Seattle Computer Products (SCP) had made for hardware similar to the PC. Microsoft made a deal with SCP to become the exclusive licensing agent, and later the full owner, of 86-DOS. After adapting the operating system for the PC, Microsoft delivered it to IBM as PC DOS in exchange for a one-time fee of $50,000.\n\nGates did not offer to transfer the copyright on the operating system, because he believed that other hardware vendors would clone IBM's system. They did, and the sales of MS-DOS made Microsoft a major player in the industry. Despite IBM's name on the operating system, the press quickly identified Microsoft as being very influential on the new computer. ''PC Magazine'' asked if Gates were \"the man behind the machine?\", and ''InfoWorld'' quoted an expert as stating \"it's Gates' computer\". Gates oversaw Microsoft's company restructuring on June 25, 1981, which re-incorporated the company in Washington state and made Gates the president of Microsoft and its board chairman.\n\n=== Windows ===\nMicrosoft launched its first retail version of Microsoft Windows on November 20, 1985. In August of the following year, the company struck a deal with IBM to develop a separate operating system called OS/2. Although the two companies successfully developed the first version of the new system, the partnership deteriorated due to mounting creative differences.\n\n=== Management style ===\n\nBill Gates in January 2008\n\nFrom Microsoft's founding in 1975 until 2006, Gates had primary responsibility for the company's product strategy. He gained a reputation for being distant from others; as early as 1981 an industry executive complained in public that \"Gates is notorious for not being reachable by phone and for not returning phone calls.\" Another executive recalled that he showed Gates a game and defeated him 35 of 37 times. When they met again a month later, Gates \"won or tied every game. He had studied the game until he solved it. That is a competitor.\"\n\nGates was an executive who met regularly with Microsoft's senior managers and program managers. In firsthand accounts of these meetings, the managers described him being verbally combative. He also berated managers for perceived holes in their business strategies or proposals that placed the company's long-term interests at risk. He interrupted presentations with such comments as \"That's the stupidest thing I've ever heard!\" and \"Why don't you just give up your options and join the Peace Corps?\" The target of his outburst then had to defend the proposal in detail until, hopefully, Gates was fully convinced. When subordinates appeared to be procrastinating, he was known to remark sarcastically, \"I'll do it over the weekend.\"\n\nDuring Microsoft's early history, Gates was an active software developer, particularly in the company's programming language products, but his basic role in most of the company's history was primarily as a manager and executive. Gates has not officially been on a development team since working on the TRS-80 Model 100, but as late as 1989 he wrote code that shipped with the company's products. He remained interested in technical details; in 1985, Jerry Pournelle wrote that when he watched Gates announce Microsoft Excel, \"Something else impressed me. Bill Gates likes the program, not because it's going to make him a lot of money (although I'm sure it will do that), but because it's a neat hack.\" \n\nOn June 15, 2006, Gates announced that over the next two years he would transition out of his day-to-day role to dedicate more time to philanthropy. He divided his responsibilities between two successors when he placed Ray Ozzie in charge of day-to-day management and Craig Mundie in charge of long-term product strategy.\n\n=== Antitrust litigation ===\n\ndeposition at Microsoft on August 27, 1998\n\nMany decisions that led to antitrust litigation over Microsoft's business practices have had Gates' approval. In the 1998 ''United States v. Microsoft'' case, Gates gave deposition testimony that several journalists characterized as evasive. He argued with examiner David Boies over the contextual meaning of words such as, \"compete\", \"concerned\", and \"we\". The judge and other observers in the court room were seen laughing at various points during the deposition. ''BusinessWeek'' reported:\n\n\nGates later said he had simply resisted attempts by Boies to mischaracterize his words and actions. As to his demeanor during the deposition, he said, \"Did I fence with Boies? ... I plead guilty. Whatever that penalty is should be levied against me: rudeness to Boies in the first degree.\" Despite Gates' denials, the judge ruled that Microsoft had committed monopolization and tying, and blocking competition, both in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act.\n\n=== Appearance in ads ===\n\nMugshots of 22-year-old Gates following his 1977 arrest for a traffic violation in Albuquerque, New Mexico\n\nIn 2008, Gates appeared in a series of ads to promote Microsoft. The first commercial, co-starring Jerry Seinfeld, is a 90-second talk between strangers as Seinfeld walks up on a discount shoe store (Shoe Circus) in a mall and notices Gates buying shoes inside. The salesman is trying to sell Mr. Gates shoes that are a size too big. As Gates is buying the shoes, he holds up his discount card, which uses a slightly altered version of his own mugshot of his arrest in New Mexico in 1977, for a traffic violation. As they are walking out of the mall, Seinfeld asks Gates if he has melded his mind to other developers, after getting a \"Yes\", he then asks if they are working on a way to make computers edible, again getting a \"Yes\". Some say that this is an homage to Seinfeld's own show about \"nothing\" (''Seinfeld''). In a second commercial in the series, Gates and Seinfeld are at the home of an average family trying to fit in with normal people.\n",
"Gates meets with U.S. Secretary of Defense James Mattis, February 2017\nSince leaving day-to-day operations at Microsoft, Gates has continued his philanthropy and works on other projects.\n\nAccording to the Bloomberg Billionaires Index, Gates was the world's highest-earning billionaire in 2013, as his net worth increased by US$15.8 billion to US$78.5 billion. As of January 2014, most of Gates' assets are held in Cascade Investment LLC, an entity through which he owns stakes in numerous businesses, including Four Seasons Hotels and Resorts, and Corbis Corp. On February 4, 2014, Gates stepped down as chairman of Microsoft to become Technology Advisor alongside new CEO Satya Nadella.\n\nGates provided his perspective on a range of issues in a substantial interview that was published in the March 27, 2014 issue of ''Rolling Stone'' magazine. In the interview, Gates provided his perspective on climate change, his charitable activities, various tech companies and people involved in them, and the state of America. In response to a question about his greatest fear when he looks 50 years into the future, Gates stated: \"... there'll be some really bad things that'll happen in the next 50 or 100 years, but hopefully none of them on the scale of, say, a million people that you didn't expect to die from a pandemic, or nuclear or bioterrorism.\" Gates also identified innovation as the \"real driver of progress\" and pronounced that \"America's way better today than it's ever been.\" \n\nGates has recently expressed concern about the existential threats of superintelligence; in a Reddit \"ask me anything\", he stated that\nFirst the machines will do a lot of jobs for us and not be super intelligent. That should be positive if we manage it well. A few decades after that though the intelligence is strong enough to be a concern. I agree with Elon Musk and some others on this and don't understand why some people are not concerned.\nIn a March 2015 interview, with Baidu's CEO, Robin Li, Gates claimed he would \"highly recommend\" Nick Bostrom's recent work, ''Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies''.\n\nGates' days are planned for him, similar to the US President's schedule, on a minute-by-minute basis.\n",
"Bill and Melinda Gates in June 2009\nGates married Melinda French on a golf course on the Hawaiian island of Lanai on January 1, 1994; he was 38 and she was 29. They have three children: Jennifer Katharine (b. 1996), Rory John (b. 1999), and Phoebe Adele (b. 2002). The family resides in a modern design mansion, which is an earth-sheltered house in the side of a hill overlooking Lake Washington in Medina near Seattle in Washington State, United States. According to 2007 King County public records, the total assessed value of the property (land and house) is $125 million, and the annual property taxes are $991,000. The estate has a swimming pool with an underwater music system, as well as a gym and a dining room.\n\nIn an interview with ''Rolling Stone'', Gates stated in regard to his faith:\n\n\nThe moral systems of religion, I think, are super important. We've raised our kids in a religious way; they've gone to the Catholic church that Melinda goes to and I participate in. I've been very lucky, and therefore I owe it to try and reduce the inequity in the world. And that's kind of a religious belief. I mean, it's at least a moral belief.\n\nIn the same interview, Gates said: \"I agree with people like Richard Dawkins that mankind felt the need for creation myths. Before we really began to understand disease and the weather and things like that, we sought false explanations for them. Now science has filled in some of the realm – not all – that religion used to fill. But the mystery and the beauty of the world is overwhelmingly amazing, and there's no scientific explanation of how it came about. To say that it was generated by random numbers, that does seem, you know, sort of an uncharitable view laughs. I think it makes sense to believe in God, but exactly what decision in your life you make differently because of it, I don't know.\"\n\nThe Codex Leicester is one of Gates' private acquisitions. He purchased the collection of famous scientific writings by Leonardo da Vinci for $30.8 million at an auction in 1994. Gates is also known for being an avid reader, and the ceiling of his large home library is engraved with a quotation from ''The Great Gatsby''. He also enjoys playing bridge, tennis, and golf.\n\nIn 1999, his wealth briefly surpassed $101 billion. Despite his wealth and extensive business travel, Gates usually flew coach in commercial aircraft until 1997, when he bought a private jet. Since 2000, the nominal value of his Microsoft holdings has declined due to a fall in Microsoft's stock price after the dot-com bubble burst and the multibillion-dollar donations he has made to his charitable foundations. In a May 2006 interview, Gates commented that he wished that he were not the richest man in the world because he disliked the attention it brought. In March 2010, Gates was the second wealthiest person behind Carlos Slim, but regained the top position in 2013, according to the Bloomberg Billionaires List. Carlos Slim retook the position again in June 2014 (but then lost the top position back to Gates). Between 2009 and 2014, his wealth doubled from 40 billion to more than 82 billion.\n\nBill Gates has held the top spot on the list of The World's Billionaires for 18 out of the past 23 years.\n\nGates has several investments outside Microsoft, which in 2006 paid him a salary of $616,667 and $350,000 bonus totalling $966,667. In 1989, he founded Corbis, a digital imaging company. In 2004, he became a director of Berkshire Hathaway, the investment company headed by long-time friend Warren Buffett. In 2016, he was discussing his gaming habits when he revealed that he was color-blind.\n\nIn a BBC interview, Gates claimed \"I've paid more tax than any individual ever, and gladly so... I've paid over $6 billion in taxes.\" He is a proponent of higher taxes, particularly for the rich.\n\n=== Philanthropy ===\n\nGates with Bono, Queen Rania of Jordan, former British Prime Minister Gordon Brown, President Umaru Yar'Adua of Nigeria and others during the Annual Meeting 2008 of the World Economic Forum in Switzerland\n\nIn 2009, Gates and Warren Buffett founded The Giving Pledge, whereby they and other billionaires pledge to give at least half of their wealth to philanthropy.\n\n==== Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation ====\n\n\nGates studied the work of Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller, and donated some of his Microsoft stock in 1994 to create the \"William H. Gates Foundation.\" In 2000, Gates and his wife combined three family foundations and Gates donated stock valued at $5 billion to create the charitable Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, which was identified by the Funds for NGOs company in 2013, as the world's wealthiest charitable foundation, with assets reportedly valued at more than $34.6 billion. The Foundation allows benefactors to access information that shows how its money is being spent, unlike other major charitable organizations such as the Wellcome Trust.\n\nGates has credited the generosity and extensive philanthropy of David Rockefeller as a major influence. Gates and his father met with Rockefeller several times, and their charity work is partly modeled on the Rockefeller family's philanthropic focus, whereby they are interested in tackling the global problems that are ignored by governments and other organizations. As of 2007, Bill and Melinda Gates were the second-most generous philanthropists in America, having given over $28 billion to charity; the couple plan to eventually donate 95 percent of their wealth to charity.\n\nThe foundation is organized into four program areas: Global Development Division, Global Health Division, United States Division, and Global Policy & Advocacy Division. The foundation supports the use of genetically modified organisms in agricultural development. Specifically, the foundation is supporting the International Rice Research Institute in developing Golden Rice, a genetically modified rice variant used to combat Vitamin A deficiency.\n\n==== Personal donations====\nMelinda Gates suggested that people should emulate the philanthropic efforts of the Salwen family, which had sold its home and given away half of its value, as detailed in ''The Power of Half''. Gates and his wife invited Joan Salwen to Seattle to speak about what the family had done, and on December 9, 2010, Gates, investor Warren Buffett, and Facebook founder and CEO Mark Zuckerberg signed a commitment they called the \"Gates-Buffet Giving Pledge.\" The pledge is a commitment by all three to donate at least half of their wealth over the course of time to charity.\n\nGates has also provided personal donations to educational institutions. In 1999, Gates donated $20 million to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) for the construction of a computer laboratory named the \"William H. Gates Building\" that was designed by architect Frank Gehry. While Microsoft had previously given financial support to the institution, this was the first personal donation received from Gates.\n\nThe Maxwell Dworkin Laboratory of the Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences is named after the mothers of both Gates and Microsoft President Steven A. Ballmer, both of whom were students (Ballmer was a member of the School's graduating class of 1977, while Gates left his studies for Microsoft), and donated funds for the laboratory's construction. Gates also donated $6 million to the construction of the Gates Computer Science Building, completed in January 1996, on the campus of Stanford University. The building contains the Computer Science Department (CSD) and the Computer Systems Laboratory (CSL) of Stanford's Engineering department.\n\nOn August 15, 2014, Bill Gates posted a video of himself on Facebook in which he is seen dumping a bucket of ice water on his head. Gates posted the video after Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg challenged him to do so in order to raise awareness for the disease ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis).\n\nSince about 2005, Bill Gates and his foundation have taken an interest in solving global sanitation problems. For example, they announced the \"Reinvent the Toilet Challenge\", which has received considerable media interest. To raise awareness for the topic of sanitation and possible solutions, Gates drank water that was \"produced from human feces\" in 2014 – in fact it was produced from a sewage sludge treatment process called the Omni-processor. In early 2015, he also appeared with Jimmy Fallon on ''The Tonight Show'' and challenged him to see if he could taste the difference between this reclaimed water or bottled water.\n\nBill and Melinda Gates have said that they intend to leave their three children $10 million each as their inheritance. With only $30 million kept in the family, they appear to be on a course to give away about 99.96 percent of their wealth.\n\n==== Criticism ====\nIn 2007, the ''Los Angeles Times'' criticized the foundation for investing its assets in companies that have been accused of worsening poverty, polluting heavily, and pharmaceutical companies that do not sell to the developing world.\nIn response to press criticism, the foundation announced a review of its investments to assess social responsibility. It subsequently canceled the review and stood by its policy of investing for maximum return, while using voting rights to influence company practices. The Gates Millennium Scholars program has been criticized by Ernest W. Lefever for its exclusion of Caucasian students. The scholarship program is administered by the United Negro College Fund.\nIn 2014, Bill Gates sparked a protest in Vancouver when he decided to donate $50 million to UNAIDS through the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation for the purpose of mass circumcision in Zambia and Swaziland.\n\n==== Charity sports events ====\n\nOn April 29, 2017, Bill Gates partnered with Swiss tennis legend Roger Federer in playing a noncompetitive tennis match to a packed house at Key Arena in Seattle. The event was in support of Roger Federer Foundation's charity efforts in Africa. Federer and Gates played against John Isner and Pearl Jam lead guitarist Mike McReady. Gates and Federer won the game 6–4.\n\n=== Recognition ===\nGates and Steve Jobs at the fifth conference (''D5'') in 2007\n\nIn 1987, Gates was listed as a billionaire in ''Forbes'' magazine's 400 Richest People in America issue. He was worth $1.25 billion and was the world's youngest self-made billionaire. Since 1987, Gates has been included in the ''Forbes'' The World's Billionaires list and was the wealthiest from 1995 to 1996, 1998 to 2007, 2009, and has been since 2014. Gates was number one on ''Forbes''' 400 Richest Americans list from 1993 through to 2007.\n\n''Time'' magazine named Gates one of the 100 people who most influenced the 20th century, as well as one of the 100 most influential people of 2004, 2005, and 2006. ''Time'' also collectively named Gates, his wife Melinda and U2's lead singer Bono as the 2005 Persons of the Year for their humanitarian efforts. In 2006, he was voted eighth in the list of \"Heroes of our time\". Gates was listed in the ''Sunday Times'' power list in 1999, named CEO of the year by ''Chief Executive Officers magazine'' in 1994, ranked number one in the \"Top 50 Cyber Elite\" by ''Time'' in 1998, ranked number two in the ''Upside'' Elite 100 in 1999, and was included in ''The Guardian'' as one of the \"Top 100 influential people in media\" in 2001.\n\nAccording to ''Forbes'', Gates was ranked as the fourth most powerful person in the world in 2012, up from fifth in 2011.\n\nIn 1994, he was honored as the twentieth Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society. In 1999, Gates received New York Institute of Technology's President's Medal. Gates has received honorary doctorates from Nyenrode Business Universiteit, Breukelen, The Netherlands, in 2000; the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, in 2002; Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan, in 2005; Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, in April 2007; Harvard University in June 2007; the Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, in 2007, and Cambridge University in June 2009. He was also made an honorary trustee of Peking University in 2007.\n\nGates was made an Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) by Queen Elizabeth II in 2005. In November 2006, he was awarded the Placard of the Order of the Aztec Eagle, together with his wife Melinda who was awarded the Insignia of the same order, both for their philanthropic work around the world in the areas of health and education, particularly in Mexico, and specifically in the program \"''''\". Gates received the 2010 Bower Award for Business Leadership from The Franklin Institute for his achievements at Microsoft and his philanthropic work. Also in 2010, he was honored with the Silver Buffalo Award by the Boy Scouts of America, its highest award for adults, for his service to youth.\n\nEntomologists named Bill Gates' flower fly, '''', in his honor in 1997.\n\nIn 2002, Bill and Melinda Gates received the Jefferson Award for Greatest Public Service Benefiting the Disadvantaged.\n\nIn 2006, Gates received the James C. Morgan Global Humanitarian Award from The Tech Awards.\n\nIn 2015, Gates, along with his wife Melinda, received the Padma Bhushan, India's third-highest civilian award for their social work in the country.\n\nIn 2016, President Barack Obama honored Gates and his wife Melinda with the Presidential Medal of Freedom for their philanthropic efforts.\n\nIn 2017, President François Hollande awarded Bill and Melinda with the France's highest national award – Legion of Honour in Paris for their charity efforts.\n\n=== External business ventures and investments ===\n* Cascade Investments LLC, a private investment and holding company, incorporated in United States, is controlled by Bill Gates, and is headquartered in the city of Kirkland, Washington.\n* bgC3, a new think-tank company founded by Bill Gates.\n* Corbis, a digital image licensing and rights services company.\n* TerraPower, a nuclear reactor design company.\n* ResearchGate, a social networking site for scientists. Gates participated in a $35 million round of financing along with other investors.\n",
"\n=== Books ===\nTo date, Bill Gates has authored two books:\n* ''The Road Ahead'', written with Microsoft executive Nathan Myhrvold and journalist Peter Rinearson, was published in November 1995. It summarized the implications of the personal computing revolution and described a future profoundly changed by the arrival of a global information superhighway.\n* ''Business @ the Speed of Thought'' was published in 1999, and discusses how business and technology are integrated, and shows how digital infrastructures and information networks can help getting an edge on the competition.\n\n=== Documentaries ===\n\n* ''The Machine That Changed the World'' (miniseries) (1990)\n* ''Triumph of the Nerds'' (1996)\n* ''Nerds 2.0.1'' (1998)\n* ''Waiting for \"Superman\"'' (2010)\n* ''The Virtual Revolution'' (2010)\n\n=== Feature films ===\n* 1999: ''Pirates of Silicon Valley'', a film which chronicles the rise of Apple and Microsoft from the early 1970s to 1997. Gates is portrayed by Anthony Michael Hall.\n* 2002: ''Nothing So Strange'', a mocumentary featuring Gates as the subject of a modern assassination. Gates briefly appears at the start, played by Steve Sires.\n* 2010: ''The Social Network,'' a film which chronicles the development of Facebook. Gates is portrayed by Steve Sires.\n* 2015: ''Steve Jobs vs. Bill Gates: The Competition to Control the Personal Computer, 1974–1999'': Original film from the National Geographic Channel for the ''American Genius'' series.\n\n=== Social media ===\nIn 2013, Gates became a LinkedIn Influencer.\n\n=== Video and film clips ===\n* 1983: Steve Jobs hosts Bill Gates in the Macintosh dating game at the Macintosh pre-launch event (with Steve Jobs and Mitch Kapor, references the television show, ''The Dating Game'')\n* 2007: Steve Jobs and Bill Gates Together at D5 Conference\n\n=== Radio ===\nGates was the guest on BBC Radio 4's ''Desert Island Discs'' on January 31, 2016, in which he talks about his relationships with his father and Steve Jobs, meeting his then future wife Melinda Ann French, the start of Microsoft and some of his habits (for example reading The Economist \"from cover to cover every week\"). His choice of things to take on a desert island were, for music: \"Blue Skies\" by Willie Nelson; book: ''The Better Angels of Our Nature'' by Steven Pinker; and luxury item: a DVD Collection of Lectures from The Teaching Company.\n",
"* Big History – academic discipline advocated by Bill Gates\n* List of richest Americans in history\n* List of wealthiest historical figures\n",
"\n",
"=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \"The Meaning of Bill Gates: As his reign at Microsoft comes to an end, so does the era he dominated\", ''The Economist'', June 28, 2008.\n",
"\n* \n* Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation\n* Profile at Microsoft\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Early life ",
" Microsoft ",
" Post-Microsoft ",
" Personal life ",
" Books, films, social media and radio ",
" See also ",
" Notes ",
" References ",
" Further reading ",
" External links "
] | Bill Gates | [
"Gates' maternal grandfather was JW Maxwell, a national bank president."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''William Henry Gates III''' (born October 28, 1955) is a co-founder of the Microsoft Corporation and is an American business magnate, investor, author and philanthropist.",
"In 1975, Gates and Paul Allen launched Microsoft, which became the world's largest PC software company.",
"During his career at Microsoft, Gates held the positions of chairman, CEO and chief software architect, while also being the largest individual shareholder until May 2014.",
"Gates stepped down as chief executive officer of Microsoft in January 2000, but he remained as chairman and created the position of chief software architect for himself.",
"In June 2006, Gates announced that he would be transitioning from full-time work at Microsoft to part-time work and full-time work at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.",
"He gradually transferred his duties to Ray Ozzie and Craig Mundie.",
"He stepped down as chairman of Microsoft in February 2014 and assumed a new post as technology adviser to support the newly appointed CEO Satya Nadella.",
"Gates is one of the best-known entrepreneurs of the personal computer revolution.",
"He has been criticized for his business tactics, which have been considered anti-competitive.",
"This opinion has been upheld by numerous court rulings.",
"Later in his career, Gates pursued a number of philanthropic endeavors.",
"He donated large amounts of money to various charitable organizations and scientific research programs through the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, which was established in 2000.",
"Since 1987, Gates has been included in the ''Forbes'' list of the world's wealthiest people.",
", he is the richest person in the world, with an estimated net worth of US$84.8 billion.",
"In 2009, Gates and Warren Buffett founded The Giving Pledge, whereby they and other billionaires pledge to give at least half of their wealth to philanthropy.",
"The foundation works to save lives and improve global health, and is working with Rotary International to eliminate polio.",
"Gates was born in Seattle, Washington on October 28, 1955.",
"He is the son of William H. Gates Sr. (b.",
"1925) and Mary Maxwell Gates (1929–1994).",
"His ancestry includes English, German, Irish, and Scots-Irish.",
"His father was a prominent lawyer, and his mother served on the board of directors for First Interstate BancSystem and the United Way.",
"Gates has one elder sister, Kristi (Kristianne), and one younger sister, Libby.",
"He is the fourth of his name in his family, but is known as William Gates III or \"Trey\" because his father had the \"II\" suffix.",
"Early on in his life, Gates' parents had a law career in mind for him.",
"When Gates was young, his family regularly attended a church of the Congregational Christian Churches, a Protestant Reformed denomination.",
"The family encouraged competition; one visitor reported that \"it didn't matter whether it was hearts or pickleball or swimming to the dock ... there was always a reward for winning and there was always a penalty for losing\".",
"Currier House at Harvard College\n\nAt 13, he enrolled in the Lakeside School, a private preparatory school.",
"When he was in the eighth grade, the Mothers' Club at the school used proceeds from Lakeside School's rummage sale to buy a Teletype Model 33 ASR terminal and a block of computer time on a General Electric (GE) computer for the school's students.",
"Gates took an interest in programming the GE system in BASIC, and was excused from math classes to pursue his interest.",
"He wrote his first computer program on this machine: an implementation of tic-tac-toe that allowed users to play games against the computer.",
"Gates was fascinated by the machine and how it would always execute software code perfectly.",
"When he reflected back on that moment, he said, \"There was just something neat about the machine.\"",
"After the Mothers Club donation was exhausted, he and other students sought time on systems including DEC PDP minicomputers.",
"One of these systems was a PDP-10 belonging to Computer Center Corporation (CCC), which banned four Lakeside students Gates, Paul Allen, Ric Weiland, and Kent Evans for the summer after it caught them exploiting bugs in the operating system to obtain free computer time.",
"At the end of the ban, the four students offered to find bugs in CCC's software in exchange for extra computer time.",
"Rather than use the system via Teletype.",
"Subsequently, Gates went to CCC's offices and studied source code for various programs that ran on the system, including programs in Fortran, Lisp, and machine language.",
"The arrangement with CCC continued until 1970, when the company went out of business.",
"The following year, Information Sciences, Inc. hired the four Lakeside students to write a payroll program in COBOL, providing them computer time and royalties.",
"After his administrators became aware of his programming abilities, Gates wrote the school's computer program to schedule students in classes.",
"He modified the code so that he was placed in classes with \"a disproportionate number of interesting girls.\"",
"He later stated that \"it was hard to tear myself away from a machine at which I could so unambiguously demonstrate success.\"",
"At age 17, Gates formed a venture with Allen, called Traf-O-Data, to make traffic counters based on the Intel 8008 processor.",
"In early 1973, Bill Gates served as a congressional page in the U.S. House of Representatives.",
"Gates was a National Merit Scholar when he graduated from Lakeside School in 1973.",
"He scored 1590 out of 1600 on the Scholastic Aptitude Tests (SAT) and enrolled at Harvard College in the autumn of 1973.",
"He chose a pre-law major but took mathematics and graduate level computer science courses.",
"While at Harvard, he met fellow student Steve Ballmer.",
"Gates left Harvard after two years while Ballmer would stay and graduate ''magna cum laude''.",
"Years later, Ballmer succeeded Gates as Microsoft's CEO.",
"He maintained that position from 2000 until his resignation from the company in 2014.",
"In his second year, Gates devised an algorithm for pancake sorting as a solution to one of a series of unsolved problems presented in a combinatorics class by Harry Lewis, one of his professors.",
"Gates' solution held the record as the fastest version for over thirty years; its successor is faster by only one percent.",
"His solution was later formalized in a published paper in collaboration with Harvard computer scientist Christos Papadimitriou.",
"While Gates was a student at Harvard, he did not have a definite study plan, and he spent a lot of time using the school's computers.",
"Gates remained in contact with Paul Allen, and he joined him at Honeywell during the summer of 1974.",
"The MITS Altair 8800 was released the following year.",
"The new computer was based on the Intel 8080 CPU, and Gates and Allen saw this as the opportunity to start their own computer software company.",
"Gates dropped out of Harvard at this time.",
"He had talked over this decision with his parents, who were supportive of him after seeing how much their son wanted to start his own company.",
"Gates explained his decision to leave Harvard, saying \"...if things Microsoft hadn't worked out, I could always go back to school.",
"I was officially on a leave of absence.\"",
"\n\n=== BASIC ===\nMITS Altair 8800 Computer with floppy disk system\nAfter Gates read the January 1975 issue of ''Popular Electronics'', which demonstrated the Altair 8800, he contacted Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS), the creators of the new microcomputer, to inform them that he and others were working on a BASIC interpreter for the platform.",
"In reality, Gates and Allen did not have an Altair and had not written code for it; they merely wanted to gauge MITS's interest.",
"MITS president Ed Roberts agreed to meet them for a demo, and over the course of a few weeks they developed an Altair emulator that ran on a minicomputer, and then the BASIC interpreter.",
"The demonstration, held at MITS's offices in Albuquerque, was a success and resulted in a deal with MITS to distribute the interpreter as Altair BASIC.",
"Paul Allen was hired into MITS, and Gates took a leave of absence from Harvard to work with Allen at MITS in Albuquerque in November 1975.",
"They named their partnership \"Micro-Soft\" and had their first office located in Albuquerque.",
"Within a year, the hyphen was dropped, and on November 26, 1976, the trade name \"Microsoft\" was registered with the Office of the Secretary of the State of New Mexico.",
"Gates never returned to Harvard to complete his studies.",
"Microsoft's Altair BASIC was popular with computer hobbyists, but Gates discovered that a pre-market copy had leaked into the community and was being widely copied and distributed.",
"In February 1976, Gates wrote an Open Letter to Hobbyists in the MITS newsletter in which he asserted that more than 90 percent of the users of Microsoft Altair BASIC had not paid Microsoft for it and by doing so the Altair \"hobby market\" was in danger of eliminating the incentive for any professional developers to produce, distribute, and maintain high-quality software.",
"This letter was unpopular with many computer hobbyists, but Gates persisted in his belief that software developers should be able to demand payment.",
"Microsoft became independent of MITS in late 1976, and it continued to develop programming language software for various systems.",
"The company moved from Albuquerque to its new home in Bellevue, Washington, on January 1, 1979.",
"During Microsoft's early years, all employees had broad responsibility for the company's business.",
"Gates oversaw the business details, but continued to write code as well.",
"In the first five years, Gates personally reviewed every line of code the company shipped, and often rewrote parts of it as he saw fit.",
"=== IBM partnership ===\nIBM approached Microsoft in July 1980 in reference to an operating system for its upcoming personal computer, the IBM PC.",
"Big Blue first proposed that Microsoft write the BASIC interpreter.",
"When IBM's representatives mentioned that they needed an operating system, Gates referred them to Digital Research (DRI), makers of the widely used CP/M operating system.",
"IBM's discussions with Digital Research went poorly, and they did not reach a licensing agreement.",
"IBM representative Jack Sams mentioned the licensing difficulties during a subsequent meeting with Gates and told him to get an acceptable operating system.",
"A few weeks later, Gates proposed using 86-DOS (QDOS), an operating system similar to CP/M that Tim Paterson of Seattle Computer Products (SCP) had made for hardware similar to the PC.",
"Microsoft made a deal with SCP to become the exclusive licensing agent, and later the full owner, of 86-DOS.",
"After adapting the operating system for the PC, Microsoft delivered it to IBM as PC DOS in exchange for a one-time fee of $50,000.",
"Gates did not offer to transfer the copyright on the operating system, because he believed that other hardware vendors would clone IBM's system.",
"They did, and the sales of MS-DOS made Microsoft a major player in the industry.",
"Despite IBM's name on the operating system, the press quickly identified Microsoft as being very influential on the new computer.",
"''PC Magazine'' asked if Gates were \"the man behind the machine?",
"\", and ''InfoWorld'' quoted an expert as stating \"it's Gates' computer\".",
"Gates oversaw Microsoft's company restructuring on June 25, 1981, which re-incorporated the company in Washington state and made Gates the president of Microsoft and its board chairman.",
"=== Windows ===\nMicrosoft launched its first retail version of Microsoft Windows on November 20, 1985.",
"In August of the following year, the company struck a deal with IBM to develop a separate operating system called OS/2.",
"Although the two companies successfully developed the first version of the new system, the partnership deteriorated due to mounting creative differences.",
"=== Management style ===\n\nBill Gates in January 2008\n\nFrom Microsoft's founding in 1975 until 2006, Gates had primary responsibility for the company's product strategy.",
"He gained a reputation for being distant from others; as early as 1981 an industry executive complained in public that \"Gates is notorious for not being reachable by phone and for not returning phone calls.\"",
"Another executive recalled that he showed Gates a game and defeated him 35 of 37 times.",
"When they met again a month later, Gates \"won or tied every game.",
"He had studied the game until he solved it.",
"That is a competitor.\"",
"Gates was an executive who met regularly with Microsoft's senior managers and program managers.",
"In firsthand accounts of these meetings, the managers described him being verbally combative.",
"He also berated managers for perceived holes in their business strategies or proposals that placed the company's long-term interests at risk.",
"He interrupted presentations with such comments as \"That's the stupidest thing I've ever heard!\"",
"and \"Why don't you just give up your options and join the Peace Corps?\"",
"The target of his outburst then had to defend the proposal in detail until, hopefully, Gates was fully convinced.",
"When subordinates appeared to be procrastinating, he was known to remark sarcastically, \"I'll do it over the weekend.\"",
"During Microsoft's early history, Gates was an active software developer, particularly in the company's programming language products, but his basic role in most of the company's history was primarily as a manager and executive.",
"Gates has not officially been on a development team since working on the TRS-80 Model 100, but as late as 1989 he wrote code that shipped with the company's products.",
"He remained interested in technical details; in 1985, Jerry Pournelle wrote that when he watched Gates announce Microsoft Excel, \"Something else impressed me.",
"Bill Gates likes the program, not because it's going to make him a lot of money (although I'm sure it will do that), but because it's a neat hack.\"",
"On June 15, 2006, Gates announced that over the next two years he would transition out of his day-to-day role to dedicate more time to philanthropy.",
"He divided his responsibilities between two successors when he placed Ray Ozzie in charge of day-to-day management and Craig Mundie in charge of long-term product strategy.",
"=== Antitrust litigation ===\n\ndeposition at Microsoft on August 27, 1998\n\nMany decisions that led to antitrust litigation over Microsoft's business practices have had Gates' approval.",
"In the 1998 ''United States v. Microsoft'' case, Gates gave deposition testimony that several journalists characterized as evasive.",
"He argued with examiner David Boies over the contextual meaning of words such as, \"compete\", \"concerned\", and \"we\".",
"The judge and other observers in the court room were seen laughing at various points during the deposition.",
"''BusinessWeek'' reported:\n\n\nGates later said he had simply resisted attempts by Boies to mischaracterize his words and actions.",
"As to his demeanor during the deposition, he said, \"Did I fence with Boies?",
"...",
"I plead guilty.",
"Whatever that penalty is should be levied against me: rudeness to Boies in the first degree.\"",
"Despite Gates' denials, the judge ruled that Microsoft had committed monopolization and tying, and blocking competition, both in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act.",
"=== Appearance in ads ===\n\nMugshots of 22-year-old Gates following his 1977 arrest for a traffic violation in Albuquerque, New Mexico\n\nIn 2008, Gates appeared in a series of ads to promote Microsoft.",
"The first commercial, co-starring Jerry Seinfeld, is a 90-second talk between strangers as Seinfeld walks up on a discount shoe store (Shoe Circus) in a mall and notices Gates buying shoes inside.",
"The salesman is trying to sell Mr. Gates shoes that are a size too big.",
"As Gates is buying the shoes, he holds up his discount card, which uses a slightly altered version of his own mugshot of his arrest in New Mexico in 1977, for a traffic violation.",
"As they are walking out of the mall, Seinfeld asks Gates if he has melded his mind to other developers, after getting a \"Yes\", he then asks if they are working on a way to make computers edible, again getting a \"Yes\".",
"Some say that this is an homage to Seinfeld's own show about \"nothing\" (''Seinfeld'').",
"In a second commercial in the series, Gates and Seinfeld are at the home of an average family trying to fit in with normal people.",
"Gates meets with U.S. Secretary of Defense James Mattis, February 2017\nSince leaving day-to-day operations at Microsoft, Gates has continued his philanthropy and works on other projects.",
"According to the Bloomberg Billionaires Index, Gates was the world's highest-earning billionaire in 2013, as his net worth increased by US$15.8 billion to US$78.5 billion.",
"As of January 2014, most of Gates' assets are held in Cascade Investment LLC, an entity through which he owns stakes in numerous businesses, including Four Seasons Hotels and Resorts, and Corbis Corp. On February 4, 2014, Gates stepped down as chairman of Microsoft to become Technology Advisor alongside new CEO Satya Nadella.",
"Gates provided his perspective on a range of issues in a substantial interview that was published in the March 27, 2014 issue of ''Rolling Stone'' magazine.",
"In the interview, Gates provided his perspective on climate change, his charitable activities, various tech companies and people involved in them, and the state of America.",
"In response to a question about his greatest fear when he looks 50 years into the future, Gates stated: \"... there'll be some really bad things that'll happen in the next 50 or 100 years, but hopefully none of them on the scale of, say, a million people that you didn't expect to die from a pandemic, or nuclear or bioterrorism.\"",
"Gates also identified innovation as the \"real driver of progress\" and pronounced that \"America's way better today than it's ever been.\"",
"Gates has recently expressed concern about the existential threats of superintelligence; in a Reddit \"ask me anything\", he stated that\nFirst the machines will do a lot of jobs for us and not be super intelligent.",
"That should be positive if we manage it well.",
"A few decades after that though the intelligence is strong enough to be a concern.",
"I agree with Elon Musk and some others on this and don't understand why some people are not concerned.",
"In a March 2015 interview, with Baidu's CEO, Robin Li, Gates claimed he would \"highly recommend\" Nick Bostrom's recent work, ''Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies''.",
"Gates' days are planned for him, similar to the US President's schedule, on a minute-by-minute basis.",
"Bill and Melinda Gates in June 2009\nGates married Melinda French on a golf course on the Hawaiian island of Lanai on January 1, 1994; he was 38 and she was 29.",
"They have three children: Jennifer Katharine (b.",
"1996), Rory John (b.",
"1999), and Phoebe Adele (b.",
"2002).",
"The family resides in a modern design mansion, which is an earth-sheltered house in the side of a hill overlooking Lake Washington in Medina near Seattle in Washington State, United States.",
"According to 2007 King County public records, the total assessed value of the property (land and house) is $125 million, and the annual property taxes are $991,000.",
"The estate has a swimming pool with an underwater music system, as well as a gym and a dining room.",
"In an interview with ''Rolling Stone'', Gates stated in regard to his faith:\n\n\nThe moral systems of religion, I think, are super important.",
"We've raised our kids in a religious way; they've gone to the Catholic church that Melinda goes to and I participate in.",
"I've been very lucky, and therefore I owe it to try and reduce the inequity in the world.",
"And that's kind of a religious belief.",
"I mean, it's at least a moral belief.",
"In the same interview, Gates said: \"I agree with people like Richard Dawkins that mankind felt the need for creation myths.",
"Before we really began to understand disease and the weather and things like that, we sought false explanations for them.",
"Now science has filled in some of the realm – not all – that religion used to fill.",
"But the mystery and the beauty of the world is overwhelmingly amazing, and there's no scientific explanation of how it came about.",
"To say that it was generated by random numbers, that does seem, you know, sort of an uncharitable view laughs.",
"I think it makes sense to believe in God, but exactly what decision in your life you make differently because of it, I don't know.\"",
"The Codex Leicester is one of Gates' private acquisitions.",
"He purchased the collection of famous scientific writings by Leonardo da Vinci for $30.8 million at an auction in 1994.",
"Gates is also known for being an avid reader, and the ceiling of his large home library is engraved with a quotation from ''The Great Gatsby''.",
"He also enjoys playing bridge, tennis, and golf.",
"In 1999, his wealth briefly surpassed $101 billion.",
"Despite his wealth and extensive business travel, Gates usually flew coach in commercial aircraft until 1997, when he bought a private jet.",
"Since 2000, the nominal value of his Microsoft holdings has declined due to a fall in Microsoft's stock price after the dot-com bubble burst and the multibillion-dollar donations he has made to his charitable foundations.",
"In a May 2006 interview, Gates commented that he wished that he were not the richest man in the world because he disliked the attention it brought.",
"In March 2010, Gates was the second wealthiest person behind Carlos Slim, but regained the top position in 2013, according to the Bloomberg Billionaires List.",
"Carlos Slim retook the position again in June 2014 (but then lost the top position back to Gates).",
"Between 2009 and 2014, his wealth doubled from 40 billion to more than 82 billion.",
"Bill Gates has held the top spot on the list of The World's Billionaires for 18 out of the past 23 years.",
"Gates has several investments outside Microsoft, which in 2006 paid him a salary of $616,667 and $350,000 bonus totalling $966,667.",
"In 1989, he founded Corbis, a digital imaging company.",
"In 2004, he became a director of Berkshire Hathaway, the investment company headed by long-time friend Warren Buffett.",
"In 2016, he was discussing his gaming habits when he revealed that he was color-blind.",
"In a BBC interview, Gates claimed \"I've paid more tax than any individual ever, and gladly so...",
"I've paid over $6 billion in taxes.\"",
"He is a proponent of higher taxes, particularly for the rich.",
"=== Philanthropy ===\n\nGates with Bono, Queen Rania of Jordan, former British Prime Minister Gordon Brown, President Umaru Yar'Adua of Nigeria and others during the Annual Meeting 2008 of the World Economic Forum in Switzerland\n\nIn 2009, Gates and Warren Buffett founded The Giving Pledge, whereby they and other billionaires pledge to give at least half of their wealth to philanthropy.",
"==== Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation ====\n\n\nGates studied the work of Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller, and donated some of his Microsoft stock in 1994 to create the \"William H. Gates Foundation.\"",
"In 2000, Gates and his wife combined three family foundations and Gates donated stock valued at $5 billion to create the charitable Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, which was identified by the Funds for NGOs company in 2013, as the world's wealthiest charitable foundation, with assets reportedly valued at more than $34.6 billion.",
"The Foundation allows benefactors to access information that shows how its money is being spent, unlike other major charitable organizations such as the Wellcome Trust.",
"Gates has credited the generosity and extensive philanthropy of David Rockefeller as a major influence.",
"Gates and his father met with Rockefeller several times, and their charity work is partly modeled on the Rockefeller family's philanthropic focus, whereby they are interested in tackling the global problems that are ignored by governments and other organizations.",
"As of 2007, Bill and Melinda Gates were the second-most generous philanthropists in America, having given over $28 billion to charity; the couple plan to eventually donate 95 percent of their wealth to charity.",
"The foundation is organized into four program areas: Global Development Division, Global Health Division, United States Division, and Global Policy & Advocacy Division.",
"The foundation supports the use of genetically modified organisms in agricultural development.",
"Specifically, the foundation is supporting the International Rice Research Institute in developing Golden Rice, a genetically modified rice variant used to combat Vitamin A deficiency.",
"==== Personal donations====\nMelinda Gates suggested that people should emulate the philanthropic efforts of the Salwen family, which had sold its home and given away half of its value, as detailed in ''The Power of Half''.",
"Gates and his wife invited Joan Salwen to Seattle to speak about what the family had done, and on December 9, 2010, Gates, investor Warren Buffett, and Facebook founder and CEO Mark Zuckerberg signed a commitment they called the \"Gates-Buffet Giving Pledge.\"",
"The pledge is a commitment by all three to donate at least half of their wealth over the course of time to charity.",
"Gates has also provided personal donations to educational institutions.",
"In 1999, Gates donated $20 million to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) for the construction of a computer laboratory named the \"William H. Gates Building\" that was designed by architect Frank Gehry.",
"While Microsoft had previously given financial support to the institution, this was the first personal donation received from Gates.",
"The Maxwell Dworkin Laboratory of the Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences is named after the mothers of both Gates and Microsoft President Steven A. Ballmer, both of whom were students (Ballmer was a member of the School's graduating class of 1977, while Gates left his studies for Microsoft), and donated funds for the laboratory's construction.",
"Gates also donated $6 million to the construction of the Gates Computer Science Building, completed in January 1996, on the campus of Stanford University.",
"The building contains the Computer Science Department (CSD) and the Computer Systems Laboratory (CSL) of Stanford's Engineering department.",
"On August 15, 2014, Bill Gates posted a video of himself on Facebook in which he is seen dumping a bucket of ice water on his head.",
"Gates posted the video after Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg challenged him to do so in order to raise awareness for the disease ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis).",
"Since about 2005, Bill Gates and his foundation have taken an interest in solving global sanitation problems.",
"For example, they announced the \"Reinvent the Toilet Challenge\", which has received considerable media interest.",
"To raise awareness for the topic of sanitation and possible solutions, Gates drank water that was \"produced from human feces\" in 2014 – in fact it was produced from a sewage sludge treatment process called the Omni-processor.",
"In early 2015, he also appeared with Jimmy Fallon on ''The Tonight Show'' and challenged him to see if he could taste the difference between this reclaimed water or bottled water.",
"Bill and Melinda Gates have said that they intend to leave their three children $10 million each as their inheritance.",
"With only $30 million kept in the family, they appear to be on a course to give away about 99.96 percent of their wealth.",
"==== Criticism ====\nIn 2007, the ''Los Angeles Times'' criticized the foundation for investing its assets in companies that have been accused of worsening poverty, polluting heavily, and pharmaceutical companies that do not sell to the developing world.",
"In response to press criticism, the foundation announced a review of its investments to assess social responsibility.",
"It subsequently canceled the review and stood by its policy of investing for maximum return, while using voting rights to influence company practices.",
"The Gates Millennium Scholars program has been criticized by Ernest W. Lefever for its exclusion of Caucasian students.",
"The scholarship program is administered by the United Negro College Fund.",
"In 2014, Bill Gates sparked a protest in Vancouver when he decided to donate $50 million to UNAIDS through the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation for the purpose of mass circumcision in Zambia and Swaziland.",
"==== Charity sports events ====\n\nOn April 29, 2017, Bill Gates partnered with Swiss tennis legend Roger Federer in playing a noncompetitive tennis match to a packed house at Key Arena in Seattle.",
"The event was in support of Roger Federer Foundation's charity efforts in Africa.",
"Federer and Gates played against John Isner and Pearl Jam lead guitarist Mike McReady.",
"Gates and Federer won the game 6–4.",
"=== Recognition ===\nGates and Steve Jobs at the fifth conference (''D5'') in 2007\n\nIn 1987, Gates was listed as a billionaire in ''Forbes'' magazine's 400 Richest People in America issue.",
"He was worth $1.25 billion and was the world's youngest self-made billionaire.",
"Since 1987, Gates has been included in the ''Forbes'' The World's Billionaires list and was the wealthiest from 1995 to 1996, 1998 to 2007, 2009, and has been since 2014.",
"Gates was number one on ''Forbes''' 400 Richest Americans list from 1993 through to 2007.",
"''Time'' magazine named Gates one of the 100 people who most influenced the 20th century, as well as one of the 100 most influential people of 2004, 2005, and 2006.",
"''Time'' also collectively named Gates, his wife Melinda and U2's lead singer Bono as the 2005 Persons of the Year for their humanitarian efforts.",
"In 2006, he was voted eighth in the list of \"Heroes of our time\".",
"Gates was listed in the ''Sunday Times'' power list in 1999, named CEO of the year by ''Chief Executive Officers magazine'' in 1994, ranked number one in the \"Top 50 Cyber Elite\" by ''Time'' in 1998, ranked number two in the ''Upside'' Elite 100 in 1999, and was included in ''The Guardian'' as one of the \"Top 100 influential people in media\" in 2001.",
"According to ''Forbes'', Gates was ranked as the fourth most powerful person in the world in 2012, up from fifth in 2011.",
"In 1994, he was honored as the twentieth Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society.",
"In 1999, Gates received New York Institute of Technology's President's Medal.",
"Gates has received honorary doctorates from Nyenrode Business Universiteit, Breukelen, The Netherlands, in 2000; the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, in 2002; Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan, in 2005; Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, in April 2007; Harvard University in June 2007; the Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, in 2007, and Cambridge University in June 2009.",
"He was also made an honorary trustee of Peking University in 2007.",
"Gates was made an Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) by Queen Elizabeth II in 2005.",
"In November 2006, he was awarded the Placard of the Order of the Aztec Eagle, together with his wife Melinda who was awarded the Insignia of the same order, both for their philanthropic work around the world in the areas of health and education, particularly in Mexico, and specifically in the program \"''''\".",
"Gates received the 2010 Bower Award for Business Leadership from The Franklin Institute for his achievements at Microsoft and his philanthropic work.",
"Also in 2010, he was honored with the Silver Buffalo Award by the Boy Scouts of America, its highest award for adults, for his service to youth.",
"Entomologists named Bill Gates' flower fly, '''', in his honor in 1997.",
"In 2002, Bill and Melinda Gates received the Jefferson Award for Greatest Public Service Benefiting the Disadvantaged.",
"In 2006, Gates received the James C. Morgan Global Humanitarian Award from The Tech Awards.",
"In 2015, Gates, along with his wife Melinda, received the Padma Bhushan, India's third-highest civilian award for their social work in the country.",
"In 2016, President Barack Obama honored Gates and his wife Melinda with the Presidential Medal of Freedom for their philanthropic efforts.",
"In 2017, President François Hollande awarded Bill and Melinda with the France's highest national award – Legion of Honour in Paris for their charity efforts.",
"=== External business ventures and investments ===\n* Cascade Investments LLC, a private investment and holding company, incorporated in United States, is controlled by Bill Gates, and is headquartered in the city of Kirkland, Washington.",
"* bgC3, a new think-tank company founded by Bill Gates.",
"* Corbis, a digital image licensing and rights services company.",
"* TerraPower, a nuclear reactor design company.",
"* ResearchGate, a social networking site for scientists.",
"Gates participated in a $35 million round of financing along with other investors.",
"\n=== Books ===\nTo date, Bill Gates has authored two books:\n* ''The Road Ahead'', written with Microsoft executive Nathan Myhrvold and journalist Peter Rinearson, was published in November 1995.",
"It summarized the implications of the personal computing revolution and described a future profoundly changed by the arrival of a global information superhighway.",
"* ''Business @ the Speed of Thought'' was published in 1999, and discusses how business and technology are integrated, and shows how digital infrastructures and information networks can help getting an edge on the competition.",
"=== Documentaries ===\n\n* ''The Machine That Changed the World'' (miniseries) (1990)\n* ''Triumph of the Nerds'' (1996)\n* ''Nerds 2.0.1'' (1998)\n* ''Waiting for \"Superman\"'' (2010)\n* ''The Virtual Revolution'' (2010)\n\n=== Feature films ===\n* 1999: ''Pirates of Silicon Valley'', a film which chronicles the rise of Apple and Microsoft from the early 1970s to 1997.",
"Gates is portrayed by Anthony Michael Hall.",
"* 2002: ''Nothing So Strange'', a mocumentary featuring Gates as the subject of a modern assassination.",
"Gates briefly appears at the start, played by Steve Sires.",
"* 2010: ''The Social Network,'' a film which chronicles the development of Facebook.",
"Gates is portrayed by Steve Sires.",
"* 2015: ''Steve Jobs vs. Bill Gates: The Competition to Control the Personal Computer, 1974–1999'': Original film from the National Geographic Channel for the ''American Genius'' series.",
"=== Social media ===\nIn 2013, Gates became a LinkedIn Influencer.",
"=== Video and film clips ===\n* 1983: Steve Jobs hosts Bill Gates in the Macintosh dating game at the Macintosh pre-launch event (with Steve Jobs and Mitch Kapor, references the television show, ''The Dating Game'')\n* 2007: Steve Jobs and Bill Gates Together at D5 Conference\n\n=== Radio ===\nGates was the guest on BBC Radio 4's ''Desert Island Discs'' on January 31, 2016, in which he talks about his relationships with his father and Steve Jobs, meeting his then future wife Melinda Ann French, the start of Microsoft and some of his habits (for example reading The Economist \"from cover to cover every week\").",
"His choice of things to take on a desert island were, for music: \"Blue Skies\" by Willie Nelson; book: ''The Better Angels of Our Nature'' by Steven Pinker; and luxury item: a DVD Collection of Lectures from The Teaching Company.",
"* Big History – academic discipline advocated by Bill Gates\n* List of richest Americans in history\n* List of wealthiest historical figures",
"=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\n* \n* \n* \n* \n*",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \"The Meaning of Bill Gates: As his reign at Microsoft comes to an end, so does the era he dominated\", ''The Economist'', June 28, 2008.",
"\n* \n* Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation\n* Profile at Microsoft\n* \n* \n* \n* \n*"
] | finance |
[
"\nA '''bay''' is an area of water bordered by land on three sides.\n\n'''Bay''', '''Bays''' or '''baying''' may also refer to:\n\n",
"* Bay (horse), a color of the hair coats of some horses\n* Bay laurel, the evergreen laurel tree species ''Laurus nobilis''\n* Bay leaf, the aromatic leaves of several species of the Laurel family\n* Rose bay, a common name for ''Rhododendron maximum''\n* Baying, a kind of howl made by canines\n",
"* Bay (architecture), a module in classical or Gothic architecture\n* The name in English of a ken, a Japanese unit of measure and proportion\n",
"* Bay Street (disambiguation)\n* Bay Township (disambiguation)\n* Bay, Arkansas, USA\n* Bays, Kentucky, USA\n* Bay, Missouri, USA\n* Bay County, Florida, USA\n* Bay County, Michigan, USA\n* Bays, Ohio, USA\n* Bay, Haute-Saône, a commune of France in the Haute-Saône department\n* Bay, Laguna, a municipality in the Philippines\n** Bay River, a river in this locality\n* Bay, Somalia\n* Shorthand for various features, including:\n** The Chesapeake Bay and other locally prominent bays\n** San Francisco Bay Area, or simply the Bay Area\n** Morecambe Bay, the largest intertidal bay in England\n",
"* Bay station (Toronto), a subway station in Toronto\n* BAY, the IATA airport code of Baia Mare Airport in Baia Mare, Romania\n* Bay station (OC Transpo), a bus stop in Ottawa's Central Transitway\n* The space enclosed by a set of struts on a biplane, see biplane#Overview\n* Bay platform, a dead-end platform at a railway station which has through lines\n* Loading bay\n",
"* '' Baywatch,'' an American action drama series\n* ''The Bay'' (film), a film that premiered at the 2012 Toronto Film Festival\n* ''The Bay'' (web series), a soap opera web series that premiered in 2010\n* \"The Bay\", a 2011 single by Metronomy\n\n===Radio stations===\n* 102.1 Bay Radio, a radio station in South Wales, originally launched as Swansea Bay Radio\n* 100.7 The Bay, a classic rock radio station in Westminster, Maryland\n* Bay Radio (Malta), a radio station located in Malta\n* Bay Radio (Spain), a radio station serving the Valencian Community in Spain\n* The Bay (radio station), in North West England\n* The Bay 102.8, a radio station in Dorset, England\n",
"* Bank of Ayudhya, a Thai commercial bank (Stock symbol: BAY)\n* Bay Networks, a network hardware vendor acquired by Nortel Networks in 1998\n* Bay Trading Company, a retailer of woman's clothes in the UK\n* The Bay, a former and current colloquial name of Hudson's Bay, a chain of department stores in Canada\n",
"* Bay (surname)\n* Chancellor Bay, a royal scribe to an ancient Egyptian ruler\n* Sick bay, nautical term for the location in a ship that is used for medical purposes\n* The Bay School of San Francisco, a private high school\n* Drive bay, an area for adding hardware in a computer\n* Substation bay, an interconnection of equipment in an electrical substation\n",
"* Bey (disambiguation)\n* eBay\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Animals and plants",
"Architecture",
"Places",
"Transport",
"Entertainment",
"Businesses",
"Other uses",
"See also"
] | Bay (disambiguation) | [
"* Bank of Ayudhya, a Thai commercial bank (Stock symbol: BAY)\n* Bay Networks, a network hardware vendor acquired by Nortel Networks in 1998\n* Bay Trading Company, a retailer of woman's clothes in the UK\n* The Bay, a former and current colloquial name of Hudson's Bay, a chain of department stores in Canada"
] | [
"\nA '''bay''' is an area of water bordered by land on three sides.",
"'''Bay''', '''Bays''' or '''baying''' may also refer to:",
"* Bay (horse), a color of the hair coats of some horses\n* Bay laurel, the evergreen laurel tree species ''Laurus nobilis''\n* Bay leaf, the aromatic leaves of several species of the Laurel family\n* Rose bay, a common name for ''Rhododendron maximum''\n* Baying, a kind of howl made by canines",
"* Bay (architecture), a module in classical or Gothic architecture\n* The name in English of a ken, a Japanese unit of measure and proportion",
"* Bay Street (disambiguation)\n* Bay Township (disambiguation)\n* Bay, Arkansas, USA\n* Bays, Kentucky, USA\n* Bay, Missouri, USA\n* Bay County, Florida, USA\n* Bay County, Michigan, USA\n* Bays, Ohio, USA\n* Bay, Haute-Saône, a commune of France in the Haute-Saône department\n* Bay, Laguna, a municipality in the Philippines\n** Bay River, a river in this locality\n* Bay, Somalia\n* Shorthand for various features, including:\n** The Chesapeake Bay and other locally prominent bays\n** San Francisco Bay Area, or simply the Bay Area\n** Morecambe Bay, the largest intertidal bay in England",
"* Bay station (Toronto), a subway station in Toronto\n* BAY, the IATA airport code of Baia Mare Airport in Baia Mare, Romania\n* Bay station (OC Transpo), a bus stop in Ottawa's Central Transitway\n* The space enclosed by a set of struts on a biplane, see biplane#Overview\n* Bay platform, a dead-end platform at a railway station which has through lines\n* Loading bay",
"* '' Baywatch,'' an American action drama series\n* ''The Bay'' (film), a film that premiered at the 2012 Toronto Film Festival\n* ''The Bay'' (web series), a soap opera web series that premiered in 2010\n* \"The Bay\", a 2011 single by Metronomy\n\n===Radio stations===\n* 102.1 Bay Radio, a radio station in South Wales, originally launched as Swansea Bay Radio\n* 100.7 The Bay, a classic rock radio station in Westminster, Maryland\n* Bay Radio (Malta), a radio station located in Malta\n* Bay Radio (Spain), a radio station serving the Valencian Community in Spain\n* The Bay (radio station), in North West England\n* The Bay 102.8, a radio station in Dorset, England",
"* Bay (surname)\n* Chancellor Bay, a royal scribe to an ancient Egyptian ruler\n* Sick bay, nautical term for the location in a ship that is used for medical purposes\n* The Bay School of San Francisco, a private high school\n* Drive bay, an area for adding hardware in a computer\n* Substation bay, an interconnection of equipment in an electrical substation",
"* Bey (disambiguation)\n* eBay"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield''', (21 December 1804 – 19 April 1881) was a British statesman of the Conservative Party who twice served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, as well as a novelist. He played a central role in the creation of the modern Conservative Party, defining its policies and its broad outreach. Disraeli is remembered for his influential voice in world affairs, his political battles with the Liberal Party leader William Ewart Gladstone, and his one-nation conservatism or \"Tory democracy\". He made the Conservatives the party most identified with the glory and power of the British Empire. He is the only UK Prime Minister to have been of Jewish birth.\n\nDisraeli was born in Bloomsbury, then a part of Middlesex. His father left the Jewish faith after a dispute at his synagogue; young Benjamin became an Anglican at the age of 12. \n\nAfter several unsuccessful attempts, Disraeli entered the House of Commons in 1837. In 1846 the Prime Minister at the time, Sir Robert Peel split the party over his proposal to repeal the Corn Laws; which involved ending the tariff on imported grain. Disraeli clashed with Peel in the House of Commons. Disraeli became a major figure in the party. When Lord Derby, the party leader, thrice formed governments in the 1850s and 1860s, Disraeli served as Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons\n\nUpon Derby's retirement in 1868, Disraeli became Prime Minister briefly before losing that year's general election. He returned to the Opposition, before leading the party to winning a majority in the 1874 general election. He maintained a close friendship with Queen Victoria, who in 1876 appointed him Earl of Beaconsfield. Disraeli's second term was dominated by the Eastern Question—the slow decay of the Ottoman Empire and the desire of other European powers, such as Russia, to gain at its expense. Disraeli arranged for the British to purchase a major interest in the Suez Canal Company (in Ottoman-controlled Egypt). In 1878, faced with Russian victories against the Ottomans, he worked at the Congress of Berlin to obtain peace in the Balkans at terms favourable to Britain and unfavourable to Russia, its longstanding enemy. This diplomatic victory over Russia established Disraeli as one of Europe's leading statesmen.\n\nWorld events thereafter moved against the Conservatives. Controversial wars in Afghanistan and South Africa undermined his public support. He angered British farmers by refusing to reinstitute the Corn Laws in response to poor harvests and cheap imported grain. With Gladstone conducting a massive speaking campaign, his Liberals bested Disraeli's Conservatives at the 1880 general election. In his final months, Disraeli led the Conservatives in Opposition. He had throughout his career written novels, beginning in 1826, and he published his last completed novel, ''Endymion'', shortly before he died at the age of 76.\n",
"\n===Childhood===\nDisraeli was born on 21 December 1804 at 6 King's Road, Bedford Row, Bloomsbury, London, the second child and eldest son of Isaac D'Israeli, a literary critic and historian, and Maria (Miriam), ''née'' Basevi. The family was of Sephardic Jewish Italian mercantile background. All Disraeli's grandparents and great-grandparents were born in Italy; Isaac's father, Benjamin, moved to England from Venice in 1748. Disraeli later romanticised his origins, claiming that his father's family was of grand Spanish and Venetian descent; in fact Isaac's family was of no great distinction, but on Disraeli's mother's side, in which he took no interest, there were some distinguished forebears. Historians differ on Disraeli's motives for rewriting his family history: Bernard Glassman argues that it was intended to give him status comparable to that of England's ruling elite; Sarah Bradford believes \"his dislike of the commonplace would not allow him to accept the facts of his birth as being as middle-class and undramatic as they really were\".\n\nIsaac, Maria and Sarah|alt=Three portraits; a man and two women\nDisraeli's siblings were Sarah (1802–1859), Naphtali (born and died 1807), Ralph (1809–1898), and James (\"Jem\") (1813–1868). He was close to his sister, and on affectionate but more distant terms with his surviving brothers. Details of his schooling are sketchy. From the age of about six he was a day boy at a dame school in Islington that one of his biographers later described as \"for those days a very high-class establishment\". Two years later or so—the exact date has not been ascertained—he was sent as a boarder to Rev John Potticary's St Piran's school at Blackheath. While he was there events at the family home changed the course of Disraeli's education and of his whole life: his father renounced Judaism and had the four children baptised into the Church of England in July and August 1817.\n\nIsaac D'Israeli had never taken religion very seriously, but had remained a conforming member of the Bevis Marks Synagogue. His father, the elder Benjamin, was a prominent and devout member; it was probably from respect for him that Isaac did not leave when he fell out with the synagogue authorities in 1813. After Benjamin senior died in 1816 Isaac felt free to leave the congregation following a second dispute. Isaac's friend Sharon Turner, a solicitor, convinced him that although he could comfortably remain unattached to any formal religion it would be disadvantageous to the children if they did so. Turner stood as godfather when Benjamin was baptised, aged twelve, on 31 July 1817.\n\nConversion to Christianity enabled Disraeli to contemplate a career in politics. Britain in the early-nineteenth century was not a greatly anti-Semitic society, and there had been Members of Parliament (MPs) from Jewish families since Samson Gideon in 1770. But until 1858, MPs were required to take the oath of allegiance \"on the true faith of a Christian\", necessitating at least nominal conversion. It is not known whether Disraeli formed any ambition for a parliamentary career at the time of his baptism, but there is no doubt that he bitterly regretted his parents' decision not to send him to Winchester College. As one of the great public schools of England, Winchester consistently provided recruits to the political elite. His two younger brothers were sent there, and it is not clear why Isaac D'Israeli chose to send his eldest son to a much less prestigious school. The boy evidently held his mother responsible for the decision; Bradford speculates that \"Benjamin's delicate health and his obviously Jewish appearance may have had something to do with it.\" The school chosen for him was run by Eliezer Cogan at Higham Hill in Walthamstow. He began there in the autumn term of 1817; he later recalled his education:\n\n\n===1820s===\nIn November 1821, shortly before his seventeenth birthday, Disraeli was articled as a clerk to a firm of solicitors—Swain, Stevens, Maples, Pearse and Hunt—in the City of London. T F Maples was not only the young Disraeli's employer and friend of his father's, but also his prospective father-in-law: Isaac and Maples entertained the possibility that the latter's only daughter might be a suitable match for Benjamin. A friendship developed, but there was no romance. The firm had a large and profitable business, and as the biographer R W Davis observes, the clerkship was \"the kind of secure, respectable position that many fathers dream of for their children\". Although biographers including Robert Blake and Bradford comment that such a post was incompatible with Disraeli's romantic and ambitious nature, he reportedly gave his employers satisfactory service, and later professed to have learned a good deal from his time with the firm. He recalled, \"I had some scruples, for even then I dreamed of Parliament. My father's refrain always was 'Philip Carteret Webb', who was the most eminent solicitor of his boyhood and who was an MP. It would be a mistake to suppose that the two years and more that I was in the office of our friend were wasted. I have often thought, though I have often regretted the University, that it was much the reverse.\"\n\nalt=A young man of vaguely Semitic appearance, with long and curly black hair\nThe year after joining Maples' firm, Benjamin changed his surname from D'Israeli to Disraeli. His reasons for doing so are unknown, but the biographer Bernard Glassman surmises that it was to avoid being confused with his father. Disraeli's sister and brothers adopted the new version of the name; Isaac and his wife retained the older form.\n\nDisraeli toured Belgium and the Rhine Valley with his father in the summer of 1824; he later wrote that it was while travelling on the Rhine that he decided to abandon his position: \"I determined when descending those magical waters that I would not be a lawyer.\" On their return to England he left the solicitors, at the suggestion of Maples, with the aim of qualifying as a barrister. He enrolled as a student at Lincoln's Inn and joined the chambers of his uncle, Nathaniel Basevy, and then those of Benjamin Austen, who persuaded Isaac that Disraeli would never make a barrister and should be allowed to pursue a literary career. He had made a tentative start: in May 1824 he submitted a manuscript to his father's friend, the publisher John Murray, but withdrew it before Murray could decide whether to publish it. Released from the law, Disraeli did some work for Murray, but turned most of his attention not to literature but to speculative dealing on the stock exchange.\n\nThere was at the time a boom in shares in South American mining companies. Spain was losing its South American colonies in the face of rebellions. At the urging of George Canning the British government recognised the new independent governments of Argentina (1824), Colombia and Mexico (both 1825). With no money of his own, Disraeli borrowed money to invest. He became involved with the financier J. D. Powles, who was prominent among those encouraging the mining boom. In the course of 1825, Disraeli wrote three anonymous pamphlets for Powles, promoting the companies. The pamphlets were published by John Murray, who invested heavily in the boom.\n\nMurray had for some time had ambitions to establish a new morning paper to compete with ''The Times''. In 1825 Disraeli convinced him that he should proceed. The new paper, ''The Representative'', promoted the mines and those politicians who supported them, particularly Canning. Disraeli impressed Murray with his energy and commitment to the project, but he failed in his key task of persuading the eminent writer John Gibson Lockhart to edit the paper. After that, Disraeli's influence on Murray waned, and to his resentment he was sidelined in\nthe affairs of ''The Representative''. The paper survived for only six months, partly because the mining bubble burst in late 1825, and partly because, according to Blake, the paper was \"atrociously edited\", and would have failed regardless.\n\nThe bursting of the mining bubble was ruinous for Disraeli. By June 1825 he and his business partners had lost £7,000. Disraeli could not pay off the last of his debts from this debacle until 1849. He turned to writing, motivated partly by his desperate need for money, and partly by a wish for revenge on Murray and others by whom he felt slighted. There was a vogue for what was called \"silver-fork fiction\"—novels depicting aristocratic life, usually by anonymous authors, read avidly by the aspirational middle classes. Disraeli's first novel, ''Vivian Grey'', published anonymously in four volumes in 1826–27, was a thinly veiled re-telling of the affair of ''The Representative''. It sold well, but caused much offence in influential circles when the authorship was discovered. Disraeli, then just 23 years old, did not move in high society, as the numerous solecisms in his book made obvious. Reviewers were sharply critical on these grounds of both the author and the book. Furthermore, Murray and Lockhart, men of great influence in literary circles, believed that Disraeli had caricatured them and abused their confidence—an accusation denied by the author but repeated by many of his biographers. In later editions Disraeli made many changes, softening his satire, but the damage to his reputation proved long-lasting.\n\nDisraeli's biographer Jonathan Parry writes that the financial failure and personal criticism that Disraeli suffered in 1825 and 1826 were probably the trigger for a serious nervous crisis affecting him over the next four years: \"He had always been moody, sensitive, and solitary by nature, but now became seriously depressed and lethargic.\" He was still living with his parents in London, but in search of the \"change of air\" recommended by the family's doctors Isaac took a succession of houses in the country and on the coast, before Disraeli sought wider horizons.\n\n===1830s===\nTogether with his sister's fiancé, William Meredith, Disraeli travelled widely in southern Europe and beyond in 1830–31. The trip was financed partly by another high society novel, ''The Young Duke'', written in 1829–30. The tour was cut short suddenly by Meredith's death from smallpox in Cairo in July 1831. Despite this tragedy, and the need for treatment for a sexually transmitted disease on his return, Disraeli felt enriched by his experiences. He became, in Parry's words, \"aware of values that seemed denied to his insular countrymen. The journey encouraged his self-consciousness, his moral relativism, and his interest in Eastern racial and religious attitudes.\" Blake regards the tour as one of the formative experiences of Disraeli's whole career: \"The impressions that it made on him were life-lasting. They conditioned his attitude toward some of the most important political problems which faced him in his later years—especially the Eastern Question; they also coloured many of his novels.\"\n\nDisraeli wrote two novels in the aftermath of the tour. ''Contarini Fleming'' (1832) was avowedly a self-portrait. It is subtitled \"a psychological autobiography\", and depicts the conflicting elements of its hero's character: the duality of northern and Mediterranean ancestry, the dreaming artist and the bold man of action. As Parry observes, the book ends on a political note, setting out Europe's progress \"from feudal to federal principles\". ''The Wondrous Tale of Alroy'' the following year portrayed the problems of a medieval Jew in deciding between a small, exclusively Jewish state and a large empire embracing all.\n\nCroker, Lyndhurst, Henrietta Sykes and Lady Londonderry|alt=Two men and two women\nAfter the two novels were published, Disraeli declared that he would \"write no more about myself\". He had already turned his attention to politics in 1832, during the great crisis over the Reform Bill. He contributed to an anti-Whig pamphlet edited by John Wilson Croker and published by Murray entitled ''England and France: or a cure for Ministerial Gallomania''. The choice of a Tory publication was regarded as strange by Disraeli's friends and relatives, who thought him more of a Radical. Indeed, he had objected to Murray about Croker's inserting \"high Tory\" sentiment: Disraeli remarked, \"it is quite impossible that anything adverse to the general measure of Reform can issue from my pen.\" Moreover, at the time ''Gallomania'' was published, Disraeli was electioneering in High Wycombe in the Radical interest.\n\nDisraeli's politics at the time were influenced both by his rebellious streak and by his desire to make his mark. At that time, the politics of the nation were dominated by members of the aristocracy, together with a few powerful commoners. The Whigs derived from the coalition of Lords who had forced through the Bill of Rights in 1689 and in some cases were their actual descendants, not merely spiritual. The Tories tended to support King and Church, and sought to thwart political change. A small number of Radicals, generally from northern constituencies, were the strongest advocates of continuing reform. In the early-1830s the Tories and the interests they represented appeared to be a lost cause. The other great party, the Whigs, were anathema to Disraeli: \"Toryism is worn out & I cannot condescend to be a Whig.\" There were two general elections in 1832; Disraeli unsuccessfully stood as a Radical at High Wycombe in each.\n\nDisraeli's political views embraced certain Radical policies, particularly democratic reform of the electoral system, and also some Tory ones, including protectionism. He began to move in Tory circles. In 1834 he was introduced to the former Lord Chancellor, Lord Lyndhurst, by Henrietta Sykes, wife of Sir Francis Sykes. She was having an affair with Lyndhurst, and began another with Disraeli. Disraeli and Lyndhurst took an immediate liking to each other. Lyndhurst was an indiscreet gossip with a fondness for intrigue; this appealed greatly to Disraeli, who became his secretary and go-between. In 1835 Disraeli stood for the last time as a Radical, unsuccessfully contesting High Wycombe once again.\n\nO'Connell and Labouchere|alt=Two men of Victorian appearance\nIn April 1835, Disraeli fought a by-election at Taunton as a Tory candidate. The Irish MP Daniel O'Connell, misled by inaccurate press reports, thought Disraeli had slandered him while electioneering at Taunton; he launched an outspoken attack, referring to Disraeli as:\n\n\nDisraeli's public exchanges with O'Connell, extensively reproduced in ''The Times'', included a demand for a duel with the 60-year-old O'Connell's son (which resulted in Disraeli's temporary detention by the authorities), a reference to \"the inextinguishable hatred with which he shall pursue O'Connell's existence\", and the accusation that O'Connell's supporters had a \"princely revenue wrung from a starving race of fanatical slaves\". Disraeli was highly gratified by the dispute, which propelled him to general public notice for the first time. He did not defeat the incumbent Whig member, Henry Labouchere, but the Taunton constituency was regarded as unwinnable by the Tories. Disraeli kept Labouchere's majority down to 170, a good showing that put him in line for a winnable seat in the near future.\n\nWith Lyndhurst's encouragement Disraeli turned to writing propaganda for his newly adopted party. His ''Vindication of the English Constitution'', was published in December 1835. It was couched in the form of an open letter to Lyndhurst, and in Bradford's view encapsulates a political philosophy that Disraeli adhered to for the rest of his life. Its themes were the value of benevolent aristocratic government, a loathing of political dogma, and the modernisation of Tory policies. The following year he wrote a series of satires on politicians of the day, which he published in ''The Times'' under the pen-name \"Runnymede\". His targets included the Whigs, collectively and individually, Irish nationalists, and political corruption. One essay ended:\n\nDisraeli was now firmly in the Tory camp. He was elected to the exclusively Tory Carlton Club in 1836, and was also taken up by the party's leading hostess, Lady Londonderry. In June 1837 WilliamIV died, the young Queen Victoria, his niece, succeeded him, and parliament was dissolved. On the recommendation of the Carlton Club, Disraeli was adopted as a Tory parliamentary candidate at the ensuing general election.\n",
"\n===Back-bencher===\nIn the election in July 1837 Disraeli won a seat in the House of Commons as one of two members, both Tory, for the constituency of Maidstone. The other was Wyndham Lewis, who helped finance Disraeli's election campaign, and who died the following year. In the same year Disraeli published a novel, ''Henrietta Temple'', which was a love story and social comedy, drawing on his affair with Henrietta Sykes. He had broken off the relationship in late 1836, distraught that she had taken yet another lover. His other novel of this period is ''Venetia'', a romance based on the characters of Shelley and Byron, written quickly to raise much-needed money.\n\nDisraeli made his maiden speech in Parliament on 7 December 1837. He followed O'Connell, whom he sharply criticised for the latter's \"long, rambling, jumbling, speech\". He was shouted down by O'Connell's supporters. After this unpromising start Disraeli kept a low profile for the rest of the parliamentary session. He was a loyal supporter of the party leader Sir Robert Peel and his policies, with the exception of a personal sympathy for the Chartist movement that most Tories did not share.\n\nalt=A portrait of a young woman with elaborately styled brown hair, tied up with a blue bow\nIn 1839 Disraeli married Mary Anne Lewis, the widow of Wyndham Lewis. Twelve years Disraeli's senior, Mary Lewis had a substantial income of £5,000 a year. His motives were generally assumed to be mercenary, but the couple came to cherish one another, remaining close until she died more than three decades later. \"Dizzy married me for my money\", his wife said later, \"But, if he had the chance again, he would marry me for love.\"\n\nFinding the financial demands of his Maidstone seat too much, Disraeli secured a Tory nomination for Shrewsbury, winning one of the constituency's two seats at the 1841 general election, despite serious opposition, and heavy debts which opponents seized on. The election was a massive defeat for the Whigs across the country, and Peel became Prime Minister. Disraeli hoped, unrealistically, for ministerial office. Though disappointed at being left on the back benches, he continued his support for Peel in 1842 and 1843, seeking to establish himself as an expert on foreign affairs and international trade.\n\nAlthough a Tory (or Conservative, as some in the party now called themselves) Disraeli was sympathetic to some of the aims of Chartism, and argued for an alliance between the landed aristocracy and the working class against the increasing power of the merchants and new industrialists in the middle class. After Disraeli won widespread acclaim in March 1842 for worsting the formidable Lord Palmerston in debate, he was taken up by a small group of idealistic new Tory MPs, with whom he formed the Young England group. They held that the landed interests should use their power to protect the poor from exploitation by middle-class businessmen.\n\nFor many years in his parliamentary career Disraeli hoped to forge a paternalistic Tory-Radical alliance, but he was unsuccessful. Before the Reform Act 1867, the working class did not possess the vote and therefore had little political power. Although Disraeli forged a personal friendship with John Bright, a Lancashire manufacturer and leading Radical, Disraeli was unable to persuade Bright to sacrifice his distinct position for parliamentary advancement. When Disraeli attempted to secure a Tory-Radical cabinet in 1852, Bright refused.\n\nBright, Peel, Bentinck and Stanley|alt=Four men\n\nDisraeli gradually became a sharp critic of Peel's government, often deliberately taking positions contrary to those of his nominal chief. The best known of these stances were over the Maynooth Grant in 1845 and the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846. But the young MP had attacked his leader as early as 1843 on Ireland and then on foreign policy interventions. In a letter of February 1844, he slighted the Prime Minister for failing to send him a Policy Circular. He laid into the Whigs as freebooters, swindlers and conmen but Peel's own Free Trade policies were directly in the firing line.\n\nThe President of the Board of Trade, William Gladstone, resigned from the cabinet over the Maynooth Grant. The Corn Laws imposed a tariff on imported wheat, protecting British farmers from foreign competition, but making the cost of bread artificially high. Peel hoped that the repeal of the Corn Laws and the resultant influx of cheaper wheat into Britain would relieve the condition of the poor, and in particular the suffering caused by successive failure of potato crops in Ireland—the Great Famine.\n\nThe first months of 1846 were dominated by a battle in Parliament between the free traders and the protectionists over the repeal of the Corn Laws, with the latter rallying around Disraeli and Lord George Bentinck. The landowning interest in the Party, under its leader, William Miles MP for East Somerset, had called upon Disraeli to lead the Party. Disraeli had declined, though pledged support to the Country Gentlemen's Interes, as Bentink had offered to lead if he had Disraeli's support. Disraeli stated, in a letter to Sir William Miles of 11 June 1860, that he wished to help \"because, from my earliest years, my sympathies had been with the landed interest of England\".\n\nAn alliance of free-trade Conservatives (the \"Peelites\"), Radicals, and Whigs carried repeal, and the Conservative Party split: the Peelites moved towards the Whigs, while a \"new\" Conservative Party formed around the protectionists, led by Disraeli, Bentinck, and Lord Stanley (later Lord Derby).\n\nThe split in the Tory party over the repeal of the Corn Laws had profound implications for Disraeli's political career: almost every Tory politician with experience of office followed Peel, leaving the rump bereft of leadership. In Blake's words, \"Disraeli found himself almost the only figure on his side capable of putting up the oratorical display essential for a parliamentary leader.\" Looking on from the House of Lords, the Duke of Argyll wrote that Disraeli \"was like a subaltern in a great battle where every superior officer was killed or wounded\". If the Tory Party could muster the electoral support necessary to form a government, then Disraeli now seemed to be guaranteed high office. However, he would take office with a group of men who possessed little or no official experience, who had rarely felt moved to speak in the House of Commons, and who, as a group, remained hostile to Disraeli on a personal level. In the event the matter was not put to the test, as the Tory split soon had the party out of office, not regaining power until 1852. The Conservatives would not again have a majority in the House of Commons until 1874.\n\n===Bentinck and the leadership===\nPeel successfully steered the repeal of the Corn Laws through Parliament, and was then defeated by an alliance of all his enemies on the issue of Irish law and order; he resigned in June 1846. The Tories remained split and the Queen sent for Lord John Russell, the Whig leader. In the 1847 general election, Disraeli stood, successfully, for the Buckinghamshire constituency. The new House of Commons had more Conservative than Whig members, but the depth of the Tory schism enabled Russell to continue to govern. The Conservatives were led by Bentinck in the Commons and Stanley in the Lords.\n\nRussell, Rothschild, Manners and Granby|alt=Four men\nIn 1847 a small political crisis occurred which removed Bentinck from the leadership and highlighted Disraeli's differences with his own party. In that year's general election, Lionel de Rothschild had been returned for the City of London. As a practising Jew he could not take the oath of allegiance in the prescribed Christian form, and therefore could not take his seat. Lord John Russell, the Whig leader who had succeeded Peel as Prime Minister and like Rothschild was a member for the City of London, proposed in the Commons that the oath should be amended to permit Jews to enter Parliament.\n\nDisraeli spoke in favour of the measure, arguing that Christianity was \"completed Judaism\", and asking the House of Commons \"Where is your Christianity if you do not believe in their Judaism?\" Russell and Disraeli's future rival Gladstone thought it brave of him to speak as he did; the speech was badly received by his own party. The Tories and the Anglican establishment were hostile to the bill. Samuel Wilberforce, Bishop of Oxford, spoke strongly against the measure and implied that Russell was paying off the Jews for helping elect him. With the exception of Disraeli, every member of the future protectionist cabinet then in Parliament voted against the measure. One who was not yet an MP, Lord John Manners, stood against Rothschild when the latter re-submitted himself for election in 1849. Disraeli, who had attended the Protectionists dinner at the Merchant Taylors Hall, joined Bentinck in speaking and voting for the bill, although his own speech was a standard one of toleration. The measure was voted down.\n\nIn the aftermath of the debate Bentinck resigned the leadership and was succeeded by Lord Granby; Disraeli's own speech, thought by many of his own party to be blasphemous, ruled him out for the time being. While these intrigues played out, Disraeli was working with the Bentinck family to secure the necessary financing to purchase Hughenden Manor, in Buckinghamshire. The possession of a country house, and incumbency of a county constituency were regarded as essential for a Tory with ambitions to lead the party. Disraeli and his wife alternated between Hughenden and several homes in London for the rest of their marriage. The negotiations were complicated by Bentinck's sudden death on 21 September 1848, but Disraeli obtained a loan of £25,000 from Bentinck's brothers Lord Henry Bentinck and Lord Titchfield.\n\nWithin a month of his appointment Granby resigned the leadership in the Commons, feeling himself inadequate to the post, and the party functioned without a leader in the Commons for the rest of the parliamentary session. At the start of the next session, affairs were handled by a triumvirate of Granby, Disraeli, and John Charles Herries—indicative of the tension between Disraeli and the rest of the party, who needed his talents but mistrusted him. This confused arrangement ended with Granby's resignation in 1851; Disraeli effectively ignored the two men regardless.\n",
"\n===First Derby government===\n\nThe Earl of Derby, Prime Minister 1852, 1858–59, 1866–68|alt=A stately-looking gentleman in a dark suit, sitting with a book\n\nIn March 1851, Lord John Russell's government was defeated over a bill to equalise the county and borough franchises, mostly because of divisions among his supporters. He resigned, and the Queen sent for Stanley, who felt that a minority government could do little and would not last long, so Russell remained in office. Disraeli regretted this, hoping for an opportunity, however brief, to show himself capable in office. Stanley, on the other hand, deprecated his inexperienced followers as a reason for not assuming office, \"These are not names I can put before the Queen.\"\n\nAt the end of June 1851, Stanley's father died, and he succeeded to his title as Earl of Derby. The Whigs were wracked by internal dissensions during the second half of 1851, much of which Parliament spent in recess. Russell dismissed Lord Palmerston from the cabinet, leaving the latter determined to deprive the Prime Minister of office as well. Palmerston did so within weeks of Parliament's reassembly on 4 February 1852, his followers combining with Disraeli's Tories to defeat the government on a Militia Bill, and Russell resigned. Derby had either to take office or risk damage to his reputation and he accepted the Queen's commission as Prime Minister. Palmerston declined any office; Derby had hoped to have him as Chancellor of the Exchequer. Disraeli, his closest ally, was his second choice and accepted, though disclaiming any great knowledge in the financial field. Gladstone refused to join the government. Disraeli may have been attracted to the office by the £5,000 per year salary, which would help pay his debts. Few of the new cabinet had held office before; when Derby tried to inform the Duke of Wellington of the names of the Queen's new ministers, the old Duke, who was somewhat deaf, inadvertently branded the new government by incredulously repeating \"Who? Who?\"\n\nIn the following weeks, Disraeli served as Leader of the House (with Derby as Prime Minister in the Lords) and as Chancellor. He wrote regular reports on proceedings in the Commons to Victoria, who described them as \"very curious\" and \"much in the style of his books\". Parliament was prorogued on 1 July 1852 as the Tories could not govern for long as a minority; Disraeli hoped that they would gain a majority of about 40. Instead, the election later that month had no clear winner, and the Derby government held to power pending the meeting of Parliament.\n\nDisraeli's task as Chancellor was to devise a budget which would satisfy the protectionist elements who supported the Tories, without uniting the free-traders against it. His proposed budget, which he presented to the Commons on 3 December, lowered the taxes on malt and tea, provisions designed to appeal to the working class. To make his budget revenue-neutral, as funds were needed to provide defences against the French, he doubled the house tax and continued the income tax. Disraeli's overall purpose was to enact policies which would benefit the working classes, making his party more attractive to them. Although the budget did not contain protectionist features, the opposition was prepared to destroy it—and Disraeli's career as Chancellor—in part out of revenge for his actions against Peel in 1846. MP Sidney Herbert predicted that the budget would fail because \"Jews make no converts\".\n\nGladstone in the 1850s|alt=A middle-aged man in Victorian clothes\nDisraeli delivered the budget on 3 December 1852, and prepared to wind up the debate for the government on 16 December—it was customary for the Chancellor to have the last word. A massive defeat for the government was predicted. Disraeli attacked his opponents individually, and then as a force, \"I face a Coalition ... This, too, I know, that England does not love coalitions.\" His speech of three hours was quickly seen as a parliamentary masterpiece. As MPs prepared to divide, Gladstone rose to his feet and began an angry speech, despite the efforts of Tory MPs to shout him down. The interruptions were fewer, as Gladstone gained control of the House, and in the next two hours painted a picture of Disraeli as frivolous and his budget as subversive. The government was defeated by 19 votes, and Derby resigned four days later. He was replaced by the Peelite Earl of Aberdeen, with Gladstone as his Chancellor. Because of Disraeli's unpopularity among the Peelites, no party reconciliation was possible while he remained Tory leader in the House of Commons.\n\n===Opposition===\nWith the fall of the government, Disraeli and the Conservatives returned to the opposition benches. Disraeli would spend three-quarters of his 44-year parliamentary career in opposition. Derby was reluctant to seek to unseat the government, fearing a repetition of the Who? Who? Ministry and knowing that despite his lieutenant's strengths, shared dislike of Disraeli was part of what had formed the governing coalition. Disraeli, on the other hand, was anxious to return to office. In the interim, Disraeli, as Conservative leader in the Commons, opposed the government on all major measures.\n\nIn June 1853 Disraeli was awarded an honorary degree by Oxford University. He had been recommended for it by Lord Derby, the university's Chancellor. The start of the Crimean War in 1854 caused a lull in party politics; Disraeli spoke patriotically in support. The British military efforts were marked by bungling, and in 1855 a restive Parliament considered a resolution to establish a committee on the conduct of the war. The Aberdeen government chose to make this a motion of confidence; Disraeli led the opposition to defeat the government, 305 to 148. Aberdeen resigned, and the Queen sent for Derby, who to Disraeli's frustration refused to take office. Palmerston was deemed essential to any Whig ministry, and he would not join any he did not head. The Queen reluctantly asked Palmerston to form a government. Under Palmerston, the war went better, and was ended by the Treaty of Paris in early 1856. Disraeli was early to call for peace, but had little influence on events.\n\nWhen a rebellion broke out in India in 1857, Disraeli took a keen interest in affairs, having been a member of a select committee in 1852 which considered how best to rule the subcontinent, and had proposed eliminating the governing role of the British East India Company. After peace was restored, and Palmerston in early 1858 brought in legislation for direct rule of India by the Crown, Disraeli opposed it. Many Conservative MPs refused to follow him and the bill passed the Commons easily.\n\nPalmerston's grip on the premiership was weakened by his response to the Orsini affair, in which an attempt was made to assassinate the French Emperor Napoleon III by an Italian revolutionary with a bomb made in Birmingham. At the request of the French ambassador, Palmerston put forward amendments to the conspiracy to murder statute, proposing to make creating an infernal device a felony rather than a misdemeanour. He was defeated by 19 votes on the second reading, with many Liberals crossing the aisle against him. He immediately resigned, and Lord Derby returned to office.\n\n===Second Derby government===\n\n\nDerby took office at the head of a purely \"Conservative\" administration, not in coalition with any other faction. He again offered a place to Gladstone, who declined. Disraeli was once more leader of the House of Commons and returned to the Exchequer. As in 1852, Derby led a minority government, dependent on the division of its opponents for survival. As Leader of the House, Disraeli resumed his regular reports to Queen Victoria, who had requested that he include what she \"could not meet in newspapers\".\n\nDuring its brief life of just over a year, the Derby government proved moderately progressive. The Government of India Act 1858 ended the role of the East India Company in governing the subcontinent. It also passed the Thames Purification Bill, which funded the construction of much larger sewers for London. Disraeli had supported efforts to allow Jews to sit in Parliament—the oaths required of new members could only be made in good faith by a Christian. Disraeli had a bill passed through the Commons allowing each house of Parliament to determine what oaths its members should take. This was grudgingly agreed to by the House of Lords, with a minority of Conservatives joining with the opposition to pass it. In 1858, Baron Lionel de Rothschild became the first MP to profess the Jewish faith.\n\nFaced with a vacancy, Disraeli and Derby tried yet again to bring Gladstone, still nominally a Conservative MP, into the government, hoping to strengthen it. Disraeli wrote a personal letter to Gladstone, asking him to place the good of the party above personal animosity: \"Every man performs his office, and there is a Power, greater than ourselves, that disposes of all this.\" In responding to Disraeli, Gladstone denied that personal feelings played any role in his decisions then and previously whether to accept office, while acknowledging that there were differences between him and Derby \"broader than you may have supposed\".\n\nThe Tories pursued a Reform Bill in 1859, which would have resulted in a modest increase to the franchise. The Liberals were healing the breaches between those who favoured Russell and the Palmerston loyalists, and in late March 1859, the government was defeated on a Russell-sponsored amendment. Derby dissolved Parliament, and the ensuing general election resulted in modest Tory gains, but not enough to control the Commons. When Parliament assembled, Derby's government was defeated by 13 votes on an amendment to the Address from the Throne. He resigned, and the Queen reluctantly sent for Palmerston again.\n\n===Opposition and third term as Chancellor===\n\nAfter Derby's second ejection from office, Disraeli faced dissension within Conservative ranks from those who blamed him for the defeat, or who felt he was disloyal to Derby—the former Prime Minister warned Disraeli of some MPs seeking his removal from the front bench. Among the conspirators were Lord Robert Cecil, a young Conservative MP who would a quarter century later become Prime Minister as Lord Salisbury; he wrote that having Disraeli as leader in the Commons decreased the Conservatives' chance of holding office. When Cecil's father objected, Lord Robert stated, \"I have merely put into print what all the country gentlemen were saying in private.\"\n\nLord Robert Cecil, Disraeli's fierce opponent in the 1860s, but later his ally and successor|alt=A young man with dark hair and huge sideburns\nDisraeli led a toothless opposition in the Commons—seeing no way of unseating Palmerston, Derby had privately agreed not to seek the government's defeat. Disraeli kept himself informed on foreign affairs, and on what was going on in cabinet, thanks to a source within it. When the American Civil War began in 1861, Disraeli said little publicly, but like most Englishmen expected the South to win. Less reticent were Palmerston, Gladstone (again Chancellor) and Russell, whose statements in support of the South contributed to years of hard feelings in the United States. In 1862, Disraeli met Prussian Count Otto von Bismarck for the first time and said of him, \"be careful about that man, he means what he says\".\n\nThe party truce ended in 1864, with Tories outraged over Palmerston's handling of the territorial dispute between the German Confederation and Denmark known as the Schleswig-Holstein Question. Disraeli had little help from Derby, who was ill, but he united the party enough on a no-confidence vote to limit the government to a majority of 18—Tory defections and absentees kept Palmerston in office. Despite rumours about Palmerston's health as he passed his eightieth birthday, he remained personally popular, and the Liberals increased their margin in the July 1865 general election. In the wake of the poor election results, Derby predicted to Disraeli that neither of them would ever hold office again.\n\nPolitical plans were thrown into disarray by Palmerston's death on 18 October 1865. Russell became Prime Minister again, with Gladstone clearly the Liberal Party's leader-in-waiting, and as Leader of the House Disraeli's direct opponent. One of Russell's early priorities was a Reform Bill, but the proposed legislation that Gladstone announced on 12 March 1866 divided his party. The Conservatives and the dissident Liberals repeatedly attacked Gladstone's bill, and in June finally defeated the government; Russell resigned on 26 June. The dissidents were unwilling to serve under Disraeli in the House of Commons, and Derby formed a third Conservative minority government, with Disraeli again as Chancellor. In 1867, the Conservatives introduced a Reform Bill. Without a majority in the Commons, the Conservatives had little choice but to accept amendments that considerably liberalised the legislation, though Disraeli refused to accept any from Gladstone.\n\nThe Reform Act 1867 passed that August, extending the franchise by 938,427—an increase of 88%—by giving the vote to male householders and male lodgers paying at least £10 for rooms. It eliminated rotten boroughs with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants, and granted constituencies to 15 unrepresented towns, with extra representation to large municipalities such as Liverpool and Manchester. This act was unpopular with the right wing of the Conservative Party, most notably Lord Cranborne (as Robert Cecil was by then known), who resigned from the government and spoke against the bill, accusing Disraeli of \"a political betrayal which has no parallel in our Parliamentary annals\". Cranborne, however, was unable to lead an effective rebellion against Derby and Disraeli. Disraeli gained wide acclaim and became a hero to his party for the \"marvellous parliamentary skill\" with which he secured the passage of Reform in the Commons.\n\nDerby had long suffered from attacks of gout which sent him to his bed, unable to deal with politics. As the new session of Parliament approached in February 1868, he was bedridden at his home, Knowsley Hall, near Liverpool. He was reluctant to resign, reasoning that he was only 68, much younger than either Palmerston or Russell at the end of their premierships. Derby knew that his \"attacks of illness would, at no distant period, incapacitate me from the discharge of my public duties\"; doctors had warned him that his health required his resignation from office. In late February, with Parliament in session and Derby absent, he wrote to Disraeli asking for confirmation that \"you will not shrink from the additional heavy responsibility\". Reassured, he wrote to the Queen, resigning and recommending Disraeli as \"only he could command the cordial support, en masse, of his present colleagues\". Disraeli went to Osborne House on the Isle of Wight, where the Queen asked him to form a government. The monarch wrote to her daughter, Prussian Crown Princess Victoria, \"Mr. Disraeli is Prime Minister! A proud thing for a man 'risen from the people' to have obtained!\" The new Prime Minister told those who came to congratulate him, \"I have climbed to the top of the greasy pole.\"\n",
"\n\n===First government (February–December 1868)===\nChelmsford, Cairns, Hunt and Manning|alt=Four men, the second of whom wears a wig resembling that of a judge, and the fourth of whom wears clerical clothes\nThe Conservatives remained a minority in the House of Commons and the passage of the Reform Bill required the calling of a new election once the new voting register had been compiled. Disraeli's term as Prime Minister, which began in February 1868, would therefore be short unless the Conservatives won the general election. He made only two major changes in the cabinet: he replaced Lord Chelmsford as Lord Chancellor with Lord Cairns, and brought in George Ward Hunt as Chancellor of the Exchequer. Derby had intended to replace Chelmsford once a vacancy in a suitable sinecure developed. Disraeli was unwilling to wait, and Cairns, in his view, was a far stronger minister.\n\nDisraeli's first premiership was dominated by the heated debate over the Church of Ireland. Although Ireland was overwhelmingly Roman Catholic, the Protestant Church remained the established church and was funded by direct taxation, which was greatly resented by the Catholic majority. An initial attempt by Disraeli to negotiate with Archbishop Manning the establishment of a Roman Catholic university in Dublin foundered in March when Gladstone moved resolutions to disestablish the Irish Church altogether. The proposal united the Liberals under Gladstone's leadership, while causing divisions among the Conservatives.\n\nThe Conservatives remained in office because the new electoral register was not yet ready; neither party wished a poll under the old roll. Gladstone began using the Liberal majority in the House of Commons to push through resolutions and legislation. Disraeli's government survived until the December general election, at which the Liberals were returned to power with a majority of about 110.\n\nDespite its short life, the first Disraeli government succeeded in passing a number of pieces of legislation of a politically noncontentious sort. It ended public executions, and the Corrupt Practices Act did much to end electoral bribery. It authorised an early version of nationalisation, having the Post Office buy up the telegraph companies. Amendments to the school law, the Scottish legal system, and the railway laws were passed. Disraeli sent the successful expedition against Tewodros II of Ethiopia under Sir Robert Napier.\n\n===Opposition leader; 1874 election===\nDisraeli circa 1870\nWith Gladstone's Liberal majority dominant in the Commons, Disraeli could do little but protest as the government advanced legislation. Accordingly, he chose to await Liberal mistakes. Having leisure time as he was not in office, he wrote a new novel, ''Lothair'' (1870). A work of fiction by a former Prime Minister was a new thing for Britain, and the book became a best seller.\n\nBy 1872 there was dissent in the Conservative ranks over the failure to challenge Gladstone and his Liberals. This was quieted as Disraeli took steps to assert his leadership of the party, and as divisions among the Liberals became clear. Public support for Disraeli was shown by cheering at a thanksgiving service in 1872 on the recovery of the Prince of Wales from illness, while Gladstone was met with silence. Disraeli had supported the efforts of party manager John Eldon Gorst to put the administration of the Conservative Party on a modern basis. On Gorst's advice, Disraeli gave a speech to a mass meeting in Manchester that year. To roaring approval, he compared the Liberal front bench to \"a range of exhausted volcanoes. Not a flame flickers on a single pallid crest. But the situation is still dangerous. There are occasional earthquakes and ever and again the dark rumbling of the sea.\" Gladstone, Disraeli stated, dominated the scene and \"alternated between a menace and a sigh\".\n\nAt his first departure from 10 Downing Street in 1868, Disraeli had had Victoria create Mary Anne Viscountess of Beaconsfield in her own right in lieu of a peerage for himself. Through 1872 the eighty-year-old peeress was suffering from stomach cancer. She died on 15 December. Urged by a clergyman to turn her thoughts to Jesus Christ in her final days, she said she could not: \"You know Dizzy is my J.C.\" After she died, Gladstone, who always had a liking for Mary Anne, sent her widower a letter of condolence.\n\nIn 1873, Gladstone brought forward legislation to establish a Catholic university in Dublin. This divided the Liberals, and on 12 March an alliance of Conservatives and Irish Catholics defeated the government by three votes. Gladstone resigned, and the Queen sent for Disraeli, who refused to take office. Without a general election, a Conservative government would be another minority, dependent for survival on the division of its opponents. Disraeli wanted the power a majority would bring, and felt he could gain it later by leaving the Liberals in office now. Gladstone's government struggled on, beset by scandal and unimproved by a reshuffle. As part of that change, Gladstone took on the office of Chancellor, leading to questions as to whether he had to stand for re-election on taking on a second ministry—until the 1920s, MPs becoming ministers, thus taking an office of profit under the Crown, had to seek re-election.\n\nIn January 1874, Gladstone called a general election, convinced that if he waited longer, he would do worse at the polls. Balloting was spread over two weeks, beginning on 1 February. Disraeli devoted much of his campaign to decrying the Liberal programme of the past five years. As the constituencies voted, it became clear that the result would be a Conservative majority, the first since 1841. In Scotland, where the Conservatives were perennially weak, they increased from seven seats to nineteen. Overall, they won 350 seats to 245 for the Liberals and 57 for the Irish Home Rule League. The Queen sent for Disraeli, and he became Prime Minister for the second time.\n",
"\nDerby (top) and Northcote|alt=Two gentlemen; the second has an impressive beard\nDisraeli's cabinet of twelve, with six peers and six commoners, was the smallest since Reform. Of the peers, five of them had been in Disraeli's 1868 cabinet; the sixth, Lord Salisbury, was reconciled to Disraeli after negotiation and became Secretary of State for India. Lord Stanley (who had succeeded his father, the former Prime Minister, as Earl of Derby) became Foreign Secretary and Sir Stafford Northcote the Chancellor.\n\nIn August 1876, Disraeli was elevated to the House of Lords as Earl of Beaconsfield and Viscount Hughenden. The Queen had offered to ennoble him as early as 1868; he had then declined. She did so again in 1874, when he fell ill at Balmoral, but he was reluctant to leave the Commons for a house in which he had no experience. Continued ill health during his second premiership caused him to contemplate resignation, but his lieutenant, Derby, was unwilling, feeling that he could not manage the Queen. For Disraeli, the Lords, where the debate was less intense, was the alternative to resignation from office. Five days before the end of the 1876 session of Parliament, on 11 August, Disraeli was seen to linger and look around the chamber before departing the Commons. Newspapers reported his ennoblement the following morning.\n\nIn addition to the viscounty bestowed on Mary Anne Disraeli; the earldom of Beaconsfield was to have been bestowed on Edmund Burke in 1797, but he had died before receiving it. The name Beaconsfield, a town near Hughenden, also was given to a minor character in ''Vivian Grey''. Disraeli made various statements about his elevation, writing to Selina, Lady Bradford on 8 August 1876, \"I am quite tired of that place the Commons\" but when asked by a friend how he liked the Lords, replied, \"I am dead; dead but in the Elysian fields.\"\n\n===Domestic policy===\n\n====Reforming legislation====\nUnder the stewardship of Richard Assheton Cross, the Home Secretary, Disraeli's new government enacted many reforms, including the Artisans' and Labourers' Dwellings Improvement Act 1875, which made inexpensive loans available to towns and cities to construct working-class housing. Also enacted were the Public Health Act 1875, modernising sanitary codes through the nation, the Sale of Food and Drugs Act (1875), and the Education Act (1876).\n\nDisraeli's government also introduced a new Factory Act meant to protect workers, the Conspiracy, and Protection of Property Act 1875, which allowed peaceful picketing, and the Employers and Workmen Act (1875) to enable workers to sue employers in the civil courts if they broke legal contracts. As a result of these social reforms the Liberal-Labour MP Alexander Macdonald told his constituents in 1879, \"The Conservative party have done more for the working classes in five years than the Liberals have in fifty.\"\n\n====Patronage and Civil Service reform====\nDisraeli's failure to appoint Samuel Wilberforce as Bishop of London may have cost him votes in the 1868 election.\nGladstone in 1870 had sponsored an Order in Council, introducing competitive examination into the Civil Service, diminishing the political aspects of government hiring. Disraeli did not agree, and while he did not seek to reverse the order, his actions often frustrated its intent. For example, Disraeli made political appointments to positions previously given to career civil servants. In this, he was backed by his party, hungry for office and its emoluments after almost thirty years with only brief spells in government. Disraeli gave positions to hard-up Conservative leaders, even—to Gladstone's outrage—creating one office at £2,000 per year. Nevertheless, Disraeli made fewer peers (only 22, and one of those one of Victoria's sons) than had Gladstone—the Liberal leader had arranged for the bestowal of 37 peerages during his just over five years in office.\n\nAs he had in government posts, Disraeli rewarded old friends with clerical positions, making Sydney Turner, son of a good friend of Isaac D'Israeli, Dean of Ripon. He favoured Low church clergymen in promotion, disliking other movements in Anglicanism for political reasons. In this, he came into disagreement with the Queen, who out of loyalty to her late husband, Albert, Prince Consort, preferred Broad church teachings. One controversial appointment had occurred shortly before the 1868 election. When the position of Archbishop of Canterbury fell vacant, Disraeli reluctantly agreed to the Queen's preferred candidate, Archibald Tait, the Bishop of London. To fill Tait's vacant see, Disraeli was urged by many people to appoint Samuel Wilberforce, the former Bishop of Winchester and leading figure in London society. Disraeli disliked Wilberforce and instead appointed John Jackson, the Bishop of Lincoln. Blake suggested that, on balance, these appointments cost Disraeli more votes than they gained him.\n\n===Foreign policy===\nDisraeli always considered foreign affairs to be the most critical and most interesting part of statesmanship. Nevertheless, his biographer Robert Blake doubts that his subject had specific ideas about foreign policy when he took office in 1874. He had rarely travelled abroad; since his youthful tour of the Middle East in 1830–1831, he had left Britain only for his honeymoon and three visits to Paris, the last of which was in 1856. As he had criticised Gladstone for a do-nothing foreign policy, he most probably contemplated what actions would reassert Britain's place in Europe. His brief first premiership, and the first year of his second, gave him little opportunity to make his mark in foreign affairs.\n\n====Suez====\n''New Crowns for Old'' depicts Disraeli as Abanazer from the pantomime ''Aladdin'', offering Victoria an imperial crown in exchange for a royal one.Disraeli cultivated a public image of himself as an Imperialist with grand gestures such as conferring on Queen Victoria the title \"Empress of India\".|alt=See caption\n\nThe Suez Canal, opened in 1869, cut weeks and thousands of miles off the journey between Britain and India; in 1875, approximately 80% of the ships using the canal were British. In the event of another rebellion in India, or of a Russian invasion, the time saved at Suez might be crucial. Built by French interests, much of the ownership and bonds in the canal remained in their hands, though some of the stock belonged to Isma'il Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt, who was noted for his profligate spending. The canal was losing money, and an attempt by Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the canal, to raise the tolls had fallen through when the Khedive had threatened to use military force to prevent it, and had also attracted Disraeli's attention. The Khedive governed Egypt under the Ottoman Empire; as in the Crimea, the issue of the Canal raised the Eastern Question of what to do about the decaying empire governed from Constantinople. With much of the pre-canal trade and communications between Britain and India passing through the Ottoman Empire, Britain had done its best to prop up the Ottomans against the threat that Russia would take Constantinople, cutting those communications, and giving Russian ships unfettered access to the Mediterranean. The French might also threaten those lines from colonies in Syria. Britain had had the opportunity to purchase shares in the canal but had declined to do so.\n\nDisraeli had passed near Suez in his tour of the Middle East in his youth, and on taking office, recognising the British interest in the canal as a gateway to India, he sent the Liberal MP Nathan Rothschild to Paris to enquire about buying de Lesseps's shares. On 14 November 1875, the editor of the ''Pall Mall Gazette'', Frederick Greenwood, learned from London banker Henry Oppenheim that the Khedive was seeking to sell his shares in the Suez Canal Company to a French firm. Greenwood quickly told Lord Derby, the Foreign Secretary, who notified Disraeli. The Prime Minister moved immediately to secure the shares. On 23 November, the Khedive offered to sell the shares for 100,000,000 francs. Rather than seek the aid of the Bank of England, Disraeli asked Lionel de Rothschild to loan funds. Rothschild did so and controversially took a commission on the deal. The banker's capital was at risk as Parliament could have refused to ratify the transaction. The contract for purchase was signed at Cairo on 25 November and the shares deposited at the British consulate the following day.\n\nDisraeli told the Queen, \"it is settled; you have it, madam!\" The public saw the venture as a daring British statement of its dominance of the seas. Sir Ian Malcolm described the Suez Canal share purchase as \"the greatest romance of Mr. Disraeli's romantic career\". In the following decades, the security of the Suez Canal, as the pathway to India, became a major focus of British foreign policy. A later Foreign Secretary, Lord Curzon, described the canal in 1909 as \"the determining influence of every considerable movement of British power to the east and south of the Mediterranean\".\n\n====Royal Titles Act====\n\nAlthough initially curious about Disraeli when he entered Parliament in 1837, Victoria came to detest him over his treatment of Peel. Over time, her dislike softened, especially as Disraeli took pains to cultivate her. He told Matthew Arnold, \"Everybody likes flattery; and, when you come to royalty, you should lay it on with a trowel\". Disraeli's biographer, Adam Kirsch, suggests that Disraeli's obsequious treatment of his queen was part flattery, part belief that this was how a queen should be addressed by a loyal subject, and part awe that a middle-class man of Jewish birth should be the companion of a monarch. By the time of his second premiership, Disraeli had built a strong relationship with Victoria, probably closer to her than any of her Prime Ministers except her first, Lord Melbourne. When Disraeli returned as Prime Minister in 1874 and went to kiss hands, he did so literally, on one knee; and, according to Richard Aldous in his book on the rivalry between Disraeli and Gladstone, \"for the next six years Victoria and Disraeli would exploit their closeness for mutual advantage.\"\n\nVictoria had long wished to have an imperial title, reflecting Britain's expanding domain. She was irked when Czar Alexander II held a higher rank than her as an emperor, and was appalled that her daughter, the Prussian Crown Princess, would outrank her when her husband came to the throne. She also saw an imperial title as proclaiming Britain's increased stature in the world. The title \"Empress of India\" had been used informally with respect to Victoria for some time and she wished to have that title formally bestowed on her. The Queen prevailed upon Disraeli to introduce a Royal Titles Bill, and also told of her intent to open Parliament in person, which during this time she did only when she wanted something from legislators. Disraeli was cautious in response, as careful soundings of MPs brought a negative reaction, and declined to place such a proposal in the Queen's Speech.\n\nOnce the desired bill was prepared, Disraeli's handling of it was not adept. He neglected to notify either the Prince of Wales or the opposition, and was met by irritation from the prince and a full-scale attack from the Liberals. An old enemy of Disraeli, former Liberal Chancellor Robert Lowe, alleged during the debate in the Commons that two previous Prime Ministers had refused to introduce such legislation for the Queen. Gladstone immediately stated that he was not one of them, and the Queen gave Disraeli leave to quote her saying she had never approached a Prime Minister with such a proposal. According to Blake, Disraeli \"in a brilliant oration of withering invective proceeded to destroy Lowe\", who apologised and never held office again. Disraeli said of Lowe that he was the only person in London with whom he would not shake hands and, \"he is in the mud and there I leave him.\"\n\nFearful of losing, Disraeli was reluctant to bring the bill to a vote in the Commons, but when he eventually did, it passed with a majority of 75. Once the bill was formally enacted, Victoria began signing her letters \"Victoria R & I\" (''Regina et Imperatrix'', that is, Queen and Empress). According to Aldous, \"the unpopular Royal Titles Act, however, shattered Disraeli's authority in the House of Commons\".\n\n====Balkans and Bulgaria====\nRusso-Turkish War of 1877–78\nIn July 1875 Serb populations in Bosnia and Herzegovina, then provinces of the Ottoman Empire, rose in revolt against their Turkish masters, alleging religious persecution and poor administration. The following January, Sultan Abdülaziz agreed to reforms proposed by Hungarian statesman Julius Andrássy, but the rebels, suspecting they might win their freedom, continued their uprising, joined by militants in Serbia and Bulgaria. The Turks suppressed the Bulgarian uprising harshly, and when reports of these actions escaped, Disraeli and Derby stated in Parliament that they did not believe them. Disraeli called them \"coffee-house babble\" and dismissed allegations of torture by the Ottomans since \"Oriental people usually terminate their connections with culprits in a more expeditious fashion\".\n\nGladstone, who had left the Liberal leadership and retired from public life, was appalled by reports of atrocities in Bulgaria, and in August 1876, penned a hastily written pamphlet arguing that the Turks should be deprived of Bulgaria because of what they had done there. He sent a copy to Disraeli, who called it \"vindictive and ill-written ... of all the Bulgarian horrors perhaps the greatest\". Gladstone's pamphlet became an immense best-seller and rallied the Liberals to urge that the Ottoman Empire should no longer be a British ally. Disraeli wrote to Lord Salisbury on 3 September, \"Had it not been for these unhappy 'atrocities', we should have settled a peace very honourable to England and satisfactory to Europe. Now we are obliged to work from a new point of departure, and dictate to Turkey, who has forfeited all sympathy.\" In spite of this, Disraeli's policy favoured Constantinople and the territorial integrity of its empire.\n\nInternational delegates at the Constantinople Conference: clockwise from top left, Saffet Pasha (Turkey), General Ignatieff (Russia), Lord Salisbury (Britain) and the Comte de Chaudordy (France)|alt=Four men\nDisraeli and the cabinet sent Salisbury as lead British representative to the Constantinople Conference, which met in December 1876 and January 1877. In advance of the conference, Disraeli sent Salisbury private word to seek British military occupation of Bulgaria and Bosnia, and British control of the Ottoman Army. Salisbury ignored these instructions, which his biographer, Andrew Roberts deemed \"ludicrous\". Nevertheless, the conference failed to reach agreement with the Turks.\n\nParliament opened in February 1877, with Disraeli now in the Lords as Earl of Beaconsfield. He spoke only once there in the 1877 session on the Eastern Question, stating on 20 February that there was a need for stability in the Balkans, and that forcing Turkey into territorial concessions would do nothing to secure it. The Prime Minister wanted a deal with the Ottomans whereby Britain would temporarily occupy strategic areas to deter the Russians from war, to be returned on the signing of a peace treaty, but found little support in his cabinet, which favoured partition of the Ottoman Empire. As Disraeli, by then in poor health, continued to battle within the cabinet, Russia invaded Turkey on 21 April, beginning the Russo-Turkish War.\n\n====Congress of Berlin====\n\n\nThe Russians pushed through Ottoman territory and by December 1877 had captured the strategic Bulgarian town of Plevna; their march on Constantinople seemed inevitable. The war divided the British, but the Russian success caused some to forget the atrocities and call for intervention on the Turkish side. Others hoped for further Russian successes. The fall of Plevna was a major story for weeks in the newspapers, and Disraeli's warnings that Russia was a threat to British interests in the eastern Mediterranean were deemed prophetic. The jingoistic attitude of many Britons increased Disraeli's political support, and the Queen acted to help him as well, showing her favour by visiting him at Hughenden—the first time she had visited the country home of her Prime Minister since the Melbourne ministry. At the end of January 1878, the Ottoman Sultan appealed to Britain to save Constantinople. Amid war fever in Britain, the government asked Parliament to vote £6,000,000 to prepare the Army and Navy for war. Gladstone, who had involved himself again in politics, opposed the measure, but less than half his party voted with him. Popular opinion was with Disraeli, though some thought him too soft for not immediately declaring war on Russia.\n\nalt=A map. See description\nWith the Russians close to Constantinople, the Turks yielded and in March 1878, signed the Treaty of San Stefano, conceding a Bulgarian state which would cover a large part of the Balkans. It would be initially Russian-occupied and many feared that it would give them a client state close to Constantinople. Other Ottoman possessions in Europe would become independent; additional territory was to be ceded directly to Russia. This was unacceptable to the British, who protested, hoping to get the Russians to agree to attend an international conference which German Chancellor Bismarck proposed to hold at Berlin. The cabinet discussed Disraeli's proposal to position Indian troops at Malta for possible transit to the Balkans and call out reserves. Derby resigned in protest, and Disraeli appointed Salisbury as Foreign Secretary. Amid British preparations for war, the Russians and Turks agreed to discussions at Berlin.\n\nIn advance of the meeting, confidential negotiations took place between Britain and Russia in April and May 1878. The Russians were willing to make changes to the big Bulgaria, but were determined to retain their new possessions, Bessarabia in Europe and Batum and Kars on the east coast of the Black Sea. To counterbalance this, Britain required a possession in the Eastern Mediterranean where it might base ships and troops, and negotiated with the Ottomans for the cession of Cyprus. Once this was secretly agreed, Disraeli was prepared to allow Russia's territorial gains.\n\nDisraeli (right) and Salisbury as Knights of the Garter, portrayed by alt=See caption\nThe Congress of Berlin was held in June and July 1878, the central relationship in it that between Disraeli and Bismarck. In later years, the German chancellor would show visitors to his office three pictures on the wall: \"the portrait of my Sovereign, there on the right that of my wife, and on the left, there, that of Lord Beaconsfield\". Disraeli caused an uproar in the congress by making his opening address in English, rather than in French, hitherto accepted as the international language of diplomacy. By one account, the British ambassador in Berlin, Lord Odo Russell, hoping to spare the delegates Disraeli's awful French accent, told Disraeli that the congress was hoping to hear a speech in the English tongue by one of its masters.\n\nDisraeli left much of the detailed work to Salisbury, concentrating his efforts on making it as difficult as possible for the broken-up big Bulgaria to reunite. Disraeli did not have things all his own way: he intended that Batum be demilitarised, but the Russians obtained their preferred language, and in 1886, fortified the town. Nevertheless, the Cyprus Convention ceding the island to Britain was announced during the congress, and again made Disraeli a sensation.\n\nDisraeli gained agreement that Turkey should retain enough of its European possessions to safeguard the Dardanelles. By one account, when met with Russian intransigence, Disraeli told his secretary to order a special train to return them home to begin the war. Although Russia yielded, Czar Alexander II later described the congress as \"a European coalition against Russia, under Bismarck\".\n\nThe Treaty of Berlin was signed on 13 July 1878 at the Radziwill Palace in Berlin. Disraeli and Salisbury returned home to heroes' receptions at Dover and in London. At the door of 10 Downing Street, Disraeli received flowers sent by the Queen. There, he told the gathered crowd, \"Lord Salisbury and I have brought you back peace—but a peace I hope with honour.\" The Queen offered him a dukedom, which he declined, though accepting the Garter, as long as Salisbury also received it. In Berlin, word spread of Bismarck's admiring description of Disraeli, \"''Der alte Jude, das ist der Mann!'' \"\n\n====Afghanistan to Zululand====\n\n\nIsandlwana, the worst defeat against a technologically inferior indigenous force.\nIn the weeks after Berlin, Disraeli and the cabinet considered calling a general election to capitalise on the public applause he and Salisbury had received. Parliaments were then for a seven-year term, and it was the custom not to go to the country until the sixth year unless forced to by events. Only four and a half years had passed since the last general election. Additionally, they did not see any clouds on the horizon that might forecast Conservative defeat if they waited. This decision not to seek re-election has often been cited as a great mistake by Disraeli. Blake, however, pointed out that results in local elections had been moving against the Conservatives, and doubted if Disraeli missed any great opportunity by waiting.\n\nAs successful invasions of India generally came through Afghanistan, the British had observed and sometimes intervened there since the 1830s, hoping to keep the Russians out. In 1878 the Russians sent a mission to Kabul; it was not rejected by the Afghans, as the British had hoped. The British then proposed to send their own mission, insisting that the Russians be sent away. The Viceroy, Lord Lytton, concealed his plans to issue this ultimatum from Disraeli, and when the Prime Minister insisted he take no action, went ahead anyway. When the Afghans made no answer, the British advanced against them in the Second Anglo-Afghan War, and under Lord Roberts easily defeated them. The British installed a new ruler, and left a mission and garrison in Kabul.\n\nBritish policy in South Africa was to encourage federation between the British-run Cape Colony and Natal, and the Boer republics, the Transvaal (annexed by Britain in 1877) and the Orange Free State. The governor of Cape Colony, Sir Bartle Frere, believing that the federation could not be accomplished until the native tribes acknowledged British rule, made demands on the Zulu and their king, Cetewayo, which they were certain to reject. As Zulu troops could not marry until they had washed their spears in blood, they were eager for combat. Frere did not send word to the cabinet of what he had done until the ultimatum was about to expire. Disraeli and the cabinet reluctantly backed him, and in early January 1879 resolved to send reinforcements. Before they could arrive, on 22 January, a Zulu ''impi'', or army, moving with great speed and stealth, ambushed and destroyed a British encampment in South Africa in the Battle of Isandlwana. Over a thousand British and colonial troops were killed. Word of the defeat did not reach London until 12 February. Disraeli wrote the next day, \"the terrible disaster has shaken me to the centre\". He reprimanded Frere, but left him in charge, attracting fire from all sides. Disraeli sent General Sir Garnet Wolseley as High Commissioner and Commander in Chief, and Cetewayo and the Zulus were crushed at the Battle of Ulundi on 4 July 1879.\n\nOn 8 September 1879 Sir Louis Cavagnari, in charge of the mission in Kabul, was killed with his entire staff by rebelling Afghan soldiers. Roberts undertook a successful punitive expedition against the Afghans over the next six weeks.\n\nPortrait of Disraeli published in 1873\n\n===1880 election===\n\nGladstone, in the 1874 election, had been returned for Greenwich, finishing second behind a Conservative in the two-member constituency, a result he termed more like a defeat than a victory. In December 1878, he was offered the Liberal nomination at the next election for Edinburghshire, a constituency popularly known as Midlothian. The small Scottish electorate was dominated by two noblemen, the Conservative Duke of Buccleuch and the Liberal Earl of Rosebery. The Earl, a friend of both Disraeli and Gladstone who would succeed the latter after his final term as Prime Minister, had journeyed to the United States to view politics there, and was convinced that aspects of American electioneering could be translated to the United Kingdom. On his advice, Gladstone accepted the offer in January 1879, and later that year began his Midlothian campaign, speaking not only in Edinburgh, but across Britain, attacking Disraeli, to huge crowds.\n\nConservative chances of re-election were damaged by the poor weather, and consequent effects on agriculture. Four consecutive wet summers through 1879 had led to poor harvests in the United Kingdom. In the past, the farmer had the consolation of higher prices at such times, but with bumper crops cheaply transported from the United States, grain prices remained low. Other European nations, faced with similar circumstances, opted for protection, and Disraeli was urged to reinstitute the Corn Laws. He declined, stating that he regarded the matter as settled. Protection would have been highly unpopular among the newly enfranchised urban working classes, as it would raise their cost of living. Amid an economic slump generally, the Conservatives lost support among farmers.\n\nDisraeli's health continued to fail through 1879. Owing to his infirmities, Disraeli was three-quarters of an hour late for the Lord Mayor's Dinner at the Guildhall in November, at which it is customary that the Prime Minister speaks. Though many commented on how healthy he looked, it took him great effort to appear so, and when he told the audience he expected to speak to the dinner again the following year, attendees chuckled—Gladstone was then in the midst of his campaign. Despite his public confidence, Disraeli recognised that the Conservatives would probably lose the next election, and was already contemplating his Resignation Honours.\n\nDespite this pessimism, Conservatives hopes were buoyed in early 1880 with successes in by-elections the Liberals had expected to win, concluding with victory in Southwark, normally a Liberal stronghold. The cabinet had resolved to wait before dissolving Parliament; in early March they reconsidered, agreeing to go to the country as soon as possible. Parliament was dissolved on 24 March; the first borough constituencies began voting a week later.\n\nDisraeli took no public part in the electioneering, it being deemed improper for peers to make speeches to influence Commons elections. This meant that the chief Conservatives—Disraeli, Salisbury, and India Secretary Lord Cranbrook—would not be heard from. The election was thought likely to be close. Once returns began to be announced, it became clear that the Conservatives were being decisively beaten. The final result gave the Liberals an absolute majority of about 50.\n",
"Disraeli refused to cast blame for the defeat, which he understood was likely to be final for him. He wrote to Lady Bradford that it was just as much work to end a government as to form one, without any of the fun. Queen Victoria was bitter at his departure as Prime Minister. Among the honours he arranged before resigning as Prime Minister on 21 April 1880 was one for his private secretary, Montagu Corry, who became Baron Rowton.\n\n\nReturning to Hughenden, Disraeli brooded over his electoral dismissal, but also resumed work on ''Endymion'', which he had begun in 1872 and laid aside before the 1874 election. The work was rapidly completed and published by November 1880. He carried on a correspondence with Victoria, with letters passed through intermediaries. When Parliament met in January 1881, he served as Conservative leader in the Lords, attempting to serve as a moderating influence on Gladstone's legislation.\n\nSuffering from asthma and gout, Disraeli went out as little as possible, fearing more serious episodes of illness. In March, he fell ill with bronchitis, and emerged from bed only for a meeting with Salisbury and other Conservative leaders on the 26th. As it became clear that this might be his final sickness, friends and opponents alike came to call. Disraeli declined a visit from the Queen, saying, \"She would only ask me to take a message to Albert.\" Almost blind, when he received the last letter from Victoria of which he was aware on 5 April, he held it momentarily, then had it read to him by Lord Barrington, a Privy Councillor. One card, signed \"A Workman\", delighted its recipient, \"Don't die yet, we can't do without you.\"\n\nDespite the gravity of Disraeli's condition, the doctors concocted optimistic bulletins, for public consumption. The Prime Minister, Gladstone, called several times to enquire about his rival's condition, and wrote in his diary, \"May the Almighty be near his pillow.\" There was intense public interest in the former Prime Minister's struggles for life. Disraeli had customarily taken the sacrament at Easter; when this day was observed on 17 April, there was discussion among his friends and family if he should be given the opportunity, but those against, fearing that he would lose hope, prevailed. On the morning of the following day, Easter Monday, he became incoherent, then comatose. Disraeli's last confirmed words before dying in the early morning of 19 April were \"I had rather live but I am not afraid to die\". The anniversary of Disraeli's death is now commemorated in the United Kingdom as Primrose Day.\n\nDisraeli's executors decided against a public procession and funeral, fearing that too large crowds would gather to do him honour. The chief mourners at the service at Hughenden on 26 April were his brother Ralph and nephew Coningsby, to whom Hughenden would eventually pass. Queen Victoria was prostrated with grief, and considered ennobling Ralph or Coningsby as a memorial to Disraeli (without children, his titles became extinct with his death) but decided against it on the ground that their means were too small for a peerage. Protocol forbade her attending Disraeli's funeral (this would not be changed until 1965, when Elizabeth II attended the rites for the former Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill) but she sent primroses (\"his favourite flowers\") to the funeral, and visited the burial vault to place a wreath of china blooms four days later.\nStatue of Disraeli in Parliament Square, London|alt=A statue on a podium\nDisraeli is buried with his wife in a vault beneath the Church of St Michael and All Angels which stands in the grounds of his home, Hughenden Manor, accessed from the churchyard. There is also a memorial to him in the chancel in the church, erected in his honour by Queen Victoria. His literary executor was his private secretary, Lord Rowton. The Disraeli vault also contains the body of Sarah Brydges Willyams, the wife of James Brydges Willyams of St Mawgan in Cornwall. Disraeli carried on a long correspondence with Mrs. Willyams, writing frankly about political affairs. At her death in 1865, she left him a large legacy, which helped clear up his debts. His will was proved at £84,000.\n\nDisraeli has a memorial in Westminster Abbey. This monument was erected by the nation on the motion of Gladstone in his memorial speech on Disraeli in the House of Commons. Gladstone had absented himself from the funeral, with his plea of the press of public business met with public mockery. His speech was widely anticipated, if only because his dislike for Disraeli was well known, and caused the Prime Minister much worry. In the event, the speech was a model of its kind, in which he avoided comment on Disraeli's politics, while praising his personal qualities.\n",
"Disraeli's literary and political career interacted over his lifetime and fascinated Victorian Britain, making him \"one of the most eminent figures in Victorian public life\", and occasioned a large output of commentary. Critic Shane Leslie noted three decades after his death that \"Disraeli's career was a romance such as no Eastern vizier or Western plutocrat could tell. He began as a pioneer in dress and an aesthete of words.... Disraeli actually made his novels come true.\"\n\n===Literary===\nSybil'' (1845)|alt=The cover of a book, entitled \"Sybil; or, the Two Nations\"\nBlake comments that Disraeli \"produced an epic poem, unbelievably bad, and a five-act blank verse tragedy, if possible worse. Further he wrote a discourse on political theory and a political biography, the ''Life of Lord George Bentinck'', which is excellent ... remarkably fair and accurate.\" But it is on his novels that Disraeli's literary achievements are generally judged. They have from the outset divided critical opinion. The writer R. W. Stewart observed that there have always been two criteria for judging Disraeli's novels—one political and the other artistic. The critic Robert O'Kell, concurring, writes, \"It is after all, even if you are a Tory of the staunchest blue, impossible to make Disraeli into a first-rate novelist. And it is equally impossible, no matter how much you deplore the extravagances and improprieties of his works, to make him into an insignificant one.\"\n\nDisraeli's early \"silver fork\" novels ''Vivian Grey'' (1826) and ''The Young Duke'' (1831) featured romanticised depictions of aristocratic life (despite his ignorance of it) with character sketches of well-known public figures lightly disguised. In some of his early fiction Disraeli also portrayed himself and what he felt to be his Byronic dual nature: the poet and the man of action. His most autobiographical novel was ''Contarini Fleming'' (1832), an avowedly serious work that did not sell well. The critic William Kuhn suggests that Disraeli's fiction can be read as \"the memoirs he never wrote\", revealing the inner life of a politician for whom the norms of Victorian public life appeared to represent a social straitjacket—particularly with regard to what Kuhn sees as the author's \"ambiguous sexuality\".\n\nOf the other novels of the early 1830s, ''Alroy'' is described by Blake as \"profitable but unreadable\", and ''The Rise of Iskander'' (1833), ''The Infernal Marriage'' and ''Ixion in Heaven'' (1834) made little impact. ''Henrietta Temple'' (1837) was Disraeli's next major success. It draws on the events of his affair with Henrietta Sykes to tell the story of a debt-ridden young man torn between a mercenary loveless marriage and a passionate love-at-first-sight for the eponymous heroine. ''Venetia'' (1837) was a minor work, written to raise much-needed cash.\n\nIn the 1840s Disraeli wrote a trilogy of novels with political themes. With ''Coningsby; or, The New Generation'' (1844), Disraeli, in Blake's view, \"infused the novel genre with political sensibility, espousing the belief that England's future as a world power depended not on the complacent old guard, but on youthful, idealistic politicians.\" ''Coningsby'' was followed by ''Sybil; or, The Two Nations'' (1845), another political novel, which was less idealistic and more clear-eyed than ''Coningsby''; the \"two nations\" of its sub-title referred to the huge economic and social gap between the privileged few and the deprived working classes. The last in Disraeli's political novel trilogy was ''Tancred; or, The New Crusade'' (1847), promoting the Church of England's role in reviving Britain's flagging spirituality.\n\nDisraeli's last completed novels were ''Lothair'' (1870) and ''Endymion'' (1880). The first, described by Daniel R Schwarz as \"Disraeli's ideological ''Pilgrim's Progress''\", is a story of political life with particular regard to the roles of the Anglican and Roman Catholic churches. ''Endymion'', despite having a Whig as hero, is a last exposition of the author's economic policies and political beliefs. Disraeli continued to the last to pillory his enemies in barely disguised caricatures: the character St Barbe in ''Endymion'' is widely seen as a parody of Thackeray, who had offended Disraeli more than thirty years earlier by lampooning him in ''Punch'' as \"Codlingsby\". Disraeli left an unfinished novel in which the priggish central character, Falconet, is unmistakably a caricature of Gladstone.\n\n===Political===\nIn the years after Disraeli's death, as Salisbury began his reign of more than twenty years over the Conservatives, the party emphasised the late leader's \"One Nation\" views, that the Conservatives at root shared the beliefs of the working classes, with the Liberals the party of the urban élite. Disraeli had, for example, stressed the need to improve the lot of the urban labourer. The memory of Disraeli was used by the Conservatives to appeal to the working classes, with whom he was said to have had a rapport. This aspect of his policies has been re-evaluated by historians in the 20th and 21st centuries. In 1972 BHAbbott stressed that it was not Disraeli but Lord Randolph Churchill who invented the term \"Tory democracy\", though it was Disraeli who made it an essential part of Conservative policy and philosophy. In 2007 Parry wrote, \"The tory democrat myth did not survive detailed scrutiny by professional historical writing of the 1960s which demonstrated that Disraeli had very little interest in a programme of social legislation and was very flexible in handling parliamentary reform in 1867.\" Despite this, Parry sees Disraeli, rather than Peel, as the founder of the modern Conservative party. The Conservative politician and writer Douglas Hurd wrote in 2013, \"Disraeli was not a one-nation Conservative—and this was not simply because he never used the phrase. He rejected the concept in its entirety.\"\n\nDisraeli's enthusiastic propagation of the British Empire has also been seen as appealing to working class voters. Before his leadership of the Conservative Party, imperialism was the province of the Liberals, most notably Palmerston, with the Conservatives murmuring dissent across the aisle. Disraeli made the Conservatives the party that most loudly supported both the Empire and military action to assert its primacy. This came about in part because Disraeli's own views stemmed that way, in part because he saw advantage for the Conservatives, and partially in reaction against Gladstone, who disliked the expense of empire. Blake argued that Disraeli's imperialism \"decisively orientated the Conservative party for many years to come, and the tradition which he started was probably a bigger electoral asset in winning working-class support during the last quarter of the century than anything else\". Some historians have commented on a romantic impulse behind Disraeli's approach to Empire and foreign affairs: Abbott writes, \"To the mystical Tory concepts of Throne, Church, Aristocracy and People, Disraeli added Empire.\" Others have identified a strongly pragmatic aspect to his policies. Gladstone's biographer Philip Magnus contrasted Disraeli's grasp of foreign affairs with that of Gladstone, who \"never understood that high moral principles, in their application to foreign policy, are more often destructive of political stability than motives of national self-interest.\" In Parry's view, Disraeli's foreign policy \"can be seen as a gigantic castle in the air (as it was by Gladstone), or as an overdue attempt to force the British commercial classes to awaken to the realities of European politics.\"\n\nDuring his lifetime Disraeli's opponents, and sometimes even his friends and allies, questioned whether he sincerely held the views he propounded, or whether they were adopted by him as essential to one who sought to spend his life in politics, and were mouthed by him without conviction. Lord John Manners, in 1843 at the time of Young England, wrote, \"could I only satisfy myself that D'Israeli believed all that he said, I should be more happy: his historical views are quite mine, but does he believe them?\" Blake (writing in 1966) suggested that it is no more possible to answer that question now than it was then. Nevertheless, Paul Smith, in his journal article on Disraeli's politics, argues that Disraeli's ideas were coherently argued over a political career of nearly half a century, and \"it is impossible to sweep them aside as a mere bag of burglar's tools for effecting felonious entry to the British political pantheon.\"\n\n\nStanley Weintraub, in his biography of Disraeli, points out that his subject did much to advance Britain towards the 20th century, carrying one of the two great Reform Acts of the 19th despite the opposition of his Liberal rival, Gladstone. \"He helped preserve constitutional monarchy by drawing the Queen out of mourning into a new symbolic national role and created the climate for what became 'Tory democracy'. He articulated an imperial role for Britain that would last into World War II and brought an intermittently self-isolated Britain into the concert of Europe.\"\n\nFrances Walsh comments on Disraeli's multifaceted public life:\nThe debate about his place in the Conservative pantheon has continued since his death. Disraeli fascinated and divided contemporary opinion; he was seen by many, including some members of his own party, as an adventurer and a charlatan and by others as a far-sighted and patriotic statesman. As an actor on the political stage he played many roles: Byronic hero, man of letters, social critic, parliamentary virtuoso, squire of Hughenden, royal companion, European statesman. His singular and complex personality has provided historians and biographers with a particularly stiff challenge.\n\nHistorical writers have often played Disraeli and Gladstone against each other as great rivals. Roland Quinault, however, cautions us not to exaggerate the confrontation:they were not direct antagonists for most of their political careers. Indeed initially they were both loyal to the Tory party, the Church and the landed interest. Although their paths diverged over the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 and later over fiscal policy more generally, it was not until the later 1860s that their differences over parliamentary reform, Irish and Church policy assumed great partisan significance. Even then their personal relations remained fairly cordial until their dispute over the Eastern Question in the later 1870s.",
"===Cartoons, 1846–86===\n\nFile:Fall of caesar.jpg|alt=A depiction of the murder of Julius Caesar, with Robert Peel portrayed as Caesar, and British political rivals depicted as his assassins|Peel shown as Julius Caesar surrounded by his assassins, with Disraeli on the left, 1846\nFile:Cartoon-The-Dispatch-of-Business\".jpg|alt=A caricature showing Gladstone on a donkey, marked \"reform\", being held back by Disraeli and a working-class man, who are holding the donkey's tail|Gladstone on donkey representing reform is held back by Disraeli aided by the English Working Man, 1866\nFile:Dishing-the-Whigs-1867.jpeg|alt=Disraeli and Derby, caricatured as chefs, set a dish before Queen Victoria. On the outside of the dish are the names of Conservative parliamentary bils; within are the faces of Liberal politicians|Derby and Disraeli outflank and \"dish\" their opponents, 1867\n\n\n\nFile:Dizzy-Gladstone-Box-and-Cox.jpg|alt=A parody of \"Cox and Box\"; Gladstone (Cox) challenges Disraeli (Box) to a fight.|Disraeli and Gladstone as Box and Cox, 1870\nFile:Alice guard.jpg|alt=An illustration from \"Through the Looking Glass\", featuring the man in white paper, who is based on Disraeli|Disraeli as the man in white paper in ''Through the Looking-Glass'', 1871\nFile:Disraell's-ghost-lord-randolph-churchill.jpg|alt=Randolph Churchill stands with a look of pride; behind him a tall, ghostly Disraeli stands, also looking proud|Disraeli's ghost overshadowing Lord Randolph Churchill, 1886\n\n===Depiction in 19th and early 20th century culture===\nLobby card 1929\nHistorian Michael Diamond reports that for British music hall patrons in the 1880s and 1890s, \"xenophobia and pride in empire\" were reflected in the halls' most popular political heroes: all were Conservatives and Disraeli stood out above all, even decades after his death, while Gladstone was used as a villain. Film historian Roy Armes has argued that historical films helped maintain the political status quo in Britain in the 1920s and 1930s by imposing an establishment viewpoint that emphasized the greatness of monarchy, empire, and tradition. The films created \"a facsimile world where existing values were invariably validated by events in the film and where all discord could be turned into harmony by an acceptance of the status quo.\" Steven Fielding has argued that Disraeli was an especially popular film hero: \"historical dramas favoured Disraeli over Gladstone and, more substantively, promulgated an essentially deferential view of democratic leadership.\" Stage and screen actor George Arliss was known for his portrayals of Disraeli, winning the Oscar as best actor for 1929's ''Disraeli''. Fielding says Arliss \"personified the kind of paternalistic, kindly, homely statesmanship that appealed to a significant proportion of the cinema audience....Even workers attending Labour party meetings deferred to leaders with an elevated social background who showed they cared.\". \n\nMajor productions featuring Disraeli include:\nDisraeli (1911, UK theatre) - Played by George Arliss;\nDisraeli (1916, UK film) - Played by Dennis Eadie;\nDisraeli (1921, US film) - Played by George Arliss;\nDisraeli (1929, US film) - Played by George Arliss;\nVictoria the Great (UK, 1937) - Played by Derrick De Marney (in youth)/ Hugh Miller (older age);\nSuez (US, 1938) - Played by Miles Mander;\nThe Prime Minister (UK, 1941) - Played by Sir John Gielgud;\nMr. Gladstone (UK-Television, 1947) - Played by Sydney Tafler;\nThe Ghosts of Berkeley Square (UK, 1947) - Played by Abraham Sofaer;\nThe Mudlark (US, 1950) - Played by Sir Alec Guinness\n",
"\n\n===Novels===\n* ''Vivian Grey'' (1826)\n* ''Popanilla'' (1828)\n* ''The Young Duke'' (1831)\n* ''Contarini Fleming'' (1832)\n* ''Ixion in Heaven'' (1832/3)\n* ''The Wondrous Tale of Alroy'' (1833)\n* ''The Rise of Iskander'' (1833)\n* ''The Infernal Marriage'' (1834)\n* ''Henrietta Temple'' (1837)\n* ''Venetia'' (1837)\n* ''Coningsby, or the New Generation'' (1844)\n* ''Sybil, or The Two Nations'' (1845)\n* ''Tancred, or the New Crusade'' (1847)\n* ''Lothair'' (1870)\n* ''Endymion'' (1880)\n* ''Falconet'' (unfinished 1881)\n\n=== Poetry ===\n* ''The Revolutionary Epick'' (1834)\n\n=== Drama ===\n* ''The Tragedy of Count Alarcos'' (1839)\n\n===Non-fiction===\n* ''An Inquiry into the Plans, Progress, and Policy of the American Mining Companies'' (1825)\n* ''Lawyers and Legislators: or, Notes, on the American Mining Companies'' (1825)\n* ''The present state of Mexico'' (1825)\n* ''England and France, or a Cure for the Ministerial Gallomania'' (1832)\n* ''What Is He?'' (1833)\n* ''The Vindication of the English Constitution'' (1835)\n* ''The Letters of Runnymede'' (1836)\n* ''Lord George Bentinck'' (1852)\n\n\n",
"\n'''Notes'''\n\n'''References'''\n\n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Text also available online at Oxford Dictionary of National Biography\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n",
"\n* \n* Bright, J. Franck. ''A History Of England. Period 4: Growth Of Democracy: Victoria 1837-1880'' (1893) online 608pp; highly detailed political narrative\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Monypenny, William Flavelle and George Earle Buckle, ''The Life of Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield'' (2 vol. London: John Murray, 1929), a famous classic; contains vol 1-4 and vol 5-6 of the original edition ''Life of Benjamin Disraeli'' volume 1 1804-1837, Volume 2 1837-1846, Volume 3 1846-1855, Volume 4 1855-1868, Volume 5 1868-1876, Volume 6 1876-1881. Vol 1 to 6 are available free from Google books: vol 1; vol 2; vol 3; vol 4; vol 5; and vol 6 \n* \n* looks at close links between his fiction and his politics.\n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n===Historiography===\n* St. John, Ian. ''The Historiography of Gladstone and Disraeli'' (Anthem Press, 2016) 402 pp excerpt\n\n",
"\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Disraeli as the inventor of modern conservatism at ''The Weekly Standard''\n* - John Prescott interview with Andrew Neill.\n* BBC Radio 4 series ''The Prime Ministers''\n* Hughenden Manor information at the National Trust\n* Bodleian Library Disraeli bicentenary exhibition, 2004\n* What Disraeli Can Teach Us by Geoffrey Wheatcroft from ''The New York Review of Books''\n* \n* \n* Benjamin Disraeli letters at Brandeis University \n\n===Works, Gutenberg Version===\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life",
"Parliament",
"Office",
"First term as Prime Minister; opposition leader",
"Second government (1874–80)",
"Final months, death, and memorials",
"Legacy",
"Popular culture",
"Works by Disraeli",
"Notes and references",
"Sources",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Benjamin Disraeli | [
"Rather than seek the aid of the Bank of England, Disraeli asked Lionel de Rothschild to loan funds."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield''', (21 December 1804 – 19 April 1881) was a British statesman of the Conservative Party who twice served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, as well as a novelist.",
"He played a central role in the creation of the modern Conservative Party, defining its policies and its broad outreach.",
"Disraeli is remembered for his influential voice in world affairs, his political battles with the Liberal Party leader William Ewart Gladstone, and his one-nation conservatism or \"Tory democracy\".",
"He made the Conservatives the party most identified with the glory and power of the British Empire.",
"He is the only UK Prime Minister to have been of Jewish birth.",
"Disraeli was born in Bloomsbury, then a part of Middlesex.",
"His father left the Jewish faith after a dispute at his synagogue; young Benjamin became an Anglican at the age of 12.",
"After several unsuccessful attempts, Disraeli entered the House of Commons in 1837.",
"In 1846 the Prime Minister at the time, Sir Robert Peel split the party over his proposal to repeal the Corn Laws; which involved ending the tariff on imported grain.",
"Disraeli clashed with Peel in the House of Commons.",
"Disraeli became a major figure in the party.",
"When Lord Derby, the party leader, thrice formed governments in the 1850s and 1860s, Disraeli served as Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons\n\nUpon Derby's retirement in 1868, Disraeli became Prime Minister briefly before losing that year's general election.",
"He returned to the Opposition, before leading the party to winning a majority in the 1874 general election.",
"He maintained a close friendship with Queen Victoria, who in 1876 appointed him Earl of Beaconsfield.",
"Disraeli's second term was dominated by the Eastern Question—the slow decay of the Ottoman Empire and the desire of other European powers, such as Russia, to gain at its expense.",
"Disraeli arranged for the British to purchase a major interest in the Suez Canal Company (in Ottoman-controlled Egypt).",
"In 1878, faced with Russian victories against the Ottomans, he worked at the Congress of Berlin to obtain peace in the Balkans at terms favourable to Britain and unfavourable to Russia, its longstanding enemy.",
"This diplomatic victory over Russia established Disraeli as one of Europe's leading statesmen.",
"World events thereafter moved against the Conservatives.",
"Controversial wars in Afghanistan and South Africa undermined his public support.",
"He angered British farmers by refusing to reinstitute the Corn Laws in response to poor harvests and cheap imported grain.",
"With Gladstone conducting a massive speaking campaign, his Liberals bested Disraeli's Conservatives at the 1880 general election.",
"In his final months, Disraeli led the Conservatives in Opposition.",
"He had throughout his career written novels, beginning in 1826, and he published his last completed novel, ''Endymion'', shortly before he died at the age of 76.",
"\n===Childhood===\nDisraeli was born on 21 December 1804 at 6 King's Road, Bedford Row, Bloomsbury, London, the second child and eldest son of Isaac D'Israeli, a literary critic and historian, and Maria (Miriam), ''née'' Basevi.",
"The family was of Sephardic Jewish Italian mercantile background.",
"All Disraeli's grandparents and great-grandparents were born in Italy; Isaac's father, Benjamin, moved to England from Venice in 1748.",
"Disraeli later romanticised his origins, claiming that his father's family was of grand Spanish and Venetian descent; in fact Isaac's family was of no great distinction, but on Disraeli's mother's side, in which he took no interest, there were some distinguished forebears.",
"Historians differ on Disraeli's motives for rewriting his family history: Bernard Glassman argues that it was intended to give him status comparable to that of England's ruling elite; Sarah Bradford believes \"his dislike of the commonplace would not allow him to accept the facts of his birth as being as middle-class and undramatic as they really were\".",
"Isaac, Maria and Sarah|alt=Three portraits; a man and two women\nDisraeli's siblings were Sarah (1802–1859), Naphtali (born and died 1807), Ralph (1809–1898), and James (\"Jem\") (1813–1868).",
"He was close to his sister, and on affectionate but more distant terms with his surviving brothers.",
"Details of his schooling are sketchy.",
"From the age of about six he was a day boy at a dame school in Islington that one of his biographers later described as \"for those days a very high-class establishment\".",
"Two years later or so—the exact date has not been ascertained—he was sent as a boarder to Rev John Potticary's St Piran's school at Blackheath.",
"While he was there events at the family home changed the course of Disraeli's education and of his whole life: his father renounced Judaism and had the four children baptised into the Church of England in July and August 1817.",
"Isaac D'Israeli had never taken religion very seriously, but had remained a conforming member of the Bevis Marks Synagogue.",
"His father, the elder Benjamin, was a prominent and devout member; it was probably from respect for him that Isaac did not leave when he fell out with the synagogue authorities in 1813.",
"After Benjamin senior died in 1816 Isaac felt free to leave the congregation following a second dispute.",
"Isaac's friend Sharon Turner, a solicitor, convinced him that although he could comfortably remain unattached to any formal religion it would be disadvantageous to the children if they did so.",
"Turner stood as godfather when Benjamin was baptised, aged twelve, on 31 July 1817.",
"Conversion to Christianity enabled Disraeli to contemplate a career in politics.",
"Britain in the early-nineteenth century was not a greatly anti-Semitic society, and there had been Members of Parliament (MPs) from Jewish families since Samson Gideon in 1770.",
"But until 1858, MPs were required to take the oath of allegiance \"on the true faith of a Christian\", necessitating at least nominal conversion.",
"It is not known whether Disraeli formed any ambition for a parliamentary career at the time of his baptism, but there is no doubt that he bitterly regretted his parents' decision not to send him to Winchester College.",
"As one of the great public schools of England, Winchester consistently provided recruits to the political elite.",
"His two younger brothers were sent there, and it is not clear why Isaac D'Israeli chose to send his eldest son to a much less prestigious school.",
"The boy evidently held his mother responsible for the decision; Bradford speculates that \"Benjamin's delicate health and his obviously Jewish appearance may have had something to do with it.\"",
"The school chosen for him was run by Eliezer Cogan at Higham Hill in Walthamstow.",
"He began there in the autumn term of 1817; he later recalled his education:\n\n\n===1820s===\nIn November 1821, shortly before his seventeenth birthday, Disraeli was articled as a clerk to a firm of solicitors—Swain, Stevens, Maples, Pearse and Hunt—in the City of London.",
"T F Maples was not only the young Disraeli's employer and friend of his father's, but also his prospective father-in-law: Isaac and Maples entertained the possibility that the latter's only daughter might be a suitable match for Benjamin.",
"A friendship developed, but there was no romance.",
"The firm had a large and profitable business, and as the biographer R W Davis observes, the clerkship was \"the kind of secure, respectable position that many fathers dream of for their children\".",
"Although biographers including Robert Blake and Bradford comment that such a post was incompatible with Disraeli's romantic and ambitious nature, he reportedly gave his employers satisfactory service, and later professed to have learned a good deal from his time with the firm.",
"He recalled, \"I had some scruples, for even then I dreamed of Parliament.",
"My father's refrain always was 'Philip Carteret Webb', who was the most eminent solicitor of his boyhood and who was an MP.",
"It would be a mistake to suppose that the two years and more that I was in the office of our friend were wasted.",
"I have often thought, though I have often regretted the University, that it was much the reverse.\"",
"alt=A young man of vaguely Semitic appearance, with long and curly black hair\nThe year after joining Maples' firm, Benjamin changed his surname from D'Israeli to Disraeli.",
"His reasons for doing so are unknown, but the biographer Bernard Glassman surmises that it was to avoid being confused with his father.",
"Disraeli's sister and brothers adopted the new version of the name; Isaac and his wife retained the older form.",
"Disraeli toured Belgium and the Rhine Valley with his father in the summer of 1824; he later wrote that it was while travelling on the Rhine that he decided to abandon his position: \"I determined when descending those magical waters that I would not be a lawyer.\"",
"On their return to England he left the solicitors, at the suggestion of Maples, with the aim of qualifying as a barrister.",
"He enrolled as a student at Lincoln's Inn and joined the chambers of his uncle, Nathaniel Basevy, and then those of Benjamin Austen, who persuaded Isaac that Disraeli would never make a barrister and should be allowed to pursue a literary career.",
"He had made a tentative start: in May 1824 he submitted a manuscript to his father's friend, the publisher John Murray, but withdrew it before Murray could decide whether to publish it.",
"Released from the law, Disraeli did some work for Murray, but turned most of his attention not to literature but to speculative dealing on the stock exchange.",
"There was at the time a boom in shares in South American mining companies.",
"Spain was losing its South American colonies in the face of rebellions.",
"At the urging of George Canning the British government recognised the new independent governments of Argentina (1824), Colombia and Mexico (both 1825).",
"With no money of his own, Disraeli borrowed money to invest.",
"He became involved with the financier J. D. Powles, who was prominent among those encouraging the mining boom.",
"In the course of 1825, Disraeli wrote three anonymous pamphlets for Powles, promoting the companies.",
"The pamphlets were published by John Murray, who invested heavily in the boom.",
"Murray had for some time had ambitions to establish a new morning paper to compete with ''The Times''.",
"In 1825 Disraeli convinced him that he should proceed.",
"The new paper, ''The Representative'', promoted the mines and those politicians who supported them, particularly Canning.",
"Disraeli impressed Murray with his energy and commitment to the project, but he failed in his key task of persuading the eminent writer John Gibson Lockhart to edit the paper.",
"After that, Disraeli's influence on Murray waned, and to his resentment he was sidelined in\nthe affairs of ''The Representative''.",
"The paper survived for only six months, partly because the mining bubble burst in late 1825, and partly because, according to Blake, the paper was \"atrociously edited\", and would have failed regardless.",
"The bursting of the mining bubble was ruinous for Disraeli.",
"By June 1825 he and his business partners had lost £7,000.",
"Disraeli could not pay off the last of his debts from this debacle until 1849.",
"He turned to writing, motivated partly by his desperate need for money, and partly by a wish for revenge on Murray and others by whom he felt slighted.",
"There was a vogue for what was called \"silver-fork fiction\"—novels depicting aristocratic life, usually by anonymous authors, read avidly by the aspirational middle classes.",
"Disraeli's first novel, ''Vivian Grey'', published anonymously in four volumes in 1826–27, was a thinly veiled re-telling of the affair of ''The Representative''.",
"It sold well, but caused much offence in influential circles when the authorship was discovered.",
"Disraeli, then just 23 years old, did not move in high society, as the numerous solecisms in his book made obvious.",
"Reviewers were sharply critical on these grounds of both the author and the book.",
"Furthermore, Murray and Lockhart, men of great influence in literary circles, believed that Disraeli had caricatured them and abused their confidence—an accusation denied by the author but repeated by many of his biographers.",
"In later editions Disraeli made many changes, softening his satire, but the damage to his reputation proved long-lasting.",
"Disraeli's biographer Jonathan Parry writes that the financial failure and personal criticism that Disraeli suffered in 1825 and 1826 were probably the trigger for a serious nervous crisis affecting him over the next four years: \"He had always been moody, sensitive, and solitary by nature, but now became seriously depressed and lethargic.\"",
"He was still living with his parents in London, but in search of the \"change of air\" recommended by the family's doctors Isaac took a succession of houses in the country and on the coast, before Disraeli sought wider horizons.",
"===1830s===\nTogether with his sister's fiancé, William Meredith, Disraeli travelled widely in southern Europe and beyond in 1830–31.",
"The trip was financed partly by another high society novel, ''The Young Duke'', written in 1829–30.",
"The tour was cut short suddenly by Meredith's death from smallpox in Cairo in July 1831.",
"Despite this tragedy, and the need for treatment for a sexually transmitted disease on his return, Disraeli felt enriched by his experiences.",
"He became, in Parry's words, \"aware of values that seemed denied to his insular countrymen.",
"The journey encouraged his self-consciousness, his moral relativism, and his interest in Eastern racial and religious attitudes.\"",
"Blake regards the tour as one of the formative experiences of Disraeli's whole career: \"The impressions that it made on him were life-lasting.",
"They conditioned his attitude toward some of the most important political problems which faced him in his later years—especially the Eastern Question; they also coloured many of his novels.\"",
"Disraeli wrote two novels in the aftermath of the tour.",
"''Contarini Fleming'' (1832) was avowedly a self-portrait.",
"It is subtitled \"a psychological autobiography\", and depicts the conflicting elements of its hero's character: the duality of northern and Mediterranean ancestry, the dreaming artist and the bold man of action.",
"As Parry observes, the book ends on a political note, setting out Europe's progress \"from feudal to federal principles\".",
"''The Wondrous Tale of Alroy'' the following year portrayed the problems of a medieval Jew in deciding between a small, exclusively Jewish state and a large empire embracing all.",
"Croker, Lyndhurst, Henrietta Sykes and Lady Londonderry|alt=Two men and two women\nAfter the two novels were published, Disraeli declared that he would \"write no more about myself\".",
"He had already turned his attention to politics in 1832, during the great crisis over the Reform Bill.",
"He contributed to an anti-Whig pamphlet edited by John Wilson Croker and published by Murray entitled ''England and France: or a cure for Ministerial Gallomania''.",
"The choice of a Tory publication was regarded as strange by Disraeli's friends and relatives, who thought him more of a Radical.",
"Indeed, he had objected to Murray about Croker's inserting \"high Tory\" sentiment: Disraeli remarked, \"it is quite impossible that anything adverse to the general measure of Reform can issue from my pen.\"",
"Moreover, at the time ''Gallomania'' was published, Disraeli was electioneering in High Wycombe in the Radical interest.",
"Disraeli's politics at the time were influenced both by his rebellious streak and by his desire to make his mark.",
"At that time, the politics of the nation were dominated by members of the aristocracy, together with a few powerful commoners.",
"The Whigs derived from the coalition of Lords who had forced through the Bill of Rights in 1689 and in some cases were their actual descendants, not merely spiritual.",
"The Tories tended to support King and Church, and sought to thwart political change.",
"A small number of Radicals, generally from northern constituencies, were the strongest advocates of continuing reform.",
"In the early-1830s the Tories and the interests they represented appeared to be a lost cause.",
"The other great party, the Whigs, were anathema to Disraeli: \"Toryism is worn out & I cannot condescend to be a Whig.\"",
"There were two general elections in 1832; Disraeli unsuccessfully stood as a Radical at High Wycombe in each.",
"Disraeli's political views embraced certain Radical policies, particularly democratic reform of the electoral system, and also some Tory ones, including protectionism.",
"He began to move in Tory circles.",
"In 1834 he was introduced to the former Lord Chancellor, Lord Lyndhurst, by Henrietta Sykes, wife of Sir Francis Sykes.",
"She was having an affair with Lyndhurst, and began another with Disraeli.",
"Disraeli and Lyndhurst took an immediate liking to each other.",
"Lyndhurst was an indiscreet gossip with a fondness for intrigue; this appealed greatly to Disraeli, who became his secretary and go-between.",
"In 1835 Disraeli stood for the last time as a Radical, unsuccessfully contesting High Wycombe once again.",
"O'Connell and Labouchere|alt=Two men of Victorian appearance\nIn April 1835, Disraeli fought a by-election at Taunton as a Tory candidate.",
"The Irish MP Daniel O'Connell, misled by inaccurate press reports, thought Disraeli had slandered him while electioneering at Taunton; he launched an outspoken attack, referring to Disraeli as:\n\n\nDisraeli's public exchanges with O'Connell, extensively reproduced in ''The Times'', included a demand for a duel with the 60-year-old O'Connell's son (which resulted in Disraeli's temporary detention by the authorities), a reference to \"the inextinguishable hatred with which he shall pursue O'Connell's existence\", and the accusation that O'Connell's supporters had a \"princely revenue wrung from a starving race of fanatical slaves\".",
"Disraeli was highly gratified by the dispute, which propelled him to general public notice for the first time.",
"He did not defeat the incumbent Whig member, Henry Labouchere, but the Taunton constituency was regarded as unwinnable by the Tories.",
"Disraeli kept Labouchere's majority down to 170, a good showing that put him in line for a winnable seat in the near future.",
"With Lyndhurst's encouragement Disraeli turned to writing propaganda for his newly adopted party.",
"His ''Vindication of the English Constitution'', was published in December 1835.",
"It was couched in the form of an open letter to Lyndhurst, and in Bradford's view encapsulates a political philosophy that Disraeli adhered to for the rest of his life.",
"Its themes were the value of benevolent aristocratic government, a loathing of political dogma, and the modernisation of Tory policies.",
"The following year he wrote a series of satires on politicians of the day, which he published in ''The Times'' under the pen-name \"Runnymede\".",
"His targets included the Whigs, collectively and individually, Irish nationalists, and political corruption.",
"One essay ended:\n\nDisraeli was now firmly in the Tory camp.",
"He was elected to the exclusively Tory Carlton Club in 1836, and was also taken up by the party's leading hostess, Lady Londonderry.",
"In June 1837 WilliamIV died, the young Queen Victoria, his niece, succeeded him, and parliament was dissolved.",
"On the recommendation of the Carlton Club, Disraeli was adopted as a Tory parliamentary candidate at the ensuing general election.",
"\n===Back-bencher===\nIn the election in July 1837 Disraeli won a seat in the House of Commons as one of two members, both Tory, for the constituency of Maidstone.",
"The other was Wyndham Lewis, who helped finance Disraeli's election campaign, and who died the following year.",
"In the same year Disraeli published a novel, ''Henrietta Temple'', which was a love story and social comedy, drawing on his affair with Henrietta Sykes.",
"He had broken off the relationship in late 1836, distraught that she had taken yet another lover.",
"His other novel of this period is ''Venetia'', a romance based on the characters of Shelley and Byron, written quickly to raise much-needed money.",
"Disraeli made his maiden speech in Parliament on 7 December 1837.",
"He followed O'Connell, whom he sharply criticised for the latter's \"long, rambling, jumbling, speech\".",
"He was shouted down by O'Connell's supporters.",
"After this unpromising start Disraeli kept a low profile for the rest of the parliamentary session.",
"He was a loyal supporter of the party leader Sir Robert Peel and his policies, with the exception of a personal sympathy for the Chartist movement that most Tories did not share.",
"alt=A portrait of a young woman with elaborately styled brown hair, tied up with a blue bow\nIn 1839 Disraeli married Mary Anne Lewis, the widow of Wyndham Lewis.",
"Twelve years Disraeli's senior, Mary Lewis had a substantial income of £5,000 a year.",
"His motives were generally assumed to be mercenary, but the couple came to cherish one another, remaining close until she died more than three decades later.",
"\"Dizzy married me for my money\", his wife said later, \"But, if he had the chance again, he would marry me for love.\"",
"Finding the financial demands of his Maidstone seat too much, Disraeli secured a Tory nomination for Shrewsbury, winning one of the constituency's two seats at the 1841 general election, despite serious opposition, and heavy debts which opponents seized on.",
"The election was a massive defeat for the Whigs across the country, and Peel became Prime Minister.",
"Disraeli hoped, unrealistically, for ministerial office.",
"Though disappointed at being left on the back benches, he continued his support for Peel in 1842 and 1843, seeking to establish himself as an expert on foreign affairs and international trade.",
"Although a Tory (or Conservative, as some in the party now called themselves) Disraeli was sympathetic to some of the aims of Chartism, and argued for an alliance between the landed aristocracy and the working class against the increasing power of the merchants and new industrialists in the middle class.",
"After Disraeli won widespread acclaim in March 1842 for worsting the formidable Lord Palmerston in debate, he was taken up by a small group of idealistic new Tory MPs, with whom he formed the Young England group.",
"They held that the landed interests should use their power to protect the poor from exploitation by middle-class businessmen.",
"For many years in his parliamentary career Disraeli hoped to forge a paternalistic Tory-Radical alliance, but he was unsuccessful.",
"Before the Reform Act 1867, the working class did not possess the vote and therefore had little political power.",
"Although Disraeli forged a personal friendship with John Bright, a Lancashire manufacturer and leading Radical, Disraeli was unable to persuade Bright to sacrifice his distinct position for parliamentary advancement.",
"When Disraeli attempted to secure a Tory-Radical cabinet in 1852, Bright refused.",
"Bright, Peel, Bentinck and Stanley|alt=Four men\n\nDisraeli gradually became a sharp critic of Peel's government, often deliberately taking positions contrary to those of his nominal chief.",
"The best known of these stances were over the Maynooth Grant in 1845 and the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846.",
"But the young MP had attacked his leader as early as 1843 on Ireland and then on foreign policy interventions.",
"In a letter of February 1844, he slighted the Prime Minister for failing to send him a Policy Circular.",
"He laid into the Whigs as freebooters, swindlers and conmen but Peel's own Free Trade policies were directly in the firing line.",
"The President of the Board of Trade, William Gladstone, resigned from the cabinet over the Maynooth Grant.",
"The Corn Laws imposed a tariff on imported wheat, protecting British farmers from foreign competition, but making the cost of bread artificially high.",
"Peel hoped that the repeal of the Corn Laws and the resultant influx of cheaper wheat into Britain would relieve the condition of the poor, and in particular the suffering caused by successive failure of potato crops in Ireland—the Great Famine.",
"The first months of 1846 were dominated by a battle in Parliament between the free traders and the protectionists over the repeal of the Corn Laws, with the latter rallying around Disraeli and Lord George Bentinck.",
"The landowning interest in the Party, under its leader, William Miles MP for East Somerset, had called upon Disraeli to lead the Party.",
"Disraeli had declined, though pledged support to the Country Gentlemen's Interes, as Bentink had offered to lead if he had Disraeli's support.",
"Disraeli stated, in a letter to Sir William Miles of 11 June 1860, that he wished to help \"because, from my earliest years, my sympathies had been with the landed interest of England\".",
"An alliance of free-trade Conservatives (the \"Peelites\"), Radicals, and Whigs carried repeal, and the Conservative Party split: the Peelites moved towards the Whigs, while a \"new\" Conservative Party formed around the protectionists, led by Disraeli, Bentinck, and Lord Stanley (later Lord Derby).",
"The split in the Tory party over the repeal of the Corn Laws had profound implications for Disraeli's political career: almost every Tory politician with experience of office followed Peel, leaving the rump bereft of leadership.",
"In Blake's words, \"Disraeli found himself almost the only figure on his side capable of putting up the oratorical display essential for a parliamentary leader.\"",
"Looking on from the House of Lords, the Duke of Argyll wrote that Disraeli \"was like a subaltern in a great battle where every superior officer was killed or wounded\".",
"If the Tory Party could muster the electoral support necessary to form a government, then Disraeli now seemed to be guaranteed high office.",
"However, he would take office with a group of men who possessed little or no official experience, who had rarely felt moved to speak in the House of Commons, and who, as a group, remained hostile to Disraeli on a personal level.",
"In the event the matter was not put to the test, as the Tory split soon had the party out of office, not regaining power until 1852.",
"The Conservatives would not again have a majority in the House of Commons until 1874.",
"===Bentinck and the leadership===\nPeel successfully steered the repeal of the Corn Laws through Parliament, and was then defeated by an alliance of all his enemies on the issue of Irish law and order; he resigned in June 1846.",
"The Tories remained split and the Queen sent for Lord John Russell, the Whig leader.",
"In the 1847 general election, Disraeli stood, successfully, for the Buckinghamshire constituency.",
"The new House of Commons had more Conservative than Whig members, but the depth of the Tory schism enabled Russell to continue to govern.",
"The Conservatives were led by Bentinck in the Commons and Stanley in the Lords.",
"Russell, Rothschild, Manners and Granby|alt=Four men\nIn 1847 a small political crisis occurred which removed Bentinck from the leadership and highlighted Disraeli's differences with his own party.",
"In that year's general election, Lionel de Rothschild had been returned for the City of London.",
"As a practising Jew he could not take the oath of allegiance in the prescribed Christian form, and therefore could not take his seat.",
"Lord John Russell, the Whig leader who had succeeded Peel as Prime Minister and like Rothschild was a member for the City of London, proposed in the Commons that the oath should be amended to permit Jews to enter Parliament.",
"Disraeli spoke in favour of the measure, arguing that Christianity was \"completed Judaism\", and asking the House of Commons \"Where is your Christianity if you do not believe in their Judaism?\"",
"Russell and Disraeli's future rival Gladstone thought it brave of him to speak as he did; the speech was badly received by his own party.",
"The Tories and the Anglican establishment were hostile to the bill.",
"Samuel Wilberforce, Bishop of Oxford, spoke strongly against the measure and implied that Russell was paying off the Jews for helping elect him.",
"With the exception of Disraeli, every member of the future protectionist cabinet then in Parliament voted against the measure.",
"One who was not yet an MP, Lord John Manners, stood against Rothschild when the latter re-submitted himself for election in 1849.",
"Disraeli, who had attended the Protectionists dinner at the Merchant Taylors Hall, joined Bentinck in speaking and voting for the bill, although his own speech was a standard one of toleration.",
"The measure was voted down.",
"In the aftermath of the debate Bentinck resigned the leadership and was succeeded by Lord Granby; Disraeli's own speech, thought by many of his own party to be blasphemous, ruled him out for the time being.",
"While these intrigues played out, Disraeli was working with the Bentinck family to secure the necessary financing to purchase Hughenden Manor, in Buckinghamshire.",
"The possession of a country house, and incumbency of a county constituency were regarded as essential for a Tory with ambitions to lead the party.",
"Disraeli and his wife alternated between Hughenden and several homes in London for the rest of their marriage.",
"The negotiations were complicated by Bentinck's sudden death on 21 September 1848, but Disraeli obtained a loan of £25,000 from Bentinck's brothers Lord Henry Bentinck and Lord Titchfield.",
"Within a month of his appointment Granby resigned the leadership in the Commons, feeling himself inadequate to the post, and the party functioned without a leader in the Commons for the rest of the parliamentary session.",
"At the start of the next session, affairs were handled by a triumvirate of Granby, Disraeli, and John Charles Herries—indicative of the tension between Disraeli and the rest of the party, who needed his talents but mistrusted him.",
"This confused arrangement ended with Granby's resignation in 1851; Disraeli effectively ignored the two men regardless.",
"\n===First Derby government===\n\nThe Earl of Derby, Prime Minister 1852, 1858–59, 1866–68|alt=A stately-looking gentleman in a dark suit, sitting with a book\n\nIn March 1851, Lord John Russell's government was defeated over a bill to equalise the county and borough franchises, mostly because of divisions among his supporters.",
"He resigned, and the Queen sent for Stanley, who felt that a minority government could do little and would not last long, so Russell remained in office.",
"Disraeli regretted this, hoping for an opportunity, however brief, to show himself capable in office.",
"Stanley, on the other hand, deprecated his inexperienced followers as a reason for not assuming office, \"These are not names I can put before the Queen.\"",
"At the end of June 1851, Stanley's father died, and he succeeded to his title as Earl of Derby.",
"The Whigs were wracked by internal dissensions during the second half of 1851, much of which Parliament spent in recess.",
"Russell dismissed Lord Palmerston from the cabinet, leaving the latter determined to deprive the Prime Minister of office as well.",
"Palmerston did so within weeks of Parliament's reassembly on 4 February 1852, his followers combining with Disraeli's Tories to defeat the government on a Militia Bill, and Russell resigned.",
"Derby had either to take office or risk damage to his reputation and he accepted the Queen's commission as Prime Minister.",
"Palmerston declined any office; Derby had hoped to have him as Chancellor of the Exchequer.",
"Disraeli, his closest ally, was his second choice and accepted, though disclaiming any great knowledge in the financial field.",
"Gladstone refused to join the government.",
"Disraeli may have been attracted to the office by the £5,000 per year salary, which would help pay his debts.",
"Few of the new cabinet had held office before; when Derby tried to inform the Duke of Wellington of the names of the Queen's new ministers, the old Duke, who was somewhat deaf, inadvertently branded the new government by incredulously repeating \"Who?",
"Who?\"",
"In the following weeks, Disraeli served as Leader of the House (with Derby as Prime Minister in the Lords) and as Chancellor.",
"He wrote regular reports on proceedings in the Commons to Victoria, who described them as \"very curious\" and \"much in the style of his books\".",
"Parliament was prorogued on 1 July 1852 as the Tories could not govern for long as a minority; Disraeli hoped that they would gain a majority of about 40.",
"Instead, the election later that month had no clear winner, and the Derby government held to power pending the meeting of Parliament.",
"Disraeli's task as Chancellor was to devise a budget which would satisfy the protectionist elements who supported the Tories, without uniting the free-traders against it.",
"His proposed budget, which he presented to the Commons on 3 December, lowered the taxes on malt and tea, provisions designed to appeal to the working class.",
"To make his budget revenue-neutral, as funds were needed to provide defences against the French, he doubled the house tax and continued the income tax.",
"Disraeli's overall purpose was to enact policies which would benefit the working classes, making his party more attractive to them.",
"Although the budget did not contain protectionist features, the opposition was prepared to destroy it—and Disraeli's career as Chancellor—in part out of revenge for his actions against Peel in 1846.",
"MP Sidney Herbert predicted that the budget would fail because \"Jews make no converts\".",
"Gladstone in the 1850s|alt=A middle-aged man in Victorian clothes\nDisraeli delivered the budget on 3 December 1852, and prepared to wind up the debate for the government on 16 December—it was customary for the Chancellor to have the last word.",
"A massive defeat for the government was predicted.",
"Disraeli attacked his opponents individually, and then as a force, \"I face a Coalition ...",
"This, too, I know, that England does not love coalitions.\"",
"His speech of three hours was quickly seen as a parliamentary masterpiece.",
"As MPs prepared to divide, Gladstone rose to his feet and began an angry speech, despite the efforts of Tory MPs to shout him down.",
"The interruptions were fewer, as Gladstone gained control of the House, and in the next two hours painted a picture of Disraeli as frivolous and his budget as subversive.",
"The government was defeated by 19 votes, and Derby resigned four days later.",
"He was replaced by the Peelite Earl of Aberdeen, with Gladstone as his Chancellor.",
"Because of Disraeli's unpopularity among the Peelites, no party reconciliation was possible while he remained Tory leader in the House of Commons.",
"===Opposition===\nWith the fall of the government, Disraeli and the Conservatives returned to the opposition benches.",
"Disraeli would spend three-quarters of his 44-year parliamentary career in opposition.",
"Derby was reluctant to seek to unseat the government, fearing a repetition of the Who?",
"Who?",
"Ministry and knowing that despite his lieutenant's strengths, shared dislike of Disraeli was part of what had formed the governing coalition.",
"Disraeli, on the other hand, was anxious to return to office.",
"In the interim, Disraeli, as Conservative leader in the Commons, opposed the government on all major measures.",
"In June 1853 Disraeli was awarded an honorary degree by Oxford University.",
"He had been recommended for it by Lord Derby, the university's Chancellor.",
"The start of the Crimean War in 1854 caused a lull in party politics; Disraeli spoke patriotically in support.",
"The British military efforts were marked by bungling, and in 1855 a restive Parliament considered a resolution to establish a committee on the conduct of the war.",
"The Aberdeen government chose to make this a motion of confidence; Disraeli led the opposition to defeat the government, 305 to 148.",
"Aberdeen resigned, and the Queen sent for Derby, who to Disraeli's frustration refused to take office.",
"Palmerston was deemed essential to any Whig ministry, and he would not join any he did not head.",
"The Queen reluctantly asked Palmerston to form a government.",
"Under Palmerston, the war went better, and was ended by the Treaty of Paris in early 1856.",
"Disraeli was early to call for peace, but had little influence on events.",
"When a rebellion broke out in India in 1857, Disraeli took a keen interest in affairs, having been a member of a select committee in 1852 which considered how best to rule the subcontinent, and had proposed eliminating the governing role of the British East India Company.",
"After peace was restored, and Palmerston in early 1858 brought in legislation for direct rule of India by the Crown, Disraeli opposed it.",
"Many Conservative MPs refused to follow him and the bill passed the Commons easily.",
"Palmerston's grip on the premiership was weakened by his response to the Orsini affair, in which an attempt was made to assassinate the French Emperor Napoleon III by an Italian revolutionary with a bomb made in Birmingham.",
"At the request of the French ambassador, Palmerston put forward amendments to the conspiracy to murder statute, proposing to make creating an infernal device a felony rather than a misdemeanour.",
"He was defeated by 19 votes on the second reading, with many Liberals crossing the aisle against him.",
"He immediately resigned, and Lord Derby returned to office.",
"===Second Derby government===\n\n\nDerby took office at the head of a purely \"Conservative\" administration, not in coalition with any other faction.",
"He again offered a place to Gladstone, who declined.",
"Disraeli was once more leader of the House of Commons and returned to the Exchequer.",
"As in 1852, Derby led a minority government, dependent on the division of its opponents for survival.",
"As Leader of the House, Disraeli resumed his regular reports to Queen Victoria, who had requested that he include what she \"could not meet in newspapers\".",
"During its brief life of just over a year, the Derby government proved moderately progressive.",
"The Government of India Act 1858 ended the role of the East India Company in governing the subcontinent.",
"It also passed the Thames Purification Bill, which funded the construction of much larger sewers for London.",
"Disraeli had supported efforts to allow Jews to sit in Parliament—the oaths required of new members could only be made in good faith by a Christian.",
"Disraeli had a bill passed through the Commons allowing each house of Parliament to determine what oaths its members should take.",
"This was grudgingly agreed to by the House of Lords, with a minority of Conservatives joining with the opposition to pass it.",
"In 1858, Baron Lionel de Rothschild became the first MP to profess the Jewish faith.",
"Faced with a vacancy, Disraeli and Derby tried yet again to bring Gladstone, still nominally a Conservative MP, into the government, hoping to strengthen it.",
"Disraeli wrote a personal letter to Gladstone, asking him to place the good of the party above personal animosity: \"Every man performs his office, and there is a Power, greater than ourselves, that disposes of all this.\"",
"In responding to Disraeli, Gladstone denied that personal feelings played any role in his decisions then and previously whether to accept office, while acknowledging that there were differences between him and Derby \"broader than you may have supposed\".",
"The Tories pursued a Reform Bill in 1859, which would have resulted in a modest increase to the franchise.",
"The Liberals were healing the breaches between those who favoured Russell and the Palmerston loyalists, and in late March 1859, the government was defeated on a Russell-sponsored amendment.",
"Derby dissolved Parliament, and the ensuing general election resulted in modest Tory gains, but not enough to control the Commons.",
"When Parliament assembled, Derby's government was defeated by 13 votes on an amendment to the Address from the Throne.",
"He resigned, and the Queen reluctantly sent for Palmerston again.",
"===Opposition and third term as Chancellor===\n\nAfter Derby's second ejection from office, Disraeli faced dissension within Conservative ranks from those who blamed him for the defeat, or who felt he was disloyal to Derby—the former Prime Minister warned Disraeli of some MPs seeking his removal from the front bench.",
"Among the conspirators were Lord Robert Cecil, a young Conservative MP who would a quarter century later become Prime Minister as Lord Salisbury; he wrote that having Disraeli as leader in the Commons decreased the Conservatives' chance of holding office.",
"When Cecil's father objected, Lord Robert stated, \"I have merely put into print what all the country gentlemen were saying in private.\"",
"Lord Robert Cecil, Disraeli's fierce opponent in the 1860s, but later his ally and successor|alt=A young man with dark hair and huge sideburns\nDisraeli led a toothless opposition in the Commons—seeing no way of unseating Palmerston, Derby had privately agreed not to seek the government's defeat.",
"Disraeli kept himself informed on foreign affairs, and on what was going on in cabinet, thanks to a source within it.",
"When the American Civil War began in 1861, Disraeli said little publicly, but like most Englishmen expected the South to win.",
"Less reticent were Palmerston, Gladstone (again Chancellor) and Russell, whose statements in support of the South contributed to years of hard feelings in the United States.",
"In 1862, Disraeli met Prussian Count Otto von Bismarck for the first time and said of him, \"be careful about that man, he means what he says\".",
"The party truce ended in 1864, with Tories outraged over Palmerston's handling of the territorial dispute between the German Confederation and Denmark known as the Schleswig-Holstein Question.",
"Disraeli had little help from Derby, who was ill, but he united the party enough on a no-confidence vote to limit the government to a majority of 18—Tory defections and absentees kept Palmerston in office.",
"Despite rumours about Palmerston's health as he passed his eightieth birthday, he remained personally popular, and the Liberals increased their margin in the July 1865 general election.",
"In the wake of the poor election results, Derby predicted to Disraeli that neither of them would ever hold office again.",
"Political plans were thrown into disarray by Palmerston's death on 18 October 1865.",
"Russell became Prime Minister again, with Gladstone clearly the Liberal Party's leader-in-waiting, and as Leader of the House Disraeli's direct opponent.",
"One of Russell's early priorities was a Reform Bill, but the proposed legislation that Gladstone announced on 12 March 1866 divided his party.",
"The Conservatives and the dissident Liberals repeatedly attacked Gladstone's bill, and in June finally defeated the government; Russell resigned on 26 June.",
"The dissidents were unwilling to serve under Disraeli in the House of Commons, and Derby formed a third Conservative minority government, with Disraeli again as Chancellor.",
"In 1867, the Conservatives introduced a Reform Bill.",
"Without a majority in the Commons, the Conservatives had little choice but to accept amendments that considerably liberalised the legislation, though Disraeli refused to accept any from Gladstone.",
"The Reform Act 1867 passed that August, extending the franchise by 938,427—an increase of 88%—by giving the vote to male householders and male lodgers paying at least £10 for rooms.",
"It eliminated rotten boroughs with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants, and granted constituencies to 15 unrepresented towns, with extra representation to large municipalities such as Liverpool and Manchester.",
"This act was unpopular with the right wing of the Conservative Party, most notably Lord Cranborne (as Robert Cecil was by then known), who resigned from the government and spoke against the bill, accusing Disraeli of \"a political betrayal which has no parallel in our Parliamentary annals\".",
"Cranborne, however, was unable to lead an effective rebellion against Derby and Disraeli.",
"Disraeli gained wide acclaim and became a hero to his party for the \"marvellous parliamentary skill\" with which he secured the passage of Reform in the Commons.",
"Derby had long suffered from attacks of gout which sent him to his bed, unable to deal with politics.",
"As the new session of Parliament approached in February 1868, he was bedridden at his home, Knowsley Hall, near Liverpool.",
"He was reluctant to resign, reasoning that he was only 68, much younger than either Palmerston or Russell at the end of their premierships.",
"Derby knew that his \"attacks of illness would, at no distant period, incapacitate me from the discharge of my public duties\"; doctors had warned him that his health required his resignation from office.",
"In late February, with Parliament in session and Derby absent, he wrote to Disraeli asking for confirmation that \"you will not shrink from the additional heavy responsibility\".",
"Reassured, he wrote to the Queen, resigning and recommending Disraeli as \"only he could command the cordial support, en masse, of his present colleagues\".",
"Disraeli went to Osborne House on the Isle of Wight, where the Queen asked him to form a government.",
"The monarch wrote to her daughter, Prussian Crown Princess Victoria, \"Mr. Disraeli is Prime Minister!",
"A proud thing for a man 'risen from the people' to have obtained!\"",
"The new Prime Minister told those who came to congratulate him, \"I have climbed to the top of the greasy pole.\"",
"\n\n===First government (February–December 1868)===\nChelmsford, Cairns, Hunt and Manning|alt=Four men, the second of whom wears a wig resembling that of a judge, and the fourth of whom wears clerical clothes\nThe Conservatives remained a minority in the House of Commons and the passage of the Reform Bill required the calling of a new election once the new voting register had been compiled.",
"Disraeli's term as Prime Minister, which began in February 1868, would therefore be short unless the Conservatives won the general election.",
"He made only two major changes in the cabinet: he replaced Lord Chelmsford as Lord Chancellor with Lord Cairns, and brought in George Ward Hunt as Chancellor of the Exchequer.",
"Derby had intended to replace Chelmsford once a vacancy in a suitable sinecure developed.",
"Disraeli was unwilling to wait, and Cairns, in his view, was a far stronger minister.",
"Disraeli's first premiership was dominated by the heated debate over the Church of Ireland.",
"Although Ireland was overwhelmingly Roman Catholic, the Protestant Church remained the established church and was funded by direct taxation, which was greatly resented by the Catholic majority.",
"An initial attempt by Disraeli to negotiate with Archbishop Manning the establishment of a Roman Catholic university in Dublin foundered in March when Gladstone moved resolutions to disestablish the Irish Church altogether.",
"The proposal united the Liberals under Gladstone's leadership, while causing divisions among the Conservatives.",
"The Conservatives remained in office because the new electoral register was not yet ready; neither party wished a poll under the old roll.",
"Gladstone began using the Liberal majority in the House of Commons to push through resolutions and legislation.",
"Disraeli's government survived until the December general election, at which the Liberals were returned to power with a majority of about 110.",
"Despite its short life, the first Disraeli government succeeded in passing a number of pieces of legislation of a politically noncontentious sort.",
"It ended public executions, and the Corrupt Practices Act did much to end electoral bribery.",
"It authorised an early version of nationalisation, having the Post Office buy up the telegraph companies.",
"Amendments to the school law, the Scottish legal system, and the railway laws were passed.",
"Disraeli sent the successful expedition against Tewodros II of Ethiopia under Sir Robert Napier.",
"===Opposition leader; 1874 election===\nDisraeli circa 1870\nWith Gladstone's Liberal majority dominant in the Commons, Disraeli could do little but protest as the government advanced legislation.",
"Accordingly, he chose to await Liberal mistakes.",
"Having leisure time as he was not in office, he wrote a new novel, ''Lothair'' (1870).",
"A work of fiction by a former Prime Minister was a new thing for Britain, and the book became a best seller.",
"By 1872 there was dissent in the Conservative ranks over the failure to challenge Gladstone and his Liberals.",
"This was quieted as Disraeli took steps to assert his leadership of the party, and as divisions among the Liberals became clear.",
"Public support for Disraeli was shown by cheering at a thanksgiving service in 1872 on the recovery of the Prince of Wales from illness, while Gladstone was met with silence.",
"Disraeli had supported the efforts of party manager John Eldon Gorst to put the administration of the Conservative Party on a modern basis.",
"On Gorst's advice, Disraeli gave a speech to a mass meeting in Manchester that year.",
"To roaring approval, he compared the Liberal front bench to \"a range of exhausted volcanoes.",
"Not a flame flickers on a single pallid crest.",
"But the situation is still dangerous.",
"There are occasional earthquakes and ever and again the dark rumbling of the sea.\"",
"Gladstone, Disraeli stated, dominated the scene and \"alternated between a menace and a sigh\".",
"At his first departure from 10 Downing Street in 1868, Disraeli had had Victoria create Mary Anne Viscountess of Beaconsfield in her own right in lieu of a peerage for himself.",
"Through 1872 the eighty-year-old peeress was suffering from stomach cancer.",
"She died on 15 December.",
"Urged by a clergyman to turn her thoughts to Jesus Christ in her final days, she said she could not: \"You know Dizzy is my J.C.\" After she died, Gladstone, who always had a liking for Mary Anne, sent her widower a letter of condolence.",
"In 1873, Gladstone brought forward legislation to establish a Catholic university in Dublin.",
"This divided the Liberals, and on 12 March an alliance of Conservatives and Irish Catholics defeated the government by three votes.",
"Gladstone resigned, and the Queen sent for Disraeli, who refused to take office.",
"Without a general election, a Conservative government would be another minority, dependent for survival on the division of its opponents.",
"Disraeli wanted the power a majority would bring, and felt he could gain it later by leaving the Liberals in office now.",
"Gladstone's government struggled on, beset by scandal and unimproved by a reshuffle.",
"As part of that change, Gladstone took on the office of Chancellor, leading to questions as to whether he had to stand for re-election on taking on a second ministry—until the 1920s, MPs becoming ministers, thus taking an office of profit under the Crown, had to seek re-election.",
"In January 1874, Gladstone called a general election, convinced that if he waited longer, he would do worse at the polls.",
"Balloting was spread over two weeks, beginning on 1 February.",
"Disraeli devoted much of his campaign to decrying the Liberal programme of the past five years.",
"As the constituencies voted, it became clear that the result would be a Conservative majority, the first since 1841.",
"In Scotland, where the Conservatives were perennially weak, they increased from seven seats to nineteen.",
"Overall, they won 350 seats to 245 for the Liberals and 57 for the Irish Home Rule League.",
"The Queen sent for Disraeli, and he became Prime Minister for the second time.",
"\nDerby (top) and Northcote|alt=Two gentlemen; the second has an impressive beard\nDisraeli's cabinet of twelve, with six peers and six commoners, was the smallest since Reform.",
"Of the peers, five of them had been in Disraeli's 1868 cabinet; the sixth, Lord Salisbury, was reconciled to Disraeli after negotiation and became Secretary of State for India.",
"Lord Stanley (who had succeeded his father, the former Prime Minister, as Earl of Derby) became Foreign Secretary and Sir Stafford Northcote the Chancellor.",
"In August 1876, Disraeli was elevated to the House of Lords as Earl of Beaconsfield and Viscount Hughenden.",
"The Queen had offered to ennoble him as early as 1868; he had then declined.",
"She did so again in 1874, when he fell ill at Balmoral, but he was reluctant to leave the Commons for a house in which he had no experience.",
"Continued ill health during his second premiership caused him to contemplate resignation, but his lieutenant, Derby, was unwilling, feeling that he could not manage the Queen.",
"For Disraeli, the Lords, where the debate was less intense, was the alternative to resignation from office.",
"Five days before the end of the 1876 session of Parliament, on 11 August, Disraeli was seen to linger and look around the chamber before departing the Commons.",
"Newspapers reported his ennoblement the following morning.",
"In addition to the viscounty bestowed on Mary Anne Disraeli; the earldom of Beaconsfield was to have been bestowed on Edmund Burke in 1797, but he had died before receiving it.",
"The name Beaconsfield, a town near Hughenden, also was given to a minor character in ''Vivian Grey''.",
"Disraeli made various statements about his elevation, writing to Selina, Lady Bradford on 8 August 1876, \"I am quite tired of that place the Commons\" but when asked by a friend how he liked the Lords, replied, \"I am dead; dead but in the Elysian fields.\"",
"===Domestic policy===\n\n====Reforming legislation====\nUnder the stewardship of Richard Assheton Cross, the Home Secretary, Disraeli's new government enacted many reforms, including the Artisans' and Labourers' Dwellings Improvement Act 1875, which made inexpensive loans available to towns and cities to construct working-class housing.",
"Also enacted were the Public Health Act 1875, modernising sanitary codes through the nation, the Sale of Food and Drugs Act (1875), and the Education Act (1876).",
"Disraeli's government also introduced a new Factory Act meant to protect workers, the Conspiracy, and Protection of Property Act 1875, which allowed peaceful picketing, and the Employers and Workmen Act (1875) to enable workers to sue employers in the civil courts if they broke legal contracts.",
"As a result of these social reforms the Liberal-Labour MP Alexander Macdonald told his constituents in 1879, \"The Conservative party have done more for the working classes in five years than the Liberals have in fifty.\"",
"====Patronage and Civil Service reform====\nDisraeli's failure to appoint Samuel Wilberforce as Bishop of London may have cost him votes in the 1868 election.",
"Gladstone in 1870 had sponsored an Order in Council, introducing competitive examination into the Civil Service, diminishing the political aspects of government hiring.",
"Disraeli did not agree, and while he did not seek to reverse the order, his actions often frustrated its intent.",
"For example, Disraeli made political appointments to positions previously given to career civil servants.",
"In this, he was backed by his party, hungry for office and its emoluments after almost thirty years with only brief spells in government.",
"Disraeli gave positions to hard-up Conservative leaders, even—to Gladstone's outrage—creating one office at £2,000 per year.",
"Nevertheless, Disraeli made fewer peers (only 22, and one of those one of Victoria's sons) than had Gladstone—the Liberal leader had arranged for the bestowal of 37 peerages during his just over five years in office.",
"As he had in government posts, Disraeli rewarded old friends with clerical positions, making Sydney Turner, son of a good friend of Isaac D'Israeli, Dean of Ripon.",
"He favoured Low church clergymen in promotion, disliking other movements in Anglicanism for political reasons.",
"In this, he came into disagreement with the Queen, who out of loyalty to her late husband, Albert, Prince Consort, preferred Broad church teachings.",
"One controversial appointment had occurred shortly before the 1868 election.",
"When the position of Archbishop of Canterbury fell vacant, Disraeli reluctantly agreed to the Queen's preferred candidate, Archibald Tait, the Bishop of London.",
"To fill Tait's vacant see, Disraeli was urged by many people to appoint Samuel Wilberforce, the former Bishop of Winchester and leading figure in London society.",
"Disraeli disliked Wilberforce and instead appointed John Jackson, the Bishop of Lincoln.",
"Blake suggested that, on balance, these appointments cost Disraeli more votes than they gained him.",
"===Foreign policy===\nDisraeli always considered foreign affairs to be the most critical and most interesting part of statesmanship.",
"Nevertheless, his biographer Robert Blake doubts that his subject had specific ideas about foreign policy when he took office in 1874.",
"He had rarely travelled abroad; since his youthful tour of the Middle East in 1830–1831, he had left Britain only for his honeymoon and three visits to Paris, the last of which was in 1856.",
"As he had criticised Gladstone for a do-nothing foreign policy, he most probably contemplated what actions would reassert Britain's place in Europe.",
"His brief first premiership, and the first year of his second, gave him little opportunity to make his mark in foreign affairs.",
"====Suez====\n''New Crowns for Old'' depicts Disraeli as Abanazer from the pantomime ''Aladdin'', offering Victoria an imperial crown in exchange for a royal one.Disraeli cultivated a public image of himself as an Imperialist with grand gestures such as conferring on Queen Victoria the title \"Empress of India\".|alt=See caption\n\nThe Suez Canal, opened in 1869, cut weeks and thousands of miles off the journey between Britain and India; in 1875, approximately 80% of the ships using the canal were British.",
"In the event of another rebellion in India, or of a Russian invasion, the time saved at Suez might be crucial.",
"Built by French interests, much of the ownership and bonds in the canal remained in their hands, though some of the stock belonged to Isma'il Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt, who was noted for his profligate spending.",
"The canal was losing money, and an attempt by Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the canal, to raise the tolls had fallen through when the Khedive had threatened to use military force to prevent it, and had also attracted Disraeli's attention.",
"The Khedive governed Egypt under the Ottoman Empire; as in the Crimea, the issue of the Canal raised the Eastern Question of what to do about the decaying empire governed from Constantinople.",
"With much of the pre-canal trade and communications between Britain and India passing through the Ottoman Empire, Britain had done its best to prop up the Ottomans against the threat that Russia would take Constantinople, cutting those communications, and giving Russian ships unfettered access to the Mediterranean.",
"The French might also threaten those lines from colonies in Syria.",
"Britain had had the opportunity to purchase shares in the canal but had declined to do so.",
"Disraeli had passed near Suez in his tour of the Middle East in his youth, and on taking office, recognising the British interest in the canal as a gateway to India, he sent the Liberal MP Nathan Rothschild to Paris to enquire about buying de Lesseps's shares.",
"On 14 November 1875, the editor of the ''Pall Mall Gazette'', Frederick Greenwood, learned from London banker Henry Oppenheim that the Khedive was seeking to sell his shares in the Suez Canal Company to a French firm.",
"Greenwood quickly told Lord Derby, the Foreign Secretary, who notified Disraeli.",
"The Prime Minister moved immediately to secure the shares.",
"On 23 November, the Khedive offered to sell the shares for 100,000,000 francs.",
"Rothschild did so and controversially took a commission on the deal.",
"The banker's capital was at risk as Parliament could have refused to ratify the transaction.",
"The contract for purchase was signed at Cairo on 25 November and the shares deposited at the British consulate the following day.",
"Disraeli told the Queen, \"it is settled; you have it, madam!\"",
"The public saw the venture as a daring British statement of its dominance of the seas.",
"Sir Ian Malcolm described the Suez Canal share purchase as \"the greatest romance of Mr. Disraeli's romantic career\".",
"In the following decades, the security of the Suez Canal, as the pathway to India, became a major focus of British foreign policy.",
"A later Foreign Secretary, Lord Curzon, described the canal in 1909 as \"the determining influence of every considerable movement of British power to the east and south of the Mediterranean\".",
"====Royal Titles Act====\n\nAlthough initially curious about Disraeli when he entered Parliament in 1837, Victoria came to detest him over his treatment of Peel.",
"Over time, her dislike softened, especially as Disraeli took pains to cultivate her.",
"He told Matthew Arnold, \"Everybody likes flattery; and, when you come to royalty, you should lay it on with a trowel\".",
"Disraeli's biographer, Adam Kirsch, suggests that Disraeli's obsequious treatment of his queen was part flattery, part belief that this was how a queen should be addressed by a loyal subject, and part awe that a middle-class man of Jewish birth should be the companion of a monarch.",
"By the time of his second premiership, Disraeli had built a strong relationship with Victoria, probably closer to her than any of her Prime Ministers except her first, Lord Melbourne.",
"When Disraeli returned as Prime Minister in 1874 and went to kiss hands, he did so literally, on one knee; and, according to Richard Aldous in his book on the rivalry between Disraeli and Gladstone, \"for the next six years Victoria and Disraeli would exploit their closeness for mutual advantage.\"",
"Victoria had long wished to have an imperial title, reflecting Britain's expanding domain.",
"She was irked when Czar Alexander II held a higher rank than her as an emperor, and was appalled that her daughter, the Prussian Crown Princess, would outrank her when her husband came to the throne.",
"She also saw an imperial title as proclaiming Britain's increased stature in the world.",
"The title \"Empress of India\" had been used informally with respect to Victoria for some time and she wished to have that title formally bestowed on her.",
"The Queen prevailed upon Disraeli to introduce a Royal Titles Bill, and also told of her intent to open Parliament in person, which during this time she did only when she wanted something from legislators.",
"Disraeli was cautious in response, as careful soundings of MPs brought a negative reaction, and declined to place such a proposal in the Queen's Speech.",
"Once the desired bill was prepared, Disraeli's handling of it was not adept.",
"He neglected to notify either the Prince of Wales or the opposition, and was met by irritation from the prince and a full-scale attack from the Liberals.",
"An old enemy of Disraeli, former Liberal Chancellor Robert Lowe, alleged during the debate in the Commons that two previous Prime Ministers had refused to introduce such legislation for the Queen.",
"Gladstone immediately stated that he was not one of them, and the Queen gave Disraeli leave to quote her saying she had never approached a Prime Minister with such a proposal.",
"According to Blake, Disraeli \"in a brilliant oration of withering invective proceeded to destroy Lowe\", who apologised and never held office again.",
"Disraeli said of Lowe that he was the only person in London with whom he would not shake hands and, \"he is in the mud and there I leave him.\"",
"Fearful of losing, Disraeli was reluctant to bring the bill to a vote in the Commons, but when he eventually did, it passed with a majority of 75.",
"Once the bill was formally enacted, Victoria began signing her letters \"Victoria R & I\" (''Regina et Imperatrix'', that is, Queen and Empress).",
"According to Aldous, \"the unpopular Royal Titles Act, however, shattered Disraeli's authority in the House of Commons\".",
"====Balkans and Bulgaria====\nRusso-Turkish War of 1877–78\nIn July 1875 Serb populations in Bosnia and Herzegovina, then provinces of the Ottoman Empire, rose in revolt against their Turkish masters, alleging religious persecution and poor administration.",
"The following January, Sultan Abdülaziz agreed to reforms proposed by Hungarian statesman Julius Andrássy, but the rebels, suspecting they might win their freedom, continued their uprising, joined by militants in Serbia and Bulgaria.",
"The Turks suppressed the Bulgarian uprising harshly, and when reports of these actions escaped, Disraeli and Derby stated in Parliament that they did not believe them.",
"Disraeli called them \"coffee-house babble\" and dismissed allegations of torture by the Ottomans since \"Oriental people usually terminate their connections with culprits in a more expeditious fashion\".",
"Gladstone, who had left the Liberal leadership and retired from public life, was appalled by reports of atrocities in Bulgaria, and in August 1876, penned a hastily written pamphlet arguing that the Turks should be deprived of Bulgaria because of what they had done there.",
"He sent a copy to Disraeli, who called it \"vindictive and ill-written ... of all the Bulgarian horrors perhaps the greatest\".",
"Gladstone's pamphlet became an immense best-seller and rallied the Liberals to urge that the Ottoman Empire should no longer be a British ally.",
"Disraeli wrote to Lord Salisbury on 3 September, \"Had it not been for these unhappy 'atrocities', we should have settled a peace very honourable to England and satisfactory to Europe.",
"Now we are obliged to work from a new point of departure, and dictate to Turkey, who has forfeited all sympathy.\"",
"In spite of this, Disraeli's policy favoured Constantinople and the territorial integrity of its empire.",
"International delegates at the Constantinople Conference: clockwise from top left, Saffet Pasha (Turkey), General Ignatieff (Russia), Lord Salisbury (Britain) and the Comte de Chaudordy (France)|alt=Four men\nDisraeli and the cabinet sent Salisbury as lead British representative to the Constantinople Conference, which met in December 1876 and January 1877.",
"In advance of the conference, Disraeli sent Salisbury private word to seek British military occupation of Bulgaria and Bosnia, and British control of the Ottoman Army.",
"Salisbury ignored these instructions, which his biographer, Andrew Roberts deemed \"ludicrous\".",
"Nevertheless, the conference failed to reach agreement with the Turks.",
"Parliament opened in February 1877, with Disraeli now in the Lords as Earl of Beaconsfield.",
"He spoke only once there in the 1877 session on the Eastern Question, stating on 20 February that there was a need for stability in the Balkans, and that forcing Turkey into territorial concessions would do nothing to secure it.",
"The Prime Minister wanted a deal with the Ottomans whereby Britain would temporarily occupy strategic areas to deter the Russians from war, to be returned on the signing of a peace treaty, but found little support in his cabinet, which favoured partition of the Ottoman Empire.",
"As Disraeli, by then in poor health, continued to battle within the cabinet, Russia invaded Turkey on 21 April, beginning the Russo-Turkish War.",
"====Congress of Berlin====\n\n\nThe Russians pushed through Ottoman territory and by December 1877 had captured the strategic Bulgarian town of Plevna; their march on Constantinople seemed inevitable.",
"The war divided the British, but the Russian success caused some to forget the atrocities and call for intervention on the Turkish side.",
"Others hoped for further Russian successes.",
"The fall of Plevna was a major story for weeks in the newspapers, and Disraeli's warnings that Russia was a threat to British interests in the eastern Mediterranean were deemed prophetic.",
"The jingoistic attitude of many Britons increased Disraeli's political support, and the Queen acted to help him as well, showing her favour by visiting him at Hughenden—the first time she had visited the country home of her Prime Minister since the Melbourne ministry.",
"At the end of January 1878, the Ottoman Sultan appealed to Britain to save Constantinople.",
"Amid war fever in Britain, the government asked Parliament to vote £6,000,000 to prepare the Army and Navy for war.",
"Gladstone, who had involved himself again in politics, opposed the measure, but less than half his party voted with him.",
"Popular opinion was with Disraeli, though some thought him too soft for not immediately declaring war on Russia.",
"alt=A map.",
"See description\nWith the Russians close to Constantinople, the Turks yielded and in March 1878, signed the Treaty of San Stefano, conceding a Bulgarian state which would cover a large part of the Balkans.",
"It would be initially Russian-occupied and many feared that it would give them a client state close to Constantinople.",
"Other Ottoman possessions in Europe would become independent; additional territory was to be ceded directly to Russia.",
"This was unacceptable to the British, who protested, hoping to get the Russians to agree to attend an international conference which German Chancellor Bismarck proposed to hold at Berlin.",
"The cabinet discussed Disraeli's proposal to position Indian troops at Malta for possible transit to the Balkans and call out reserves.",
"Derby resigned in protest, and Disraeli appointed Salisbury as Foreign Secretary.",
"Amid British preparations for war, the Russians and Turks agreed to discussions at Berlin.",
"In advance of the meeting, confidential negotiations took place between Britain and Russia in April and May 1878.",
"The Russians were willing to make changes to the big Bulgaria, but were determined to retain their new possessions, Bessarabia in Europe and Batum and Kars on the east coast of the Black Sea.",
"To counterbalance this, Britain required a possession in the Eastern Mediterranean where it might base ships and troops, and negotiated with the Ottomans for the cession of Cyprus.",
"Once this was secretly agreed, Disraeli was prepared to allow Russia's territorial gains.",
"Disraeli (right) and Salisbury as Knights of the Garter, portrayed by alt=See caption\nThe Congress of Berlin was held in June and July 1878, the central relationship in it that between Disraeli and Bismarck.",
"In later years, the German chancellor would show visitors to his office three pictures on the wall: \"the portrait of my Sovereign, there on the right that of my wife, and on the left, there, that of Lord Beaconsfield\".",
"Disraeli caused an uproar in the congress by making his opening address in English, rather than in French, hitherto accepted as the international language of diplomacy.",
"By one account, the British ambassador in Berlin, Lord Odo Russell, hoping to spare the delegates Disraeli's awful French accent, told Disraeli that the congress was hoping to hear a speech in the English tongue by one of its masters.",
"Disraeli left much of the detailed work to Salisbury, concentrating his efforts on making it as difficult as possible for the broken-up big Bulgaria to reunite.",
"Disraeli did not have things all his own way: he intended that Batum be demilitarised, but the Russians obtained their preferred language, and in 1886, fortified the town.",
"Nevertheless, the Cyprus Convention ceding the island to Britain was announced during the congress, and again made Disraeli a sensation.",
"Disraeli gained agreement that Turkey should retain enough of its European possessions to safeguard the Dardanelles.",
"By one account, when met with Russian intransigence, Disraeli told his secretary to order a special train to return them home to begin the war.",
"Although Russia yielded, Czar Alexander II later described the congress as \"a European coalition against Russia, under Bismarck\".",
"The Treaty of Berlin was signed on 13 July 1878 at the Radziwill Palace in Berlin.",
"Disraeli and Salisbury returned home to heroes' receptions at Dover and in London.",
"At the door of 10 Downing Street, Disraeli received flowers sent by the Queen.",
"There, he told the gathered crowd, \"Lord Salisbury and I have brought you back peace—but a peace I hope with honour.\"",
"The Queen offered him a dukedom, which he declined, though accepting the Garter, as long as Salisbury also received it.",
"In Berlin, word spread of Bismarck's admiring description of Disraeli, \"''Der alte Jude, das ist der Mann!''",
"\"\n\n====Afghanistan to Zululand====\n\n\nIsandlwana, the worst defeat against a technologically inferior indigenous force.",
"In the weeks after Berlin, Disraeli and the cabinet considered calling a general election to capitalise on the public applause he and Salisbury had received.",
"Parliaments were then for a seven-year term, and it was the custom not to go to the country until the sixth year unless forced to by events.",
"Only four and a half years had passed since the last general election.",
"Additionally, they did not see any clouds on the horizon that might forecast Conservative defeat if they waited.",
"This decision not to seek re-election has often been cited as a great mistake by Disraeli.",
"Blake, however, pointed out that results in local elections had been moving against the Conservatives, and doubted if Disraeli missed any great opportunity by waiting.",
"As successful invasions of India generally came through Afghanistan, the British had observed and sometimes intervened there since the 1830s, hoping to keep the Russians out.",
"In 1878 the Russians sent a mission to Kabul; it was not rejected by the Afghans, as the British had hoped.",
"The British then proposed to send their own mission, insisting that the Russians be sent away.",
"The Viceroy, Lord Lytton, concealed his plans to issue this ultimatum from Disraeli, and when the Prime Minister insisted he take no action, went ahead anyway.",
"When the Afghans made no answer, the British advanced against them in the Second Anglo-Afghan War, and under Lord Roberts easily defeated them.",
"The British installed a new ruler, and left a mission and garrison in Kabul.",
"British policy in South Africa was to encourage federation between the British-run Cape Colony and Natal, and the Boer republics, the Transvaal (annexed by Britain in 1877) and the Orange Free State.",
"The governor of Cape Colony, Sir Bartle Frere, believing that the federation could not be accomplished until the native tribes acknowledged British rule, made demands on the Zulu and their king, Cetewayo, which they were certain to reject.",
"As Zulu troops could not marry until they had washed their spears in blood, they were eager for combat.",
"Frere did not send word to the cabinet of what he had done until the ultimatum was about to expire.",
"Disraeli and the cabinet reluctantly backed him, and in early January 1879 resolved to send reinforcements.",
"Before they could arrive, on 22 January, a Zulu ''impi'', or army, moving with great speed and stealth, ambushed and destroyed a British encampment in South Africa in the Battle of Isandlwana.",
"Over a thousand British and colonial troops were killed.",
"Word of the defeat did not reach London until 12 February.",
"Disraeli wrote the next day, \"the terrible disaster has shaken me to the centre\".",
"He reprimanded Frere, but left him in charge, attracting fire from all sides.",
"Disraeli sent General Sir Garnet Wolseley as High Commissioner and Commander in Chief, and Cetewayo and the Zulus were crushed at the Battle of Ulundi on 4 July 1879.",
"On 8 September 1879 Sir Louis Cavagnari, in charge of the mission in Kabul, was killed with his entire staff by rebelling Afghan soldiers.",
"Roberts undertook a successful punitive expedition against the Afghans over the next six weeks.",
"Portrait of Disraeli published in 1873\n\n===1880 election===\n\nGladstone, in the 1874 election, had been returned for Greenwich, finishing second behind a Conservative in the two-member constituency, a result he termed more like a defeat than a victory.",
"In December 1878, he was offered the Liberal nomination at the next election for Edinburghshire, a constituency popularly known as Midlothian.",
"The small Scottish electorate was dominated by two noblemen, the Conservative Duke of Buccleuch and the Liberal Earl of Rosebery.",
"The Earl, a friend of both Disraeli and Gladstone who would succeed the latter after his final term as Prime Minister, had journeyed to the United States to view politics there, and was convinced that aspects of American electioneering could be translated to the United Kingdom.",
"On his advice, Gladstone accepted the offer in January 1879, and later that year began his Midlothian campaign, speaking not only in Edinburgh, but across Britain, attacking Disraeli, to huge crowds.",
"Conservative chances of re-election were damaged by the poor weather, and consequent effects on agriculture.",
"Four consecutive wet summers through 1879 had led to poor harvests in the United Kingdom.",
"In the past, the farmer had the consolation of higher prices at such times, but with bumper crops cheaply transported from the United States, grain prices remained low.",
"Other European nations, faced with similar circumstances, opted for protection, and Disraeli was urged to reinstitute the Corn Laws.",
"He declined, stating that he regarded the matter as settled.",
"Protection would have been highly unpopular among the newly enfranchised urban working classes, as it would raise their cost of living.",
"Amid an economic slump generally, the Conservatives lost support among farmers.",
"Disraeli's health continued to fail through 1879.",
"Owing to his infirmities, Disraeli was three-quarters of an hour late for the Lord Mayor's Dinner at the Guildhall in November, at which it is customary that the Prime Minister speaks.",
"Though many commented on how healthy he looked, it took him great effort to appear so, and when he told the audience he expected to speak to the dinner again the following year, attendees chuckled—Gladstone was then in the midst of his campaign.",
"Despite his public confidence, Disraeli recognised that the Conservatives would probably lose the next election, and was already contemplating his Resignation Honours.",
"Despite this pessimism, Conservatives hopes were buoyed in early 1880 with successes in by-elections the Liberals had expected to win, concluding with victory in Southwark, normally a Liberal stronghold.",
"The cabinet had resolved to wait before dissolving Parliament; in early March they reconsidered, agreeing to go to the country as soon as possible.",
"Parliament was dissolved on 24 March; the first borough constituencies began voting a week later.",
"Disraeli took no public part in the electioneering, it being deemed improper for peers to make speeches to influence Commons elections.",
"This meant that the chief Conservatives—Disraeli, Salisbury, and India Secretary Lord Cranbrook—would not be heard from.",
"The election was thought likely to be close.",
"Once returns began to be announced, it became clear that the Conservatives were being decisively beaten.",
"The final result gave the Liberals an absolute majority of about 50.",
"Disraeli refused to cast blame for the defeat, which he understood was likely to be final for him.",
"He wrote to Lady Bradford that it was just as much work to end a government as to form one, without any of the fun.",
"Queen Victoria was bitter at his departure as Prime Minister.",
"Among the honours he arranged before resigning as Prime Minister on 21 April 1880 was one for his private secretary, Montagu Corry, who became Baron Rowton.",
"Returning to Hughenden, Disraeli brooded over his electoral dismissal, but also resumed work on ''Endymion'', which he had begun in 1872 and laid aside before the 1874 election.",
"The work was rapidly completed and published by November 1880.",
"He carried on a correspondence with Victoria, with letters passed through intermediaries.",
"When Parliament met in January 1881, he served as Conservative leader in the Lords, attempting to serve as a moderating influence on Gladstone's legislation.",
"Suffering from asthma and gout, Disraeli went out as little as possible, fearing more serious episodes of illness.",
"In March, he fell ill with bronchitis, and emerged from bed only for a meeting with Salisbury and other Conservative leaders on the 26th.",
"As it became clear that this might be his final sickness, friends and opponents alike came to call.",
"Disraeli declined a visit from the Queen, saying, \"She would only ask me to take a message to Albert.\"",
"Almost blind, when he received the last letter from Victoria of which he was aware on 5 April, he held it momentarily, then had it read to him by Lord Barrington, a Privy Councillor.",
"One card, signed \"A Workman\", delighted its recipient, \"Don't die yet, we can't do without you.\"",
"Despite the gravity of Disraeli's condition, the doctors concocted optimistic bulletins, for public consumption.",
"The Prime Minister, Gladstone, called several times to enquire about his rival's condition, and wrote in his diary, \"May the Almighty be near his pillow.\"",
"There was intense public interest in the former Prime Minister's struggles for life.",
"Disraeli had customarily taken the sacrament at Easter; when this day was observed on 17 April, there was discussion among his friends and family if he should be given the opportunity, but those against, fearing that he would lose hope, prevailed.",
"On the morning of the following day, Easter Monday, he became incoherent, then comatose.",
"Disraeli's last confirmed words before dying in the early morning of 19 April were \"I had rather live but I am not afraid to die\".",
"The anniversary of Disraeli's death is now commemorated in the United Kingdom as Primrose Day.",
"Disraeli's executors decided against a public procession and funeral, fearing that too large crowds would gather to do him honour.",
"The chief mourners at the service at Hughenden on 26 April were his brother Ralph and nephew Coningsby, to whom Hughenden would eventually pass.",
"Queen Victoria was prostrated with grief, and considered ennobling Ralph or Coningsby as a memorial to Disraeli (without children, his titles became extinct with his death) but decided against it on the ground that their means were too small for a peerage.",
"Protocol forbade her attending Disraeli's funeral (this would not be changed until 1965, when Elizabeth II attended the rites for the former Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill) but she sent primroses (\"his favourite flowers\") to the funeral, and visited the burial vault to place a wreath of china blooms four days later.",
"Statue of Disraeli in Parliament Square, London|alt=A statue on a podium\nDisraeli is buried with his wife in a vault beneath the Church of St Michael and All Angels which stands in the grounds of his home, Hughenden Manor, accessed from the churchyard.",
"There is also a memorial to him in the chancel in the church, erected in his honour by Queen Victoria.",
"His literary executor was his private secretary, Lord Rowton.",
"The Disraeli vault also contains the body of Sarah Brydges Willyams, the wife of James Brydges Willyams of St Mawgan in Cornwall.",
"Disraeli carried on a long correspondence with Mrs. Willyams, writing frankly about political affairs.",
"At her death in 1865, she left him a large legacy, which helped clear up his debts.",
"His will was proved at £84,000.",
"Disraeli has a memorial in Westminster Abbey.",
"This monument was erected by the nation on the motion of Gladstone in his memorial speech on Disraeli in the House of Commons.",
"Gladstone had absented himself from the funeral, with his plea of the press of public business met with public mockery.",
"His speech was widely anticipated, if only because his dislike for Disraeli was well known, and caused the Prime Minister much worry.",
"In the event, the speech was a model of its kind, in which he avoided comment on Disraeli's politics, while praising his personal qualities.",
"Disraeli's literary and political career interacted over his lifetime and fascinated Victorian Britain, making him \"one of the most eminent figures in Victorian public life\", and occasioned a large output of commentary.",
"Critic Shane Leslie noted three decades after his death that \"Disraeli's career was a romance such as no Eastern vizier or Western plutocrat could tell.",
"He began as a pioneer in dress and an aesthete of words.... Disraeli actually made his novels come true.\"",
"===Literary===\nSybil'' (1845)|alt=The cover of a book, entitled \"Sybil; or, the Two Nations\"\nBlake comments that Disraeli \"produced an epic poem, unbelievably bad, and a five-act blank verse tragedy, if possible worse.",
"Further he wrote a discourse on political theory and a political biography, the ''Life of Lord George Bentinck'', which is excellent ... remarkably fair and accurate.\"",
"But it is on his novels that Disraeli's literary achievements are generally judged.",
"They have from the outset divided critical opinion.",
"The writer R. W. Stewart observed that there have always been two criteria for judging Disraeli's novels—one political and the other artistic.",
"The critic Robert O'Kell, concurring, writes, \"It is after all, even if you are a Tory of the staunchest blue, impossible to make Disraeli into a first-rate novelist.",
"And it is equally impossible, no matter how much you deplore the extravagances and improprieties of his works, to make him into an insignificant one.\"",
"Disraeli's early \"silver fork\" novels ''Vivian Grey'' (1826) and ''The Young Duke'' (1831) featured romanticised depictions of aristocratic life (despite his ignorance of it) with character sketches of well-known public figures lightly disguised.",
"In some of his early fiction Disraeli also portrayed himself and what he felt to be his Byronic dual nature: the poet and the man of action.",
"His most autobiographical novel was ''Contarini Fleming'' (1832), an avowedly serious work that did not sell well.",
"The critic William Kuhn suggests that Disraeli's fiction can be read as \"the memoirs he never wrote\", revealing the inner life of a politician for whom the norms of Victorian public life appeared to represent a social straitjacket—particularly with regard to what Kuhn sees as the author's \"ambiguous sexuality\".",
"Of the other novels of the early 1830s, ''Alroy'' is described by Blake as \"profitable but unreadable\", and ''The Rise of Iskander'' (1833), ''The Infernal Marriage'' and ''Ixion in Heaven'' (1834) made little impact.",
"''Henrietta Temple'' (1837) was Disraeli's next major success.",
"It draws on the events of his affair with Henrietta Sykes to tell the story of a debt-ridden young man torn between a mercenary loveless marriage and a passionate love-at-first-sight for the eponymous heroine.",
"''Venetia'' (1837) was a minor work, written to raise much-needed cash.",
"In the 1840s Disraeli wrote a trilogy of novels with political themes.",
"With ''Coningsby; or, The New Generation'' (1844), Disraeli, in Blake's view, \"infused the novel genre with political sensibility, espousing the belief that England's future as a world power depended not on the complacent old guard, but on youthful, idealistic politicians.\"",
"''Coningsby'' was followed by ''Sybil; or, The Two Nations'' (1845), another political novel, which was less idealistic and more clear-eyed than ''Coningsby''; the \"two nations\" of its sub-title referred to the huge economic and social gap between the privileged few and the deprived working classes.",
"The last in Disraeli's political novel trilogy was ''Tancred; or, The New Crusade'' (1847), promoting the Church of England's role in reviving Britain's flagging spirituality.",
"Disraeli's last completed novels were ''Lothair'' (1870) and ''Endymion'' (1880).",
"The first, described by Daniel R Schwarz as \"Disraeli's ideological ''Pilgrim's Progress''\", is a story of political life with particular regard to the roles of the Anglican and Roman Catholic churches.",
"''Endymion'', despite having a Whig as hero, is a last exposition of the author's economic policies and political beliefs.",
"Disraeli continued to the last to pillory his enemies in barely disguised caricatures: the character St Barbe in ''Endymion'' is widely seen as a parody of Thackeray, who had offended Disraeli more than thirty years earlier by lampooning him in ''Punch'' as \"Codlingsby\".",
"Disraeli left an unfinished novel in which the priggish central character, Falconet, is unmistakably a caricature of Gladstone.",
"===Political===\nIn the years after Disraeli's death, as Salisbury began his reign of more than twenty years over the Conservatives, the party emphasised the late leader's \"One Nation\" views, that the Conservatives at root shared the beliefs of the working classes, with the Liberals the party of the urban élite.",
"Disraeli had, for example, stressed the need to improve the lot of the urban labourer.",
"The memory of Disraeli was used by the Conservatives to appeal to the working classes, with whom he was said to have had a rapport.",
"This aspect of his policies has been re-evaluated by historians in the 20th and 21st centuries.",
"In 1972 BHAbbott stressed that it was not Disraeli but Lord Randolph Churchill who invented the term \"Tory democracy\", though it was Disraeli who made it an essential part of Conservative policy and philosophy.",
"In 2007 Parry wrote, \"The tory democrat myth did not survive detailed scrutiny by professional historical writing of the 1960s which demonstrated that Disraeli had very little interest in a programme of social legislation and was very flexible in handling parliamentary reform in 1867.\"",
"Despite this, Parry sees Disraeli, rather than Peel, as the founder of the modern Conservative party.",
"The Conservative politician and writer Douglas Hurd wrote in 2013, \"Disraeli was not a one-nation Conservative—and this was not simply because he never used the phrase.",
"He rejected the concept in its entirety.\"",
"Disraeli's enthusiastic propagation of the British Empire has also been seen as appealing to working class voters.",
"Before his leadership of the Conservative Party, imperialism was the province of the Liberals, most notably Palmerston, with the Conservatives murmuring dissent across the aisle.",
"Disraeli made the Conservatives the party that most loudly supported both the Empire and military action to assert its primacy.",
"This came about in part because Disraeli's own views stemmed that way, in part because he saw advantage for the Conservatives, and partially in reaction against Gladstone, who disliked the expense of empire.",
"Blake argued that Disraeli's imperialism \"decisively orientated the Conservative party for many years to come, and the tradition which he started was probably a bigger electoral asset in winning working-class support during the last quarter of the century than anything else\".",
"Some historians have commented on a romantic impulse behind Disraeli's approach to Empire and foreign affairs: Abbott writes, \"To the mystical Tory concepts of Throne, Church, Aristocracy and People, Disraeli added Empire.\"",
"Others have identified a strongly pragmatic aspect to his policies.",
"Gladstone's biographer Philip Magnus contrasted Disraeli's grasp of foreign affairs with that of Gladstone, who \"never understood that high moral principles, in their application to foreign policy, are more often destructive of political stability than motives of national self-interest.\"",
"In Parry's view, Disraeli's foreign policy \"can be seen as a gigantic castle in the air (as it was by Gladstone), or as an overdue attempt to force the British commercial classes to awaken to the realities of European politics.\"",
"During his lifetime Disraeli's opponents, and sometimes even his friends and allies, questioned whether he sincerely held the views he propounded, or whether they were adopted by him as essential to one who sought to spend his life in politics, and were mouthed by him without conviction.",
"Lord John Manners, in 1843 at the time of Young England, wrote, \"could I only satisfy myself that D'Israeli believed all that he said, I should be more happy: his historical views are quite mine, but does he believe them?\"",
"Blake (writing in 1966) suggested that it is no more possible to answer that question now than it was then.",
"Nevertheless, Paul Smith, in his journal article on Disraeli's politics, argues that Disraeli's ideas were coherently argued over a political career of nearly half a century, and \"it is impossible to sweep them aside as a mere bag of burglar's tools for effecting felonious entry to the British political pantheon.\"",
"Stanley Weintraub, in his biography of Disraeli, points out that his subject did much to advance Britain towards the 20th century, carrying one of the two great Reform Acts of the 19th despite the opposition of his Liberal rival, Gladstone.",
"\"He helped preserve constitutional monarchy by drawing the Queen out of mourning into a new symbolic national role and created the climate for what became 'Tory democracy'.",
"He articulated an imperial role for Britain that would last into World War II and brought an intermittently self-isolated Britain into the concert of Europe.\"",
"Frances Walsh comments on Disraeli's multifaceted public life:\nThe debate about his place in the Conservative pantheon has continued since his death.",
"Disraeli fascinated and divided contemporary opinion; he was seen by many, including some members of his own party, as an adventurer and a charlatan and by others as a far-sighted and patriotic statesman.",
"As an actor on the political stage he played many roles: Byronic hero, man of letters, social critic, parliamentary virtuoso, squire of Hughenden, royal companion, European statesman.",
"His singular and complex personality has provided historians and biographers with a particularly stiff challenge.",
"Historical writers have often played Disraeli and Gladstone against each other as great rivals.",
"Roland Quinault, however, cautions us not to exaggerate the confrontation:they were not direct antagonists for most of their political careers.",
"Indeed initially they were both loyal to the Tory party, the Church and the landed interest.",
"Although their paths diverged over the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 and later over fiscal policy more generally, it was not until the later 1860s that their differences over parliamentary reform, Irish and Church policy assumed great partisan significance.",
"Even then their personal relations remained fairly cordial until their dispute over the Eastern Question in the later 1870s.",
"===Cartoons, 1846–86===\n\nFile:Fall of caesar.jpg|alt=A depiction of the murder of Julius Caesar, with Robert Peel portrayed as Caesar, and British political rivals depicted as his assassins|Peel shown as Julius Caesar surrounded by his assassins, with Disraeli on the left, 1846\nFile:Cartoon-The-Dispatch-of-Business\".jpg|alt=A caricature showing Gladstone on a donkey, marked \"reform\", being held back by Disraeli and a working-class man, who are holding the donkey's tail|Gladstone on donkey representing reform is held back by Disraeli aided by the English Working Man, 1866\nFile:Dishing-the-Whigs-1867.jpeg|alt=Disraeli and Derby, caricatured as chefs, set a dish before Queen Victoria.",
"On the outside of the dish are the names of Conservative parliamentary bils; within are the faces of Liberal politicians|Derby and Disraeli outflank and \"dish\" their opponents, 1867\n\n\n\nFile:Dizzy-Gladstone-Box-and-Cox.jpg|alt=A parody of \"Cox and Box\"; Gladstone (Cox) challenges Disraeli (Box) to a fight.|Disraeli and Gladstone as Box and Cox, 1870\nFile:Alice guard.jpg|alt=An illustration from \"Through the Looking Glass\", featuring the man in white paper, who is based on Disraeli|Disraeli as the man in white paper in ''Through the Looking-Glass'', 1871\nFile:Disraell's-ghost-lord-randolph-churchill.jpg|alt=Randolph Churchill stands with a look of pride; behind him a tall, ghostly Disraeli stands, also looking proud|Disraeli's ghost overshadowing Lord Randolph Churchill, 1886\n\n===Depiction in 19th and early 20th century culture===\nLobby card 1929\nHistorian Michael Diamond reports that for British music hall patrons in the 1880s and 1890s, \"xenophobia and pride in empire\" were reflected in the halls' most popular political heroes: all were Conservatives and Disraeli stood out above all, even decades after his death, while Gladstone was used as a villain.",
"Film historian Roy Armes has argued that historical films helped maintain the political status quo in Britain in the 1920s and 1930s by imposing an establishment viewpoint that emphasized the greatness of monarchy, empire, and tradition.",
"The films created \"a facsimile world where existing values were invariably validated by events in the film and where all discord could be turned into harmony by an acceptance of the status quo.\"",
"Steven Fielding has argued that Disraeli was an especially popular film hero: \"historical dramas favoured Disraeli over Gladstone and, more substantively, promulgated an essentially deferential view of democratic leadership.\"",
"Stage and screen actor George Arliss was known for his portrayals of Disraeli, winning the Oscar as best actor for 1929's ''Disraeli''.",
"Fielding says Arliss \"personified the kind of paternalistic, kindly, homely statesmanship that appealed to a significant proportion of the cinema audience....Even workers attending Labour party meetings deferred to leaders with an elevated social background who showed they cared.\".",
"Major productions featuring Disraeli include:\nDisraeli (1911, UK theatre) - Played by George Arliss;\nDisraeli (1916, UK film) - Played by Dennis Eadie;\nDisraeli (1921, US film) - Played by George Arliss;\nDisraeli (1929, US film) - Played by George Arliss;\nVictoria the Great (UK, 1937) - Played by Derrick De Marney (in youth)/ Hugh Miller (older age);\nSuez (US, 1938) - Played by Miles Mander;\nThe Prime Minister (UK, 1941) - Played by Sir John Gielgud;\nMr. Gladstone (UK-Television, 1947) - Played by Sydney Tafler;\nThe Ghosts of Berkeley Square (UK, 1947) - Played by Abraham Sofaer;\nThe Mudlark (US, 1950) - Played by Sir Alec Guinness",
"\n\n===Novels===\n* ''Vivian Grey'' (1826)\n* ''Popanilla'' (1828)\n* ''The Young Duke'' (1831)\n* ''Contarini Fleming'' (1832)\n* ''Ixion in Heaven'' (1832/3)\n* ''The Wondrous Tale of Alroy'' (1833)\n* ''The Rise of Iskander'' (1833)\n* ''The Infernal Marriage'' (1834)\n* ''Henrietta Temple'' (1837)\n* ''Venetia'' (1837)\n* ''Coningsby, or the New Generation'' (1844)\n* ''Sybil, or The Two Nations'' (1845)\n* ''Tancred, or the New Crusade'' (1847)\n* ''Lothair'' (1870)\n* ''Endymion'' (1880)\n* ''Falconet'' (unfinished 1881)\n\n=== Poetry ===\n* ''The Revolutionary Epick'' (1834)\n\n=== Drama ===\n* ''The Tragedy of Count Alarcos'' (1839)\n\n===Non-fiction===\n* ''An Inquiry into the Plans, Progress, and Policy of the American Mining Companies'' (1825)\n* ''Lawyers and Legislators: or, Notes, on the American Mining Companies'' (1825)\n* ''The present state of Mexico'' (1825)\n* ''England and France, or a Cure for the Ministerial Gallomania'' (1832)\n* ''What Is He?''",
"(1833)\n* ''The Vindication of the English Constitution'' (1835)\n* ''The Letters of Runnymede'' (1836)\n* ''Lord George Bentinck'' (1852)",
"\n'''Notes'''\n\n'''References'''",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Text also available online at Oxford Dictionary of National Biography\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*",
"\n* \n* Bright, J. Franck.",
"''A History Of England.",
"Period 4: Growth Of Democracy: Victoria 1837-1880'' (1893) online 608pp; highly detailed political narrative\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Monypenny, William Flavelle and George Earle Buckle, ''The Life of Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield'' (2 vol.",
"London: John Murray, 1929), a famous classic; contains vol 1-4 and vol 5-6 of the original edition ''Life of Benjamin Disraeli'' volume 1 1804-1837, Volume 2 1837-1846, Volume 3 1846-1855, Volume 4 1855-1868, Volume 5 1868-1876, Volume 6 1876-1881.",
"Vol 1 to 6 are available free from Google books: vol 1; vol 2; vol 3; vol 4; vol 5; and vol 6 \n* \n* looks at close links between his fiction and his politics.",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n\n===Historiography===\n* St. John, Ian.",
"''The Historiography of Gladstone and Disraeli'' (Anthem Press, 2016) 402 pp excerpt",
"\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Disraeli as the inventor of modern conservatism at ''The Weekly Standard''\n* - John Prescott interview with Andrew Neill.",
"* BBC Radio 4 series ''The Prime Ministers''\n* Hughenden Manor information at the National Trust\n* Bodleian Library Disraeli bicentenary exhibition, 2004\n* What Disraeli Can Teach Us by Geoffrey Wheatcroft from ''The New York Review of Books''\n* \n* \n* Benjamin Disraeli letters at Brandeis University \n\n===Works, Gutenberg Version==="
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Braille''' (; ) is a tactile writing system used by people who are blind or visually impaired. It is traditionally written with embossed paper. Braille users can read computer screens and other electronic supports thanks to refreshable braille displays. They can write braille with the original slate and stylus or type it on a braille writer, such as a portable braille notetaker or computer that prints with a braille embosser.\n\nBraille is named after its creator, Louis Braille, a Frenchman who lost his sight as a result of a childhood accident. In 1824, at age 15, he developed a code for the French alphabet as an improvement on night writing. He published his system, which subsequently included musical notation, in 1829. The second revision, published in 1837, was the first binary form of writing developed in the modern era.\n\nBraille characters are rectangular blocks called ''cells'' containing tiny bumps called ''raised dots''. The number and arrangement of these dots distinguish one character from another. Since the various braille alphabets originated as transcription codes for printed writing, the mappings (sets of character designations) vary from language to language. Furthermore, in English Braille there are three levels of encoding: Grade 1 – a letter-by-letter transcription used for basic literacy; Grade 2 – an addition of abbreviations and contractions; and Grade 3 – various non-standardized personal shorthands.\n\nBraille cells are not the only thing to appear in braille text. There may be embossed illustrations and graphs, with the lines either solid or made of series of dots, arrows, bullets that are larger than braille dots, etc. A full Braille cell includes six raised dots arranged in two columns, each having three dots. The dot positions are identified by numbers from one through six. 64 solutions are possible using one or more dots. A cell can be used to represent a letter, number, punctuation mark, or even a word.\n\nIn the face of screen reader software, braille usage has declined. However, because it teaches spelling and punctuation, braille education remains important for developing reading skills among blind and visually impaired children, and braille literacy correlates with higher employment rates.\n",
"French for “first”) can be read.\nBraille was based on a tactile military code called night writing, developed by Charles Barbier in response to Napoleon's demand for a means for soldiers to communicate silently at night and without a light source. In Barbier's system, sets of 12 embossed dots encoded 36 different sounds. It proved to be too difficult for soldiers to recognize by touch and was rejected by the military. In 1821 Barbier visited the Royal Institute for the Blind in Paris, where he met Louis Braille. Braille identified two major defects of the code: first, by representing only sounds, the code was unable to render the orthography of the words; second, the human finger could not encompass the whole 12-dot symbol without moving, and so could not move rapidly from one symbol to another. Braille's solution was to use 6-dot cells and to assign a specific pattern to each letter of the alphabet.\nAt first, Braille was a one-to-one transliteration of French orthography, but soon various abbreviations, contractions, and even logograms were developed, creating a system much more like shorthand. The expanded English system, called Grade-2 Braille, was complete by 1905. For blind readers, Braille is an independent writing system, rather than a code of printed orthography.\n\n===Derivation===\nBraille is derived from the Latin alphabet, albeit indirectly. In Braille's original system, the dot patterns were assigned to letters according to their position within the alphabetic order of the French alphabet, with accented letters and ''w'' sorted at the end.\n\nThe first ten letters of the alphabet, ''a–j,'' use the upper four dot positions: (black dots in the table below). These stand for the ten digits ''1–9'' and ''0'' in a system parallel to Hebrew gematria and Greek isopsephy. (Though the dots are assigned in no obvious order, the cells with the fewest dots are assigned to the first three letters (and lowest digits), ''abc = 123'' (), and to the three vowels in this part of the alphabet, ''aei'' (), whereas the even digits, ''4, 6, 8, 0'' (), are corners/right angles.)\n\nThe next ten letters, ''k–t,'' are identical to ''a–j,'' respectively, apart from the addition of a dot at position 3 (red dots in the table): :\n\n\n+Derivation (colored dots) of the 26 letters of the alphabet from the 10 numeric digits (black dots)\n\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n\na/1\nb/2\nc/3\nd/4\ne/5\nf/6\ng/7\nh/8\ni/9\nj/0\n\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n\nk\nl\nm\nn\no\np\nq\nr\ns\nt\n\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n \n40px\n\nu\nv\nx\ny\nz\nw\n\n\nThe next ten letters (the next \"decade\") are the same again, but with dots also at positions both 3 and 6 (green dots). Here ''w'' was left out as not being a part of the official French alphabet at the time of Braille's life; the French braille order is ''u v x y z ç é à è ù'' ().\n\nThe next ten, ending in ''w'', are the same again, except that for this series position 6 (purple dot) is used without position 3. These are ''â ê î ô û ë ï ü ö w'' ().\n\nThe ''a–j'' series lowered by one dot space () are used for punctuation. Letters ''a'' and ''c'' , which only use dots in the top row, were lowered two places for the apostrophe and hyphen: . (These are the decade diacritics, at left in the table below, of the second and third decade.)\n\nIn addition, there are ten patterns that are based on the first two letters () shifted to the right; these were assigned to non-French letters (''ì ä ò'' ), or serve non-letter functions: (superscript; in English the accent mark), (currency prefix), (capital, in English the decimal point), (number sign), (emphasis mark), (symbol prefix).\n\n:{| class=wikitable\n+The 64 braille cells\ndecade\n \nnumeric sequence \n \nshift right\n\n1st\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n\n2nd\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n\n3rd\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n\n4th\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n\n5th\n shiftdown\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n\n\nOriginally there had been nine decades. The fifth through ninth used dashes as well as dots, but proved to be impractical and was soon abandoned. These could be replaced with what we now know as the number sign (), though that only caught on for the digits (old 5th decade → modern 1st decade). The dash occupying the top row of the original sixth decade was simply dropped, producing the modern fifth decade. (See 1829 braille.)\n\n===Assignment===\nHistorically, there have been three principles in assigning the values of a linear script (print) to Braille: Using Louis Braille's original French letter values; reassigning the braille letters according to the sort order of the print alphabet being transcribed; and reassigning the letters to improve the efficiency of writing in braille.\n\nUnder international consensus, most braille alphabets follow the French sorting order for the 26 letters of the basic Latin alphabet, and there have been attempts at unifying the letters beyond these 26 (see international braille), though differences remain, for example in German Braille and the contractions of English Braille. This unification avoids the chaos of each nation reordering the braille code to match the sorting order of its print alphabet, as happened in Algerian Braille, where braille codes were numerically reassigned to match the order of the Arabic alphabet and bear little relation to the values used in other countries (compare modern Arabic Braille, which uses the French sorting order), and as happened in an early American version of English Braille, where the letters ''w, x, y, z'' were reassigned to match English alphabetical order. A convention sometimes seen for letters beyond the basic 26 is to exploit the physical symmetry of braille patterns iconically, for example, by assigning a reversed ''n'' to ''ñ'' or an inverted ''s'' to ''sh''. (See Hungarian Braille and Bharati Braille, which do this to some extent.)\n\nA third principle was to assign braille codes according to frequency, with the simplest patterns (quickest ones to write) assigned to the most frequent letters of the alphabet. Such frequency-based alphabets were used in Germany and the United States in the 19th century (see American Braille), but none are attested in modern use. Finally, there are braille scripts which don't order the codes numerically at all, such as Japanese Braille and Korean Braille, which are based on more abstract principles of syllable composition.\n\nAcademic texts are sometimes written in a script of eight dots per cell rather than six, enabling them to encode a greater number of symbols. (See Gardner–Salinas braille codes.) Luxembourgish Braille has adopted eight-dot cells for general use; for example, it adds a dot below each letter to derive its capital variant.\n",
"Silver wedding bands with names ''Henri(que)'' and ''Tita'' written in braille\nBraille was the first writing system with binary encoding. The system as devised by Braille consists of two parts:\n#Character encoding that mapped characters of the French alphabet to tuples of six bits (the dots),\n#The physical representation of those six-bit characters with raised dots in a braille cell.\n\nWithin an individual cell, the dot positions are arranged in two columns of three positions. A raised dot can appear in any of the six positions, producing sixty-four (26) possible patterns, including one in which there are no raised dots. For reference purposes, a pattern is commonly described by listing the positions where dots are raised, the positions being universally numbered, from top to bottom, as 1 to 3 on the left and 4 to 6 on the right. For example, dot pattern 1-3-4 describe a cell with three dots raised, at the top and bottom in the left column and at the top of the right column: that is, the letter ''m''. The lines of horizontal Braille text are separated by a space, much like visible printed text, so that the dots of one line can be differentiated from the braille text above and below. Different assignments of braille codes (or code pages) are used to map the character sets of different printed scripts to the six-bit cells. Braille assignments have also been created for mathematical and musical notation. However, because the six-dot braille cell allows only 64 (26) patterns, including space, the characters of a braille script commonly have multiple values, depending on their context. That is, character mapping between print and braille is not one-to-one. For example, the character corresponds in print to both the letter ''d'' and the digit ''4''.\n\nIn addition to simple encoding, many braille alphabets use contractions to reduce the size of braille texts and to increase reading speed. (See Contracted braille)\n",
"Braille typewriter\nBraille may be produced by hand using a slate and stylus in which each dot is created from the back of the page, writing in mirror image, or it may be produced on a braille typewriter or Perkins Brailler, or an electronic Brailler or eBrailler. Because braille letters cannot be effectively erased and written over if an error is made, an error is overwritten with all six dots (). ''Interpoint'' refers to braille printing that is offset, so that the paper can be embossed on both sides, with the dots on one side appearing between the divots that form the dots on the other (see the photo in the box at the top of this article for an example).\nUsing a computer or other electronic device, Braille may be produced with a braille embosser (printer) or a refreshable braille display (screen).\n\nBraille has been extended to an 8-dot code, particularly for use with braille embossers and refreshable braille displays. In 8-dot braille the additional dots are added at the bottom of the cell, giving a matrix 4 dots high by 2 dots wide. The additional dots are given the numbers 7 (for the lower-left dot) and 8 (for the lower-right dot). Eight-dot braille has the advantages that the case of an individual letter is directly coded in the cell containing the letter and that all the printable ASCII characters can be represented in a single cell. All 256 (28) possible combinations of 8 dots are encoded by the Unicode standard. Braille with six dots is frequently stored as Braille ASCII.\n\n===Letters===\nThe first 25 braille letters, up through the first half of the 3rd decade, transcribe ''a–z'' (skipping ''w''). In English Braille, the rest of that decade is rounded out with the ligatures ''and, for, of, the,'' and ''with''. Omitting dot 3 from these forms the 4th decade, the ligatures ''ch, gh, sh, th, wh, ed, er, ou, ow'' and the letter ''w''.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nch\nsh\nth\n\n(See English Braille.)\n\n===Formatting===\nVarious formatting marks affect the values of the letters that follow them. They have no direct equivalent in print. The most important in English Braille are:\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCapitalfollows\nNumberfollows\n\nThat is, is read as capital 'A', and as the digit '1'.\n\n===Punctuation===\nBasic punctuation marks in English Braille include:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nComma\nSemicolon\nApostrophe\nColon\nHyphen\nDecimal point\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFull stop (Period)\nExclamation point\nOpen quote, question mark\nClose quote\nBracket (Parentheses)\nSlash(Fraction)\n\n\n is both the question mark and the opening quotation mark. Its reading depends on whether it occurs before a word or after.\n\n is used for both opening and closing parentheses. Its placement relative to spaces and other characters determines its interpretation.\n\nPunctuation varies from language to language. For example, French Braille uses for its question mark and swaps the quotation marks and parentheses (to and ); it uses the period () for the decimal point, as in print, and the decimal point () to mark capitalization.\n\n===Contractions===\n\n\nBraille contractions are words and affixes that are shortened so that they take up fewer cells. In English Braille, for example, the word ''afternoon'' is written with just three letters, , much like stenoscript. There are also several abbreviation marks that create what are effectively logograms. The most common of these is dot 5, which combines with the first letter of words. With the letter ''m'', the resulting word is ''mother''. There are also ligatures (\"contracted\" letters), which are single letters in braille but correspond to more than one letter in print. The letter ''and'', for example, is used to write words with the sequence ''a-n-d'' in them, such as ''hand''.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n''afternoon(a-f-n)''\n''mother(dot 5-m)''\n''hand(h-and)''\n\n\n===Page dimensions===\nMost braille embossers support between 34 and 40 cells per line, and 25 lines per page.\n\nA manually operated Perkins braille typewriter supports a maximum of 42 cells per line (its margins are adjustable), and typical paper allows 25 lines per page.\n\nA large interlining Stainsby has 36 cells per line and 18 lines per page.\n\nAn A4-sized Marburg braille frame, which allows interpoint braille (dots on both sides of the page, offset so they do not interfere with each other) has 30 cells per line and 27 lines per page.\n",
"\n\nA sighted child who is reading at a basic level should be able to understand common words and answer simple questions about the information presented. The child should also have enough fluency to get through the material in a timely manner. Over the course of a child's education, these foundations are built upon to teach higher levels of math, science, and comprehension skills. \n\nChildren who are blind not only have the education disadvantage of not being able to see — they also miss out on fundamental parts of early and advanced education if not provided with the necessary tools. Children who are blind or visually impaired can begin learning pre-braille skills from a very young age to become fluent braille readers as they get older.\n\n===U.S. braille literacy statistics===\n\nIn 1960, 50% of legally blind, school-age children were able to read braille in the U.S. According to the 2015 ''Annual Report'' from the American Printing House for the Blind, there were 61,739 legally blind students registered in the U.S. Of these, 8.6% (5,333) were registered as braille readers, 31% (19,109) as visual readers, 9.4% (5,795) as auditory readers, 17% (10,470) as pre-readers, and 34% (21,032) as non-readers.\n\nThere are numerous causes for the decline in braille usage, including school budget constraints, technology advancement, and different philosophical views over how blind children should be educated.\n\nA key turning point for braille literacy was the passage of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, an act of Congress that moved thousands of children from specialized schools for the blind into mainstream public schools. Because only a small percentage of public schools could afford to train and hire braille-qualified teachers, braille literacy has declined since the law took effect. Braille literacy rates have improved slightly since the bill was passed, in part because of pressure from consumers and advocacy groups that has led 27 states to pass legislation mandating that children who are legally blind be given the opportunity to learn braille.\n\nIn 1998 there were 57,425 legally blind students registered in the United States, but only 10% (5,461) of them used braille as their primary reading medium.\n\nEarly Braille education is crucial to literacy for a blind or low-vision child. A study conducted in the state of Washington found that people who learned braille at an early age did just as well, if not better than their sighted peers in several areas, including vocabulary and comprehension. In the preliminary adult study, while evaluating the correlation between adult literacy skills and employment, it was found that 44% of the participants who had learned to read in Braille were unemployed, compared to the 77% unemployment rate of those who had learned to read using print. Currently, among the estimated 85,000 blind adults in the United States, 90% of those who are braille-literate are employed. Among adults who do not know braille, only 33% are employed. Statistically, history has proven that braille reading proficiency provides an essential skill set that allows blind or low-vision children to compete with their sighted peers in a school environment and later in life as they enter the workforce.\n\n===United Kingdom===\n\nThough Braille is thought to be the main way blind people read and write, in Britain (for example) out of the reported 2 million blind and low vision population, it is estimated that only around 15–20 thousand people use braille. Younger people are turning to electronic text on computers with screen reader software instead, a more portable communication method that they can use with their friends. A debate has started on how to make braille more attractive and for more teachers to be available to teach it.\n",
"\nBraille on a box of tablets. The raised Braille reads 'plavix'.\nBraille book and the same book in standard inkprint\nAlthough it is possible to transcribe print by simply substituting the equivalent braille character for its printed equivalent, in English such a character-by-character transcription (known as ''uncontracted braille'') is only used by beginners.\n\nBraille characters are much larger than their printed equivalents, and the standard 11\" by 11.5\" (28 cm × 30 cm) page has room for only 25 lines of 43 characters. To reduce space and increase reading speed, most braille alphabets and orthographies use ligatures, abbreviations, and contractions. Virtually all English Braille books are transcribed in this ''contracted braille,'' which adds an additional layer of complexity to English orthography: The Library of Congress's ''Instruction Manual for Braille Transcribing'' runs to over 300 pages and braille transcribers must pass certification tests.\n\nFully contracted braille is known as ''Grade 2 Braille''. There is an intermediate form between Computer Braille—one-for-one identity with print—and Grade 2, which is called Grade 1 Braille. In Grade 1, the capital sign and Number sign are used, and most punctuation marks are shown using their Grade 2 values.\n\nThe system of contractions in English Braille begins with a set of 23 words which are contracted to single characters. Thus the word ''but'' is contracted to the single letter ''b,'' ''can'' to ''c'', ''do'' to ''d'', and so on. Even this simple rule creates issues requiring special cases; for example, ''d'' is, specifically, an abbreviation of the verb ''do;'' the noun ''do'' representing the note of the musical scale is a different word, and must be spelled out.\n\nPortions of words may be contracted, and many rules govern this process. For example, the character with dots 2-3-5 (the letter \"f\" lowered in the Braille cell) stands for \"ff\" when used in the middle of a word. At the beginning of a word, this same character stands for the word \"to\"; the character is written in braille with no space following it. (This contraction was removed in the Unified English Braille Code.) At the end of a word, the same character represents an exclamation point.\n\nSome contractions are more similar than their print equivalents. For example, the contraction , meaning 'letter', differs from , meaning 'little', only in adding one dot to the second : ''little'', ''letter''. This causes greater confusion between the braille spellings of these words and can hinder the learning process of contracted braille.\n\nThe contraction rules take into account the linguistic structure of the word; thus, contractions are generally not to be used when their use would alter the usual braille form of a base word to which a prefix or suffix has been added. Some portions of the transcription rules are not fully codified and rely on the judgment of the transcriber. Thus, when the contraction rules permit the same word in more than one way, preference is given to \"the contraction that more nearly approximates correct pronunciation.\"\n\n''Grade 3 Braille'' is a variety of non-standardized systems that include many additional shorthand-like contractions. They are not used for publication, but by individuals for their personal convenience.\n",
"When people produce braille, this is called braille transcription. When computer software produces braille, this is called braille\ntranslation. Braille translation software exists to handle most of the common languages of the world, and many technical areas,\nsuch as mathematics (mathematical notation), for example WIMATS, music (musical notation), and tactile graphics.\n",
"Since Braille is one of the few writing systems where tactile perception is used, as opposed to visual perception, a braille reader must develop new skills. One skill important for Braille readers is the ability to create smooth and even pressures when running one's fingers along the words. There are many different styles and techniques used for the understanding and development of braille, even though a study by B. F. Holland suggests that there is no specific technique that is superior to any other.\n\nAnother study by Lowenfield & Abel shows that braille could be read \"the fastest and best... by students who read using the index fingers of both hands.\" Another important reading skill emphasized in this study is to finish reading the end of a line with the right hand and to find the beginning of the next line with the left hand simultaneously. One final conclusion drawn by both Lowenfield and Abel is that children have difficulty using both hands independently where the right hand is the dominant hand. But this hand preference does not correlate to other activities.\n",
"\n\nBraille plate at ''Duftrosengarten'' in Rapperswil, Switzerland\n\nWhen Braille was first adapted to languages other than French, many schemes were adopted, including mapping the native alphabet to the alphabetical order of French – e.g. in English W, which was not in the French alphabet at the time, is mapped to braille X, X to Y, Y to Z, and Z to the first French-accented letter – or completely rearranging the alphabet such that common letters are represented by the simplest braille patterns. Consequently, mutual intelligibility was greatly hindered by this state of affairs. In 1878, the International Congress on Work for the Blind, held in Paris, proposed an international braille standard, where braille codes for different languages and scripts would be based, not on the order of a particular alphabet, but on phonetic correspondence and transliteration to Latin.\n\nThis unified braille has been applied to the languages of India and Africa, Arabic, Vietnamese, Hebrew, Russian, and Armenian, as well as nearly all Latin-script languages. Greek, for example, ''gamma'' is written as Latin ''g'', despite the fact that it has the alphabetic position of ''c''; Hebrew ''bet'', the second letter of the alphabet and cognate with the Latin letter ''b'', is sometimes pronounced /b/ and sometimes /v/, and is written ''b'' or ''v'' accordingly; Russian ''ts'' is written as ''c'', which is the usual letter for /ts/ in those Slavic languages that use the Latin alphabet; and Arabic ''f'' is written as ''f'', despite being historically ''p'', and occurring in that part of the Arabic alphabet (between historic ''o'' and ''q'').\n",
"\nOther systems for assigning values to braille patterns are also followed beside the simple mapping of the alphabetical order onto the original French order. Some braille alphabets start with unified braille, and then diverge significantly based on the phonology of the target languages, while others diverge even further.\n\nIn the various Chinese systems, traditional braille values are used for initial consonants and the simple vowels. In both Mandarin and Cantonese Braille, however, characters have different readings depending on whether they are placed in syllable-initial (onset) or syllable-final (rime) position. For instance, the cell for Latin ''k'', , represents Cantonese ''k'' (''g'' in Yale and other modern romanizations) when initial, but ''aak'' when final, while Latin ''j'', , represents Cantonese initial ''j'' but final ''oei''.\n\nNovel systems of braille mapping include Korean, which adopts separate syllable-initial and syllable-final forms for its consonants, explicitly grouping braille cells into syllabic groups in the same way as hangul. Japanese, meanwhile, combines independent vowel dot patterns and modifier consonant dot patterns into a single braille cell – an abugida representation of each Japanese mora.\n",
"A bottle of Chapoutier wine, with braille on the label\nAn embossed map of a German train station, with braille text\n\n\nThe current series of Canadian banknotes has a tactile feature consisting of raised dots that indicate the denomination, allowing bills to be easily identified by blind or low vision people. It does not use standard braille; rather, the feature uses a system developed in consultation with blind and low vision Canadians after research indicated that braille was not sufficiently robust and that not all potential users read braille. Mexican bank notes, Australian bank notes, Indian rupee notes, Israeli New Shekel notes, Russian Ruble and Swiss Franc notes also have special raised symbols to make them identifiable by persons who are blind or low vision. \n\nIn India there are instances where the parliament acts have been published in braille, such as ''The Right to Information Act''.\n\nIn the United States, the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 requires various building signage to be in braille.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, it is required that medicines have the name of the medicine in Braille on the labeling.\n\nAustralia also recently introduced the tactile feature onto their five dollar banknote\n",
"\n\nBraille was added to the Unicode Standard in September 1999 with the release of version 3.0.\n\nMost braille embossers and refreshable braille displays do not support Unicode, using instead 6-dot braille ASCII. Some embossers have proprietary control codes for 8-dot braille or for full graphics mode, where dots may be placed anywhere on the page without leaving any space between braille cells so that continuous lines can be drawn in diagrams, but these are rarely used and are not standard.\n\nThe Unicode standard encodes 8-dot braille glyphs according to their binary appearance, rather than following their assigned numeric order. Dot 1 corresponds to the least significant bit of the low byte of the Unicode scalar value, and dot 8 to the high bit of that byte.\n\nThe Unicode block for braille is U+2800 ... U+28FF:\n\n\n",
"Every year on the 4th of January, World Braille Day is observed internationally to commemorate the birth of Louis Braille and to recognize his efforts. However, the event is not considered a public holiday.\n",
"\n*Accessible publishing\n*Braille literacy\n*Braille music\n*Braille technology\n*Braille translator\n*Braille watch\n*English Braille\n*List of binary codes\n*List of international common standards\n*Moon type\n*Needle punch\n*Nemeth Braille (for math)\n*Refreshable Braille display\n*Tactile alphabets for the blind\n*Tactile graphic\n*Tangible symbol systems\n* Unified English Braille\n\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"\n* Association Valentin Haüy\n* Alternate Text Production Center\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Form",
"Writing braille",
"Literacy",
"Braille transcription",
"Braille translation software",
"Braille-reading techniques",
"International uniformity",
"Other braille conventions",
"Uses",
"Unicode",
"Observation",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Braille | [
"Mexican bank notes, Australian bank notes, Indian rupee notes, Israeli New Shekel notes, Russian Ruble and Swiss Franc notes also have special raised symbols to make them identifiable by persons who are blind or low vision."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Braille''' (; ) is a tactile writing system used by people who are blind or visually impaired.",
"It is traditionally written with embossed paper.",
"Braille users can read computer screens and other electronic supports thanks to refreshable braille displays.",
"They can write braille with the original slate and stylus or type it on a braille writer, such as a portable braille notetaker or computer that prints with a braille embosser.",
"Braille is named after its creator, Louis Braille, a Frenchman who lost his sight as a result of a childhood accident.",
"In 1824, at age 15, he developed a code for the French alphabet as an improvement on night writing.",
"He published his system, which subsequently included musical notation, in 1829.",
"The second revision, published in 1837, was the first binary form of writing developed in the modern era.",
"Braille characters are rectangular blocks called ''cells'' containing tiny bumps called ''raised dots''.",
"The number and arrangement of these dots distinguish one character from another.",
"Since the various braille alphabets originated as transcription codes for printed writing, the mappings (sets of character designations) vary from language to language.",
"Furthermore, in English Braille there are three levels of encoding: Grade 1 – a letter-by-letter transcription used for basic literacy; Grade 2 – an addition of abbreviations and contractions; and Grade 3 – various non-standardized personal shorthands.",
"Braille cells are not the only thing to appear in braille text.",
"There may be embossed illustrations and graphs, with the lines either solid or made of series of dots, arrows, bullets that are larger than braille dots, etc.",
"A full Braille cell includes six raised dots arranged in two columns, each having three dots.",
"The dot positions are identified by numbers from one through six.",
"64 solutions are possible using one or more dots.",
"A cell can be used to represent a letter, number, punctuation mark, or even a word.",
"In the face of screen reader software, braille usage has declined.",
"However, because it teaches spelling and punctuation, braille education remains important for developing reading skills among blind and visually impaired children, and braille literacy correlates with higher employment rates.",
"French for “first”) can be read.",
"Braille was based on a tactile military code called night writing, developed by Charles Barbier in response to Napoleon's demand for a means for soldiers to communicate silently at night and without a light source.",
"In Barbier's system, sets of 12 embossed dots encoded 36 different sounds.",
"It proved to be too difficult for soldiers to recognize by touch and was rejected by the military.",
"In 1821 Barbier visited the Royal Institute for the Blind in Paris, where he met Louis Braille.",
"Braille identified two major defects of the code: first, by representing only sounds, the code was unable to render the orthography of the words; second, the human finger could not encompass the whole 12-dot symbol without moving, and so could not move rapidly from one symbol to another.",
"Braille's solution was to use 6-dot cells and to assign a specific pattern to each letter of the alphabet.",
"At first, Braille was a one-to-one transliteration of French orthography, but soon various abbreviations, contractions, and even logograms were developed, creating a system much more like shorthand.",
"The expanded English system, called Grade-2 Braille, was complete by 1905.",
"For blind readers, Braille is an independent writing system, rather than a code of printed orthography.",
"===Derivation===\nBraille is derived from the Latin alphabet, albeit indirectly.",
"In Braille's original system, the dot patterns were assigned to letters according to their position within the alphabetic order of the French alphabet, with accented letters and ''w'' sorted at the end.",
"The first ten letters of the alphabet, ''a–j,'' use the upper four dot positions: (black dots in the table below).",
"These stand for the ten digits ''1–9'' and ''0'' in a system parallel to Hebrew gematria and Greek isopsephy.",
"(Though the dots are assigned in no obvious order, the cells with the fewest dots are assigned to the first three letters (and lowest digits), ''abc = 123'' (), and to the three vowels in this part of the alphabet, ''aei'' (), whereas the even digits, ''4, 6, 8, 0'' (), are corners/right angles.)",
"The next ten letters, ''k–t,'' are identical to ''a–j,'' respectively, apart from the addition of a dot at position 3 (red dots in the table): :\n\n\n+Derivation (colored dots) of the 26 letters of the alphabet from the 10 numeric digits (black dots)\n\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n\na/1\nb/2\nc/3\nd/4\ne/5\nf/6\ng/7\nh/8\ni/9\nj/0\n\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n\nk\nl\nm\nn\no\np\nq\nr\ns\nt\n\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n \n40px\n\nu\nv\nx\ny\nz\nw\n\n\nThe next ten letters (the next \"decade\") are the same again, but with dots also at positions both 3 and 6 (green dots).",
"Here ''w'' was left out as not being a part of the official French alphabet at the time of Braille's life; the French braille order is ''u v x y z ç é à è ù'' ().",
"The next ten, ending in ''w'', are the same again, except that for this series position 6 (purple dot) is used without position 3.",
"These are ''â ê î ô û ë ï ü ö w'' ().",
"The ''a–j'' series lowered by one dot space () are used for punctuation.",
"Letters ''a'' and ''c'' , which only use dots in the top row, were lowered two places for the apostrophe and hyphen: .",
"(These are the decade diacritics, at left in the table below, of the second and third decade.)",
"In addition, there are ten patterns that are based on the first two letters () shifted to the right; these were assigned to non-French letters (''ì ä ò'' ), or serve non-letter functions: (superscript; in English the accent mark), (currency prefix), (capital, in English the decimal point), (number sign), (emphasis mark), (symbol prefix).",
":{| class=wikitable\n+The 64 braille cells\ndecade\n \nnumeric sequence \n \nshift right\n\n1st\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n\n2nd\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n\n3rd\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n\n4th\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n\n5th\n shiftdown\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n40px\n\n\nOriginally there had been nine decades.",
"The fifth through ninth used dashes as well as dots, but proved to be impractical and was soon abandoned.",
"These could be replaced with what we now know as the number sign (), though that only caught on for the digits (old 5th decade → modern 1st decade).",
"The dash occupying the top row of the original sixth decade was simply dropped, producing the modern fifth decade.",
"(See 1829 braille.)",
"===Assignment===\nHistorically, there have been three principles in assigning the values of a linear script (print) to Braille: Using Louis Braille's original French letter values; reassigning the braille letters according to the sort order of the print alphabet being transcribed; and reassigning the letters to improve the efficiency of writing in braille.",
"Under international consensus, most braille alphabets follow the French sorting order for the 26 letters of the basic Latin alphabet, and there have been attempts at unifying the letters beyond these 26 (see international braille), though differences remain, for example in German Braille and the contractions of English Braille.",
"This unification avoids the chaos of each nation reordering the braille code to match the sorting order of its print alphabet, as happened in Algerian Braille, where braille codes were numerically reassigned to match the order of the Arabic alphabet and bear little relation to the values used in other countries (compare modern Arabic Braille, which uses the French sorting order), and as happened in an early American version of English Braille, where the letters ''w, x, y, z'' were reassigned to match English alphabetical order.",
"A convention sometimes seen for letters beyond the basic 26 is to exploit the physical symmetry of braille patterns iconically, for example, by assigning a reversed ''n'' to ''ñ'' or an inverted ''s'' to ''sh''.",
"(See Hungarian Braille and Bharati Braille, which do this to some extent.)",
"A third principle was to assign braille codes according to frequency, with the simplest patterns (quickest ones to write) assigned to the most frequent letters of the alphabet.",
"Such frequency-based alphabets were used in Germany and the United States in the 19th century (see American Braille), but none are attested in modern use.",
"Finally, there are braille scripts which don't order the codes numerically at all, such as Japanese Braille and Korean Braille, which are based on more abstract principles of syllable composition.",
"Academic texts are sometimes written in a script of eight dots per cell rather than six, enabling them to encode a greater number of symbols.",
"(See Gardner–Salinas braille codes.)",
"Luxembourgish Braille has adopted eight-dot cells for general use; for example, it adds a dot below each letter to derive its capital variant.",
"Silver wedding bands with names ''Henri(que)'' and ''Tita'' written in braille\nBraille was the first writing system with binary encoding.",
"The system as devised by Braille consists of two parts:\n#Character encoding that mapped characters of the French alphabet to tuples of six bits (the dots),\n#The physical representation of those six-bit characters with raised dots in a braille cell.",
"Within an individual cell, the dot positions are arranged in two columns of three positions.",
"A raised dot can appear in any of the six positions, producing sixty-four (26) possible patterns, including one in which there are no raised dots.",
"For reference purposes, a pattern is commonly described by listing the positions where dots are raised, the positions being universally numbered, from top to bottom, as 1 to 3 on the left and 4 to 6 on the right.",
"For example, dot pattern 1-3-4 describe a cell with three dots raised, at the top and bottom in the left column and at the top of the right column: that is, the letter ''m''.",
"The lines of horizontal Braille text are separated by a space, much like visible printed text, so that the dots of one line can be differentiated from the braille text above and below.",
"Different assignments of braille codes (or code pages) are used to map the character sets of different printed scripts to the six-bit cells.",
"Braille assignments have also been created for mathematical and musical notation.",
"However, because the six-dot braille cell allows only 64 (26) patterns, including space, the characters of a braille script commonly have multiple values, depending on their context.",
"That is, character mapping between print and braille is not one-to-one.",
"For example, the character corresponds in print to both the letter ''d'' and the digit ''4''.",
"In addition to simple encoding, many braille alphabets use contractions to reduce the size of braille texts and to increase reading speed.",
"(See Contracted braille)",
"Braille typewriter\nBraille may be produced by hand using a slate and stylus in which each dot is created from the back of the page, writing in mirror image, or it may be produced on a braille typewriter or Perkins Brailler, or an electronic Brailler or eBrailler.",
"Because braille letters cannot be effectively erased and written over if an error is made, an error is overwritten with all six dots ().",
"''Interpoint'' refers to braille printing that is offset, so that the paper can be embossed on both sides, with the dots on one side appearing between the divots that form the dots on the other (see the photo in the box at the top of this article for an example).",
"Using a computer or other electronic device, Braille may be produced with a braille embosser (printer) or a refreshable braille display (screen).",
"Braille has been extended to an 8-dot code, particularly for use with braille embossers and refreshable braille displays.",
"In 8-dot braille the additional dots are added at the bottom of the cell, giving a matrix 4 dots high by 2 dots wide.",
"The additional dots are given the numbers 7 (for the lower-left dot) and 8 (for the lower-right dot).",
"Eight-dot braille has the advantages that the case of an individual letter is directly coded in the cell containing the letter and that all the printable ASCII characters can be represented in a single cell.",
"All 256 (28) possible combinations of 8 dots are encoded by the Unicode standard.",
"Braille with six dots is frequently stored as Braille ASCII.",
"===Letters===\nThe first 25 braille letters, up through the first half of the 3rd decade, transcribe ''a–z'' (skipping ''w'').",
"In English Braille, the rest of that decade is rounded out with the ligatures ''and, for, of, the,'' and ''with''.",
"Omitting dot 3 from these forms the 4th decade, the ligatures ''ch, gh, sh, th, wh, ed, er, ou, ow'' and the letter ''w''.",
"ch\nsh\nth\n\n(See English Braille.)",
"===Formatting===\nVarious formatting marks affect the values of the letters that follow them.",
"They have no direct equivalent in print.",
"The most important in English Braille are:\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCapitalfollows\nNumberfollows\n\nThat is, is read as capital 'A', and as the digit '1'.",
"===Punctuation===\nBasic punctuation marks in English Braille include:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nComma\nSemicolon\nApostrophe\nColon\nHyphen\nDecimal point\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFull stop (Period)\nExclamation point\nOpen quote, question mark\nClose quote\nBracket (Parentheses)\nSlash(Fraction)\n\n\n is both the question mark and the opening quotation mark.",
"Its reading depends on whether it occurs before a word or after.",
"is used for both opening and closing parentheses.",
"Its placement relative to spaces and other characters determines its interpretation.",
"Punctuation varies from language to language.",
"For example, French Braille uses for its question mark and swaps the quotation marks and parentheses (to and ); it uses the period () for the decimal point, as in print, and the decimal point () to mark capitalization.",
"===Contractions===\n\n\nBraille contractions are words and affixes that are shortened so that they take up fewer cells.",
"In English Braille, for example, the word ''afternoon'' is written with just three letters, , much like stenoscript.",
"There are also several abbreviation marks that create what are effectively logograms.",
"The most common of these is dot 5, which combines with the first letter of words.",
"With the letter ''m'', the resulting word is ''mother''.",
"There are also ligatures (\"contracted\" letters), which are single letters in braille but correspond to more than one letter in print.",
"The letter ''and'', for example, is used to write words with the sequence ''a-n-d'' in them, such as ''hand''.",
"''afternoon(a-f-n)''\n''mother(dot 5-m)''\n''hand(h-and)''\n\n\n===Page dimensions===\nMost braille embossers support between 34 and 40 cells per line, and 25 lines per page.",
"A manually operated Perkins braille typewriter supports a maximum of 42 cells per line (its margins are adjustable), and typical paper allows 25 lines per page.",
"A large interlining Stainsby has 36 cells per line and 18 lines per page.",
"An A4-sized Marburg braille frame, which allows interpoint braille (dots on both sides of the page, offset so they do not interfere with each other) has 30 cells per line and 27 lines per page.",
"\n\nA sighted child who is reading at a basic level should be able to understand common words and answer simple questions about the information presented.",
"The child should also have enough fluency to get through the material in a timely manner.",
"Over the course of a child's education, these foundations are built upon to teach higher levels of math, science, and comprehension skills.",
"Children who are blind not only have the education disadvantage of not being able to see — they also miss out on fundamental parts of early and advanced education if not provided with the necessary tools.",
"Children who are blind or visually impaired can begin learning pre-braille skills from a very young age to become fluent braille readers as they get older.",
"===U.S.",
"braille literacy statistics===\n\nIn 1960, 50% of legally blind, school-age children were able to read braille in the U.S.",
"According to the 2015 ''Annual Report'' from the American Printing House for the Blind, there were 61,739 legally blind students registered in the U.S. Of these, 8.6% (5,333) were registered as braille readers, 31% (19,109) as visual readers, 9.4% (5,795) as auditory readers, 17% (10,470) as pre-readers, and 34% (21,032) as non-readers.",
"There are numerous causes for the decline in braille usage, including school budget constraints, technology advancement, and different philosophical views over how blind children should be educated.",
"A key turning point for braille literacy was the passage of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, an act of Congress that moved thousands of children from specialized schools for the blind into mainstream public schools.",
"Because only a small percentage of public schools could afford to train and hire braille-qualified teachers, braille literacy has declined since the law took effect.",
"Braille literacy rates have improved slightly since the bill was passed, in part because of pressure from consumers and advocacy groups that has led 27 states to pass legislation mandating that children who are legally blind be given the opportunity to learn braille.",
"In 1998 there were 57,425 legally blind students registered in the United States, but only 10% (5,461) of them used braille as their primary reading medium.",
"Early Braille education is crucial to literacy for a blind or low-vision child.",
"A study conducted in the state of Washington found that people who learned braille at an early age did just as well, if not better than their sighted peers in several areas, including vocabulary and comprehension.",
"In the preliminary adult study, while evaluating the correlation between adult literacy skills and employment, it was found that 44% of the participants who had learned to read in Braille were unemployed, compared to the 77% unemployment rate of those who had learned to read using print.",
"Currently, among the estimated 85,000 blind adults in the United States, 90% of those who are braille-literate are employed.",
"Among adults who do not know braille, only 33% are employed.",
"Statistically, history has proven that braille reading proficiency provides an essential skill set that allows blind or low-vision children to compete with their sighted peers in a school environment and later in life as they enter the workforce.",
"===United Kingdom===\n\nThough Braille is thought to be the main way blind people read and write, in Britain (for example) out of the reported 2 million blind and low vision population, it is estimated that only around 15–20 thousand people use braille.",
"Younger people are turning to electronic text on computers with screen reader software instead, a more portable communication method that they can use with their friends.",
"A debate has started on how to make braille more attractive and for more teachers to be available to teach it.",
"\nBraille on a box of tablets.",
"The raised Braille reads 'plavix'.",
"Braille book and the same book in standard inkprint\nAlthough it is possible to transcribe print by simply substituting the equivalent braille character for its printed equivalent, in English such a character-by-character transcription (known as ''uncontracted braille'') is only used by beginners.",
"Braille characters are much larger than their printed equivalents, and the standard 11\" by 11.5\" (28 cm × 30 cm) page has room for only 25 lines of 43 characters.",
"To reduce space and increase reading speed, most braille alphabets and orthographies use ligatures, abbreviations, and contractions.",
"Virtually all English Braille books are transcribed in this ''contracted braille,'' which adds an additional layer of complexity to English orthography: The Library of Congress's ''Instruction Manual for Braille Transcribing'' runs to over 300 pages and braille transcribers must pass certification tests.",
"Fully contracted braille is known as ''Grade 2 Braille''.",
"There is an intermediate form between Computer Braille—one-for-one identity with print—and Grade 2, which is called Grade 1 Braille.",
"In Grade 1, the capital sign and Number sign are used, and most punctuation marks are shown using their Grade 2 values.",
"The system of contractions in English Braille begins with a set of 23 words which are contracted to single characters.",
"Thus the word ''but'' is contracted to the single letter ''b,'' ''can'' to ''c'', ''do'' to ''d'', and so on.",
"Even this simple rule creates issues requiring special cases; for example, ''d'' is, specifically, an abbreviation of the verb ''do;'' the noun ''do'' representing the note of the musical scale is a different word, and must be spelled out.",
"Portions of words may be contracted, and many rules govern this process.",
"For example, the character with dots 2-3-5 (the letter \"f\" lowered in the Braille cell) stands for \"ff\" when used in the middle of a word.",
"At the beginning of a word, this same character stands for the word \"to\"; the character is written in braille with no space following it.",
"(This contraction was removed in the Unified English Braille Code.)",
"At the end of a word, the same character represents an exclamation point.",
"Some contractions are more similar than their print equivalents.",
"For example, the contraction , meaning 'letter', differs from , meaning 'little', only in adding one dot to the second : ''little'', ''letter''.",
"This causes greater confusion between the braille spellings of these words and can hinder the learning process of contracted braille.",
"The contraction rules take into account the linguistic structure of the word; thus, contractions are generally not to be used when their use would alter the usual braille form of a base word to which a prefix or suffix has been added.",
"Some portions of the transcription rules are not fully codified and rely on the judgment of the transcriber.",
"Thus, when the contraction rules permit the same word in more than one way, preference is given to \"the contraction that more nearly approximates correct pronunciation.\"",
"''Grade 3 Braille'' is a variety of non-standardized systems that include many additional shorthand-like contractions.",
"They are not used for publication, but by individuals for their personal convenience.",
"When people produce braille, this is called braille transcription.",
"When computer software produces braille, this is called braille\ntranslation.",
"Braille translation software exists to handle most of the common languages of the world, and many technical areas,\nsuch as mathematics (mathematical notation), for example WIMATS, music (musical notation), and tactile graphics.",
"Since Braille is one of the few writing systems where tactile perception is used, as opposed to visual perception, a braille reader must develop new skills.",
"One skill important for Braille readers is the ability to create smooth and even pressures when running one's fingers along the words.",
"There are many different styles and techniques used for the understanding and development of braille, even though a study by B. F. Holland suggests that there is no specific technique that is superior to any other.",
"Another study by Lowenfield & Abel shows that braille could be read \"the fastest and best... by students who read using the index fingers of both hands.\"",
"Another important reading skill emphasized in this study is to finish reading the end of a line with the right hand and to find the beginning of the next line with the left hand simultaneously.",
"One final conclusion drawn by both Lowenfield and Abel is that children have difficulty using both hands independently where the right hand is the dominant hand.",
"But this hand preference does not correlate to other activities.",
"\n\nBraille plate at ''Duftrosengarten'' in Rapperswil, Switzerland\n\nWhen Braille was first adapted to languages other than French, many schemes were adopted, including mapping the native alphabet to the alphabetical order of French – e.g.",
"in English W, which was not in the French alphabet at the time, is mapped to braille X, X to Y, Y to Z, and Z to the first French-accented letter – or completely rearranging the alphabet such that common letters are represented by the simplest braille patterns.",
"Consequently, mutual intelligibility was greatly hindered by this state of affairs.",
"In 1878, the International Congress on Work for the Blind, held in Paris, proposed an international braille standard, where braille codes for different languages and scripts would be based, not on the order of a particular alphabet, but on phonetic correspondence and transliteration to Latin.",
"This unified braille has been applied to the languages of India and Africa, Arabic, Vietnamese, Hebrew, Russian, and Armenian, as well as nearly all Latin-script languages.",
"Greek, for example, ''gamma'' is written as Latin ''g'', despite the fact that it has the alphabetic position of ''c''; Hebrew ''bet'', the second letter of the alphabet and cognate with the Latin letter ''b'', is sometimes pronounced /b/ and sometimes /v/, and is written ''b'' or ''v'' accordingly; Russian ''ts'' is written as ''c'', which is the usual letter for /ts/ in those Slavic languages that use the Latin alphabet; and Arabic ''f'' is written as ''f'', despite being historically ''p'', and occurring in that part of the Arabic alphabet (between historic ''o'' and ''q'').",
"\nOther systems for assigning values to braille patterns are also followed beside the simple mapping of the alphabetical order onto the original French order.",
"Some braille alphabets start with unified braille, and then diverge significantly based on the phonology of the target languages, while others diverge even further.",
"In the various Chinese systems, traditional braille values are used for initial consonants and the simple vowels.",
"In both Mandarin and Cantonese Braille, however, characters have different readings depending on whether they are placed in syllable-initial (onset) or syllable-final (rime) position.",
"For instance, the cell for Latin ''k'', , represents Cantonese ''k'' (''g'' in Yale and other modern romanizations) when initial, but ''aak'' when final, while Latin ''j'', , represents Cantonese initial ''j'' but final ''oei''.",
"Novel systems of braille mapping include Korean, which adopts separate syllable-initial and syllable-final forms for its consonants, explicitly grouping braille cells into syllabic groups in the same way as hangul.",
"Japanese, meanwhile, combines independent vowel dot patterns and modifier consonant dot patterns into a single braille cell – an abugida representation of each Japanese mora.",
"A bottle of Chapoutier wine, with braille on the label\nAn embossed map of a German train station, with braille text\n\n\nThe current series of Canadian banknotes has a tactile feature consisting of raised dots that indicate the denomination, allowing bills to be easily identified by blind or low vision people.",
"It does not use standard braille; rather, the feature uses a system developed in consultation with blind and low vision Canadians after research indicated that braille was not sufficiently robust and that not all potential users read braille.",
"In India there are instances where the parliament acts have been published in braille, such as ''The Right to Information Act''.",
"In the United States, the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 requires various building signage to be in braille.",
"In the United Kingdom, it is required that medicines have the name of the medicine in Braille on the labeling.",
"Australia also recently introduced the tactile feature onto their five dollar banknote",
"\n\nBraille was added to the Unicode Standard in September 1999 with the release of version 3.0.",
"Most braille embossers and refreshable braille displays do not support Unicode, using instead 6-dot braille ASCII.",
"Some embossers have proprietary control codes for 8-dot braille or for full graphics mode, where dots may be placed anywhere on the page without leaving any space between braille cells so that continuous lines can be drawn in diagrams, but these are rarely used and are not standard.",
"The Unicode standard encodes 8-dot braille glyphs according to their binary appearance, rather than following their assigned numeric order.",
"Dot 1 corresponds to the least significant bit of the low byte of the Unicode scalar value, and dot 8 to the high bit of that byte.",
"The Unicode block for braille is U+2800 ... U+28FF:",
"Every year on the 4th of January, World Braille Day is observed internationally to commemorate the birth of Louis Braille and to recognize his efforts.",
"However, the event is not considered a public holiday.",
"\n*Accessible publishing\n*Braille literacy\n*Braille music\n*Braille technology\n*Braille translator\n*Braille watch\n*English Braille\n*List of binary codes\n*List of international common standards\n*Moon type\n*Needle punch\n*Nemeth Braille (for math)\n*Refreshable Braille display\n*Tactile alphabets for the blind\n*Tactile graphic\n*Tangible symbol systems\n* Unified English Braille",
"\n* Association Valentin Haüy\n* Alternate Text Production Center"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n'''Biochemistry''', sometimes called '''biological chemistry''', is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. By controlling information flow through biochemical signaling and the flow of chemical energy through metabolism, biochemical processes give rise to the complexity of life. Over the last decades of the 20th century, biochemistry has become so successful at explaining living processes that now almost all areas of the life sciences from botany to medicine to genetics are engaged in biochemical research. Today, the main focus of pure biochemistry is on understanding how biological molecules give rise to the processes that occur within living cells, which in turn relates greatly to the study and understanding of tissues, organs, and whole organisms—that is, all of biology.\n\nBiochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms by which genetic information encoded in DNA is able to result in the processes of life. Depending on the exact definition of the terms used, molecular biology can be thought of as a branch of biochemistry, or biochemistry as a tool with which to investigate and study molecular biology.\n\nMuch of biochemistry deals with the structures, functions and interactions of biological macromolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids, which provide the structure of cells and perform many of the functions associated with life. The chemistry of the cell also depends on the reactions of smaller molecules and ions. These can be inorganic, for example water and metal ions, or organic, for example the amino acids, which are used to synthesize proteins. The mechanisms by which cells harness energy from their environment via chemical reactions are known as metabolism. The findings of biochemistry are applied primarily in medicine, nutrition, and agriculture. In medicine, biochemists investigate the causes and cures of diseases. In nutrition, they study how to maintain health wellness and study the effects of nutritional deficiencies. In agriculture, biochemists investigate soil and fertilizers, and try to discover ways to improve crop cultivation, crop storage and pest control.\n",
"\nGerty Cori and Carl Cori jointly won the Nobel Prize in 1947 for their discovery of the Cori cycle at RPMI.\n\nAt its broadest definition, biochemistry can be seen as a study of the components, and composition of living things and how they come together to become life, and the history of biochemistry may therefore go back as far as the ancient Greeks. However, biochemistry as a specific scientific discipline has its beginning sometime in the 19th century, or a little earlier, depending on which aspect of biochemistry is being focused on. Some argued that the beginning of biochemistry may have been the discovery of the first enzyme, diastase (today called amylase), in 1833 by Anselme Payen, while others considered Eduard Buchner's first demonstration of a complex biochemical process alcoholic fermentation in cell-free extracts in 1897 to be the birth of biochemistry. Some might also point as its beginning to the influential 1842 work by Justus von Liebig, ''Animal chemistry, or, Organic chemistry in its applications to physiology and pathology'', which presented a chemical theory of metabolism, or even earlier to the 18th century studies on fermentation and respiration by Antoine Lavoisier. Many other pioneers in the field who helped to uncover the layers of complexity of biochemistry have been proclaimed founders of modern biochemistry, for example Emil Fischer for his work on the chemistry of proteins, and F. Gowland Hopkins on enzymes and the dynamic nature of biochemistry.\n\nThe term \"biochemistry\" itself is derived from a combination of biology and chemistry. In 1877, Felix Hoppe-Seyler used the term (''biochemie'' in German) as a synonym for physiological chemistry in the foreword to the first issue of ''Zeitschrift für Physiologische Chemie'' (Journal of Physiological Chemistry) where he argued for the setting up of institutes dedicated to this field of study. The German chemist Carl Neuberg however is often cited to have coined the word in 1903, while some credited it to Franz Hofmeister.\n\nEdwards (1992), pp. 1161–1173.\nIt was once generally believed that life and its materials had some essential property or substance (often referred to as the \"vital principle\") distinct from any found in non-living matter, and it was thought that only living beings could produce the molecules of life. Then, in 1828, Friedrich Wöhler published a paper on the synthesis of urea, proving that organic compounds can be created artificially. Since then, biochemistry has advanced, especially since the mid-20th century, with the development of new techniques such as chromatography, X-ray diffraction, dual polarisation interferometry, NMR spectroscopy, radioisotopic labeling, electron microscopy, and molecular dynamics simulations. These techniques allowed for the discovery and detailed analysis of many molecules and metabolic pathways of the cell, such as glycolysis and the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle).\n\nAnother significant historic event in biochemistry is the discovery of the gene and its role in the transfer of information in the cell. This part of biochemistry is often called molecular biology. In the 1950s, James D. Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, and Maurice Wilkins were instrumental in solving DNA structure and suggesting its relationship with genetic transfer of information. In 1958, George Beadle and Edward Tatum received the Nobel Prize for work in fungi showing that one gene produces one enzyme. In 1988, Colin Pitchfork was the first person convicted of murder with DNA evidence, which led to the growth of forensic science. More recently, Andrew Z. Fire and Craig C. Mello received the 2006 Nobel Prize for discovering the role of RNA interference (RNAi), in the silencing of gene expression.\n",
"The main elements that compose the human body are shown from most abundant (by mass) to least abundant.\n\n\nAround two dozen of the 92 naturally occurring chemical elements are essential to various kinds of biological life. Most rare elements on Earth are not needed by life (exceptions being selenium and iodine), while a few common ones (aluminum and titanium) are not used. Most organisms share element needs, but there are a few differences between plants and animals. For example, ocean algae use bromine, but land plants and animals seem to need none. All animals require sodium, but some plants do not. Plants need boron and silicon, but animals may not (or may need ultra-small amounts).\n\nJust six elements—carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, calcium, and phosphorus—make up almost 99% of the mass of living cells, including those in the human body (see composition of the human body for a complete list). In addition to the six major elements that compose most of the human body, humans require smaller amounts of possibly 18 more.\n",
"\nThe four main classes of molecules in biochemistry (often called biomolecules) are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Many biological molecules are polymers: in this terminology, monomers are relatively small micromolecules that are linked together to create large macromolecules known as polymers. When monomers are linked together to synthesize a biological polymer, they undergo a process called dehydration synthesis. Different macromolecules can assemble in larger complexes, often needed for biological activity.\n\n===Carbohydrates===\n\n\nThe function of carbohydrates includes energy storage and providing structure. Sugars are carbohydrates, but not all carbohydrates are sugars. There are more carbohydrates on Earth than any other known type of biomolecule; they are used to store energy and genetic information, as well as play important roles in cell to cell interactions and communications.\n\nThe simplest type of carbohydrate is a monosaccharide, which among other properties contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, mostly in a ratio of 1:2:1 (generalized formula C''n''H2''n''O''n'', where ''n'' is at least 3). Glucose (C6H12O6) is one of the most important carbohydrates; others include fructose (C6H12O6), the sugar commonly associated with the sweet taste of fruits, and deoxyribose (C5H10O4).\n\nA monosaccharide can switch from the acyclic (open-chain) form to a cyclic form, through a nucleophilic addition reaction between the carbonyl group and one of the hydroxyls of the same molecule. The reaction creates a ring of carbon atoms closed by one bridging oxygen atom. The resulting molecule has an hemiacetal or hemiketal group, depending on whether the linear form was an aldose or a ketose. The reaction is easily reversed, yielding the original open-chain form.\n\nConversion between the furanose, acyclic, and pyranose forms of D-glucose\n\nIn these cyclic forms, the ring usually has '''5''' or '''6''' atoms. These forms are called furanoses and pyranoses, respectively — by analogy with furan and pyran, the simplest compounds with the same carbon-oxygen ring (although they lack the double bonds of these two molecules). For example, the aldohexose glucose may form a hemiacetal linkage between the hydroxyl on carbon 1 and the oxygen on carbon 4, yielding a molecule with a 5-membered ring, called glucofuranose. The same reaction can take place between carbons 1 and 5 to form a molecule with a 6-membered ring, called glucopyranose. Cyclic forms with a 7-atom ring (the same of oxepane), rarely encountered, are called heptoses.\n\nWhen two monosaccharides undergo dehydration synthesis whereby a molecule of water is released, as two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom are lost from the two monosaccharides, the new molecule, consisting of two monosaccharides, is called a ''disaccharide'' and is conjoined together by a glycosidic or ether bond. The reverse reaction can also occur, using a molecule of water to split up a disaccharide and break the glycosidic bond; this is termed ''hydrolysis''. The most well-known disaccharide is sucrose, ordinary sugar (in scientific contexts, called ''table sugar'' or ''cane sugar'' to differentiate it from other sugars). Sucrose consists of a glucose molecule and a fructose molecule joined together. Another important disaccharide is lactose, consisting of a glucose molecule and a galactose molecule. As most humans age, the production of lactase, the enzyme that hydrolyzes lactose back into glucose and galactose, typically decreases. This results in lactase deficiency, also called ''lactose intolerance''.\n\nWhen a few (around three to six) monosaccharides are joined, it is called an ''oligosaccharide'' (''oligo-'' meaning \"few\"). These molecules tend to be used as markers and signals, as well as having some other uses. Many monosaccharides joined together make a polysaccharide. They can be joined together in one long linear chain, or they may be branched. Two of the most common polysaccharides are cellulose and glycogen, both consisting of repeating glucose monomers. Examples are ''cellulose'' which is an important structural component of plant's cell walls, and ''glycogen'', used as a form of energy storage in animals.\n\nSugar can be characterized by having reducing or non-reducing ends. A reducing end of a carbohydrate is a carbon atom that can be in equilibrium with the open-chain aldehyde (aldose) or keto form (ketose). If the joining of monomers takes place at such a carbon atom, the free hydroxy group of the pyranose or furanose form is exchanged with an OH-side-chain of another sugar, yielding a full acetal. This prevents opening of the chain to the aldehyde or keto form and renders the modified residue non-reducing. Lactose contains a reducing end at its glucose moiety, whereas the galactose moiety forms a full acetal with the C4-OH group of glucose. Saccharose does not have a reducing end because of full acetal formation between the aldehyde carbon of glucose (C1) and the keto carbon of fructose (C2).\n\n===Lipids===\n\n\nStructures of some common lipids. At the top are cholesterol and oleic acid. The middle structure is a triglyceride composed of oleoyl, stearoyl, and palmitoyl chains attached to a glycerol backbone. At the bottom is the common phospholipid, phosphatidylcholine.\n\n'''Lipids''' comprises a diverse range of molecules and to some extent is a catchall for relatively water-insoluble or nonpolar compounds of biological origin, including waxes, fatty acids, fatty-acid derived phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids, and terpenoids (e.g., retinoids and steroids). Some lipids are linear aliphatic molecules, while others have ring structures. Some are aromatic, while others are not. Some are flexible, while others are rigid.\n\nLipids are usually made from one molecule of glycerol combined with other molecules. In triglycerides, the main group of bulk lipids, there is one molecule of glycerol and three fatty acids. Fatty acids are considered the monomer in that case, and may be saturated (no double bonds in the carbon chain) or unsaturated (one or more double bonds in the carbon chain).\n\nMost lipids have some polar character in addition to being largely nonpolar. In general, the bulk of their structure is nonpolar or hydrophobic (\"water-fearing\"), meaning that it does not interact well with polar solvents like water. Another part of their structure is polar or hydrophilic (\"water-loving\") and will tend to associate with polar solvents like water. This makes them amphiphilic molecules (having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions). In the case of cholesterol, the polar group is a mere -OH (hydroxyl or alcohol). In the case of phospholipids, the polar groups are considerably larger and more polar, as described below.\n\nLipids are an integral part of our daily diet. Most oils and milk products that we use for cooking and eating like butter, cheese, ghee etc., are composed of fats. Vegetable oils are rich in various polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Lipid-containing foods undergo digestion within the body and are broken into fatty acids and glycerol, which are the final degradation products of fats and lipids. Lipids, especially phospholipids, are also used in various pharmaceutical products, either as co-solubilisers (e.g., in parenteral infusions) or else as drug carrier components (e.g., in a liposome or transfersome).\n\n===Proteins===\n\n\namino group on the left and the carboxyl group on the right.\n\nProteins are very large molecules – macro-biopolymers – made from monomers called amino acids. An amino acid consists of a carbon atom bound to four groups. One is an amino group, —NH2, and one is a carboxylic acid group, —COOH (although these exist as —NH3+ and —COO− under physiologic conditions). The third is a simple hydrogen atom. The fourth is commonly denoted \"—R\" and is different for each amino acid. There are 20 standard amino acids, each containing a carboxyl group, an amino group, and a side-chain (known as an \"R\" group). The \"R\" group is what makes each amino acid different, and the properties of the side-chains greatly influence the overall three-dimensional conformation of a protein. Some amino acids have functions by themselves or in a modified form; for instance, glutamate functions as an important neurotransmitter. Amino acids can be joined via a peptide bond. In this dehydration synthesis, a water molecule is removed and the peptide bond connects the nitrogen of one amino acid's amino group to the carbon of the other's carboxylic acid group. The resulting molecule is called a ''dipeptide'', and short stretches of amino acids (usually, fewer than thirty) are called ''peptides'' or polypeptides. Longer stretches merit the title ''proteins''. As an example, the important blood serum protein albumin contains 585 amino acid residues.\nGeneric amino acids (1) in neutral form, (2) as they exist physiologically, and (3) joined together as a dipeptide.\n\nA schematic of hemoglobin. The red and blue ribbons represent the protein globin; the green structures are the heme groups.\nSome proteins perform largely structural roles. For instance, movements of the proteins actin and myosin ultimately are responsible for the contraction of skeletal muscle. One property many proteins have is that they specifically bind to a certain molecule or class of molecules—they may be ''extremely'' selective in what they bind. Antibodies are an example of proteins that attach to one specific type of molecule. In fact, the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), which uses antibodies, is one of the most sensitive tests modern medicine uses to detect various biomolecules. Probably the most important proteins, however, are the enzymes. Virtually every reaction in a living cell requires an enzyme to lower the activation energy of the reaction. These molecules recognize specific reactant molecules called ''substrates''; they then catalyze the reaction between them. By lowering the activation energy, the enzyme speeds up that reaction by a rate of 1011 or more; a reaction that would normally take over 3,000 years to complete spontaneously might take less than a second with an enzyme. The enzyme itself is not used up in the process, and is free to catalyze the same reaction with a new set of substrates. Using various modifiers, the activity of the enzyme can be regulated, enabling control of the biochemistry of the cell as a whole.\n\nThe structure of proteins is traditionally described in a hierarchy of four levels. The primary structure of a protein simply consists of its linear sequence of amino acids; for instance, \"alanine-glycine-tryptophan-serine-glutamate-asparagine-glycine-lysine-…\". Secondary structure is concerned with local morphology (morphology being the study of structure). Some combinations of amino acids will tend to curl up in a coil called an α-helix or into a sheet called a β-sheet; some α-helixes can be seen in the hemoglobin schematic above. Tertiary structure is the entire three-dimensional shape of the protein. This shape is determined by the sequence of amino acids. In fact, a single change can change the entire structure. The alpha chain of hemoglobin contains 146 amino acid residues; substitution of the glutamate residue at position 6 with a valine residue changes the behavior of hemoglobin so much that it results in sickle-cell disease. Finally, quaternary structure is concerned with the structure of a protein with multiple peptide subunits, like hemoglobin with its four subunits. Not all proteins have more than one subunit.\n\nExamples of protein structures from the Protein Data Bank\nMembers of a protein family, as represented by the structures of the isomerase domains\nIngested proteins are usually broken up into single amino acids or dipeptides in the small intestine, and then absorbed. They can then be joined to make new proteins. Intermediate products of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the pentose phosphate pathway can be used to make all twenty amino acids, and most bacteria and plants possess all the necessary enzymes to synthesize them. Humans and other mammals, however, can synthesize only half of them. They cannot synthesize isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. These are the essential amino acids, since it is essential to ingest them. Mammals do possess the enzymes to synthesize alanine, asparagine, aspartate, cysteine, glutamate, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine, the nonessential amino acids. While they can synthesize arginine and histidine, they cannot produce it in sufficient amounts for young, growing animals, and so these are often considered essential amino acids.\n\nIf the amino group is removed from an amino acid, it leaves behind a carbon skeleton called an α-keto acid. Enzymes called transaminases can easily transfer the amino group from one amino acid (making it an α-keto acid) to another α-keto acid (making it an amino acid). This is important in the biosynthesis of amino acids, as for many of the pathways, intermediates from other biochemical pathways are converted to the α-keto acid skeleton, and then an amino group is added, often via transamination. The amino acids may then be linked together to make a protein.\n\nA similar process is used to break down proteins. It is first hydrolyzed into its component amino acids. Free ammonia (NH3), existing as the ammonium ion (NH4+) in blood, is toxic to life forms. A suitable method for excreting it must therefore exist. Different tactics have evolved in different animals, depending on the animals' needs. Unicellular organisms, of course, simply release the ammonia into the environment. Likewise, bony fish can release the ammonia into the water where it is quickly diluted. In general, mammals convert the ammonia into urea, via the urea cycle.\n\nIn order to determine whether two proteins are related, or in other words to decide whether they are homologous or not, scientists use sequence-comparison methods. Methods like sequence alignments and structural alignments are powerful tools that help scientists identify homologies between related molecules. The relevance of finding homologies among proteins goes beyond forming an evolutionary pattern of protein families. By finding how similar two protein sequences are, we acquire knowledge about their structure and therefore their function.\n\n===Nucleic acids===\n\nThe structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the picture shows the monomers being put together.\n\nNucleic acids, so called because of their prevalence in cellular nuclei, is the generic name of the family of biopolymers. They are complex, high-molecular-weight biochemical macromolecules that can convey genetic information in all living cells and viruses. The monomers are called nucleotides, and each consists of three components: a nitrogenous heterocyclic base (either a purine or a pyrimidine), a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.\n\nStructural elements of common nucleic acid constituents. Because they contain at least one phosphate group, the compounds marked ''nucleoside monophosphate'', ''nucleoside diphosphate'' and ''nucleoside triphosphate'' are all nucleotides (not simply phosphate-lacking nucleosides).\n\nThe most common nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). The phosphate group and the sugar of each nucleotide bond with each other to form the backbone of the nucleic acid, while the sequence of nitrogenous bases stores the information. The most common nitrogenous bases are adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, and uracil. The nitrogenous bases of each strand of a nucleic acid will form hydrogen bonds with certain other nitrogenous bases in a complementary strand of nucleic acid (similar to a zipper). Adenine binds with thymine and uracil; thymine binds only with adenine; and cytosine and guanine can bind only with one another.\n\nAside from the genetic material of the cell, nucleic acids often play a role as second messengers, as well as forming the base molecule for adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the primary energy-carrier molecule found in all living organisms. Also, the nitrogenous bases possible in the two nucleic acids are different: adenine, cytosine, and guanine occur in both RNA and DNA, while thymine occurs only in DNA and uracil occurs in RNA.\n",
"\n===Carbohydrates as energy source===\n\nGlucose is the major energy source in most life forms. For instance, polysaccharides are broken down into their monomers (glycogen phosphorylase removes glucose residues from glycogen). Disaccharides like lactose or sucrose are cleaved into their two component monosaccharides.\n\n====Glycolysis (anaerobic)====\n\nGlucose is mainly metabolized by a very important ten-step pathway called glycolysis, the net result of which is to break down one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate. This also produces a net two molecules of ATP, the energy currency of cells, along with two reducing equivalents of converting NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide: oxidised form) to NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide: reduced form). This does not require oxygen; if no oxygen is available (or the cell cannot use oxygen), the NAD is restored by converting the pyruvate to lactate (lactic acid) (e.g., in humans) or to ethanol plus carbon dioxide (e.g., in yeast). Other monosaccharides like galactose and fructose can be converted into intermediates of the glycolytic pathway.\n\n====Aerobic====\nIn aerobic cells with sufficient oxygen, as in most human cells, the pyruvate is further metabolized. It is irreversibly converted to acetyl-CoA, giving off one carbon atom as the waste product carbon dioxide, generating another reducing equivalent as NADH. The two molecules acetyl-CoA (from one molecule of glucose) then enter the citric acid cycle, producing two more molecules of ATP, six more NADH molecules and two reduced (ubi)quinones (via FADH2 as enzyme-bound cofactor), and releasing the remaining carbon atoms as carbon dioxide. The produced NADH and quinol molecules then feed into the enzyme complexes of the respiratory chain, an electron transport system transferring the electrons ultimately to oxygen and conserving the released energy in the form of a proton gradient over a membrane (inner mitochondrial membrane in eukaryotes). Thus, oxygen is reduced to water and the original electron acceptors NAD+ and quinone are regenerated. This is why humans breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide. The energy released from transferring the electrons from high-energy states in NADH and quinol is conserved first as proton gradient and converted to ATP via ATP synthase. This generates an additional ''28'' molecules of ATP (24 from the 8 NADH + 4 from the 2 quinols), totaling to 32 molecules of ATP conserved per degraded glucose (two from glycolysis + two from the citrate cycle). It is clear that using oxygen to completely oxidize glucose provides an organism with far more energy than any oxygen-independent metabolic feature, and this is thought to be the reason why complex life appeared only after Earth's atmosphere accumulated large amounts of oxygen.\n\n====Gluconeogenesis====\n\nIn vertebrates, vigorously contracting skeletal muscles (during weightlifting or sprinting, for example) do not receive enough oxygen to meet the energy demand, and so they shift to anaerobic metabolism, converting glucose to lactate. The liver regenerates the glucose, using a process called gluconeogenesis. This process is not quite the opposite of glycolysis, and actually requires three times the amount of energy gained from glycolysis (six molecules of ATP are used, compared to the two gained in glycolysis). Analogous to the above reactions, the glucose produced can then undergo glycolysis in tissues that need energy, be stored as glycogen (or starch in plants), or be converted to other monosaccharides or joined into di- or oligosaccharides. The combined pathways of glycolysis during exercise, lactate's crossing via the bloodstream to the liver, subsequent gluconeogenesis and release of glucose into the bloodstream is called the Cori cycle.\n",
"Schematic relationship between biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biology.\n\nResearchers in biochemistry use specific techniques native to biochemistry, but increasingly combine these with techniques and ideas developed in the fields of genetics, molecular biology and biophysics. There has never been a hard-line among these disciplines in terms of content and technique. Today, the terms ''molecular biology'' and ''biochemistry'' are nearly interchangeable. The following figure is a schematic that depicts one possible view of the relationship between the fields:\n\n* ''Biochemistry'' is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living organisms. Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of biomolecules. The study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of biochemistry.\n* ''Genetics'' is the study of the effect of genetic differences on organisms. Often this can be inferred by the absence of a normal component (e.g., one gene), in the study of \"mutants\" – organisms with a changed gene that leads to the organism being different with respect to the so-called \"wild type\" or normal phenotype. Genetic interactions (epistasis) can often confound simple interpretations of such \"knock-out\" or \"knock-in\" studies.\n* ''Molecular biology'' is the study of molecular underpinnings of the process of replication, transcription and translation of the genetic material. The central dogma of molecular biology where genetic material is transcribed into RNA and then translated into protein, despite being an oversimplified picture of molecular biology, still provides a good starting point for understanding the field. This picture, however, is undergoing revision in light of emerging novel roles for RNA.\n* ''Chemical biology'' seeks to develop new tools based on small molecules that allow minimal perturbation of biological systems while providing detailed information about their function. Further, chemical biology employs biological systems to create non-natural hybrids between biomolecules and synthetic devices (for example emptied viral capsids that can deliver gene therapy or drug molecules).\n",
"\n\n\n=== Lists ===\n\n* Important publications in biochemistry (chemistry)\n* List of biochemistry topics\n* List of biochemists\n* List of biomolecules\n\n\n=== See also ===\n\n* Biochemistry (journal)\n* Biological Chemistry (journal)\n* Biophysics\n* Chemical ecology\n* Computational biomodeling\n* EC number\n* Hypothetical types of biochemistry\n* International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology\n* Metabolome\n* Metabolomics\n* Molecular biology\n* Molecular medicine\n* Plant biochemistry\n* Proteolysis\n* Small molecule\n* Structural biology\n* TCA cycle\n\n\n",
"\n'''a.''' Fructose is not the only sugar found in fruits. Glucose and sucrose are also found in varying quantities in various fruits, and indeed sometimes exceed the fructose present. For example, 32% of the edible portion of date is glucose, compared with 23.70% fructose and 8.20% sucrose. However, peaches contain more sucrose (6.66%) than they do fructose (0.93%) or glucose (1.47%).\n\n",
"\n\n=== Cited literature ===\n\n\n* \n* \n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n",
"\n* Keith Roberts, Martin Raff, Bruce Alberts, Peter Walter, Julian Lewis and Alexander Johnson, ''Molecular Biology of the Cell''\n**4th Edition, Routledge, March, 2002, hardcover, 1616 pages, 7.6 pounds, \n**3rd Edition, Garland, 1994, \n**2nd Edition, Garland, 1989, \n* Fruton, Joseph S. ''Proteins, Enzymes, Genes: The Interplay of Chemistry and Biology''. Yale University Press: New Haven, 1999. \n* Kohler, Robert. ''From Medical Chemistry to Biochemistry: The Making of a Biomedical Discipline''. Cambridge University Press, 1982.\n\n\n",
"\n\n\n* \n* The Virtual Library of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology\n* Biochemistry, 5th ed. Full text of Berg, Tymoczko, and Stryer, courtesy of NCBI.\n* SystemsX.ch - The Swiss Initiative in Systems Biology\n* Full text of Biochemistry by Kevin and Indira, an introductory biochemistry textbook.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" History",
" Starting materials: the chemical elements of life ",
"Biomolecules",
"Metabolism",
"Relationship to other \"molecular-scale\" biological sciences",
" See also",
"Notes",
"References",
" Further reading ",
" External links "
] | Biochemistry | [
"Examples of protein structures from the Protein Data Bank\nMembers of a protein family, as represented by the structures of the isomerase domains\nIngested proteins are usually broken up into single amino acids or dipeptides in the small intestine, and then absorbed."
] | [
"\n\n\n'''Biochemistry''', sometimes called '''biological chemistry''', is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms.",
"By controlling information flow through biochemical signaling and the flow of chemical energy through metabolism, biochemical processes give rise to the complexity of life.",
"Over the last decades of the 20th century, biochemistry has become so successful at explaining living processes that now almost all areas of the life sciences from botany to medicine to genetics are engaged in biochemical research.",
"Today, the main focus of pure biochemistry is on understanding how biological molecules give rise to the processes that occur within living cells, which in turn relates greatly to the study and understanding of tissues, organs, and whole organisms—that is, all of biology.",
"Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms by which genetic information encoded in DNA is able to result in the processes of life.",
"Depending on the exact definition of the terms used, molecular biology can be thought of as a branch of biochemistry, or biochemistry as a tool with which to investigate and study molecular biology.",
"Much of biochemistry deals with the structures, functions and interactions of biological macromolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids, which provide the structure of cells and perform many of the functions associated with life.",
"The chemistry of the cell also depends on the reactions of smaller molecules and ions.",
"These can be inorganic, for example water and metal ions, or organic, for example the amino acids, which are used to synthesize proteins.",
"The mechanisms by which cells harness energy from their environment via chemical reactions are known as metabolism.",
"The findings of biochemistry are applied primarily in medicine, nutrition, and agriculture.",
"In medicine, biochemists investigate the causes and cures of diseases.",
"In nutrition, they study how to maintain health wellness and study the effects of nutritional deficiencies.",
"In agriculture, biochemists investigate soil and fertilizers, and try to discover ways to improve crop cultivation, crop storage and pest control.",
"\nGerty Cori and Carl Cori jointly won the Nobel Prize in 1947 for their discovery of the Cori cycle at RPMI.",
"At its broadest definition, biochemistry can be seen as a study of the components, and composition of living things and how they come together to become life, and the history of biochemistry may therefore go back as far as the ancient Greeks.",
"However, biochemistry as a specific scientific discipline has its beginning sometime in the 19th century, or a little earlier, depending on which aspect of biochemistry is being focused on.",
"Some argued that the beginning of biochemistry may have been the discovery of the first enzyme, diastase (today called amylase), in 1833 by Anselme Payen, while others considered Eduard Buchner's first demonstration of a complex biochemical process alcoholic fermentation in cell-free extracts in 1897 to be the birth of biochemistry.",
"Some might also point as its beginning to the influential 1842 work by Justus von Liebig, ''Animal chemistry, or, Organic chemistry in its applications to physiology and pathology'', which presented a chemical theory of metabolism, or even earlier to the 18th century studies on fermentation and respiration by Antoine Lavoisier.",
"Many other pioneers in the field who helped to uncover the layers of complexity of biochemistry have been proclaimed founders of modern biochemistry, for example Emil Fischer for his work on the chemistry of proteins, and F. Gowland Hopkins on enzymes and the dynamic nature of biochemistry.",
"The term \"biochemistry\" itself is derived from a combination of biology and chemistry.",
"In 1877, Felix Hoppe-Seyler used the term (''biochemie'' in German) as a synonym for physiological chemistry in the foreword to the first issue of ''Zeitschrift für Physiologische Chemie'' (Journal of Physiological Chemistry) where he argued for the setting up of institutes dedicated to this field of study.",
"The German chemist Carl Neuberg however is often cited to have coined the word in 1903, while some credited it to Franz Hofmeister.",
"Edwards (1992), pp.",
"1161–1173.",
"It was once generally believed that life and its materials had some essential property or substance (often referred to as the \"vital principle\") distinct from any found in non-living matter, and it was thought that only living beings could produce the molecules of life.",
"Then, in 1828, Friedrich Wöhler published a paper on the synthesis of urea, proving that organic compounds can be created artificially.",
"Since then, biochemistry has advanced, especially since the mid-20th century, with the development of new techniques such as chromatography, X-ray diffraction, dual polarisation interferometry, NMR spectroscopy, radioisotopic labeling, electron microscopy, and molecular dynamics simulations.",
"These techniques allowed for the discovery and detailed analysis of many molecules and metabolic pathways of the cell, such as glycolysis and the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle).",
"Another significant historic event in biochemistry is the discovery of the gene and its role in the transfer of information in the cell.",
"This part of biochemistry is often called molecular biology.",
"In the 1950s, James D. Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, and Maurice Wilkins were instrumental in solving DNA structure and suggesting its relationship with genetic transfer of information.",
"In 1958, George Beadle and Edward Tatum received the Nobel Prize for work in fungi showing that one gene produces one enzyme.",
"In 1988, Colin Pitchfork was the first person convicted of murder with DNA evidence, which led to the growth of forensic science.",
"More recently, Andrew Z.",
"Fire and Craig C. Mello received the 2006 Nobel Prize for discovering the role of RNA interference (RNAi), in the silencing of gene expression.",
"The main elements that compose the human body are shown from most abundant (by mass) to least abundant.",
"Around two dozen of the 92 naturally occurring chemical elements are essential to various kinds of biological life.",
"Most rare elements on Earth are not needed by life (exceptions being selenium and iodine), while a few common ones (aluminum and titanium) are not used.",
"Most organisms share element needs, but there are a few differences between plants and animals.",
"For example, ocean algae use bromine, but land plants and animals seem to need none.",
"All animals require sodium, but some plants do not.",
"Plants need boron and silicon, but animals may not (or may need ultra-small amounts).",
"Just six elements—carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, calcium, and phosphorus—make up almost 99% of the mass of living cells, including those in the human body (see composition of the human body for a complete list).",
"In addition to the six major elements that compose most of the human body, humans require smaller amounts of possibly 18 more.",
"\nThe four main classes of molecules in biochemistry (often called biomolecules) are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.",
"Many biological molecules are polymers: in this terminology, monomers are relatively small micromolecules that are linked together to create large macromolecules known as polymers.",
"When monomers are linked together to synthesize a biological polymer, they undergo a process called dehydration synthesis.",
"Different macromolecules can assemble in larger complexes, often needed for biological activity.",
"===Carbohydrates===\n\n\nThe function of carbohydrates includes energy storage and providing structure.",
"Sugars are carbohydrates, but not all carbohydrates are sugars.",
"There are more carbohydrates on Earth than any other known type of biomolecule; they are used to store energy and genetic information, as well as play important roles in cell to cell interactions and communications.",
"The simplest type of carbohydrate is a monosaccharide, which among other properties contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, mostly in a ratio of 1:2:1 (generalized formula C''n''H2''n''O''n'', where ''n'' is at least 3).",
"Glucose (C6H12O6) is one of the most important carbohydrates; others include fructose (C6H12O6), the sugar commonly associated with the sweet taste of fruits, and deoxyribose (C5H10O4).",
"A monosaccharide can switch from the acyclic (open-chain) form to a cyclic form, through a nucleophilic addition reaction between the carbonyl group and one of the hydroxyls of the same molecule.",
"The reaction creates a ring of carbon atoms closed by one bridging oxygen atom.",
"The resulting molecule has an hemiacetal or hemiketal group, depending on whether the linear form was an aldose or a ketose.",
"The reaction is easily reversed, yielding the original open-chain form.",
"Conversion between the furanose, acyclic, and pyranose forms of D-glucose\n\nIn these cyclic forms, the ring usually has '''5''' or '''6''' atoms.",
"These forms are called furanoses and pyranoses, respectively — by analogy with furan and pyran, the simplest compounds with the same carbon-oxygen ring (although they lack the double bonds of these two molecules).",
"For example, the aldohexose glucose may form a hemiacetal linkage between the hydroxyl on carbon 1 and the oxygen on carbon 4, yielding a molecule with a 5-membered ring, called glucofuranose.",
"The same reaction can take place between carbons 1 and 5 to form a molecule with a 6-membered ring, called glucopyranose.",
"Cyclic forms with a 7-atom ring (the same of oxepane), rarely encountered, are called heptoses.",
"When two monosaccharides undergo dehydration synthesis whereby a molecule of water is released, as two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom are lost from the two monosaccharides, the new molecule, consisting of two monosaccharides, is called a ''disaccharide'' and is conjoined together by a glycosidic or ether bond.",
"The reverse reaction can also occur, using a molecule of water to split up a disaccharide and break the glycosidic bond; this is termed ''hydrolysis''.",
"The most well-known disaccharide is sucrose, ordinary sugar (in scientific contexts, called ''table sugar'' or ''cane sugar'' to differentiate it from other sugars).",
"Sucrose consists of a glucose molecule and a fructose molecule joined together.",
"Another important disaccharide is lactose, consisting of a glucose molecule and a galactose molecule.",
"As most humans age, the production of lactase, the enzyme that hydrolyzes lactose back into glucose and galactose, typically decreases.",
"This results in lactase deficiency, also called ''lactose intolerance''.",
"When a few (around three to six) monosaccharides are joined, it is called an ''oligosaccharide'' (''oligo-'' meaning \"few\").",
"These molecules tend to be used as markers and signals, as well as having some other uses.",
"Many monosaccharides joined together make a polysaccharide.",
"They can be joined together in one long linear chain, or they may be branched.",
"Two of the most common polysaccharides are cellulose and glycogen, both consisting of repeating glucose monomers.",
"Examples are ''cellulose'' which is an important structural component of plant's cell walls, and ''glycogen'', used as a form of energy storage in animals.",
"Sugar can be characterized by having reducing or non-reducing ends.",
"A reducing end of a carbohydrate is a carbon atom that can be in equilibrium with the open-chain aldehyde (aldose) or keto form (ketose).",
"If the joining of monomers takes place at such a carbon atom, the free hydroxy group of the pyranose or furanose form is exchanged with an OH-side-chain of another sugar, yielding a full acetal.",
"This prevents opening of the chain to the aldehyde or keto form and renders the modified residue non-reducing.",
"Lactose contains a reducing end at its glucose moiety, whereas the galactose moiety forms a full acetal with the C4-OH group of glucose.",
"Saccharose does not have a reducing end because of full acetal formation between the aldehyde carbon of glucose (C1) and the keto carbon of fructose (C2).",
"===Lipids===\n\n\nStructures of some common lipids.",
"At the top are cholesterol and oleic acid.",
"The middle structure is a triglyceride composed of oleoyl, stearoyl, and palmitoyl chains attached to a glycerol backbone.",
"At the bottom is the common phospholipid, phosphatidylcholine.",
"'''Lipids''' comprises a diverse range of molecules and to some extent is a catchall for relatively water-insoluble or nonpolar compounds of biological origin, including waxes, fatty acids, fatty-acid derived phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids, and terpenoids (e.g., retinoids and steroids).",
"Some lipids are linear aliphatic molecules, while others have ring structures.",
"Some are aromatic, while others are not.",
"Some are flexible, while others are rigid.",
"Lipids are usually made from one molecule of glycerol combined with other molecules.",
"In triglycerides, the main group of bulk lipids, there is one molecule of glycerol and three fatty acids.",
"Fatty acids are considered the monomer in that case, and may be saturated (no double bonds in the carbon chain) or unsaturated (one or more double bonds in the carbon chain).",
"Most lipids have some polar character in addition to being largely nonpolar.",
"In general, the bulk of their structure is nonpolar or hydrophobic (\"water-fearing\"), meaning that it does not interact well with polar solvents like water.",
"Another part of their structure is polar or hydrophilic (\"water-loving\") and will tend to associate with polar solvents like water.",
"This makes them amphiphilic molecules (having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions).",
"In the case of cholesterol, the polar group is a mere -OH (hydroxyl or alcohol).",
"In the case of phospholipids, the polar groups are considerably larger and more polar, as described below.",
"Lipids are an integral part of our daily diet.",
"Most oils and milk products that we use for cooking and eating like butter, cheese, ghee etc., are composed of fats.",
"Vegetable oils are rich in various polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA).",
"Lipid-containing foods undergo digestion within the body and are broken into fatty acids and glycerol, which are the final degradation products of fats and lipids.",
"Lipids, especially phospholipids, are also used in various pharmaceutical products, either as co-solubilisers (e.g., in parenteral infusions) or else as drug carrier components (e.g., in a liposome or transfersome).",
"===Proteins===\n\n\namino group on the left and the carboxyl group on the right.",
"Proteins are very large molecules – macro-biopolymers – made from monomers called amino acids.",
"An amino acid consists of a carbon atom bound to four groups.",
"One is an amino group, —NH2, and one is a carboxylic acid group, —COOH (although these exist as —NH3+ and —COO− under physiologic conditions).",
"The third is a simple hydrogen atom.",
"The fourth is commonly denoted \"—R\" and is different for each amino acid.",
"There are 20 standard amino acids, each containing a carboxyl group, an amino group, and a side-chain (known as an \"R\" group).",
"The \"R\" group is what makes each amino acid different, and the properties of the side-chains greatly influence the overall three-dimensional conformation of a protein.",
"Some amino acids have functions by themselves or in a modified form; for instance, glutamate functions as an important neurotransmitter.",
"Amino acids can be joined via a peptide bond.",
"In this dehydration synthesis, a water molecule is removed and the peptide bond connects the nitrogen of one amino acid's amino group to the carbon of the other's carboxylic acid group.",
"The resulting molecule is called a ''dipeptide'', and short stretches of amino acids (usually, fewer than thirty) are called ''peptides'' or polypeptides.",
"Longer stretches merit the title ''proteins''.",
"As an example, the important blood serum protein albumin contains 585 amino acid residues.",
"Generic amino acids (1) in neutral form, (2) as they exist physiologically, and (3) joined together as a dipeptide.",
"A schematic of hemoglobin.",
"The red and blue ribbons represent the protein globin; the green structures are the heme groups.",
"Some proteins perform largely structural roles.",
"For instance, movements of the proteins actin and myosin ultimately are responsible for the contraction of skeletal muscle.",
"One property many proteins have is that they specifically bind to a certain molecule or class of molecules—they may be ''extremely'' selective in what they bind.",
"Antibodies are an example of proteins that attach to one specific type of molecule.",
"In fact, the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), which uses antibodies, is one of the most sensitive tests modern medicine uses to detect various biomolecules.",
"Probably the most important proteins, however, are the enzymes.",
"Virtually every reaction in a living cell requires an enzyme to lower the activation energy of the reaction.",
"These molecules recognize specific reactant molecules called ''substrates''; they then catalyze the reaction between them.",
"By lowering the activation energy, the enzyme speeds up that reaction by a rate of 1011 or more; a reaction that would normally take over 3,000 years to complete spontaneously might take less than a second with an enzyme.",
"The enzyme itself is not used up in the process, and is free to catalyze the same reaction with a new set of substrates.",
"Using various modifiers, the activity of the enzyme can be regulated, enabling control of the biochemistry of the cell as a whole.",
"The structure of proteins is traditionally described in a hierarchy of four levels.",
"The primary structure of a protein simply consists of its linear sequence of amino acids; for instance, \"alanine-glycine-tryptophan-serine-glutamate-asparagine-glycine-lysine-…\".",
"Secondary structure is concerned with local morphology (morphology being the study of structure).",
"Some combinations of amino acids will tend to curl up in a coil called an α-helix or into a sheet called a β-sheet; some α-helixes can be seen in the hemoglobin schematic above.",
"Tertiary structure is the entire three-dimensional shape of the protein.",
"This shape is determined by the sequence of amino acids.",
"In fact, a single change can change the entire structure.",
"The alpha chain of hemoglobin contains 146 amino acid residues; substitution of the glutamate residue at position 6 with a valine residue changes the behavior of hemoglobin so much that it results in sickle-cell disease.",
"Finally, quaternary structure is concerned with the structure of a protein with multiple peptide subunits, like hemoglobin with its four subunits.",
"Not all proteins have more than one subunit.",
"They can then be joined to make new proteins.",
"Intermediate products of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the pentose phosphate pathway can be used to make all twenty amino acids, and most bacteria and plants possess all the necessary enzymes to synthesize them.",
"Humans and other mammals, however, can synthesize only half of them.",
"They cannot synthesize isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.",
"These are the essential amino acids, since it is essential to ingest them.",
"Mammals do possess the enzymes to synthesize alanine, asparagine, aspartate, cysteine, glutamate, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine, the nonessential amino acids.",
"While they can synthesize arginine and histidine, they cannot produce it in sufficient amounts for young, growing animals, and so these are often considered essential amino acids.",
"If the amino group is removed from an amino acid, it leaves behind a carbon skeleton called an α-keto acid.",
"Enzymes called transaminases can easily transfer the amino group from one amino acid (making it an α-keto acid) to another α-keto acid (making it an amino acid).",
"This is important in the biosynthesis of amino acids, as for many of the pathways, intermediates from other biochemical pathways are converted to the α-keto acid skeleton, and then an amino group is added, often via transamination.",
"The amino acids may then be linked together to make a protein.",
"A similar process is used to break down proteins.",
"It is first hydrolyzed into its component amino acids.",
"Free ammonia (NH3), existing as the ammonium ion (NH4+) in blood, is toxic to life forms.",
"A suitable method for excreting it must therefore exist.",
"Different tactics have evolved in different animals, depending on the animals' needs.",
"Unicellular organisms, of course, simply release the ammonia into the environment.",
"Likewise, bony fish can release the ammonia into the water where it is quickly diluted.",
"In general, mammals convert the ammonia into urea, via the urea cycle.",
"In order to determine whether two proteins are related, or in other words to decide whether they are homologous or not, scientists use sequence-comparison methods.",
"Methods like sequence alignments and structural alignments are powerful tools that help scientists identify homologies between related molecules.",
"The relevance of finding homologies among proteins goes beyond forming an evolutionary pattern of protein families.",
"By finding how similar two protein sequences are, we acquire knowledge about their structure and therefore their function.",
"===Nucleic acids===\n\nThe structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the picture shows the monomers being put together.",
"Nucleic acids, so called because of their prevalence in cellular nuclei, is the generic name of the family of biopolymers.",
"They are complex, high-molecular-weight biochemical macromolecules that can convey genetic information in all living cells and viruses.",
"The monomers are called nucleotides, and each consists of three components: a nitrogenous heterocyclic base (either a purine or a pyrimidine), a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.",
"Structural elements of common nucleic acid constituents.",
"Because they contain at least one phosphate group, the compounds marked ''nucleoside monophosphate'', ''nucleoside diphosphate'' and ''nucleoside triphosphate'' are all nucleotides (not simply phosphate-lacking nucleosides).",
"The most common nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).",
"The phosphate group and the sugar of each nucleotide bond with each other to form the backbone of the nucleic acid, while the sequence of nitrogenous bases stores the information.",
"The most common nitrogenous bases are adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, and uracil.",
"The nitrogenous bases of each strand of a nucleic acid will form hydrogen bonds with certain other nitrogenous bases in a complementary strand of nucleic acid (similar to a zipper).",
"Adenine binds with thymine and uracil; thymine binds only with adenine; and cytosine and guanine can bind only with one another.",
"Aside from the genetic material of the cell, nucleic acids often play a role as second messengers, as well as forming the base molecule for adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the primary energy-carrier molecule found in all living organisms.",
"Also, the nitrogenous bases possible in the two nucleic acids are different: adenine, cytosine, and guanine occur in both RNA and DNA, while thymine occurs only in DNA and uracil occurs in RNA.",
"\n===Carbohydrates as energy source===\n\nGlucose is the major energy source in most life forms.",
"For instance, polysaccharides are broken down into their monomers (glycogen phosphorylase removes glucose residues from glycogen).",
"Disaccharides like lactose or sucrose are cleaved into their two component monosaccharides.",
"====Glycolysis (anaerobic)====\n\nGlucose is mainly metabolized by a very important ten-step pathway called glycolysis, the net result of which is to break down one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate.",
"This also produces a net two molecules of ATP, the energy currency of cells, along with two reducing equivalents of converting NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide: oxidised form) to NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide: reduced form).",
"This does not require oxygen; if no oxygen is available (or the cell cannot use oxygen), the NAD is restored by converting the pyruvate to lactate (lactic acid) (e.g., in humans) or to ethanol plus carbon dioxide (e.g., in yeast).",
"Other monosaccharides like galactose and fructose can be converted into intermediates of the glycolytic pathway.",
"====Aerobic====\nIn aerobic cells with sufficient oxygen, as in most human cells, the pyruvate is further metabolized.",
"It is irreversibly converted to acetyl-CoA, giving off one carbon atom as the waste product carbon dioxide, generating another reducing equivalent as NADH.",
"The two molecules acetyl-CoA (from one molecule of glucose) then enter the citric acid cycle, producing two more molecules of ATP, six more NADH molecules and two reduced (ubi)quinones (via FADH2 as enzyme-bound cofactor), and releasing the remaining carbon atoms as carbon dioxide.",
"The produced NADH and quinol molecules then feed into the enzyme complexes of the respiratory chain, an electron transport system transferring the electrons ultimately to oxygen and conserving the released energy in the form of a proton gradient over a membrane (inner mitochondrial membrane in eukaryotes).",
"Thus, oxygen is reduced to water and the original electron acceptors NAD+ and quinone are regenerated.",
"This is why humans breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide.",
"The energy released from transferring the electrons from high-energy states in NADH and quinol is conserved first as proton gradient and converted to ATP via ATP synthase.",
"This generates an additional ''28'' molecules of ATP (24 from the 8 NADH + 4 from the 2 quinols), totaling to 32 molecules of ATP conserved per degraded glucose (two from glycolysis + two from the citrate cycle).",
"It is clear that using oxygen to completely oxidize glucose provides an organism with far more energy than any oxygen-independent metabolic feature, and this is thought to be the reason why complex life appeared only after Earth's atmosphere accumulated large amounts of oxygen.",
"====Gluconeogenesis====\n\nIn vertebrates, vigorously contracting skeletal muscles (during weightlifting or sprinting, for example) do not receive enough oxygen to meet the energy demand, and so they shift to anaerobic metabolism, converting glucose to lactate.",
"The liver regenerates the glucose, using a process called gluconeogenesis.",
"This process is not quite the opposite of glycolysis, and actually requires three times the amount of energy gained from glycolysis (six molecules of ATP are used, compared to the two gained in glycolysis).",
"Analogous to the above reactions, the glucose produced can then undergo glycolysis in tissues that need energy, be stored as glycogen (or starch in plants), or be converted to other monosaccharides or joined into di- or oligosaccharides.",
"The combined pathways of glycolysis during exercise, lactate's crossing via the bloodstream to the liver, subsequent gluconeogenesis and release of glucose into the bloodstream is called the Cori cycle.",
"Schematic relationship between biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biology.",
"Researchers in biochemistry use specific techniques native to biochemistry, but increasingly combine these with techniques and ideas developed in the fields of genetics, molecular biology and biophysics.",
"There has never been a hard-line among these disciplines in terms of content and technique.",
"Today, the terms ''molecular biology'' and ''biochemistry'' are nearly interchangeable.",
"The following figure is a schematic that depicts one possible view of the relationship between the fields:\n\n* ''Biochemistry'' is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living organisms.",
"Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of biomolecules.",
"The study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of biochemistry.",
"* ''Genetics'' is the study of the effect of genetic differences on organisms.",
"Often this can be inferred by the absence of a normal component (e.g., one gene), in the study of \"mutants\" – organisms with a changed gene that leads to the organism being different with respect to the so-called \"wild type\" or normal phenotype.",
"Genetic interactions (epistasis) can often confound simple interpretations of such \"knock-out\" or \"knock-in\" studies.",
"* ''Molecular biology'' is the study of molecular underpinnings of the process of replication, transcription and translation of the genetic material.",
"The central dogma of molecular biology where genetic material is transcribed into RNA and then translated into protein, despite being an oversimplified picture of molecular biology, still provides a good starting point for understanding the field.",
"This picture, however, is undergoing revision in light of emerging novel roles for RNA.",
"* ''Chemical biology'' seeks to develop new tools based on small molecules that allow minimal perturbation of biological systems while providing detailed information about their function.",
"Further, chemical biology employs biological systems to create non-natural hybrids between biomolecules and synthetic devices (for example emptied viral capsids that can deliver gene therapy or drug molecules).",
"\n\n\n=== Lists ===\n\n* Important publications in biochemistry (chemistry)\n* List of biochemistry topics\n* List of biochemists\n* List of biomolecules\n\n\n=== See also ===\n\n* Biochemistry (journal)\n* Biological Chemistry (journal)\n* Biophysics\n* Chemical ecology\n* Computational biomodeling\n* EC number\n* Hypothetical types of biochemistry\n* International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology\n* Metabolome\n* Metabolomics\n* Molecular biology\n* Molecular medicine\n* Plant biochemistry\n* Proteolysis\n* Small molecule\n* Structural biology\n* TCA cycle",
"\n'''a.'''",
"Fructose is not the only sugar found in fruits.",
"Glucose and sucrose are also found in varying quantities in various fruits, and indeed sometimes exceed the fructose present.",
"For example, 32% of the edible portion of date is glucose, compared with 23.70% fructose and 8.20% sucrose.",
"However, peaches contain more sucrose (6.66%) than they do fructose (0.93%) or glucose (1.47%).",
"\n\n=== Cited literature ===\n\n\n* \n* \n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*",
"\n* Keith Roberts, Martin Raff, Bruce Alberts, Peter Walter, Julian Lewis and Alexander Johnson, ''Molecular Biology of the Cell''\n**4th Edition, Routledge, March, 2002, hardcover, 1616 pages, 7.6 pounds, \n**3rd Edition, Garland, 1994, \n**2nd Edition, Garland, 1989, \n* Fruton, Joseph S. ''Proteins, Enzymes, Genes: The Interplay of Chemistry and Biology''.",
"Yale University Press: New Haven, 1999.",
"* Kohler, Robert.",
"''From Medical Chemistry to Biochemistry: The Making of a Biomedical Discipline''.",
"Cambridge University Press, 1982.",
"\n\n\n* \n* The Virtual Library of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology\n* Biochemistry, 5th ed.",
"Full text of Berg, Tymoczko, and Stryer, courtesy of NCBI.",
"* SystemsX.ch - The Swiss Initiative in Systems Biology\n* Full text of Biochemistry by Kevin and Indira, an introductory biochemistry textbook."
] | river |
[
"\n\n\nHeadquarters in Rome\n\nThe '''Bank of Italy''', known in Italian as '''Banca d'Italia''' (), also known as '''Bankitalia''', is the central bank of Italy and part of the European System of Central Banks. It is located in Palazzo Koch, via Nazionale, Rome. The bank's current governor is Ignazio Visco, who took the office on 1 November 2011.\n",
"After the charge of monetary and exchange rate policies was shifted in 1998 to the European Central Bank, within the European institutional framework, the bank implements the decisions, issues euro banknotes and withdraws and destroys worn pieces.\n\nThe main function has thus become banking and financial supervision. The objective is to ensure the stability and efficiency of the system and compliance to rules and regulations; the bank pursues it through secondary legislation, controls and cooperation with governmental authorities.\n\nFollowing reform in 2005, which was prompted by takeover scandals, the bank has lost exclusive antitrust authority in the credit sector, which is now shared with the Italian Competition Authority ().\n\nOther functions include, market supervision, oversight of the payment system and provision of settlement services, State treasury service, Central Credit Register, economic analysis and institutional consultancy.\n\nBank of Italy gold reserves are 2,451.8 tonnes (2006).\n",
"The institution was established in 1893 from the combination of three major banks in Italy (after the Banca Romana scandal). The new central bank first issued bank-notes during 1926. Until 1928, it was directed by a general manager, after this time instead by a governor elected by an internal commission of managers, with a decree from the President of the Italian Republic, for a term of seven years.\n\n===General Managers (1893–1928)===\n*Giacomo Grillo (1893–1894)\n*Giuseppe Marchiori (1894–1900)\n*Bonaldo Stringher (1900–1928)\n\n===Governors (1928–present)===\n*Bonaldo Stringher (1928–1930)\n*Vincenzo Azzolini (1931–1944)\n*Luigi Einaudi (1945–1948)\n*Donato Menichella (1948–1960)\n*Guido Carli (1960–1975)\n*Paolo Baffi (1975–1979)\n*Carlo Azeglio Ciampi (1979–1993)\n*Antonio Fazio (1993–2005)\n*Mario Draghi (2005–2011)\n*Ignazio Visco (2011–present)\n",
"===Governing Bodies===\nThe Bank's governing bodies are the General Meeting of Shareholders, the Board of Directors, the Governor, the Director General and three Deputy Directors General; the last five constitute the Directorate. \n\nThe general meeting takes place yearly and with the purpose of approving accounts and appointing the auditors. The Board of Directors has administrative powers and is chaired by the governor (or by the Director General in his absence). Following reform in 2005, the governor lost exclusive responsibility regarding decisions of external relevance (i.e. banking and financial supervision), which has been transferred to the Directorate (by majority vote). The Director General is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the bank, and acts as governor when absent.\n\nThe Board of Auditors assesses the bank's administration and compliance with the law, regulations and the statute.\n\n===Appointment===\nThe Directorate's term of office lasts six years and is renewable once. The appointment of the governor is the responsibility of the government, head of the Board of Directors, with the approval of the President of the Republic (formally a decree of the President). The Board of Directors is elected by the shareholders according to the bank statute.\n\n==== 2011 designation of new governor ====\n\nOn 25 October 2011, Silvio Berlusconi named Ignazio Visco as new governor of the bank, replacing Mario Draghi.\n",
"Banca d'Italia had 300,000 number of shares with a nominal value of €25,000. Original scattered around the banks of whole Italy, the shares now accumulated due to the merger of the banks since 1990s. The status of the bank states that a minimum of 54% of profits would go to the Italian government, and only a maximum of 6% of profits would distributed as dividends according to shares ratio.\n\n\n\n\n !! Number of shares !! Percentage !! Voting rights !! Percentage \n\n Intesa Sanpaolo \n 76,787 \n 25.60% \n \n\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio in Bologna (subsidiary) \n 18,602 \n 6.20% \n \n\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio di Firenze (subsidiary) \n 5,656 \n 1.89% \n \n\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio del Veneto (subsidiary) \n 3,610 \n 1.20% \n \n\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio del Friuli Venezia Giulia (subsidiary) \n 1,869 \n 0.62% \n \n\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio di Pistoia e della Lucchesia (subsidiary) \n 1,126 \n 0.38% \n \n\n\n — Casse di Risparmio dell'Umbria (subsidiary) \n 1,106 \n 0.37% \n \n\n\n — Banca dell'Adriatico (subsidiary) \n 653 \n 0.22% \n \n\n\n — Cassa dei Risparmi di Forlì e della Romagna (subsidiary) \n 605 \n 0.20% \n \n\n\n UniCredit \n 56,049 \n 18.68% \n \n\n\n \n 0 \n 0.00% \n 0 \n 0.00%\n\n — INPS \n 9,000 \n 3.00% \n \n\n\n — Cassa Forense \n 9,000 \n 3.00% \n \n\n\n — INARCASSA \n 9,000 \n 3.00% \n \n\n\n — Fondazione ENPAM \n 9,000 \n 3.00% \n \n\n\n — INAIL \n 8,000 \n 2.67% \n \n\n\n — Fondazione ENPAIA \n 3,000 \n 1.00% \n \n\n\n — CNPR\n 1,500 \n 0.50% \n \n\n\n Generali Italia \n 16,425 \n 5.48% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di Genova e Imperia \n 12,093 \n 4.03% \n \n\n\n — Banca del Monte di Lucca (subsidiary) \n 2 \n 0.00% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di Asti \n 2,800 \n 0.93% \n \n\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio di Biella e Vercelli (subsidiary) \n 6,300 \n 2.10% \n \n\n\n BNP Paribas \n 0 \n 0.00% \n 0 \n 0.00%\n\n — Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (subsidiary) \n 8,500 \n 2.83% \n \n\n\n Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena \n 7,500 \n 2.50% \n \n\n\n Crédit Agricole \n 0 \n 0.00% \n 0 \n 0.00%\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio di Parma e Piacenza (subsidiary) \n 6,094 \n 2.03% \n \n\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio della Spezia (subsidiary) \n 266 \n 0.09% \n \n\n\n UnipolSai Assicurazioni \n 6,000 \n 2.00% \n \n\n\n Banco Popolare \n 3,668 \n 1.22% \n \n\n\n Nuova Banca delle Marche \n 2,459 \n 0.82% \n \n\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio di Loreto (subsidiary) \n 100 \n 0.03% \n \n\n\n Unione di Banche Italiane \n 0 \n 0.00% \n 0 \n 0.00%\n\n — Banca Regionale Europea (subsidiary) \n 759 \n 0.25% \n \n\n\n — Banca Carime (subsidiary) \n 500 \n 0.17% \n \n\n\n Nuova Cassa di Risparmio di Ferrara \n 949 \n 0.32% \n \n\n\n Banca Popolare di Milano \n 873 \n 0.29% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di Ravenna \n 769 \n 0.26% \n \n\n\n Banca Popolare dell'Emilia Romagna \n 759 \n 0.25% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di Fossano \n 750 \n 0.25% \n \n\n\n Banca Popolare di Vicenza \n 687 \n 0.23% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di Cesena \n 675 \n 0.23% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di San Miniato \n 652 \n 0.22% \n \n\n\n Fondazione Cassa di Risparmio di Carpi \n 600 \n 0.20% \n \n\n\n Reale Mutua di Assicurazioni \n 500 \n 0.17% \n \n\n\n Veneto Banca \n 480 \n 0.16% \n \n\n\n Eurovita Assicurazioni \n 400 \n 0.13% \n \n\n\n Fondazione Cassa di Risparmio di Perugia \n 400 \n 0.13% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di Rimini \n 393 \n 0.13% \n \n\n\n Südtiroler Sparkasse – Cassa di Risparmio di Bolzano \n 377 \n 0.13% \n \n\n\n Banca Popolare di Bari \n 0 \n 0.00% \n 0 \n 0.00%\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio di Orvieto (subsidiary) \n 237 \n 0.08% \n \n\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio della Provincia di Teramo (subsidiary) \n 115 \n 0.04% \n \n\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio di Pescara e di Loreto Aprutino (subsidiary) \n 8 \n 0.00% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di Cento \n 311 \n 0.10% \n \n\n\n Fondazione Manodori \n 300 \n 0.10% \n \n\n\n Banca Cassa di Risparmio di Savigliano \n 200 \n 0.07% \n \n\n\n Allianz S.p.A. \n 200 \n 0.07% \n \n\n\n BCC Roma \n 200 \n 0.07% \n \n\n\n Banca Sistema \n 200 \n 0.07% \n \n\n\n Banca del Piemonte \n 200 \n 0.07% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di Volterra \n 194 \n 0.06% \n \n\n\n Nuova Cassa di Risparmio di Chieti \n 151 \n 0.05% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di Fermo \n 130 \n 0.04% \n \n\n\n Banca Sella Holding \n 120 \n 0.04% \n \n\n\n Credito Valtellinese \n 101 \n 0.03% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio della Repubblica di San Marino \n 36 \n 0.01% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di Saluzzo \n 4 \n 0.00% \n \n\n\n\n",
"*Banking in Italy\n*Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato\n*Commissione Nazionale per le Società e la Borsa\n*Economy of Italy\n*Italian lira\n* eabh (The European Association for Banking and Financial History e.V.)\n",
"\n",
"*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Functions",
"History",
"Organization of the Bank of Italy",
"Shareholders",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Bank of Italy | [
"\n\n\nHeadquarters in Rome\n\nThe '''Bank of Italy''', known in Italian as '''Banca d'Italia''' (), also known as '''Bankitalia''', is the central bank of Italy and part of the European System of Central Banks.",
"The bank's current governor is Ignazio Visco, who took the office on 1 November 2011.",
"After the charge of monetary and exchange rate policies was shifted in 1998 to the European Central Bank, within the European institutional framework, the bank implements the decisions, issues euro banknotes and withdraws and destroys worn pieces.",
"The objective is to ensure the stability and efficiency of the system and compliance to rules and regulations; the bank pursues it through secondary legislation, controls and cooperation with governmental authorities.",
"Following reform in 2005, which was prompted by takeover scandals, the bank has lost exclusive antitrust authority in the credit sector, which is now shared with the Italian Competition Authority ().",
"Bank of Italy gold reserves are 2,451.8 tonnes (2006).",
"The new central bank first issued bank-notes during 1926.",
"===Governing Bodies===\nThe Bank's governing bodies are the General Meeting of Shareholders, the Board of Directors, the Governor, the Director General and three Deputy Directors General; the last five constitute the Directorate.",
"The Director General is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the bank, and acts as governor when absent.",
"The Board of Auditors assesses the bank's administration and compliance with the law, regulations and the statute.",
"The Board of Directors is elected by the shareholders according to the bank statute.",
"==== 2011 designation of new governor ====\n\nOn 25 October 2011, Silvio Berlusconi named Ignazio Visco as new governor of the bank, replacing Mario Draghi.",
"The status of the bank states that a minimum of 54% of profits would go to the Italian government, and only a maximum of 6% of profits would distributed as dividends according to shares ratio."
] | [
"It is located in Palazzo Koch, via Nazionale, Rome.",
"The main function has thus become banking and financial supervision.",
"Other functions include, market supervision, oversight of the payment system and provision of settlement services, State treasury service, Central Credit Register, economic analysis and institutional consultancy.",
"The institution was established in 1893 from the combination of three major banks in Italy (after the Banca Romana scandal).",
"Until 1928, it was directed by a general manager, after this time instead by a governor elected by an internal commission of managers, with a decree from the President of the Italian Republic, for a term of seven years.",
"===General Managers (1893–1928)===\n*Giacomo Grillo (1893–1894)\n*Giuseppe Marchiori (1894–1900)\n*Bonaldo Stringher (1900–1928)\n\n===Governors (1928–present)===\n*Bonaldo Stringher (1928–1930)\n*Vincenzo Azzolini (1931–1944)\n*Luigi Einaudi (1945–1948)\n*Donato Menichella (1948–1960)\n*Guido Carli (1960–1975)\n*Paolo Baffi (1975–1979)\n*Carlo Azeglio Ciampi (1979–1993)\n*Antonio Fazio (1993–2005)\n*Mario Draghi (2005–2011)\n*Ignazio Visco (2011–present)",
"The general meeting takes place yearly and with the purpose of approving accounts and appointing the auditors.",
"The Board of Directors has administrative powers and is chaired by the governor (or by the Director General in his absence).",
"Following reform in 2005, the governor lost exclusive responsibility regarding decisions of external relevance (i.e.",
"banking and financial supervision), which has been transferred to the Directorate (by majority vote).",
"===Appointment===\nThe Directorate's term of office lasts six years and is renewable once.",
"The appointment of the governor is the responsibility of the government, head of the Board of Directors, with the approval of the President of the Republic (formally a decree of the President).",
"Banca d'Italia had 300,000 number of shares with a nominal value of €25,000.",
"Original scattered around the banks of whole Italy, the shares now accumulated due to the merger of the banks since 1990s.",
"!",
"!",
"Number of shares !",
"!",
"Percentage !",
"!",
"Voting rights !",
"!",
"Percentage \n\n Intesa Sanpaolo \n 76,787 \n 25.60% \n \n\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio in Bologna (subsidiary) \n 18,602 \n 6.20% \n \n\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio di Firenze (subsidiary) \n 5,656 \n 1.89% \n \n\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio del Veneto (subsidiary) \n 3,610 \n 1.20% \n \n\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio del Friuli Venezia Giulia (subsidiary) \n 1,869 \n 0.62% \n \n\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio di Pistoia e della Lucchesia (subsidiary) \n 1,126 \n 0.38% \n \n\n\n — Casse di Risparmio dell'Umbria (subsidiary) \n 1,106 \n 0.37% \n \n\n\n — Banca dell'Adriatico (subsidiary) \n 653 \n 0.22% \n \n\n\n — Cassa dei Risparmi di Forlì e della Romagna (subsidiary) \n 605 \n 0.20% \n \n\n\n UniCredit \n 56,049 \n 18.68% \n \n\n\n \n 0 \n 0.00% \n 0 \n 0.00%\n\n — INPS \n 9,000 \n 3.00% \n \n\n\n — Cassa Forense \n 9,000 \n 3.00% \n \n\n\n — INARCASSA \n 9,000 \n 3.00% \n \n\n\n — Fondazione ENPAM \n 9,000 \n 3.00% \n \n\n\n — INAIL \n 8,000 \n 2.67% \n \n\n\n — Fondazione ENPAIA \n 3,000 \n 1.00% \n \n\n\n — CNPR\n 1,500 \n 0.50% \n \n\n\n Generali Italia \n 16,425 \n 5.48% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di Genova e Imperia \n 12,093 \n 4.03% \n \n\n\n — Banca del Monte di Lucca (subsidiary) \n 2 \n 0.00% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di Asti \n 2,800 \n 0.93% \n \n\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio di Biella e Vercelli (subsidiary) \n 6,300 \n 2.10% \n \n\n\n BNP Paribas \n 0 \n 0.00% \n 0 \n 0.00%\n\n — Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (subsidiary) \n 8,500 \n 2.83% \n \n\n\n Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena \n 7,500 \n 2.50% \n \n\n\n Crédit Agricole \n 0 \n 0.00% \n 0 \n 0.00%\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio di Parma e Piacenza (subsidiary) \n 6,094 \n 2.03% \n \n\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio della Spezia (subsidiary) \n 266 \n 0.09% \n \n\n\n UnipolSai Assicurazioni \n 6,000 \n 2.00% \n \n\n\n Banco Popolare \n 3,668 \n 1.22% \n \n\n\n Nuova Banca delle Marche \n 2,459 \n 0.82% \n \n\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio di Loreto (subsidiary) \n 100 \n 0.03% \n \n\n\n Unione di Banche Italiane \n 0 \n 0.00% \n 0 \n 0.00%\n\n — Banca Regionale Europea (subsidiary) \n 759 \n 0.25% \n \n\n\n — Banca Carime (subsidiary) \n 500 \n 0.17% \n \n\n\n Nuova Cassa di Risparmio di Ferrara \n 949 \n 0.32% \n \n\n\n Banca Popolare di Milano \n 873 \n 0.29% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di Ravenna \n 769 \n 0.26% \n \n\n\n Banca Popolare dell'Emilia Romagna \n 759 \n 0.25% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di Fossano \n 750 \n 0.25% \n \n\n\n Banca Popolare di Vicenza \n 687 \n 0.23% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di Cesena \n 675 \n 0.23% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di San Miniato \n 652 \n 0.22% \n \n\n\n Fondazione Cassa di Risparmio di Carpi \n 600 \n 0.20% \n \n\n\n Reale Mutua di Assicurazioni \n 500 \n 0.17% \n \n\n\n Veneto Banca \n 480 \n 0.16% \n \n\n\n Eurovita Assicurazioni \n 400 \n 0.13% \n \n\n\n Fondazione Cassa di Risparmio di Perugia \n 400 \n 0.13% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di Rimini \n 393 \n 0.13% \n \n\n\n Südtiroler Sparkasse – Cassa di Risparmio di Bolzano \n 377 \n 0.13% \n \n\n\n Banca Popolare di Bari \n 0 \n 0.00% \n 0 \n 0.00%\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio di Orvieto (subsidiary) \n 237 \n 0.08% \n \n\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio della Provincia di Teramo (subsidiary) \n 115 \n 0.04% \n \n\n\n — Cassa di Risparmio di Pescara e di Loreto Aprutino (subsidiary) \n 8 \n 0.00% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di Cento \n 311 \n 0.10% \n \n\n\n Fondazione Manodori \n 300 \n 0.10% \n \n\n\n Banca Cassa di Risparmio di Savigliano \n 200 \n 0.07% \n \n\n\n Allianz S.p.A. \n 200 \n 0.07% \n \n\n\n BCC Roma \n 200 \n 0.07% \n \n\n\n Banca Sistema \n 200 \n 0.07% \n \n\n\n Banca del Piemonte \n 200 \n 0.07% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di Volterra \n 194 \n 0.06% \n \n\n\n Nuova Cassa di Risparmio di Chieti \n 151 \n 0.05% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di Fermo \n 130 \n 0.04% \n \n\n\n Banca Sella Holding \n 120 \n 0.04% \n \n\n\n Credito Valtellinese \n 101 \n 0.03% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio della Repubblica di San Marino \n 36 \n 0.01% \n \n\n\n Cassa di Risparmio di Saluzzo \n 4 \n 0.00%",
"*Banking in Italy\n*Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato\n*Commissione Nazionale per le Società e la Borsa\n*Economy of Italy\n*Italian lira\n* eabh (The European Association for Banking and Financial History e.V.)",
"*"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n'''Buffalo''' () is a city in and the seat of Erie County in Western New York. Located in the U.S. state of New York on the eastern shore of Lake Erie at the head of the Niagara River. , Buffalo is the state's second most populous city after the city it is named for, with 256,902 residents. The metropolitan area has a population of 1.13 million, while the larger, cross-border Buffalo Niagara Region includes 8 U.S. counties and 2 Canadian municipalities and has a population of 2,493,869.\n\nBuffalo grew significantly in the 19th and 20th centuries as a result of the Erie Canal, railroads and Lake Erie, providing an abundance of fresh water and an ample trade route to the midwestern United States, while grooming its economy for the grain, steel and automobile industries during the 20th century. After an economic downturn in the latter half of the 20th century, Buffalo's economy has transitioned to sectors that include financial services, technology, biomedical engineering and education.\n\nBuffalo is known as \"The Queen City\", \"The Nickel City\" and \"The City of Good Neighbors\". Its residents are called Buffalonians.\n",
"The city of Buffalo received its name from a nearby creek called Buffalo Creek. British military engineer Captain John Montresor made reference to 'Buffalo Creek' in his journal of 1764, which may be the earliest recorded appearance of the name. There are several theories regarding how Buffalo Creek received its name. While it is possible that Buffalo Creek's name originated from French fur traders and Native Americans calling the creek ''Beau Fleuve'' (French for \"Beautiful River\"), it is also possible Buffalo Creek was named for the American buffalo, whose historical range may have extended into western New York.\n",
"\nBird's-eye view of Buffalo in 1873\nSteel production at Bethlehem Steel on the shores of Lake Erie, 1973\n \nDuring French exploration of the region in 1620, the region's inhabitants were an Iroquoian-speaking tribal offshoot of the large Neutral Nation called the Wenro people or'' 'Wenrohronon','' who lived along the south shore of Lake Ontario and east end of Lake Erie and a bit of its southern shore. Later, during the 1640s–50s Beaver Wars, the combined warriors of the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy conquered the populous Neutrals and their peninsular territory, while the Senecas alone took out the Wenro and their territory, c. 1651\n–1653.\n\nIn 1804, as principal agent opening the area for the Holland Land Company, Joseph Ellicott, the architect of Washington D.C., designed a radial street and grid system that branches out from downtown like bicycle spokes similar to the street system he used in the nation's capital. Although Ellicott named the settlement \"New Amsterdam,\" the name did not catch on.\n\nDuring the War of 1812, on December 30, 1813, Buffalo was burned by British forces.\n\nOn October 26, 1825, the Erie Canal was completed with Buffalo a port-of-call for settlers heading westward. At the time, the population was about 2,400. The Erie Canal brought about a surge in population and commerce, which led Buffalo to incorporate as a city in 1832.\n\nIn 1845, construction began on the Macedonia Baptist Church, an important meeting place for the abolitionist movement. Buffalo was a terminus point of the Underground Railroad with many fugitive slaves crossing the Niagara River to Fort Erie, Ontario in search of freedom.\n\nDuring the 1840s, Buffalo's port continued to develop. Both passenger and commercial traffic expanded with some 93,000 passengers heading west from the port of Buffalo. Grain and commercial goods shipments led to repeated expansion of the harbor. In 1843, the world's first steam-powered grain elevator was constructed by local merchant Joseph Dart and engineer Robert Dunbar. \"Dart's Elevator\" enabled faster unloading of lake freighters along with the transshipment of grain in bulk from barges, canal boats, and rail cars. By 1850, the city's population was 81,000.\n\nAt the dawn of the 20th century, local mills were among the first to benefit from hydroelectric power generated by the Niagara River. The city got the nickname ''City of Light'' at this time due to the widespread electric lighting. It was also part of the automobile revolution, hosting the brass era car builders Pierce Arrow and the Seven Little Buffaloes early in the century. President William McKinley was shot and mortally wounded by an anarchist at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo on September 6, 1901. McKinley died in the city eight days later and Theodore Roosevelt was sworn in at the Wilcox Mansion as the 26th President of the United States.\n\nThe Great Depression of 1929–39 saw severe unemployment, especially among working class men. The New Deal relief programs operated full force. The city became a stronghold of labor unions and the Democratic Party. During World War II, Buffalo saw the return of prosperity and full employment due to its position as a manufacturing center.\n\nWith the opening of the St. Lawrence Seaway in 1957, which cut the city off from valuable trade routes; deindustrialization; and the nationwide trend of suburbanization; the city's economy began to deteriorate. Like much of the Rust Belt, Buffalo, home to more than half a million people in the 1950s, has seen its population decline as heavy industries shut down and people left for the suburbs or other cities. During this time, urban renewal and the construction of several expressways, including the Niagara Thruway, Scajaquada Expressway and Kensington Expressway reshaped much of the city, displacing residents and businesses.\n\nLike other rust belt cities such as Pittsburgh and Cleveland, Buffalo has attempted to revitalize its beleaguered economy and crumbling infrastructure. In the first decade of the 21st century, a massive increase in economic development spending has attempted to reverse its dwindling prosperity. In the early 2010s, growth from local colleges and universities continued to spur economic development.\n\nBuffalo from Lake Erie, c. 1911.\n",
"Buffalo is on Lake Erie's eastern end, opposite Fort Erie, Ontario. It is located at the origin of the Niagara River, which flows northward over Niagara Falls and into Lake Ontario. The city is south-southeast from Toronto. In the Southtowns lie the Boston Hills, while the Appalachian Mountains sit in the Southern Tier below them. To the north and east, the region maintains a flatter profile descending to Lake Ontario.\n\nBuffalo River and Scajaquada Creek run through the city.\n\nAccording to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and the rest water. The total area is 22.66% water.\n\n===Cityscape===\n\nSkyline of Buffalo, looking east from Lake Erie.\n\n====Architecture====\nElmwood Village\n2001 image of the Niagara Peninsula, Niagara Falls and Buffalo from NASA's Terra satellite.Buffalo's architecture is diverse, with a collection of buildings the 19th and 20th centuries. Most structures and works are still standing, such as the country's largest intact parks system designed by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux. At the end of the 19th century, the Guaranty Building—constructed by Louis Sullivan—was a prominent example of an early high-rise skyscraper. The 20th century saw works such as the Art Deco-style Buffalo City Hall and Buffalo Central Terminal, Electric Tower, the Richardson Olmsted Complex, and the Rand Building. Urban renewal from the 1950s–1970s gave way to the construction of the Brutalist-style Buffalo City Court Building and the One Seneca Tower—formerly the HSBC Center, the city's tallest building.\n\n====Neighborhoods====\n\n\n===Climate===\nBuffalo has a continental-type climate, which is common in the Great Lakes region. (Köppen climate classification \"Dfb\" – uniform precipitation distribution). Buffalo has snowy winters, but it is rarely the snowiest city in New York state. The Blizzard of 1977 resulted from a combination of high winds and snow previously accumulated on land and on frozen Lake Erie. Snow does not typically impair the city's operation, but can cause significant damage during the autumn as with the October 2006 storm. In November 2014, the region had a record-breaking storm, producing over of snow. Buffalo has the sunniest and driest summers of any major city in the Northeast, but still has enough rain to keep vegetation green and lush. Summers are marked by plentiful sunshine and moderate humidity and temperature. Obscured by the notoriety of Buffalo's winter snow is the fact Buffalo benefits from other lake effects such as the cooling southwest breezes off Lake Erie in summer that gently temper the warmest days. As a result, temperatures only rise above three times per year, and the Buffalo station of the National Weather Service has never recorded an official temperature of or more. Rainfall is moderate but typically occurs at night. Lake Erie's stabilizing effect continues to inhibit thunderstorms and enhance sunshine in the immediate Buffalo area through most of July. August usually has more showers and is hotter and more humid as the warmer lake loses its temperature-stabilizing influence. The highest recorded temperature in Buffalo was on August 27, 1948 and the lowest recorded temperature was , which occurred twice, on February 9, 1934 and February 2, 1961.\n\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n Racial composition !! 2010!! 1990!! 1970 !! 1940\n\nWhite \n50.4% \n64.7% \n78.7% \n96.8%\n\nBlack or African American \n38.6% \n30.7% \n20.4% \n3.1%\n\nHispanic or Latino (of any race) \n10.5% \n4.9% \n1.6% \n(X)\n\nAsian \n3.2% \n1.0% \n0.2% \n−\n\n\nLike most former industrial cities of the Great Lakes region in the United States, Buffalo is recovering from an economic depression from suburbanization and the loss of its industrial base. The city's population peaked in 1950, when it was the 15th largest city in the United States, and its population has been spreading out to the suburbs every census since then.\n\nAt the 2010 Census, the city's population was 50.4% White (45.8% non-Hispanic White alone), 38.6% Black or African-American, 0.8% American Indian and Alaska Native, 3.2% Asian, 3.9% from some other race and 3.1% from two or more races. 10.5% of the total population was Hispanic or Latino of any race. Since 2003, there has been an ever-growing number of Burmese refugees, mostly of the Karen ethnicity, with an estimated 4,665 now residing in Buffalo.\n\nThe median income for a household in the city is $24,536 and the median income for a family is $30,614. Males have a median income of $30,938 versus $23,982 for females. The per capita income for the city is $14,991. 26.6% of the population and 23% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 38.4% of those under the age of 18 and 14% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.\n",
"The following is a list of the top ten private employers in the Buffalo area.\nThe Larkin Terminal Warehouse, headquarters of KeyBank.\n\n\n Rank\n Employer\n Number of Buffalo employees\n Product(s)\n\n 1\n Kaleida Health\n 10,000\n Health care\n\n 2\n Catholic Health\n 7,918\n Health care\n\n 3\n M&T Bank\n 7,500\n Financial services\n\n 4\n Seneca Gaming\n 4,000\n Entertainment\n\n 5\n Tops Friendly Markets\n 3,942\n Supermarkets\n\n 6\n Wegmans\n 3,393\n Supermarkets\n\n 7\n Roswell Park Cancer Institute\n 3,035\n Health care\n\n 8\n GEICO\n 2,750\n Insurance services\n\n 9\n HSBC Bank USA\n 2,700\n Financial services\n\n 10\n Moog Inc.\n 2,600\n Manufacturing\n\nBuffalo's economic sectors include industrial, light manufacturing, high technology and services. The State of New York, with over 15,000 employees, is the city's largest employer. Other major employers include the United States government, Kaleida Health, M&T Bank (which is headquartered in Buffalo), the University at Buffalo, General Motors, Time Warner Cable and Tops Friendly Markets. Buffalo is home to Rich Products, Canadian brewer Labatt, cheese company Sorrento Lactalis, Delaware North Companies and New Era Cap Company. More recently, the Tesla Gigafactory 2 opened in South Buffalo in summer 2017, as a result of the Buffalo Billion program.\n\nThe loss of traditional jobs in manufacturing, rapid suburbanization and high labor costs have led to economic decline and made Buffalo one of the poorest U.S. cities with populations of more than 250,000 people. An estimated 28.7–29.9% of Buffalo residents live below the poverty line, behind either only Detroit, or only Detroit and Cleveland. Buffalo's median household income of $27,850 is third-lowest among large cities, behind only Miami and Cleveland; however the metropolitan area's median household income is $57,000. This, in part, has led to the Buffalo-Niagara Falls metropolitan area having the most affordable housing market in the U.S. The quarterly NAHB/Wells Fargo Housing Opportunity Index (HOI) noted nearly 90% of the new and existing homes sold in the metropolitan area during the second quarter were affordable to families making the area's median income of $57,000. , the median home price in the city was $95,000.\n\nBuffalo's economy has begun to see significant improvements since the early 2010s. Money from New York State Governor Andrew Cuomo through a program known locally as \"Buffalo Billion\" has brought new construction, increased economic development, and hundreds of new jobs to the area. As of March 2015, Buffalo's unemployment rate was 5.9%, slightly above the national average of 5.5%. In 2016, the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis valued the Buffalo area's economy at $54.9 billion.\n",
"Compared to the national average, Buffalo has a much higher rate of violent crime. In 2015, there were 41 murders, 1,033 robberies, and 1,640 assaults. In 2016, bizjournals.com published an article including an FBI report that ranked Buffalo's violent crime rate as the 15th-worst in the nation.\n",
"A bowl of chicken (Buffalo) wings and celery.\n\n===Cuisine===\nThe Buffalo area's varied cuisine is the result of variety of cultural contributions, including Italian, Irish, Jewish, German, Polish, African-American, Greek, and American influences. In 2015, the National Geographic Society ranked Buffalo third on their list of \"The World's Top Ten Food Cities\". Locally owned restaurants offer Chinese, German, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, Thai, Mexican, Italian, Arab, Indian, Caribbean, soul food, and French cuisine. Buffalo's local pizzerias differ from that of the thin-crust New York-style pizzerias and deep-dish Chicago-style pizzerias, and is locally known for being a midpoint between the two. The Beef on weck sandwich, kielbasa, sponge candy, pastry hearts, pierogi and haddock fish fries are local favorites, as is a loganberry-flavored beverage that remains relatively obscure outside of the Western New York and Southern Ontario. Teressa Bellissimo first prepared the now widespread Buffalo wings (referred to locally as \"chicken wings\" or, simply, \"wings\") at the Anchor Bar on October 3, 1964.\n\nBuffalo has several well-known food companies. Non-dairy whipped topping was invented in Buffalo in 1945 by Robert E. Rich, Sr. His company, Rich Products, is one of the city's largest private employers. General Mills was organized in Buffalo, and Gold Medal brand flour, Wheaties, Cheerios and other General Mills brand cereals are manufactured here. Archer Daniels Midland operates its largest flour mill in the city. Buffalo is home to one of the largest privately held food companies in the world, Delaware North Companies, which operates concessions in sports arenas, stadiums, resorts and many state and federal parks.\n\nThe Taste of Buffalo and National Buffalo Wing Festival showcase cuisine items of the Buffalo area.\n\n===Fine and performing arts===\nThe Albright–Knox Art Gallery.\nBuffalo is home to over 50 private and public art galleries, most notably the Albright-Knox Art Gallery, home to a collection of modern and contemporary art, and the Burchfield-Penney Art Center. In 2012, ''AmericanStyle'' ranked Buffalo twenty-fifth in its list of top mid-sized cities for art. It is also home to many independent media and literary arts organizations like Squeaky Wheel Film and Media Arts Center. The Buffalo area's largest theater is Shea's Performing Arts Center, designed to accommodate 4,000 people with interiors by Louis Comfort Tiffany. Built in 1926, the theater presents Broadway musicals and concerts. The theater community in the Buffalo Theater District includes over 20 professional companies.\n\nThe Allentown Art Festival showcases local and national artists every summer, in Buffalo's Allentown district.\n\n===Music===\nKleinhans Music Hall is home to the Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra.\nThe Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra, which performs at Kleinhans Music Hall, is one of the city's most prominent performing arts institutions. During the 1960s and 1970s, under the musical leadership of Lukas Foss and Michael Tilson Thomas, the Philharmonic collaborated with Grateful Dead and toured with the Boston Pops Orchestra.\n\nBuffalo has the roots of many jazz and classical musicians, and it is also the founding city for several mainstream bands and musicians, Jazz fusion band Spyro Gyra and jazz saxophonists Grover Washington Jr. also got their starts in Buffalo. Pianist and composer Leonard Pennario was born in Buffalo in 1924 and made his debut concert at Carnegie Hall in 1943. Buffalo's \"Colored Musicians Club,\" an extension of what was long ago a separate musicians' union local, is thriving today and maintains a significant jazz history within its walls. Well-known indie artist Ani DiFranco hails from Buffalo.\n\nBuffalo also has a booming underground music scene spawning bands such as Snapcase, Lemuria, and Pentimento.\n\n===Tourism===\nAlthough the region's primary tourism destination is Niagara Falls to the north, Buffalo's tourism relies on historical attractions and outdoor recreation. The city's points of interest include the Edward M. Cotter fireboat, considered the world's oldest active fireboat and is a United States National Historic Landmark, Buffalo and Erie County Botanical Gardens, the Buffalo and Erie County Historical Society, Buffalo Museum of Science, the Buffalo Zoo—the third oldest in the United States— Forest Lawn Cemetery, Buffalo and Erie County Naval & Military Park, the Anchor Bar and Darwin D. Martin House.\n\nThe site of the former Erie Canal Harbor, Canalside has become a popular destination for tourists and residents since 2007, when Buffalo and the New York Power Authority began to redevelop the former site of War Memorial Auditorium into historically accurate canals.\n",
"\nA cameraman shoots a game at New Era Field.\nBuffalo and the surrounding region is home to two major league professional sports teams. The NHL's Buffalo Sabres play in the city of Buffalo, while the NFL's Buffalo Bills play in suburban Orchard Park, New York, where they have been since 1973. The Bills, established in 1959, played in War Memorial Stadium until 1973, when Rich Stadium, now New Era Field, opened. The team competes in the AFC East division. Since the AFL–NFL merger in 1970, the Bills have won the AFC conference championship four consecutive times (1990, 1991, 1992, 1993), resulting in four lost Super Bowls (Super Bowl XXV, Super Bowl XXVI, Super Bowl XXVII and Super Bowl XXVIII); they remain the only NFL team without a playoff appearance in the 21st century, having missed the playoffs since 2000. The Sabres, established in 1970, played in Buffalo Memorial Auditorium until 1996, when Marine Midland Arena, now KeyBank Center, opened. The team is within the Atlantic Division of the NHL. The team has won one Presidents' Trophy (2006-2007) and three conference championships (1974-1975, 1979-1980 and 1998-1999). However, like the Bills, the Sabres don't have a league championship, having lost the 1975 Stanley Cup to the Philadelphia Flyers and the 1999 Stanley Cup to the Dallas Stars.\n\nBuffalo is also home to several minor sports teams, including the Buffalo Bisons (baseball; an affiliate of the MLB's Toronto Blue Jays since 2014), FC Buffalo (soccer) as well as a professional women's team, the Buffalo Beauts (hockey). The Buffalo Bandits indoor lacrosse team was established in 1992, and played their home games in Buffalo Memorial Auditorium until 1996, when they followed the Sabres to Marine Midland Arena. They have won eight division championships and four league championships (1991-1992, 1992-1993, 1995-1996 and 2007-2008). The Buffalo Bulls are a Division I college team representing the State University of New York at Buffalo and several other Buffalo-area colleges and universities are also active in college athletics.\n\n\n\nSport\nLeague\nClub\nFounded\nVenue\nTitles\nChampionship years\n\n\nFootball\n\nNFL\n\nBuffalo Bills\n\n1960\n\nNew Era Field\n\n2\n\n1964*, 1965*\n\n\nHockey\n\nNHL\n\nBuffalo Sabres\n\n1970\n\nKeyBank Center\n\n0\n\n\n\n\nBaseball\n\nIL\n\nBuffalo Bisons\n\n1979†\n\nCoca-Cola Field\n\n3\n\n1997, 1998, 2004\n\n\nLacrosse\n\nNLL\n\nBuffalo Bandits\n\n1992\n\nKeyBank Center\n\n4\n\n1992, 1993, 1996, 2008\n\n\nSoccer\n\nNPSL\n\nFC Buffalo\n\n2009\n\nAll-High Stadium\n\n0\n\n\n\n\nHockey\n\nNWHL\n\nBuffalo Beauts\n\n2015\n\nHarborCenter\n\n1\n\n2017\n\n \nAmerican Football League (AFL) championships were earned prior to the NFL merging with the AFL in 1970.\n† Date refers to current incarnation; Buffalo Bisons previously operated from the 1870s until 1970 and the current Bisons count this team as part of their history.\n",
"\nCanalside and Buffalo Naval Park.\nHoyt Lake at Delaware Park.\nThe Buffalo parks system has over 20 parks with several parks accessible from any part of the city. The Olmsted Park and Parkway System is the hallmark of Buffalo's many green spaces. Three-fourths of city park land is part of the system, which comprises six major parks, eight connecting parkways, nine circles and seven smaller spaces. Constructed in 1868 by Frederick Law Olmsted and his partner Calvert Vaux, the system was integrated into the city and marks the first attempt in America to lay out a coordinated system of public parks and parkways. The Olmsted-designed portions of the Buffalo park system are listed on the National Register of Historic Places and are maintained by the Buffalo Olmsted Parks Conservancy (BOPC), a non-profit, for public benefit corporation which serves as the city's parks department. It is the first non-governmental organization of its kind to serve in such a capacity in the United States.\n\nSituated at the confluence of Lake Erie and the Buffalo and Niagara rivers, Buffalo is a waterfront city. The city's rise to economic power came through its waterways in the form of transshipment, manufacturing, and an endless source of energy. Buffalo's waterfront remains, though to a lesser degree, a hub of commerce, trade and industry. Beginning in 2009, a significant portion of Buffalo's waterfront began to be transformed into a focal point for social and recreational activity. To this end, Buffalo Harbor State Park, nicknamed \"Outer Harbor,\" was opened in 2014. Buffalo's intent was to stress its architectural and historical heritage to create a tourism destination, and early data indicates that they were successful.\n",
"\n\nRobert H. Jackson United States Courthouse\nAt the municipal level, the City of Buffalo has a mayor and a council of nine councilmembers. Buffalo also serves as the seat of Erie County with some of the 11 members of county legislature representing at least a portion of Buffalo. At the state level, there are three state assemblymembers and two state senators representing parts of the city proper. At the federal level, Buffalo is represented by three members of the House of Representatives.\n\nBuffalo City Hall, with McKinley Monument in the foreground.\nIn a trend common to northern \"Rust Belt\" regions, the Democratic Party has dominated Buffalo's political life for the last half-century. The last time anyone other than a Democrat held the position of Mayor in Buffalo was Chester A. Kowal in 1965. In 1977, Democratic Mayor James D. Griffin was elected as the nominee of two minor parties, the Conservative Party and the Right to Life Party, after he lost the Democratic primary for Mayor to then Deputy State Assembly Speaker Arthur Eve. Griffin switched political allegiances several times during his 16 years as Mayor, generally hewing to socially conservative platforms. His successor, Democrat Anthony M. Masiello (elected in 1993) continued to campaign on social conservatism, often crossing party lines in his endorsements and alliances. However, in 2005, Democrat Byron Brown was elected the city's first African-American mayor in a landslide (64%–27%) over Republican Kevin Helfer, who ran on a conservative platform. In 2013, the Conservative Party endorsed Brown for a third term because of his pledge to cut taxes. This change in local politics was preceded by a fiscal crisis in 2003 when years of economic decline, a diminishing tax-base and civic mismanagement left the city deep in debt and on the edge of bankruptcy. At New York State Comptroller Alan Hevesi's urging, the state took over the management of Buffalo's finances, appointing the Buffalo Fiscal Stability Authority. Mayor Tony Masiello began conversations about merging the city with the larger Erie County government the following year, but they came to naught.\n\nThe offices of the Buffalo District, US Army Corps of Engineers are next to the Black Rock Lock in the Erie Canal's Black Rock channel. In addition to maintaining and operating the lock, the District plans, designs, constructs and maintains water resources projects from Toledo, Ohio to Massena, New York. These include the flood-control dam at Mount Morris, New York, oversight of the lower Great Lakes (Lake Erie and Lake Ontario), review and permitting of wetlands construction, and remedial action for hazardous waste sites. Buffalo is also the home of a major office of the National Weather Service (NOAA), which serves all of western and much of central New York State. Buffalo is home to one of the 56 national FBI field offices. The field office covers all of Western New York and parts of the Southern Tier and Central New York. The field office operates several task forces in conjunction with local agencies to help combat issues such as gang violence, terrorism threats and health care fraud. Buffalo is also the location of the chief judge, United States Attorney and administrative offices for the United States District Court for the Western District of New York.\n",
"\n300x300px\n\nBuffalo Public Schools serve most of the city of Buffalo. The city has 78 public schools, including a growing number of charter schools. , the total enrollment was 41,089 students with a student-teacher ratio of 13.5 to 1. The graduation rate is up to 52% in 2008, up from 45% in 2007, and 50% in 2006. More than 27% of teachers have a master's degree or higher and the median amount of experience in the field is 15 years. The metropolitan area has 292 schools with 172,854 students.\n\nBuffalo's magnet school system features schools that attract students with special interests, such as science, bilingual studies, and Native American studies. Specialized facilities include the Buffalo Elementary School of Technology; the Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Multicultural Institute; the International School; the Dr. Charles R. Drew Science Magnet; BUILD Academy; Leonardo da Vinci High School; PS 32 Bennett Park Montessori; the Buffalo Academy for Visual and Performing Arts, BAVPA; the Riverside Institute of Technology; Lafayette High School/Buffalo Academy of Finance; Hutchinson Central Technical High School; Burgard Vocational High School; South Park High School; and the Emerson School of Hospitality.\n275x275px\n\nThe city is home to 47 private schools and the metropolitan region has 150 institutions. Most private schools, such as Bishop Timon – St. Jude High School, Canisius High School, Mount Mercy Academy, and Nardin Academy have a Catholic affiliation. In addition, there are two Islamic schools, Darul Uloom Al-Madania and Universal School of Buffalo. There are also nonsectarian options including The Buffalo Seminary (the only private, nonsectarian, all-girls school in Western New York state), Nichols School and numerous Charter Schools.\n\nComplementing its standard function, the Buffalo Public Schools Adult and Continuing Education Division provides education and services to adults throughout the community. In addition, the Career and Technical Education Department offers more than 20 academic programs, and is attended by about 6,000 students each year.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThe State University of New York (SUNY) operates three institutions within the city of Buffalo. The University at Buffalo is known as \"UB\" and is the largest public university in New York. The University at Buffalo is the only university in Buffalo and is a nationally ranked tier 1 research university. Buffalo State College and Erie Community College are a college and a community college, respectively. Additionally, the private institutions Canisius College and D'Youville College are within the city.\n",
"===Healthcare===\nThe city is home to two private healthcare systems, which combined operate eight hospitals and countless clinics in the greater metropolitan area, as well as three public hospitals operated by Erie County and the State of New York. Buffalo General/Gates Vascular Institute have earned top rankings in the US for their cutting edge research and treatment into stroke and neurological care. ECMC has been accredited as a Level One Trauma Center and serves as the trauma and burn care center for Western New York, much of the Southern Tier as well as portions of Northwestern Pennsylvania and Ontario, Canada. Over the years, Roswell Park has also become recognized as one of the United States' leading cancer treatment and research centers, and it recruits physicians and researchers from across the world to come live and work in the Buffalo area.\n\n* Mercy Hospital of Buffalo (South Buffalo)\n* Sisters of Charity Hospital (Central Buffalo)\n* Kenmore Mercy Hospital (Kenmore, NY)\n* St. Joseph's Hospital (Cheektowaga, NY)\n* Kaleida Health \n* Buffalo General Medical Center/Gates Vascular Institute (Downtown Buffalo)\n* Women's & Children's Hospital of Buffalo (Elmwood Village, Buffalo)\n* DeGraff Memorial Hospital (North Tonawanda, NY)\n* Millard Fillmore Suburban Hospital (Williamsville, NY)\n* The Erie County Medical Center (ECMC) (Eastern Buffalo)\n* Roswell Park Cancer Institute (Downtown Buffalo)\n* The Buffalo State Hospital (State operated facility for the mentally ill, located in Northwest Buffalo)\n\n===Transportation===\nleft\nYellow Book planned the three major highways that would serve the Buffalo area; Interstate 190, Interstate 290, and Interstate 90.\nBuffalo Metro Rail in downtown Buffalo\nThe Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority (NFTA) operates Buffalo Niagara International Airport, reconstructed in 1997 and located in the suburb of Cheektowaga. The airport serves Western New York and much of the Finger Lakes and Southern Tier Regions. The Buffalo Metro Rail, also operated by the NFTA, is a long, single line light rail system that extends from Erie Canal Harbor in downtown Buffalo to the University Heights district (specifically, the South Campus of University at Buffalo) in the city's northeastern part. The line's downtown section runs above ground and is free of charge to passengers. North of Fountain Plaza Station, at the northern end of downtown, the line moves underground until it reaches its northern terminus at University Heights. Passengers pay a fare to ride this section of the rail. Two train stations, Buffalo-Depew and Buffalo-Exchange Street, serve the city and are operated by Amtrak. Historically, the city was a major stop on through routes between Chicago and New York City through the lower Ontario peninsula.\n\nThe Buffalo Outer Harbor in 1992. Northwest of the city is the Niagara River.\nBuffalo is at the Lake Erie's eastern end, and it serves as a playground for many personal yachts, sailboats, power boats and watercraft. The city's extensive breakwall system protects its inner and outer harbors, which are maintained at commercial navigation depths for Great Lakes freighters. A Lake Erie tributary that flows through south Buffalo is the Buffalo River and Buffalo Creek.\n\nEight New York State highways, one three-digit Interstate Highway and one U.S. Highway traverse the city of Buffalo. New York State Route 5, commonly referred to as Main Street within the city, enters through Lackawanna as a limited-access highway and intersects with Interstate 190, a north-south highway connecting Interstate 90 in the southeastern suburb of Cheektowaga with Niagara Falls. NY 354 (Clinton Street) and NY 130 (Broadway) are east to west highways connecting south and downtown Buffalo to the eastern suburbs of West Seneca and Depew. NY 265 (Delaware Avenue) and NY 266 (Niagara Street and River Road) both start in downtown Buffalo and end in the city of Tonawanda. One of three U.S. highways in Erie County, the other two being U.S. 20 (Transit Road) and U.S. 219 (Southern Expressway), U.S. 62 (Bailey Avenue) is a north to south trunk road that enters the city through Lackawanna and exits at the Amherst town border at a junction with NY 5. Within the city, the route passes by light industrial developments and high density areas of the city. Bailey Avenue has major intersections with Interstate 190 and the Kensington Expressway. Three major expressways serve the city of Buffalo. The Scajaquada Expressway (NY 198) is primarily a limited access highway connecting Interstate 190 near Unity Island to New York State Route 33, which starts at the edge of downtown and the city's East Side, continues through heavily populated areas of the city, intersects with Interstate 90 in Cheektowaga and ends at the airport. The Peace Bridge is a major international crossing near the city's Black Rock district, connecting Buffalo with Fort Erie and Toronto via the Queen Elizabeth Way.\n\n===Utilities===\nBuffalo's water system is operated by Veolia Water. To reduce large-scale ice blockage in the Niagara River, with resultant flooding, ice damage to docks and other waterfront structures, and blockage of the water intakes for the hydro-electric power plants at Niagara Falls, the New York Power Authority and Ontario Power Generation have jointly operated the Lake Erie-Niagara River Ice Boom since 1964. The boom is installed on December 16, or when the water temperature reaches , whichever happens first. The boom is opened on April 1 unless there is more than of ice remaining in Eastern Lake Erie. When in place, the boom stretches from the outer breakwall at Buffalo Harbor almost to the Canadian shore near the ruins of the pier at Erie Beach in Fort Erie. The boom was originally made of wooden timbers, but these have been replaced by steel pontoons.\n",
"\nA WIVB-TV truck during St. Patrick's Day.\nBuffalo's major newspaper is ''The Buffalo News''. Established in 1880, the newspaper has 181,540 in daily circulation and 266,123 on Sundays. Other newspapers in the Buffalo area include ''Artvoice,'' ''The Public'', ''The Beast,'' ''Buffalo Business First,'' the ''Spectrum''—University at Buffalo's student-run newspaper—and the ''Record,'' Buffalo State College's student-run newspaper. Online news magazines include ''Artvoice Daily Online'' and ''Buffalo Rising,'' formerly a print magazine.\n\nThe Buffalo area is home to 14 AM stations and 21 FM stations. Major station operators include Entercom, Townsquare Media and Cumulus Media. In addition, National Public Radio operates a publicly funded station, WBFO 88.7.\n\nAccording to Nielsen Media Research, the Buffalo television market is the 52nd largest in the United States . Although no major cable outlets have offices or bureaus in the Buffalo area, the four major networks have established affiliates in the area: WGRZ 2 (NBC), WIVB-TV 4 (CBS), WUTV 29 (FOX), and WKBW-TV 7 (ABC). Other stations in Buffalo with network affiliations include publicly funded WNED-TV 17 (PBS), WNLO 23 (The CW), WNYO-TV 49 (MyNetworkTV), and WBBZ-TV 67 (MeTV/independent). The area's major cable provider is Spectrum, which operates the system-exclusive Spectrum News Buffalo, part of the statewide Spectrum News network. The Buffalo market also has access to multiple Canadian broadcast stations over-the-air from the Hamilton and Toronto areas, though only CBLT 5 (CBC) and CFTO 9 (CTV) are carried on Time Warner Cable.\n\nMovies shot with significant footage of Buffalo include: ''Hide in Plain Sight'' (1980), ''Tuck Everlasting'' (1981), ''Best Friends'' (1982), ''The Natural'' (1984), ''Vamping'' (1984), ''Canadian Bacon'' (1995), ''Buffalo '66'' (1998), ''Manna from Heaven'' (2002), ''Bruce Almighty ''(2003), ''The Savages'' (2007), ''Henry's Crime'' (2011), ''Sharknado 2: The Second One'' (2014), ''Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Out of The Shadows'' (2016), ''Marshall'' (2016), ''Accidental Switch'' (2016), and ''The American Side'' (2017). Although additional movies, such as ''Promised Land'' (2012), have used Buffalo as a setting, filming often takes place in other locations such as Pittsburgh or Canada. High production costs are blamed for filmmakers shooting all or most of their Buffalo-based scenes elsewhere.\n",
"\n",
"\nBuffalo is one of the largest Polish-American centers in the United States. As a result, many aspects of Polish culture have found a home within the city from food to festivals. One of the best example's is the yearly celebration of Easter Monday, known to many Eastern Europeans as Dyngus Day.\n",
"Buffalo has a number of sister cities as designated by Sister Cities International (SCI):\n\n\n\n* Siena, Italy (1961)\n* Kanazawa, Japan (1962)\n* Dortmund, Germany (1972)\n* Rzeszów, Poland (1975)\n* Cape Coast, Ghana (1976)\n* Aboadze, Ghana\n\n\n* Kiryat Gat, Israel (1977)\n* Tver, Russia (1989)\n* Drohobych, Ukraine (2000)\n* Lille, Nord, Hauts-de-France, France (2000)\n* Torremaggiore, Italy (2004)\n* Abuja, Nigeria (2004)\n* Saint Ann's Bay, Jamaica (2007)\n\n\n* Horlivka, Ukraine (2007)\n* Bursa, Turkey (2010)\n* Baní, Dominican Republic (2011)\n* Muhanga District, Rwanda (2011)\n* Yeongcheon, South Korea (2011)\n* Changzhou, China\n* Marília, Brazil\n\n",
"\n* Buffalo Airfield\n* Buffalo Central Terminal\n* Buffalo City Hall\n* Buffalo Fire Department\n* South Buffalo, Buffalo, New York\n* Buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo\n\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Etymology",
"History",
"Geography and climate",
"Demographics",
"Economy",
"Crime",
"Culture",
"Sports",
"Parks and recreation",
"Government",
"Education",
"Infrastructure",
"Media",
"Notable people",
"Dyngus Day",
"Twin towns – sister cities",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Buffalo, New York | [
"Rank\n Employer\n Number of Buffalo employees\n Product(s)\n\n 1\n Kaleida Health\n 10,000\n Health care\n\n 2\n Catholic Health\n 7,918\n Health care\n\n 3\n M&T Bank\n 7,500\n Financial services\n\n 4\n Seneca Gaming\n 4,000\n Entertainment\n\n 5\n Tops Friendly Markets\n 3,942\n Supermarkets\n\n 6\n Wegmans\n 3,393\n Supermarkets\n\n 7\n Roswell Park Cancer Institute\n 3,035\n Health care\n\n 8\n GEICO\n 2,750\n Insurance services\n\n 9\n HSBC Bank USA\n 2,700\n Financial services\n\n 10\n Moog Inc.\n 2,600\n Manufacturing\n\nBuffalo's economic sectors include industrial, light manufacturing, high technology and services.",
"Other major employers include the United States government, Kaleida Health, M&T Bank (which is headquartered in Buffalo), the University at Buffalo, General Motors, Time Warner Cable and Tops Friendly Markets."
] | [
"\n\n\n'''Buffalo''' () is a city in and the seat of Erie County in Western New York.",
"Located in the U.S. state of New York on the eastern shore of Lake Erie at the head of the Niagara River.",
", Buffalo is the state's second most populous city after the city it is named for, with 256,902 residents.",
"The metropolitan area has a population of 1.13 million, while the larger, cross-border Buffalo Niagara Region includes 8 U.S. counties and 2 Canadian municipalities and has a population of 2,493,869.",
"Buffalo grew significantly in the 19th and 20th centuries as a result of the Erie Canal, railroads and Lake Erie, providing an abundance of fresh water and an ample trade route to the midwestern United States, while grooming its economy for the grain, steel and automobile industries during the 20th century.",
"After an economic downturn in the latter half of the 20th century, Buffalo's economy has transitioned to sectors that include financial services, technology, biomedical engineering and education.",
"Buffalo is known as \"The Queen City\", \"The Nickel City\" and \"The City of Good Neighbors\".",
"Its residents are called Buffalonians.",
"The city of Buffalo received its name from a nearby creek called Buffalo Creek.",
"British military engineer Captain John Montresor made reference to 'Buffalo Creek' in his journal of 1764, which may be the earliest recorded appearance of the name.",
"There are several theories regarding how Buffalo Creek received its name.",
"While it is possible that Buffalo Creek's name originated from French fur traders and Native Americans calling the creek ''Beau Fleuve'' (French for \"Beautiful River\"), it is also possible Buffalo Creek was named for the American buffalo, whose historical range may have extended into western New York.",
"\nBird's-eye view of Buffalo in 1873\nSteel production at Bethlehem Steel on the shores of Lake Erie, 1973\n \nDuring French exploration of the region in 1620, the region's inhabitants were an Iroquoian-speaking tribal offshoot of the large Neutral Nation called the Wenro people or'' 'Wenrohronon','' who lived along the south shore of Lake Ontario and east end of Lake Erie and a bit of its southern shore.",
"Later, during the 1640s–50s Beaver Wars, the combined warriors of the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy conquered the populous Neutrals and their peninsular territory, while the Senecas alone took out the Wenro and their territory, c. 1651\n–1653.",
"In 1804, as principal agent opening the area for the Holland Land Company, Joseph Ellicott, the architect of Washington D.C., designed a radial street and grid system that branches out from downtown like bicycle spokes similar to the street system he used in the nation's capital.",
"Although Ellicott named the settlement \"New Amsterdam,\" the name did not catch on.",
"During the War of 1812, on December 30, 1813, Buffalo was burned by British forces.",
"On October 26, 1825, the Erie Canal was completed with Buffalo a port-of-call for settlers heading westward.",
"At the time, the population was about 2,400.",
"The Erie Canal brought about a surge in population and commerce, which led Buffalo to incorporate as a city in 1832.",
"In 1845, construction began on the Macedonia Baptist Church, an important meeting place for the abolitionist movement.",
"Buffalo was a terminus point of the Underground Railroad with many fugitive slaves crossing the Niagara River to Fort Erie, Ontario in search of freedom.",
"During the 1840s, Buffalo's port continued to develop.",
"Both passenger and commercial traffic expanded with some 93,000 passengers heading west from the port of Buffalo.",
"Grain and commercial goods shipments led to repeated expansion of the harbor.",
"In 1843, the world's first steam-powered grain elevator was constructed by local merchant Joseph Dart and engineer Robert Dunbar.",
"\"Dart's Elevator\" enabled faster unloading of lake freighters along with the transshipment of grain in bulk from barges, canal boats, and rail cars.",
"By 1850, the city's population was 81,000.",
"At the dawn of the 20th century, local mills were among the first to benefit from hydroelectric power generated by the Niagara River.",
"The city got the nickname ''City of Light'' at this time due to the widespread electric lighting.",
"It was also part of the automobile revolution, hosting the brass era car builders Pierce Arrow and the Seven Little Buffaloes early in the century.",
"President William McKinley was shot and mortally wounded by an anarchist at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo on September 6, 1901.",
"McKinley died in the city eight days later and Theodore Roosevelt was sworn in at the Wilcox Mansion as the 26th President of the United States.",
"The Great Depression of 1929–39 saw severe unemployment, especially among working class men.",
"The New Deal relief programs operated full force.",
"The city became a stronghold of labor unions and the Democratic Party.",
"During World War II, Buffalo saw the return of prosperity and full employment due to its position as a manufacturing center.",
"With the opening of the St. Lawrence Seaway in 1957, which cut the city off from valuable trade routes; deindustrialization; and the nationwide trend of suburbanization; the city's economy began to deteriorate.",
"Like much of the Rust Belt, Buffalo, home to more than half a million people in the 1950s, has seen its population decline as heavy industries shut down and people left for the suburbs or other cities.",
"During this time, urban renewal and the construction of several expressways, including the Niagara Thruway, Scajaquada Expressway and Kensington Expressway reshaped much of the city, displacing residents and businesses.",
"Like other rust belt cities such as Pittsburgh and Cleveland, Buffalo has attempted to revitalize its beleaguered economy and crumbling infrastructure.",
"In the first decade of the 21st century, a massive increase in economic development spending has attempted to reverse its dwindling prosperity.",
"In the early 2010s, growth from local colleges and universities continued to spur economic development.",
"Buffalo from Lake Erie, c. 1911.",
"Buffalo is on Lake Erie's eastern end, opposite Fort Erie, Ontario.",
"It is located at the origin of the Niagara River, which flows northward over Niagara Falls and into Lake Ontario.",
"The city is south-southeast from Toronto.",
"In the Southtowns lie the Boston Hills, while the Appalachian Mountains sit in the Southern Tier below them.",
"To the north and east, the region maintains a flatter profile descending to Lake Ontario.",
"Buffalo River and Scajaquada Creek run through the city.",
"According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and the rest water.",
"The total area is 22.66% water.",
"===Cityscape===\n\nSkyline of Buffalo, looking east from Lake Erie.",
"====Architecture====\nElmwood Village\n2001 image of the Niagara Peninsula, Niagara Falls and Buffalo from NASA's Terra satellite.Buffalo's architecture is diverse, with a collection of buildings the 19th and 20th centuries.",
"Most structures and works are still standing, such as the country's largest intact parks system designed by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux.",
"At the end of the 19th century, the Guaranty Building—constructed by Louis Sullivan—was a prominent example of an early high-rise skyscraper.",
"The 20th century saw works such as the Art Deco-style Buffalo City Hall and Buffalo Central Terminal, Electric Tower, the Richardson Olmsted Complex, and the Rand Building.",
"Urban renewal from the 1950s–1970s gave way to the construction of the Brutalist-style Buffalo City Court Building and the One Seneca Tower—formerly the HSBC Center, the city's tallest building.",
"====Neighborhoods====\n\n\n===Climate===\nBuffalo has a continental-type climate, which is common in the Great Lakes region.",
"(Köppen climate classification \"Dfb\" – uniform precipitation distribution).",
"Buffalo has snowy winters, but it is rarely the snowiest city in New York state.",
"The Blizzard of 1977 resulted from a combination of high winds and snow previously accumulated on land and on frozen Lake Erie.",
"Snow does not typically impair the city's operation, but can cause significant damage during the autumn as with the October 2006 storm.",
"In November 2014, the region had a record-breaking storm, producing over of snow.",
"Buffalo has the sunniest and driest summers of any major city in the Northeast, but still has enough rain to keep vegetation green and lush.",
"Summers are marked by plentiful sunshine and moderate humidity and temperature.",
"Obscured by the notoriety of Buffalo's winter snow is the fact Buffalo benefits from other lake effects such as the cooling southwest breezes off Lake Erie in summer that gently temper the warmest days.",
"As a result, temperatures only rise above three times per year, and the Buffalo station of the National Weather Service has never recorded an official temperature of or more.",
"Rainfall is moderate but typically occurs at night.",
"Lake Erie's stabilizing effect continues to inhibit thunderstorms and enhance sunshine in the immediate Buffalo area through most of July.",
"August usually has more showers and is hotter and more humid as the warmer lake loses its temperature-stabilizing influence.",
"The highest recorded temperature in Buffalo was on August 27, 1948 and the lowest recorded temperature was , which occurred twice, on February 9, 1934 and February 2, 1961.",
"\n\n\n\n\n Racial composition !",
"!",
"2010!!",
"1990!!",
"1970 !",
"!",
"1940\n\nWhite \n50.4% \n64.7% \n78.7% \n96.8%\n\nBlack or African American \n38.6% \n30.7% \n20.4% \n3.1%\n\nHispanic or Latino (of any race) \n10.5% \n4.9% \n1.6% \n(X)\n\nAsian \n3.2% \n1.0% \n0.2% \n−\n\n\nLike most former industrial cities of the Great Lakes region in the United States, Buffalo is recovering from an economic depression from suburbanization and the loss of its industrial base.",
"The city's population peaked in 1950, when it was the 15th largest city in the United States, and its population has been spreading out to the suburbs every census since then.",
"At the 2010 Census, the city's population was 50.4% White (45.8% non-Hispanic White alone), 38.6% Black or African-American, 0.8% American Indian and Alaska Native, 3.2% Asian, 3.9% from some other race and 3.1% from two or more races.",
"10.5% of the total population was Hispanic or Latino of any race.",
"Since 2003, there has been an ever-growing number of Burmese refugees, mostly of the Karen ethnicity, with an estimated 4,665 now residing in Buffalo.",
"The median income for a household in the city is $24,536 and the median income for a family is $30,614.",
"Males have a median income of $30,938 versus $23,982 for females.",
"The per capita income for the city is $14,991.",
"26.6% of the population and 23% of families are below the poverty line.",
"Out of the total population, 38.4% of those under the age of 18 and 14% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.",
"The following is a list of the top ten private employers in the Buffalo area.",
"The Larkin Terminal Warehouse, headquarters of KeyBank.",
"The State of New York, with over 15,000 employees, is the city's largest employer.",
"Buffalo is home to Rich Products, Canadian brewer Labatt, cheese company Sorrento Lactalis, Delaware North Companies and New Era Cap Company.",
"More recently, the Tesla Gigafactory 2 opened in South Buffalo in summer 2017, as a result of the Buffalo Billion program.",
"The loss of traditional jobs in manufacturing, rapid suburbanization and high labor costs have led to economic decline and made Buffalo one of the poorest U.S. cities with populations of more than 250,000 people.",
"An estimated 28.7–29.9% of Buffalo residents live below the poverty line, behind either only Detroit, or only Detroit and Cleveland.",
"Buffalo's median household income of $27,850 is third-lowest among large cities, behind only Miami and Cleveland; however the metropolitan area's median household income is $57,000.",
"This, in part, has led to the Buffalo-Niagara Falls metropolitan area having the most affordable housing market in the U.S.",
"The quarterly NAHB/Wells Fargo Housing Opportunity Index (HOI) noted nearly 90% of the new and existing homes sold in the metropolitan area during the second quarter were affordable to families making the area's median income of $57,000.",
", the median home price in the city was $95,000.",
"Buffalo's economy has begun to see significant improvements since the early 2010s.",
"Money from New York State Governor Andrew Cuomo through a program known locally as \"Buffalo Billion\" has brought new construction, increased economic development, and hundreds of new jobs to the area.",
"As of March 2015, Buffalo's unemployment rate was 5.9%, slightly above the national average of 5.5%.",
"In 2016, the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis valued the Buffalo area's economy at $54.9 billion.",
"Compared to the national average, Buffalo has a much higher rate of violent crime.",
"In 2015, there were 41 murders, 1,033 robberies, and 1,640 assaults.",
"In 2016, bizjournals.com published an article including an FBI report that ranked Buffalo's violent crime rate as the 15th-worst in the nation.",
"A bowl of chicken (Buffalo) wings and celery.",
"===Cuisine===\nThe Buffalo area's varied cuisine is the result of variety of cultural contributions, including Italian, Irish, Jewish, German, Polish, African-American, Greek, and American influences.",
"In 2015, the National Geographic Society ranked Buffalo third on their list of \"The World's Top Ten Food Cities\".",
"Locally owned restaurants offer Chinese, German, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, Thai, Mexican, Italian, Arab, Indian, Caribbean, soul food, and French cuisine.",
"Buffalo's local pizzerias differ from that of the thin-crust New York-style pizzerias and deep-dish Chicago-style pizzerias, and is locally known for being a midpoint between the two.",
"The Beef on weck sandwich, kielbasa, sponge candy, pastry hearts, pierogi and haddock fish fries are local favorites, as is a loganberry-flavored beverage that remains relatively obscure outside of the Western New York and Southern Ontario.",
"Teressa Bellissimo first prepared the now widespread Buffalo wings (referred to locally as \"chicken wings\" or, simply, \"wings\") at the Anchor Bar on October 3, 1964.",
"Buffalo has several well-known food companies.",
"Non-dairy whipped topping was invented in Buffalo in 1945 by Robert E. Rich, Sr. His company, Rich Products, is one of the city's largest private employers.",
"General Mills was organized in Buffalo, and Gold Medal brand flour, Wheaties, Cheerios and other General Mills brand cereals are manufactured here.",
"Archer Daniels Midland operates its largest flour mill in the city.",
"Buffalo is home to one of the largest privately held food companies in the world, Delaware North Companies, which operates concessions in sports arenas, stadiums, resorts and many state and federal parks.",
"The Taste of Buffalo and National Buffalo Wing Festival showcase cuisine items of the Buffalo area.",
"===Fine and performing arts===\nThe Albright–Knox Art Gallery.",
"Buffalo is home to over 50 private and public art galleries, most notably the Albright-Knox Art Gallery, home to a collection of modern and contemporary art, and the Burchfield-Penney Art Center.",
"In 2012, ''AmericanStyle'' ranked Buffalo twenty-fifth in its list of top mid-sized cities for art.",
"It is also home to many independent media and literary arts organizations like Squeaky Wheel Film and Media Arts Center.",
"The Buffalo area's largest theater is Shea's Performing Arts Center, designed to accommodate 4,000 people with interiors by Louis Comfort Tiffany.",
"Built in 1926, the theater presents Broadway musicals and concerts.",
"The theater community in the Buffalo Theater District includes over 20 professional companies.",
"The Allentown Art Festival showcases local and national artists every summer, in Buffalo's Allentown district.",
"===Music===\nKleinhans Music Hall is home to the Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra.",
"The Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra, which performs at Kleinhans Music Hall, is one of the city's most prominent performing arts institutions.",
"During the 1960s and 1970s, under the musical leadership of Lukas Foss and Michael Tilson Thomas, the Philharmonic collaborated with Grateful Dead and toured with the Boston Pops Orchestra.",
"Buffalo has the roots of many jazz and classical musicians, and it is also the founding city for several mainstream bands and musicians, Jazz fusion band Spyro Gyra and jazz saxophonists Grover Washington Jr. also got their starts in Buffalo.",
"Pianist and composer Leonard Pennario was born in Buffalo in 1924 and made his debut concert at Carnegie Hall in 1943.",
"Buffalo's \"Colored Musicians Club,\" an extension of what was long ago a separate musicians' union local, is thriving today and maintains a significant jazz history within its walls.",
"Well-known indie artist Ani DiFranco hails from Buffalo.",
"Buffalo also has a booming underground music scene spawning bands such as Snapcase, Lemuria, and Pentimento.",
"===Tourism===\nAlthough the region's primary tourism destination is Niagara Falls to the north, Buffalo's tourism relies on historical attractions and outdoor recreation.",
"The city's points of interest include the Edward M. Cotter fireboat, considered the world's oldest active fireboat and is a United States National Historic Landmark, Buffalo and Erie County Botanical Gardens, the Buffalo and Erie County Historical Society, Buffalo Museum of Science, the Buffalo Zoo—the third oldest in the United States— Forest Lawn Cemetery, Buffalo and Erie County Naval & Military Park, the Anchor Bar and Darwin D. Martin House.",
"The site of the former Erie Canal Harbor, Canalside has become a popular destination for tourists and residents since 2007, when Buffalo and the New York Power Authority began to redevelop the former site of War Memorial Auditorium into historically accurate canals.",
"\nA cameraman shoots a game at New Era Field.",
"Buffalo and the surrounding region is home to two major league professional sports teams.",
"The NHL's Buffalo Sabres play in the city of Buffalo, while the NFL's Buffalo Bills play in suburban Orchard Park, New York, where they have been since 1973.",
"The Bills, established in 1959, played in War Memorial Stadium until 1973, when Rich Stadium, now New Era Field, opened.",
"The team competes in the AFC East division.",
"Since the AFL–NFL merger in 1970, the Bills have won the AFC conference championship four consecutive times (1990, 1991, 1992, 1993), resulting in four lost Super Bowls (Super Bowl XXV, Super Bowl XXVI, Super Bowl XXVII and Super Bowl XXVIII); they remain the only NFL team without a playoff appearance in the 21st century, having missed the playoffs since 2000.",
"The Sabres, established in 1970, played in Buffalo Memorial Auditorium until 1996, when Marine Midland Arena, now KeyBank Center, opened.",
"The team is within the Atlantic Division of the NHL.",
"The team has won one Presidents' Trophy (2006-2007) and three conference championships (1974-1975, 1979-1980 and 1998-1999).",
"However, like the Bills, the Sabres don't have a league championship, having lost the 1975 Stanley Cup to the Philadelphia Flyers and the 1999 Stanley Cup to the Dallas Stars.",
"Buffalo is also home to several minor sports teams, including the Buffalo Bisons (baseball; an affiliate of the MLB's Toronto Blue Jays since 2014), FC Buffalo (soccer) as well as a professional women's team, the Buffalo Beauts (hockey).",
"The Buffalo Bandits indoor lacrosse team was established in 1992, and played their home games in Buffalo Memorial Auditorium until 1996, when they followed the Sabres to Marine Midland Arena.",
"They have won eight division championships and four league championships (1991-1992, 1992-1993, 1995-1996 and 2007-2008).",
"The Buffalo Bulls are a Division I college team representing the State University of New York at Buffalo and several other Buffalo-area colleges and universities are also active in college athletics.",
"Sport\nLeague\nClub\nFounded\nVenue\nTitles\nChampionship years\n\n\nFootball\n\nNFL\n\nBuffalo Bills\n\n1960\n\nNew Era Field\n\n2\n\n1964*, 1965*\n\n\nHockey\n\nNHL\n\nBuffalo Sabres\n\n1970\n\nKeyBank Center\n\n0\n\n\n\n\nBaseball\n\nIL\n\nBuffalo Bisons\n\n1979†\n\nCoca-Cola Field\n\n3\n\n1997, 1998, 2004\n\n\nLacrosse\n\nNLL\n\nBuffalo Bandits\n\n1992\n\nKeyBank Center\n\n4\n\n1992, 1993, 1996, 2008\n\n\nSoccer\n\nNPSL\n\nFC Buffalo\n\n2009\n\nAll-High Stadium\n\n0\n\n\n\n\nHockey\n\nNWHL\n\nBuffalo Beauts\n\n2015\n\nHarborCenter\n\n1\n\n2017\n\n \nAmerican Football League (AFL) championships were earned prior to the NFL merging with the AFL in 1970.",
"† Date refers to current incarnation; Buffalo Bisons previously operated from the 1870s until 1970 and the current Bisons count this team as part of their history.",
"\nCanalside and Buffalo Naval Park.",
"Hoyt Lake at Delaware Park.",
"The Buffalo parks system has over 20 parks with several parks accessible from any part of the city.",
"The Olmsted Park and Parkway System is the hallmark of Buffalo's many green spaces.",
"Three-fourths of city park land is part of the system, which comprises six major parks, eight connecting parkways, nine circles and seven smaller spaces.",
"Constructed in 1868 by Frederick Law Olmsted and his partner Calvert Vaux, the system was integrated into the city and marks the first attempt in America to lay out a coordinated system of public parks and parkways.",
"The Olmsted-designed portions of the Buffalo park system are listed on the National Register of Historic Places and are maintained by the Buffalo Olmsted Parks Conservancy (BOPC), a non-profit, for public benefit corporation which serves as the city's parks department.",
"It is the first non-governmental organization of its kind to serve in such a capacity in the United States.",
"Situated at the confluence of Lake Erie and the Buffalo and Niagara rivers, Buffalo is a waterfront city.",
"The city's rise to economic power came through its waterways in the form of transshipment, manufacturing, and an endless source of energy.",
"Buffalo's waterfront remains, though to a lesser degree, a hub of commerce, trade and industry.",
"Beginning in 2009, a significant portion of Buffalo's waterfront began to be transformed into a focal point for social and recreational activity.",
"To this end, Buffalo Harbor State Park, nicknamed \"Outer Harbor,\" was opened in 2014.",
"Buffalo's intent was to stress its architectural and historical heritage to create a tourism destination, and early data indicates that they were successful.",
"\n\nRobert H. Jackson United States Courthouse\nAt the municipal level, the City of Buffalo has a mayor and a council of nine councilmembers.",
"Buffalo also serves as the seat of Erie County with some of the 11 members of county legislature representing at least a portion of Buffalo.",
"At the state level, there are three state assemblymembers and two state senators representing parts of the city proper.",
"At the federal level, Buffalo is represented by three members of the House of Representatives.",
"Buffalo City Hall, with McKinley Monument in the foreground.",
"In a trend common to northern \"Rust Belt\" regions, the Democratic Party has dominated Buffalo's political life for the last half-century.",
"The last time anyone other than a Democrat held the position of Mayor in Buffalo was Chester A. Kowal in 1965.",
"In 1977, Democratic Mayor James D. Griffin was elected as the nominee of two minor parties, the Conservative Party and the Right to Life Party, after he lost the Democratic primary for Mayor to then Deputy State Assembly Speaker Arthur Eve.",
"Griffin switched political allegiances several times during his 16 years as Mayor, generally hewing to socially conservative platforms.",
"His successor, Democrat Anthony M. Masiello (elected in 1993) continued to campaign on social conservatism, often crossing party lines in his endorsements and alliances.",
"However, in 2005, Democrat Byron Brown was elected the city's first African-American mayor in a landslide (64%–27%) over Republican Kevin Helfer, who ran on a conservative platform.",
"In 2013, the Conservative Party endorsed Brown for a third term because of his pledge to cut taxes.",
"This change in local politics was preceded by a fiscal crisis in 2003 when years of economic decline, a diminishing tax-base and civic mismanagement left the city deep in debt and on the edge of bankruptcy.",
"At New York State Comptroller Alan Hevesi's urging, the state took over the management of Buffalo's finances, appointing the Buffalo Fiscal Stability Authority.",
"Mayor Tony Masiello began conversations about merging the city with the larger Erie County government the following year, but they came to naught.",
"The offices of the Buffalo District, US Army Corps of Engineers are next to the Black Rock Lock in the Erie Canal's Black Rock channel.",
"In addition to maintaining and operating the lock, the District plans, designs, constructs and maintains water resources projects from Toledo, Ohio to Massena, New York.",
"These include the flood-control dam at Mount Morris, New York, oversight of the lower Great Lakes (Lake Erie and Lake Ontario), review and permitting of wetlands construction, and remedial action for hazardous waste sites.",
"Buffalo is also the home of a major office of the National Weather Service (NOAA), which serves all of western and much of central New York State.",
"Buffalo is home to one of the 56 national FBI field offices.",
"The field office covers all of Western New York and parts of the Southern Tier and Central New York.",
"The field office operates several task forces in conjunction with local agencies to help combat issues such as gang violence, terrorism threats and health care fraud.",
"Buffalo is also the location of the chief judge, United States Attorney and administrative offices for the United States District Court for the Western District of New York.",
"\n300x300px\n\nBuffalo Public Schools serve most of the city of Buffalo.",
"The city has 78 public schools, including a growing number of charter schools.",
", the total enrollment was 41,089 students with a student-teacher ratio of 13.5 to 1.",
"The graduation rate is up to 52% in 2008, up from 45% in 2007, and 50% in 2006.",
"More than 27% of teachers have a master's degree or higher and the median amount of experience in the field is 15 years.",
"The metropolitan area has 292 schools with 172,854 students.",
"Buffalo's magnet school system features schools that attract students with special interests, such as science, bilingual studies, and Native American studies.",
"Specialized facilities include the Buffalo Elementary School of Technology; the Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Multicultural Institute; the International School; the Dr. Charles R. Drew Science Magnet; BUILD Academy; Leonardo da Vinci High School; PS 32 Bennett Park Montessori; the Buffalo Academy for Visual and Performing Arts, BAVPA; the Riverside Institute of Technology; Lafayette High School/Buffalo Academy of Finance; Hutchinson Central Technical High School; Burgard Vocational High School; South Park High School; and the Emerson School of Hospitality.",
"275x275px\n\nThe city is home to 47 private schools and the metropolitan region has 150 institutions.",
"Most private schools, such as Bishop Timon – St. Jude High School, Canisius High School, Mount Mercy Academy, and Nardin Academy have a Catholic affiliation.",
"In addition, there are two Islamic schools, Darul Uloom Al-Madania and Universal School of Buffalo.",
"There are also nonsectarian options including The Buffalo Seminary (the only private, nonsectarian, all-girls school in Western New York state), Nichols School and numerous Charter Schools.",
"Complementing its standard function, the Buffalo Public Schools Adult and Continuing Education Division provides education and services to adults throughout the community.",
"In addition, the Career and Technical Education Department offers more than 20 academic programs, and is attended by about 6,000 students each year.",
"The State University of New York (SUNY) operates three institutions within the city of Buffalo.",
"The University at Buffalo is known as \"UB\" and is the largest public university in New York.",
"The University at Buffalo is the only university in Buffalo and is a nationally ranked tier 1 research university.",
"Buffalo State College and Erie Community College are a college and a community college, respectively.",
"Additionally, the private institutions Canisius College and D'Youville College are within the city.",
"===Healthcare===\nThe city is home to two private healthcare systems, which combined operate eight hospitals and countless clinics in the greater metropolitan area, as well as three public hospitals operated by Erie County and the State of New York.",
"Buffalo General/Gates Vascular Institute have earned top rankings in the US for their cutting edge research and treatment into stroke and neurological care.",
"ECMC has been accredited as a Level One Trauma Center and serves as the trauma and burn care center for Western New York, much of the Southern Tier as well as portions of Northwestern Pennsylvania and Ontario, Canada.",
"Over the years, Roswell Park has also become recognized as one of the United States' leading cancer treatment and research centers, and it recruits physicians and researchers from across the world to come live and work in the Buffalo area.",
"* Mercy Hospital of Buffalo (South Buffalo)\n* Sisters of Charity Hospital (Central Buffalo)\n* Kenmore Mercy Hospital (Kenmore, NY)\n* St. Joseph's Hospital (Cheektowaga, NY)\n* Kaleida Health \n* Buffalo General Medical Center/Gates Vascular Institute (Downtown Buffalo)\n* Women's & Children's Hospital of Buffalo (Elmwood Village, Buffalo)\n* DeGraff Memorial Hospital (North Tonawanda, NY)\n* Millard Fillmore Suburban Hospital (Williamsville, NY)\n* The Erie County Medical Center (ECMC) (Eastern Buffalo)\n* Roswell Park Cancer Institute (Downtown Buffalo)\n* The Buffalo State Hospital (State operated facility for the mentally ill, located in Northwest Buffalo)\n\n===Transportation===\nleft\nYellow Book planned the three major highways that would serve the Buffalo area; Interstate 190, Interstate 290, and Interstate 90.",
"Buffalo Metro Rail in downtown Buffalo\nThe Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority (NFTA) operates Buffalo Niagara International Airport, reconstructed in 1997 and located in the suburb of Cheektowaga.",
"The airport serves Western New York and much of the Finger Lakes and Southern Tier Regions.",
"The Buffalo Metro Rail, also operated by the NFTA, is a long, single line light rail system that extends from Erie Canal Harbor in downtown Buffalo to the University Heights district (specifically, the South Campus of University at Buffalo) in the city's northeastern part.",
"The line's downtown section runs above ground and is free of charge to passengers.",
"North of Fountain Plaza Station, at the northern end of downtown, the line moves underground until it reaches its northern terminus at University Heights.",
"Passengers pay a fare to ride this section of the rail.",
"Two train stations, Buffalo-Depew and Buffalo-Exchange Street, serve the city and are operated by Amtrak.",
"Historically, the city was a major stop on through routes between Chicago and New York City through the lower Ontario peninsula.",
"The Buffalo Outer Harbor in 1992.",
"Northwest of the city is the Niagara River.",
"Buffalo is at the Lake Erie's eastern end, and it serves as a playground for many personal yachts, sailboats, power boats and watercraft.",
"The city's extensive breakwall system protects its inner and outer harbors, which are maintained at commercial navigation depths for Great Lakes freighters.",
"A Lake Erie tributary that flows through south Buffalo is the Buffalo River and Buffalo Creek.",
"Eight New York State highways, one three-digit Interstate Highway and one U.S. Highway traverse the city of Buffalo.",
"New York State Route 5, commonly referred to as Main Street within the city, enters through Lackawanna as a limited-access highway and intersects with Interstate 190, a north-south highway connecting Interstate 90 in the southeastern suburb of Cheektowaga with Niagara Falls.",
"NY 354 (Clinton Street) and NY 130 (Broadway) are east to west highways connecting south and downtown Buffalo to the eastern suburbs of West Seneca and Depew.",
"NY 265 (Delaware Avenue) and NY 266 (Niagara Street and River Road) both start in downtown Buffalo and end in the city of Tonawanda.",
"One of three U.S. highways in Erie County, the other two being U.S. 20 (Transit Road) and U.S. 219 (Southern Expressway), U.S. 62 (Bailey Avenue) is a north to south trunk road that enters the city through Lackawanna and exits at the Amherst town border at a junction with NY 5.",
"Within the city, the route passes by light industrial developments and high density areas of the city.",
"Bailey Avenue has major intersections with Interstate 190 and the Kensington Expressway.",
"Three major expressways serve the city of Buffalo.",
"The Scajaquada Expressway (NY 198) is primarily a limited access highway connecting Interstate 190 near Unity Island to New York State Route 33, which starts at the edge of downtown and the city's East Side, continues through heavily populated areas of the city, intersects with Interstate 90 in Cheektowaga and ends at the airport.",
"The Peace Bridge is a major international crossing near the city's Black Rock district, connecting Buffalo with Fort Erie and Toronto via the Queen Elizabeth Way.",
"===Utilities===\nBuffalo's water system is operated by Veolia Water.",
"To reduce large-scale ice blockage in the Niagara River, with resultant flooding, ice damage to docks and other waterfront structures, and blockage of the water intakes for the hydro-electric power plants at Niagara Falls, the New York Power Authority and Ontario Power Generation have jointly operated the Lake Erie-Niagara River Ice Boom since 1964.",
"The boom is installed on December 16, or when the water temperature reaches , whichever happens first.",
"The boom is opened on April 1 unless there is more than of ice remaining in Eastern Lake Erie.",
"When in place, the boom stretches from the outer breakwall at Buffalo Harbor almost to the Canadian shore near the ruins of the pier at Erie Beach in Fort Erie.",
"The boom was originally made of wooden timbers, but these have been replaced by steel pontoons.",
"\nA WIVB-TV truck during St. Patrick's Day.",
"Buffalo's major newspaper is ''The Buffalo News''.",
"Established in 1880, the newspaper has 181,540 in daily circulation and 266,123 on Sundays.",
"Other newspapers in the Buffalo area include ''Artvoice,'' ''The Public'', ''The Beast,'' ''Buffalo Business First,'' the ''Spectrum''—University at Buffalo's student-run newspaper—and the ''Record,'' Buffalo State College's student-run newspaper.",
"Online news magazines include ''Artvoice Daily Online'' and ''Buffalo Rising,'' formerly a print magazine.",
"The Buffalo area is home to 14 AM stations and 21 FM stations.",
"Major station operators include Entercom, Townsquare Media and Cumulus Media.",
"In addition, National Public Radio operates a publicly funded station, WBFO 88.7.",
"According to Nielsen Media Research, the Buffalo television market is the 52nd largest in the United States .",
"Although no major cable outlets have offices or bureaus in the Buffalo area, the four major networks have established affiliates in the area: WGRZ 2 (NBC), WIVB-TV 4 (CBS), WUTV 29 (FOX), and WKBW-TV 7 (ABC).",
"Other stations in Buffalo with network affiliations include publicly funded WNED-TV 17 (PBS), WNLO 23 (The CW), WNYO-TV 49 (MyNetworkTV), and WBBZ-TV 67 (MeTV/independent).",
"The area's major cable provider is Spectrum, which operates the system-exclusive Spectrum News Buffalo, part of the statewide Spectrum News network.",
"The Buffalo market also has access to multiple Canadian broadcast stations over-the-air from the Hamilton and Toronto areas, though only CBLT 5 (CBC) and CFTO 9 (CTV) are carried on Time Warner Cable.",
"Movies shot with significant footage of Buffalo include: ''Hide in Plain Sight'' (1980), ''Tuck Everlasting'' (1981), ''Best Friends'' (1982), ''The Natural'' (1984), ''Vamping'' (1984), ''Canadian Bacon'' (1995), ''Buffalo '66'' (1998), ''Manna from Heaven'' (2002), ''Bruce Almighty ''(2003), ''The Savages'' (2007), ''Henry's Crime'' (2011), ''Sharknado 2: The Second One'' (2014), ''Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Out of The Shadows'' (2016), ''Marshall'' (2016), ''Accidental Switch'' (2016), and ''The American Side'' (2017).",
"Although additional movies, such as ''Promised Land'' (2012), have used Buffalo as a setting, filming often takes place in other locations such as Pittsburgh or Canada.",
"High production costs are blamed for filmmakers shooting all or most of their Buffalo-based scenes elsewhere.",
"\nBuffalo is one of the largest Polish-American centers in the United States.",
"As a result, many aspects of Polish culture have found a home within the city from food to festivals.",
"One of the best example's is the yearly celebration of Easter Monday, known to many Eastern Europeans as Dyngus Day.",
"Buffalo has a number of sister cities as designated by Sister Cities International (SCI):\n\n\n\n* Siena, Italy (1961)\n* Kanazawa, Japan (1962)\n* Dortmund, Germany (1972)\n* Rzeszów, Poland (1975)\n* Cape Coast, Ghana (1976)\n* Aboadze, Ghana\n\n\n* Kiryat Gat, Israel (1977)\n* Tver, Russia (1989)\n* Drohobych, Ukraine (2000)\n* Lille, Nord, Hauts-de-France, France (2000)\n* Torremaggiore, Italy (2004)\n* Abuja, Nigeria (2004)\n* Saint Ann's Bay, Jamaica (2007)\n\n\n* Horlivka, Ukraine (2007)\n* Bursa, Turkey (2010)\n* Baní, Dominican Republic (2011)\n* Muhanga District, Rwanda (2011)\n* Yeongcheon, South Korea (2011)\n* Changzhou, China\n* Marília, Brazil",
"\n* Buffalo Airfield\n* Buffalo Central Terminal\n* Buffalo City Hall\n* Buffalo Fire Department\n* South Buffalo, Buffalo, New York\n* Buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo",
"\n* \n*"
] | finance |
[
"\n\nAt 17 metres long, the Severn-class lifeboats are the largest class of UK lifeboat.\nA '''boat''' is a watercraft of a large range of sizes designed to float, plane, work or travel on water. Small boats are typically found on inland waterways (e.g. rivers and lakes) or in protected coastal areas. However, boats such as the whaleboat were designed for operation from a ship in an offshore environment. In modern naval terms, a boat is a vessel small enough to be carried aboard another vessel (a ship). An older tradition is that a ship has a weather deck fully enclosing the hull space, while a boat lacks a full weather deck; this is suggested as the reason why submarines are referred to as 'boats' rather than 'ships', as a cylindrical hull has interior decks but no weatherdeck. Another definition is a vessel that can be lifted out of the water. Some definitions do not make a distinction in size, as bulk freighters long on the Great Lakes are called oreboats. Ships are generally distinguished from boats based on their larger size, shape and cargo or passenger capacity.\n\nBoats have a wide variety of shapes, sizes and construction methods due to their intended purpose, available materials or local traditions. Canoe-type boats have been used since prehistoric times and various versions are used throughout the world for transportation, fishing or sport. Fishing boats vary widely in style partly to match local conditions. Pleasure boats include ski boats, pontoon boats, and sailboats. House boats may be used for vacationing or long-term housing. Small boats can provide transport or convey cargo (lightering) to and from large ships. Lifeboats have rescue and safety functions. Boats can be powered by human power (e.g. rowboats), wind power (e.g. sailboats) and motor power (e.g. propellor-driven motorboats driven by gasoline or diesel engines).\n",
"dugout (dowbanka) dating from the end of the 19th century. Radomysl Castle, Ukraine\nDugouts are the oldest type of boats found by archaeologists,\nand boats have served as transportation since the earliest times. Circumstantial evidence, such as the early settlement of Australia over 40,000 years ago, findings in Crete dated 130,000 years ago, and findings in Flores dated to 900,000 years ago, suggest that boats have been used since prehistoric times. The earliest boats are thought to have been logboats, and the oldest boats found by archaeological excavation date from around 7,000–10,000 years ago. The oldest recovered boat in the world is the Pesse canoe, a dugout made from the hollowed tree trunk of a ''Pinus sylvestris'' and constructed somewhere between 8200 and 7600 BC. This canoe is exhibited in the Drents Museum in Assen, Netherlands. Other very old dugout boats have also been recovered.\nRafts have operated for at least 8,000 years.\nA 7,000-year-old seagoing reed boat has been found in Kuwait.\nBoats were used between 4000 and 3000 BC in Sumer, ancient Egypt and in the Indian Ocean.\n\nBoats played an important role in the commerce between the Indus Valley Civilization and Mesopotamia. Evidence of varying models of boats has also been discovered at various Indus Valley archaeological sites.\nUru craft originate in Beypore, a village in south Calicut, Kerala, in southwestern India. This type of mammoth wooden ship was constructed using teak, without any iron, and had a transport capacity of 400 tonnes. The ancient Arabs and Greeks used such boats as trading vessels.\n\nThe historians Herodotus, Pliny the Elder and Strabo record the use of boats for commerce, travel, and military purposes.\n",
"Boats with sails in Bangladesh.\n\nBoats can be categorized into three main types:\n# Unpowered or human-powered boats. Unpowered boats include rafts and floats meant for one-way downstream travel. Human-powered boats include canoes, kayaks, gondolas and boats propelled by poles like a punt.\n# Sailboats, which are propelled solely by means of sails.\n# Motorboats, which are propelled by mechanical means, such as engines.\n",
"\nSeveral key components make up the main structure of most boats. The hull is the main structural component of the boat and provides buoyancy. The gunnel, which make up the sides of the boat, offers protection from water and makes the boat harder to sink. The roughly horizontal, chambered structures spanning the hull of the boat are referred to as the deck. A ship often has several decks, but a boat is unlikely to have more than one, if any. Above the deck are the superstructures. The underside of a deck is the deck head.\n\nAn enclosed space on a boat is referred to as a cabin. Several structures make up a cabin, including a coach-roof, which is a lightweight structure which spans a raised cabin. The \"floor\" of a cabin is properly known as the sole, but is more likely to be called the floor (a floor is properly, a structural member which ties a frame to the keelson and keel). The vertical surfaces dividing the internal space are bulkheads.\n\nThe keel is a lengthwise structural member to which the frames are fixed (sometimes referred to as a \"backbone\").\n\nThe front (or fore end) of a boat is called the bow. Boats of earlier times often featured a figurehead protruding from the bow. The rear (or aft end) of the boat is called the stern. The right side (facing forward) is starboard and the left side is port.\n\nNearly every boat is given a name by the owner, and this is how the boat is referred to in the boating community, and in some cases, in legal or title paperwork. Boat names vary from whimsical to humorous to serious.\n",
"\nUntil the mid-19th century most boats were made of natural materials, primarily wood, although reed, bark and animal skins were also used. Early boats include the bound-reed style of boat seen in Ancient Egypt, the birch bark canoe, the animal hide-covered kayak and coracle and the dugout canoe made from a single log.\n\nTraditional Toba Batak boat (circa 1870), photograph by Kristen Feilberg\nFishing Boats in Visakhapatnam\nBill Streever describes a boat made by the native Inupiat people in Barrow, Alaska as \"a skin boat, an ''umiaq'', built from the stitched hides of bearded seals and used to hunt bowhead whales in the open-water leads during spring...\".\n\nBy the mid-19th century, many boats had been built with iron or steel frames but still planked in wood. In 1855 ferro-cement boat construction was patented by the French, who coined the name \"ferciment\". This is a system by which a steel or iron wire framework is built in the shape of a boat's hull and covered (trowelled) over with cement. Reinforced with bulkheads and other internal structure, it is strong but heavy, easily repaired, and, if sealed properly, will not leak or corrode. These materials and methods were copied all over the world and have faded in and out of popularity to the present time. As the forests of Britain and Europe continued to be over-harvested to supply the keels of larger wooden boats, and the Bessemer process (patented in 1855) cheapened the cost of steel, steel ships and boats began to be more common. By the 1930s boats built entirely of steel from frames to plating were seen replacing wooden boats in many industrial uses, also for fishing fleets. Private recreational boats of steel are however uncommon. In 1895 WH Mullins produced steel boats of galvanized iron and by 1930 became the world's largest producer of pleasure boats. Mullins also offered boats in aluminum from 1895 through 1899 and once again in the 1920's In the mid-20th century aluminium gained popularity. Though much more expensive than steel, there are now aluminum alloys available that do not corrode in salt water, and an aluminium boat built to similar load carrying standards is lighter in weight than the steel equivalent .\nAround the mid-1960s, boats made of glass-reinforced plastic, more commonly known as fibreglass, became popular, especially for recreational boats. The United States Coast Guard refers to such boats as 'FRP' (for fibre-reinforced plastic) boats.\n\nFibreglass boats are strong, and do not rust (iron oxide), corrode, or rot. They are, however susceptible to structural degradation from sunlight and extremes in temperature over their lifespan. Fibreglass provides structural strength, especially when long woven strands are laid, sometimes from bow to stern, and then soaked in epoxy or polyester resin to form the hull. Whether hand laid or built in a mould, Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) boats usually have an outer coating of gelcoat, which is a thin solid colored layer of polyester resin that adds no structural strength, but does create a smooth surface which can be buffed to a high shine and also acts as a protective layer against sunlight. FRP structures can be made stiffer with sandwich panels, where the FRP encloses a lightweight core such as balsa or foam. Cored FRP is most often found in decking, which helps keep down weight that will be carried above the waterline. The addition of wood makes the cored structure of the boat susceptible to rotting, which puts a greater emphasis on not allowing damaged sandwich structures to go unrepaired. Plastic based foam cores are less vulnerable. The phrase 'advanced composites' in FRP construction may indicate the addition of carbon fibre, Kevlar or other similar materials, but it may also indicate methods designed to introduce less expensive and, by at least one yacht surveyor's eyewitness accounts, less structurally sound materials.\n\nCold moulding is similar to FRP in as much as it involves the use of epoxy or polyester resins, but the structural component is wood instead of fibreglass. In cold moulding very thin strips of wood are layered over a form or mould. Each layer is coated with resin and another directionally alternating layer is laid on top. In some processes the subsequent layers are stapled or otherwise mechanically fastened to the previous layers, but in other processes the layers are weighted or even vacuum bagged to hold them together while the resin sets. Layers are built up until the required hull thickness is achieved.\n\nBoats or watercraft have also been made of materials such as foam or plastic, but most homebuilts today are built of plywood and either painted or covered with a layer of fibreglass and resin.\n",
"\nThe most common means of boat propulsion are as follows:\n* Engine powered propellers\n** Inboard\n** Inboard/outboard (stern drive)\n** Outboard\n** Paddle wheel\n** Water jet (personal water craft, jetboat)\n** Air fans (hovercraft, air boat)\n* Human power (rowing, paddling, setting pole etc.)\n* Wind power (sailing)\n\nAn early, uncommon means of boat propulsion is represented by the water caterpillar. This boat was moved by a series of paddles on chains along the bottom to propel it over the water and preceded the development of tracked vehicles.\n",
"\n\nA floating boat displaces its weight in water. The material of the boat hull may be denser than water, but if this is the case then it forms only the outer layer. If the boat floats, the mass of the boat (plus contents) ''as a whole'' divided by the volume ''below the waterline'' is equal to the density of water (1 kg/l). If weight is added to the boat, the volume below the waterline will increase to keep the weight balance equal, and so the boat sinks a little to compensate.\n",
"\nFile:Canoe-01.jpg|Plastic molded boat.\nYacht and Sails.JPG|Anchored boats in Portovenere, Italy\nFile:BOUALAML.the boat south mediterranean-Maghrebis.2.jpg|wooden boat in Morocco\nEgyptTombOarboat.jpg|A boat in an Egyptian tomb, painted around 1450 BC\nHistoric Center of Quito - World Heritage Site by UNESCO - Photo 437.jpg|These dugout boats were photographed in the courtyard of the Old Military Hospital in the Historic Center of Quito\nA boat in India.JPG|A boat on the Ganges River\nBabur crossing the river Son.jpg|Babur crossing river Son; folio from an illustrated manuscript of ‘Babur-Namah’, Mughal, Akbar Period, AD 1598\nTug Boat NY 1.jpg|A tugboat is used for towing or pushing another, larger vessel\nOldboats.JPG|Aluminum flat-bottomed boats ashore for storage\nDerelictBoatFollyIs.jpg|A ship's derelict lifeboat, built of steel, rusting away in the wetlands of Folly Island, South Carolina, United States\nFile:The boat south mediterranean-Maghrebis.jpg|wooden boat In a small Moroccan village\nBoating in fair weather.jpg|A wooden boat operating near shore\nJiajing Emperor on his state barge.jpg|Ming Dynasty Chinese painting of the Wanli Emperor enjoying a boat ride on a river with an entourage of guards and courtiers\nSauce Bottle - geograph.org.uk - 13422.jpg|A boat shaped like a sauce bottle that was sailed across the Atlantic Ocean by Tom McClean\nFile:Bootsverleih hat Winterpause (23281842472).jpg|Boats rental, Germany\n\n",
"\n\n* Abora\n* Barge\n* Cabin cruiser\n* Dory\n* Fishing boat\n* Halkett boat\n* Inflatable boat\n\n* Launch (boat)\n* Log canoe\n* Narrowboat\n* Naval architecture\n* Panga (boat)\n* Pirogue\n\n* Rescue craft\n* Sampan\n* Ship's boat\n* Skiff\n* Super yacht\n* Traditional fishing boats\n* Watercraft rowing\n\n",
"\n",
"\n\n\n* University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Freshwater and Marine Image Bank, (enter search term \"vessels\" for images of boats and vessels.)\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" History ",
"Types",
"Parts and terminology",
" Building materials ",
"Propulsion",
"Buoyancy",
"Image gallery",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Boat | [
"\n\n\n* University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Freshwater and Marine Image Bank, (enter search term \"vessels\" for images of boats and vessels.)"
] | [
"\n\nAt 17 metres long, the Severn-class lifeboats are the largest class of UK lifeboat.",
"A '''boat''' is a watercraft of a large range of sizes designed to float, plane, work or travel on water.",
"Small boats are typically found on inland waterways (e.g.",
"rivers and lakes) or in protected coastal areas.",
"However, boats such as the whaleboat were designed for operation from a ship in an offshore environment.",
"In modern naval terms, a boat is a vessel small enough to be carried aboard another vessel (a ship).",
"An older tradition is that a ship has a weather deck fully enclosing the hull space, while a boat lacks a full weather deck; this is suggested as the reason why submarines are referred to as 'boats' rather than 'ships', as a cylindrical hull has interior decks but no weatherdeck.",
"Another definition is a vessel that can be lifted out of the water.",
"Some definitions do not make a distinction in size, as bulk freighters long on the Great Lakes are called oreboats.",
"Ships are generally distinguished from boats based on their larger size, shape and cargo or passenger capacity.",
"Boats have a wide variety of shapes, sizes and construction methods due to their intended purpose, available materials or local traditions.",
"Canoe-type boats have been used since prehistoric times and various versions are used throughout the world for transportation, fishing or sport.",
"Fishing boats vary widely in style partly to match local conditions.",
"Pleasure boats include ski boats, pontoon boats, and sailboats.",
"House boats may be used for vacationing or long-term housing.",
"Small boats can provide transport or convey cargo (lightering) to and from large ships.",
"Lifeboats have rescue and safety functions.",
"Boats can be powered by human power (e.g.",
"rowboats), wind power (e.g.",
"sailboats) and motor power (e.g.",
"propellor-driven motorboats driven by gasoline or diesel engines).",
"dugout (dowbanka) dating from the end of the 19th century.",
"Radomysl Castle, Ukraine\nDugouts are the oldest type of boats found by archaeologists,\nand boats have served as transportation since the earliest times.",
"Circumstantial evidence, such as the early settlement of Australia over 40,000 years ago, findings in Crete dated 130,000 years ago, and findings in Flores dated to 900,000 years ago, suggest that boats have been used since prehistoric times.",
"The earliest boats are thought to have been logboats, and the oldest boats found by archaeological excavation date from around 7,000–10,000 years ago.",
"The oldest recovered boat in the world is the Pesse canoe, a dugout made from the hollowed tree trunk of a ''Pinus sylvestris'' and constructed somewhere between 8200 and 7600 BC.",
"This canoe is exhibited in the Drents Museum in Assen, Netherlands.",
"Other very old dugout boats have also been recovered.",
"Rafts have operated for at least 8,000 years.",
"A 7,000-year-old seagoing reed boat has been found in Kuwait.",
"Boats were used between 4000 and 3000 BC in Sumer, ancient Egypt and in the Indian Ocean.",
"Boats played an important role in the commerce between the Indus Valley Civilization and Mesopotamia.",
"Evidence of varying models of boats has also been discovered at various Indus Valley archaeological sites.",
"Uru craft originate in Beypore, a village in south Calicut, Kerala, in southwestern India.",
"This type of mammoth wooden ship was constructed using teak, without any iron, and had a transport capacity of 400 tonnes.",
"The ancient Arabs and Greeks used such boats as trading vessels.",
"The historians Herodotus, Pliny the Elder and Strabo record the use of boats for commerce, travel, and military purposes.",
"Boats with sails in Bangladesh.",
"Boats can be categorized into three main types:\n# Unpowered or human-powered boats.",
"Unpowered boats include rafts and floats meant for one-way downstream travel.",
"Human-powered boats include canoes, kayaks, gondolas and boats propelled by poles like a punt.",
"# Sailboats, which are propelled solely by means of sails.",
"# Motorboats, which are propelled by mechanical means, such as engines.",
"\nSeveral key components make up the main structure of most boats.",
"The hull is the main structural component of the boat and provides buoyancy.",
"The gunnel, which make up the sides of the boat, offers protection from water and makes the boat harder to sink.",
"The roughly horizontal, chambered structures spanning the hull of the boat are referred to as the deck.",
"A ship often has several decks, but a boat is unlikely to have more than one, if any.",
"Above the deck are the superstructures.",
"The underside of a deck is the deck head.",
"An enclosed space on a boat is referred to as a cabin.",
"Several structures make up a cabin, including a coach-roof, which is a lightweight structure which spans a raised cabin.",
"The \"floor\" of a cabin is properly known as the sole, but is more likely to be called the floor (a floor is properly, a structural member which ties a frame to the keelson and keel).",
"The vertical surfaces dividing the internal space are bulkheads.",
"The keel is a lengthwise structural member to which the frames are fixed (sometimes referred to as a \"backbone\").",
"The front (or fore end) of a boat is called the bow.",
"Boats of earlier times often featured a figurehead protruding from the bow.",
"The rear (or aft end) of the boat is called the stern.",
"The right side (facing forward) is starboard and the left side is port.",
"Nearly every boat is given a name by the owner, and this is how the boat is referred to in the boating community, and in some cases, in legal or title paperwork.",
"Boat names vary from whimsical to humorous to serious.",
"\nUntil the mid-19th century most boats were made of natural materials, primarily wood, although reed, bark and animal skins were also used.",
"Early boats include the bound-reed style of boat seen in Ancient Egypt, the birch bark canoe, the animal hide-covered kayak and coracle and the dugout canoe made from a single log.",
"Traditional Toba Batak boat (circa 1870), photograph by Kristen Feilberg\nFishing Boats in Visakhapatnam\nBill Streever describes a boat made by the native Inupiat people in Barrow, Alaska as \"a skin boat, an ''umiaq'', built from the stitched hides of bearded seals and used to hunt bowhead whales in the open-water leads during spring...\".",
"By the mid-19th century, many boats had been built with iron or steel frames but still planked in wood.",
"In 1855 ferro-cement boat construction was patented by the French, who coined the name \"ferciment\".",
"This is a system by which a steel or iron wire framework is built in the shape of a boat's hull and covered (trowelled) over with cement.",
"Reinforced with bulkheads and other internal structure, it is strong but heavy, easily repaired, and, if sealed properly, will not leak or corrode.",
"These materials and methods were copied all over the world and have faded in and out of popularity to the present time.",
"As the forests of Britain and Europe continued to be over-harvested to supply the keels of larger wooden boats, and the Bessemer process (patented in 1855) cheapened the cost of steel, steel ships and boats began to be more common.",
"By the 1930s boats built entirely of steel from frames to plating were seen replacing wooden boats in many industrial uses, also for fishing fleets.",
"Private recreational boats of steel are however uncommon.",
"In 1895 WH Mullins produced steel boats of galvanized iron and by 1930 became the world's largest producer of pleasure boats.",
"Mullins also offered boats in aluminum from 1895 through 1899 and once again in the 1920's In the mid-20th century aluminium gained popularity.",
"Though much more expensive than steel, there are now aluminum alloys available that do not corrode in salt water, and an aluminium boat built to similar load carrying standards is lighter in weight than the steel equivalent .",
"Around the mid-1960s, boats made of glass-reinforced plastic, more commonly known as fibreglass, became popular, especially for recreational boats.",
"The United States Coast Guard refers to such boats as 'FRP' (for fibre-reinforced plastic) boats.",
"Fibreglass boats are strong, and do not rust (iron oxide), corrode, or rot.",
"They are, however susceptible to structural degradation from sunlight and extremes in temperature over their lifespan.",
"Fibreglass provides structural strength, especially when long woven strands are laid, sometimes from bow to stern, and then soaked in epoxy or polyester resin to form the hull.",
"Whether hand laid or built in a mould, Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) boats usually have an outer coating of gelcoat, which is a thin solid colored layer of polyester resin that adds no structural strength, but does create a smooth surface which can be buffed to a high shine and also acts as a protective layer against sunlight.",
"FRP structures can be made stiffer with sandwich panels, where the FRP encloses a lightweight core such as balsa or foam.",
"Cored FRP is most often found in decking, which helps keep down weight that will be carried above the waterline.",
"The addition of wood makes the cored structure of the boat susceptible to rotting, which puts a greater emphasis on not allowing damaged sandwich structures to go unrepaired.",
"Plastic based foam cores are less vulnerable.",
"The phrase 'advanced composites' in FRP construction may indicate the addition of carbon fibre, Kevlar or other similar materials, but it may also indicate methods designed to introduce less expensive and, by at least one yacht surveyor's eyewitness accounts, less structurally sound materials.",
"Cold moulding is similar to FRP in as much as it involves the use of epoxy or polyester resins, but the structural component is wood instead of fibreglass.",
"In cold moulding very thin strips of wood are layered over a form or mould.",
"Each layer is coated with resin and another directionally alternating layer is laid on top.",
"In some processes the subsequent layers are stapled or otherwise mechanically fastened to the previous layers, but in other processes the layers are weighted or even vacuum bagged to hold them together while the resin sets.",
"Layers are built up until the required hull thickness is achieved.",
"Boats or watercraft have also been made of materials such as foam or plastic, but most homebuilts today are built of plywood and either painted or covered with a layer of fibreglass and resin.",
"\nThe most common means of boat propulsion are as follows:\n* Engine powered propellers\n** Inboard\n** Inboard/outboard (stern drive)\n** Outboard\n** Paddle wheel\n** Water jet (personal water craft, jetboat)\n** Air fans (hovercraft, air boat)\n* Human power (rowing, paddling, setting pole etc.)",
"* Wind power (sailing)\n\nAn early, uncommon means of boat propulsion is represented by the water caterpillar.",
"This boat was moved by a series of paddles on chains along the bottom to propel it over the water and preceded the development of tracked vehicles.",
"\n\nA floating boat displaces its weight in water.",
"The material of the boat hull may be denser than water, but if this is the case then it forms only the outer layer.",
"If the boat floats, the mass of the boat (plus contents) ''as a whole'' divided by the volume ''below the waterline'' is equal to the density of water (1 kg/l).",
"If weight is added to the boat, the volume below the waterline will increase to keep the weight balance equal, and so the boat sinks a little to compensate.",
"\nFile:Canoe-01.jpg|Plastic molded boat.",
"Yacht and Sails.JPG|Anchored boats in Portovenere, Italy\nFile:BOUALAML.the boat south mediterranean-Maghrebis.2.jpg|wooden boat in Morocco\nEgyptTombOarboat.jpg|A boat in an Egyptian tomb, painted around 1450 BC\nHistoric Center of Quito - World Heritage Site by UNESCO - Photo 437.jpg|These dugout boats were photographed in the courtyard of the Old Military Hospital in the Historic Center of Quito\nA boat in India.JPG|A boat on the Ganges River\nBabur crossing the river Son.jpg|Babur crossing river Son; folio from an illustrated manuscript of ‘Babur-Namah’, Mughal, Akbar Period, AD 1598\nTug Boat NY 1.jpg|A tugboat is used for towing or pushing another, larger vessel\nOldboats.JPG|Aluminum flat-bottomed boats ashore for storage\nDerelictBoatFollyIs.jpg|A ship's derelict lifeboat, built of steel, rusting away in the wetlands of Folly Island, South Carolina, United States\nFile:The boat south mediterranean-Maghrebis.jpg|wooden boat In a small Moroccan village\nBoating in fair weather.jpg|A wooden boat operating near shore\nJiajing Emperor on his state barge.jpg|Ming Dynasty Chinese painting of the Wanli Emperor enjoying a boat ride on a river with an entourage of guards and courtiers\nSauce Bottle - geograph.org.uk - 13422.jpg|A boat shaped like a sauce bottle that was sailed across the Atlantic Ocean by Tom McClean\nFile:Bootsverleih hat Winterpause (23281842472).jpg|Boats rental, Germany",
"\n\n* Abora\n* Barge\n* Cabin cruiser\n* Dory\n* Fishing boat\n* Halkett boat\n* Inflatable boat\n\n* Launch (boat)\n* Log canoe\n* Narrowboat\n* Naval architecture\n* Panga (boat)\n* Pirogue\n\n* Rescue craft\n* Sampan\n* Ship's boat\n* Skiff\n* Super yacht\n* Traditional fishing boats\n* Watercraft rowing"
] | river |
[
" \n\n\n\n\n'''Blood''' is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells.\n\nIn vertebrates, it is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma. Plasma, which constitutes 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water (92% by volume), and contains dissipated proteins, glucose, mineral ions, hormones, carbon dioxide (plasma being the main medium for excretory product transportation), and blood cells themselves. Albumin is the main protein in plasma, and it functions to regulate the colloidal osmotic pressure of blood. The blood cells are mainly red blood cells (also called RBCs or erythrocytes), white blood cells (also called WBCs or leukocytes) and platelets (also called thrombocytes). The most abundant cells in vertebrate blood are red blood cells. These contain hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein, which facilitates oxygen transport by reversibly binding to this respiratory gas and greatly increasing its solubility in blood. In contrast, carbon dioxide is mostly transported extracellularly as bicarbonate ion transported in plasma.\n\nVertebrate blood is bright red when its hemoglobin is oxygenated and dark red when it is deoxygenated. Some animals, such as crustaceans and mollusks, use hemocyanin to carry oxygen, instead of hemoglobin. Insects and some mollusks use a fluid called hemolymph instead of blood, the difference being that hemolymph is not contained in a closed circulatory system. In most insects, this \"blood\" does not contain oxygen-carrying molecules such as hemoglobin because their bodies are small enough for their tracheal system to suffice for supplying oxygen.\n\nJawed vertebrates have an adaptive immune system, based largely on white blood cells. White blood cells help to resist infections and parasites. Platelets are important in the clotting of blood. Arthropods, using hemolymph, have hemocytes as part of their immune system.\n\nBlood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. In animals with lungs, arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to the tissues of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism produced by cells, from the tissues to the lungs to be exhaled.\n\nMedical terms related to blood often begin with '''hemo-''' or '''hemato-''' (also spelled '''haemo-''' and '''haemato-''') from the Greek word (''haima'') for \"blood\". In terms of anatomy and histology, blood is considered a specialized form of connective tissue, given its origin in the bones and the presence of potential molecular fibers in the form of fibrinogen.\n",
"Hemoglobin, a globular proteingreen = haem groupsred & blue = protein subunits\nHeme\nBlood performs many important functions within the body, including:\n* Supply of oxygen to tissues (bound to hemoglobin, which is carried in red cells)\n* Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids (dissolved in the blood or bound to plasma proteins (e.g., blood lipids))\n* Removal of waste such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid\n* Immunological functions, including circulation of white blood cells, and detection of foreign material by antibodies\n* Coagulation, the response to a broken blood vessel, the conversion of blood from a liquid to a semisolid gel to stop bleeding\n* Messenger functions, including the transport of hormones and the signaling of tissue damage\n* Regulation of core body temperature\n* Hydraulic functions\n",
"\nWhat's Inside of Blood\nBlood accounts for 7% of the human body weight, with an average density around 1060 kg/m3, very close to pure water's density of 1000 kg/m3. The average adult has a blood volume of roughly , which is composed of plasma and several kinds of cells. These blood cells (which are also called corpuscles or \"formed elements\") consist of erythrocytes (red blood cells, RBCs), leukocytes (white blood cells), and thrombocytes (platelets). By volume, the red blood cells constitute about 45% of whole blood, the plasma about 54.3%, and white cells about 0.7%.\n\nWhole blood (plasma and cells) exhibits non-Newtonian fluid dynamics. If all human hemoglobin were free in the plasma rather than being contained in RBCs, the circulatory fluid would be too viscous for the cardiovascular system to function effectively.\n\n\nFile:Krew Frakcjonowana.jpg|Human blood fractioned by centrifugation: Plasma (upper, yellow layer), buffy coat (middle, thin white layer) and erythrocyte layer (bottom, red layer) can be seen.\nFile:Blutkreislauf.png|Blood circulation: Red = oxygenated, blue = deoxygenated\nFile:Blausen 0425 Formed Elements.png|Illustration depicting formed elements of blood\nFile:Blut-EDTA.jpg|Two tubes of EDTA-anticoagulated blood. Left tube: after standing, the RBCs have settled at the bottom of the tube. Right tube: Freshly drawn blood\n\n\n===Cells===\n\n\nA scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of a normal red blood cell (left), a platelet (middle), and a white blood cell (right)\nOne microliter of blood contains:\n* '''4.7 to 6.1 million (male), 4.2 to 5.4 million (female) erythrocytes:''' Red blood cells contain the blood's hemoglobin and distribute oxygen. Mature red blood cells lack a nucleus and organelles in mammals. The red blood cells (together with endothelial vessel cells and other cells) are also marked by glycoproteins that define the different blood types. The proportion of blood occupied by red blood cells is referred to as the hematocrit, and is normally about 45%. The combined surface area of all red blood cells of the human body would be roughly 2,000 times as great as the body's exterior surface.\n* '''4,000–11,000 leukocytes:''' White blood cells are part of the body's immune system; they destroy and remove old or aberrant cells and cellular debris, as well as attack infectious agents (pathogens) and foreign substances. The cancer of leukocytes is called leukemia.\n* '''200,000–500,000 thrombocytes:''' Also called platelets, they take part in blood clotting (coagulation). Fibrin from the coagulation cascade creates a mesh over the platelet plug.\n\n\n+ Constitution of normal blood\n\nParameter\nValue\n\n Hematocrit \n\n45 ± 7 (38–52%) for males\n42 ± 5 (37–47%) for females\n\n pH \n 7.35–7.45\n\n base excess \n −3 to +3\n\n PO2 \n 10–13 kPa (80–100 mm Hg)\n\n PCO2 \n 4.8–5.8 kPa (35–45 mm Hg)\n\n HCO3− \n 21–27 mM\n\n Oxygen saturation \n\nOxygenated: 98–99%\nDeoxygenated: 75%\n\n\n===Plasma===\n\nAbout 55% of blood is blood plasma, a fluid that is the blood's liquid medium, which by itself is straw-yellow in color. The blood plasma volume totals of 2.7–3.0 liters (2.8–3.2 quarts) in an average human. It is essentially an aqueous solution containing 92% water, 8% blood plasma proteins, and trace amounts of other materials. Plasma circulates dissolved nutrients, such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids (dissolved in the blood or bound to plasma proteins), and removes waste products, such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid.\n\nOther important components include:\n* Serum albumin\n* Blood-clotting factors (to facilitate coagulation)\n* Immunoglobulins (antibodies)\n* lipoprotein particles\n* Various other proteins\n* Various electrolytes (mainly sodium and chloride)\n\nThe term '''serum''' refers to plasma from which the clotting proteins have been removed. Most of the proteins remaining are albumin and immunoglobulins.\n\n===pH values===\n\n\nBlood pH is regulated to stay within the narrow range of 7.35 to 7.45, making it slightly basic. Blood that has a pH below 7.35 is too acidic, whereas blood pH above 7.45 is too basic. Blood pH, partial pressure of oxygen (pO2), partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2), and bicarbonate (HCO3−) are carefully regulated by a number of homeostatic mechanisms, which exert their influence principally through the respiratory system and the urinary system to control the acid-base balance and respiration. An arterial blood gas test measures these. Plasma also circulates hormones transmitting their messages to various tissues. The list of normal reference ranges for various blood electrolytes is extensive.\n\n===Blood in non-mammalian vertebrates===\nVertebrate red blood cell types, measurements in micrometers\nFrog red blood cells magnified 1000 times\nTurtle red blood cells magnified 1000 times\nChicken red blood cells magnified 1000 times\nHuman red blood cells magnified 1000 times\n\nHuman blood is typical of that of mammals, although the precise details concerning cell numbers, size, protein structure, and so on, vary somewhat between species. In non-mammalian vertebrates, however, there are some key differences:\n* Red blood cells of non-mammalian vertebrates are flattened and ovoid in form, and retain their cell nuclei.\n* There is considerable variation in the types and proportions of white blood cells; for example, acidophils are generally more common than in humans.\n* Platelets are unique to mammals; in other vertebrates, small nucleated, spindle cells called thrombocytes are responsible for blood clotting instead.\n",
"\n===Cardiovascular system===\nCirculation of blood through the human heart\n\n\nBlood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. In humans, blood is pumped from the strong left ventricle of the heart through arteries to peripheral tissues and returns to the right atrium of the heart through veins. It then enters the right ventricle and is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs and returns to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins. Blood then enters the left ventricle to be circulated again. Arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to all of the cells of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism by cells, to the lungs to be exhaled. However, one exception includes pulmonary arteries, which contain the most deoxygenated blood in the body, while the pulmonary veins contain oxygenated blood.\n\nAdditional return flow may be generated by the movement of skeletal muscles, which can compress veins and push blood through the valves in veins toward the right atrium.\n\nThe blood circulation was famously described by William Harvey in 1628.\n\n===Production and degradation of blood cells===\nIn vertebrates, the various cells of blood are made in the bone marrow in a process called hematopoiesis, which includes erythropoiesis, the production of red blood cells; and myelopoiesis, the production of white blood cells and platelets. During childhood, almost every human bone produces red blood cells; as adults, red blood cell production is limited to the larger bones: the bodies of the vertebrae, the breastbone (sternum), the ribcage, the pelvic bones, and the bones of the upper arms and legs. In addition, during childhood, the thymus gland, found in the mediastinum, is an important source of T lymphocytes. There are recent reports that the lungs may also be the site of hematopoiesis.\nThe proteinaceous component of blood (including clotting proteins) is produced predominantly by the liver, while hormones are produced by the endocrine glands and the watery fraction is regulated by the hypothalamus and maintained by the kidney.\n\nHealthy erythrocytes have a plasma life of about 120 days before they are degraded by the spleen, and the Kupffer cells in the liver. The liver also clears some proteins, lipids, and amino acids. The kidney actively secretes waste products into the urine.\n\n===Oxygen transport===\nBasic hemoglobin saturation curve. It is moved to the right in higher acidity (more dissolved carbon dioxide) and to the left in lower acidity (less dissolved carbon dioxide)\nAbout 98.5% of the oxygen in a sample of arterial blood in a healthy human breathing air at sea-level pressure is chemically combined with the hemoglobin. About 1.5% is physically dissolved in the other blood liquids and not connected to hemoglobin. The hemoglobin molecule is the primary transporter of oxygen in mammals and many other species (for exceptions, see below). Hemoglobin has an oxygen binding capacity between 1.36 and 1.40 ml O2 per gram hemoglobin, which increases the total blood oxygen capacity seventyfold, compared to if oxygen solely were carried by its solubility of 0.03 ml O2 per liter blood per mm Hg partial pressure of oxygen (about 100 mm Hg in arteries).\n\nWith the exception of pulmonary and umbilical arteries and their corresponding veins, arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart and deliver it to the body via arterioles and capillaries, where the oxygen is consumed; afterwards, venules and veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart.\n\nUnder normal conditions in adult humans at rest, hemoglobin in blood leaving the lungs is about 98–99% saturated with oxygen, achieving an oxygen delivery between 950 and 1150 ml/min to the body. In a healthy adult at rest, oxygen consumption is approximately 200–250 ml/min, and deoxygenated blood returning to the lungs is still roughly 75% (70 to 78%) saturated. Increased oxygen consumption during sustained exercise reduces the oxygen saturation of venous blood, which can reach less than 15% in a trained athlete; although breathing rate and blood flow increase to compensate, oxygen saturation in arterial blood can drop to 95% or less under these conditions. Oxygen saturation this low is considered dangerous in an individual at rest (for instance, during surgery under anesthesia). Sustained hypoxia (oxygenation less than 90%), is dangerous to health, and severe hypoxia (saturations less than 30%) may be rapidly fatal.\n\nA fetus, receiving oxygen via the placenta, is exposed to much lower oxygen pressures (about 21% of the level found in an adult's lungs), so fetuses produce another form of hemoglobin with a much higher affinity for oxygen (hemoglobin F) to function under these conditions.\n\n===Carbon dioxide transport===\nCO2 is carried in blood in three different ways. (The exact percentages vary depending whether it is arterial or venous blood). Most of it (about 70%) is converted to bicarbonate ions by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in the red blood cells by the reaction CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → H+ + ; about 7% is dissolved in the plasma; and about 23% is bound to hemoglobin as carbamino compounds.\nHemoglobin, the main oxygen-carrying molecule in red blood cells, carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide. However, the CO2 bound to hemoglobin does not bind to the same site as oxygen. Instead, it combines with the N-terminal groups on the four globin chains. However, because of allosteric effects on the hemoglobin molecule, the binding of CO2 decreases the amount of oxygen that is bound for a given partial pressure of oxygen. The decreased binding to carbon dioxide in the blood due to increased oxygen levels is known as the Haldane effect, and is important in the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. A rise in the partial pressure of CO2 or a lower pH will cause offloading of oxygen from hemoglobin, which is known as the Bohr effect.\n\n===Transport of hydrogen ions===\nSome oxyhemoglobin loses oxygen and becomes deoxyhemoglobin. Deoxyhemoglobin binds most of the hydrogen ions as it has a much greater affinity for more hydrogen than does oxyhemoglobin.\n\n===Lymphatic system===\n\nIn mammals, blood is in equilibrium with lymph, which is continuously formed in tissues from blood by capillary ultrafiltration. Lymph is collected by a system of small lymphatic vessels and directed to the thoracic duct, which drains into the left subclavian vein where lymph rejoins the systemic blood circulation.\n\n===Thermoregulation===\nBlood circulation transports heat throughout the body, and adjustments to this flow are an important part of thermoregulation. Increasing blood flow to the surface (e.g., during warm weather or strenuous exercise) causes warmer skin, resulting in faster heat loss. In contrast, when the external temperature is low, blood flow to the extremities and surface of the skin is reduced and to prevent heat loss and is circulated to the important organs of the body, preferentially.\n\n=== Rate of blood flow ===\nRate of blood flow varies greatly between different tissues. Liver has the most abundant blood supply with approximate blood flow of 1350ml/min. Kidney and Brain are the second and the third most supplied tissues, with 1100 ml/min and ~700ml/min, respectively.\n\nIf the rate of blood flow per 100g of tissue be the criterion, these gradings will be completely different. With kidney, adrenal gland and thyroid being the first, second and third most supplied tissues, respectively.\n\n===Hydraulic functions===\nThe restriction of blood flow can also be used in specialized tissues to cause engorgement, resulting in an erection of that tissue; examples are the erectile tissue in the penis and clitoris.\n\nAnother example of a hydraulic function is the jumping spider, in which blood forced into the legs under pressure causes them to straighten for a powerful jump, without the need for bulky muscular legs.\n\n===Invertebrates===\nIn insects, the blood (more properly called hemolymph) is not involved in the transport of oxygen. (Openings called tracheae allow oxygen from the air to diffuse directly to the tissues.) Insect blood moves nutrients to the tissues and removes waste products in an open system.\n\nOther invertebrates use respiratory proteins to increase the oxygen-carrying capacity. Hemoglobin is the most common respiratory protein found in nature. Hemocyanin (blue) contains copper and is found in crustaceans and mollusks. It is thought that tunicates (sea squirts) might use vanabins (proteins containing vanadium) for respiratory pigment (bright-green, blue, or orange).\n\nIn many invertebrates, these oxygen-carrying proteins are freely soluble in the blood; in vertebrates they are contained in specialized red blood cells, allowing for a higher concentration of respiratory pigments without increasing viscosity or damaging blood filtering organs like the kidneys.\n\nGiant tube worms have unusual hemoglobins that allow them to live in extraordinary environments. These hemoglobins also carry sulfides normally fatal in other animals.\n",
"The coloring matter of blood ('''hemochrome''') is largely due to the protein in the blood responsible for oxygen transport. Different groups of organisms use different proteins.\n\n===Hemoglobin===\n\nCapillary blood from a bleeding finger\nHemoglobin is the principal determinant of the color of blood in vertebrates. Each molecule has four heme groups, and their interaction with various molecules alters the exact color. In vertebrates and other hemoglobin-using creatures, arterial blood and capillary blood are bright red, as oxygen imparts a strong red color to the heme group. Deoxygenated blood is a darker shade of red; this is present in veins, and can be seen during blood donation and when venous blood samples are taken. This is because the spectrum of light absorbed by hemoglobin differs between the oxygenated and deoxygenated states.\n\nBlood in carbon monoxide poisoning is bright red, because carbon monoxide causes the formation of carboxyhemoglobin. In cyanide poisoning, the body cannot utilize oxygen, so the venous blood remains oxygenated, increasing the redness. There are some conditions affecting the heme groups present in hemoglobin that can make the skin appear blue—a symptom called cyanosis. If the heme is oxidized, methemoglobin, which is more brownish and cannot transport oxygen, is formed. In the rare condition sulfhemoglobinemia, arterial hemoglobin is partially oxygenated, and appears dark red with a bluish hue.\n\nVeins close to the surface of the skin appear blue for a variety of reasons. However, the factors that contribute to this alteration of color perception are related to the light-scattering properties of the skin and the processing of visual input by the visual cortex, rather than the actual color of the venous blood.\n\nSkinks in the genus ''Prasinohaema'' have green blood due to a buildup of the waste product biliverdin.\n\n===Hemocyanin===\n\nThe blood of most mollusks – including cephalopods and gastropods – as well as some arthropods, such as horseshoe crabs, is blue, as it contains the copper-containing protein hemocyanin at concentrations of about 50 grams per liter. Hemocyanin is colorless when deoxygenated and dark blue when oxygenated. The blood in the circulation of these creatures, which generally live in cold environments with low oxygen tensions, is grey-white to pale yellow, and it turns dark blue when exposed to the oxygen in the air, as seen when they bleed. This is due to change in color of hemocyanin when it is oxidized. Hemocyanin carries oxygen in extracellular fluid, which is in contrast to the intracellular oxygen transport in mammals by hemoglobin in RBCs.\n\n===Chlorocruorin===\n\nThe blood of most annelid worms and some marine polychaetes use chlorocruorin to transport oxygen. It is green in color in dilute solutions.\n\n===Hemerythrin===\n\nHemerythrin is used for oxygen transport in the marine invertebrates sipunculids, priapulids, brachiopods, and the annelid worm, magelona. Hemerythrin is violet-pink when oxygenated.\n\n===Hemovanadin===\n\nThe blood of some species of ascidians and tunicates, also known as sea squirts, contains proteins called vanadins. These proteins are based on vanadium, and give the creatures a concentration of vanadium in their bodies 100 times higher than the surrounding sea water. Unlike hemocyanin and hemoglobin, hemovanadin is not an oxygen carrier. When exposed to oxygen, however, vanadins turn a mustard yellow.\n",
"\n===General medical disorders===\n* Disorders of volume\n** Injury can cause blood loss through bleeding. A healthy adult can lose almost 20% of blood volume (1 L) before the first symptom, restlessness, begins, and 40% of volume (2 L) before shock sets in. Thrombocytes are important for blood coagulation and the formation of blood clots, which can stop bleeding. Trauma to the internal organs or bones can cause internal bleeding, which can sometimes be severe.\n** Dehydration can reduce the blood volume by reducing the water content of the blood. This would rarely result in shock (apart from the very severe cases) but may result in orthostatic hypotension and fainting.\n* Disorders of circulation\n** Shock is the ineffective perfusion of tissues, and can be caused by a variety of conditions including blood loss, infection, poor cardiac output.\n** Atherosclerosis reduces the flow of blood through arteries, because atheroma lines arteries and narrows them. Atheroma tends to increase with age, and its progression can be compounded by many causes including smoking, high blood pressure, excess circulating lipids (hyperlipidemia), and diabetes mellitus.\n** Coagulation can form a thrombosis, which can obstruct vessels.\n** Problems with blood composition, the pumping action of the heart, or narrowing of blood vessels can have many consequences including hypoxia (lack of oxygen) of the tissues supplied. The term ''ischemia'' refers to tissue that is inadequately perfused with blood, and ''infarction'' refers to tissue death (necrosis), which can occur when the blood supply has been blocked (or is very inadequate).\n\n===Hematological disorders===\n\n* Anemia\n** Insufficient red cell mass (anemia) can be the result of bleeding, blood disorders like thalassemia, or nutritional deficiencies, and may require one or more blood transfusions. Anemia can also be due to a genetic disorder in which the red blood cells simply do not function effectively. Anemia can be confirmed by a blood test if the hemoglobin value is less than 13.5 gm/dl in men or less than 12.0 gm/dl in women. Several countries have blood banks to fill the demand for transfusable blood. A person receiving a blood transfusion must have a blood type compatible with that of the donor.\n** Sickle-cell anemia\n* Disorders of cell proliferation\n** Leukemia is a group of cancers of the blood-forming tissues and cells.\n** Non-cancerous overproduction of red cells (polycythemia vera) or platelets (essential thrombocytosis) may be premalignant.\n** Myelodysplastic syndromes involve ineffective production of one or more cell lines.\n* Disorders of coagulation\n** Hemophilia is a genetic illness that causes dysfunction in one of the blood's clotting mechanisms. This can allow otherwise inconsequential wounds to be life-threatening, but more commonly results in hemarthrosis, or bleeding into joint spaces, which can be crippling.\n** Ineffective or insufficient platelets can also result in coagulopathy (bleeding disorders).\n** Hypercoagulable state (thrombophilia) results from defects in regulation of platelet or clotting factor function, and can cause thrombosis.\n* Infectious disorders of blood\n** Blood is an important vector of infection. HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, is transmitted through contact with blood, semen or other body secretions of an infected person. Hepatitis B and C are transmitted primarily through blood contact. Owing to blood-borne infections, bloodstained objects are treated as a biohazard.\n** Bacterial infection of the blood is bacteremia or sepsis. Viral Infection is viremia. Malaria and trypanosomiasis are blood-borne parasitic infections.\n\n===Carbon monoxide poisoning===\n\nSubstances other than oxygen can bind to hemoglobin; in some cases this can cause irreversible damage to the body. Carbon monoxide, for example, is extremely dangerous when carried to the blood via the lungs by inhalation, because carbon monoxide irreversibly binds to hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin, so that less hemoglobin is free to bind oxygen, and fewer oxygen molecules can be transported throughout the blood. This can cause suffocation insidiously. A fire burning in an enclosed room with poor ventilation presents a very dangerous hazard, since it can create a build-up of carbon monoxide in the air. Some carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin when smoking tobacco.\n",
"\n===Blood products===\n\nVenous blood collected during blood donation\nBlood for transfusion is obtained from human donors by blood donation and stored in a blood bank. There are many different blood types in humans, the ABO blood group system, and the Rhesus blood group system being the most important. Transfusion of blood of an incompatible blood group may cause severe, often fatal, complications, so crossmatching is done to ensure that a compatible blood product is transfused.\n\nOther blood products administered intravenously are platelets, blood plasma, cryoprecipitate, and specific coagulation factor concentrates.\n\n===Intravenous administration===\nMany forms of medication (from antibiotics to chemotherapy) are administered intravenously, as they are not readily or adequately absorbed by the digestive tract.\n\nAfter severe acute blood loss, liquid preparations, generically known as plasma expanders, can be given intravenously, either solutions of salts (NaCl, KCl, CaCl2 etc.) at physiological concentrations, or colloidal solutions, such as dextrans, human serum albumin, or fresh frozen plasma. In these emergency situations, a plasma expander is a more effective life-saving procedure than a blood transfusion, because the metabolism of transfused red blood cells does not restart immediately after a transfusion.\n\n===Bloodletting===\n\nIn modern evidence-based medicine, bloodletting is used in management of a few rare diseases, including hemochromatosis and polycythemia. However, bloodletting and leeching were common unvalidated interventions used until the 19th century, as many diseases were incorrectly thought to be due to an excess of blood, according to Hippocratic medicine.\n",
"Jan Janský is credited with the first classification of blood into four types (A, B, AB, and O)\nAccording to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the word \"blood\" dates to the oldest English, circa 1000 CE. The word is derived from Middle English, which is derived from the Old English word ''blôd'', which is akin to the Old High German word ''bluot'', meaning blood. The modern German word is ''(das) Blut.''\n\n===Classical Greek medicine===\nFåhræus (a Swedish physician who devised the erythrocyte sedimentation rate) suggested that the Ancient Greek system of humorism, wherein the body was thought to contain four distinct bodily fluids (associated with different temperaments), were based upon the observation of blood clotting in a transparent container. When blood is drawn in a glass container and left undisturbed for about an hour, four different layers can be seen. A dark clot forms at the bottom (the \"black bile\"). Above the clot is a layer of red blood cells (the \"blood\"). Above this is a whitish layer of white blood cells (the \"phlegm\"). The top layer is clear yellow serum (the \"yellow bile\").\n\n===Human blood===\nThe ABO blood group system was discovered in the year 1900 by Karl Landsteiner. Jan Janský is credited with the first classification of blood into the four types (A, B, AB, and O) in 1907, which remains in use today. In 1907 the first blood transfusion was performed that used the ABO system to predict compatibility. The first non-direct transfusion was performed on March 27, 1914. The Rhesus factor was discovered in 1937.\n",
"\n\n\nDue to its importance to life, blood is associated with a large number of beliefs. One of the most basic is the use of blood as a symbol for family relationships through birth/parentage; to be \"related by blood\" is to be related by ancestry or descendence, rather than marriage. This bears closely to bloodlines, and sayings such as \"blood is thicker than water\" and \"bad blood\", as well as \"Blood brother\".\n\nBlood is given particular emphasis in the Jewish and Christian religions, because Leviticus 17:11 says \"the life of a creature is in the blood.\" This phrase is part of the Levitical law forbidding the drinking of blood or eating meat with the blood still intact instead of being poured off.\n\nMythic references to blood can sometimes be connected to the life-giving nature of blood, seen in such events as childbirth, as contrasted with the blood of injury or death.\n\n===Indigenous Australians===\nIn many indigenous Australian Aboriginal peoples' traditions, ochre (particularly red) and blood, both high in iron content and considered Maban, are applied to the bodies of dancers for ritual. As Lawlor states:\nIn many Aboriginal rituals and ceremonies, red ochre is rubbed all over the naked bodies of the dancers. In secret, sacred male ceremonies, blood extracted from the veins of the participant's arms is exchanged and rubbed on their bodies. Red ochre is used in similar ways in less-secret ceremonies. Blood is also used to fasten the feathers of birds onto people's bodies. Bird feathers contain a protein that is highly magnetically sensitive. Lawlor comments that blood employed in this fashion is held by these peoples to attune the dancers to the invisible energetic realm of the Dreamtime. Lawlor then connects these invisible energetic realms and magnetic fields, because iron is magnetic.\n\n===European paganism===\n\nAmong the Germanic tribes, blood was used during their sacrifices; the ''Blóts''. The blood was considered to have the power of its originator, and, after the butchering, the blood was sprinkled on the walls, on the statues of the gods, and on the participants themselves. This act of sprinkling blood was called ''blóedsian'' in Old English, and the terminology was borrowed by the Roman Catholic Church becoming ''to bless'' and ''blessing''. The Hittite word for blood, ''ishar'' was a cognate to words for \"oath\" and \"bond\", see Ishara.\nThe Ancient Greeks believed that the blood of the gods, ''ichor'', was a substance that was poisonous to mortals.\n\nAs a relic of Germanic Law, the cruentation, an ordeal where the corpse of the victim was supposed to start bleeding in the presence of the murderer, was used until the early 17th century.\n\n===Christianity===\nIn Genesis 9:4, God prohibited Noah and his sons from eating blood (see Noahide Law). This command continued to be observed by the Eastern Orthodox.\n\nIt is also found in the Bible that when the Angel of Death came around to the Hebrew house that the first-born child would not die if the angel saw lamb's blood wiped across the doorway.\n\nAt the Council of Jerusalem, the apostles prohibited certain Christians from consuming blood—this is documented in Acts 15:20 and 29. This chapter specifies a reason (especially in verses 19–21): It was to avoid offending Jews who had become Christians, because the Mosaic Law Code prohibited the practice.\n\nChrist's blood is the means for the atonement of sins. Also, ″… the blood of Jesus Christ his God Son cleanseth us from all sin.\" (1 John 1:7), “… Unto him God that loved us, and washed us from our sins in his own blood.\" (Revelation 1:5), and \"And they overcame him (Satan) by the blood\nof the Lamb Jesus the Christ, and by the word of their testimony …” (Revelation 12:11).\n\nSome Christian churches, including Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, and the Assyrian Church of the East teach that, when consecrated, the Eucharistic wine actually becomes the blood of Jesus for worshippers to drink. Thus in the consecrated wine, Jesus becomes spiritually and physically present. This teaching is rooted in the Last Supper, as written in the four gospels of the Bible, in which Jesus stated to his disciples that the bread that they ate was his body, and the wine was his blood. ''\"This cup is the new testament in my blood, which is shed for you.\" ()''.\n\nMost forms of Protestantism, especially those of a Wesleyan or Presbyterian lineage, teach that the wine is no more than a symbol of the blood of Christ, who is spiritually but not physically present. Lutheran theology teaches that the body and blood is present together \"in, with, and under\" the bread and wine of the Eucharistic feast.\n\n===Judaism===\nIn Judaism, animal blood may not be consumed even in the smallest quantity (Leviticus 3:17 and elsewhere); this is reflected in Jewish dietary laws (Kashrut). Blood is purged from meat by rinsing and soaking in water (to loosen clots), salting and then rinsing with water again several times. Eggs must also be checked and any blood spots removed before consumption. Although blood from fish is biblically kosher, it is rabbinically forbidden to consume fish blood to avoid the appearance of breaking the Biblical prohibition.\n\nAnother ritual involving blood involves the covering of the blood of fowl and game after slaughtering (Leviticus 17:13); the reason given by the Torah is: \"Because the life of the animal is in its blood\" (ibid 17:14). In relation to human beings, Kabbalah expounds on this verse that the animal soul of a person is in the blood, and that physical desires stem from it.\n\nLikewise, the mystical reason for salting temple sacrifices and slaughtered meat is to remove the blood of animal-like passions from the person. By removing the animal's blood, the animal energies and life-force contained in the blood are removed, making the meat fit for human consumption.\n\n===Islam===\nConsumption of food containing blood is forbidden by Islamic dietary laws. This is derived from the statement in the Qur'an, sura Al-Ma'ida (5:3): \"Forbidden to you (for food) are: dead meat, blood, the flesh of swine, and that on which has been invoked the name of other than Allah.\"\n\nBlood is considered unclean, hence there are specific methods to obtain physical and ritual status of cleanliness once bleeding has occurred. Specific rules and prohibitions apply to menstruation, postnatal bleeding and irregular vaginal bleeding. When an animal has been slaughtered, the animal's neck is cut in a way to ensure that the spine is not severed, hence the brain may send commands to the heart to pump blood to it for oxygen. In this way, blood is removed from the body, and the meat is generally now safe to cook and eat. In modern times, blood transfusions are generally not considered against the rules.\n\n===Jehovah's Witnesses===\n\n\nBased on their interpretation of scriptures such as Acts 15:28, 29 (\"Keep abstaining...from blood.\"), many Jehovah's Witnesses neither consume blood nor accept transfusions of whole blood or its major components: red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets (thrombocytes), and plasma. Members may personally decide whether they will accept medical procedures that involve their own blood or substances that are further fractionated from the four major components.\n\n===East Asian culture===\nIn south East Asian popular culture, it is often said that if a man's nose produces a small flow of blood, he is experiencing sexual desire. This often appears in Chinese-language and Hong Kong films as well as in Japanese and Korean culture parodied in anime, manga, and drama. Characters, mostly males, will often be shown with a nosebleed if they have just seen someone nude or in little clothing, or if they have had an erotic thought or fantasy; this is based on the idea that a male's blood pressure will spike dramatically when aroused.\n\n===Vampire legends===\n\nVampires are mythical creatures that drink blood directly for sustenance, usually with a preference for human blood. Cultures all over the world have myths of this kind; for example the 'Nosferatu' legend, a human who achieves damnation and immortality by drinking the blood of others, originates from Eastern European folklore. Ticks, leeches, female mosquitoes, vampire bats, and an assortment of other natural creatures do consume the blood of other animals, but only bats are associated with vampires. This has no relation to vampire bats, which are new world creatures discovered well after the origins of the European myths.\n",
"\n===In the applied sciences===\nBlood residue can help forensic investigators identify weapons, reconstruct a criminal action, and link suspects to the crime. Through bloodstain pattern analysis, forensic information can also be gained from the spatial distribution of bloodstains.\n\nBlood residue analysis is also a technique used in archeology.\n\n===In art===\nBlood is one of the body fluids that has been used in art. In particular, the performances of Viennese Actionist Hermann Nitsch, Istvan Kantor, Franko B, Lennie Lee, Ron Athey, Yang Zhichao, Lucas Abela and Kira O' Reilly, along with the photography of Andres Serrano, have incorporated blood as a prominent visual element. Marc Quinn has made sculptures using frozen blood, including a cast of his own head made using his own blood.\n\n===In genealogy and family history===\nThe term ''blood'' is used in genealogical circles to refer to one's ancestry, origins, and ethnic background as in the word ''bloodline''. Other terms where blood is used in a family history sense are ''blue-blood'', ''royal blood'', ''mixed-blood'' and ''blood relative''.\n",
"\n* Autotransfusion\n* Blood as food\n* Blood donation\n* Blood pressure\n* Blood substitutes (\"artificial blood\")\n* Blood test\n* Hemophobia\n* List of human blood components\n* Luminol, a visual test for blood left at crime scenes.\n* Taboo food and drink: Blood\n* Oct-1-en-3-one (\"Smell\" of blood)\n\n",
"\n",
"\n\n\n* Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens. Free online book at NCBI Bookshelf ID: NBK2261\n* \n* Blood Photomicrographs\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Functions",
"Constituents",
"Physiology",
"Color",
"Pathology",
"Medical treatments",
"History",
"Cultural and religious beliefs",
"Applications",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Blood | [
"\n===Blood products===\n\nVenous blood collected during blood donation\nBlood for transfusion is obtained from human donors by blood donation and stored in a blood bank."
] | [
" \n\n\n\n\n'''Blood''' is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells.",
"In vertebrates, it is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma.",
"Plasma, which constitutes 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water (92% by volume), and contains dissipated proteins, glucose, mineral ions, hormones, carbon dioxide (plasma being the main medium for excretory product transportation), and blood cells themselves.",
"Albumin is the main protein in plasma, and it functions to regulate the colloidal osmotic pressure of blood.",
"The blood cells are mainly red blood cells (also called RBCs or erythrocytes), white blood cells (also called WBCs or leukocytes) and platelets (also called thrombocytes).",
"The most abundant cells in vertebrate blood are red blood cells.",
"These contain hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein, which facilitates oxygen transport by reversibly binding to this respiratory gas and greatly increasing its solubility in blood.",
"In contrast, carbon dioxide is mostly transported extracellularly as bicarbonate ion transported in plasma.",
"Vertebrate blood is bright red when its hemoglobin is oxygenated and dark red when it is deoxygenated.",
"Some animals, such as crustaceans and mollusks, use hemocyanin to carry oxygen, instead of hemoglobin.",
"Insects and some mollusks use a fluid called hemolymph instead of blood, the difference being that hemolymph is not contained in a closed circulatory system.",
"In most insects, this \"blood\" does not contain oxygen-carrying molecules such as hemoglobin because their bodies are small enough for their tracheal system to suffice for supplying oxygen.",
"Jawed vertebrates have an adaptive immune system, based largely on white blood cells.",
"White blood cells help to resist infections and parasites.",
"Platelets are important in the clotting of blood.",
"Arthropods, using hemolymph, have hemocytes as part of their immune system.",
"Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart.",
"In animals with lungs, arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to the tissues of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism produced by cells, from the tissues to the lungs to be exhaled.",
"Medical terms related to blood often begin with '''hemo-''' or '''hemato-''' (also spelled '''haemo-''' and '''haemato-''') from the Greek word (''haima'') for \"blood\".",
"In terms of anatomy and histology, blood is considered a specialized form of connective tissue, given its origin in the bones and the presence of potential molecular fibers in the form of fibrinogen.",
"Hemoglobin, a globular proteingreen = haem groupsred & blue = protein subunits\nHeme\nBlood performs many important functions within the body, including:\n* Supply of oxygen to tissues (bound to hemoglobin, which is carried in red cells)\n* Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids (dissolved in the blood or bound to plasma proteins (e.g., blood lipids))\n* Removal of waste such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid\n* Immunological functions, including circulation of white blood cells, and detection of foreign material by antibodies\n* Coagulation, the response to a broken blood vessel, the conversion of blood from a liquid to a semisolid gel to stop bleeding\n* Messenger functions, including the transport of hormones and the signaling of tissue damage\n* Regulation of core body temperature\n* Hydraulic functions",
"\nWhat's Inside of Blood\nBlood accounts for 7% of the human body weight, with an average density around 1060 kg/m3, very close to pure water's density of 1000 kg/m3.",
"The average adult has a blood volume of roughly , which is composed of plasma and several kinds of cells.",
"These blood cells (which are also called corpuscles or \"formed elements\") consist of erythrocytes (red blood cells, RBCs), leukocytes (white blood cells), and thrombocytes (platelets).",
"By volume, the red blood cells constitute about 45% of whole blood, the plasma about 54.3%, and white cells about 0.7%.",
"Whole blood (plasma and cells) exhibits non-Newtonian fluid dynamics.",
"If all human hemoglobin were free in the plasma rather than being contained in RBCs, the circulatory fluid would be too viscous for the cardiovascular system to function effectively.",
"File:Krew Frakcjonowana.jpg|Human blood fractioned by centrifugation: Plasma (upper, yellow layer), buffy coat (middle, thin white layer) and erythrocyte layer (bottom, red layer) can be seen.",
"File:Blutkreislauf.png|Blood circulation: Red = oxygenated, blue = deoxygenated\nFile:Blausen 0425 Formed Elements.png|Illustration depicting formed elements of blood\nFile:Blut-EDTA.jpg|Two tubes of EDTA-anticoagulated blood.",
"Left tube: after standing, the RBCs have settled at the bottom of the tube.",
"Right tube: Freshly drawn blood\n\n\n===Cells===\n\n\nA scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of a normal red blood cell (left), a platelet (middle), and a white blood cell (right)\nOne microliter of blood contains:\n* '''4.7 to 6.1 million (male), 4.2 to 5.4 million (female) erythrocytes:''' Red blood cells contain the blood's hemoglobin and distribute oxygen.",
"Mature red blood cells lack a nucleus and organelles in mammals.",
"The red blood cells (together with endothelial vessel cells and other cells) are also marked by glycoproteins that define the different blood types.",
"The proportion of blood occupied by red blood cells is referred to as the hematocrit, and is normally about 45%.",
"The combined surface area of all red blood cells of the human body would be roughly 2,000 times as great as the body's exterior surface.",
"* '''4,000–11,000 leukocytes:''' White blood cells are part of the body's immune system; they destroy and remove old or aberrant cells and cellular debris, as well as attack infectious agents (pathogens) and foreign substances.",
"The cancer of leukocytes is called leukemia.",
"* '''200,000–500,000 thrombocytes:''' Also called platelets, they take part in blood clotting (coagulation).",
"Fibrin from the coagulation cascade creates a mesh over the platelet plug.",
"+ Constitution of normal blood\n\nParameter\nValue\n\n Hematocrit \n\n45 ± 7 (38–52%) for males\n42 ± 5 (37–47%) for females\n\n pH \n 7.35–7.45\n\n base excess \n −3 to +3\n\n PO2 \n 10–13 kPa (80–100 mm Hg)\n\n PCO2 \n 4.8–5.8 kPa (35–45 mm Hg)\n\n HCO3− \n 21–27 mM\n\n Oxygen saturation \n\nOxygenated: 98–99%\nDeoxygenated: 75%\n\n\n===Plasma===\n\nAbout 55% of blood is blood plasma, a fluid that is the blood's liquid medium, which by itself is straw-yellow in color.",
"The blood plasma volume totals of 2.7–3.0 liters (2.8–3.2 quarts) in an average human.",
"It is essentially an aqueous solution containing 92% water, 8% blood plasma proteins, and trace amounts of other materials.",
"Plasma circulates dissolved nutrients, such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids (dissolved in the blood or bound to plasma proteins), and removes waste products, such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid.",
"Other important components include:\n* Serum albumin\n* Blood-clotting factors (to facilitate coagulation)\n* Immunoglobulins (antibodies)\n* lipoprotein particles\n* Various other proteins\n* Various electrolytes (mainly sodium and chloride)\n\nThe term '''serum''' refers to plasma from which the clotting proteins have been removed.",
"Most of the proteins remaining are albumin and immunoglobulins.",
"===pH values===\n\n\nBlood pH is regulated to stay within the narrow range of 7.35 to 7.45, making it slightly basic.",
"Blood that has a pH below 7.35 is too acidic, whereas blood pH above 7.45 is too basic.",
"Blood pH, partial pressure of oxygen (pO2), partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2), and bicarbonate (HCO3−) are carefully regulated by a number of homeostatic mechanisms, which exert their influence principally through the respiratory system and the urinary system to control the acid-base balance and respiration.",
"An arterial blood gas test measures these.",
"Plasma also circulates hormones transmitting their messages to various tissues.",
"The list of normal reference ranges for various blood electrolytes is extensive.",
"===Blood in non-mammalian vertebrates===\nVertebrate red blood cell types, measurements in micrometers\nFrog red blood cells magnified 1000 times\nTurtle red blood cells magnified 1000 times\nChicken red blood cells magnified 1000 times\nHuman red blood cells magnified 1000 times\n\nHuman blood is typical of that of mammals, although the precise details concerning cell numbers, size, protein structure, and so on, vary somewhat between species.",
"In non-mammalian vertebrates, however, there are some key differences:\n* Red blood cells of non-mammalian vertebrates are flattened and ovoid in form, and retain their cell nuclei.",
"* There is considerable variation in the types and proportions of white blood cells; for example, acidophils are generally more common than in humans.",
"* Platelets are unique to mammals; in other vertebrates, small nucleated, spindle cells called thrombocytes are responsible for blood clotting instead.",
"\n===Cardiovascular system===\nCirculation of blood through the human heart\n\n\nBlood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart.",
"In humans, blood is pumped from the strong left ventricle of the heart through arteries to peripheral tissues and returns to the right atrium of the heart through veins.",
"It then enters the right ventricle and is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs and returns to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins.",
"Blood then enters the left ventricle to be circulated again.",
"Arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to all of the cells of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism by cells, to the lungs to be exhaled.",
"However, one exception includes pulmonary arteries, which contain the most deoxygenated blood in the body, while the pulmonary veins contain oxygenated blood.",
"Additional return flow may be generated by the movement of skeletal muscles, which can compress veins and push blood through the valves in veins toward the right atrium.",
"The blood circulation was famously described by William Harvey in 1628.",
"===Production and degradation of blood cells===\nIn vertebrates, the various cells of blood are made in the bone marrow in a process called hematopoiesis, which includes erythropoiesis, the production of red blood cells; and myelopoiesis, the production of white blood cells and platelets.",
"During childhood, almost every human bone produces red blood cells; as adults, red blood cell production is limited to the larger bones: the bodies of the vertebrae, the breastbone (sternum), the ribcage, the pelvic bones, and the bones of the upper arms and legs.",
"In addition, during childhood, the thymus gland, found in the mediastinum, is an important source of T lymphocytes.",
"There are recent reports that the lungs may also be the site of hematopoiesis.",
"The proteinaceous component of blood (including clotting proteins) is produced predominantly by the liver, while hormones are produced by the endocrine glands and the watery fraction is regulated by the hypothalamus and maintained by the kidney.",
"Healthy erythrocytes have a plasma life of about 120 days before they are degraded by the spleen, and the Kupffer cells in the liver.",
"The liver also clears some proteins, lipids, and amino acids.",
"The kidney actively secretes waste products into the urine.",
"===Oxygen transport===\nBasic hemoglobin saturation curve.",
"It is moved to the right in higher acidity (more dissolved carbon dioxide) and to the left in lower acidity (less dissolved carbon dioxide)\nAbout 98.5% of the oxygen in a sample of arterial blood in a healthy human breathing air at sea-level pressure is chemically combined with the hemoglobin.",
"About 1.5% is physically dissolved in the other blood liquids and not connected to hemoglobin.",
"The hemoglobin molecule is the primary transporter of oxygen in mammals and many other species (for exceptions, see below).",
"Hemoglobin has an oxygen binding capacity between 1.36 and 1.40 ml O2 per gram hemoglobin, which increases the total blood oxygen capacity seventyfold, compared to if oxygen solely were carried by its solubility of 0.03 ml O2 per liter blood per mm Hg partial pressure of oxygen (about 100 mm Hg in arteries).",
"With the exception of pulmonary and umbilical arteries and their corresponding veins, arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart and deliver it to the body via arterioles and capillaries, where the oxygen is consumed; afterwards, venules and veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart.",
"Under normal conditions in adult humans at rest, hemoglobin in blood leaving the lungs is about 98–99% saturated with oxygen, achieving an oxygen delivery between 950 and 1150 ml/min to the body.",
"In a healthy adult at rest, oxygen consumption is approximately 200–250 ml/min, and deoxygenated blood returning to the lungs is still roughly 75% (70 to 78%) saturated.",
"Increased oxygen consumption during sustained exercise reduces the oxygen saturation of venous blood, which can reach less than 15% in a trained athlete; although breathing rate and blood flow increase to compensate, oxygen saturation in arterial blood can drop to 95% or less under these conditions.",
"Oxygen saturation this low is considered dangerous in an individual at rest (for instance, during surgery under anesthesia).",
"Sustained hypoxia (oxygenation less than 90%), is dangerous to health, and severe hypoxia (saturations less than 30%) may be rapidly fatal.",
"A fetus, receiving oxygen via the placenta, is exposed to much lower oxygen pressures (about 21% of the level found in an adult's lungs), so fetuses produce another form of hemoglobin with a much higher affinity for oxygen (hemoglobin F) to function under these conditions.",
"===Carbon dioxide transport===\nCO2 is carried in blood in three different ways.",
"(The exact percentages vary depending whether it is arterial or venous blood).",
"Most of it (about 70%) is converted to bicarbonate ions by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in the red blood cells by the reaction CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → H+ + ; about 7% is dissolved in the plasma; and about 23% is bound to hemoglobin as carbamino compounds.",
"Hemoglobin, the main oxygen-carrying molecule in red blood cells, carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide.",
"However, the CO2 bound to hemoglobin does not bind to the same site as oxygen.",
"Instead, it combines with the N-terminal groups on the four globin chains.",
"However, because of allosteric effects on the hemoglobin molecule, the binding of CO2 decreases the amount of oxygen that is bound for a given partial pressure of oxygen.",
"The decreased binding to carbon dioxide in the blood due to increased oxygen levels is known as the Haldane effect, and is important in the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.",
"A rise in the partial pressure of CO2 or a lower pH will cause offloading of oxygen from hemoglobin, which is known as the Bohr effect.",
"===Transport of hydrogen ions===\nSome oxyhemoglobin loses oxygen and becomes deoxyhemoglobin.",
"Deoxyhemoglobin binds most of the hydrogen ions as it has a much greater affinity for more hydrogen than does oxyhemoglobin.",
"===Lymphatic system===\n\nIn mammals, blood is in equilibrium with lymph, which is continuously formed in tissues from blood by capillary ultrafiltration.",
"Lymph is collected by a system of small lymphatic vessels and directed to the thoracic duct, which drains into the left subclavian vein where lymph rejoins the systemic blood circulation.",
"===Thermoregulation===\nBlood circulation transports heat throughout the body, and adjustments to this flow are an important part of thermoregulation.",
"Increasing blood flow to the surface (e.g., during warm weather or strenuous exercise) causes warmer skin, resulting in faster heat loss.",
"In contrast, when the external temperature is low, blood flow to the extremities and surface of the skin is reduced and to prevent heat loss and is circulated to the important organs of the body, preferentially.",
"=== Rate of blood flow ===\nRate of blood flow varies greatly between different tissues.",
"Liver has the most abundant blood supply with approximate blood flow of 1350ml/min.",
"Kidney and Brain are the second and the third most supplied tissues, with 1100 ml/min and ~700ml/min, respectively.",
"If the rate of blood flow per 100g of tissue be the criterion, these gradings will be completely different.",
"With kidney, adrenal gland and thyroid being the first, second and third most supplied tissues, respectively.",
"===Hydraulic functions===\nThe restriction of blood flow can also be used in specialized tissues to cause engorgement, resulting in an erection of that tissue; examples are the erectile tissue in the penis and clitoris.",
"Another example of a hydraulic function is the jumping spider, in which blood forced into the legs under pressure causes them to straighten for a powerful jump, without the need for bulky muscular legs.",
"===Invertebrates===\nIn insects, the blood (more properly called hemolymph) is not involved in the transport of oxygen.",
"(Openings called tracheae allow oxygen from the air to diffuse directly to the tissues.)",
"Insect blood moves nutrients to the tissues and removes waste products in an open system.",
"Other invertebrates use respiratory proteins to increase the oxygen-carrying capacity.",
"Hemoglobin is the most common respiratory protein found in nature.",
"Hemocyanin (blue) contains copper and is found in crustaceans and mollusks.",
"It is thought that tunicates (sea squirts) might use vanabins (proteins containing vanadium) for respiratory pigment (bright-green, blue, or orange).",
"In many invertebrates, these oxygen-carrying proteins are freely soluble in the blood; in vertebrates they are contained in specialized red blood cells, allowing for a higher concentration of respiratory pigments without increasing viscosity or damaging blood filtering organs like the kidneys.",
"Giant tube worms have unusual hemoglobins that allow them to live in extraordinary environments.",
"These hemoglobins also carry sulfides normally fatal in other animals.",
"The coloring matter of blood ('''hemochrome''') is largely due to the protein in the blood responsible for oxygen transport.",
"Different groups of organisms use different proteins.",
"===Hemoglobin===\n\nCapillary blood from a bleeding finger\nHemoglobin is the principal determinant of the color of blood in vertebrates.",
"Each molecule has four heme groups, and their interaction with various molecules alters the exact color.",
"In vertebrates and other hemoglobin-using creatures, arterial blood and capillary blood are bright red, as oxygen imparts a strong red color to the heme group.",
"Deoxygenated blood is a darker shade of red; this is present in veins, and can be seen during blood donation and when venous blood samples are taken.",
"This is because the spectrum of light absorbed by hemoglobin differs between the oxygenated and deoxygenated states.",
"Blood in carbon monoxide poisoning is bright red, because carbon monoxide causes the formation of carboxyhemoglobin.",
"In cyanide poisoning, the body cannot utilize oxygen, so the venous blood remains oxygenated, increasing the redness.",
"There are some conditions affecting the heme groups present in hemoglobin that can make the skin appear blue—a symptom called cyanosis.",
"If the heme is oxidized, methemoglobin, which is more brownish and cannot transport oxygen, is formed.",
"In the rare condition sulfhemoglobinemia, arterial hemoglobin is partially oxygenated, and appears dark red with a bluish hue.",
"Veins close to the surface of the skin appear blue for a variety of reasons.",
"However, the factors that contribute to this alteration of color perception are related to the light-scattering properties of the skin and the processing of visual input by the visual cortex, rather than the actual color of the venous blood.",
"Skinks in the genus ''Prasinohaema'' have green blood due to a buildup of the waste product biliverdin.",
"===Hemocyanin===\n\nThe blood of most mollusks – including cephalopods and gastropods – as well as some arthropods, such as horseshoe crabs, is blue, as it contains the copper-containing protein hemocyanin at concentrations of about 50 grams per liter.",
"Hemocyanin is colorless when deoxygenated and dark blue when oxygenated.",
"The blood in the circulation of these creatures, which generally live in cold environments with low oxygen tensions, is grey-white to pale yellow, and it turns dark blue when exposed to the oxygen in the air, as seen when they bleed.",
"This is due to change in color of hemocyanin when it is oxidized.",
"Hemocyanin carries oxygen in extracellular fluid, which is in contrast to the intracellular oxygen transport in mammals by hemoglobin in RBCs.",
"===Chlorocruorin===\n\nThe blood of most annelid worms and some marine polychaetes use chlorocruorin to transport oxygen.",
"It is green in color in dilute solutions.",
"===Hemerythrin===\n\nHemerythrin is used for oxygen transport in the marine invertebrates sipunculids, priapulids, brachiopods, and the annelid worm, magelona.",
"Hemerythrin is violet-pink when oxygenated.",
"===Hemovanadin===\n\nThe blood of some species of ascidians and tunicates, also known as sea squirts, contains proteins called vanadins.",
"These proteins are based on vanadium, and give the creatures a concentration of vanadium in their bodies 100 times higher than the surrounding sea water.",
"Unlike hemocyanin and hemoglobin, hemovanadin is not an oxygen carrier.",
"When exposed to oxygen, however, vanadins turn a mustard yellow.",
"\n===General medical disorders===\n* Disorders of volume\n** Injury can cause blood loss through bleeding.",
"A healthy adult can lose almost 20% of blood volume (1 L) before the first symptom, restlessness, begins, and 40% of volume (2 L) before shock sets in.",
"Thrombocytes are important for blood coagulation and the formation of blood clots, which can stop bleeding.",
"Trauma to the internal organs or bones can cause internal bleeding, which can sometimes be severe.",
"** Dehydration can reduce the blood volume by reducing the water content of the blood.",
"This would rarely result in shock (apart from the very severe cases) but may result in orthostatic hypotension and fainting.",
"* Disorders of circulation\n** Shock is the ineffective perfusion of tissues, and can be caused by a variety of conditions including blood loss, infection, poor cardiac output.",
"** Atherosclerosis reduces the flow of blood through arteries, because atheroma lines arteries and narrows them.",
"Atheroma tends to increase with age, and its progression can be compounded by many causes including smoking, high blood pressure, excess circulating lipids (hyperlipidemia), and diabetes mellitus.",
"** Coagulation can form a thrombosis, which can obstruct vessels.",
"** Problems with blood composition, the pumping action of the heart, or narrowing of blood vessels can have many consequences including hypoxia (lack of oxygen) of the tissues supplied.",
"The term ''ischemia'' refers to tissue that is inadequately perfused with blood, and ''infarction'' refers to tissue death (necrosis), which can occur when the blood supply has been blocked (or is very inadequate).",
"===Hematological disorders===\n\n* Anemia\n** Insufficient red cell mass (anemia) can be the result of bleeding, blood disorders like thalassemia, or nutritional deficiencies, and may require one or more blood transfusions.",
"Anemia can also be due to a genetic disorder in which the red blood cells simply do not function effectively.",
"Anemia can be confirmed by a blood test if the hemoglobin value is less than 13.5 gm/dl in men or less than 12.0 gm/dl in women.",
"Several countries have blood banks to fill the demand for transfusable blood.",
"A person receiving a blood transfusion must have a blood type compatible with that of the donor.",
"** Sickle-cell anemia\n* Disorders of cell proliferation\n** Leukemia is a group of cancers of the blood-forming tissues and cells.",
"** Non-cancerous overproduction of red cells (polycythemia vera) or platelets (essential thrombocytosis) may be premalignant.",
"** Myelodysplastic syndromes involve ineffective production of one or more cell lines.",
"* Disorders of coagulation\n** Hemophilia is a genetic illness that causes dysfunction in one of the blood's clotting mechanisms.",
"This can allow otherwise inconsequential wounds to be life-threatening, but more commonly results in hemarthrosis, or bleeding into joint spaces, which can be crippling.",
"** Ineffective or insufficient platelets can also result in coagulopathy (bleeding disorders).",
"** Hypercoagulable state (thrombophilia) results from defects in regulation of platelet or clotting factor function, and can cause thrombosis.",
"* Infectious disorders of blood\n** Blood is an important vector of infection.",
"HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, is transmitted through contact with blood, semen or other body secretions of an infected person.",
"Hepatitis B and C are transmitted primarily through blood contact.",
"Owing to blood-borne infections, bloodstained objects are treated as a biohazard.",
"** Bacterial infection of the blood is bacteremia or sepsis.",
"Viral Infection is viremia.",
"Malaria and trypanosomiasis are blood-borne parasitic infections.",
"===Carbon monoxide poisoning===\n\nSubstances other than oxygen can bind to hemoglobin; in some cases this can cause irreversible damage to the body.",
"Carbon monoxide, for example, is extremely dangerous when carried to the blood via the lungs by inhalation, because carbon monoxide irreversibly binds to hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin, so that less hemoglobin is free to bind oxygen, and fewer oxygen molecules can be transported throughout the blood.",
"This can cause suffocation insidiously.",
"A fire burning in an enclosed room with poor ventilation presents a very dangerous hazard, since it can create a build-up of carbon monoxide in the air.",
"Some carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin when smoking tobacco.",
"There are many different blood types in humans, the ABO blood group system, and the Rhesus blood group system being the most important.",
"Transfusion of blood of an incompatible blood group may cause severe, often fatal, complications, so crossmatching is done to ensure that a compatible blood product is transfused.",
"Other blood products administered intravenously are platelets, blood plasma, cryoprecipitate, and specific coagulation factor concentrates.",
"===Intravenous administration===\nMany forms of medication (from antibiotics to chemotherapy) are administered intravenously, as they are not readily or adequately absorbed by the digestive tract.",
"After severe acute blood loss, liquid preparations, generically known as plasma expanders, can be given intravenously, either solutions of salts (NaCl, KCl, CaCl2 etc.)",
"at physiological concentrations, or colloidal solutions, such as dextrans, human serum albumin, or fresh frozen plasma.",
"In these emergency situations, a plasma expander is a more effective life-saving procedure than a blood transfusion, because the metabolism of transfused red blood cells does not restart immediately after a transfusion.",
"===Bloodletting===\n\nIn modern evidence-based medicine, bloodletting is used in management of a few rare diseases, including hemochromatosis and polycythemia.",
"However, bloodletting and leeching were common unvalidated interventions used until the 19th century, as many diseases were incorrectly thought to be due to an excess of blood, according to Hippocratic medicine.",
"Jan Janský is credited with the first classification of blood into four types (A, B, AB, and O)\nAccording to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the word \"blood\" dates to the oldest English, circa 1000 CE.",
"The word is derived from Middle English, which is derived from the Old English word ''blôd'', which is akin to the Old High German word ''bluot'', meaning blood.",
"The modern German word is ''(das) Blut.''",
"===Classical Greek medicine===\nFåhræus (a Swedish physician who devised the erythrocyte sedimentation rate) suggested that the Ancient Greek system of humorism, wherein the body was thought to contain four distinct bodily fluids (associated with different temperaments), were based upon the observation of blood clotting in a transparent container.",
"When blood is drawn in a glass container and left undisturbed for about an hour, four different layers can be seen.",
"A dark clot forms at the bottom (the \"black bile\").",
"Above the clot is a layer of red blood cells (the \"blood\").",
"Above this is a whitish layer of white blood cells (the \"phlegm\").",
"The top layer is clear yellow serum (the \"yellow bile\").",
"===Human blood===\nThe ABO blood group system was discovered in the year 1900 by Karl Landsteiner.",
"Jan Janský is credited with the first classification of blood into the four types (A, B, AB, and O) in 1907, which remains in use today.",
"In 1907 the first blood transfusion was performed that used the ABO system to predict compatibility.",
"The first non-direct transfusion was performed on March 27, 1914.",
"The Rhesus factor was discovered in 1937.",
"\n\n\nDue to its importance to life, blood is associated with a large number of beliefs.",
"One of the most basic is the use of blood as a symbol for family relationships through birth/parentage; to be \"related by blood\" is to be related by ancestry or descendence, rather than marriage.",
"This bears closely to bloodlines, and sayings such as \"blood is thicker than water\" and \"bad blood\", as well as \"Blood brother\".",
"Blood is given particular emphasis in the Jewish and Christian religions, because Leviticus 17:11 says \"the life of a creature is in the blood.\"",
"This phrase is part of the Levitical law forbidding the drinking of blood or eating meat with the blood still intact instead of being poured off.",
"Mythic references to blood can sometimes be connected to the life-giving nature of blood, seen in such events as childbirth, as contrasted with the blood of injury or death.",
"===Indigenous Australians===\nIn many indigenous Australian Aboriginal peoples' traditions, ochre (particularly red) and blood, both high in iron content and considered Maban, are applied to the bodies of dancers for ritual.",
"As Lawlor states:\nIn many Aboriginal rituals and ceremonies, red ochre is rubbed all over the naked bodies of the dancers.",
"In secret, sacred male ceremonies, blood extracted from the veins of the participant's arms is exchanged and rubbed on their bodies.",
"Red ochre is used in similar ways in less-secret ceremonies.",
"Blood is also used to fasten the feathers of birds onto people's bodies.",
"Bird feathers contain a protein that is highly magnetically sensitive.",
"Lawlor comments that blood employed in this fashion is held by these peoples to attune the dancers to the invisible energetic realm of the Dreamtime.",
"Lawlor then connects these invisible energetic realms and magnetic fields, because iron is magnetic.",
"===European paganism===\n\nAmong the Germanic tribes, blood was used during their sacrifices; the ''Blóts''.",
"The blood was considered to have the power of its originator, and, after the butchering, the blood was sprinkled on the walls, on the statues of the gods, and on the participants themselves.",
"This act of sprinkling blood was called ''blóedsian'' in Old English, and the terminology was borrowed by the Roman Catholic Church becoming ''to bless'' and ''blessing''.",
"The Hittite word for blood, ''ishar'' was a cognate to words for \"oath\" and \"bond\", see Ishara.",
"The Ancient Greeks believed that the blood of the gods, ''ichor'', was a substance that was poisonous to mortals.",
"As a relic of Germanic Law, the cruentation, an ordeal where the corpse of the victim was supposed to start bleeding in the presence of the murderer, was used until the early 17th century.",
"===Christianity===\nIn Genesis 9:4, God prohibited Noah and his sons from eating blood (see Noahide Law).",
"This command continued to be observed by the Eastern Orthodox.",
"It is also found in the Bible that when the Angel of Death came around to the Hebrew house that the first-born child would not die if the angel saw lamb's blood wiped across the doorway.",
"At the Council of Jerusalem, the apostles prohibited certain Christians from consuming blood—this is documented in Acts 15:20 and 29.",
"This chapter specifies a reason (especially in verses 19–21): It was to avoid offending Jews who had become Christians, because the Mosaic Law Code prohibited the practice.",
"Christ's blood is the means for the atonement of sins.",
"Also, ″… the blood of Jesus Christ his God Son cleanseth us from all sin.\"",
"(1 John 1:7), “… Unto him God that loved us, and washed us from our sins in his own blood.\"",
"(Revelation 1:5), and \"And they overcame him (Satan) by the blood\nof the Lamb Jesus the Christ, and by the word of their testimony …” (Revelation 12:11).",
"Some Christian churches, including Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, and the Assyrian Church of the East teach that, when consecrated, the Eucharistic wine actually becomes the blood of Jesus for worshippers to drink.",
"Thus in the consecrated wine, Jesus becomes spiritually and physically present.",
"This teaching is rooted in the Last Supper, as written in the four gospels of the Bible, in which Jesus stated to his disciples that the bread that they ate was his body, and the wine was his blood.",
"''\"This cup is the new testament in my blood, which is shed for you.\"",
"()''.",
"Most forms of Protestantism, especially those of a Wesleyan or Presbyterian lineage, teach that the wine is no more than a symbol of the blood of Christ, who is spiritually but not physically present.",
"Lutheran theology teaches that the body and blood is present together \"in, with, and under\" the bread and wine of the Eucharistic feast.",
"===Judaism===\nIn Judaism, animal blood may not be consumed even in the smallest quantity (Leviticus 3:17 and elsewhere); this is reflected in Jewish dietary laws (Kashrut).",
"Blood is purged from meat by rinsing and soaking in water (to loosen clots), salting and then rinsing with water again several times.",
"Eggs must also be checked and any blood spots removed before consumption.",
"Although blood from fish is biblically kosher, it is rabbinically forbidden to consume fish blood to avoid the appearance of breaking the Biblical prohibition.",
"Another ritual involving blood involves the covering of the blood of fowl and game after slaughtering (Leviticus 17:13); the reason given by the Torah is: \"Because the life of the animal is in its blood\" (ibid 17:14).",
"In relation to human beings, Kabbalah expounds on this verse that the animal soul of a person is in the blood, and that physical desires stem from it.",
"Likewise, the mystical reason for salting temple sacrifices and slaughtered meat is to remove the blood of animal-like passions from the person.",
"By removing the animal's blood, the animal energies and life-force contained in the blood are removed, making the meat fit for human consumption.",
"===Islam===\nConsumption of food containing blood is forbidden by Islamic dietary laws.",
"This is derived from the statement in the Qur'an, sura Al-Ma'ida (5:3): \"Forbidden to you (for food) are: dead meat, blood, the flesh of swine, and that on which has been invoked the name of other than Allah.\"",
"Blood is considered unclean, hence there are specific methods to obtain physical and ritual status of cleanliness once bleeding has occurred.",
"Specific rules and prohibitions apply to menstruation, postnatal bleeding and irregular vaginal bleeding.",
"When an animal has been slaughtered, the animal's neck is cut in a way to ensure that the spine is not severed, hence the brain may send commands to the heart to pump blood to it for oxygen.",
"In this way, blood is removed from the body, and the meat is generally now safe to cook and eat.",
"In modern times, blood transfusions are generally not considered against the rules.",
"===Jehovah's Witnesses===\n\n\nBased on their interpretation of scriptures such as Acts 15:28, 29 (\"Keep abstaining...from blood.",
"\"), many Jehovah's Witnesses neither consume blood nor accept transfusions of whole blood or its major components: red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets (thrombocytes), and plasma.",
"Members may personally decide whether they will accept medical procedures that involve their own blood or substances that are further fractionated from the four major components.",
"===East Asian culture===\nIn south East Asian popular culture, it is often said that if a man's nose produces a small flow of blood, he is experiencing sexual desire.",
"This often appears in Chinese-language and Hong Kong films as well as in Japanese and Korean culture parodied in anime, manga, and drama.",
"Characters, mostly males, will often be shown with a nosebleed if they have just seen someone nude or in little clothing, or if they have had an erotic thought or fantasy; this is based on the idea that a male's blood pressure will spike dramatically when aroused.",
"===Vampire legends===\n\nVampires are mythical creatures that drink blood directly for sustenance, usually with a preference for human blood.",
"Cultures all over the world have myths of this kind; for example the 'Nosferatu' legend, a human who achieves damnation and immortality by drinking the blood of others, originates from Eastern European folklore.",
"Ticks, leeches, female mosquitoes, vampire bats, and an assortment of other natural creatures do consume the blood of other animals, but only bats are associated with vampires.",
"This has no relation to vampire bats, which are new world creatures discovered well after the origins of the European myths.",
"\n===In the applied sciences===\nBlood residue can help forensic investigators identify weapons, reconstruct a criminal action, and link suspects to the crime.",
"Through bloodstain pattern analysis, forensic information can also be gained from the spatial distribution of bloodstains.",
"Blood residue analysis is also a technique used in archeology.",
"===In art===\nBlood is one of the body fluids that has been used in art.",
"In particular, the performances of Viennese Actionist Hermann Nitsch, Istvan Kantor, Franko B, Lennie Lee, Ron Athey, Yang Zhichao, Lucas Abela and Kira O' Reilly, along with the photography of Andres Serrano, have incorporated blood as a prominent visual element.",
"Marc Quinn has made sculptures using frozen blood, including a cast of his own head made using his own blood.",
"===In genealogy and family history===\nThe term ''blood'' is used in genealogical circles to refer to one's ancestry, origins, and ethnic background as in the word ''bloodline''.",
"Other terms where blood is used in a family history sense are ''blue-blood'', ''royal blood'', ''mixed-blood'' and ''blood relative''.",
"\n* Autotransfusion\n* Blood as food\n* Blood donation\n* Blood pressure\n* Blood substitutes (\"artificial blood\")\n* Blood test\n* Hemophobia\n* List of human blood components\n* Luminol, a visual test for blood left at crime scenes.",
"* Taboo food and drink: Blood\n* Oct-1-en-3-one (\"Smell\" of blood)",
"\n\n\n* Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens.",
"Free online book at NCBI Bookshelf ID: NBK2261\n* \n* Blood Photomicrographs"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Battle of Pharsalus''' was a decisive battle of Caesar's Civil War. On 9 August 48 BC at Pharsalus in central Greece, Gaius Julius Caesar and his allies formed up opposite the army of the republic under the command of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (\"Pompey the Great\"). Pompey had the backing of a majority of the senators, of whom many were optimates, and his army significantly outnumbered the veteran Caesarian legions.\n\nThe two armies confronted each other over several months of uncertainty, Caesar being in a much weaker position than Pompey.\nThe former found himself isolated in a hostile country with only 22,000 men and short of provisions, while on the other side of the river he was faced by Pompey with an army about twice as large in number. Pompey wanted to delay, knowing the enemy would eventually surrender from hunger and exhaustion. Pressured by the senators present and by his officers, he reluctantly engaged in battle and suffered an overwhelming defeat, ultimately fleeing the camp and his men, disguised as an ordinary citizen.\n",
"\nA dispute between Caesar and the ''optimates'' faction in the Senate of Rome culminated in Caesar marching his army on Rome and forcing Pompey, accompanied by much of the Roman Senate, to flee in 49 BC from Italy to Greece, where he could better conscript an army to face his former ally. Caesar, lacking a fleet to immediately give chase, solidified his control over the western Mediterranean – Spain specifically – before assembling ships to follow Pompey. Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, whom Pompey had appointed to command his 600-ship fleet, set up a massive blockade to prevent Caesar from crossing to Greece and to prevent any aid to Italy. Caesar, defying convention, chose to cross the Adriatic during the winter, with only half his fleet at a time. This move surprised Bibulus, and the first wave of ships managed to run the blockade easily. Now prepared, Bibulus managed to prevent any further ships from crossing, but died soon afterwards.\n\nCaesar was now in a precarious position, holding a beachhead at Epirus with only half his army, no ability to supply his troops by sea, and limited local support, as the Greek cities were mostly loyal to Pompey. Caesar's only choice was to fortify his position, forage what supplies he could, and wait on his remaining army to attempt another crossing. Pompey by now had a massive international army; however, his troops were mostly untested raw recruits, while Caesar's troops were hardened veterans. Realizing Caesar's difficulty in keeping his troops supplied, Pompey decided to simply mirror Caesar's forces and let hunger do the fighting for him. Caesar began to despair and used every channel he could think of to pursue peace with Pompey. When this was rebuffed he made an attempt to cross back to Italy to collect his missing troops, but was turned back by a storm. Finally, Mark Antony rallied the remaining forces in Italy, fought through the blockade and made the crossing, reinforcing Caesar's forces in both men and spirit. Now at full strength, Caesar felt confident to take the fight to Pompey.\n\nPompey was camped in a strong position just south of Dyrrhachium with the sea to his back and surrounded by hills, making a direct assault impossible. Caesar ordered a wall to be built around Pompey's position in order to cut off water and pasture land for his horses. Pompey built a parallel wall and in between a kind of no man's land was created, with fighting comparable to the trench warfare of World War I. Ultimately the standoff was broken when a traitor in Caesar's army informed Pompey of a weakness in Caesar's wall. Pompey immediately exploited this information and forced Caesar's army into a full retreat, but ordered his army not to pursue, fearing Caesar's reputation for setting elaborate traps. This caused Caesar to remark, \"Today the victory had been the enemy's, had there been any one among them to gain it.\" Pompey continued his strategy of mirroring Caesar's forces and avoiding any direct engagements. After trapping Caesar in Thessaly, the prominent senators in Pompey's camp began to argue loudly for a more decisive victory. Although Pompey was strongly against it — he wanted to surround and starve Caesar's army instead — he eventually gave in and accepted battle from Caesar on a field near Pharsalus.\n",
"The date of the actual decisive battle is given as 9 August 48 BC according to the republican calendar. According to the Julian calendar however, the date was either 29 June (according to Le Verrier's chronological reconstruction) or possibly 7 June (according to Drumann/Groebe). As Pompey was assassinated on 3 September 48 BC, the battle must have taken place in the true month of August, when the harvest was becoming ripe (or Pompey's strategy of starving Caesar would not be plausible).\n\nThe location of the battlefield was for a long time the subject of controversy among scholars. Caesar himself, in his Commentarii de Bello Civili, mentions few place-names; and although the battle is called after Pharsalos, four ancient writers – the author of the ''Bellum Alexandrinum'' (48.1), Frontinus (''Strategemata'' 2.3.22), Eutropius (20), and Orosius (6.15.27) – place it specifically at ''Palae''pharsalos. Strabo in his ''Geographica'' (''Γεωγραφικά'') mentions both old and new Pharsaloi, and notes that the Thetideion, the temple to Thetis south of Scotoussa, was near both. In 198 BC, in the Second Macedonian War, Philip V of Macedon sacked Palaepharsalos (Livy, ''Ab Urbe Condita'' 32.13.9), but left new Pharsalos untouched. These two details perhaps imply that the two cities were not close neighbours. Until the early 20th century, unsure of the site of Palaepharsalos, scholars followed Appian (2.75) and located the battle of 48 BC south of the Enipeus or close to Pharsalos (today's Pharsala).\n\nThe “north-bank” thesis of F. L. Lucas, based on his 1921 solo field-trip to Thessaly, is now, however, broadly accepted by historians. “A visit to the ground has only confirmed me,” Lucas wrote in 1921; “and it was interesting to find that Mr. Apostolides, son of the large local landowner, the hospitality of whose farm at Tekés I enjoyed, was convinced too that the battle-site was by Driskole now Krini, for the very sound reason that neither the hills nor the river further east suit Caesar’s description.” John D. Morgan in his definitive “Palae-pharsalus – the Battle and the Town”, arguing for a site closer still to Krini, where he places Palaepharsalos, writes: “My reconstruction is similar to Lucas’s, and in fact I borrow one of his alternatives for the line of the Pompeian retreat. Lucas’s theory has been subjected to many criticisms, but has remained essentially unshaken.”\n",
"\n\n===Caesarian army===\n\nCaesar had the following legions with him:\n\n* Legions of veterans from the Gallic Wars – Caesar's favourite legion, X ''Equestris'', and those later known with the names of VIII ''Augusta'', IX ''Hispana'', and XII ''Fulminata''\n* Legions levied for the civil war – legions later known as I ''Germanica'', III ''Gallica'', and IV ''Macedonica''\n\nHowever, all of these legions were understrength. Some only had about a thousand men at the time of Pharsalus, due partly to losses at Dyrrhachium and partly to Caesar's wish to rapidly advance with a picked body as opposed to a ponderous movement with a large army. According to his accounts, he had 80 cohorts on the battlefield, about 22,000 men.\n\n===Pompeian army===\n\nIn total, Caesar counted 110 complete cohorts in the Pompeian army, 11 legions consisting of about 45,000 men, although Orosius, following Livy and Pollio, only counted 88 cohorts, and Hans Delbrück suggests that Caesar's count includes detachments at Dyrrachium and elsewhere, leaving only 88 cohorts in the Pompeian army.\n",
"\n===Deployment===\nInitial deployment of forces at the Battle of Pharsalus, August 48 BC\n\n\nOn the Pharsalian plain, Pompey deployed his infantry in the traditional three lines of 10 men deep,thusly: Legions I and III were on the left with Pompey himself; at his center were the legions from Syria commanded by Scipio, and on the right, against the Enipeus River, were legions from Cilicia and Spanish auxiliaries. Pompey's cavalry, which greatly outnumbered Caesar's, were commanded by Labienus, a brilliant cavalry commander and Caesar's old lieutenant during the Gallic Wars. They were massed in a single body on Pompey's left flank, together with his auxiliary archers and slingers. Pompey's tactical plan was to allow Caesar's legions to charge while his own stood their ground, reasoning that the enemy would fatigue by charging the double distance, and that his own men would better withstand the pilum toss while stationary. Simultaneously his cavalry would overwhelm the enemy's and then take the legions in the flank and rear — a classic hammer and anvil tactic.\n\nCaesar also deployed his men in three lines, but, being outnumbered, had to thin his ranks to a depth of only six men, in order to match the frontage presented by Pompey. His left flank, resting on the Enipeus River, consisted of his battle worn IXth legion supplemented by the VIIIth legion, these commanded by Mark Antony. The center was commanded by Domitius and upon his right he placed his favored Xth legion, giving Sulla command of this flank — Caesar himself took his stand on the right, across from Pompey. Upon seeing the disposition of Pompey's army Caesar grew discomforted, and further thinned his third line in order to form a fourth line on his right: this to counter the onslaught of the enemy cavalry, which he knew his numerically inferior cavalry could not withstand. This new line he gave detailed instructions for the role they would play, hinting that upon them would rest the fortunes of the day, and gave strict orders to his third line not to charge until specifically ordered.\n\n=== Progress of the battle ===\n\nThere was significant distance between the two armies, according to Caesar. Pompey ordered his men not to charge, but to wait until Caesar's legions came into close quarters; Pompey's adviser Caius Triarius believed that Caesar's infantry would be fatigued and fall into disorder if they were forced to cover twice the expected distance of a battle march. Also stationary troops were expected to be able to defend better against pila throws. Seeing that Pompey's army was not advancing, Caesar's infantry under Mark Antony and Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus started the advance. As Caesar's men reached near throwing distance, without orders, they stopped to rest and regroup before continuing the charge; Pompey's right and centre line held as the two armies collided.\n\nAs Pompey's infantry fought, Labienus ordered the Pompeian cavalry on his left flank to attack Caesar's cavalry; as expected they successfully pushed back Caesar's cavalry. Caesar then revealed his hidden fourth line of infantry and surprised Pompey's cavalry charge; Caesar's men were ordered to leap up and use their pila to thrust at Pompey's cavalry instead of throwing them. Pompey's cavalry panicked and suffered hundreds of casualties. After failing to reform, the rest of the cavalry retreated to the hills, leaving the left wing of Pompey's legions exposed. Caesar then ordered in his third line, containing his most battle-hardened veterans. These broke Pompey's left wing troops, who fled the battlefield.\n\nAfter routing Pompey's cavalry, Caesar threw in his last line of reserves —a move which at this point meant that the battle was more or less decided. Pompey lost the will to fight as he watched both cavalry and legions under his command break formation and flee from battle, and he retreated to his camp, leaving the rest of his troops at the centre and right flank to their own devices. He ordered the garrisoned auxiliaries to defend camp as he gathered his family, loaded up gold, and threw off his general's cloak to make a quick escape. As the rest of Pompey's army were left confused, Caesar urged his men to end the day by routing the rest of Pompey's troops and capturing the Pompeian camp. They complied with his wishes; after finishing off the remains of Pompey's men, they furiously attacked the camp walls. The Thracians and the other auxiliaries who were left in the Pompeian camp, in total seven cohorts, defended bravely, but were not able to fend off the assault.\n\nCaesar had won his greatest victory, claiming to have only lost about 200 soldiers and 30 centurions. In his history of the war, Caesar would praise his own men's discipline and experience, and remembered each of his centurions by name. He also questioned Pompey's decision not to charge.\n",
"\nPompey fled from Pharsalus to Egypt, where he was assassinated on the order of Ptolemy XIII. Ptolemy XIII sent Pompey's head to Caesar in an effort to win his favor, but instead secured him as a furious enemy. Ptolemy, advised by his regent, the eunuch Pothinus, and his rhetoric tutor Theodotus of Chios, had failed to take into account that Caesar was granting amnesty to a great number of those of the senatorial faction in their defeat. Even men who had been bitter enemies were allowed not only to return to Rome but to assume their previous positions in Roman society.\n\nPompey's assassination had deprived Caesar of his ultimate public relations moment — pardoning his most ardent rival. The Battle of Pharsalus ended the wars of the First Triumvirate. The Roman Civil War, however, was not ended. Pompey's two sons, Gnaeus Pompeius and Sextus Pompey, and the Pompeian faction, led now by Metellus Scipio and Cato, survived and fought for their cause in the name of Pompey the Great. Caesar spent the next few years 'mopping up' remnants of the senatorial faction. After seemingly vanquishing all his enemies and bringing peace to Rome, he was assassinated in 44 BC by friends, in a conspiracy organized by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus.\n",
"Paul K. Davis wrote that \"Caesar's victory took him to the pinnacle of power, effectively ending the Republic.\" The battle itself did not end the civil war but it was decisive and gave Caesar a much needed boost in legitimacy. Until then much of the Roman world outside Italy supported Pompey and his allies due to the extensive list of clients he held in all corners of the Republic. After Pompey's defeat former allies began to align themselves with Caesar as some came to believe the gods favored him, while for others it was simple self-preservation. The ancients took great stock in success as a sign of favoritism by the gods. This is especially true of success in the face of almost certain defeat — as Caesar experienced at Pharsalus. This allowed Caesar to parlay this single victory into a huge network of willing clients to better secure his hold over power and force the Optimates into near exile in search for allies to continue the fight against Caesar.\n",
"The battle gives its name to the following artistic, geographical, and business concerns:\n\n* ''Pharsalia'', a poem by Lucan\n* Pharsalia, New York, U.S.\n* Pharsalia Technologies, Inc.\n",
"\n",
"* Caesar's account of the battle\n* Frank Laurence Lucas, 'The Battlefield of Pharsalos', ''Annual of the British School at Athens'', No. XXIV, 1919–21\n* Michel Rambaud, 'Le Soleil de Pharsale', ''Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte '', Vol.3, No.4, 1955\n* William E. Gwatkin, Jr., 'Some Reflections on the Battle of Pharsalus', ''Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association'', Vol. 87, 1956\n* John D. Morgan, 'Palae-pharsalus – the Battle and the Town', ''The American Journal of Archaeology'', Vol. 87, No. 1, Jan. 1983\n* '48 BC: The Battle of Pharsalus | Steven James'\n* Si Sheppard, Pharsalus 48 BC: Caesar and Pompey - Clash of the Titans, Oxford, Osprey, 2006\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Prelude",
"Date and location",
"Opposing armies",
"Battle",
"Aftermath",
"Importance",
" In popular culture ",
"References",
"Further reading"
] | Battle of Pharsalus | [
"The “north-bank” thesis of F. L. Lucas, based on his 1921 solo field-trip to Thessaly, is now, however, broadly accepted by historians."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Battle of Pharsalus''' was a decisive battle of Caesar's Civil War.",
"On 9 August 48 BC at Pharsalus in central Greece, Gaius Julius Caesar and his allies formed up opposite the army of the republic under the command of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (\"Pompey the Great\").",
"Pompey had the backing of a majority of the senators, of whom many were optimates, and his army significantly outnumbered the veteran Caesarian legions.",
"The two armies confronted each other over several months of uncertainty, Caesar being in a much weaker position than Pompey.",
"The former found himself isolated in a hostile country with only 22,000 men and short of provisions, while on the other side of the river he was faced by Pompey with an army about twice as large in number.",
"Pompey wanted to delay, knowing the enemy would eventually surrender from hunger and exhaustion.",
"Pressured by the senators present and by his officers, he reluctantly engaged in battle and suffered an overwhelming defeat, ultimately fleeing the camp and his men, disguised as an ordinary citizen.",
"\nA dispute between Caesar and the ''optimates'' faction in the Senate of Rome culminated in Caesar marching his army on Rome and forcing Pompey, accompanied by much of the Roman Senate, to flee in 49 BC from Italy to Greece, where he could better conscript an army to face his former ally.",
"Caesar, lacking a fleet to immediately give chase, solidified his control over the western Mediterranean – Spain specifically – before assembling ships to follow Pompey.",
"Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, whom Pompey had appointed to command his 600-ship fleet, set up a massive blockade to prevent Caesar from crossing to Greece and to prevent any aid to Italy.",
"Caesar, defying convention, chose to cross the Adriatic during the winter, with only half his fleet at a time.",
"This move surprised Bibulus, and the first wave of ships managed to run the blockade easily.",
"Now prepared, Bibulus managed to prevent any further ships from crossing, but died soon afterwards.",
"Caesar was now in a precarious position, holding a beachhead at Epirus with only half his army, no ability to supply his troops by sea, and limited local support, as the Greek cities were mostly loyal to Pompey.",
"Caesar's only choice was to fortify his position, forage what supplies he could, and wait on his remaining army to attempt another crossing.",
"Pompey by now had a massive international army; however, his troops were mostly untested raw recruits, while Caesar's troops were hardened veterans.",
"Realizing Caesar's difficulty in keeping his troops supplied, Pompey decided to simply mirror Caesar's forces and let hunger do the fighting for him.",
"Caesar began to despair and used every channel he could think of to pursue peace with Pompey.",
"When this was rebuffed he made an attempt to cross back to Italy to collect his missing troops, but was turned back by a storm.",
"Finally, Mark Antony rallied the remaining forces in Italy, fought through the blockade and made the crossing, reinforcing Caesar's forces in both men and spirit.",
"Now at full strength, Caesar felt confident to take the fight to Pompey.",
"Pompey was camped in a strong position just south of Dyrrhachium with the sea to his back and surrounded by hills, making a direct assault impossible.",
"Caesar ordered a wall to be built around Pompey's position in order to cut off water and pasture land for his horses.",
"Pompey built a parallel wall and in between a kind of no man's land was created, with fighting comparable to the trench warfare of World War I.",
"Ultimately the standoff was broken when a traitor in Caesar's army informed Pompey of a weakness in Caesar's wall.",
"Pompey immediately exploited this information and forced Caesar's army into a full retreat, but ordered his army not to pursue, fearing Caesar's reputation for setting elaborate traps.",
"This caused Caesar to remark, \"Today the victory had been the enemy's, had there been any one among them to gain it.\"",
"Pompey continued his strategy of mirroring Caesar's forces and avoiding any direct engagements.",
"After trapping Caesar in Thessaly, the prominent senators in Pompey's camp began to argue loudly for a more decisive victory.",
"Although Pompey was strongly against it — he wanted to surround and starve Caesar's army instead — he eventually gave in and accepted battle from Caesar on a field near Pharsalus.",
"The date of the actual decisive battle is given as 9 August 48 BC according to the republican calendar.",
"According to the Julian calendar however, the date was either 29 June (according to Le Verrier's chronological reconstruction) or possibly 7 June (according to Drumann/Groebe).",
"As Pompey was assassinated on 3 September 48 BC, the battle must have taken place in the true month of August, when the harvest was becoming ripe (or Pompey's strategy of starving Caesar would not be plausible).",
"The location of the battlefield was for a long time the subject of controversy among scholars.",
"Caesar himself, in his Commentarii de Bello Civili, mentions few place-names; and although the battle is called after Pharsalos, four ancient writers – the author of the ''Bellum Alexandrinum'' (48.1), Frontinus (''Strategemata'' 2.3.22), Eutropius (20), and Orosius (6.15.27) – place it specifically at ''Palae''pharsalos.",
"Strabo in his ''Geographica'' (''Γεωγραφικά'') mentions both old and new Pharsaloi, and notes that the Thetideion, the temple to Thetis south of Scotoussa, was near both.",
"In 198 BC, in the Second Macedonian War, Philip V of Macedon sacked Palaepharsalos (Livy, ''Ab Urbe Condita'' 32.13.9), but left new Pharsalos untouched.",
"These two details perhaps imply that the two cities were not close neighbours.",
"Until the early 20th century, unsure of the site of Palaepharsalos, scholars followed Appian (2.75) and located the battle of 48 BC south of the Enipeus or close to Pharsalos (today's Pharsala).",
"“A visit to the ground has only confirmed me,” Lucas wrote in 1921; “and it was interesting to find that Mr. Apostolides, son of the large local landowner, the hospitality of whose farm at Tekés I enjoyed, was convinced too that the battle-site was by Driskole now Krini, for the very sound reason that neither the hills nor the river further east suit Caesar’s description.” John D. Morgan in his definitive “Palae-pharsalus – the Battle and the Town”, arguing for a site closer still to Krini, where he places Palaepharsalos, writes: “My reconstruction is similar to Lucas’s, and in fact I borrow one of his alternatives for the line of the Pompeian retreat.",
"Lucas’s theory has been subjected to many criticisms, but has remained essentially unshaken.”",
"\n\n===Caesarian army===\n\nCaesar had the following legions with him:\n\n* Legions of veterans from the Gallic Wars – Caesar's favourite legion, X ''Equestris'', and those later known with the names of VIII ''Augusta'', IX ''Hispana'', and XII ''Fulminata''\n* Legions levied for the civil war – legions later known as I ''Germanica'', III ''Gallica'', and IV ''Macedonica''\n\nHowever, all of these legions were understrength.",
"Some only had about a thousand men at the time of Pharsalus, due partly to losses at Dyrrhachium and partly to Caesar's wish to rapidly advance with a picked body as opposed to a ponderous movement with a large army.",
"According to his accounts, he had 80 cohorts on the battlefield, about 22,000 men.",
"===Pompeian army===\n\nIn total, Caesar counted 110 complete cohorts in the Pompeian army, 11 legions consisting of about 45,000 men, although Orosius, following Livy and Pollio, only counted 88 cohorts, and Hans Delbrück suggests that Caesar's count includes detachments at Dyrrachium and elsewhere, leaving only 88 cohorts in the Pompeian army.",
"\n===Deployment===\nInitial deployment of forces at the Battle of Pharsalus, August 48 BC\n\n\nOn the Pharsalian plain, Pompey deployed his infantry in the traditional three lines of 10 men deep,thusly: Legions I and III were on the left with Pompey himself; at his center were the legions from Syria commanded by Scipio, and on the right, against the Enipeus River, were legions from Cilicia and Spanish auxiliaries.",
"Pompey's cavalry, which greatly outnumbered Caesar's, were commanded by Labienus, a brilliant cavalry commander and Caesar's old lieutenant during the Gallic Wars.",
"They were massed in a single body on Pompey's left flank, together with his auxiliary archers and slingers.",
"Pompey's tactical plan was to allow Caesar's legions to charge while his own stood their ground, reasoning that the enemy would fatigue by charging the double distance, and that his own men would better withstand the pilum toss while stationary.",
"Simultaneously his cavalry would overwhelm the enemy's and then take the legions in the flank and rear — a classic hammer and anvil tactic.",
"Caesar also deployed his men in three lines, but, being outnumbered, had to thin his ranks to a depth of only six men, in order to match the frontage presented by Pompey.",
"His left flank, resting on the Enipeus River, consisted of his battle worn IXth legion supplemented by the VIIIth legion, these commanded by Mark Antony.",
"The center was commanded by Domitius and upon his right he placed his favored Xth legion, giving Sulla command of this flank — Caesar himself took his stand on the right, across from Pompey.",
"Upon seeing the disposition of Pompey's army Caesar grew discomforted, and further thinned his third line in order to form a fourth line on his right: this to counter the onslaught of the enemy cavalry, which he knew his numerically inferior cavalry could not withstand.",
"This new line he gave detailed instructions for the role they would play, hinting that upon them would rest the fortunes of the day, and gave strict orders to his third line not to charge until specifically ordered.",
"=== Progress of the battle ===\n\nThere was significant distance between the two armies, according to Caesar.",
"Pompey ordered his men not to charge, but to wait until Caesar's legions came into close quarters; Pompey's adviser Caius Triarius believed that Caesar's infantry would be fatigued and fall into disorder if they were forced to cover twice the expected distance of a battle march.",
"Also stationary troops were expected to be able to defend better against pila throws.",
"Seeing that Pompey's army was not advancing, Caesar's infantry under Mark Antony and Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus started the advance.",
"As Caesar's men reached near throwing distance, without orders, they stopped to rest and regroup before continuing the charge; Pompey's right and centre line held as the two armies collided.",
"As Pompey's infantry fought, Labienus ordered the Pompeian cavalry on his left flank to attack Caesar's cavalry; as expected they successfully pushed back Caesar's cavalry.",
"Caesar then revealed his hidden fourth line of infantry and surprised Pompey's cavalry charge; Caesar's men were ordered to leap up and use their pila to thrust at Pompey's cavalry instead of throwing them.",
"Pompey's cavalry panicked and suffered hundreds of casualties.",
"After failing to reform, the rest of the cavalry retreated to the hills, leaving the left wing of Pompey's legions exposed.",
"Caesar then ordered in his third line, containing his most battle-hardened veterans.",
"These broke Pompey's left wing troops, who fled the battlefield.",
"After routing Pompey's cavalry, Caesar threw in his last line of reserves —a move which at this point meant that the battle was more or less decided.",
"Pompey lost the will to fight as he watched both cavalry and legions under his command break formation and flee from battle, and he retreated to his camp, leaving the rest of his troops at the centre and right flank to their own devices.",
"He ordered the garrisoned auxiliaries to defend camp as he gathered his family, loaded up gold, and threw off his general's cloak to make a quick escape.",
"As the rest of Pompey's army were left confused, Caesar urged his men to end the day by routing the rest of Pompey's troops and capturing the Pompeian camp.",
"They complied with his wishes; after finishing off the remains of Pompey's men, they furiously attacked the camp walls.",
"The Thracians and the other auxiliaries who were left in the Pompeian camp, in total seven cohorts, defended bravely, but were not able to fend off the assault.",
"Caesar had won his greatest victory, claiming to have only lost about 200 soldiers and 30 centurions.",
"In his history of the war, Caesar would praise his own men's discipline and experience, and remembered each of his centurions by name.",
"He also questioned Pompey's decision not to charge.",
"\nPompey fled from Pharsalus to Egypt, where he was assassinated on the order of Ptolemy XIII.",
"Ptolemy XIII sent Pompey's head to Caesar in an effort to win his favor, but instead secured him as a furious enemy.",
"Ptolemy, advised by his regent, the eunuch Pothinus, and his rhetoric tutor Theodotus of Chios, had failed to take into account that Caesar was granting amnesty to a great number of those of the senatorial faction in their defeat.",
"Even men who had been bitter enemies were allowed not only to return to Rome but to assume their previous positions in Roman society.",
"Pompey's assassination had deprived Caesar of his ultimate public relations moment — pardoning his most ardent rival.",
"The Battle of Pharsalus ended the wars of the First Triumvirate.",
"The Roman Civil War, however, was not ended.",
"Pompey's two sons, Gnaeus Pompeius and Sextus Pompey, and the Pompeian faction, led now by Metellus Scipio and Cato, survived and fought for their cause in the name of Pompey the Great.",
"Caesar spent the next few years 'mopping up' remnants of the senatorial faction.",
"After seemingly vanquishing all his enemies and bringing peace to Rome, he was assassinated in 44 BC by friends, in a conspiracy organized by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus.",
"Paul K. Davis wrote that \"Caesar's victory took him to the pinnacle of power, effectively ending the Republic.\"",
"The battle itself did not end the civil war but it was decisive and gave Caesar a much needed boost in legitimacy.",
"Until then much of the Roman world outside Italy supported Pompey and his allies due to the extensive list of clients he held in all corners of the Republic.",
"After Pompey's defeat former allies began to align themselves with Caesar as some came to believe the gods favored him, while for others it was simple self-preservation.",
"The ancients took great stock in success as a sign of favoritism by the gods.",
"This is especially true of success in the face of almost certain defeat — as Caesar experienced at Pharsalus.",
"This allowed Caesar to parlay this single victory into a huge network of willing clients to better secure his hold over power and force the Optimates into near exile in search for allies to continue the fight against Caesar.",
"The battle gives its name to the following artistic, geographical, and business concerns:\n\n* ''Pharsalia'', a poem by Lucan\n* Pharsalia, New York, U.S.\n* Pharsalia Technologies, Inc.",
"* Caesar's account of the battle\n* Frank Laurence Lucas, 'The Battlefield of Pharsalos', ''Annual of the British School at Athens'', No.",
"XXIV, 1919–21\n* Michel Rambaud, 'Le Soleil de Pharsale', ''Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte '', Vol.3, No.4, 1955\n* William E. Gwatkin, Jr., 'Some Reflections on the Battle of Pharsalus', ''Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association'', Vol.",
"87, 1956\n* John D. Morgan, 'Palae-pharsalus – the Battle and the Town', ''The American Journal of Archaeology'', Vol.",
"87, No.",
"1, Jan. 1983\n* '48 BC: The Battle of Pharsalus | Steven James'\n* Si Sheppard, Pharsalus 48 BC: Caesar and Pompey - Clash of the Titans, Oxford, Osprey, 2006"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Richard Buckminster''' \"'''Bucky'''\" '''Fuller''' (; July 12, 1895 – July 1, 1983) was an American architect, systems theorist, author, designer, and inventor.\n\nFuller published more than 30 books, coining or popularizing terms such as \"Spaceship Earth\", ephemeralization, and synergetic. He also developed numerous inventions, mainly architectural designs, and popularized the widely known geodesic dome. Carbon molecules known as fullerenes were later named by scientists for their structural and mathematical resemblance to geodesic spheres.\n\nFuller was the second World President of Mensa from 1974 to 1983.\n\n\n",
"As a young man\nFuller was born on July 12, 1895, in Milton, Massachusetts, the son of Richard Buckminster Fuller and Caroline Wolcott Andrews, and grand-nephew of the American Transcendentalist Margaret Fuller. He spent much of his youth on Bear Island, in Penobscot Bay off the coast of Maine. He attended Froebelian Kindergarten. He had trouble with geometry, being unable to understand the abstraction that a chalk dot on the blackboard represented a mathematical point, or that an imperfectly drawn line with an arrow on the end was meant to stretch off to infinity. He often made items from materials he found in the woods, and sometimes made his own tools. He experimented with designing a new apparatus for human propulsion of small boats. By age 12, he had invented a 'push pull' system for propelling a rowboat by use of an inverted umbrella connected to the transom with a simple oar lock which allowed the user to face forward to point the boat toward its destination. Later in life, Fuller took exception to the term \"invention\".\n\nYears later, he decided that this sort of experience had provided him with not only an interest in design, but also a habit of being familiar with and knowledgeable about the materials that his later projects would require. Fuller earned a machinist's certification, and knew how to use the press brake, stretch press, and other tools and equipment used in the sheet metal trade.\n\n===Education===\nFuller attended Milton Academy in Massachusetts, and after that began studying at Harvard College, where he was affiliated with Adams House. He was expelled from Harvard twice: first for spending all his money partying with a vaudeville troupe, and then, after having been readmitted, for his \"irresponsibility and lack of interest.\" By his own appraisal, he was a non-conforming misfit in the fraternity environment.\n\n===Wartime experience===\nBetween his sessions at Harvard, Fuller worked in Canada as a mechanic in a textile mill, and later as a laborer in the meat-packing industry. He also served in the U.S. Navy in World War I, as a shipboard radio operator, as an editor of a publication, and as a crash rescue boat commander. After discharge, he worked again in the meat packing industry, acquiring management experience. In 1917, he married Anne Hewlett. During the early 1920s, he and his father-in-law developed the Stockade Building System for producing light-weight, weatherproof, and fireproof housing—although the company would ultimately fail in 1927.\n\n===Depression and epiphany===\nBuckminster Fuller recalled 1927 as a pivotal year of his life. His daughter Alexandra had died in 1922 of complications from polio and spinal meningitis just before her fourth birthday. Fuller dwelled on her death, suspecting that it was connected with the Fullers' damp and drafty living conditions. This provided motivation for Fuller's involvement in Stockade Building Systems, a business which aimed to provide affordable, efficient housing.\n\nIn 1927, at age 32, Fuller lost his job as president of Stockade. The Fuller family had no savings, and the birth of their daughter Allegra in 1927 added to the financial challenges. Fuller drank heavily and reflected upon the solution to his family's struggles on long walks around Chicago. During the autumn of 1927, Fuller contemplated suicide, so that his family could benefit from a life insurance payment.\n\nFuller said that he had experienced a profound incident which would provide direction and purpose for his life. He felt as though he was suspended several feet above the ground enclosed in a white sphere of light. A voice spoke directly to Fuller, and declared:\n\n\n\nFuller stated that this experience led to a profound re-examination of his life. He ultimately chose to embark on \"an experiment, to find what a single individual could contribute to changing the world and benefiting all humanity.\"\n\nSpeaking to audiences later in life, Fuller would regularly recount the story of his Lake Michigan experience, and its transformative impact on his life. Historians have been unable to identify direct evidence for this experience within the 1927 papers of Fuller's Chronofile archives, housed at Stanford University. Stanford historian Barry Katz suggests that the suicide story may be a myth which Fuller constructed later in life, to summarize this formative period of his career.\n\n===Recovery===\nIn 1927 Fuller resolved to think independently which included a commitment to \"the search for the principles governing the universe and help advance the evolution of humanity in accordance with them... finding ways of ''doing more with less'' to the end that all people everywhere can have more and more.\" By 1928, Fuller was living in Greenwich Village and spending much of his time at the popular café Romany Marie's, where he had spent an evening in conversation with Marie and Eugene O'Neill several years earlier. Fuller accepted a job decorating the interior of the café in exchange for meals, giving informal lectures several times a week, and models of the Dymaxion house were exhibited at the café. Isamu Noguchi arrived during 1929—Constantin Brâncuși, an old friend of Marie's, had directed him there—and Noguchi and Fuller were soon collaborating on several projects, including the modeling of the Dymaxion car based on recent work by Aurel Persu. It was the beginning of their lifelong friendship.\n\n===Geodesic domes===\nFuller taught at Black Mountain College in North Carolina during the summers of 1948 and 1949, serving as its Summer Institute director in 1949. There, with the support of a group of professors and students, he began reinventing a project that would make him famous: the geodesic dome. Although the geodesic dome had been created some 30 years earlier by Dr. Walther Bauersfeld, Fuller was awarded United States patents, even though he neglected to cite Bauersfeld's prior art in his patent applications. He is credited for popularizing this type of structure.\n\nOne of his early models was first constructed in 1945 at Bennington College in Vermont, where he lectured often. In 1949, he erected his first geodesic dome building that could sustain its own weight with no practical limits. It was in diameter and constructed of aluminium aircraft tubing and a vinyl-plastic skin, in the form of an icosahedron. To prove his design, Fuller suspended from the structure's framework several students who had helped him build it. The U.S. government recognized the importance of his work, and employed his firm Geodesics, Inc. in Raleigh, North Carolina to make small domes for the Marines. Within a few years, there were thousands such domes around the world.\n\nFuller's first \"continuous tension – discontinuous compression\" geodesic dome (full sphere in this case) was constructed at the University of Oregon Architecture School in 1959 with the help of students. These continuous tension – discontinuous compression structures featured single force compression members (no flexure or bending moments) that did not touch each other and were 'suspended' by the tensional members.\n\n===Dymaxion Chronofile===\nFor half of a century, Fuller developed many ideas, designs and inventions, particularly regarding practical, inexpensive shelter and transportation. He documented his life, philosophy and ideas scrupulously by a daily diary (later called the ''Dymaxion Chronofile''), and by twenty-eight publications. Fuller financed some of his experiments with inherited funds, sometimes augmented by funds invested by his collaborators, one example being the Dymaxion car project.\n\n===World stage===\nThe Montreal Biosphère by Buckminster Fuller, 1967\nFuller's home in Carbondale\nInternational recognition began with the success of huge geodesic domes during the 1950s. Fuller lectured at NC State University in Raleigh in 1949, where he met James Fitzgibbon, who would become a close friend and colleague. Fitzgibbon was director of Geodesics, Inc. and Synergetics, Inc. the first licensees to design geodesic domes. Thomas C. Howard was lead designer, architect and engineer for both companies.\n\nFuller began working with architect Shoji Sadao in 1954, and in 1964 they co-founded the architectural firm Fuller & Sadao Inc., whose first project was to design the large geodesic dome for the U.S. Pavilion at Expo 67 in Montreal. This building is now the \"Montreal Biosphère\".\n\nFrom 1959 to 1970, Fuller taught at Southern Illinois University Carbondale (SIU). Beginning as an assistant professor, he gained full professorship in 1968, in the School of Art and Design. Working as a designer, scientist, developer, and writer, he lectured for many years around the world. He collaborated at SIU with the designer John McHale. In 1965, Fuller inaugurated the World Design Science Decade (1965 to 1975) at the meeting of the International Union of Architects in Paris, which was, in his own words, devoted to \"applying the principles of science to solving the problems of humanity.\" Later in his SIU tenure, Fuller was also a visiting professor at SIU Edwardsville, where he designed the dome for the campus Religious Center.\n\nFuller believed human societies would soon rely mainly on renewable sources of energy, such as solar- and wind-derived electricity. He hoped for an age of \"omni-successful education and sustenance of all humanity.\" Fuller referred to himself as \"the property of universe\" and during one radio interview he gave later in life, declared himself and his work \"the property of all humanity\". For his lifetime of work, the American Humanist Association named him the 1969 Humanist of the Year.\n\nIn 1976, Fuller was a key participant at UN Habitat I, the first UN forum on human settlements.\n\n===Honors===\nFuller was awarded 28 United States patents and many honorary doctorates. In 1960, he was awarded the Frank P. Brown Medal from The Franklin Institute. Fuller was elected as an honorary member of Phi Beta Kappa in 1967, on the occasion of the 50th year reunion of his Harvard class of 1917 (from which he was expelled in his first year). He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1968. In 1968 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, and became a full Academician in 1970. In 1970 he received the Gold Medal award from the American Institute of Architects. In 1976, he received the St. Louis Literary Award from the Saint Louis University Library Associates. He also received numerous other awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom presented to him on February 23, 1983, by President Ronald Reagan.\n\n\n===Last filmed appearance===\nFuller's last filmed interview took place on April 3, 1983, in which he presented his analysis of Simon Rodia's Watts Towers as a unique embodiment of the structural principles found in nature. Portions of this interview appear in ''I Build the Tower,'' a documentary film on Rodia's architectural masterpiece.\n\n\n===Death===\ntrim tab)\nFuller died on July 1, 1983, 11 days before his 88th birthday. During the period leading up to his death, his wife had been lying comatose in a Los Angeles hospital, dying of cancer. It was while visiting her there that he exclaimed, at a certain point: \"She is squeezing my hand!\" He then stood up, suffered a heart attack, and died an hour later, at age 87. His wife of 66 years died 36 hours later. They are buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts.\n",
"Buckminster Fuller was a Unitarian like his grandfather, Unitarian minister Arthur Buckminster Fuller, He was an early environmental activist. He was aware of the Earth's finite resources, and promoted a principle that he termed \"ephemeralization\", which according to futurist and Fuller disciple Stewart Brand, he coined to mean \"doing more with less\". Resources and waste from cruder products could be recycled into making more valuable products, increasing the efficiency of the entire process. Fuller also introduced synergetics, a term which he used broadly as a metaphor for communicating experiences using geometric concepts, and more specifically the empirical study of systems in transformation, with an emphasis on total system behavior unpredicted by the behavior of any isolated components. Fuller coined this term long before the term synergy became popular.\n\nFuller was a pioneer in thinking globally, and he explored principles of energy and material efficiency in the fields of architecture, engineering and design. He cited François de Chardenèdes' opinion that petroleum, from the standpoint of its replacement cost out of our current energy \"budget\" (essentially, the net incoming solar flux), had cost nature \"over a million dollars\" per U.S. gallon (US$300,000 per litre) to produce. From this point of view, its use as a transportation fuel by people commuting to work represents a huge net loss compared to their earnings. An encapsulation quotation of his views might be, \"There is no energy crisis, only a crisis of ignorance.\"\n\nFuller was concerned about sustainability and human survival under the existing socio-economic system, yet remained optimistic about humanity's future. Defining wealth in terms of knowledge, as the \"technological ability to protect, nurture, support, and accommodate all growth needs of life,\" his analysis of the condition of \"Spaceship Earth\" caused him to conclude that at a certain time during the 1970s, humanity had attained an unprecedented state. He was convinced that the accumulation of relevant knowledge, combined with the quantities of major recyclable resources that had already been extracted from the earth, had attained a critical level, such that competition for necessities had become unnecessary. Cooperation had become the optimum survival strategy. He declared: \"selfishness is unnecessary and hence-forth unrationalizable.... War is obsolete.\" He criticized previous utopian schemes as too exclusive, and thought this was a major source of their failure. To work, he thought that a utopia needed to include everyone.\n\nFuller was influenced by Alfred Korzybski's idea of general semantics. In the 1950s, Fuller attended seminars and workshops organized by the Institute of General Semantics, and he delivered the annual Alfred Korzybski Memorial Lecture in 1955. Korzybski is mentioned in the Introduction of his book ''Synergetics''. The two shared a remarkable amount of similarity in their formulations of general semantics.\n\nIn his 1970 book ''I Seem To Be a Verb'', he wrote: \"I live on Earth at present, and I don't know what I am. I know that I am not a category. I am not a thing—a noun. I seem to be a verb, an evolutionary process—an integral function of the universe.\"\n\nFuller wrote that the natural analytic geometry of the universe was based on arrays of tetrahedra. He developed this in several ways, from the close-packing of spheres and the number of compressive or tensile members required to stabilize an object in space. One confirming result was that the strongest possible homogeneous truss is cyclically tetrahedral.\n\nHe had become a guru of the design, architecture, and 'alternative' communities, such as Drop City, the community of experimental artists to whom he awarded the 1966 \"Dymaxion Award\" for \"poetically economic\" domed living structures.\n",
"A geodesic sphere\n\n===The geodesic dome===\nFuller was most famous for his lattice shell structures – geodesic domes, which have been used as parts of military radar stations, civic buildings, environmental protest camps and exhibition attractions. An examination of the geodesic design by Walther Bauersfeld for the Zeiss-Planetarium, built some 20 years prior to Fuller's work, reveals that Fuller's Geodesic Dome patent (U.S. 2,682,235; awarded in 1954), follows the same design as Bauersfeld's.\n\nTheir construction is based on extending some basic principles to build simple \"tensegrity\" structures (tetrahedron, octahedron, and the closest packing of spheres), making them lightweight and stable. The geodesic dome was a result of Fuller's exploration of nature's constructing principles to find design solutions. The Fuller Dome is referenced in the Hugo Award-winning novel ''Stand on Zanzibar'' by John Brunner, in which a geodesic dome is said to cover the entire island of Manhattan, and it floats on air due to the hot-air balloon effect of the large air-mass under the dome (and perhaps its construction of lightweight materials).\n\n===Transportation===\n\n\n\nThe Dymaxion car, c.1933, artist Diego Rivera shown entering the car, carrying coat\nThe Dymaxion car was a vehicle designed by Fuller, featured prominently at Chicago's 1933-1934 Century of Progress World's Fair. During the Great Depression, Fuller formed the ''Dymaxion Corporation'' and built three prototypes with noted naval architect Starling Burgess and a team of 27 workmen — using donated money as well as a family inheritance.\n\nFuller associated the word ''Dymaxion'' with much of his work, a portmanteau of the words '''''dy'''namic'', '''''max'''imum'', and ''tens'''ion''''' to sum up the goal of his study, \"maximum gain of advantage from minimal energy input.\"\n\nThe Dymaxion was not an automobile ''per se'', but rather the 'ground-taxying mode' of a vehicle that might one day be designed to fly, land and drive — an \"Omni-Medium Transport\" for air, land and water. Fuller focused on the landing and taxiing qualities, and noted severe limitations in its handling. The team made constant improvements and refinements to the platform, and Fuller noted the Dymaxion \"was an invention that could not be made available to the general public without considerable improvements.\"\n\nThe bodywork was aerodynamically designed for increased fuel efficiency and speed as well as light weight, and its platform featured a lightweight cromoly-steel hinged chassis, rear-mounted V8 engine, front-drive and three-wheels. The vehicle was steered via the third wheel at the rear, capable of 90° steering lock. Thus able to steer in a tight circle, the Dymaxion often caused a sensation, bringing nearby traffic to a halt.\n\nShortly after launch, a prototype crashed after being hit by another car, killing the Dymaxion's driver. The other car was driven by a local politician and was illegally removed from the accident scene, leaving reporters who arrived subsequently to blame the Dymaxion's unconventional design — though investigations exonerated the prototype. Fuller would himself later crash another prototype with his young daughter aboard.\n\nDespite courting the interest of important figures from the auto industry, Fuller used his family inheritance to finish the second and third prototypes — eventually selling all three, dissolving ''Dymaxion Corporation'' and maintaining the Dymaxion was never intended as a commercial venture. One of the three original prototypes survives.\n\n===Housing===\n\nA Dymaxion house at The Henry Ford\nFuller's energy-efficient and inexpensive Dymaxion house garnered much interest, but only two prototypes were ever produced. Here the term \"Dymaxion\" is used in effect to signify a \"radically strong and light tensegrity structure\". One of Fuller's Dymaxion Houses is on display as a permanent exhibit at the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan. Designed and developed during the mid-1940s, this prototype is a round structure (not a dome), shaped something like the flattened \"bell\" of certain jellyfish. It has several innovative features, including revolving dresser drawers, and a fine-mist shower that reduces water consumption. According to Fuller biographer Steve Crooks, the house was designed to be delivered in two cylindrical packages, with interior color panels available at local dealers. A circular structure at the top of the house was designed to rotate around a central mast to use natural winds for cooling and air circulation.\n\nConceived nearly two decades earlier, and developed in Wichita, Kansas, the house was designed to be lightweight, adapted to windy climates, cheap to produce and easy to assemble. Because of its light weight and portability, the Dymaxion House was intended to be the ideal housing for individuals and families who wanted the option of easy mobility. The design included a \"Go-Ahead-With-Life Room\" stocked with maps, charts, and helpful tools for travel \"through time and space.\" It was to be produced using factories, workers, and technologies that had produced World War II aircraft. It looked ultramodern at the time, built of metal, and sheathed in polished aluminum. The basic model enclosed of floor area. Due to publicity, there were many orders during the early Post-War years, but the company that Fuller and others had formed to produce the houses failed due to management problems.\n\nIn 1967, Fuller developed a concept for an offshore floating city named Triton City and published a report on the design the following year. Models of the city aroused the interest of President Lyndon B. Johnson who, after leaving office, had them placed in the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum.\n\nIn 1969, Fuller began the Otisco Project, named after its location in Otisco, New York. The project developed and demonstrated concrete spray with mesh-covered wireforms for producing large-scale, load-bearing spanning structures built on-site, without the use of pouring molds, other adjacent surfaces or hoisting. The initial method used a circular concrete footing in which anchor posts were set. Tubes cut to length and with ends flattened were then bolted together to form a duodeca-rhombicahedron (22-sided hemisphere) geodesic structure with spans ranging to . The form was then draped with layers of ¼-inch wire mesh attached by twist ties. Concrete was sprayed onto the structure, building up a solid layer which, when cured, would support additional concrete to be added by a variety of traditional means. Fuller referred to these buildings as monolithic ferroconcrete geodesic domes. However, the tubular frame form proved problematic for setting windows and doors. It was replaced by an iron rebar set vertically in the concrete footing and then bent inward and welded in place to create the dome's wireform structure and performed satisfactorily. Domes up to three stories tall built with this method proved to be remarkably strong. Other shapes such as cones, pyramids and arches proved equally adaptable.\n\nThe project was enabled by a grant underwritten by Syracuse University and sponsored by US Steel (rebar), the Johnson Wire Corp, (mesh) and Portland Cement Company (concrete). The ability to build large complex load bearing concrete spanning structures in free space would open many possibilities in architecture, and is considered as one of Fuller's greatest contributions.\n\n===Dymaxion map and World Game===\nFuller, along with co-cartographer Shoji Sadao, also designed an alternative projection map, called the Dymaxion map. This was designed to show Earth's continents with minimum distortion when projected or printed on a flat surface.\n\nIn the 1960s, Fuller developed the World Game, a collaborative simulation game played on a 70-by-35-foot Dymaxion map, in which players attempt to solve world problems. The object of the simulation game is, in Fuller's words, to “make the world work, for 100% of humanity, in the shortest possible time, through spontaneous cooperation, without ecological offense or the disadvantage of anyone.”\n",
"Buckminster Fuller wore thick-lensed spectacles to correct his extreme hyperopia, a condition that went undiagnosed for the first five years of his life. Fuller's hearing was damaged during his Naval service in World War I and deteriorated during the 1960s. After experimenting with bullhorns as hearing aids during the mid-1960s, Fuller adopted electronic hearing aids from the 1970s onward\n\nIn public appearances, Fuller always wore dark-colored suits, appearing like \"an alert little clergyman\". Previously, he had experimented with unconventional clothing immediately after his 1927 epiphany, but found that breaking social fashion customs made others devalue or dismiss his ideas. Fuller learned the importance of physical appearance as part of one's credibility, and decided to become \"the invisible man\" by dressing in clothes that would not draw attention to himself. With self-deprecating humor, Fuller described this black-suited appearance as resembling a \"second-rate bank clerk\".\n",
"Following his global prominence from the 1960s onward, Fuller became a frequent flier, often crossing time zones to lecture. In the 1960s and 1970s, he wore three watches simultaneously; one for the time zone of his office in Carbondale, one for the time zone of the location he would next visit, and one for the time zone he was currently in. In the 1970s, Fuller was only in 'homely' locations (his personal home in Carbondale, Illinois; his holiday retreat in Bear Island, Maine; his daughter's home in Pacific Palisades, California) roughly 65 nights per year—the other 300 nights were spent in hotel beds in the locations he visited on his lecturing and consulting circuits.\n\nIn the 1920s, Fuller experimented with polyphasic sleep, which he called ''Dymaxion sleep''. Inspired by the sleep habits of animals such as dogs and cats, Fuller worked until he was tired, and then slept short naps. This generally resulted in Fuller sleeping 30-minute naps every 6 hours. This allowed him \"twenty-two thinking hours a day\", which aided his work productivity. Fuller reportedly kept this Dymaxion sleep habit for two years, before quitting the routine because it conflicted with his business associates' sleep habits. Despite no longer personally partaking in the habit, in 1943 Fuller suggested Dymaxion sleep as a strategy that the United States could adopt to win World War II.\n\nDespite only practicing true polyphasic sleep for a period during the 1920s, Fuller was known for his stamina throughout his life. He was described as \"tireless\" by Barry Farrell in ''Life'' magazine, who noted that Fuller stayed up all night replying to mail during Farrell's 1970 trip to Bear Island. In his seventies, Fuller generally slept for 5–8 hours per night.\n\nFuller documented his life copiously from 1915 to 1983, approximately of papers in a collection called the Dymaxion Chronofile. He also kept copies of all incoming and outgoing correspondence. The enormous Fuller Collection is currently housed at Stanford University.\nIf somebody kept a very accurate record of a human being, going through the era from the Gay 90s, from a very different kind of world through the turn of the century—as far into the twentieth century as you might live. I decided to make myself a good case history of such a human being and it meant that I could not be judge of what was valid to put in or not. I must put everything in, so I started a very rigorous record.\n\nIn his youth, Fuller experimented with several ways of presenting himself: R. B. Fuller, Buckminster Fuller, but as an adult finally settled on R. Buckminster Fuller, and signed his letters as such. However, he preferred to be addressed as simply \"Bucky\".\n",
"Buckminster Fuller spoke and wrote in a unique style and said it was important to describe the world as accurately as possible. Fuller often created long run-on sentences and used unusual compound words (omniwell-informed, intertransformative, omni-interaccommodative, omniself-regenerative) as well as terms he himself invented.\n\nFuller used the word ''Universe'' without the definite or indefinite articles (''the'' or ''a'') and always capitalized the word. Fuller wrote that \"by Universe I mean: the aggregate of all humanity's consciously apprehended and communicated (to self or others) Experiences.\"\n\nThe words \"down\" and \"up\", according to Fuller, are awkward in that they refer to a planar concept of direction inconsistent with human experience. The words \"in\" and \"out\" should be used instead, he argued, because they better describe an object's relation to a gravitational center, the Earth. \"I suggest to audiences that they say, 'I'm going \"outstairs\" and \"instairs.\"' At first that sounds strange to them; They all laugh about it. But if they try saying in and out for a few days in fun, they find themselves beginning to realize that they are indeed going inward and outward in respect to the center of Earth, which is our Spaceship Earth. And for the first time they begin to feel real 'reality.'\"\n\n\"World-around\" is a term coined by Fuller to replace \"worldwide\". The general belief in a flat Earth died out in classical antiquity, so using \"wide\" is an anachronism when referring to the surface of the Earth—a spheroidal surface has area and encloses a volume but has no width. Fuller held that unthinking use of obsolete scientific ideas detracts from and misleads intuition. Other neologisms collectively invented by the Fuller family, according to Allegra Fuller Snyder, are the terms \"sunsight\" and \"sunclipse\", replacing \"sunrise\" and \"sunset\" to overturn the geocentric bias of most pre-copernican celestial mechanics.\n\nFuller also invented the word \"livingry,\" as opposed to weaponry (or \"killingry\"), to mean that which is in support of all human, plant, and Earth life. \"The architectural profession—civil, naval, aeronautical, and astronautical—has always been the place where the most competent thinking is conducted regarding livingry, as opposed to weaponry.\"\n\nAs well as contributing significantly to the development of tensegrity technology, Fuller invented the term \"tensegrity\" from ''tensional integrity''. \"Tensegrity describes a structural-relationship principle in which structural shape is guaranteed by the finitely closed, comprehensively continuous, tensional behaviors of the system and not by the discontinuous and exclusively local compressional member behaviors. Tensegrity provides the ability to yield increasingly without ultimately breaking or coming asunder.\"\n\n\"Dymaxion\" is a portmanteau of \"'''dy'''namic '''max'''imum tens'''ion'''\". It was invented about 1929 by two admen at Marshall Field's department store in Chicago to describe Fuller's concept house, which was shown as part of a house of the future store display. They created the term utilizing three words that Fuller used repeatedly to describe his design – dynamic, maximum, and tension.\n\nFuller also helped to popularize the concept of Spaceship Earth: \"The most important fact about Spaceship Earth: an instruction manual didn't come with it.\"\n",
"His concepts and buildings include:\n\n\n* Dymaxion house (1928)\n* Fuller Home - Carbondale, Illinois\n* Aerodynamic Dymaxion car (1933)\n* Prefabricated compact bathroom cell (1937)\n* Dymaxion deployment unit (1940)\n* Dymaxion map of the world (1946)\n* Buildings (1943)\n* Tensegrity structures (1949)\n\n* Geodesic dome for Ford Motor Company (1953)\n* Patent on geodesic domes (1954)\n* The World Game (1961) and the World Game Institute (1972)\n* Patent on octet truss (1961)\n* Montreal Biosphère (1967), United States pavilion at Expo 67\n* Fly's Eye Dome\n* Dewan Tunku Geodesic Dome, KOMTAR, Penang, Malaysia (proposed 1974, completed 1985)\n* Comprehensive anticipatory design science\n\n",
"Among the many people who were influenced by Buckminster Fuller are:\nConstance Abernathy,\nRuth Asawa,\nJ. Baldwin,\nMichael Ben-Eli,\nPierre Cabrol,\nJohn Cage,\nJoseph Clinton,\nPeter Floyd,\nMedard Gabel,\nMichael Hays,\nDavid Johnston,\nRobert Kiyosaki,\nPeter Jon Pearce,\nShoji Sadao,\nEdwin Schlossberg,\nKenneth Snelson,\nRobert Anton Wilson and Stewart Brand.\n\nAn allotrope of carbon, fullerene—and a particular molecule of that allotrope C60 (buckminsterfullerene or buckyball) has been named after him. The Buckminsterfullerene molecule, which consists of 60 carbon atoms, very closely resembles a spherical version of Fuller's geodesic dome. The 1996 Nobel prize in chemistry was given to Kroto, Curl, and Smalley for their discovery of the fullerene.\n\nHe is quoted in the lyric of \"The Tower Of Babble\" in the musical ''Godspell'': \"Man is a complex of patterns and processes.\"\n\nThe indie band Driftless Pony Club named their 2011 album, ''Buckminster'', after him. All the songs within the album are based upon his life and works.\n\nOn July 12, 2004, the United States Post Office released a new commemorative stamp honoring R. Buckminster Fuller on the 50th anniversary of his patent for the geodesic dome and by the occasion of his 109th birthday. The stamp's design replicated the January 10, 1964 cover of ''Time Magazine''.\n\nFuller was the subject of two documentary films: ''The World of Buckminster Fuller'' (1971) and ''Buckminster Fuller: Thinking Out Loud'' (1996). Additionally, filmmaker Sam Green and the band Yo La Tengo collaborated on a 2012 \"live documentary\" about Fuller, ''The Love Song of R. Buckminster Fuller''.\n\nIn June 2008, the Whitney Museum of American Art presented \"Buckminster Fuller: Starting with the Universe\", the most comprehensive retrospective to date of his work and ideas. The exhibition traveled to the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago in 2009. It presented a combination of models, sketches, and other artifacts, representing six decades of the artist's integrated approach to housing, transportation, communication, and cartography. It also featured the extensive connections with Chicago from his years spent living, teaching, and working in the city.\n\nRobert Kiyosaki's 2015 book ''Second Chance'' is largely about Kiyosaki's interactions with Fuller, and Fuller's unusual final book ''Grunch of Giants''.\n\nIn 2012, The San Francisco Museum of Modern Art hosted \"The Utopian Impulse\" – a show about Buckminster Fuller's influence in the Bay Area. Featured were concepts, inventions and designs for creating \"free energy\" from natural forces, and for sequestering carbon from the atmosphere. The show ran January through July.\n\nIn a different note, Fuller's quote \"Those who play with the Devil's toys, will be brought by degree to wield his sword\" was used and referenced as the first display you see in the strategy sci-fi video game XCOM: Enemy Within developed by Firaxis Games.\n",
"(from the Table of Contents of ''Inventions: The Patented Works of R. Buckminster Fuller'' (1983) )\n*1927 Stockade: building structure\n*1927 Stockade: pneumatic forming process\n*1928 (Application Abandoned) 4D house\n*1937 Dymaxion car\n*1940 Dymaxion bathroom\n*1944 Dymaxion deployment unit (sheet)\n*1944 Dymaxion deployment unit (frame)\n*1946 Dymaxion map\n*1946 (No Patent) Dymaxion house (Wichita)\n*1954 Geodesic dome\n*1959 Paperboard dome\n*1959 Plydome\n*1959 Catenary (geodesic tent)\n*1961 Octet truss\n*1962 Tensegrity\n*1963 Submarisle (undersea island)\n*1964 Aspension (suspension building)\n*1965 Monohex (geodesic structures)\n*1965 Laminar dome\n*1965 (Filed – No Patent) Octa spinner\n*1967 Star tensegrity (octahedral truss)\n*1970 Rowing needles (watercraft)\n*1974 Geodesic hexa-pent\n*1975 Floatable breakwater\n*1975 Non-symmetrical tensegrity\n*1979 Floating breakwater\n*1980 Tensegrity truss\n*1983 Hanging storage shelf unit\n",
"* ''4d Timelock'' (1928)\n* ''Nine Chains to the Moon'' (1938)\n* ''Untitled Epic Poem on the History of Industrialization'' (1962)\n* ''Ideas and Integrities, a Spontaneous Autobiographical Disclosure'' (1963) \n* ''No More Secondhand God and Other Writings'' (1963)\n* ''Education Automation: Freeing the Scholar to Return'' (1963)\n* ''What I Have Learned: A Collection of 20 Autobiographical Essays'', Chapter \"How Little I Know\", (1968)\n* ''Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth'' (1968) \n* ''Utopia or Oblivion'' (1969) \n* ''Approaching the Benign Environment'' (1970) (with Eric A. Walker and James R. Killian, Jr.)\n* ''I Seem to Be a Verb'' (1970) coauthors Jerome Agel, Quentin Fiore, \n* ''Intuition'' (1970)\n* ''Buckminster Fuller to Children of Earth'' (1972) compiled and photographed by Cam Smith, \n* ''The Dymaxion World of Buckminster Fuller'' (1960, 1973) coauthor Robert Marks, \n* ''Earth, Inc'' (1973) \n* '' Synergetics: Explorations in the Geometry of Thinking'' (1975) in collaboration with E.J. Applewhite with a preface and contribution by Arthur L. Loeb, \n* ''Tetrascroll: Goldilocks and the Three Bears, A Cosmic Fairy Tale'' (1975)\n* ''And It Came to Pass — Not to Stay'' (1976) \n* ''R. Buckminster Fuller on Education'' (1979) \n* '' Synergetics 2: Further Explorations in the Geometry of Thinking'' (1979) in collaboration with E.J. Applewhite\n* ''Buckminster Fuller – Autobiographical Monologue/Scenario'' (1980) page 54, R. Buckminster Fuller, documented and edited by Robert Snyder, St. Martin’s Press, Inc., \n* ''Buckminster Fuller Sketchbook'' (1981)\n* ''Critical Path'' (1981) \n* ''Grunch of Giants'' (1983) \n* ''Inventions: The Patented Works of R. Buckminster Fuller'' (1983) \n* ''Humans in Universe'' (1983) coauthor Anwar Dil, \n* ''Cosmography: A Posthumous Scenario for the Future of Humanity'' (1992) coauthor Kiyoshi Kuromiya, \n",
"*Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station\n\n*The Buckminster Fuller Challenge\n*Cloud Nine (tensegrity sphere)\n*Design science revolution\n*Emissions Reduction Currency System\n*Noosphere\n*Old Man River's City project\n*Spome\n*Bucky Ball\n*''Whole Earth Catalog''\n",
"\n\n",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Ward, James, ed., ''The Artifacts Of R. Buckminster Fuller, A Comprehensive Collection of His Designs and Drawings in Four Volumes: Volume One. The Dymaxion Experiment, 1926–1943; Volume Two. Dymaxion Deployment, 1927–1946; Volume Three. The Geodesic Revolution, Part 1, 1947–1959; Volume Four. The Geodesic Revolution, Part 2, 1960–1983'': Edited with descriptions by James Ward. Garland Publishing, New York. 1984 ( vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3, vol. 4)\n* \n",
"\n\n\n* The Estate of R. Buckminster Fuller\n* Buckminster Fuller Institute\n* Remarks at the Presentation Ceremony for the Presidential Medal of Freedom – February 23, 1983\n* \n* ''Buckminster Fuller'', a portrait by Ansel Adams\n\n;Articles about Fuller\n* 'Bucky' Gets Lucky with Stamp by Danit Lidor, ''Wired'' (July 12, 2004)\n* Dymaxion Man: The Visions of Buckminster Fuller by Elizabeth Kolbert, ''The New Yorker'' (June 9, 2008)\n* The Love Song of R. Buckminster Fuller ''New York Times'' article questioning Fuller's supposed consideration of suicide, (June 15, 2008)\n\n;Collections\n* Buckminster Fuller Digital Collection at Stanford includes 380 hrs. of streamed audio-visual material from Fuller's personal archive\n* Buckminster Fuller Papers housed at Stanford University Libraries\n* Clara Thomas Archives and Special Collections, York University – Archival photographs of Buckminster Fuller from the Toronto Telegram.\n\n;Everything I Know\n* ''Everything I Know'' Session, Philadelphia, 1975 at Stanford University Libraries\n* The ''Everything I Know'' 42-hour lecture session — video, audio, and full transcripts.\n\n;Audio\n* The State of Things - discussion about Fuller\n;Documentaries\n* , a 1974 documentary\n* , a 1996 episode of ''American Masters''\n* , a 2004 short animated documentary\n* ''The Love Song of R. Buckminster Fuller'', a 2012 live documentary by filmmaker Sam Green\n\n;Other resources\n* CJ Fearnley's List of Buckminster Fuller Resources on the Internet\n* Buckminster Fuller at Pionniers & Précurseurs. Includes a bibliography\n* \"Buckminster Fuller's Experimental Finishing School\", an excerpt from ''The Experimenters: Chance and Design at Black Mountain College'' by Eva Díaz\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Biography",
"Philosophy and worldview",
"Major design projects",
"Appearance and style",
"Quirks",
"Language and neologisms",
"Concepts and buildings",
"Influence and legacy",
"Patents",
"Bibliography",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Buckminster Fuller | [
"With self-deprecating humor, Fuller described this black-suited appearance as resembling a \"second-rate bank clerk\"."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n'''Richard Buckminster''' \"'''Bucky'''\" '''Fuller''' (; July 12, 1895 – July 1, 1983) was an American architect, systems theorist, author, designer, and inventor.",
"Fuller published more than 30 books, coining or popularizing terms such as \"Spaceship Earth\", ephemeralization, and synergetic.",
"He also developed numerous inventions, mainly architectural designs, and popularized the widely known geodesic dome.",
"Carbon molecules known as fullerenes were later named by scientists for their structural and mathematical resemblance to geodesic spheres.",
"Fuller was the second World President of Mensa from 1974 to 1983.",
"As a young man\nFuller was born on July 12, 1895, in Milton, Massachusetts, the son of Richard Buckminster Fuller and Caroline Wolcott Andrews, and grand-nephew of the American Transcendentalist Margaret Fuller.",
"He spent much of his youth on Bear Island, in Penobscot Bay off the coast of Maine.",
"He attended Froebelian Kindergarten.",
"He had trouble with geometry, being unable to understand the abstraction that a chalk dot on the blackboard represented a mathematical point, or that an imperfectly drawn line with an arrow on the end was meant to stretch off to infinity.",
"He often made items from materials he found in the woods, and sometimes made his own tools.",
"He experimented with designing a new apparatus for human propulsion of small boats.",
"By age 12, he had invented a 'push pull' system for propelling a rowboat by use of an inverted umbrella connected to the transom with a simple oar lock which allowed the user to face forward to point the boat toward its destination.",
"Later in life, Fuller took exception to the term \"invention\".",
"Years later, he decided that this sort of experience had provided him with not only an interest in design, but also a habit of being familiar with and knowledgeable about the materials that his later projects would require.",
"Fuller earned a machinist's certification, and knew how to use the press brake, stretch press, and other tools and equipment used in the sheet metal trade.",
"===Education===\nFuller attended Milton Academy in Massachusetts, and after that began studying at Harvard College, where he was affiliated with Adams House.",
"He was expelled from Harvard twice: first for spending all his money partying with a vaudeville troupe, and then, after having been readmitted, for his \"irresponsibility and lack of interest.\"",
"By his own appraisal, he was a non-conforming misfit in the fraternity environment.",
"===Wartime experience===\nBetween his sessions at Harvard, Fuller worked in Canada as a mechanic in a textile mill, and later as a laborer in the meat-packing industry.",
"He also served in the U.S. Navy in World War I, as a shipboard radio operator, as an editor of a publication, and as a crash rescue boat commander.",
"After discharge, he worked again in the meat packing industry, acquiring management experience.",
"In 1917, he married Anne Hewlett.",
"During the early 1920s, he and his father-in-law developed the Stockade Building System for producing light-weight, weatherproof, and fireproof housing—although the company would ultimately fail in 1927.",
"===Depression and epiphany===\nBuckminster Fuller recalled 1927 as a pivotal year of his life.",
"His daughter Alexandra had died in 1922 of complications from polio and spinal meningitis just before her fourth birthday.",
"Fuller dwelled on her death, suspecting that it was connected with the Fullers' damp and drafty living conditions.",
"This provided motivation for Fuller's involvement in Stockade Building Systems, a business which aimed to provide affordable, efficient housing.",
"In 1927, at age 32, Fuller lost his job as president of Stockade.",
"The Fuller family had no savings, and the birth of their daughter Allegra in 1927 added to the financial challenges.",
"Fuller drank heavily and reflected upon the solution to his family's struggles on long walks around Chicago.",
"During the autumn of 1927, Fuller contemplated suicide, so that his family could benefit from a life insurance payment.",
"Fuller said that he had experienced a profound incident which would provide direction and purpose for his life.",
"He felt as though he was suspended several feet above the ground enclosed in a white sphere of light.",
"A voice spoke directly to Fuller, and declared:\n\n\n\nFuller stated that this experience led to a profound re-examination of his life.",
"He ultimately chose to embark on \"an experiment, to find what a single individual could contribute to changing the world and benefiting all humanity.\"",
"Speaking to audiences later in life, Fuller would regularly recount the story of his Lake Michigan experience, and its transformative impact on his life.",
"Historians have been unable to identify direct evidence for this experience within the 1927 papers of Fuller's Chronofile archives, housed at Stanford University.",
"Stanford historian Barry Katz suggests that the suicide story may be a myth which Fuller constructed later in life, to summarize this formative period of his career.",
"===Recovery===\nIn 1927 Fuller resolved to think independently which included a commitment to \"the search for the principles governing the universe and help advance the evolution of humanity in accordance with them... finding ways of ''doing more with less'' to the end that all people everywhere can have more and more.\"",
"By 1928, Fuller was living in Greenwich Village and spending much of his time at the popular café Romany Marie's, where he had spent an evening in conversation with Marie and Eugene O'Neill several years earlier.",
"Fuller accepted a job decorating the interior of the café in exchange for meals, giving informal lectures several times a week, and models of the Dymaxion house were exhibited at the café.",
"Isamu Noguchi arrived during 1929—Constantin Brâncuși, an old friend of Marie's, had directed him there—and Noguchi and Fuller were soon collaborating on several projects, including the modeling of the Dymaxion car based on recent work by Aurel Persu.",
"It was the beginning of their lifelong friendship.",
"===Geodesic domes===\nFuller taught at Black Mountain College in North Carolina during the summers of 1948 and 1949, serving as its Summer Institute director in 1949.",
"There, with the support of a group of professors and students, he began reinventing a project that would make him famous: the geodesic dome.",
"Although the geodesic dome had been created some 30 years earlier by Dr. Walther Bauersfeld, Fuller was awarded United States patents, even though he neglected to cite Bauersfeld's prior art in his patent applications.",
"He is credited for popularizing this type of structure.",
"One of his early models was first constructed in 1945 at Bennington College in Vermont, where he lectured often.",
"In 1949, he erected his first geodesic dome building that could sustain its own weight with no practical limits.",
"It was in diameter and constructed of aluminium aircraft tubing and a vinyl-plastic skin, in the form of an icosahedron.",
"To prove his design, Fuller suspended from the structure's framework several students who had helped him build it.",
"The U.S. government recognized the importance of his work, and employed his firm Geodesics, Inc. in Raleigh, North Carolina to make small domes for the Marines.",
"Within a few years, there were thousands such domes around the world.",
"Fuller's first \"continuous tension – discontinuous compression\" geodesic dome (full sphere in this case) was constructed at the University of Oregon Architecture School in 1959 with the help of students.",
"These continuous tension – discontinuous compression structures featured single force compression members (no flexure or bending moments) that did not touch each other and were 'suspended' by the tensional members.",
"===Dymaxion Chronofile===\nFor half of a century, Fuller developed many ideas, designs and inventions, particularly regarding practical, inexpensive shelter and transportation.",
"He documented his life, philosophy and ideas scrupulously by a daily diary (later called the ''Dymaxion Chronofile''), and by twenty-eight publications.",
"Fuller financed some of his experiments with inherited funds, sometimes augmented by funds invested by his collaborators, one example being the Dymaxion car project.",
"===World stage===\nThe Montreal Biosphère by Buckminster Fuller, 1967\nFuller's home in Carbondale\nInternational recognition began with the success of huge geodesic domes during the 1950s.",
"Fuller lectured at NC State University in Raleigh in 1949, where he met James Fitzgibbon, who would become a close friend and colleague.",
"Fitzgibbon was director of Geodesics, Inc. and Synergetics, Inc. the first licensees to design geodesic domes.",
"Thomas C. Howard was lead designer, architect and engineer for both companies.",
"Fuller began working with architect Shoji Sadao in 1954, and in 1964 they co-founded the architectural firm Fuller & Sadao Inc., whose first project was to design the large geodesic dome for the U.S. Pavilion at Expo 67 in Montreal.",
"This building is now the \"Montreal Biosphère\".",
"From 1959 to 1970, Fuller taught at Southern Illinois University Carbondale (SIU).",
"Beginning as an assistant professor, he gained full professorship in 1968, in the School of Art and Design.",
"Working as a designer, scientist, developer, and writer, he lectured for many years around the world.",
"He collaborated at SIU with the designer John McHale.",
"In 1965, Fuller inaugurated the World Design Science Decade (1965 to 1975) at the meeting of the International Union of Architects in Paris, which was, in his own words, devoted to \"applying the principles of science to solving the problems of humanity.\"",
"Later in his SIU tenure, Fuller was also a visiting professor at SIU Edwardsville, where he designed the dome for the campus Religious Center.",
"Fuller believed human societies would soon rely mainly on renewable sources of energy, such as solar- and wind-derived electricity.",
"He hoped for an age of \"omni-successful education and sustenance of all humanity.\"",
"Fuller referred to himself as \"the property of universe\" and during one radio interview he gave later in life, declared himself and his work \"the property of all humanity\".",
"For his lifetime of work, the American Humanist Association named him the 1969 Humanist of the Year.",
"In 1976, Fuller was a key participant at UN Habitat I, the first UN forum on human settlements.",
"===Honors===\nFuller was awarded 28 United States patents and many honorary doctorates.",
"In 1960, he was awarded the Frank P. Brown Medal from The Franklin Institute.",
"Fuller was elected as an honorary member of Phi Beta Kappa in 1967, on the occasion of the 50th year reunion of his Harvard class of 1917 (from which he was expelled in his first year).",
"He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1968.",
"In 1968 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, and became a full Academician in 1970.",
"In 1970 he received the Gold Medal award from the American Institute of Architects.",
"In 1976, he received the St. Louis Literary Award from the Saint Louis University Library Associates.",
"He also received numerous other awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom presented to him on February 23, 1983, by President Ronald Reagan.",
"===Last filmed appearance===\nFuller's last filmed interview took place on April 3, 1983, in which he presented his analysis of Simon Rodia's Watts Towers as a unique embodiment of the structural principles found in nature.",
"Portions of this interview appear in ''I Build the Tower,'' a documentary film on Rodia's architectural masterpiece.",
"===Death===\ntrim tab)\nFuller died on July 1, 1983, 11 days before his 88th birthday.",
"During the period leading up to his death, his wife had been lying comatose in a Los Angeles hospital, dying of cancer.",
"It was while visiting her there that he exclaimed, at a certain point: \"She is squeezing my hand!\"",
"He then stood up, suffered a heart attack, and died an hour later, at age 87.",
"His wife of 66 years died 36 hours later.",
"They are buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts.",
"Buckminster Fuller was a Unitarian like his grandfather, Unitarian minister Arthur Buckminster Fuller, He was an early environmental activist.",
"He was aware of the Earth's finite resources, and promoted a principle that he termed \"ephemeralization\", which according to futurist and Fuller disciple Stewart Brand, he coined to mean \"doing more with less\".",
"Resources and waste from cruder products could be recycled into making more valuable products, increasing the efficiency of the entire process.",
"Fuller also introduced synergetics, a term which he used broadly as a metaphor for communicating experiences using geometric concepts, and more specifically the empirical study of systems in transformation, with an emphasis on total system behavior unpredicted by the behavior of any isolated components.",
"Fuller coined this term long before the term synergy became popular.",
"Fuller was a pioneer in thinking globally, and he explored principles of energy and material efficiency in the fields of architecture, engineering and design.",
"He cited François de Chardenèdes' opinion that petroleum, from the standpoint of its replacement cost out of our current energy \"budget\" (essentially, the net incoming solar flux), had cost nature \"over a million dollars\" per U.S. gallon (US$300,000 per litre) to produce.",
"From this point of view, its use as a transportation fuel by people commuting to work represents a huge net loss compared to their earnings.",
"An encapsulation quotation of his views might be, \"There is no energy crisis, only a crisis of ignorance.\"",
"Fuller was concerned about sustainability and human survival under the existing socio-economic system, yet remained optimistic about humanity's future.",
"Defining wealth in terms of knowledge, as the \"technological ability to protect, nurture, support, and accommodate all growth needs of life,\" his analysis of the condition of \"Spaceship Earth\" caused him to conclude that at a certain time during the 1970s, humanity had attained an unprecedented state.",
"He was convinced that the accumulation of relevant knowledge, combined with the quantities of major recyclable resources that had already been extracted from the earth, had attained a critical level, such that competition for necessities had become unnecessary.",
"Cooperation had become the optimum survival strategy.",
"He declared: \"selfishness is unnecessary and hence-forth unrationalizable.... War is obsolete.\"",
"He criticized previous utopian schemes as too exclusive, and thought this was a major source of their failure.",
"To work, he thought that a utopia needed to include everyone.",
"Fuller was influenced by Alfred Korzybski's idea of general semantics.",
"In the 1950s, Fuller attended seminars and workshops organized by the Institute of General Semantics, and he delivered the annual Alfred Korzybski Memorial Lecture in 1955.",
"Korzybski is mentioned in the Introduction of his book ''Synergetics''.",
"The two shared a remarkable amount of similarity in their formulations of general semantics.",
"In his 1970 book ''I Seem To Be a Verb'', he wrote: \"I live on Earth at present, and I don't know what I am.",
"I know that I am not a category.",
"I am not a thing—a noun.",
"I seem to be a verb, an evolutionary process—an integral function of the universe.\"",
"Fuller wrote that the natural analytic geometry of the universe was based on arrays of tetrahedra.",
"He developed this in several ways, from the close-packing of spheres and the number of compressive or tensile members required to stabilize an object in space.",
"One confirming result was that the strongest possible homogeneous truss is cyclically tetrahedral.",
"He had become a guru of the design, architecture, and 'alternative' communities, such as Drop City, the community of experimental artists to whom he awarded the 1966 \"Dymaxion Award\" for \"poetically economic\" domed living structures.",
"A geodesic sphere\n\n===The geodesic dome===\nFuller was most famous for his lattice shell structures – geodesic domes, which have been used as parts of military radar stations, civic buildings, environmental protest camps and exhibition attractions.",
"An examination of the geodesic design by Walther Bauersfeld for the Zeiss-Planetarium, built some 20 years prior to Fuller's work, reveals that Fuller's Geodesic Dome patent (U.S. 2,682,235; awarded in 1954), follows the same design as Bauersfeld's.",
"Their construction is based on extending some basic principles to build simple \"tensegrity\" structures (tetrahedron, octahedron, and the closest packing of spheres), making them lightweight and stable.",
"The geodesic dome was a result of Fuller's exploration of nature's constructing principles to find design solutions.",
"The Fuller Dome is referenced in the Hugo Award-winning novel ''Stand on Zanzibar'' by John Brunner, in which a geodesic dome is said to cover the entire island of Manhattan, and it floats on air due to the hot-air balloon effect of the large air-mass under the dome (and perhaps its construction of lightweight materials).",
"===Transportation===\n\n\n\nThe Dymaxion car, c.1933, artist Diego Rivera shown entering the car, carrying coat\nThe Dymaxion car was a vehicle designed by Fuller, featured prominently at Chicago's 1933-1934 Century of Progress World's Fair.",
"During the Great Depression, Fuller formed the ''Dymaxion Corporation'' and built three prototypes with noted naval architect Starling Burgess and a team of 27 workmen — using donated money as well as a family inheritance.",
"Fuller associated the word ''Dymaxion'' with much of his work, a portmanteau of the words '''''dy'''namic'', '''''max'''imum'', and ''tens'''ion''''' to sum up the goal of his study, \"maximum gain of advantage from minimal energy input.\"",
"The Dymaxion was not an automobile ''per se'', but rather the 'ground-taxying mode' of a vehicle that might one day be designed to fly, land and drive — an \"Omni-Medium Transport\" for air, land and water.",
"Fuller focused on the landing and taxiing qualities, and noted severe limitations in its handling.",
"The team made constant improvements and refinements to the platform, and Fuller noted the Dymaxion \"was an invention that could not be made available to the general public without considerable improvements.\"",
"The bodywork was aerodynamically designed for increased fuel efficiency and speed as well as light weight, and its platform featured a lightweight cromoly-steel hinged chassis, rear-mounted V8 engine, front-drive and three-wheels.",
"The vehicle was steered via the third wheel at the rear, capable of 90° steering lock.",
"Thus able to steer in a tight circle, the Dymaxion often caused a sensation, bringing nearby traffic to a halt.",
"Shortly after launch, a prototype crashed after being hit by another car, killing the Dymaxion's driver.",
"The other car was driven by a local politician and was illegally removed from the accident scene, leaving reporters who arrived subsequently to blame the Dymaxion's unconventional design — though investigations exonerated the prototype.",
"Fuller would himself later crash another prototype with his young daughter aboard.",
"Despite courting the interest of important figures from the auto industry, Fuller used his family inheritance to finish the second and third prototypes — eventually selling all three, dissolving ''Dymaxion Corporation'' and maintaining the Dymaxion was never intended as a commercial venture.",
"One of the three original prototypes survives.",
"===Housing===\n\nA Dymaxion house at The Henry Ford\nFuller's energy-efficient and inexpensive Dymaxion house garnered much interest, but only two prototypes were ever produced.",
"Here the term \"Dymaxion\" is used in effect to signify a \"radically strong and light tensegrity structure\".",
"One of Fuller's Dymaxion Houses is on display as a permanent exhibit at the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan.",
"Designed and developed during the mid-1940s, this prototype is a round structure (not a dome), shaped something like the flattened \"bell\" of certain jellyfish.",
"It has several innovative features, including revolving dresser drawers, and a fine-mist shower that reduces water consumption.",
"According to Fuller biographer Steve Crooks, the house was designed to be delivered in two cylindrical packages, with interior color panels available at local dealers.",
"A circular structure at the top of the house was designed to rotate around a central mast to use natural winds for cooling and air circulation.",
"Conceived nearly two decades earlier, and developed in Wichita, Kansas, the house was designed to be lightweight, adapted to windy climates, cheap to produce and easy to assemble.",
"Because of its light weight and portability, the Dymaxion House was intended to be the ideal housing for individuals and families who wanted the option of easy mobility.",
"The design included a \"Go-Ahead-With-Life Room\" stocked with maps, charts, and helpful tools for travel \"through time and space.\"",
"It was to be produced using factories, workers, and technologies that had produced World War II aircraft.",
"It looked ultramodern at the time, built of metal, and sheathed in polished aluminum.",
"The basic model enclosed of floor area.",
"Due to publicity, there were many orders during the early Post-War years, but the company that Fuller and others had formed to produce the houses failed due to management problems.",
"In 1967, Fuller developed a concept for an offshore floating city named Triton City and published a report on the design the following year.",
"Models of the city aroused the interest of President Lyndon B. Johnson who, after leaving office, had them placed in the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum.",
"In 1969, Fuller began the Otisco Project, named after its location in Otisco, New York.",
"The project developed and demonstrated concrete spray with mesh-covered wireforms for producing large-scale, load-bearing spanning structures built on-site, without the use of pouring molds, other adjacent surfaces or hoisting.",
"The initial method used a circular concrete footing in which anchor posts were set.",
"Tubes cut to length and with ends flattened were then bolted together to form a duodeca-rhombicahedron (22-sided hemisphere) geodesic structure with spans ranging to .",
"The form was then draped with layers of ¼-inch wire mesh attached by twist ties.",
"Concrete was sprayed onto the structure, building up a solid layer which, when cured, would support additional concrete to be added by a variety of traditional means.",
"Fuller referred to these buildings as monolithic ferroconcrete geodesic domes.",
"However, the tubular frame form proved problematic for setting windows and doors.",
"It was replaced by an iron rebar set vertically in the concrete footing and then bent inward and welded in place to create the dome's wireform structure and performed satisfactorily.",
"Domes up to three stories tall built with this method proved to be remarkably strong.",
"Other shapes such as cones, pyramids and arches proved equally adaptable.",
"The project was enabled by a grant underwritten by Syracuse University and sponsored by US Steel (rebar), the Johnson Wire Corp, (mesh) and Portland Cement Company (concrete).",
"The ability to build large complex load bearing concrete spanning structures in free space would open many possibilities in architecture, and is considered as one of Fuller's greatest contributions.",
"===Dymaxion map and World Game===\nFuller, along with co-cartographer Shoji Sadao, also designed an alternative projection map, called the Dymaxion map.",
"This was designed to show Earth's continents with minimum distortion when projected or printed on a flat surface.",
"In the 1960s, Fuller developed the World Game, a collaborative simulation game played on a 70-by-35-foot Dymaxion map, in which players attempt to solve world problems.",
"The object of the simulation game is, in Fuller's words, to “make the world work, for 100% of humanity, in the shortest possible time, through spontaneous cooperation, without ecological offense or the disadvantage of anyone.”",
"Buckminster Fuller wore thick-lensed spectacles to correct his extreme hyperopia, a condition that went undiagnosed for the first five years of his life.",
"Fuller's hearing was damaged during his Naval service in World War I and deteriorated during the 1960s.",
"After experimenting with bullhorns as hearing aids during the mid-1960s, Fuller adopted electronic hearing aids from the 1970s onward\n\nIn public appearances, Fuller always wore dark-colored suits, appearing like \"an alert little clergyman\".",
"Previously, he had experimented with unconventional clothing immediately after his 1927 epiphany, but found that breaking social fashion customs made others devalue or dismiss his ideas.",
"Fuller learned the importance of physical appearance as part of one's credibility, and decided to become \"the invisible man\" by dressing in clothes that would not draw attention to himself.",
"Following his global prominence from the 1960s onward, Fuller became a frequent flier, often crossing time zones to lecture.",
"In the 1960s and 1970s, he wore three watches simultaneously; one for the time zone of his office in Carbondale, one for the time zone of the location he would next visit, and one for the time zone he was currently in.",
"In the 1970s, Fuller was only in 'homely' locations (his personal home in Carbondale, Illinois; his holiday retreat in Bear Island, Maine; his daughter's home in Pacific Palisades, California) roughly 65 nights per year—the other 300 nights were spent in hotel beds in the locations he visited on his lecturing and consulting circuits.",
"In the 1920s, Fuller experimented with polyphasic sleep, which he called ''Dymaxion sleep''.",
"Inspired by the sleep habits of animals such as dogs and cats, Fuller worked until he was tired, and then slept short naps.",
"This generally resulted in Fuller sleeping 30-minute naps every 6 hours.",
"This allowed him \"twenty-two thinking hours a day\", which aided his work productivity.",
"Fuller reportedly kept this Dymaxion sleep habit for two years, before quitting the routine because it conflicted with his business associates' sleep habits.",
"Despite no longer personally partaking in the habit, in 1943 Fuller suggested Dymaxion sleep as a strategy that the United States could adopt to win World War II.",
"Despite only practicing true polyphasic sleep for a period during the 1920s, Fuller was known for his stamina throughout his life.",
"He was described as \"tireless\" by Barry Farrell in ''Life'' magazine, who noted that Fuller stayed up all night replying to mail during Farrell's 1970 trip to Bear Island.",
"In his seventies, Fuller generally slept for 5–8 hours per night.",
"Fuller documented his life copiously from 1915 to 1983, approximately of papers in a collection called the Dymaxion Chronofile.",
"He also kept copies of all incoming and outgoing correspondence.",
"The enormous Fuller Collection is currently housed at Stanford University.",
"If somebody kept a very accurate record of a human being, going through the era from the Gay 90s, from a very different kind of world through the turn of the century—as far into the twentieth century as you might live.",
"I decided to make myself a good case history of such a human being and it meant that I could not be judge of what was valid to put in or not.",
"I must put everything in, so I started a very rigorous record.",
"In his youth, Fuller experimented with several ways of presenting himself: R. B. Fuller, Buckminster Fuller, but as an adult finally settled on R. Buckminster Fuller, and signed his letters as such.",
"However, he preferred to be addressed as simply \"Bucky\".",
"Buckminster Fuller spoke and wrote in a unique style and said it was important to describe the world as accurately as possible.",
"Fuller often created long run-on sentences and used unusual compound words (omniwell-informed, intertransformative, omni-interaccommodative, omniself-regenerative) as well as terms he himself invented.",
"Fuller used the word ''Universe'' without the definite or indefinite articles (''the'' or ''a'') and always capitalized the word.",
"Fuller wrote that \"by Universe I mean: the aggregate of all humanity's consciously apprehended and communicated (to self or others) Experiences.\"",
"The words \"down\" and \"up\", according to Fuller, are awkward in that they refer to a planar concept of direction inconsistent with human experience.",
"The words \"in\" and \"out\" should be used instead, he argued, because they better describe an object's relation to a gravitational center, the Earth.",
"\"I suggest to audiences that they say, 'I'm going \"outstairs\" and \"instairs.\"'",
"At first that sounds strange to them; They all laugh about it.",
"But if they try saying in and out for a few days in fun, they find themselves beginning to realize that they are indeed going inward and outward in respect to the center of Earth, which is our Spaceship Earth.",
"And for the first time they begin to feel real 'reality.'\"",
"\"World-around\" is a term coined by Fuller to replace \"worldwide\".",
"The general belief in a flat Earth died out in classical antiquity, so using \"wide\" is an anachronism when referring to the surface of the Earth—a spheroidal surface has area and encloses a volume but has no width.",
"Fuller held that unthinking use of obsolete scientific ideas detracts from and misleads intuition.",
"Other neologisms collectively invented by the Fuller family, according to Allegra Fuller Snyder, are the terms \"sunsight\" and \"sunclipse\", replacing \"sunrise\" and \"sunset\" to overturn the geocentric bias of most pre-copernican celestial mechanics.",
"Fuller also invented the word \"livingry,\" as opposed to weaponry (or \"killingry\"), to mean that which is in support of all human, plant, and Earth life.",
"\"The architectural profession—civil, naval, aeronautical, and astronautical—has always been the place where the most competent thinking is conducted regarding livingry, as opposed to weaponry.\"",
"As well as contributing significantly to the development of tensegrity technology, Fuller invented the term \"tensegrity\" from ''tensional integrity''.",
"\"Tensegrity describes a structural-relationship principle in which structural shape is guaranteed by the finitely closed, comprehensively continuous, tensional behaviors of the system and not by the discontinuous and exclusively local compressional member behaviors.",
"Tensegrity provides the ability to yield increasingly without ultimately breaking or coming asunder.\"",
"\"Dymaxion\" is a portmanteau of \"'''dy'''namic '''max'''imum tens'''ion'''\".",
"It was invented about 1929 by two admen at Marshall Field's department store in Chicago to describe Fuller's concept house, which was shown as part of a house of the future store display.",
"They created the term utilizing three words that Fuller used repeatedly to describe his design – dynamic, maximum, and tension.",
"Fuller also helped to popularize the concept of Spaceship Earth: \"The most important fact about Spaceship Earth: an instruction manual didn't come with it.\"",
"His concepts and buildings include:\n\n\n* Dymaxion house (1928)\n* Fuller Home - Carbondale, Illinois\n* Aerodynamic Dymaxion car (1933)\n* Prefabricated compact bathroom cell (1937)\n* Dymaxion deployment unit (1940)\n* Dymaxion map of the world (1946)\n* Buildings (1943)\n* Tensegrity structures (1949)\n\n* Geodesic dome for Ford Motor Company (1953)\n* Patent on geodesic domes (1954)\n* The World Game (1961) and the World Game Institute (1972)\n* Patent on octet truss (1961)\n* Montreal Biosphère (1967), United States pavilion at Expo 67\n* Fly's Eye Dome\n* Dewan Tunku Geodesic Dome, KOMTAR, Penang, Malaysia (proposed 1974, completed 1985)\n* Comprehensive anticipatory design science",
"Among the many people who were influenced by Buckminster Fuller are:\nConstance Abernathy,\nRuth Asawa,\nJ. Baldwin,\nMichael Ben-Eli,\nPierre Cabrol,\nJohn Cage,\nJoseph Clinton,\nPeter Floyd,\nMedard Gabel,\nMichael Hays,\nDavid Johnston,\nRobert Kiyosaki,\nPeter Jon Pearce,\nShoji Sadao,\nEdwin Schlossberg,\nKenneth Snelson,\nRobert Anton Wilson and Stewart Brand.",
"An allotrope of carbon, fullerene—and a particular molecule of that allotrope C60 (buckminsterfullerene or buckyball) has been named after him.",
"The Buckminsterfullerene molecule, which consists of 60 carbon atoms, very closely resembles a spherical version of Fuller's geodesic dome.",
"The 1996 Nobel prize in chemistry was given to Kroto, Curl, and Smalley for their discovery of the fullerene.",
"He is quoted in the lyric of \"The Tower Of Babble\" in the musical ''Godspell'': \"Man is a complex of patterns and processes.\"",
"The indie band Driftless Pony Club named their 2011 album, ''Buckminster'', after him.",
"All the songs within the album are based upon his life and works.",
"On July 12, 2004, the United States Post Office released a new commemorative stamp honoring R. Buckminster Fuller on the 50th anniversary of his patent for the geodesic dome and by the occasion of his 109th birthday.",
"The stamp's design replicated the January 10, 1964 cover of ''Time Magazine''.",
"Fuller was the subject of two documentary films: ''The World of Buckminster Fuller'' (1971) and ''Buckminster Fuller: Thinking Out Loud'' (1996).",
"Additionally, filmmaker Sam Green and the band Yo La Tengo collaborated on a 2012 \"live documentary\" about Fuller, ''The Love Song of R. Buckminster Fuller''.",
"In June 2008, the Whitney Museum of American Art presented \"Buckminster Fuller: Starting with the Universe\", the most comprehensive retrospective to date of his work and ideas.",
"The exhibition traveled to the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago in 2009.",
"It presented a combination of models, sketches, and other artifacts, representing six decades of the artist's integrated approach to housing, transportation, communication, and cartography.",
"It also featured the extensive connections with Chicago from his years spent living, teaching, and working in the city.",
"Robert Kiyosaki's 2015 book ''Second Chance'' is largely about Kiyosaki's interactions with Fuller, and Fuller's unusual final book ''Grunch of Giants''.",
"In 2012, The San Francisco Museum of Modern Art hosted \"The Utopian Impulse\" – a show about Buckminster Fuller's influence in the Bay Area.",
"Featured were concepts, inventions and designs for creating \"free energy\" from natural forces, and for sequestering carbon from the atmosphere.",
"The show ran January through July.",
"In a different note, Fuller's quote \"Those who play with the Devil's toys, will be brought by degree to wield his sword\" was used and referenced as the first display you see in the strategy sci-fi video game XCOM: Enemy Within developed by Firaxis Games.",
"(from the Table of Contents of ''Inventions: The Patented Works of R. Buckminster Fuller'' (1983) )\n*1927 Stockade: building structure\n*1927 Stockade: pneumatic forming process\n*1928 (Application Abandoned) 4D house\n*1937 Dymaxion car\n*1940 Dymaxion bathroom\n*1944 Dymaxion deployment unit (sheet)\n*1944 Dymaxion deployment unit (frame)\n*1946 Dymaxion map\n*1946 (No Patent) Dymaxion house (Wichita)\n*1954 Geodesic dome\n*1959 Paperboard dome\n*1959 Plydome\n*1959 Catenary (geodesic tent)\n*1961 Octet truss\n*1962 Tensegrity\n*1963 Submarisle (undersea island)\n*1964 Aspension (suspension building)\n*1965 Monohex (geodesic structures)\n*1965 Laminar dome\n*1965 (Filed – No Patent) Octa spinner\n*1967 Star tensegrity (octahedral truss)\n*1970 Rowing needles (watercraft)\n*1974 Geodesic hexa-pent\n*1975 Floatable breakwater\n*1975 Non-symmetrical tensegrity\n*1979 Floating breakwater\n*1980 Tensegrity truss\n*1983 Hanging storage shelf unit",
"* ''4d Timelock'' (1928)\n* ''Nine Chains to the Moon'' (1938)\n* ''Untitled Epic Poem on the History of Industrialization'' (1962)\n* ''Ideas and Integrities, a Spontaneous Autobiographical Disclosure'' (1963) \n* ''No More Secondhand God and Other Writings'' (1963)\n* ''Education Automation: Freeing the Scholar to Return'' (1963)\n* ''What I Have Learned: A Collection of 20 Autobiographical Essays'', Chapter \"How Little I Know\", (1968)\n* ''Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth'' (1968) \n* ''Utopia or Oblivion'' (1969) \n* ''Approaching the Benign Environment'' (1970) (with Eric A. Walker and James R. Killian, Jr.)\n* ''I Seem to Be a Verb'' (1970) coauthors Jerome Agel, Quentin Fiore, \n* ''Intuition'' (1970)\n* ''Buckminster Fuller to Children of Earth'' (1972) compiled and photographed by Cam Smith, \n* ''The Dymaxion World of Buckminster Fuller'' (1960, 1973) coauthor Robert Marks, \n* ''Earth, Inc'' (1973) \n* '' Synergetics: Explorations in the Geometry of Thinking'' (1975) in collaboration with E.J.",
"Applewhite with a preface and contribution by Arthur L. Loeb, \n* ''Tetrascroll: Goldilocks and the Three Bears, A Cosmic Fairy Tale'' (1975)\n* ''And It Came to Pass — Not to Stay'' (1976) \n* ''R.",
"Buckminster Fuller on Education'' (1979) \n* '' Synergetics 2: Further Explorations in the Geometry of Thinking'' (1979) in collaboration with E.J.",
"Applewhite\n* ''Buckminster Fuller – Autobiographical Monologue/Scenario'' (1980) page 54, R. Buckminster Fuller, documented and edited by Robert Snyder, St. Martin’s Press, Inc., \n* ''Buckminster Fuller Sketchbook'' (1981)\n* ''Critical Path'' (1981) \n* ''Grunch of Giants'' (1983) \n* ''Inventions: The Patented Works of R. Buckminster Fuller'' (1983) \n* ''Humans in Universe'' (1983) coauthor Anwar Dil, \n* ''Cosmography: A Posthumous Scenario for the Future of Humanity'' (1992) coauthor Kiyoshi Kuromiya,",
"*Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station\n\n*The Buckminster Fuller Challenge\n*Cloud Nine (tensegrity sphere)\n*Design science revolution\n*Emissions Reduction Currency System\n*Noosphere\n*Old Man River's City project\n*Spome\n*Bucky Ball\n*''Whole Earth Catalog''",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Ward, James, ed., ''The Artifacts Of R. Buckminster Fuller, A Comprehensive Collection of His Designs and Drawings in Four Volumes: Volume One.",
"The Dymaxion Experiment, 1926–1943; Volume Two.",
"Dymaxion Deployment, 1927–1946; Volume Three.",
"The Geodesic Revolution, Part 1, 1947–1959; Volume Four.",
"The Geodesic Revolution, Part 2, 1960–1983'': Edited with descriptions by James Ward.",
"Garland Publishing, New York.",
"1984 ( vol.",
"1, vol.",
"2, vol.",
"3, vol.",
"4)\n*",
"\n\n\n* The Estate of R. Buckminster Fuller\n* Buckminster Fuller Institute\n* Remarks at the Presentation Ceremony for the Presidential Medal of Freedom – February 23, 1983\n* \n* ''Buckminster Fuller'', a portrait by Ansel Adams\n\n;Articles about Fuller\n* 'Bucky' Gets Lucky with Stamp by Danit Lidor, ''Wired'' (July 12, 2004)\n* Dymaxion Man: The Visions of Buckminster Fuller by Elizabeth Kolbert, ''The New Yorker'' (June 9, 2008)\n* The Love Song of R. Buckminster Fuller ''New York Times'' article questioning Fuller's supposed consideration of suicide, (June 15, 2008)\n\n;Collections\n* Buckminster Fuller Digital Collection at Stanford includes 380 hrs.",
"of streamed audio-visual material from Fuller's personal archive\n* Buckminster Fuller Papers housed at Stanford University Libraries\n* Clara Thomas Archives and Special Collections, York University – Archival photographs of Buckminster Fuller from the Toronto Telegram.",
";Everything I Know\n* ''Everything I Know'' Session, Philadelphia, 1975 at Stanford University Libraries\n* The ''Everything I Know'' 42-hour lecture session — video, audio, and full transcripts.",
";Audio\n* The State of Things - discussion about Fuller\n;Documentaries\n* , a 1974 documentary\n* , a 1996 episode of ''American Masters''\n* , a 2004 short animated documentary\n* ''The Love Song of R. Buckminster Fuller'', a 2012 live documentary by filmmaker Sam Green\n\n;Other resources\n* CJ Fearnley's List of Buckminster Fuller Resources on the Internet\n* Buckminster Fuller at Pionniers & Précurseurs.",
"Includes a bibliography\n* \"Buckminster Fuller's Experimental Finishing School\", an excerpt from ''The Experimenters: Chance and Design at Black Mountain College'' by Eva Díaz"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Black''' is the darkest color, the result of the absence or complete absorption of visible light. It is an achromatic color, literally a color without hue, like white (its opposite) and gray. It is often used symbolically or figuratively to represent darkness, while white represents light.\n\nBlack ink is the most common color used for printing books, newspapers and documents, because it has the highest contrast with white paper and is the easiest to read. For the same reason, black text on a white screen is the most common format used on computer screens.\nIn color printing it is used along with the subtractive primaries cyan, yellow, and magenta, in order to help produce the darkest shades.\n\nBlack and white have often been used to describe opposites; particularly truth and ignorance, good and evil, the \"Dark Ages\" versus Age of Enlightenment. Since the Middle Ages black has been the symbolic color of solemnity and authority, and for this reason is still commonly worn by judges and magistrates. \n\nBlack was one of the first colors used by artists in neolithic cave paintings. In the 14th century, it began to be worn by royalty, the clergy, judges and government officials in much of Europe. It became the color worn by English romantic poets, businessmen and statesmen in the 19th century, and a high fashion color in the 20th century.\n\nIn the Roman Empire, it became the color of mourning, and over the centuries it was frequently associated with death, evil, witches and magic. According to surveys in Europe and North America, it is the color most commonly associated with mourning, the end, secrets, magic, force, violence, evil, and elegance.\n\n",
"The word ''black'' comes from Old English ''blæc'' (\"black, dark\", ''also'', \"ink\"), from Proto-Germanic *''blakkaz'' (\"burned\"), from Proto-Indo-European *''bhleg-'' (\"to burn, gleam, shine, flash\"), from base *''bhel-'' (\"to shine\"), related to Old Saxon ''blak'' (\"ink\"), Old High German ''blach'' (\"black\"), Old Norse ''blakkr'' (\"dark\"), Dutch ''blaken'' (\"to burn\"), and Swedish ''bläck'' (\"ink\"). More distant cognates include Latin ''flagrare'' (\"to blaze, glow, burn\"), and Ancient Greek ''phlegein'' (\"to burn, scorch\").\n\nThe Ancient Greeks sometimes used the same word to name different colors, if they had the same intensity. ''Kuanos''' could mean both dark blue and black.\n\nThe Ancient Romans had two words for black: ''ater'' was a flat, dull black, while ''niger'' was a brilliant, saturated black. ''Ater'' has vanished from the vocabulary, but ''niger'' was the source of the country name ''Nigeria'' the English word ''Negro'' and the word for \"black\" in most modern Romance languages (French: ''noir''; Spanish and Portuguese: ''negro''; Italian: ''nero'' ).\n\nOld High German also had two words for black: ''swartz'' for dull black and ''blach'' for a luminous black. These are parallelled in Middle English by the terms ''swart'' for dull black and ''blaek'' for luminous black. ''Swart'' still survives as the word ''swarthy'', while ''blaek'' became the modern English ''black''.\n\nIn heraldry, the word used for the black color is sable, named for the black fur of the sable, an animal.\n",
"\n===Prehistoric history===\nBlack was one of the first colors used in art. The Lascaux Cave in France contains drawings of bulls and other animals drawn by paleolithic artists between 18,000 and 17,000 years ago. They began by using charcoal, and then made more vivid black pigments by burning bones or grinding a powder of manganese oxide.\n\n===Ancient history===\nFor the ancient Egyptians, black had positive associations; being the color of fertility and the rich black soil flooded by the Nile. It was the color of Anubis, the god of the underworld, who took the form of a black jackal, and offered protection against evil to the dead.\n\nFor the ancient Greeks, black was also the color of the underworld, separated from the world of the living by the river Acheron, whose water was black. Those who had committed the worst sins were sent to Tartarus, the deepest and darkest level. In the center was the palace of Hades, the king of the underworld, where he was seated upon a black ebony throne.\n\nBlack was one of the most important colors used by ancient Greek artists. In the 6th century BC, they began making black-figure pottery and later red figure pottery, using a highly original technique. In black-figure pottery, the artist would paint figures with a glossy clay slip on a red clay pot. When the pot was fired, the figures painted with the slip would turn black, against a red background. Later they reversed the process, painting the spaces between the figures with slip. This created magnificent red figures against a glossy black background.\n\nIn the social hierarchy of ancient Rome, purple was the color reserved for the Emperor; red was the color worn by soldiers (red cloaks for the officers, red tunics for the soldiers); white the color worn by the priests, and black was worn by craftsmen and artisans. The black they wore was not deep and rich; the vegetable dyes used to make black were not solid or lasting, so the blacks often turned out faded gray or brown.\n\nIn Latin, the word for black, ''ater'' and to darken, ''atere'', were associated with cruelty, brutality and evil. They were the root of the English words \"atrocious\" and \"atrocity\".\n\nBlack was also the Roman color of death and mourning. In the 2nd century BC Roman magistrates began to wear a dark toga, called a ''toga pulla'', to funeral ceremonies. Later, under the Empire, the family of the deceased also wore dark colors for a long period; then, after a banquet to mark the end of mourning, exchanged the black for a white toga. In Roman poetry, death was called the ''hora nigra'', the black hour.\n\nThe German and Scandinavian peoples worshipped their own goddess of the night, Nótt, who crossed the sky in a chariot drawn by a black horse. They also feared Hel, the goddess of the kingdom of the dead, whose skin was black on one side and red on the other. They also held sacred the raven. They believed that Odin, the king of the Nordic pantheon, had two black ravens, Huginn and Muninn, who served as his agents, traveling the world for him, watching and listening.\n\nFile:Lascaux painting.jpg|Neolithic paintings of bulls in the Lascaux Cave, more than 17,000 years old\nFile:Tutanhkamun jackal.jpg|Statue of Anubis, guardian of the underworld, from the tomb of Tutankhamun.\nFile:Akhilleus Aias MGEt 16757.jpg|Greek black-figure pottery. Ajax and Achilles playing a game, about 540–530 BC. (Vatican Museums).\nFile:Pyxis Peleus Thetis Louvre L55 by Wedding Painter.jpg|Red-figure pottery with black background. Portrait of Thetis, about 470–480 BC. (The Louvre)\n\n\n===Postclassical history===\nIn the early Middle Ages, black was commonly associated with darkness and evil. In Medieval paintings, the devil was usually depicted as having human form, but with wings and black skin or hair.\n\n====In the 12th and 13th centuries====\nIn fashion, black did not have the prestige of red, the color of the nobility. It was worn by Benedictine monks as a sign of humility and penitence. In the 12th century a famous theological dispute broke out between the Cistercian monks, who wore white, and the Benedictines, who wore black. A Benedictine abbot, Pierre the Venerable, accused the Cistercians of excessive pride in wearing white instead of black. Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, the founder of the Cistercians responded that black was the color of the devil, hell, \"of death and sin,\" while white represented \"purity, innocence and all the virtues\".\n\nBlack symbolized both power and secrecy in the medieval world. The emblem of the Holy Roman Empire of Germany was a black eagle. The black knight in the poetry of the Middle Ages was an enigmatic figure, hiding his identity, usually wrapped in secrecy.\n\nBlack ink, invented in Ancient China and India, was traditionally used in the Middle Ages for writing, for the simple reason that black was the darkest color and therefore provided the greatest contrast with white paper or parchment, making it the easiest color to read. It became even more important in the 15th century, with the invention of printing. A new kind of ink, printer's ink, was created out of soot, turpentine and walnut oil. The new ink made it possible to spread ideas to a mass audience through printed books, and to popularize art through black and white engravings and prints. Because of its contrast and clarity, black ink on white paper continued to be the standard for printing books, newspapers and documents; and for the same reason black text on a white background is the most common format used on computer screens.\n\n\nFile:Duccio di Buoninsegna 040.jpg|The Italian painter Duccio di Buoninsegna showed Christ expelling the Devil, shown covered with bristly black hair (1308–11).\nFile:Fra Angelico 010.jpg|The 15th-century painting of the ''Last Judgement'' by Fra Angelico (1395–1455) depicted hell with a vivid black devil devouring sinners.\nFile:Jan Polack - Portrait of a Benedictine Monk - WGA18020.jpg|Portrait of a monk of the Benedictine Order (1484)\nFile:Le Livre du cœur d'amour épris1.jpg|The black knight in a miniature painting of a medieval romance,''Le Livre du cœur d'amour épris'' (about 1460)\nFile:Gutenberg bible Old Testament Epistle of St Jerome.jpg|Gutenberg Bible (1451–1452). Black ink was used for printing books, because it provided the greatest contrast with the white paper and was the clearest and easiest color to read.\n\n\n====In the 14th and 15th centuries====\nIn the early Middle Ages, princes, nobles and the wealthy usually wore bright colors, particularly scarlet cloaks from Italy. Black was rarely part of the wardrobe of a noble family. The one exception was the fur of the sable. This glossy black fur, from an animal of the marten family, was the finest and most expensive fur in Europe. It was imported from Russia and Poland and used to trim the robes and gowns of royalty.\n\nIn the 14th century, the status of black began to change. First, high-quality black dyes began to arrive on the market, allowing garments of a deep, rich black. Magistrates and government officials began to wear black robes, as a sign of the importance and seriousness of their positions. A third reason was the passage of sumptuary laws in some parts of Europe which prohibited the wearing of costly clothes and certain colors by anyone except members of the nobility. The famous bright scarlet cloaks from Venice and the peacock blue fabrics from Florence were restricted to the nobility. The wealthy bankers and merchants of northern Italy responded by changing to black robes and gowns, made with the most expensive fabrics.\n\nThe change to the more austere but elegant black was quickly picked up by the kings and nobility. It began in northern Italy, where the Duke of Milan and the Count of Savoy and the rulers of Mantua, Ferrara, Rimini and Urbino began to dress in black. It then spread to France, led by Louis I, Duke of Orleans, younger brother of King Charles VI of France. It moved to England at the end of the reign of King Richard II (1377–1399), where all the court began to wear black. In 1419–20, black became the color of the powerful Duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good. It moved to Spain, where it became the color of the Spanish Habsburgs, of Charles V and of his son, Philip II of Spain (1527–1598). European rulers saw it as the color of power, dignity, humility and temperance. By the end of the 16th century, it was the color worn by almost all the monarchs of Europe and their courts.\n\nFile:Philip the good.jpg|Philip the Good in about 1450, by Rogier van der Weyden\nFile:Petrus Christus - Portrait of a Young Woman - Google Art Project.jpg|''Portrait of a Young Woman'' by Petrus Christus (about 1470)\nFile:Titian - Portrait of Charles V Seated - WGA22964.jpg|Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558), by Titian\nFile:Portrait of Philip II of Spain by Sofonisba Anguissola - 002b.jpg|Portrait of Philip II of Spain (1527–1598)\n\n\n===Modern history===\n\n====In the 16th and 17th centuries====\nWhile black was the color worn by the Catholic rulers of Europe, it was also the emblematic color of the Protestant Reformation in Europe and the Puritans in England and America. Jean Calvin, Melanchton and other Protestant theologians denounced the richly colored and decorated interiors of Roman Catholic churches. They saw the color red, worn by the Pope and his Cardinals, as the color of luxury, sin, and human folly. In some northern European cities, mobs attacked churches and cathedrals, smashed the stained glass windows and defaced the statues and decoration. In Protestant doctrine, clothing was required to be sober, simple and discreet. Bright colors were banished and replaced by blacks, browns and grays; women and children were recommended to wear white.\n\nIn the Protestant Netherlands, Rembrandt Van Rijn used this sober new palette of blacks and browns to create portraits whose faces emerged from the shadows expressing the deepest human emotions. The Catholic painters of the Counter-Reformation, like Rubens, went in the opposite direction; they filled their paintings with bright and rich colors. The new Baroque churches of the Counter-Reformation were usually shining white inside and filled with statues, frescoes, marble, gold and colorful paintings, to appeal to the public. But European Catholics of all classes, like Protestants, eventually adopted a sober wardrobe that was mostly black, brown and gray.\n\nFile:John Calvin 11.jpg|Swiss theologian John Calvin denounced the bright colors worn by Roman Catholic priests, and colorful decoration of churches.\nFile:Increase Mather.jpg|Increase Mather, an American Puritan clergyman (1688).\nFile:George-Henry-Boughton-Pilgrims-Going-To-Church.jpg|American Pilgrims in New England going to church (painting by George Henry Boughton, 1867)\nFile:Rembrandt van Rijn - Self-Portrait - Google Art Project.jpg|Rembrandt Van Rijn, ''Self-portrait'' (1659)\n\n\nIn the second part of the 17th century, Europe and America experienced an epidemic of fear of witchcraft. People widely believed that the devil appeared at midnight in a ceremony called a black mass or black sabbath, usually in the form of a black animal, often a goat, a dog, a wolf, a bear, a deer or a rooster, accompanied by their familiar spirits, black cats, serpents and other black creatures. This was the origin of the widespread superstition about black cats and other black animals. In Medieval Flanders, in a ceremony called ''Kattenstoet,'' black cats were thrown from the belfry of the Cloth Hall of Ypres to ward off witchcraft.\n\nWitch trials were common in both Europe and America during this period. During the notorious Salem witch trials in New England in 1692–93, one of those on trial was accused of being able turn into a \"black thing with a blue cap,\" and others of having familiars in the form of a black dog, a black cat and a black bird. Nineteen women and men were hanged as witches.\n\nFile:Matthewhopkins.png|An English manual on witch-hunting (1647), showing a witch with her familiar spirits\nFile:Black cat eyes.jpg|Black cats have been accused for centuries of being the familiar spirits of witches or of bringing bad luck.\n\n\n====In the 18th and 19th centuries====\nIn the 18th century, during the European Age of Enlightenment, black receded as a fashion color. Paris became the fashion capital, and pastels, blues, greens, yellow and white became the colors of the nobility and upper classes. But after the French Revolution, black again became the dominant color.\n\nBlack was the color of the industrial revolution, largely fueled by coal, and later by oil. Thanks to coal smoke, the buildings of the large cities of Europe and America gradually turned black. By 1846 the industrial area of the West Midlands of England was \"commonly called 'the Black Country'”. Charles Dickens and other writers described the dark streets and smoky skies of London, and they were vividly illustrated in the engravings of French artist Gustave Doré.\n\nA different kind of black was an important part of the romantic movement in literature. Black was the color of melancholy, the dominant theme of romanticism. The novels of the period were filled with castles, ruins, dungeons, storms, and meetings at midnight. The leading poets of the movement were usually portrayed dressed in black, usually with a white shirt and open collar, and a scarf carelessly over their shoulder, Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron helped create the enduring stereotype of the romantic poet.\n\nThe invention of new, inexpensive synthetic black dyes and the industrialization of the textile industry meant that good-quality black clothes were available for the first time to the general population. In the 19th century gradually black became the most popular color of business dress of the upper and middle classes in England, the Continent, and America.\n\nBlack dominated literature and fashion in the 19th century, and played a large role in painting. James McNeil Whistler made the color the subject of his most famous painting, ''Arrangement in grey and black number one'' (1871), better known as ''Whistler's Mother''.\n\nSome 19th-century French painters had a low opinion of black: \"Reject black,\" Paul Gauguin said, \"and that mix of black and white they call gray. Nothing is black, nothing is gray.\" But Édouard Manet used blacks for their strength and dramatic effect. Manet's portrait of painter Berthe Morisot was a study in black which perfectly captured her spirit of independence. The black gave the painting power and immediacy; he even changed her eyes, which were green, to black to strengthen the effect. Henri Matisse quoted the French impressionist Pissarro telling him, \"Manet is stronger than us all – he made light with black.\"\n\nPierre-Auguste Renoir used luminous blacks, especially in his portraits. When someone told him that black was not a color, Renoir replied: \"What makes you think that? Black is the queen of colors. I always detested Prussian blue. I tried to replace black with a mixture of red and blue, I tried using cobalt blue or ultramarine, but I always came back to ivory black.\"\n\nVincent van Gogh used black lines to outline many of the objects in his paintings, such as the bed in the famous painting of his bedroom. making them stand apart. His painting of black crows over a cornfield, painted shortly before he died, was particularly agitated and haunting.\n\nIn the late 19th century, black also became the color of anarchism. (See the section political movements.)\n\n\nFile:Percy Bysshe Shelley by Alfred Clint.jpg|Percy Bysshe Shelley in the black and white costume of the romantic poet (1819).\nFile:Dore London.jpg|A view of London by Gustave Doré from 1872 showed how coal and the industrial revolution had blackened the buildings and air of the great cities of Europe.\nFile:Whistlers Mother high res.jpg|Arrangement in Grey and Black Number 1 (1871) by James McNeil Whistler better known as Whistler's Mother.\nFile:Edouard Manet - Berthe Morisot With a Bouquet of Violets - Google Art Project.jpg|''Berthe Morisot with a Bouquet of Violets'', by Édouard Manet (1872).\nFile:Edouard Manet 093.jpg|''Le Bal de l'Opera'' (1873) by Édouard Manet, shows the dominance of black in Parisian evening dress.\nFile:Pierre-Auguste Renoir 023.jpg|''The Theater Box'' (1874) by Pierre-Auguste Renoir, captured the luminosity of black fabric in the light.\nFile:Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890) - Wheat Field with Crows (1890).jpg| ''Wheat Field with Crows'' (1890), one of the last paintings of Vincent van Gogh, captures his agitated state of mind.\n\n\n====In the 20th and 21st centuries====\nIn the 20th century, black was the color of Italian and German fascism. (See the section political movements.)\n\nIn art, black regained some of the territory that it had lost during the 19th century. The Russian painter Kasimir Malevich, a member of the Suprematist movement, created the Black Square in 1915, is widely considered the first purely abstract painting. He wrote, \"The painted work is no longer simply the imitation of reality, but is this very reality ... It is not a demonstration of ability, but the materialization of an idea.\"\n\nBlack was also appreciated by Henri Matisse. \"When I didn't know what color to put down, I put down black,\" he said in 1945. \"Black is a force: I used black as ballast to simplify the construction ... Since the impressionists it seems to have made continuous progress, taking a more and more important part in color orchestration, comparable to that of the double bass as a solo instrument.\"\n\nIn the 1950s, black came to be a symbol of individuality and intellectual and social rebellion, the color of those who didn't accept established norms and values. In Paris, it was worn by Left-Bank intellectuals and performers such as Juliette Greco, and by some members of the Beat Movement in New York and San Francisco. Black leather jackets were worn by motorcycle gangs such as the Hells Angels and street gangs on the fringes of society in the United States. Black as a color of rebellion was celebrated in such films as The Wild One, with Marlon Brando. By the end of the 20th century, black was the emblematic color of the punk subculture punk fashion, and the goth subculture. Goth fashion, which emerged in England in the 1980s, was inspired by Victorian era mourning dress.\n\nIn men's fashion, black gradually ceded its dominance to navy blue, particularly in business suits. Black evening dress and formal dress in general were worn less and less. In 1960, John F. Kennedy was the last American President to be inaugurated wearing formal dress; President Lyndon Johnson and all his successors were inaugurated wearing business suits.\n\nWomen's fashion was revolutionized and simplified in 1926 by the French designer Coco Chanel, who published a drawing of a simple black dress in ''Vogue'' magazine. She famously said, \"A woman needs just three things; a black dress, a black sweater, and, on her arm, a man she loves.\" Other designers contributed to the trend of the little black dress. The Italian designer Gianni Versace said, \"Black is the quintessence of simplicity and elegance,\" and French designer Yves Saint Laurent said, \"black is the liaison which connects art and fashion. One of the most famous black dresses of the century was designed by Hubert de Givenchy and was worn by Audrey Hepburn in the 1961 film ''Breakfast at Tiffany's''.\n\nThe American Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s was a struggle for the political equality of African Americans. It developed into the Black Power movement in the late 1960s and 1970s, and popularized the slogan \"Black is Beautiful\".\n\nIn the 1990s, the Black Standard became the banner of several Islamic extremist, jihadist groups. (See the section political movements.)\n\n\nFile:Malevich.black-square.jpg|The Black Square (1915) by Kazimir Malevich is considered the first purely abstract painting (Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow).\nFile:Breakfast at Tiffanys.jpg|The little black dress worn by Audrey Hepburn in the film ''Breakfast at Tiffany's'' (1961).\nFile:Lady Amaranth.jpg|The goth fashion model Lady Amaranth. Goth fashion was inspired by British Victorian mourning costumes.\nFile:Flag of Jihad.svg|Variants of the Black Standard flag are used by many militant Islamist groups that have adopted militant interpretations of jihad. it is said to be the banner carried by Muhammad and his soldiers.\n\n",
"\n===Physics===\n\nIn the visible spectrum, black is the absorption of all colors.\n\nBlack can be defined as the visual impression experienced when no visible light reaches the eye. Pigments or dyes that absorb light rather than reflect it back to the eye \"look black\". A black pigment can, however, result from a ''combination'' of several pigments that collectively absorb all colors. If appropriate proportions of three primary pigments are mixed, the result reflects so little light as to be called \"black\".\n\nThis provides two superficially opposite but actually complementary descriptions of black. Black is the absorption of all colors of light, or an exhaustive combination of multiple colors of pigment. See also primary colors.\n\nIn physics, a black body is a perfect absorber of light, but, by a thermodynamic rule, it is also the best emitter. Thus, the best radiative cooling, out of sunlight, is by using black paint, though it is important that it be black (a nearly perfect absorber) in the infrared as well.\n\nIn elementary science, far ultraviolet light is called \"black light\" because, while itself unseen, it causes many minerals and other substances to fluoresce.\n\nOn January 16, 2008, researchers from Troy, New York's Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute announced the creation of the then darkest material on the planet. The material, which reflected only 0.045 percent of light, was created from carbon nanotubes stood on end. This is 1/30 of the light reflected by the current standard for blackness, and one third the light reflected by the previous record holder for darkest substance. As of February 2016, the current darkest material known is claimed to be Vantablack.\n\nA material is said to be black if most incoming light is absorbed equally in the material. Light (electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum) interacts with the atoms and molecules, which causes the energy of the light to be converted into other forms of energy, usually heat. This means that black surfaces can act as thermal collectors, absorbing light and generating heat (see Solar thermal collector).\n\nAbsorption of light is contrasted by transmission, reflection and diffusion, where the light is only redirected, causing objects to appear transparent, reflective or white respectively.\n\n\nFile:Vantablack_01.JPG|Vantablack is made of carbon nanotubes and is the blackest substance known, absorbing a maximum of 99.965% of radiation in the visible spectrum.\n\n\n===Chemistry===\n\n====Pigments====\nThe earliest pigments used by Neolithic man were charcoal, red ocher and yellow ocher. The black lines of cave art were drawn with the tips of burnt torches made of a wood with resin.\n\nDifferent charcoal pigments were made by burning different woods and animal products, each of which produced a different tone. The charcoal would be ground and then mixed with animal fat to make the pigment.\n* '''Vine black''' was produced in Roman times by burning the cut branches of grapevines. It could also be produced by burning the remains of the crushed grapes, which were collected and dried in an oven. According to the historian Vitruvius, the deepness and richness of the black produced corresponded to the quality of the wine. The finest wines produced a black with a bluish tinge the color of indigo.\n\nThe 15th-century painter Cennino Cennini described how this pigment was made during the Renaissance in his famous handbook for artists: \"...there is a black which is made from the tendrils of vines. And these tendrils need to be burned. And when they have been burned, throw some water onto them and put them out and then mull them in the same way as the other black. And this is a lean and black pigment and is one of the perfect pigments that we use.\"\n\nCennini also noted that \"There is another black which is made from burnt almond shells or peaches and this is a perfect, fine black.\" Similar fine blacks were made by burning the pits of the peach, cherry or apricot. The powdered charcoal was then mixed with gum arabic or the yellow of an egg to make a paint.\n\nDifferent civilizations burned different plants to produce their charcoal pigments. The Inuit of Alaska used wood charcoal mixed with the blood of seals to paint masks and wooden objects. The Polynesians burned coconuts to produce their pigment.\n* Lamp black was used as a pigment for painting and frescoes. as a dye for fabrics, and in some societies for making tattoos. The 15th century Florentine painter Cennino Cennini described how it was made during the Renaissance: \"... take a lamp full of linseed oil and fill the lamp with the oil and light the lamp. Then place it, lit, under a thoroughly clean pan and make sure that the flame from the lamp is two or three fingers from the bottom of the pan. The smoke that comes off the flame will hit the bottom of the pan and gather, becoming thick. Wait a bit. take the pan and brush this pigment (that is, this smoke) onto paper or into a pot with something. And it is not necessary to mull or grind it because it is a very fine pigment. Re-fill the lamp with the oil and put it under the pan like this several times and, in this way, make as much of it as is necessary.\" This same pigment was used by Indian artists to paint the Ajanta Caves, and as dye in ancient Japan.\n* Ivory black, also known as bone char, was originally produced by burning ivory and mixing the resulting charcoal powder with oil. The color is still made today, but ordinary animal bones are substituted for ivory.\n* Mars black is a black pigment made of synthetic iron oxides. It is commonly used in water-colors and oil painting. It takes its name from Mars, the god of war and patron of iron.\n\n====Dyes====\n\nGood-quality black dyes were not known until the middle of the 14th century. The most common early dyes were made from bark, roots or fruits of different trees; usually the walnut, chestnut, or certain oak trees. The blacks produced were often more gray, brown or bluish. The cloth had to be dyed several times to darken the color. One solution used by dyers was add to the dye some iron filings, rich in iron oxide, which gave a deeper black. Another was to first dye the fabric dark blue, and then to dye it black.\n\nA much richer and deeper black dye was eventually found made from the Oak apple or '''gall-nut'''. The gall-nut is a small round tumor which grows on oak and other varieties of trees. They range in size from 2–5 cm, and are caused by chemicals injected by the larva of certain kinds of gall wasp in the family Cynipidae. The dye was very expensive; a great quantity of gall-nuts were needed for a very small amount of dye. The gall-nuts which made the best dye came from Poland, eastern Europe, the near east and North Africa. Beginning in about the 14th century, dye from gall-nuts was used for clothes of the kings and princes of Europe.\n\nAnother important source of natural black dyes from the 17th century onwards was the logwood tree, or Haematoxylum campechianum, which also produced reddish and bluish dyes. It is a species of flowering tree in the legume family, Fabaceae, that is native to southern Mexico and northern Central America. The modern nation of Belize grew from 17th century English logwood logging camps.\n\nSince the mid-19th century, synthetic black dyes have largely replaced natural dyes. One of the important synthetic blacks is Nigrosin, a mixture of synthetic black dyes (CI 50415, Solvent black 5) made by heating a mixture of nitrobenzene, aniline and aniline hydrochloride in the presence of a copper or iron catalyst. Its main industrial uses are as a colorant for lacquers and varnishes and in marker-pen inks.\n\n====Inks====\n\nThe first known inks were made by the Chinese, and date back to the 23rd century B.C. They used natural plant dyes and minerals such as graphite ground with water and applied with an ink brush. Early Chinese inks similar to the modern inkstick have been found dating to about 256 BC at the end of the Warring States period. They were produced from soot, usually produced by burning pine wood, mixed with animal glue. To make ink from an inkstick, the stick is continuously ground against an inkstone with a small quantity of water to produce a dark liquid which is then applied with an ink brush. Artists and calligraphists could vary the thickness of the resulting ink by reducing or increasing the intensity and time of ink grinding. These inks produced the delicate shading and subtle or dramatic effects of Chinese brush painting.\n\nIndia ink (or '''Indian ink''' in British English) is a black ink once widely used for writing and printing and now more commonly used for drawing, especially when inking comic books and comic strips. The technique of making it probably came from China. India ink has been in use in India since at least the 4th century BC, where it was called ''masi''. In India, the black color of the ink came from bone char, tar, pitch and other substances.\n\nThe Ancient Romans had a black writing ink they called ''atramentum librarium''. Its name came from the Latin word ''atrare'', which meant to make something black. (This was the same root as the English word ''atrocious''.) It was usually made, like India ink, from soot, although one variety, called ''atramentum elephantinum'', was made by burning the ivory of elephants.\n\nGall-nuts were also used for making fine black writing ink. Iron gall ink (also known as iron gall nut ink or oak gall ink) was a purple-black or brown-black ink made from iron salts and tannic acids from gall nut. It was the standard writing and drawing ink in Europe, from about the 12th century to the 19th century, and remained in use well into the 20th century.\n\n\nFile:Charcoal sticks 051907.jpg|Sticks of vine charcoal and compressed charcoal. Charcoal, along with red and yellow ochre, was one of the first pigments used by Paleolithic man.\nFile:Inkstick.jpg|A Chinese inkstick, in the form of lotus flowers and blossoms. Inksticks are used in Chinese calligraphy and brush painting.\nFile:Živočišné uhlí (Carbocit).jpg|Ivory black or bone char, a natural black pigment made by burning animal bones.\nFile:Haematoxylum campechianum Ypey69.jpg|The logwood tree from Central America produced dyes beginning in the 17th century. The nation of Belize began as a British colony producing logwood.\nFile:Oak apple.jpg|The oak apple or gall-nut, a tumor growing on oak trees, was the main source of black dye and black writing ink from the 14th century until the 19th century.\nFile:Noir de fumee.jpg|The industrial production of lamp black, made by producing, collecting and refining soot, in 1906.\n\n\n===Astronomy===\n* A black dwarf is a hypothetical stellar remnant, created when a white dwarf becomes sufficiently cool to no longer emit significant heat or light. Since the time required for a white dwarf to reach this state is calculated to be longer than the current age of the universe (13.8 billion years), no black dwarfs are thought to exist yet in the universe.\n* A black hole is a region of spacetime where gravity prevents anything, including light, from escaping. The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass will deform spacetime to form a black hole. Around a black hole there is a mathematically defined surface called an event horizon that marks the point of no return. It is called \"black\" because it absorbs all the light that hits the horizon, reflecting nothing, just like a perfect black body in thermodynamics. Black holes of stellar mass are expected to form when very massive stars collapse at the end of their life cycle. After a black hole has formed it can continue to grow by absorbing mass from its surroundings. By absorbing other stars and merging with other black holes, supermassive black holes of millions of solar masses may form. There is general consensus that supermassive black holes exist in the centers of most galaxies. Although a black hole itself is black, infalling material forms an accretion disk, which is one of brightest types of object in the universe.\n* Black-body radiation refers to the radiation coming from a body at a given temperature where all incoming energy (light) is converted to heat.\n* Black sky refers to the appearance of space as one emerges from Earth's atmosphere.\n\n\nFile:NGC 406 Hubble WikiSky.jpg|Image of the NGC 406 galaxy from the Hubble Space Telescope\nFile:Spirit Rover-Mars Night Sky.jpg|The night sky seen from Mars, with the two moons of Mars visible, taken by the NASA Spirit Rover.\nFile:Top of Atmosphere.jpg|Outside Earth's atmosphere, the sky is black day and night.\nFile:Olber's Paradox - All Points.gif|An illustration of Olbers' paradox (see below)\nFile:BH LMC.png|Simulated view of a black hole in front of the Large Magellanic Cloud.\n\n\n====Why the night sky and space are black – Olbers' paradox====\nThe fact that outer space is black is sometimes called Olbers' paradox. In theory, because the universe is full of stars, and is believed to be infinitely large, it would be expected that the light of an infinite number of stars would be enough to brilliantly light the whole universe all the time. However, the background color of outer space is black. This contradiction was first noted in 1823 by German astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers, who posed the question of why the night sky was black.\n\nThe current accepted answer is that, although the universe is infinitely large, it is not infinitely old. It is thought to be about 13.8 billion years old, so we can only see objects as far away as the distance light can travel in 13.8 billion years. Light from stars farther away has not reached Earth, and cannot contribute to making the sky bright. Furthermore, as the universe is expanding, many stars are moving away from Earth. As they move, the wavelength of their light becomes longer, through the Doppler effect, and shifts toward red, or even becomes invisible. As a result of these two phenomena, there is not enough starlight to make space anything but black.\n\nThe daytime sky on Earth is blue because light from the Sun strikes molecules in Earth's atmosphere scattering light in all directions. Blue light is scattered more than other colors, and reaches the eye in greater quantities, making the daytime sky appear blue. This is known as Rayleigh scattering.\n\nThe nighttime sky on Earth is black because the part of Earth experiencing night is facing away from the Sun, the light of the Sun is blocked by Earth itself, and there is no other bright nighttime source of light in the vicinity. Thus, there is not enough light to undergo Rayleigh scattering and make the sky blue. On the Moon, on the other hand, because there is no atmosphere to scatter the light, the sky is black both day and night. This phenomenon also holds true for other locations without an atmosphere.\n\n===Biology===\n\nFile:01 Schwarzbär.jpg|American black bear (Ursus americanus) near Riding Mountain Park, Manitoba, Canada\nFile:Dendroaspis polylepis by Bill Love.jpg|The black mamba of Africa is one of the most venomous snakes, as well as the fastest-moving snake in the world. The only black part of the snake is the inside of the mouth, which it exposes in a threat display when alarmed. \nFile:Black Widow 11-06.jpg |The black widow spider, or lactrodectus, The females frequently eat their male partners after mating. The female's venom is at least three times more potent than that of the males, making a male's self-defense bite ineffective.\nFile:Blackleopard.JPG|A black panther is actually a melanistic leopard or jaguar, the result of an excess of melanin in their skin caused by a recessive gene.\nFile:Corvus brachyrhynchos 30196.JPG|The American crow is one of the most intelligent of all animals.\n\n",
"In China, the color black is associated with water, one of the five fundamental elements believed to compose all things; and with winter, cold, and the direction north, usually symbolized by a black tortoise. It is also associated with disorder, including the positive disorder which leads to change and new life. When the first Emperor of China Qin Shi Huang seized power from the Zhou Dynasty, he changed the Imperial color from red to black, saying that black extinguished red. Only when the Han Dynasty appeared in 206 BC was red restored as the imperial color.\n\nThe Chinese and Japanese character for black (''kuro'' in Japanese), can, depending upon the context, also mean dark or evil.\n\nIn Japan, black is associated with mystery, the night, the unknown, the supernatural, the invisible and death. Combined with white, it can symbolize intuition.\n\nIn Japan in the 10th and 11th century, it was believed that wearing black could bring misfortune. It was worn at court by those who wanted to set themselves apart from the established powers or who had renounced material possessions.\n\nIn Japan black can also symbolize experience, as opposed to white, which symbolizes naiveté. The black belt in martial arts symbolizes experience, while a white belt is worn by novices. Japanese men traditionally wear a black kimono with some white decoration on their wedding day.\n\nIn Indonesia black is associated with depth, the subterranean world, demons, disaster, and the left hand. When black is combined with white, however, it symbolizes harmony and equilibrium.\n\n\nFile:Qinshihuang.jpg|The first Chinese Emperor, Qin Shi Huang, made black his imperial color, saying that black extinguished red, the old dynastic color.\nFile:Japanese Wedding Day.jpg| Japanese men traditionally wear a black kimono with some white decoration on their wedding day\n\n\n===Political movements===\n'''Anarchism''' is a political philosophy, most popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which holds that governments and capitalism are harmful and undesirable. The symbols of anarchism was usually either a black flag or a black letter A. More recently it is usually represented with a bisected red and black flag, to emphasise the movement's socialist roots in the First International. Anarchism was most popular in Spain, France, Italy, Ukraine and Argentina. There were also small but influential movements in the United States and Russia. In the latter, the movement initially allied itself with the Bolsheviks.\n\nThe '''Black Army''' was a collection of anarchist military units which fought in the Russian Civil War, sometimes on the side of the Bolshevik Red Army, and sometimes for the opposing White Army. It was officially known as the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine, and it was under the command of the famous anarchist Nestor Makhno.\n\n'''Fascism'''. The Blackshirts () were Fascist paramilitary groups in Italy during the period immediately following World War I and until the end of World War II. The Blackshirts were officially known as the Voluntary Militia for National Security (''Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale'', or MVSN).\n\nInspired by the black uniforms of the Arditi, Italy's elite storm troops of World War I, the Fascist Blackshirts were organized by Benito Mussolini as the military tool of his political movement. They used violence and intimidation against Mussolini's opponents. The emblem of the Italian fascists was a black flag with fasces, an axe in a bundle of sticks, an ancient Roman symbol of authority. Mussolini came to power in 1922 through his March on Rome with the blackshirts.\n\nBlack was also adopted by Adolf Hitler and the Nazis in Germany. Red, white and black were the colors of the flag of the German Empire from 1870 to 1918. In ''Mein Kampf'', Hitler explained that they were \"revered colors expressive of our homage to the glorious past.\" Hitler also wrote that \"the new flag ... should prove effective as a large poster\" because \"in hundreds of thousands of cases a really striking emblem may be the first cause of awakening interest in a movement.\" The black swastika was meant to symbolize the Aryan race, which, according to the Nazis, \"was always anti-Semitic and will always be anti-Semitic.\" Several designs by a number of different authors were considered, but the one adopted in the end was Hitler's personal design. Black became the color of the uniform of the SS, the ''Schutzstaffel'' or \"defense corps\", the paramilitary wing of the Nazi Party, and was worn by SS officers from 1932 until the end of World War II.\n\nThe Nazis used a black triangle to symbolize anti-social elements. The symbol originates from Nazi concentration camps, where every prisoner had to wear one of the Nazi concentration camp badges on their jacket, the color of which categorized them according to \"their kind.\" Many Black Triangle prisoners were either mentally disabled or mentally ill. The homeless were also included, as were alcoholics, the Romani people, the habitually \"work-shy,\" prostitutes, draft dodgers and pacifists. More recently the black triangle has been adopted as a symbol in lesbian culture and by disabled activists.\n\nBlack shirts were also worn by the British Union of Fascists before World War II, and members of fascist movements in the Netherlands.\n\n'''Patriotic Resistance'''. The Lützow Free Corps, composed of volunteer German students and academics fighting against Napoleon in 1813, could not afford to make special uniforms and therefore adopted black, as the only color that could be used to dye their civilian clothing without the original color showing. In 1815 the students began to carry a red, black and gold flag, which they believed (incorrectly) had been the colors of the Holy Roman Empire (the imperial flag had actually been gold and black). In 1848, this banner became the flag of the German confederation. In 1866, Prussia unified Germany under its rule, and imposed the red, white and black of its own flag, which remained the colors of the German flag until the end of the Second World War. In 1949 the Federal Republic of Germany returned to the original flag and colors of the students and professors of 1815, which is the flag of Germany today.\n\n'''Islamism'''. The Black Standard (, also known as \"banner of the eagle\" or simply as \"the banner\") is the historical flag flown by Muhammad in Islamic tradition, an eschatological symbol in Shi'a Islam (heralding the advent of the Mahdi), and a symbol used in Islamism and Jihadism.\n\n\nFile:RPAU flag.svg|The flag of the anarchist Black Army during the Russian Civil War. It says, \"Death to all who stand in the way of freedom for working people.\"\nFile:March on Rome.jpg|Benito Mussolini and his blackshirt followers during his March on Rome in 1922.\nFile:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R99621, Heinrich Himmler.jpg|Black uniform of Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS, the military wing of the Nazi Party (1938).\nFile:ShababFlag.svg|Flag of Ansar al-Sharia Islamic movement in Yemen. Variations of the Black Standard are used by Islamists and Jihadists across the Muslim world.\n\n\n===Selected flags containing black===\n\nFile:Banner of the Holy Roman Emperor with haloes (1400-1806).svg|The banner of the Holy Roman Emperor (1400–1806) featured a black eagle, an old Roman emblem and a symbol of power. One head represented the church, the other the state.\nFile:Flag of Belgium (civil).svg|Flag of Belgium (1831). The black came from the banner of the Duchy of Brabant, founded in the 12th century. The flag used the colors of the failed Brabant Revolution of 1789–90 against the Habsburg Monarchy.\nFile:Flag of Hejaz 1917.svg|The Flag of the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire (1917–20), gave its colors to many modern flags in the Middle East. Black was taken from the Black Standard of Muhammad.\nFile:Flag of Germany.svg|(The black in the modern flag of Germany (1949) dates back to the flag of the Holy Roman Empire, the 19th-century flag of the German Confederation, the flag of Prussia, and the flag of the Weimar Republic.\nFile:Flag of Estonia.svg|Flag of Estonia (1918). The flag was a symbol of Estonian nationalism, when Estonia was part of the Russian Empire and Soviet Union. Black was said to symbolize the dark time of occupation, and white the bright future of independence.\nFile:Flag of Egypt.svg|Flag of Egypt (1984). The colors were taken from the Flag of the Arab Revolt, which was the banner of the Egyptian Revolution of 1952. The black came from the Black Standard of Muhammad.\nFile:Flag of South Africa.svg|The Flag of South Africa (1994). The black comes from the flag of the African National Congress, the ruling party in South Africa.\n\n\n=== Military ===\nHussar from Husaren-Regiment Nr.5 (von Ruesch) in 1744 with the Totenkopf on the mirliton (ger. Flügelmütze).\nBlack has been a traditional color of cavalry and armoured or mechanized troops. German armoured troops (Panzerwaffe) traditionally wore black uniforms, and even in others, a black beret is common. In Finland, black is the symbolic color for both armoured troops and combat engineers, and military units of these specialities have black flags and unit insignia.\n\nThe black beret and the color black is also a symbol of special forces in many countries. Soviet and Russian OMON special police and Russian naval infantry wear a black beret. A black beret is also worn by military police in the Canadian, Czech, Croatian, Portuguese, Spanish and Serbian armies.\n\nThe silver-on-black skull and crossbones symbol or Totenkopf and a black uniform were used by Hussars and Black Brunswickers, the German Panzerwaffe and the Nazi Schutzstaffel, and U.S. 400th Missile Squadron (crossed missiles), and continues in use with the Estonian Kuperjanov Battalion.\n\n===Religion===\n* In Christian theology, black was the color of the universe before God created light. In many religious cultures, from Mesoamerica to Oceania to India and Japan, the world was created out of a primordial darkness. In the Bible the light of faith and Christianity is often contrasted with the darkness of ignorance and paganism.\n\nIn Christianity, the devil is often called the \"prince of darkness.\" The term was used in John Milton's poem ''Paradise Lost'', published in 1667, referring to Satan, who is viewed as the embodiment of evil. It is an English translation of the Latin phrase ''princeps tenebrarum'', which occurs in the ''Acts of Pilate'', written in the fourth century, in the 11th-century hymn ''Rhythmus de die mortis'' by Pietro Damiani, and in a sermon by Bernard of Clairvaux from the 12th century. The phrase also occurs in ''King Lear'' by William Shakespeare (c. 1606), Act III, Scene IV, l. 14:\n'The prince of darkness is a gentleman.\"\n\nPriests and pastors of the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Protestant churches commonly wear black, as do monks of the Benedictine Order, who consider it the color of humility and penitence.\n* In Islam, black, along with green, plays an important symbolic role. It is the color of the Black Standard, the banner that is said to have been carried by the soldiers of Muhammad. It is also used as a symbol in Shi'a Islam (heralding the advent of the Mahdi), and the flag of followers of Islamism and Jihadism.\n* In Hinduism, the goddess Kali, goddess of time and change, is portrayed with black or dark blue skin. wearing a necklace adorned with severed heads and hands. Her name means \"The black one\". She destroys anger and passion according to Hindu mythology and her devotees are supposed to abstain from meat or intoxication. Kali does not eat meat, but it is the śāstra's injunction that those who are unable to give up meat-eating, they may sacrifice one goat, not cow, one small animal before the goddess Kali, on amāvāsya (new moon) day, night, not day, and they can eat it.\n\n\nFile:BenedictineVespers.jpg|Modern-day monks of the Order of Saint Benedict in New Jersey\n\n\n===Sports===\n* The national rugby union team of New Zealand is called the ''All Blacks'', in reference to their black outfits, and the color is also shared by other New Zealand national teams such as the Black Caps (cricket) and the Kiwis (rugby league).\n* Association football (soccer) referees traditionally wear all-black uniforms, however nowadays other uniform colors may also be worn.\n* In auto racing, a black flag signals a driver to go into the pits.\n* In baseball, \"the black\" refers to the batter's eye, a blacked out area around the center-field bleachers, painted black to give hitters a decent background for pitched balls.\n* A large number of teams have uniforms designed with black colors—many feeling the color sometimes imparts a psychological advantage in its wearers. Black is used by numerous professional and collegiate sports teams:\n\n;Association football\n\n* A.C. Milan\n* D.C. United\n* Inter Milan\n* New Zealand men's and women's national teams\n* PAOK\n* OFI Crete\n* Newcastle United\n* Notts County\n* Juventus\n* Partizan Belgrade\n* Besiktas\n\n;Major League Baseball\n\n* Arizona Diamondbacks\n* Baltimore Orioles\n* Colorado Rockies\n* Chicago White Sox\n* Miami Marlins\n* Pittsburgh Pirates\n* San Francisco Giants\n\n;National Basketball Association\n\n* Brooklyn Nets\n* Chicago Bulls\n* Miami Heat\n* Minnesota Timberwolves\n* Phoenix Suns\n* Portland Trail Blazers\n* Sacramento Kings\n* San Antonio Spurs\n* Toronto Raptors\n\n;National Football League\n\n* Arizona Cardinals\n* Atlanta Falcons\n* Baltimore Ravens\n* Carolina Panthers\n* Cincinnati Bengals\n* Jacksonville Jaguars\n* New Orleans Saints\n* Oakland Raiders\n* Philadelphia Eagles\n* Pittsburgh Steelers\n\n;National Hockey League\n\n* Anaheim Ducks\n* Boston Bruins\n* Calgary Flames\n* Carolina Hurricanes\n* Chicago Blackhawks\n* Colorado Avalanche\n* Dallas Stars\n* Los Angeles Kings\n* New Jersey Devils\n* Ottawa Senators\n* Philadelphia Flyers\n* Pittsburgh Penguins\n* San Jose Sharks\n\n;Collegiate Teams\n\n* Barry University\n* California State University, Los Angeles\n* University of Central Florida\n* University of Cincinnati\n* University of Colorado Boulder\n* University of Colorado Denver\n* University of Georgia\n* University of Hawaii\n* University of Idaho\n* University of Iowa\n* Johns Hopkins University\n* University of Louisville\n* University of Maryland\n* University of Missouri\n* Oklahoma State University\n* Oregon State University\n* Princeton University\n* Providence University\n* Purdue University\n* San Diego State University\n* University of Tampa\n* Troy University\n\n;Australian Rules Football\n\n* Collingwood\n\n\nFile:All Blacks England.jpg|The All-Blacks of New Zealand play England in 2006.\nFile:Raiders in huddle at Falcons at Raiders 11-2-08 1.JPG|The black uniforms of the Oakland Raiders professional football team matched their \"outlaw\" image.\n\n\n===Idioms and expressions===\nNamesake of the idiom \"black sheep\"\n* In the United States, \"Black Friday\" (the day after Thanksgiving Day, the fourth Thursday in November) is traditionally the busiest shopping day of the year. Many Americans are on holiday because of Thanksgiving, and many retailers open earlier and close later than normal, and offer special prices. The day's name originated in Philadelphia sometime before 1961, and originally was used to describe the heavy and disruptive downtown pedestrian and vehicle traffic which would occur on that day. Later an alternative explanation began to be offered: that \"Black Friday\" indicates the point in the year that retailers begin to turn a profit, or are \"in the black\", because of the large volume of sales on that day.\n* \"In the black\" means profitable. Accountants originally used black ink in ledgers to indicate profit, and red ink to indicate a loss.\n* Black Friday also refers to an particularly disastrous day on financial markets. The first Black Friday (1869), September 24, 1869, was caused by the efforts of two speculators, Jay Gould and James Fisk, to corner the gold market on the New York Gold Exchange.\n* A blacklist is a list of undesirable persons or entities (to be placed on the list is to be \"blacklisted\").\n* Black comedy is a form of comedy dealing with morbid and serious topics. The expression is similar to black humor or black humour.\n* A black mark against a person relates to something bad they have done.\n* A black mood is a bad one (cf Winston Churchill's clinical depression, which he called \"my black dog\").\n* Black market is used to denote the trade of illegal goods, or alternatively the illegal trade of otherwise legal items at considerably higher prices, e.g. to evade rationing.\n* Black propaganda is the use of known falsehoods, partial truths, or masquerades in propaganda to confuse an opponent.\n* Blackmail is the act of threatening someone to do something that would hurt them in some way, such as by revealing sensitive information about them, in order to force the threatened party to fulfill certain demands. Ordinarily, such a threat is illegal.\n* If the black eight-ball, in billiards, is sunk before all others are out of play, the player loses.\n* The black sheep of the family is the ne'er-do-well.\n* To blackball someone is to block their entry into a club or some such institution. In the traditional English gentlemen's club, members vote on the admission of a candidate by secretly placing a white or black ball in a hat. If upon the completion of voting, there was even one black ball amongst the white, the candidate would be denied membership, and he would never know who had \"blackballed\" him.\n* Black tea in the Western culture is known as \"crimson tea\" in Chinese and culturally influenced languages (紅 茶, Mandarin Chinese ''hóngchá''; Japanese ''kōcha''; Korean ''hongcha'').\n* \"The black\" is a wildfire suppression term referring to a burned area on a wildfire capable of acting as a safety zone.\n* Black coffee refers to coffee without sugar or cream.\n",
"\n===Mourning===\nIn Europe and America, black is the color most commonly associated with mourning and bereavement. It is the color traditionally worn at funerals and memorial services. In some traditional societies, for example in Greece and Italy, some widows wear black for the rest of their lives. In contrast, across much of Africa and parts of Asia like Vietnam, white is a color of mourning and is worn during funerals.\n\nIn Victorian England, the colors and fabrics of mourning were specified in an unofficial dress code: \"non-reflective black paramatta and crape for the first year of deepest mourning, followed by nine months of dullish black silk, heavily trimmed with crape, and then three months when crape was discarded. Paramatta was a fabric of combined silk and wool or cotton; crape was a harsh black silk fabric with a crimped appearance produced by heat. Widows were allowed to change into the colors of half-mourning, such as gray and lavender, black and white, for the final six months.\"\n\nA \"black day\" (or week or month) usually refers to tragic date. The Romans marked ''fasti'' days with white stones and ''nefasti'' days with black. The term is often used to remember massacres. Black months include the Black September in Jordan, when large numbers of Palestinians were killed, and Black July in Sri Lanka, the killing of members of the Tamil population by the Sinhalese government.\n\nIn the financial world, the term often refers to a dramatic drop in the stock market. For example, the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the stock market crash on October 29, 1929, which marked the start of the Great Depression, is nicknamed Black Tuesday, and was preceded by Black Thursday, a downturn on October 24 the previous week.\n\nFile:The Dowager Electress Palatine in mourning.jpg|The dowager Electress of Palatine in mourning (1717)\nFile:Pedro II of Brazil and his sisters.jpg|Emperor Pedro II of Brazil and his sisters wearing mourning clothes due to their father's death (1834)\nFile:Queen Victoria by Heinrich von Angeli.jpg|Queen Victoria wore black in mourning for her husband Prince Albert (1899)\n\n\n===Darkness and evil===\nIn western popular culture, black has long been associated with evil and darkness. It is the traditional color of witchcraft and black magic.\n\nIn the Book of Revelation, the last book in the New Testament of the Bible, the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse are supposed to announce the Apocalypse before the Last Judgment. The horseman representing famine rides a black horse.\n\nThe vampire of literature and films, such as Count Dracula of the Bram Stoker novel, dressed in black, and could only move at night. The Wicked Witch of the West in the 1939 film ''The Wizard of Oz'' became the archetype of witches for generations of children. Whereas witches and sorcerers inspired real fear in the 17th century, in the 21st century children and adults dressed as witches for Halloween parties and parades.\n\n\nFile:Apocalypse vasnetsov.jpg|The biblical Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, including famine riding a black horse (painting by Viktor Vasnetsov, 1887)\nFile:The Goblins' Christmas, 28.JPG|Drawing of a witch from the illustrated book ''The Goblins' Christmas'' by Elizabeth Anderson (1908)\nFile:Bela lugosi dracula.jpg|Count Dracula as portrayed by Bela Lugosi in the 1931 film version\n\nFile:NOLAHalloween2007CtinaWitchClarinet.jpg|Clarinet-playing witch in a New Orleans Halloween parade\n\n\n===Power, authority, and solemnity===\nBlack is frequently used as a color of power, law and authority. In many countries judges and magistrates wear black robes. That custom began in Europe in the 13th and 14th centuries. Jurists, magistrates and certain other court officials in France began to wear long black robes during the reign of Philip IV of France (1285–1314), and in England from the time of Edward I (1271–1307). The custom spread to the cities of Italy at about the same time, between 1300 and 1320. The robes of judges resembled those worn by the clergy, and represented the law and authority of the King, while those of the clergy represented the law of God and authority of the church.\n\nUntil the 20th century most police uniforms were black, until they were largely replaced by a less menacing blue in France, the U.S. and other countries. In the United States, police cars are frequently Black and white. The riot control units of the Basque Autonomous Police in Spain are known as ''beltzak'' (\"blacks\") after their uniform.\n\nBlack today is the most common color for limousines and the official cars of government officials.\n\nBlack evening dress is still worn at many solemn occasions or ceremonies, from graduations to formal balls. Graduation gowns are copied from the gowns worn by university professors in the Middle Ages, which in turn were copied from the robes worn by judges and priests, who often taught at the early universities. The mortarboard hat worn by graduates is adapted from a square cap called a biretta worn by Medieval professors and clerics\n\n\nFile:Supreme Court US 2009.jpg|The United States Supreme Court (2009)\nFile:ICJ-CJI hearing 1.jpg|Judges at the International Court of Justice in the Hague\nFile:LAPD Police Car.jpg|A police car of the Los Angeles Police Department\nFile:Jacob1207b.JPG|American academic dress for a bachelor's degree\n\n\n===Functionality===\nIn the 19th and 20th centuries, many machines and devices, large and small, were painted black, to stress their functionality. These included telephones, sewing machines, steamships, railroad locomotives, and automobiles. The Ford Model T, the first mass-produced car, was available only in black from 1914 to 1926. Of means of transportation, only airplanes were rarely ever painted black.\n\nFile:Alt Telefon.jpg|Olivetti telephone from the 1940s\nFile:1920 Ford Model T Centerdoor Sedan 2.jpg|A 1920 Ford Model T\nFile:Collection of old phones and PDA-BlackBerry.jpg|The first model BlackBerry (2000)\n\n\n===Ethnography===\n\n* The term \"black\" is often used in the West to describe people whose skin is darker. In the United States, it is particularly used to describe African Americans. The terms for African Americans have changed over the years, as shown by the categories in the United States Census, taken every ten years.\n* In the first U.S. Census, taken in 1790, just four categories were used: Free White males, Free White females, other free persons, and slaves.\n* In the 1820 census the new category \"colored\" was added.\n* In the 1850 census, slaves were listed by owner, and a B indicated black, while an M indicated \"mulatto.\"\n* In the 1890 census, the categories for race were white, black, mulatto, quadroon (a person one-quarter black); octoroon (a person one-eighth black), Chinese, Japanese, or American Indian.\n* In the 1930 census, anyone with any black blood was supposed to be listed as \"Negro.\"\n* In the 1970 census, the category \"Negro or black\" was used for the first time.\n* In the 2000 and 2012 census, the category \"Black or African-American\" was used, defined as \"a person having their origin in any of the racial groups in Africa.\" In the 2012 Census 12.1 percent of Americans identified themselves as Black or African-American.\n\nBlack is also commonly used as a racial description in the United Kingdom, since ethnicity was first measured in the 2001 census. The 2011 British census asked residents to describe themselves, and categories offered included Black, African, Caribbean, or Black British. Other possible categories were African British, African Scottish, Caribbean British and Caribbean Scottish. Of the total UK population in 2001, 1.0 percent identified themselves as Black Caribbean, 0.8 percent as Black African, and 0.2 percent as Black (others).\n\nIn Canada, census respondents can identify themselves as Black. In the 2006 census, 2.5 percent of the population identified themselves as black.\n\nIn Australia, the term black is not used in the census. In the 2006 census, 2.3 percent of Australians identified themselves as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islanders.\n\nIn Brazil, the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) asks people to identify themselves as ''branco'' (white), ''pardo'' (brown), ''preto'' (black), or ''amarelo'' (yellow). In 2008 6.8 percent of the population identified themselves as \"preto\".\n\n===Black and white===\n* Black and white have often been used to describe opposites; particularly light and darkness and good and evil. In Medieval literature, the white knight usually represented virtue, the black knight something mysterious and sinister. In American westerns, the hero often wore a white hat, the villain a black hat.\n* In the original game of chess invented in Persia or India, the colors of the two sides were varied; a 12th-century Iranian chess set in the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art, has red and green pieces. But when the game was imported into Europe, the colors, corresponding to European culture, usually became black and white.\n* Studies have shown that something printed in black letters on white has more authority with readers than any other color of printing.\n* In philosophy and arguments, the issue is often described as black-and-white, meaning that the issue at hand is dichotomized (having two clear, opposing sides with no middle ground).\n\nFile:Lone ranger silver 1965.JPG|Heroes in American westerns, like the Lone Ranger, traditionally wore a white hat, while the villains wore black hats.\n\n\n===Black chambers and black ops===\nBlack is commonly associated with secrecy.\n* The Black Chamber was a term given to an office which secretly opened and read diplomatic mail and broke codes. Queen Elizabeth I had such an office, headed by her Secretary, Sir Francis Walsingham, which successfully broke the Spanish codes and broke up several plots against the Queen. In France a ''cabinet noir'' was established inside the French post office by Louis XIII to open diplomatic mail. It was closed during the French Revolution but re-opened under Napoleon I. The Habsburg Empire and Dutch Republic had similar black chambers.\n* The United States created a secret peacetime Black Chamber, called the Cipher Bureau, in 1919. It was funded by the State Department and Army and disguised as a commercial company in New York. It successfully broke a number of diplomatic codes, including the code of the Japanese government. It was closed down in 1929 after the State Department withdrew funding, when the new Secretary of State, Henry Stimson, stated that \"Gentlemen do not read each other's mail.\" The Cipher Bureau was the ancestor of the U.S. National Security Agency.\n* A ''black project'' is a secret military project, such as Enigma Decryption during World War II, or a secret counter-narcotics or police sting operation.\n* Black ops are covert operations carried out by a government, government agency or military.\n\n===Elegance – black and fashion===\nBlack is the color most commonly associated with elegance in Europe and the United States, followed by silver, gold, and white.\n\nBlack first became a fashionable color for men in Europe in the 17th century, in the courts of Italy and Spain. (See history above). In the 19th century, it was the fashion for men both in business and for evening wear, in the form of a black coat whose tails came down the knees. In the evening it was the custom of the men to leave the women after dinner to go to a special smoking room to enjoy cigars or cigarettes. This meant that their tailcoats eventually smelled of tobacco. According to the legend, in 1865 Edward VII, then the Prince of Wales, had his tailor make a special short smoking jacket. The smoking jacket then evolved into the dinner jacket. Again according to legend, the first Americans to wear the jacket were members of the Tuxedo Club in New York State. Thereafter the jacket became known as a tuxedo in the U.S. The term \"smoking\" is still used today in Russia and other countries.\nThe tuxedo was always black until the 1930s, when the Duke of Windsor began to wear a tuxedo that was a very dark midnight blue. He did so because a black tuxedo looked greenish in artificial light, while a dark blue tuxedo looked blacker than black itself.\n\nFor women's fashion, the defining moment was the invention of the simple black dress by Coco Chanel in 1926. (See history.) Thereafter, a long black gown was used for formal occasions, while the simple black dress could be used for everything else. The designer Karl Lagerfeld, explaining why black was so popular, said: \"Black is the color that goes with everything. If you're wearing black, you're on sure ground.\" Skirts have gone up and down and fashions have changed, but the black dress has not lost its position as the essential element of a woman's wardrobe. The fashion designer Christian Dior said, \"elegance is a combination of distinction, naturalness, care and simplicity,\" and black exemplified elegance.\n\nThe expression \"X is the new black\" is a reference to the latest trend or fad that is considered a wardrobe basic for the duration of the trend, on the basis that black is always fashionable. The phrase has taken on a life of its own and has become a cliché.\n\nMany performers of both popular and European classical music, including French singers Edith Piaf and Juliette Greco, and violinist Joshua Bell have traditionally worn black on stage during performances. A black costume was usually chosen as part of their image or stage persona, or because it did not distract from the music, or sometimes for a political reason. Country-western singer Johnny Cash always wore black on stage. In 1971, Cash wrote the song \"Man in Black\" to explain why he dressed in that color: \"We're doing mighty fine I do suppose / In our streak of lightning cars and fancy clothes / But just so we're reminded of the ones who are held back / Up front there ought to be a man in black.\"\n\nFile:The Duke of Windsor (1970).jpg|The Duke of Windsor was the first to wear midnight blue rather than black evening dress, which looked blacker than black in artificial light.\nFile:Anneke Grönloh 1964 Eurovision dress.jpg|A \"simple black dress\" from 1964.\nFile:Édith Piaf 914-6438.jpg|French singer Edith Piaf always wore black on stage.\nFile:Johnny-Cash 1972.jpg|Country-western singer Johnny Cash called himself \"the man in black.\" Image of his performance in Bremen, Northern Germany, in September 1972.\nFile:Joshua Bell Indiana University cropped.jpg|American violinist Joshua Bell wears black on stage.\nFile:Gisele Bündchen at the Fashion Rio Inverno 2006.jpg|Brazilian model Gisele Bündchen at the Fashion Rio Inverno 2006.\nFile:Fabiana Semprebom1.jpg|Model Fabiana Semprebom at New York Fashion Week, 2006\n\n",
"\n\n* Black Rose (disambiguation)\n* List of colors\n* Melanophobia\n* Rich black, which is different from using black ink alone, in printing.\n* Shades of black\n",
"\n===Notes and citations===\n\n\n===Bibliography===\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Etymology",
"History and art",
"Science",
"Culture",
"Associations and symbolism",
"See also",
"References"
] | Black | [
"In Paris, it was worn by Left-Bank intellectuals and performers such as Juliette Greco, and by some members of the Beat Movement in New York and San Francisco."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Black''' is the darkest color, the result of the absence or complete absorption of visible light.",
"It is an achromatic color, literally a color without hue, like white (its opposite) and gray.",
"It is often used symbolically or figuratively to represent darkness, while white represents light.",
"Black ink is the most common color used for printing books, newspapers and documents, because it has the highest contrast with white paper and is the easiest to read.",
"For the same reason, black text on a white screen is the most common format used on computer screens.",
"In color printing it is used along with the subtractive primaries cyan, yellow, and magenta, in order to help produce the darkest shades.",
"Black and white have often been used to describe opposites; particularly truth and ignorance, good and evil, the \"Dark Ages\" versus Age of Enlightenment.",
"Since the Middle Ages black has been the symbolic color of solemnity and authority, and for this reason is still commonly worn by judges and magistrates.",
"Black was one of the first colors used by artists in neolithic cave paintings.",
"In the 14th century, it began to be worn by royalty, the clergy, judges and government officials in much of Europe.",
"It became the color worn by English romantic poets, businessmen and statesmen in the 19th century, and a high fashion color in the 20th century.",
"In the Roman Empire, it became the color of mourning, and over the centuries it was frequently associated with death, evil, witches and magic.",
"According to surveys in Europe and North America, it is the color most commonly associated with mourning, the end, secrets, magic, force, violence, evil, and elegance.",
"The word ''black'' comes from Old English ''blæc'' (\"black, dark\", ''also'', \"ink\"), from Proto-Germanic *''blakkaz'' (\"burned\"), from Proto-Indo-European *''bhleg-'' (\"to burn, gleam, shine, flash\"), from base *''bhel-'' (\"to shine\"), related to Old Saxon ''blak'' (\"ink\"), Old High German ''blach'' (\"black\"), Old Norse ''blakkr'' (\"dark\"), Dutch ''blaken'' (\"to burn\"), and Swedish ''bläck'' (\"ink\").",
"More distant cognates include Latin ''flagrare'' (\"to blaze, glow, burn\"), and Ancient Greek ''phlegein'' (\"to burn, scorch\").",
"The Ancient Greeks sometimes used the same word to name different colors, if they had the same intensity.",
"''Kuanos''' could mean both dark blue and black.",
"The Ancient Romans had two words for black: ''ater'' was a flat, dull black, while ''niger'' was a brilliant, saturated black.",
"''Ater'' has vanished from the vocabulary, but ''niger'' was the source of the country name ''Nigeria'' the English word ''Negro'' and the word for \"black\" in most modern Romance languages (French: ''noir''; Spanish and Portuguese: ''negro''; Italian: ''nero'' ).",
"Old High German also had two words for black: ''swartz'' for dull black and ''blach'' for a luminous black.",
"These are parallelled in Middle English by the terms ''swart'' for dull black and ''blaek'' for luminous black.",
"''Swart'' still survives as the word ''swarthy'', while ''blaek'' became the modern English ''black''.",
"In heraldry, the word used for the black color is sable, named for the black fur of the sable, an animal.",
"\n===Prehistoric history===\nBlack was one of the first colors used in art.",
"The Lascaux Cave in France contains drawings of bulls and other animals drawn by paleolithic artists between 18,000 and 17,000 years ago.",
"They began by using charcoal, and then made more vivid black pigments by burning bones or grinding a powder of manganese oxide.",
"===Ancient history===\nFor the ancient Egyptians, black had positive associations; being the color of fertility and the rich black soil flooded by the Nile.",
"It was the color of Anubis, the god of the underworld, who took the form of a black jackal, and offered protection against evil to the dead.",
"For the ancient Greeks, black was also the color of the underworld, separated from the world of the living by the river Acheron, whose water was black.",
"Those who had committed the worst sins were sent to Tartarus, the deepest and darkest level.",
"In the center was the palace of Hades, the king of the underworld, where he was seated upon a black ebony throne.",
"Black was one of the most important colors used by ancient Greek artists.",
"In the 6th century BC, they began making black-figure pottery and later red figure pottery, using a highly original technique.",
"In black-figure pottery, the artist would paint figures with a glossy clay slip on a red clay pot.",
"When the pot was fired, the figures painted with the slip would turn black, against a red background.",
"Later they reversed the process, painting the spaces between the figures with slip.",
"This created magnificent red figures against a glossy black background.",
"In the social hierarchy of ancient Rome, purple was the color reserved for the Emperor; red was the color worn by soldiers (red cloaks for the officers, red tunics for the soldiers); white the color worn by the priests, and black was worn by craftsmen and artisans.",
"The black they wore was not deep and rich; the vegetable dyes used to make black were not solid or lasting, so the blacks often turned out faded gray or brown.",
"In Latin, the word for black, ''ater'' and to darken, ''atere'', were associated with cruelty, brutality and evil.",
"They were the root of the English words \"atrocious\" and \"atrocity\".",
"Black was also the Roman color of death and mourning.",
"In the 2nd century BC Roman magistrates began to wear a dark toga, called a ''toga pulla'', to funeral ceremonies.",
"Later, under the Empire, the family of the deceased also wore dark colors for a long period; then, after a banquet to mark the end of mourning, exchanged the black for a white toga.",
"In Roman poetry, death was called the ''hora nigra'', the black hour.",
"The German and Scandinavian peoples worshipped their own goddess of the night, Nótt, who crossed the sky in a chariot drawn by a black horse.",
"They also feared Hel, the goddess of the kingdom of the dead, whose skin was black on one side and red on the other.",
"They also held sacred the raven.",
"They believed that Odin, the king of the Nordic pantheon, had two black ravens, Huginn and Muninn, who served as his agents, traveling the world for him, watching and listening.",
"File:Lascaux painting.jpg|Neolithic paintings of bulls in the Lascaux Cave, more than 17,000 years old\nFile:Tutanhkamun jackal.jpg|Statue of Anubis, guardian of the underworld, from the tomb of Tutankhamun.",
"File:Akhilleus Aias MGEt 16757.jpg|Greek black-figure pottery.",
"Ajax and Achilles playing a game, about 540–530 BC.",
"(Vatican Museums).",
"File:Pyxis Peleus Thetis Louvre L55 by Wedding Painter.jpg|Red-figure pottery with black background.",
"Portrait of Thetis, about 470–480 BC.",
"(The Louvre)\n\n\n===Postclassical history===\nIn the early Middle Ages, black was commonly associated with darkness and evil.",
"In Medieval paintings, the devil was usually depicted as having human form, but with wings and black skin or hair.",
"====In the 12th and 13th centuries====\nIn fashion, black did not have the prestige of red, the color of the nobility.",
"It was worn by Benedictine monks as a sign of humility and penitence.",
"In the 12th century a famous theological dispute broke out between the Cistercian monks, who wore white, and the Benedictines, who wore black.",
"A Benedictine abbot, Pierre the Venerable, accused the Cistercians of excessive pride in wearing white instead of black.",
"Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, the founder of the Cistercians responded that black was the color of the devil, hell, \"of death and sin,\" while white represented \"purity, innocence and all the virtues\".",
"Black symbolized both power and secrecy in the medieval world.",
"The emblem of the Holy Roman Empire of Germany was a black eagle.",
"The black knight in the poetry of the Middle Ages was an enigmatic figure, hiding his identity, usually wrapped in secrecy.",
"Black ink, invented in Ancient China and India, was traditionally used in the Middle Ages for writing, for the simple reason that black was the darkest color and therefore provided the greatest contrast with white paper or parchment, making it the easiest color to read.",
"It became even more important in the 15th century, with the invention of printing.",
"A new kind of ink, printer's ink, was created out of soot, turpentine and walnut oil.",
"The new ink made it possible to spread ideas to a mass audience through printed books, and to popularize art through black and white engravings and prints.",
"Because of its contrast and clarity, black ink on white paper continued to be the standard for printing books, newspapers and documents; and for the same reason black text on a white background is the most common format used on computer screens.",
"File:Duccio di Buoninsegna 040.jpg|The Italian painter Duccio di Buoninsegna showed Christ expelling the Devil, shown covered with bristly black hair (1308–11).",
"File:Fra Angelico 010.jpg|The 15th-century painting of the ''Last Judgement'' by Fra Angelico (1395–1455) depicted hell with a vivid black devil devouring sinners.",
"File:Jan Polack - Portrait of a Benedictine Monk - WGA18020.jpg|Portrait of a monk of the Benedictine Order (1484)\nFile:Le Livre du cœur d'amour épris1.jpg|The black knight in a miniature painting of a medieval romance,''Le Livre du cœur d'amour épris'' (about 1460)\nFile:Gutenberg bible Old Testament Epistle of St Jerome.jpg|Gutenberg Bible (1451–1452).",
"Black ink was used for printing books, because it provided the greatest contrast with the white paper and was the clearest and easiest color to read.",
"====In the 14th and 15th centuries====\nIn the early Middle Ages, princes, nobles and the wealthy usually wore bright colors, particularly scarlet cloaks from Italy.",
"Black was rarely part of the wardrobe of a noble family.",
"The one exception was the fur of the sable.",
"This glossy black fur, from an animal of the marten family, was the finest and most expensive fur in Europe.",
"It was imported from Russia and Poland and used to trim the robes and gowns of royalty.",
"In the 14th century, the status of black began to change.",
"First, high-quality black dyes began to arrive on the market, allowing garments of a deep, rich black.",
"Magistrates and government officials began to wear black robes, as a sign of the importance and seriousness of their positions.",
"A third reason was the passage of sumptuary laws in some parts of Europe which prohibited the wearing of costly clothes and certain colors by anyone except members of the nobility.",
"The famous bright scarlet cloaks from Venice and the peacock blue fabrics from Florence were restricted to the nobility.",
"The wealthy bankers and merchants of northern Italy responded by changing to black robes and gowns, made with the most expensive fabrics.",
"The change to the more austere but elegant black was quickly picked up by the kings and nobility.",
"It began in northern Italy, where the Duke of Milan and the Count of Savoy and the rulers of Mantua, Ferrara, Rimini and Urbino began to dress in black.",
"It then spread to France, led by Louis I, Duke of Orleans, younger brother of King Charles VI of France.",
"It moved to England at the end of the reign of King Richard II (1377–1399), where all the court began to wear black.",
"In 1419–20, black became the color of the powerful Duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good.",
"It moved to Spain, where it became the color of the Spanish Habsburgs, of Charles V and of his son, Philip II of Spain (1527–1598).",
"European rulers saw it as the color of power, dignity, humility and temperance.",
"By the end of the 16th century, it was the color worn by almost all the monarchs of Europe and their courts.",
"File:Philip the good.jpg|Philip the Good in about 1450, by Rogier van der Weyden\nFile:Petrus Christus - Portrait of a Young Woman - Google Art Project.jpg|''Portrait of a Young Woman'' by Petrus Christus (about 1470)\nFile:Titian - Portrait of Charles V Seated - WGA22964.jpg|Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558), by Titian\nFile:Portrait of Philip II of Spain by Sofonisba Anguissola - 002b.jpg|Portrait of Philip II of Spain (1527–1598)\n\n\n===Modern history===\n\n====In the 16th and 17th centuries====\nWhile black was the color worn by the Catholic rulers of Europe, it was also the emblematic color of the Protestant Reformation in Europe and the Puritans in England and America.",
"Jean Calvin, Melanchton and other Protestant theologians denounced the richly colored and decorated interiors of Roman Catholic churches.",
"They saw the color red, worn by the Pope and his Cardinals, as the color of luxury, sin, and human folly.",
"In some northern European cities, mobs attacked churches and cathedrals, smashed the stained glass windows and defaced the statues and decoration.",
"In Protestant doctrine, clothing was required to be sober, simple and discreet.",
"Bright colors were banished and replaced by blacks, browns and grays; women and children were recommended to wear white.",
"In the Protestant Netherlands, Rembrandt Van Rijn used this sober new palette of blacks and browns to create portraits whose faces emerged from the shadows expressing the deepest human emotions.",
"The Catholic painters of the Counter-Reformation, like Rubens, went in the opposite direction; they filled their paintings with bright and rich colors.",
"The new Baroque churches of the Counter-Reformation were usually shining white inside and filled with statues, frescoes, marble, gold and colorful paintings, to appeal to the public.",
"But European Catholics of all classes, like Protestants, eventually adopted a sober wardrobe that was mostly black, brown and gray.",
"File:John Calvin 11.jpg|Swiss theologian John Calvin denounced the bright colors worn by Roman Catholic priests, and colorful decoration of churches.",
"File:Increase Mather.jpg|Increase Mather, an American Puritan clergyman (1688).",
"File:George-Henry-Boughton-Pilgrims-Going-To-Church.jpg|American Pilgrims in New England going to church (painting by George Henry Boughton, 1867)\nFile:Rembrandt van Rijn - Self-Portrait - Google Art Project.jpg|Rembrandt Van Rijn, ''Self-portrait'' (1659)\n\n\nIn the second part of the 17th century, Europe and America experienced an epidemic of fear of witchcraft.",
"People widely believed that the devil appeared at midnight in a ceremony called a black mass or black sabbath, usually in the form of a black animal, often a goat, a dog, a wolf, a bear, a deer or a rooster, accompanied by their familiar spirits, black cats, serpents and other black creatures.",
"This was the origin of the widespread superstition about black cats and other black animals.",
"In Medieval Flanders, in a ceremony called ''Kattenstoet,'' black cats were thrown from the belfry of the Cloth Hall of Ypres to ward off witchcraft.",
"Witch trials were common in both Europe and America during this period.",
"During the notorious Salem witch trials in New England in 1692–93, one of those on trial was accused of being able turn into a \"black thing with a blue cap,\" and others of having familiars in the form of a black dog, a black cat and a black bird.",
"Nineteen women and men were hanged as witches.",
"File:Matthewhopkins.png|An English manual on witch-hunting (1647), showing a witch with her familiar spirits\nFile:Black cat eyes.jpg|Black cats have been accused for centuries of being the familiar spirits of witches or of bringing bad luck.",
"====In the 18th and 19th centuries====\nIn the 18th century, during the European Age of Enlightenment, black receded as a fashion color.",
"Paris became the fashion capital, and pastels, blues, greens, yellow and white became the colors of the nobility and upper classes.",
"But after the French Revolution, black again became the dominant color.",
"Black was the color of the industrial revolution, largely fueled by coal, and later by oil.",
"Thanks to coal smoke, the buildings of the large cities of Europe and America gradually turned black.",
"By 1846 the industrial area of the West Midlands of England was \"commonly called 'the Black Country'”.",
"Charles Dickens and other writers described the dark streets and smoky skies of London, and they were vividly illustrated in the engravings of French artist Gustave Doré.",
"A different kind of black was an important part of the romantic movement in literature.",
"Black was the color of melancholy, the dominant theme of romanticism.",
"The novels of the period were filled with castles, ruins, dungeons, storms, and meetings at midnight.",
"The leading poets of the movement were usually portrayed dressed in black, usually with a white shirt and open collar, and a scarf carelessly over their shoulder, Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron helped create the enduring stereotype of the romantic poet.",
"The invention of new, inexpensive synthetic black dyes and the industrialization of the textile industry meant that good-quality black clothes were available for the first time to the general population.",
"In the 19th century gradually black became the most popular color of business dress of the upper and middle classes in England, the Continent, and America.",
"Black dominated literature and fashion in the 19th century, and played a large role in painting.",
"James McNeil Whistler made the color the subject of his most famous painting, ''Arrangement in grey and black number one'' (1871), better known as ''Whistler's Mother''.",
"Some 19th-century French painters had a low opinion of black: \"Reject black,\" Paul Gauguin said, \"and that mix of black and white they call gray.",
"Nothing is black, nothing is gray.\"",
"But Édouard Manet used blacks for their strength and dramatic effect.",
"Manet's portrait of painter Berthe Morisot was a study in black which perfectly captured her spirit of independence.",
"The black gave the painting power and immediacy; he even changed her eyes, which were green, to black to strengthen the effect.",
"Henri Matisse quoted the French impressionist Pissarro telling him, \"Manet is stronger than us all – he made light with black.\"",
"Pierre-Auguste Renoir used luminous blacks, especially in his portraits.",
"When someone told him that black was not a color, Renoir replied: \"What makes you think that?",
"Black is the queen of colors.",
"I always detested Prussian blue.",
"I tried to replace black with a mixture of red and blue, I tried using cobalt blue or ultramarine, but I always came back to ivory black.\"",
"Vincent van Gogh used black lines to outline many of the objects in his paintings, such as the bed in the famous painting of his bedroom.",
"making them stand apart.",
"His painting of black crows over a cornfield, painted shortly before he died, was particularly agitated and haunting.",
"In the late 19th century, black also became the color of anarchism.",
"(See the section political movements.)",
"File:Percy Bysshe Shelley by Alfred Clint.jpg|Percy Bysshe Shelley in the black and white costume of the romantic poet (1819).",
"File:Dore London.jpg|A view of London by Gustave Doré from 1872 showed how coal and the industrial revolution had blackened the buildings and air of the great cities of Europe.",
"File:Whistlers Mother high res.jpg|Arrangement in Grey and Black Number 1 (1871) by James McNeil Whistler better known as Whistler's Mother.",
"File:Edouard Manet - Berthe Morisot With a Bouquet of Violets - Google Art Project.jpg|''Berthe Morisot with a Bouquet of Violets'', by Édouard Manet (1872).",
"File:Edouard Manet 093.jpg|''Le Bal de l'Opera'' (1873) by Édouard Manet, shows the dominance of black in Parisian evening dress.",
"File:Pierre-Auguste Renoir 023.jpg|''The Theater Box'' (1874) by Pierre-Auguste Renoir, captured the luminosity of black fabric in the light.",
"File:Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890) - Wheat Field with Crows (1890).jpg| ''Wheat Field with Crows'' (1890), one of the last paintings of Vincent van Gogh, captures his agitated state of mind.",
"====In the 20th and 21st centuries====\nIn the 20th century, black was the color of Italian and German fascism.",
"(See the section political movements.)",
"In art, black regained some of the territory that it had lost during the 19th century.",
"The Russian painter Kasimir Malevich, a member of the Suprematist movement, created the Black Square in 1915, is widely considered the first purely abstract painting.",
"He wrote, \"The painted work is no longer simply the imitation of reality, but is this very reality ...",
"It is not a demonstration of ability, but the materialization of an idea.\"",
"Black was also appreciated by Henri Matisse.",
"\"When I didn't know what color to put down, I put down black,\" he said in 1945.",
"\"Black is a force: I used black as ballast to simplify the construction ...",
"Since the impressionists it seems to have made continuous progress, taking a more and more important part in color orchestration, comparable to that of the double bass as a solo instrument.\"",
"In the 1950s, black came to be a symbol of individuality and intellectual and social rebellion, the color of those who didn't accept established norms and values.",
"Black leather jackets were worn by motorcycle gangs such as the Hells Angels and street gangs on the fringes of society in the United States.",
"Black as a color of rebellion was celebrated in such films as The Wild One, with Marlon Brando.",
"By the end of the 20th century, black was the emblematic color of the punk subculture punk fashion, and the goth subculture.",
"Goth fashion, which emerged in England in the 1980s, was inspired by Victorian era mourning dress.",
"In men's fashion, black gradually ceded its dominance to navy blue, particularly in business suits.",
"Black evening dress and formal dress in general were worn less and less.",
"In 1960, John F. Kennedy was the last American President to be inaugurated wearing formal dress; President Lyndon Johnson and all his successors were inaugurated wearing business suits.",
"Women's fashion was revolutionized and simplified in 1926 by the French designer Coco Chanel, who published a drawing of a simple black dress in ''Vogue'' magazine.",
"She famously said, \"A woman needs just three things; a black dress, a black sweater, and, on her arm, a man she loves.\"",
"Other designers contributed to the trend of the little black dress.",
"The Italian designer Gianni Versace said, \"Black is the quintessence of simplicity and elegance,\" and French designer Yves Saint Laurent said, \"black is the liaison which connects art and fashion.",
"One of the most famous black dresses of the century was designed by Hubert de Givenchy and was worn by Audrey Hepburn in the 1961 film ''Breakfast at Tiffany's''.",
"The American Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s was a struggle for the political equality of African Americans.",
"It developed into the Black Power movement in the late 1960s and 1970s, and popularized the slogan \"Black is Beautiful\".",
"In the 1990s, the Black Standard became the banner of several Islamic extremist, jihadist groups.",
"(See the section political movements.)",
"File:Malevich.black-square.jpg|The Black Square (1915) by Kazimir Malevich is considered the first purely abstract painting (Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow).",
"File:Breakfast at Tiffanys.jpg|The little black dress worn by Audrey Hepburn in the film ''Breakfast at Tiffany's'' (1961).",
"File:Lady Amaranth.jpg|The goth fashion model Lady Amaranth.",
"Goth fashion was inspired by British Victorian mourning costumes.",
"File:Flag of Jihad.svg|Variants of the Black Standard flag are used by many militant Islamist groups that have adopted militant interpretations of jihad.",
"it is said to be the banner carried by Muhammad and his soldiers.",
"\n===Physics===\n\nIn the visible spectrum, black is the absorption of all colors.",
"Black can be defined as the visual impression experienced when no visible light reaches the eye.",
"Pigments or dyes that absorb light rather than reflect it back to the eye \"look black\".",
"A black pigment can, however, result from a ''combination'' of several pigments that collectively absorb all colors.",
"If appropriate proportions of three primary pigments are mixed, the result reflects so little light as to be called \"black\".",
"This provides two superficially opposite but actually complementary descriptions of black.",
"Black is the absorption of all colors of light, or an exhaustive combination of multiple colors of pigment.",
"See also primary colors.",
"In physics, a black body is a perfect absorber of light, but, by a thermodynamic rule, it is also the best emitter.",
"Thus, the best radiative cooling, out of sunlight, is by using black paint, though it is important that it be black (a nearly perfect absorber) in the infrared as well.",
"In elementary science, far ultraviolet light is called \"black light\" because, while itself unseen, it causes many minerals and other substances to fluoresce.",
"On January 16, 2008, researchers from Troy, New York's Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute announced the creation of the then darkest material on the planet.",
"The material, which reflected only 0.045 percent of light, was created from carbon nanotubes stood on end.",
"This is 1/30 of the light reflected by the current standard for blackness, and one third the light reflected by the previous record holder for darkest substance.",
"As of February 2016, the current darkest material known is claimed to be Vantablack.",
"A material is said to be black if most incoming light is absorbed equally in the material.",
"Light (electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum) interacts with the atoms and molecules, which causes the energy of the light to be converted into other forms of energy, usually heat.",
"This means that black surfaces can act as thermal collectors, absorbing light and generating heat (see Solar thermal collector).",
"Absorption of light is contrasted by transmission, reflection and diffusion, where the light is only redirected, causing objects to appear transparent, reflective or white respectively.",
"File:Vantablack_01.JPG|Vantablack is made of carbon nanotubes and is the blackest substance known, absorbing a maximum of 99.965% of radiation in the visible spectrum.",
"===Chemistry===\n\n====Pigments====\nThe earliest pigments used by Neolithic man were charcoal, red ocher and yellow ocher.",
"The black lines of cave art were drawn with the tips of burnt torches made of a wood with resin.",
"Different charcoal pigments were made by burning different woods and animal products, each of which produced a different tone.",
"The charcoal would be ground and then mixed with animal fat to make the pigment.",
"* '''Vine black''' was produced in Roman times by burning the cut branches of grapevines.",
"It could also be produced by burning the remains of the crushed grapes, which were collected and dried in an oven.",
"According to the historian Vitruvius, the deepness and richness of the black produced corresponded to the quality of the wine.",
"The finest wines produced a black with a bluish tinge the color of indigo.",
"The 15th-century painter Cennino Cennini described how this pigment was made during the Renaissance in his famous handbook for artists: \"...there is a black which is made from the tendrils of vines.",
"And these tendrils need to be burned.",
"And when they have been burned, throw some water onto them and put them out and then mull them in the same way as the other black.",
"And this is a lean and black pigment and is one of the perfect pigments that we use.\"",
"Cennini also noted that \"There is another black which is made from burnt almond shells or peaches and this is a perfect, fine black.\"",
"Similar fine blacks were made by burning the pits of the peach, cherry or apricot.",
"The powdered charcoal was then mixed with gum arabic or the yellow of an egg to make a paint.",
"Different civilizations burned different plants to produce their charcoal pigments.",
"The Inuit of Alaska used wood charcoal mixed with the blood of seals to paint masks and wooden objects.",
"The Polynesians burned coconuts to produce their pigment.",
"* Lamp black was used as a pigment for painting and frescoes.",
"as a dye for fabrics, and in some societies for making tattoos.",
"The 15th century Florentine painter Cennino Cennini described how it was made during the Renaissance: \"... take a lamp full of linseed oil and fill the lamp with the oil and light the lamp.",
"Then place it, lit, under a thoroughly clean pan and make sure that the flame from the lamp is two or three fingers from the bottom of the pan.",
"The smoke that comes off the flame will hit the bottom of the pan and gather, becoming thick.",
"Wait a bit.",
"take the pan and brush this pigment (that is, this smoke) onto paper or into a pot with something.",
"And it is not necessary to mull or grind it because it is a very fine pigment.",
"Re-fill the lamp with the oil and put it under the pan like this several times and, in this way, make as much of it as is necessary.\"",
"This same pigment was used by Indian artists to paint the Ajanta Caves, and as dye in ancient Japan.",
"* Ivory black, also known as bone char, was originally produced by burning ivory and mixing the resulting charcoal powder with oil.",
"The color is still made today, but ordinary animal bones are substituted for ivory.",
"* Mars black is a black pigment made of synthetic iron oxides.",
"It is commonly used in water-colors and oil painting.",
"It takes its name from Mars, the god of war and patron of iron.",
"====Dyes====\n\nGood-quality black dyes were not known until the middle of the 14th century.",
"The most common early dyes were made from bark, roots or fruits of different trees; usually the walnut, chestnut, or certain oak trees.",
"The blacks produced were often more gray, brown or bluish.",
"The cloth had to be dyed several times to darken the color.",
"One solution used by dyers was add to the dye some iron filings, rich in iron oxide, which gave a deeper black.",
"Another was to first dye the fabric dark blue, and then to dye it black.",
"A much richer and deeper black dye was eventually found made from the Oak apple or '''gall-nut'''.",
"The gall-nut is a small round tumor which grows on oak and other varieties of trees.",
"They range in size from 2–5 cm, and are caused by chemicals injected by the larva of certain kinds of gall wasp in the family Cynipidae.",
"The dye was very expensive; a great quantity of gall-nuts were needed for a very small amount of dye.",
"The gall-nuts which made the best dye came from Poland, eastern Europe, the near east and North Africa.",
"Beginning in about the 14th century, dye from gall-nuts was used for clothes of the kings and princes of Europe.",
"Another important source of natural black dyes from the 17th century onwards was the logwood tree, or Haematoxylum campechianum, which also produced reddish and bluish dyes.",
"It is a species of flowering tree in the legume family, Fabaceae, that is native to southern Mexico and northern Central America.",
"The modern nation of Belize grew from 17th century English logwood logging camps.",
"Since the mid-19th century, synthetic black dyes have largely replaced natural dyes.",
"One of the important synthetic blacks is Nigrosin, a mixture of synthetic black dyes (CI 50415, Solvent black 5) made by heating a mixture of nitrobenzene, aniline and aniline hydrochloride in the presence of a copper or iron catalyst.",
"Its main industrial uses are as a colorant for lacquers and varnishes and in marker-pen inks.",
"====Inks====\n\nThe first known inks were made by the Chinese, and date back to the 23rd century B.C.",
"They used natural plant dyes and minerals such as graphite ground with water and applied with an ink brush.",
"Early Chinese inks similar to the modern inkstick have been found dating to about 256 BC at the end of the Warring States period.",
"They were produced from soot, usually produced by burning pine wood, mixed with animal glue.",
"To make ink from an inkstick, the stick is continuously ground against an inkstone with a small quantity of water to produce a dark liquid which is then applied with an ink brush.",
"Artists and calligraphists could vary the thickness of the resulting ink by reducing or increasing the intensity and time of ink grinding.",
"These inks produced the delicate shading and subtle or dramatic effects of Chinese brush painting.",
"India ink (or '''Indian ink''' in British English) is a black ink once widely used for writing and printing and now more commonly used for drawing, especially when inking comic books and comic strips.",
"The technique of making it probably came from China.",
"India ink has been in use in India since at least the 4th century BC, where it was called ''masi''.",
"In India, the black color of the ink came from bone char, tar, pitch and other substances.",
"The Ancient Romans had a black writing ink they called ''atramentum librarium''.",
"Its name came from the Latin word ''atrare'', which meant to make something black.",
"(This was the same root as the English word ''atrocious''.)",
"It was usually made, like India ink, from soot, although one variety, called ''atramentum elephantinum'', was made by burning the ivory of elephants.",
"Gall-nuts were also used for making fine black writing ink.",
"Iron gall ink (also known as iron gall nut ink or oak gall ink) was a purple-black or brown-black ink made from iron salts and tannic acids from gall nut.",
"It was the standard writing and drawing ink in Europe, from about the 12th century to the 19th century, and remained in use well into the 20th century.",
"File:Charcoal sticks 051907.jpg|Sticks of vine charcoal and compressed charcoal.",
"Charcoal, along with red and yellow ochre, was one of the first pigments used by Paleolithic man.",
"File:Inkstick.jpg|A Chinese inkstick, in the form of lotus flowers and blossoms.",
"Inksticks are used in Chinese calligraphy and brush painting.",
"File:Živočišné uhlí (Carbocit).jpg|Ivory black or bone char, a natural black pigment made by burning animal bones.",
"File:Haematoxylum campechianum Ypey69.jpg|The logwood tree from Central America produced dyes beginning in the 17th century.",
"The nation of Belize began as a British colony producing logwood.",
"File:Oak apple.jpg|The oak apple or gall-nut, a tumor growing on oak trees, was the main source of black dye and black writing ink from the 14th century until the 19th century.",
"File:Noir de fumee.jpg|The industrial production of lamp black, made by producing, collecting and refining soot, in 1906.",
"===Astronomy===\n* A black dwarf is a hypothetical stellar remnant, created when a white dwarf becomes sufficiently cool to no longer emit significant heat or light.",
"Since the time required for a white dwarf to reach this state is calculated to be longer than the current age of the universe (13.8 billion years), no black dwarfs are thought to exist yet in the universe.",
"* A black hole is a region of spacetime where gravity prevents anything, including light, from escaping.",
"The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass will deform spacetime to form a black hole.",
"Around a black hole there is a mathematically defined surface called an event horizon that marks the point of no return.",
"It is called \"black\" because it absorbs all the light that hits the horizon, reflecting nothing, just like a perfect black body in thermodynamics.",
"Black holes of stellar mass are expected to form when very massive stars collapse at the end of their life cycle.",
"After a black hole has formed it can continue to grow by absorbing mass from its surroundings.",
"By absorbing other stars and merging with other black holes, supermassive black holes of millions of solar masses may form.",
"There is general consensus that supermassive black holes exist in the centers of most galaxies.",
"Although a black hole itself is black, infalling material forms an accretion disk, which is one of brightest types of object in the universe.",
"* Black-body radiation refers to the radiation coming from a body at a given temperature where all incoming energy (light) is converted to heat.",
"* Black sky refers to the appearance of space as one emerges from Earth's atmosphere.",
"File:NGC 406 Hubble WikiSky.jpg|Image of the NGC 406 galaxy from the Hubble Space Telescope\nFile:Spirit Rover-Mars Night Sky.jpg|The night sky seen from Mars, with the two moons of Mars visible, taken by the NASA Spirit Rover.",
"File:Top of Atmosphere.jpg|Outside Earth's atmosphere, the sky is black day and night.",
"File:Olber's Paradox - All Points.gif|An illustration of Olbers' paradox (see below)\nFile:BH LMC.png|Simulated view of a black hole in front of the Large Magellanic Cloud.",
"====Why the night sky and space are black – Olbers' paradox====\nThe fact that outer space is black is sometimes called Olbers' paradox.",
"In theory, because the universe is full of stars, and is believed to be infinitely large, it would be expected that the light of an infinite number of stars would be enough to brilliantly light the whole universe all the time.",
"However, the background color of outer space is black.",
"This contradiction was first noted in 1823 by German astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers, who posed the question of why the night sky was black.",
"The current accepted answer is that, although the universe is infinitely large, it is not infinitely old.",
"It is thought to be about 13.8 billion years old, so we can only see objects as far away as the distance light can travel in 13.8 billion years.",
"Light from stars farther away has not reached Earth, and cannot contribute to making the sky bright.",
"Furthermore, as the universe is expanding, many stars are moving away from Earth.",
"As they move, the wavelength of their light becomes longer, through the Doppler effect, and shifts toward red, or even becomes invisible.",
"As a result of these two phenomena, there is not enough starlight to make space anything but black.",
"The daytime sky on Earth is blue because light from the Sun strikes molecules in Earth's atmosphere scattering light in all directions.",
"Blue light is scattered more than other colors, and reaches the eye in greater quantities, making the daytime sky appear blue.",
"This is known as Rayleigh scattering.",
"The nighttime sky on Earth is black because the part of Earth experiencing night is facing away from the Sun, the light of the Sun is blocked by Earth itself, and there is no other bright nighttime source of light in the vicinity.",
"Thus, there is not enough light to undergo Rayleigh scattering and make the sky blue.",
"On the Moon, on the other hand, because there is no atmosphere to scatter the light, the sky is black both day and night.",
"This phenomenon also holds true for other locations without an atmosphere.",
"===Biology===\n\nFile:01 Schwarzbär.jpg|American black bear (Ursus americanus) near Riding Mountain Park, Manitoba, Canada\nFile:Dendroaspis polylepis by Bill Love.jpg|The black mamba of Africa is one of the most venomous snakes, as well as the fastest-moving snake in the world.",
"The only black part of the snake is the inside of the mouth, which it exposes in a threat display when alarmed.",
"File:Black Widow 11-06.jpg |The black widow spider, or lactrodectus, The females frequently eat their male partners after mating.",
"The female's venom is at least three times more potent than that of the males, making a male's self-defense bite ineffective.",
"File:Blackleopard.JPG|A black panther is actually a melanistic leopard or jaguar, the result of an excess of melanin in their skin caused by a recessive gene.",
"File:Corvus brachyrhynchos 30196.JPG|The American crow is one of the most intelligent of all animals.",
"In China, the color black is associated with water, one of the five fundamental elements believed to compose all things; and with winter, cold, and the direction north, usually symbolized by a black tortoise.",
"It is also associated with disorder, including the positive disorder which leads to change and new life.",
"When the first Emperor of China Qin Shi Huang seized power from the Zhou Dynasty, he changed the Imperial color from red to black, saying that black extinguished red.",
"Only when the Han Dynasty appeared in 206 BC was red restored as the imperial color.",
"The Chinese and Japanese character for black (''kuro'' in Japanese), can, depending upon the context, also mean dark or evil.",
"In Japan, black is associated with mystery, the night, the unknown, the supernatural, the invisible and death.",
"Combined with white, it can symbolize intuition.",
"In Japan in the 10th and 11th century, it was believed that wearing black could bring misfortune.",
"It was worn at court by those who wanted to set themselves apart from the established powers or who had renounced material possessions.",
"In Japan black can also symbolize experience, as opposed to white, which symbolizes naiveté.",
"The black belt in martial arts symbolizes experience, while a white belt is worn by novices.",
"Japanese men traditionally wear a black kimono with some white decoration on their wedding day.",
"In Indonesia black is associated with depth, the subterranean world, demons, disaster, and the left hand.",
"When black is combined with white, however, it symbolizes harmony and equilibrium.",
"File:Qinshihuang.jpg|The first Chinese Emperor, Qin Shi Huang, made black his imperial color, saying that black extinguished red, the old dynastic color.",
"File:Japanese Wedding Day.jpg| Japanese men traditionally wear a black kimono with some white decoration on their wedding day\n\n\n===Political movements===\n'''Anarchism''' is a political philosophy, most popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which holds that governments and capitalism are harmful and undesirable.",
"The symbols of anarchism was usually either a black flag or a black letter A.",
"More recently it is usually represented with a bisected red and black flag, to emphasise the movement's socialist roots in the First International.",
"Anarchism was most popular in Spain, France, Italy, Ukraine and Argentina.",
"There were also small but influential movements in the United States and Russia.",
"In the latter, the movement initially allied itself with the Bolsheviks.",
"The '''Black Army''' was a collection of anarchist military units which fought in the Russian Civil War, sometimes on the side of the Bolshevik Red Army, and sometimes for the opposing White Army.",
"It was officially known as the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine, and it was under the command of the famous anarchist Nestor Makhno.",
"'''Fascism'''.",
"The Blackshirts () were Fascist paramilitary groups in Italy during the period immediately following World War I and until the end of World War II.",
"The Blackshirts were officially known as the Voluntary Militia for National Security (''Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale'', or MVSN).",
"Inspired by the black uniforms of the Arditi, Italy's elite storm troops of World War I, the Fascist Blackshirts were organized by Benito Mussolini as the military tool of his political movement.",
"They used violence and intimidation against Mussolini's opponents.",
"The emblem of the Italian fascists was a black flag with fasces, an axe in a bundle of sticks, an ancient Roman symbol of authority.",
"Mussolini came to power in 1922 through his March on Rome with the blackshirts.",
"Black was also adopted by Adolf Hitler and the Nazis in Germany.",
"Red, white and black were the colors of the flag of the German Empire from 1870 to 1918.",
"In ''Mein Kampf'', Hitler explained that they were \"revered colors expressive of our homage to the glorious past.\"",
"Hitler also wrote that \"the new flag ... should prove effective as a large poster\" because \"in hundreds of thousands of cases a really striking emblem may be the first cause of awakening interest in a movement.\"",
"The black swastika was meant to symbolize the Aryan race, which, according to the Nazis, \"was always anti-Semitic and will always be anti-Semitic.\"",
"Several designs by a number of different authors were considered, but the one adopted in the end was Hitler's personal design.",
"Black became the color of the uniform of the SS, the ''Schutzstaffel'' or \"defense corps\", the paramilitary wing of the Nazi Party, and was worn by SS officers from 1932 until the end of World War II.",
"The Nazis used a black triangle to symbolize anti-social elements.",
"The symbol originates from Nazi concentration camps, where every prisoner had to wear one of the Nazi concentration camp badges on their jacket, the color of which categorized them according to \"their kind.\"",
"Many Black Triangle prisoners were either mentally disabled or mentally ill.",
"The homeless were also included, as were alcoholics, the Romani people, the habitually \"work-shy,\" prostitutes, draft dodgers and pacifists.",
"More recently the black triangle has been adopted as a symbol in lesbian culture and by disabled activists.",
"Black shirts were also worn by the British Union of Fascists before World War II, and members of fascist movements in the Netherlands.",
"'''Patriotic Resistance'''.",
"The Lützow Free Corps, composed of volunteer German students and academics fighting against Napoleon in 1813, could not afford to make special uniforms and therefore adopted black, as the only color that could be used to dye their civilian clothing without the original color showing.",
"In 1815 the students began to carry a red, black and gold flag, which they believed (incorrectly) had been the colors of the Holy Roman Empire (the imperial flag had actually been gold and black).",
"In 1848, this banner became the flag of the German confederation.",
"In 1866, Prussia unified Germany under its rule, and imposed the red, white and black of its own flag, which remained the colors of the German flag until the end of the Second World War.",
"In 1949 the Federal Republic of Germany returned to the original flag and colors of the students and professors of 1815, which is the flag of Germany today.",
"'''Islamism'''.",
"The Black Standard (, also known as \"banner of the eagle\" or simply as \"the banner\") is the historical flag flown by Muhammad in Islamic tradition, an eschatological symbol in Shi'a Islam (heralding the advent of the Mahdi), and a symbol used in Islamism and Jihadism.",
"File:RPAU flag.svg|The flag of the anarchist Black Army during the Russian Civil War.",
"It says, \"Death to all who stand in the way of freedom for working people.\"",
"File:March on Rome.jpg|Benito Mussolini and his blackshirt followers during his March on Rome in 1922.",
"File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R99621, Heinrich Himmler.jpg|Black uniform of Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS, the military wing of the Nazi Party (1938).",
"File:ShababFlag.svg|Flag of Ansar al-Sharia Islamic movement in Yemen.",
"Variations of the Black Standard are used by Islamists and Jihadists across the Muslim world.",
"===Selected flags containing black===\n\nFile:Banner of the Holy Roman Emperor with haloes (1400-1806).svg|The banner of the Holy Roman Emperor (1400–1806) featured a black eagle, an old Roman emblem and a symbol of power.",
"One head represented the church, the other the state.",
"File:Flag of Belgium (civil).svg|Flag of Belgium (1831).",
"The black came from the banner of the Duchy of Brabant, founded in the 12th century.",
"The flag used the colors of the failed Brabant Revolution of 1789–90 against the Habsburg Monarchy.",
"File:Flag of Hejaz 1917.svg|The Flag of the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire (1917–20), gave its colors to many modern flags in the Middle East.",
"Black was taken from the Black Standard of Muhammad.",
"File:Flag of Germany.svg|(The black in the modern flag of Germany (1949) dates back to the flag of the Holy Roman Empire, the 19th-century flag of the German Confederation, the flag of Prussia, and the flag of the Weimar Republic.",
"File:Flag of Estonia.svg|Flag of Estonia (1918).",
"The flag was a symbol of Estonian nationalism, when Estonia was part of the Russian Empire and Soviet Union.",
"Black was said to symbolize the dark time of occupation, and white the bright future of independence.",
"File:Flag of Egypt.svg|Flag of Egypt (1984).",
"The colors were taken from the Flag of the Arab Revolt, which was the banner of the Egyptian Revolution of 1952.",
"The black came from the Black Standard of Muhammad.",
"File:Flag of South Africa.svg|The Flag of South Africa (1994).",
"The black comes from the flag of the African National Congress, the ruling party in South Africa.",
"=== Military ===\nHussar from Husaren-Regiment Nr.5 (von Ruesch) in 1744 with the Totenkopf on the mirliton (ger.",
"Flügelmütze).",
"Black has been a traditional color of cavalry and armoured or mechanized troops.",
"German armoured troops (Panzerwaffe) traditionally wore black uniforms, and even in others, a black beret is common.",
"In Finland, black is the symbolic color for both armoured troops and combat engineers, and military units of these specialities have black flags and unit insignia.",
"The black beret and the color black is also a symbol of special forces in many countries.",
"Soviet and Russian OMON special police and Russian naval infantry wear a black beret.",
"A black beret is also worn by military police in the Canadian, Czech, Croatian, Portuguese, Spanish and Serbian armies.",
"The silver-on-black skull and crossbones symbol or Totenkopf and a black uniform were used by Hussars and Black Brunswickers, the German Panzerwaffe and the Nazi Schutzstaffel, and U.S. 400th Missile Squadron (crossed missiles), and continues in use with the Estonian Kuperjanov Battalion.",
"===Religion===\n* In Christian theology, black was the color of the universe before God created light.",
"In many religious cultures, from Mesoamerica to Oceania to India and Japan, the world was created out of a primordial darkness.",
"In the Bible the light of faith and Christianity is often contrasted with the darkness of ignorance and paganism.",
"In Christianity, the devil is often called the \"prince of darkness.\"",
"The term was used in John Milton's poem ''Paradise Lost'', published in 1667, referring to Satan, who is viewed as the embodiment of evil.",
"It is an English translation of the Latin phrase ''princeps tenebrarum'', which occurs in the ''Acts of Pilate'', written in the fourth century, in the 11th-century hymn ''Rhythmus de die mortis'' by Pietro Damiani, and in a sermon by Bernard of Clairvaux from the 12th century.",
"The phrase also occurs in ''King Lear'' by William Shakespeare (c. 1606), Act III, Scene IV, l. 14:\n'The prince of darkness is a gentleman.\"",
"Priests and pastors of the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Protestant churches commonly wear black, as do monks of the Benedictine Order, who consider it the color of humility and penitence.",
"* In Islam, black, along with green, plays an important symbolic role.",
"It is the color of the Black Standard, the banner that is said to have been carried by the soldiers of Muhammad.",
"It is also used as a symbol in Shi'a Islam (heralding the advent of the Mahdi), and the flag of followers of Islamism and Jihadism.",
"* In Hinduism, the goddess Kali, goddess of time and change, is portrayed with black or dark blue skin.",
"wearing a necklace adorned with severed heads and hands.",
"Her name means \"The black one\".",
"She destroys anger and passion according to Hindu mythology and her devotees are supposed to abstain from meat or intoxication.",
"Kali does not eat meat, but it is the śāstra's injunction that those who are unable to give up meat-eating, they may sacrifice one goat, not cow, one small animal before the goddess Kali, on amāvāsya (new moon) day, night, not day, and they can eat it.",
"File:BenedictineVespers.jpg|Modern-day monks of the Order of Saint Benedict in New Jersey\n\n\n===Sports===\n* The national rugby union team of New Zealand is called the ''All Blacks'', in reference to their black outfits, and the color is also shared by other New Zealand national teams such as the Black Caps (cricket) and the Kiwis (rugby league).",
"* Association football (soccer) referees traditionally wear all-black uniforms, however nowadays other uniform colors may also be worn.",
"* In auto racing, a black flag signals a driver to go into the pits.",
"* In baseball, \"the black\" refers to the batter's eye, a blacked out area around the center-field bleachers, painted black to give hitters a decent background for pitched balls.",
"* A large number of teams have uniforms designed with black colors—many feeling the color sometimes imparts a psychological advantage in its wearers.",
"Black is used by numerous professional and collegiate sports teams:\n\n;Association football\n\n* A.C. Milan\n* D.C. United\n* Inter Milan\n* New Zealand men's and women's national teams\n* PAOK\n* OFI Crete\n* Newcastle United\n* Notts County\n* Juventus\n* Partizan Belgrade\n* Besiktas\n\n;Major League Baseball\n\n* Arizona Diamondbacks\n* Baltimore Orioles\n* Colorado Rockies\n* Chicago White Sox\n* Miami Marlins\n* Pittsburgh Pirates\n* San Francisco Giants\n\n;National Basketball Association\n\n* Brooklyn Nets\n* Chicago Bulls\n* Miami Heat\n* Minnesota Timberwolves\n* Phoenix Suns\n* Portland Trail Blazers\n* Sacramento Kings\n* San Antonio Spurs\n* Toronto Raptors\n\n;National Football League\n\n* Arizona Cardinals\n* Atlanta Falcons\n* Baltimore Ravens\n* Carolina Panthers\n* Cincinnati Bengals\n* Jacksonville Jaguars\n* New Orleans Saints\n* Oakland Raiders\n* Philadelphia Eagles\n* Pittsburgh Steelers\n\n;National Hockey League\n\n* Anaheim Ducks\n* Boston Bruins\n* Calgary Flames\n* Carolina Hurricanes\n* Chicago Blackhawks\n* Colorado Avalanche\n* Dallas Stars\n* Los Angeles Kings\n* New Jersey Devils\n* Ottawa Senators\n* Philadelphia Flyers\n* Pittsburgh Penguins\n* San Jose Sharks\n\n;Collegiate Teams\n\n* Barry University\n* California State University, Los Angeles\n* University of Central Florida\n* University of Cincinnati\n* University of Colorado Boulder\n* University of Colorado Denver\n* University of Georgia\n* University of Hawaii\n* University of Idaho\n* University of Iowa\n* Johns Hopkins University\n* University of Louisville\n* University of Maryland\n* University of Missouri\n* Oklahoma State University\n* Oregon State University\n* Princeton University\n* Providence University\n* Purdue University\n* San Diego State University\n* University of Tampa\n* Troy University\n\n;Australian Rules Football\n\n* Collingwood\n\n\nFile:All Blacks England.jpg|The All-Blacks of New Zealand play England in 2006.",
"File:Raiders in huddle at Falcons at Raiders 11-2-08 1.JPG|The black uniforms of the Oakland Raiders professional football team matched their \"outlaw\" image.",
"===Idioms and expressions===\nNamesake of the idiom \"black sheep\"\n* In the United States, \"Black Friday\" (the day after Thanksgiving Day, the fourth Thursday in November) is traditionally the busiest shopping day of the year.",
"Many Americans are on holiday because of Thanksgiving, and many retailers open earlier and close later than normal, and offer special prices.",
"The day's name originated in Philadelphia sometime before 1961, and originally was used to describe the heavy and disruptive downtown pedestrian and vehicle traffic which would occur on that day.",
"Later an alternative explanation began to be offered: that \"Black Friday\" indicates the point in the year that retailers begin to turn a profit, or are \"in the black\", because of the large volume of sales on that day.",
"* \"In the black\" means profitable.",
"Accountants originally used black ink in ledgers to indicate profit, and red ink to indicate a loss.",
"* Black Friday also refers to an particularly disastrous day on financial markets.",
"The first Black Friday (1869), September 24, 1869, was caused by the efforts of two speculators, Jay Gould and James Fisk, to corner the gold market on the New York Gold Exchange.",
"* A blacklist is a list of undesirable persons or entities (to be placed on the list is to be \"blacklisted\").",
"* Black comedy is a form of comedy dealing with morbid and serious topics.",
"The expression is similar to black humor or black humour.",
"* A black mark against a person relates to something bad they have done.",
"* A black mood is a bad one (cf Winston Churchill's clinical depression, which he called \"my black dog\").",
"* Black market is used to denote the trade of illegal goods, or alternatively the illegal trade of otherwise legal items at considerably higher prices, e.g.",
"to evade rationing.",
"* Black propaganda is the use of known falsehoods, partial truths, or masquerades in propaganda to confuse an opponent.",
"* Blackmail is the act of threatening someone to do something that would hurt them in some way, such as by revealing sensitive information about them, in order to force the threatened party to fulfill certain demands.",
"Ordinarily, such a threat is illegal.",
"* If the black eight-ball, in billiards, is sunk before all others are out of play, the player loses.",
"* The black sheep of the family is the ne'er-do-well.",
"* To blackball someone is to block their entry into a club or some such institution.",
"In the traditional English gentlemen's club, members vote on the admission of a candidate by secretly placing a white or black ball in a hat.",
"If upon the completion of voting, there was even one black ball amongst the white, the candidate would be denied membership, and he would never know who had \"blackballed\" him.",
"* Black tea in the Western culture is known as \"crimson tea\" in Chinese and culturally influenced languages (紅 茶, Mandarin Chinese ''hóngchá''; Japanese ''kōcha''; Korean ''hongcha'').",
"* \"The black\" is a wildfire suppression term referring to a burned area on a wildfire capable of acting as a safety zone.",
"* Black coffee refers to coffee without sugar or cream.",
"\n===Mourning===\nIn Europe and America, black is the color most commonly associated with mourning and bereavement.",
"It is the color traditionally worn at funerals and memorial services.",
"In some traditional societies, for example in Greece and Italy, some widows wear black for the rest of their lives.",
"In contrast, across much of Africa and parts of Asia like Vietnam, white is a color of mourning and is worn during funerals.",
"In Victorian England, the colors and fabrics of mourning were specified in an unofficial dress code: \"non-reflective black paramatta and crape for the first year of deepest mourning, followed by nine months of dullish black silk, heavily trimmed with crape, and then three months when crape was discarded.",
"Paramatta was a fabric of combined silk and wool or cotton; crape was a harsh black silk fabric with a crimped appearance produced by heat.",
"Widows were allowed to change into the colors of half-mourning, such as gray and lavender, black and white, for the final six months.\"",
"A \"black day\" (or week or month) usually refers to tragic date.",
"The Romans marked ''fasti'' days with white stones and ''nefasti'' days with black.",
"The term is often used to remember massacres.",
"Black months include the Black September in Jordan, when large numbers of Palestinians were killed, and Black July in Sri Lanka, the killing of members of the Tamil population by the Sinhalese government.",
"In the financial world, the term often refers to a dramatic drop in the stock market.",
"For example, the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the stock market crash on October 29, 1929, which marked the start of the Great Depression, is nicknamed Black Tuesday, and was preceded by Black Thursday, a downturn on October 24 the previous week.",
"File:The Dowager Electress Palatine in mourning.jpg|The dowager Electress of Palatine in mourning (1717)\nFile:Pedro II of Brazil and his sisters.jpg|Emperor Pedro II of Brazil and his sisters wearing mourning clothes due to their father's death (1834)\nFile:Queen Victoria by Heinrich von Angeli.jpg|Queen Victoria wore black in mourning for her husband Prince Albert (1899)\n\n\n===Darkness and evil===\nIn western popular culture, black has long been associated with evil and darkness.",
"It is the traditional color of witchcraft and black magic.",
"In the Book of Revelation, the last book in the New Testament of the Bible, the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse are supposed to announce the Apocalypse before the Last Judgment.",
"The horseman representing famine rides a black horse.",
"The vampire of literature and films, such as Count Dracula of the Bram Stoker novel, dressed in black, and could only move at night.",
"The Wicked Witch of the West in the 1939 film ''The Wizard of Oz'' became the archetype of witches for generations of children.",
"Whereas witches and sorcerers inspired real fear in the 17th century, in the 21st century children and adults dressed as witches for Halloween parties and parades.",
"File:Apocalypse vasnetsov.jpg|The biblical Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, including famine riding a black horse (painting by Viktor Vasnetsov, 1887)\nFile:The Goblins' Christmas, 28.JPG|Drawing of a witch from the illustrated book ''The Goblins' Christmas'' by Elizabeth Anderson (1908)\nFile:Bela lugosi dracula.jpg|Count Dracula as portrayed by Bela Lugosi in the 1931 film version\n\nFile:NOLAHalloween2007CtinaWitchClarinet.jpg|Clarinet-playing witch in a New Orleans Halloween parade\n\n\n===Power, authority, and solemnity===\nBlack is frequently used as a color of power, law and authority.",
"In many countries judges and magistrates wear black robes.",
"That custom began in Europe in the 13th and 14th centuries.",
"Jurists, magistrates and certain other court officials in France began to wear long black robes during the reign of Philip IV of France (1285–1314), and in England from the time of Edward I (1271–1307).",
"The custom spread to the cities of Italy at about the same time, between 1300 and 1320.",
"The robes of judges resembled those worn by the clergy, and represented the law and authority of the King, while those of the clergy represented the law of God and authority of the church.",
"Until the 20th century most police uniforms were black, until they were largely replaced by a less menacing blue in France, the U.S. and other countries.",
"In the United States, police cars are frequently Black and white.",
"The riot control units of the Basque Autonomous Police in Spain are known as ''beltzak'' (\"blacks\") after their uniform.",
"Black today is the most common color for limousines and the official cars of government officials.",
"Black evening dress is still worn at many solemn occasions or ceremonies, from graduations to formal balls.",
"Graduation gowns are copied from the gowns worn by university professors in the Middle Ages, which in turn were copied from the robes worn by judges and priests, who often taught at the early universities.",
"The mortarboard hat worn by graduates is adapted from a square cap called a biretta worn by Medieval professors and clerics\n\n\nFile:Supreme Court US 2009.jpg|The United States Supreme Court (2009)\nFile:ICJ-CJI hearing 1.jpg|Judges at the International Court of Justice in the Hague\nFile:LAPD Police Car.jpg|A police car of the Los Angeles Police Department\nFile:Jacob1207b.JPG|American academic dress for a bachelor's degree\n\n\n===Functionality===\nIn the 19th and 20th centuries, many machines and devices, large and small, were painted black, to stress their functionality.",
"These included telephones, sewing machines, steamships, railroad locomotives, and automobiles.",
"The Ford Model T, the first mass-produced car, was available only in black from 1914 to 1926.",
"Of means of transportation, only airplanes were rarely ever painted black.",
"File:Alt Telefon.jpg|Olivetti telephone from the 1940s\nFile:1920 Ford Model T Centerdoor Sedan 2.jpg|A 1920 Ford Model T\nFile:Collection of old phones and PDA-BlackBerry.jpg|The first model BlackBerry (2000)\n\n\n===Ethnography===\n\n* The term \"black\" is often used in the West to describe people whose skin is darker.",
"In the United States, it is particularly used to describe African Americans.",
"The terms for African Americans have changed over the years, as shown by the categories in the United States Census, taken every ten years.",
"* In the first U.S. Census, taken in 1790, just four categories were used: Free White males, Free White females, other free persons, and slaves.",
"* In the 1820 census the new category \"colored\" was added.",
"* In the 1850 census, slaves were listed by owner, and a B indicated black, while an M indicated \"mulatto.\"",
"* In the 1890 census, the categories for race were white, black, mulatto, quadroon (a person one-quarter black); octoroon (a person one-eighth black), Chinese, Japanese, or American Indian.",
"* In the 1930 census, anyone with any black blood was supposed to be listed as \"Negro.\"",
"* In the 1970 census, the category \"Negro or black\" was used for the first time.",
"* In the 2000 and 2012 census, the category \"Black or African-American\" was used, defined as \"a person having their origin in any of the racial groups in Africa.\"",
"In the 2012 Census 12.1 percent of Americans identified themselves as Black or African-American.",
"Black is also commonly used as a racial description in the United Kingdom, since ethnicity was first measured in the 2001 census.",
"The 2011 British census asked residents to describe themselves, and categories offered included Black, African, Caribbean, or Black British.",
"Other possible categories were African British, African Scottish, Caribbean British and Caribbean Scottish.",
"Of the total UK population in 2001, 1.0 percent identified themselves as Black Caribbean, 0.8 percent as Black African, and 0.2 percent as Black (others).",
"In Canada, census respondents can identify themselves as Black.",
"In the 2006 census, 2.5 percent of the population identified themselves as black.",
"In Australia, the term black is not used in the census.",
"In the 2006 census, 2.3 percent of Australians identified themselves as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islanders.",
"In Brazil, the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) asks people to identify themselves as ''branco'' (white), ''pardo'' (brown), ''preto'' (black), or ''amarelo'' (yellow).",
"In 2008 6.8 percent of the population identified themselves as \"preto\".",
"===Black and white===\n* Black and white have often been used to describe opposites; particularly light and darkness and good and evil.",
"In Medieval literature, the white knight usually represented virtue, the black knight something mysterious and sinister.",
"In American westerns, the hero often wore a white hat, the villain a black hat.",
"* In the original game of chess invented in Persia or India, the colors of the two sides were varied; a 12th-century Iranian chess set in the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art, has red and green pieces.",
"But when the game was imported into Europe, the colors, corresponding to European culture, usually became black and white.",
"* Studies have shown that something printed in black letters on white has more authority with readers than any other color of printing.",
"* In philosophy and arguments, the issue is often described as black-and-white, meaning that the issue at hand is dichotomized (having two clear, opposing sides with no middle ground).",
"File:Lone ranger silver 1965.JPG|Heroes in American westerns, like the Lone Ranger, traditionally wore a white hat, while the villains wore black hats.",
"===Black chambers and black ops===\nBlack is commonly associated with secrecy.",
"* The Black Chamber was a term given to an office which secretly opened and read diplomatic mail and broke codes.",
"Queen Elizabeth I had such an office, headed by her Secretary, Sir Francis Walsingham, which successfully broke the Spanish codes and broke up several plots against the Queen.",
"In France a ''cabinet noir'' was established inside the French post office by Louis XIII to open diplomatic mail.",
"It was closed during the French Revolution but re-opened under Napoleon I.",
"The Habsburg Empire and Dutch Republic had similar black chambers.",
"* The United States created a secret peacetime Black Chamber, called the Cipher Bureau, in 1919.",
"It was funded by the State Department and Army and disguised as a commercial company in New York.",
"It successfully broke a number of diplomatic codes, including the code of the Japanese government.",
"It was closed down in 1929 after the State Department withdrew funding, when the new Secretary of State, Henry Stimson, stated that \"Gentlemen do not read each other's mail.\"",
"The Cipher Bureau was the ancestor of the U.S. National Security Agency.",
"* A ''black project'' is a secret military project, such as Enigma Decryption during World War II, or a secret counter-narcotics or police sting operation.",
"* Black ops are covert operations carried out by a government, government agency or military.",
"===Elegance – black and fashion===\nBlack is the color most commonly associated with elegance in Europe and the United States, followed by silver, gold, and white.",
"Black first became a fashionable color for men in Europe in the 17th century, in the courts of Italy and Spain.",
"(See history above).",
"In the 19th century, it was the fashion for men both in business and for evening wear, in the form of a black coat whose tails came down the knees.",
"In the evening it was the custom of the men to leave the women after dinner to go to a special smoking room to enjoy cigars or cigarettes.",
"This meant that their tailcoats eventually smelled of tobacco.",
"According to the legend, in 1865 Edward VII, then the Prince of Wales, had his tailor make a special short smoking jacket.",
"The smoking jacket then evolved into the dinner jacket.",
"Again according to legend, the first Americans to wear the jacket were members of the Tuxedo Club in New York State.",
"Thereafter the jacket became known as a tuxedo in the U.S.",
"The term \"smoking\" is still used today in Russia and other countries.",
"The tuxedo was always black until the 1930s, when the Duke of Windsor began to wear a tuxedo that was a very dark midnight blue.",
"He did so because a black tuxedo looked greenish in artificial light, while a dark blue tuxedo looked blacker than black itself.",
"For women's fashion, the defining moment was the invention of the simple black dress by Coco Chanel in 1926.",
"(See history.)",
"Thereafter, a long black gown was used for formal occasions, while the simple black dress could be used for everything else.",
"The designer Karl Lagerfeld, explaining why black was so popular, said: \"Black is the color that goes with everything.",
"If you're wearing black, you're on sure ground.\"",
"Skirts have gone up and down and fashions have changed, but the black dress has not lost its position as the essential element of a woman's wardrobe.",
"The fashion designer Christian Dior said, \"elegance is a combination of distinction, naturalness, care and simplicity,\" and black exemplified elegance.",
"The expression \"X is the new black\" is a reference to the latest trend or fad that is considered a wardrobe basic for the duration of the trend, on the basis that black is always fashionable.",
"The phrase has taken on a life of its own and has become a cliché.",
"Many performers of both popular and European classical music, including French singers Edith Piaf and Juliette Greco, and violinist Joshua Bell have traditionally worn black on stage during performances.",
"A black costume was usually chosen as part of their image or stage persona, or because it did not distract from the music, or sometimes for a political reason.",
"Country-western singer Johnny Cash always wore black on stage.",
"In 1971, Cash wrote the song \"Man in Black\" to explain why he dressed in that color: \"We're doing mighty fine I do suppose / In our streak of lightning cars and fancy clothes / But just so we're reminded of the ones who are held back / Up front there ought to be a man in black.\"",
"File:The Duke of Windsor (1970).jpg|The Duke of Windsor was the first to wear midnight blue rather than black evening dress, which looked blacker than black in artificial light.",
"File:Anneke Grönloh 1964 Eurovision dress.jpg|A \"simple black dress\" from 1964.",
"File:Édith Piaf 914-6438.jpg|French singer Edith Piaf always wore black on stage.",
"File:Johnny-Cash 1972.jpg|Country-western singer Johnny Cash called himself \"the man in black.\"",
"Image of his performance in Bremen, Northern Germany, in September 1972.",
"File:Joshua Bell Indiana University cropped.jpg|American violinist Joshua Bell wears black on stage.",
"File:Gisele Bündchen at the Fashion Rio Inverno 2006.jpg|Brazilian model Gisele Bündchen at the Fashion Rio Inverno 2006.",
"File:Fabiana Semprebom1.jpg|Model Fabiana Semprebom at New York Fashion Week, 2006",
"\n\n* Black Rose (disambiguation)\n* List of colors\n* Melanophobia\n* Rich black, which is different from using black ink alone, in printing.",
"* Shades of black",
"\n===Notes and citations===\n\n\n===Bibliography===\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Bletchley Park''' was the central site for British codebreakers during World War II. It housed the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS), which regularly penetrated the secret communications of the Axis Powersmost importantly the German Enigma and Lorenz ciphers. According to the official historian of British Intelligence, the \"Ultra\" intelligence produced at Bletchley shortened the war by two to four years, and that without it the outcome of the war would have been uncertain.\n\nLocated in Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire, Bletchley Park is open to the public, and receives hundreds of thousands of visitors annually.\n",
"The stableyard cottages\n\nBletchley Park is opposite Bletchley railway station. It is close to junctions 13 and 14 of the M1. Located northwest of London, the site appears in the Domesday Book as part of the Manor of Eaton. Browne Willis built a mansion there in 1711, but after Thomas Harrison purchased the property in 1793 this was pulled down. It was first known as Bletchley Park after its purchase by Samuel Lipscomb Seckham in 1877. The estate of was bought in 1883 by Sir Herbert Samuel Leon, who expanded the then-existing farmhouse into what architect Landis Gores called a \"maudlin and monstrous pile\" combining Victorian Gothic, Tudor, and Dutch Baroque styles.\n\nIn 1938, the mansion and much of the site was bought by a builder planning a housing estate, but in May 1938 Admiral Sir Hugh Sinclair, head of the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS or MI6), bought the mansion and of land for £6,000, using his own money after the Government said they did not have the budget to do so, for use by GC&CS and SIS in the event of war.\n\nA key advantage seen by Sinclair and his colleagues (inspecting the site under the cover of \"Captain Ridley's shooting party\") was Bletchley's geographical centrality. It was almost immediately adjacent to Bletchley railway station, where the \"Varsity Line\" between Oxford and Cambridgewhose universities were expected to supply many of the code-breakersmet the main West Coast railway line connecting London, Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, Glasgow and Edinburgh. Watling Street, the main road linking London to the north-west (now the A5) was close by, and high-volume communication links were available at the telegraph and telephone repeater station in nearby Fenny Stratford.\n\nBletchley Park was known as \"B.P.\" to those who worked there.\n\"Station X\" (X = Roman numeral ten), \"London Signals Intelligence Centre\", and \"Government Communications Headquarters\" were all cover names used during the war.\nThe formal posting of the many \"Wrens\"members of the Women's Royal Naval Serviceworking there, was to HMS Pembroke V. Royal Air Force names of Bletchley Park and its outstations included RAF Eastcote, RAF Lime Grove and RAF Church Green. The postal address that staff had to use was \"Room 47, Foreign Office\".\n",
"Stephen Kettle's 2007 statue of Alan Turing \n\nCommander Alastair Denniston was operational head of GC&CS from 1919 to 1942, beginning with its formation from the Admiralty's Room 40 (NID25) and the War Office's MI1b. Key GC&CS cryptanalysts who moved from London to Bletchley Park included John Tiltman, Dillwyn \"Dilly\" Knox, Josh Cooper, and Nigel de Grey. These people had a variety of backgroundslinguists and chess champions were common, and in Knox's case papyrology. The British War Office recruited top solvers of cryptic crossword puzzles, as these individuals had strong lateral thinking skills.\n\nOn the day Britain declared war on Germany, Denniston wrote to the Foreign Office about recruiting \"men of the professor type\". Personal networking drove early recruitments, particularly of men from the universities of Cambridge and Oxford. Trustworthy women were similarly recruited for administrative and clerical jobs. In one 1941 recruiting stratagem, ''The Daily Telegraph'' was asked to organise a crossword competition, after which promising contestants were discreetly approached about \"a particular type of work as a contribution to the war effort\".\n\nDenniston recognised, however, that the enemy's use of electromechanical cipher machines meant that formally trained mathematicians would also be needed; Oxford's Peter Twinn joined GC&CS in February 1939; Cambridge's Alan Turing and Gordon Welchman began training in 1938 and reported to Bletchley the day after war was declared, along with John Jeffreys. Later-recruited cryptanalysts included the mathematicians Derek Taunt, Jack Good, Bill Tutte, and Max Newman; historian Harry Hinsley, and chess champions Hugh Alexander and Stuart Milner-Barry. Joan Clarke (eventually deputy head of Hut 8) was one of the few women employed at Bletchley as a full-fledged cryptanalyst. \n\nThis eclectic staff of \"Boffins and Debs\" (scientists and debutantes, young women of high society) caused GC&CS to be whimsically dubbed the \"Golf, Cheese and Chess Society\". During a September 1941 morale-boosting visit, Winston Churchill reportedly remarked to Denniston: \"I told you to leave no stone unturned to get staff, but I had no idea you had taken me so literally.\" Six weeks later, having failed to get sufficient typing and unskilled staff to achieve the productivity that was possible, Turing, Welchman, Alexander and Milner-Barry wrote directly to Churchill. His response was \"Action this day make sure they have all they want on extreme priority and report to me that this has been done.\"\n\nAfter initial training at the Inter-Service Special Intelligence School set up by John Tiltman (initially at an RAF depot in Buckingham and later in Bedfordwhere it was known locally as \"the Spy School\") staff worked a six-day week, rotating through three shifts: 4p.m. to midnight, midnight to 8a.m. (the most disliked shift), and 8a.m. to 4p.m., each with a half-hour meal break. At the end of the third week, a worker went off at 8a.m. and came back at 4p.m., thus putting in sixteen hours on that last day. The irregular hours affected workers' health and social life, as well as the routines of the nearby homes at which most staff lodged. The work was tedious and demanded intense concentration; staff got one week's leave four times a year, but some \"girls\" collapsed and required extended rest. A small number of men (e.g. Post Office experts in Morse code or German) worked part-time.\n\nIn January 1945, at the peak of codebreaking efforts, some 10,000 personnel were working at Bletchley and its outstations. About three-quarters of these were women. Many of the women came from middle-class backgrounds and held degrees in the areas of mathematics, physics and engineering; they were given entry into STEM programs due to the lack of men, who had been sent to war. They performed complex calculations and coding and hence were integral to the computing processes. For example, Eleanor Ireland worked on the Colossus computers.\n\nThe female staff in Dilwyn Knox's section were sometimes termed \"Dilly's Fillies\". \"Dilly's girls\" included Jean Perrin, Clare Harding, Rachel Ronald, and Elisabeth Granger. Jane Hughes processed information leading to the last battle of the ''Bismarck''. Mavis Lever (who married mathematician and fellow code-breaker Keith Batey) made the first break into the Italian naval traffic. She and Margaret Rock solved a German code, the Abwehr break. Their work achieved official recognition only in 2009. \n\nMany of the women had backgrounds in languages, particularly French and German. Rozanne Colchester was a translator who worked at Bletchley from April 1942 until January 1945, mainly for the Italian air forces Section. Like most of the 'Bletchleyettes', she came from the higher middle class, her father, Air Vice-Marshal Sir Charles Medhurst, being an air attaché in Rome. Before joining Bletchley, Colchester was moving in high circles: “she had met Hitler and been flirted with by Mussolini at an embassy party”, writes Sarah Rainey. She joined the Park because she found it thrilling to fight for her country. \n\nCicely Mayhew was recruited straight from university, having graduated from Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford in 1944 with a First in French and German, after only two years. She worked in Hut 8, translating decoded German Navy signals.\n\nRuth Briggs, a German scholar, worked within the Naval Section and was known as one of the best cryptographers; she married Oliver Churchill of the SOE.\n",
"Properly used, the German Enigma and Lorenz ciphers should have been virtually unbreakable, but flaws in German cryptographic procedures, and poor discipline among the personnel carrying them out, created vulnerabilities that made Bletchley's attacks just barely feasible. These vulnerabilities, however, could have been remedied by relatively simple improvements in enemy procedures, and such changes would certainly have been implemented had Germany any hint of Bletchley's success. Thus the intelligence Bletchley produced was considered wartime Britain's \"Ultra secret\"higher even than the normally highest classification and security was paramount.\n\nAll staff signed the Official Secrets Act (1939) and a 1942 security warning emphasised the importance of discretion even within Bletchley itself: \"Do not talk at meals. Do not talk in the transport. Do not talk travelling. Do not talk in the billet. Do not talk by your own fireside. Be careful even in your Hut...\"\n\nNevertheless, there were security leaks. Jock Colville, the Assistant Private Secretary to Winston Churchill, recorded in his diary on 31 July 1941, that the newspaper proprietor Lord Camrose had discovered Ultra and that security leaks \"increase in number and seriousness\". Without doubt, the most serious of these was that Bletchley Park had been infiltrated by John Cairncross, the notorious Soviet mole and member of the Cambridge Spy Ring, who leaked Ultra material to Moscow.\n",
" Flow of information from an intercepted Enigma message\n\nThe first personnel of the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) moved to Bletchley Park on 15 August 1939. The Naval, Military, and Air Sections were on the ground floor of the mansion, together with a telephone exchange, teleprinter room, kitchen, and dining room; the top floor was allocated to MI6. Construction of the wooden huts began in late 1939, and Elmers School, a neighbouring boarding school, was acquired for the Commercial and Diplomatic Sections.\n\nAfter the United States joined World war \n, a number of American cryptographers were posted to Hut 3, and from May 1943 onwards there was close co-operation between British and American intelligence.\n(See 1943 BRUSA Agreement.) In contrast, the Soviet Union was never officially told of Bletchley Park and its activities a reflection of Churchill's distrust of the Soviets even during the US-UK-USSR alliance imposed by the Nazi threat.\n\nThe only direct enemy damage to the site was done 2021 November 1940 by three bombs probably intended for Bletchley railway station; Hut4, shifted two feet off its foundation, was winched back into place as\nwork inside continued. \n",
" Average daily number of Signals to Commands Abroad\nNon-naval Enigma messages were deciphered in Hut 6, followed by translation, indexing and cross-referencing, in Hut 3. Only then was it sent out to the Secret Intelligence Service (MI6), the intelligence chiefs in the relevant ministries, and later on to high-level commanders in the field.\n\nNaval Enigma deciphering was in Hut 8, with translation in Hut 4.\nVerbatim translations were sent only to the Naval Intelligence Division (NID) of the Admiralty's Operational Intelligence Centre (OIC), supplemented by information from indexes as to the meaning of technical terms and cross-references from a knowledge store of German naval technology.\n\nHut 4 also decoded a manual system known as the dockyard cipher, which sometimes carried messages that were also sent on an Enigma network. Feeding these back to Hut8 provided excellent \"cribs\" for Known-plaintext attacks on the daily naval Enigma key.\n",
"\nInitially, a wireless room was established at Bletchley Park.\nIt was set up in the mansion's water tower under the code name \"Station X\", a term now sometimes applied to the codebreaking efforts at Bletchley as a whole. The \"X\" is the Roman numeral \"ten\", this being the Secret Intelligence Service's tenth such station. Due to the long radio aerials stretching from the wireless room, the radio station was moved from Bletchley Park to nearby Whaddon Hall to avoid drawing attention to the site.\n\nSubsequently, other listening stationsthe Y-stations, such as the ones at Chicksands in Bedfordshire, Beaumanor Hall, Leicestershire (where the headquarters of the War Office \"Y\" Group was located) and Beeston Hill Y Station in Norfolkgathered raw signals for processing at Bletchley. Coded messages were taken down by hand and sent to Bletchley on paper by motorcycle despatch riders or (later) by teleprinter.\n",
"The wartime needs required the building of additional accommodation.\n\n===Huts===\nHut 1\nHut 4, adjacent to the mansion, is now a bar and restaurant for the museum.\nHut 6 in 2004\nOften a hut's number became so strongly associated with the work performed inside that even when the work was moved to another building it was still referred to by the original \"Hut\" designation.\n* ''Hut 1'': The first hut, built in 1939 used to house the Wireless Station for a short time, later administrative functions such as transport, typing, and Bombe maintenance. The first Bombe, \"Victory\", was initially housed here.\n* ''Hut 2'': A recreational hut for \"beer, tea, and relaxation\".\n* ''Hut 3'': Intelligence: translation and analysis of Army and Air Force decrypts\n* ''Hut 4'': Naval intelligence: analysis of Naval Enigma and Hagelin decrypts\n* ''Hut 5'': Military intelligence including Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese ciphers and German police codes.\n* ''Hut 6'': Cryptanalysis of Army and Air Force Enigma\n* ''Hut 7'': Cryptanalysis of Japanese naval codes and intelligence.\n* ''Hut 8'': Cryptanalysis of Naval Enigma.\n* ''Hut 9'': ISOS (Intelligence Section Oliver Strachey).\n* ''Hut 10'': Secret Intelligence Service (SIS or MI6) codes, Air and Meteorological sections.\n* ''Hut 11'': Bombe building.\n* ''Hut 14'': Communications centre.\n* ''Hut 15'': SIXTA (Signals Intelligence and Traffic Analysis).\n* ''Hut 16'': ISK (Intelligence Service Knox) Abwehr ciphers.\n* ''Hut 18'': ISOS (Intelligence Section Oliver Strachey).\n\n* ''Hut 23'': Primarily used to house the engineering department. After February 1943, Hut 3 was renamed Hut 23.\n\n===Blocks===\nIn addition to the wooden huts, there were a number of brick-built \"blocks\".\n* ''Block A'': Naval Intelligence.\n* ''Block B'': Italian Air and Naval, and Japanese code breaking.\n* ''Block C'': Stored the substantial punch-card index.\n* ''Block D'': Enigma work, extending that in huts 3, 6, and 8.\n* ''Block E'': Incoming and outgoing Radio Transmission and TypeX.\n* ''Block F'': Included the Newmanry and Testery, and Japanese Military Air Section. It has since been demolished.\n* ''Block G'': Traffic analysis and deception operations.\n* ''Block H'': ''Tunny'' and Colossus (now The National Museum of Computing).\n",
"\n===German signals===\nFile:bp-polish-codebreakers-plaque.jpg|thumb|Bletchley's Polish Memorial, commemorating \"the prewar work of Marian Rejewski, Jerzy Różycki and Henryk Zygalski, mathematicians of the Polish intelligence service, in first breaking the Enigma code. Their work greatly assisted the Bletchley Park code breakers and contributed to the Allied victory in World WarII.\"\n\nMost German messages decrypted at Bletchley were produced by one or another version of the Enigma cipher machine, but an important minority were produced by the even more complicated twelve-rotor Lorenz SZ42 on-line teleprinter cipher machine.\n\nFive weeks before the outbreak of war, Warsaw's Cipher Bureau revealed its achievements in breaking Enigma to astonished French and British personnel. The British used the Poles' information and techniques, and the Enigma clone sent to them in August 1939, which greatly increased their (previously very limited) success in decrypting Enigma messages.\n\nJohn Harper and switched on by the Duke of Kent, patron of the British Computer Society, on 17 July 2008\n\nThe bombe was an electromechanical device whose function was to discover some of the daily settings of the Enigma machines on the various German military networks. Its pioneering design was developed by Alan Turing (with an important contribution from Gordon Welchman) and the machine was engineered by Harold 'Doc' Keen of the British Tabulating Machine Company. Each machine was about high and wide, deep and weighed about a ton.\n\nAt its peak, GC&CS was reading approximately 4,000 messages per day. As a hedge against enemy attack most bombes were dispersed to installations at Adstock and Wavendon (both later supplanted by installations at Stanmore and Eastcote), and Gayhurst.\n\nLuftwaffe messages were the first to be read in quantity. The German navy had much tighter procedures, and the capture of code books was needed before they could be broken. When, in February 1942, the German navy introduced the four-rotor Enigma for communications with its Atlantic U-boats, this traffic became unreadable for a period of ten months. Britain produced modified bombes, but it was the success of the US Navy bombe that was the main source of reading messages from this version of Enigma for the rest of the war. Messages were sent to and fro across the Atlantic by enciphered teleprinter links.\n\nA Mark 2 Colossus computer. The ten Colossi were the world's first (semi-) programmable electronic computers, the first having been built in 1943\n\nThe Lorenz messages were codenamed ''Tunny'' at Bletchley Park. They were only sent in quantity from mid-1942. The Tunny networks were used for high-level messages between German High Command and field commanders. With the help of German operator errors, the cryptanalysts in the Testery (named after Ralph Tester, its head) worked out the logical structure of the machine despite not knowing its physical form. They devised automatic machinery to help with decryption, which culminated in Colossus, the world's first programmable digital electronic computer. This was designed and built by Tommy Flowers and his team at the Post Office Research Station at Dollis Hill. The prototype first worked in December 1943, was delivered to Bletchley Park in January and first worked operationally on 5 February 1944. Enhancements were developed for the Mark 2 Colossus, the first of which was working at Bletchley Park on the morning of 1 June in time for D-day. Flowers then produced one Colossus a month for the rest of the war, making a total of ten with an eleventh part-built. The machines were operated mainly by Wrens in a section named the Newmanry after its head Max Newman.\n\nBletchley's work was essential to defeating the U-boats in the Battle of the Atlantic, and to the British naval victories in the Battle of Cape Matapan and the Battle of North Cape. In 1941, Ultra exerted a powerful effect on the North African desert campaign against German forces under General Erwin Rommel. General Sir Claude Auchinleck wrote that were it not for Ultra, \"Rommel would have certainly got through to Cairo\". While not changing the events, \"Ultra\" decrypts featured prominently in the story of Operation SALAM, László Almásy's mission across the desert behind Allied lines in 1942. Prior to the Normandy landings on D-Day in June 1944, the Allies knew the locations of all but two of Germany's fifty-eight Western-front divisions.\n\n\n===Italian signals===\n\nItalian signals had been of interest since Italy's attack on Abyssinia in 1935.\nDuring the Spanish Civil War the Italian Navy used the K model of the commercial Enigma without a plugboard; this was solved by Knox in 1937.\nWhen Italy entered the war in 1940 an improved version of the machine was used, though little traffic was sent by it and there were \"wholesale changes\" in Italian codes and cyphers.\n\nKnox was given a new section for work on Enigma variations, which he staffed with women (\"Dilly's girls\"), who included Margaret Rock, Jean Perrin, Clare Harding, Rachel Ronald, Elisabeth Granger; and Mavis Lever.\nMavis Lever solved the signals revealing the Italian Navy's operational plans before the Battle of Cape Matapan in 1941, leading to a British victory.\n\nAlthough most Bletchley staff did not know the results of their work, Admiral Cunningham visited Bletchley in person a few weeks later to congratulate them.\n\nOn entering World War II in June 1940, the Italians were using book codes for most of their military messages. The exception was the Italian Navy, which after the Battle of Cape Matapan started using the C-38 version of the Boris Hagelin rotor-based cipher machine, particularly to route their navy and merchant marine convoys to the conflict in North Africa.\nAs a consequence, JRM Butler recruited his former student Bernard Willson to join a team with two others in Hut4. In June 1941, Willson became the first of the team to decode the Hagelin system, thus enabling military commanders to direct the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force to sink enemy ships carrying supplies from Europe to Rommel's Afrika Korps. This led to increased shipping losses and, from reading the intercepted traffic, the team learnt that between May and September 1941 the stock of fuel for the Luftwaffe in North Africa reduced by 90 percent.\nAfter an intensive language course, in March 1944 Willson switched to Japanese language-based codes.\n\nA Middle East Intelligence Centre (MEIC) was set up in Cairo in 1939. When Italy entered the war in June 1940, delays in forwarding intercepts to Bletchley via congested radio links resulted in cryptanalysts being sent to Cairo. A Combined Bureau Middle East (CBME) was set up in November, though the Middle East authorities made \"increasingly bitter complaints\" that GC&CS was giving too little priority to work on Italian cyphers. However, the principle of concentrating high-grade cryptanalysis at Bletchley was maintained. John Chadwick started cryptanalysis work in 1942 on Italian signals at the naval base 'HMS Nile' in Alexandria. Later, he was with GC&CS; in the Heliopolis Museum, Cairo and then in the Villa Laurens, Alexandria.\n\n===Soviet signals===\nSoviet signals had been studied since the 1920s. In 193940, John Tiltman (who had worked on Russian Army traffic from 1930) set up two Russian sections at Wavendon (a country house near Bletchley) and at Sarafand in Palestine. Two Russian high-grade army and navy systems were broken early in 1940. Tiltman spent two weeks in Finland, where he obtained Russian traffic from Finland and Estonia in exchange for radio equipment. In June 1941, when the Soviet Union became an ally, Churchill ordered a halt to intelligence operations against it. In December 1941, the Russian section was closed down, but in late summer 1943 or late 1944, a small GC&CS Russian cypher section was set up in London overlooking Park Lane, then in Sloane Square.\n\n===Japanese signals===\nAn outpost of the Government Code and Cypher School had been set up in Hong Kong in 1935, the Far East Combined Bureau (FECB). The FECB naval staff moved in 1940 to Singapore, then Colombo, Ceylon, then Kilindini, Mombasa, Kenya. They succeeded in deciphering Japanese codes with a mixture of skill and good fortune. The Army and Air Force staff went from Singapore to the Wireless Experimental Centre at Delhi, India.\n\nIn early 1942, a six-month crash course in Japanese, for 20 undergraduates from Oxford and Cambridge, was started by the Inter-Services Special Intelligence School in Bedford, in a building across from the main Post Office. This course was repeated every six months until war's end. Most of those completing these courses worked on decoding Japanese naval messages in Hut 7, under John Tiltman.\n\nBy mid-1945, well over 100 personnel were involved with this operation, which co-operated closely with the FECB and the US Signal intelligence Service at Arlington Hall, Virginia. In 1999, Michael Smith wrote that: \"Only now are the British codebreakers (like John Tiltman, Hugh Foss, and Eric Nave) beginning to receive the recognition they deserve for breaking Japanese codes and cyphers\".\n",
"\n===Continued secrecy===\nAfter the War, the secrecy imposed on Bletchley staff remained in force, so that most relatives never knew more than that a child, spouse, or parent had done some kind of secret war work. Churchill referred to the Bletchley staff as \"the geese that laid the golden eggs and never cackled\". That said, occasional mentions of the work performed at Bletchley Park slipped the censor's net and appeared in print.\n\nWith the publication of F.W. Winterbotham's ''The Ultra Secret'' (1974) public discussion of Bletchley's work finally became possible (though even today some former staff still consider themselves bound to silence) and in July 2009 the British government announced that Bletchley personnel would be recognised with a commemorative badge.\n\n===Site===\nAfter the war, the site passed through a succession of hands and saw a number of uses, including as a teacher-training college and local GPO headquarters. By 1991, the site was nearly empty and the buildings were at risk of demolition for redevelopment.\n\nIn February 1992, the Milton Keynes Borough Council declared most of the Park a conservation area, and the Bletchley Park Trust was formed to maintain the site as a museum. The site opened to visitors in 1993, and was formally inaugurated by HRH The Duke of Kent as Chief Patron in July 1994. In 1999 the land owners, the Property Advisors to the Civil Estate and BT, granted a lease the Trust giving the Trust control over most of the site.\n",
"\n\nJune 2014 saw the completion of an £8 million restoration project, which was marked by a visit from Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge. The Duchess' paternal grandmother, Valerie, and Valerie's twin sister, Mary (née Glassborow), both worked at Bletchley Park during the war. The twin sisters worked as Foreign Office Civilians in Hut 6, where they managed the interception of enemy and neutral diplomatic signals for decryption. Valerie married Catherine's grandfather, Captain Peter Middleton.\n\n===Exhibitions===\nView of the back of the rebuilt Bombe\n* Block C Visitor Centre\n** Secrets Revealed introduction\n** The Road to Bletchley Park. Codebreaking in World War One.\n** Intel Security Cybersecurity exhibition. Online security and privacy in the 21st Century.\n* Block B\n** Operational Bombe Rebuild\n** Lorenz Cipher\n** Alan Turing\n** Enigma machines\n** Japanese codes\n** Home Front exhibition. How people lived in WW2\n* The Mansion\n** Office of Alistair Denniston\n** Library. Dressed as a World War II naval intelligence office\n** The Imitation Game exhibition\n** Gordon Welchman: Architect of Ultra Intelligence exhibition\n* Huts 3 and 6. Codebreaking offices as they would have looked during World War II.\n* Hut 8.\n** Interactive exhibitions explaining codebreaking\n** Alan Turing's office\n** Pigeon exhibition. The use of pigeons in World War II.\n* Hut 11. Life as a WRNS Bombe operator\n* Hut 12. Bletchley Park: Rescued and Restored. Items found during the restoration work.\n* Wartime garages\n* Hut 19. 2366 Bletchley Park Air Training Corp Squadron\n",
"In October 2005, American billionaire Sidney Frank donated £500,000 to Bletchley Park Trust to fund a new Science Centre dedicated to Alan Turing. In July 2008, a letter to The Times from more than a hundred academics condemned the neglect of the site. In September 2008, PGP, IBM, and other technology firms announced a fund-raising campaign to repair the facility. On 6 November 2008 it was announced that English Heritage would donate £300,000 to help maintain the buildings at Bletchley Park, and that they were in discussions regarding the donation of a further £600,000.\n\nIn October 2011, the Bletchley Park Trust received a £4.6m Heritage Lottery Fund grant to be used \"to complete the restoration of the site, and to tell its story to the highest modern standards\" on the condition that £1.7m of 'match funding' is raised by the Bletchley Park Trust. Just weeks later, Google contributed £550k and by June 2012 the trust had successfully raised £2.4m to unlock the grants to restore Huts 3 and 6, as well as develop its exhibition centre in Block C.\n\nAdditional income is raised by renting Block H to the National Museum of Computing, and some office space in various parts of the park to private firms.\n",
"\n===National Museum of Computing===\n\nTony Sale supervising the breaking of an enciphered message with the completed Colossus computer rebuild in 2006\n\nThe National Museum of Computing is housed in Block H, which is rented from the Bletchley Park Trust. Its Colossus and Tunny galleries tell an important part of allied breaking of German codes during World War II. There is a working reconstruction of a Colossus computer that was used on the high-level Lorenz cipher, codenamed ''Tunny'' by the British. \n\nThe museum, which opened in 2007, is an independent voluntary organisation that is governed by its own board of trustees. Its aim is \"To collect and restore computer systems particularly those developed in Britain and to enable people to explore that collection for inspiration, learning and enjoyment.\" Through its many exhibits, the museum displays the story of computing through the mainframes of the 1960s and 1970s, and the rise of personal computing in the 1980s. It has a policy of having as many of the exhibits as possible in full working order.\n\nThe Colossus and Tunny galleries are open daily. The rest of the museum is open to the public every Thursday, Saturday and Sunday afternoons and most bank holidays, and by appointment for groups only, at other times. There are guided tours on Tuesday afternoons. There is a modest admission charge to the museum to help cover overheads.\n\n===National College of Cyber Security=== \n\nThe museum is working with four other organisations, in a group called Qufaro, to create the new college for students between 16 and 19 years of age. It will be located in Block G which was being renovated in 2017 with funding from the Bletchley Park Science and Innovation Centre. (Bletchley Park Trust has no involvement with the college.) The National College of Cyber Security is scheduled to open in 2018.\n\n===RSGB National Radio Centre===\nradio portion of electromagnetic spectrum is currently allocated and utilized on specific frequency bandsThe Radio Society of Great Britain's National Radio Centre (including a library, radio station, museum and bookshop) are in a newly constructed building close to the main Bletchley Park entrance.",
"German U-boat model used in the film ''Enigma'' (2001)\nEnigma'' (2001)\n\n===Film===\n* The film ''Enigma'' (2001), starring Kate Winslet, Saffron Burrows and Dougray Scott, is set in part in Bletchley Park.\n* The film ''The Imitation Game'' (2014), starring Benedict Cumberbatch as Alan Turing, is set in Bletchley Park, and was partially filmed there.\n\n===Literature===\n* Bletchley featured heavily in Robert Harris' novel ''Enigma'' (1995) and its eponymous 2001 film adaptation, although filming was done at nearby Chicheley Hall. (See photograph)\n* A fictionalised version of Bletchley Park is featured in Neal Stephenson's novel ''Cryptonomicon'' (1999).\n* Bletchley Park plays a significant role in Connie Willis' novel ''All Clear'' (2010).\n\n===Radio===\n* The Radio Show ''Hut 33'' is a Situation Comedy set in the fictional 33rd Hut of Bletchley Park.\n\n===Television===\n* The 1979 ITV television serial ''Danger UXB'' featured the character Steven Mount, who was a codebreaker at Bletchley and was driven to a nervous breakdown (and eventual suicide) by the stressful and repetitive nature of the work.\n* In ''Foyle's War'', Adam Wainwright (Samantha Stewart's fiance, then husband), is a former Bletchley Park codebreaker.\n* The Second World War code-breaking sitcom pilot \"Satsuma & Pumpkin\" was recorded at Bletchley Park in 2003 and featured Bob Monkhouse, OBE in his last ever screen role. The BBC declined to produce the show and develop it further before creating effectively the same show on Radio 4 several years later, featuring some of the same cast, entitled ''Hut 33''.\n* Bletchley came to wider public attention with the documentary series ''Station X'' (1999).\n* The 2012 ITV programme, ''The Bletchley Circle'', is a set of murder mysteries set in 1952 and 1953. The protagonists are four female former Bletchley codebreakers, who use their skills to solve crimes. The pilot episode's opening scene was filmed on-site, and the set was asked to remain there for its close adaptation of historiography.\n* Ian McEwan's television play ''The Imitation Game'' (1980) concludes at Bletchley Park.\n* Bletchley Park was featured in the sixth and final episode of the BBC TV documentary ''The Secret War'' (1977), presented and narrated by William Woodard. This episode featured interviews with Gordon Welchman, Harry Golombek, Peter Calvocoressi, F. W. Winterbotham, Max Newman, Jack Good, and Tommy Flowers.\n\n===Theatre===\n* The play ''Breaking the Code'' (1986) is set at Bletchley.\n\n===Video games===\n* Bletchley is featured in a level of the Russian video game ''Death to Spies: Moment of Truth''. The player, a Soviet spy working for SMERSH, is tasked with killing a professor at the park, and stealing a briefcase pertaining to Bletchley's code-breaking of Soviet communications.\n",
"* Women in Bletchley Park\n* Arlington Hall\n* Beeston Hill Y Station\n* Danesfield House\n* Far East Combined Bureau in Hong Kong prewar, then Singapore, Colombo (Ceylon) and Kilindini (Kenya)\n* List of people associated with Bletchley Park\n* List of women in Bletchley Park\n* National Cryptologic Museum\n* Newmanry\n* OP-20-G, the US Navy's cryptanalysis office in Washington, D.C.\n* Testery\n* Wireless Experimental Centre operated by the Intelligence Corps outside Delhi\n* Y-stations\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* in \n* \n* Updated and extended version of ''Action This Day: From Breaking of the Enigma Code to the Birth of the Modern Computer'' Bantam Press 2001\n* in \n* \n* \n* \n*\n* \n* (CAPTCHA) (10-page preview from ''A Century of mathematics in America, Volume 1'' By Peter L. Duren, Richard Askey, Uta C. Merzbach, see http://www.ams.org/bookstore-getitem/item=HMATH-1 ; ).\n* Transcript of a lecture given on Tuesday 19 October 1993 at Cambridge University\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* in \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* in \n* in \n* O'Keefe, David. One Day In August - The Untold Story Behind Canada's Tragedy At Dieppe\", Alfred A. Knopf Canada, 2013, , 471 pgs\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* in \n* \n* in \n* \n* in \n* \n* in \n* New edition with addendum by Welchman correcting his misapprehensions in the 1982 edition.\n\n",
"\n* Bletchley Park Trust\n* \n* Bletchley Park — Virtual Tour — by Tony Sale\n* The National Museum of Computing (based at Bletchley Park)\n* The RSGB National Radio Centre (based at Bletchley Park)\n* (Daily Telegraph 3 March 1997)\n* Boffoonery! Comedy Benefit For Bletchley Park Comedians and computing professionals stage comedy show in aid of Bletchley Park\n* Bletchley Park: It's No Secret, Just an Enigma, The Telegraph, 29 August 2009\n* Bletchley Park is official charity of Shed Week 2010 — in recognition of the work done in the Huts\n* Saving Bletchley Park blog by Sue Black\n* with Sue Black by Robert Llewellyn about Bletchley Park\n* \n* C4 Station X 1999 on DVD here\n* How Alan Turing Cracked The Enigma Code Imperial War Museums\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Site",
"Personnel",
"Secrecy",
" Early work ",
"Intelligence reporting",
"Listening stations",
"Additional buildings",
"Work on specific countries' signals",
"Post war",
"Bletchley Park as a heritage attraction",
"Funding",
"Other organisations sharing the campus",
"In popular culture",
"See also",
"References",
"Bibliography",
"External links"
] | Bletchley Park | [
"The rest of the museum is open to the public every Thursday, Saturday and Sunday afternoons and most bank holidays, and by appointment for groups only, at other times."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n'''Bletchley Park''' was the central site for British codebreakers during World War II.",
"It housed the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS), which regularly penetrated the secret communications of the Axis Powersmost importantly the German Enigma and Lorenz ciphers.",
"According to the official historian of British Intelligence, the \"Ultra\" intelligence produced at Bletchley shortened the war by two to four years, and that without it the outcome of the war would have been uncertain.",
"Located in Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire, Bletchley Park is open to the public, and receives hundreds of thousands of visitors annually.",
"The stableyard cottages\n\nBletchley Park is opposite Bletchley railway station.",
"It is close to junctions 13 and 14 of the M1.",
"Located northwest of London, the site appears in the Domesday Book as part of the Manor of Eaton.",
"Browne Willis built a mansion there in 1711, but after Thomas Harrison purchased the property in 1793 this was pulled down.",
"It was first known as Bletchley Park after its purchase by Samuel Lipscomb Seckham in 1877.",
"The estate of was bought in 1883 by Sir Herbert Samuel Leon, who expanded the then-existing farmhouse into what architect Landis Gores called a \"maudlin and monstrous pile\" combining Victorian Gothic, Tudor, and Dutch Baroque styles.",
"In 1938, the mansion and much of the site was bought by a builder planning a housing estate, but in May 1938 Admiral Sir Hugh Sinclair, head of the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS or MI6), bought the mansion and of land for £6,000, using his own money after the Government said they did not have the budget to do so, for use by GC&CS and SIS in the event of war.",
"A key advantage seen by Sinclair and his colleagues (inspecting the site under the cover of \"Captain Ridley's shooting party\") was Bletchley's geographical centrality.",
"It was almost immediately adjacent to Bletchley railway station, where the \"Varsity Line\" between Oxford and Cambridgewhose universities were expected to supply many of the code-breakersmet the main West Coast railway line connecting London, Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, Glasgow and Edinburgh.",
"Watling Street, the main road linking London to the north-west (now the A5) was close by, and high-volume communication links were available at the telegraph and telephone repeater station in nearby Fenny Stratford.",
"Bletchley Park was known as \"B.P.\"",
"to those who worked there.",
"\"Station X\" (X = Roman numeral ten), \"London Signals Intelligence Centre\", and \"Government Communications Headquarters\" were all cover names used during the war.",
"The formal posting of the many \"Wrens\"members of the Women's Royal Naval Serviceworking there, was to HMS Pembroke V. Royal Air Force names of Bletchley Park and its outstations included RAF Eastcote, RAF Lime Grove and RAF Church Green.",
"The postal address that staff had to use was \"Room 47, Foreign Office\".",
"Stephen Kettle's 2007 statue of Alan Turing \n\nCommander Alastair Denniston was operational head of GC&CS from 1919 to 1942, beginning with its formation from the Admiralty's Room 40 (NID25) and the War Office's MI1b.",
"Key GC&CS cryptanalysts who moved from London to Bletchley Park included John Tiltman, Dillwyn \"Dilly\" Knox, Josh Cooper, and Nigel de Grey.",
"These people had a variety of backgroundslinguists and chess champions were common, and in Knox's case papyrology.",
"The British War Office recruited top solvers of cryptic crossword puzzles, as these individuals had strong lateral thinking skills.",
"On the day Britain declared war on Germany, Denniston wrote to the Foreign Office about recruiting \"men of the professor type\".",
"Personal networking drove early recruitments, particularly of men from the universities of Cambridge and Oxford.",
"Trustworthy women were similarly recruited for administrative and clerical jobs.",
"In one 1941 recruiting stratagem, ''The Daily Telegraph'' was asked to organise a crossword competition, after which promising contestants were discreetly approached about \"a particular type of work as a contribution to the war effort\".",
"Denniston recognised, however, that the enemy's use of electromechanical cipher machines meant that formally trained mathematicians would also be needed; Oxford's Peter Twinn joined GC&CS in February 1939; Cambridge's Alan Turing and Gordon Welchman began training in 1938 and reported to Bletchley the day after war was declared, along with John Jeffreys.",
"Later-recruited cryptanalysts included the mathematicians Derek Taunt, Jack Good, Bill Tutte, and Max Newman; historian Harry Hinsley, and chess champions Hugh Alexander and Stuart Milner-Barry.",
"Joan Clarke (eventually deputy head of Hut 8) was one of the few women employed at Bletchley as a full-fledged cryptanalyst.",
"This eclectic staff of \"Boffins and Debs\" (scientists and debutantes, young women of high society) caused GC&CS to be whimsically dubbed the \"Golf, Cheese and Chess Society\".",
"During a September 1941 morale-boosting visit, Winston Churchill reportedly remarked to Denniston: \"I told you to leave no stone unturned to get staff, but I had no idea you had taken me so literally.\"",
"Six weeks later, having failed to get sufficient typing and unskilled staff to achieve the productivity that was possible, Turing, Welchman, Alexander and Milner-Barry wrote directly to Churchill.",
"His response was \"Action this day make sure they have all they want on extreme priority and report to me that this has been done.\"",
"After initial training at the Inter-Service Special Intelligence School set up by John Tiltman (initially at an RAF depot in Buckingham and later in Bedfordwhere it was known locally as \"the Spy School\") staff worked a six-day week, rotating through three shifts: 4p.m.",
"to midnight, midnight to 8a.m.",
"(the most disliked shift), and 8a.m.",
"to 4p.m., each with a half-hour meal break.",
"At the end of the third week, a worker went off at 8a.m.",
"and came back at 4p.m., thus putting in sixteen hours on that last day.",
"The irregular hours affected workers' health and social life, as well as the routines of the nearby homes at which most staff lodged.",
"The work was tedious and demanded intense concentration; staff got one week's leave four times a year, but some \"girls\" collapsed and required extended rest.",
"A small number of men (e.g.",
"Post Office experts in Morse code or German) worked part-time.",
"In January 1945, at the peak of codebreaking efforts, some 10,000 personnel were working at Bletchley and its outstations.",
"About three-quarters of these were women.",
"Many of the women came from middle-class backgrounds and held degrees in the areas of mathematics, physics and engineering; they were given entry into STEM programs due to the lack of men, who had been sent to war.",
"They performed complex calculations and coding and hence were integral to the computing processes.",
"For example, Eleanor Ireland worked on the Colossus computers.",
"The female staff in Dilwyn Knox's section were sometimes termed \"Dilly's Fillies\".",
"\"Dilly's girls\" included Jean Perrin, Clare Harding, Rachel Ronald, and Elisabeth Granger.",
"Jane Hughes processed information leading to the last battle of the ''Bismarck''.",
"Mavis Lever (who married mathematician and fellow code-breaker Keith Batey) made the first break into the Italian naval traffic.",
"She and Margaret Rock solved a German code, the Abwehr break.",
"Their work achieved official recognition only in 2009.",
"Many of the women had backgrounds in languages, particularly French and German.",
"Rozanne Colchester was a translator who worked at Bletchley from April 1942 until January 1945, mainly for the Italian air forces Section.",
"Like most of the 'Bletchleyettes', she came from the higher middle class, her father, Air Vice-Marshal Sir Charles Medhurst, being an air attaché in Rome.",
"Before joining Bletchley, Colchester was moving in high circles: “she had met Hitler and been flirted with by Mussolini at an embassy party”, writes Sarah Rainey.",
"She joined the Park because she found it thrilling to fight for her country.",
"Cicely Mayhew was recruited straight from university, having graduated from Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford in 1944 with a First in French and German, after only two years.",
"She worked in Hut 8, translating decoded German Navy signals.",
"Ruth Briggs, a German scholar, worked within the Naval Section and was known as one of the best cryptographers; she married Oliver Churchill of the SOE.",
"Properly used, the German Enigma and Lorenz ciphers should have been virtually unbreakable, but flaws in German cryptographic procedures, and poor discipline among the personnel carrying them out, created vulnerabilities that made Bletchley's attacks just barely feasible.",
"These vulnerabilities, however, could have been remedied by relatively simple improvements in enemy procedures, and such changes would certainly have been implemented had Germany any hint of Bletchley's success.",
"Thus the intelligence Bletchley produced was considered wartime Britain's \"Ultra secret\"higher even than the normally highest classification and security was paramount.",
"All staff signed the Official Secrets Act (1939) and a 1942 security warning emphasised the importance of discretion even within Bletchley itself: \"Do not talk at meals.",
"Do not talk in the transport.",
"Do not talk travelling.",
"Do not talk in the billet.",
"Do not talk by your own fireside.",
"Be careful even in your Hut...\"\n\nNevertheless, there were security leaks.",
"Jock Colville, the Assistant Private Secretary to Winston Churchill, recorded in his diary on 31 July 1941, that the newspaper proprietor Lord Camrose had discovered Ultra and that security leaks \"increase in number and seriousness\".",
"Without doubt, the most serious of these was that Bletchley Park had been infiltrated by John Cairncross, the notorious Soviet mole and member of the Cambridge Spy Ring, who leaked Ultra material to Moscow.",
" Flow of information from an intercepted Enigma message\n\nThe first personnel of the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) moved to Bletchley Park on 15 August 1939.",
"The Naval, Military, and Air Sections were on the ground floor of the mansion, together with a telephone exchange, teleprinter room, kitchen, and dining room; the top floor was allocated to MI6.",
"Construction of the wooden huts began in late 1939, and Elmers School, a neighbouring boarding school, was acquired for the Commercial and Diplomatic Sections.",
"After the United States joined World war \n, a number of American cryptographers were posted to Hut 3, and from May 1943 onwards there was close co-operation between British and American intelligence.",
"(See 1943 BRUSA Agreement.)",
"In contrast, the Soviet Union was never officially told of Bletchley Park and its activities a reflection of Churchill's distrust of the Soviets even during the US-UK-USSR alliance imposed by the Nazi threat.",
"The only direct enemy damage to the site was done 2021 November 1940 by three bombs probably intended for Bletchley railway station; Hut4, shifted two feet off its foundation, was winched back into place as\nwork inside continued.",
" Average daily number of Signals to Commands Abroad\nNon-naval Enigma messages were deciphered in Hut 6, followed by translation, indexing and cross-referencing, in Hut 3.",
"Only then was it sent out to the Secret Intelligence Service (MI6), the intelligence chiefs in the relevant ministries, and later on to high-level commanders in the field.",
"Naval Enigma deciphering was in Hut 8, with translation in Hut 4.",
"Verbatim translations were sent only to the Naval Intelligence Division (NID) of the Admiralty's Operational Intelligence Centre (OIC), supplemented by information from indexes as to the meaning of technical terms and cross-references from a knowledge store of German naval technology.",
"Hut 4 also decoded a manual system known as the dockyard cipher, which sometimes carried messages that were also sent on an Enigma network.",
"Feeding these back to Hut8 provided excellent \"cribs\" for Known-plaintext attacks on the daily naval Enigma key.",
"\nInitially, a wireless room was established at Bletchley Park.",
"It was set up in the mansion's water tower under the code name \"Station X\", a term now sometimes applied to the codebreaking efforts at Bletchley as a whole.",
"The \"X\" is the Roman numeral \"ten\", this being the Secret Intelligence Service's tenth such station.",
"Due to the long radio aerials stretching from the wireless room, the radio station was moved from Bletchley Park to nearby Whaddon Hall to avoid drawing attention to the site.",
"Subsequently, other listening stationsthe Y-stations, such as the ones at Chicksands in Bedfordshire, Beaumanor Hall, Leicestershire (where the headquarters of the War Office \"Y\" Group was located) and Beeston Hill Y Station in Norfolkgathered raw signals for processing at Bletchley.",
"Coded messages were taken down by hand and sent to Bletchley on paper by motorcycle despatch riders or (later) by teleprinter.",
"The wartime needs required the building of additional accommodation.",
"===Huts===\nHut 1\nHut 4, adjacent to the mansion, is now a bar and restaurant for the museum.",
"Hut 6 in 2004\nOften a hut's number became so strongly associated with the work performed inside that even when the work was moved to another building it was still referred to by the original \"Hut\" designation.",
"* ''Hut 1'': The first hut, built in 1939 used to house the Wireless Station for a short time, later administrative functions such as transport, typing, and Bombe maintenance.",
"The first Bombe, \"Victory\", was initially housed here.",
"* ''Hut 2'': A recreational hut for \"beer, tea, and relaxation\".",
"* ''Hut 3'': Intelligence: translation and analysis of Army and Air Force decrypts\n* ''Hut 4'': Naval intelligence: analysis of Naval Enigma and Hagelin decrypts\n* ''Hut 5'': Military intelligence including Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese ciphers and German police codes.",
"* ''Hut 6'': Cryptanalysis of Army and Air Force Enigma\n* ''Hut 7'': Cryptanalysis of Japanese naval codes and intelligence.",
"* ''Hut 8'': Cryptanalysis of Naval Enigma.",
"* ''Hut 9'': ISOS (Intelligence Section Oliver Strachey).",
"* ''Hut 10'': Secret Intelligence Service (SIS or MI6) codes, Air and Meteorological sections.",
"* ''Hut 11'': Bombe building.",
"* ''Hut 14'': Communications centre.",
"* ''Hut 15'': SIXTA (Signals Intelligence and Traffic Analysis).",
"* ''Hut 16'': ISK (Intelligence Service Knox) Abwehr ciphers.",
"* ''Hut 18'': ISOS (Intelligence Section Oliver Strachey).",
"* ''Hut 23'': Primarily used to house the engineering department.",
"After February 1943, Hut 3 was renamed Hut 23.",
"===Blocks===\nIn addition to the wooden huts, there were a number of brick-built \"blocks\".",
"* ''Block A'': Naval Intelligence.",
"* ''Block B'': Italian Air and Naval, and Japanese code breaking.",
"* ''Block C'': Stored the substantial punch-card index.",
"* ''Block D'': Enigma work, extending that in huts 3, 6, and 8.",
"* ''Block E'': Incoming and outgoing Radio Transmission and TypeX.",
"* ''Block F'': Included the Newmanry and Testery, and Japanese Military Air Section.",
"It has since been demolished.",
"* ''Block G'': Traffic analysis and deception operations.",
"* ''Block H'': ''Tunny'' and Colossus (now The National Museum of Computing).",
"\n===German signals===\nFile:bp-polish-codebreakers-plaque.jpg|thumb|Bletchley's Polish Memorial, commemorating \"the prewar work of Marian Rejewski, Jerzy Różycki and Henryk Zygalski, mathematicians of the Polish intelligence service, in first breaking the Enigma code.",
"Their work greatly assisted the Bletchley Park code breakers and contributed to the Allied victory in World WarII.\"",
"Most German messages decrypted at Bletchley were produced by one or another version of the Enigma cipher machine, but an important minority were produced by the even more complicated twelve-rotor Lorenz SZ42 on-line teleprinter cipher machine.",
"Five weeks before the outbreak of war, Warsaw's Cipher Bureau revealed its achievements in breaking Enigma to astonished French and British personnel.",
"The British used the Poles' information and techniques, and the Enigma clone sent to them in August 1939, which greatly increased their (previously very limited) success in decrypting Enigma messages.",
"John Harper and switched on by the Duke of Kent, patron of the British Computer Society, on 17 July 2008\n\nThe bombe was an electromechanical device whose function was to discover some of the daily settings of the Enigma machines on the various German military networks.",
"Its pioneering design was developed by Alan Turing (with an important contribution from Gordon Welchman) and the machine was engineered by Harold 'Doc' Keen of the British Tabulating Machine Company.",
"Each machine was about high and wide, deep and weighed about a ton.",
"At its peak, GC&CS was reading approximately 4,000 messages per day.",
"As a hedge against enemy attack most bombes were dispersed to installations at Adstock and Wavendon (both later supplanted by installations at Stanmore and Eastcote), and Gayhurst.",
"Luftwaffe messages were the first to be read in quantity.",
"The German navy had much tighter procedures, and the capture of code books was needed before they could be broken.",
"When, in February 1942, the German navy introduced the four-rotor Enigma for communications with its Atlantic U-boats, this traffic became unreadable for a period of ten months.",
"Britain produced modified bombes, but it was the success of the US Navy bombe that was the main source of reading messages from this version of Enigma for the rest of the war.",
"Messages were sent to and fro across the Atlantic by enciphered teleprinter links.",
"A Mark 2 Colossus computer.",
"The ten Colossi were the world's first (semi-) programmable electronic computers, the first having been built in 1943\n\nThe Lorenz messages were codenamed ''Tunny'' at Bletchley Park.",
"They were only sent in quantity from mid-1942.",
"The Tunny networks were used for high-level messages between German High Command and field commanders.",
"With the help of German operator errors, the cryptanalysts in the Testery (named after Ralph Tester, its head) worked out the logical structure of the machine despite not knowing its physical form.",
"They devised automatic machinery to help with decryption, which culminated in Colossus, the world's first programmable digital electronic computer.",
"This was designed and built by Tommy Flowers and his team at the Post Office Research Station at Dollis Hill.",
"The prototype first worked in December 1943, was delivered to Bletchley Park in January and first worked operationally on 5 February 1944.",
"Enhancements were developed for the Mark 2 Colossus, the first of which was working at Bletchley Park on the morning of 1 June in time for D-day.",
"Flowers then produced one Colossus a month for the rest of the war, making a total of ten with an eleventh part-built.",
"The machines were operated mainly by Wrens in a section named the Newmanry after its head Max Newman.",
"Bletchley's work was essential to defeating the U-boats in the Battle of the Atlantic, and to the British naval victories in the Battle of Cape Matapan and the Battle of North Cape.",
"In 1941, Ultra exerted a powerful effect on the North African desert campaign against German forces under General Erwin Rommel.",
"General Sir Claude Auchinleck wrote that were it not for Ultra, \"Rommel would have certainly got through to Cairo\".",
"While not changing the events, \"Ultra\" decrypts featured prominently in the story of Operation SALAM, László Almásy's mission across the desert behind Allied lines in 1942.",
"Prior to the Normandy landings on D-Day in June 1944, the Allies knew the locations of all but two of Germany's fifty-eight Western-front divisions.",
"===Italian signals===\n\nItalian signals had been of interest since Italy's attack on Abyssinia in 1935.",
"During the Spanish Civil War the Italian Navy used the K model of the commercial Enigma without a plugboard; this was solved by Knox in 1937.",
"When Italy entered the war in 1940 an improved version of the machine was used, though little traffic was sent by it and there were \"wholesale changes\" in Italian codes and cyphers.",
"Knox was given a new section for work on Enigma variations, which he staffed with women (\"Dilly's girls\"), who included Margaret Rock, Jean Perrin, Clare Harding, Rachel Ronald, Elisabeth Granger; and Mavis Lever.",
"Mavis Lever solved the signals revealing the Italian Navy's operational plans before the Battle of Cape Matapan in 1941, leading to a British victory.",
"Although most Bletchley staff did not know the results of their work, Admiral Cunningham visited Bletchley in person a few weeks later to congratulate them.",
"On entering World War II in June 1940, the Italians were using book codes for most of their military messages.",
"The exception was the Italian Navy, which after the Battle of Cape Matapan started using the C-38 version of the Boris Hagelin rotor-based cipher machine, particularly to route their navy and merchant marine convoys to the conflict in North Africa.",
"As a consequence, JRM Butler recruited his former student Bernard Willson to join a team with two others in Hut4.",
"In June 1941, Willson became the first of the team to decode the Hagelin system, thus enabling military commanders to direct the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force to sink enemy ships carrying supplies from Europe to Rommel's Afrika Korps.",
"This led to increased shipping losses and, from reading the intercepted traffic, the team learnt that between May and September 1941 the stock of fuel for the Luftwaffe in North Africa reduced by 90 percent.",
"After an intensive language course, in March 1944 Willson switched to Japanese language-based codes.",
"A Middle East Intelligence Centre (MEIC) was set up in Cairo in 1939.",
"When Italy entered the war in June 1940, delays in forwarding intercepts to Bletchley via congested radio links resulted in cryptanalysts being sent to Cairo.",
"A Combined Bureau Middle East (CBME) was set up in November, though the Middle East authorities made \"increasingly bitter complaints\" that GC&CS was giving too little priority to work on Italian cyphers.",
"However, the principle of concentrating high-grade cryptanalysis at Bletchley was maintained.",
"John Chadwick started cryptanalysis work in 1942 on Italian signals at the naval base 'HMS Nile' in Alexandria.",
"Later, he was with GC&CS; in the Heliopolis Museum, Cairo and then in the Villa Laurens, Alexandria.",
"===Soviet signals===\nSoviet signals had been studied since the 1920s.",
"In 193940, John Tiltman (who had worked on Russian Army traffic from 1930) set up two Russian sections at Wavendon (a country house near Bletchley) and at Sarafand in Palestine.",
"Two Russian high-grade army and navy systems were broken early in 1940.",
"Tiltman spent two weeks in Finland, where he obtained Russian traffic from Finland and Estonia in exchange for radio equipment.",
"In June 1941, when the Soviet Union became an ally, Churchill ordered a halt to intelligence operations against it.",
"In December 1941, the Russian section was closed down, but in late summer 1943 or late 1944, a small GC&CS Russian cypher section was set up in London overlooking Park Lane, then in Sloane Square.",
"===Japanese signals===\nAn outpost of the Government Code and Cypher School had been set up in Hong Kong in 1935, the Far East Combined Bureau (FECB).",
"The FECB naval staff moved in 1940 to Singapore, then Colombo, Ceylon, then Kilindini, Mombasa, Kenya.",
"They succeeded in deciphering Japanese codes with a mixture of skill and good fortune.",
"The Army and Air Force staff went from Singapore to the Wireless Experimental Centre at Delhi, India.",
"In early 1942, a six-month crash course in Japanese, for 20 undergraduates from Oxford and Cambridge, was started by the Inter-Services Special Intelligence School in Bedford, in a building across from the main Post Office.",
"This course was repeated every six months until war's end.",
"Most of those completing these courses worked on decoding Japanese naval messages in Hut 7, under John Tiltman.",
"By mid-1945, well over 100 personnel were involved with this operation, which co-operated closely with the FECB and the US Signal intelligence Service at Arlington Hall, Virginia.",
"In 1999, Michael Smith wrote that: \"Only now are the British codebreakers (like John Tiltman, Hugh Foss, and Eric Nave) beginning to receive the recognition they deserve for breaking Japanese codes and cyphers\".",
"\n===Continued secrecy===\nAfter the War, the secrecy imposed on Bletchley staff remained in force, so that most relatives never knew more than that a child, spouse, or parent had done some kind of secret war work.",
"Churchill referred to the Bletchley staff as \"the geese that laid the golden eggs and never cackled\".",
"That said, occasional mentions of the work performed at Bletchley Park slipped the censor's net and appeared in print.",
"With the publication of F.W.",
"Winterbotham's ''The Ultra Secret'' (1974) public discussion of Bletchley's work finally became possible (though even today some former staff still consider themselves bound to silence) and in July 2009 the British government announced that Bletchley personnel would be recognised with a commemorative badge.",
"===Site===\nAfter the war, the site passed through a succession of hands and saw a number of uses, including as a teacher-training college and local GPO headquarters.",
"By 1991, the site was nearly empty and the buildings were at risk of demolition for redevelopment.",
"In February 1992, the Milton Keynes Borough Council declared most of the Park a conservation area, and the Bletchley Park Trust was formed to maintain the site as a museum.",
"The site opened to visitors in 1993, and was formally inaugurated by HRH The Duke of Kent as Chief Patron in July 1994.",
"In 1999 the land owners, the Property Advisors to the Civil Estate and BT, granted a lease the Trust giving the Trust control over most of the site.",
"\n\nJune 2014 saw the completion of an £8 million restoration project, which was marked by a visit from Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge.",
"The Duchess' paternal grandmother, Valerie, and Valerie's twin sister, Mary (née Glassborow), both worked at Bletchley Park during the war.",
"The twin sisters worked as Foreign Office Civilians in Hut 6, where they managed the interception of enemy and neutral diplomatic signals for decryption.",
"Valerie married Catherine's grandfather, Captain Peter Middleton.",
"===Exhibitions===\nView of the back of the rebuilt Bombe\n* Block C Visitor Centre\n** Secrets Revealed introduction\n** The Road to Bletchley Park.",
"Codebreaking in World War One.",
"** Intel Security Cybersecurity exhibition.",
"Online security and privacy in the 21st Century.",
"* Block B\n** Operational Bombe Rebuild\n** Lorenz Cipher\n** Alan Turing\n** Enigma machines\n** Japanese codes\n** Home Front exhibition.",
"How people lived in WW2\n* The Mansion\n** Office of Alistair Denniston\n** Library.",
"Dressed as a World War II naval intelligence office\n** The Imitation Game exhibition\n** Gordon Welchman: Architect of Ultra Intelligence exhibition\n* Huts 3 and 6.",
"Codebreaking offices as they would have looked during World War II.",
"* Hut 8.",
"** Interactive exhibitions explaining codebreaking\n** Alan Turing's office\n** Pigeon exhibition.",
"The use of pigeons in World War II.",
"* Hut 11.",
"Life as a WRNS Bombe operator\n* Hut 12.",
"Bletchley Park: Rescued and Restored.",
"Items found during the restoration work.",
"* Wartime garages\n* Hut 19.",
"2366 Bletchley Park Air Training Corp Squadron",
"In October 2005, American billionaire Sidney Frank donated £500,000 to Bletchley Park Trust to fund a new Science Centre dedicated to Alan Turing.",
"In July 2008, a letter to The Times from more than a hundred academics condemned the neglect of the site.",
"In September 2008, PGP, IBM, and other technology firms announced a fund-raising campaign to repair the facility.",
"On 6 November 2008 it was announced that English Heritage would donate £300,000 to help maintain the buildings at Bletchley Park, and that they were in discussions regarding the donation of a further £600,000.",
"In October 2011, the Bletchley Park Trust received a £4.6m Heritage Lottery Fund grant to be used \"to complete the restoration of the site, and to tell its story to the highest modern standards\" on the condition that £1.7m of 'match funding' is raised by the Bletchley Park Trust.",
"Just weeks later, Google contributed £550k and by June 2012 the trust had successfully raised £2.4m to unlock the grants to restore Huts 3 and 6, as well as develop its exhibition centre in Block C.\n\nAdditional income is raised by renting Block H to the National Museum of Computing, and some office space in various parts of the park to private firms.",
"\n===National Museum of Computing===\n\nTony Sale supervising the breaking of an enciphered message with the completed Colossus computer rebuild in 2006\n\nThe National Museum of Computing is housed in Block H, which is rented from the Bletchley Park Trust.",
"Its Colossus and Tunny galleries tell an important part of allied breaking of German codes during World War II.",
"There is a working reconstruction of a Colossus computer that was used on the high-level Lorenz cipher, codenamed ''Tunny'' by the British.",
"The museum, which opened in 2007, is an independent voluntary organisation that is governed by its own board of trustees.",
"Its aim is \"To collect and restore computer systems particularly those developed in Britain and to enable people to explore that collection for inspiration, learning and enjoyment.\"",
"Through its many exhibits, the museum displays the story of computing through the mainframes of the 1960s and 1970s, and the rise of personal computing in the 1980s.",
"It has a policy of having as many of the exhibits as possible in full working order.",
"The Colossus and Tunny galleries are open daily.",
"There are guided tours on Tuesday afternoons.",
"There is a modest admission charge to the museum to help cover overheads.",
"===National College of Cyber Security=== \n\nThe museum is working with four other organisations, in a group called Qufaro, to create the new college for students between 16 and 19 years of age.",
"It will be located in Block G which was being renovated in 2017 with funding from the Bletchley Park Science and Innovation Centre.",
"(Bletchley Park Trust has no involvement with the college.)",
"The National College of Cyber Security is scheduled to open in 2018.",
"===RSGB National Radio Centre===\nradio portion of electromagnetic spectrum is currently allocated and utilized on specific frequency bandsThe Radio Society of Great Britain's National Radio Centre (including a library, radio station, museum and bookshop) are in a newly constructed building close to the main Bletchley Park entrance.",
"German U-boat model used in the film ''Enigma'' (2001)\nEnigma'' (2001)\n\n===Film===\n* The film ''Enigma'' (2001), starring Kate Winslet, Saffron Burrows and Dougray Scott, is set in part in Bletchley Park.",
"* The film ''The Imitation Game'' (2014), starring Benedict Cumberbatch as Alan Turing, is set in Bletchley Park, and was partially filmed there.",
"===Literature===\n* Bletchley featured heavily in Robert Harris' novel ''Enigma'' (1995) and its eponymous 2001 film adaptation, although filming was done at nearby Chicheley Hall.",
"(See photograph)\n* A fictionalised version of Bletchley Park is featured in Neal Stephenson's novel ''Cryptonomicon'' (1999).",
"* Bletchley Park plays a significant role in Connie Willis' novel ''All Clear'' (2010).",
"===Radio===\n* The Radio Show ''Hut 33'' is a Situation Comedy set in the fictional 33rd Hut of Bletchley Park.",
"===Television===\n* The 1979 ITV television serial ''Danger UXB'' featured the character Steven Mount, who was a codebreaker at Bletchley and was driven to a nervous breakdown (and eventual suicide) by the stressful and repetitive nature of the work.",
"* In ''Foyle's War'', Adam Wainwright (Samantha Stewart's fiance, then husband), is a former Bletchley Park codebreaker.",
"* The Second World War code-breaking sitcom pilot \"Satsuma & Pumpkin\" was recorded at Bletchley Park in 2003 and featured Bob Monkhouse, OBE in his last ever screen role.",
"The BBC declined to produce the show and develop it further before creating effectively the same show on Radio 4 several years later, featuring some of the same cast, entitled ''Hut 33''.",
"* Bletchley came to wider public attention with the documentary series ''Station X'' (1999).",
"* The 2012 ITV programme, ''The Bletchley Circle'', is a set of murder mysteries set in 1952 and 1953.",
"The protagonists are four female former Bletchley codebreakers, who use their skills to solve crimes.",
"The pilot episode's opening scene was filmed on-site, and the set was asked to remain there for its close adaptation of historiography.",
"* Ian McEwan's television play ''The Imitation Game'' (1980) concludes at Bletchley Park.",
"* Bletchley Park was featured in the sixth and final episode of the BBC TV documentary ''The Secret War'' (1977), presented and narrated by William Woodard.",
"This episode featured interviews with Gordon Welchman, Harry Golombek, Peter Calvocoressi, F. W. Winterbotham, Max Newman, Jack Good, and Tommy Flowers.",
"===Theatre===\n* The play ''Breaking the Code'' (1986) is set at Bletchley.",
"===Video games===\n* Bletchley is featured in a level of the Russian video game ''Death to Spies: Moment of Truth''.",
"The player, a Soviet spy working for SMERSH, is tasked with killing a professor at the park, and stealing a briefcase pertaining to Bletchley's code-breaking of Soviet communications.",
"* Women in Bletchley Park\n* Arlington Hall\n* Beeston Hill Y Station\n* Danesfield House\n* Far East Combined Bureau in Hong Kong prewar, then Singapore, Colombo (Ceylon) and Kilindini (Kenya)\n* List of people associated with Bletchley Park\n* List of women in Bletchley Park\n* National Cryptologic Museum\n* Newmanry\n* OP-20-G, the US Navy's cryptanalysis office in Washington, D.C.\n* Testery\n* Wireless Experimental Centre operated by the Intelligence Corps outside Delhi\n* Y-stations",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* in \n* \n* Updated and extended version of ''Action This Day: From Breaking of the Enigma Code to the Birth of the Modern Computer'' Bantam Press 2001\n* in \n* \n* \n* \n*\n* \n* (CAPTCHA) (10-page preview from ''A Century of mathematics in America, Volume 1'' By Peter L. Duren, Richard Askey, Uta C. Merzbach, see http://www.ams.org/bookstore-getitem/item=HMATH-1 ; ).",
"* Transcript of a lecture given on Tuesday 19 October 1993 at Cambridge University\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* in \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* in \n* in \n* O'Keefe, David.",
"One Day In August - The Untold Story Behind Canada's Tragedy At Dieppe\", Alfred A. Knopf Canada, 2013, , 471 pgs\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* in \n* \n* in \n* \n* in \n* \n* in \n* New edition with addendum by Welchman correcting his misapprehensions in the 1982 edition.",
"\n* Bletchley Park Trust\n* \n* Bletchley Park — Virtual Tour — by Tony Sale\n* The National Museum of Computing (based at Bletchley Park)\n* The RSGB National Radio Centre (based at Bletchley Park)\n* (Daily Telegraph 3 March 1997)\n* Boffoonery!",
"Comedy Benefit For Bletchley Park Comedians and computing professionals stage comedy show in aid of Bletchley Park\n* Bletchley Park: It's No Secret, Just an Enigma, The Telegraph, 29 August 2009\n* Bletchley Park is official charity of Shed Week 2010 — in recognition of the work done in the Huts\n* Saving Bletchley Park blog by Sue Black\n* with Sue Black by Robert Llewellyn about Bletchley Park\n* \n* C4 Station X 1999 on DVD here\n* How Alan Turing Cracked The Enigma Code Imperial War Museums"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\nThe '''Battle of Blenheim''' (German:''Zweite Schlacht bei Höchstädt''; French ''Bataille de Höchstädt''), fought on 13 August 1704, was a major battle of the War of the Spanish Succession. The overwhelming Allied victory ensured the safety of Vienna from the Franco-Bavarian army, thus preventing the collapse of the Grand Alliance.\n\nLouis XIV of France sought to knock Emperor Leopold out of the war by seizing Vienna, the Habsburg capital, and gain a favourable peace settlement. The dangers to Vienna were considerable: the Elector of Bavaria and Marshal Marsin's forces in Bavaria threatened from the west, and Marshal Vendôme's large army in northern Italy posed a serious danger with a potential offensive through the Brenner Pass. Vienna was also under pressure from Rákóczi's Hungarian revolt from its eastern approaches. Realising the danger, the Duke of Marlborough resolved to alleviate the peril to Vienna by marching his forces south from Bedburg and help maintain Emperor Leopold within the Grand Alliance.\n\nA combination of deception and skilled administration – designed to conceal his true destination from friend and foe alike – enabled Marlborough to march unhindered from the Low Countries to the River Danube in five weeks. After securing Donauwörth on the Danube, Marlborough sought to engage the Elector's and Marsin's army before Marshal Tallard could bring reinforcements through the Black Forest. However, with the Franco-Bavarian commanders reluctant to fight until their numbers were deemed sufficient, the Duke enacted a policy of plundering in Bavaria designed to force the issue. The tactic proved unsuccessful, but when Tallard arrived to bolster the Elector's army, and Prince Eugene arrived with reinforcements for the Allies, the two armies finally met on the banks of the Danube in and around the small village of Blindheim, from which the English \"Blenheim\" is derived.\n\nThe battle has gone down in history as one of the turning points of the War of the Spanish Succession. Bavaria was knocked out of the war, and Louis' hopes for a quick victory came to an end. France suffered over 38,000 casualties including the commander-in-chief, Marshal Tallard, who was taken captive to England. Before the 1704 campaign ended, the Allies had taken Landau, and the towns of Trier and Trarbach on the Moselle in preparation for the following year's campaign into France itself.\n",
"By 1704, the War of the Spanish Succession was in its fourth year. The previous year had been one of success for France and her allies, most particularly on the Danube, where Marshal Villars and the Elector of Bavaria had created a direct threat to Vienna, the Habsburg capital. Vienna had been saved by dissension between the two commanders, leading to the brilliant Villars being replaced by the less dynamic Marshal Marsin. Nevertheless, by 1704, the threat was still real: Rákóczi's Hungarian revolt was already threatening the Empire's eastern approaches, and Marshal Vendôme's forces threatened an invasion from northern Italy. In the courts of Versailles and Madrid, Vienna's fall was confidently anticipated, an event which would almost certainly have led to the collapse of the Grand Alliance.\n\nTo isolate the Danube from any Allied intervention, Marshal Villeroi's 46,000 troops were expected to pin the 70,000 Dutch and English troops around Maastricht in the Low Countries, while General de Coigny protected Alsace against surprise with a further corps. The only forces immediately available for Vienna's defence were Prince Louis of Baden's force of 36,000 stationed in the Lines of Stollhofen to watch Marshal Tallard at Strasbourg; there was also a weak force of 10,000 men under Field Marshal Count Limburg Styrum observing Ulm.\n\nBoth the Imperial Austrian Ambassador in London, Count Wratislaw, and the Duke of Marlborough realised the implications of the situation on the Danube. The Dutch, however, who clung to their troops for their country's protection, were against any adventurous military operation as far south as the Danube and would never willingly permit any major weakening of the forces in the Spanish Netherlands. Marlborough, realising the only way to ignore Dutch wishes was by the use of secrecy and guile, set out to deceive his Dutch allies by pretending to simply move his troops to the Moselle – a plan approved of by The Hague – but once there, he would slip the Dutch leash and link up with Austrian forces in southern Germany. \"My intentions\", wrote the Duke from The Hague on 29 April to his governmental confidant, Sidney Godolphin, \"are to march with the English to Coblenz and declare that I intend to campaign on the Moselle. But when I come there, to write to the Dutch States that I think it absolutely necessary for the saving of the Empire to march with the troops under my command and to join with those that are in Germany ... in order to make measures with Prince Lewis of Baden for the speedy reduction of the Elector of Bavaria.\"\n",
"\n===Protagonists march to the Danube===\n:''A scarlet caterpillar, upon which all eyes were at once fixed, began to crawl steadfastly day by day across the map of Europe, dragging the whole war with it.'' – Winston Churchill.\n\nDuke of Marlborough's march from Bedburg (near Cologne) to the Danube. His 250-mile (400-kilometre) march to prevent Vienna falling into enemy hands was a masterpiece of deception, meticulous planning and organisation.\n\nMarlborough's march started on 19 May from Bedburg, north-west of Cologne. The army (assembled by the Duke's brother, General Charles Churchill) consisted of 66 squadrons, 31 battalions and 38 guns and mortars totalling 21,000 men (16,000 of whom were English troops). This force was to be augmented ''en route'' such that by the time Marlborough reached the Danube, it would number 40,000 (47 battalions, 88 squadrons). Whilst Marlborough led his army, General Overkirk would maintain a defensive position in the Dutch Republic in case Villeroi mounted an attack. The Duke had assured the Dutch that if the French were to launch an offensive he would return in good time, but Marlborough calculated that as he marched south, the French commander would be drawn after him. In this assumption Marlborough proved correct: Villeroi shadowed the Duke with 30,000 men in 60 squadrons and 42 battalions.\n\nThe military dangers in such an enterprise were numerous: Marlborough's lines of communication along the Rhine would be hopelessly exposed to French interference, for Louis' generals controlled the left bank of the river and its central reaches. Such a long march would almost certainly involve a high wastage of men and horses through exhaustion and disease. However, Marlborough was convinced of the urgency – \"I am very sensible that I take a great deal upon me\", he had earlier written to Godolphin, \"but should I act otherwise, the Empire would be undone ...\"\nPortrait of the Duke of Marlborough by Adriaen van der Werff (December 1704) Uffizi\n\nWhilst Allied preparations had progressed, the French were striving to maintain and re-supply Marshal Marsin. Marsin had been operating with the Elector of Bavaria against the Imperial commander, Prince Louis of Baden, and was somewhat isolated from France: his only lines of communication lay through the rocky passes of the Black Forest. However, on 14 May, with considerable skill Marshal Tallard managed to bring 10,000 reinforcements and vast supplies and munitions through the difficult terrain, whilst outmanoeuvring Baron Thüngen, the Imperial general who sought to block his path. Tallard then returned with his own force to the Rhine, once again side-stepping Thüngen's efforts to intercept him. The whole operation was an outstanding military achievement.\n\nOn 26 May, Marlborough reached Coblenz, where the Moselle meets the Rhine. If he intended an attack along the Moselle the Duke must now turn west, but, instead, the following day the army crossed to the right bank of the Rhine, (pausing to add 5,000 waiting Hanoverians and Prussians). \"There will be no campaign on the Moselle\", wrote Villeroi who had taken up a defensive position on the river, \"the English have all gone up into Germany.\" A second possible objective now occurred to the French – an Allied incursion into Alsace and an attack on the city of Strasbourg. Marlborough skillfully encouraged this apprehension by constructing bridges across the Rhine at Philippsburg, a ruse that not only encouraged Villeroi to come to Tallard's aid in the defence of Alsace, but one that ensured the French plan to march on Vienna remained paralysed by uncertainty.\n\nWith Villeroi shadowing Marlborough's every move, Marlborough's gamble that the French would not move against the weakened Dutch position in the Netherlands paid off. In any case, Marlborough had promised to return to the Netherlands if a French attack developed there, transferring his troops down the Rhine on barges at a rate of a day. Encouraged by this promise (whatever it was worth) the States General agreed to release the Danish contingent of seven battalions and 22 squadrons as a reinforcement. Marlborough reached Ladenburg, in the plain of the Neckar and the Rhine, and there halted for three days to rest his cavalry and allow the guns and infantry to close up. On 6 June he arrived at Wiesloch, south of Heidelberg. The following day, the Allied army swung away from the Rhine towards the hills of the Swabian Jura and the Danube beyond. At last Marlborough's destination was established without doubt.\n\n===Strategy===\nPrince Eugene of Savoy (1663–1736) by Jacob van Schuppen. Prince Eugene met Marlborough for the first time in 1704. It was the start of a lifelong personal and professional friendship.\n\nOn 10 June, the Duke met for the first time the President of the Imperial War Council, Prince Eugene – accompanied by Count Wratislaw – at the village of Mundelsheim, halfway between the Danube and the Rhine. By 13 June, the Imperial Field Commander, Prince Louis of Baden, had joined them in Großheppach. The three generals commanded a force of nearly 110,000 men. At conference it was decided that Eugene would return with 28,000 men to the Lines of Stollhofen on the Rhine to keep an eye on Villeroi and Tallard and prevent them going to the aid of the Franco-Bavarian army on the Danube. Meanwhile, Marlborough's and Baden's forces would combine, totalling 80,000 men, for the march on the Danube to seek out the Elector and Marsin before they could be reinforced.\n\nKnowing Marlborough's destination, Tallard and Villeroi met at Landau in the Palatinate on 13 June to rapidly construct a plan to save Bavaria but the rigidity of the French command system was such that any variations from the original plan had to be sanctioned by Versailles. The Count of Mérode-Westerloo, commander of the Flemish troops in Tallard's army wrote – \"One thing is certain: we delayed our march from Alsace for far too long and quite inexplicably.\" Approval from Louis arrived on 27 June: Tallard was to reinforce Marsin and the Elector on the Danube via the Black Forest, with 40 battalions and 50 squadrons; Villeroi was to pin down the Allies defending the Lines of Stollhofen, or, if the Allies should move all their forces to the Danube, he was to join with Marshal Tallard; and General de Coignies with 8,000 men, would protect Alsace. On 1 July Tallard's army of 35,000 re-crossed the Rhine at Kehl and began its march.\n\nOn 22 June, Marlborough's forces linked up with Baden's Imperial forces at Launsheim. A distance of had been covered in five weeks. Thanks to a carefully planned time-table, the effects of wear and tear had been kept to a minimum. Captain Parker described the march discipline – \"As we marched through the country of our Allies, commissars were appointed to furnish us with all manner of necessaries for man and horse ... the soldiers had nothing to do but pitch their tents, boil kettles and lie down to rest.\" In response to Marlborough's manoeuvres, the Elector and Marsin, conscious of their numerical disadvantage with only 40,000 men, moved their forces to the entrenched camp at Dillingen on the north bank of the Danube. Marlborough could not attack Dillingen because of a lack of siege guns – he was unable to bring any from the Low Countries, and Baden had failed to supply any despite assurances to the contrary.\n\nAllied assault on the Schellenberg – taken by coup de main on 2 July – provided the Allies with an excellent river crossing.\nThe Allies, nevertheless, needed a base for provisions and a good river crossing. On 2 July, therefore, Marlborough at the Battle of Schellenberg stormed the fortress of Schellenberg on the heights above the town of Donauwörth. Count Jean d'Arco had been sent with 12,000 men from the Franco-Bavarian camp to hold the town and grassy hill but after a ferocious and bloody battle, inflicting enormous casualties on both sides, Schellenberg finally succumbed, forcing Donauwörth to surrender shortly afterwards. The Elector, knowing his position at Dillingen was now not tenable, took up a position behind the strong fortifications of Augsburg.\n\nTallard's march presented a dilemma for Eugene. If the Allies were not to be outnumbered on the Danube, Eugene realised he must either try to cut Tallard off before he could get there or he must hasten to reinforce Marlborough. if he withdrew from the Rhine to the Danube, Villeroi might also make a move south to link up with the Elector and Marsin. Eugene compromised: leaving 12,000 troops behind guarding the Lines of Stollhofen, he marched off with the rest of his army to forestall Tallard.\n\nLacking in numbers, Eugene could not seriously disrupt Tallard's march but the French Marshal's progress was proving pitifully slow. Tallard's force had suffered considerably more than Marlborough's troops on their march – many of his cavalry horses were suffering from glanders and the mountain passes were proving tough for the 2,000 wagons of provisions. Local German peasants, angry at French plundering, compounded Tallard's problems, leading Mérode-Westerloo to bemoan – \"the enraged peasantry killed several thousand of our men before the army was clear of the Black Forest.\" Tallard had insisted on besieging the little town of Villingen for six days (16–22 July) but abandoned the enterprise on discovering the approach of Eugene.\n\nThe Elector in Augsburg was informed on 14 July that Tallard was on his way through the Black Forest. This good news bolstered the Elector's policy of inaction, further encouraging him to wait for the reinforcements. But this reticence to fight induced Marlborough to undertake a controversial policy of spoliation in Bavaria, burning buildings and crops throughout the rich lands south of the Danube. This had two aims: firstly to put pressure on the Elector to fight or come to terms before Tallard arrived with reinforcements; and secondly, to ruin Bavaria as a base from which the French and Bavarian armies could attack Vienna, or pursue the Duke into Franconia if, at some stage, he had to withdraw northwards. But this destruction, coupled with a protracted siege of Rain (9–16 July), caused Prince Eugene to lament \"... since the Donauwörth action I cannot admire their performances\", and later to conclude \"If he has to go home without having achieved his objective, he will certainly be ruined.\" Nevertheless, strategically the Duke had been able to place his numerically stronger forces between the Franco-Bavarian army and Vienna.\n\n===Final positioning===\nManoeuvres before the battle 9–13 August.\n\nMarshal Tallard, with 34,000 men, reached Ulm, joining with the Elector and Marsin in Augsburg on 5 August (although Tallard was not impressed to find that the Elector had dispersed his army in response to Marlborough's campaign of ravaging the region). Also on 5 August, Eugene reached Höchstädt, riding that same night to meet with Marlborough at Schrobenhausen. Marlborough knew it was necessary that another crossing point over the Danube would be required in case Donauwörth fell to the enemy. On 7 August, therefore, the first of Baden's 15,000 Imperial troops (the remainder following two days later) left Marlborough's main force to besiege the heavily defended city of Ingolstadt, farther down the Danube.\n\nWith Eugene's forces at Höchstädt on the north bank of the Danube, and Marlborough's at Rain on the south bank, Tallard and the Elector debated their next move. Tallard preferred to bide his time, replenish supplies and allow Marlborough's Danube campaign to flounder in the colder weeks of Autumn; the Elector and Marsin, however, newly reinforced, were keen to push ahead. The French and Bavarian commanders eventually agreed on a plan and decided to attack Eugene's smaller force. On 9 August, the Franco-Bavarian forces began to cross to the north bank of the Danube.\n\nOn 10 August, Eugene sent an urgent dispatch reporting that he was falling back to Donauwörth – \"The enemy have marched. It is almost certain that the whole army is crossing the Danube at Lauingen ... The plain of Dillingen is crowded with troops ... Everything, milord, consists in speed and that you put yourself forthwith in movement to join me tomorrow, without which I fear it will be too late.\" By a series of brilliant marches Marlborough concentrated his forces on Donauwörth and, by noon 11 August, the link-up was complete.\n\nDuring 11 August, Tallard pushed forward from the river crossings at Dillingen; by 12 August, the Franco-Bavarian forces were encamped behind the small river Nebel near the village of Blenheim on the plain of Höchstädt. That same day Marlborough and Eugene carried out their own reconnaissance of the French position from the church spire at Tapfheim, and moved their combined forces to Münster – from the French camp. A French reconnaissance under the Marquis de Silly went forward to probe the enemy, but were driven off by Allied troops who had deployed to cover the pioneers of the advancing army, labouring to bridge the numerous streams in the area and improve the passage leading westwards to Höchstädt. Marlborough quickly moved forward two brigades under the command of General Wilkes and Brigadier Rowe to secure the narrow strip of land between the Danube and the wooded Fuchsberg hill, at the Schwenningen defile.\n\nTallard's army numbered 56,000 men and 90 guns; the army of the Grand Alliance, 52,000 men and 66 guns. Some Allied officers who were acquainted with the superior numbers of the enemy, and aware of their strong defensive position, ventured to remonstrate with Marlborough about the hazards of attacking; but the Duke was resolute – \"I know the danger, yet a battle is absolutely necessary, and I rely on the bravery and discipline of the troops, which will make amends for our disadvantages\". Marlborough and Eugene decided to risk everything, and agreed to attack on the following day.\n",
"\n\n===The battlefield===\nThe battlefield stretched for nearly . The extreme right flank of the Franco-Bavarian army was covered by the Danube; to the extreme left flank lay the undulating pine-covered hills of the Swabian Jura. A small stream, the Nebel, (the ground either side of which was soft and marshy and only fordable intermittently), fronted the French line. The French right rested on the village of Blenheim near where the Nebel flows into the Danube; the village itself was surrounded by hedges, fences, enclosed gardens, and meadows. Between Blenheim and the next village of Oberglauheim the fields of wheat had been cut to stubble and were now ideal to deploy troops. From Oberglauheim to the next hamlet of Lutzingen the terrain of ditches, thickets and brambles was potentially difficult ground for the attackers.\n\n===Initial manoeuvres===\nThe position of the forces at noon, 13 August. Marlborough took control of the left arm of the Allied forces including the attacks on Blenheim and Oberglauheim, whilst Eugene commanded the right including the attacks on Lutzingen.\n\nAt 02:00 on 13 August, 40 squadrons were sent forward towards the enemy, followed at 03:00, in eight columns, by the main Allied force pushing over the Kessel. At about 06:00 they reached Schwenningen, from Blenheim. The English and German troops who had held Schwenningen through the night joined the march, making a ninth column on the left of the army. Marlborough and Eugene made their final plans. The Allied commanders agreed that Marlborough would command 36,000 troops and attack Tallard's force of 33,000 on the left (including capturing the village of Blenheim), whilst Eugene, commanding 16,000 men would attack the Elector and Marsin's combined forces of 23,000 troops on the right wing; if this attack was pressed hard the Elector and Marsin would have no troops to send to aid Tallard on their right. Lieutenant-General John Cutts would attack Blenheim in concert with Eugene's attack. With the French flanks busy, Marlborough could cross the Nebel and deliver the fatal blow to the French at their centre. However, Marlborough would have to wait until Eugene was in position before the general engagement could begin.\n\nThe last thing Tallard expected that morning was to be attacked by the Allies – deceived by intelligence gathered from prisoners taken by de Silly the previous day, and assured in their strong natural position, Tallard and his colleagues were convinced that Marlborough and Eugene were about to retreat north-eastwards towards Nördlingen. Tallard wrote a report to this effect to King Louis that morning, but hardly had he sent the messenger when the Allied army began to appear opposite his camp. \"I could see the enemy advancing ever closer in nine great columns\", wrote Mérode-Westerloo, \" ... filling the whole plain from the Danube to the woods on the horizon.\" Signal guns were fired to bring in the foraging parties and picquets as the French and Bavarian troops tried to draw into battle-order to face the unexpected threat.\n\nAt about 08:00 the French artillery on their right wing opened fire, answered by Colonel Blood's batteries. The guns were heard by Baden in his camp before Ingolstadt, \"The Prince and the Duke are engaged today to the westward\", he wrote to the Emperor. \"Heaven bless them.\" An hour later Tallard, the Elector, and Marsin climbed Blenheim's church tower to finalise their plans. It was settled that the Elector and Marsin would hold the front from the hills to Oberglauheim, whilst Tallard would defend the ground between Oberglauheim and the Danube. The French commanders were, however, divided as to how to utilise the Nebel: Tallard's tactic – opposed by Marsin and the Elector who felt it better to close their infantry right up to the stream itself – was to lure the allies across before unleashing their cavalry upon them, causing panic and confusion; whilst the enemy was struggling in the marshes, they would be caught in crossfire from Blenheim and Oberglauheim. The plan was sound if all its parts were implemented, but it allowed Marlborough to cross the Nebel without serious interference and fight the battle he had in mind.\n\n===Deployment===\nThe Battle of Blenheim by Huchtenburg\nThe Franco-Bavarian commanders deployed their forces. In the village of Lutzingen, Count Maffei positioned five Bavarian battalions with a great battery of 16 guns at the village's edge. In the woods to the left of Lutzingen, seven French battalions under the Marquis de Rozel moved into place. Between Lutzingen and Oberglauheim the Elector placed 27 squadrons of cavalry – Count d'Arco commanded 14 Bavarian squadrons and Count Wolframsdorf had 13 more in support nearby. To their right stood Marsin's 40 French squadrons and 12 battalions. The village of Oberglauheim was packed with 14 battalions commanded by the Marquis de Blainville (including the effective Irish Brigade known as the 'Wild Geese'). Six batteries of guns were ranged alongside the village. On the right of these French and Bavarian positions, between Oberglauheim and Blenheim, Tallard deployed 64 French and Walloon squadrons (16 drawn from Marsin) supported by nine French battalions standing near the Höchstädt road. In the cornfield next to Blenheim stood three battalions from the Regiment de Roi. Nine battalions occupied the village itself, commanded by the Marquis de Clérambault. Four battalions stood to the rear and a further 11 were in reserve. These battalions were supported by Hautefeuille's 12 squadrons of dismounted dragoons. By 11:00 Tallard, the Elector, and Marsin were in place. Many of the Allied generals were hesitant to attack such a relatively strong position. The Earl of Orkney later confessed that, \"had I been asked to give my opinion, I had been against it.\"\n\nPrince Eugene was expected to be in position by 11:00, but due to the difficult terrain and enemy fire, progress was slow. Lord Cutts' column – who by 10:00 had expelled the enemy from two water mills upon the Nebel – had already deployed by the river against Blenheim, enduring over the next three hours severe fire from a heavy six-gun battery posted near the village. The rest of Marlborough's army, waiting in their ranks on the forward slope, were also forced to bear the cannonade from the French artillery, suffering 2,000 casualties before the attack could even start. Meanwhile, engineers repaired a stone bridge across the Nebel, and constructed five additional bridges or causeways across the marsh between Blenheim and Oberglauheim. Marlborough's anxiety was finally allayed when, just past noon, Colonel Cadogan reported that Eugene's Prussian and Danish infantry were in place – the order for the general advance was given. At 13:00, Cutts was ordered to attack the village of Blenheim whilst Prince Eugene was requested to assault Lutzingen on the Allied right flank.\n\n===Blenheim===\nPart of the Battle of Blenheim tapestry at Blenheim Palace by Judocus de Vos. In the background is the village of Blenheim; in the middle ground are the two water mills that Rowe had to take to gain a bridgehead over the Nebel. The foreground shows an English grenadier with a captured French colour.\n\nCutts ordered Brigadier-General Archibald Rowe's brigade to attack. The English infantry rose from the edge of the Nebel, and silently marched towards Blenheim, a distance of some . John Ferguson's Scottish brigade supported Rowe's left, and moved in perfect order towards the barricades between the village and the river, defended by Hautefeuille's dragoons. As the range closed to within , the French fired a deadly volley. Rowe had ordered that there should be no firing from his men until he struck his sword upon the palisades, but as he stepped forward to give the signal, he fell mortally wounded. The survivors of the leading companies closed up the gaps in their torn ranks and rushed forward. Small parties penetrated the defences, but repeated French volleys forced the English back towards the Nebel, sustaining heavy casualties. As the attack faltered, eight squadrons of elite Gens d'Armes, commanded by the veteran Swiss officer, Beat-Jacques von Zurlauben, fell upon the English troops, cutting at the exposed flank of Rowe's own regiment. However, Wilkes' Hessian brigade, lying nearby in the marshy grass at the water's edge, stood firm and repulsed the Gens d'Armes with steady fire, enabling the English and Hessians to re-order and launch another attack.\n\nAlthough the Allies were again repulsed, these persistent attacks on Blenheim eventually bore fruit, panicking Clérambault into making the worst French error of the day. Without consulting Tallard, Clérambault ordered his reserve battalions into the village, upsetting the balance of the French position and nullifying the French numerical superiority. \"The men were so crowded in upon one another\", wrote Mérode-Westerloo, \"that they couldn't even fire – let alone receive or carry out any orders.\" Marlborough, spotting this error, now countermanded Cutts' intention to launch a third attack, and ordered him simply to contain the enemy within Blenheim; no more than 5,000 Allied soldiers were able to pen in twice the number of French infantry and dragoons.\n\n===Lutzingen===\n:'' ... Prince Eugene and the Imperial troops had been repulsed three times – driven right back to the woods – and had taken a real drubbing.'' – Mérode-Westerloo.\nMemorial for the Battle of Blenheim 1704, Lutzingen, Germany.\n\nOn the Allied right, Eugene's Prussian and Danish forces were desperately fighting the numerically superior forces of the Elector and Marsin. The Prince of Anhalt-Dessau led forward four brigades across the Nebel to assault the well-fortified position of Lutzingen. Here, the Nebel was less of an obstacle, but the great battery positioned on the edge of the village enjoyed a good field of fire across the open ground stretching to the hamlet of Schwennenbach. As soon as the infantry crossed the stream, they were struck by Maffei's infantry, and salvoes from the Bavarian guns positioned both in front of the village and in enfilade on the wood-line to the right. Despite heavy casualties the Prussians attempted to storm the great battery, whilst the Danes, under Count Scholten, attempted to drive the French infantry out of the copses beyond the village.\n\nWith the infantry heavily engaged, Eugene's cavalry picked its way across the Nebel. After an initial success, his first line of cavalry, under the Imperial General of Horse, Prince Maximilian of Hanover, were pressed by the second line of Marsin's cavalry, and were forced back across the Nebel in confusion. Nevertheless, the exhausted French were unable to follow up their advantage, and the two cavalry forces tried to regroup and reorder their ranks. However, without cavalry support, and threatened with envelopment, the Prussian and Danish infantry were in turn forced to pull back across the Nebel. Panic gripped some of Eugene's troops as they crossed the stream. Ten infantry colours were lost to the Bavarians, and hundreds of prisoners taken; it was only through the leadership of Eugene and the Prussian Prince that the imperial infantry were prevented from abandoning the field.\n\nAfter rallying his troops near Schwennenbach – well beyond their starting point – Eugene prepared to launch a second attack, led by the second-line squadrons under the Duke of Württemberg-Teck. Yet again they were caught in the murderous cross-fire from the artillery in Lutzingen and Oberglauheim, and were once again thrown back in disarray. The French and Bavarians, however, were almost as disordered as their opponents, and they too were in need of inspiration from their commander, the Elector, who was seen – \" ... riding up and down, and inspiring his men with fresh courage.\" Anhalt-Dessau's Danish and Prussian infantry attacked a second time but could not sustain the advance without proper support. Once again they fell back across the stream.\n\n===Centre and Oberglauheim===\nThe Battle of Blenheim by Joshua Ross\n:'' ... they began to pass the marshes and the Nebel as fast as the badness of the ground would permit them.'' – Churchill's chaplain.\n\nWhilst these events around Blenheim and Lutzingen were taking place, Marlborough was preparing to cross the Nebel. The centre, commanded by the Duke's brother, General Charles Churchill, consisted of 18 battalions of infantry arranged in two lines: seven battalions in the front line to secure a foothold across the Nebel, and 11 battalions in the rear providing cover from the Allied side of the stream. Between the infantry were placed two lines, 72 squadrons of cavalry. The first line of foot was to pass the stream first and march as far to the other side as could be conveniently done. This line would then form and cover the passage of the horse, leaving gaps in the line of infantry large enough for the cavalry to pass through and take their position in front.\n\nMarshal Tallard (1652–1728). He has been criticized for allowing Clérambault to maintain a force of infantry in Blenheim so large that it denied the main army manpower it needed.\n\nMarlborough ordered the formation forward. Once again Zurlauben's Gens d'Armes charged, looking to rout Lumley's English cavalry who linked Cutts' column facing Blenheim with Churchill's infantry. As these elite French cavalry attacked, they were faced by five English squadrons under Colonel Francis Palmes. To the consternation of the French, the Gens d'Armes were pushed back in terrible confusion, pursued well beyond the Maulweyer stream that flows through Blenheim. \"What? Is it possible?\" exclaimed the Elector, \"the gentlemen of France fleeing?\" Palmes, however, attempted to follow up his success but was repulsed in some confusion by other French cavalry, and musketry fire from the edge of Blenheim.\n\nNevertheless, Tallard was alarmed by the repulse of the elite Gens d'Armes and urgently rode across the field to ask Marsin for reinforcements; but on the basis of being hard pressed by Eugene – whose second attack was in full flood – Marsin refused. As Tallard consulted with Marsin, more of his infantry was being taken into Blenheim by Clérambault. Fatally, Tallard, aware of the situation, did nothing to rectify this grave mistake, leaving him with just the nine battalions of infantry near the Höchstädt road\nto oppose the massed enemy ranks in the centre. Zurlauben tried several more times to disrupt the Allies forming on Tallard's side of the stream; his front-line cavalry darting forward down the gentle slope towards the Nebel. But the attacks lacked co-ordination, and the Allied infantry's steady volleys disconcerted the French horsemen. During these skirmishes Zurlauben fell mortally wounded, and died two days later. The time was just after 15:00.\n\nThe Danish cavalry, under the Duke of Württemberg-Neuenstadt (not to be confused with the Duke of Württemberg who fought with Eugene), had made slow work of crossing the Nebel near Oberglau; harassed by Marsin's infantry near the village, the Danes were driven back across the stream. Count Horn's Dutch infantry managed to push the French back from the water's edge, but it was apparent that before Marlborough could launch his main effort against Tallard, Oberglauheim would have to be secured.\nOberglauheim.\nCount Horn directed the Prince of Holstein-Beck to take the village, but his two Dutch brigades were cut down by the French and Irish troops, capturing and badly wounding the Prince during the action. The battle was now in the balance. If Holstein-Beck's Dutch column were destroyed, the Allied army would be split in two: Eugene's wing would be isolated from Marlborough's, passing the initiative to the Franco-Bavarian forces now engaged across the whole plain. Seeing the opportunity, Marsin ordered his cavalry to change from facing Eugene, and turn towards their right and the open flank of Churchill's infantry drawn up in front of Unterglau. Marlborough (who had crossed the Nebel on a makeshift bridge to take personal control), ordered Hulsen's Hanoverian battalions to support the Dutch infantry. A Dutch cavalry brigade under Averock was also called forward but soon came under pressure from Marsin's more numerous squadrons.\n\nMarlborough now requested Eugene to release Count Hendrick Fugger and his Imperial Cuirassier brigade to help repel the French cavalry thrust. Despite his own desperate struggle, the Imperial Prince at once complied, demonstrating the high degree of confidence and mutual co-operation between the two generals. Although the Nebel stream lay between Fugger's and Marsin's squadrons, the French were forced to change front to meet this new threat, thus forestalling the chance for Marsin to strike at Marlborough's infantry. Fugger's cuirassiers charged and, striking at a favourable angle, threw back Marsin's squadrons in disorder. With support from Colonel Blood's batteries, the Hessian, Hanoverian and Dutch infantry – now commanded by Count Berensdorf – succeeded in pushing the French and Irish infantry back into Oberglauheim so that they could not again threaten Churchill's flank as he moved against Tallard. The French commander in the village, the Marquis de Blainville, numbered amongst the heavy casualties.\n\n===Breakthrough===\n:''The French foot remained in the best order I ever saw, till they were cut to pieces almost in rank and file.'' – Lord Orkney.\nBreakthrough: Position of the battle at 17:30.\n\nBy 16:00, with the Franco-Bavarian troops besieged in Blenheim and Oberglau, the Allied centre of 81 squadrons (nine squadrons had been transferred from Cutts' column), supported by 18 battalions was firmly planted amidst the French line of 64 squadrons and nine battalions of raw recruits. There was now a pause in the battle: Marlborough wanted to concert the attack upon the whole front, and Eugene, after his second repulse, needed time to reorganize.\n\nJust after 17:00 all was ready along the Allied front. Marlborough's two lines of cavalry had now moved to the front of the Duke's line of battle, with the two supporting lines of infantry behind them. Mérode-Westerloo attempted to extricate some French infantry crowded in Blenheim, but Clérambault ordered the troops back into the village. The French cavalry exerted themselves once more against the first line – Lumley's English and Scots on the Allied left, and Hompesch's Dutch and German squadrons on the Allied right. Tallard's squadrons, lacking infantry support, were tired and ragged but managed to push the Allied first line back to their infantry support. With the battle still not won, Marlborough had to rebuke one of his cavalry officers who was attempting to leave the field – \"Sir, you are under a mistake, the enemy lies that way ...\" Now, at the Duke's command, the second Allied line under Cuno Josua von Bülow and Bothmer was ordered forward, and, driving through the centre, the Allies finally put Tallard's tired horse to rout, not without cost. The Prussian Life Dragoons' Colonel, Ludwig von Blumenthal, and his 2nd in command, Lt. Col. von Hacke, fell next to each other. But the charge succeeded and with their cavalry in headlong flight, the remaining nine French infantry battalions fought with desperate valour, trying to form square. But it was futile. The French battalions were overwhelmed by Colonel Blood's close-range artillery and platoon fire. Mérode-Westerloo later wrote – \"They died to a man where they stood, stationed right out in the open plain – supported by nobody.\"\n\nThe majority of Tallard's retreating troops headed for Höchstädt but most did not make the safety of the town, plunging instead into the Danube where upwards of 3,000 French horsemen drowned; others were cut down by the pursuing cavalry. The Marquis de Gruignan attempted a counter-attack, but he was easily brushed aside by the triumphant Allies. After a final rally behind his camp's tents, shouting entreaties to stand and fight, Marshal Tallard was caught up in the rout and pushed towards Sonderheim. Surrounded by a squadron of Hessian troops, Tallard surrendered to Lieutenant-Colonel de Boinenburg, the Prince of Hesse-Kassel's ''aide-de-camp'', and was sent under escort to Marlborough. The Duke welcomed the French commander – \"I am very sorry that such a cruel misfortune should have fallen upon a soldier for whom I have the highest regard.\" With salutes and courtesies, the Marshal was escorted to Marlborough's coach.\n\n===Fall of Blenheim===\nThe Battle of Blenheim by John Wootton\n:'' ... our men fought in and through the fire ... until many on both sides were burned to death.'' – Private Deane, 1st Regiment Foot Guards.\n\nMeanwhile, the Allies had once again attacked the Bavarian stronghold at Lutzingen.\nEugene, however, became exasperated with the performance of his Imperial cavalry whose third attack had failed: he had already shot two of his troopers to prevent a general flight. Then, declaring in disgust that he wished to \"fight among brave men and not among cowards\", Eugene went into the attack with the Prussian and Danish infantry, as did the Dessauer, waving a regimental colour to inspire his troops. This time the Prussians were able to storm the great Bavarian battery, and overwhelm the guns' crews. Beyond the village, Scholten's Danes defeated the French infantry in a desperate hand-to-hand bayonet struggle. When they saw that the centre had broken, the Elector and Marsin decided the battle was lost and, like the remnants of Tallard's army, fled the battlefield (albeit in better order than Tallard's men). Attempts to organise an Allied force to prevent Marsin's withdrawal failed owing to the exhaustion of the cavalry, and the growing confusion in the field.\n\nPursuit\nMarlborough now had to turn his attention from the fleeing enemy to direct Churchill to detach more infantry to storm Blenheim. Orkney's infantry, Hamilton's English brigade and St Paul's Hanoverians moved across the trampled wheat to the cottages. Fierce hand-to-hand fighting gradually forced the French towards the village centre, in and around the walled churchyard which had been prepared for defence. Hay and Ross's dismounted dragoons were also sent, but suffered under a counter-charge delivered by the regiments of Artois and Provence under command of Colonel de la Silvière. Colonel Belville's Hanoverians were fed into the battle to steady the resolve of the dragoons, and once more went to the attack. The Allied progress was slow and hard, and like the defenders, they suffered many casualties.\n\nMany of the cottages were now burning, obscuring the field of fire and driving the defenders out of their positions. Hearing the din of battle in Blenheim, Tallard sent a message to Marlborough offering to order the garrison to withdraw from the field.\n\"Inform Monsieur Tallard\", replied the Duke, \"that, in the position in which he is now, he has no command.\" Nevertheless, as dusk came the Allied commander was anxious for a quick conclusion. The French infantry fought tenaciously to hold on to their position in Blenheim, but their commander was nowhere to be found. Clérambault's insistence on confining his huge force in the village was to seal his fate that day. Realising his tactical mistake had contributed to Tallard's defeat in the centre, Clérambault deserted Blenheim and the 27 battalions defending the village, and reportedly drowned in the Danube while attempting to make his escape.\n\nDiorama of the battle in the Höchstädt museum. In the middle ground the Allied cavalry are breaking through, pushing Tallard's squadrons from the battlefield. The foreground depicts the fierce fighting in and around Blenheim.\n\nBy now Blenheim was under assault from every side by three British generals: Cutts, Churchill, and Orkney. The French had repulsed every attack with heavy slaughter, but many had seen what had happened on the plain and what its consequences to them would be; their army was routed and they were cut off. Orkney, attacking from the rear, now tried a different tactic – \"... it came into my head to beat parley\", he later wrote, \"which they accepted of and immediately their Brigadier de Nouville capitulated with me to be prisoner at discretion and lay down their arms.\" Threatened by Allied guns, other units followed their example. However, it was not until 21:00 that the Marquis de Blanzac, who had taken charge in Clérambault's absence, reluctantly accepted the inevitability of defeat, and some 10,000 of France's best infantry had laid down their arms.\n\nDuring these events Marlborough was still in the saddle conducting the pursuit of the broken enemy. Pausing for a moment he scribbled on the back of an old tavern bill a note addressed to his wife, Sarah: \"I have no time to say more but to beg you will give my duty to the Queen, and let her know her army has had a glorious victory.\"\n",
"Marlborough and Cadogan at the Battle of Blenheim by Pieter van Bloemen\nBattle of Höchstädt by Wolfgang and Vind.\n\nFrench losses were immense, with over 27,000 killed, wounded and captured. Moreover, the myth of French invincibility had been destroyed and Louis's hopes of an early and victorious peace had been wrenched from his grasp. Mérode-Westerloo summarised the case against Tallard's army: \"The French lost this battle for a wide variety of reasons. For one thing they had too good an opinion of their own ability ... Another point was their faulty field dispositions, and in addition there was rampant indiscipline and inexperience displayed ... It took all these faults to lose so celebrated a battle.\" It was a hard-fought contest, leading Prince Eugene to observe – \"I have not a squadron or battalion which did not charge four times at least.\" Although the war dragged on for years, the Battle of Blenheim was probably its most decisive victory; Marlborough and Eugene, working indivisibly together, had saved the Habsburg Empire and thereby preserved the Grand Alliance from collapse. Munich, Augsburg, Ingolstadt, Ulm and all remaining territory of Bavaria soon fell to the Allies. By the Treaty of Ilbersheim, signed 7 November 1704, Bavaria was placed under Austrian military rule, allowing the Habsburgs to utilise its resources for the rest of the conflict.\n\nThe remnants of the Elector of Bavaria's and Marshal Marsin's wing limped back to Strasbourg, losing another 7,000 men through desertion. Despite being offered the chance to remain as ruler of Bavaria (under strict terms of an alliance with Austria), the Elector left his country and family in order to continue the war against the Allies from the Spanish Netherlands where he still held the post of governor-general. Their commander-in-chief that day, Marshal Tallard – who, unlike his subordinates, had not been ransomed or exchanged – was taken to England and imprisoned in Nottingham until his release in 1711.\n\nThe 1704 campaign lasted considerably longer than usual as the Allies sought to wring out maximum advantage. Realising that France was too powerful to be forced to make peace by a single victory, however, Eugene, Marlborough and Baden met to plan their next moves. For the following year the Duke proposed a campaign along the valley of the River Moselle to carry the war deep into France. This required the capture of the major fortress of Landau which guarded the Rhine, and the towns of Trier and Trarbach on the Moselle itself. Trier was taken on 27 October and Landau fell on 23 November to the Margrave of Baden and Prince Eugene; with the fall of Trarbach on 20 December, the campaign season for 1704 came to an end.\n\nMarlborough returned to England on 14 December (O.S) to the acclamation of Queen Anne and the country. In the first days of January the 110 cavalry standards and the 128 infantry colours that were taken during the battle were borne in procession to Westminster Hall. In February 1705, Queen Anne, who had made Marlborough a Duke in 1702, granted him the Park of Woodstock and promised a sum of £240,000 to build a suitable house as a gift from a grateful crown in recognition of his victory – a victory which British historian Sir Edward Shepherd Creasy considered one of the pivotal battles in history, writing – \"Had it not been for Blenheim, all Europe might at this day suffer under the effect of French conquests resembling those of Alexander in extent and those of the Romans in durability.\"\n",
"* Joseph Addison's poem ''The Campaign''\n* John Philips's poem ''Blenheim'', a counter to Addison's poem\n* Robert Southey's anti-war poem ''After Blenheim''\n* Iain Gale's novel ''Man of Honour''\n* Bristol Blenheim, named after the battle\n",
"\n",
"\n* Barnett, Correlli. ''Marlborough.'' Wordsworth Editions Limited (1999). \n* Chandler, David G. ''A Guide to the Battlefields of Europe.'' Wordsworth Editions Limited, 1998. \n* Chandler, David G. ''Marlborough as Military Commander.'' Spellmount Ltd (2003). \n* \n* \n* Churchill, Winston. ''Marlborough: His Life and Times'', Bk. 1, vol. ii. University of Chicago Press, (2002). \n* Coxe, William. ''Memoirs of the Duke of Marlborough: vol.i.'' London, (1847)\n* Falkner, James. ''Blenheim 1704: Marlborough's Greatest Victory.'' Pen & Sword Books Ltd, 2004. \n* Henderson, Nicholas: ''Prince Eugen of Savoy.'' Weidenfield & Nicolson (1966). \n* Holmes, Richard (2008). ''Marlborough: England's Fragile Genius''. HarperCollins. \n* Lynn, John A. ''The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714.'' Longman (1999). \n* McKay, Derek. ''Prince Eugene of Savoy.'' Thames and Hudson Ltd., (1977). \n* Spencer, Charles. ''Blenheim: Battle for Europe.'' Phoenix (2005). \n* Tincey, John. ''Blenheim 1704: The Duke of Marlborough's Masterpiece.'' Osprey Publishing Ltd, 2004. \n* Weigley, Russell. ''The Age of Battles: The Quest for Decisive Warfare from Breitenfeld to Waterloo''. Indiana University Press. 1991. \n\n",
"* \n* Battle of Blenheim at war-and-battle.com\n* Blenheim 1704 by Jeffery P. Berry\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Background",
"Prelude",
"Battle",
"Aftermath",
"Cultural references",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Battle of Blenheim | [
"The military dangers in such an enterprise were numerous: Marlborough's lines of communication along the Rhine would be hopelessly exposed to French interference, for Louis' generals controlled the left bank of the river and its central reaches.",
"If he intended an attack along the Moselle the Duke must now turn west, but, instead, the following day the army crossed to the right bank of the Rhine, (pausing to add 5,000 waiting Hanoverians and Prussians).",
"In response to Marlborough's manoeuvres, the Elector and Marsin, conscious of their numerical disadvantage with only 40,000 men, moved their forces to the entrenched camp at Dillingen on the north bank of the Danube.",
"With Eugene's forces at Höchstädt on the north bank of the Danube, and Marlborough's at Rain on the south bank, Tallard and the Elector debated their next move.",
"On 9 August, the Franco-Bavarian forces began to cross to the north bank of the Danube."
] | [
"\n\n\n\nThe '''Battle of Blenheim''' (German:''Zweite Schlacht bei Höchstädt''; French ''Bataille de Höchstädt''), fought on 13 August 1704, was a major battle of the War of the Spanish Succession.",
"The overwhelming Allied victory ensured the safety of Vienna from the Franco-Bavarian army, thus preventing the collapse of the Grand Alliance.",
"Louis XIV of France sought to knock Emperor Leopold out of the war by seizing Vienna, the Habsburg capital, and gain a favourable peace settlement.",
"The dangers to Vienna were considerable: the Elector of Bavaria and Marshal Marsin's forces in Bavaria threatened from the west, and Marshal Vendôme's large army in northern Italy posed a serious danger with a potential offensive through the Brenner Pass.",
"Vienna was also under pressure from Rákóczi's Hungarian revolt from its eastern approaches.",
"Realising the danger, the Duke of Marlborough resolved to alleviate the peril to Vienna by marching his forces south from Bedburg and help maintain Emperor Leopold within the Grand Alliance.",
"A combination of deception and skilled administration – designed to conceal his true destination from friend and foe alike – enabled Marlborough to march unhindered from the Low Countries to the River Danube in five weeks.",
"After securing Donauwörth on the Danube, Marlborough sought to engage the Elector's and Marsin's army before Marshal Tallard could bring reinforcements through the Black Forest.",
"However, with the Franco-Bavarian commanders reluctant to fight until their numbers were deemed sufficient, the Duke enacted a policy of plundering in Bavaria designed to force the issue.",
"The tactic proved unsuccessful, but when Tallard arrived to bolster the Elector's army, and Prince Eugene arrived with reinforcements for the Allies, the two armies finally met on the banks of the Danube in and around the small village of Blindheim, from which the English \"Blenheim\" is derived.",
"The battle has gone down in history as one of the turning points of the War of the Spanish Succession.",
"Bavaria was knocked out of the war, and Louis' hopes for a quick victory came to an end.",
"France suffered over 38,000 casualties including the commander-in-chief, Marshal Tallard, who was taken captive to England.",
"Before the 1704 campaign ended, the Allies had taken Landau, and the towns of Trier and Trarbach on the Moselle in preparation for the following year's campaign into France itself.",
"By 1704, the War of the Spanish Succession was in its fourth year.",
"The previous year had been one of success for France and her allies, most particularly on the Danube, where Marshal Villars and the Elector of Bavaria had created a direct threat to Vienna, the Habsburg capital.",
"Vienna had been saved by dissension between the two commanders, leading to the brilliant Villars being replaced by the less dynamic Marshal Marsin.",
"Nevertheless, by 1704, the threat was still real: Rákóczi's Hungarian revolt was already threatening the Empire's eastern approaches, and Marshal Vendôme's forces threatened an invasion from northern Italy.",
"In the courts of Versailles and Madrid, Vienna's fall was confidently anticipated, an event which would almost certainly have led to the collapse of the Grand Alliance.",
"To isolate the Danube from any Allied intervention, Marshal Villeroi's 46,000 troops were expected to pin the 70,000 Dutch and English troops around Maastricht in the Low Countries, while General de Coigny protected Alsace against surprise with a further corps.",
"The only forces immediately available for Vienna's defence were Prince Louis of Baden's force of 36,000 stationed in the Lines of Stollhofen to watch Marshal Tallard at Strasbourg; there was also a weak force of 10,000 men under Field Marshal Count Limburg Styrum observing Ulm.",
"Both the Imperial Austrian Ambassador in London, Count Wratislaw, and the Duke of Marlborough realised the implications of the situation on the Danube.",
"The Dutch, however, who clung to their troops for their country's protection, were against any adventurous military operation as far south as the Danube and would never willingly permit any major weakening of the forces in the Spanish Netherlands.",
"Marlborough, realising the only way to ignore Dutch wishes was by the use of secrecy and guile, set out to deceive his Dutch allies by pretending to simply move his troops to the Moselle – a plan approved of by The Hague – but once there, he would slip the Dutch leash and link up with Austrian forces in southern Germany.",
"\"My intentions\", wrote the Duke from The Hague on 29 April to his governmental confidant, Sidney Godolphin, \"are to march with the English to Coblenz and declare that I intend to campaign on the Moselle.",
"But when I come there, to write to the Dutch States that I think it absolutely necessary for the saving of the Empire to march with the troops under my command and to join with those that are in Germany ... in order to make measures with Prince Lewis of Baden for the speedy reduction of the Elector of Bavaria.\"",
"\n===Protagonists march to the Danube===\n:''A scarlet caterpillar, upon which all eyes were at once fixed, began to crawl steadfastly day by day across the map of Europe, dragging the whole war with it.''",
"– Winston Churchill.",
"Duke of Marlborough's march from Bedburg (near Cologne) to the Danube.",
"His 250-mile (400-kilometre) march to prevent Vienna falling into enemy hands was a masterpiece of deception, meticulous planning and organisation.",
"Marlborough's march started on 19 May from Bedburg, north-west of Cologne.",
"The army (assembled by the Duke's brother, General Charles Churchill) consisted of 66 squadrons, 31 battalions and 38 guns and mortars totalling 21,000 men (16,000 of whom were English troops).",
"This force was to be augmented ''en route'' such that by the time Marlborough reached the Danube, it would number 40,000 (47 battalions, 88 squadrons).",
"Whilst Marlborough led his army, General Overkirk would maintain a defensive position in the Dutch Republic in case Villeroi mounted an attack.",
"The Duke had assured the Dutch that if the French were to launch an offensive he would return in good time, but Marlborough calculated that as he marched south, the French commander would be drawn after him.",
"In this assumption Marlborough proved correct: Villeroi shadowed the Duke with 30,000 men in 60 squadrons and 42 battalions.",
"Such a long march would almost certainly involve a high wastage of men and horses through exhaustion and disease.",
"However, Marlborough was convinced of the urgency – \"I am very sensible that I take a great deal upon me\", he had earlier written to Godolphin, \"but should I act otherwise, the Empire would be undone ...\"\nPortrait of the Duke of Marlborough by Adriaen van der Werff (December 1704) Uffizi\n\nWhilst Allied preparations had progressed, the French were striving to maintain and re-supply Marshal Marsin.",
"Marsin had been operating with the Elector of Bavaria against the Imperial commander, Prince Louis of Baden, and was somewhat isolated from France: his only lines of communication lay through the rocky passes of the Black Forest.",
"However, on 14 May, with considerable skill Marshal Tallard managed to bring 10,000 reinforcements and vast supplies and munitions through the difficult terrain, whilst outmanoeuvring Baron Thüngen, the Imperial general who sought to block his path.",
"Tallard then returned with his own force to the Rhine, once again side-stepping Thüngen's efforts to intercept him.",
"The whole operation was an outstanding military achievement.",
"On 26 May, Marlborough reached Coblenz, where the Moselle meets the Rhine.",
"\"There will be no campaign on the Moselle\", wrote Villeroi who had taken up a defensive position on the river, \"the English have all gone up into Germany.\"",
"A second possible objective now occurred to the French – an Allied incursion into Alsace and an attack on the city of Strasbourg.",
"Marlborough skillfully encouraged this apprehension by constructing bridges across the Rhine at Philippsburg, a ruse that not only encouraged Villeroi to come to Tallard's aid in the defence of Alsace, but one that ensured the French plan to march on Vienna remained paralysed by uncertainty.",
"With Villeroi shadowing Marlborough's every move, Marlborough's gamble that the French would not move against the weakened Dutch position in the Netherlands paid off.",
"In any case, Marlborough had promised to return to the Netherlands if a French attack developed there, transferring his troops down the Rhine on barges at a rate of a day.",
"Encouraged by this promise (whatever it was worth) the States General agreed to release the Danish contingent of seven battalions and 22 squadrons as a reinforcement.",
"Marlborough reached Ladenburg, in the plain of the Neckar and the Rhine, and there halted for three days to rest his cavalry and allow the guns and infantry to close up.",
"On 6 June he arrived at Wiesloch, south of Heidelberg.",
"The following day, the Allied army swung away from the Rhine towards the hills of the Swabian Jura and the Danube beyond.",
"At last Marlborough's destination was established without doubt.",
"===Strategy===\nPrince Eugene of Savoy (1663–1736) by Jacob van Schuppen.",
"Prince Eugene met Marlborough for the first time in 1704.",
"It was the start of a lifelong personal and professional friendship.",
"On 10 June, the Duke met for the first time the President of the Imperial War Council, Prince Eugene – accompanied by Count Wratislaw – at the village of Mundelsheim, halfway between the Danube and the Rhine.",
"By 13 June, the Imperial Field Commander, Prince Louis of Baden, had joined them in Großheppach.",
"The three generals commanded a force of nearly 110,000 men.",
"At conference it was decided that Eugene would return with 28,000 men to the Lines of Stollhofen on the Rhine to keep an eye on Villeroi and Tallard and prevent them going to the aid of the Franco-Bavarian army on the Danube.",
"Meanwhile, Marlborough's and Baden's forces would combine, totalling 80,000 men, for the march on the Danube to seek out the Elector and Marsin before they could be reinforced.",
"Knowing Marlborough's destination, Tallard and Villeroi met at Landau in the Palatinate on 13 June to rapidly construct a plan to save Bavaria but the rigidity of the French command system was such that any variations from the original plan had to be sanctioned by Versailles.",
"The Count of Mérode-Westerloo, commander of the Flemish troops in Tallard's army wrote – \"One thing is certain: we delayed our march from Alsace for far too long and quite inexplicably.\"",
"Approval from Louis arrived on 27 June: Tallard was to reinforce Marsin and the Elector on the Danube via the Black Forest, with 40 battalions and 50 squadrons; Villeroi was to pin down the Allies defending the Lines of Stollhofen, or, if the Allies should move all their forces to the Danube, he was to join with Marshal Tallard; and General de Coignies with 8,000 men, would protect Alsace.",
"On 1 July Tallard's army of 35,000 re-crossed the Rhine at Kehl and began its march.",
"On 22 June, Marlborough's forces linked up with Baden's Imperial forces at Launsheim.",
"A distance of had been covered in five weeks.",
"Thanks to a carefully planned time-table, the effects of wear and tear had been kept to a minimum.",
"Captain Parker described the march discipline – \"As we marched through the country of our Allies, commissars were appointed to furnish us with all manner of necessaries for man and horse ... the soldiers had nothing to do but pitch their tents, boil kettles and lie down to rest.\"",
"Marlborough could not attack Dillingen because of a lack of siege guns – he was unable to bring any from the Low Countries, and Baden had failed to supply any despite assurances to the contrary.",
"Allied assault on the Schellenberg – taken by coup de main on 2 July – provided the Allies with an excellent river crossing.",
"The Allies, nevertheless, needed a base for provisions and a good river crossing.",
"On 2 July, therefore, Marlborough at the Battle of Schellenberg stormed the fortress of Schellenberg on the heights above the town of Donauwörth.",
"Count Jean d'Arco had been sent with 12,000 men from the Franco-Bavarian camp to hold the town and grassy hill but after a ferocious and bloody battle, inflicting enormous casualties on both sides, Schellenberg finally succumbed, forcing Donauwörth to surrender shortly afterwards.",
"The Elector, knowing his position at Dillingen was now not tenable, took up a position behind the strong fortifications of Augsburg.",
"Tallard's march presented a dilemma for Eugene.",
"If the Allies were not to be outnumbered on the Danube, Eugene realised he must either try to cut Tallard off before he could get there or he must hasten to reinforce Marlborough.",
"if he withdrew from the Rhine to the Danube, Villeroi might also make a move south to link up with the Elector and Marsin.",
"Eugene compromised: leaving 12,000 troops behind guarding the Lines of Stollhofen, he marched off with the rest of his army to forestall Tallard.",
"Lacking in numbers, Eugene could not seriously disrupt Tallard's march but the French Marshal's progress was proving pitifully slow.",
"Tallard's force had suffered considerably more than Marlborough's troops on their march – many of his cavalry horses were suffering from glanders and the mountain passes were proving tough for the 2,000 wagons of provisions.",
"Local German peasants, angry at French plundering, compounded Tallard's problems, leading Mérode-Westerloo to bemoan – \"the enraged peasantry killed several thousand of our men before the army was clear of the Black Forest.\"",
"Tallard had insisted on besieging the little town of Villingen for six days (16–22 July) but abandoned the enterprise on discovering the approach of Eugene.",
"The Elector in Augsburg was informed on 14 July that Tallard was on his way through the Black Forest.",
"This good news bolstered the Elector's policy of inaction, further encouraging him to wait for the reinforcements.",
"But this reticence to fight induced Marlborough to undertake a controversial policy of spoliation in Bavaria, burning buildings and crops throughout the rich lands south of the Danube.",
"This had two aims: firstly to put pressure on the Elector to fight or come to terms before Tallard arrived with reinforcements; and secondly, to ruin Bavaria as a base from which the French and Bavarian armies could attack Vienna, or pursue the Duke into Franconia if, at some stage, he had to withdraw northwards.",
"But this destruction, coupled with a protracted siege of Rain (9–16 July), caused Prince Eugene to lament \"... since the Donauwörth action I cannot admire their performances\", and later to conclude \"If he has to go home without having achieved his objective, he will certainly be ruined.\"",
"Nevertheless, strategically the Duke had been able to place his numerically stronger forces between the Franco-Bavarian army and Vienna.",
"===Final positioning===\nManoeuvres before the battle 9–13 August.",
"Marshal Tallard, with 34,000 men, reached Ulm, joining with the Elector and Marsin in Augsburg on 5 August (although Tallard was not impressed to find that the Elector had dispersed his army in response to Marlborough's campaign of ravaging the region).",
"Also on 5 August, Eugene reached Höchstädt, riding that same night to meet with Marlborough at Schrobenhausen.",
"Marlborough knew it was necessary that another crossing point over the Danube would be required in case Donauwörth fell to the enemy.",
"On 7 August, therefore, the first of Baden's 15,000 Imperial troops (the remainder following two days later) left Marlborough's main force to besiege the heavily defended city of Ingolstadt, farther down the Danube.",
"Tallard preferred to bide his time, replenish supplies and allow Marlborough's Danube campaign to flounder in the colder weeks of Autumn; the Elector and Marsin, however, newly reinforced, were keen to push ahead.",
"The French and Bavarian commanders eventually agreed on a plan and decided to attack Eugene's smaller force.",
"On 10 August, Eugene sent an urgent dispatch reporting that he was falling back to Donauwörth – \"The enemy have marched.",
"It is almost certain that the whole army is crossing the Danube at Lauingen ...",
"The plain of Dillingen is crowded with troops ... Everything, milord, consists in speed and that you put yourself forthwith in movement to join me tomorrow, without which I fear it will be too late.\"",
"By a series of brilliant marches Marlborough concentrated his forces on Donauwörth and, by noon 11 August, the link-up was complete.",
"During 11 August, Tallard pushed forward from the river crossings at Dillingen; by 12 August, the Franco-Bavarian forces were encamped behind the small river Nebel near the village of Blenheim on the plain of Höchstädt.",
"That same day Marlborough and Eugene carried out their own reconnaissance of the French position from the church spire at Tapfheim, and moved their combined forces to Münster – from the French camp.",
"A French reconnaissance under the Marquis de Silly went forward to probe the enemy, but were driven off by Allied troops who had deployed to cover the pioneers of the advancing army, labouring to bridge the numerous streams in the area and improve the passage leading westwards to Höchstädt.",
"Marlborough quickly moved forward two brigades under the command of General Wilkes and Brigadier Rowe to secure the narrow strip of land between the Danube and the wooded Fuchsberg hill, at the Schwenningen defile.",
"Tallard's army numbered 56,000 men and 90 guns; the army of the Grand Alliance, 52,000 men and 66 guns.",
"Some Allied officers who were acquainted with the superior numbers of the enemy, and aware of their strong defensive position, ventured to remonstrate with Marlborough about the hazards of attacking; but the Duke was resolute – \"I know the danger, yet a battle is absolutely necessary, and I rely on the bravery and discipline of the troops, which will make amends for our disadvantages\".",
"Marlborough and Eugene decided to risk everything, and agreed to attack on the following day.",
"\n\n===The battlefield===\nThe battlefield stretched for nearly .",
"The extreme right flank of the Franco-Bavarian army was covered by the Danube; to the extreme left flank lay the undulating pine-covered hills of the Swabian Jura.",
"A small stream, the Nebel, (the ground either side of which was soft and marshy and only fordable intermittently), fronted the French line.",
"The French right rested on the village of Blenheim near where the Nebel flows into the Danube; the village itself was surrounded by hedges, fences, enclosed gardens, and meadows.",
"Between Blenheim and the next village of Oberglauheim the fields of wheat had been cut to stubble and were now ideal to deploy troops.",
"From Oberglauheim to the next hamlet of Lutzingen the terrain of ditches, thickets and brambles was potentially difficult ground for the attackers.",
"===Initial manoeuvres===\nThe position of the forces at noon, 13 August.",
"Marlborough took control of the left arm of the Allied forces including the attacks on Blenheim and Oberglauheim, whilst Eugene commanded the right including the attacks on Lutzingen.",
"At 02:00 on 13 August, 40 squadrons were sent forward towards the enemy, followed at 03:00, in eight columns, by the main Allied force pushing over the Kessel.",
"At about 06:00 they reached Schwenningen, from Blenheim.",
"The English and German troops who had held Schwenningen through the night joined the march, making a ninth column on the left of the army.",
"Marlborough and Eugene made their final plans.",
"The Allied commanders agreed that Marlborough would command 36,000 troops and attack Tallard's force of 33,000 on the left (including capturing the village of Blenheim), whilst Eugene, commanding 16,000 men would attack the Elector and Marsin's combined forces of 23,000 troops on the right wing; if this attack was pressed hard the Elector and Marsin would have no troops to send to aid Tallard on their right.",
"Lieutenant-General John Cutts would attack Blenheim in concert with Eugene's attack.",
"With the French flanks busy, Marlborough could cross the Nebel and deliver the fatal blow to the French at their centre.",
"However, Marlborough would have to wait until Eugene was in position before the general engagement could begin.",
"The last thing Tallard expected that morning was to be attacked by the Allies – deceived by intelligence gathered from prisoners taken by de Silly the previous day, and assured in their strong natural position, Tallard and his colleagues were convinced that Marlborough and Eugene were about to retreat north-eastwards towards Nördlingen.",
"Tallard wrote a report to this effect to King Louis that morning, but hardly had he sent the messenger when the Allied army began to appear opposite his camp.",
"\"I could see the enemy advancing ever closer in nine great columns\", wrote Mérode-Westerloo, \" ... filling the whole plain from the Danube to the woods on the horizon.\"",
"Signal guns were fired to bring in the foraging parties and picquets as the French and Bavarian troops tried to draw into battle-order to face the unexpected threat.",
"At about 08:00 the French artillery on their right wing opened fire, answered by Colonel Blood's batteries.",
"The guns were heard by Baden in his camp before Ingolstadt, \"The Prince and the Duke are engaged today to the westward\", he wrote to the Emperor.",
"\"Heaven bless them.\"",
"An hour later Tallard, the Elector, and Marsin climbed Blenheim's church tower to finalise their plans.",
"It was settled that the Elector and Marsin would hold the front from the hills to Oberglauheim, whilst Tallard would defend the ground between Oberglauheim and the Danube.",
"The French commanders were, however, divided as to how to utilise the Nebel: Tallard's tactic – opposed by Marsin and the Elector who felt it better to close their infantry right up to the stream itself – was to lure the allies across before unleashing their cavalry upon them, causing panic and confusion; whilst the enemy was struggling in the marshes, they would be caught in crossfire from Blenheim and Oberglauheim.",
"The plan was sound if all its parts were implemented, but it allowed Marlborough to cross the Nebel without serious interference and fight the battle he had in mind.",
"===Deployment===\nThe Battle of Blenheim by Huchtenburg\nThe Franco-Bavarian commanders deployed their forces.",
"In the village of Lutzingen, Count Maffei positioned five Bavarian battalions with a great battery of 16 guns at the village's edge.",
"In the woods to the left of Lutzingen, seven French battalions under the Marquis de Rozel moved into place.",
"Between Lutzingen and Oberglauheim the Elector placed 27 squadrons of cavalry – Count d'Arco commanded 14 Bavarian squadrons and Count Wolframsdorf had 13 more in support nearby.",
"To their right stood Marsin's 40 French squadrons and 12 battalions.",
"The village of Oberglauheim was packed with 14 battalions commanded by the Marquis de Blainville (including the effective Irish Brigade known as the 'Wild Geese').",
"Six batteries of guns were ranged alongside the village.",
"On the right of these French and Bavarian positions, between Oberglauheim and Blenheim, Tallard deployed 64 French and Walloon squadrons (16 drawn from Marsin) supported by nine French battalions standing near the Höchstädt road.",
"In the cornfield next to Blenheim stood three battalions from the Regiment de Roi.",
"Nine battalions occupied the village itself, commanded by the Marquis de Clérambault.",
"Four battalions stood to the rear and a further 11 were in reserve.",
"These battalions were supported by Hautefeuille's 12 squadrons of dismounted dragoons.",
"By 11:00 Tallard, the Elector, and Marsin were in place.",
"Many of the Allied generals were hesitant to attack such a relatively strong position.",
"The Earl of Orkney later confessed that, \"had I been asked to give my opinion, I had been against it.\"",
"Prince Eugene was expected to be in position by 11:00, but due to the difficult terrain and enemy fire, progress was slow.",
"Lord Cutts' column – who by 10:00 had expelled the enemy from two water mills upon the Nebel – had already deployed by the river against Blenheim, enduring over the next three hours severe fire from a heavy six-gun battery posted near the village.",
"The rest of Marlborough's army, waiting in their ranks on the forward slope, were also forced to bear the cannonade from the French artillery, suffering 2,000 casualties before the attack could even start.",
"Meanwhile, engineers repaired a stone bridge across the Nebel, and constructed five additional bridges or causeways across the marsh between Blenheim and Oberglauheim.",
"Marlborough's anxiety was finally allayed when, just past noon, Colonel Cadogan reported that Eugene's Prussian and Danish infantry were in place – the order for the general advance was given.",
"At 13:00, Cutts was ordered to attack the village of Blenheim whilst Prince Eugene was requested to assault Lutzingen on the Allied right flank.",
"===Blenheim===\nPart of the Battle of Blenheim tapestry at Blenheim Palace by Judocus de Vos.",
"In the background is the village of Blenheim; in the middle ground are the two water mills that Rowe had to take to gain a bridgehead over the Nebel.",
"The foreground shows an English grenadier with a captured French colour.",
"Cutts ordered Brigadier-General Archibald Rowe's brigade to attack.",
"The English infantry rose from the edge of the Nebel, and silently marched towards Blenheim, a distance of some .",
"John Ferguson's Scottish brigade supported Rowe's left, and moved in perfect order towards the barricades between the village and the river, defended by Hautefeuille's dragoons.",
"As the range closed to within , the French fired a deadly volley.",
"Rowe had ordered that there should be no firing from his men until he struck his sword upon the palisades, but as he stepped forward to give the signal, he fell mortally wounded.",
"The survivors of the leading companies closed up the gaps in their torn ranks and rushed forward.",
"Small parties penetrated the defences, but repeated French volleys forced the English back towards the Nebel, sustaining heavy casualties.",
"As the attack faltered, eight squadrons of elite Gens d'Armes, commanded by the veteran Swiss officer, Beat-Jacques von Zurlauben, fell upon the English troops, cutting at the exposed flank of Rowe's own regiment.",
"However, Wilkes' Hessian brigade, lying nearby in the marshy grass at the water's edge, stood firm and repulsed the Gens d'Armes with steady fire, enabling the English and Hessians to re-order and launch another attack.",
"Although the Allies were again repulsed, these persistent attacks on Blenheim eventually bore fruit, panicking Clérambault into making the worst French error of the day.",
"Without consulting Tallard, Clérambault ordered his reserve battalions into the village, upsetting the balance of the French position and nullifying the French numerical superiority.",
"\"The men were so crowded in upon one another\", wrote Mérode-Westerloo, \"that they couldn't even fire – let alone receive or carry out any orders.\"",
"Marlborough, spotting this error, now countermanded Cutts' intention to launch a third attack, and ordered him simply to contain the enemy within Blenheim; no more than 5,000 Allied soldiers were able to pen in twice the number of French infantry and dragoons.",
"===Lutzingen===\n:'' ...",
"Prince Eugene and the Imperial troops had been repulsed three times – driven right back to the woods – and had taken a real drubbing.''",
"– Mérode-Westerloo.",
"Memorial for the Battle of Blenheim 1704, Lutzingen, Germany.",
"On the Allied right, Eugene's Prussian and Danish forces were desperately fighting the numerically superior forces of the Elector and Marsin.",
"The Prince of Anhalt-Dessau led forward four brigades across the Nebel to assault the well-fortified position of Lutzingen.",
"Here, the Nebel was less of an obstacle, but the great battery positioned on the edge of the village enjoyed a good field of fire across the open ground stretching to the hamlet of Schwennenbach.",
"As soon as the infantry crossed the stream, they were struck by Maffei's infantry, and salvoes from the Bavarian guns positioned both in front of the village and in enfilade on the wood-line to the right.",
"Despite heavy casualties the Prussians attempted to storm the great battery, whilst the Danes, under Count Scholten, attempted to drive the French infantry out of the copses beyond the village.",
"With the infantry heavily engaged, Eugene's cavalry picked its way across the Nebel.",
"After an initial success, his first line of cavalry, under the Imperial General of Horse, Prince Maximilian of Hanover, were pressed by the second line of Marsin's cavalry, and were forced back across the Nebel in confusion.",
"Nevertheless, the exhausted French were unable to follow up their advantage, and the two cavalry forces tried to regroup and reorder their ranks.",
"However, without cavalry support, and threatened with envelopment, the Prussian and Danish infantry were in turn forced to pull back across the Nebel.",
"Panic gripped some of Eugene's troops as they crossed the stream.",
"Ten infantry colours were lost to the Bavarians, and hundreds of prisoners taken; it was only through the leadership of Eugene and the Prussian Prince that the imperial infantry were prevented from abandoning the field.",
"After rallying his troops near Schwennenbach – well beyond their starting point – Eugene prepared to launch a second attack, led by the second-line squadrons under the Duke of Württemberg-Teck.",
"Yet again they were caught in the murderous cross-fire from the artillery in Lutzingen and Oberglauheim, and were once again thrown back in disarray.",
"The French and Bavarians, however, were almost as disordered as their opponents, and they too were in need of inspiration from their commander, the Elector, who was seen – \" ... riding up and down, and inspiring his men with fresh courage.\"",
"Anhalt-Dessau's Danish and Prussian infantry attacked a second time but could not sustain the advance without proper support.",
"Once again they fell back across the stream.",
"===Centre and Oberglauheim===\nThe Battle of Blenheim by Joshua Ross\n:'' ... they began to pass the marshes and the Nebel as fast as the badness of the ground would permit them.''",
"– Churchill's chaplain.",
"Whilst these events around Blenheim and Lutzingen were taking place, Marlborough was preparing to cross the Nebel.",
"The centre, commanded by the Duke's brother, General Charles Churchill, consisted of 18 battalions of infantry arranged in two lines: seven battalions in the front line to secure a foothold across the Nebel, and 11 battalions in the rear providing cover from the Allied side of the stream.",
"Between the infantry were placed two lines, 72 squadrons of cavalry.",
"The first line of foot was to pass the stream first and march as far to the other side as could be conveniently done.",
"This line would then form and cover the passage of the horse, leaving gaps in the line of infantry large enough for the cavalry to pass through and take their position in front.",
"Marshal Tallard (1652–1728).",
"He has been criticized for allowing Clérambault to maintain a force of infantry in Blenheim so large that it denied the main army manpower it needed.",
"Marlborough ordered the formation forward.",
"Once again Zurlauben's Gens d'Armes charged, looking to rout Lumley's English cavalry who linked Cutts' column facing Blenheim with Churchill's infantry.",
"As these elite French cavalry attacked, they were faced by five English squadrons under Colonel Francis Palmes.",
"To the consternation of the French, the Gens d'Armes were pushed back in terrible confusion, pursued well beyond the Maulweyer stream that flows through Blenheim.",
"\"What?",
"Is it possible?\"",
"exclaimed the Elector, \"the gentlemen of France fleeing?\"",
"Palmes, however, attempted to follow up his success but was repulsed in some confusion by other French cavalry, and musketry fire from the edge of Blenheim.",
"Nevertheless, Tallard was alarmed by the repulse of the elite Gens d'Armes and urgently rode across the field to ask Marsin for reinforcements; but on the basis of being hard pressed by Eugene – whose second attack was in full flood – Marsin refused.",
"As Tallard consulted with Marsin, more of his infantry was being taken into Blenheim by Clérambault.",
"Fatally, Tallard, aware of the situation, did nothing to rectify this grave mistake, leaving him with just the nine battalions of infantry near the Höchstädt road\nto oppose the massed enemy ranks in the centre.",
"Zurlauben tried several more times to disrupt the Allies forming on Tallard's side of the stream; his front-line cavalry darting forward down the gentle slope towards the Nebel.",
"But the attacks lacked co-ordination, and the Allied infantry's steady volleys disconcerted the French horsemen.",
"During these skirmishes Zurlauben fell mortally wounded, and died two days later.",
"The time was just after 15:00.",
"The Danish cavalry, under the Duke of Württemberg-Neuenstadt (not to be confused with the Duke of Württemberg who fought with Eugene), had made slow work of crossing the Nebel near Oberglau; harassed by Marsin's infantry near the village, the Danes were driven back across the stream.",
"Count Horn's Dutch infantry managed to push the French back from the water's edge, but it was apparent that before Marlborough could launch his main effort against Tallard, Oberglauheim would have to be secured.",
"Oberglauheim.",
"Count Horn directed the Prince of Holstein-Beck to take the village, but his two Dutch brigades were cut down by the French and Irish troops, capturing and badly wounding the Prince during the action.",
"The battle was now in the balance.",
"If Holstein-Beck's Dutch column were destroyed, the Allied army would be split in two: Eugene's wing would be isolated from Marlborough's, passing the initiative to the Franco-Bavarian forces now engaged across the whole plain.",
"Seeing the opportunity, Marsin ordered his cavalry to change from facing Eugene, and turn towards their right and the open flank of Churchill's infantry drawn up in front of Unterglau.",
"Marlborough (who had crossed the Nebel on a makeshift bridge to take personal control), ordered Hulsen's Hanoverian battalions to support the Dutch infantry.",
"A Dutch cavalry brigade under Averock was also called forward but soon came under pressure from Marsin's more numerous squadrons.",
"Marlborough now requested Eugene to release Count Hendrick Fugger and his Imperial Cuirassier brigade to help repel the French cavalry thrust.",
"Despite his own desperate struggle, the Imperial Prince at once complied, demonstrating the high degree of confidence and mutual co-operation between the two generals.",
"Although the Nebel stream lay between Fugger's and Marsin's squadrons, the French were forced to change front to meet this new threat, thus forestalling the chance for Marsin to strike at Marlborough's infantry.",
"Fugger's cuirassiers charged and, striking at a favourable angle, threw back Marsin's squadrons in disorder.",
"With support from Colonel Blood's batteries, the Hessian, Hanoverian and Dutch infantry – now commanded by Count Berensdorf – succeeded in pushing the French and Irish infantry back into Oberglauheim so that they could not again threaten Churchill's flank as he moved against Tallard.",
"The French commander in the village, the Marquis de Blainville, numbered amongst the heavy casualties.",
"===Breakthrough===\n:''The French foot remained in the best order I ever saw, till they were cut to pieces almost in rank and file.''",
"– Lord Orkney.",
"Breakthrough: Position of the battle at 17:30.",
"By 16:00, with the Franco-Bavarian troops besieged in Blenheim and Oberglau, the Allied centre of 81 squadrons (nine squadrons had been transferred from Cutts' column), supported by 18 battalions was firmly planted amidst the French line of 64 squadrons and nine battalions of raw recruits.",
"There was now a pause in the battle: Marlborough wanted to concert the attack upon the whole front, and Eugene, after his second repulse, needed time to reorganize.",
"Just after 17:00 all was ready along the Allied front.",
"Marlborough's two lines of cavalry had now moved to the front of the Duke's line of battle, with the two supporting lines of infantry behind them.",
"Mérode-Westerloo attempted to extricate some French infantry crowded in Blenheim, but Clérambault ordered the troops back into the village.",
"The French cavalry exerted themselves once more against the first line – Lumley's English and Scots on the Allied left, and Hompesch's Dutch and German squadrons on the Allied right.",
"Tallard's squadrons, lacking infantry support, were tired and ragged but managed to push the Allied first line back to their infantry support.",
"With the battle still not won, Marlborough had to rebuke one of his cavalry officers who was attempting to leave the field – \"Sir, you are under a mistake, the enemy lies that way ...\" Now, at the Duke's command, the second Allied line under Cuno Josua von Bülow and Bothmer was ordered forward, and, driving through the centre, the Allies finally put Tallard's tired horse to rout, not without cost.",
"The Prussian Life Dragoons' Colonel, Ludwig von Blumenthal, and his 2nd in command, Lt. Col. von Hacke, fell next to each other.",
"But the charge succeeded and with their cavalry in headlong flight, the remaining nine French infantry battalions fought with desperate valour, trying to form square.",
"But it was futile.",
"The French battalions were overwhelmed by Colonel Blood's close-range artillery and platoon fire.",
"Mérode-Westerloo later wrote – \"They died to a man where they stood, stationed right out in the open plain – supported by nobody.\"",
"The majority of Tallard's retreating troops headed for Höchstädt but most did not make the safety of the town, plunging instead into the Danube where upwards of 3,000 French horsemen drowned; others were cut down by the pursuing cavalry.",
"The Marquis de Gruignan attempted a counter-attack, but he was easily brushed aside by the triumphant Allies.",
"After a final rally behind his camp's tents, shouting entreaties to stand and fight, Marshal Tallard was caught up in the rout and pushed towards Sonderheim.",
"Surrounded by a squadron of Hessian troops, Tallard surrendered to Lieutenant-Colonel de Boinenburg, the Prince of Hesse-Kassel's ''aide-de-camp'', and was sent under escort to Marlborough.",
"The Duke welcomed the French commander – \"I am very sorry that such a cruel misfortune should have fallen upon a soldier for whom I have the highest regard.\"",
"With salutes and courtesies, the Marshal was escorted to Marlborough's coach.",
"===Fall of Blenheim===\nThe Battle of Blenheim by John Wootton\n:'' ... our men fought in and through the fire ... until many on both sides were burned to death.''",
"– Private Deane, 1st Regiment Foot Guards.",
"Meanwhile, the Allies had once again attacked the Bavarian stronghold at Lutzingen.",
"Eugene, however, became exasperated with the performance of his Imperial cavalry whose third attack had failed: he had already shot two of his troopers to prevent a general flight.",
"Then, declaring in disgust that he wished to \"fight among brave men and not among cowards\", Eugene went into the attack with the Prussian and Danish infantry, as did the Dessauer, waving a regimental colour to inspire his troops.",
"This time the Prussians were able to storm the great Bavarian battery, and overwhelm the guns' crews.",
"Beyond the village, Scholten's Danes defeated the French infantry in a desperate hand-to-hand bayonet struggle.",
"When they saw that the centre had broken, the Elector and Marsin decided the battle was lost and, like the remnants of Tallard's army, fled the battlefield (albeit in better order than Tallard's men).",
"Attempts to organise an Allied force to prevent Marsin's withdrawal failed owing to the exhaustion of the cavalry, and the growing confusion in the field.",
"Pursuit\nMarlborough now had to turn his attention from the fleeing enemy to direct Churchill to detach more infantry to storm Blenheim.",
"Orkney's infantry, Hamilton's English brigade and St Paul's Hanoverians moved across the trampled wheat to the cottages.",
"Fierce hand-to-hand fighting gradually forced the French towards the village centre, in and around the walled churchyard which had been prepared for defence.",
"Hay and Ross's dismounted dragoons were also sent, but suffered under a counter-charge delivered by the regiments of Artois and Provence under command of Colonel de la Silvière.",
"Colonel Belville's Hanoverians were fed into the battle to steady the resolve of the dragoons, and once more went to the attack.",
"The Allied progress was slow and hard, and like the defenders, they suffered many casualties.",
"Many of the cottages were now burning, obscuring the field of fire and driving the defenders out of their positions.",
"Hearing the din of battle in Blenheim, Tallard sent a message to Marlborough offering to order the garrison to withdraw from the field.",
"\"Inform Monsieur Tallard\", replied the Duke, \"that, in the position in which he is now, he has no command.\"",
"Nevertheless, as dusk came the Allied commander was anxious for a quick conclusion.",
"The French infantry fought tenaciously to hold on to their position in Blenheim, but their commander was nowhere to be found.",
"Clérambault's insistence on confining his huge force in the village was to seal his fate that day.",
"Realising his tactical mistake had contributed to Tallard's defeat in the centre, Clérambault deserted Blenheim and the 27 battalions defending the village, and reportedly drowned in the Danube while attempting to make his escape.",
"Diorama of the battle in the Höchstädt museum.",
"In the middle ground the Allied cavalry are breaking through, pushing Tallard's squadrons from the battlefield.",
"The foreground depicts the fierce fighting in and around Blenheim.",
"By now Blenheim was under assault from every side by three British generals: Cutts, Churchill, and Orkney.",
"The French had repulsed every attack with heavy slaughter, but many had seen what had happened on the plain and what its consequences to them would be; their army was routed and they were cut off.",
"Orkney, attacking from the rear, now tried a different tactic – \"... it came into my head to beat parley\", he later wrote, \"which they accepted of and immediately their Brigadier de Nouville capitulated with me to be prisoner at discretion and lay down their arms.\"",
"Threatened by Allied guns, other units followed their example.",
"However, it was not until 21:00 that the Marquis de Blanzac, who had taken charge in Clérambault's absence, reluctantly accepted the inevitability of defeat, and some 10,000 of France's best infantry had laid down their arms.",
"During these events Marlborough was still in the saddle conducting the pursuit of the broken enemy.",
"Pausing for a moment he scribbled on the back of an old tavern bill a note addressed to his wife, Sarah: \"I have no time to say more but to beg you will give my duty to the Queen, and let her know her army has had a glorious victory.\"",
"Marlborough and Cadogan at the Battle of Blenheim by Pieter van Bloemen\nBattle of Höchstädt by Wolfgang and Vind.",
"French losses were immense, with over 27,000 killed, wounded and captured.",
"Moreover, the myth of French invincibility had been destroyed and Louis's hopes of an early and victorious peace had been wrenched from his grasp.",
"Mérode-Westerloo summarised the case against Tallard's army: \"The French lost this battle for a wide variety of reasons.",
"For one thing they had too good an opinion of their own ability ... Another point was their faulty field dispositions, and in addition there was rampant indiscipline and inexperience displayed ...",
"It took all these faults to lose so celebrated a battle.\"",
"It was a hard-fought contest, leading Prince Eugene to observe – \"I have not a squadron or battalion which did not charge four times at least.\"",
"Although the war dragged on for years, the Battle of Blenheim was probably its most decisive victory; Marlborough and Eugene, working indivisibly together, had saved the Habsburg Empire and thereby preserved the Grand Alliance from collapse.",
"Munich, Augsburg, Ingolstadt, Ulm and all remaining territory of Bavaria soon fell to the Allies.",
"By the Treaty of Ilbersheim, signed 7 November 1704, Bavaria was placed under Austrian military rule, allowing the Habsburgs to utilise its resources for the rest of the conflict.",
"The remnants of the Elector of Bavaria's and Marshal Marsin's wing limped back to Strasbourg, losing another 7,000 men through desertion.",
"Despite being offered the chance to remain as ruler of Bavaria (under strict terms of an alliance with Austria), the Elector left his country and family in order to continue the war against the Allies from the Spanish Netherlands where he still held the post of governor-general.",
"Their commander-in-chief that day, Marshal Tallard – who, unlike his subordinates, had not been ransomed or exchanged – was taken to England and imprisoned in Nottingham until his release in 1711.",
"The 1704 campaign lasted considerably longer than usual as the Allies sought to wring out maximum advantage.",
"Realising that France was too powerful to be forced to make peace by a single victory, however, Eugene, Marlborough and Baden met to plan their next moves.",
"For the following year the Duke proposed a campaign along the valley of the River Moselle to carry the war deep into France.",
"This required the capture of the major fortress of Landau which guarded the Rhine, and the towns of Trier and Trarbach on the Moselle itself.",
"Trier was taken on 27 October and Landau fell on 23 November to the Margrave of Baden and Prince Eugene; with the fall of Trarbach on 20 December, the campaign season for 1704 came to an end.",
"Marlborough returned to England on 14 December (O.S) to the acclamation of Queen Anne and the country.",
"In the first days of January the 110 cavalry standards and the 128 infantry colours that were taken during the battle were borne in procession to Westminster Hall.",
"In February 1705, Queen Anne, who had made Marlborough a Duke in 1702, granted him the Park of Woodstock and promised a sum of £240,000 to build a suitable house as a gift from a grateful crown in recognition of his victory – a victory which British historian Sir Edward Shepherd Creasy considered one of the pivotal battles in history, writing – \"Had it not been for Blenheim, all Europe might at this day suffer under the effect of French conquests resembling those of Alexander in extent and those of the Romans in durability.\"",
"* Joseph Addison's poem ''The Campaign''\n* John Philips's poem ''Blenheim'', a counter to Addison's poem\n* Robert Southey's anti-war poem ''After Blenheim''\n* Iain Gale's novel ''Man of Honour''\n* Bristol Blenheim, named after the battle",
"\n* Barnett, Correlli.",
"''Marlborough.''",
"Wordsworth Editions Limited (1999).",
"* Chandler, David G. ''A Guide to the Battlefields of Europe.''",
"Wordsworth Editions Limited, 1998.",
"* Chandler, David G. ''Marlborough as Military Commander.''",
"Spellmount Ltd (2003).",
"* \n* \n* Churchill, Winston.",
"''Marlborough: His Life and Times'', Bk.",
"1, vol.",
"ii.",
"University of Chicago Press, (2002).",
"* Coxe, William.",
"''Memoirs of the Duke of Marlborough: vol.i.''",
"London, (1847)\n* Falkner, James.",
"''Blenheim 1704: Marlborough's Greatest Victory.''",
"Pen & Sword Books Ltd, 2004.",
"* Henderson, Nicholas: ''Prince Eugen of Savoy.''",
"Weidenfield & Nicolson (1966).",
"* Holmes, Richard (2008).",
"''Marlborough: England's Fragile Genius''.",
"HarperCollins.",
"* Lynn, John A.",
"''The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714.''",
"Longman (1999).",
"* McKay, Derek.",
"''Prince Eugene of Savoy.''",
"Thames and Hudson Ltd., (1977).",
"* Spencer, Charles.",
"''Blenheim: Battle for Europe.''",
"Phoenix (2005).",
"* Tincey, John.",
"''Blenheim 1704: The Duke of Marlborough's Masterpiece.''",
"Osprey Publishing Ltd, 2004.",
"* Weigley, Russell.",
"''The Age of Battles: The Quest for Decisive Warfare from Breitenfeld to Waterloo''.",
"Indiana University Press.",
"1991.",
"* \n* Battle of Blenheim at war-and-battle.com\n* Blenheim 1704 by Jeffery P. Berry"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\nThe firepower of a battleship demonstrated by (c. 1984). The muzzle blasts distort the ocean surface.\nA '''battleship''' is a large armored warship with a main battery consisting of large caliber guns. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries the battleship was the most powerful type of warship, and a fleet of battleships was considered vital for any nation that desired to maintain command of the sea.\n\nThe word ''battleship'' was coined around 1794 and is a contraction of the phrase ''line-of-battle ship'', the dominant wooden warship during the Age of Sail. The term came into formal use in the late 1880s to describe a type of ironclad warship, now referred to by historians as pre-dreadnought battleships. In 1906, the commissioning of heralded a revolution in battleship design. Subsequent battleship designs, influenced by HMS ''Dreadnought'', were referred to as \"dreadnoughts\".\n\nBattleships were a symbol of naval dominance and national might, and for decades the battleship was a major factor in both diplomacy and military strategy. A global arms race in battleship construction began in Europe in the 1890s and culminated at the decisive Battle of Tsushima in 1905; the outcome of which significantly influenced the design of HMS ''Dreadnought''. The launch of ''Dreadnought'' in 1906 commenced a new naval arms race. Three major fleet actions between steel battleships took place: the decisive battles of the Yellow Sea (1904) and Tsushima (1905) during the Russo-Japanese War, and the inconclusive Battle of Jutland (1916) during the First World War. Jutland was the largest naval battle and the only full-scale clash of battleships in the war, and it was the last major battle fought primarily by battleships in world history.\n\nThe Naval Treaties of the 1920s and 1930s limited the number of battleships, though technical innovation in battleship design continued. Both the Allied and Axis powers built battleships during World War II, though the increasing importance of the aircraft carrier meant that the battleship played a less important role than had been expected.\n\nThe value of the battleship has been questioned, even during their heyday. There were few of the decisive fleet battles that battleship proponents expected, and used to justify the vast resources spent on building battlefleets. Even in spite of their huge firepower and protection, battleships were increasingly vulnerable to much smaller, cheaper weapons: initially the torpedo and the naval mine, and later aircraft and the guided missile. The growing range of naval engagements led to the aircraft carrier replacing the battleship as the leading capital ship during World War II, with the last battleship to be launched being in 1944. Battleships were retained by the United States Navy into the Cold War for fire support purposes before being stricken from the U.S. Naval Vessel Register in the 2000s.\n",
"\n (1850), the world's first steam-powered battleship\n\nA ship of the line was a large, unarmored wooden sailing ship which mounted a battery of up to 120 smoothbore guns and carronades. The ship of the line developed gradually over centuries and, apart from growing in size, it changed little between the adoption of line of battle tactics in the early 17th century and the end of the sailing battleship's heyday in the 1830s. From 1794, the alternative term 'line of battle ship' was contracted (informally at first) to 'battle ship' or 'battleship'.\n\nThe sheer number of guns fired broadside meant a sail battleship could wreck any wooden enemy, holing her hull, knocking down masts, wrecking her rigging, and killing her crew. However, the effective range of the guns was as little as a few hundred yards, so the battle tactics of sailing ships depended in part on the wind.\n\nThe first major change to the ship of the line concept was the introduction of steam power as an auxiliary propulsion system. Steam power was gradually introduced to the navy in the first half of the 19th century, initially for small craft and later for frigates. The French Navy introduced steam to the line of battle with the 90-gun in 1850—the first true steam battleship. ''Napoléon'' was armed as a conventional ship-of-the-line, but her steam engines could give her a speed of , regardless of the wind condition. This was a potentially decisive advantage in a naval engagement. The introduction of steam accelerated the growth in size of battleships. France and the United Kingdom were the only countries to develop fleets of wooden steam screw battleships although several other navies operated small numbers of screw battleships, including Russia (9), Turkey (3), Sweden (2), Naples (1), Denmark (1) and Austria (1). In addition, the Navy of the North Germany Confederacy (which included Prussia) bought from Britain in 1870 for use as a gunnery training ship.\n",
"\nThe French (1859), the first ocean–going ironclad warship\n\nThe adoption of steam power was only one of a number of technological advances which revolutionized warship design in the 19th century. The ship of the line was overtaken by the ironclad: powered by steam, protected by metal armor, and armed with guns firing high-explosive shells.\n\n===Explosive shells===\nGuns that fired explosive or incendiary shells were a major threat to wooden ships, and these weapons quickly became widespread after the introduction of 8 inch shell guns as part of the standard armament of French and American line-of-battle ships in 1841.For the U.S. introduction of 8-inch shell guns into the armament of line-of-battle ships in 1841, see Spencer Tucker, ''Arming the Fleet, US Navy Ordnance in the Muzzle-Loading Era'' (U.S. Naval Institute Pres, 1989), p.149. . In the Crimean War, six line-of-battle ships and two frigates of the Russian Black Sea Fleet destroyed seven Turkish frigates and three corvettes with explosive shells at the Battle of Sinop in 1853. Later in the war, French ironclad floating batteries used similar weapons against the defenses at the Battle of Kinburn.\n\nNevertheless, wooden-hulled ships stood up comparatively well to shells, as shown in the 1866 Battle of Lissa, where the modern Austrian steam two-decker ranged across a confused battlefield, rammed an Italian ironclad and took 80 hits from Italian ironclads, many of which were shells, but including at least one 300 pound shot at point blank range. Despite losing her bowsprit and her foremast, and being set on fire, she was ready for action again the very next day.\n\n===Iron armor and construction===\n, the Royal Navy's first ocean–going iron hulled warship.\n\nThe development of high-explosive shells made the use of iron armor plate on warships necessary. In 1859 France launched , the first ocean-going ironclad warship. She had the profile of a ship of the line, cut to one deck due to weight considerations. Although made of wood and reliant on sail for most journeys, ''Gloire'' was fitted with a propeller, and her wooden hull was protected by a layer of thick iron armor. ''Gloire'' prompted further innovation from the Royal Navy, anxious to prevent France from gaining a technological lead.\n\nThe superior armored frigate followed ''Gloire'' by only 14 months, and both nations embarked on a program of building new ironclads and converting existing screw ships of the line to armored frigates. Within two years, Italy, Austria, Spain and Russia had all ordered ironclad warships, and by the time of the famous clash of the and the at the Battle of Hampton Roads at least eight navies possessed ironclad ships.\n\nThe French , the first battleship to use steel as the main building material\nNavies experimented with the positioning of guns, in turrets (like the USS ''Monitor''), central-batteries or barbettes, or with the ram as the principal weapon. As steam technology developed, masts were gradually removed from battleship designs. By the mid-1870s steel was used as a construction material alongside iron and wood. The French Navy's , laid down in 1873 and launched in 1876, was a central battery and barbette warship which became the first battleship in the world to use steel as the principal building material.\n",
"\nPre-''Dreadnought'' , built in 1892, was the first battleship of the U.S. Navy. Photochrom print c. 1898.\n\nThe term \"battleship\" was officially adopted by the Royal Navy in the re-classification of 1892. By the 1890s, there was an increasing similarity between battleship designs, and the type that later became known as the 'pre-dreadnought battleship' emerged. These were heavily armored ships, mounting a mixed battery of guns in turrets, and without sails. The typical first-class battleship of the pre-dreadnought era displaced 15,000 to 17,000 tons, had a speed of , and an armament of four guns in two turrets fore and aft with a mixed-caliber secondary battery amidships around the superstructure. An early design with superficial similarity to the pre-dreadnought is the British of 1871.\n\nThe slow-firing main guns were the principal weapons for battleship-to-battleship combat. The intermediate and secondary batteries had two roles. Against major ships, it was thought a 'hail of fire' from quick-firing secondary weapons could distract enemy gun crews by inflicting damage to the superstructure, and they would be more effective against smaller ships such as cruisers. Smaller guns (12-pounders and smaller) were reserved for protecting the battleship against the threat of torpedo attack from destroyers and torpedo boats.\n\nThe beginning of the pre-dreadnought era coincided with Britain reasserting her naval dominance. For many years previously, Britain had taken naval supremacy for granted. Expensive naval projects were criticised by political leaders of all inclinations. However, in 1888 a war scare with France and the build-up of the Russian navy gave added impetus to naval construction, and the British Naval Defence Act of 1889 laid down a new fleet including eight new battleships. The principle that Britain's navy should be more powerful than the two next most powerful fleets combined was established. This policy was designed to deter France and Russia from building more battleships, but both nations nevertheless expanded their fleets with more and better pre-dreadnoughts in the 1890s.\n\nDiagram of (1908), a typical late pre-dreadnought battleship\nIn the last years of the 19th century and the first years of the 20th, the escalation in the building of battleships became an arms race between Britain and Germany. The German naval laws of 1890 and 1898 authorised a fleet of 38 battleships, a vital threat to the balance of naval power. Britain answered with further shipbuilding, but by the end of the pre-dreadnought era, British supremacy at sea had markedly weakened. In 1883, the United Kingdom had 38 battleships, twice as many as France and almost as many as the rest of the world put together. By 1897, Britain's lead was far smaller due to competition from France, Germany, and Russia, as well as the development of pre-dreadnought fleets in Italy, the United States and Japan. Turkey, Spain, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Chile and Brazil all had second-rate fleets led by armored cruisers, coastal defence ships or monitors.\n\nPre-dreadnoughts continued the technical innovations of the ironclad. Turrets, armor plate, and steam engines were all improved over the years, and torpedo tubes were introduced. A small number of designs, including the American and es, experimented with all or part of the 8-inch intermediate battery superimposed over the 12-inch primary. Results were poor: recoil factors and blast effects resulted in the 8-inch battery being completely unusable, and the inability to train the primary and intermediate armaments on different targets led to significant tactical limitations. Even though such innovative designs saved weight (a key reason for their inception), they proved too cumbersome in practice.\n",
"\n\nIn 1906, the British Royal Navy launched the revolutionary . Created as a result of pressure from Admiral Sir John (\"Jackie\") Fisher, HMS ''Dreadnought'' made existing battleships obsolete. Combining an \"all-big-gun\" armament of ten 12-inch (305 mm) guns with unprecedented speed (from steam turbine engines) and protection, she prompted navies worldwide to re-evaluate their battleship building programs. While the Japanese had laid down an all-big-gun battleship, , in 1904 and the concept of an all-big-gun ship had been in circulation for several years, it had yet to be validated in combat. ''Dreadnought'' sparked a new arms race, principally between Britain and Germany but reflected worldwide, as the new class of warships became a crucial element of national power.\n\nTechnical development continued rapidly through the dreadnought era, with steep changes in armament, armor and propulsion. Ten years after ''Dreadnought''s commissioning, much more powerful ships, the super-dreadnoughts, were being built.\n\n===Origin===\nVittorio Cuniberti\n\nIn the first years of the 20th century, several navies worldwide experimented with the idea of a new type of battleship with a uniform armament of very heavy guns.\n\nAdmiral Vittorio Cuniberti, the Italian Navy's chief naval architect, articulated the concept of an all-big-gun battleship in 1903. When the ''Regia Marina'' did not pursue his ideas, Cuniberti wrote an article in ''Janes'' proposing an \"ideal\" future British battleship, a large armored warship of 17,000 tons, armed solely with a single calibre main battery (twelve 12-inch {305 mm} guns), carrying belt armor, and capable of 24 knots (44 km/h).\n\nThe Russo-Japanese War provided operational experience to validate the 'all-big-gun' concept. At the Yellow Sea and Tsushima, pre-dreadnoughts exchanged volleys at ranges of 7,600–12,000 yd (7 to 11 km), beyond the range of the secondary batteries. It is often held that these engagements demonstrated the importance of the gun over its smaller counterparts, though some historians take the view that secondary batteries were just as important as the larger weapons.\n\nIn Japan, the two battleships of the 1903-4 Programme were the first to be laid down as all-big-gun designs, with eight 12-inch guns. However, the design had armor which was considered too thin, demanding a substantial redesign. The financial pressures of the Russo-Japanese War and the short supply of 12-inch guns which had to be imported from Britain meant these ships were completed with a mixed 10- and 12-inch armament. The 1903-4 design also retained traditional triple-expansion steam engines.\n\nA preliminary design for the Imperial Japanese Navy's was an \"all-big-gun\" design.\nAs early as 1904, Jackie Fisher had been convinced of the need for fast, powerful ships with an all-big-gun armament. If Tsushima influenced his thinking, it was to persuade him of the need to standardise on guns. Fisher's concerns were submarines and destroyers equipped with torpedoes, then threatening to outrange battleship guns, making speed imperative for capital ships. Fisher's preferred option was his brainchild, the battlecruiser: lightly armored but heavily armed with eight 12-inch guns and propelled to by steam turbines.\n\nIt was to prove this revolutionary technology that ''Dreadnought'' was designed in January 1905, laid down in October 1905 and sped to completion by 1906. She carried ten 12-inch guns, had an 11-inch armor belt, and was the first large ship powered by turbines. She mounted her guns in five turrets; three on the centerline (one forward, two aft) and two on the wings, giving her at her launch twice the broadside of any other warship. She retained a number of 12-pound (3-inch, 76 mm) quick-firing guns for use against destroyers and torpedo-boats. Her armor was heavy enough for her to go head-to-head with any other ship in a gun battle, and conceivably win.\n\n\n''Dreadnought'' was to have been followed by three s, their construction delayed to allow lessons from ''Dreadnought'' to be used in their design. While Fisher may have intended ''Dreadnought'' to be the last Royal Navy battleship, the design was so successful he found little support for his plan to switch to a battlecruiser navy. Although there were some problems with the ship (the wing turrets had limited arcs of fire and strained the hull when firing a full broadside, and the top of the thickest armor belt lay below the waterline at full load), the Royal Navy promptly commissioned another six ships to a similar design in the and es.\n\nAn American design, , authorized in 1905 and laid down in December 1906, was another of the first dreadnoughts, but she and her sister, , were not launched until 1908. Both used triple-expansion engines and had a superior layout of the main battery, dispensing with ''Dreadnought''s wing turrets. They thus retained the same broadside, despite having two fewer guns.\n\n===Arms race===\n\n\nIn 1897, before the revolution in design brought about by HMS ''Dreadnought'', the Royal Navy had 62 battleships in commission or building, a lead of 26 over France and 50 over Germany. In 1906, the Royal Navy owned the field with ''Dreadnought''. The new class of ship prompted an arms race with major strategic consequences. Major naval powers raced to build their own dreadnoughts. Possession of modern battleships was not only seen as vital to naval power, but also, as with nuclear weapons after WWII, represented a nation's standing in the world. Germany, France, Japan, Italy, Austria, and the United States all began dreadnought programmes; while Ottoman Turkey, Argentina, Russia, Brazil, and Chile commissioned dreadnoughts to be built in British and American yards.\n",
"\n\nThe battleship, particularly the dreadnought, was the dominant naval weapon of the World War I era. There were few serious challenges at that time. The most significant naval battles of World War I, such as Jutland (May 31, 1916 – June 1, 1916), were fought by battleships and their battlecruiser cousins.\n\nGerman High Seas Fleet during World War I\nBy virtue of geography, the Royal Navy was able to use her imposing battleship and battlecruiser fleet to impose a strict and successful naval blockade of Germany and kept Germany's smaller battleship fleet bottled up in the North Sea: only narrow channels led to the Atlantic Ocean and these were guarded by British forces. Both sides were aware that, because of the greater number of British dreadnoughts, a full fleet engagement would be likely to result in a British victory. The German strategy was therefore to try to provoke an engagement on their terms: either to induce a part of the Grand Fleet to enter battle alone, or to fight a pitched battle near the German coastline, where friendly minefields, torpedo-boats and submarines could be used to even the odds. Germany's submarines were able to break out and raid commerce, but even though they sank many merchant ships, they could not successfully blockade Great Britain – in contrast to Britain's successful battleship blockade of Germany, which was a major cause of Germany's economic collapse in 1918. The Royal Navy on the other hand, successfully adopted convoy tactics to combat Germany's submarine blockade and eventually defeated it.\n\nBritain's Grand Fleet\nThe first two years of war saw the Royal Navy's battleships and battlecruisers regularly \"sweep\" the North Sea making sure that no German ships could get in or out. Only a few German surface ships that were already at sea, such as the famous light cruiser , were able to raid commerce. Even some of those that did manage to get out were hunted down by battlecruisers, as in the Battle of the Falklands, December 7, 1914. The results of sweeping actions in the North Sea were battles such as the Heligoland Bight and Dogger Bank and German raids on the English coast, all of which were attempts by the Germans to lure out portions of the Grand Fleet in an attempt to defeat the Royal Navy in detail. On May 31, 1916, a further attempt to draw British ships into battle on German terms resulted in a clash of the battlefleets in the Battle of Jutland. The German fleet withdrew to port after two short encounters with the British fleet. Less than two months later, the Germans once again attempted to draw portions of the Grand Fleet into battle. The resulting Action of 19 August 1916 proved inconclusive. This reinforced German determination not to engage in a fleet to fleet battle.\n\n''Warspite'' and ''Malaya'' at Jutland\nIn the other naval theatres there were no decisive pitched battles. In the Black Sea, engagement between Russian and Turkish battleships was restricted to skirmishes. In the Baltic Sea, action was largely limited to the raiding of convoys, and the laying of defensive minefields; the only significant clash of battleship squadrons there was the Battle of Moon Sound at which one Russian pre-dreadnought was lost. The Adriatic was in a sense the mirror of the North Sea: the Austro-Hungarian dreadnought fleet remained bottled up by the British and French blockade. And in the Mediterranean, the most important use of battleships was in support of the amphibious assault on Gallipoli.\n\nIn September 1914, the threat posed to surface ships by German U-boats was confirmed by successful attacks on British cruisers, including the sinking of three British armored cruisers by the German submarine in less than an hour. The British Super-dreadnought HMS ''Audacious'' soon followed suit as she struck a mine laid by a German U-boat in October 1914 and sank. The threat that German U-boats posed to British dreadnoughts was enough to cause the Royal Navy to change their strategy and tactics in the North Sea to reduce the risk of U-boat attack. Further near-misses from submarine attacks on battleships and casualties amongst cruisers led to growing concern in the Royal Navy about the vulnerability of battleships.\n\nAs the war wore on however, it turned out that whilst submarines did prove to be an incredibly dangerous threat to older pre-dreadnought battleships, as shown by examples such as the sinking of the , which was caught in the Dardanelles by a British submarine and the and were torpedoed by ''U-21'' as well as , , etc., the threat posed to dreadnought battleships proved to have been largely a false alarm. HMS ''Audacious'' turned out to have been the only dreadnought sunk by a submarine in World War I. While battleships were never intended for anti-submarine warfare, there was one instance of a submarine being sunk by a dreadnought battleship. HMS ''Dreadnought'' rammed and sank the German U-29 on March 18, 1915 off Moray Firth.\n\nItalian motor boats\nWhilst the escape of the German fleet from the superior British firepower at Jutland was effected by the German cruisers and destroyers successfully turning away the British battleships, the German attempt to rely on U-boat attacks on the British fleet failed.\n\nTorpedo boats did have some successes against battleships in World War I, as demonstrated by the sinking of the British pre-dreadnought by during the Dardanelles Campaign and the destruction of the Austro-Hungarian dreadnought by Italian motor torpedo boats in June 1918. In large fleet actions, however, destroyers and torpedo boats were usually unable to get close enough to the battleships to damage them. The only battleship sunk in a fleet action by either torpedo boats or destroyers was the obsolescent German pre-dreadnought . She was sunk by destroyers during the night phase of the Battle of Jutland.\n\nThe German High Seas Fleet, for their part, were determined not to engage the British without the assistance of submarines; and since the submarines were needed more for raiding commercial traffic, the fleet stayed in port for much of the war.\n",
"For many years, Germany simply had no battleships. The Armistice with Germany required that most of the High Seas Fleet be disarmed and interned in a neutral port; largely because no neutral port could be found, the ships remained in British custody in Scapa Flow, Scotland. The Treaty of Versailles specified that the ships should be handed over to the British. Instead, most of them were scuttled by their German crews on June 21, 1919 just before the signature of the peace treaty. The treaty also limited the German Navy, and prevented Germany from building or possessing any capital ships.\n\nProfile drawing of commissioned 1927\nThe inter-war period saw the battleship subjected to strict international limitations to prevent a costly arms race breaking out.\n\nScrapping of Battleships in the Philadelphia Navy Yard, Pennsylvania in December 1923\nWhile the victors were not limited by the Treaty of Versailles, many of the major naval powers were crippled after the war. Faced with the prospect of a naval arms race against the United Kingdom and Japan, which would in turn have led to a possible Pacific war, the United States was keen to conclude the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. This treaty limited the number and size of battleships that each major nation could possess, and required Britain to accept parity with the U.S. and to abandon the British alliance with Japan. The Washington treaty was followed by a series of other naval treaties, including the First Geneva Naval Conference (1927), the First London Naval Treaty (1930), the Second Geneva Naval Conference (1932), and finally the Second London Naval Treaty (1936), which all set limits on major warships. These treaties became effectively obsolete on September 1, 1939 at the beginning of World War II, but the ship classifications that had been agreed upon still apply. The treaty limitations meant that fewer new battleships were launched in 1919–39 than in 1905–14. The treaties also inhibited development by putting maximum limits on the weights of ships. Designs like the projected British , the first American , and the Japanese —all of which continued the trend to larger ships with bigger guns and thicker armor—never got off the drawing board. Those designs which were commissioned during this period were referred to as treaty battleships.\n\n===Rise of air power===\nBombing tests which sank (1909), September 1921\n\nAs early as 1914, the British Admiral Percy Scott predicted that battleships would soon be made irrelevant by aircraft. By the end of World War I, aircraft had successfully adopted the torpedo as a weapon. In 1921 the Italian general and air theorist Giulio Douhet completed a hugely influential treatise on strategic bombing titled ''The Command of the Air'', which foresaw the dominance of air power over naval units.\n\nIn the 1920s, General Billy Mitchell of the United States Army Air Corps, believing that air forces had rendered navies around the world obsolete, testified in front of Congress that \"1,000 bombardment airplanes can be built and operated for about the price of one battleship\" and that a squadron of these bombers could sink a battleship, making for more efficient use of government funds. This infuriated the U.S. Navy, but Mitchell was nevertheless allowed to conduct a careful series of bombing tests alongside Navy and Marine bombers. In 1921, he bombed and sank numerous ships, including the \"unsinkable\" German World War I battleship and the American pre-dreadnought .\n\nAlthough Mitchell had required \"war-time conditions\", the ships sunk were obsolete, stationary, defenseless and had no damage control. The sinking of ''Ostfriesland'' was accomplished by violating an agreement that would have allowed Navy engineers to examine the effects of various munitions: Mitchell's airmen disregarded the rules, and sank the ship within minutes in a coordinated attack. The stunt made headlines, and Mitchell declared, \"No surface vessels can exist wherever air forces acting from land bases are able to attack them.\" While far from conclusive, Mitchell's test was significant because it put proponents of the battleship against naval aviation on the back foot. Rear Admiral William A. Moffett used public relations against Mitchell to make headway toward expansion of the U.S. Navy's nascent aircraft carrier program.\n\n===Rearmament===\nThe Royal Navy, United States Navy, and Imperial Japanese Navy extensively upgraded and modernized their World War I–era battleships during the 1930s. Among the new features were an increased tower height and stability for the optical rangefinder equipment (for gunnery control), more armor (especially around turrets) to protect against plunging fire and aerial bombing, and additional anti-aircraft weapons. Some British ships received a large block superstructure nicknamed the \"Queen Anne's castle\", such as in the and , which would be used in the new conning towers of the fast battleships. External bulges were added to improve both buoyancy to counteract weight increase and provide underwater protection against mines and torpedoes. The Japanese rebuilt all of their battleships, plus their battlecruisers, with distinctive \"pagoda\" structures, though the received a more modern bridge tower that would influence the new . Bulges were fitted, including steel tube arrays to improve both underwater and vertical protection along the waterline. The U.S. experimented with cage masts and later tripod masts, though after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor some of the most severely damaged ships (such as and ) were rebuilt with tower masts, for an appearance similar to their contemporaries. Radar, which was effective beyond visual range and effective in complete darkness or adverse weather, was introduced to supplement optical fire control.\n\nEven when war threatened again in the late 1930s, battleship construction did not regain the level of importance it had held in the years before World War I. The \"building holiday\" imposed by the naval treaties meant the capacity of dockyards worldwide had shrunk, and the strategic position had changed.\n\nIn Germany, the ambitious Plan Z for naval rearmament was abandoned in favor of a strategy of submarine warfare supplemented by the use of battlecruisers and commerce raiding (in particular by s). In Britain, the most pressing need was for air defenses and convoy escorts to safeguard the civilian population from bombing or starvation, and re-armament construction plans consisted of five ships of the . It was in the Mediterranean that navies remained most committed to battleship warfare. France intended to build six battleships of the and es, and the Italians four ships. Neither navy built significant aircraft carriers. The U.S. preferred to spend limited funds on aircraft carriers until the . Japan, also prioritising aircraft carriers, nevertheless began work on three mammoth ''Yamato''s (although the third, , was later completed as a carrier) and a planned fourth was cancelled.\n\nAt the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, the Spanish navy consisted of only two small dreadnought battleships, and . ''España'' (originally named ''Alfonso XIII''), by then in reserve at the northwestern naval base of El Ferrol, fell into Nationalist hands in July 1936. The crew aboard ''Jaime I'' remained loyal to the Republic, killed their officers, who apparently supported Franco's attempted coup, and joined the Republican Navy. Thus each side had one battleship; however, the Republican Navy generally lacked experienced officers. The Spanish battleships mainly restricted themselves to mutual blockades, convoy escort duties, and shore bombardment, rarely in direct fighting against other surface units. In April 1937, ''España'' ran into a mine laid by friendly forces, and sank with little loss of life. In May 1937, ''Jaime I'' was damaged by Nationalist air attacks and a grounding incident. The ship was forced to go back to port to be repaired. There she was again hit by several aerial bombs. It was then decided to tow the battleship to a more secure port, but during the transport she suffered an internal explosion that caused 300 deaths and her total loss. Several Italian and German capital ships participated in the non-intervention blockade. On May 29, 1937, two Republican aircraft managed to bomb the German pocket battleship outside Ibiza, causing severe damage and loss of life. retaliated two days later by bombarding Almería, causing much destruction, and the resulting ''Deutschland'' incident meant the end of German and Italian support for non-intervention.\n",
"\n\nYamato'' during sea trials, October 1941.\n leading battleship and cruisers , , and into Lingayen Gulf, Philippines, January 1945\n\nThe —an obsolete pre-dreadnought—fired the first shots of World War II with the bombardment of the Polish garrison at Westerplatte; and the final surrender of the Japanese Empire took place aboard a United States Navy battleship, . Between those two events, it had become clear that aircraft carriers were the new principal ships of the fleet and that battleships now performed a secondary role.\n\nBattleships played a part in major engagements in Atlantic, Pacific and Mediterranean theaters; in the Atlantic, the Germans used their battleships as independent commerce raiders. However, clashes between battleships were of little strategic importance. The Battle of the Atlantic was fought between destroyers and submarines, and most of the decisive fleet clashes of the Pacific war were determined by aircraft carriers.\n\nIn the first year of the war, armored warships defied predictions that aircraft would dominate naval warfare. and surprised and sank the aircraft carrier off western Norway in June 1940. This engagement marked the last time a fleet carrier was sunk by surface gunnery. In the attack on Mers-el-Kébir, British battleships opened fire on the French battleships in the harbor near Oran in Algeria with their heavy guns, and later pursued fleeing French ships with planes from aircraft carriers.\n\nThe subsequent years of the war saw many demonstrations of the maturity of the aircraft carrier as a strategic naval weapon and its potential against battleships. The British air attack on the Italian naval base at Taranto sank one Italian battleship and damaged two more. The same Swordfish torpedo bombers played a crucial role in sinking the German commerce-raider .\n\nThe Imperial Japanese Navy's ''Yamato'' (1940), seen here under air attack in 1945, and her sister ship (1940) were the heaviest battleships in history.\nOn December 7, 1941, the Japanese launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. Within a short time five of eight U.S. battleships were sunk or sinking, with the rest damaged. The American aircraft carriers were out to sea, however, and evaded detection. They took up the fight, and eventually turned the tide of the war in the Pacific. The sinking of the British battleship and her escort, the battlecruiser , demonstrated the vulnerability of a battleship to air attack while at sea without sufficient air cover, settling the argument begun by Mitchell in 1921. Both warships were under way and en route to attack the Japanese amphibious force that had invaded Malaya when they were caught by Japanese land-based bombers and torpedo bombers on December 10, 1941.\n\nAt many of the early crucial battles of the Pacific, for instance Coral Sea and Midway, battleships were either absent or overshadowed as carriers launched wave after wave of planes into the attack at a range of hundreds of miles. In later battles in the Pacific, battleships primarily performed shore bombardment in support of amphibious landings and provided anti-aircraft defense as escort for the carriers. Even the largest battleships ever constructed, Japan's , which carried a main battery of nine 18-inch (46 cm) guns and were designed as a principal strategic weapon, were never given a chance to show their potential in the decisive battleship action that figured in Japanese pre-war planning.\n\nThe last battleship confrontation in history was the Battle of Surigao Strait, on October 25, 1944, in which a numerically and technically superior American battleship group destroyed a lesser Japanese battleship group by gunfire after it had already been devastated by destroyer torpedo attacks. All but one of the American battleships in this confrontation had previously been sunk during the attack on Pearl Harbor and subsequently raised and repaired. When fired the last salvo of this battle, the last salvo fired by a battleship against another heavy ship, she was \"firing a funeral salute to a finished era of naval warfare.\" In April 1945, during the battle for Okinawa, the world's most powerful battleship, the ''Yamato'', was sent out on a suicide mission against a massive U.S. force and sunk by overwhelming pressure from carrier aircraft with nearly all hands lost.\n",
"Operation Crossroads\n\nAfter World War II, several navies retained their existing battleships, but they were no longer strategically dominant military assets. Indeed, it soon became apparent that they were no longer worth the considerable cost of construction and maintenance and only one new battleship was commissioned after the war, . During the war it had been demonstrated that battleship-on-battleship engagements like Leyte Gulf or the sinking of were the exception and not the rule, and with the growing role of aircraft engagement ranges were becoming longer and longer, making heavy gun armament irrelevant. The armor of a battleship was equally irrelevant in the face of a nuclear attack as tactical missiles with a range of or more could be mounted on the Soviet and s. By the end of the 1950s, smaller vessel classes such as destroyers, which formerly offered no noteworthy opposition to battleships, now were capable of eliminating battleships from outside the range of the ship's heavy guns.\n\nThe remaining battleships met a variety of ends. and were sunk during the testing of nuclear weapons in Operation Crossroads in 1946. Both battleships proved resistant to nuclear air burst but vulnerable to underwater nuclear explosions. The was taken by the Soviets as reparations and renamed ''Novorossiysk''; she was sunk by a leftover German mine in the Black Sea on October 29, 1955. The two ships were scrapped in 1956. The French was scrapped in 1954, in 1968, and in 1970.\n\nThe United Kingdom's four surviving ships were scrapped in 1957, and followed in 1960. All other surviving British battleships had been sold or broken up by 1949. The Soviet Union's was scrapped in 1953, in 1957 and (back under her original name, , since 1942) in 1956-7. Brazil's was scrapped in Genoa in 1953, and her sister ship sank during a storm in the Atlantic ''en route'' to the breakers in Italy in 1951.\n\nArgentina kept its two ships until 1956 and Chile kept (formerly ) until 1959. The Turkish battlecruiser (formerly , launched in 1911) was scrapped in 1976 after an offer to sell her back to Germany was refused. Sweden had several small coastal-defense battleships, one of which, , survived until 1970. The Soviets scrapped four large incomplete cruisers in the late 1950s, whilst plans to build a number of new s were abandoned following the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953. The three old German battleships , , and all met similar ends. ''Hessen'' was taken over by the Soviet Union and renamed ''Tsel''. She was scrapped in 1960. ''Schleswig-Holstein'' was renamed ''Borodino'', and was used as a target ship until 1960. ''Schlesien'', too, was used as a target ship. She was broken up between 1952 and 1957.\n\n launches a Tomahawk missile during Operation Desert Storm.\nThe s gained a new lease of life in the U.S. Navy as fire support ships. Radar and computer-controlled gunfire could be aimed with pinpoint accuracy to target. The U.S. recommissioned all four ''Iowa''-class battleships for the Korean War and the for the Vietnam War. These were primarily used for shore bombardment, ''New Jersey'' firing nearly 6,000 rounds of 16 inch shells and over 14,000 rounds of 5 inch projectiles during her tour on the gunline, seven times more rounds against shore targets in Vietnam than she had fired in the Second World War.\n\nAs part of Navy Secretary John F. Lehman's effort to build a 600-ship Navy in the 1980s, and in response to the commissioning of ''Kirov'' by the Soviet Union, the United States recommissioned all four ''Iowa''-class battleships. On several occasions, battleships were support ships in carrier battle groups, or led their own battleship battle group. These were modernized to carry Tomahawk missiles, with ''New Jersey'' seeing action bombarding Lebanon in 1983 and 1984, while and fired their 16-inch (406 mm) guns at land targets and launched missiles during Operation Desert Storm in 1991. ''Wisconsin'' served as the TLAM strike commander for the Persian Gulf, directing the sequence of launches that marked the opening of ''Desert Storm'', firing a total of 24 TLAMs during the first two days of the campaign. The primary threat to the battleships were Iraqi shore based surface-to-surface missiles; ''Missouri'' was targeted by two Iraqi Silkworm missiles, with one missing and another being intercepted by the British destroyer .\n",
"The American (1912) is the only preserved example of a Dreadnought-type battleship that dates to the time of the original HMS ''Dreadnought''.\n\nAll four ''Iowa'' ships were decommissioned in the early 1990s, making them the last battleships to see active service. and were maintained to a standard where they could be rapidly returned to service as fire support vessels, pending the development of a superior fire support vessel. These last two battleships were finally stricken from the U.S. Naval Vessel Register in 2006. The Military Balance and Russian Foreign Military Review states the U.S. Navy listed one battleship in the reserve (Naval Inactive Fleet/Reserve 2nd Turn) in 2010. The Military Balance states the U.S. Navy listed no battleships in the reserve in 2014. The U.S. Marine Corps believes that the current naval surface fire support gun and missile programs will not be able to provide adequate fire support for an amphibious assault or onshore operations.\n\nWith the decommissioning of the last ''Iowa''-class ships, no battleships remain in service or in reserve with any navy worldwide. A number are preserved as museum ships, either afloat or in drydock. The U.S. has eight battleships on display: , , , , , , , and . ''Missouri'' and ''New Jersey'' are museums at Pearl Harbor and Camden, New Jersey, respectively. ''Iowa'' is on display as an educational attraction at the Los Angeles Waterfront in San Pedro, California. ''Wisconsin'' now serves as a museum ship in Norfolk, Virginia. ''Massachusetts'', which has the distinction of never having lost a man during service, is on display at the Battleship Cove naval museum in Fall River, Massachusetts. ''Texas'', the first battleship turned into a museum, is on display at the San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site, near Houston. ''North Carolina'' is on display in Wilmington, North Carolina. ''Alabama'' is on display in Mobile, Alabama. The wreck of the , sunk during the Pearl Harbor attack in 1941, is designated a historical landmark and national gravesite.\n\nThe only other 20th-century battleship on display is the Japanese pre-dreadnought . A replica of the Chinese ironclad Dingyuan was built by the Weihai Port Bureau in 2003 and is on display in Weihai, China.\n\n",
"\n===Doctrine===\nBattleships were the embodiment of sea power. For Alfred Thayer Mahan and his followers, a strong navy was vital to the success of a nation, and control of the seas was vital for the projection of force on land and overseas. Mahan's theory, proposed in ''The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1783'' of 1890, dictated the role of the battleship was to sweep the enemy from the seas. While the work of escorting, blockading, and raiding might be done by cruisers or smaller vessels, the presence of the battleship was a potential threat to any convoy escorted by any vessels other than capital ships. This concept of \"potential threat\" can be further generalized to the mere existence (as opposed to presence) of a powerful fleet tying the opposing fleet down. This concept came to be known as a \"fleet in being\" – an idle yet mighty fleet forcing others to spend time, resource and effort to actively guard against it.\n\nMahan went on to say victory could only be achieved by engagements between battleships, which came to be known as the ''decisive battle'' doctrine in some navies, while targeting merchant ships (commerce raiding or ''guerre de course'', as posited by the ''Jeune École'') could never succeed.\n\nMahan was highly influential in naval and political circles throughout the age of the battleship, calling for a large fleet of the most powerful battleships possible. Mahan's work developed in the late 1880s, and by the end of the 1890s it had a massive international influence, in the end adopted by many major navies (notably the British, American, German, and Japanese). The strength of Mahanian opinion was important in the development of the battleships arms races, and equally important in the agreement of the Powers to limit battleship numbers in the interwar era.\n\nThe \"fleet in being\" suggested battleships could simply by their existence tie down superior enemy resources. This in turn was believed to be able to tip the balance of a conflict even without a battle. This suggested even for inferior naval powers a battleship fleet could have important strategic effect.\n\n===Tactics===\nWhile the role of battleships in both World Wars reflected Mahanian doctrine, the details of battleship deployment were more complex. Unlike ships of the line, the battleships of the late 19th and early 20th centuries had significant vulnerability to torpedoes and mines —because efficient mines & torpedoes didn't exist before that— which could be used by relatively small and inexpensive craft. The ''Jeune École'' doctrine of the 1870s and 1880s recommended placing torpedo boats alongside battleships; these would hide behind the larger ships until gun-smoke obscured visibility enough for them to dart out and fire their torpedoes. While this tactic was vitiated by the development of smokeless propellant, the threat from more capable torpedo craft (later including submarines) remained. By the 1890s, the Royal Navy had developed the first destroyers, which were initially designed to intercept and drive off any attacking torpedo boats. During the First World War and subsequently, battleships were rarely deployed without a protective screen of destroyers.\n\nBattleship doctrine emphasised the concentration of the battlegroup. In order for this concentrated force to be able to bring its power to bear on a reluctant opponent (or to avoid an encounter with a stronger enemy fleet), battlefleets needed some means of locating enemy ships beyond horizon range. This was provided by scouting forces; at various stages battlecruisers, cruisers, destroyers, airships, submarines and aircraft were all used. (With the development of radio, direction finding and traffic analysis would come into play, as well, so even shore stations, broadly speaking, joined the battlegroup.) So for most of their history, battleships operated surrounded by squadrons of destroyers and cruisers. The North Sea campaign of the First World War illustrates how, despite this support, the threat of mine and torpedo attack, and the failure to integrate or appreciate the capabilities of new techniques, seriously inhibited the operations of the Royal Navy Grand Fleet, the greatest battleship fleet of its time.\n\n===Strategic and diplomatic impact===\nThe presence of battleships had a great psychological and diplomatic impact. Similar to possessing nuclear weapons today, the ownership of battleships served to enhance a nation's force projection.\n\nEven during the Cold War, the psychological impact of a battleship was significant. In 1946, USS ''Missouri'' was dispatched to deliver the remains of the ambassador from Turkey, and her presence in Turkish and Greek waters staved off a possible Soviet thrust into the Balkan region. In September 1983, when Druze militia in Lebanon's Shouf Mountains fired upon U.S. Marine peacekeepers, the arrival of USS ''New Jersey'' stopped the firing. Gunfire from ''New Jersey'' later killed militia leaders.\n\n===Value for money===\nBattleships were the largest and most complex, and hence the most expensive warships of their time; as a result, the value of investment in battleships has always been contested. As the French politician Etienne Lamy wrote in 1879, \"The construction of battleships is so costly, their effectiveness so uncertain and of such short duration, that the enterprise of creating an armored fleet seems to leave fruitless the perseverance of a people\". The ''Jeune École'' school of thought of the 1870s and 1880s sought alternatives to the crippling expense and debatable utility of a conventional battlefleet. It proposed what would nowadays be termed a sea denial strategy, based on fast, long-ranged cruisers for commerce raiding and torpedo boat flotillas to attack enemy ships attempting to blockade French ports. The ideas of the ''Jeune École'' were ahead of their time; it was not until the 20th century that efficient mines, torpedoes, submarines, and aircraft were available that allowed similar ideas to be effectively implemented. The determination of powers such as Germany to build battlefleets with which to confront much stronger rivals has been criticised by historians, who emphasise the futility of investment in a battlefleet that has no chance of matching its opponent in an actual battle.\n",
"\n* Arsenal ship\n* List of battleships\n* List of battleships by country\n* List of battleship classes\n* List of sunken battleships\n* List of ships of the Second World War\n* List of battleships of the Second World War\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Corbett, Sir Julian. \"Maritime Operations In The Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905.\" (1994). Originally Classified and in two volumes. .\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Polmar, Norman. ''The Naval Institute Guide to the Ships and Aircraft of the US Fleet.'' 2001, Naval Institute Press. .\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n",
"* \n* \n* Mahan, Alred Thayer. ''Reflections, Historic and Other, Suggested by the Battle of the Japan Sea.'' By Captain A. T. Mahan, US Navy. US Naval Proceedings magazine; June 1906, volume XXXIV, number 2. United States Naval Institute Press.\n* \n* Taylor, Bruce, ed. ''The world of the battleship: The design and careers of capital ships of the world's navies, 1900-1950'' (US Naval Institute Press, 2017) 224pp\n",
"\n* Comparison of the capabilities of seven World War II battleships\n* Comparison of projected post-World War II battleship designs\n* Development of U.S. battleships, with timeline graph\n* Battleships in the Transportation Photographs Collection - University of Washington Library\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Ships of the line",
"Ironclads",
"Pre-dreadnought battleship",
"Dreadnought era",
"World War I",
"Inter-war period",
"World War II",
"Cold War",
"End of the battleship era",
"Strategy and doctrine",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Battleship | [
"The results of sweeping actions in the North Sea were battles such as the Heligoland Bight and Dogger Bank and German raids on the English coast, all of which were attempts by the Germans to lure out portions of the Grand Fleet in an attempt to defeat the Royal Navy in detail."
] | [
"\n\n\nThe firepower of a battleship demonstrated by (c. 1984).",
"The muzzle blasts distort the ocean surface.",
"A '''battleship''' is a large armored warship with a main battery consisting of large caliber guns.",
"During the late 19th and early 20th centuries the battleship was the most powerful type of warship, and a fleet of battleships was considered vital for any nation that desired to maintain command of the sea.",
"The word ''battleship'' was coined around 1794 and is a contraction of the phrase ''line-of-battle ship'', the dominant wooden warship during the Age of Sail.",
"The term came into formal use in the late 1880s to describe a type of ironclad warship, now referred to by historians as pre-dreadnought battleships.",
"In 1906, the commissioning of heralded a revolution in battleship design.",
"Subsequent battleship designs, influenced by HMS ''Dreadnought'', were referred to as \"dreadnoughts\".",
"Battleships were a symbol of naval dominance and national might, and for decades the battleship was a major factor in both diplomacy and military strategy.",
"A global arms race in battleship construction began in Europe in the 1890s and culminated at the decisive Battle of Tsushima in 1905; the outcome of which significantly influenced the design of HMS ''Dreadnought''.",
"The launch of ''Dreadnought'' in 1906 commenced a new naval arms race.",
"Three major fleet actions between steel battleships took place: the decisive battles of the Yellow Sea (1904) and Tsushima (1905) during the Russo-Japanese War, and the inconclusive Battle of Jutland (1916) during the First World War.",
"Jutland was the largest naval battle and the only full-scale clash of battleships in the war, and it was the last major battle fought primarily by battleships in world history.",
"The Naval Treaties of the 1920s and 1930s limited the number of battleships, though technical innovation in battleship design continued.",
"Both the Allied and Axis powers built battleships during World War II, though the increasing importance of the aircraft carrier meant that the battleship played a less important role than had been expected.",
"The value of the battleship has been questioned, even during their heyday.",
"There were few of the decisive fleet battles that battleship proponents expected, and used to justify the vast resources spent on building battlefleets.",
"Even in spite of their huge firepower and protection, battleships were increasingly vulnerable to much smaller, cheaper weapons: initially the torpedo and the naval mine, and later aircraft and the guided missile.",
"The growing range of naval engagements led to the aircraft carrier replacing the battleship as the leading capital ship during World War II, with the last battleship to be launched being in 1944.",
"Battleships were retained by the United States Navy into the Cold War for fire support purposes before being stricken from the U.S.",
"Naval Vessel Register in the 2000s.",
"\n (1850), the world's first steam-powered battleship\n\nA ship of the line was a large, unarmored wooden sailing ship which mounted a battery of up to 120 smoothbore guns and carronades.",
"The ship of the line developed gradually over centuries and, apart from growing in size, it changed little between the adoption of line of battle tactics in the early 17th century and the end of the sailing battleship's heyday in the 1830s.",
"From 1794, the alternative term 'line of battle ship' was contracted (informally at first) to 'battle ship' or 'battleship'.",
"The sheer number of guns fired broadside meant a sail battleship could wreck any wooden enemy, holing her hull, knocking down masts, wrecking her rigging, and killing her crew.",
"However, the effective range of the guns was as little as a few hundred yards, so the battle tactics of sailing ships depended in part on the wind.",
"The first major change to the ship of the line concept was the introduction of steam power as an auxiliary propulsion system.",
"Steam power was gradually introduced to the navy in the first half of the 19th century, initially for small craft and later for frigates.",
"The French Navy introduced steam to the line of battle with the 90-gun in 1850—the first true steam battleship.",
"''Napoléon'' was armed as a conventional ship-of-the-line, but her steam engines could give her a speed of , regardless of the wind condition.",
"This was a potentially decisive advantage in a naval engagement.",
"The introduction of steam accelerated the growth in size of battleships.",
"France and the United Kingdom were the only countries to develop fleets of wooden steam screw battleships although several other navies operated small numbers of screw battleships, including Russia (9), Turkey (3), Sweden (2), Naples (1), Denmark (1) and Austria (1).",
"In addition, the Navy of the North Germany Confederacy (which included Prussia) bought from Britain in 1870 for use as a gunnery training ship.",
"\nThe French (1859), the first ocean–going ironclad warship\n\nThe adoption of steam power was only one of a number of technological advances which revolutionized warship design in the 19th century.",
"The ship of the line was overtaken by the ironclad: powered by steam, protected by metal armor, and armed with guns firing high-explosive shells.",
"===Explosive shells===\nGuns that fired explosive or incendiary shells were a major threat to wooden ships, and these weapons quickly became widespread after the introduction of 8 inch shell guns as part of the standard armament of French and American line-of-battle ships in 1841.For the U.S. introduction of 8-inch shell guns into the armament of line-of-battle ships in 1841, see Spencer Tucker, ''Arming the Fleet, US Navy Ordnance in the Muzzle-Loading Era'' (U.S.",
"Naval Institute Pres, 1989), p.149.",
".",
"In the Crimean War, six line-of-battle ships and two frigates of the Russian Black Sea Fleet destroyed seven Turkish frigates and three corvettes with explosive shells at the Battle of Sinop in 1853.",
"Later in the war, French ironclad floating batteries used similar weapons against the defenses at the Battle of Kinburn.",
"Nevertheless, wooden-hulled ships stood up comparatively well to shells, as shown in the 1866 Battle of Lissa, where the modern Austrian steam two-decker ranged across a confused battlefield, rammed an Italian ironclad and took 80 hits from Italian ironclads, many of which were shells, but including at least one 300 pound shot at point blank range.",
"Despite losing her bowsprit and her foremast, and being set on fire, she was ready for action again the very next day.",
"===Iron armor and construction===\n, the Royal Navy's first ocean–going iron hulled warship.",
"The development of high-explosive shells made the use of iron armor plate on warships necessary.",
"In 1859 France launched , the first ocean-going ironclad warship.",
"She had the profile of a ship of the line, cut to one deck due to weight considerations.",
"Although made of wood and reliant on sail for most journeys, ''Gloire'' was fitted with a propeller, and her wooden hull was protected by a layer of thick iron armor.",
"''Gloire'' prompted further innovation from the Royal Navy, anxious to prevent France from gaining a technological lead.",
"The superior armored frigate followed ''Gloire'' by only 14 months, and both nations embarked on a program of building new ironclads and converting existing screw ships of the line to armored frigates.",
"Within two years, Italy, Austria, Spain and Russia had all ordered ironclad warships, and by the time of the famous clash of the and the at the Battle of Hampton Roads at least eight navies possessed ironclad ships.",
"The French , the first battleship to use steel as the main building material\nNavies experimented with the positioning of guns, in turrets (like the USS ''Monitor''), central-batteries or barbettes, or with the ram as the principal weapon.",
"As steam technology developed, masts were gradually removed from battleship designs.",
"By the mid-1870s steel was used as a construction material alongside iron and wood.",
"The French Navy's , laid down in 1873 and launched in 1876, was a central battery and barbette warship which became the first battleship in the world to use steel as the principal building material.",
"\nPre-''Dreadnought'' , built in 1892, was the first battleship of the U.S. Navy.",
"Photochrom print c. 1898.",
"The term \"battleship\" was officially adopted by the Royal Navy in the re-classification of 1892.",
"By the 1890s, there was an increasing similarity between battleship designs, and the type that later became known as the 'pre-dreadnought battleship' emerged.",
"These were heavily armored ships, mounting a mixed battery of guns in turrets, and without sails.",
"The typical first-class battleship of the pre-dreadnought era displaced 15,000 to 17,000 tons, had a speed of , and an armament of four guns in two turrets fore and aft with a mixed-caliber secondary battery amidships around the superstructure.",
"An early design with superficial similarity to the pre-dreadnought is the British of 1871.",
"The slow-firing main guns were the principal weapons for battleship-to-battleship combat.",
"The intermediate and secondary batteries had two roles.",
"Against major ships, it was thought a 'hail of fire' from quick-firing secondary weapons could distract enemy gun crews by inflicting damage to the superstructure, and they would be more effective against smaller ships such as cruisers.",
"Smaller guns (12-pounders and smaller) were reserved for protecting the battleship against the threat of torpedo attack from destroyers and torpedo boats.",
"The beginning of the pre-dreadnought era coincided with Britain reasserting her naval dominance.",
"For many years previously, Britain had taken naval supremacy for granted.",
"Expensive naval projects were criticised by political leaders of all inclinations.",
"However, in 1888 a war scare with France and the build-up of the Russian navy gave added impetus to naval construction, and the British Naval Defence Act of 1889 laid down a new fleet including eight new battleships.",
"The principle that Britain's navy should be more powerful than the two next most powerful fleets combined was established.",
"This policy was designed to deter France and Russia from building more battleships, but both nations nevertheless expanded their fleets with more and better pre-dreadnoughts in the 1890s.",
"Diagram of (1908), a typical late pre-dreadnought battleship\nIn the last years of the 19th century and the first years of the 20th, the escalation in the building of battleships became an arms race between Britain and Germany.",
"The German naval laws of 1890 and 1898 authorised a fleet of 38 battleships, a vital threat to the balance of naval power.",
"Britain answered with further shipbuilding, but by the end of the pre-dreadnought era, British supremacy at sea had markedly weakened.",
"In 1883, the United Kingdom had 38 battleships, twice as many as France and almost as many as the rest of the world put together.",
"By 1897, Britain's lead was far smaller due to competition from France, Germany, and Russia, as well as the development of pre-dreadnought fleets in Italy, the United States and Japan.",
"Turkey, Spain, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Chile and Brazil all had second-rate fleets led by armored cruisers, coastal defence ships or monitors.",
"Pre-dreadnoughts continued the technical innovations of the ironclad.",
"Turrets, armor plate, and steam engines were all improved over the years, and torpedo tubes were introduced.",
"A small number of designs, including the American and es, experimented with all or part of the 8-inch intermediate battery superimposed over the 12-inch primary.",
"Results were poor: recoil factors and blast effects resulted in the 8-inch battery being completely unusable, and the inability to train the primary and intermediate armaments on different targets led to significant tactical limitations.",
"Even though such innovative designs saved weight (a key reason for their inception), they proved too cumbersome in practice.",
"\n\nIn 1906, the British Royal Navy launched the revolutionary .",
"Created as a result of pressure from Admiral Sir John (\"Jackie\") Fisher, HMS ''Dreadnought'' made existing battleships obsolete.",
"Combining an \"all-big-gun\" armament of ten 12-inch (305 mm) guns with unprecedented speed (from steam turbine engines) and protection, she prompted navies worldwide to re-evaluate their battleship building programs.",
"While the Japanese had laid down an all-big-gun battleship, , in 1904 and the concept of an all-big-gun ship had been in circulation for several years, it had yet to be validated in combat.",
"''Dreadnought'' sparked a new arms race, principally between Britain and Germany but reflected worldwide, as the new class of warships became a crucial element of national power.",
"Technical development continued rapidly through the dreadnought era, with steep changes in armament, armor and propulsion.",
"Ten years after ''Dreadnought''s commissioning, much more powerful ships, the super-dreadnoughts, were being built.",
"===Origin===\nVittorio Cuniberti\n\nIn the first years of the 20th century, several navies worldwide experimented with the idea of a new type of battleship with a uniform armament of very heavy guns.",
"Admiral Vittorio Cuniberti, the Italian Navy's chief naval architect, articulated the concept of an all-big-gun battleship in 1903.",
"When the ''Regia Marina'' did not pursue his ideas, Cuniberti wrote an article in ''Janes'' proposing an \"ideal\" future British battleship, a large armored warship of 17,000 tons, armed solely with a single calibre main battery (twelve 12-inch {305 mm} guns), carrying belt armor, and capable of 24 knots (44 km/h).",
"The Russo-Japanese War provided operational experience to validate the 'all-big-gun' concept.",
"At the Yellow Sea and Tsushima, pre-dreadnoughts exchanged volleys at ranges of 7,600–12,000 yd (7 to 11 km), beyond the range of the secondary batteries.",
"It is often held that these engagements demonstrated the importance of the gun over its smaller counterparts, though some historians take the view that secondary batteries were just as important as the larger weapons.",
"In Japan, the two battleships of the 1903-4 Programme were the first to be laid down as all-big-gun designs, with eight 12-inch guns.",
"However, the design had armor which was considered too thin, demanding a substantial redesign.",
"The financial pressures of the Russo-Japanese War and the short supply of 12-inch guns which had to be imported from Britain meant these ships were completed with a mixed 10- and 12-inch armament.",
"The 1903-4 design also retained traditional triple-expansion steam engines.",
"A preliminary design for the Imperial Japanese Navy's was an \"all-big-gun\" design.",
"As early as 1904, Jackie Fisher had been convinced of the need for fast, powerful ships with an all-big-gun armament.",
"If Tsushima influenced his thinking, it was to persuade him of the need to standardise on guns.",
"Fisher's concerns were submarines and destroyers equipped with torpedoes, then threatening to outrange battleship guns, making speed imperative for capital ships.",
"Fisher's preferred option was his brainchild, the battlecruiser: lightly armored but heavily armed with eight 12-inch guns and propelled to by steam turbines.",
"It was to prove this revolutionary technology that ''Dreadnought'' was designed in January 1905, laid down in October 1905 and sped to completion by 1906.",
"She carried ten 12-inch guns, had an 11-inch armor belt, and was the first large ship powered by turbines.",
"She mounted her guns in five turrets; three on the centerline (one forward, two aft) and two on the wings, giving her at her launch twice the broadside of any other warship.",
"She retained a number of 12-pound (3-inch, 76 mm) quick-firing guns for use against destroyers and torpedo-boats.",
"Her armor was heavy enough for her to go head-to-head with any other ship in a gun battle, and conceivably win.",
"''Dreadnought'' was to have been followed by three s, their construction delayed to allow lessons from ''Dreadnought'' to be used in their design.",
"While Fisher may have intended ''Dreadnought'' to be the last Royal Navy battleship, the design was so successful he found little support for his plan to switch to a battlecruiser navy.",
"Although there were some problems with the ship (the wing turrets had limited arcs of fire and strained the hull when firing a full broadside, and the top of the thickest armor belt lay below the waterline at full load), the Royal Navy promptly commissioned another six ships to a similar design in the and es.",
"An American design, , authorized in 1905 and laid down in December 1906, was another of the first dreadnoughts, but she and her sister, , were not launched until 1908.",
"Both used triple-expansion engines and had a superior layout of the main battery, dispensing with ''Dreadnought''s wing turrets.",
"They thus retained the same broadside, despite having two fewer guns.",
"===Arms race===\n\n\nIn 1897, before the revolution in design brought about by HMS ''Dreadnought'', the Royal Navy had 62 battleships in commission or building, a lead of 26 over France and 50 over Germany.",
"In 1906, the Royal Navy owned the field with ''Dreadnought''.",
"The new class of ship prompted an arms race with major strategic consequences.",
"Major naval powers raced to build their own dreadnoughts.",
"Possession of modern battleships was not only seen as vital to naval power, but also, as with nuclear weapons after WWII, represented a nation's standing in the world.",
"Germany, France, Japan, Italy, Austria, and the United States all began dreadnought programmes; while Ottoman Turkey, Argentina, Russia, Brazil, and Chile commissioned dreadnoughts to be built in British and American yards.",
"\n\nThe battleship, particularly the dreadnought, was the dominant naval weapon of the World War I era.",
"There were few serious challenges at that time.",
"The most significant naval battles of World War I, such as Jutland (May 31, 1916 – June 1, 1916), were fought by battleships and their battlecruiser cousins.",
"German High Seas Fleet during World War I\nBy virtue of geography, the Royal Navy was able to use her imposing battleship and battlecruiser fleet to impose a strict and successful naval blockade of Germany and kept Germany's smaller battleship fleet bottled up in the North Sea: only narrow channels led to the Atlantic Ocean and these were guarded by British forces.",
"Both sides were aware that, because of the greater number of British dreadnoughts, a full fleet engagement would be likely to result in a British victory.",
"The German strategy was therefore to try to provoke an engagement on their terms: either to induce a part of the Grand Fleet to enter battle alone, or to fight a pitched battle near the German coastline, where friendly minefields, torpedo-boats and submarines could be used to even the odds.",
"Germany's submarines were able to break out and raid commerce, but even though they sank many merchant ships, they could not successfully blockade Great Britain – in contrast to Britain's successful battleship blockade of Germany, which was a major cause of Germany's economic collapse in 1918.",
"The Royal Navy on the other hand, successfully adopted convoy tactics to combat Germany's submarine blockade and eventually defeated it.",
"Britain's Grand Fleet\nThe first two years of war saw the Royal Navy's battleships and battlecruisers regularly \"sweep\" the North Sea making sure that no German ships could get in or out.",
"Only a few German surface ships that were already at sea, such as the famous light cruiser , were able to raid commerce.",
"Even some of those that did manage to get out were hunted down by battlecruisers, as in the Battle of the Falklands, December 7, 1914.",
"On May 31, 1916, a further attempt to draw British ships into battle on German terms resulted in a clash of the battlefleets in the Battle of Jutland.",
"The German fleet withdrew to port after two short encounters with the British fleet.",
"Less than two months later, the Germans once again attempted to draw portions of the Grand Fleet into battle.",
"The resulting Action of 19 August 1916 proved inconclusive.",
"This reinforced German determination not to engage in a fleet to fleet battle.",
"''Warspite'' and ''Malaya'' at Jutland\nIn the other naval theatres there were no decisive pitched battles.",
"In the Black Sea, engagement between Russian and Turkish battleships was restricted to skirmishes.",
"In the Baltic Sea, action was largely limited to the raiding of convoys, and the laying of defensive minefields; the only significant clash of battleship squadrons there was the Battle of Moon Sound at which one Russian pre-dreadnought was lost.",
"The Adriatic was in a sense the mirror of the North Sea: the Austro-Hungarian dreadnought fleet remained bottled up by the British and French blockade.",
"And in the Mediterranean, the most important use of battleships was in support of the amphibious assault on Gallipoli.",
"In September 1914, the threat posed to surface ships by German U-boats was confirmed by successful attacks on British cruisers, including the sinking of three British armored cruisers by the German submarine in less than an hour.",
"The British Super-dreadnought HMS ''Audacious'' soon followed suit as she struck a mine laid by a German U-boat in October 1914 and sank.",
"The threat that German U-boats posed to British dreadnoughts was enough to cause the Royal Navy to change their strategy and tactics in the North Sea to reduce the risk of U-boat attack.",
"Further near-misses from submarine attacks on battleships and casualties amongst cruisers led to growing concern in the Royal Navy about the vulnerability of battleships.",
"As the war wore on however, it turned out that whilst submarines did prove to be an incredibly dangerous threat to older pre-dreadnought battleships, as shown by examples such as the sinking of the , which was caught in the Dardanelles by a British submarine and the and were torpedoed by ''U-21'' as well as , , etc., the threat posed to dreadnought battleships proved to have been largely a false alarm.",
"HMS ''Audacious'' turned out to have been the only dreadnought sunk by a submarine in World War I.",
"While battleships were never intended for anti-submarine warfare, there was one instance of a submarine being sunk by a dreadnought battleship.",
"HMS ''Dreadnought'' rammed and sank the German U-29 on March 18, 1915 off Moray Firth.",
"Italian motor boats\nWhilst the escape of the German fleet from the superior British firepower at Jutland was effected by the German cruisers and destroyers successfully turning away the British battleships, the German attempt to rely on U-boat attacks on the British fleet failed.",
"Torpedo boats did have some successes against battleships in World War I, as demonstrated by the sinking of the British pre-dreadnought by during the Dardanelles Campaign and the destruction of the Austro-Hungarian dreadnought by Italian motor torpedo boats in June 1918.",
"In large fleet actions, however, destroyers and torpedo boats were usually unable to get close enough to the battleships to damage them.",
"The only battleship sunk in a fleet action by either torpedo boats or destroyers was the obsolescent German pre-dreadnought .",
"She was sunk by destroyers during the night phase of the Battle of Jutland.",
"The German High Seas Fleet, for their part, were determined not to engage the British without the assistance of submarines; and since the submarines were needed more for raiding commercial traffic, the fleet stayed in port for much of the war.",
"For many years, Germany simply had no battleships.",
"The Armistice with Germany required that most of the High Seas Fleet be disarmed and interned in a neutral port; largely because no neutral port could be found, the ships remained in British custody in Scapa Flow, Scotland.",
"The Treaty of Versailles specified that the ships should be handed over to the British.",
"Instead, most of them were scuttled by their German crews on June 21, 1919 just before the signature of the peace treaty.",
"The treaty also limited the German Navy, and prevented Germany from building or possessing any capital ships.",
"Profile drawing of commissioned 1927\nThe inter-war period saw the battleship subjected to strict international limitations to prevent a costly arms race breaking out.",
"Scrapping of Battleships in the Philadelphia Navy Yard, Pennsylvania in December 1923\nWhile the victors were not limited by the Treaty of Versailles, many of the major naval powers were crippled after the war.",
"Faced with the prospect of a naval arms race against the United Kingdom and Japan, which would in turn have led to a possible Pacific war, the United States was keen to conclude the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922.",
"This treaty limited the number and size of battleships that each major nation could possess, and required Britain to accept parity with the U.S. and to abandon the British alliance with Japan.",
"The Washington treaty was followed by a series of other naval treaties, including the First Geneva Naval Conference (1927), the First London Naval Treaty (1930), the Second Geneva Naval Conference (1932), and finally the Second London Naval Treaty (1936), which all set limits on major warships.",
"These treaties became effectively obsolete on September 1, 1939 at the beginning of World War II, but the ship classifications that had been agreed upon still apply.",
"The treaty limitations meant that fewer new battleships were launched in 1919–39 than in 1905–14.",
"The treaties also inhibited development by putting maximum limits on the weights of ships.",
"Designs like the projected British , the first American , and the Japanese —all of which continued the trend to larger ships with bigger guns and thicker armor—never got off the drawing board.",
"Those designs which were commissioned during this period were referred to as treaty battleships.",
"===Rise of air power===\nBombing tests which sank (1909), September 1921\n\nAs early as 1914, the British Admiral Percy Scott predicted that battleships would soon be made irrelevant by aircraft.",
"By the end of World War I, aircraft had successfully adopted the torpedo as a weapon.",
"In 1921 the Italian general and air theorist Giulio Douhet completed a hugely influential treatise on strategic bombing titled ''The Command of the Air'', which foresaw the dominance of air power over naval units.",
"In the 1920s, General Billy Mitchell of the United States Army Air Corps, believing that air forces had rendered navies around the world obsolete, testified in front of Congress that \"1,000 bombardment airplanes can be built and operated for about the price of one battleship\" and that a squadron of these bombers could sink a battleship, making for more efficient use of government funds.",
"This infuriated the U.S. Navy, but Mitchell was nevertheless allowed to conduct a careful series of bombing tests alongside Navy and Marine bombers.",
"In 1921, he bombed and sank numerous ships, including the \"unsinkable\" German World War I battleship and the American pre-dreadnought .",
"Although Mitchell had required \"war-time conditions\", the ships sunk were obsolete, stationary, defenseless and had no damage control.",
"The sinking of ''Ostfriesland'' was accomplished by violating an agreement that would have allowed Navy engineers to examine the effects of various munitions: Mitchell's airmen disregarded the rules, and sank the ship within minutes in a coordinated attack.",
"The stunt made headlines, and Mitchell declared, \"No surface vessels can exist wherever air forces acting from land bases are able to attack them.\"",
"While far from conclusive, Mitchell's test was significant because it put proponents of the battleship against naval aviation on the back foot.",
"Rear Admiral William A. Moffett used public relations against Mitchell to make headway toward expansion of the U.S. Navy's nascent aircraft carrier program.",
"===Rearmament===\nThe Royal Navy, United States Navy, and Imperial Japanese Navy extensively upgraded and modernized their World War I–era battleships during the 1930s.",
"Among the new features were an increased tower height and stability for the optical rangefinder equipment (for gunnery control), more armor (especially around turrets) to protect against plunging fire and aerial bombing, and additional anti-aircraft weapons.",
"Some British ships received a large block superstructure nicknamed the \"Queen Anne's castle\", such as in the and , which would be used in the new conning towers of the fast battleships.",
"External bulges were added to improve both buoyancy to counteract weight increase and provide underwater protection against mines and torpedoes.",
"The Japanese rebuilt all of their battleships, plus their battlecruisers, with distinctive \"pagoda\" structures, though the received a more modern bridge tower that would influence the new .",
"Bulges were fitted, including steel tube arrays to improve both underwater and vertical protection along the waterline.",
"The U.S. experimented with cage masts and later tripod masts, though after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor some of the most severely damaged ships (such as and ) were rebuilt with tower masts, for an appearance similar to their contemporaries.",
"Radar, which was effective beyond visual range and effective in complete darkness or adverse weather, was introduced to supplement optical fire control.",
"Even when war threatened again in the late 1930s, battleship construction did not regain the level of importance it had held in the years before World War I.",
"The \"building holiday\" imposed by the naval treaties meant the capacity of dockyards worldwide had shrunk, and the strategic position had changed.",
"In Germany, the ambitious Plan Z for naval rearmament was abandoned in favor of a strategy of submarine warfare supplemented by the use of battlecruisers and commerce raiding (in particular by s).",
"In Britain, the most pressing need was for air defenses and convoy escorts to safeguard the civilian population from bombing or starvation, and re-armament construction plans consisted of five ships of the .",
"It was in the Mediterranean that navies remained most committed to battleship warfare.",
"France intended to build six battleships of the and es, and the Italians four ships.",
"Neither navy built significant aircraft carriers.",
"The U.S. preferred to spend limited funds on aircraft carriers until the .",
"Japan, also prioritising aircraft carriers, nevertheless began work on three mammoth ''Yamato''s (although the third, , was later completed as a carrier) and a planned fourth was cancelled.",
"At the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, the Spanish navy consisted of only two small dreadnought battleships, and .",
"''España'' (originally named ''Alfonso XIII''), by then in reserve at the northwestern naval base of El Ferrol, fell into Nationalist hands in July 1936.",
"The crew aboard ''Jaime I'' remained loyal to the Republic, killed their officers, who apparently supported Franco's attempted coup, and joined the Republican Navy.",
"Thus each side had one battleship; however, the Republican Navy generally lacked experienced officers.",
"The Spanish battleships mainly restricted themselves to mutual blockades, convoy escort duties, and shore bombardment, rarely in direct fighting against other surface units.",
"In April 1937, ''España'' ran into a mine laid by friendly forces, and sank with little loss of life.",
"In May 1937, ''Jaime I'' was damaged by Nationalist air attacks and a grounding incident.",
"The ship was forced to go back to port to be repaired.",
"There she was again hit by several aerial bombs.",
"It was then decided to tow the battleship to a more secure port, but during the transport she suffered an internal explosion that caused 300 deaths and her total loss.",
"Several Italian and German capital ships participated in the non-intervention blockade.",
"On May 29, 1937, two Republican aircraft managed to bomb the German pocket battleship outside Ibiza, causing severe damage and loss of life.",
"retaliated two days later by bombarding Almería, causing much destruction, and the resulting ''Deutschland'' incident meant the end of German and Italian support for non-intervention.",
"\n\nYamato'' during sea trials, October 1941.\n leading battleship and cruisers , , and into Lingayen Gulf, Philippines, January 1945\n\nThe —an obsolete pre-dreadnought—fired the first shots of World War II with the bombardment of the Polish garrison at Westerplatte; and the final surrender of the Japanese Empire took place aboard a United States Navy battleship, .",
"Between those two events, it had become clear that aircraft carriers were the new principal ships of the fleet and that battleships now performed a secondary role.",
"Battleships played a part in major engagements in Atlantic, Pacific and Mediterranean theaters; in the Atlantic, the Germans used their battleships as independent commerce raiders.",
"However, clashes between battleships were of little strategic importance.",
"The Battle of the Atlantic was fought between destroyers and submarines, and most of the decisive fleet clashes of the Pacific war were determined by aircraft carriers.",
"In the first year of the war, armored warships defied predictions that aircraft would dominate naval warfare.",
"and surprised and sank the aircraft carrier off western Norway in June 1940.",
"This engagement marked the last time a fleet carrier was sunk by surface gunnery.",
"In the attack on Mers-el-Kébir, British battleships opened fire on the French battleships in the harbor near Oran in Algeria with their heavy guns, and later pursued fleeing French ships with planes from aircraft carriers.",
"The subsequent years of the war saw many demonstrations of the maturity of the aircraft carrier as a strategic naval weapon and its potential against battleships.",
"The British air attack on the Italian naval base at Taranto sank one Italian battleship and damaged two more.",
"The same Swordfish torpedo bombers played a crucial role in sinking the German commerce-raider .",
"The Imperial Japanese Navy's ''Yamato'' (1940), seen here under air attack in 1945, and her sister ship (1940) were the heaviest battleships in history.",
"On December 7, 1941, the Japanese launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor.",
"Within a short time five of eight U.S. battleships were sunk or sinking, with the rest damaged.",
"The American aircraft carriers were out to sea, however, and evaded detection.",
"They took up the fight, and eventually turned the tide of the war in the Pacific.",
"The sinking of the British battleship and her escort, the battlecruiser , demonstrated the vulnerability of a battleship to air attack while at sea without sufficient air cover, settling the argument begun by Mitchell in 1921.",
"Both warships were under way and en route to attack the Japanese amphibious force that had invaded Malaya when they were caught by Japanese land-based bombers and torpedo bombers on December 10, 1941.",
"At many of the early crucial battles of the Pacific, for instance Coral Sea and Midway, battleships were either absent or overshadowed as carriers launched wave after wave of planes into the attack at a range of hundreds of miles.",
"In later battles in the Pacific, battleships primarily performed shore bombardment in support of amphibious landings and provided anti-aircraft defense as escort for the carriers.",
"Even the largest battleships ever constructed, Japan's , which carried a main battery of nine 18-inch (46 cm) guns and were designed as a principal strategic weapon, were never given a chance to show their potential in the decisive battleship action that figured in Japanese pre-war planning.",
"The last battleship confrontation in history was the Battle of Surigao Strait, on October 25, 1944, in which a numerically and technically superior American battleship group destroyed a lesser Japanese battleship group by gunfire after it had already been devastated by destroyer torpedo attacks.",
"All but one of the American battleships in this confrontation had previously been sunk during the attack on Pearl Harbor and subsequently raised and repaired.",
"When fired the last salvo of this battle, the last salvo fired by a battleship against another heavy ship, she was \"firing a funeral salute to a finished era of naval warfare.\"",
"In April 1945, during the battle for Okinawa, the world's most powerful battleship, the ''Yamato'', was sent out on a suicide mission against a massive U.S. force and sunk by overwhelming pressure from carrier aircraft with nearly all hands lost.",
"Operation Crossroads\n\nAfter World War II, several navies retained their existing battleships, but they were no longer strategically dominant military assets.",
"Indeed, it soon became apparent that they were no longer worth the considerable cost of construction and maintenance and only one new battleship was commissioned after the war, .",
"During the war it had been demonstrated that battleship-on-battleship engagements like Leyte Gulf or the sinking of were the exception and not the rule, and with the growing role of aircraft engagement ranges were becoming longer and longer, making heavy gun armament irrelevant.",
"The armor of a battleship was equally irrelevant in the face of a nuclear attack as tactical missiles with a range of or more could be mounted on the Soviet and s. By the end of the 1950s, smaller vessel classes such as destroyers, which formerly offered no noteworthy opposition to battleships, now were capable of eliminating battleships from outside the range of the ship's heavy guns.",
"The remaining battleships met a variety of ends.",
"and were sunk during the testing of nuclear weapons in Operation Crossroads in 1946.",
"Both battleships proved resistant to nuclear air burst but vulnerable to underwater nuclear explosions.",
"The was taken by the Soviets as reparations and renamed ''Novorossiysk''; she was sunk by a leftover German mine in the Black Sea on October 29, 1955.",
"The two ships were scrapped in 1956.",
"The French was scrapped in 1954, in 1968, and in 1970.",
"The United Kingdom's four surviving ships were scrapped in 1957, and followed in 1960.",
"All other surviving British battleships had been sold or broken up by 1949.",
"The Soviet Union's was scrapped in 1953, in 1957 and (back under her original name, , since 1942) in 1956-7.",
"Brazil's was scrapped in Genoa in 1953, and her sister ship sank during a storm in the Atlantic ''en route'' to the breakers in Italy in 1951.",
"Argentina kept its two ships until 1956 and Chile kept (formerly ) until 1959.",
"The Turkish battlecruiser (formerly , launched in 1911) was scrapped in 1976 after an offer to sell her back to Germany was refused.",
"Sweden had several small coastal-defense battleships, one of which, , survived until 1970.",
"The Soviets scrapped four large incomplete cruisers in the late 1950s, whilst plans to build a number of new s were abandoned following the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953.",
"The three old German battleships , , and all met similar ends.",
"''Hessen'' was taken over by the Soviet Union and renamed ''Tsel''.",
"She was scrapped in 1960.",
"''Schleswig-Holstein'' was renamed ''Borodino'', and was used as a target ship until 1960.",
"''Schlesien'', too, was used as a target ship.",
"She was broken up between 1952 and 1957.\n\n launches a Tomahawk missile during Operation Desert Storm.",
"The s gained a new lease of life in the U.S. Navy as fire support ships.",
"Radar and computer-controlled gunfire could be aimed with pinpoint accuracy to target.",
"The U.S. recommissioned all four ''Iowa''-class battleships for the Korean War and the for the Vietnam War.",
"These were primarily used for shore bombardment, ''New Jersey'' firing nearly 6,000 rounds of 16 inch shells and over 14,000 rounds of 5 inch projectiles during her tour on the gunline, seven times more rounds against shore targets in Vietnam than she had fired in the Second World War.",
"As part of Navy Secretary John F. Lehman's effort to build a 600-ship Navy in the 1980s, and in response to the commissioning of ''Kirov'' by the Soviet Union, the United States recommissioned all four ''Iowa''-class battleships.",
"On several occasions, battleships were support ships in carrier battle groups, or led their own battleship battle group.",
"These were modernized to carry Tomahawk missiles, with ''New Jersey'' seeing action bombarding Lebanon in 1983 and 1984, while and fired their 16-inch (406 mm) guns at land targets and launched missiles during Operation Desert Storm in 1991.",
"''Wisconsin'' served as the TLAM strike commander for the Persian Gulf, directing the sequence of launches that marked the opening of ''Desert Storm'', firing a total of 24 TLAMs during the first two days of the campaign.",
"The primary threat to the battleships were Iraqi shore based surface-to-surface missiles; ''Missouri'' was targeted by two Iraqi Silkworm missiles, with one missing and another being intercepted by the British destroyer .",
"The American (1912) is the only preserved example of a Dreadnought-type battleship that dates to the time of the original HMS ''Dreadnought''.",
"All four ''Iowa'' ships were decommissioned in the early 1990s, making them the last battleships to see active service.",
"and were maintained to a standard where they could be rapidly returned to service as fire support vessels, pending the development of a superior fire support vessel.",
"These last two battleships were finally stricken from the U.S.",
"Naval Vessel Register in 2006.",
"The Military Balance and Russian Foreign Military Review states the U.S. Navy listed one battleship in the reserve (Naval Inactive Fleet/Reserve 2nd Turn) in 2010.",
"The Military Balance states the U.S. Navy listed no battleships in the reserve in 2014.",
"The U.S. Marine Corps believes that the current naval surface fire support gun and missile programs will not be able to provide adequate fire support for an amphibious assault or onshore operations.",
"With the decommissioning of the last ''Iowa''-class ships, no battleships remain in service or in reserve with any navy worldwide.",
"A number are preserved as museum ships, either afloat or in drydock.",
"The U.S. has eight battleships on display: , , , , , , , and .",
"''Missouri'' and ''New Jersey'' are museums at Pearl Harbor and Camden, New Jersey, respectively.",
"''Iowa'' is on display as an educational attraction at the Los Angeles Waterfront in San Pedro, California.",
"''Wisconsin'' now serves as a museum ship in Norfolk, Virginia.",
"''Massachusetts'', which has the distinction of never having lost a man during service, is on display at the Battleship Cove naval museum in Fall River, Massachusetts.",
"''Texas'', the first battleship turned into a museum, is on display at the San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site, near Houston.",
"''North Carolina'' is on display in Wilmington, North Carolina.",
"''Alabama'' is on display in Mobile, Alabama.",
"The wreck of the , sunk during the Pearl Harbor attack in 1941, is designated a historical landmark and national gravesite.",
"The only other 20th-century battleship on display is the Japanese pre-dreadnought .",
"A replica of the Chinese ironclad Dingyuan was built by the Weihai Port Bureau in 2003 and is on display in Weihai, China.",
"\n===Doctrine===\nBattleships were the embodiment of sea power.",
"For Alfred Thayer Mahan and his followers, a strong navy was vital to the success of a nation, and control of the seas was vital for the projection of force on land and overseas.",
"Mahan's theory, proposed in ''The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1783'' of 1890, dictated the role of the battleship was to sweep the enemy from the seas.",
"While the work of escorting, blockading, and raiding might be done by cruisers or smaller vessels, the presence of the battleship was a potential threat to any convoy escorted by any vessels other than capital ships.",
"This concept of \"potential threat\" can be further generalized to the mere existence (as opposed to presence) of a powerful fleet tying the opposing fleet down.",
"This concept came to be known as a \"fleet in being\" – an idle yet mighty fleet forcing others to spend time, resource and effort to actively guard against it.",
"Mahan went on to say victory could only be achieved by engagements between battleships, which came to be known as the ''decisive battle'' doctrine in some navies, while targeting merchant ships (commerce raiding or ''guerre de course'', as posited by the ''Jeune École'') could never succeed.",
"Mahan was highly influential in naval and political circles throughout the age of the battleship, calling for a large fleet of the most powerful battleships possible.",
"Mahan's work developed in the late 1880s, and by the end of the 1890s it had a massive international influence, in the end adopted by many major navies (notably the British, American, German, and Japanese).",
"The strength of Mahanian opinion was important in the development of the battleships arms races, and equally important in the agreement of the Powers to limit battleship numbers in the interwar era.",
"The \"fleet in being\" suggested battleships could simply by their existence tie down superior enemy resources.",
"This in turn was believed to be able to tip the balance of a conflict even without a battle.",
"This suggested even for inferior naval powers a battleship fleet could have important strategic effect.",
"===Tactics===\nWhile the role of battleships in both World Wars reflected Mahanian doctrine, the details of battleship deployment were more complex.",
"Unlike ships of the line, the battleships of the late 19th and early 20th centuries had significant vulnerability to torpedoes and mines —because efficient mines & torpedoes didn't exist before that— which could be used by relatively small and inexpensive craft.",
"The ''Jeune École'' doctrine of the 1870s and 1880s recommended placing torpedo boats alongside battleships; these would hide behind the larger ships until gun-smoke obscured visibility enough for them to dart out and fire their torpedoes.",
"While this tactic was vitiated by the development of smokeless propellant, the threat from more capable torpedo craft (later including submarines) remained.",
"By the 1890s, the Royal Navy had developed the first destroyers, which were initially designed to intercept and drive off any attacking torpedo boats.",
"During the First World War and subsequently, battleships were rarely deployed without a protective screen of destroyers.",
"Battleship doctrine emphasised the concentration of the battlegroup.",
"In order for this concentrated force to be able to bring its power to bear on a reluctant opponent (or to avoid an encounter with a stronger enemy fleet), battlefleets needed some means of locating enemy ships beyond horizon range.",
"This was provided by scouting forces; at various stages battlecruisers, cruisers, destroyers, airships, submarines and aircraft were all used.",
"(With the development of radio, direction finding and traffic analysis would come into play, as well, so even shore stations, broadly speaking, joined the battlegroup.)",
"So for most of their history, battleships operated surrounded by squadrons of destroyers and cruisers.",
"The North Sea campaign of the First World War illustrates how, despite this support, the threat of mine and torpedo attack, and the failure to integrate or appreciate the capabilities of new techniques, seriously inhibited the operations of the Royal Navy Grand Fleet, the greatest battleship fleet of its time.",
"===Strategic and diplomatic impact===\nThe presence of battleships had a great psychological and diplomatic impact.",
"Similar to possessing nuclear weapons today, the ownership of battleships served to enhance a nation's force projection.",
"Even during the Cold War, the psychological impact of a battleship was significant.",
"In 1946, USS ''Missouri'' was dispatched to deliver the remains of the ambassador from Turkey, and her presence in Turkish and Greek waters staved off a possible Soviet thrust into the Balkan region.",
"In September 1983, when Druze militia in Lebanon's Shouf Mountains fired upon U.S. Marine peacekeepers, the arrival of USS ''New Jersey'' stopped the firing.",
"Gunfire from ''New Jersey'' later killed militia leaders.",
"===Value for money===\nBattleships were the largest and most complex, and hence the most expensive warships of their time; as a result, the value of investment in battleships has always been contested.",
"As the French politician Etienne Lamy wrote in 1879, \"The construction of battleships is so costly, their effectiveness so uncertain and of such short duration, that the enterprise of creating an armored fleet seems to leave fruitless the perseverance of a people\".",
"The ''Jeune École'' school of thought of the 1870s and 1880s sought alternatives to the crippling expense and debatable utility of a conventional battlefleet.",
"It proposed what would nowadays be termed a sea denial strategy, based on fast, long-ranged cruisers for commerce raiding and torpedo boat flotillas to attack enemy ships attempting to blockade French ports.",
"The ideas of the ''Jeune École'' were ahead of their time; it was not until the 20th century that efficient mines, torpedoes, submarines, and aircraft were available that allowed similar ideas to be effectively implemented.",
"The determination of powers such as Germany to build battlefleets with which to confront much stronger rivals has been criticised by historians, who emphasise the futility of investment in a battlefleet that has no chance of matching its opponent in an actual battle.",
"\n* Arsenal ship\n* List of battleships\n* List of battleships by country\n* List of battleship classes\n* List of sunken battleships\n* List of ships of the Second World War\n* List of battleships of the Second World War",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Corbett, Sir Julian.",
"\"Maritime Operations In The Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905.\"",
"(1994).",
"Originally Classified and in two volumes.",
".",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Polmar, Norman.",
"''The Naval Institute Guide to the Ships and Aircraft of the US Fleet.''",
"2001, Naval Institute Press.",
".",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*",
"* \n* \n* Mahan, Alred Thayer.",
"''Reflections, Historic and Other, Suggested by the Battle of the Japan Sea.''",
"By Captain A. T. Mahan, US Navy.",
"US Naval Proceedings magazine; June 1906, volume XXXIV, number 2.",
"United States Naval Institute Press.",
"* \n* Taylor, Bruce, ed.",
"''The world of the battleship: The design and careers of capital ships of the world's navies, 1900-1950'' (US Naval Institute Press, 2017) 224pp",
"\n* Comparison of the capabilities of seven World War II battleships\n* Comparison of projected post-World War II battleship designs\n* Development of U.S. battleships, with timeline graph\n* Battleships in the Transportation Photographs Collection - University of Washington Library"
] | river |
[
"\n, the largest battlecruiser ever built, in Australia on 17 March 1924\n\nThe '''battlecruiser''', or '''battle cruiser''', was a type of capital ship of the first half of the 20th century. They were similar in size, cost, and armament to battleships, but they generally carried less armour in order to obtain faster speeds. The first battlecruisers were designed in the United Kingdom in the first decade of the century, as a development of the armoured cruiser, at the same time as the dreadnought succeeded the pre-dreadnought battleship. The goal of the design was to outrun any ship with similar armament, and chase down any ship with lesser armament; they were intended to hunt down slower, older armoured cruisers and destroy them with heavy gunfire while avoiding combat with the more powerful but slower battleships. However, as more and more battlecruisers were built, they were increasingly used alongside the better-protected battleships.\n\nBattlecruisers served in the navies of the UK, Germany, the Ottoman Empire, Australia and Japan during World War I, most notably at the Battle of the Falkland Islands and in the several raids and skirmishes in the North Sea which culminated in a pitched fleet battle, the Battle of Jutland. British battlecruisers in particular suffered heavy losses at Jutland, where their light armour made them very vulnerable to large-caliber shells. By the end of the war, capital ship design had developed with battleships becoming faster and battlecruisers becoming more heavily armoured, blurring the distinction between a battlecruiser and a fast battleship. The Washington Naval Treaty, which limited capital ship construction from 1922 onwards, treated battleships and battlecruisers identically, and the new generation of battlecruisers planned was scrapped under the terms of the treaty.\n\nImprovements in armor design and propulsion created the 1930s \"fast battleship\" with the speed of a battlecruiser and armor of a battleship, making the battlecruiser in the traditional sense effectively an obsolete concept. Thus from the 1930s on, only the Royal Navy continued to use \"battlecruiser\" as a classification for the World War I–era capital ships that remained in the fleet; while Japan's battlecruisers remained in service, they had been significantly reconstructed and were re-rated as full-fledged fast battleships.\n\nBattlecruisers were put into action again during World War II, and only one survived to the end. There was also renewed interest in large \"cruiser-killer\" type warships, but few were ever begun, as construction of battleships and battlecruisers were curtailed in favor of more-needed convoy escorts, aircraft carriers, and cargo ships. In the post–Cold War era, the Soviet of large guided missile cruisers have also been termed \"battlecruisers\".\n",
"The battlecruiser was developed by the Royal Navy in the first years of the 20th century as an evolution of the armoured cruiser.\n\nThe first armoured cruisers had been built in the 1870s, as an attempt to give armour protection to ships fulfilling the typical cruiser roles of patrol, trade protection and power projection. However, the results were rarely satisfactory, as the weight of armour required for any meaningful protection usually meant that the ship became almost as slow as a battleship. As a result, navies preferred to build protected cruisers with an armoured deck protecting their engines, or simply no armour at all.\n\nIn the 1890s, technology began to change this balance. New Krupp steel armour meant that it was now possible to give a cruiser side armour which would protect it against the quick-firing guns of enemy battleships and cruisers alike. In 1896–97 France and Russia, who were regarded as likely allies in the event of war, started to build large, fast armoured cruisers taking advantage of this. In the event of a war between Britain and France or Russia, or both, these cruisers threatened to cause serious difficulties for the British Empire's worldwide trade.\n\nBritain, which had concluded in 1892 that it needed twice as many cruisers as any potential enemy to adequately protect its empire's sea lanes, responded to the perceived threat by laying down its own large armoured cruisers. Between 1899 and 1905, it completed or laid down seven classes of this type, a total of 35 ships. This building program, in turn, prompted the French and Russians to increase their own construction. The Imperial German Navy began to build large armoured cruisers for use on their overseas stations, laying down eight between 1897 and 1906.\n\nThe cost of this cruiser arms race was significant. In the period 1889–96, the Royal Navy spent £7.3 million on new large cruisers. From 1897–1904, it spent £26.9 million. Many armoured cruisers of the new kind were just as large and expensive as the equivalent battleship.\n\n, a ''Minotaur''-class armoured cruiser\n\nThe increasing size and power of the armoured cruiser led to suggestions in British naval circles that cruisers should displace battleships entirely. The battleship's main advantage was its 12-inch heavy guns, and heavier armour designed to protect from shells of similar size. However, for a few years after 1900 it seemed that those advantages were of little practical value. The torpedo now had a range of 2,000 yards, and it seemed unlikely that a battleship would engage within torpedo range. However, at ranges of more than 2,000 yards it became increasingly unlikely that the heavy guns of a battleship would score any hits, as the heavy guns relied on primitive aiming techniques. The secondary batteries of 6-inch quick-firing guns, firing more plentiful shells, were more likely to hit the enemy. As naval expert Fred T. Jane wrote in June 1902,Is there anything outside of 2,000 yards that the big gun in its hundreds of tons of medieval castle can effect, that its weight in 6-inch guns without the castle could not effect equally well? And inside 2,000, what, in these days of gyros, is there that the torpedo cannot effect with far more certainty?\n\nIn 1904, Admiral John \"Jacky\" Fisher became First Sea Lord, the senior officer of the Royal Navy. He had for some time thought about the development of a new fast armoured ship. He was very fond of the \"second-class battleship\" , a faster, more lightly armoured battleship. As early as 1901, there is confusion in Fisher's writing about whether he saw the battleship or the cruiser as the model for future developments. This did not stop him from commissioning designs from naval architect W. H. Gard for an armoured cruiser with the heaviest possible armament for use with the fleet. The design Gard submitted was for a ship between , capable of , armed with four 9.2-inch and twelve guns in twin gun turrets and protected with six inches of armour along her belt and 9.2-inch turrets, on her 7.5-inch turrets, 10 inches on her conning tower and up to on her decks. However, mainstream British naval thinking between 1902 and 1904 was clearly in favour of heavily armoured battleships, rather than the fast ships that Fisher favoured.\n\nThe Battle of Tsushima proved conclusively the effectiveness of heavy guns over intermediate ones and the need for a uniform main caliber on a ship for fire control. Even before this, the Royal Navy had begun to consider a shift away from the mixed-calibre armament of the 1890s pre-dreadnought to an \"all-big-gun\" design, and preliminary designs circulated for battleships with all 12-inch or all 10-inch guns and armoured cruisers with all 9.2-inch guns. In late 1904, not long after the Royal Navy had decided to use 12-inch guns for its next generation of battleships because of their superior performance at long range, Fisher began to argue that big-gun cruisers could replace battleships altogether. The continuing improvement of the torpedo meant that submarines and destroyers would be able to destroy battleships; this in Fisher's view heralded the end of the battleship or at least compromised the validity of heavy armour protection. Nevertheless, armoured cruisers would remain vital for commerce protection.\n\n\n\nFisher's views were very controversial within the Royal Navy, and even given his position as First Sea Lord, he was not in a position to insist on his own approach. Thus he assembled a \"Committee on Designs\", consisting of a mixture of civilian and naval experts, to determine the approach to both battleship and armoured cruiser construction in the future. While the stated purpose of the Committee was to investigate and report on future requirements of ships, Fisher and his associates had already made key decisions. The terms of reference for the Committee were for a battleship capable of with 12-inch guns and no intermediate calibres, capable of docking in existing drydocks; and a cruiser capable of , also with 12-inch guns and no intermediate armament, armoured like , the most recent armoured cruiser, and also capable of using existing docks.\n",
"Under the Selborne plan of 1902, the Royal Navy intended to start three new battleships and four armoured cruisers each year. However, in late 1904 it became clear that the 1905–06 programme would have to be considerably smaller, because of lower than expected tax revenue and the need to buy out two Chilean battleships under construction in British yards, lest they be purchased by the Russians for use against the Japanese, Britain's ally. These economies meant that the 1905–06 programme consisted only of one battleship, but three armoured cruisers. The battleship became the revolutionary battleship , and the cruisers became the three ships of the . Fisher later claimed, however, that he had argued during the Committee for the cancellation of the remaining battleship.\n\nThe construction of the new class were begun in 1906 and completed in 1908, delayed perhaps to allow their designers to learn from any problems with ''Dreadnought''. The ships fulfilled the design requirement quite closely. On a displacement similar to ''Dreadnought'', the ''Invincible''s were longer to accommodate additional boilers and more powerful turbines to propel them at . Moreover, the new ships could maintain this speed for days, whereas pre-dreadnought battleships could not generally do so for more than an hour. Armed with eight 12-inch Mk X guns, compared to ten on ''Dreadnought'', they had of armour protecting the hull and the gun turrets. (''Dreadnought''s armour, by comparison, was at its thickest.) The class had a very marked increase in speed, displacement and firepower compared to the most recent armoured cruisers but no more armour.\n\nWhile the ''Invincible''s were to fill the same role as the armoured cruisers they succeeded, they were expected to do so more effectively. Specifically their roles were:\n* '''Heavy reconnaissance.''' Because of their power, the ''Invincible''s could sweep away the screen of enemy cruisers to close with and observe an enemy battlefleet before using their superior speed to retire.\n* '''Close support for the battle fleet.''' They could be stationed at the ends of the battle line to stop enemy cruisers harassing the battleships, and to harass the enemy's battleships if they were busy fighting battleships. Also, the ''Invincible''s could operate as the fast wing of the battlefleet and try to outmanouevre the enemy.\n* '''Pursuit.''' If an enemy fleet ran, then the ''Invincible''s would use their speed to pursue, and their guns to damage or slow enemy ships.\n* '''Commerce protection.''' The new ships would hunt down enemy cruisers and commerce raiders.\n\n, Britain's first battlecruiser\nConfusion about how to refer to these new battleship-size armoured cruisers set in almost immediately. Even in late 1905, before work was begun on the ''Invincible''s, a Royal Navy memorandum refers to \"large armoured ships\" meaning both battleships and large cruisers. In October 1906, the Admiralty began to classify all post-Dreadnought battleships and armoured cruisers as \"capital ships\", while Fisher used the term \"dreadnought\" to refer either to his new battleships or the battleships and armoured cruisers together. At the same time, the ''Invincible'' class themselves were referred to as \"cruiser-battleships\", \"dreadnought cruisers\"; the term \"battlecruiser\" was first used by Fisher in 1908. Finally, on 24 November 1911, Admiralty Weekly Order No. 351 laid down that \"All cruisers of the “Invincible” and later types are for the future to be described and classified as “battle cruisers” to distinguish them from the armoured cruisers of earlier date.\"\n\nAlong with questions over the new ships' nomenclature came uncertainty about their actual role due to their lack of protection. If they were primarily to act as scouts for the battle fleet and hunter-killers of enemy cruisers and commerce raiders, then the seven inches of belt armour with which they had been equipped would be adequate. If, on the other hand, they were expected to reinforce a battle line of dreadnoughts with their own heavy guns, they were too thin-skinned to be safe from an enemy's heavy guns. The ''Invincible''s were essentially extremely large, heavily armed, fast armoured cruisers. However, the viability of the armoured cruiser was already in doubt. A cruiser that could have worked with the Fleet might have been a more viable option for taking over that role.\n\nBecause of the ''Invincible''s size and armament, naval authorities considered them capital ships almost from their inception—an assumption that might have been inevitable. Complicating matters further was that many naval authorities, including Lord Fisher, had made overoptimistic assessments from the Battle of Tsushima in 1905 about the armoured cruiser's ability to survive in a battle line against enemy capital ships due to their superior speed. These assumptions had been made without taking into account the Russian Baltic Fleet's inefficiency and tactical ineptitude. By the time the term \"battlecruiser\" had been given to the ''Invincible''s, the idea of their parity with battleships had been fixed in many people's minds.\n\nNot everyone was so convinced. ''Brasseys Naval Annual'', for instance, stated that with vessels as large and expensive as the ''Invincible''s, an admiral \"will be certain to put them in the line of battle where their comparatively light protection will be a disadvantage and their high speed of no value.\" Those in favor of the battlecruiser countered with two points—first, since all capital ships were vulnerable to new weapons such as the torpedo, armour had lost some of its validity; and second, because of its greater speed, the battlecruiser could control the range at which it engaged an enemy.\n",
"Between the launching of the ''Invincible''s to just after the outbreak of the First World War, the battlecruiser played a junior role in the developing dreadnought arms race, as it was never wholeheartedly adopted as the key weapon in British imperial defence, as Fisher had presumably desired. The biggest factor for this lack of acceptance was the marked change in Britain's strategic circumstances between their conception and the commissioning of the first ships. The prospective enemy for Britain had shifted from a Franco-Russian alliance with many armoured cruisers to a resurgent and increasingly belligerent Germany. Diplomatically, Britain had entered the Entente cordiale in 1904 and the Anglo-Russian Entente. Neither France nor Russia posed a particular naval threat; the Russian navy had largely been sunk or captured in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–5, while the French were in no hurry to adopt the new dreadnought-type design. Britain also boasted very cordial relations with two of the significant new naval powers, Japan (bolstered by the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, signed in 1902 and renewed in 1905), and the USA. These changed strategic circumstances, and the great success of the ''Dreadnought'', ensured that she rather than the ''Invincible'' became the new model capital ship. Nevertheless, battlecruiser construction played a part in the renewed naval arms-race sparked by the ''Dreadnought''.\n\n, the last battlecruiser built before World War I\nFor their first few years of service, the ''Invincible''s entirely fulfilled Fisher's vision of being able to sink any ship fast enough to catch them, and run from any ship capable of sinking them. An ''Invincible'' would also, in many circumstances, be able to take on an enemy pre-dreadnought battleship. Naval circles concurred that the armoured cruiser in its current form had come to the logical end of its development and the ''Invincible''s were so far ahead of any enemy armoured cruiser in firepower and speed that it proved difficult to justify building more or bigger cruisers. This lead was extended by the surprise both ''Dreadnought'' and ''Invincible'' produced by having been built in secret; this prompted most other navies to delay their building programmes and radically revise their designs. This was particularly true for cruisers, because the details of the ''Invincible'' class were kept secret for longer; this meant that the last German armoured cruiser, , was armed with only guns, and was no match for the new battlecruisers.\n\nThe Royal Navy's early superiority in capital ships led to the rejection of a 1905–06 design that would, essentially, have fused the battlecruiser and battleship concepts into what would eventually become the fast battleship. The 'X4' design combined the full armour and armament of ''Dreadnought'' with the 25 knot speed of ''Invincible''. The additional cost could not be justified given the existing British lead and the new Liberal government's need for economy; the slower and cheaper , a relatively close copy of ''Dreadnought'', was adopted instead. The X4 concept would eventually be fulfilled in the and later by other navies.\n\nThe next British battlecruisers were the three , slightly improved ''Invincible''s built to fundamentally the same specification, partly due to political pressure to limit costs and partly due to the secrecy surrounding German battlecruiser construction, particularly about the heavy armour of . This class came to be widely seen as a mistake and the next generation of British battlecruisers were markedly more powerful. By 1909–10 a sense of national crisis about rivalry with Germany outweighed cost-cutting, and a naval panic resulted in the approval of a total of eight capital ships in 1909–10. Fisher pressed for all eight to be battlecruisers, but was unable to have his way; he had to settle for six battleships and two battlecruisers of the . The ''Lion''s carried eight 13.5-inch guns, the now-standard caliber of the British \"super-dreadnought\" battleships. Speed increased to and armour protection, while not as good as in German designs, was better than in previous British battlecruisers, with armour belt and barbettes. The two ''Lion''s were followed by the very similar .\n\nalt=A large gray ship in port. The two funnels in the center of the ship emit clouds of smoke.\nBy 1911 Germany had built battlecruisers of her own, and the superiority of the British ships could no longer be assured. Moreover, the German Navy did not share Fisher's view of the battlecruiser. In contrast to the British focus on increasing speed and firepower, Germany progressively improved the armour and staying power of their ships to better the British battlecruisers. ''Von der Tann'', begun in 1908 and completed in 1910, carried eight 11.1-inch guns, but with 11.1-inch (283 mm) armour she was far better protected than the ''Invincible''s. The two s were quite similar but carried ten 11.1-inch guns of an improved design. , designed in 1909 and finished in 1913, was a modified ''Moltke''; speed increased by one knot to , while her armour had a maximum thickness of 12 inches, equivalent to the s of a few years earlier. ''Seydlitz'' was Germany's last battlecruiser completed before World War I.\n\nThe next step in battlecruiser design came from Japan. The Imperial Japanese Navy had been planning the ships from 1909, and was determined that, since the Japanese economy could support relatively few ships, each would be more powerful than its likely competitors. Initially the class was planned with the ''Invincible''s as the benchmark. On learning of the British plans for ''Lion'', and the likelihood that new U.S. Navy battleships would be armed with guns, the Japanese decided to radically revise their plans and go one better. A new plan was drawn up, carrying eight 14-inch guns, and capable of , thus marginally having the edge over the ''Lion''s in speed and firepower. The heavy guns were also better-positioned, being superfiring both fore and aft with no turret amidships. The armour scheme was also marginally improved over the ''Lion''s, with nine inches of armour on the turrets and on the barbettes. The first ship in the class was built in Britain, and a further three constructed in Japan. The Japanese also re-classified their powerful armoured cruisers of the ''Tsukuba'' and ''Ibuki'' classes, carrying four 12-inch guns, as battlecruisers; nonetheless, their armament was weaker and they were slower than any battlecruiser.\n\n''Kongō''\nThe next British battlecruiser, , was intended initially as the fourth ship in the ''Lion'' class, but was substantially redesigned. She retained the eight 13.5-inch guns of her predecessors, but they were positioned like those of ''Kongō'' for better fields of fire. She was faster (making on sea trials), and carried a heavier secondary armament. ''Tiger'' was also more heavily armoured on the whole; while the maximum thickness of armour was the same at nine inches, the height of the main armour belt was increased. Not all the desired improvements for this ship were approved, however. Her designer, Sir Eustace Tennyson d'Eyncourt, had wanted small-bore water-tube boilers and geared turbines to give her a speed of , but he received no support from the authorities and the engine makers refused his request.\n\n1912 saw work begin on three more German battlecruisers of the , the first German battlecruisers to mount 12-inch guns. These ships, like ''Tiger'' and the ''Kongō''s, had their guns arranged in superfiring turrets for greater efficiency. Their armour and speed was similar to the previous ''Seydlitz'' class. In 1913, the Russian Empire also began the construction of the four-ship , which were designed for service in the Baltic Sea. These ships were designed to carry twelve 14-inch guns, with armour up to 12 inches thick, and a speed of . The heavy armour and relatively slow speed of these ships made them more similar to German designs than to British ships; construction of the ''Borodino''s was halted by the First World War and all were scrapped after the end of the Russian Civil War.\n",
"\n===Construction===\nFor most of the combatants, capital ship construction was very limited during the war. Germany finished the ''Derfflinger'' class and began work on the . The ''Mackensen''s were a development of the ''Derfflinger'' class, with 13.8-inch guns and a broadly similar armour scheme, designed for .\n\nIn Britain, Jackie Fisher returned to the office of First Sea Lord in October 1914. His enthusiasm for big, fast ships was unabated, and he set designers to producing a design for a battlecruiser with 15-inch guns. Because Fisher expected the next German battlecruiser to steam at 28 knots, he required the new British design to be capable of 32 knots. He planned to reorder two s, which had been approved but not yet laid down, to a new design. Fisher finally received approval for this project on 28 December 1914 and they became the . With six 15-inch guns but only 6-inch armour they were a further step forward from ''Tiger'' in firepower and speed, but returned to the level of protection of the first British battlecruisers.\n\nAt the same time, Fisher resorted to subterfuge to obtain another three fast, lightly armoured ships that could use several spare gun turrets left over from battleship construction. These ships were essentially light battlecruisers, and Fisher occasionally referred to them as such, but officially they were classified as ''large light cruisers''. This unusual designation was required because construction of new capital ships had been placed on hold, while there were no limits on light cruiser construction. They became and her sisters and , and there was a bizarre imbalance between their main guns of 15 inches (or in ''Furious'') and their armour, which at thickness was on the scale of a light cruiser. The design was generally regarded as a failure (nicknamed in the Fleet ''Outrageous'', ''Uproarious'' and ''Spurious''), though the later conversion of the ships to aircraft carriers was very successful. Fisher also speculated about a new mammoth, but lightly built battlecruiser, that would carry guns, which he termed ; this never got beyond the concept stage.\n\nIt is often held that the ''Renown'' and ''Courageous'' classes were designed for Fisher's plan to land troops (possibly Russian) on the German Baltic coast. Specifically, they were designed with a reduced draught, which might be important in the shallow Baltic. This is not clear-cut evidence that the ships were designed for the Baltic: it was considered that earlier ships had too much draught and not enough freeboard under operational conditions. Roberts argues that the focus on the Baltic was probably unimportant at the time the ships were designed, but was inflated later, after the disastrous Dardanelles Campaign.\n\nThe final British battlecruiser design of the war was the , which was born from a requirement for an improved version of the ''Queen Elizabeth'' battleship. The project began at the end of 1915, after Fisher's final departure from the Admiralty. While initially envisaged as a battleship, senior sea officers felt that Britain had enough battleships, but that new battlecruisers might be required to combat German ships being built (the British overestimated German progress on the ''Mackensen'' class as well as their likely capabilities). A battlecruiser design with eight 15-inch guns, 8 inches of armour and capable of 32 knots was decided on. The experience of battlecruisers at the Battle of Jutland meant that the design was radically revised and transformed again into a fast battleship with armour up to 12 inches thick, but still capable of . The first ship in the class, , was built according to this design to counter the possible completion of any of the Mackensen-class ship. The plans for her three sisters, on which little work had been done, were revised once more later in 1916 and in 1917 to improve protection.\n\nThe Admiral class would have been the only British ships capable of taking on the German ''Mackensen'' class; nevertheless, German shipbuilding was drastically slowed by the war, and while two ''Mackensen''s were launched, none were ever completed. The Germans also worked briefly on a further three ships, of the , which were modified versions of the ''Mackensen''s with 15-inch guns. Work on the three additional Admirals was suspended in March 1917 to enable more escorts and merchant ships to be built to deal with the new threat from U-boats to trade. They were finally cancelled in February 1919.\n\n===Battlecruisers in action===\nThe first combat involving battlecruisers during World War I was the Battle of Heligoland Bight in August 1914. A force of British light cruisers and destroyers entered the Heligoland Bight (the part of the North Sea closest to Hamburg) to attack German destroyer patrols. When they met opposition from light cruisers, Vice Admiral David Beatty took his squadron of five battlecruisers into the Bight and turned the tide of the battle, ultimately sinking three German light cruisers and killing their commander, Rear Admiral Leberecht Maass.\n\nThe German battlecruiser perhaps made the most impact early in the war. Stationed in the Mediterranean, she and the escorting light cruiser evaded British and French ships on the outbreak of war, and steamed to Constantinople (Istanbul) with two British battlecruisers in hot pursuit. The two German ships were handed over to the Ottoman Navy, and this was instrumental in bringing the Ottoman Empire into the war as one of the Central Powers. ''Goeben'' herself, renamed ''Yavuz Sultan Selim'', fought engagements against the Imperial Russian Navy in the Black Sea and against the British in the Aegean Sea.\n\nThe original battlecruiser concept proved successful in December 1914 at the Battle of the Falkland Islands. The British battlecruisers and did precisely the job for which they were intended when they chased down and annihilated the German East Asia Squadron, centered on the armoured cruisers and , along with three light cruisers, commanded by Admiral Maximilian Graf Von Spee, in the South Atlantic Ocean. Prior to the battle, the Australian battlecruiser had unsuccessfully searched for the German ships in the Pacific.\n\n was heavily damaged in the Battle of Dogger Bank\nDuring the Battle of Dogger Bank in 1915, the aftermost barbette of the German flagship ''Seydlitz'' was struck by a British 13.5-inch shell from ''HMS Lion''. The shell did not penetrate the barbette, but it dislodged a piece of the barbette armour that allowed the flame from the shell's detonation to enter the barbette. The propellant charges being hoisted upwards were ignited, and the fireball flashed up into the turret and down into the magazine, setting fire to charges removed from their brass cartridge cases. The gun crew tried to escape into the next turret, which allowed the flash to spread into that turret as well, killing the crews of both turrets. ''Seydlitz'' was saved from near-certain destruction only by emergency flooding of her after magazines, which had been effected by Wilhelm Heidkamp. This near-disaster was due to the way that ammunition handling was arranged and was common to both German and British battleships and battlecruisers, but the lighter protection on the latter made them more vulnerable to the turret or barbette being penetrated. The Germans learned from investigating the damaged ''Seydlitz'' and instituted measures to ensure that ammunition handling minimised any possible exposure to flash.\n\nApart from the cordite handling, the battle was mostly inconclusive, though both the British flagship ''Lion'' and ''Seydlitz'' were severely damaged. ''Lion'' lost speed, causing her to fall behind the rest of the battleline, and Beatty was unable to effectively command his ships for the remainder of the engagement. A British signalling error allowed the German battlecruisers to withdraw, as most of Beatty's squadron mistakenly concentrated on the crippled armoured cruiser ''Blücher'', sinking her with great loss of life. The British blamed their failure to win a decisive victory on their poor gunnery and attempted to increase their rate of fire by stockpiling unprotected cordite charges in their ammunition hoists and barbettes.\n\n''Queen Mary'' blows up during the Battle of Jutland\nAt the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916, both British and German battlecruisers were employed as fleet units. The British battlecruisers became engaged with both their German counterparts, the battlecruisers, and then German battleships before the arrival of the battleships of the British Grand Fleet. The result was a disaster for the Royal Navy's battlecruiser squadrons: ''Invincible'', ''Queen Mary'', and exploded with the loss of all but a handful of their crews. The exact reason why the ships' magazines detonated is not known, but the plethora of exposed cordite charges stored in their turrets, ammunition hoists and working chambers in the quest to increase their rate of fire undoubtedly contributed to their loss. Beatty's flagship ''Lion'' herself was almost lost in a similar manner, save for the heroic actions of Major Francis Harvey.\n\nThe better-armoured German battlecruisers fared better, in part due to the poor performance of British fuzes (the British shells tended to explode or break up on impact with the German armour). —the only German battlecruiser lost at Jutland—had only 128 killed, for instance, despite receiving more than thirty hits. The other German battlecruisers, , ''Von der Tann'', ''Seydlitz'', and , were all heavily damaged and required extensive repairs after the battle, ''Seydlitz'' barely making it home, for they had been the focus of British fire for much of the battle.\n",
"In the years immediately after World War I, Britain, Japan and the US all began design work on a new generation of ever more powerful battleships and battlecruisers. The new burst of shipbuilding that each nation's navy desired was politically controversial and potentially economically crippling. This nascent arms race was prevented by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, where the major naval powers agreed to limits on capital ship numbers. The German navy was not represented at the talks; under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was not allowed any modern capital ships at all.\n\nThrough the 1920s and 1930s only Britain and Japan retained battlecruisers, often modified and rebuilt from their original designs. The line between the battlecruiser and the modern fast battleship became blurred; indeed, the Japanese ''Kongō''s were formally redesignated as battleships.\n\n===Plans in the aftermath of World War I===\n''Hood'', launched in 1918, was the last World War I battlecruiser to be completed. Owing to lessons from Jutland, the ship was modified during construction; the thickness of her belt armour was increased by an average of 50 percent and extended substantially, she was given heavier deck armour, and the protection of her magazines was improved to guard against the ignition of ammunition. This was hoped to be capable of resisting her own weapons—the classic measure of a \"balanced\" battleship. ''Hood'' was the largest ship in the Royal Navy when completed; thanks to her great displacement, in theory she combined the firepower and armour of a battleship with the speed of a battlecruiser, causing some to refer to her as a fast battleship. However her protection was markedly less than that of the British battleships built immediately after World War I, the .\n\n''Lexington''-class battlecruiser (painting, c. 1919)\nThe navies of Japan and the United States, not being affected immediately by the war, had time to develop new heavy guns for their latest designs and to refine their battlecruiser designs in light of combat experience in Europe. The Imperial Japanese Navy began four s. These vessels would have been of unprecedented size and power, as fast and well armoured as ''Hood'' whilst carrying a main battery of ten 16-inch guns, the most powerful armament ever proposed for a battlecruiser. They were, for all intents and purposes, fast battleships—the only differences between them and the s which were to precede them were less side armour and a increase in speed. The United States Navy, which had worked on its battlecruiser designs since 1913 and watched the latest developments in this class with great care, responded with the . If completed as planned, they would have been exceptionally fast and well armed with eight 16-inch guns, but carried armour little better than the ''Invincible''s—this after an increase in protection following Jutland. The final stage in the post-war battlecruiser race came with the British response to the ''Amagi'' and ''Lexington'' types: four G3 battlecruisers. Royal Navy documents of the period often described any battleship with a speed of over about as a battlecruiser, regardless of the amount of protective armour, although the G3 was considered by most to be a well-balanced fast battleship.\n\nThe Washington Naval Treaty meant that none of these designs came to fruition. Ships that had been started were either broken up on the slipway or converted to aircraft carriers. In Japan, ''Amagi'' and were selected for conversion. ''Amagi'' was damaged beyond repair by the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake and was broken up for scrap; the hull of one of the proposed ''Tosa''-class battleships, , was converted in her stead. The United States Navy also converted two battlecruiser hulls into aircraft carriers in the wake of the Washington Treaty: and , although this was only considered marginally preferable to scrapping the hulls outright (the remaining four: ''Constellation'', ''Ranger'', ''Constitution'' and ''United States'' were scrapped). In Britain, Fisher's \"large light cruisers,\" were converted to carriers. ''Furious'' had already been partially converted during the war and ''Glorious'' and ''Courageous'' were similarly converted.\n\n===Rebuilding programmes===\n''Repulse'' as she was in 1919\n''Renown'', as reconstructed, in 1939\n\nIn total, nine battlecruisers survived the Washington Naval Treaty, although HMS ''Tiger'' later became a victim of the London Naval Conference of 1930 and was scrapped. Because their high speed made them valuable surface units in spite of their weaknesses, most of these ships were significantly updated before World War II. and were modernized significantly in the 1920s and 1930s. Between 1934 and 1936, ''Repulse'' was partially modernized and had her bridge modified, an aircraft hangar, catapult and new gunnery equipment added and her anti-aircraft armament increased. ''Renown'' underwent a more thorough reconstruction between 1937 and 1939. Her deck armour was increased, new turbines and boilers were fitted, an aircraft hangar and catapult added and she was completely rearmed aside from the main guns which had their elevation increased to +30 degrees. The bridge structure was also removed and a large bridge similar to that used in the battleships installed in its place. While conversions of this kind generally added weight to the vessel, ''Renown''s tonnage actually decreased due to a substantially lighter power plant. Similar thorough rebuildings planned for ''Repulse'' and ''Hood'' were cancelled due to the advent of World War II.\n\nUnable to build new ships, the Imperial Japanese Navy also chose to improve its existing battlecruisers of the ''Kongō'' class (initially the , , and —the only later as it had been disarmed under the terms of the Washington treaty) in two substantial reconstructions (one for ''Hiei''). During the first of these, elevation of their main guns was increased to +40 degrees, anti-torpedo bulges and of horizontal armour added, and a \"pagoda\" mast with additional command positions built up. This reduced the ships' speed to . The second reconstruction focused on speed as they had been selected as fast escorts for aircraft carrier task forces. Completely new main engines, a reduced number of boilers and an increase in hull length by allowed them to reach up to 30 knots once again. They were reclassified as \"fast battleships,\" although their armour and guns still fell short compared to surviving World War I–era battleships in the American or the British navies, with dire consequences during the Pacific War, when ''Hiei'' and ''Kirishima'' were easily crippled by US gunfire during actions off Guadalcanal, forcing their scuttling shortly afterwards. Perhaps most tellingly, ''Hiei'' was crippled by medium-caliber gunfire from heavy and light cruisers in a close-range night engagement.\n\nThere were two exceptions: Turkey's ''Yavuz Sultan Selim'' and the Royal Navy's ''Hood''. The Turkish Navy made only minor improvements to the ship in the interwar period, which primarily focused on repairing wartime damage and the installation of new fire control systems and anti-aircraft batteries. ''Hood'' was in constant service with the fleet and could not be withdrawn for an extended reconstruction. She received minor improvements over the course of the 1930s, including modern fire control systems, increased numbers of anti-aircraft guns, and in March 1941, radar.\n\n===Naval rearmament===\nIn the late 1930s navies began to build capital ships again, and during this period a number of large commerce raiders and small, fast battleships were built that are sometimes referred to as battlecruisers. Germany and Russia designed new battlecruisers during this period, though only the latter laid down two of the 35,000-ton . They were still on the slipways when the Germans invaded in 1941 and construction was suspended. Both ships were scrapped after the war.\n\nThe Germans planned three battlecruisers of the as part of the expansion of the Kriegsmarine (Plan Z). With six 15-inch guns, high speed, excellent range, but very thin armour, they were intended as commerce raiders. Only one was ordered shortly before World War II; no work was ever done on it. No names were assigned, and they were known by their contract names: 'O', 'P', and 'Q'. The new class was not universally welcomed in the Kriegsmarine. Their abnormally-light protection gained it the derogatory nickname ''Ohne Panzer Quatsch'' (without armour nonsense) within certain circles of the Navy.\n",
"\nThe Royal Navy deployed some of its battlecruisers during the Norwegian Campaign in April 1940. The and the were engaged during the Action off Lofoten by ''Renown'' in very bad weather and disengaged after ''Gneisenau'' was damaged. One of ''Renown''s 15-inch shells passed through ''Gneisenau''s director-control tower without exploding, severing electrical and communication cables as it went and destroyed the rangefinders for the forward 150 mm (5.9 in) turrets. Main-battery fire control had to be shifted aft due to the loss of electrical power. Another shell from ''Renown'' knocked out ''Gneisenau''s aft turret. The British ship was struck twice by German shells that failed to inflict any significant damage. She was the only pre-war battlecruiser to survive the war.\n\nIn the early years of the war various German ships had a measure of success hunting merchant ships in the Atlantic. Allied battlecruisers such as ''Renown'', ''Repulse'', and the fast battleships ''Dunkerque'' and were employed on operations to hunt down the commerce-raiding German ships, but they never got close to their targets. The one stand-up fight occurred when the battleship and the heavy cruiser sortied into the North Atlantic to attack British shipping and were intercepted by ''Hood'' and the battleship in May 1941 in the Battle of the Denmark Strait. The elderly British battlecruiser was no match for the modern German battleship: within minutes, the ''Bismarck''s 15-inch shells caused a magazine explosion in ''Hood'' reminiscent of the Battle of Jutland. Only three men survived.\n\nThe first battlecruiser to see action in the Pacific War was ''Repulse'' when she was sunk by Japanese torpedo bombers north of Singapore on 10 December 1941 whilst in company with ''Prince of Wales''. She was lightly damaged by a single bomb and near-missed by two others in the first Japanese attack. Her speed and agility enabled her to avoid the other attacks by level bombers and dodge 33 torpedoes. The last group of torpedo bombers attacked from multiple directions and ''Repulse'' was struck by five torpedoes. She quickly capsized with the loss of 27 officers and 486 crewmen; 42 officers and 754 enlisted men were rescued by the escorting destroyers. The loss of ''Repulse'' and ''Prince of Wales'' conclusively proved the vulnerability of capital ships to aircraft without air cover of their own.\n\nThe Japanese ''Kongō''-class battlecruisers were extensively used as carrier escorts for most of their wartime career due to their high speed. Their World War I–era armament was weaker and their upgraded armour was still thin compared to contemporary battleships. On 13 November 1942, during the First Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, ''Hiei'' stumbled across American cruisers and destroyers at point-blank range. The ship was badly damaged in the encounter and had to be towed by her sister ship ''Kirishima''. Both were spotted by American aircraft the following morning and ''Kirishima'' was forced to cast off her tow because of repeated aerial attacks. ''Hiei''s captain ordered her crew to abandon ship after further damage and scuttled ''Hiei'' in the early evening of 14 November. On the night of 14/15 November during the Second Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, ''Kirishima'' returned to Ironbottom Sound, but encountered the American battleships and . While failing to detect ''Washington'', ''Kirishima'' engaged ''South Dakota'' with some effect. ''Washington'' opened fire a few minutes later at short range and badly damaged ''Kirishima'', knocking out her aft turrets, jamming her rudder, and hitting the ship below the waterline. The flooding proved to be uncontrollable and ''Kirishima'' capsized three and a half hours later.\n\nReturning to Japan after the Battle of Leyte Gulf, ''Kongō'' was torpedoed and sunk by the American submarine on 21 November 1944. ''Haruna'' was moored at Kure, Japan when the naval base was attacked by American carrier aircraft on 24 and 28 July. The ship was only lightly damaged by a single bomb hit on 24 July, but was hit a dozen more times on 28 July and sank at her pier. She was refloated after the war and scrapped in early 1946.\n\n===Large cruisers or \"cruiser killers\"===\n\n, one of the United States Navy's two \"large cruisers\"\n\nA late renaissance in popularity of ships between battleships and cruisers in size occurred on the eve of World War II. Described by some as battlecruisers, but never classified as capital ships, they were variously described as \"super cruisers\", \"large cruisers\" or even \"unrestricted cruisers\". The Dutch, American, and Japanese navies all planned these new classes specifically to counter the heavy cruisers, or their counterparts, being built by their naval rivals.\n\nThe first such battlecruisers were the Dutch Design 1047, designed to protect their colonies in the East Indies in the face of Japanese aggression. Never officially assigned names, these ships were designed with German and Italian assistance. While they broadly resembled the German ''Scharnhorst'' class and had the same main battery, they would have been more lightly armoured and only protected against eight-inch gunfire. Although the design was mostly completed, work on the vessels never commenced as the Germans overran the Netherlands in May 1940. The first ship would have been laid down in June of that year.\n\nThe only class of these late battlecruisers actually built were the United States Navy's \"large cruisers\". Two of them were completed, and ; a third, , was cancelled while under construction and three others, to be named ''Philippines'', ''Puerto Rico'' and ''Samoa'', were cancelled before they were laid down. They were classified as \"large cruisers\" instead of battlecruisers, and their status as non-capital ships evidenced by their being named for territories or protectorates. (Battleships, in contrast, were named after states and cruisers after cities.) With a main armament of nine 12-inch guns in three triple turrets and a displacement of , the ''Alaska''s were twice the size of s and had guns some 50% larger in diameter. They lacked the thick armoured belt and intricate torpedo defence system of true capital ships. However, unlike most battlecruisers, they were considered a balanced design according to cruiser standards as their protection could withstand fire from their own caliber of gun, albeit only in a very narrow range band. They were designed to hunt down Japanese heavy cruisers, though by the time they entered service most Japanese cruisers had been sunk by American aircraft or submarines. Like the contemporary fast battleships, their speed ultimately made them more useful as carrier escorts and bombardment ships than as the surface combatants they were developed to be.\n\nThe Japanese started designing the B64 class, which was similar to the ''Alaska'' but with guns. News of the ''Alaska''s led them to upgrade the design, creating Design B-65. Armed with 356 mm guns, the B65s would have been the best armed of the new breed of battlecruisers, but they still would have had only sufficient protection to keep out eight-inch shells. Much like the Dutch, the Japanese got as far as completing the design for the B65s, but never laid them down. By the time the designs were ready the Japanese Navy recognized that they had little use for the vessels and that their priority for construction should lie with aircraft carriers. Like the ''Alaska''s, the Japanese did not call these ships battlecruisers, referring to them instead as super-heavy cruisers.\n",
"''Admiral Lazarev'', formerly ''Frunze'', the second ship of her class\nIn spite of the fact that most navies abandoned the battleship and battlecruiser concepts after World War II, Joseph Stalin's fondness for big-gun-armed warships caused the Soviet Union to plan a large cruiser class in the late 1940s. In the Soviet Union they were termed \"heavy cruisers\" (''tjazholyj krejser''). The fruits of this program were the Project 82 (''Stalingrad'') cruisers, of standard load, nine 305 mm guns and a speed of . Three ships were laid down in 1951–52, but they were cancelled in April 1953 after Stalin's death. Only the central armoured hull section of the first ship, ''Stalingrad'', was launched in 1954 and then used as a target.\n\nThe Soviet is sometimes referred to as a battlecruiser. This description arises from their over displacement, which is roughly equal to that of a First World War battleship and more than twice the displacement of contemporary cruisers; upon entry into service, ''Kirov'' was the largest surface ship (aside from aircraft carriers and amphibious assault ships) to be built since World War II. The ''Kirov'' class lacks the armour that distinguishes battlecruisers from ordinary cruisers and they are classified as heavy nuclear-powered missile cruisers (''tyazholyy atomnyy raketny kreyser'') by Russia, with their primary surface armament consisting of twenty P-700 Granit surface to surface missiles. Four members of the class were completed during the 1980s and 1990s, but due to budget constraints only the is operational with the Russian Navy, though plans were announced in 2010 to return the other three ships to service. As of 2012 one ship was being refitted, but the other two ships are reportedly beyond economical repair.\n",
"\n* List of battlecruisers\n* List of sunken battlecruisers\n* Protected cruiser\n* Armoured cruiser\n* List of ships of the Second World War\n* List of battlecruisers of the Second World War\n",
"\n===Notes===\n\n\n===Footnotes===\n\n",
"* \n* \n* \n*\n*\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*\n* \n* \n*\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*\n*\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*\n",
"\n* Maritimequest Battleships & Battlecruisers of the 20th century\n* British and German Battlecruisers of the First World War\n* Navsource Online\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Background",
"First battlecruisers",
"Battlecruisers in the dreadnought arms race",
"World War I",
"Interwar period",
"World War II",
"Cold War–era designs",
"See also",
"References",
"References",
"External links"
] | Battlecruiser | [
"was heavily damaged in the Battle of Dogger Bank\nDuring the Battle of Dogger Bank in 1915, the aftermost barbette of the German flagship ''Seydlitz'' was struck by a British 13.5-inch shell from ''HMS Lion''."
] | [
"\n, the largest battlecruiser ever built, in Australia on 17 March 1924\n\nThe '''battlecruiser''', or '''battle cruiser''', was a type of capital ship of the first half of the 20th century.",
"They were similar in size, cost, and armament to battleships, but they generally carried less armour in order to obtain faster speeds.",
"The first battlecruisers were designed in the United Kingdom in the first decade of the century, as a development of the armoured cruiser, at the same time as the dreadnought succeeded the pre-dreadnought battleship.",
"The goal of the design was to outrun any ship with similar armament, and chase down any ship with lesser armament; they were intended to hunt down slower, older armoured cruisers and destroy them with heavy gunfire while avoiding combat with the more powerful but slower battleships.",
"However, as more and more battlecruisers were built, they were increasingly used alongside the better-protected battleships.",
"Battlecruisers served in the navies of the UK, Germany, the Ottoman Empire, Australia and Japan during World War I, most notably at the Battle of the Falkland Islands and in the several raids and skirmishes in the North Sea which culminated in a pitched fleet battle, the Battle of Jutland.",
"British battlecruisers in particular suffered heavy losses at Jutland, where their light armour made them very vulnerable to large-caliber shells.",
"By the end of the war, capital ship design had developed with battleships becoming faster and battlecruisers becoming more heavily armoured, blurring the distinction between a battlecruiser and a fast battleship.",
"The Washington Naval Treaty, which limited capital ship construction from 1922 onwards, treated battleships and battlecruisers identically, and the new generation of battlecruisers planned was scrapped under the terms of the treaty.",
"Improvements in armor design and propulsion created the 1930s \"fast battleship\" with the speed of a battlecruiser and armor of a battleship, making the battlecruiser in the traditional sense effectively an obsolete concept.",
"Thus from the 1930s on, only the Royal Navy continued to use \"battlecruiser\" as a classification for the World War I–era capital ships that remained in the fleet; while Japan's battlecruisers remained in service, they had been significantly reconstructed and were re-rated as full-fledged fast battleships.",
"Battlecruisers were put into action again during World War II, and only one survived to the end.",
"There was also renewed interest in large \"cruiser-killer\" type warships, but few were ever begun, as construction of battleships and battlecruisers were curtailed in favor of more-needed convoy escorts, aircraft carriers, and cargo ships.",
"In the post–Cold War era, the Soviet of large guided missile cruisers have also been termed \"battlecruisers\".",
"The battlecruiser was developed by the Royal Navy in the first years of the 20th century as an evolution of the armoured cruiser.",
"The first armoured cruisers had been built in the 1870s, as an attempt to give armour protection to ships fulfilling the typical cruiser roles of patrol, trade protection and power projection.",
"However, the results were rarely satisfactory, as the weight of armour required for any meaningful protection usually meant that the ship became almost as slow as a battleship.",
"As a result, navies preferred to build protected cruisers with an armoured deck protecting their engines, or simply no armour at all.",
"In the 1890s, technology began to change this balance.",
"New Krupp steel armour meant that it was now possible to give a cruiser side armour which would protect it against the quick-firing guns of enemy battleships and cruisers alike.",
"In 1896–97 France and Russia, who were regarded as likely allies in the event of war, started to build large, fast armoured cruisers taking advantage of this.",
"In the event of a war between Britain and France or Russia, or both, these cruisers threatened to cause serious difficulties for the British Empire's worldwide trade.",
"Britain, which had concluded in 1892 that it needed twice as many cruisers as any potential enemy to adequately protect its empire's sea lanes, responded to the perceived threat by laying down its own large armoured cruisers.",
"Between 1899 and 1905, it completed or laid down seven classes of this type, a total of 35 ships.",
"This building program, in turn, prompted the French and Russians to increase their own construction.",
"The Imperial German Navy began to build large armoured cruisers for use on their overseas stations, laying down eight between 1897 and 1906.",
"The cost of this cruiser arms race was significant.",
"In the period 1889–96, the Royal Navy spent £7.3 million on new large cruisers.",
"From 1897–1904, it spent £26.9 million.",
"Many armoured cruisers of the new kind were just as large and expensive as the equivalent battleship.",
", a ''Minotaur''-class armoured cruiser\n\nThe increasing size and power of the armoured cruiser led to suggestions in British naval circles that cruisers should displace battleships entirely.",
"The battleship's main advantage was its 12-inch heavy guns, and heavier armour designed to protect from shells of similar size.",
"However, for a few years after 1900 it seemed that those advantages were of little practical value.",
"The torpedo now had a range of 2,000 yards, and it seemed unlikely that a battleship would engage within torpedo range.",
"However, at ranges of more than 2,000 yards it became increasingly unlikely that the heavy guns of a battleship would score any hits, as the heavy guns relied on primitive aiming techniques.",
"The secondary batteries of 6-inch quick-firing guns, firing more plentiful shells, were more likely to hit the enemy.",
"As naval expert Fred T. Jane wrote in June 1902,Is there anything outside of 2,000 yards that the big gun in its hundreds of tons of medieval castle can effect, that its weight in 6-inch guns without the castle could not effect equally well?",
"And inside 2,000, what, in these days of gyros, is there that the torpedo cannot effect with far more certainty?",
"In 1904, Admiral John \"Jacky\" Fisher became First Sea Lord, the senior officer of the Royal Navy.",
"He had for some time thought about the development of a new fast armoured ship.",
"He was very fond of the \"second-class battleship\" , a faster, more lightly armoured battleship.",
"As early as 1901, there is confusion in Fisher's writing about whether he saw the battleship or the cruiser as the model for future developments.",
"This did not stop him from commissioning designs from naval architect W. H. Gard for an armoured cruiser with the heaviest possible armament for use with the fleet.",
"The design Gard submitted was for a ship between , capable of , armed with four 9.2-inch and twelve guns in twin gun turrets and protected with six inches of armour along her belt and 9.2-inch turrets, on her 7.5-inch turrets, 10 inches on her conning tower and up to on her decks.",
"However, mainstream British naval thinking between 1902 and 1904 was clearly in favour of heavily armoured battleships, rather than the fast ships that Fisher favoured.",
"The Battle of Tsushima proved conclusively the effectiveness of heavy guns over intermediate ones and the need for a uniform main caliber on a ship for fire control.",
"Even before this, the Royal Navy had begun to consider a shift away from the mixed-calibre armament of the 1890s pre-dreadnought to an \"all-big-gun\" design, and preliminary designs circulated for battleships with all 12-inch or all 10-inch guns and armoured cruisers with all 9.2-inch guns.",
"In late 1904, not long after the Royal Navy had decided to use 12-inch guns for its next generation of battleships because of their superior performance at long range, Fisher began to argue that big-gun cruisers could replace battleships altogether.",
"The continuing improvement of the torpedo meant that submarines and destroyers would be able to destroy battleships; this in Fisher's view heralded the end of the battleship or at least compromised the validity of heavy armour protection.",
"Nevertheless, armoured cruisers would remain vital for commerce protection.",
"Fisher's views were very controversial within the Royal Navy, and even given his position as First Sea Lord, he was not in a position to insist on his own approach.",
"Thus he assembled a \"Committee on Designs\", consisting of a mixture of civilian and naval experts, to determine the approach to both battleship and armoured cruiser construction in the future.",
"While the stated purpose of the Committee was to investigate and report on future requirements of ships, Fisher and his associates had already made key decisions.",
"The terms of reference for the Committee were for a battleship capable of with 12-inch guns and no intermediate calibres, capable of docking in existing drydocks; and a cruiser capable of , also with 12-inch guns and no intermediate armament, armoured like , the most recent armoured cruiser, and also capable of using existing docks.",
"Under the Selborne plan of 1902, the Royal Navy intended to start three new battleships and four armoured cruisers each year.",
"However, in late 1904 it became clear that the 1905–06 programme would have to be considerably smaller, because of lower than expected tax revenue and the need to buy out two Chilean battleships under construction in British yards, lest they be purchased by the Russians for use against the Japanese, Britain's ally.",
"These economies meant that the 1905–06 programme consisted only of one battleship, but three armoured cruisers.",
"The battleship became the revolutionary battleship , and the cruisers became the three ships of the .",
"Fisher later claimed, however, that he had argued during the Committee for the cancellation of the remaining battleship.",
"The construction of the new class were begun in 1906 and completed in 1908, delayed perhaps to allow their designers to learn from any problems with ''Dreadnought''.",
"The ships fulfilled the design requirement quite closely.",
"On a displacement similar to ''Dreadnought'', the ''Invincible''s were longer to accommodate additional boilers and more powerful turbines to propel them at .",
"Moreover, the new ships could maintain this speed for days, whereas pre-dreadnought battleships could not generally do so for more than an hour.",
"Armed with eight 12-inch Mk X guns, compared to ten on ''Dreadnought'', they had of armour protecting the hull and the gun turrets.",
"(''Dreadnought''s armour, by comparison, was at its thickest.)",
"The class had a very marked increase in speed, displacement and firepower compared to the most recent armoured cruisers but no more armour.",
"While the ''Invincible''s were to fill the same role as the armoured cruisers they succeeded, they were expected to do so more effectively.",
"Specifically their roles were:\n* '''Heavy reconnaissance.'''",
"Because of their power, the ''Invincible''s could sweep away the screen of enemy cruisers to close with and observe an enemy battlefleet before using their superior speed to retire.",
"* '''Close support for the battle fleet.'''",
"They could be stationed at the ends of the battle line to stop enemy cruisers harassing the battleships, and to harass the enemy's battleships if they were busy fighting battleships.",
"Also, the ''Invincible''s could operate as the fast wing of the battlefleet and try to outmanouevre the enemy.",
"* '''Pursuit.'''",
"If an enemy fleet ran, then the ''Invincible''s would use their speed to pursue, and their guns to damage or slow enemy ships.",
"* '''Commerce protection.'''",
"The new ships would hunt down enemy cruisers and commerce raiders.",
", Britain's first battlecruiser\nConfusion about how to refer to these new battleship-size armoured cruisers set in almost immediately.",
"Even in late 1905, before work was begun on the ''Invincible''s, a Royal Navy memorandum refers to \"large armoured ships\" meaning both battleships and large cruisers.",
"In October 1906, the Admiralty began to classify all post-Dreadnought battleships and armoured cruisers as \"capital ships\", while Fisher used the term \"dreadnought\" to refer either to his new battleships or the battleships and armoured cruisers together.",
"At the same time, the ''Invincible'' class themselves were referred to as \"cruiser-battleships\", \"dreadnought cruisers\"; the term \"battlecruiser\" was first used by Fisher in 1908.",
"Finally, on 24 November 1911, Admiralty Weekly Order No.",
"351 laid down that \"All cruisers of the “Invincible” and later types are for the future to be described and classified as “battle cruisers” to distinguish them from the armoured cruisers of earlier date.\"",
"Along with questions over the new ships' nomenclature came uncertainty about their actual role due to their lack of protection.",
"If they were primarily to act as scouts for the battle fleet and hunter-killers of enemy cruisers and commerce raiders, then the seven inches of belt armour with which they had been equipped would be adequate.",
"If, on the other hand, they were expected to reinforce a battle line of dreadnoughts with their own heavy guns, they were too thin-skinned to be safe from an enemy's heavy guns.",
"The ''Invincible''s were essentially extremely large, heavily armed, fast armoured cruisers.",
"However, the viability of the armoured cruiser was already in doubt.",
"A cruiser that could have worked with the Fleet might have been a more viable option for taking over that role.",
"Because of the ''Invincible''s size and armament, naval authorities considered them capital ships almost from their inception—an assumption that might have been inevitable.",
"Complicating matters further was that many naval authorities, including Lord Fisher, had made overoptimistic assessments from the Battle of Tsushima in 1905 about the armoured cruiser's ability to survive in a battle line against enemy capital ships due to their superior speed.",
"These assumptions had been made without taking into account the Russian Baltic Fleet's inefficiency and tactical ineptitude.",
"By the time the term \"battlecruiser\" had been given to the ''Invincible''s, the idea of their parity with battleships had been fixed in many people's minds.",
"Not everyone was so convinced.",
"''Brasseys Naval Annual'', for instance, stated that with vessels as large and expensive as the ''Invincible''s, an admiral \"will be certain to put them in the line of battle where their comparatively light protection will be a disadvantage and their high speed of no value.\"",
"Those in favor of the battlecruiser countered with two points—first, since all capital ships were vulnerable to new weapons such as the torpedo, armour had lost some of its validity; and second, because of its greater speed, the battlecruiser could control the range at which it engaged an enemy.",
"Between the launching of the ''Invincible''s to just after the outbreak of the First World War, the battlecruiser played a junior role in the developing dreadnought arms race, as it was never wholeheartedly adopted as the key weapon in British imperial defence, as Fisher had presumably desired.",
"The biggest factor for this lack of acceptance was the marked change in Britain's strategic circumstances between their conception and the commissioning of the first ships.",
"The prospective enemy for Britain had shifted from a Franco-Russian alliance with many armoured cruisers to a resurgent and increasingly belligerent Germany.",
"Diplomatically, Britain had entered the Entente cordiale in 1904 and the Anglo-Russian Entente.",
"Neither France nor Russia posed a particular naval threat; the Russian navy had largely been sunk or captured in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–5, while the French were in no hurry to adopt the new dreadnought-type design.",
"Britain also boasted very cordial relations with two of the significant new naval powers, Japan (bolstered by the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, signed in 1902 and renewed in 1905), and the USA.",
"These changed strategic circumstances, and the great success of the ''Dreadnought'', ensured that she rather than the ''Invincible'' became the new model capital ship.",
"Nevertheless, battlecruiser construction played a part in the renewed naval arms-race sparked by the ''Dreadnought''.",
", the last battlecruiser built before World War I\nFor their first few years of service, the ''Invincible''s entirely fulfilled Fisher's vision of being able to sink any ship fast enough to catch them, and run from any ship capable of sinking them.",
"An ''Invincible'' would also, in many circumstances, be able to take on an enemy pre-dreadnought battleship.",
"Naval circles concurred that the armoured cruiser in its current form had come to the logical end of its development and the ''Invincible''s were so far ahead of any enemy armoured cruiser in firepower and speed that it proved difficult to justify building more or bigger cruisers.",
"This lead was extended by the surprise both ''Dreadnought'' and ''Invincible'' produced by having been built in secret; this prompted most other navies to delay their building programmes and radically revise their designs.",
"This was particularly true for cruisers, because the details of the ''Invincible'' class were kept secret for longer; this meant that the last German armoured cruiser, , was armed with only guns, and was no match for the new battlecruisers.",
"The Royal Navy's early superiority in capital ships led to the rejection of a 1905–06 design that would, essentially, have fused the battlecruiser and battleship concepts into what would eventually become the fast battleship.",
"The 'X4' design combined the full armour and armament of ''Dreadnought'' with the 25 knot speed of ''Invincible''.",
"The additional cost could not be justified given the existing British lead and the new Liberal government's need for economy; the slower and cheaper , a relatively close copy of ''Dreadnought'', was adopted instead.",
"The X4 concept would eventually be fulfilled in the and later by other navies.",
"The next British battlecruisers were the three , slightly improved ''Invincible''s built to fundamentally the same specification, partly due to political pressure to limit costs and partly due to the secrecy surrounding German battlecruiser construction, particularly about the heavy armour of .",
"This class came to be widely seen as a mistake and the next generation of British battlecruisers were markedly more powerful.",
"By 1909–10 a sense of national crisis about rivalry with Germany outweighed cost-cutting, and a naval panic resulted in the approval of a total of eight capital ships in 1909–10.",
"Fisher pressed for all eight to be battlecruisers, but was unable to have his way; he had to settle for six battleships and two battlecruisers of the .",
"The ''Lion''s carried eight 13.5-inch guns, the now-standard caliber of the British \"super-dreadnought\" battleships.",
"Speed increased to and armour protection, while not as good as in German designs, was better than in previous British battlecruisers, with armour belt and barbettes.",
"The two ''Lion''s were followed by the very similar .",
"alt=A large gray ship in port.",
"The two funnels in the center of the ship emit clouds of smoke.",
"By 1911 Germany had built battlecruisers of her own, and the superiority of the British ships could no longer be assured.",
"Moreover, the German Navy did not share Fisher's view of the battlecruiser.",
"In contrast to the British focus on increasing speed and firepower, Germany progressively improved the armour and staying power of their ships to better the British battlecruisers.",
"''Von der Tann'', begun in 1908 and completed in 1910, carried eight 11.1-inch guns, but with 11.1-inch (283 mm) armour she was far better protected than the ''Invincible''s.",
"The two s were quite similar but carried ten 11.1-inch guns of an improved design.",
", designed in 1909 and finished in 1913, was a modified ''Moltke''; speed increased by one knot to , while her armour had a maximum thickness of 12 inches, equivalent to the s of a few years earlier.",
"''Seydlitz'' was Germany's last battlecruiser completed before World War I.",
"The next step in battlecruiser design came from Japan.",
"The Imperial Japanese Navy had been planning the ships from 1909, and was determined that, since the Japanese economy could support relatively few ships, each would be more powerful than its likely competitors.",
"Initially the class was planned with the ''Invincible''s as the benchmark.",
"On learning of the British plans for ''Lion'', and the likelihood that new U.S. Navy battleships would be armed with guns, the Japanese decided to radically revise their plans and go one better.",
"A new plan was drawn up, carrying eight 14-inch guns, and capable of , thus marginally having the edge over the ''Lion''s in speed and firepower.",
"The heavy guns were also better-positioned, being superfiring both fore and aft with no turret amidships.",
"The armour scheme was also marginally improved over the ''Lion''s, with nine inches of armour on the turrets and on the barbettes.",
"The first ship in the class was built in Britain, and a further three constructed in Japan.",
"The Japanese also re-classified their powerful armoured cruisers of the ''Tsukuba'' and ''Ibuki'' classes, carrying four 12-inch guns, as battlecruisers; nonetheless, their armament was weaker and they were slower than any battlecruiser.",
"''Kongō''\nThe next British battlecruiser, , was intended initially as the fourth ship in the ''Lion'' class, but was substantially redesigned.",
"She retained the eight 13.5-inch guns of her predecessors, but they were positioned like those of ''Kongō'' for better fields of fire.",
"She was faster (making on sea trials), and carried a heavier secondary armament.",
"''Tiger'' was also more heavily armoured on the whole; while the maximum thickness of armour was the same at nine inches, the height of the main armour belt was increased.",
"Not all the desired improvements for this ship were approved, however.",
"Her designer, Sir Eustace Tennyson d'Eyncourt, had wanted small-bore water-tube boilers and geared turbines to give her a speed of , but he received no support from the authorities and the engine makers refused his request.",
"1912 saw work begin on three more German battlecruisers of the , the first German battlecruisers to mount 12-inch guns.",
"These ships, like ''Tiger'' and the ''Kongō''s, had their guns arranged in superfiring turrets for greater efficiency.",
"Their armour and speed was similar to the previous ''Seydlitz'' class.",
"In 1913, the Russian Empire also began the construction of the four-ship , which were designed for service in the Baltic Sea.",
"These ships were designed to carry twelve 14-inch guns, with armour up to 12 inches thick, and a speed of .",
"The heavy armour and relatively slow speed of these ships made them more similar to German designs than to British ships; construction of the ''Borodino''s was halted by the First World War and all were scrapped after the end of the Russian Civil War.",
"\n===Construction===\nFor most of the combatants, capital ship construction was very limited during the war.",
"Germany finished the ''Derfflinger'' class and began work on the .",
"The ''Mackensen''s were a development of the ''Derfflinger'' class, with 13.8-inch guns and a broadly similar armour scheme, designed for .",
"In Britain, Jackie Fisher returned to the office of First Sea Lord in October 1914.",
"His enthusiasm for big, fast ships was unabated, and he set designers to producing a design for a battlecruiser with 15-inch guns.",
"Because Fisher expected the next German battlecruiser to steam at 28 knots, he required the new British design to be capable of 32 knots.",
"He planned to reorder two s, which had been approved but not yet laid down, to a new design.",
"Fisher finally received approval for this project on 28 December 1914 and they became the .",
"With six 15-inch guns but only 6-inch armour they were a further step forward from ''Tiger'' in firepower and speed, but returned to the level of protection of the first British battlecruisers.",
"At the same time, Fisher resorted to subterfuge to obtain another three fast, lightly armoured ships that could use several spare gun turrets left over from battleship construction.",
"These ships were essentially light battlecruisers, and Fisher occasionally referred to them as such, but officially they were classified as ''large light cruisers''.",
"This unusual designation was required because construction of new capital ships had been placed on hold, while there were no limits on light cruiser construction.",
"They became and her sisters and , and there was a bizarre imbalance between their main guns of 15 inches (or in ''Furious'') and their armour, which at thickness was on the scale of a light cruiser.",
"The design was generally regarded as a failure (nicknamed in the Fleet ''Outrageous'', ''Uproarious'' and ''Spurious''), though the later conversion of the ships to aircraft carriers was very successful.",
"Fisher also speculated about a new mammoth, but lightly built battlecruiser, that would carry guns, which he termed ; this never got beyond the concept stage.",
"It is often held that the ''Renown'' and ''Courageous'' classes were designed for Fisher's plan to land troops (possibly Russian) on the German Baltic coast.",
"Specifically, they were designed with a reduced draught, which might be important in the shallow Baltic.",
"This is not clear-cut evidence that the ships were designed for the Baltic: it was considered that earlier ships had too much draught and not enough freeboard under operational conditions.",
"Roberts argues that the focus on the Baltic was probably unimportant at the time the ships were designed, but was inflated later, after the disastrous Dardanelles Campaign.",
"The final British battlecruiser design of the war was the , which was born from a requirement for an improved version of the ''Queen Elizabeth'' battleship.",
"The project began at the end of 1915, after Fisher's final departure from the Admiralty.",
"While initially envisaged as a battleship, senior sea officers felt that Britain had enough battleships, but that new battlecruisers might be required to combat German ships being built (the British overestimated German progress on the ''Mackensen'' class as well as their likely capabilities).",
"A battlecruiser design with eight 15-inch guns, 8 inches of armour and capable of 32 knots was decided on.",
"The experience of battlecruisers at the Battle of Jutland meant that the design was radically revised and transformed again into a fast battleship with armour up to 12 inches thick, but still capable of .",
"The first ship in the class, , was built according to this design to counter the possible completion of any of the Mackensen-class ship.",
"The plans for her three sisters, on which little work had been done, were revised once more later in 1916 and in 1917 to improve protection.",
"The Admiral class would have been the only British ships capable of taking on the German ''Mackensen'' class; nevertheless, German shipbuilding was drastically slowed by the war, and while two ''Mackensen''s were launched, none were ever completed.",
"The Germans also worked briefly on a further three ships, of the , which were modified versions of the ''Mackensen''s with 15-inch guns.",
"Work on the three additional Admirals was suspended in March 1917 to enable more escorts and merchant ships to be built to deal with the new threat from U-boats to trade.",
"They were finally cancelled in February 1919.",
"===Battlecruisers in action===\nThe first combat involving battlecruisers during World War I was the Battle of Heligoland Bight in August 1914.",
"A force of British light cruisers and destroyers entered the Heligoland Bight (the part of the North Sea closest to Hamburg) to attack German destroyer patrols.",
"When they met opposition from light cruisers, Vice Admiral David Beatty took his squadron of five battlecruisers into the Bight and turned the tide of the battle, ultimately sinking three German light cruisers and killing their commander, Rear Admiral Leberecht Maass.",
"The German battlecruiser perhaps made the most impact early in the war.",
"Stationed in the Mediterranean, she and the escorting light cruiser evaded British and French ships on the outbreak of war, and steamed to Constantinople (Istanbul) with two British battlecruisers in hot pursuit.",
"The two German ships were handed over to the Ottoman Navy, and this was instrumental in bringing the Ottoman Empire into the war as one of the Central Powers.",
"''Goeben'' herself, renamed ''Yavuz Sultan Selim'', fought engagements against the Imperial Russian Navy in the Black Sea and against the British in the Aegean Sea.",
"The original battlecruiser concept proved successful in December 1914 at the Battle of the Falkland Islands.",
"The British battlecruisers and did precisely the job for which they were intended when they chased down and annihilated the German East Asia Squadron, centered on the armoured cruisers and , along with three light cruisers, commanded by Admiral Maximilian Graf Von Spee, in the South Atlantic Ocean.",
"Prior to the battle, the Australian battlecruiser had unsuccessfully searched for the German ships in the Pacific.",
"The shell did not penetrate the barbette, but it dislodged a piece of the barbette armour that allowed the flame from the shell's detonation to enter the barbette.",
"The propellant charges being hoisted upwards were ignited, and the fireball flashed up into the turret and down into the magazine, setting fire to charges removed from their brass cartridge cases.",
"The gun crew tried to escape into the next turret, which allowed the flash to spread into that turret as well, killing the crews of both turrets.",
"''Seydlitz'' was saved from near-certain destruction only by emergency flooding of her after magazines, which had been effected by Wilhelm Heidkamp.",
"This near-disaster was due to the way that ammunition handling was arranged and was common to both German and British battleships and battlecruisers, but the lighter protection on the latter made them more vulnerable to the turret or barbette being penetrated.",
"The Germans learned from investigating the damaged ''Seydlitz'' and instituted measures to ensure that ammunition handling minimised any possible exposure to flash.",
"Apart from the cordite handling, the battle was mostly inconclusive, though both the British flagship ''Lion'' and ''Seydlitz'' were severely damaged.",
"''Lion'' lost speed, causing her to fall behind the rest of the battleline, and Beatty was unable to effectively command his ships for the remainder of the engagement.",
"A British signalling error allowed the German battlecruisers to withdraw, as most of Beatty's squadron mistakenly concentrated on the crippled armoured cruiser ''Blücher'', sinking her with great loss of life.",
"The British blamed their failure to win a decisive victory on their poor gunnery and attempted to increase their rate of fire by stockpiling unprotected cordite charges in their ammunition hoists and barbettes.",
"''Queen Mary'' blows up during the Battle of Jutland\nAt the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916, both British and German battlecruisers were employed as fleet units.",
"The British battlecruisers became engaged with both their German counterparts, the battlecruisers, and then German battleships before the arrival of the battleships of the British Grand Fleet.",
"The result was a disaster for the Royal Navy's battlecruiser squadrons: ''Invincible'', ''Queen Mary'', and exploded with the loss of all but a handful of their crews.",
"The exact reason why the ships' magazines detonated is not known, but the plethora of exposed cordite charges stored in their turrets, ammunition hoists and working chambers in the quest to increase their rate of fire undoubtedly contributed to their loss.",
"Beatty's flagship ''Lion'' herself was almost lost in a similar manner, save for the heroic actions of Major Francis Harvey.",
"The better-armoured German battlecruisers fared better, in part due to the poor performance of British fuzes (the British shells tended to explode or break up on impact with the German armour).",
"—the only German battlecruiser lost at Jutland—had only 128 killed, for instance, despite receiving more than thirty hits.",
"The other German battlecruisers, , ''Von der Tann'', ''Seydlitz'', and , were all heavily damaged and required extensive repairs after the battle, ''Seydlitz'' barely making it home, for they had been the focus of British fire for much of the battle.",
"In the years immediately after World War I, Britain, Japan and the US all began design work on a new generation of ever more powerful battleships and battlecruisers.",
"The new burst of shipbuilding that each nation's navy desired was politically controversial and potentially economically crippling.",
"This nascent arms race was prevented by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, where the major naval powers agreed to limits on capital ship numbers.",
"The German navy was not represented at the talks; under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was not allowed any modern capital ships at all.",
"Through the 1920s and 1930s only Britain and Japan retained battlecruisers, often modified and rebuilt from their original designs.",
"The line between the battlecruiser and the modern fast battleship became blurred; indeed, the Japanese ''Kongō''s were formally redesignated as battleships.",
"===Plans in the aftermath of World War I===\n''Hood'', launched in 1918, was the last World War I battlecruiser to be completed.",
"Owing to lessons from Jutland, the ship was modified during construction; the thickness of her belt armour was increased by an average of 50 percent and extended substantially, she was given heavier deck armour, and the protection of her magazines was improved to guard against the ignition of ammunition.",
"This was hoped to be capable of resisting her own weapons—the classic measure of a \"balanced\" battleship.",
"''Hood'' was the largest ship in the Royal Navy when completed; thanks to her great displacement, in theory she combined the firepower and armour of a battleship with the speed of a battlecruiser, causing some to refer to her as a fast battleship.",
"However her protection was markedly less than that of the British battleships built immediately after World War I, the .",
"''Lexington''-class battlecruiser (painting, c. 1919)\nThe navies of Japan and the United States, not being affected immediately by the war, had time to develop new heavy guns for their latest designs and to refine their battlecruiser designs in light of combat experience in Europe.",
"The Imperial Japanese Navy began four s. These vessels would have been of unprecedented size and power, as fast and well armoured as ''Hood'' whilst carrying a main battery of ten 16-inch guns, the most powerful armament ever proposed for a battlecruiser.",
"They were, for all intents and purposes, fast battleships—the only differences between them and the s which were to precede them were less side armour and a increase in speed.",
"The United States Navy, which had worked on its battlecruiser designs since 1913 and watched the latest developments in this class with great care, responded with the .",
"If completed as planned, they would have been exceptionally fast and well armed with eight 16-inch guns, but carried armour little better than the ''Invincible''s—this after an increase in protection following Jutland.",
"The final stage in the post-war battlecruiser race came with the British response to the ''Amagi'' and ''Lexington'' types: four G3 battlecruisers.",
"Royal Navy documents of the period often described any battleship with a speed of over about as a battlecruiser, regardless of the amount of protective armour, although the G3 was considered by most to be a well-balanced fast battleship.",
"The Washington Naval Treaty meant that none of these designs came to fruition.",
"Ships that had been started were either broken up on the slipway or converted to aircraft carriers.",
"In Japan, ''Amagi'' and were selected for conversion.",
"''Amagi'' was damaged beyond repair by the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake and was broken up for scrap; the hull of one of the proposed ''Tosa''-class battleships, , was converted in her stead.",
"The United States Navy also converted two battlecruiser hulls into aircraft carriers in the wake of the Washington Treaty: and , although this was only considered marginally preferable to scrapping the hulls outright (the remaining four: ''Constellation'', ''Ranger'', ''Constitution'' and ''United States'' were scrapped).",
"In Britain, Fisher's \"large light cruisers,\" were converted to carriers.",
"''Furious'' had already been partially converted during the war and ''Glorious'' and ''Courageous'' were similarly converted.",
"===Rebuilding programmes===\n''Repulse'' as she was in 1919\n''Renown'', as reconstructed, in 1939\n\nIn total, nine battlecruisers survived the Washington Naval Treaty, although HMS ''Tiger'' later became a victim of the London Naval Conference of 1930 and was scrapped.",
"Because their high speed made them valuable surface units in spite of their weaknesses, most of these ships were significantly updated before World War II.",
"and were modernized significantly in the 1920s and 1930s.",
"Between 1934 and 1936, ''Repulse'' was partially modernized and had her bridge modified, an aircraft hangar, catapult and new gunnery equipment added and her anti-aircraft armament increased.",
"''Renown'' underwent a more thorough reconstruction between 1937 and 1939.",
"Her deck armour was increased, new turbines and boilers were fitted, an aircraft hangar and catapult added and she was completely rearmed aside from the main guns which had their elevation increased to +30 degrees.",
"The bridge structure was also removed and a large bridge similar to that used in the battleships installed in its place.",
"While conversions of this kind generally added weight to the vessel, ''Renown''s tonnage actually decreased due to a substantially lighter power plant.",
"Similar thorough rebuildings planned for ''Repulse'' and ''Hood'' were cancelled due to the advent of World War II.",
"Unable to build new ships, the Imperial Japanese Navy also chose to improve its existing battlecruisers of the ''Kongō'' class (initially the , , and —the only later as it had been disarmed under the terms of the Washington treaty) in two substantial reconstructions (one for ''Hiei'').",
"During the first of these, elevation of their main guns was increased to +40 degrees, anti-torpedo bulges and of horizontal armour added, and a \"pagoda\" mast with additional command positions built up.",
"This reduced the ships' speed to .",
"The second reconstruction focused on speed as they had been selected as fast escorts for aircraft carrier task forces.",
"Completely new main engines, a reduced number of boilers and an increase in hull length by allowed them to reach up to 30 knots once again.",
"They were reclassified as \"fast battleships,\" although their armour and guns still fell short compared to surviving World War I–era battleships in the American or the British navies, with dire consequences during the Pacific War, when ''Hiei'' and ''Kirishima'' were easily crippled by US gunfire during actions off Guadalcanal, forcing their scuttling shortly afterwards.",
"Perhaps most tellingly, ''Hiei'' was crippled by medium-caliber gunfire from heavy and light cruisers in a close-range night engagement.",
"There were two exceptions: Turkey's ''Yavuz Sultan Selim'' and the Royal Navy's ''Hood''.",
"The Turkish Navy made only minor improvements to the ship in the interwar period, which primarily focused on repairing wartime damage and the installation of new fire control systems and anti-aircraft batteries.",
"''Hood'' was in constant service with the fleet and could not be withdrawn for an extended reconstruction.",
"She received minor improvements over the course of the 1930s, including modern fire control systems, increased numbers of anti-aircraft guns, and in March 1941, radar.",
"===Naval rearmament===\nIn the late 1930s navies began to build capital ships again, and during this period a number of large commerce raiders and small, fast battleships were built that are sometimes referred to as battlecruisers.",
"Germany and Russia designed new battlecruisers during this period, though only the latter laid down two of the 35,000-ton .",
"They were still on the slipways when the Germans invaded in 1941 and construction was suspended.",
"Both ships were scrapped after the war.",
"The Germans planned three battlecruisers of the as part of the expansion of the Kriegsmarine (Plan Z).",
"With six 15-inch guns, high speed, excellent range, but very thin armour, they were intended as commerce raiders.",
"Only one was ordered shortly before World War II; no work was ever done on it.",
"No names were assigned, and they were known by their contract names: 'O', 'P', and 'Q'.",
"The new class was not universally welcomed in the Kriegsmarine.",
"Their abnormally-light protection gained it the derogatory nickname ''Ohne Panzer Quatsch'' (without armour nonsense) within certain circles of the Navy.",
"\nThe Royal Navy deployed some of its battlecruisers during the Norwegian Campaign in April 1940.",
"The and the were engaged during the Action off Lofoten by ''Renown'' in very bad weather and disengaged after ''Gneisenau'' was damaged.",
"One of ''Renown''s 15-inch shells passed through ''Gneisenau''s director-control tower without exploding, severing electrical and communication cables as it went and destroyed the rangefinders for the forward 150 mm (5.9 in) turrets.",
"Main-battery fire control had to be shifted aft due to the loss of electrical power.",
"Another shell from ''Renown'' knocked out ''Gneisenau''s aft turret.",
"The British ship was struck twice by German shells that failed to inflict any significant damage.",
"She was the only pre-war battlecruiser to survive the war.",
"In the early years of the war various German ships had a measure of success hunting merchant ships in the Atlantic.",
"Allied battlecruisers such as ''Renown'', ''Repulse'', and the fast battleships ''Dunkerque'' and were employed on operations to hunt down the commerce-raiding German ships, but they never got close to their targets.",
"The one stand-up fight occurred when the battleship and the heavy cruiser sortied into the North Atlantic to attack British shipping and were intercepted by ''Hood'' and the battleship in May 1941 in the Battle of the Denmark Strait.",
"The elderly British battlecruiser was no match for the modern German battleship: within minutes, the ''Bismarck''s 15-inch shells caused a magazine explosion in ''Hood'' reminiscent of the Battle of Jutland.",
"Only three men survived.",
"The first battlecruiser to see action in the Pacific War was ''Repulse'' when she was sunk by Japanese torpedo bombers north of Singapore on 10 December 1941 whilst in company with ''Prince of Wales''.",
"She was lightly damaged by a single bomb and near-missed by two others in the first Japanese attack.",
"Her speed and agility enabled her to avoid the other attacks by level bombers and dodge 33 torpedoes.",
"The last group of torpedo bombers attacked from multiple directions and ''Repulse'' was struck by five torpedoes.",
"She quickly capsized with the loss of 27 officers and 486 crewmen; 42 officers and 754 enlisted men were rescued by the escorting destroyers.",
"The loss of ''Repulse'' and ''Prince of Wales'' conclusively proved the vulnerability of capital ships to aircraft without air cover of their own.",
"The Japanese ''Kongō''-class battlecruisers were extensively used as carrier escorts for most of their wartime career due to their high speed.",
"Their World War I–era armament was weaker and their upgraded armour was still thin compared to contemporary battleships.",
"On 13 November 1942, during the First Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, ''Hiei'' stumbled across American cruisers and destroyers at point-blank range.",
"The ship was badly damaged in the encounter and had to be towed by her sister ship ''Kirishima''.",
"Both were spotted by American aircraft the following morning and ''Kirishima'' was forced to cast off her tow because of repeated aerial attacks.",
"''Hiei''s captain ordered her crew to abandon ship after further damage and scuttled ''Hiei'' in the early evening of 14 November.",
"On the night of 14/15 November during the Second Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, ''Kirishima'' returned to Ironbottom Sound, but encountered the American battleships and .",
"While failing to detect ''Washington'', ''Kirishima'' engaged ''South Dakota'' with some effect.",
"''Washington'' opened fire a few minutes later at short range and badly damaged ''Kirishima'', knocking out her aft turrets, jamming her rudder, and hitting the ship below the waterline.",
"The flooding proved to be uncontrollable and ''Kirishima'' capsized three and a half hours later.",
"Returning to Japan after the Battle of Leyte Gulf, ''Kongō'' was torpedoed and sunk by the American submarine on 21 November 1944.",
"''Haruna'' was moored at Kure, Japan when the naval base was attacked by American carrier aircraft on 24 and 28 July.",
"The ship was only lightly damaged by a single bomb hit on 24 July, but was hit a dozen more times on 28 July and sank at her pier.",
"She was refloated after the war and scrapped in early 1946.",
"===Large cruisers or \"cruiser killers\"===\n\n, one of the United States Navy's two \"large cruisers\"\n\nA late renaissance in popularity of ships between battleships and cruisers in size occurred on the eve of World War II.",
"Described by some as battlecruisers, but never classified as capital ships, they were variously described as \"super cruisers\", \"large cruisers\" or even \"unrestricted cruisers\".",
"The Dutch, American, and Japanese navies all planned these new classes specifically to counter the heavy cruisers, or their counterparts, being built by their naval rivals.",
"The first such battlecruisers were the Dutch Design 1047, designed to protect their colonies in the East Indies in the face of Japanese aggression.",
"Never officially assigned names, these ships were designed with German and Italian assistance.",
"While they broadly resembled the German ''Scharnhorst'' class and had the same main battery, they would have been more lightly armoured and only protected against eight-inch gunfire.",
"Although the design was mostly completed, work on the vessels never commenced as the Germans overran the Netherlands in May 1940.",
"The first ship would have been laid down in June of that year.",
"The only class of these late battlecruisers actually built were the United States Navy's \"large cruisers\".",
"Two of them were completed, and ; a third, , was cancelled while under construction and three others, to be named ''Philippines'', ''Puerto Rico'' and ''Samoa'', were cancelled before they were laid down.",
"They were classified as \"large cruisers\" instead of battlecruisers, and their status as non-capital ships evidenced by their being named for territories or protectorates.",
"(Battleships, in contrast, were named after states and cruisers after cities.)",
"With a main armament of nine 12-inch guns in three triple turrets and a displacement of , the ''Alaska''s were twice the size of s and had guns some 50% larger in diameter.",
"They lacked the thick armoured belt and intricate torpedo defence system of true capital ships.",
"However, unlike most battlecruisers, they were considered a balanced design according to cruiser standards as their protection could withstand fire from their own caliber of gun, albeit only in a very narrow range band.",
"They were designed to hunt down Japanese heavy cruisers, though by the time they entered service most Japanese cruisers had been sunk by American aircraft or submarines.",
"Like the contemporary fast battleships, their speed ultimately made them more useful as carrier escorts and bombardment ships than as the surface combatants they were developed to be.",
"The Japanese started designing the B64 class, which was similar to the ''Alaska'' but with guns.",
"News of the ''Alaska''s led them to upgrade the design, creating Design B-65.",
"Armed with 356 mm guns, the B65s would have been the best armed of the new breed of battlecruisers, but they still would have had only sufficient protection to keep out eight-inch shells.",
"Much like the Dutch, the Japanese got as far as completing the design for the B65s, but never laid them down.",
"By the time the designs were ready the Japanese Navy recognized that they had little use for the vessels and that their priority for construction should lie with aircraft carriers.",
"Like the ''Alaska''s, the Japanese did not call these ships battlecruisers, referring to them instead as super-heavy cruisers.",
"''Admiral Lazarev'', formerly ''Frunze'', the second ship of her class\nIn spite of the fact that most navies abandoned the battleship and battlecruiser concepts after World War II, Joseph Stalin's fondness for big-gun-armed warships caused the Soviet Union to plan a large cruiser class in the late 1940s.",
"In the Soviet Union they were termed \"heavy cruisers\" (''tjazholyj krejser'').",
"The fruits of this program were the Project 82 (''Stalingrad'') cruisers, of standard load, nine 305 mm guns and a speed of .",
"Three ships were laid down in 1951–52, but they were cancelled in April 1953 after Stalin's death.",
"Only the central armoured hull section of the first ship, ''Stalingrad'', was launched in 1954 and then used as a target.",
"The Soviet is sometimes referred to as a battlecruiser.",
"This description arises from their over displacement, which is roughly equal to that of a First World War battleship and more than twice the displacement of contemporary cruisers; upon entry into service, ''Kirov'' was the largest surface ship (aside from aircraft carriers and amphibious assault ships) to be built since World War II.",
"The ''Kirov'' class lacks the armour that distinguishes battlecruisers from ordinary cruisers and they are classified as heavy nuclear-powered missile cruisers (''tyazholyy atomnyy raketny kreyser'') by Russia, with their primary surface armament consisting of twenty P-700 Granit surface to surface missiles.",
"Four members of the class were completed during the 1980s and 1990s, but due to budget constraints only the is operational with the Russian Navy, though plans were announced in 2010 to return the other three ships to service.",
"As of 2012 one ship was being refitted, but the other two ships are reportedly beyond economical repair.",
"\n* List of battlecruisers\n* List of sunken battlecruisers\n* Protected cruiser\n* Armoured cruiser\n* List of ships of the Second World War\n* List of battlecruisers of the Second World War",
"\n===Notes===\n\n\n===Footnotes===",
"* \n* \n* \n*\n*\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*\n* \n* \n*\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*\n*\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*",
"\n* Maritimequest Battleships & Battlecruisers of the 20th century\n* British and German Battlecruisers of the First World War\n* Navsource Online"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Robert James Lee Hawke''' (born 9 December 1929) is an Australian politician who was the Prime Minister of Australia and the Leader of the Labor Party from 1983 to 1991.\n\nHawke was born in South Australia but moved to Western Australia as a child. He attended the University of Western Australia and then went on to Oxford University as a Rhodes Scholar. In 1956, Hawke joined the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) as a research officer. Having risen to become responsible for wage arbitration, he was elected President of the ACTU in 1969, where he achieved an unprecedented level of popularity. After a decade as ACTU President, Hawke announced his intention to enter politics, and was immediately elected to the House of Representatives as the Labor MP for Wills.\n\nThree years later, he led Labor to a landslide election victory at the 1983 election and was sworn in as Prime Minister. He led Labor to victory at three more elections in 1984, 1987 and 1990, thus making him the most electorally successful Labor Party Leader in history. The Hawke Government created Medicare and Landcare, brokered the Prices and Incomes Accord, formed APEC, floated the Australian dollar, deregulated the financial sector, introduced the Family Assistance Scheme, announced \"Advance Australia Fair\" as the official national anthem and initiated superannuation pension schemes for all workers.\n\nHawke was eventually replaced by Paul Keating at the end of 1991, who would go on to deliver the Labor government a record fifth consecutive victory and a record thirteen years in government at the 1993 election. He remains to date Labor's longest-serving Prime Minister, Australia's third-longest-serving Prime Minister, and at the age of , Hawke is currently the longest living former Australian Prime Minister. To date, he is the only Australian Prime Minister to be born in South Australia, as well as being the only one raised and educated in Western Australia.\n",
"Hawke was born in Bordertown, South Australia, the second child of Arthur Hawke (1898-1989) (known as Clem), a Congregationalist minister, and his wife Edith (known as Ellie), a schoolteacher. \nHis uncle, Albert, was the Labor Premier of Western Australia between 1953–59, and was also a close friend of Prime Minister John Curtin, who was in many ways Bob Hawke's role model.\n\nHawke's elder brother Neil, who was seven years his senior, died at the age of seventeen after contracting meningitis, for which there was no cure at the time. Ellie Hawke subsequently developed an almost messianic belief in her son's destiny, and this contributed to Hawke's supreme self-confidence throughout his career. At the age of fifteen, he presciently boasted to friends that he would one day become the Prime Minister of Australia.\n\nAt the age of seventeen, the same age that his brother Neil had died, Hawke had a serious accident while riding his Panther motorcycle that left him in a critical condition for several days. This near-death experience acted as his catharsis, driving him to make the most of his talents and not let his abilities go to waste. He joined the Labor Party in 1947 at the age of eighteen, and successfully applied for a Rhodes Scholarship at the end of 1952.\n",
"Hawke was educated at Perth Modern School and the University of Western Australia, graduating in 1952 with a Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Laws. He was also president of the university's guild during the same year. The following year, Hawke won a Rhodes Scholarship to attend University College, Oxford, where he undertook a Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE). He soon found he was covering much the same ground as he did in his education at the University of Western Australia, and transferred to a Bachelor of Letters, writing his thesis on wage-fixing in Australia which was successfully presented in January 1956.\n\nHis academic achievements were complemented by setting a new world record for beer drinking; he downed – equivalent to a yard of ale – from a sconce pot in 11 seconds as part of a college penalty. In his memoirs, Hawke suggested that this single feat may have contributed to his political success more than any other, by endearing him to an electorate with a strong beer culture.\n\nIn 1956, Hawke accepted a scholarship to undertake doctoral studies in the area of arbitration law in the law department at the Australian National University in Canberra. Soon after his arrival at ANU, Hawke became the students' representative on the University Council. A year later, Hawke was recommended to the President of the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) to become a research officer, replacing Harold Souter who had become ACTU Secretary. The recommendation was made by Hawke's mentor at ANU, H.P. Brown, who for a number of years had assisted the ACTU in national wage cases. Hawke decided to abandon his doctoral studies and accept the offer, moving to Melbourne with his wife Hazel.\n",
"Hawke soon after his election as ACTU president in September 1969.\nNot long after Hawke began work at the ACTU, he became responsible for the presentation of its annual case for higher wages to the national wages tribunal, the Conciliation and Arbitration Commission. He was first appointed as an ACTU advocate in 1959. The 1958 case, under previous advocate R.L. Eggleston, had yielded only a five-shilling increase. The 1959 case found for a fifteen-shilling increase, and was regarded as a personal triumph for Hawke. He went on to attain such success and prominence in his role as an ACTU advocate that, in 1969, he was encouraged to run for the position of ACTU President, despite the fact that he had never held elected office in a trade union.\n\nHe was elected ACTU President in 1969 on a modernising platform by the narrow margin of 399 to 350, with the support of the left of the union movement, including some associated with the Communist Party. He later credited Ray Gietzelt, General Secretary of the FMWU, as the single most significant union figure in helping him achieve this outcome.\n\nHawke declared publicly that \"socialist is not a word I would use to describe myself\", and his approach to government was pragmatic. He concerned himself with making improvements to workers' lives from within the traditional institutions of government, rather than by using any ideological theory. He opposed the Vietnam War, but was a strong supporter of the US-Australian alliance, and also an emotional supporter of Israel. It was his commitment to the cause of Jewish Refuseniks which purportedly led to a planned assassination attempt on Hawke by the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, and its Australian operative Munif Mohammed Abou Rish.\n\nIn 1971, Hawke along with other members of the ACTU requested that South Africa send a non-racially biased team for the Rugby Union tour, with the intention of unions agreeing not to serve the team in Australia. Prior to arrival, the Western Australian branch of the Transport Workers Union, and the Barmaids' and Barmens' Union, announced that they would serve the team, which allowed the Springboks to land in Perth. The tour commenced on 26 June and riots occurred as anti-apartheid protesters disrupted games. Hawke and his family started to receive malicious mail and phone calls from people who thought that sport and politics should not mix. Hawke remained committed to the ban on apartheid teams and later that year, the South African cricket team was successfully denied and no apartheid team was to ever come to Australia again. It was this ongoing dedication to racial equality in South Africa that would later earn Hawke the respect and friendship of Nelson Mandela.\n\nIn industrial matters, Hawke continued to demonstrate a preference for, and considerable skill at, negotiation, and was generally liked and respected by employers as well as the unions he advocated for. As early as 1972, speculation began that he would seek to enter Parliament and eventually run to become the Leader of the Labor Party. But while his professional career continued successfully, his heavy drinking and his notorious womanising placed considerable strains on his family life.\n\nIn 1973, Hawke was elected as the Federal President of the Labor Party. Two years later, when the Whitlam Government was controversially dismissed by the Governor-General, Hawke showed an initial keenness to enter Parliament at the ensuing election. Harry Jenkins, the MP for Scullin, came under pressure to step down to allow Hawke to stand in his place, but he strongly resisted this push. Hawke eventually decided not to attempt to enter Parliament at that time, a decision he soon regretted. After Labor was defeated at the election, Whitlam initially offered the leadership to Hawke, although it was not within Whitlam's power to decide who would succeed him. Despite not taking on the offer, Hawke remained influential, playing a key role in averting national strike action.\n\nThe strain of this period, serving as both ACTU President and Labor Party President, took its toll on Hawke and in 1979 he suffered a physical collapse. This shock led Hawke to publicly announce his alcoholism in a television interview, and that he would make a concerted – and ultimately successful – effort to overcome it. He was helped through this period by the relationship that he had established with writer Blanche d'Alpuget, who, in 1982, published a biography of Hawke. His popularity with the public was, if anything, enhanced by this period of rehabilitation, and opinion polling suggested that he was a far more popular public figure than either Labor Leader Bill Hayden or Liberal Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser.\n",
"Hawke addresses the Labour Day crowd in October 1980\nHawke's first attempt to enter Parliament came during the 1963 federal election. He stood in the seat of Corio in Geelong and managed to achieve a 3.1% swing against the national trend, although he fell short of ousting longtime Liberal incumbent Hubert Opperman.\n\nHawke passed up several opportunities to enter Parliament throughout the 1970s, something he later wrote that he \"regretted\". He eventually stood for election to the House of Representatives at the 1980 election for the safe Melbourne seat of Wills, winning it comfortably. Immediately upon his election to Parliament, Hawke was appointed to the Shadow Cabinet by Labor Leader Bill Hayden as Shadow Minister for Industrial Relations. Following his entry to Parliament, opinion polls continually indicated that, in contrast to Hayden, Hawke was regarded as \"a certain election winner\". After losing the 1980 election, Hayden's leadership had become insecure. In order to quell speculation over his position, Hayden eventually called a leadership ballot for 16 July 1982, believing that if he won he would be able to lead Labor into the next election. Hawke duly challenged Hayden, but Hayden was able to defeat him and remain in position, although his five-vote victory over the former ACTU President was not large enough to dispel doubts that he could lead the Labor Party to victory at an election.\n\nDespite being defeated, Hawke continued to agitate behind the scenes for a change in leadership, with opinion polls continuing to show that Hawke was a far more popular figure than both Hayden and Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser. Hayden's leadership position was thrown into further doubt after Labor performed poorly at a by-election in December 1982 for the Victorian seat of Flinders, following the resignation of the former Liberal Minister Sir Phillip Lynch. Labor needed a swing of 5.5% to win the seat, and had been predicted by the media to win, but could only achieve a swing of 3%. This convinced many Labor MPs that only Hawke would be able to lead Labor to victory at the upcoming election. Labor Party power-brokers, such as Graham Richardson and Barrie Unsworth, now openly switched their allegiance from Hayden to Hawke. More significantly, Hayden's staunch friend and political ally, Labor's Senate Leader John Button, had become convinced that Hawke's chances of victory at an election were greater than Hayden's. Having initially believed that he could carry on, Button's defection proved to be the final straw in convincing Hayden that he would have to resign as Labor Leader.\n\nLess than two months after the disastrous result at the Flinders by-election, Hayden announced his resignation as Leader of the Labor Party to the caucus on 3 February 1983. Hawke was subsequently named as leader—and hence became Leader of the Opposition—pending a party-room ballot at which he was elected unopposed. By a remarkable coincidence, on the same day that Hawke became Leader, Fraser called a snap election for 5 March 1983, hoping to capitalise on Labor's feuding before it could replace Hayden with Hawke. Fraser initially believed that he had caught Labor out, thinking that they would be forced to fight the election with Hayden as Leader. However, he was surprised to find out upon his return from seeing the Governor-General that Hayden had already resigned that morning, just hours before the writs were issued. In the election held a month later, Hawke led Labor to a landslide election victory, achieving a 24-seat swing—still the worst defeat that a sitting non-Labor Government has ever suffered—and ending seven years of Liberal Party rule.\n",
"\n===Early days===\nHawke presenting a relief cheque to John Bannon, Premier of South Australia, in April 1983, in the aftermath of the Ash Wednesday fires.\nAfter Labor's landslide victory, Hawke was sworn in as the 23rd Prime Minister of Australia by the Governor-General on 11 March 1983. The inaugural days of the Hawke Government were distinctly different from those of the Whitlam Government. Rather than immediately initiating extensive reform programmes as Whitlam had, Hawke announced that Malcolm Fraser's pre-election concealment of the budget deficit meant that many of Labor's election commitments would have to be deferred. As part of his internal reforms package, Hawke divided the Government into two tiers, with only the most senior ministers sitting in the Cabinet. The Labor caucus was still given the authority to determine who would make up the Ministry, but gave Hawke unprecedented powers for a Labor Prime Minister to select which individual ministers would comprise the 13-strong Cabinet.\n\nHawke said that he did this in order to avoid what he viewed as the unwieldy nature of the Whitlam Cabinet, which had 27 members. Caucus under Hawke also exhibited a much more formalised system of parliamentary factions, which significantly altered the dynamics of caucus operations.\nUnlike his predecessor, Hawke's authority within the Labor Party was absolute. This enabled him to persuade his MPs to support a substantial set of policy changes. Individual accounts from ministers indicate that while Hawke was not usually the driving force behind individual reforms, he took on the role of achieving consensus and providing political guidance on what was electorally feasible and how best to sell it to the public, tasks at which he proved highly successful. Hawke took on a very public role as Prime Minister, proving to be incredibly popular with the Australian electorate; to this date he still holds the highest ever AC Nielsen approval rating.\n\n===Economic policy===\nHawke with US Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger in the Anzus Corridor in the Pentagon in June 1983.Hawke and President Ronald Reagan at the White House in November 1984.\nAccording to political commentator Paul Kelly, \"the most influential economic decisions of the 1980s were the floating of the Australian dollar and the deregulation of the financial system\". Although the Fraser Government had played a part in the process of financial deregulation by commissioning the 1981 Campbell Report, opposition from Fraser himself had stalled the deregulation process. When the Hawke Government implemented a comprehensive program of financial deregulation and reform, it \"transformed economics and politics in Australia\". The Australian economy became significantly more integrated with the global economy as a result, which completely transformed its relationship with Asia, Europe and the United States. Both Hawke and Keating would claim the credit for being the driving force behind the success of the Australian Dollar float.\n\nAmong other reforms, the Hawke Government dismantled the tariff system, privatised state sector industries, ended the subsidisation of loss-making industries, and sold off the state-owned Commonwealth Bank of Australia, Qantas and CSL Limited. The tax system was reformed, with the introduction of a fringe benefits tax and a capital gains tax, reforms strongly opposed by the Liberal Party at the time, but not ones that they reversed when they eventually returned to office. Partially offsetting these imposts upon the business community – the \"main loser\" from the 1985 Tax Summit according to Paul Kelly – was the introduction of full dividend imputation, a reform insisted upon by Keating. Funding for schools was also considerably increased, while financial assistance was provided for students to enable them to stay at school longer. Considerable progress was also made in directing assistance \"to the most disadvantaged recipients over the whole range of welfare benefits.\"\n\nThe political partnership between Hawke and his Treasurer, Paul Keating, proved essential to Labor's success in government. The two men proved a study in contrasts: Hawke was a Rhodes Scholar; Keating left high school early. Hawke's enthusiasms were cigars, horse racing and all forms of sport; Keating preferred classical architecture, Mahler symphonies and collecting British Regency and French Empire antiques. Hawke was consensus-driven; Keating revelled in aggressive debate. Hawke was a lapsed Protestant; Keating was a practising Catholic. These differences, however, seemed only to increase the effectiveness of their partnership, as they oversaw sweeping economic and social changes throughout Australia.\n\n===Social policy===\nIn spite of the criticisms levelled against the Hawke Government, it succeeded in enacting a wide range of social reforms during its time in office. Deflecting arguments that the Hawke Government had failed as a reform government, Neville Wran, John Dawkins, Bill Hayden and Paul Keating made a number of speeches throughout the 1980s arguing that the Hawke Government had been a recognisably reformist government, drawing attention to Hawke's achievements as Prime Minister during his first five years in office. As well as the reintroduction of Medibank, under the new name Medicare, these included the doubling of the number of childcare places, the introduction of occupational superannuation, a boost in school retention rates, a focus on young people's job skills, a doubling of subsidised homecare services, the elimination of poverty traps in the welfare system, a 50% increase in public housing funds, an increase in the real value of the old-age pension, the development of a new youth support program, the reintroduction of six-monthly indexation of single-person unemployment benefits, and significant improvements in social security provisions. As pointed out by John Dawkins, the proportion of total government outlays allocated to families, the sick, single parents, widows, the handicapped, and veterans was significantly higher under the Hawke Government than under the Whitlam Government.\n\nAnother notable success for which Hawke's response is given considerable credit was Australia's public health campaign regarding HIV/AIDS. In the later years of the Hawke Government, Aboriginal affairs also saw considerable attention, with an investigation of the idea of a treaty between Aborigines and the Government, although this idea would be overtaken by events, notably the Mabo court decision.\n\nThe Hawke Government also made some notable environmental decisions. In its first months in office, it halted the construction of the Franklin Dam in Tasmania, responding to a groundswell of protest about the issue. In 1990, with an election looming, tough political operator Graham Richardson was appointed Environment Minister, and was given the task of attracting second-preference votes from the Australian Democrats and other environmental parties. Richardson claimed this as a major factor in the government's narrow re-election at the 1990 election. Richardson felt that the importance of his contribution to Labor's victory would automatically entitle him to the ministerial portfolio of his choice, which was Transport and Communications. He was shocked, however, at what he perceived as Hawke's ingratitude in allocating him Social Security instead. He later vowed in a telephone conversation with Peter Barron, a former Hawke staffer, to do \"whatever it takes\" to \"get\" Hawke. He immediately transferred his allegiance to Paul Keating, who after seven years as Treasurer was openly coveting the leadership.\n\n===1984 and 1987 elections===\nHazel, on a 1987 trip to Moscow.The Prime Minister's Office at Old Parliament House, Canberra, preserved as it appeared during Hawke's prime ministership; he was the last prime minister to work there before the opening of the new building in 1988.\nHawke benefited greatly from the disarray into which the Liberal Party fell after the resignation of Malcolm Fraser. The Liberals were divided between supporters of the dour, socially conservative John Howard and the more liberal, urbane Andrew Peacock. The arch-conservative Premier of Queensland, Joh Bjelke-Petersen, added to the Liberals' problems with his \"Joh for Canberra\" campaign, which proved highly damaging. Exploiting these divisions, Hawke led the Labor Party to landslide election victories in a snap 1984 election and the 1987 election.\n\nHawke's tenure as Prime Minister saw considerable friction develop between himself and the grassroots of the Labor Party, who were unhappy at what they viewed as Hawke's iconoclasm and willingness to cooperate with business interests. All Labor Prime Ministers have at times engendered the hostility of the organisational wing of the Party, but none more so than Hawke, who regularly expressed his willingness to cull Labor's \"sacred cows\". The Socialist Left faction, as well as prominent Labor figure Barry Jones, offered severe criticism of a number of government decisions. He also received criticism for his \"confrontationalist style\" in siding with the airlines in the 1989 Australian pilots' strike.\n\n===1990 election and leadership tensions===\nThe late 1980s recession and accompanying high interest rates had seen the government in considerable polling trouble, with many doubting if Hawke could win in 1990. Although Keating was the main architect of the government's economic policies, he took advantage of Hawke's declining popularity to plan a leadership challenge. In 1988, in the wake of poorer opinion polls, Keating put pressure on Hawke to step down immediately. Hawke responded by agreeing a secret deal with Keating, the so-called \"Kirribilli agreement\", that he would stand down in Keating's favour shortly after the 1990 election, which he convinced Keating he could win. Hawke duly won the 1990 election, albeit by a very tight margin, and subsequently appointed Keating as Deputy Prime Minister to replace the retiring Lionel Bowen, and to prepare Keating to assume the leadership.\n\nNot long after becoming Deputy Prime Minister, frustrated at the lack of any indication from Hawke as to when he might step down, Keating made a provocative speech to the Federal Parliamentary Press Gallery. Hawke considered the speech extremely disloyal, and subsequently indicated to Keating that he would renege on the Kirribilli Agreement as a result. After this disagreement, tensions between the two men reached an all-time high, and after a turbulent year, Keating finally resigned as Deputy Prime Minister and Treasurer in June 1991, to challenge Hawke for the leadership. Hawke comfortably defeated Keating, and in a press conference after the result Keating declared that with regards the leadership, he had fired his \"one shot\". Hawke appointed John Kerin to replace Keating as Treasurer, but Kerin quickly proved to be unfit for the job.\n\nDespite his convincing victory over Keating, Hawke was seen after the result as a \"wounded\" leader; he had now lost his long-term political partner, his rating in opinion polls began to decrease, and after nearly nine years as prime minister, many were openly speculating that he was \"tired\", and that it was time for somebody new.\n\nHawke's leadership was finally irrevocably damaged towards the end of 1991, as new Liberal Leader John Hewson released 'Fightback!', a detailed proposal for sweeping economic change, including the introduction of a goods and services tax and deep cuts to government spending and personal income tax. The package appeared to take Hawke by complete surprise, and his response to it was judged to be extremely ineffective. Many within the Labor Party appeared to lose faith in him over this, and Keating duly challenged for the leadership a second time on 19 December 1991, this time narrowly defeating Hawke by 56 votes to 51.\n\nIn a speech to the House of Representatives the following day, Hawke declared that his nine years as Prime Minister had left Australia a better country than he found, and he was given a standing ovation by those present. He subsequently tendered his resignation as Prime Minister to the Governor-General. Hawke briefly returned to the backbenches before resigning from Parliament on 20 February 1992, sparking a by-election which was won by the independent candidate Phil Cleary from a record field of 22 candidates.\n\nHawke wrote that he had very few regrets over his time in office; although his bitterness towards Keating surfaced in his earlier memoirs, by 2008, Hawke claimed that he and Keating had long since buried their differences, and that they regularly dined together and considered each other friends. However, in 2010, the publication of the book ''Hawke: The Prime Minister,'' by Hawke's second wife, Blanche d'Alpuget, reignited conflict between the two. In an open letter to Hawke published in Australian newspapers, Keating bitterly accused Hawke and D'alpuget of spreading falsehoods about his role in Hawke's premiership. He declared that \"in hindsight, it is obvious yours and Blanche's expressions of friendship towards me over the last few years have been completely insincere.\"\n",
"Hawke and his second wife, Blanche d'Alpuget, in 2006.\nParliament House for the national apology to the Stolen Generations in 2008.Hawke in 2012.\nAfter leaving Parliament, Hawke entered the business world, taking on a number of directorships and consultancy positions which enabled him to achieve considerable financial success. He deliberately had little involvement with the Labor Party during Keating's tenure as Prime Minister, not wanting to overshadow his successor, although he did occasionally criticise some of Keating's policies publicly.\n\nAfter Keating's defeat and the election of the Howard Government at the 1996 election, he began to be more involved with Labor, regularly appearing at a number of Labor election launches and campaigns, often alongside Keating. In 2002, Hawke was named an honorary member of South Australia's Economic Development Board during Rann's Labor government.\n\nIn the run up to the 2007 election, Hawke made a considerable personal effort to support Kevin Rudd, making speeches at a large number of campaign office openings across Australia. As well as campaigning against WorkChoices, Hawke also attacked John Howard's record as Treasurer, stating \"it was the judgement of every economist and international financial institution that it was the restructuring reforms undertaken by my government, with the full cooperation of the trade union movement, which created the strength of the Australian economy today\".\n\nSimilarly, in the 2010 and 2013 campaigns, Hawke lent considerable support to Julia Gillard and Kevin Rudd respectively. Hawke also maintained an involvement in Labor politics at a state level; in 2011, Hawke publicly supported New South Wales Premier Kristina Keneally, who was facing almost certain defeat, in her campaign against Liberal Barry O'Farrell, describing her campaign as \"gutsy\".\n\nIn February 2008, Hawke joined former Prime Ministers Gough Whitlam, Malcolm Fraser and Paul Keating in Parliament House to witness Prime Minister Kevin Rudd deliver the long anticipated apology to the Stolen Generations.\n\nIn 2009, Hawke helped establish the Centre for Muslim and Non-Muslim Understanding at the University of South Australia. Interfaith dialogue was an important issue for Hawke, who told the ''Adelaide Review'' that he is \"convinced that one of the great potential dangers confronting the world is the lack of understanding in regard to the Muslim world. Fanatics have misrepresented what Islam is. They give a false impression of the essential nature of Islam.\"\n\nIn 2016, after taking part in Andrew Denton's Better Off Dead podcast, Hawke added his voice to calls for voluntary euthanasia to be legalised. Hawke labelled as 'absurd' the lack of political will to fix the problem. He revealed that he had such an arrangement with his wife Blanche should such a devastating medical situation occur.\n",
"Hawke married Hazel Masterson in 1956 at Perth Trinity Church. They had three children; Susan (born 1957), Stephen (born 1959) and Roslyn (born 1960). Their fourth child, Robert Jr, died in his early infancy in 1963. Hawke was named Victorian Father of the Year in 1971. The couple divorced in 1995. Hawke subsequently married the writer Blanche d'Alpuget, and the two currently live together in Northbridge, a suburb of the North Shore of Sydney.\n\nOn the subject of his religion, Hawke previously wrote, while attending the 1952 World Christian Youth Conference in India, that \"there were all these poverty stricken kids at the gate of this palatial place where we were feeding our face and I just had this struck by this enormous sense of irrelevance of religion to the needs of people\". He subsequently abandoned his Christian beliefs. By the time he entered politics he was a self-described agnostic. Hawke told Andrew Denton in 2008 that his father's Christian faith had continued to influence his outlook, saying \"My father said if you believe in the fatherhood of God you must necessarily believe in the brotherhood of man, it follows necessarily, and even though I left the church and was not religious, that truth remained with me.\"\n",
"Bust of Hawke located in the Prime Ministers Avenue in the Ballarat Botanical Gardens\n\n===Honours===\n'''Orders'''\n* '''1979''': Companion of the Order of Australia (AC) \"For service to trade unionism and industrial relations\" as President of the ACTU;\n\n'''Foreign honours'''\n* '''1989''': Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of the White Elephant.\n* '''2008''' Grand Companion of the Order of Logohu, Papua New Guinean Prime Minister Sir Michael Somare informed Hawke that he was being honoured for his \"support for Papua New Guinea ... from the time you assisted us in the development of our trade union movement, and basic workplace conditions, to the strong support you gave us during your term as Prime Minister of Australia\".\n\n'''Organisations'''\n* '''August 2009''': Australian Labor Party Life membership, Bob Hawke became only the third person to be awarded life membership of the Australian Labor Party, after Gough and Margaret Whitlam. During the conferration, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd referred to Hawke as \"the heart and soul of the Labor Party\".\n* '''March 2014''': University of Western Australia Student Guild Life membership.\n\n===Appointments===\n'''Fellowships'''\n* University College, Oxford\n\n'''Honorary degrees'''\n* Nanjing University, Various honorary doctorates\n* University of Oxford, Honorary Doctor of Civil Law\n* Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Various honorary doctorates\n* Rikkyo University, Honorary Doctor of Humanities\n* Macquarie University, Honorary Doctor of Letters\n* University of New South Wales, Various honorary doctorates\n* University of South Australia, Various honorary doctorates\n* University of Western Australia, Honorary Doctor of Letters\n* Sydney University, Honorary Doctor of Letters\n\n===Other honours===\n* University of South Australia, Bob Hawke Prime Ministerial Library\n",
"A biographical television film, ''Hawke'', premiered on the Ten Network in Australia on 18 July 2010, with Richard Roxburgh playing the title character. Rachael Blake and Felix Williamson portrayed Hazel Hawke and Paul Keating respectively.\n",
"\n*Hawke Government\n*Hawke–Keating Government\n*First Hawke Ministry\n*Second Hawke Ministry\n*Third Hawke Ministry\n*Fourth Hawke Ministry\n*Australian Labor Party leadership spill, June 1991\n*Australian Labor Party leadership spill, December 1991\n*Prices and Incomes Accord\n\n\n",
"\n",
"*\n* Blewett, Neal (2000), 'Robert James Lee Hawke,' in Michelle Grattan (ed.), ''Australian Prime Ministers'', New Holland, Sydney, New South Wales, pages 380–407. \n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n",
"\n* Hawke Swoops into Power – Time 14 March 1983\n* Robert Hawke – Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia\n* Bob Hawke Prime Ministerial Centre\n* \n*\n*\n*\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life and family",
"Education",
"Australian Council of Trade Unions",
"Member of Parliament",
"Prime Minister",
"Retirement and later life",
"Personal life",
"Titles, styles and honours",
"Film",
"See also",
"References",
"Bibliography",
"External links"
] | Bob Hawke | [
"Among other reforms, the Hawke Government dismantled the tariff system, privatised state sector industries, ended the subsidisation of loss-making industries, and sold off the state-owned Commonwealth Bank of Australia, Qantas and CSL Limited."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n'''Robert James Lee Hawke''' (born 9 December 1929) is an Australian politician who was the Prime Minister of Australia and the Leader of the Labor Party from 1983 to 1991.",
"Hawke was born in South Australia but moved to Western Australia as a child.",
"He attended the University of Western Australia and then went on to Oxford University as a Rhodes Scholar.",
"In 1956, Hawke joined the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) as a research officer.",
"Having risen to become responsible for wage arbitration, he was elected President of the ACTU in 1969, where he achieved an unprecedented level of popularity.",
"After a decade as ACTU President, Hawke announced his intention to enter politics, and was immediately elected to the House of Representatives as the Labor MP for Wills.",
"Three years later, he led Labor to a landslide election victory at the 1983 election and was sworn in as Prime Minister.",
"He led Labor to victory at three more elections in 1984, 1987 and 1990, thus making him the most electorally successful Labor Party Leader in history.",
"The Hawke Government created Medicare and Landcare, brokered the Prices and Incomes Accord, formed APEC, floated the Australian dollar, deregulated the financial sector, introduced the Family Assistance Scheme, announced \"Advance Australia Fair\" as the official national anthem and initiated superannuation pension schemes for all workers.",
"Hawke was eventually replaced by Paul Keating at the end of 1991, who would go on to deliver the Labor government a record fifth consecutive victory and a record thirteen years in government at the 1993 election.",
"He remains to date Labor's longest-serving Prime Minister, Australia's third-longest-serving Prime Minister, and at the age of , Hawke is currently the longest living former Australian Prime Minister.",
"To date, he is the only Australian Prime Minister to be born in South Australia, as well as being the only one raised and educated in Western Australia.",
"Hawke was born in Bordertown, South Australia, the second child of Arthur Hawke (1898-1989) (known as Clem), a Congregationalist minister, and his wife Edith (known as Ellie), a schoolteacher.",
"His uncle, Albert, was the Labor Premier of Western Australia between 1953–59, and was also a close friend of Prime Minister John Curtin, who was in many ways Bob Hawke's role model.",
"Hawke's elder brother Neil, who was seven years his senior, died at the age of seventeen after contracting meningitis, for which there was no cure at the time.",
"Ellie Hawke subsequently developed an almost messianic belief in her son's destiny, and this contributed to Hawke's supreme self-confidence throughout his career.",
"At the age of fifteen, he presciently boasted to friends that he would one day become the Prime Minister of Australia.",
"At the age of seventeen, the same age that his brother Neil had died, Hawke had a serious accident while riding his Panther motorcycle that left him in a critical condition for several days.",
"This near-death experience acted as his catharsis, driving him to make the most of his talents and not let his abilities go to waste.",
"He joined the Labor Party in 1947 at the age of eighteen, and successfully applied for a Rhodes Scholarship at the end of 1952.",
"Hawke was educated at Perth Modern School and the University of Western Australia, graduating in 1952 with a Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Laws.",
"He was also president of the university's guild during the same year.",
"The following year, Hawke won a Rhodes Scholarship to attend University College, Oxford, where he undertook a Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE).",
"He soon found he was covering much the same ground as he did in his education at the University of Western Australia, and transferred to a Bachelor of Letters, writing his thesis on wage-fixing in Australia which was successfully presented in January 1956.",
"His academic achievements were complemented by setting a new world record for beer drinking; he downed – equivalent to a yard of ale – from a sconce pot in 11 seconds as part of a college penalty.",
"In his memoirs, Hawke suggested that this single feat may have contributed to his political success more than any other, by endearing him to an electorate with a strong beer culture.",
"In 1956, Hawke accepted a scholarship to undertake doctoral studies in the area of arbitration law in the law department at the Australian National University in Canberra.",
"Soon after his arrival at ANU, Hawke became the students' representative on the University Council.",
"A year later, Hawke was recommended to the President of the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) to become a research officer, replacing Harold Souter who had become ACTU Secretary.",
"The recommendation was made by Hawke's mentor at ANU, H.P.",
"Brown, who for a number of years had assisted the ACTU in national wage cases.",
"Hawke decided to abandon his doctoral studies and accept the offer, moving to Melbourne with his wife Hazel.",
"Hawke soon after his election as ACTU president in September 1969.",
"Not long after Hawke began work at the ACTU, he became responsible for the presentation of its annual case for higher wages to the national wages tribunal, the Conciliation and Arbitration Commission.",
"He was first appointed as an ACTU advocate in 1959.",
"The 1958 case, under previous advocate R.L.",
"Eggleston, had yielded only a five-shilling increase.",
"The 1959 case found for a fifteen-shilling increase, and was regarded as a personal triumph for Hawke.",
"He went on to attain such success and prominence in his role as an ACTU advocate that, in 1969, he was encouraged to run for the position of ACTU President, despite the fact that he had never held elected office in a trade union.",
"He was elected ACTU President in 1969 on a modernising platform by the narrow margin of 399 to 350, with the support of the left of the union movement, including some associated with the Communist Party.",
"He later credited Ray Gietzelt, General Secretary of the FMWU, as the single most significant union figure in helping him achieve this outcome.",
"Hawke declared publicly that \"socialist is not a word I would use to describe myself\", and his approach to government was pragmatic.",
"He concerned himself with making improvements to workers' lives from within the traditional institutions of government, rather than by using any ideological theory.",
"He opposed the Vietnam War, but was a strong supporter of the US-Australian alliance, and also an emotional supporter of Israel.",
"It was his commitment to the cause of Jewish Refuseniks which purportedly led to a planned assassination attempt on Hawke by the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, and its Australian operative Munif Mohammed Abou Rish.",
"In 1971, Hawke along with other members of the ACTU requested that South Africa send a non-racially biased team for the Rugby Union tour, with the intention of unions agreeing not to serve the team in Australia.",
"Prior to arrival, the Western Australian branch of the Transport Workers Union, and the Barmaids' and Barmens' Union, announced that they would serve the team, which allowed the Springboks to land in Perth.",
"The tour commenced on 26 June and riots occurred as anti-apartheid protesters disrupted games.",
"Hawke and his family started to receive malicious mail and phone calls from people who thought that sport and politics should not mix.",
"Hawke remained committed to the ban on apartheid teams and later that year, the South African cricket team was successfully denied and no apartheid team was to ever come to Australia again.",
"It was this ongoing dedication to racial equality in South Africa that would later earn Hawke the respect and friendship of Nelson Mandela.",
"In industrial matters, Hawke continued to demonstrate a preference for, and considerable skill at, negotiation, and was generally liked and respected by employers as well as the unions he advocated for.",
"As early as 1972, speculation began that he would seek to enter Parliament and eventually run to become the Leader of the Labor Party.",
"But while his professional career continued successfully, his heavy drinking and his notorious womanising placed considerable strains on his family life.",
"In 1973, Hawke was elected as the Federal President of the Labor Party.",
"Two years later, when the Whitlam Government was controversially dismissed by the Governor-General, Hawke showed an initial keenness to enter Parliament at the ensuing election.",
"Harry Jenkins, the MP for Scullin, came under pressure to step down to allow Hawke to stand in his place, but he strongly resisted this push.",
"Hawke eventually decided not to attempt to enter Parliament at that time, a decision he soon regretted.",
"After Labor was defeated at the election, Whitlam initially offered the leadership to Hawke, although it was not within Whitlam's power to decide who would succeed him.",
"Despite not taking on the offer, Hawke remained influential, playing a key role in averting national strike action.",
"The strain of this period, serving as both ACTU President and Labor Party President, took its toll on Hawke and in 1979 he suffered a physical collapse.",
"This shock led Hawke to publicly announce his alcoholism in a television interview, and that he would make a concerted – and ultimately successful – effort to overcome it.",
"He was helped through this period by the relationship that he had established with writer Blanche d'Alpuget, who, in 1982, published a biography of Hawke.",
"His popularity with the public was, if anything, enhanced by this period of rehabilitation, and opinion polling suggested that he was a far more popular public figure than either Labor Leader Bill Hayden or Liberal Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser.",
"Hawke addresses the Labour Day crowd in October 1980\nHawke's first attempt to enter Parliament came during the 1963 federal election.",
"He stood in the seat of Corio in Geelong and managed to achieve a 3.1% swing against the national trend, although he fell short of ousting longtime Liberal incumbent Hubert Opperman.",
"Hawke passed up several opportunities to enter Parliament throughout the 1970s, something he later wrote that he \"regretted\".",
"He eventually stood for election to the House of Representatives at the 1980 election for the safe Melbourne seat of Wills, winning it comfortably.",
"Immediately upon his election to Parliament, Hawke was appointed to the Shadow Cabinet by Labor Leader Bill Hayden as Shadow Minister for Industrial Relations.",
"Following his entry to Parliament, opinion polls continually indicated that, in contrast to Hayden, Hawke was regarded as \"a certain election winner\".",
"After losing the 1980 election, Hayden's leadership had become insecure.",
"In order to quell speculation over his position, Hayden eventually called a leadership ballot for 16 July 1982, believing that if he won he would be able to lead Labor into the next election.",
"Hawke duly challenged Hayden, but Hayden was able to defeat him and remain in position, although his five-vote victory over the former ACTU President was not large enough to dispel doubts that he could lead the Labor Party to victory at an election.",
"Despite being defeated, Hawke continued to agitate behind the scenes for a change in leadership, with opinion polls continuing to show that Hawke was a far more popular figure than both Hayden and Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser.",
"Hayden's leadership position was thrown into further doubt after Labor performed poorly at a by-election in December 1982 for the Victorian seat of Flinders, following the resignation of the former Liberal Minister Sir Phillip Lynch.",
"Labor needed a swing of 5.5% to win the seat, and had been predicted by the media to win, but could only achieve a swing of 3%.",
"This convinced many Labor MPs that only Hawke would be able to lead Labor to victory at the upcoming election.",
"Labor Party power-brokers, such as Graham Richardson and Barrie Unsworth, now openly switched their allegiance from Hayden to Hawke.",
"More significantly, Hayden's staunch friend and political ally, Labor's Senate Leader John Button, had become convinced that Hawke's chances of victory at an election were greater than Hayden's.",
"Having initially believed that he could carry on, Button's defection proved to be the final straw in convincing Hayden that he would have to resign as Labor Leader.",
"Less than two months after the disastrous result at the Flinders by-election, Hayden announced his resignation as Leader of the Labor Party to the caucus on 3 February 1983.",
"Hawke was subsequently named as leader—and hence became Leader of the Opposition—pending a party-room ballot at which he was elected unopposed.",
"By a remarkable coincidence, on the same day that Hawke became Leader, Fraser called a snap election for 5 March 1983, hoping to capitalise on Labor's feuding before it could replace Hayden with Hawke.",
"Fraser initially believed that he had caught Labor out, thinking that they would be forced to fight the election with Hayden as Leader.",
"However, he was surprised to find out upon his return from seeing the Governor-General that Hayden had already resigned that morning, just hours before the writs were issued.",
"In the election held a month later, Hawke led Labor to a landslide election victory, achieving a 24-seat swing—still the worst defeat that a sitting non-Labor Government has ever suffered—and ending seven years of Liberal Party rule.",
"\n===Early days===\nHawke presenting a relief cheque to John Bannon, Premier of South Australia, in April 1983, in the aftermath of the Ash Wednesday fires.",
"After Labor's landslide victory, Hawke was sworn in as the 23rd Prime Minister of Australia by the Governor-General on 11 March 1983.",
"The inaugural days of the Hawke Government were distinctly different from those of the Whitlam Government.",
"Rather than immediately initiating extensive reform programmes as Whitlam had, Hawke announced that Malcolm Fraser's pre-election concealment of the budget deficit meant that many of Labor's election commitments would have to be deferred.",
"As part of his internal reforms package, Hawke divided the Government into two tiers, with only the most senior ministers sitting in the Cabinet.",
"The Labor caucus was still given the authority to determine who would make up the Ministry, but gave Hawke unprecedented powers for a Labor Prime Minister to select which individual ministers would comprise the 13-strong Cabinet.",
"Hawke said that he did this in order to avoid what he viewed as the unwieldy nature of the Whitlam Cabinet, which had 27 members.",
"Caucus under Hawke also exhibited a much more formalised system of parliamentary factions, which significantly altered the dynamics of caucus operations.",
"Unlike his predecessor, Hawke's authority within the Labor Party was absolute.",
"This enabled him to persuade his MPs to support a substantial set of policy changes.",
"Individual accounts from ministers indicate that while Hawke was not usually the driving force behind individual reforms, he took on the role of achieving consensus and providing political guidance on what was electorally feasible and how best to sell it to the public, tasks at which he proved highly successful.",
"Hawke took on a very public role as Prime Minister, proving to be incredibly popular with the Australian electorate; to this date he still holds the highest ever AC Nielsen approval rating.",
"===Economic policy===\nHawke with US Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger in the Anzus Corridor in the Pentagon in June 1983.Hawke and President Ronald Reagan at the White House in November 1984.",
"According to political commentator Paul Kelly, \"the most influential economic decisions of the 1980s were the floating of the Australian dollar and the deregulation of the financial system\".",
"Although the Fraser Government had played a part in the process of financial deregulation by commissioning the 1981 Campbell Report, opposition from Fraser himself had stalled the deregulation process.",
"When the Hawke Government implemented a comprehensive program of financial deregulation and reform, it \"transformed economics and politics in Australia\".",
"The Australian economy became significantly more integrated with the global economy as a result, which completely transformed its relationship with Asia, Europe and the United States.",
"Both Hawke and Keating would claim the credit for being the driving force behind the success of the Australian Dollar float.",
"The tax system was reformed, with the introduction of a fringe benefits tax and a capital gains tax, reforms strongly opposed by the Liberal Party at the time, but not ones that they reversed when they eventually returned to office.",
"Partially offsetting these imposts upon the business community – the \"main loser\" from the 1985 Tax Summit according to Paul Kelly – was the introduction of full dividend imputation, a reform insisted upon by Keating.",
"Funding for schools was also considerably increased, while financial assistance was provided for students to enable them to stay at school longer.",
"Considerable progress was also made in directing assistance \"to the most disadvantaged recipients over the whole range of welfare benefits.\"",
"The political partnership between Hawke and his Treasurer, Paul Keating, proved essential to Labor's success in government.",
"The two men proved a study in contrasts: Hawke was a Rhodes Scholar; Keating left high school early.",
"Hawke's enthusiasms were cigars, horse racing and all forms of sport; Keating preferred classical architecture, Mahler symphonies and collecting British Regency and French Empire antiques.",
"Hawke was consensus-driven; Keating revelled in aggressive debate.",
"Hawke was a lapsed Protestant; Keating was a practising Catholic.",
"These differences, however, seemed only to increase the effectiveness of their partnership, as they oversaw sweeping economic and social changes throughout Australia.",
"===Social policy===\nIn spite of the criticisms levelled against the Hawke Government, it succeeded in enacting a wide range of social reforms during its time in office.",
"Deflecting arguments that the Hawke Government had failed as a reform government, Neville Wran, John Dawkins, Bill Hayden and Paul Keating made a number of speeches throughout the 1980s arguing that the Hawke Government had been a recognisably reformist government, drawing attention to Hawke's achievements as Prime Minister during his first five years in office.",
"As well as the reintroduction of Medibank, under the new name Medicare, these included the doubling of the number of childcare places, the introduction of occupational superannuation, a boost in school retention rates, a focus on young people's job skills, a doubling of subsidised homecare services, the elimination of poverty traps in the welfare system, a 50% increase in public housing funds, an increase in the real value of the old-age pension, the development of a new youth support program, the reintroduction of six-monthly indexation of single-person unemployment benefits, and significant improvements in social security provisions.",
"As pointed out by John Dawkins, the proportion of total government outlays allocated to families, the sick, single parents, widows, the handicapped, and veterans was significantly higher under the Hawke Government than under the Whitlam Government.",
"Another notable success for which Hawke's response is given considerable credit was Australia's public health campaign regarding HIV/AIDS.",
"In the later years of the Hawke Government, Aboriginal affairs also saw considerable attention, with an investigation of the idea of a treaty between Aborigines and the Government, although this idea would be overtaken by events, notably the Mabo court decision.",
"The Hawke Government also made some notable environmental decisions.",
"In its first months in office, it halted the construction of the Franklin Dam in Tasmania, responding to a groundswell of protest about the issue.",
"In 1990, with an election looming, tough political operator Graham Richardson was appointed Environment Minister, and was given the task of attracting second-preference votes from the Australian Democrats and other environmental parties.",
"Richardson claimed this as a major factor in the government's narrow re-election at the 1990 election.",
"Richardson felt that the importance of his contribution to Labor's victory would automatically entitle him to the ministerial portfolio of his choice, which was Transport and Communications.",
"He was shocked, however, at what he perceived as Hawke's ingratitude in allocating him Social Security instead.",
"He later vowed in a telephone conversation with Peter Barron, a former Hawke staffer, to do \"whatever it takes\" to \"get\" Hawke.",
"He immediately transferred his allegiance to Paul Keating, who after seven years as Treasurer was openly coveting the leadership.",
"===1984 and 1987 elections===\nHazel, on a 1987 trip to Moscow.The Prime Minister's Office at Old Parliament House, Canberra, preserved as it appeared during Hawke's prime ministership; he was the last prime minister to work there before the opening of the new building in 1988.",
"Hawke benefited greatly from the disarray into which the Liberal Party fell after the resignation of Malcolm Fraser.",
"The Liberals were divided between supporters of the dour, socially conservative John Howard and the more liberal, urbane Andrew Peacock.",
"The arch-conservative Premier of Queensland, Joh Bjelke-Petersen, added to the Liberals' problems with his \"Joh for Canberra\" campaign, which proved highly damaging.",
"Exploiting these divisions, Hawke led the Labor Party to landslide election victories in a snap 1984 election and the 1987 election.",
"Hawke's tenure as Prime Minister saw considerable friction develop between himself and the grassroots of the Labor Party, who were unhappy at what they viewed as Hawke's iconoclasm and willingness to cooperate with business interests.",
"All Labor Prime Ministers have at times engendered the hostility of the organisational wing of the Party, but none more so than Hawke, who regularly expressed his willingness to cull Labor's \"sacred cows\".",
"The Socialist Left faction, as well as prominent Labor figure Barry Jones, offered severe criticism of a number of government decisions.",
"He also received criticism for his \"confrontationalist style\" in siding with the airlines in the 1989 Australian pilots' strike.",
"===1990 election and leadership tensions===\nThe late 1980s recession and accompanying high interest rates had seen the government in considerable polling trouble, with many doubting if Hawke could win in 1990.",
"Although Keating was the main architect of the government's economic policies, he took advantage of Hawke's declining popularity to plan a leadership challenge.",
"In 1988, in the wake of poorer opinion polls, Keating put pressure on Hawke to step down immediately.",
"Hawke responded by agreeing a secret deal with Keating, the so-called \"Kirribilli agreement\", that he would stand down in Keating's favour shortly after the 1990 election, which he convinced Keating he could win.",
"Hawke duly won the 1990 election, albeit by a very tight margin, and subsequently appointed Keating as Deputy Prime Minister to replace the retiring Lionel Bowen, and to prepare Keating to assume the leadership.",
"Not long after becoming Deputy Prime Minister, frustrated at the lack of any indication from Hawke as to when he might step down, Keating made a provocative speech to the Federal Parliamentary Press Gallery.",
"Hawke considered the speech extremely disloyal, and subsequently indicated to Keating that he would renege on the Kirribilli Agreement as a result.",
"After this disagreement, tensions between the two men reached an all-time high, and after a turbulent year, Keating finally resigned as Deputy Prime Minister and Treasurer in June 1991, to challenge Hawke for the leadership.",
"Hawke comfortably defeated Keating, and in a press conference after the result Keating declared that with regards the leadership, he had fired his \"one shot\".",
"Hawke appointed John Kerin to replace Keating as Treasurer, but Kerin quickly proved to be unfit for the job.",
"Despite his convincing victory over Keating, Hawke was seen after the result as a \"wounded\" leader; he had now lost his long-term political partner, his rating in opinion polls began to decrease, and after nearly nine years as prime minister, many were openly speculating that he was \"tired\", and that it was time for somebody new.",
"Hawke's leadership was finally irrevocably damaged towards the end of 1991, as new Liberal Leader John Hewson released 'Fightback!",
"', a detailed proposal for sweeping economic change, including the introduction of a goods and services tax and deep cuts to government spending and personal income tax.",
"The package appeared to take Hawke by complete surprise, and his response to it was judged to be extremely ineffective.",
"Many within the Labor Party appeared to lose faith in him over this, and Keating duly challenged for the leadership a second time on 19 December 1991, this time narrowly defeating Hawke by 56 votes to 51.",
"In a speech to the House of Representatives the following day, Hawke declared that his nine years as Prime Minister had left Australia a better country than he found, and he was given a standing ovation by those present.",
"He subsequently tendered his resignation as Prime Minister to the Governor-General.",
"Hawke briefly returned to the backbenches before resigning from Parliament on 20 February 1992, sparking a by-election which was won by the independent candidate Phil Cleary from a record field of 22 candidates.",
"Hawke wrote that he had very few regrets over his time in office; although his bitterness towards Keating surfaced in his earlier memoirs, by 2008, Hawke claimed that he and Keating had long since buried their differences, and that they regularly dined together and considered each other friends.",
"However, in 2010, the publication of the book ''Hawke: The Prime Minister,'' by Hawke's second wife, Blanche d'Alpuget, reignited conflict between the two.",
"In an open letter to Hawke published in Australian newspapers, Keating bitterly accused Hawke and D'alpuget of spreading falsehoods about his role in Hawke's premiership.",
"He declared that \"in hindsight, it is obvious yours and Blanche's expressions of friendship towards me over the last few years have been completely insincere.\"",
"Hawke and his second wife, Blanche d'Alpuget, in 2006.",
"Parliament House for the national apology to the Stolen Generations in 2008.Hawke in 2012.",
"After leaving Parliament, Hawke entered the business world, taking on a number of directorships and consultancy positions which enabled him to achieve considerable financial success.",
"He deliberately had little involvement with the Labor Party during Keating's tenure as Prime Minister, not wanting to overshadow his successor, although he did occasionally criticise some of Keating's policies publicly.",
"After Keating's defeat and the election of the Howard Government at the 1996 election, he began to be more involved with Labor, regularly appearing at a number of Labor election launches and campaigns, often alongside Keating.",
"In 2002, Hawke was named an honorary member of South Australia's Economic Development Board during Rann's Labor government.",
"In the run up to the 2007 election, Hawke made a considerable personal effort to support Kevin Rudd, making speeches at a large number of campaign office openings across Australia.",
"As well as campaigning against WorkChoices, Hawke also attacked John Howard's record as Treasurer, stating \"it was the judgement of every economist and international financial institution that it was the restructuring reforms undertaken by my government, with the full cooperation of the trade union movement, which created the strength of the Australian economy today\".",
"Similarly, in the 2010 and 2013 campaigns, Hawke lent considerable support to Julia Gillard and Kevin Rudd respectively.",
"Hawke also maintained an involvement in Labor politics at a state level; in 2011, Hawke publicly supported New South Wales Premier Kristina Keneally, who was facing almost certain defeat, in her campaign against Liberal Barry O'Farrell, describing her campaign as \"gutsy\".",
"In February 2008, Hawke joined former Prime Ministers Gough Whitlam, Malcolm Fraser and Paul Keating in Parliament House to witness Prime Minister Kevin Rudd deliver the long anticipated apology to the Stolen Generations.",
"In 2009, Hawke helped establish the Centre for Muslim and Non-Muslim Understanding at the University of South Australia.",
"Interfaith dialogue was an important issue for Hawke, who told the ''Adelaide Review'' that he is \"convinced that one of the great potential dangers confronting the world is the lack of understanding in regard to the Muslim world.",
"Fanatics have misrepresented what Islam is.",
"They give a false impression of the essential nature of Islam.\"",
"In 2016, after taking part in Andrew Denton's Better Off Dead podcast, Hawke added his voice to calls for voluntary euthanasia to be legalised.",
"Hawke labelled as 'absurd' the lack of political will to fix the problem.",
"He revealed that he had such an arrangement with his wife Blanche should such a devastating medical situation occur.",
"Hawke married Hazel Masterson in 1956 at Perth Trinity Church.",
"They had three children; Susan (born 1957), Stephen (born 1959) and Roslyn (born 1960).",
"Their fourth child, Robert Jr, died in his early infancy in 1963.",
"Hawke was named Victorian Father of the Year in 1971.",
"The couple divorced in 1995.",
"Hawke subsequently married the writer Blanche d'Alpuget, and the two currently live together in Northbridge, a suburb of the North Shore of Sydney.",
"On the subject of his religion, Hawke previously wrote, while attending the 1952 World Christian Youth Conference in India, that \"there were all these poverty stricken kids at the gate of this palatial place where we were feeding our face and I just had this struck by this enormous sense of irrelevance of religion to the needs of people\".",
"He subsequently abandoned his Christian beliefs.",
"By the time he entered politics he was a self-described agnostic.",
"Hawke told Andrew Denton in 2008 that his father's Christian faith had continued to influence his outlook, saying \"My father said if you believe in the fatherhood of God you must necessarily believe in the brotherhood of man, it follows necessarily, and even though I left the church and was not religious, that truth remained with me.\"",
"Bust of Hawke located in the Prime Ministers Avenue in the Ballarat Botanical Gardens\n\n===Honours===\n'''Orders'''\n* '''1979''': Companion of the Order of Australia (AC) \"For service to trade unionism and industrial relations\" as President of the ACTU;\n\n'''Foreign honours'''\n* '''1989''': Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of the White Elephant.",
"* '''2008''' Grand Companion of the Order of Logohu, Papua New Guinean Prime Minister Sir Michael Somare informed Hawke that he was being honoured for his \"support for Papua New Guinea ... from the time you assisted us in the development of our trade union movement, and basic workplace conditions, to the strong support you gave us during your term as Prime Minister of Australia\".",
"'''Organisations'''\n* '''August 2009''': Australian Labor Party Life membership, Bob Hawke became only the third person to be awarded life membership of the Australian Labor Party, after Gough and Margaret Whitlam.",
"During the conferration, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd referred to Hawke as \"the heart and soul of the Labor Party\".",
"* '''March 2014''': University of Western Australia Student Guild Life membership.",
"===Appointments===\n'''Fellowships'''\n* University College, Oxford\n\n'''Honorary degrees'''\n* Nanjing University, Various honorary doctorates\n* University of Oxford, Honorary Doctor of Civil Law\n* Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Various honorary doctorates\n* Rikkyo University, Honorary Doctor of Humanities\n* Macquarie University, Honorary Doctor of Letters\n* University of New South Wales, Various honorary doctorates\n* University of South Australia, Various honorary doctorates\n* University of Western Australia, Honorary Doctor of Letters\n* Sydney University, Honorary Doctor of Letters\n\n===Other honours===\n* University of South Australia, Bob Hawke Prime Ministerial Library",
"A biographical television film, ''Hawke'', premiered on the Ten Network in Australia on 18 July 2010, with Richard Roxburgh playing the title character.",
"Rachael Blake and Felix Williamson portrayed Hazel Hawke and Paul Keating respectively.",
"\n*Hawke Government\n*Hawke–Keating Government\n*First Hawke Ministry\n*Second Hawke Ministry\n*Third Hawke Ministry\n*Fourth Hawke Ministry\n*Australian Labor Party leadership spill, June 1991\n*Australian Labor Party leadership spill, December 1991\n*Prices and Incomes Accord",
"*\n* Blewett, Neal (2000), 'Robert James Lee Hawke,' in Michelle Grattan (ed.",
"), ''Australian Prime Ministers'', New Holland, Sydney, New South Wales, pages 380–407.",
"*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*",
"\n* Hawke Swoops into Power – Time 14 March 1983\n* Robert Hawke – Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia\n* Bob Hawke Prime Ministerial Centre\n* \n*\n*\n*\n*"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Bordeaux''' (; Gascon Occitan: '''') is a port city on the Garonne River in the Gironde department in southwestern France.\n\nThe municipality (commune) of Bordeaux proper has a population of 243,626 (2012). Together with its suburbs and satellite towns, Bordeaux is the centre of the Bordeaux Métropole. With 749,595 inhabitants () and 1,178,335 in the metropolitan area, it is the sixth largest in France, after Paris, Marseille, Lyon, Toulouse and Lille. It is the capital of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, as well as the prefecture of the Gironde department. Its inhabitants are called ''\"Bordelais\"'' (for men) or ''\"Bordelaises\"'' (women). The term \"Bordelais\" may also refer to the city and its surrounding region.\n\nBordeaux is the world's major wine industry capital. It is home to the world's main wine fair, Vinexpo, and the wine economy in the metro area takes in 14.5 billion euros each year. Bordeaux wine has been produced in the region since the 8th century. The historic part of the city is on the UNESCO World Heritage List as \"an outstanding urban and architectural ensemble\" of the 18th century. After Paris, Bordeaux has the highest number of preserved historical buildings of any city in France.\n",
"\nCoins of the Bituriges Vivisci, 5th–1st century BC, derived from the coin designs of Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul. Cabinet des Médailles.\n\nIn historical times, around 300 BC it was the settlement of a Celtic tribe, the Bituriges Vivisci, who named the town '''Burdigala''', probably of Aquitanian origin. The name Bourde is still the name of a river south of the city.\n\nIn 107 BC, the Battle of Burdigala was fought by the Romans who were defending the Allobroges, a Gallic tribe allied to Rome, and the Tigurini led by Divico. The Romans were defeated and their commander, the consul Lucius Cassius Longinus, was killed in the action.\n\nThe city fell under Roman rule around 60 BC, its importance lying in the commerce of tin and lead towards Rome. Later it became capital of Roman Aquitaine, flourishing especially during the Severan dynasty (3rd century). In 276 it was sacked by the Vandals. Further ravage was brought by the same Vandals in 409, the Visigoths in 414 and the Franks in 498, beginning a period of obscurity for the city.\n\nMerovingian tremisses minted in Bordeaux by the Church of Saint-Étienne, late 6th century. British Museum.\nIn the late 6th century, the city re-emerged as the seat of a county and an archdiocese within the Merovingian kingdom of the Franks, but royal Frankish power was never strong. The city started to play a regional role as a major urban center on the fringes of the newly founded Frankish Duchy of Vasconia. Around 585, a certain Gallactorius is cited as count of Bordeaux and fighting the Basques.\n\nThe city was plundered by the troops of Abd er Rahman in 732 after storming the fortified city and overwhelming the Aquitanian garrison. Duke Eudes mustered a force ready to engage the Umayyads outside Bordeaux, eventually taking on them in the Battle of the River Garonne somewhere near the river Dordogne, described as taking a heavy death toll. After Duke Eudes's defeat, the Aquitanian duke could still save part of its troops and keep his grip on Aquitaine after the Battle of Poitiers.\n\nIn 735, the Aquitanian duke Hunald led a rebellion after his father Eudes's death, at which Charles responded by sending an expedition that captured and plundered Bordeaux again, but it was not retained for long. The following year, the Frankish commander descended again over Aquitaine, but clashed in battle with the Aquitanians and left to take on hostile Burgundian authorities and magnates. In 745, Aquitaine faced yet another expedition by Charles' sons Pepin and Carloman against Hunald, the Aquitanian ''princeps'' (or duke) strong in Bordeaux. Hunald was defeated, and his son Waifer replaced him, who in turn confirmed Bordeaux as the capital city (along with Bourges in the north).\n\nDuring the last stage of the war against Aquitaine (760–768), it was one of Waifer's last important strongholds to fall to King Pepin the Short's troops. Next to Bordeaux, Charlemagne built the fortress of Fronsac (''Frontiacus'', ''Franciacus'') on a hill across the border with the Basques (''Wascones''), where Basque commanders came over to vow loyalty to him (769).\n\nIn 778, Seguin (or Sihimin) was appointed count of Bordeaux, probably undermining the power of the Duke Lupo, and possibly leading to the Battle of Roncevaux Pass that very year. In 814, Seguin was made Duke of Vasconia, but he was deposed in 816 for failing to suppress or sympathise with a Basque rebellion. Under the Carolingians, sometimes the Counts of Bordeaux held the title concomitantly with that of Duke of Vasconia. They were meant to keep the Basques in check and defend the mouth of the Garonne from the Vikings when the latter appeared c. 844 in the region of Bordeaux. In Autumn 845, count Seguin II marched on the Vikings assaulting Bordeaux and Saintes, but was captured and put to death. No bishops were mentioned during the whole 8th century and part of the 9th in Bordeaux.\n\nFrom the 12th to the 15th century, Bordeaux regained importance following the marriage of Duchess Eléonore of Aquitaine with the French-speaking Count Henri Plantagenet, born in Le Mans, who became, within months of their wedding, King Henry II of England. The city flourished, primarily due to the wine trade, and the cathedral of St. André was built. It was also the capital of an independent state under Edward, the Black Prince (1362–1372), but in the end, after the Battle of Castillon (1453), it was annexed by France which extended its territory. The ''Château Trompette'' (Trumpet Castle) and the ''Fort du Hâ'', built by Charles VII of France, were the symbols of the new domination, which however deprived the city of its wealth by halting the wine commerce with England.\n\nIn 1462, Bordeaux obtained a parliament, but regained importance only in the 16th century when it became the centre of the distribution of sugar and slaves from the West Indies along with the traditional wine.\n\nBordeaux adhered to the Fronde, being effectively annexed to the Kingdom of France only in 1653, when the army of Louis XIV entered the city.\nÉdouard Manet: ''Harbour at Bordeaux'', 1871\nRue Sainte-Catherine in 1905\n\nThe 18th century was the golden age of Bordeaux. Many downtown buildings (about 5,000), including those on the quays, are from this period. Victor Hugo found the town so beautiful he once said: \"Take Versailles, add Antwerp, and you have Bordeaux\". Baron Haussmann, a long-time prefect of Bordeaux, used Bordeaux's 18th-century large-scale rebuilding as a model when he was asked by Emperor Napoleon III to transform a then still quasi-medieval Paris into a \"modern\" capital that would make France proud.\n\nIn 1814, towards the end of the Peninsula war, the Duke of Wellington sent William Beresford with two divisions, who seized Bordeaux without much resistance on 12 March. Bordeaux was largely anti-Bonapartist and had a majority that supported the Bourbons, so the British troops were treated as liberators.\n\nIn 1870, at the beginning of the Franco-Prussian war against Prussia, the French government temporarily relocated to Bordeaux from Paris. This happened again during the First World War and again very briefly during the Second World War, when it became clear that Paris would soon fall into German hands. However, on the last of these occasions the French capital was soon moved again to Vichy. In May and June 1940, Bordeaux was the site of the life-saving actions of the Portuguese consul-general, Aristides de Sousa Mendes, who illegally granted thousands of Portuguese visas, which were needed to pass the Spanish border, to refugees fleeing the German Occupation.\n\nFrom 1940 to 1943, the Italian Royal Navy (''Regia Marina Italiana'') established BETASOM, a submarine base at Bordeaux. Italian submarines participated in the Battle of the Atlantic from this base, which was also a major base for German U-boats as headquarters of 12th U-boat Flotilla. The massive, reinforced concrete U-boat pens have proved impractical to demolish and are now partly used as a cultural center for exhibitions.\n",
"Bordeaux is located close to the European Atlantic coast, in the southwest of France and in the north of the Aquitaine region. It is around southwest of Paris. The city is built on a bend of the river Garonne, and is divided into two parts: the right bank to the east and left bank in the west. Historically the left bank is more developed because when flowing outside the bend, the water makes a furrow of the required depth to allow the passing of merchant ships, which used to offload on this side of the river. In Bordeaux, the Garonne River is accessible to ocean liners. The right bank of the Garonne is a low-lying, often marshy plain.\n\n=== Climate ===\nBordeaux's climate is usually classified as an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification ''Cfb''); however, the summers tend to be warmer and the winters milder than most areas of similar classification. Substantial summer rainfall prevents its climate from being classified as Mediterranean.\n\nWinters are cool because of the prevalence of westerly winds from the Atlantic. Summers are warm and long due to the influence from the Bay of Biscay (surface temperature reaches . The average seasonal winter temperature is , but recent winters have been warmer than this. Frosts in the winter are commonplace, occurring several times during a winter, but snowfall is very rare, occurring only once every three years. The average summer seasonal temperature is . The summer of 2003 set a record with an average temperature of .\n\n\n",
"\nBordeaux is a major centre for business in France as it has the fifth largest metropolitan population in France.\n\n, the GDP of Bordeaux is €32.7 Billion.\n\n=== Wine ===\n\nSauternes vineyard\n\nThe vine was introduced to the Bordeaux region by the Romans, probably in the mid-first century, to provide wine for local consumption, and wine production has been continuous in the region since.\n\nBordeaux now has about of vineyards, 57 appellations, 10,000 wine-producing châteaux and 13,000 grape growers. With an annual production of approximately 960 million bottles, Bordeaux produces large quantities of everyday wine as well as some of the most expensive wines in the world. Included among the latter are the area's five ''premier cru'' (first growth) red wines (four from Médoc and one, Château Haut-Brion, from Graves), established by the Bordeaux Wine Official Classification of 1855:\nThe first growths are:\n\n*Château Lafite-Rothschild\n*Château Margaux\n*Château Latour\n*Château Haut-Brion\n*Château Mouton-Rothschild\n\n: In 1855, Mouton-Rothschild was ranked a Second Growth. In 1973, it was elevated to First Growth status.\n\nBoth red and white wines are made in Bordeaux. Red Bordeaux is called claret in the United Kingdom. Red wines are generally made from a blend of grapes, and may be made from Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Cabernet Franc, Petit verdot, Malbec, and, less commonly in recent years, Carménère.\n\nWhite Bordeaux is made from Sauvignon blanc, Sémillon, and Muscadelle. Sauternes is a sub-region of Graves known for its intensely sweet, white, dessert wines such as Château d'Yquem.\n\nBecause of a wine glut (wine lake) in the generic production, the price squeeze induced by an increasingly strong international competition, and vine pull schemes, the number of growers has recently dropped from 14,000 and the area under vine has also decreased significantly. In the meantime, the global demand for first growths and the most famous labels markedly increased and their prices skyrocketed.\n\nThe Cité du Vin, a museum as well as a place of exhibitions, shows, movie projections and academic seminars on the theme of wine opened its doors in June 2016.\n\n=== Others ===\nThe Laser Mégajoule will be one of the most powerful lasers in the world, allowing fundamental research and the development of the laser and plasma technologies. This project, carried by the French Ministry of Defence, involves an investment of 2 billion euros. The \"Road of the lasers\", a major project of regional planning, promotes regional investment in optical and laser related industries leading to the Bordeaux area having the most important concentration of optical and laser expertise in Europe.\n\nSome 20,000 people work for the aeronautic industry in Bordeaux. The city has some of the biggest companies including Dassault, EADS Sogerma, Snecma, Thales, SNPE, and others. The Dassault Falcon private jets are built there as well as the military aircraft Rafale and Mirage 2000, the Airbus A380 cockpit, the boosters of Ariane 5, and the M51 SLBM missile.\n\nTourism, especially wine tourism, is a major industry. Globelink.co.uk mentioned Bordeaux as the best tourist destination in Europe in 2015.\n\nAccess to the port from the Atlantic is via the Gironde estuary. Almost nine million tonnes of goods arrive and leave each year.\n\n=== Major companies ===\n'''(This list includes indigenous Bordeaux-based companies and companies that have major presence in Bordeaux, but are not necessarily headquartered there.)'''\n\n*Arena\n*Cdiscount\n*Cultura\n*Dassault\n*EADS composites\n*EADS Sogerma\n*EADS Space Transportation\n*Ford Motor Company\n*Lectra\n*LU\n*Marie Brizard\n*McKesson Corporation\n*Oxbow\n*Ricard\n*Sanofi Aventis\n*Smurfit Kappa\n*SNECMA\n*SNPE\n*Solectron\n*Thales Group\n*William Pitters\n\n",
"At the January 2011 census, there were 239,399 inhabitants in the city proper (commune) of Bordeaux. Bordeaux in its hey day had a population of 262,662 in 1968. The majority of the population is French, but there are sizable groups of Italians, Spaniards (Up to 20% of the Bordeaux population claim some degree of Spanish heritage), Portuguese, Turks, Germans..\n\nThe built-up area has grown for more than a century beyond the municipal borders of Bordeaux due to urban sprawl, so that by the January 2011 census there were 1,140,668 people living in the overall metropolitan area of Bordeaux, only a fifth of whom lived in the city proper.\n\n\n\n\n\nLargest communities of foreigners : \n\n\n+\n\n 10,709\n\n\n 7,215\n\n\n 4,770\n\n\n 3,911\n\n\n 3,743\n\n\n 1,379\n\n\n 1,366\n\n\n 1,126\n\n\n 1,043\n\n\n 922\n\n\n 902\n\n\n 894\n\n\n 885\n\n\n 841\n\n\nBordeaux is multiracial and multicultural city .\n",
"At the 2007 presidential election, the Bordelais gave 31.37% of their votes to Ségolène Royal of the Socialist Party against 30.84% to Nicolas Sarkozy, president of the UMP. Then came Francois Bayrou with 22.01%, followed by Jean-Marie Le Pen who recorded 5.42%. None of the other candidates exceeded the 5% mark. Nationally, Nicolas Sarkozy led with 31.18%, then Ségolène Royal with 25.87%, followed by François Bayrou with 18.57%. After these came Jean-Marie Le Pen with 10.44%, none of the other candidates exceeded the 5% mark. In the second round, the city of Bordeaux gave Ségolène Royal 52.44% against 47.56% for Nicolas Sarkozy, the latter being elected President of the Republic with 53.06% against 46.94% for Ségolène Royal. The abstention rates for Bordeaux were 14.52% in the first round and 15.90% in the second round. This is an earthquake in Bordeaux, a city deeply rooted right traditions.\n\nIn the parliamentary elections of 2007, the left won eight constituencies against only three for the right. It should be added that after the partial 2008 elections, the eighth district of Gironde switched to the left, bringing the count to nine. In Bordeaux, the left was for the first time in its history the majority as it held two of three constituencies following the elections. In the first division of the Gironde, the outgoing UMP MP Chantal Bourragué was well ahead with 44.81% against 25.39% for the Socialist candidate Beatrice Desaigues. In the second round, it was Chantal Bourragué who was re-elected with 54.45% against 45.55% for his socialist opponent. In the second district of Gironde the UMP mayor and all new Minister of Ecology, Energy, Sustainable Development and the Sea Alain Juppé confronted the General Counsel PS Michèle Delaunay. In the first round, Alain Juppé was well ahead with 43.73% against 31.36% for Michèle Delaunay. In the second round, it was finally Michèle Delaunay who won the election with 50.93% of the votes against 49.07% for Alain Juppé, the margin being only 670 votes. The defeat of the so-called constituency \"Mayor\" showed that Bordeaux was rocking increasingly left. Finally, in the third constituency of the Gironde, Noël Mamère was well ahead with 39.82% against 28.42% for the UMP candidate Elizabeth Vine. In the second round, Noël Mamère was re-elected with 62.82% against 37.18% for his right-wing rival.\n\nIn 2008 municipal elections saw the clash between mayor of Bordeaux, Alain Juppé and the President of the Regional Council of Aquitaine Socialist Alain Rousset. The PS had put up a Socialist heavyweight in the Gironde and had put great hopes in this election after the victory of Ségolène Royal and Michèle Delaunay in 2007. However, after a rather exciting campaign it was Alain Juppé who was widely elected in the first round with 56.62%, far ahead of Alain Rousset who has managed to get 34.14%. At present, of the eight cantons that has Bordeaux, five are held by the PS and three by the UMP, the left eating a little each time into the right's numbers.\n\nIn the European elections of 2009, Bordeaux voters largely voted for the UMP candidate Dominique Baudis, who won 31.54% against 15.00% for PS candidate Kader Arif. The candidate of Europe Ecology José Bové came second with 22.34%. None of the other candidates reached the 10% mark. The 2009 European elections were like the previous ones in eight constituencies. Bordeaux is located in the district \"Southwest\", here are the results:\n\nUMP candidate Dominique Baudis: 26.89%. His party gained four seats. PS candidate Kader Arif: 17.79%, gaining two seats in the European Parliament. Europe Ecology candidate Bove: 15.83%, obtaining two seats. MoDem candidate Robert Rochefort: 8.61%, winning a seat. Left Front candidate Jean-Luc Mélenchon: 8.16%, gaining the last seat. At regional elections in 2010, the Socialist incumbent president Alain Rousset won the first round by totaling 35.19% in Bordeaux, but this score was lower than the plan for Gironde and Aquitaine. Xavier Darcos, Minister of Labour followed with 28.40% of the votes, scoring above the regional and departmental average. Then came Monique De Marco, Green candidate with 13.40%, followed by the member of Pyrenees-Atlantiques and candidate of the MoDem Jean Lassalle who registered a low 6.78% while qualifying to the second round on the whole Aquitaine, closely followed by Jacques Colombier, candidate of the National Front, who gained 6.48%. Finally the candidate of the Left Front Gérard Boulanger with 5.64%, no other candidate above the 5% mark. In the second round, Alain Rousset had a tidal wave win as national totals rose to 55.83%. If Xavier Darcos largely lost the election, he nevertheless achieved a score above the regional and departmental average obtaining 33.40%. Jean Lassalle, who qualified for the second round, passed the 10% mark by totaling 10.77%. The ballot was marked by abstention amounting to 55.51% in the first round and 53.59% in the second round.\n\n''Only candidates obtaining more than 5% are listed''\n\n+ 2007 Presidential Election\nIInd round\n\nBordeaux !! National\nBordeaux !! National\n\n'''Nicolas Sarkozy'''\n30.84%\n'''31.18%'''\n47.56%\n'''53.06%'''\n\nSégolène Royal\n'''31.37%'''\n25.87%\n'''52.44%'''\n46.94%\n\nFrançois Bayrou\n22.01%\n18.57%\n\n\n\nJean-Marie Le Pen\n5.42%\n10.44%\n\n\n\nTotal votes\n85.48%\n83.77%\n84.10%\n83.97%\n\n\n\n+ 2012 Presidential Election\nIInd round\n\nBordeaux !! National\nBordeaux !! National\n\n'''François Hollande'''\n'''33.05%'''\n'''28.63%'''\n'''57.18%'''\n'''51.64%'''\n\nNicolas Sarkozy\n28.68%\n27.18%\n42.82%\n48.36%\n\nJean-Luc Mélenchon\n12.16%\n11.10%\n\n\n\nFrançois Bayrou\n10.91%\n9.13%\n\n\n\nMarine Le Pen\n8.22%\n17.90%\n\n\n\nTotal votes\n79.25%\n79.48%\n80.44%\n80.35%\n\n\n=== Municipal administration ===\nThe Mayor of the city is Alain Juppé.\n\nVirginie Calmels is Deputy Mayor of Bordeaux in charge of the Economy, Employment and Sustainable Growth and Vice-President of the Urban Community of Bordeaux.\n\nBordeaux is the capital of five cantons and the Prefecture of the Gironde and Aquitaine.\n\nThe town is divided into three districts, the first three of Gironde. The headquarters of Urban Community of Bordeaux Mériadeck is located in the neighborhood and the city is at the head of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry that bears his name.\n\nThe number of inhabitants of Bordeaux is greater than 199,999 and less than 250,000 and so the number of municipal councilors is 61. They are divided according to the following composition:\n\n\n Party !! President !! Seats !! Status\n\n LR – Nouveau Centre – Modem \nHugues Martin \n50 \nmajority\n\n PS – Verts – PCF \nMatthieu Rouveyre \n11 \nopposition\n\n\n=== Mayors of Bordeaux ===\nSince 1947, there have been 3 mayors of Bordeaux:\n\n\n1947–1995\nJacques Chaban-Delmas\nRPR\n\n1995–2004\nAlain Juppé\nRPR/UMP\n\n2004–2006\nHugues Martin\nUMP\n\n2006–present\nAlain Juppé\nUMP/LR\n\n\n*RPR was renamed to UMP in 2002 which was later renamed to Les Republicains in 2015\n",
"\n=== University ===\n\nThe university was created by the archbishop Pey Berland in 1441 and was abolished in 1793, during the French Revolution, before reappearing in 1808 with Napoleon I. Bordeaux accommodates approximately 70,000 students on one of the largest campuses of Europe (235 ha).\nThe University of Bordeaux is divided into four:\n\n*The University Bordeaux 1, (Maths, Physical sciences and Technologies), 10,693 students in 2002\n*The University Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux Segalen (Medicine and Life sciences), 15,038 students in 2002\n*The University Bordeaux 3, Michel de Montaigne (Liberal Arts, Humanities, Languages, History), 14,785 students in 2002\n*The University Bordeaux 4, Montesquieu (Law, Economy and Management), 12,556 students in 2002\n*Institut of Political Sciences of Bordeaux. Although technically a part of the fourth university, it largely functions autonomously.\n\n=== Schools ===\nBordeaux has numerous public and private schools offering undergraduate and postgraduate programs.\n\nEngineering schools:\n*Arts et Métiers ParisTech, graduate school of industrial and mechanical engineering\n*ESME-Sudria, graduate school of engineering\n*École d'ingénieurs en modélisation mathématique et mécanique\n*École nationale supérieure d’électronique, informatique, télécommunications, mathématique et mécanique de Bordeaux (ENSEIRB-MATMECA)\n*École supérieure de technologie des biomolécules de Bordeaux\n*École nationale d'ingénieurs des travaux agricoles de Bordeaux\n*École nationale supérieure de chimie et physique de Bordeaux\n*École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies\n*Institut des sciences et techniques des aliments de Bordeaux\n*Institut de cognitique\n*École supérieure d'informatique\n*École privée des sciences informatiques\n\nBusiness and management schools:\n\n*The Bordeaux MBA (International College of Bordeaux)\n*IUT Techniques de Commercialisation of Bordeaux (Business School)\n*INSEEC Business School (Institut des hautes études économiques et commerciales)\n*KEDGE Business School (former BEM – Bordeaux Management School)\n*Vatel Bordeaux International Business School\n*E-Artsup\n*Institut supérieur européen de gestion group\n*Institut supérieur européen de formation par l'action\n\nOther:\n*École nationale de la magistrature (National school for Magistrate)\n*École d'architecture et de paysage de Bordeaux\n*École des beaux-arts de Bordeaux\n*École française des attachés de presse et des professionels de la communication (EFAP)\n*Conservatoire national des arts et métiers d'Aquitaine (CNAM)\n\n=== Weekend education ===\nThe ''École Compleméntaire Japonaise de Bordeaux'' (ボルドー日本語補習授業校 ''Borudō Nihongo Hoshū Jugyō Kō''), a part-time Japanese supplementary school, is held in the ''Salle de L'Athenee Municipal'' in Bordeaux.\n",
"Porte Cailhau\nColumn of the Girondins on the Esplanade des Quinconces\nThe church of St Pierre\nFaçade of the Church of the Holy Cross\nPlace de la Bourse at night with the Miroir d'eau and tram\nRue Sainte-Catherine\nChurch of Notre Dame\n\nBordeaux is classified \"City of Art and History\". The city is home to 362 ''monuments historiques'' (only Paris has more in France) with some buildings dating back to Roman times. Bordeaux has been inscribed on UNESCO World Heritage List as ''\"an outstanding urban and architectural ensemble\"''.\n\nBordeaux is home to one of Europe's biggest 18th-century architectural urban areas, making it a sought-after destination for tourists and cinema production crews. It stands out as one of the first French cities, after Nancy, to have entered an era of urbanism and metropolitan big scale projects, with the team Gabriel father and son, architects for King Louis XV, under the supervision of two intendants (Governors), first Nicolas-François Dupré de Saint-Maur then the Marquis de Tourny.\n\n=== Buildings ===\nMain sights include:\n* ''Place des Quinconces'', the largest square in France.\n* ''Monument aux Girondins''\n* ''Grand Théâtre'', a large neoclassical theater built in the 18th century.\n* ''Allées de Tourny''\n* ''Cours de l'Intendance''\n* ''Place du Chapelet''\n* ''Place de la Bourse''(1730–1775), designed by the Royal architect Jacques Ange Gabriel as landscape for an equestrian statue of Louis XV.\n* ''Place du Parlement''\n* ''Place Saint-Pierre''\n*''Pont de pierre''\n* ''Saint-André Cathedral'', consecrated by Pope Urban II in 1096. Of the Original Romanesque edifice only a wall in the nave remain. The Royal Gate is from the early 13th century, while the rest of the construction is mostly from the 14th and 15th centuries.\n* ''Tour Pey-Berland'' (1440–1450), a massive, quadrangular gothic tower annexed to the cathedral.\n* ''Église Sainte-Croix'' (Church of the Holy Cross). It lies on the site of a 7th-century abbey destroyed by the Saracens. Rebuilt under the Carolingians, it was again destroyed by the Normans in 845 and 864. It is annexed to a Benedictine abbey founded in the 7th century, and was built in the late 11th and early 12th centuries. The façade is in Romanesque style\n* The gothic ''Basilica of Saint Michael'', constructed between the end of the 14th century and the 16th century.\n* Basilica of ''Saint-Seurin'', the most ancient church in Bordeaux. It was built in the early 6th century on the site of a palaeochristian necropolis. It has an 11th-century portico, while the apse and transept are from the following century. The 13th-century nave has chapels from the 11th and the 14th centuries. The ancient crypt houses sepulchres of the Merovingian family.\n* ''Église Saint-Pierre'', gothic church\n* ''Église Saint-Éloi'', gothic church\n* ''Église Saint-Bruno'', baroque church decorated with frescoes\n* ''Église Notre-Dame'', baroque church\n* ''Église Saint-Paul-Saint-François-Xavier'', baroque church\n* ''Palais Rohan'' (Exterior:)\n* ''Palais Gallien'', the remains of a late 2nd-century Roman amphitheatre\n* ''Porte Cailhau'', a medieval gate of the old city walls.\n* ''La Grosse Cloche'' (15th century), the second remaining gate of the Medieval walls. It was the belfry of the old Town Hall. It consists of two circular towers and a central bell tower housing a bell weighing . The watch is from 1759.\n* ''Rue Sainte-Catherine'', the longest Pedestrian street of France\n* The BETASOM submarine base\n\nSaint-André Cathedral, Saint-Michel Basilica and Saint-Seurin Basilica are part of the World Heritage Sites of the Routes of Santiago de Compostela in France.\n\n=== Contemporary architecture ===\n*Fire Station, ''la Benauge'', Claude Ferret/Adrien Courtois/Yves Salier, 1951–1954\n*Court of first instance, Richard Rogers, 1998\n*CTBA, wood and furniture research center, A. Loisier, 1998\n*Hangar 14 on the ''Quai des Chartrons'', 1999\n*The Management Science faculty on the Bastide, Anne Lacaton/Jean-Philippe Vassal, 2006\n*The ''Jardin botanique de la Bastide'', Catherine Mosbach/Françoise Hélène Jourda/Pascal Convert, 2007\n*The Nuyens School complex on the Bastide, Yves Ballot/Nathalie Franck, 2007\n*Seeko'o Hotel on the Quai des Chartrons, King Kong architects, 2007\n\n=== Museums ===\n*Musée des Beaux Arts (''Fine arts museum''), one of the finest painting galleries in France with paintings by painter such as Tiziano, Veronese, Rubens, Van Dyck, Frans Hals, Claude, Chardin, Delacroix, Renoir, Seurat, Matisse and Picasso.\n*Musée d'Aquitaine (archeological and history museum)\n*Musée du Vin et du Négoce (museum of the wine trade)\n*Musée des Arts Décoratifs (museum of decorative arts)\n*Musée d'Histoire Naturelle (natural history museum)\n*CAPC musée d'art contemporain de Bordeaux (contemporary art museum)\n*Musée national des douanes\n*Vinorama\n*Musée Goupil\n*Casa de Goya\n*Cap Sciences\n*Centre Jean Moulin\n\n=== Parks and gardens ===\n*''Jardin botanique de Bordeaux''\n*''Jardin botanique de la Bastide''\n*''La Maison des Chameaux (Camel Park)''\n\"Le Jardin Public\" is a park in the heart of the city.\n\n=== Pont Jacques Chaban-Delmas ===\nEurope’s longest-span vertical-lift bridge, the Pont Jacques Chaban-Delmas, was opened in 2013 in Bordeaux, spanning the River Garonne. The central lift span is and can be lifted vertically up to to let tall ships pass underneath. The €160 million bridge was inaugurated by President François Hollande and Mayor Alain Juppé on 16 March 2013. The bridge was named after the late Jacques Chaban-Delmas, who was a former Prime Minister and Mayor of Bordeaux.\n\n=== Shopping ===\nBordeaux has many shopping options. In the heart of Bordeaux is ''Rue Sainte-Catherine''. This pedestrian-only shopping street has of shops, restaurants and cafés; it is also one of the longest shopping streets in Europe. ''Rue Sainte-Catherine'' starts at ''Place de la Victoire'' and ends at ''Place de la Comédie'' by the ''Grand Théâtre''. The shops become progressively more upmarket as one moves towards ''Place de la Comédie'' and the nearby ''Cours de l'Intendance'' is where one finds the more exclusive shops and boutiques.\n",
"Grand Théâtre\n\nBordeaux is also the first city in France to have created, in the 1980s, an architecture exhibition and research centre, ''Arc en rêve''. Bordeaux offers a large number of cinemas, theatres and is the home of the Opéra national de Bordeaux. There are many music venues of varying capacity. The city also offers several festivals throughout the year.\n",
"\n=== Road ===\nBordeaux is an important road and motorway junction. The city is connected to Paris by the A10 motorway, with Lyon by the A89, with Toulouse by the A62, and with Spain by the A63. There is a ring road called the \"Rocade\" which is often very busy. Another ring road is under consideration.\n\nPont-de-Pierre\n\nBordeaux has five road bridges that cross the Garonne, the Pont de pierre built in the 1820s and three modern bridges built after 1960: the Pont Saint Jean, just south of the Pont de pierre (both located downtown), the Pont d'Aquitaine, a suspended bridge downstream from downtown, and the Pont François Mitterrand, located upstream of downtown. These two bridges are part of the ring road around Bordeaux. A fifth bridge, the Pont Jacques-Chaban-Delmas, was constructed in 2009–2012 and opened to traffic in March 2013. Located halfway between the Pont de pierre and the Pont d'Aquitaine and serving downtown rather than highway traffic, it is a vertical-lift bridge with a height comparable to the Pont de pierre in closed position, and to the Pont d'Aquitaine in open position. All five road bridges, including the two highway bridges, are open to cyclists and pedestrians as well.\nAnother bridge, the Pont Jean-Jacques Bosc, is to be built in 2018.\n\nLacking any steep hills, Bordeaux is relatively friendly to cyclists. Cycle paths (separate from the roadways) exist on the highway bridges, along the riverfront, on the university campuses, and incidentally elsewhere in the city. Cycle lanes and bus lanes that explicitly allow cyclists exist on many of the city's boulevards. A paid Bicycle sharing system with automated stations has been established in 2010.\n\n=== Rail ===\nThe main railway station, Gare de Bordeaux Saint-Jean, near the center of the city, has 4 million passengers a year. It is served by the French national (SNCF) railway's high speed train, the TGV, that gets to Paris in two hours, with connections to major European centers such as Lille, Brussels, Amsterdam, Cologne, Geneva and London. The TGV also serves Toulouse and Irun from Bordeaux. A regular train service is provided to Nantes, Nice, Marseille and Lyon. The Gare Saint-Jean is the major hub for regional trains (TER) operated by the SNCF to Arcachon, Limoges, Agen, Périgueux, Pau, Le Médoc, Angoulême and Bayonne.\n\nHistorically the train line used to terminate at a station on the right bank of the river Garonne near the Pont de Pierre, and passengers crossed the bridge to get into the city. Subsequently, a double-track steel railway bridge was constructed in the 1850s, by Gustave Eiffel, to bring trains across the river direct into Gare de Bordeaux Saint-Jean. The old station was later converted and in 2010 comprised a cinema and restaurants.\n\nThe two-track Eiffel bridge with a speed limit of became a bottleneck and a new bridge was built, opening in 2009. The new bridge has 4 tracks and allows trains to pass at . During the planning there was much lobbying by the Eiffel family and other supporters to preserve the old bridge as a footbridge across the Garonne, with possibly a museum to document the history of the bridge and Gustave Eiffel's contribution. The decision was taken to save the bridge, but by early 2010 no plans had been announced as to its future use. The bridge remains intact, but unused and without any means of access.\n\nSince July 2017, the LGV Sud Europe Atlantique is fully operational and makes Bordeaux city 2h04 from Paris.\n\n=== Air ===\nBordeaux is served by an international airport, Aéroport de Bordeaux Mérignac, located from the city center in the suburban city of Mérignac.\n\nBordeaux–Mérignac Airport\n=== Trams, buses and boats ===\nTramway in Bordeaux\nBordeaux has an important public transport system called Transports Bordeaux Métropole (TBM). This company is run by the Keolis group. The network consists of:\n* 3 tram lines (A, B and C)\n* 75 bus routes, all connected to the tramway network (from 1 to 96)\n* 13 night bus routes (from 1 to 16)\n* An electric bus shuttle in the city center\n* A boat shuttle on the Garonne river\nThis network is operated from 5 am to 2 am.\n\nThere had been several plans for a subway network to be set up, but they stalled for both geological and financial reasons. Work on the Tramway de Bordeaux system was started in the autumn of 2000, and services started in December 2003 connecting Bordeaux with its suburban areas. The tram system uses ground-level power supply technology (APS), a new cable-free technology developed by French company Alstom and designed to preserve the aesthetic environment by eliminating overhead cables in the historic city. Conventional overhead cables are used outside the city. The system was controversial for its considerable cost of installation, maintenance and also for the numerous initial technical problems that paralysed the network. Many streets and squares along the tramway route became pedestrian areas, with limited access for cars.\n\n=== Taxis ===\nThere are more than 400 taxicabs in Bordeaux.\n===Bordeaux Public Transportation Statistics===\nThe average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Bordeaux, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 51 min. 12.% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 13 min, while 15.5% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 7 km, while 8% travel for over 12 km in a single direction. \n",
"Entrance to the Stade Chaban-Delmas\nThe 42,000-capacity Nouveau Stade de Bordeaux is the largest stadium in Bordeaux. The stadium was opened in 2015 and replaced the Stade Chaban-Delmas, which was a venue for the FIFA World Cup in 1938 and 1998, as well as the 2007 Rugby World Cup. In the 1938 FIFA World Cup, it hosted a violent quarter-final known as the Battle of Bordeaux. The ground was formerly known as the ''Stade du Parc Lescure'' until 2001, when it was renamed in honour of the city's long-time mayor, Jacques Chaban-Delmas.\n\nThere are two major sport teams in Bordeaux, both playing at the Stade Chaban-Delmas. Girondins de Bordeaux is the football team, currently playing in Ligue 1 in the French football championship. Union Bordeaux Bègles is a rugby team in the Top 14 in the Ligue Nationale de Rugby.\nSkateboarding, rollerblading, and BMX biking are activities enjoyed by many young inhabitants of the city. Bordeaux is home to a beautiful quay which runs along the Gironde river. On the quay there is a skate-park divided into three sections. One section is for Vert tricks, one for street style tricks, and one for little action sports athletes with easier features and softer materials. The skate-park is very well maintained by the municipality.\n\nBordeaux is also the home to one of the strongest cricket teams in France and are the current champions of the South West League.\n\nThere is a wooden velodrome, Vélodrome du Lac, in Bordeaux which hosts international cycling competition in the form of UCI Track Cycling World Cup events.\n\nThe 2015 Trophee Eric Bompard was in Bordeaux. But the Free Skate was cancelled in all of the divisions due to the Paris bombing(s) and aftermath. The Short Program occurred hours before the bombing. French skaters Chafik Besseghier (68.36) in 10th place, Romain Ponsart (62.86) in 11th. Mae-Berenice-Meite (46.82) in 11th and Laurine Lecavelier (46.53) in 12th. Vanessa James/Morgan Cipres (65.75) in 2nd.\n",
"Michel de Montaigne\nBordeaux was the birthplace of:\n\nGerald Causse, Presiding Bishop of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints \n\n* Jean Alaux (1786–1864), painter\n*Bertrand Andrieu (1761–1822), engraver\n*Jean Anouilh (1910–1987), dramatist\n*Yvonne Arnaud (1892–1958), pianist, singer and actress\n*Decimus Magnus Ausonius (c. 310–395), Roman poet and rhetorician\n*Floyd Ayité, (born 1988), Togolese footballer\n*Jonathan Ayité, (born 1985), Togolese footballer\n*Christine Barbe, winemaker\n*Gérard Bayo (born 1936), writer and poet, \n*François Bigot (1703–1778), last \"Intendant\" of New France\n*Grégory Bourdy, (born 1982), golfer\n*Samuel Boutal, (born 1969), footballer\n*Edmond de Caillou (died c. February 1316) Gascon knight fighting in Scotland\n*René Clément (1913–1996), actor, director, writer\n*Jean-René Cruchet (1875–1959), pathologist\n*Damia (1899–1978), singer and actress\n*Étienne Noël Damilaville (1723–1768), encyclopédiste\n*Lili Damita (1901–1994), actress\n*Frédéric Daquin, (born 1978), footballer\n*Danielle Darrieux (born 1917), actress\n*Bernard Delvaille (1931–2006), poet, essayist\n*David Diop, (1927–1960), poet\n*Jacques Ellul (1912–1994), sociologist, theologian, Christian anarchist\n*Marie Fel (1713–1794), opera singer\n*Jean-Luc Fournet (1965), papyrologist\n* Pierre-Jean Garat (1762–1823), singer\n*Armand Gensonné (1758–1793), politician\n*Stephen Girard (1750–1831), merchant, banker, and Philadelphia philanthropist\n*Jérôme Gnako, (born 1968), footballer\n*Eugène Goossens (1867–1958), conductor, violinist\n*Léopold Lafleurance (1865–1953), flautist\n*Joseph Henri Joachim Lainé (1767–1835), statesman\n*Lucenzo (born 1983), singer\n*Jean-Jacques Magendie (1766–1835), officer\n*François Magendie (1783–1855), physiologist\n*Bruno Marie-Rose, (born 1965), athlete (sprinter)\n*François Mauriac (1885–1970), writer, Nobel laureate 1952\n*Édouard Molinaro (1928–2013), film director, screenwriter\n*Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592), essayist\n*Olivier Mony (1966–), writer and literary critic\n*Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty (1768–1815), general\n*Pierre Palmade (born 1968), actor and comedian\n*St. Paulinus of Nola (354–431), educator, religious figure\n* Émile Péreire (1800–1875), banker and industrialist\n*Albert Pitres (1848–1928), neurologist\n*Georges Antoine Pons Rayet (1839–1906), astronomer, discoverer of the Wolf-Rayet stars, & founder of the Bordeaux Observatory\n*Odilon Redon, (1840–1916), painter\n*Richard II of England (1367–1400), king\n*Pierre Rode (1774–1830), violinist\n*Olinde Rodrigues (1795–1851), mathematician, banker and social reformer\n*Marie-Sabine Roger (born 1957), writer\n*Jean-Joseph Sanfourche (1929–2010), is a French painter, poet, draftsman and sculptor.\n*Bernard Sarrette (1765–1858), conductor and music pedagogue\n*Jean-Jacques Sempé (born 1932), cartoonist\n*Florent Serra, (born 1981), tennis player\n*Philippe Sollers, (born 1936), writer\n*Wilfried Tekovi, (born 1989), Togolese footballer\n*Kap Bambino, group\n\n",
"\nAlain Juppé, Mayor of Bordeaux, visiting the twin town of Ashdod.\n\n=== Twin towns and sister cities ===\nBordeaux is twinned with:\n\n* Ashdod, Israel, since 1984\n* Bilbao, Spain\n* Baku, Azerbaijan, since 1985\n* Bristol, United Kingdom, since 1947\n* Casablanca, Morocco, since 1988\n* Fukuoka, Japan, since 1982\n* Lima, Peru, since 1957\n* Los Angeles, United States, since 1968\n* Madrid, Spain, since 1984\n* Munich, Germany, since 1964\n* Oran, Algeria, since 2003\n* Porto, Portugal, since 1978\n* Quebec City, Canada, since 1962 \n* Riga, Latvia\n* Saint Petersburg, Russia, since 1993\n* Wuhan, China, since 1998\n* Zahlé, Lebanon, since 2006\n\n\n=== Partnerships ===\n\n* Kraków, Poland, since 1993\n* Samsun, Turkey, since 2010\n\n",
"*Bordeaux wine regions\n*Bordeaux–Paris, a former professional road bicycle racing\n*The Burdigalian Age of the Miocene Epoch is named for Bordeaux\n*Canelé, a local pastry\n*Communes of the Gironde department\n*Dogue de Bordeaux, a breed of dog originally bred for dog fighting\n*French wine\n*List of mayors of Bordeaux\n*Operation Frankton, a British Combined Operations raid on shipping in the harbour at Bordeaux, in December 1942, during World War II\n*Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bordeaux\n*Girondins\n* Atlantic history\n* Triangular trade\n* History of slavery\n",
"\n\n",
":''See also: Bibliography of the history of Bordeaux''\n",
"\n\n* Bordeaux : the world capital of wine – Official French website (in English)\n*\n* Tourist office website\n* Phonebook of Bordeaux\n* Bordeaux submarine base : history, description, photos\n* Official Girondins de Bordeaux website\n* Sciences Po Bordeaux\n* Tram and bus maps and schedules\n* Bordeaux Wine official website\n* Map & City guide website\n* German submarine base in Bordeaux\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" History ",
" Geography ",
" Economy ",
" Population ",
" Politics ",
" Education ",
" Main sights ",
" Culture ",
" Transport ",
" Sport ",
" People ",
" International relationship ",
" See also ",
" References ",
"Bibliography",
" External links "
] | Bordeaux | [
"The city is built on a bend of the river Garonne, and is divided into two parts: the right bank to the east and left bank in the west.",
"Historically the left bank is more developed because when flowing outside the bend, the water makes a furrow of the required depth to allow the passing of merchant ships, which used to offload on this side of the river.",
"The right bank of the Garonne is a low-lying, often marshy plain.",
"Historically the train line used to terminate at a station on the right bank of the river Garonne near the Pont de Pierre, and passengers crossed the bridge to get into the city."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Bordeaux''' (; Gascon Occitan: '''') is a port city on the Garonne River in the Gironde department in southwestern France.",
"The municipality (commune) of Bordeaux proper has a population of 243,626 (2012).",
"Together with its suburbs and satellite towns, Bordeaux is the centre of the Bordeaux Métropole.",
"With 749,595 inhabitants () and 1,178,335 in the metropolitan area, it is the sixth largest in France, after Paris, Marseille, Lyon, Toulouse and Lille.",
"It is the capital of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, as well as the prefecture of the Gironde department.",
"Its inhabitants are called ''\"Bordelais\"'' (for men) or ''\"Bordelaises\"'' (women).",
"The term \"Bordelais\" may also refer to the city and its surrounding region.",
"Bordeaux is the world's major wine industry capital.",
"It is home to the world's main wine fair, Vinexpo, and the wine economy in the metro area takes in 14.5 billion euros each year.",
"Bordeaux wine has been produced in the region since the 8th century.",
"The historic part of the city is on the UNESCO World Heritage List as \"an outstanding urban and architectural ensemble\" of the 18th century.",
"After Paris, Bordeaux has the highest number of preserved historical buildings of any city in France.",
"\nCoins of the Bituriges Vivisci, 5th–1st century BC, derived from the coin designs of Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul.",
"Cabinet des Médailles.",
"In historical times, around 300 BC it was the settlement of a Celtic tribe, the Bituriges Vivisci, who named the town '''Burdigala''', probably of Aquitanian origin.",
"The name Bourde is still the name of a river south of the city.",
"In 107 BC, the Battle of Burdigala was fought by the Romans who were defending the Allobroges, a Gallic tribe allied to Rome, and the Tigurini led by Divico.",
"The Romans were defeated and their commander, the consul Lucius Cassius Longinus, was killed in the action.",
"The city fell under Roman rule around 60 BC, its importance lying in the commerce of tin and lead towards Rome.",
"Later it became capital of Roman Aquitaine, flourishing especially during the Severan dynasty (3rd century).",
"In 276 it was sacked by the Vandals.",
"Further ravage was brought by the same Vandals in 409, the Visigoths in 414 and the Franks in 498, beginning a period of obscurity for the city.",
"Merovingian tremisses minted in Bordeaux by the Church of Saint-Étienne, late 6th century.",
"British Museum.",
"In the late 6th century, the city re-emerged as the seat of a county and an archdiocese within the Merovingian kingdom of the Franks, but royal Frankish power was never strong.",
"The city started to play a regional role as a major urban center on the fringes of the newly founded Frankish Duchy of Vasconia.",
"Around 585, a certain Gallactorius is cited as count of Bordeaux and fighting the Basques.",
"The city was plundered by the troops of Abd er Rahman in 732 after storming the fortified city and overwhelming the Aquitanian garrison.",
"Duke Eudes mustered a force ready to engage the Umayyads outside Bordeaux, eventually taking on them in the Battle of the River Garonne somewhere near the river Dordogne, described as taking a heavy death toll.",
"After Duke Eudes's defeat, the Aquitanian duke could still save part of its troops and keep his grip on Aquitaine after the Battle of Poitiers.",
"In 735, the Aquitanian duke Hunald led a rebellion after his father Eudes's death, at which Charles responded by sending an expedition that captured and plundered Bordeaux again, but it was not retained for long.",
"The following year, the Frankish commander descended again over Aquitaine, but clashed in battle with the Aquitanians and left to take on hostile Burgundian authorities and magnates.",
"In 745, Aquitaine faced yet another expedition by Charles' sons Pepin and Carloman against Hunald, the Aquitanian ''princeps'' (or duke) strong in Bordeaux.",
"Hunald was defeated, and his son Waifer replaced him, who in turn confirmed Bordeaux as the capital city (along with Bourges in the north).",
"During the last stage of the war against Aquitaine (760–768), it was one of Waifer's last important strongholds to fall to King Pepin the Short's troops.",
"Next to Bordeaux, Charlemagne built the fortress of Fronsac (''Frontiacus'', ''Franciacus'') on a hill across the border with the Basques (''Wascones''), where Basque commanders came over to vow loyalty to him (769).",
"In 778, Seguin (or Sihimin) was appointed count of Bordeaux, probably undermining the power of the Duke Lupo, and possibly leading to the Battle of Roncevaux Pass that very year.",
"In 814, Seguin was made Duke of Vasconia, but he was deposed in 816 for failing to suppress or sympathise with a Basque rebellion.",
"Under the Carolingians, sometimes the Counts of Bordeaux held the title concomitantly with that of Duke of Vasconia.",
"They were meant to keep the Basques in check and defend the mouth of the Garonne from the Vikings when the latter appeared c. 844 in the region of Bordeaux.",
"In Autumn 845, count Seguin II marched on the Vikings assaulting Bordeaux and Saintes, but was captured and put to death.",
"No bishops were mentioned during the whole 8th century and part of the 9th in Bordeaux.",
"From the 12th to the 15th century, Bordeaux regained importance following the marriage of Duchess Eléonore of Aquitaine with the French-speaking Count Henri Plantagenet, born in Le Mans, who became, within months of their wedding, King Henry II of England.",
"The city flourished, primarily due to the wine trade, and the cathedral of St. André was built.",
"It was also the capital of an independent state under Edward, the Black Prince (1362–1372), but in the end, after the Battle of Castillon (1453), it was annexed by France which extended its territory.",
"The ''Château Trompette'' (Trumpet Castle) and the ''Fort du Hâ'', built by Charles VII of France, were the symbols of the new domination, which however deprived the city of its wealth by halting the wine commerce with England.",
"In 1462, Bordeaux obtained a parliament, but regained importance only in the 16th century when it became the centre of the distribution of sugar and slaves from the West Indies along with the traditional wine.",
"Bordeaux adhered to the Fronde, being effectively annexed to the Kingdom of France only in 1653, when the army of Louis XIV entered the city.",
"Édouard Manet: ''Harbour at Bordeaux'', 1871\nRue Sainte-Catherine in 1905\n\nThe 18th century was the golden age of Bordeaux.",
"Many downtown buildings (about 5,000), including those on the quays, are from this period.",
"Victor Hugo found the town so beautiful he once said: \"Take Versailles, add Antwerp, and you have Bordeaux\".",
"Baron Haussmann, a long-time prefect of Bordeaux, used Bordeaux's 18th-century large-scale rebuilding as a model when he was asked by Emperor Napoleon III to transform a then still quasi-medieval Paris into a \"modern\" capital that would make France proud.",
"In 1814, towards the end of the Peninsula war, the Duke of Wellington sent William Beresford with two divisions, who seized Bordeaux without much resistance on 12 March.",
"Bordeaux was largely anti-Bonapartist and had a majority that supported the Bourbons, so the British troops were treated as liberators.",
"In 1870, at the beginning of the Franco-Prussian war against Prussia, the French government temporarily relocated to Bordeaux from Paris.",
"This happened again during the First World War and again very briefly during the Second World War, when it became clear that Paris would soon fall into German hands.",
"However, on the last of these occasions the French capital was soon moved again to Vichy.",
"In May and June 1940, Bordeaux was the site of the life-saving actions of the Portuguese consul-general, Aristides de Sousa Mendes, who illegally granted thousands of Portuguese visas, which were needed to pass the Spanish border, to refugees fleeing the German Occupation.",
"From 1940 to 1943, the Italian Royal Navy (''Regia Marina Italiana'') established BETASOM, a submarine base at Bordeaux.",
"Italian submarines participated in the Battle of the Atlantic from this base, which was also a major base for German U-boats as headquarters of 12th U-boat Flotilla.",
"The massive, reinforced concrete U-boat pens have proved impractical to demolish and are now partly used as a cultural center for exhibitions.",
"Bordeaux is located close to the European Atlantic coast, in the southwest of France and in the north of the Aquitaine region.",
"It is around southwest of Paris.",
"In Bordeaux, the Garonne River is accessible to ocean liners.",
"=== Climate ===\nBordeaux's climate is usually classified as an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification ''Cfb''); however, the summers tend to be warmer and the winters milder than most areas of similar classification.",
"Substantial summer rainfall prevents its climate from being classified as Mediterranean.",
"Winters are cool because of the prevalence of westerly winds from the Atlantic.",
"Summers are warm and long due to the influence from the Bay of Biscay (surface temperature reaches .",
"The average seasonal winter temperature is , but recent winters have been warmer than this.",
"Frosts in the winter are commonplace, occurring several times during a winter, but snowfall is very rare, occurring only once every three years.",
"The average summer seasonal temperature is .",
"The summer of 2003 set a record with an average temperature of .",
"\nBordeaux is a major centre for business in France as it has the fifth largest metropolitan population in France.",
", the GDP of Bordeaux is €32.7 Billion.",
"=== Wine ===\n\nSauternes vineyard\n\nThe vine was introduced to the Bordeaux region by the Romans, probably in the mid-first century, to provide wine for local consumption, and wine production has been continuous in the region since.",
"Bordeaux now has about of vineyards, 57 appellations, 10,000 wine-producing châteaux and 13,000 grape growers.",
"With an annual production of approximately 960 million bottles, Bordeaux produces large quantities of everyday wine as well as some of the most expensive wines in the world.",
"Included among the latter are the area's five ''premier cru'' (first growth) red wines (four from Médoc and one, Château Haut-Brion, from Graves), established by the Bordeaux Wine Official Classification of 1855:\nThe first growths are:\n\n*Château Lafite-Rothschild\n*Château Margaux\n*Château Latour\n*Château Haut-Brion\n*Château Mouton-Rothschild\n\n: In 1855, Mouton-Rothschild was ranked a Second Growth.",
"In 1973, it was elevated to First Growth status.",
"Both red and white wines are made in Bordeaux.",
"Red Bordeaux is called claret in the United Kingdom.",
"Red wines are generally made from a blend of grapes, and may be made from Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Cabernet Franc, Petit verdot, Malbec, and, less commonly in recent years, Carménère.",
"White Bordeaux is made from Sauvignon blanc, Sémillon, and Muscadelle.",
"Sauternes is a sub-region of Graves known for its intensely sweet, white, dessert wines such as Château d'Yquem.",
"Because of a wine glut (wine lake) in the generic production, the price squeeze induced by an increasingly strong international competition, and vine pull schemes, the number of growers has recently dropped from 14,000 and the area under vine has also decreased significantly.",
"In the meantime, the global demand for first growths and the most famous labels markedly increased and their prices skyrocketed.",
"The Cité du Vin, a museum as well as a place of exhibitions, shows, movie projections and academic seminars on the theme of wine opened its doors in June 2016.",
"=== Others ===\nThe Laser Mégajoule will be one of the most powerful lasers in the world, allowing fundamental research and the development of the laser and plasma technologies.",
"This project, carried by the French Ministry of Defence, involves an investment of 2 billion euros.",
"The \"Road of the lasers\", a major project of regional planning, promotes regional investment in optical and laser related industries leading to the Bordeaux area having the most important concentration of optical and laser expertise in Europe.",
"Some 20,000 people work for the aeronautic industry in Bordeaux.",
"The city has some of the biggest companies including Dassault, EADS Sogerma, Snecma, Thales, SNPE, and others.",
"The Dassault Falcon private jets are built there as well as the military aircraft Rafale and Mirage 2000, the Airbus A380 cockpit, the boosters of Ariane 5, and the M51 SLBM missile.",
"Tourism, especially wine tourism, is a major industry.",
"Globelink.co.uk mentioned Bordeaux as the best tourist destination in Europe in 2015.",
"Access to the port from the Atlantic is via the Gironde estuary.",
"Almost nine million tonnes of goods arrive and leave each year.",
"=== Major companies ===\n'''(This list includes indigenous Bordeaux-based companies and companies that have major presence in Bordeaux, but are not necessarily headquartered there.)'''",
"*Arena\n*Cdiscount\n*Cultura\n*Dassault\n*EADS composites\n*EADS Sogerma\n*EADS Space Transportation\n*Ford Motor Company\n*Lectra\n*LU\n*Marie Brizard\n*McKesson Corporation\n*Oxbow\n*Ricard\n*Sanofi Aventis\n*Smurfit Kappa\n*SNECMA\n*SNPE\n*Solectron\n*Thales Group\n*William Pitters",
"At the January 2011 census, there were 239,399 inhabitants in the city proper (commune) of Bordeaux.",
"Bordeaux in its hey day had a population of 262,662 in 1968.",
"The majority of the population is French, but there are sizable groups of Italians, Spaniards (Up to 20% of the Bordeaux population claim some degree of Spanish heritage), Portuguese, Turks, Germans..",
"The built-up area has grown for more than a century beyond the municipal borders of Bordeaux due to urban sprawl, so that by the January 2011 census there were 1,140,668 people living in the overall metropolitan area of Bordeaux, only a fifth of whom lived in the city proper.",
"Largest communities of foreigners : \n\n\n+\n\n 10,709\n\n\n 7,215\n\n\n 4,770\n\n\n 3,911\n\n\n 3,743\n\n\n 1,379\n\n\n 1,366\n\n\n 1,126\n\n\n 1,043\n\n\n 922\n\n\n 902\n\n\n 894\n\n\n 885\n\n\n 841\n\n\nBordeaux is multiracial and multicultural city .",
"At the 2007 presidential election, the Bordelais gave 31.37% of their votes to Ségolène Royal of the Socialist Party against 30.84% to Nicolas Sarkozy, president of the UMP.",
"Then came Francois Bayrou with 22.01%, followed by Jean-Marie Le Pen who recorded 5.42%.",
"None of the other candidates exceeded the 5% mark.",
"Nationally, Nicolas Sarkozy led with 31.18%, then Ségolène Royal with 25.87%, followed by François Bayrou with 18.57%.",
"After these came Jean-Marie Le Pen with 10.44%, none of the other candidates exceeded the 5% mark.",
"In the second round, the city of Bordeaux gave Ségolène Royal 52.44% against 47.56% for Nicolas Sarkozy, the latter being elected President of the Republic with 53.06% against 46.94% for Ségolène Royal.",
"The abstention rates for Bordeaux were 14.52% in the first round and 15.90% in the second round.",
"This is an earthquake in Bordeaux, a city deeply rooted right traditions.",
"In the parliamentary elections of 2007, the left won eight constituencies against only three for the right.",
"It should be added that after the partial 2008 elections, the eighth district of Gironde switched to the left, bringing the count to nine.",
"In Bordeaux, the left was for the first time in its history the majority as it held two of three constituencies following the elections.",
"In the first division of the Gironde, the outgoing UMP MP Chantal Bourragué was well ahead with 44.81% against 25.39% for the Socialist candidate Beatrice Desaigues.",
"In the second round, it was Chantal Bourragué who was re-elected with 54.45% against 45.55% for his socialist opponent.",
"In the second district of Gironde the UMP mayor and all new Minister of Ecology, Energy, Sustainable Development and the Sea Alain Juppé confronted the General Counsel PS Michèle Delaunay.",
"In the first round, Alain Juppé was well ahead with 43.73% against 31.36% for Michèle Delaunay.",
"In the second round, it was finally Michèle Delaunay who won the election with 50.93% of the votes against 49.07% for Alain Juppé, the margin being only 670 votes.",
"The defeat of the so-called constituency \"Mayor\" showed that Bordeaux was rocking increasingly left.",
"Finally, in the third constituency of the Gironde, Noël Mamère was well ahead with 39.82% against 28.42% for the UMP candidate Elizabeth Vine.",
"In the second round, Noël Mamère was re-elected with 62.82% against 37.18% for his right-wing rival.",
"In 2008 municipal elections saw the clash between mayor of Bordeaux, Alain Juppé and the President of the Regional Council of Aquitaine Socialist Alain Rousset.",
"The PS had put up a Socialist heavyweight in the Gironde and had put great hopes in this election after the victory of Ségolène Royal and Michèle Delaunay in 2007.",
"However, after a rather exciting campaign it was Alain Juppé who was widely elected in the first round with 56.62%, far ahead of Alain Rousset who has managed to get 34.14%.",
"At present, of the eight cantons that has Bordeaux, five are held by the PS and three by the UMP, the left eating a little each time into the right's numbers.",
"In the European elections of 2009, Bordeaux voters largely voted for the UMP candidate Dominique Baudis, who won 31.54% against 15.00% for PS candidate Kader Arif.",
"The candidate of Europe Ecology José Bové came second with 22.34%.",
"None of the other candidates reached the 10% mark.",
"The 2009 European elections were like the previous ones in eight constituencies.",
"Bordeaux is located in the district \"Southwest\", here are the results:\n\nUMP candidate Dominique Baudis: 26.89%.",
"His party gained four seats.",
"PS candidate Kader Arif: 17.79%, gaining two seats in the European Parliament.",
"Europe Ecology candidate Bove: 15.83%, obtaining two seats.",
"MoDem candidate Robert Rochefort: 8.61%, winning a seat.",
"Left Front candidate Jean-Luc Mélenchon: 8.16%, gaining the last seat.",
"At regional elections in 2010, the Socialist incumbent president Alain Rousset won the first round by totaling 35.19% in Bordeaux, but this score was lower than the plan for Gironde and Aquitaine.",
"Xavier Darcos, Minister of Labour followed with 28.40% of the votes, scoring above the regional and departmental average.",
"Then came Monique De Marco, Green candidate with 13.40%, followed by the member of Pyrenees-Atlantiques and candidate of the MoDem Jean Lassalle who registered a low 6.78% while qualifying to the second round on the whole Aquitaine, closely followed by Jacques Colombier, candidate of the National Front, who gained 6.48%.",
"Finally the candidate of the Left Front Gérard Boulanger with 5.64%, no other candidate above the 5% mark.",
"In the second round, Alain Rousset had a tidal wave win as national totals rose to 55.83%.",
"If Xavier Darcos largely lost the election, he nevertheless achieved a score above the regional and departmental average obtaining 33.40%.",
"Jean Lassalle, who qualified for the second round, passed the 10% mark by totaling 10.77%.",
"The ballot was marked by abstention amounting to 55.51% in the first round and 53.59% in the second round.",
"''Only candidates obtaining more than 5% are listed''\n\n+ 2007 Presidential Election\nIInd round\n\nBordeaux !",
"!",
"National\nBordeaux !",
"!",
"National\n\n'''Nicolas Sarkozy'''\n30.84%\n'''31.18%'''\n47.56%\n'''53.06%'''\n\nSégolène Royal\n'''31.37%'''\n25.87%\n'''52.44%'''\n46.94%\n\nFrançois Bayrou\n22.01%\n18.57%\n\n\n\nJean-Marie Le Pen\n5.42%\n10.44%\n\n\n\nTotal votes\n85.48%\n83.77%\n84.10%\n83.97%\n\n\n\n+ 2012 Presidential Election\nIInd round\n\nBordeaux !",
"!",
"National\nBordeaux !",
"!",
"National\n\n'''François Hollande'''\n'''33.05%'''\n'''28.63%'''\n'''57.18%'''\n'''51.64%'''\n\nNicolas Sarkozy\n28.68%\n27.18%\n42.82%\n48.36%\n\nJean-Luc Mélenchon\n12.16%\n11.10%\n\n\n\nFrançois Bayrou\n10.91%\n9.13%\n\n\n\nMarine Le Pen\n8.22%\n17.90%\n\n\n\nTotal votes\n79.25%\n79.48%\n80.44%\n80.35%\n\n\n=== Municipal administration ===\nThe Mayor of the city is Alain Juppé.",
"Virginie Calmels is Deputy Mayor of Bordeaux in charge of the Economy, Employment and Sustainable Growth and Vice-President of the Urban Community of Bordeaux.",
"Bordeaux is the capital of five cantons and the Prefecture of the Gironde and Aquitaine.",
"The town is divided into three districts, the first three of Gironde.",
"The headquarters of Urban Community of Bordeaux Mériadeck is located in the neighborhood and the city is at the head of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry that bears his name.",
"The number of inhabitants of Bordeaux is greater than 199,999 and less than 250,000 and so the number of municipal councilors is 61.",
"They are divided according to the following composition:\n\n\n Party !",
"!",
"President !",
"!",
"Seats !",
"!",
"Status\n\n LR – Nouveau Centre – Modem \nHugues Martin \n50 \nmajority\n\n PS – Verts – PCF \nMatthieu Rouveyre \n11 \nopposition\n\n\n=== Mayors of Bordeaux ===\nSince 1947, there have been 3 mayors of Bordeaux:\n\n\n1947–1995\nJacques Chaban-Delmas\nRPR\n\n1995–2004\nAlain Juppé\nRPR/UMP\n\n2004–2006\nHugues Martin\nUMP\n\n2006–present\nAlain Juppé\nUMP/LR\n\n\n*RPR was renamed to UMP in 2002 which was later renamed to Les Republicains in 2015",
"\n=== University ===\n\nThe university was created by the archbishop Pey Berland in 1441 and was abolished in 1793, during the French Revolution, before reappearing in 1808 with Napoleon I. Bordeaux accommodates approximately 70,000 students on one of the largest campuses of Europe (235 ha).",
"The University of Bordeaux is divided into four:\n\n*The University Bordeaux 1, (Maths, Physical sciences and Technologies), 10,693 students in 2002\n*The University Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux Segalen (Medicine and Life sciences), 15,038 students in 2002\n*The University Bordeaux 3, Michel de Montaigne (Liberal Arts, Humanities, Languages, History), 14,785 students in 2002\n*The University Bordeaux 4, Montesquieu (Law, Economy and Management), 12,556 students in 2002\n*Institut of Political Sciences of Bordeaux.",
"Although technically a part of the fourth university, it largely functions autonomously.",
"=== Schools ===\nBordeaux has numerous public and private schools offering undergraduate and postgraduate programs.",
"Engineering schools:\n*Arts et Métiers ParisTech, graduate school of industrial and mechanical engineering\n*ESME-Sudria, graduate school of engineering\n*École d'ingénieurs en modélisation mathématique et mécanique\n*École nationale supérieure d’électronique, informatique, télécommunications, mathématique et mécanique de Bordeaux (ENSEIRB-MATMECA)\n*École supérieure de technologie des biomolécules de Bordeaux\n*École nationale d'ingénieurs des travaux agricoles de Bordeaux\n*École nationale supérieure de chimie et physique de Bordeaux\n*École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies\n*Institut des sciences et techniques des aliments de Bordeaux\n*Institut de cognitique\n*École supérieure d'informatique\n*École privée des sciences informatiques\n\nBusiness and management schools:\n\n*The Bordeaux MBA (International College of Bordeaux)\n*IUT Techniques de Commercialisation of Bordeaux (Business School)\n*INSEEC Business School (Institut des hautes études économiques et commerciales)\n*KEDGE Business School (former BEM – Bordeaux Management School)\n*Vatel Bordeaux International Business School\n*E-Artsup\n*Institut supérieur européen de gestion group\n*Institut supérieur européen de formation par l'action\n\nOther:\n*École nationale de la magistrature (National school for Magistrate)\n*École d'architecture et de paysage de Bordeaux\n*École des beaux-arts de Bordeaux\n*École française des attachés de presse et des professionels de la communication (EFAP)\n*Conservatoire national des arts et métiers d'Aquitaine (CNAM)\n\n=== Weekend education ===\nThe ''École Compleméntaire Japonaise de Bordeaux'' (ボルドー日本語補習授業校 ''Borudō Nihongo Hoshū Jugyō Kō''), a part-time Japanese supplementary school, is held in the ''Salle de L'Athenee Municipal'' in Bordeaux.",
"Porte Cailhau\nColumn of the Girondins on the Esplanade des Quinconces\nThe church of St Pierre\nFaçade of the Church of the Holy Cross\nPlace de la Bourse at night with the Miroir d'eau and tram\nRue Sainte-Catherine\nChurch of Notre Dame\n\nBordeaux is classified \"City of Art and History\".",
"The city is home to 362 ''monuments historiques'' (only Paris has more in France) with some buildings dating back to Roman times.",
"Bordeaux has been inscribed on UNESCO World Heritage List as ''\"an outstanding urban and architectural ensemble\"''.",
"Bordeaux is home to one of Europe's biggest 18th-century architectural urban areas, making it a sought-after destination for tourists and cinema production crews.",
"It stands out as one of the first French cities, after Nancy, to have entered an era of urbanism and metropolitan big scale projects, with the team Gabriel father and son, architects for King Louis XV, under the supervision of two intendants (Governors), first Nicolas-François Dupré de Saint-Maur then the Marquis de Tourny.",
"=== Buildings ===\nMain sights include:\n* ''Place des Quinconces'', the largest square in France.",
"* ''Monument aux Girondins''\n* ''Grand Théâtre'', a large neoclassical theater built in the 18th century.",
"* ''Allées de Tourny''\n* ''Cours de l'Intendance''\n* ''Place du Chapelet''\n* ''Place de la Bourse''(1730–1775), designed by the Royal architect Jacques Ange Gabriel as landscape for an equestrian statue of Louis XV.",
"* ''Place du Parlement''\n* ''Place Saint-Pierre''\n*''Pont de pierre''\n* ''Saint-André Cathedral'', consecrated by Pope Urban II in 1096.",
"Of the Original Romanesque edifice only a wall in the nave remain.",
"The Royal Gate is from the early 13th century, while the rest of the construction is mostly from the 14th and 15th centuries.",
"* ''Tour Pey-Berland'' (1440–1450), a massive, quadrangular gothic tower annexed to the cathedral.",
"* ''Église Sainte-Croix'' (Church of the Holy Cross).",
"It lies on the site of a 7th-century abbey destroyed by the Saracens.",
"Rebuilt under the Carolingians, it was again destroyed by the Normans in 845 and 864.",
"It is annexed to a Benedictine abbey founded in the 7th century, and was built in the late 11th and early 12th centuries.",
"The façade is in Romanesque style\n* The gothic ''Basilica of Saint Michael'', constructed between the end of the 14th century and the 16th century.",
"* Basilica of ''Saint-Seurin'', the most ancient church in Bordeaux.",
"It was built in the early 6th century on the site of a palaeochristian necropolis.",
"It has an 11th-century portico, while the apse and transept are from the following century.",
"The 13th-century nave has chapels from the 11th and the 14th centuries.",
"The ancient crypt houses sepulchres of the Merovingian family.",
"* ''Église Saint-Pierre'', gothic church\n* ''Église Saint-Éloi'', gothic church\n* ''Église Saint-Bruno'', baroque church decorated with frescoes\n* ''Église Notre-Dame'', baroque church\n* ''Église Saint-Paul-Saint-François-Xavier'', baroque church\n* ''Palais Rohan'' (Exterior:)\n* ''Palais Gallien'', the remains of a late 2nd-century Roman amphitheatre\n* ''Porte Cailhau'', a medieval gate of the old city walls.",
"* ''La Grosse Cloche'' (15th century), the second remaining gate of the Medieval walls.",
"It was the belfry of the old Town Hall.",
"It consists of two circular towers and a central bell tower housing a bell weighing .",
"The watch is from 1759.",
"* ''Rue Sainte-Catherine'', the longest Pedestrian street of France\n* The BETASOM submarine base\n\nSaint-André Cathedral, Saint-Michel Basilica and Saint-Seurin Basilica are part of the World Heritage Sites of the Routes of Santiago de Compostela in France.",
"=== Contemporary architecture ===\n*Fire Station, ''la Benauge'', Claude Ferret/Adrien Courtois/Yves Salier, 1951–1954\n*Court of first instance, Richard Rogers, 1998\n*CTBA, wood and furniture research center, A. Loisier, 1998\n*Hangar 14 on the ''Quai des Chartrons'', 1999\n*The Management Science faculty on the Bastide, Anne Lacaton/Jean-Philippe Vassal, 2006\n*The ''Jardin botanique de la Bastide'', Catherine Mosbach/Françoise Hélène Jourda/Pascal Convert, 2007\n*The Nuyens School complex on the Bastide, Yves Ballot/Nathalie Franck, 2007\n*Seeko'o Hotel on the Quai des Chartrons, King Kong architects, 2007\n\n=== Museums ===\n*Musée des Beaux Arts (''Fine arts museum''), one of the finest painting galleries in France with paintings by painter such as Tiziano, Veronese, Rubens, Van Dyck, Frans Hals, Claude, Chardin, Delacroix, Renoir, Seurat, Matisse and Picasso.",
"*Musée d'Aquitaine (archeological and history museum)\n*Musée du Vin et du Négoce (museum of the wine trade)\n*Musée des Arts Décoratifs (museum of decorative arts)\n*Musée d'Histoire Naturelle (natural history museum)\n*CAPC musée d'art contemporain de Bordeaux (contemporary art museum)\n*Musée national des douanes\n*Vinorama\n*Musée Goupil\n*Casa de Goya\n*Cap Sciences\n*Centre Jean Moulin\n\n=== Parks and gardens ===\n*''Jardin botanique de Bordeaux''\n*''Jardin botanique de la Bastide''\n*''La Maison des Chameaux (Camel Park)''\n\"Le Jardin Public\" is a park in the heart of the city.",
"=== Pont Jacques Chaban-Delmas ===\nEurope’s longest-span vertical-lift bridge, the Pont Jacques Chaban-Delmas, was opened in 2013 in Bordeaux, spanning the River Garonne.",
"The central lift span is and can be lifted vertically up to to let tall ships pass underneath.",
"The €160 million bridge was inaugurated by President François Hollande and Mayor Alain Juppé on 16 March 2013.",
"The bridge was named after the late Jacques Chaban-Delmas, who was a former Prime Minister and Mayor of Bordeaux.",
"=== Shopping ===\nBordeaux has many shopping options.",
"In the heart of Bordeaux is ''Rue Sainte-Catherine''.",
"This pedestrian-only shopping street has of shops, restaurants and cafés; it is also one of the longest shopping streets in Europe.",
"''Rue Sainte-Catherine'' starts at ''Place de la Victoire'' and ends at ''Place de la Comédie'' by the ''Grand Théâtre''.",
"The shops become progressively more upmarket as one moves towards ''Place de la Comédie'' and the nearby ''Cours de l'Intendance'' is where one finds the more exclusive shops and boutiques.",
"Grand Théâtre\n\nBordeaux is also the first city in France to have created, in the 1980s, an architecture exhibition and research centre, ''Arc en rêve''.",
"Bordeaux offers a large number of cinemas, theatres and is the home of the Opéra national de Bordeaux.",
"There are many music venues of varying capacity.",
"The city also offers several festivals throughout the year.",
"\n=== Road ===\nBordeaux is an important road and motorway junction.",
"The city is connected to Paris by the A10 motorway, with Lyon by the A89, with Toulouse by the A62, and with Spain by the A63.",
"There is a ring road called the \"Rocade\" which is often very busy.",
"Another ring road is under consideration.",
"Pont-de-Pierre\n\nBordeaux has five road bridges that cross the Garonne, the Pont de pierre built in the 1820s and three modern bridges built after 1960: the Pont Saint Jean, just south of the Pont de pierre (both located downtown), the Pont d'Aquitaine, a suspended bridge downstream from downtown, and the Pont François Mitterrand, located upstream of downtown.",
"These two bridges are part of the ring road around Bordeaux.",
"A fifth bridge, the Pont Jacques-Chaban-Delmas, was constructed in 2009–2012 and opened to traffic in March 2013.",
"Located halfway between the Pont de pierre and the Pont d'Aquitaine and serving downtown rather than highway traffic, it is a vertical-lift bridge with a height comparable to the Pont de pierre in closed position, and to the Pont d'Aquitaine in open position.",
"All five road bridges, including the two highway bridges, are open to cyclists and pedestrians as well.",
"Another bridge, the Pont Jean-Jacques Bosc, is to be built in 2018.",
"Lacking any steep hills, Bordeaux is relatively friendly to cyclists.",
"Cycle paths (separate from the roadways) exist on the highway bridges, along the riverfront, on the university campuses, and incidentally elsewhere in the city.",
"Cycle lanes and bus lanes that explicitly allow cyclists exist on many of the city's boulevards.",
"A paid Bicycle sharing system with automated stations has been established in 2010.",
"=== Rail ===\nThe main railway station, Gare de Bordeaux Saint-Jean, near the center of the city, has 4 million passengers a year.",
"It is served by the French national (SNCF) railway's high speed train, the TGV, that gets to Paris in two hours, with connections to major European centers such as Lille, Brussels, Amsterdam, Cologne, Geneva and London.",
"The TGV also serves Toulouse and Irun from Bordeaux.",
"A regular train service is provided to Nantes, Nice, Marseille and Lyon.",
"The Gare Saint-Jean is the major hub for regional trains (TER) operated by the SNCF to Arcachon, Limoges, Agen, Périgueux, Pau, Le Médoc, Angoulême and Bayonne.",
"Subsequently, a double-track steel railway bridge was constructed in the 1850s, by Gustave Eiffel, to bring trains across the river direct into Gare de Bordeaux Saint-Jean.",
"The old station was later converted and in 2010 comprised a cinema and restaurants.",
"The two-track Eiffel bridge with a speed limit of became a bottleneck and a new bridge was built, opening in 2009.",
"The new bridge has 4 tracks and allows trains to pass at .",
"During the planning there was much lobbying by the Eiffel family and other supporters to preserve the old bridge as a footbridge across the Garonne, with possibly a museum to document the history of the bridge and Gustave Eiffel's contribution.",
"The decision was taken to save the bridge, but by early 2010 no plans had been announced as to its future use.",
"The bridge remains intact, but unused and without any means of access.",
"Since July 2017, the LGV Sud Europe Atlantique is fully operational and makes Bordeaux city 2h04 from Paris.",
"=== Air ===\nBordeaux is served by an international airport, Aéroport de Bordeaux Mérignac, located from the city center in the suburban city of Mérignac.",
"Bordeaux–Mérignac Airport\n=== Trams, buses and boats ===\nTramway in Bordeaux\nBordeaux has an important public transport system called Transports Bordeaux Métropole (TBM).",
"This company is run by the Keolis group.",
"The network consists of:\n* 3 tram lines (A, B and C)\n* 75 bus routes, all connected to the tramway network (from 1 to 96)\n* 13 night bus routes (from 1 to 16)\n* An electric bus shuttle in the city center\n* A boat shuttle on the Garonne river\nThis network is operated from 5 am to 2 am.",
"There had been several plans for a subway network to be set up, but they stalled for both geological and financial reasons.",
"Work on the Tramway de Bordeaux system was started in the autumn of 2000, and services started in December 2003 connecting Bordeaux with its suburban areas.",
"The tram system uses ground-level power supply technology (APS), a new cable-free technology developed by French company Alstom and designed to preserve the aesthetic environment by eliminating overhead cables in the historic city.",
"Conventional overhead cables are used outside the city.",
"The system was controversial for its considerable cost of installation, maintenance and also for the numerous initial technical problems that paralysed the network.",
"Many streets and squares along the tramway route became pedestrian areas, with limited access for cars.",
"=== Taxis ===\nThere are more than 400 taxicabs in Bordeaux.",
"===Bordeaux Public Transportation Statistics===\nThe average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Bordeaux, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 51 min.",
"12.% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day.",
"The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 13 min, while 15.5% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day.",
"The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 7 km, while 8% travel for over 12 km in a single direction.",
"Entrance to the Stade Chaban-Delmas\nThe 42,000-capacity Nouveau Stade de Bordeaux is the largest stadium in Bordeaux.",
"The stadium was opened in 2015 and replaced the Stade Chaban-Delmas, which was a venue for the FIFA World Cup in 1938 and 1998, as well as the 2007 Rugby World Cup.",
"In the 1938 FIFA World Cup, it hosted a violent quarter-final known as the Battle of Bordeaux.",
"The ground was formerly known as the ''Stade du Parc Lescure'' until 2001, when it was renamed in honour of the city's long-time mayor, Jacques Chaban-Delmas.",
"There are two major sport teams in Bordeaux, both playing at the Stade Chaban-Delmas.",
"Girondins de Bordeaux is the football team, currently playing in Ligue 1 in the French football championship.",
"Union Bordeaux Bègles is a rugby team in the Top 14 in the Ligue Nationale de Rugby.",
"Skateboarding, rollerblading, and BMX biking are activities enjoyed by many young inhabitants of the city.",
"Bordeaux is home to a beautiful quay which runs along the Gironde river.",
"On the quay there is a skate-park divided into three sections.",
"One section is for Vert tricks, one for street style tricks, and one for little action sports athletes with easier features and softer materials.",
"The skate-park is very well maintained by the municipality.",
"Bordeaux is also the home to one of the strongest cricket teams in France and are the current champions of the South West League.",
"There is a wooden velodrome, Vélodrome du Lac, in Bordeaux which hosts international cycling competition in the form of UCI Track Cycling World Cup events.",
"The 2015 Trophee Eric Bompard was in Bordeaux.",
"But the Free Skate was cancelled in all of the divisions due to the Paris bombing(s) and aftermath.",
"The Short Program occurred hours before the bombing.",
"French skaters Chafik Besseghier (68.36) in 10th place, Romain Ponsart (62.86) in 11th.",
"Mae-Berenice-Meite (46.82) in 11th and Laurine Lecavelier (46.53) in 12th.",
"Vanessa James/Morgan Cipres (65.75) in 2nd.",
"Michel de Montaigne\nBordeaux was the birthplace of:\n\nGerald Causse, Presiding Bishop of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints \n\n* Jean Alaux (1786–1864), painter\n*Bertrand Andrieu (1761–1822), engraver\n*Jean Anouilh (1910–1987), dramatist\n*Yvonne Arnaud (1892–1958), pianist, singer and actress\n*Decimus Magnus Ausonius (c. 310–395), Roman poet and rhetorician\n*Floyd Ayité, (born 1988), Togolese footballer\n*Jonathan Ayité, (born 1985), Togolese footballer\n*Christine Barbe, winemaker\n*Gérard Bayo (born 1936), writer and poet, \n*François Bigot (1703–1778), last \"Intendant\" of New France\n*Grégory Bourdy, (born 1982), golfer\n*Samuel Boutal, (born 1969), footballer\n*Edmond de Caillou (died c. February 1316) Gascon knight fighting in Scotland\n*René Clément (1913–1996), actor, director, writer\n*Jean-René Cruchet (1875–1959), pathologist\n*Damia (1899–1978), singer and actress\n*Étienne Noël Damilaville (1723–1768), encyclopédiste\n*Lili Damita (1901–1994), actress\n*Frédéric Daquin, (born 1978), footballer\n*Danielle Darrieux (born 1917), actress\n*Bernard Delvaille (1931–2006), poet, essayist\n*David Diop, (1927–1960), poet\n*Jacques Ellul (1912–1994), sociologist, theologian, Christian anarchist\n*Marie Fel (1713–1794), opera singer\n*Jean-Luc Fournet (1965), papyrologist\n* Pierre-Jean Garat (1762–1823), singer\n*Armand Gensonné (1758–1793), politician\n*Stephen Girard (1750–1831), merchant, banker, and Philadelphia philanthropist\n*Jérôme Gnako, (born 1968), footballer\n*Eugène Goossens (1867–1958), conductor, violinist\n*Léopold Lafleurance (1865–1953), flautist\n*Joseph Henri Joachim Lainé (1767–1835), statesman\n*Lucenzo (born 1983), singer\n*Jean-Jacques Magendie (1766–1835), officer\n*François Magendie (1783–1855), physiologist\n*Bruno Marie-Rose, (born 1965), athlete (sprinter)\n*François Mauriac (1885–1970), writer, Nobel laureate 1952\n*Édouard Molinaro (1928–2013), film director, screenwriter\n*Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592), essayist\n*Olivier Mony (1966–), writer and literary critic\n*Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty (1768–1815), general\n*Pierre Palmade (born 1968), actor and comedian\n*St. Paulinus of Nola (354–431), educator, religious figure\n* Émile Péreire (1800–1875), banker and industrialist\n*Albert Pitres (1848–1928), neurologist\n*Georges Antoine Pons Rayet (1839–1906), astronomer, discoverer of the Wolf-Rayet stars, & founder of the Bordeaux Observatory\n*Odilon Redon, (1840–1916), painter\n*Richard II of England (1367–1400), king\n*Pierre Rode (1774–1830), violinist\n*Olinde Rodrigues (1795–1851), mathematician, banker and social reformer\n*Marie-Sabine Roger (born 1957), writer\n*Jean-Joseph Sanfourche (1929–2010), is a French painter, poet, draftsman and sculptor.",
"*Bernard Sarrette (1765–1858), conductor and music pedagogue\n*Jean-Jacques Sempé (born 1932), cartoonist\n*Florent Serra, (born 1981), tennis player\n*Philippe Sollers, (born 1936), writer\n*Wilfried Tekovi, (born 1989), Togolese footballer\n*Kap Bambino, group",
"\nAlain Juppé, Mayor of Bordeaux, visiting the twin town of Ashdod.",
"=== Twin towns and sister cities ===\nBordeaux is twinned with:\n\n* Ashdod, Israel, since 1984\n* Bilbao, Spain\n* Baku, Azerbaijan, since 1985\n* Bristol, United Kingdom, since 1947\n* Casablanca, Morocco, since 1988\n* Fukuoka, Japan, since 1982\n* Lima, Peru, since 1957\n* Los Angeles, United States, since 1968\n* Madrid, Spain, since 1984\n* Munich, Germany, since 1964\n* Oran, Algeria, since 2003\n* Porto, Portugal, since 1978\n* Quebec City, Canada, since 1962 \n* Riga, Latvia\n* Saint Petersburg, Russia, since 1993\n* Wuhan, China, since 1998\n* Zahlé, Lebanon, since 2006\n\n\n=== Partnerships ===\n\n* Kraków, Poland, since 1993\n* Samsun, Turkey, since 2010",
"*Bordeaux wine regions\n*Bordeaux–Paris, a former professional road bicycle racing\n*The Burdigalian Age of the Miocene Epoch is named for Bordeaux\n*Canelé, a local pastry\n*Communes of the Gironde department\n*Dogue de Bordeaux, a breed of dog originally bred for dog fighting\n*French wine\n*List of mayors of Bordeaux\n*Operation Frankton, a British Combined Operations raid on shipping in the harbour at Bordeaux, in December 1942, during World War II\n*Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bordeaux\n*Girondins\n* Atlantic history\n* Triangular trade\n* History of slavery",
":''See also: Bibliography of the history of Bordeaux''",
"\n\n* Bordeaux : the world capital of wine – Official French website (in English)\n*\n* Tourist office website\n* Phonebook of Bordeaux\n* Bordeaux submarine base : history, description, photos\n* Official Girondins de Bordeaux website\n* Sciences Po Bordeaux\n* Tram and bus maps and schedules\n* Bordeaux Wine official website\n* Map & City guide website\n* German submarine base in Bordeaux"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n'''Blythe Katherine Danner''' (born February 3, 1943) is an American actress. She won two Primetime Emmy Awards for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for her role as Izzy Huffstodt on ''Huff'' (2004–2006), and a Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play for her performance in ''Butterflies Are Free'' (1969–1972). Danner was nominated for two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for portraying Marilyn Truman on ''Will & Grace'' (2001–2006), and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie for her roles in ''We Were the Mulvaneys'' (2002) and ''Back When We Were Grownups'' (2004). For the latter, she was also nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film.\n\nDanner is best known for her roles as Martha Jefferson in the film ''1776'' (1972), and as Dina Byrnes in ''Meet the Parents'' (2000) and its sequels ''Meet the Fockers'' (2004) and ''Little Fockers'' (2010). She has also appeared in the films ''The Great Santini'' (1979), ''Mr. and Mrs. Bridge'' (1990), ''The Prince of Tides'' (1991), ''Husbands and Wives'' (1992), and ''I'll See You in My Dreams'' (2015). She is the widow of Bruce Paltrow and the mother of actress Gwyneth Paltrow and director Jake Paltrow.\n",
"Danner was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the daughter of Katharine (née Kile; 1909–2006) and Harry Earl Danner, a bank executive. She has a brother, opera singer and actor Harry Danner; a sister-in-law, performer-turned-director Dorothy \"Dottie\" Danner; and a half-brother, violin maker William Moennig. Danner has Pennsylvania Dutch (German), and some English and Irish, ancestry; her maternal grandmother was a German immigrant, and one of her paternal great-grandmothers was born in Barbados (to a family of European descent).\n\nDanner graduated from George School, a Quaker high school located near Newtown, Bucks County, Pennsylvania in 1960.\n",
"A graduate of Bard College, Danner's first roles included the 1967 musical ''Mata Hari'' (closed out of town), and the 1968 Off-Broadway production of ''Summertree''. Her early Broadway appearances included ''Cyrano de Bergerac'' (1968) and her Theatre World Award-winning performance in ''The Miser'' (1969). She won the Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play for portraying a free-spirited divorcée in ''Butterflies Are Free'' (1969–1972).\n\nIn 1972, Danner portrayed Martha Jefferson in the film version of ''1776''. That same year, she played a wife whose husband has been unfaithful, opposite Peter Falk and John Cassavetes, in the ''Columbo'' episode \"Etude in Black\".\n\nHer earliest starring film role was opposite Alan Alda in ''To Kill a Clown'' (1972). Danner appeared in the episode of ''M*A*S*H'' entitled \"The More I See You\", playing the love interest of Alda's character Hawkeye Pierce. She played lawyer Amanda Bonner in television's ''Adam's Rib'', also opposite Ken Howard as Adam Bonner. She played Zelda Fitzgerald in ''F. Scott Fitzgerald and 'The Last of the Belles''' (1974). She was the eponymous heroine in the film ''Lovin' Molly'' (1974) (directed by Sidney Lumet). She appeared in ''Futureworld'', playing Tracy Ballard with co-star Peter Fonda (1976). In the 1982 TV movie ''Inside the Third Reich'', she played the wife of Albert Speer. In the film version of Neil Simon's semi-autobiographical play ''Brighton Beach Memoirs'' (1986), she portrayed a middle-aged Jewish mother. She has appeared in two films based on the novels of Pat Conroy, ''The Great Santini'' (1979) and ''The Prince of Tides'' (1991), as well as two television movies adapted from books by Anne Tyler, ''Saint Maybe'' and ''Back When We Were Grownups'', both for the Hallmark Hall of Fame.\n\nDanner at the Metropolitan Opera opening, September 22, 2008\nDanner appeared opposite Robert De Niro in the 2000 comedy hit ''Meet the Parents'', and its sequels, ''Meet the Fockers'' (2004) and ''Little Fockers'' (2010).\n\nFrom 2001 to 2006, she regularly appeared on NBC's sitcom ''Will & Grace'' as Will Truman's mother Marilyn. From 2004 to 2006, she starred in the main cast of the comedy-drama series ''Huff''. In 2005, she was nominated for three Primetime Emmy Awards for her work on ''Will & Grace'', ''Huff'', and the television film ''Back When We Were Grownups'', winning for her role in ''Huff''. The following year, she won a second consecutive Emmy Award for ''Huff''. For 25 years, she has been a regular performer at the Williamstown Summer Theater Festival, where she also serves on the Board of Directors.\n\nIn 2006, Danner was awarded an inaugural Katharine Hepburn Medal by Bryn Mawr College's Katharine Houghton Hepburn Center. In 2015, Danner was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame.\n",
"Danner has been involved in environmental issues such as recycling and conservation for over 30 years. She has been active with INFORM, Inc., is on the Board of Environmental Advocates of New York and the Board of Directors of the Environmental Media Association, and won the 2002 EMA Board of Directors Ongoing Commitment Award. In 2011, Danner joined Moms Clean Air Force, to help call on parents to join in the fight against toxic air pollution.\n",
"After the death of her husband Bruce Paltrow from oral cancer, she became involved with the Oral Cancer Foundation, a national 501(c)3 nonprofit charity. In 2005, she filmed a public service announcement that played on TV stations around the country about the risks associated with oral cancer, and through that shared the personal pain associated with the loss of her husband publicly to further awareness of the disease and the need for early detection. She continues to donate her time to the foundation, and has appeared on morning talk shows, and has done interviews in high-profile magazines such as ''People'' to further public awareness of the disease and its risk factors. Through the Bruce Paltrow Oral Cancer Fund, administered by the Oral Cancer Foundation, she continues to raise awareness and funding for oral cancer issues, particularly those involving communities in which disparities in health care exist. She appeared in commercials for Prolia, a brand of denosumab for injection.\n",
"Danner is the widow of producer/director Bruce Paltrow, who died from complications of pneumonia while battling oral cancer in 2002, and the mother of actress Gwyneth Paltrow and director Jake Paltrow. Danner first co-starred with her daughter in 1992 in the television film ''Cruel Doubt'', and then again in the 2003 film ''Sylvia''. Danner portrayed Aurelia Plath, the mother to Gwyneth's title role of Sylvia Plath.\n\nRegarding meditation practice, Danner said, \"I have found transcendental meditation very helpful and comforting. It centers me.\"\n",
"\n===Film===\n\n\n Year\n Title\n Role\n Notes\n\n 1972 \n ''To Kill a Clown'' \n Lily Frischer \n\n\n 1972 \n ''1776'' \n Martha Jefferson \n\n\n 1974 \n ''Lovin' Molly'' \n Molly Taylor \n\n\n 1975 \n ''Hearts of the West'' \n Miss Trout \n\n\n 1976 \n ''Futureworld'' \n Tracy Ballard \n Saturn Award for Best Actress\n\n 1979 \n ''The Great Santini'' \n Lillian Meechum \n\n\n 1983 \n ''Man, Woman and Child'' \n Sheila Beckwith \n\n\n 1986 \n ''Brighton Beach Memoirs'' \n Kate Jerome \n\n\n 1988 \n ''Another Woman'' \n Lydia \n\n\n 1990 \n ''Mr. and Mrs. Bridge'' \n Grace Barron \n\n\n 1990 \n ''Alice'' \n Dorothy Smith \n\n\n 1991 \n ''The Prince of Tides'' \n Sally Wingo \n \n\n 1992 \n ''Husbands and Wives'' \n Rain's Mother \n\n\n 1995 \n ''Napoleon'' \n Mother Dingo \n\n\n 1995 \n ''Homage'' \n Katherine Samuel \n\n\n 1995 \n ''To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything! Julie Newmar'' \n Beatrice \n\n\n 1997 \n ''The Myth of Fingerprints'' \n Lena \n\n\n 1997 \n ''Mad City'' \n Mrs. Banks \n\n\n 1998 \n ''The Proposition'' \n Syril Danning \n\n\n 1998 \n ''No Looking Back'' \n Claudia's Mother \n\n\n 1998 \n ''The X-Files'' \n Jana Cassidy \n\n\n 1999 \n ''Forces of Nature'' \n Virginia Cahill \n\n\n 1999 \n ''The Love Letter'' \n Lillian MacFarquhar \n\n\n 1999 \n ''Things I Forgot to Remember'' \n Mrs. Bradford \n\n\n 2000 \n ''Meet the Parents'' \n Dina Byrnes \n Nominated – Blockbuster Entertainment Award for Favorite Supporting Actress in a Comedy\n\n 2001 \n ''The Invisible Circus'' \n Gail O'Connor \n\n\n 2003 \n ''Three Days of Rain'' \n Woman in Cab \n\n\n 2003 \n ''Sylvia'' \n Aurelia Plath \n\n\n 2004 \n ''Howl's Moving Castle'' \n Madam Suliman \n\n\n 2004 \n ''Meet the Fockers'' \n Dina Byrnes \n\n\n 2006 \n ''Stolen'' \n Isabella Stewart Gardner \n\n\n 2006 \n ''The Last Kiss'' \n Anna \n Nominated – Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture\n\n 2008 \n ''The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants 2'' \n Greta Randolph \n\n\n 2009 \n ''Waiting for Forever'' \n Miranda Twist \n\n\n 2009 \n ''The Lightkeepers'' \n Mrs. Bascom \n\n\n 2010 \n ''Little Fockers'' \n Dina Byrnes \n\n\n 2011 \n ''Paul'' \n Tara Walton \n\n\n 2011 \n ''What's Your Number?'' \n Ava Darling \n\n\n 2011 \n ''Detachment'' \n Mrs. Perkins \n\n\n 2012 \n ''The Lucky One'' \n Ellie Green \n\n\n 2012 \n ''Hello I Must Be Going'' \n Ruth Minsky \n\n\n 2014 \n ''Murder of a Cat'' \n Edie Moisey \n\n\n 2015 \n ''I'll See You in My Dreams'' \n Carol Petersen \n Nominated – Gotham Award for Best ActressNominated – Satellite Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture\n\n 2015 \n ''Tumbledown'' \n Linda Jespersen \n \n\n 2018 \n ''The Chaperone'' \n Mary O'Dell \n Post-production\n\n 2018 \n ''Strange But True'' \n Gail \n Post-production\n\n 2018 \n ''What They Had'' \n Ruth \n Post-production\n\n 2018 \n ''Hearts Beat Loud'' \n \n Post-production\n\n\n===Television===\n\n\n Year\n Title\n Role\n Notes\n\n 1970 \n ''George M!'' \n Agnes Nolan Cohan \n Television movie\n\n 1971 \n ''Dr. Cook's Garden'' \n Janey Rausch \n Television movie\n\n 1972 \n ''Columbo'' \n Janice Benedict \n Episode: \"Etude in Black\"\n\n 1973 \n ''Adam's Rib'' \n Amanda Bonner \n 13 episodes\n\n 1974 \n ''F. Scott Fitzgerald and 'The Last of the Belles''' \n Zelda Fitzgerald \n Television movie\n\n 1974 \n ''Sidekicks'' \n Prudy Jenkins \n Television movie\n\n 1975 \n ''Great Performances'' \n Nina Zarechnaya \n Episode: \"The Seagull\"\n\n 1976 \n ''M*A*S*H'' \n Carlye Breslin Walton \n Episode: \"The More I See You\"\n\n 1976 \n ''A Love Affair: The Eleanor and Lou Gehrig Story'' \n Eleanor Gehrig \n Television movie\n\n 1976 \n ''Great Performances'' \n Alma Winemiller \n Episode: \"Eccentricites of a Nightingale\"\n\n 1977 \n ''The Court-Martial of George Armstrong Custer'' \n Mrs. Custer \n Television movie\n\n 1978 \n ''Are You in the House Alone?'' \n Anne Osbourne \n Television movie\n\n 1979 \n ''Too Far to Go'' \n Joan Barlow Maple \n Television movie\n\n 1979 \n ''You Can't Take It with You'' \n Alice Sycamore \n Television movie\n\n 1982 \n ''Inside the Third Reich'' \n Margarete Speer \n Television movie\n\n 1983 \n ''In Defense of Kids'' \n Ellen Wilcox \n Television movie\n\n 1984 \n ''Guilty Conscience'' \n Louise Jamison \n Television movie\n\n 1984 \n ''Helen Keller: The Miracle Continues'' \n Anne Sullivan \n Television movie\n\n 1988–1989 \n ''Tattingers'' \n Hillary Tattinger \n 13 episodes\n\n 1989 \n ''Money, Power, Murder'' \n Jeannie \n Television movie\n\n 1990 \n ''Judgment'' \n Emmeline Guitry \n Television movie\n\n 1992 \n ''Getting Up and Going Home'' \n Lily \n Television movie\n\n 1992 \n ''Cruel Doubt'' \n Bonnie Van Stein \n Television movie\n\n 1992 \n ''Tales from the Crypt'' \n Margaret \n Episode: \"Maniac at Large\"\n\n 1992 \n ''Lincoln'' \n Elizabeth Todd Edwards \n Television movie\n\n 1993 \n ''Tracey Ullman Takes On New York'' \n Eleanor Levine \n Television movie\n\n 1993 \n ''Great Performances'' \n Narrator \n Episode: \"The Maestros of Philadelphia\"\n\n 1994 \n ''Oldest Living Confederate Widow Tells All'' \n Bianca Honicut \n Television movie\n\n 1994 \n ''Leave of Absence'' \n Elisa \n Television movie\n\n 1997 \n ''Thomas Jefferson'' \n Martha Jefferson \n Television movie\n\n 1997 \n ''A Call to Remember'' \n Paula Tobias \n Television movie\n\n 1998 \n ''From the Earth to the Moon'' \n Narrator \n Episode: \"Le voyage dans la dune\"\n\n 1998 \n ''Saint Maybe'' \n Bee Bedloe \n Television movie\n\n 1998 \n ''Murder She Purred: A Mrs. Murphy Mystery'' \n Mrs. Murphy \n Television movie\n\n 2001–2006 \n ''Will & Grace'' \n Marilyn Truman \n 11 episodesNominated—Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series (2005–06)\n\n 2002 \n ''We Were the Mulvaneys'' \n Corinne Mulvaney \n Television movieNominated—Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie\n\n 2002 \n ''Presidio Med'' \n Dr. Harriet Lanning \n 3 episodes\n\n 2003 \n ''Two and a Half Men'' \n Evelyn Harper \n Episode: \"Most Chicks Won't Eat Veal\"\n\n 2004 \n ''Back When We Were Grownups'' \n Rebecca Holmes Davitch \n Television movieNominated—Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television FilmNominated—Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie\n\n 2004–2006 \n ''Huff'' \n Isabelle Huffstodt \n 25 episodesPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (2005–06)\n\n 2009 \n ''Medium'' \n Louise Leaming \n Episode: \"A Taste of Her Own Medicine\"\n\n 2009 \n ''Nurse Jackie'' \n Maureen Cooper \n Episode: \"Tiny Bubbles\"\n\n 2011–2012 \n ''Up All Night'' \n Dr. Angie Chafin \n 3 episodes\n\n 2015 \n ''The Slap'' \n Virginia Latham \n Episode: \"Anouk\"\n\n 2016 \n ''Madoff'' \n Ruth Madoff \n 4 episodes \n\n 2016 \n ''Odd Mom Out'' \n Jill's Mom \n Episode: \"Fasting and Furious\"\n\n 2017 \n ''Gypsy'' \n Nancy \n 4 episodes\n\n",
"* ''The Glass Menagerie'' (1965) (Boston)\n* ''The Service of Joseph Axminster'' (1965–1966) (Boston)\n* ''The Way Out of the Way In'' (1965–1966) (Boston)\n* ''The Knack'' (1965–1966) (Boston)\n* ''The Infantry'' (1966) (Off-Broadway)\n* ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' (1967) (Providence, Rhode Island)\n* ''Three Sisters'' (1967) (Providence)\n* ''Mata Hari'' (1967) (Washington, D.C., closed out of town before Broadway opening)\n* ''Summertree'' (1968) (Off-Broadway)\n* ''Cyrano de Bergerac'' (April 25 – June 8, 1968) (Broadway)\n* ''Up Eden'' (1968) (Off-Broadway)\n* ''Lovers'' (July 25 – November 30, 1968) (Broadway) (standby for Fionnula Flanagan)\n* ''Someone's Comin' Hungry'' (1969) (Off-Broadway)\n* ''The Miser'' (May 8 – June 21, 1969) (Broadway)\n* ''Butterflies Are Free'' (October 21, 1969 – July 2, 1972) (Broadway)\n* ''Major Barbara'' (1971) (Los Angeles)\n* ''Twelfth Night'' (March 2 – April 8, 1972) (Broadway)\n* ''The Seagull'' (1974) (Williamstown Theatre Festival)\n* ''Ring Round the Moon'' (1975) (Williamstown Theatre Festival)\n* ''The New York Idea'' (1977) (Brooklyn Academy of Music)\n* ''Children of the Sun'' (1979) (Williamstown Theatre Festival)\n* ''Betrayal'' (January 5 – May 31, 1980) (Broadway)\n* ''The Philadelphia Story'' (November 14, 1980 – January 4, 1981) (Broadway)\n* ''Blithe Spirit'' (March 31 – June 28, 1987) (Broadway)\n* ''A Streetcar Named Desire'' (March 20 – May 22, 1988) (Broadway)\n* ''Much Ado About Nothing'' (1988) (New York Shakespeare Festival)\n* ''Love Letters'' (1989) (Off-Broadway)\n* ''Picnic'' (1991) (Williamstown Theatre Festival)\n* ''The Seagull'' (1994) (Williamstown Theatre Festival)\n* ''Sylvia'' (1995) (Off-Broadway)\n* ''Moonlight'' (1995–1996) (Off-Broadway)\n* ''The Deep Blue Sea'' (March 26 – May 10, 1998) (Broadway)\n* ''Ancestral Voices'' (1999) (staged reading) (Off-Broadway)\n* ''Tonight'' (2000) (Williamstown Theatre Festival)\n* ''Follies'' (April 5 – July 14, 2001) (Broadway)\n* ''Little Murders'' (2001) (staged reading) (Off-Broadway)\n* ''Carousel'' (2002) (concert performance) (Carnegie Hall)\n* ''The Chekhov Cycle'' (2002) (Williamstown Theatre Festival)\n* ''All About Eve'' (2003) (staged reading) (Los Angeles)\n* ''Nice Work If You Can Get It'' (2012–2013) (Broadway)\n* ''The Country House'' (2014) (Broadway)\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* Stage biography from ''Playbill'' website\n* 2003 article from the Environmental Media Association\n* Blythe Danner interview: Leading Ladies Working in the Theatre video from American Theatre Wing, December 2006\n* Working in the Theatre: Performance video seminar at American Theatre Wing, April 1998\n* Working in the Theatre: Performance video seminar at American Theatre Wing, April 1988\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life",
"Career",
"Environmental activism",
"Health care activism",
"Personal life",
"Filmography",
"Theater work",
"References",
"External links"
] | Blythe Danner | [
"Danner was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the daughter of Katharine (née Kile; 1909–2006) and Harry Earl Danner, a bank executive."
] | [
"\n\n\n'''Blythe Katherine Danner''' (born February 3, 1943) is an American actress.",
"She won two Primetime Emmy Awards for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for her role as Izzy Huffstodt on ''Huff'' (2004–2006), and a Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play for her performance in ''Butterflies Are Free'' (1969–1972).",
"Danner was nominated for two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for portraying Marilyn Truman on ''Will & Grace'' (2001–2006), and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie for her roles in ''We Were the Mulvaneys'' (2002) and ''Back When We Were Grownups'' (2004).",
"For the latter, she was also nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film.",
"Danner is best known for her roles as Martha Jefferson in the film ''1776'' (1972), and as Dina Byrnes in ''Meet the Parents'' (2000) and its sequels ''Meet the Fockers'' (2004) and ''Little Fockers'' (2010).",
"She has also appeared in the films ''The Great Santini'' (1979), ''Mr.",
"and Mrs. Bridge'' (1990), ''The Prince of Tides'' (1991), ''Husbands and Wives'' (1992), and ''I'll See You in My Dreams'' (2015).",
"She is the widow of Bruce Paltrow and the mother of actress Gwyneth Paltrow and director Jake Paltrow.",
"She has a brother, opera singer and actor Harry Danner; a sister-in-law, performer-turned-director Dorothy \"Dottie\" Danner; and a half-brother, violin maker William Moennig.",
"Danner has Pennsylvania Dutch (German), and some English and Irish, ancestry; her maternal grandmother was a German immigrant, and one of her paternal great-grandmothers was born in Barbados (to a family of European descent).",
"Danner graduated from George School, a Quaker high school located near Newtown, Bucks County, Pennsylvania in 1960.",
"A graduate of Bard College, Danner's first roles included the 1967 musical ''Mata Hari'' (closed out of town), and the 1968 Off-Broadway production of ''Summertree''.",
"Her early Broadway appearances included ''Cyrano de Bergerac'' (1968) and her Theatre World Award-winning performance in ''The Miser'' (1969).",
"She won the Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play for portraying a free-spirited divorcée in ''Butterflies Are Free'' (1969–1972).",
"In 1972, Danner portrayed Martha Jefferson in the film version of ''1776''.",
"That same year, she played a wife whose husband has been unfaithful, opposite Peter Falk and John Cassavetes, in the ''Columbo'' episode \"Etude in Black\".",
"Her earliest starring film role was opposite Alan Alda in ''To Kill a Clown'' (1972).",
"Danner appeared in the episode of ''M*A*S*H'' entitled \"The More I See You\", playing the love interest of Alda's character Hawkeye Pierce.",
"She played lawyer Amanda Bonner in television's ''Adam's Rib'', also opposite Ken Howard as Adam Bonner.",
"She played Zelda Fitzgerald in ''F.",
"Scott Fitzgerald and 'The Last of the Belles''' (1974).",
"She was the eponymous heroine in the film ''Lovin' Molly'' (1974) (directed by Sidney Lumet).",
"She appeared in ''Futureworld'', playing Tracy Ballard with co-star Peter Fonda (1976).",
"In the 1982 TV movie ''Inside the Third Reich'', she played the wife of Albert Speer.",
"In the film version of Neil Simon's semi-autobiographical play ''Brighton Beach Memoirs'' (1986), she portrayed a middle-aged Jewish mother.",
"She has appeared in two films based on the novels of Pat Conroy, ''The Great Santini'' (1979) and ''The Prince of Tides'' (1991), as well as two television movies adapted from books by Anne Tyler, ''Saint Maybe'' and ''Back When We Were Grownups'', both for the Hallmark Hall of Fame.",
"Danner at the Metropolitan Opera opening, September 22, 2008\nDanner appeared opposite Robert De Niro in the 2000 comedy hit ''Meet the Parents'', and its sequels, ''Meet the Fockers'' (2004) and ''Little Fockers'' (2010).",
"From 2001 to 2006, she regularly appeared on NBC's sitcom ''Will & Grace'' as Will Truman's mother Marilyn.",
"From 2004 to 2006, she starred in the main cast of the comedy-drama series ''Huff''.",
"In 2005, she was nominated for three Primetime Emmy Awards for her work on ''Will & Grace'', ''Huff'', and the television film ''Back When We Were Grownups'', winning for her role in ''Huff''.",
"The following year, she won a second consecutive Emmy Award for ''Huff''.",
"For 25 years, she has been a regular performer at the Williamstown Summer Theater Festival, where she also serves on the Board of Directors.",
"In 2006, Danner was awarded an inaugural Katharine Hepburn Medal by Bryn Mawr College's Katharine Houghton Hepburn Center.",
"In 2015, Danner was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame.",
"Danner has been involved in environmental issues such as recycling and conservation for over 30 years.",
"She has been active with INFORM, Inc., is on the Board of Environmental Advocates of New York and the Board of Directors of the Environmental Media Association, and won the 2002 EMA Board of Directors Ongoing Commitment Award.",
"In 2011, Danner joined Moms Clean Air Force, to help call on parents to join in the fight against toxic air pollution.",
"After the death of her husband Bruce Paltrow from oral cancer, she became involved with the Oral Cancer Foundation, a national 501(c)3 nonprofit charity.",
"In 2005, she filmed a public service announcement that played on TV stations around the country about the risks associated with oral cancer, and through that shared the personal pain associated with the loss of her husband publicly to further awareness of the disease and the need for early detection.",
"She continues to donate her time to the foundation, and has appeared on morning talk shows, and has done interviews in high-profile magazines such as ''People'' to further public awareness of the disease and its risk factors.",
"Through the Bruce Paltrow Oral Cancer Fund, administered by the Oral Cancer Foundation, she continues to raise awareness and funding for oral cancer issues, particularly those involving communities in which disparities in health care exist.",
"She appeared in commercials for Prolia, a brand of denosumab for injection.",
"Danner is the widow of producer/director Bruce Paltrow, who died from complications of pneumonia while battling oral cancer in 2002, and the mother of actress Gwyneth Paltrow and director Jake Paltrow.",
"Danner first co-starred with her daughter in 1992 in the television film ''Cruel Doubt'', and then again in the 2003 film ''Sylvia''.",
"Danner portrayed Aurelia Plath, the mother to Gwyneth's title role of Sylvia Plath.",
"Regarding meditation practice, Danner said, \"I have found transcendental meditation very helpful and comforting.",
"It centers me.\"",
"\n===Film===\n\n\n Year\n Title\n Role\n Notes\n\n 1972 \n ''To Kill a Clown'' \n Lily Frischer \n\n\n 1972 \n ''1776'' \n Martha Jefferson \n\n\n 1974 \n ''Lovin' Molly'' \n Molly Taylor \n\n\n 1975 \n ''Hearts of the West'' \n Miss Trout \n\n\n 1976 \n ''Futureworld'' \n Tracy Ballard \n Saturn Award for Best Actress\n\n 1979 \n ''The Great Santini'' \n Lillian Meechum \n\n\n 1983 \n ''Man, Woman and Child'' \n Sheila Beckwith \n\n\n 1986 \n ''Brighton Beach Memoirs'' \n Kate Jerome \n\n\n 1988 \n ''Another Woman'' \n Lydia \n\n\n 1990 \n ''Mr.",
"and Mrs. Bridge'' \n Grace Barron \n\n\n 1990 \n ''Alice'' \n Dorothy Smith \n\n\n 1991 \n ''The Prince of Tides'' \n Sally Wingo \n \n\n 1992 \n ''Husbands and Wives'' \n Rain's Mother \n\n\n 1995 \n ''Napoleon'' \n Mother Dingo \n\n\n 1995 \n ''Homage'' \n Katherine Samuel \n\n\n 1995 \n ''To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything!",
"Julie Newmar'' \n Beatrice \n\n\n 1997 \n ''The Myth of Fingerprints'' \n Lena \n\n\n 1997 \n ''Mad City'' \n Mrs. Banks \n\n\n 1998 \n ''The Proposition'' \n Syril Danning \n\n\n 1998 \n ''No Looking Back'' \n Claudia's Mother \n\n\n 1998 \n ''The X-Files'' \n Jana Cassidy \n\n\n 1999 \n ''Forces of Nature'' \n Virginia Cahill \n\n\n 1999 \n ''The Love Letter'' \n Lillian MacFarquhar \n\n\n 1999 \n ''Things I Forgot to Remember'' \n Mrs. Bradford \n\n\n 2000 \n ''Meet the Parents'' \n Dina Byrnes \n Nominated – Blockbuster Entertainment Award for Favorite Supporting Actress in a Comedy\n\n 2001 \n ''The Invisible Circus'' \n Gail O'Connor \n\n\n 2003 \n ''Three Days of Rain'' \n Woman in Cab \n\n\n 2003 \n ''Sylvia'' \n Aurelia Plath \n\n\n 2004 \n ''Howl's Moving Castle'' \n Madam Suliman \n\n\n 2004 \n ''Meet the Fockers'' \n Dina Byrnes \n\n\n 2006 \n ''Stolen'' \n Isabella Stewart Gardner \n\n\n 2006 \n ''The Last Kiss'' \n Anna \n Nominated – Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture\n\n 2008 \n ''The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants 2'' \n Greta Randolph \n\n\n 2009 \n ''Waiting for Forever'' \n Miranda Twist \n\n\n 2009 \n ''The Lightkeepers'' \n Mrs. Bascom \n\n\n 2010 \n ''Little Fockers'' \n Dina Byrnes \n\n\n 2011 \n ''Paul'' \n Tara Walton \n\n\n 2011 \n ''What's Your Number?''",
"Ava Darling \n\n\n 2011 \n ''Detachment'' \n Mrs. Perkins \n\n\n 2012 \n ''The Lucky One'' \n Ellie Green \n\n\n 2012 \n ''Hello I Must Be Going'' \n Ruth Minsky \n\n\n 2014 \n ''Murder of a Cat'' \n Edie Moisey \n\n\n 2015 \n ''I'll See You in My Dreams'' \n Carol Petersen \n Nominated – Gotham Award for Best ActressNominated – Satellite Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture\n\n 2015 \n ''Tumbledown'' \n Linda Jespersen \n \n\n 2018 \n ''The Chaperone'' \n Mary O'Dell \n Post-production\n\n 2018 \n ''Strange But True'' \n Gail \n Post-production\n\n 2018 \n ''What They Had'' \n Ruth \n Post-production\n\n 2018 \n ''Hearts Beat Loud'' \n \n Post-production\n\n\n===Television===\n\n\n Year\n Title\n Role\n Notes\n\n 1970 \n ''George M!''",
"Agnes Nolan Cohan \n Television movie\n\n 1971 \n ''Dr.",
"Cook's Garden'' \n Janey Rausch \n Television movie\n\n 1972 \n ''Columbo'' \n Janice Benedict \n Episode: \"Etude in Black\"\n\n 1973 \n ''Adam's Rib'' \n Amanda Bonner \n 13 episodes\n\n 1974 \n ''F.",
"Scott Fitzgerald and 'The Last of the Belles''' \n Zelda Fitzgerald \n Television movie\n\n 1974 \n ''Sidekicks'' \n Prudy Jenkins \n Television movie\n\n 1975 \n ''Great Performances'' \n Nina Zarechnaya \n Episode: \"The Seagull\"\n\n 1976 \n ''M*A*S*H'' \n Carlye Breslin Walton \n Episode: \"The More I See You\"\n\n 1976 \n ''A Love Affair: The Eleanor and Lou Gehrig Story'' \n Eleanor Gehrig \n Television movie\n\n 1976 \n ''Great Performances'' \n Alma Winemiller \n Episode: \"Eccentricites of a Nightingale\"\n\n 1977 \n ''The Court-Martial of George Armstrong Custer'' \n Mrs. Custer \n Television movie\n\n 1978 \n ''Are You in the House Alone?''",
"Anne Osbourne \n Television movie\n\n 1979 \n ''Too Far to Go'' \n Joan Barlow Maple \n Television movie\n\n 1979 \n ''You Can't Take It with You'' \n Alice Sycamore \n Television movie\n\n 1982 \n ''Inside the Third Reich'' \n Margarete Speer \n Television movie\n\n 1983 \n ''In Defense of Kids'' \n Ellen Wilcox \n Television movie\n\n 1984 \n ''Guilty Conscience'' \n Louise Jamison \n Television movie\n\n 1984 \n ''Helen Keller: The Miracle Continues'' \n Anne Sullivan \n Television movie\n\n 1988–1989 \n ''Tattingers'' \n Hillary Tattinger \n 13 episodes\n\n 1989 \n ''Money, Power, Murder'' \n Jeannie \n Television movie\n\n 1990 \n ''Judgment'' \n Emmeline Guitry \n Television movie\n\n 1992 \n ''Getting Up and Going Home'' \n Lily \n Television movie\n\n 1992 \n ''Cruel Doubt'' \n Bonnie Van Stein \n Television movie\n\n 1992 \n ''Tales from the Crypt'' \n Margaret \n Episode: \"Maniac at Large\"\n\n 1992 \n ''Lincoln'' \n Elizabeth Todd Edwards \n Television movie\n\n 1993 \n ''Tracey Ullman Takes On New York'' \n Eleanor Levine \n Television movie\n\n 1993 \n ''Great Performances'' \n Narrator \n Episode: \"The Maestros of Philadelphia\"\n\n 1994 \n ''Oldest Living Confederate Widow Tells All'' \n Bianca Honicut \n Television movie\n\n 1994 \n ''Leave of Absence'' \n Elisa \n Television movie\n\n 1997 \n ''Thomas Jefferson'' \n Martha Jefferson \n Television movie\n\n 1997 \n ''A Call to Remember'' \n Paula Tobias \n Television movie\n\n 1998 \n ''From the Earth to the Moon'' \n Narrator \n Episode: \"Le voyage dans la dune\"\n\n 1998 \n ''Saint Maybe'' \n Bee Bedloe \n Television movie\n\n 1998 \n ''Murder She Purred: A Mrs. Murphy Mystery'' \n Mrs. Murphy \n Television movie\n\n 2001–2006 \n ''Will & Grace'' \n Marilyn Truman \n 11 episodesNominated—Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series (2005–06)\n\n 2002 \n ''We Were the Mulvaneys'' \n Corinne Mulvaney \n Television movieNominated—Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie\n\n 2002 \n ''Presidio Med'' \n Dr. Harriet Lanning \n 3 episodes\n\n 2003 \n ''Two and a Half Men'' \n Evelyn Harper \n Episode: \"Most Chicks Won't Eat Veal\"\n\n 2004 \n ''Back When We Were Grownups'' \n Rebecca Holmes Davitch \n Television movieNominated—Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television FilmNominated—Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie\n\n 2004–2006 \n ''Huff'' \n Isabelle Huffstodt \n 25 episodesPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (2005–06)\n\n 2009 \n ''Medium'' \n Louise Leaming \n Episode: \"A Taste of Her Own Medicine\"\n\n 2009 \n ''Nurse Jackie'' \n Maureen Cooper \n Episode: \"Tiny Bubbles\"\n\n 2011–2012 \n ''Up All Night'' \n Dr. Angie Chafin \n 3 episodes\n\n 2015 \n ''The Slap'' \n Virginia Latham \n Episode: \"Anouk\"\n\n 2016 \n ''Madoff'' \n Ruth Madoff \n 4 episodes \n\n 2016 \n ''Odd Mom Out'' \n Jill's Mom \n Episode: \"Fasting and Furious\"\n\n 2017 \n ''Gypsy'' \n Nancy \n 4 episodes",
"* ''The Glass Menagerie'' (1965) (Boston)\n* ''The Service of Joseph Axminster'' (1965–1966) (Boston)\n* ''The Way Out of the Way In'' (1965–1966) (Boston)\n* ''The Knack'' (1965–1966) (Boston)\n* ''The Infantry'' (1966) (Off-Broadway)\n* ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' (1967) (Providence, Rhode Island)\n* ''Three Sisters'' (1967) (Providence)\n* ''Mata Hari'' (1967) (Washington, D.C., closed out of town before Broadway opening)\n* ''Summertree'' (1968) (Off-Broadway)\n* ''Cyrano de Bergerac'' (April 25 – June 8, 1968) (Broadway)\n* ''Up Eden'' (1968) (Off-Broadway)\n* ''Lovers'' (July 25 – November 30, 1968) (Broadway) (standby for Fionnula Flanagan)\n* ''Someone's Comin' Hungry'' (1969) (Off-Broadway)\n* ''The Miser'' (May 8 – June 21, 1969) (Broadway)\n* ''Butterflies Are Free'' (October 21, 1969 – July 2, 1972) (Broadway)\n* ''Major Barbara'' (1971) (Los Angeles)\n* ''Twelfth Night'' (March 2 – April 8, 1972) (Broadway)\n* ''The Seagull'' (1974) (Williamstown Theatre Festival)\n* ''Ring Round the Moon'' (1975) (Williamstown Theatre Festival)\n* ''The New York Idea'' (1977) (Brooklyn Academy of Music)\n* ''Children of the Sun'' (1979) (Williamstown Theatre Festival)\n* ''Betrayal'' (January 5 – May 31, 1980) (Broadway)\n* ''The Philadelphia Story'' (November 14, 1980 – January 4, 1981) (Broadway)\n* ''Blithe Spirit'' (March 31 – June 28, 1987) (Broadway)\n* ''A Streetcar Named Desire'' (March 20 – May 22, 1988) (Broadway)\n* ''Much Ado About Nothing'' (1988) (New York Shakespeare Festival)\n* ''Love Letters'' (1989) (Off-Broadway)\n* ''Picnic'' (1991) (Williamstown Theatre Festival)\n* ''The Seagull'' (1994) (Williamstown Theatre Festival)\n* ''Sylvia'' (1995) (Off-Broadway)\n* ''Moonlight'' (1995–1996) (Off-Broadway)\n* ''The Deep Blue Sea'' (March 26 – May 10, 1998) (Broadway)\n* ''Ancestral Voices'' (1999) (staged reading) (Off-Broadway)\n* ''Tonight'' (2000) (Williamstown Theatre Festival)\n* ''Follies'' (April 5 – July 14, 2001) (Broadway)\n* ''Little Murders'' (2001) (staged reading) (Off-Broadway)\n* ''Carousel'' (2002) (concert performance) (Carnegie Hall)\n* ''The Chekhov Cycle'' (2002) (Williamstown Theatre Festival)\n* ''All About Eve'' (2003) (staged reading) (Los Angeles)\n* ''Nice Work If You Can Get It'' (2012–2013) (Broadway)\n* ''The Country House'' (2014) (Broadway)",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* Stage biography from ''Playbill'' website\n* 2003 article from the Environmental Media Association\n* Blythe Danner interview: Leading Ladies Working in the Theatre video from American Theatre Wing, December 2006\n* Working in the Theatre: Performance video seminar at American Theatre Wing, April 1998\n* Working in the Theatre: Performance video seminar at American Theatre Wing, April 1988"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Bali''' (Balinese: , Indonesian: ''Pulau Bali'', ''Provinsi Bali'') is an island and province of Indonesia. The province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller neighbouring islands, notably Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan, and Nusa Ceningan. It is located at the westernmost end of the Lesser Sunda Islands, between Java to the west and Lombok to the east. Its capital, Denpasar, is located in the southern part of the island.\n\nWith a population of 3,890,757 in the 2010 census, and 4,225,000 as of January 2014, the island is home to most of Indonesia's Hindu minority. According to the 2010 Census, 83.5% of Bali's population adhered to Balinese Hinduism, followed by 13.4% Muslim, Christianity at 2.5%, and Buddhism 0.5%.\n\nBali is a popular tourist destination, which has seen a significant rise in tourists since the 1980s. Tourism-related business makes up 80% of its economy. It is renowned for its highly developed arts, including traditional and modern dance, sculpture, painting, leather, metalworking, and music. The Indonesian International Film Festival is held every year in Bali. In March 2017, TripAdvisor named the island the world's top destination in its Traveler's choice award.\n\nBali is part of the Coral Triangle, the area with the highest biodiversity of marine species. In this area alone over 500 reef building coral species can be found. For comparison, this is about 7 times as many as in the entire Caribbean. Most recently, Bali was the host of the 2011 ASEAN Summit, 2013 APEC and Miss World 2013. Bali is the home of the Subak Irrigation System, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is also home to a unified confederation of kingdoms, composed of 10 traditional royal Balinese houses, where each house rules a specific geographic area. the confederation is the successor of the Bali Kingdom. The royal houses are not recognized by the government of Indonesia, however, they have been operational since their establishment prior to Dutch colonization.\n",
"\n\n===Ancient===\nBali was inhabited around 2000 BC by Austronesian people who migrated originally from Southeast Asia and Oceania through Maritime Southeast Asia. Culturally and linguistically, the Balinese are closely related to the people of the Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, the Philippines and Oceania. Stone tools dating from this time have been found near the village of Cekik in the island's west.\n\nIn ancient Bali, nine Hindu sects existed, namely Pasupata, Bhairawa, Siwa Shidanta, Waisnawa, Bodha, Brahma, Resi, Sora and Ganapatya. Each sect revered a specific deity as its personal Godhead.\n\nInscriptions from 896 and 911 don't mention a king, until 914, when Sri Kesarivarma is mentioned. They also reveal an independent Bali, with a distinct dialect, where Buddhism and Sivaism were practiced simultaneously. Mpu Sindok's great-granddaughter, Mahendradatta (Gunapriyadharmapatni), married the Bali king Udayana Warmadewa (Dharmodayanavarmadeva) around 989, giving birth to Airlangga around 1001. This marriage also brought more Hinduism and Javanese culture to Bali. Princess Sakalendukirana appeared in 1098. Suradhipa reigned from 1115 to 1119, and Jayasakti from 1146 until 1150. Jayapangus appears on inscriptions between 1178 and 1181, while Adikuntiketana and his son Paramesvara in 1204.\n\nBalinese culture was strongly influenced by Indian, Chinese, and particularly Hindu culture, beginning around the 1st century AD. The name ''Bali dwipa'' (\"Bali island\") has been discovered from various inscriptions, including the Blanjong pillar inscription written by Sri Kesari Warmadewa in 914 AD and mentioning \"Walidwipa\". It was during this time that the people developed their complex irrigation system ''subak'' to grow rice in wet-field cultivation. Some religious and cultural traditions still practiced today can be traced to this period.\n\nThe Hindu Majapahit Empire (1293–1520 AD) on eastern Java founded a Balinese colony in 1343. The uncle of Hayam Wuruk is mentioned in the charters of 1384–86. A mass Javanese immigration to Bali occurred in the next century when the Majapahit Empire fell in 1520. Bali's government then became an independent collection of Hindu kingdoms which led to a Balinese national identity and major enhancements in culture, arts, and economy. The nation with various kingdoms became independent for up to 386 years until 1906, when the Dutch subjugated and repulsed the natives for economic control and took it over.\n\nKandapat Sari statue in Semarapura, one of old settlements in Bali. Historically, Balinese art and culture is born and based in this town\n\n===Portuguese contacts===\nThe first known European contact with Bali is thought to have been made in 1512, when a Portuguese expedition led by Antonio Abreu and Francisco Serrão sighted its northern shores. It was the first expedition of a series of bi-annual fleets to the Moluccas, that throughout the 16th century usually traveled along the coasts of the Sunda Islands. Bali was also mapped in 1512, in the chart of Francisco Rodrigues, aboard the expedition. In 1585, a ship foundered off the Bukit Peninsula and left a few Portuguese in the service of Dewa Agung.\n\n===Dutch East Indies===\nPuputan monument\nIn 1597 the Dutch explorer Cornelis de Houtman arrived at Bali, and the Dutch East India Company was established in 1602. The Dutch government expanded its control across the Indonesian archipelago during the second half of the 19th century (see Dutch East Indies). Dutch political and economic control over Bali began in the 1840s on the island's north coast, when the Dutch pitted various competing Balinese realms against each other. In the late 1890s, struggles between Balinese kingdoms in the island's south were exploited by the Dutch to increase their control.\n\nIn June 1860 the famous Welsh naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace, travelled to Bali from Singapore, landing at Buleleng on the north coast of the island. Wallace's trip to Bali was instrumental in helping him devise his Wallace Line theory. The Wallace Line is a faunal boundary that runs through the strait between Bali and Lombok. It has been found to be a boundary between species. In his travel memoir ''The Malay Archipelago,'' Wallace wrote of his experience in Bali, of which has strong mention of the unique Balinese irrigation methods:\n\nI was both astonished and delighted; for as my visit to Java was some years later, I had never beheld so beautiful and well-cultivated a district out of Europe. A slightly undulating plain extends from the seacoast about inland, where it is bounded by a fine range of wooded and cultivated hills. Houses and villages, marked out by dense clumps of coconut palms, tamarind and other fruit trees, are dotted about in every direction; while between them extend luxurious rice-grounds, watered by an elaborate system of irrigation that would be the pride of the best cultivated parts of Europe. \n\nThe Dutch mounted large naval and ground assaults at the Sanur region in 1906 and were met by the thousands of members of the royal family and their followers who rather than yield to the superior Dutch force committed ritual suicide (''puputan'') to avoid the humiliation of surrender. Despite Dutch demands for surrender, an estimated 200 Balinese killed themselves rather than surrender. In the Dutch intervention in Bali, a similar mass suicide occurred in the face of a Dutch assault in Klungkung. Afterward the Dutch governors exercised administrative control over the island, but local control over religion and culture generally remained intact. Dutch rule over Bali came later and was never as well established as in other parts of Indonesia such as Java and Maluku.\n\nIn the 1930s, anthropologists Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson, artists Miguel Covarrubias and Walter Spies, and musicologist Colin McPhee all spent time here. Their accounts of the island and its peoples created a western image of Bali as \"an enchanted land of aesthetes at peace with themselves and nature.\" Western tourists began to visit the island. The sensuous image of Bali was enhanced in the west by a quasi-pornographic 1932 documentary ''Virgins of Bali'' about a day in the lives of two teenage Balinese girls whom the film's narrator Deane Dickason notes in the first scene \"bathe their shamelessly nude bronze bodies\". Under the looser version of the Haynes code that existed up to 1934, nudity involving \"civilized\" (i.e. white) women was banned, but permitted with \"uncivilized\" (i.e. all non-white women), a loophole that was exploited by the producers of ''Virgins of Bali''. The film, which mostly consisted of scenes of topless Balinese women was a great success in 1932, and almost single-handily made Bali into a popular spot for tourists.\n\nThe Bali bombings monument\n\nImperial Japan occupied Bali during World War II. It was not originally a target in their Netherlands East Indies Campaign, but as the airfields on Borneo were inoperative due to heavy rains, the Imperial Japanese Army decided to occupy Bali, which did not suffer from comparable weather. The island had no regular Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) troops. There was only a Native Auxiliary Corps ''Prajoda'' (Korps Prajoda) consisting of about 600 native soldiers and several Dutch KNIL officers under the command of KNIL Lieutenant Colonel W.P. Roodenburg. On 19 February 1942 the Japanese forces landed near the town of Senoer Senur. The island was quickly captured.\n\nDuring the Japanese occupation, a Balinese military officer, Gusti Ngurah Rai, formed a Balinese 'freedom army'. The harshness of Japanese occupation forces made them more resented than the Dutch colonial rulers.\n\n===Independence from the Dutch===\nIn 1946, the Dutch constituted Bali as one of the 13 administrative districts of the newly proclaimed State of East Indonesia, a rival state to the Republic of Indonesia, which was proclaimed and headed by Sukarno and Hatta. Bali was included in the \"Republic of the United States of Indonesia\" when the Netherlands recognised Indonesian independence on 29 December 1949. The first governor of Bali, Anak Agung Bagus Suteja, was appointed by President Sukarno in 1958, when Bali became a province.\n\n===Contemporary===\nThe 1963 eruption of Mount Agung killed thousands, created economic havoc and forced many displaced Balinese to be transmigrated to other parts of Indonesia. Mirroring the widening of social divisions across Indonesia in the 1950s and early 1960s, Bali saw conflict between supporters of the traditional caste system, and those rejecting this system. Politically, the opposition was represented by supporters of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) and the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), with tensions and ill-feeling further increased by the PKI's land reform programs. An attempted coup in Jakarta was put down by forces led by General Suharto.\n\nThe army became the dominant power as it instigated a violent anti-communist purge, in which the army blamed the PKI for the coup. Most estimates suggest that at least 500,000 people were killed across Indonesia, with an estimated 80,000 killed in Bali, equivalent to 5% of the island's population. With no Islamic forces involved as in Java and Sumatra, upper-caste PNI landlords led the extermination of PKI members.\n\nAs a result of the 1965-66 upheavals, Suharto was able to manoeuvre Sukarno out of the presidency. His \"New Order\" government reestablished relations with western countries. The pre-War Bali as \"paradise\" was revived in a modern form. The resulting large growth in tourism has led to a dramatic increase in Balinese standards of living and significant foreign exchange earned for the country. A bombing in 2002 by militant Islamists in the tourist area of Kuta killed 202 people, mostly foreigners. This attack, and another in 2005, severely reduced tourism, producing much economic hardship to the island.\n",
"\nMount Agung, the highest peak on Bali \nThe island of Bali lies 3.2 km (2 mi) east of Java, and is approximately 8 degrees south of the equator. Bali and Java are separated by the Bali Strait. East to west, the island is approximately 153 km (95 mi) wide and spans approximately 112 km (69 mi) north to south; administratively it covers 5,780 km2, or 5,577 km2 without Nusa Penida District, its population density is roughly 750 people/km2.\n\nBali's central mountains include several peaks over in elevation and active volcanoes such as Mount Batur. The highest is Mount Agung (), known as the \"mother mountain\" which is an active volcano rated as one of the world's most likely sites for a massive eruption within the next 100 years. Mountains range from centre to the eastern side, with Mount Agung the easternmost peak. Bali's volcanic nature has contributed to its exceptional fertility and its tall mountain ranges provide the high rainfall that supports the highly productive agriculture sector. South of the mountains is a broad, steadily descending area where most of Bali's large rice crop is grown. The northern side of the mountains slopes more steeply to the sea and is the main coffee producing area of the island, along with rice, vegetables and cattle. The longest river, Ayung River, flows approximately 75 km (see List of rivers of Bali).\n\nThe island is surrounded by coral reefs. Beaches in the south tend to have white sand while those in the north and west have black sand. Bali has no major waterways, although the Ho River is navigable by small ''sampan'' boats. Black sand beaches between Pasut and Klatingdukuh are being developed for tourism, but apart from the seaside temple of Tanah Lot, they are not yet used for significant tourism.\nSubak irrigation system\nThe largest city is the provincial capital, Denpasar, near the southern coast. Its population is around 491,500 (2002). Bali's second-largest city is the old colonial capital, Singaraja, which is located on the north coast and is home to around 100,000 people. Other important cities include the beach resort, Kuta, which is practically part of Denpasar's urban area, and Ubud, situated at the north of Denpasar, is the island's cultural centre.\n\nThree small islands lie to the immediate south east and all are administratively part of the Klungkung regency of Bali: Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan and Nusa Ceningan. These islands are separated from Bali by the Badung Strait.\n\nTo the east, the Lombok Strait separates Bali from Lombok and marks the biogeographical division between the fauna of the Indomalayan ecozone and the distinctly different fauna of Australasia. The transition is known as the Wallace Line, named after Alfred Russel Wallace, who first proposed a transition zone between these two major biomes. When sea levels dropped during the Pleistocene ice age, Bali was connected to Java and Sumatra and to the mainland of Asia and shared the Asian fauna, but the deep water of the Lombok Strait continued to keep Lombok Island and the Lesser Sunda archipelago isolated.\n",
"Being just 8 degrees south of the equator, Bali has a fairly even climate year round. Average year-round temperature stands at around 30°C with a humidity level of about 85%.\n\nDay time temperatures at low elevations vary between 20–33°C (68–91°F), although it can be much cooler than that in the mountains. The west monsoon is in place from approximately October to April, and this can bring significant rain, particularly from December to March. Outside of the monsoon period, humidity is relatively low and any rain is unlikely in lowland areas.\n\nThe high season in Bali is during the \"dry season\" in July and August, as well as during the Easter and Christmas holidays, when the weather is very unpredictable.\n",
"\nThe Bali myna is found only on Bali and is critically endangered.\nBali lies just to the west of the Wallace Line, and thus has a fauna that is Asian in character, with very little Australasian influence, and has more in common with Java than with Lombok. An exception is the yellow-crested cockatoo, a member of a primarily Australasian family. There are around 280 species of birds, including the critically endangered Bali myna, which is endemic. Others include barn swallow, black-naped oriole, black racket-tailed treepie, crested serpent-eagle, crested treeswift, dollarbird, Java sparrow, lesser adjutant, long-tailed shrike, milky stork, Pacific swallow, red-rumped swallow, sacred kingfisher, sea eagle, woodswallow, savanna nightjar, stork-billed kingfisher, yellow-vented bulbul and great egret.\n\nUntil the early 20th century, Bali was home to several large mammals: the wild banteng, leopard and the endemic Bali tiger. The banteng still occurs in its domestic form, whereas leopards are found only in neighbouring Java, and the Bali tiger is extinct. The last definite record of a tiger on Bali dates from 1937, when one was shot, though the subspecies may have survived until the 1940s or 1950s.\n\nMonkeys in Uluwatu\nSquirrels are quite commonly encountered, less often is the Asian palm civet, which is also kept in coffee farms to produce Kopi Luwak. Bats are well represented, perhaps the most famous place to encounter them remaining is the Goa Lawah (Temple of the Bats) where they are worshipped by the locals and also constitute a tourist attraction. They also occur in other cave temples, for instance at Gangga Beach. Two species of monkey occur. The crab-eating macaque, known locally as \"kera\", is quite common around human settlements and temples, where it becomes accustomed to being fed by humans, particularly in any of the three \"monkey forest\" temples, such as the popular one in the Ubud area. They are also quite often kept as pets by locals. The second monkey, endemic to Java and some surrounding islands such as Bali, is far rarer and more elusive and is the Javan langur, locally known as \"lutung\". They occur in few places apart from the Bali Barat National Park. They are born an orange colour, though by their first year they would have already changed to a more blackish colouration. In Java however, there is more of a tendency for this species to retain its juvenile orange colour into adulthood, and so you can see a mixture of black and orange monkeys together as a family. Other rarer mammals include the leopard cat, Sunda pangolin and black giant squirrel.\n\nSnakes include the king cobra and reticulated python. The water monitor can grow to at least in length and and can move quickly.\n\nThe rich coral reefs around the coast, particularly around popular diving spots such as Tulamben, Amed, Menjangan or neighbouring Nusa Penida, host a wide range of marine life, for instance hawksbill turtle, giant sunfish, giant manta ray, giant moray eel, bumphead parrotfish, hammerhead shark, reef shark, barracuda, and sea snakes. Dolphins are commonly encountered on the north coast near Singaraja and Lovina.\n\nSelfie with Giant Manta, Bali\n\nA team of scientists conducted a survey from 29 April 2011 to 11 May 2011 at 33 sea sites around Bali. They discovered 952 species of reef fish of which 8 were new discoveries at Pemuteran, Gilimanuk, Nusa Dua, Tulamben and Candidasa, and 393 coral species, including two new ones at Padangbai and between Padangbai and Amed. The average coverage level of healthy coral was 36% (better than in Raja Ampat and Halmahera by 29% or in Fakfak and Kaimana by 25%) with the highest coverage found in Gili Selang and Gili Mimpang in Candidasa, Karangasem regency.\n\nAmong the larger trees the most common are: banyan trees, jackfruit, coconuts, bamboo species, acacia trees and also endless rows of coconuts and banana species. Numerous flowers can be seen: hibiscus, frangipani, bougainvillea, poinsettia, oleander, jasmine, water lily, lotus, roses, begonias, orchids and hydrangeas exist. On higher grounds that receive more moisture, for instance around Kintamani, certain species of fern trees, mushrooms and even pine trees thrive well. Rice comes in many varieties. Other plants with agricultural value include: salak, mangosteen, corn, kintamani orange, coffee and water spinach.\n",
"Rice terraces in Bali\nSome of the worst erosion has occurred in Lebih Beach, where up to of land is lost every year. Decades ago, this beach was used for holy pilgrimages with more than 10,000 people, but they have now moved to Masceti Beach.\n\nFrom ranked third in previous review, in 2010 Bali got score 99.65 of Indonesia's environmental quality index and the highest of all the 33 provinces. The score measured three water quality parameters: the level of total suspended solids (TSS), dissolved oxygen (DO) and chemical oxygen demand (COD).\n\nBecause of over-exploitation by the tourist industry which covers a massive land area, 200 out of 400 rivers on the island have dried up and based on research, the southern part of Bali would face a water shortage up to 2,500 litres of clean water per second by 2015.\nTo ease the shortage, the central government plans to build a water catchment and processing facility at Petanu River in Gianyar. The 300 litres capacity of water per second will be channelled to Denpasar, Badung and Gianyar in 2013.\n",
"The province is divided into eight regencies (''kabupaten'') and one city (''kota''). These are:\n\n\n\n Name !! Capital !! Area in km2 !! Population 2000 Census !! Population 2010 Census !! Population 2014 estimate !! HDI2014 estimate\n\n Denpasar City \n Denpasar \n \n \n \n \n 0.816 ()\n\n Badung Regency \n Mangupura \n \n \n \n \n 0.779 ()\n\n Bangli Regency \n Bangli \n \n \n \n \n 0.657 ()\n\n Buleleng Regency \n Singaraja \n \n \n \n \n 0.691 ()\n\n Gianyar Regency \n Gianyar \n \n \n \n \n 0.742 ()\n\n Jembrana Regency \n Negara \n \n \n \n \n 0.686 ()\n\n Karangasem Regency \n Amlapura \n \n \n \n \n 0.640 ()\n\n Klungkung Regency \n Semarapura \n \n \n \n \n 0.683 ()\n\n Tabanan Regency \n Tabanan \n \n \n \n \n 0.726 ()\n\n '''''Totals''''' \n \n \n \n \n \n 0.724 ()\n\n\n",
"In 1970s, the Balinese economy was largely agriculture-based in terms of both output and employment. Tourism is now the largest single industry in terms of income, and as a result, Bali is one of Indonesia's wealthiest regions. In 2003, around 80% of Bali's economy was tourism related. By end of June 2011, non-performing loan of all banks in Bali were 2.23%, lower than the average of Indonesian banking industry non-performing loan (about 5%). The economy, however, suffered significantly as a result of the terrorist bombings 2002 and 2005. The tourism industry has since recovered from these events.\n\n===Agriculture===\nWood carving in Bali\nAlthough tourism produces the GDP's largest output, agriculture is still the island's biggest employer. Fishing also provides a significant number of jobs. Bali is also famous for its artisans who produce a vast array of handicrafts, including batik and ikat cloth and clothing, wooden carvings, stone carvings, painted art and silverware. Notably, individual villages typically adopt a single product, such as wind chimes or wooden furniture.\n\nThe Arabica coffee production region is the highland region of Kintamani near Mount Batur. Generally, Balinese coffee is processed using the wet method. This results in a sweet, soft coffee with good consistency. Typical flavours include lemon and other citrus notes. Many coffee farmers in Kintamani are members of a traditional farming system called Subak Abian, which is based on the Hindu philosophy of \"Tri Hita Karana\". According to this philosophy, the three causes of happiness are good relations with God, other people, and the environment. The Subak Abian system is ideally suited to the production of fair trade and organic coffee production. Arabica coffee from Kintamani is the first product in Indonesia to request a geographical indication.\n\n===Tourism===\nCanyoning in Gitgit Waterfall, Bali, Indonesia\nTirta Empul Temple draws tourists who seek its holy waters\nPura Taman Ayun, another temple which is a popular tourist destination\n\nUlun Danu Temple, located in Bratan Lake\n\nIn 1963 the Bali Beach Hotel in Sanur was built by Sukarno, and boosted tourism in Bali. Prior to it, only three hotels existed on the island. Construction of hotels and restaurants began to spread throughout Bali. Tourism further increased on Bali after the Ngurah Rai International Airport opened in 1970. The Buleleng regency government encouraged the tourism sector as one of the mainstays for economic progress and social welfare.\n\nThe tourism industry is primarily focused in the south, while significant in the other parts of the island as well. The main tourist locations are the town of Kuta (with its beach), and its outer suburbs of Legian and Seminyak (which were once independent townships), the east coast town of Sanur (once the only tourist hub), Ubud towards the center of the island, to the south of the Ngurah Rai International Airport, Jimbaran, and the newer developments of Nusa Dua and Pecatu.\n\nThe United States government lifted its travel warnings in 2008. The Australian government issued an advisory on Friday, 4 May 2012, with the overall level of this advisory lowered to 'Exercise a high degree of caution'. The Swedish government issued a new warning on Sunday, 10 June 2012 because of one tourist who died from methanol poisoning. Australia last issued an advisory on Monday, 5 January 2015 due to new terrorist threats.\n\nKuta Beach is a popular tourist spot in BaliAn offshoot of tourism is the growing real estate industry. Bali's real estate has been rapidly developing in the main tourist areas of Kuta, Legian, Seminyak and Oberoi. Most recently, high-end 5-star projects are under development on the Bukit peninsula, on the south side of the island. Million dollar villas are being developed along the cliff sides of south Bali, with commanding panoramic ocean views. Foreign and domestic (many Jakarta individuals and companies are fairly active) investment into other areas of the island also continues to grow. Land prices, despite the worldwide economic crisis, have remained stable.\n\nIn the last half of 2008, Indonesia's currency had dropped approximately 30% against the US dollar, providing many overseas visitors value for their currencies. Visitor arrivals for 2009 were forecast to drop 8% (which would be higher than 2007 levels), mainly due to the worldwide economic crisis which has also affected the global tourist industry.\n\nBali's tourism economy survived the terrorist bombings of 2002 and 2005, and the tourism industry has in fact slowly recovered and surpassed its pre-terrorist bombing levels; the longterm trend has been a steady increase of visitor arrivals. In 2010, Bali received 2.57 million foreign tourists, which surpassed the target of 2.0–2.3 million tourists. The average occupancy of starred hotels achieved 65%, so the island still should be able to accommodate tourists for some years without any addition of new rooms/hotels, although at the peak season some of them are fully booked.\n\nBali received the Best Island award from Travel and Leisure in 2010. Bali won because of its attractive surroundings (both mountain and coastal areas), diverse tourist attractions, excellent international and local restaurants, and the friendliness of the local people. According to BBC Travel released in 2011, Bali is one of the World's Best Islands, ranking second after Santorini, Greece.\n\nIn August 2010, the film ''Eat Pray Love'' was released in theatres. The movie was based on Elizabeth Gilbert's best-selling memoir ''Eat, Pray, Love''. It took place at Ubud and Padang-Padang Beach at Bali. The 2006 book, which spent 57 weeks at the No. 1 spot on the ''New York Times'' paperback nonfiction best-seller list, had already fuelled a boom in ''Eat, Pray, Love''-related tourism in Ubud, the hill town and cultural and tourist center that was the focus of Gilbert's quest for balance through traditional spirituality and healing that leads to love.\n\nIn January 2016, after music icon David Bowie died, it was revealed that in his will, Bowie asked for his ashes to be scattered in Bali, conforming to Buddhist rituals. He had visited and performed in a number of Southeast Asian cities early in his career, including Bangkok and Singapore.\n\nSince 2011, China has displaced Japan as the second-largest supplier of tourists to Bali, while Australia still tops the list. Chinese tourists increased by 17% from last year due to the impact of ACFTA and new direct flights to Bali.\nIn January 2012, Chinese tourists year on year (yoy) increased by 222.18% compared to January 2011, while Japanese tourists declined by 23.54% yoy.\n\nBali reported that it welcomed 2.88 million foreign tourists and 5 million domestic tourists in 2012, marginally surpassing the expectations of 2.8 million foreign tourists.\n\nBased on a Bank Indonesia survey in May 2013, 34.39 percent of tourists are upper-middle class, spending between $1,286 to $5,592, and are dominated by Australia, France, China, Germany and the US. Some Chinese tourists have increased their levels of spending from previous years. 30.26 percent of tourists are middle class, spending between $662 to $1,285.\n",
"\nscooter\nThe Ngurah Rai International Airport is located near Jimbaran, on the isthmus at the southernmost part of the island. Lt.Col. Wisnu Airfield is found in north-west Bali.\n\nA coastal road circles the island, and three major two-lane arteries cross the central mountains at passes reaching to 1,750m in height (at Penelokan). The Ngurah Rai Bypass is a four-lane expressway that partly encircles Denpasar. Bali has no railway lines.\n\nIn December 2010 the Government of Indonesia invited investors to build a new Tanah Ampo Cruise Terminal at Karangasem, Bali with a projected worth of $30 million. On 17 July 2011 the first cruise ship (Sun Princess) anchored about away from the wharf of Tanah Ampo harbour. The current pier is only but will eventually be extended to to accommodate international cruise ships. The harbour here is safer than the existing facility at Benoa and has a scenic backdrop of east Bali mountains and green rice fields. The tender for improvement was subject to delays, and as of July 2013 the situation remained unclear with cruise line operators complaining and even refusing to use the existing facility at Tanah Ampo.\n\nA Memorandum of Understanding has been signed by two ministers, Bali's Governor and Indonesian Train Company to build of railway along the coast around the island. As of July 2015, no details of this proposed railways have been released.\n\nOn 16 March 2011 (Tanjung) Benoa port received the \"Best Port Welcome 2010\" award from London's \"Dream World Cruise Destination\" magazine. Government plans to expand the role of Benoa port as export-import port to boost Bali's trade and industry sector. The Tourism and Creative Economy Ministry has confirmed that 306 cruise liners are heading for Indonesia in 2013 – an increase of 43 percent compared to the previous year.\n\nIn May 2011, an integrated Aerial Traffic Control System (ATCS) was implemented to reduce traffic jams at four crossing points: Ngurah Rai statue, Dewa Ruci Kuta crossing, Jimbaran crossing and Sanur crossing. ATCS is an integrated system connecting all traffic lights, CCTVs and other traffic signals with a monitoring office at the police headquarters. It has successfully been implemented in other ASEAN countries and will be implemented at other crossings in Bali.\n\nOn 21 December 2011 construction started on the Nusa Dua-Benoa-Ngurah Rai International Airport toll road which will also provide a special lane for motorcycles. This has been done by seven state-owned enterprises led by PT Jasa Marga with 60% of shares. PT Jasa Marga Bali Tol will construct the toll road (totally with access road). The construction is estimated to cost Rp.2.49 trillion ($273.9 million). The project goes through of mangrove forest and through of beach, both within area. The elevated toll road is built over the mangrove forest on 18,000 concrete pillars which occupied 2 hectares of mangroves forest. This was compensated by the planting of 300,000 mangrove trees along the road. On 21 December 2011 the Dewa Ruci underpass has also started on the busy Dewa Ruci junction near Bali Kuta Galeria with an estimated cost of Rp136 billion ($14.9 million) from the state budget. On 23 September 2013, the Bali Mandara Toll Road was opened, with the Dewa Ruci Junction (Simpang Siur) underpass being opened previously.\n\nTo solve chronic traffic problems, the province will also build a toll road connecting Serangan with Tohpati, a toll road connecting Kuta, Denpasar and Tohpati and a flyover connecting Kuta and Ngurah Rai Airport.\n",
"\nThe population of Bali was 3,890,757 as of the 2010 Census; the latest estimate (for January 2014) is 4,225,384. There are an estimated 30,000 expatriates living in Bali.\n\n===Ethnic origins===\nA DNA study in 2005 by Karafet et al. found that 12% of Balinese Y-chromosomes are of likely Indian origin, while 84% are of likely Austronesian origin, and 2% of likely Melanesian origin. The study does not correlate the DNA samples to the Balinese caste system.\n\n===Caste system===\n\n\nPre-modern Bali has had four castes, state Jeff Lewis and Belinda Lewis, but with a \"very strong tradition of communal decision-making and interdependence\". The four castes have been classified as Soedra (Shudra), Wesia (Vaishyas), Satrias (Kshatriyas) and Brahmana (Brahmin).\n\nThe 19th-century scholars such as Crawfurd and Friederich suggested that Balinese caste had Indian origins, but states Helen Creese, scholars such as Brumund who visited and stayed the island of Bali suggested that his field observations conflicted with the \"received understandings concerning its Indian origins\". In Bali, the Shudra (locally spelled ''Soedra'') have typically been the temple priests, though depending on the demographics, a temple priest may also be from the other three castes. In most regions, it has been the Shudra who typically make offerings to the gods on behalf of the Hindu devotees, chant prayers, recite ''meweda'' (Vedas), and set the course of Balinese temple festivals.\n\n===Religion===\n\nThe Mother Temple of Besakih, one of Bali's most significant Hindu temples.\nA Ngaben procession for the cremation ceremony.\nUnlike most of Muslim-majority Indonesia, about 83.5% of Bali's population adheres to Balinese Hinduism, formed as a combination of existing local beliefs and Hindu influences from mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia. Minority religions include Islam (13.37%), Christianity (2.47%), and Buddhism (0.5%). These figures do not include immigrants from other parts of Indonesia.\n\nThe general beliefs and practices of ''Agama Hindu Dharma'' are a mixture of ancient traditions and contemporary pressures placed by Indonesian laws that permit only monotheist belief under the national ideology of ''panca sila''. Traditionally, Hinduism in Indonesia had a pantheon of deities and that tradition of belief continues in practice; further, Hinduism in Indonesia granted freedom and flexibility to Hindus as to when, how and where to pray. However, officially, Indonesian government considers and advertises Indonesian Hinduism as a monotheistic religion with certain officially recognized beliefs that comply with its national ideology. Indonesian school text books describe Hinduism as having one supreme being, Hindus offering three daily mandatory prayers, and Hinduism as having certain common beliefs that in part parallel those of Islam. Scholars contest whether these Indonesian government recognized and assigned beliefs reflect the traditional beliefs and practices of Hindus in Indonesia before Indonesia gained independence from Dutch colonial rule.\n\nBalinese Hinduism has roots in Indian Hinduism and Buddhism, that arrived through Java. Hindu influences reached the Indonesian Archipelago as early as the first century. Historical evidence is unclear about the diffusion process of cultural and spiritual ideas from India. Java legends refer to Saka-era, traced to 78 AD. Stories from the Mahabharata Epic have been traced in Indonesian islands to the 1st century; however, the versions mirror those found in southeast Indian peninsular region (now Tamil Nadu and southern Andhra Pradesh).\n\nThe Bali tradition adopted the pre-existing animistic traditions of the indigenous people. This influence strengthened the belief that the gods and goddesses are present in all things. Every element of nature, therefore, possesses its own power, which reflects the power of the gods. A rock, tree, dagger, or woven cloth is a potential home for spirits whose energy can be directed for good or evil. Balinese Hinduism is deeply interwoven with art and ritual. Ritualizing states of self-control are a notable feature of religious expression among the people, who for this reason have become famous for their graceful and decorous behaviour.\n\nApart from the majority of Balinese Hindus, there also exist Chinese immigrants whose traditions have melded with that of the locals. As a result, these Sino-Balinese not only embrace their original religion, which is a mixture of Buddhism, Christianity, Taoism and Confucianism, but also find a way to harmonise it with the local traditions. Hence, it is not uncommon to find local Sino-Balinese during the local temple's ''odalan''. Moreover, Balinese Hindu priests are invited to perform rites alongside a Chinese priest in the event of the death of a Sino-Balinese. Nevertheless, the Sino-Balinese claim to embrace Buddhism for administrative purposes, such as their Identity Cards.\n\n===Language===\nBalinese and Indonesian are the most widely spoken languages in Bali, and the vast majority of Balinese people are bilingual or trilingual. The most common spoken language around the tourist areas is Indonesian, as many people in the tourist sector are not solely Balinese, but migrants from Java, Lombok, Sumatra, and other parts of Indonesia. There are several indigenous Balinese languages, but most Balinese can also use the most widely spoken option: modern common Balinese. The usage of different Balinese languages was traditionally determined by the Balinese caste system and by clan membership, but this tradition is diminishing. Kawi and Sanskrit are also commonly used by some Hindu priests in Bali, for Hinduism literature was mostly written in Sanskrit.\n\nEnglish and Chinese are the next most common languages (and the primary foreign languages) of many Balinese, owing to the requirements of the tourism industry, as well as the English-speaking community and huge Chinese-Indonesian population. Other foreign languages, such as Japanese, Korean, French, Russian or German are often used in multilingual signs for foreign tourists.\n",
"\nA Kecak dance being performed at Uluwatu, in Bali\nBali is renowned for its diverse and sophisticated art forms, such as painting, sculpture, woodcarving, handcrafts, and performing arts. Balinese cuisine is also distinctive. Balinese percussion orchestra music, known as ''gamelan'', is highly developed and varied. Balinese performing arts often portray stories from Hindu epics such as the Ramayana but with heavy Balinese influence. Famous Balinese dances include ''pendet'', ''legong'', ''baris'', ''topeng'', ''barong'', ''gong keybar'', and ''kecak'' (the monkey dance). Bali boasts one of the most diverse and innovative performing arts cultures in the world, with paid performances at thousands of temple festivals, private ceremonies, or public shows.\n\nA scene in Bali on ''Nyepi'', the Hindu festival of silence. Everything is deserted, human footprint minimized.\nThe Hindu New Year, ''Nyepi'', is celebrated in the spring by a day of silence. On this day everyone stays at home and tourists are encouraged to remain in their hotels. On the day before New Year, large and colourful sculptures of ''ogoh-ogoh'' monsters are paraded and finally burned in the evening to drive away evil spirits. Other festivals throughout the year are specified by the Balinese ''pawukon'' calendrical system.\n\nCelebrations are held for many occasions such as a tooth-filing (coming-of-age ritual), cremation or ''odalan'' (temple festival). One of the most important concepts that Balinese ceremonies have in common is that of ''désa kala patra'', which refers to how ritual performances must be appropriate in both the specific and general social context. Many of the ceremonial art forms such as ''wayang kulit'' and ''topeng'' are highly improvisatory, providing flexibility for the performer to adapt the performance to the current situation. Many celebrations call for a loud, boisterous atmosphere with lots of activity and the resulting aesthetic, ''ramé'', is distinctively Balinese. Often two or more ''gamelan'' ensembles will be performing well within earshot, and sometimes compete with each other to be heard. Likewise, the audience members talk amongst themselves, get up and walk around, or even cheer on the performance, which adds to the many layers of activity and the liveliness typical of ''ramé''.\n\nCremation in Ubud\n''Kaja'' and ''kelod'' are the Balinese equivalents of North and South, which refer to ones orientation between the island's largest mountain Gunung Agung (''kaja''), and the sea (''kelod''). In addition to spatial orientation, ''kaja'' and ''kelod'' have the connotation of good and evil; gods and ancestors are believed to live on the mountain whereas demons live in the sea. Buildings such as temples and residential homes are spatially oriented by having the most sacred spaces closest to the mountain and the unclean places nearest to the sea.\n\nMost temples have an inner courtyard and an outer courtyard which are arranged with the inner courtyard furthest ''kaja''. These spaces serve as performance venues since most Balinese rituals are accompanied by any combination of music, dance and drama. The performances that take place in the inner courtyard are classified as ''wali'', the most sacred rituals which are offerings exclusively for the gods, while the outer courtyard is where ''bebali'' ceremonies are held, which are intended for gods and people. Lastly, performances meant solely for the entertainment of humans take place outside the walls of the temple and are called ''bali-balihan''. This three-tiered system of classification was standardised in 1971 by a committee of Balinese officials and artists to better protect the sanctity of the oldest and most sacred Balinese rituals from being performed for a paying audience.\n\nTourism, Bali's chief industry, has provided the island with a foreign audience that is eager to pay for entertainment, thus creating new performance opportunities and more demand for performers. The impact of tourism is controversial since before it became integrated into the economy, the Balinese performing arts did not exist as a capitalist venture, and were not performed for entertainment outside of their respective ritual context. Since the 1930s sacred rituals such as the ''barong'' dance have been performed both in their original contexts, as well as exclusively for paying tourists. This has led to new versions of many of these performances which have developed according to the preferences of foreign audiences; some villages have a ''barong'' mask specifically for non-ritual performances as well as an older mask which is only used for sacred performances.\n\nBalinese society continues to revolve around each family's ancestral village, to which the cycle of life and religion is closely tied. Coercive aspects of traditional society, such as customary law sanctions imposed by traditional authorities such as village councils (including \"kasepekang\", or shunning) have risen in importance as a consequence of the democratisation and decentralisation of Indonesia since 1998.\n",
"Bali is a major world surfing destination with popular breaks dotted across the southern coastline and around the offshore island of Nusa Lembongan.\n\nAs part of the Coral Triangle, Bali, including Nusa Penida, offers a wide range of dive sites with varying types of reefs.\n\nBali was the host of 2008 Asian Beach Games. It was the second time Indonesia hosted an Asia-level multi-sport event, after Jakarta held the 1962 Asian Games.\n\nIn football, Bali is home to the football club Bali United, which plays in the Liga 1.\nThe team was relocated from Samarinda, East Kalimantan to Gianyar, Bali. Harbiansyah Hanafiah, the main commissioner of Bali United explained that he did the name change and moved the homebase to Bali because there were no representative from Bali in the highest football tier in Indonesia. Another reason was due to local fans in Samarinda prefer to support Pusamania Borneo F.C. more than Persisam.\n",
"In June 2012, Subak, the irrigation system for paddy fields in Bali was enlisted as a Natural UNESCO world heritage site.\n",
"Bali was the host of Miss World 2013 (63rd edition of the Miss World pageant). It was the first time Indonesia hosted an international beauty pageant.\n",
"* Penang, Malaysia\n",
"\nFile:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM De beroemde Balinese danser I Mario TMnr 10004713.jpg|The famous dancer I Mario, picture taken 1940.\nFile:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Portert van twee jonge Balinese danseressen TMnr 10004678b.jpg|Balinese dancers wearing elaborate headgear, photographed in 1929. Digitally restored.\nFile:Balinese Stone Carvings.jpg|Stone carvings in Ubud.\nFile:Balinese stone guardian.jpg|Balinese stone guardian at Ubud Palace\nFile:Bali dancer, Ramayana.JPG|Bali dancer, Ramayana 2014\nFile:Nusa Lembongan Mushroom Beach.JPG|Mushroom Beach, Nusa Lembongan\nFile:Pura Luhur Uluwatu, Uluwatu, Bali (492079830).jpg|Pura Luhur Uluwatu\nFile:Kecak dancers cliffside Uluwatu.jpg|Kecak dancers\nFile:Garuda Wisnu Kencana.jpg|The uncompleted Garuda Wisnu Kencana park.\nFile:Ogoh-Ogoh---Ubud Football Field-Red one with kids.jpeg|The Ogoh-Ogoh Festival at Ubud.\nFile:Temple detail in bali.jpg|Sculptural detail from the Temple at Lake Batur\nFile:Bali Zoo.jpg|Bali Zoo entrance at Sukawati\nFile:Sanoe Lake surfing Padang Padang, Bali.jpg|Surfer in Padang Padang beach, Sanur\nFile:The Rock Bar Bali (7188376333).jpg|Sunset view from The Rock Bar at Ayana Resort, Jimbaran Bay\nFile:Temple guard Bali.jpg|Hand-carved temple guard.\n\n",
"\n* Gunung Kawi\n* Balinese architecture\n* Balinese temple\n* Balinese dance\n* Tourism in Indonesia\n* Culture of Indonesia\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n",
"* \n* \n* Cotterell, Arthur (2015) ''Bali: A cultural history'', Signal Books \n* Miguel Covarrubias, ''Island of Bali'', 1946. \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n",
"\n\n\n*\n*\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Geography",
"Climate",
"Ecology",
"Environment",
"Administrative divisions",
"Economy",
"Transportation",
"Demographics",
"Culture",
"Sports",
"Heritage sites",
"Beauty pageant",
"International partnerships",
"Gallery",
"See also",
"References",
"Bibliography",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Bali | [
"Based on a Bank Indonesia survey in May 2013, 34.39 percent of tourists are upper-middle class, spending between $1,286 to $5,592, and are dominated by Australia, France, China, Germany and the US."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Bali''' (Balinese: , Indonesian: ''Pulau Bali'', ''Provinsi Bali'') is an island and province of Indonesia.",
"The province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller neighbouring islands, notably Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan, and Nusa Ceningan.",
"It is located at the westernmost end of the Lesser Sunda Islands, between Java to the west and Lombok to the east.",
"Its capital, Denpasar, is located in the southern part of the island.",
"With a population of 3,890,757 in the 2010 census, and 4,225,000 as of January 2014, the island is home to most of Indonesia's Hindu minority.",
"According to the 2010 Census, 83.5% of Bali's population adhered to Balinese Hinduism, followed by 13.4% Muslim, Christianity at 2.5%, and Buddhism 0.5%.",
"Bali is a popular tourist destination, which has seen a significant rise in tourists since the 1980s.",
"Tourism-related business makes up 80% of its economy.",
"It is renowned for its highly developed arts, including traditional and modern dance, sculpture, painting, leather, metalworking, and music.",
"The Indonesian International Film Festival is held every year in Bali.",
"In March 2017, TripAdvisor named the island the world's top destination in its Traveler's choice award.",
"Bali is part of the Coral Triangle, the area with the highest biodiversity of marine species.",
"In this area alone over 500 reef building coral species can be found.",
"For comparison, this is about 7 times as many as in the entire Caribbean.",
"Most recently, Bali was the host of the 2011 ASEAN Summit, 2013 APEC and Miss World 2013.",
"Bali is the home of the Subak Irrigation System, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.",
"It is also home to a unified confederation of kingdoms, composed of 10 traditional royal Balinese houses, where each house rules a specific geographic area.",
"the confederation is the successor of the Bali Kingdom.",
"The royal houses are not recognized by the government of Indonesia, however, they have been operational since their establishment prior to Dutch colonization.",
"\n\n===Ancient===\nBali was inhabited around 2000 BC by Austronesian people who migrated originally from Southeast Asia and Oceania through Maritime Southeast Asia.",
"Culturally and linguistically, the Balinese are closely related to the people of the Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, the Philippines and Oceania.",
"Stone tools dating from this time have been found near the village of Cekik in the island's west.",
"In ancient Bali, nine Hindu sects existed, namely Pasupata, Bhairawa, Siwa Shidanta, Waisnawa, Bodha, Brahma, Resi, Sora and Ganapatya.",
"Each sect revered a specific deity as its personal Godhead.",
"Inscriptions from 896 and 911 don't mention a king, until 914, when Sri Kesarivarma is mentioned.",
"They also reveal an independent Bali, with a distinct dialect, where Buddhism and Sivaism were practiced simultaneously.",
"Mpu Sindok's great-granddaughter, Mahendradatta (Gunapriyadharmapatni), married the Bali king Udayana Warmadewa (Dharmodayanavarmadeva) around 989, giving birth to Airlangga around 1001.",
"This marriage also brought more Hinduism and Javanese culture to Bali.",
"Princess Sakalendukirana appeared in 1098.",
"Suradhipa reigned from 1115 to 1119, and Jayasakti from 1146 until 1150.",
"Jayapangus appears on inscriptions between 1178 and 1181, while Adikuntiketana and his son Paramesvara in 1204.",
"Balinese culture was strongly influenced by Indian, Chinese, and particularly Hindu culture, beginning around the 1st century AD.",
"The name ''Bali dwipa'' (\"Bali island\") has been discovered from various inscriptions, including the Blanjong pillar inscription written by Sri Kesari Warmadewa in 914 AD and mentioning \"Walidwipa\".",
"It was during this time that the people developed their complex irrigation system ''subak'' to grow rice in wet-field cultivation.",
"Some religious and cultural traditions still practiced today can be traced to this period.",
"The Hindu Majapahit Empire (1293–1520 AD) on eastern Java founded a Balinese colony in 1343.",
"The uncle of Hayam Wuruk is mentioned in the charters of 1384–86.",
"A mass Javanese immigration to Bali occurred in the next century when the Majapahit Empire fell in 1520.",
"Bali's government then became an independent collection of Hindu kingdoms which led to a Balinese national identity and major enhancements in culture, arts, and economy.",
"The nation with various kingdoms became independent for up to 386 years until 1906, when the Dutch subjugated and repulsed the natives for economic control and took it over.",
"Kandapat Sari statue in Semarapura, one of old settlements in Bali.",
"Historically, Balinese art and culture is born and based in this town\n\n===Portuguese contacts===\nThe first known European contact with Bali is thought to have been made in 1512, when a Portuguese expedition led by Antonio Abreu and Francisco Serrão sighted its northern shores.",
"It was the first expedition of a series of bi-annual fleets to the Moluccas, that throughout the 16th century usually traveled along the coasts of the Sunda Islands.",
"Bali was also mapped in 1512, in the chart of Francisco Rodrigues, aboard the expedition.",
"In 1585, a ship foundered off the Bukit Peninsula and left a few Portuguese in the service of Dewa Agung.",
"===Dutch East Indies===\nPuputan monument\nIn 1597 the Dutch explorer Cornelis de Houtman arrived at Bali, and the Dutch East India Company was established in 1602.",
"The Dutch government expanded its control across the Indonesian archipelago during the second half of the 19th century (see Dutch East Indies).",
"Dutch political and economic control over Bali began in the 1840s on the island's north coast, when the Dutch pitted various competing Balinese realms against each other.",
"In the late 1890s, struggles between Balinese kingdoms in the island's south were exploited by the Dutch to increase their control.",
"In June 1860 the famous Welsh naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace, travelled to Bali from Singapore, landing at Buleleng on the north coast of the island.",
"Wallace's trip to Bali was instrumental in helping him devise his Wallace Line theory.",
"The Wallace Line is a faunal boundary that runs through the strait between Bali and Lombok.",
"It has been found to be a boundary between species.",
"In his travel memoir ''The Malay Archipelago,'' Wallace wrote of his experience in Bali, of which has strong mention of the unique Balinese irrigation methods:\n\nI was both astonished and delighted; for as my visit to Java was some years later, I had never beheld so beautiful and well-cultivated a district out of Europe.",
"A slightly undulating plain extends from the seacoast about inland, where it is bounded by a fine range of wooded and cultivated hills.",
"Houses and villages, marked out by dense clumps of coconut palms, tamarind and other fruit trees, are dotted about in every direction; while between them extend luxurious rice-grounds, watered by an elaborate system of irrigation that would be the pride of the best cultivated parts of Europe.",
"The Dutch mounted large naval and ground assaults at the Sanur region in 1906 and were met by the thousands of members of the royal family and their followers who rather than yield to the superior Dutch force committed ritual suicide (''puputan'') to avoid the humiliation of surrender.",
"Despite Dutch demands for surrender, an estimated 200 Balinese killed themselves rather than surrender.",
"In the Dutch intervention in Bali, a similar mass suicide occurred in the face of a Dutch assault in Klungkung.",
"Afterward the Dutch governors exercised administrative control over the island, but local control over religion and culture generally remained intact.",
"Dutch rule over Bali came later and was never as well established as in other parts of Indonesia such as Java and Maluku.",
"In the 1930s, anthropologists Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson, artists Miguel Covarrubias and Walter Spies, and musicologist Colin McPhee all spent time here.",
"Their accounts of the island and its peoples created a western image of Bali as \"an enchanted land of aesthetes at peace with themselves and nature.\"",
"Western tourists began to visit the island.",
"The sensuous image of Bali was enhanced in the west by a quasi-pornographic 1932 documentary ''Virgins of Bali'' about a day in the lives of two teenage Balinese girls whom the film's narrator Deane Dickason notes in the first scene \"bathe their shamelessly nude bronze bodies\".",
"Under the looser version of the Haynes code that existed up to 1934, nudity involving \"civilized\" (i.e.",
"white) women was banned, but permitted with \"uncivilized\" (i.e.",
"all non-white women), a loophole that was exploited by the producers of ''Virgins of Bali''.",
"The film, which mostly consisted of scenes of topless Balinese women was a great success in 1932, and almost single-handily made Bali into a popular spot for tourists.",
"The Bali bombings monument\n\nImperial Japan occupied Bali during World War II.",
"It was not originally a target in their Netherlands East Indies Campaign, but as the airfields on Borneo were inoperative due to heavy rains, the Imperial Japanese Army decided to occupy Bali, which did not suffer from comparable weather.",
"The island had no regular Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) troops.",
"There was only a Native Auxiliary Corps ''Prajoda'' (Korps Prajoda) consisting of about 600 native soldiers and several Dutch KNIL officers under the command of KNIL Lieutenant Colonel W.P.",
"Roodenburg.",
"On 19 February 1942 the Japanese forces landed near the town of Senoer Senur.",
"The island was quickly captured.",
"During the Japanese occupation, a Balinese military officer, Gusti Ngurah Rai, formed a Balinese 'freedom army'.",
"The harshness of Japanese occupation forces made them more resented than the Dutch colonial rulers.",
"===Independence from the Dutch===\nIn 1946, the Dutch constituted Bali as one of the 13 administrative districts of the newly proclaimed State of East Indonesia, a rival state to the Republic of Indonesia, which was proclaimed and headed by Sukarno and Hatta.",
"Bali was included in the \"Republic of the United States of Indonesia\" when the Netherlands recognised Indonesian independence on 29 December 1949.",
"The first governor of Bali, Anak Agung Bagus Suteja, was appointed by President Sukarno in 1958, when Bali became a province.",
"===Contemporary===\nThe 1963 eruption of Mount Agung killed thousands, created economic havoc and forced many displaced Balinese to be transmigrated to other parts of Indonesia.",
"Mirroring the widening of social divisions across Indonesia in the 1950s and early 1960s, Bali saw conflict between supporters of the traditional caste system, and those rejecting this system.",
"Politically, the opposition was represented by supporters of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) and the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), with tensions and ill-feeling further increased by the PKI's land reform programs.",
"An attempted coup in Jakarta was put down by forces led by General Suharto.",
"The army became the dominant power as it instigated a violent anti-communist purge, in which the army blamed the PKI for the coup.",
"Most estimates suggest that at least 500,000 people were killed across Indonesia, with an estimated 80,000 killed in Bali, equivalent to 5% of the island's population.",
"With no Islamic forces involved as in Java and Sumatra, upper-caste PNI landlords led the extermination of PKI members.",
"As a result of the 1965-66 upheavals, Suharto was able to manoeuvre Sukarno out of the presidency.",
"His \"New Order\" government reestablished relations with western countries.",
"The pre-War Bali as \"paradise\" was revived in a modern form.",
"The resulting large growth in tourism has led to a dramatic increase in Balinese standards of living and significant foreign exchange earned for the country.",
"A bombing in 2002 by militant Islamists in the tourist area of Kuta killed 202 people, mostly foreigners.",
"This attack, and another in 2005, severely reduced tourism, producing much economic hardship to the island.",
"\nMount Agung, the highest peak on Bali \nThe island of Bali lies 3.2 km (2 mi) east of Java, and is approximately 8 degrees south of the equator.",
"Bali and Java are separated by the Bali Strait.",
"East to west, the island is approximately 153 km (95 mi) wide and spans approximately 112 km (69 mi) north to south; administratively it covers 5,780 km2, or 5,577 km2 without Nusa Penida District, its population density is roughly 750 people/km2.",
"Bali's central mountains include several peaks over in elevation and active volcanoes such as Mount Batur.",
"The highest is Mount Agung (), known as the \"mother mountain\" which is an active volcano rated as one of the world's most likely sites for a massive eruption within the next 100 years.",
"Mountains range from centre to the eastern side, with Mount Agung the easternmost peak.",
"Bali's volcanic nature has contributed to its exceptional fertility and its tall mountain ranges provide the high rainfall that supports the highly productive agriculture sector.",
"South of the mountains is a broad, steadily descending area where most of Bali's large rice crop is grown.",
"The northern side of the mountains slopes more steeply to the sea and is the main coffee producing area of the island, along with rice, vegetables and cattle.",
"The longest river, Ayung River, flows approximately 75 km (see List of rivers of Bali).",
"The island is surrounded by coral reefs.",
"Beaches in the south tend to have white sand while those in the north and west have black sand.",
"Bali has no major waterways, although the Ho River is navigable by small ''sampan'' boats.",
"Black sand beaches between Pasut and Klatingdukuh are being developed for tourism, but apart from the seaside temple of Tanah Lot, they are not yet used for significant tourism.",
"Subak irrigation system\nThe largest city is the provincial capital, Denpasar, near the southern coast.",
"Its population is around 491,500 (2002).",
"Bali's second-largest city is the old colonial capital, Singaraja, which is located on the north coast and is home to around 100,000 people.",
"Other important cities include the beach resort, Kuta, which is practically part of Denpasar's urban area, and Ubud, situated at the north of Denpasar, is the island's cultural centre.",
"Three small islands lie to the immediate south east and all are administratively part of the Klungkung regency of Bali: Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan and Nusa Ceningan.",
"These islands are separated from Bali by the Badung Strait.",
"To the east, the Lombok Strait separates Bali from Lombok and marks the biogeographical division between the fauna of the Indomalayan ecozone and the distinctly different fauna of Australasia.",
"The transition is known as the Wallace Line, named after Alfred Russel Wallace, who first proposed a transition zone between these two major biomes.",
"When sea levels dropped during the Pleistocene ice age, Bali was connected to Java and Sumatra and to the mainland of Asia and shared the Asian fauna, but the deep water of the Lombok Strait continued to keep Lombok Island and the Lesser Sunda archipelago isolated.",
"Being just 8 degrees south of the equator, Bali has a fairly even climate year round.",
"Average year-round temperature stands at around 30°C with a humidity level of about 85%.",
"Day time temperatures at low elevations vary between 20–33°C (68–91°F), although it can be much cooler than that in the mountains.",
"The west monsoon is in place from approximately October to April, and this can bring significant rain, particularly from December to March.",
"Outside of the monsoon period, humidity is relatively low and any rain is unlikely in lowland areas.",
"The high season in Bali is during the \"dry season\" in July and August, as well as during the Easter and Christmas holidays, when the weather is very unpredictable.",
"\nThe Bali myna is found only on Bali and is critically endangered.",
"Bali lies just to the west of the Wallace Line, and thus has a fauna that is Asian in character, with very little Australasian influence, and has more in common with Java than with Lombok.",
"An exception is the yellow-crested cockatoo, a member of a primarily Australasian family.",
"There are around 280 species of birds, including the critically endangered Bali myna, which is endemic.",
"Others include barn swallow, black-naped oriole, black racket-tailed treepie, crested serpent-eagle, crested treeswift, dollarbird, Java sparrow, lesser adjutant, long-tailed shrike, milky stork, Pacific swallow, red-rumped swallow, sacred kingfisher, sea eagle, woodswallow, savanna nightjar, stork-billed kingfisher, yellow-vented bulbul and great egret.",
"Until the early 20th century, Bali was home to several large mammals: the wild banteng, leopard and the endemic Bali tiger.",
"The banteng still occurs in its domestic form, whereas leopards are found only in neighbouring Java, and the Bali tiger is extinct.",
"The last definite record of a tiger on Bali dates from 1937, when one was shot, though the subspecies may have survived until the 1940s or 1950s.",
"Monkeys in Uluwatu\nSquirrels are quite commonly encountered, less often is the Asian palm civet, which is also kept in coffee farms to produce Kopi Luwak.",
"Bats are well represented, perhaps the most famous place to encounter them remaining is the Goa Lawah (Temple of the Bats) where they are worshipped by the locals and also constitute a tourist attraction.",
"They also occur in other cave temples, for instance at Gangga Beach.",
"Two species of monkey occur.",
"The crab-eating macaque, known locally as \"kera\", is quite common around human settlements and temples, where it becomes accustomed to being fed by humans, particularly in any of the three \"monkey forest\" temples, such as the popular one in the Ubud area.",
"They are also quite often kept as pets by locals.",
"The second monkey, endemic to Java and some surrounding islands such as Bali, is far rarer and more elusive and is the Javan langur, locally known as \"lutung\".",
"They occur in few places apart from the Bali Barat National Park.",
"They are born an orange colour, though by their first year they would have already changed to a more blackish colouration.",
"In Java however, there is more of a tendency for this species to retain its juvenile orange colour into adulthood, and so you can see a mixture of black and orange monkeys together as a family.",
"Other rarer mammals include the leopard cat, Sunda pangolin and black giant squirrel.",
"Snakes include the king cobra and reticulated python.",
"The water monitor can grow to at least in length and and can move quickly.",
"The rich coral reefs around the coast, particularly around popular diving spots such as Tulamben, Amed, Menjangan or neighbouring Nusa Penida, host a wide range of marine life, for instance hawksbill turtle, giant sunfish, giant manta ray, giant moray eel, bumphead parrotfish, hammerhead shark, reef shark, barracuda, and sea snakes.",
"Dolphins are commonly encountered on the north coast near Singaraja and Lovina.",
"Selfie with Giant Manta, Bali\n\nA team of scientists conducted a survey from 29 April 2011 to 11 May 2011 at 33 sea sites around Bali.",
"They discovered 952 species of reef fish of which 8 were new discoveries at Pemuteran, Gilimanuk, Nusa Dua, Tulamben and Candidasa, and 393 coral species, including two new ones at Padangbai and between Padangbai and Amed.",
"The average coverage level of healthy coral was 36% (better than in Raja Ampat and Halmahera by 29% or in Fakfak and Kaimana by 25%) with the highest coverage found in Gili Selang and Gili Mimpang in Candidasa, Karangasem regency.",
"Among the larger trees the most common are: banyan trees, jackfruit, coconuts, bamboo species, acacia trees and also endless rows of coconuts and banana species.",
"Numerous flowers can be seen: hibiscus, frangipani, bougainvillea, poinsettia, oleander, jasmine, water lily, lotus, roses, begonias, orchids and hydrangeas exist.",
"On higher grounds that receive more moisture, for instance around Kintamani, certain species of fern trees, mushrooms and even pine trees thrive well.",
"Rice comes in many varieties.",
"Other plants with agricultural value include: salak, mangosteen, corn, kintamani orange, coffee and water spinach.",
"Rice terraces in Bali\nSome of the worst erosion has occurred in Lebih Beach, where up to of land is lost every year.",
"Decades ago, this beach was used for holy pilgrimages with more than 10,000 people, but they have now moved to Masceti Beach.",
"From ranked third in previous review, in 2010 Bali got score 99.65 of Indonesia's environmental quality index and the highest of all the 33 provinces.",
"The score measured three water quality parameters: the level of total suspended solids (TSS), dissolved oxygen (DO) and chemical oxygen demand (COD).",
"Because of over-exploitation by the tourist industry which covers a massive land area, 200 out of 400 rivers on the island have dried up and based on research, the southern part of Bali would face a water shortage up to 2,500 litres of clean water per second by 2015.",
"To ease the shortage, the central government plans to build a water catchment and processing facility at Petanu River in Gianyar.",
"The 300 litres capacity of water per second will be channelled to Denpasar, Badung and Gianyar in 2013.",
"The province is divided into eight regencies (''kabupaten'') and one city (''kota'').",
"These are:\n\n\n\n Name !",
"!",
"Capital !",
"!",
"Area in km2 !",
"!",
"Population 2000 Census !",
"!",
"Population 2010 Census !",
"!",
"Population 2014 estimate !",
"!",
"HDI2014 estimate\n\n Denpasar City \n Denpasar \n \n \n \n \n 0.816 ()\n\n Badung Regency \n Mangupura \n \n \n \n \n 0.779 ()\n\n Bangli Regency \n Bangli \n \n \n \n \n 0.657 ()\n\n Buleleng Regency \n Singaraja \n \n \n \n \n 0.691 ()\n\n Gianyar Regency \n Gianyar \n \n \n \n \n 0.742 ()\n\n Jembrana Regency \n Negara \n \n \n \n \n 0.686 ()\n\n Karangasem Regency \n Amlapura \n \n \n \n \n 0.640 ()\n\n Klungkung Regency \n Semarapura \n \n \n \n \n 0.683 ()\n\n Tabanan Regency \n Tabanan \n \n \n \n \n 0.726 ()\n\n '''''Totals''''' \n \n \n \n \n \n 0.724 ()",
"In 1970s, the Balinese economy was largely agriculture-based in terms of both output and employment.",
"Tourism is now the largest single industry in terms of income, and as a result, Bali is one of Indonesia's wealthiest regions.",
"In 2003, around 80% of Bali's economy was tourism related.",
"By end of June 2011, non-performing loan of all banks in Bali were 2.23%, lower than the average of Indonesian banking industry non-performing loan (about 5%).",
"The economy, however, suffered significantly as a result of the terrorist bombings 2002 and 2005.",
"The tourism industry has since recovered from these events.",
"===Agriculture===\nWood carving in Bali\nAlthough tourism produces the GDP's largest output, agriculture is still the island's biggest employer.",
"Fishing also provides a significant number of jobs.",
"Bali is also famous for its artisans who produce a vast array of handicrafts, including batik and ikat cloth and clothing, wooden carvings, stone carvings, painted art and silverware.",
"Notably, individual villages typically adopt a single product, such as wind chimes or wooden furniture.",
"The Arabica coffee production region is the highland region of Kintamani near Mount Batur.",
"Generally, Balinese coffee is processed using the wet method.",
"This results in a sweet, soft coffee with good consistency.",
"Typical flavours include lemon and other citrus notes.",
"Many coffee farmers in Kintamani are members of a traditional farming system called Subak Abian, which is based on the Hindu philosophy of \"Tri Hita Karana\".",
"According to this philosophy, the three causes of happiness are good relations with God, other people, and the environment.",
"The Subak Abian system is ideally suited to the production of fair trade and organic coffee production.",
"Arabica coffee from Kintamani is the first product in Indonesia to request a geographical indication.",
"===Tourism===\nCanyoning in Gitgit Waterfall, Bali, Indonesia\nTirta Empul Temple draws tourists who seek its holy waters\nPura Taman Ayun, another temple which is a popular tourist destination\n\nUlun Danu Temple, located in Bratan Lake\n\nIn 1963 the Bali Beach Hotel in Sanur was built by Sukarno, and boosted tourism in Bali.",
"Prior to it, only three hotels existed on the island.",
"Construction of hotels and restaurants began to spread throughout Bali.",
"Tourism further increased on Bali after the Ngurah Rai International Airport opened in 1970.",
"The Buleleng regency government encouraged the tourism sector as one of the mainstays for economic progress and social welfare.",
"The tourism industry is primarily focused in the south, while significant in the other parts of the island as well.",
"The main tourist locations are the town of Kuta (with its beach), and its outer suburbs of Legian and Seminyak (which were once independent townships), the east coast town of Sanur (once the only tourist hub), Ubud towards the center of the island, to the south of the Ngurah Rai International Airport, Jimbaran, and the newer developments of Nusa Dua and Pecatu.",
"The United States government lifted its travel warnings in 2008.",
"The Australian government issued an advisory on Friday, 4 May 2012, with the overall level of this advisory lowered to 'Exercise a high degree of caution'.",
"The Swedish government issued a new warning on Sunday, 10 June 2012 because of one tourist who died from methanol poisoning.",
"Australia last issued an advisory on Monday, 5 January 2015 due to new terrorist threats.",
"Kuta Beach is a popular tourist spot in BaliAn offshoot of tourism is the growing real estate industry.",
"Bali's real estate has been rapidly developing in the main tourist areas of Kuta, Legian, Seminyak and Oberoi.",
"Most recently, high-end 5-star projects are under development on the Bukit peninsula, on the south side of the island.",
"Million dollar villas are being developed along the cliff sides of south Bali, with commanding panoramic ocean views.",
"Foreign and domestic (many Jakarta individuals and companies are fairly active) investment into other areas of the island also continues to grow.",
"Land prices, despite the worldwide economic crisis, have remained stable.",
"In the last half of 2008, Indonesia's currency had dropped approximately 30% against the US dollar, providing many overseas visitors value for their currencies.",
"Visitor arrivals for 2009 were forecast to drop 8% (which would be higher than 2007 levels), mainly due to the worldwide economic crisis which has also affected the global tourist industry.",
"Bali's tourism economy survived the terrorist bombings of 2002 and 2005, and the tourism industry has in fact slowly recovered and surpassed its pre-terrorist bombing levels; the longterm trend has been a steady increase of visitor arrivals.",
"In 2010, Bali received 2.57 million foreign tourists, which surpassed the target of 2.0–2.3 million tourists.",
"The average occupancy of starred hotels achieved 65%, so the island still should be able to accommodate tourists for some years without any addition of new rooms/hotels, although at the peak season some of them are fully booked.",
"Bali received the Best Island award from Travel and Leisure in 2010.",
"Bali won because of its attractive surroundings (both mountain and coastal areas), diverse tourist attractions, excellent international and local restaurants, and the friendliness of the local people.",
"According to BBC Travel released in 2011, Bali is one of the World's Best Islands, ranking second after Santorini, Greece.",
"In August 2010, the film ''Eat Pray Love'' was released in theatres.",
"The movie was based on Elizabeth Gilbert's best-selling memoir ''Eat, Pray, Love''.",
"It took place at Ubud and Padang-Padang Beach at Bali.",
"The 2006 book, which spent 57 weeks at the No.",
"1 spot on the ''New York Times'' paperback nonfiction best-seller list, had already fuelled a boom in ''Eat, Pray, Love''-related tourism in Ubud, the hill town and cultural and tourist center that was the focus of Gilbert's quest for balance through traditional spirituality and healing that leads to love.",
"In January 2016, after music icon David Bowie died, it was revealed that in his will, Bowie asked for his ashes to be scattered in Bali, conforming to Buddhist rituals.",
"He had visited and performed in a number of Southeast Asian cities early in his career, including Bangkok and Singapore.",
"Since 2011, China has displaced Japan as the second-largest supplier of tourists to Bali, while Australia still tops the list.",
"Chinese tourists increased by 17% from last year due to the impact of ACFTA and new direct flights to Bali.",
"In January 2012, Chinese tourists year on year (yoy) increased by 222.18% compared to January 2011, while Japanese tourists declined by 23.54% yoy.",
"Bali reported that it welcomed 2.88 million foreign tourists and 5 million domestic tourists in 2012, marginally surpassing the expectations of 2.8 million foreign tourists.",
"Some Chinese tourists have increased their levels of spending from previous years.",
"30.26 percent of tourists are middle class, spending between $662 to $1,285.",
"\nscooter\nThe Ngurah Rai International Airport is located near Jimbaran, on the isthmus at the southernmost part of the island.",
"Lt.Col.",
"Wisnu Airfield is found in north-west Bali.",
"A coastal road circles the island, and three major two-lane arteries cross the central mountains at passes reaching to 1,750m in height (at Penelokan).",
"The Ngurah Rai Bypass is a four-lane expressway that partly encircles Denpasar.",
"Bali has no railway lines.",
"In December 2010 the Government of Indonesia invited investors to build a new Tanah Ampo Cruise Terminal at Karangasem, Bali with a projected worth of $30 million.",
"On 17 July 2011 the first cruise ship (Sun Princess) anchored about away from the wharf of Tanah Ampo harbour.",
"The current pier is only but will eventually be extended to to accommodate international cruise ships.",
"The harbour here is safer than the existing facility at Benoa and has a scenic backdrop of east Bali mountains and green rice fields.",
"The tender for improvement was subject to delays, and as of July 2013 the situation remained unclear with cruise line operators complaining and even refusing to use the existing facility at Tanah Ampo.",
"A Memorandum of Understanding has been signed by two ministers, Bali's Governor and Indonesian Train Company to build of railway along the coast around the island.",
"As of July 2015, no details of this proposed railways have been released.",
"On 16 March 2011 (Tanjung) Benoa port received the \"Best Port Welcome 2010\" award from London's \"Dream World Cruise Destination\" magazine.",
"Government plans to expand the role of Benoa port as export-import port to boost Bali's trade and industry sector.",
"The Tourism and Creative Economy Ministry has confirmed that 306 cruise liners are heading for Indonesia in 2013 – an increase of 43 percent compared to the previous year.",
"In May 2011, an integrated Aerial Traffic Control System (ATCS) was implemented to reduce traffic jams at four crossing points: Ngurah Rai statue, Dewa Ruci Kuta crossing, Jimbaran crossing and Sanur crossing.",
"ATCS is an integrated system connecting all traffic lights, CCTVs and other traffic signals with a monitoring office at the police headquarters.",
"It has successfully been implemented in other ASEAN countries and will be implemented at other crossings in Bali.",
"On 21 December 2011 construction started on the Nusa Dua-Benoa-Ngurah Rai International Airport toll road which will also provide a special lane for motorcycles.",
"This has been done by seven state-owned enterprises led by PT Jasa Marga with 60% of shares.",
"PT Jasa Marga Bali Tol will construct the toll road (totally with access road).",
"The construction is estimated to cost Rp.2.49 trillion ($273.9 million).",
"The project goes through of mangrove forest and through of beach, both within area.",
"The elevated toll road is built over the mangrove forest on 18,000 concrete pillars which occupied 2 hectares of mangroves forest.",
"This was compensated by the planting of 300,000 mangrove trees along the road.",
"On 21 December 2011 the Dewa Ruci underpass has also started on the busy Dewa Ruci junction near Bali Kuta Galeria with an estimated cost of Rp136 billion ($14.9 million) from the state budget.",
"On 23 September 2013, the Bali Mandara Toll Road was opened, with the Dewa Ruci Junction (Simpang Siur) underpass being opened previously.",
"To solve chronic traffic problems, the province will also build a toll road connecting Serangan with Tohpati, a toll road connecting Kuta, Denpasar and Tohpati and a flyover connecting Kuta and Ngurah Rai Airport.",
"\nThe population of Bali was 3,890,757 as of the 2010 Census; the latest estimate (for January 2014) is 4,225,384.",
"There are an estimated 30,000 expatriates living in Bali.",
"===Ethnic origins===\nA DNA study in 2005 by Karafet et al.",
"found that 12% of Balinese Y-chromosomes are of likely Indian origin, while 84% are of likely Austronesian origin, and 2% of likely Melanesian origin.",
"The study does not correlate the DNA samples to the Balinese caste system.",
"===Caste system===\n\n\nPre-modern Bali has had four castes, state Jeff Lewis and Belinda Lewis, but with a \"very strong tradition of communal decision-making and interdependence\".",
"The four castes have been classified as Soedra (Shudra), Wesia (Vaishyas), Satrias (Kshatriyas) and Brahmana (Brahmin).",
"The 19th-century scholars such as Crawfurd and Friederich suggested that Balinese caste had Indian origins, but states Helen Creese, scholars such as Brumund who visited and stayed the island of Bali suggested that his field observations conflicted with the \"received understandings concerning its Indian origins\".",
"In Bali, the Shudra (locally spelled ''Soedra'') have typically been the temple priests, though depending on the demographics, a temple priest may also be from the other three castes.",
"In most regions, it has been the Shudra who typically make offerings to the gods on behalf of the Hindu devotees, chant prayers, recite ''meweda'' (Vedas), and set the course of Balinese temple festivals.",
"===Religion===\n\nThe Mother Temple of Besakih, one of Bali's most significant Hindu temples.",
"A Ngaben procession for the cremation ceremony.",
"Unlike most of Muslim-majority Indonesia, about 83.5% of Bali's population adheres to Balinese Hinduism, formed as a combination of existing local beliefs and Hindu influences from mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia.",
"Minority religions include Islam (13.37%), Christianity (2.47%), and Buddhism (0.5%).",
"These figures do not include immigrants from other parts of Indonesia.",
"The general beliefs and practices of ''Agama Hindu Dharma'' are a mixture of ancient traditions and contemporary pressures placed by Indonesian laws that permit only monotheist belief under the national ideology of ''panca sila''.",
"Traditionally, Hinduism in Indonesia had a pantheon of deities and that tradition of belief continues in practice; further, Hinduism in Indonesia granted freedom and flexibility to Hindus as to when, how and where to pray.",
"However, officially, Indonesian government considers and advertises Indonesian Hinduism as a monotheistic religion with certain officially recognized beliefs that comply with its national ideology.",
"Indonesian school text books describe Hinduism as having one supreme being, Hindus offering three daily mandatory prayers, and Hinduism as having certain common beliefs that in part parallel those of Islam.",
"Scholars contest whether these Indonesian government recognized and assigned beliefs reflect the traditional beliefs and practices of Hindus in Indonesia before Indonesia gained independence from Dutch colonial rule.",
"Balinese Hinduism has roots in Indian Hinduism and Buddhism, that arrived through Java.",
"Hindu influences reached the Indonesian Archipelago as early as the first century.",
"Historical evidence is unclear about the diffusion process of cultural and spiritual ideas from India.",
"Java legends refer to Saka-era, traced to 78 AD.",
"Stories from the Mahabharata Epic have been traced in Indonesian islands to the 1st century; however, the versions mirror those found in southeast Indian peninsular region (now Tamil Nadu and southern Andhra Pradesh).",
"The Bali tradition adopted the pre-existing animistic traditions of the indigenous people.",
"This influence strengthened the belief that the gods and goddesses are present in all things.",
"Every element of nature, therefore, possesses its own power, which reflects the power of the gods.",
"A rock, tree, dagger, or woven cloth is a potential home for spirits whose energy can be directed for good or evil.",
"Balinese Hinduism is deeply interwoven with art and ritual.",
"Ritualizing states of self-control are a notable feature of religious expression among the people, who for this reason have become famous for their graceful and decorous behaviour.",
"Apart from the majority of Balinese Hindus, there also exist Chinese immigrants whose traditions have melded with that of the locals.",
"As a result, these Sino-Balinese not only embrace their original religion, which is a mixture of Buddhism, Christianity, Taoism and Confucianism, but also find a way to harmonise it with the local traditions.",
"Hence, it is not uncommon to find local Sino-Balinese during the local temple's ''odalan''.",
"Moreover, Balinese Hindu priests are invited to perform rites alongside a Chinese priest in the event of the death of a Sino-Balinese.",
"Nevertheless, the Sino-Balinese claim to embrace Buddhism for administrative purposes, such as their Identity Cards.",
"===Language===\nBalinese and Indonesian are the most widely spoken languages in Bali, and the vast majority of Balinese people are bilingual or trilingual.",
"The most common spoken language around the tourist areas is Indonesian, as many people in the tourist sector are not solely Balinese, but migrants from Java, Lombok, Sumatra, and other parts of Indonesia.",
"There are several indigenous Balinese languages, but most Balinese can also use the most widely spoken option: modern common Balinese.",
"The usage of different Balinese languages was traditionally determined by the Balinese caste system and by clan membership, but this tradition is diminishing.",
"Kawi and Sanskrit are also commonly used by some Hindu priests in Bali, for Hinduism literature was mostly written in Sanskrit.",
"English and Chinese are the next most common languages (and the primary foreign languages) of many Balinese, owing to the requirements of the tourism industry, as well as the English-speaking community and huge Chinese-Indonesian population.",
"Other foreign languages, such as Japanese, Korean, French, Russian or German are often used in multilingual signs for foreign tourists.",
"\nA Kecak dance being performed at Uluwatu, in Bali\nBali is renowned for its diverse and sophisticated art forms, such as painting, sculpture, woodcarving, handcrafts, and performing arts.",
"Balinese cuisine is also distinctive.",
"Balinese percussion orchestra music, known as ''gamelan'', is highly developed and varied.",
"Balinese performing arts often portray stories from Hindu epics such as the Ramayana but with heavy Balinese influence.",
"Famous Balinese dances include ''pendet'', ''legong'', ''baris'', ''topeng'', ''barong'', ''gong keybar'', and ''kecak'' (the monkey dance).",
"Bali boasts one of the most diverse and innovative performing arts cultures in the world, with paid performances at thousands of temple festivals, private ceremonies, or public shows.",
"A scene in Bali on ''Nyepi'', the Hindu festival of silence.",
"Everything is deserted, human footprint minimized.",
"The Hindu New Year, ''Nyepi'', is celebrated in the spring by a day of silence.",
"On this day everyone stays at home and tourists are encouraged to remain in their hotels.",
"On the day before New Year, large and colourful sculptures of ''ogoh-ogoh'' monsters are paraded and finally burned in the evening to drive away evil spirits.",
"Other festivals throughout the year are specified by the Balinese ''pawukon'' calendrical system.",
"Celebrations are held for many occasions such as a tooth-filing (coming-of-age ritual), cremation or ''odalan'' (temple festival).",
"One of the most important concepts that Balinese ceremonies have in common is that of ''désa kala patra'', which refers to how ritual performances must be appropriate in both the specific and general social context.",
"Many of the ceremonial art forms such as ''wayang kulit'' and ''topeng'' are highly improvisatory, providing flexibility for the performer to adapt the performance to the current situation.",
"Many celebrations call for a loud, boisterous atmosphere with lots of activity and the resulting aesthetic, ''ramé'', is distinctively Balinese.",
"Often two or more ''gamelan'' ensembles will be performing well within earshot, and sometimes compete with each other to be heard.",
"Likewise, the audience members talk amongst themselves, get up and walk around, or even cheer on the performance, which adds to the many layers of activity and the liveliness typical of ''ramé''.",
"Cremation in Ubud\n''Kaja'' and ''kelod'' are the Balinese equivalents of North and South, which refer to ones orientation between the island's largest mountain Gunung Agung (''kaja''), and the sea (''kelod'').",
"In addition to spatial orientation, ''kaja'' and ''kelod'' have the connotation of good and evil; gods and ancestors are believed to live on the mountain whereas demons live in the sea.",
"Buildings such as temples and residential homes are spatially oriented by having the most sacred spaces closest to the mountain and the unclean places nearest to the sea.",
"Most temples have an inner courtyard and an outer courtyard which are arranged with the inner courtyard furthest ''kaja''.",
"These spaces serve as performance venues since most Balinese rituals are accompanied by any combination of music, dance and drama.",
"The performances that take place in the inner courtyard are classified as ''wali'', the most sacred rituals which are offerings exclusively for the gods, while the outer courtyard is where ''bebali'' ceremonies are held, which are intended for gods and people.",
"Lastly, performances meant solely for the entertainment of humans take place outside the walls of the temple and are called ''bali-balihan''.",
"This three-tiered system of classification was standardised in 1971 by a committee of Balinese officials and artists to better protect the sanctity of the oldest and most sacred Balinese rituals from being performed for a paying audience.",
"Tourism, Bali's chief industry, has provided the island with a foreign audience that is eager to pay for entertainment, thus creating new performance opportunities and more demand for performers.",
"The impact of tourism is controversial since before it became integrated into the economy, the Balinese performing arts did not exist as a capitalist venture, and were not performed for entertainment outside of their respective ritual context.",
"Since the 1930s sacred rituals such as the ''barong'' dance have been performed both in their original contexts, as well as exclusively for paying tourists.",
"This has led to new versions of many of these performances which have developed according to the preferences of foreign audiences; some villages have a ''barong'' mask specifically for non-ritual performances as well as an older mask which is only used for sacred performances.",
"Balinese society continues to revolve around each family's ancestral village, to which the cycle of life and religion is closely tied.",
"Coercive aspects of traditional society, such as customary law sanctions imposed by traditional authorities such as village councils (including \"kasepekang\", or shunning) have risen in importance as a consequence of the democratisation and decentralisation of Indonesia since 1998.",
"Bali is a major world surfing destination with popular breaks dotted across the southern coastline and around the offshore island of Nusa Lembongan.",
"As part of the Coral Triangle, Bali, including Nusa Penida, offers a wide range of dive sites with varying types of reefs.",
"Bali was the host of 2008 Asian Beach Games.",
"It was the second time Indonesia hosted an Asia-level multi-sport event, after Jakarta held the 1962 Asian Games.",
"In football, Bali is home to the football club Bali United, which plays in the Liga 1.",
"The team was relocated from Samarinda, East Kalimantan to Gianyar, Bali.",
"Harbiansyah Hanafiah, the main commissioner of Bali United explained that he did the name change and moved the homebase to Bali because there were no representative from Bali in the highest football tier in Indonesia.",
"Another reason was due to local fans in Samarinda prefer to support Pusamania Borneo F.C.",
"more than Persisam.",
"In June 2012, Subak, the irrigation system for paddy fields in Bali was enlisted as a Natural UNESCO world heritage site.",
"Bali was the host of Miss World 2013 (63rd edition of the Miss World pageant).",
"It was the first time Indonesia hosted an international beauty pageant.",
"* Penang, Malaysia",
"\nFile:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM De beroemde Balinese danser I Mario TMnr 10004713.jpg|The famous dancer I Mario, picture taken 1940.",
"File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Portert van twee jonge Balinese danseressen TMnr 10004678b.jpg|Balinese dancers wearing elaborate headgear, photographed in 1929.",
"Digitally restored.",
"File:Balinese Stone Carvings.jpg|Stone carvings in Ubud.",
"File:Balinese stone guardian.jpg|Balinese stone guardian at Ubud Palace\nFile:Bali dancer, Ramayana.JPG|Bali dancer, Ramayana 2014\nFile:Nusa Lembongan Mushroom Beach.JPG|Mushroom Beach, Nusa Lembongan\nFile:Pura Luhur Uluwatu, Uluwatu, Bali (492079830).jpg|Pura Luhur Uluwatu\nFile:Kecak dancers cliffside Uluwatu.jpg|Kecak dancers\nFile:Garuda Wisnu Kencana.jpg|The uncompleted Garuda Wisnu Kencana park.",
"File:Ogoh-Ogoh---Ubud Football Field-Red one with kids.jpeg|The Ogoh-Ogoh Festival at Ubud.",
"File:Temple detail in bali.jpg|Sculptural detail from the Temple at Lake Batur\nFile:Bali Zoo.jpg|Bali Zoo entrance at Sukawati\nFile:Sanoe Lake surfing Padang Padang, Bali.jpg|Surfer in Padang Padang beach, Sanur\nFile:The Rock Bar Bali (7188376333).jpg|Sunset view from The Rock Bar at Ayana Resort, Jimbaran Bay\nFile:Temple guard Bali.jpg|Hand-carved temple guard.",
"\n* Gunung Kawi\n* Balinese architecture\n* Balinese temple\n* Balinese dance\n* Tourism in Indonesia\n* Culture of Indonesia",
"* \n* \n* \n*",
"* \n* \n* Cotterell, Arthur (2015) ''Bali: A cultural history'', Signal Books \n* Miguel Covarrubias, ''Island of Bali'', 1946.",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*",
"\n\n\n*\n*\n*"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n'''Brown University''' is a private Ivy League research university in Providence, Rhode Island, United States. Founded in 1764 as the College in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Brown is the seventh-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution.\n\nAt its foundation, Brown was the first college in the United States to accept students regardless of their religious affiliation. Its engineering program was established in 1847 and was the first in the Ivy League. It was one of the early doctoral-granting U.S. institutions in the late 19th century, adding master and doctoral studies in 1887. Brown's New Curriculum is sometimes referred to in education theory as the Brown Curriculum and was adopted by faculty vote in 1969 after a period of student lobbying. The New Curriculum eliminated mandatory \"general education\" distribution requirements, made students \"the architects of their own syllabus\" and allowed them to take any course for a grade of satisfactory or unrecorded no-credit. In 1971, Brown's coordinate women's institution Pembroke College was fully merged into the university and Pembroke Campus now includes dormitories and classrooms used by all of Brown.\n\nUndergraduate admissions is very selective, with an acceptance rate of 8.3 percent for the class of 2021. The University comprises the College, the Graduate School, Alpert Medical School, the School of Engineering, the School of Public Health and the School of Professional Studies (which includes the IE Brown Executive MBA program). Brown's international programs are organized through the Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs and the university is academically affiliated with the Marine Biological Laboratory and the Rhode Island School of Design. The Brown/RISD Dual Degree Program, offered in conjunction with the Rhode Island School of Design, is a five-year course that awards degrees from both institutions.\n\nBrown's main campus is located in the College Hill Historic District in the city of Providence, the third largest city in New England. The University's neighborhood is a federally listed architectural district with a dense concentration of Colonial-era buildings. Benefit Street, on the western edge of the campus, contains \"one of the finest cohesive collections of restored seventeenth- and eighteenth-century architecture in the United States\".\n\nBrown's faculty and alumni include eight Nobel Prize laureates, five National Humanities Medalists and ten National Medal of Science laureates. Other notable alumni include eight billionaire graduates, a U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice, four U.S. Secretaries of State and other Cabinet officials, 54 members of the United States Congress, 55 Rhodes Scholars, 52 Gates Cambridge Scholars 48 Marshall Scholars, 14 MacArthur Genius Fellows, 19 Pulitzer Prize winners and members of royal families, as well as leaders and founders of major companies.\n",
"\n\n===The foundation and the charter===\n''Brown University, R.I'', c. 1840, New York Public Library\nReverend Ezra Stiles seventh president of Yale College and one of the founders of Brown University\nThe first president, James Manning, taught the earliest college classes at his parish house\nThe Ezra Stiles copy of the Brown University Charter of 1764\nSeal of the university\nThe origin of Brown University can be dated to 1761, when three residents of Newport, Rhode Island drafted a petition to the General Assembly of the colony:\n\nYour Petitioners propose to open a literary institution or School for instructing young Gentlemen in the Languages, Mathematics, Geography & History, & such other branches of Knowledge as shall be desired. That for this End ... it will be necessary ... to erect a public Building or Buildings for the boarding of the youth & the Residence of the Professors.\n\nThe three petitioners were Ezra Stiles, pastor of Newport's Second Congregational Church and future president of Yale; William Ellery, Jr., future signer of the United States Declaration of Independence; and Josias Lyndon, future governor of the colony. Stiles and Ellery were co-authors of the Charter of the College two years later. The editor of Stiles's papers observes, \"This draft of a petition connects itself with other evidence of Dr. Stiles's project for a Collegiate Institution in Rhode Island, before the charter of what became Brown University.\"\n\nThere is further documentary evidence that Stiles was making plans for a college in 1762. On January 20, Chauncey Whittelsey, pastor of the First Church of New Haven, answered a letter from Stiles:\n\nThe week before last I sent you the Copy of Yale College Charter.... Should you make any Progress in the Affair of a Colledge, I should be glad to hear of it; I heartily wish you Success therein.\n\nThe Philadelphia Association of Baptist Churches also had an eye on Rhode Island, home of the mother church of their denomination: the First Baptist Church in America, founded in Providence in 1638 by Roger Williams. The Baptists were as yet unrepresented among colonial colleges; the Congregationalists had Harvard and Yale, the Presbyterians had the College of New Jersey (later Princeton), and the Episcopalians had the College of William and Mary and King's College (later Columbia). Isaac Backus was the historian of the New England Baptists and an inaugural Trustee of Brown, writing in 1784. He described the October 1762 resolution taken at Philadelphia:\n\nThe Philadelphia Association obtained such an acquaintance with our affairs, as to bring them to an apprehension that it was practicable and expedient to erect a college in the Colony of Rhode-Island, under the chief direction of the Baptists; ... Mr. James Manning, who took his first degree in New-Jersey college in September, 1762, was esteemed a suitable leader in this important work.\n\nManning arrived at Newport in July 1763 and was introduced to Stiles, who agreed to write the Charter for the College. Stiles's first draft was read to the General Assembly in August 1763 and rejected by Baptist members who worried that the College Board of Fellows would under-represent the Baptists. A revised Charter written by Stiles and Ellery was adopted by the Assembly on March 3, 1764.\n\nIn September 1764, the inaugural meeting of the College Corporation was held at Newport. Governor Stephen Hopkins was chosen chancellor, former and future governor Samuel Ward was vice chancellor, John Tillinghast treasurer, and Thomas Eyres secretary. The Charter stipulated that the Board of Trustees be composed of 22 Baptists, five Quakers, five Episcopalians, and four Congregationalists. Of the 12 Fellows, eight should be Baptists—including the College president—\"and the rest indifferently of any or all Denominations.\"\n\nThe Charter was not the grant of King George III, as is sometimes supposed, but rather an Act of the colonial General Assembly. In two particulars, the Charter may be said to be a uniquely progressive document. First, other colleges had curricular strictures against opposing doctrines, while Brown's Charter asserted, \"Sectarian differences of opinions, shall not make any Part of the Public and Classical Instruction.\" Second, according to Brown University historian Walter Bronson, \"the instrument governing Brown University recognized more broadly and fundamentally than any other the principle of denominational cooperation.\" The oft-repeated statement is inaccurate that Brown's Charter alone prohibited a religious test for College membership; other college charters were also liberal in that particular.\n\nJames Manning was sworn in as the College's first president in 1765 and served until 1791. In 1770, the College moved from Warren, Rhode Island to the crest of College Hill overlooking Providence. Solomon Drowne, a freshman in the class of 1773, wrote in his diary on March 26, 1770:\n\nThis day the Committee for settling the spot for the College, met at the New-Brick School House, when it was determined it should be set on ye Hill opposite Mr. John Jenkes; up the Presbyterian Lane.\n\nPresbyterian Lane is the present College Street. The eight-acre site had been purchased in two parcels by the Corporation for £219, mainly from Moses Brown and John Brown, the parcels having \"formed a part of the original home lots of their ancestor, Chad Brown, and of George Rickard, who bought them from the Indians.\" University Hall was known as \"The College Edifice\" until 1823; it was modelled on Nassau Hall at the College of New Jersey. Its construction was managed by the firm of Nicholas Brown and Company, which spent £2,844 in the first year building the College Edifice and the adjacent President's House.\n\nNicholas Brown, Jr., founder of the Providence Athenaeum, co-founder of Butler Hospital, philanthropist, progressive, and abolitionist. Following his major gift in 1804, the College was renamed Brown University. Painting by Chester Harding, 1836\n\n====The Brown family====\n\nNicholas Brown, his son Nicholas Brown, Jr. (class of 1786), John Brown, Joseph Brown, and Moses Brown were all instrumental in moving the College to Providence and securing its endowment. Joseph became a professor of natural philosophy at the College; John served as its treasurer from 1775 to 1796; and Nicholas Junior succeeded his uncle as treasurer from 1796 to 1825.\n\nOn September 8, 1803, the Corporation voted, \"That the donation of $5000 Dollars, if made to this College within one Year from the late Commencement, shall entitle the donor to name the College.\" That appeal was answered by College treasurer Nicholas Brown Junior in a letter dated September 6, 1804, and the Corporation honored its promise. \"In gratitude to Mr. Brown, the Corporation at the same meeting voted, 'That this College be called and known in all future time by the Name of Brown University'.\" Over the years, the benefactions of Nicholas Brown, Jr. totaled nearly $160,000, an enormous sum for that period, and included the buildings Hope College (1821–22) and Manning Hall (1834-35).\n\nIt is sometimes erroneously supposed that Brown University was named after John Brown, whose commercial activity included the transportation of African slaves. In fact, Brown University was named for Nicholas Brown, Jr.—philanthropist, founder of the Providence Athenaeum, co-founder of Butler Hospital, and an abolitionist. Nicholas Brown, Jr. became a financier of the movement under the guidance of his uncle Moses Brown, one of the leading abolitionists of his day.\n\nBrigadier general James Mitchell Varnum (class of 1769) served in the Continental Army and advocated the enlistment of African Americans, which resulted in the reformation of the 1st Rhode Island Regiment as an all-black unit. Painting by Charles Willson Peale, 1804\n\n====The American Revolution====\n\nThe College library was moved out of Providence for safekeeping in the fall of 1776, with British vessels patrolling Narragansett Bay. On December 7, 1776, six thousand British and Hessian troops sailed into Newport harbor under the command of Sir Peter Parker. College president Manning said in a letter written after the war:\n\nThe royal Army landed on Rhode Island & took possession of the same: This brought their Camp in plain View from the College with the naked Eye; upon which the Country flew to Arms & marched for Providence, there, unprovided with Barracks they marched into the College & dispossessed the Students, about 40 in Number.\n\n\"In the claim for damages presented by the Corporation to the United States government,\" says the University historian, \"it is stated that the American troops used it for barracks and hospital from December 10, 1776, to April 20, 1780, and that the French troops used it for a hospital from June 26, 1780, to May 27, 1782.\" The French troops were those of the Comte de Rochambeau.\n\nOn the College Green, Sayles Hall (left), built 1878–81, designed by Alpheus C. Morse, and Wilson Hall, built 1891, designed by Gould & Angell, both buildings in the Richardsonian Romanesque style\n\n===The New Curriculum===\n\nIn 1850, Brown President Francis Wayland wrote: \"The various courses should be so arranged that, insofar as practicable, every student might study what he chose, all that he chose, and nothing but what he chose.\" The New Curriculum was adopted in 1969; it is a milestone in the University's history and is seen as the realization of Wayland's vision.\n\nThe curriculum was the result of a paper written by Ira Magaziner and Elliot Maxwell entitled \"Draft of a Working Paper for Education at Brown University.\" The paper came out of a year-long Group Independent Study Project (GISP) involving 80 students and 15 professors. The GISP was inspired by student-initiated experimental schools, especially San Francisco State College, and sought ways to \"put students at the center of their education\" and \"teach students how to think rather than just teaching facts.\"\n\nThe paper made concrete proposals for the new curriculum, including interdisciplinary freshman-year courses that would introduce \"modes of thought,\" with instruction from faculty brought together from different disciplines. The aim was to transform the traditional survey course—often experienced passively by first-year students—into a more engaging process, an investigation of the intellectual and philosophical connections between disciplines. A grading option of Satisfactory/No Credit was introduced to encourage students to try courses outside their grade-point comfort zone. In practice, this grading innovation of the New Curriculum has been its most successful component, sometimes misunderstood and mischaracterized but responsible for uncounted career-changing decisions in the decades since its adoption—studio art swapped for neuroscience, biology swapped for anthropology, mathematics swapped for playwriting (and Pulitzer Prizes).\nRussell Warren. Both buildings were the gift of Nicholas Brown, Junior\n\nUniversity president Ray Heffner appointed the Special Committee on Curricular Philosophy in the spring of 1969, following student rallies in support of reform, and gave them the task of developing specific reforms. The resulting report was called the Maeder Report after its committee chairman and was presented to the faculty, which voted the New Curriculum into existence on May 7, 1969. Its key features included:\n* Modes of Thought courses for first-year students\n* The introduction of interdisciplinary courses\n* The abandonment of \"general education\" distribution requirements\n* The Satisfactory/No Credit grading option\n* The ABC/No Credit grading system, which eliminated pluses, minuses, and D's; a grade of \"No Credit\" would not appear on external transcripts.\n\nThe Modes of Thought course was discontinued early on, but the other elements are still in place. In 2006, the reintroduction of plus/minus grading was broached by persons concerned about grade inflation. The idea was rejected by the College Curriculum Council after canvassing alumni, faculty, and students, including the original authors of the Magaziner-Maxwell Report.\n",
"Brown University's coat of arms is a white field divided into four sectors by a red cross; within each sector is an open book. Above the shield is a crest consisting of the upper half of a sun in splendor among the clouds atop a red and white torse.\nThe sun and clouds represent \"learning piercing the clouds of ignorance.\" The cross is believed to be a Saint George's Cross, and the open books represent learning.\n",
"Walker and Gould, an octagonal building in the Venetian Gothic style. It is an example of the panoptic principle in library design inspired by the British Museum reading room\n\nBrown is the largest institutional landowner in Providence, with properties on College Hill and in the Jewelry District. The College Hill campus was built contemporarily with the eighteenth- and nineteenth-century precincts that surround it, so that University buildings blend with the architectural fabric of the city. The only indicator of \"campus\" is a brick and wrought-iron fence on Prospect, George, and Waterman streets, enclosing the College Green and Front Green. The character of Brown's urban campus is then European organic rather than American landscaped.\n\n===Main campus===\n\nThe main campus, comprising 235 buildings and , is on College Hill in Providence's East Side. It is reached from downtown principally by three extremely steep streets—College, Waterman, and Angell—which run through the Benefit Street historic district and the campus of the Rhode Island School of Design. College Street, culminating with Van Wickle Gates at the top of the hill, is especially beautiful, and is the setting for the Convocation and Commencement processions.\nHoppin and Ely of Providence and Hoppin and Koen of New York. The gates were the gift of Augustus Stout Van Wickle, class of 1876, who also gave the FitzRandolph Gateway at Princeton, built 1905, as a memorial to his ancestor Nathaniel FitzRandolph\n'''Van Wickle Gates'''\n\nThe Van Wickle Gates, dedicated on June 18, 1901, have a pair of smaller side gates that are open year-round, and a large central gate that is opened two days a year for Convocation and Commencement. At Convocation the gate opens inward to admit the procession of new students. At Commencement the gate opens outward for the procession of graduates. A Brown superstition is that students who walk through the central gate a second time prematurely will not graduate, although walking backwards is said to cancel the hex. Members of the Brown University Band famously flout the superstition by walking through the gate three times too many, as they annually play their role in the Commencement parade.\n\nCarrie Tower, built 1904 in English Baroque style, is a memorial to Caroline Mathilde Brown, granddaughter of Nicholas Brown, class of 1786, for whom the University is named\nThe core green spaces of the main campus are the Front (or \"Quiet\") Green, the College (or \"Main\") Green, and the Ruth J. Simmons Quadrangle (until 2012 called Lincoln Field). The old buildings on these three greens are the most photographed.\n\nAdjacent to this older campus are, to the south, academic buildings and residential quadrangles, including Wriston, Keeney, and Gregorian quadrangles; to the east, Sciences Park occupying two city blocks; to the north, connected to Simmons Quadrangle by The Walk, academic and residential precincts, including the life sciences complex and the Pembroke Campus; and to the west, on the slope of College Hill, academic buildings, including List Art Center and the Hay and Rockefeller libraries. Also on the slope of College Hill, contiguous with Brown, is the campus of the Rhode Island School of Design.\n\nThe John Hay Library, built 1910, designed by Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge in the English Renaissance style, is home to rare books, special collections, and the University archives\n'''John Hay Library'''\n\nThe John Hay Library is the second oldest library on campus. It was opened in 1910 and named for John Hay (class of 1858, private secretary to Abraham Lincoln and Secretary of State under two Presidents) at the request of his friend Andrew Carnegie, who contributed half of the $300,000 cost of the building. It is now the repository of the University's archives, rare books and manuscripts, and special collections. Noteworthy among the latter are the Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection (described as \"the foremost American collection of material devoted to the history and iconography of soldiers and soldiering\"), the Harris Collection of American Poetry and Plays (described as \"the largest and most comprehensive collection of its kind in any research library\"), the Lownes Collection of the History of Science (described as \"one of the three most important private collections of books of science in America\"), and (for popularity of requests) the papers of H.P. Lovecraft. The Hay Library is home to one of the broadest collections of incunabula (15th-century printed books) in the Americas, as well as such rarities as the manuscript of Orwell's ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' and a Shakespeare First Folio. There are also three books bound in human skin.\n\nThe John Carter Brown Library on the College Green, built 1898-1904, designed by Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge in the Beaux-Arts style, is one of the world's leading repositories of ancient books and maps relating to the exploration and natural history of the Americas\n'''John Carter Brown Library'''\n\nThe John Carter Brown Library, founded in 1846, is administered separately from the University, but has been located on the Main Green of the campus since 1904. It is generally regarded as the world's leading collection of primary historical sources pertaining to the Americas before 1825. It houses a very large percentage of the titles published before that date about the discovery, settlement, history, and natural history of the New World. The \"JCB\", as it is known, published the 29-volume ''Bibliotheca Americana'', a principal bibliography in the field. Typical of its noteworthy holdings is the best preserved of the eleven surviving copies of the Bay Psalm Book the earliest extant book printed in British North America and the most expensive printed book in the world. There is also a very fine Shakespeare First Folio, added to the collection by John Carter Brown's widow (a Shakespeare enthusiast) on the grounds that it includes ''The Tempest'', a play set in the New World. The JCB holdings comprise more than 50,000 early titles and about 16,000 modern books, as well as prints, manuscripts, maps, and other items in the library's specialty.\n\nGreek Revival style, home to the Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology\n\n===Haffenreffer Museum===\n\nThe exhibition galleries of the Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology, Brown's teaching museum, are located in Manning Hall on the campus's main green. Its one million artifacts, available for research and educational purposes, are located at its Collections Research Center in Bristol, RI. The museum's goal is to inspire creative and critical thinking about culture by fostering interdisciplinary understanding of the material world. It provides opportunities for faculty and students to work with collections and the public, teaching through objects and programs in classrooms and exhibitions. The museum sponsors lectures and events in all areas of anthropology, and also runs an extensive program of outreach to local schools.\n\nBrown Commencements have been held since 1776 in the First Baptist Church in America, built 1774-75, designed by Joseph Brown. This \"meeting house\" was built to accommodate 1,400 people and for the dual purpose of \"the publick worship of Almighty God and also for holding commencement in\"\n\nThe \"Walk\" connects Pembroke Campus to the main campus. It is a succession of green spaces extending from Ruth Simmons Quadrangle (Lincoln Field) in the south to the Pembroke College monument on Meeting Street in the north. It is bordered by departmental buildings and the Granoff Center for the Creative Arts. A focal point of The Walk will be the Maya Lin-designed water-circulating topographical sculpture of Narragansett Bay, to be installed in 2014 next to the Institute for the Study of Environment and Society.\n\nSmith-Buonanno Hall on the Pembroke Campus\nMiller Hall on the Pembroke Campus\n\n===Pembroke campus===\nThe Women's College in Brown University, known as Pembroke College, was founded in October 1891. When it merged with Brown in 1971, the Pembroke Campus was absorbed into the Brown campus. The Pembroke campus is centered on a quadrangle that fronts on Meeting Street, where a garden and monument—with scale-model of the quadrangle in bronze—compose the formal entry to the campus. The Pembroke campus is among the most pleasing spaces at Brown, with noteworthy examples of Victorian and Georgian architecture. The west side of the quadrangle comprises Pembroke Hall (1897), Smith-Buonanno Hall (1907, formerly Pembroke Gymnasium), and Metcalf Hall (1919); the east side comprises Alumnae Hall (1927) and Miller Hall (1910); the quadrangle culminates on the north with Andrews Hall (1947) and its terrace and garden. Pembroke Hall, originally a classroom building and library, now houses the Cogut Center for the Humanities.\n\nThe Orwig Music Library in the former Isaac Gifford Ladd house, built 1850, acquired in 1969 when Brown bought the buildings and grounds of Bryant University on the southeast edge of the Brown campus\nEast Campus, centered on Hope and Charlesfield streets, was originally the site of Bryant University. In 1969, as Bryant was preparing to move to Smithfield, Rhode Island, Brown bought their Providence campus for $5 million. This expanded the Brown campus by and 26 buildings, included several historic houses, notably the Isaac Gifford Ladd house, built 1850 (now Brown's Orwig Music Library), and the Robert Taft House, built 1895 (now King House). The area was named East Campus in 1971.\n\nThayer Street runs through Brown's main campus, north to south, and is College Hill's reduced-scale counterpart to Harvard Square or Berkeley's Telegraph Avenue. Restaurants, cafes, bistros, tavernas, pubs, bookstores, second-hand shops, and the like abound. Tourists, people-watchers, buskers, and students from Providence's six colleges make the scene. Half a mile south of campus is Thayer Street's hipper cousin, Wickenden Street. More picturesque and with older architecture, it features galleries, pubs, specialty shops, artist-supply stores, and a regionally famous coffee shop that doubles as a film set (for Woody Allen and others).\n\nBrown Stadium, built in 1925 and home to the football team, is located approximately a mile to the northeast of the main campus. Marston Boathouse, the home of the crew teams, lies on the Blackstone/Seekonk River, to the southeast of campus. Brown's Warren Alpert Medical School is situated in the historic Jewelry District of Providence, near the medical campus of Brown's teaching hospitals, Rhode Island Hospital, Women and Infants Hospital, and Hasbro Children's Hospital. Other University research facilities in the Jewelry District include the Laboratories for Molecular Medicine.\n\nBrown's School of Public Health occupies a landmark modernist building overlooking Memorial Park on the Providence Riverwalk. Brown also owns the Mount Hope Grant in Bristol, Rhode Island, an important Native American and King Philip's War site. Brown's Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology Collection Research Center, particularly strong in Native American items, is located in the Mount Hope Grant.\n",
"\n===Presidents===\n19th Brown president Christina Hull Paxson, 2012 to present\n2nd Brown president, Jonathan Maxcy, 1792–1802 was the first alum to serve as president\n4th Brown president Francis Wayland, 1827-1855. His influential book ''Thoughts on the Present Collegiate System in the United States'' (1842) urged American universities to adopt a broader curriculum\n18th Brown president Ruth J. Simmons, 2001–2012, was the first African-American to lead an Ivy League university\n\nBrown's current president Christina Hull Paxson took office in 2012. She had previously been dean of the Woodrow Wilson School at Princeton University and a past-chair of Princeton's economics department. In 2014 and 2015, Paxson presided over the year-long celebration of the 250th anniversary of Brown's founding. Her immediate predecessor as president was Ruth J. Simmons, the first African American president of an Ivy League institution. Simmons will remain at Brown as a professor of Comparative Literature and Africana Studies.\n\n===The College===\n\nFounded in 1764, the College is the oldest school of Brown University. About 6,400 undergraduate students are currently enrolled in the College, and 79 concentrations (majors) are offered. Completed concentrations of undergraduates by area are social sciences 42 percent, humanities 26 percent, life sciences 17 percent, and physical sciences 14 percent. The concentrations with the greatest number of students are Biology, History, and International Relations. Brown is one of the few schools in the United States with an undergraduate concentration (major) in Egyptology. Undergraduates can also design an independent concentration if the existing programs do not align with their curricular focus.\n\n35 percent of undergraduates pursue graduate or professional study immediately, 60 percent within 5 years, and 80 percent within 10 years. For the Class of 1998, 75 percent of all graduates have since enrolled in a graduate or professional degree program. The degrees acquired were doctoral 22 percent, master's 35 percent, medicine 28 percent, and law 14 percent.\n\nThe highest fields of employment for graduates of the College are business 36 percent, education 19 percent, health/medical 6 percent, arts 6 percent, government 6 percent, and communications/media 5 percent.\n\nThe language of the College Charter has been interpreted as discouraging the establishment professional schools. Brown and Princeton are the only Ivy League colleges with neither business school nor law school.\n\nThe List Art Center, built 1969-71, designed by Philip Johnson, houses the Department of Visual Art and the David Winton Bell Gallery, and is adjacent to the campus of the Rhode Island School of Design\n\n===Brown/RISD Dual Degree Program===\nBrown's near neighbor on College Hill is the Rhode Island School of Design (RISD), America's top-ranked art college. Brown and RISD students can cross-register at the two institutions, with Brown students permitted to take as many as four courses at RISD that count towards a Brown degree. The two institutions partner to provide various student-life services and the two student bodies compose a synergy in the College Hill cultural scene.\n\nThe Brown/RISD Dual Degree Program, among the most selective in the country, offered admission to 17 of the 512 applicants for the class entering in autumn 2015, an acceptance rate of 3.3 percent. It combines the complementary strengths of the two institutions, integrating studio art at RISD with the entire spectrum of Brown's departmental offerings. Students are admitted to the Dual Degree Program for a course lasting five years and culminating in both the Bachelor of Arts (A.B.) degree from Brown and the Bachelor of Fine Arts (B.F.A.) degree from RISD. Prospective students must apply to the two schools separately and be accepted by separate admissions committees. Their application must then be approved by a third Brown/RISD joint committee.\n\nAdmitted students spend the first year in residence at RISD completing its \"foundation course,\" and the second year in residence at Brown. Another year at each school ensues, with the fifth year spent according to the student's electives. Program participants are noted for their creative and original approach to cross-disciplinary opportunities, combining, for example, industrial design with engineering, or anatomical illustration with human biology, or philosophy with sculpture, or architecture with urban studies. An annual \"BRDD Exhibition\" is a well-publicized and heavily attended event, drawing interest and attendees from the wider world of industry, design, the media, and the fine arts.\n\nStone, Carpenter and Willson in Richardsonian Romanesque style, houses the Department of Theatre Arts and Performance Studies\n\n===Theatre and playwriting===\n\nBrown's theatre and playwriting programs are among the best-regarded in the country. Since 2003 eight different Brown graduates have either won (four times) or been nominated for (six times) the Pulitzer Prize—including winners Lynn Nottage '86 (twice—2009, 2017), Ayad Akhtar '93, Nilo Cruz '94, and Quiara Alegría Hudes '04; and nominees Sarah Ruhl '97 (twice), Gina Gionfriddo '97 (twice), Stephen Karam '02, and Jordan Harrison '03. In ''American Theater'' magazine's 2009 ranking of the most-produced American plays, Brown graduates occupied four of the top five places—Peter Nachtrieb '97, Rachel Sheinkin '89, Sarah Ruhl '97, and Stephen Karam '02.\n\nThe undergraduate concentration (major) encompasses programs in theatre history, performance theory, playwriting, dramaturgy, acting, directing, dance, speech, and technical production. Applications for doctoral and master's degree programs are made through the University Graduate School. Master's degrees in acting and directing are pursued in conjunction with the Rep MFA program, which partners with one of the country's great regional theatres, Trinity Repertory Company, home of the last longstanding resident acting company in the country. Trinity Rep's present artistic director Curt Columbus succeeded Oskar Eustis in 2006, when Eustis was chosen to lead New York's Public Theater.\n\nThe many performance spaces available to Brown students include the Chace and Dowling theaters at Trinity Rep; the McCormack Family, Lee Strasberg, Rites and Reason, Ashamu Dance, Stuart, and Leeds theatres in University departments; the Upstairs Space and Downstairs Space belonging to the wholly student-run Production Workshop; and Alumnae Hall, used by Brown University Gilbert & Sullivan and by Brown Opera Productions. Production design courses utilize the John Street Studio of Eugene Lee, three-time Tony Award-winner.\n\nFederal style, was named for Hope Brown Ives, sister of Nicholas Brown, Junior, and was the first purpose-built residence hall at Brown\nMembership in the Brown Faculty Club is open to all faculty, staff, alumni, and Brown parents, and confers reciprocal privileges at other clubs—in North America, England, Spain, and Israel—through the Association of College and University Clubs\n\n===Writing programs===\n\nWriting at Brown—fiction, non-fiction, poetry, playwriting, screenwriting, electronic writing, mixed media, and the undergraduate writing proficiency requirement—is catered for by various centers and degree programs, and a faculty that has long included nationally and internationally known authors. The undergraduate concentration (major) in literary arts offers courses in fiction, poetry, screenwriting, literary hypermedia, and translation. Graduate programs include the fiction and poetry MFA writing programs in the literary arts department, and the MFA playwriting program in the theatre arts and performance studies department. The non-fiction writing program is offered in the English department. Screenwriting and cinema narrativity courses are offered in the departments of literary arts and modern culture and media. The undergraduate writing proficiency requirement is supported by the Writing Center.\n\n===Author prizewinners===\n\nAlumni authors take their degrees across the spectrum of degree concentrations, but a gauge of the strength of writing at Brown is the number of major national writing prizes won. To note only winners since the year 2000: Pulitzer Prize for Fiction-winners Jeffrey Eugenides '82 (2003) and Marilynne Robinson '66 (2005); British Orange Prize-winners Marilynne Robinson '66 (2009) and Madeline Miller '00 (2012); Pulitzer Prize for Drama-winners Nilo Cruz '94 (2003), Lynn Nottage '86 (twice, 2009, 2017), Quiara Alegría Hudes '04 (2012), and Ayad Akhtar '93 (2013); Pulitzer Prize for Biography-winner David Kertzer '69 (2015); Pulitzer Prize for Journalism-winners James Risen '77 (twice, 2002, 2006), Mark Maremont '80 (twice, 2003, 2007), Gareth Cook '91 (2005), Peter Kovacs '77 (2006), Stephanie Grace '86 (2006), Mary Swerczek '98 (2006), Jane B. Spencer '99 (2006), Usha Lee McFarling '89 (2007), James Bandler '89 (2007), Amy Goldstein '75 (2009), and David Rohde '90 (twice, 1996, 2009), as well as Pulitzer Prize for Poetry-winner Peter Balakian PhD '80.\n\nThe Watson Center for Information Technology, built 1988, designed by Cambridge Seven Associates. It is named for Thomas J. Watson, Jr., Brown class of 1937, who led the global rise of IBM.\nThe division of applied mathematics in the former Henry Pearce House, built 1898, designed by Frank W. Angell and Frank H. Swift, acquired by Brown in 1952\n\n===Computer science===\nTeaching of computer science began at Brown in 1956 when an IBM machine was installed and computing courses were offered through the departments of Economics and Applied Mathematics. In January 1958 an IBM650 was added, the only one of its type between Hartford and Boston. In 1960 Brown's first computer building, designed by Philip Johnson, was opened on George Street and an IBM7070 computer installed the next year. It was given full Departmental status in 1979. In 2009, IBM and Brown announced the installation of a supercomputer (by teraflops standards), the most powerful in the southeastern New England region.\nThe Hypertext Editing Systems, HES and FRESS, were invented in the 1960s at Brown by Andries van Dam, Ted Nelson, and Bob Wallace, with Nelson coining the word ''hypertext''. Van Dam's students were instrumental in the origin of the XML, XSLT, and related Web standards. Brown alumni who have distinguished themselves in the computer sciences and industry are listed in the Notable people section, below. They include a principal architect of the Classic Mac OS, a principal architect of the Intel 80386 microprocessor line, the Microsoft Windows 95 project chief, a CEO of Apple, the current head of the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, the inaugural chair of the Computing Community Consortium, and design chiefs at Pixar and Industrial Light & Magic, protegees of graphics guru Andries van Dam. The character \"Andy\" in the animated film ''Toy Story'' is taken to be an homage to Van Dam from his students employed at Pixar. Van Dam denies this, but a copy of his book (''Computer Graphics: Principles and Practice'') appears on Andy's bookshelf in the film. Brown computer science graduate and ''Heroes'' actor Masi Oka '97, was an animator at Industrial Light & Magic.\n\nThe department today is home to The CAVE. This project is a virtual reality room used for everything from three-dimensional drawing classes to tours of the circulatory system for medical students. In 2000 students from Brown's Technology House converted the south face of the Sciences Library into a Tetris game, the first high-rise-building Tetris ever attempted. Code named La Bastille, the game used a personal computer running Linux, a radio-frequency video game controller, eleven circuit boards, a 12-story data network, and over 10,000 Christmas lights.\n\nJames Bucklin in Greek Revival style to house the Natural History department, is now home to the Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology\nThe Department of Egyptology and Assyriology in Wilbour Hall, the former Samuel Dorrance Mansion, built 1888. Wilbour Hall is named for Charles Edwin Wilbour, class of 1854, famed Egyptologist, whose collections and papers are held in the Wilbour Library in New York\n\n===The Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology and the Ancient World===\nThe Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology and the Ancient World pursues fieldwork and excavations, regional surveys, and academic study of the archaeology and art of the ancient Mediterranean, Egypt, and Western Asia from the Levant to the Caucasus. The Institute has a very active fieldwork profile, with faculty-led excavations and regional surveys presently in Petra, Jordan, in West-Central Turkey, at Abydos in Egypt, and in Sudan, Italy, Mexico, Guatemala, Montserrat in the West Indies, and Providence, Rhode Island.\n\nThe Institute's faculty includes cross-appointments from the departments of Egyptology, Assyriology, Classics, Anthropology, and History of Art and Architecture. Faculty research and publication areas include Greek and Roman art and architecture, landscape archaeology, urban and religious architecture of the Levant, Roman provincial studies, the Aegean Bronze Age, and the archaeology of the Caucasus. The Institute offers visiting teaching appointments and postdoctoral fellowships which have, in recent years, included Near Eastern Archaeology and Art, Classical Archaeology and Art, Islamic Archaeology and Art, and Archaeology and Media Studies.\n\n'''Egyptology and Assyriology'''\n\nFacing the Joukowsky Institute, across the Front Green, is the Department of Egyptology and Assyriology, formed in 2006 by the merger of Brown's renowned departments of Egyptology and History of Mathematics. It is one of only a handful of such departments in the United States. The curricular focus is on three principal areas: Egyptology (the study of the ancient languages, history, and culture of Egypt), Assyriology (the study of the ancient lands of present-day Iraq, Syria, and Turkey), and the history of the ancient exact sciences (astronomy, astrology, and mathematics). Many courses in the department are open to all Brown undergraduates without prerequisite, and include archaeology, languages, history, and Egyptian and Mesopotamian religions, literature, and science. Students concentrating (majoring) in the department choose a track of either Egyptology or Assyriology. Graduate level study comprises three tracks to the doctoral degree: Egyptology, Assyriology, or the History of the Exact Sciences in Antiquity.\n\nWatson Institute for International and Public Affairs, built 2000-2002, designed by Rafael Viñoly\n\n=== The Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs ===\n\nThe Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs is a center for the study of global issues and public affairs and is one of the leading institutes of its type in the country. It occupies an architecturally distinctive building designed by Uruguayan architect Rafael Viñoly. The Institute was initially endowed by Thomas Watson, Jr., Brown class of 1937, former Ambassador to the Soviet Union, and longtime president of IBM. Institute faculty includes, or formerly included, Italian prime minister and European Commission president Romano Prodi, Brazilian president Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Chilean president Ricardo Lagos Escobar, Mexican novelist and statesman Carlos Fuentes, Brazilian statesman and United Nations commission head Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro, Indian foreign minister and ambassador to the United States Nirupama Rao, American diplomat and Dayton Peace Accords author Richard Holbrooke (Brown '62), and Sergei Khrushchev, editor of the papers of his father Nikita Khrushchev, leader of the Soviet Union.\n\nThe Institute's curricular interest is organized into the principal themes of development, security, and governance—with further focuses on globalization, economic uncertainty, security threats, environmental degradation, and poverty. Three Brown undergraduate concentrations (majors) are hosted by the Watson Institute—Development Studies, International Relations, and Public Policy. Graduate programs offered at the Watson Institute include the Graduate Program in Development (Ph.D.) and the Public Policy Program (M.P.A). The Institute also offers Post Doctoral, professional development and global outreach programming. In support of these programs, the Institute houses various centers, including the Brazil Initiative, Brown-India Initiative, China Initiative, Middle East Studies center, The Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies (CLACS) and the Taubman Center for Public Policy. In recent years, the most internationally cited product of the Watson Institute has been its Costs of War Project, first released in 2011 and continuously updated. The Project comprises a team of economists, anthropologists, political scientists, legal experts, and physicians, and seeks to calculate the economic costs, human casualties, and impact on civil liberties of the wars in Iraq, Afghanistan, and Pakistan since 2001.\n\nStone and Carpenter in Ruskinian Gothic style. When its foundation was dug at the south end of the College Green, neighbors objected that the Green \"upon which so many are accustomed to gaze while taking daily walks\" would be blocked from view, and Slater Hall was re-sited facing the Front Green\nAlpheus Morse in the Italian Gothic style as a chemistry laboratory, was renamed in 1989 the Salomon Center for Teaching\n\n===The School of Engineering===\n\n\nEstablished in 1847, Brown's engineering program is the oldest in the Ivy League and the third oldest civilian engineering program in the country, preceded only by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (1824) and Union College (1845). In 1916 the departments of electrical, mechanical, and civil engineering were merged into a Division of Engineering, and in 2010 the division was elevated to a School of Engineering.\n\nEngineering at Brown is especially interdisciplinary. The School is organized without the traditional departments or boundaries found at most schools, and follows a model of connectivity between disciplines—including biology, medicine, physics, chemistry, computer science, the humanities and the social sciences. The School practices an innovative clustering of faculties in which engineers team with non-engineers to bring a convergence of ideas.\n\n===IE Brown Executive MBA Dual Degree Program===\nSince 2009 Brown has developed an Executive MBA program in conjunction with one of the leading Business Schools in Europe; IE Business School in Madrid. This relationship has since strengthened resulting in both institutions offering a dual degree program. In this partnership, Brown provides its traditional coursework while IE provides most of the business-related subjects making a differentiated alternative program to other Ivy League's EMBAs. The cohort typically consists of 25-30 EMBA candidates from some 20 countries.\nClasses are held in Providence, Madrid, Cape Town and Online.\n\n===The Pembroke Center===\n\nThe Pembroke Center for Teaching and Research on Women was established at Brown in 1981 by Joan Wallach Scott as a research center on gender. It was named for Pembroke College, the former women's coordinate college at Brown, and is affiliated with Brown's Sarah Doyle Women's Center. It supports the undergraduate concentration in Gender and Sexuality Studies, post-doctoral research fellowships, the annual Pembroke Seminar, and other academic programs. The Center also manages various collections, archives, and resources, including the Elizabeth Weed Feminist Theory Papers and the Christine Dunlap Farnham Archive.\n\n===The Graduate School===\n\nEstablished in 1887, the Graduate School has around 2,000 students studying over 50 disciplines. 20 different master's degrees are offered as well as Ph.D. degrees in over 40 subjects ranging from applied mathematics to public policy. Overall, admission to the Graduate School is most competitive with an acceptance rate of about 10 percent.\n\nJewelry District\nBrown's School of Public Health on the Riverwalk in Providence occupies a building designed by Edward Larrabee Barnes\n\n===Alpert Medical School===\n\nThe University's medical program started in 1811, but the school was suspended by President Wayland in 1827 after the program's faculty declined to live on campus (a new requirement under Wayland). In 1975, the first M.D. degrees from the new Program in Medicine were awarded to a graduating class of 58 students. In 1991, the school was officially renamed the Brown University School of Medicine, then renamed once more to Brown Medical School in October 2000. In January 2007, Warren Alpert donated $100 million to Brown Medical School, in recognition of which its name was changed to the Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University.\n\nIn 2014 ''U.S. News & World Report'' ranked Brown's medical school the 5th most selective in the country, with an acceptance rate of 2.9 percent.\n''U.S. News'' ranks it 29th for research and 28th in primary care.\n\nThe medical school is known especially for its eight-year Program in Liberal Medical Education (PLME), inaugurated in 1984. One of the most selective and renowned programs of its type in the country, it offered admission to 90 of the 2,290 applicants for the class entering in autumn 2015, an acceptance rate of 3.9 percent. Since 1976, the Early Identification Program (EIP) has encouraged Rhode Island residents to pursue careers in medicine by recruiting sophomores from Providence College, Rhode Island College, the University of Rhode Island, and Tougaloo College. In 2004, the school once again began to accept applications from premedical students at other colleges and universities via AMCAS like most other medical schools. The medical school also offers combined degree programs leading to the M.D./Ph.D., M.D./M.P.H. and M.D./M.P.P. degrees.\n\n===The Marine Biological Laboratory===\n\nThe Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL) is an independent research institution established in 1882 at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. The laboratory is linked to 54 current or past Nobel Laureates who have been research or teaching faculty. Since 2005 the MBL and Brown have collaborated in a Ph.D. program in biological and environmental sciences that combines faculty at both institutions, including the faculties of the Ecosystems Center, the Bay Paul Center, the Program in Cellular Dynamics, and the Marine Resources Center.\n",
"{| style=\"float:right; font-size:85%; margin:10px\" \"text-align:center; font-size:85%; margin:auto;\" class=\"wikitable\"\n+ ''Fall Admission Statistics''\n\n \n2017!! 2016!! 2015!! 2014!! 2013!! 2012\n\n Applicants\n32,724\n 32,390 \n 30,396 \n 30,431 \n 28,919 \n 28,742\n\n Admits\n2,722\n 2,919 \n 2,875 \n 2,661 \n 2,654 \n 2,759\n\n Admit rate\n8.3%\n 9.0% \n 9.5% \n 8.7% \n 9.2% \n 9.6%\n\n Enrolled\nN/A\n N/A \n 1,615 \n 1,561 \n 1,543 \n 1,539\n\n SAT range\nN/A\n N/A \n 2060-2340\n 2000-2330 \n 2000-2310 \n 1990-2310\n\n ACT range\nN/A\n N/A \n 31-34 \n 30-34 \n 29-34 \n 29-34\n\n\nFor the undergraduate class of 2021, Brown received 32,724 applications, the largest applicant pool in the University's history, of whom 2,722 were accepted, for an acceptance rate of 8.3%, the lowest in university history. Additionally, for the academic year 2015-16 there were 1,834 transfer applicants, of whom 8.9% were accepted, with an SAT range of 2180-2330, ACT range of 31-34, and average college GPA of 3.85. In 2013 the Graduate School accepted 17 percent of 9,215 applicants. In 2014, ''U.S. News'' ranked Brown's Warren Alpert Medical School the 5th most selective in the country, with an acceptance rate of 2.9 percent.\n\nBrown admission policy is stipulated need-blind for all domestic applicants. Brown's financial aid basics website, in August 2014, stated: \"For families (including both parents) with a total income below $60,000, and assets less than $100,000, no parent contribution is calculated towards the Expected Family Contribution (EFC). For families with total income below $100,000, the loan component of the financial aid award is replaced with additional scholarship.\" In 2013-14, the program awarded need-based scholarships worth $95 million. The average need-based award for the class of 2017 was $43,427.\n",
"Brown has committed to \"minimize its energy use, reduce negative environmental impacts and promote environmental stewardship.\" The Energy and Environmental Advisory Committee has developed a set of ambitious goals for the university to reduce its carbon emissions and eventually achieve carbon neutrality. The \"Brown is Green\" website collects information about Brown's progress toward greenhouse gas emissions reductions and related campus initiatives, such as student groups, courses, and research. Brown's grade of A-minus was the top one issued in the 2009 report of the Sustainable Endowments Institute (no A-grade was issued).\nBrown has a number of active environmental leadership groups on campus. These groups have begun a number of campus-wide environmental initiatives—including promoting the reduction of supply and demand of bottled water and investigating a composting program.\n",
"\nA stereoscopic image of the Brown freshman crew in competition at Lake Quinsigamond, Mass., on July 22, 1870. Brown rowing, among the pioneer programs in the country, dates from June 1857. Its first three-school regatta was held with Harvard and Yale at Lake Quinsigamond on July 27, 1859\nW.E. White seated second from right. White's appearance in an 1879 major league game may have broken baseball's color line 68 years before Jackie Robinson\nBrown is a member of the Ivy League athletic conference, which is categorized as a Division I (top level) conference of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). The Brown Bears are the third largest university sports program in the United States, sponsoring 38 varsity intercollegiate teams (Harvard sponsors 42 and Princeton 39). Brown's athletic program is one of the ''U.S. News & World Report'' top 20—the \"College Sports Honor Roll\"—based on breadth of program and athletes' graduation rates. Brown's newest varsity team is women's rugby, promoted from club-sport status in 2014.\n\nBrown women's rowing has won 7 national titles in the last 14 years. Brown men's rowing perennially finishes in the top 5 in the nation, most recently winning silver, bronze, and silver in the national championship races of 2012, 2013, and 2014. The men's and women's crews have also won championship trophies at the Henley Royal Regatta and the Henley Women's Regatta. Brown's men's soccer is consistently ranked in the top 20, and has won 18 Ivy League titles overall; recent soccer graduates play professionally in Major League Soccer and overseas. Brown football, under its most successful coach historically, Phil Estes, won Ivy League championships in 1999, 2005, and 2008. (Brown football's reemergence is credited to its 1976 Ivy League championship team, \"The Magnificent Andersons,\" so named for its coach, John Anderson.) High-profile alumni of the football program include Houston Texans head coach Bill O'Brien; former Penn State football coach Joe Paterno, Heisman Trophy namesake John W. Heisman, and Pollard Award namesake Fritz Pollard. The Men's Lacrosse team also has a long and storied history. Brown women's gymnastics won the Ivy League tournament in 2013 and 2014. Brown varsity equestrian has won the Ivy League championship several times. Brown also supports competitive intercollegiate club sports, including sailing and ultimate frisbee. The men's ultimate team, Brownian Motion, has twice won the national championship, in 2000 and 2005.\n\nThe first intercollegiate ice hockey game in America was played between Brown and Harvard on January 19, 1898. The first university rowing regatta larger than a dual-meet was held between Brown, Harvard, and Yale at Lake Quinsigamond in Massachusetts on July 26, 1859\n",
"\n===Campus Safety===\nIn 2014, Brown University tied with the University of Connecticut for the highest number of reported rapes in the nation, with its \"total of reports of rape\" on their main campus standing at 43.\n\n===Spring Weekend===\n\n\nThe weekend includes an annual spring concert festival which has featured numerous famous artists, including Bob Dylan, Childish Gambino, Bruce Springsteen, Bhudda, Chance the Rapper, Vampire Weekend, and Fetty Wap.\n\n=== Residential and Greek societies ===\nLadd Observatory, built 1890–1891, is on the National Register of Historic Places.\n\nAbout 12 percent of Brown students are in fraternities and sororities. There are 11 residential Greek houses: six fraternities (Beta Rho Pi, Delta Phi, Delta Tau, Phi Kappa Psi, Sigma Chi, and Theta Delta Chi; three sororities (Alpha Chi Omega, Kappa Alpha Theta, and Kappa Delta), one co-ed house (Zeta Delta Xi), and one co-ed literary society (Alpha Delta Phi). Phi Sigma Kappa fraternity was present on campus from 1906 to 1939, but was unable to reactivate after World War II due to wartime losses. All recognized Greek-letter organizations are located on campus in Wriston Quadrangle in university-owned housing. They are overseen by the Greek Council.\n\nAn alternative to Greek-letter organizations are the program houses organized by themes. As with Greek houses, the residents of program houses select their new members, usually at the start of the spring semester. Examples of program houses are St. Anthony Hall (located in King House), Buxton International House, the Machado French/Hispanic/Latinx House, Technology House, Harambee (African culture) House, Social Action House and Interfaith House.\n\nCurrently, there are three student cooperative houses at Brown. Two of them, Watermyn and Finlandia on Waterman Street, are owned by the Brown Association for Cooperative Housing (BACH), a non-profit corporation owned by its members. The third co-op, West House, is located in a Brown-owned house on Brown Street. The three organizations run a vegetarian co-op for the larger community.\n\nAll students not in program housing enter a lottery for general housing. Students form groups and are assigned time slots during which they can pick among the remaining housing options.\n\nThe largest surviving Hutchings-Votey organ in the world is in Sayles Hall. It has 3,355 pipes and weighs 25 tons. It is pictured here for Brown's traditional Halloween midnight concert.\n\n=== Societies and clubs ===\n\nThe earliest societies at Brown were devoted to oration and debate. The Pronouncing Society is mentioned in the diary of Solomon Drowne, class of 1773, who was voted its president in 1771. It seems to have disappeared during the American Revolutionary War. We next hear of the Misokosmian Society, founded in 1794 and renamed the Philermenian Society in 1798. This was effectively a secret society with membership limited to 45. It met fortnightly to hear speeches and debate and thrived until the Civil War; in 1821 its library held 1594 volumes. In 1799 a chapter of the Philandrian Society, also secret, was established at the College. In 1806 the United Brothers was formed as an egalitarian alternative to the Philermenian Society. \"These two great rivals,\" says the University historian, \"divided the student body between them for many years, surviving into the days of President Sears. A tincture of political controversy sharpened their rivalry, the older society inclining to the aristocratic Federals, the younger to the Republicans, the democrats of that day. ... The students continuing to increase in number, they outran the constitutional limits of both societies, and a third, the Franklin Society, was established in 1824; it never had the vitality of the other two, however, and died after ten years.\" Other nineteenth century clubs and societies, too numerous to treat here, are described in Bronson's history of the University.\n\nThe sesquicentennial poster\nThe Cammarian Club—founded in 1893 and taking its name from the Latin for lobster, its members' favorite dinner food—was at first a semi-secret society which \"tapped\" 15 seniors each year. In 1915, self-perpetuating membership gave way to popular election by the student body, and thenceforward the Club served as the ''de facto'' undergraduate student government. In 1971, unaccountably, it voted the name Cammarian Club out of existence, thereby amputating its tradition and longevity. The successor and present-day organization is the generically-named Undergraduate Council of Students.\n\nSocietas Domi Pacificae, known colloquially as \"Pacifica House,\" is a present-day, self-described secret society, which nonetheless publishes a website and an email address. It claims a continuous line of descent from the Franklin Society of 1824, citing a supposed intermediary \"Franklin Society\" traceable in the nineteenth century. But the intermediary turns out to be, on closer inspection, the well-known Providence Franklin Society, a civic organization unconnected to Brown whose origins and activity are well-documented. It was founded in 1821 by merchants William Grinnell and Joseph Balch, Jr., and chartered by the General Assembly in January 1823. The \"Pacifica House\" account of this (conflated) Franklin Society cites published mentions of it in 1859, 1876, and 1883. But the first of these (Rhees 1859, see footnote ''infra'') is merely a sketch of the 1824 Brown organization; the second (Stockwell 1876) is a reference-book article on the Providence Franklin Society itself; and the third is the Providence Franklin Society's own publication, which the \"Pacifica House\" reference mis-ascribes to the \"Franklin Society,\" dropping the word \"Providence.\"\n\n=== Student organizations ===\n\nThere are over 300 registered student organizations on campus with diverse interests. The Student Activities Fair, during the orientation program, provides first-year students the opportunity to become acquainted with the wide range of organizations. A sample of organizations includes:\n\n\n* Brown Badmaash Dance Company\n* ''The Brown Daily Herald''\n* Brown Debating Union\n* The Brown Derbies\n* Brown International Organization\n* ''Brown Journal of World Affairs''\n* ''The Brown Jug''\n* ''The Brown Noser''\n* Brown Opera Productions\n* ''Brown Political Review''\n* ''The Brown Spectator''\n* BSR\n* Brown Television\n* Brown University Band\n* Brown University Orchestra\n* The Chattertocks of Brown University\n* Chinese Students and Scholars Association\n* ''College Hill Independent''\n* ''Critical Review''\n* Ivy Film Festival\n* Jabberwocks\n* Production Workshop\n* Starla and Sons\n* Students for Sensible Drug Policy\n* WBRU\n\n\n=== Resource centers ===\nBrown University has several resource centers on campus. The centers often act as sources of support as well as safe spaces for students to explore certain aspects of their identity. Additionally, the centers often provide physical spaces for students to study and have meetings. Although most centers are identity-focused, some provide academic support as well.\n\nThe Brown Center for Students of Color\n\nThe Brown Center for Students of Color (BCSC) is a space that provides support for students of color. Established in 1972 at the demand of student protests, the BCSC encourages students to engage in critical dialogue, develop leadership skills, and promote social justice. The center houses various programs for students to share their knowledge and engage in discussion. Programs include the Third World Transition Program, the Minority Peer Counselor Program, the Heritage Series, and other student-led initiatives. Additionally, the BCSC hopes to foster community among the students it serves by providing spaces for students to meet and study.\n\nThe Sarah Doyle Women's Center aims to provide a space for members of the Brown community to examine and explore issues surrounding gender. The center was named after one of the first women to attend Brown University, Sarah Doyle. The center emphasizes intersectionality in its conversations on gender, encouraging people to see gender as present and relevant in various aspects of life. The center hosts programs and workshops in order to facilitate dialogue and provide resources for students, faculty, and staff.\n\nOther centers include the LGBTQ+ Center, the First-Generation College and Low-Income Student (FLi) Center, and the Curricular Resource Center.\n\n=== Controversy Over ADA Mental Health Discrimination ===\n\nLike many colleges, Brown mandates forced medical leaves for students expressing feelings of self-harm, depression, schizophrenia, or other forms of mental illness. Controversy arises within the college as to whether Brown follows the US Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990, with Brown's own newspaper, The Brown Daily Herald, criticizing the University's policy behind readmission from psychological medical leave. According to a 2010 article in The Brown Daily Herald, even Dean of Student Life & Chair of the Medical Leave Readmission Committee, Maria Suarez, admits that “I wish we had more resources to connect with students,” Suarez said. “The support is there, but it is student-initiated.” However, Suarez has been widely criticized within and outside the University as being non-compliant with American ADA laws, often denying students readmission for little to no reason. Moreover, the University leaves students with few guidelines on how to become readmitted; students report that very little communication is made with the University during a leave of absence, and that the University does not aid disabled students in their progress. One mentally disabled student alleges, after 5 semesters of mandatory leave, that: \"One of the administrators Suarez, he claims, told him: \"You should consider yourself lucky because Brown's better than other schools. At least you're not getting kicked out of Brown.\"' The psychological leave readmission process takes place once every 6 months, and requires only a student's statement and a psychiatrist's or psychologist's statement of well-being, with no interview. Many students report that the process is not thorough enough to judge one's own progress in mental health, thereby violating ADA rights; the denial letters are often short and generic, with one sentence changed at most for multiple denials.\n",
"\n\n\n\n\nUSNWR graduate school rankings\n\n Engineering\n 52\n\n Medicine: Primary Care\n 21\n\n Medicine: Research\n 31\n\n\n\n\n\nUSNWR departmental rankings\n\n Biological Sciences\n 34\n\n Chemistry\n 60\n\n Computer Science\n 20\n\n Earth Sciences\n 16\n\n Economics\n 19\n\n English\n 13\n\n History\n 16\n\n Mathematics\n 14\n\n Physics\n 29\n\n Political Science\n 40\n\n Psychology\n 26\n\n Public Affairs\n 56\n\n Sociology\n 24\n\n Statistics\n 42\n\n\nUniversity Hall, built 1770-71, designed by a committee that included Joseph Brown, is on the National Register of Historic Places\n\nIn 2014, National Science Foundation ranked Brown University 66th in the United States by research. For 2017, ''U.S. News & World Report'' ranks Brown University 85th globally.\n\nThe 2013 ''U.S. News & World Report'' rankings' peer assessment portion gives the school a score of 4.4, tied with University of Pennsylvania, Dartmouth, Northwestern, and University of Michigan.\n\nIn 2014, ''Forbes'' magazine ranked Brown seventh (between Caltech and Princeton University) on its list of \"America's Most Entrepreneurial Universities.\" The ''Forbes'' analysis looked at the ratio of \"alumni and students who have identified themselves as founders and business owners on LinkedIn\" and the total number of alumni and students.\n\nLinkedIn particularized the ''Forbes'' rankings, placing Brown third (between MIT and Princeton) among \"Best Undergraduate Universities for Software Developers at Startups.\" LinkedIn's methodology involved a career-path examination of \"millions of alumni profiles\" in its membership database.\n\nBrown ranked 7th in the country (between Princeton and Columbia) in a study of high school seniors' revealed preferences for matriculation conducted by economists at Harvard, Wharton, and Boston University, and published in 2005 by the National Bureau of Economic Research.\nThe 2008 Center for College Affordability and Productivity (CCAP) ranked Brown 5th in the country among national universities.\"\n\nBrown ranked 5th in the country in Newsweek/The Daily Beast's \"America's Brainiac Schools\"—based on the number of prestigious scholarships won (adjusted for student body size), including the Rhodes Scholarship, the Truman Scholarship, the Marshall Scholarship, the Gates Scholarship (since 2001), and the Fulbright scholarship (since 1993). Also factored in are standardized test scores, admissions rates, and students in the top 10 percent of their high school class.\n\nIn 2017, ''U.S. News'' ranked Brown's Warren Alpert Medical School the 7th most selective in the country, tied with the UC Davis School of Medicine and the UCLA School of Medicine, with an acceptance rate of 2.7 percent.\n\nIn the 2012 evaluation of MFA writing programs by ''Poets & Writers Magazine'', Brown was ranked 4th in the country, 3rd for selectivity, and 1st in the Ivy League.\n\nThe ''Forbes'' magazine annual ranking of \"America's Top Colleges 2016\"—which differs from the ''U.S. News'' by putting research universities and liberal arts colleges in a single sequence—ranked Brown 8th overall.\n\n''U.S. News & World Report'' ranked Brown 14th in its 2018 edition. The 2018 edition also ranked Brown 3rd for undergraduate teaching, tied with Rice University.\n\nAs it had in 2007 and 2010, the 2011 Princeton Review email poll of college students ranked Brown 1st in the country for \"Happiest Students.\" In the 2016-17 year, Brown students received 30 Fulbright scholarships, the highest number of any institution in the United States.\n",
"\nAlumni in politics include U.S. Secretary of State John Hay (1852), U.S. Secretary of State and Attorney General Richard Olney (1856), Chief Justice of the United States and U.S. Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes (1881), Senator Maggie Hassan '80 of New Hampshire, Governor Jack Markell '82 of Delaware, Rhode Island Representative David Cicilline '83, and DNC Chair Tom Perez '83.\n\nProminent alums in business and finance include philanthropist John D. Rockefeller Jr. (1897), Chair of the Federal Reserve Janet Yellen '67, World Bank President Jim Yong Kim '82, Bank of America CEO Brian Moynihan '81, CNN founder and America's Cup yachtsman Ted Turner '60, IBM chairman and CEO Thomas Watson, Jr. '37, Apple Inc. CEO John Sculley '61, incoming Uber CEO Dara Khosrowshahi '91, and magazine editor John F. Kennedy, Jr. '83.\n\nImportant figures in the history of education include the father of American public school education Horace Mann (1819), civil libertarian and Amherst College president Alexander Meiklejohn, first president of the University of South Carolina Jonathan Maxcy (1787), Bates College founder Oren B. Cheney (1836), University of Michigan president (1871–1909) James Burrill Angell (1849), University of California president (1899–1919) Benjamin Ide Wheeler (1875), and Morehouse College's first African-American president John Hope (1894).\n\nAlumni in the computer sciences and industry include architect of Intel 386, 486, and Pentium microprocessors John H. Crawford '75, and inventor of the first silicon transistor Gordon Kidd Teal '31.\n\nAlumni in the arts and media include actor Daveed Diggs '04, actress Emma Watson '14, NPR program host Ira Glass '82, singer-composer Mary Chapin Carpenter '81, ''CSI: NY'' humorist and Marx Brothers screenwriter S.J. Perelman '25, novelists Nathanael West '24, Jeffrey Eugenides '83, Edwidge Danticat (MFA '93), and Marilynne Robinson '66; actress Jo Beth Williams '70, composer and synthesizer pioneer Wendy Carlos '62, and journalist James Risen '77, political pundit Mara Liasson.\n\nOther notable alumni include \"Lafayette of the Greek Revolution\" and its historian Samuel Gridley Howe (1821) Governor of Wyoming Territory and Governor of Nebraska John Milton Thayer (1841), Governor of Rhode Island Augustus Bourn (1855), NASA head during first seven Apollo missions Thomas O. Paine '42, diplomat Richard Holbrooke '62, sportscaster Chris Berman '77, Houston Texans head coach Bill O'Brien '92, 2018 Miss America Cara Mund '16, Penn State football coach Joe Paterno '50, Heisman Trophy namesake John W. Heisman '91, royals and nobles such as Prince Rahim Aga Khan, Prince Faisal bin Al Hussein, Princess Leila Pahlavi of Iran '92, Prince Nikolaos of Greece and Denmark, Prince Nikita Romanov, Princess Theodora of Greece and Denmark, Prince Jaime of Bourbon-Parma, Duke of San Jaime and Count of Bardi, Prince Ra'ad bin Zeid, Lady Gabriella Windsor, Prince Alexander von Fürstenberg, Countess Cosima von Bülow Pavoncelli, and her half-brother Prince Alexander-Georg von Auersperg.\n\nNobel Laureates Craig Mello '82 and Jerry White '87, Cooley-Tukey FFT algorithm co-originator John Wilder Tukey '36, biologist Stanley Falkow (PhD '59), and psychologist Aaron Beck '50.\n\nNotable past or current faculty have included Nobel Laureates Michael Kosterlitz, Lars Onsager, George Stigler, Vernon L. Smith, George Snell and Leon Cooper; Fields Medal winning mathematician David Mumford, Pulitzer Prize–winning historian Gordon S. Wood, Sakurai Prize winning physicist Gerald Guralnik, computer scientist Andries van Dam, engineer Daniel C. Drucker, sociologist Lester Frank Ward, former Prime Minister of Italy and former EU chief Romano Prodi, former President of Brazil Fernando Cardoso, former President of Chile Ricardo Lagos, writers Carlos Fuentes, Chinua Achebe, and Robert Coover, philosopher Martha Nussbaum, linguist Hans Kurath, political scientist James Morone and Senior Fellow Sergei Khrushchev.\n\n\nFile:Horace Mann.jpg|Horace Mann, class of 1819, regarded as the father of American public education\nFile:Janet yellen.jpg|Janet Yellen, class of 1967, the first woman in history to head the Federal Reserve\nFile:C.M. Gilbert. - John Hay, c. 1904.jpg|John Hay, class of 1858, private secretary to Abraham Lincoln, man of letters, Ambassador to the Court of St. James's, and Secretary of State under Presidents McKinley and Roosevelt\nFile:Jim Yong Kim (cropped).jpg|Jim Yong Kim, class of 1982, President of the World Bank, emeritus president of Dartmouth College, and first Asian-American president of an Ivy League institution\nFile:John D. Rockefeller, Jr. (1915).jpg|John D. Rockefeller, Jr., class of 1897, developer and sole financier of Rockefeller Center, philanthropist who gave away half a billion dollars during his life\nFile:ThomasJWatsonJr.jpg|Thomas Watson, Jr., class of 1937, led the global rise of IBM and is one of ''Time'''s \"100 most influential people of the 20th century\"\nFile:Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes.jpg|Charles Evans Hughes, class of 1881, Chief Justice of the United States and U.S. Secretary of State\nFile:Ted Turner LF.JPG|Ted Turner, class of 1960, philanthropist, America's Cup–winning yachtsman, and founder of CNN\nFile:Samuel Gridley Howe.jpg|Samuel Gridley Howe, class of 1821, abolitionist, pioneer advocate for the blind, \"Lafayette of the Greek Revolution\" and its historian\nFile:Alexander Meiklejohn Time magazine cover, October 1, 1928.jpg|Alexander Meiklejohn, class of 1893, philosopher, education reformer, president of Amherst College, his ideas are celebrated in the Meiklejohn Freedom Award of the AAUP\n\n\n===In popular culture===\nBrown's reputation as an institution with a free-spirited, iconoclastic student body is portrayed in fiction and popular culture. ''Family Guy'' character Brian Griffin is a Brown alumnus. ''The O.C.''s main character Seth Cohen is denied acceptance to Brown while his girlfriend is accepted. In ''Gossip Girl'', New York socialite Serena vies with her friends for a spot at Brown, and ''The Simpsons'' character Lisa Simpson is told by Harvard’s president after she fails a test that she will be unable to attend Harvard, but he can “pass (her) file along to Brown.” Amy Gardner from ''The West Wing'' is a Brown alumna.\n",
"\n* List of Brown University statues\n* Brown University traditions\n* Brown University Alma Mater\n* Josiah S. Carberry\n\n\n",
"\n\n===Bibliography===\n\n*\n*\n*\n\n",
"\n* \n* Brown Athletics site\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Coat of arms",
"Campus",
"Academics",
"Admissions and financial aid",
" Sustainability ",
"Athletics",
"Student life",
"Rankings",
"Notable people",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Brown University | [
"Prominent alums in business and finance include philanthropist John D. Rockefeller Jr. (1897), Chair of the Federal Reserve Janet Yellen '67, World Bank President Jim Yong Kim '82, Bank of America CEO Brian Moynihan '81, CNN founder and America's Cup yachtsman Ted Turner '60, IBM chairman and CEO Thomas Watson, Jr. '37, Apple Inc. CEO John Sculley '61, incoming Uber CEO Dara Khosrowshahi '91, and magazine editor John F. Kennedy, Jr. '83.",
"- John Hay, c. 1904.jpg|John Hay, class of 1858, private secretary to Abraham Lincoln, man of letters, Ambassador to the Court of St. James's, and Secretary of State under Presidents McKinley and Roosevelt\nFile:Jim Yong Kim (cropped).jpg|Jim Yong Kim, class of 1982, President of the World Bank, emeritus president of Dartmouth College, and first Asian-American president of an Ivy League institution\nFile:John D. Rockefeller, Jr. (1915).jpg|John D. Rockefeller, Jr., class of 1897, developer and sole financier of Rockefeller Center, philanthropist who gave away half a billion dollars during his life\nFile:ThomasJWatsonJr.jpg|Thomas Watson, Jr., class of 1937, led the global rise of IBM and is one of ''Time'''s \"100 most influential people of the 20th century\"\nFile:Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes.jpg|Charles Evans Hughes, class of 1881, Chief Justice of the United States and U.S. Secretary of State\nFile:Ted Turner LF.JPG|Ted Turner, class of 1960, philanthropist, America's Cup–winning yachtsman, and founder of CNN\nFile:Samuel Gridley Howe.jpg|Samuel Gridley Howe, class of 1821, abolitionist, pioneer advocate for the blind, \"Lafayette of the Greek Revolution\" and its historian\nFile:Alexander Meiklejohn Time magazine cover, October 1, 1928.jpg|Alexander Meiklejohn, class of 1893, philosopher, education reformer, president of Amherst College, his ideas are celebrated in the Meiklejohn Freedom Award of the AAUP\n\n\n===In popular culture===\nBrown's reputation as an institution with a free-spirited, iconoclastic student body is portrayed in fiction and popular culture."
] | [
"\n\n\n'''Brown University''' is a private Ivy League research university in Providence, Rhode Island, United States.",
"Founded in 1764 as the College in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Brown is the seventh-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution.",
"At its foundation, Brown was the first college in the United States to accept students regardless of their religious affiliation.",
"Its engineering program was established in 1847 and was the first in the Ivy League.",
"It was one of the early doctoral-granting U.S. institutions in the late 19th century, adding master and doctoral studies in 1887.",
"Brown's New Curriculum is sometimes referred to in education theory as the Brown Curriculum and was adopted by faculty vote in 1969 after a period of student lobbying.",
"The New Curriculum eliminated mandatory \"general education\" distribution requirements, made students \"the architects of their own syllabus\" and allowed them to take any course for a grade of satisfactory or unrecorded no-credit.",
"In 1971, Brown's coordinate women's institution Pembroke College was fully merged into the university and Pembroke Campus now includes dormitories and classrooms used by all of Brown.",
"Undergraduate admissions is very selective, with an acceptance rate of 8.3 percent for the class of 2021.",
"The University comprises the College, the Graduate School, Alpert Medical School, the School of Engineering, the School of Public Health and the School of Professional Studies (which includes the IE Brown Executive MBA program).",
"Brown's international programs are organized through the Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs and the university is academically affiliated with the Marine Biological Laboratory and the Rhode Island School of Design.",
"The Brown/RISD Dual Degree Program, offered in conjunction with the Rhode Island School of Design, is a five-year course that awards degrees from both institutions.",
"Brown's main campus is located in the College Hill Historic District in the city of Providence, the third largest city in New England.",
"The University's neighborhood is a federally listed architectural district with a dense concentration of Colonial-era buildings.",
"Benefit Street, on the western edge of the campus, contains \"one of the finest cohesive collections of restored seventeenth- and eighteenth-century architecture in the United States\".",
"Brown's faculty and alumni include eight Nobel Prize laureates, five National Humanities Medalists and ten National Medal of Science laureates.",
"Other notable alumni include eight billionaire graduates, a U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice, four U.S.",
"Secretaries of State and other Cabinet officials, 54 members of the United States Congress, 55 Rhodes Scholars, 52 Gates Cambridge Scholars 48 Marshall Scholars, 14 MacArthur Genius Fellows, 19 Pulitzer Prize winners and members of royal families, as well as leaders and founders of major companies.",
"\n\n===The foundation and the charter===\n''Brown University, R.I'', c. 1840, New York Public Library\nReverend Ezra Stiles seventh president of Yale College and one of the founders of Brown University\nThe first president, James Manning, taught the earliest college classes at his parish house\nThe Ezra Stiles copy of the Brown University Charter of 1764\nSeal of the university\nThe origin of Brown University can be dated to 1761, when three residents of Newport, Rhode Island drafted a petition to the General Assembly of the colony:\n\nYour Petitioners propose to open a literary institution or School for instructing young Gentlemen in the Languages, Mathematics, Geography & History, & such other branches of Knowledge as shall be desired.",
"That for this End ... it will be necessary ... to erect a public Building or Buildings for the boarding of the youth & the Residence of the Professors.",
"The three petitioners were Ezra Stiles, pastor of Newport's Second Congregational Church and future president of Yale; William Ellery, Jr., future signer of the United States Declaration of Independence; and Josias Lyndon, future governor of the colony.",
"Stiles and Ellery were co-authors of the Charter of the College two years later.",
"The editor of Stiles's papers observes, \"This draft of a petition connects itself with other evidence of Dr. Stiles's project for a Collegiate Institution in Rhode Island, before the charter of what became Brown University.\"",
"There is further documentary evidence that Stiles was making plans for a college in 1762.",
"On January 20, Chauncey Whittelsey, pastor of the First Church of New Haven, answered a letter from Stiles:\n\nThe week before last I sent you the Copy of Yale College Charter.... Should you make any Progress in the Affair of a Colledge, I should be glad to hear of it; I heartily wish you Success therein.",
"The Philadelphia Association of Baptist Churches also had an eye on Rhode Island, home of the mother church of their denomination: the First Baptist Church in America, founded in Providence in 1638 by Roger Williams.",
"The Baptists were as yet unrepresented among colonial colleges; the Congregationalists had Harvard and Yale, the Presbyterians had the College of New Jersey (later Princeton), and the Episcopalians had the College of William and Mary and King's College (later Columbia).",
"Isaac Backus was the historian of the New England Baptists and an inaugural Trustee of Brown, writing in 1784.",
"He described the October 1762 resolution taken at Philadelphia:\n\nThe Philadelphia Association obtained such an acquaintance with our affairs, as to bring them to an apprehension that it was practicable and expedient to erect a college in the Colony of Rhode-Island, under the chief direction of the Baptists; ... Mr. James Manning, who took his first degree in New-Jersey college in September, 1762, was esteemed a suitable leader in this important work.",
"Manning arrived at Newport in July 1763 and was introduced to Stiles, who agreed to write the Charter for the College.",
"Stiles's first draft was read to the General Assembly in August 1763 and rejected by Baptist members who worried that the College Board of Fellows would under-represent the Baptists.",
"A revised Charter written by Stiles and Ellery was adopted by the Assembly on March 3, 1764.",
"In September 1764, the inaugural meeting of the College Corporation was held at Newport.",
"Governor Stephen Hopkins was chosen chancellor, former and future governor Samuel Ward was vice chancellor, John Tillinghast treasurer, and Thomas Eyres secretary.",
"The Charter stipulated that the Board of Trustees be composed of 22 Baptists, five Quakers, five Episcopalians, and four Congregationalists.",
"Of the 12 Fellows, eight should be Baptists—including the College president—\"and the rest indifferently of any or all Denominations.\"",
"The Charter was not the grant of King George III, as is sometimes supposed, but rather an Act of the colonial General Assembly.",
"In two particulars, the Charter may be said to be a uniquely progressive document.",
"First, other colleges had curricular strictures against opposing doctrines, while Brown's Charter asserted, \"Sectarian differences of opinions, shall not make any Part of the Public and Classical Instruction.\"",
"Second, according to Brown University historian Walter Bronson, \"the instrument governing Brown University recognized more broadly and fundamentally than any other the principle of denominational cooperation.\"",
"The oft-repeated statement is inaccurate that Brown's Charter alone prohibited a religious test for College membership; other college charters were also liberal in that particular.",
"James Manning was sworn in as the College's first president in 1765 and served until 1791.",
"In 1770, the College moved from Warren, Rhode Island to the crest of College Hill overlooking Providence.",
"Solomon Drowne, a freshman in the class of 1773, wrote in his diary on March 26, 1770:\n\nThis day the Committee for settling the spot for the College, met at the New-Brick School House, when it was determined it should be set on ye Hill opposite Mr. John Jenkes; up the Presbyterian Lane.",
"Presbyterian Lane is the present College Street.",
"The eight-acre site had been purchased in two parcels by the Corporation for £219, mainly from Moses Brown and John Brown, the parcels having \"formed a part of the original home lots of their ancestor, Chad Brown, and of George Rickard, who bought them from the Indians.\"",
"University Hall was known as \"The College Edifice\" until 1823; it was modelled on Nassau Hall at the College of New Jersey.",
"Its construction was managed by the firm of Nicholas Brown and Company, which spent £2,844 in the first year building the College Edifice and the adjacent President's House.",
"Nicholas Brown, Jr., founder of the Providence Athenaeum, co-founder of Butler Hospital, philanthropist, progressive, and abolitionist.",
"Following his major gift in 1804, the College was renamed Brown University.",
"Painting by Chester Harding, 1836\n\n====The Brown family====\n\nNicholas Brown, his son Nicholas Brown, Jr. (class of 1786), John Brown, Joseph Brown, and Moses Brown were all instrumental in moving the College to Providence and securing its endowment.",
"Joseph became a professor of natural philosophy at the College; John served as its treasurer from 1775 to 1796; and Nicholas Junior succeeded his uncle as treasurer from 1796 to 1825.",
"On September 8, 1803, the Corporation voted, \"That the donation of $5000 Dollars, if made to this College within one Year from the late Commencement, shall entitle the donor to name the College.\"",
"That appeal was answered by College treasurer Nicholas Brown Junior in a letter dated September 6, 1804, and the Corporation honored its promise.",
"\"In gratitude to Mr. Brown, the Corporation at the same meeting voted, 'That this College be called and known in all future time by the Name of Brown University'.\"",
"Over the years, the benefactions of Nicholas Brown, Jr. totaled nearly $160,000, an enormous sum for that period, and included the buildings Hope College (1821–22) and Manning Hall (1834-35).",
"It is sometimes erroneously supposed that Brown University was named after John Brown, whose commercial activity included the transportation of African slaves.",
"In fact, Brown University was named for Nicholas Brown, Jr.—philanthropist, founder of the Providence Athenaeum, co-founder of Butler Hospital, and an abolitionist.",
"Nicholas Brown, Jr. became a financier of the movement under the guidance of his uncle Moses Brown, one of the leading abolitionists of his day.",
"Brigadier general James Mitchell Varnum (class of 1769) served in the Continental Army and advocated the enlistment of African Americans, which resulted in the reformation of the 1st Rhode Island Regiment as an all-black unit.",
"Painting by Charles Willson Peale, 1804\n\n====The American Revolution====\n\nThe College library was moved out of Providence for safekeeping in the fall of 1776, with British vessels patrolling Narragansett Bay.",
"On December 7, 1776, six thousand British and Hessian troops sailed into Newport harbor under the command of Sir Peter Parker.",
"College president Manning said in a letter written after the war:\n\nThe royal Army landed on Rhode Island & took possession of the same: This brought their Camp in plain View from the College with the naked Eye; upon which the Country flew to Arms & marched for Providence, there, unprovided with Barracks they marched into the College & dispossessed the Students, about 40 in Number.",
"\"In the claim for damages presented by the Corporation to the United States government,\" says the University historian, \"it is stated that the American troops used it for barracks and hospital from December 10, 1776, to April 20, 1780, and that the French troops used it for a hospital from June 26, 1780, to May 27, 1782.\"",
"The French troops were those of the Comte de Rochambeau.",
"On the College Green, Sayles Hall (left), built 1878–81, designed by Alpheus C. Morse, and Wilson Hall, built 1891, designed by Gould & Angell, both buildings in the Richardsonian Romanesque style\n\n===The New Curriculum===\n\nIn 1850, Brown President Francis Wayland wrote: \"The various courses should be so arranged that, insofar as practicable, every student might study what he chose, all that he chose, and nothing but what he chose.\"",
"The New Curriculum was adopted in 1969; it is a milestone in the University's history and is seen as the realization of Wayland's vision.",
"The curriculum was the result of a paper written by Ira Magaziner and Elliot Maxwell entitled \"Draft of a Working Paper for Education at Brown University.\"",
"The paper came out of a year-long Group Independent Study Project (GISP) involving 80 students and 15 professors.",
"The GISP was inspired by student-initiated experimental schools, especially San Francisco State College, and sought ways to \"put students at the center of their education\" and \"teach students how to think rather than just teaching facts.\"",
"The paper made concrete proposals for the new curriculum, including interdisciplinary freshman-year courses that would introduce \"modes of thought,\" with instruction from faculty brought together from different disciplines.",
"The aim was to transform the traditional survey course—often experienced passively by first-year students—into a more engaging process, an investigation of the intellectual and philosophical connections between disciplines.",
"A grading option of Satisfactory/No Credit was introduced to encourage students to try courses outside their grade-point comfort zone.",
"In practice, this grading innovation of the New Curriculum has been its most successful component, sometimes misunderstood and mischaracterized but responsible for uncounted career-changing decisions in the decades since its adoption—studio art swapped for neuroscience, biology swapped for anthropology, mathematics swapped for playwriting (and Pulitzer Prizes).",
"Russell Warren.",
"Both buildings were the gift of Nicholas Brown, Junior\n\nUniversity president Ray Heffner appointed the Special Committee on Curricular Philosophy in the spring of 1969, following student rallies in support of reform, and gave them the task of developing specific reforms.",
"The resulting report was called the Maeder Report after its committee chairman and was presented to the faculty, which voted the New Curriculum into existence on May 7, 1969.",
"Its key features included:\n* Modes of Thought courses for first-year students\n* The introduction of interdisciplinary courses\n* The abandonment of \"general education\" distribution requirements\n* The Satisfactory/No Credit grading option\n* The ABC/No Credit grading system, which eliminated pluses, minuses, and D's; a grade of \"No Credit\" would not appear on external transcripts.",
"The Modes of Thought course was discontinued early on, but the other elements are still in place.",
"In 2006, the reintroduction of plus/minus grading was broached by persons concerned about grade inflation.",
"The idea was rejected by the College Curriculum Council after canvassing alumni, faculty, and students, including the original authors of the Magaziner-Maxwell Report.",
"Brown University's coat of arms is a white field divided into four sectors by a red cross; within each sector is an open book.",
"Above the shield is a crest consisting of the upper half of a sun in splendor among the clouds atop a red and white torse.",
"The sun and clouds represent \"learning piercing the clouds of ignorance.\"",
"The cross is believed to be a Saint George's Cross, and the open books represent learning.",
"Walker and Gould, an octagonal building in the Venetian Gothic style.",
"It is an example of the panoptic principle in library design inspired by the British Museum reading room\n\nBrown is the largest institutional landowner in Providence, with properties on College Hill and in the Jewelry District.",
"The College Hill campus was built contemporarily with the eighteenth- and nineteenth-century precincts that surround it, so that University buildings blend with the architectural fabric of the city.",
"The only indicator of \"campus\" is a brick and wrought-iron fence on Prospect, George, and Waterman streets, enclosing the College Green and Front Green.",
"The character of Brown's urban campus is then European organic rather than American landscaped.",
"===Main campus===\n\nThe main campus, comprising 235 buildings and , is on College Hill in Providence's East Side.",
"It is reached from downtown principally by three extremely steep streets—College, Waterman, and Angell—which run through the Benefit Street historic district and the campus of the Rhode Island School of Design.",
"College Street, culminating with Van Wickle Gates at the top of the hill, is especially beautiful, and is the setting for the Convocation and Commencement processions.",
"Hoppin and Ely of Providence and Hoppin and Koen of New York.",
"The gates were the gift of Augustus Stout Van Wickle, class of 1876, who also gave the FitzRandolph Gateway at Princeton, built 1905, as a memorial to his ancestor Nathaniel FitzRandolph\n'''Van Wickle Gates'''\n\nThe Van Wickle Gates, dedicated on June 18, 1901, have a pair of smaller side gates that are open year-round, and a large central gate that is opened two days a year for Convocation and Commencement.",
"At Convocation the gate opens inward to admit the procession of new students.",
"At Commencement the gate opens outward for the procession of graduates.",
"A Brown superstition is that students who walk through the central gate a second time prematurely will not graduate, although walking backwards is said to cancel the hex.",
"Members of the Brown University Band famously flout the superstition by walking through the gate three times too many, as they annually play their role in the Commencement parade.",
"Carrie Tower, built 1904 in English Baroque style, is a memorial to Caroline Mathilde Brown, granddaughter of Nicholas Brown, class of 1786, for whom the University is named\nThe core green spaces of the main campus are the Front (or \"Quiet\") Green, the College (or \"Main\") Green, and the Ruth J. Simmons Quadrangle (until 2012 called Lincoln Field).",
"The old buildings on these three greens are the most photographed.",
"Adjacent to this older campus are, to the south, academic buildings and residential quadrangles, including Wriston, Keeney, and Gregorian quadrangles; to the east, Sciences Park occupying two city blocks; to the north, connected to Simmons Quadrangle by The Walk, academic and residential precincts, including the life sciences complex and the Pembroke Campus; and to the west, on the slope of College Hill, academic buildings, including List Art Center and the Hay and Rockefeller libraries.",
"Also on the slope of College Hill, contiguous with Brown, is the campus of the Rhode Island School of Design.",
"The John Hay Library, built 1910, designed by Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge in the English Renaissance style, is home to rare books, special collections, and the University archives\n'''John Hay Library'''\n\nThe John Hay Library is the second oldest library on campus.",
"It was opened in 1910 and named for John Hay (class of 1858, private secretary to Abraham Lincoln and Secretary of State under two Presidents) at the request of his friend Andrew Carnegie, who contributed half of the $300,000 cost of the building.",
"It is now the repository of the University's archives, rare books and manuscripts, and special collections.",
"Noteworthy among the latter are the Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection (described as \"the foremost American collection of material devoted to the history and iconography of soldiers and soldiering\"), the Harris Collection of American Poetry and Plays (described as \"the largest and most comprehensive collection of its kind in any research library\"), the Lownes Collection of the History of Science (described as \"one of the three most important private collections of books of science in America\"), and (for popularity of requests) the papers of H.P.",
"Lovecraft.",
"The Hay Library is home to one of the broadest collections of incunabula (15th-century printed books) in the Americas, as well as such rarities as the manuscript of Orwell's ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' and a Shakespeare First Folio.",
"There are also three books bound in human skin.",
"The John Carter Brown Library on the College Green, built 1898-1904, designed by Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge in the Beaux-Arts style, is one of the world's leading repositories of ancient books and maps relating to the exploration and natural history of the Americas\n'''John Carter Brown Library'''\n\nThe John Carter Brown Library, founded in 1846, is administered separately from the University, but has been located on the Main Green of the campus since 1904.",
"It is generally regarded as the world's leading collection of primary historical sources pertaining to the Americas before 1825.",
"It houses a very large percentage of the titles published before that date about the discovery, settlement, history, and natural history of the New World.",
"The \"JCB\", as it is known, published the 29-volume ''Bibliotheca Americana'', a principal bibliography in the field.",
"Typical of its noteworthy holdings is the best preserved of the eleven surviving copies of the Bay Psalm Book the earliest extant book printed in British North America and the most expensive printed book in the world.",
"There is also a very fine Shakespeare First Folio, added to the collection by John Carter Brown's widow (a Shakespeare enthusiast) on the grounds that it includes ''The Tempest'', a play set in the New World.",
"The JCB holdings comprise more than 50,000 early titles and about 16,000 modern books, as well as prints, manuscripts, maps, and other items in the library's specialty.",
"Greek Revival style, home to the Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology\n\n===Haffenreffer Museum===\n\nThe exhibition galleries of the Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology, Brown's teaching museum, are located in Manning Hall on the campus's main green.",
"Its one million artifacts, available for research and educational purposes, are located at its Collections Research Center in Bristol, RI.",
"The museum's goal is to inspire creative and critical thinking about culture by fostering interdisciplinary understanding of the material world.",
"It provides opportunities for faculty and students to work with collections and the public, teaching through objects and programs in classrooms and exhibitions.",
"The museum sponsors lectures and events in all areas of anthropology, and also runs an extensive program of outreach to local schools.",
"Brown Commencements have been held since 1776 in the First Baptist Church in America, built 1774-75, designed by Joseph Brown.",
"This \"meeting house\" was built to accommodate 1,400 people and for the dual purpose of \"the publick worship of Almighty God and also for holding commencement in\"\n\nThe \"Walk\" connects Pembroke Campus to the main campus.",
"It is a succession of green spaces extending from Ruth Simmons Quadrangle (Lincoln Field) in the south to the Pembroke College monument on Meeting Street in the north.",
"It is bordered by departmental buildings and the Granoff Center for the Creative Arts.",
"A focal point of The Walk will be the Maya Lin-designed water-circulating topographical sculpture of Narragansett Bay, to be installed in 2014 next to the Institute for the Study of Environment and Society.",
"Smith-Buonanno Hall on the Pembroke Campus\nMiller Hall on the Pembroke Campus\n\n===Pembroke campus===\nThe Women's College in Brown University, known as Pembroke College, was founded in October 1891.",
"When it merged with Brown in 1971, the Pembroke Campus was absorbed into the Brown campus.",
"The Pembroke campus is centered on a quadrangle that fronts on Meeting Street, where a garden and monument—with scale-model of the quadrangle in bronze—compose the formal entry to the campus.",
"The Pembroke campus is among the most pleasing spaces at Brown, with noteworthy examples of Victorian and Georgian architecture.",
"The west side of the quadrangle comprises Pembroke Hall (1897), Smith-Buonanno Hall (1907, formerly Pembroke Gymnasium), and Metcalf Hall (1919); the east side comprises Alumnae Hall (1927) and Miller Hall (1910); the quadrangle culminates on the north with Andrews Hall (1947) and its terrace and garden.",
"Pembroke Hall, originally a classroom building and library, now houses the Cogut Center for the Humanities.",
"The Orwig Music Library in the former Isaac Gifford Ladd house, built 1850, acquired in 1969 when Brown bought the buildings and grounds of Bryant University on the southeast edge of the Brown campus\nEast Campus, centered on Hope and Charlesfield streets, was originally the site of Bryant University.",
"In 1969, as Bryant was preparing to move to Smithfield, Rhode Island, Brown bought their Providence campus for $5 million.",
"This expanded the Brown campus by and 26 buildings, included several historic houses, notably the Isaac Gifford Ladd house, built 1850 (now Brown's Orwig Music Library), and the Robert Taft House, built 1895 (now King House).",
"The area was named East Campus in 1971.",
"Thayer Street runs through Brown's main campus, north to south, and is College Hill's reduced-scale counterpart to Harvard Square or Berkeley's Telegraph Avenue.",
"Restaurants, cafes, bistros, tavernas, pubs, bookstores, second-hand shops, and the like abound.",
"Tourists, people-watchers, buskers, and students from Providence's six colleges make the scene.",
"Half a mile south of campus is Thayer Street's hipper cousin, Wickenden Street.",
"More picturesque and with older architecture, it features galleries, pubs, specialty shops, artist-supply stores, and a regionally famous coffee shop that doubles as a film set (for Woody Allen and others).",
"Brown Stadium, built in 1925 and home to the football team, is located approximately a mile to the northeast of the main campus.",
"Marston Boathouse, the home of the crew teams, lies on the Blackstone/Seekonk River, to the southeast of campus.",
"Brown's Warren Alpert Medical School is situated in the historic Jewelry District of Providence, near the medical campus of Brown's teaching hospitals, Rhode Island Hospital, Women and Infants Hospital, and Hasbro Children's Hospital.",
"Other University research facilities in the Jewelry District include the Laboratories for Molecular Medicine.",
"Brown's School of Public Health occupies a landmark modernist building overlooking Memorial Park on the Providence Riverwalk.",
"Brown also owns the Mount Hope Grant in Bristol, Rhode Island, an important Native American and King Philip's War site.",
"Brown's Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology Collection Research Center, particularly strong in Native American items, is located in the Mount Hope Grant.",
"\n===Presidents===\n19th Brown president Christina Hull Paxson, 2012 to present\n2nd Brown president, Jonathan Maxcy, 1792–1802 was the first alum to serve as president\n4th Brown president Francis Wayland, 1827-1855.",
"His influential book ''Thoughts on the Present Collegiate System in the United States'' (1842) urged American universities to adopt a broader curriculum\n18th Brown president Ruth J. Simmons, 2001–2012, was the first African-American to lead an Ivy League university\n\nBrown's current president Christina Hull Paxson took office in 2012.",
"She had previously been dean of the Woodrow Wilson School at Princeton University and a past-chair of Princeton's economics department.",
"In 2014 and 2015, Paxson presided over the year-long celebration of the 250th anniversary of Brown's founding.",
"Her immediate predecessor as president was Ruth J. Simmons, the first African American president of an Ivy League institution.",
"Simmons will remain at Brown as a professor of Comparative Literature and Africana Studies.",
"===The College===\n\nFounded in 1764, the College is the oldest school of Brown University.",
"About 6,400 undergraduate students are currently enrolled in the College, and 79 concentrations (majors) are offered.",
"Completed concentrations of undergraduates by area are social sciences 42 percent, humanities 26 percent, life sciences 17 percent, and physical sciences 14 percent.",
"The concentrations with the greatest number of students are Biology, History, and International Relations.",
"Brown is one of the few schools in the United States with an undergraduate concentration (major) in Egyptology.",
"Undergraduates can also design an independent concentration if the existing programs do not align with their curricular focus.",
"35 percent of undergraduates pursue graduate or professional study immediately, 60 percent within 5 years, and 80 percent within 10 years.",
"For the Class of 1998, 75 percent of all graduates have since enrolled in a graduate or professional degree program.",
"The degrees acquired were doctoral 22 percent, master's 35 percent, medicine 28 percent, and law 14 percent.",
"The highest fields of employment for graduates of the College are business 36 percent, education 19 percent, health/medical 6 percent, arts 6 percent, government 6 percent, and communications/media 5 percent.",
"The language of the College Charter has been interpreted as discouraging the establishment professional schools.",
"Brown and Princeton are the only Ivy League colleges with neither business school nor law school.",
"The List Art Center, built 1969-71, designed by Philip Johnson, houses the Department of Visual Art and the David Winton Bell Gallery, and is adjacent to the campus of the Rhode Island School of Design\n\n===Brown/RISD Dual Degree Program===\nBrown's near neighbor on College Hill is the Rhode Island School of Design (RISD), America's top-ranked art college.",
"Brown and RISD students can cross-register at the two institutions, with Brown students permitted to take as many as four courses at RISD that count towards a Brown degree.",
"The two institutions partner to provide various student-life services and the two student bodies compose a synergy in the College Hill cultural scene.",
"The Brown/RISD Dual Degree Program, among the most selective in the country, offered admission to 17 of the 512 applicants for the class entering in autumn 2015, an acceptance rate of 3.3 percent.",
"It combines the complementary strengths of the two institutions, integrating studio art at RISD with the entire spectrum of Brown's departmental offerings.",
"Students are admitted to the Dual Degree Program for a course lasting five years and culminating in both the Bachelor of Arts (A.B.)",
"degree from Brown and the Bachelor of Fine Arts (B.F.A.)",
"degree from RISD.",
"Prospective students must apply to the two schools separately and be accepted by separate admissions committees.",
"Their application must then be approved by a third Brown/RISD joint committee.",
"Admitted students spend the first year in residence at RISD completing its \"foundation course,\" and the second year in residence at Brown.",
"Another year at each school ensues, with the fifth year spent according to the student's electives.",
"Program participants are noted for their creative and original approach to cross-disciplinary opportunities, combining, for example, industrial design with engineering, or anatomical illustration with human biology, or philosophy with sculpture, or architecture with urban studies.",
"An annual \"BRDD Exhibition\" is a well-publicized and heavily attended event, drawing interest and attendees from the wider world of industry, design, the media, and the fine arts.",
"Stone, Carpenter and Willson in Richardsonian Romanesque style, houses the Department of Theatre Arts and Performance Studies\n\n===Theatre and playwriting===\n\nBrown's theatre and playwriting programs are among the best-regarded in the country.",
"Since 2003 eight different Brown graduates have either won (four times) or been nominated for (six times) the Pulitzer Prize—including winners Lynn Nottage '86 (twice—2009, 2017), Ayad Akhtar '93, Nilo Cruz '94, and Quiara Alegría Hudes '04; and nominees Sarah Ruhl '97 (twice), Gina Gionfriddo '97 (twice), Stephen Karam '02, and Jordan Harrison '03.",
"In ''American Theater'' magazine's 2009 ranking of the most-produced American plays, Brown graduates occupied four of the top five places—Peter Nachtrieb '97, Rachel Sheinkin '89, Sarah Ruhl '97, and Stephen Karam '02.",
"The undergraduate concentration (major) encompasses programs in theatre history, performance theory, playwriting, dramaturgy, acting, directing, dance, speech, and technical production.",
"Applications for doctoral and master's degree programs are made through the University Graduate School.",
"Master's degrees in acting and directing are pursued in conjunction with the Rep MFA program, which partners with one of the country's great regional theatres, Trinity Repertory Company, home of the last longstanding resident acting company in the country.",
"Trinity Rep's present artistic director Curt Columbus succeeded Oskar Eustis in 2006, when Eustis was chosen to lead New York's Public Theater.",
"The many performance spaces available to Brown students include the Chace and Dowling theaters at Trinity Rep; the McCormack Family, Lee Strasberg, Rites and Reason, Ashamu Dance, Stuart, and Leeds theatres in University departments; the Upstairs Space and Downstairs Space belonging to the wholly student-run Production Workshop; and Alumnae Hall, used by Brown University Gilbert & Sullivan and by Brown Opera Productions.",
"Production design courses utilize the John Street Studio of Eugene Lee, three-time Tony Award-winner.",
"Federal style, was named for Hope Brown Ives, sister of Nicholas Brown, Junior, and was the first purpose-built residence hall at Brown\nMembership in the Brown Faculty Club is open to all faculty, staff, alumni, and Brown parents, and confers reciprocal privileges at other clubs—in North America, England, Spain, and Israel—through the Association of College and University Clubs\n\n===Writing programs===\n\nWriting at Brown—fiction, non-fiction, poetry, playwriting, screenwriting, electronic writing, mixed media, and the undergraduate writing proficiency requirement—is catered for by various centers and degree programs, and a faculty that has long included nationally and internationally known authors.",
"The undergraduate concentration (major) in literary arts offers courses in fiction, poetry, screenwriting, literary hypermedia, and translation.",
"Graduate programs include the fiction and poetry MFA writing programs in the literary arts department, and the MFA playwriting program in the theatre arts and performance studies department.",
"The non-fiction writing program is offered in the English department.",
"Screenwriting and cinema narrativity courses are offered in the departments of literary arts and modern culture and media.",
"The undergraduate writing proficiency requirement is supported by the Writing Center.",
"===Author prizewinners===\n\nAlumni authors take their degrees across the spectrum of degree concentrations, but a gauge of the strength of writing at Brown is the number of major national writing prizes won.",
"To note only winners since the year 2000: Pulitzer Prize for Fiction-winners Jeffrey Eugenides '82 (2003) and Marilynne Robinson '66 (2005); British Orange Prize-winners Marilynne Robinson '66 (2009) and Madeline Miller '00 (2012); Pulitzer Prize for Drama-winners Nilo Cruz '94 (2003), Lynn Nottage '86 (twice, 2009, 2017), Quiara Alegría Hudes '04 (2012), and Ayad Akhtar '93 (2013); Pulitzer Prize for Biography-winner David Kertzer '69 (2015); Pulitzer Prize for Journalism-winners James Risen '77 (twice, 2002, 2006), Mark Maremont '80 (twice, 2003, 2007), Gareth Cook '91 (2005), Peter Kovacs '77 (2006), Stephanie Grace '86 (2006), Mary Swerczek '98 (2006), Jane B. Spencer '99 (2006), Usha Lee McFarling '89 (2007), James Bandler '89 (2007), Amy Goldstein '75 (2009), and David Rohde '90 (twice, 1996, 2009), as well as Pulitzer Prize for Poetry-winner Peter Balakian PhD '80.",
"The Watson Center for Information Technology, built 1988, designed by Cambridge Seven Associates.",
"It is named for Thomas J. Watson, Jr., Brown class of 1937, who led the global rise of IBM.",
"The division of applied mathematics in the former Henry Pearce House, built 1898, designed by Frank W. Angell and Frank H. Swift, acquired by Brown in 1952\n\n===Computer science===\nTeaching of computer science began at Brown in 1956 when an IBM machine was installed and computing courses were offered through the departments of Economics and Applied Mathematics.",
"In January 1958 an IBM650 was added, the only one of its type between Hartford and Boston.",
"In 1960 Brown's first computer building, designed by Philip Johnson, was opened on George Street and an IBM7070 computer installed the next year.",
"It was given full Departmental status in 1979.",
"In 2009, IBM and Brown announced the installation of a supercomputer (by teraflops standards), the most powerful in the southeastern New England region.",
"The Hypertext Editing Systems, HES and FRESS, were invented in the 1960s at Brown by Andries van Dam, Ted Nelson, and Bob Wallace, with Nelson coining the word ''hypertext''.",
"Van Dam's students were instrumental in the origin of the XML, XSLT, and related Web standards.",
"Brown alumni who have distinguished themselves in the computer sciences and industry are listed in the Notable people section, below.",
"They include a principal architect of the Classic Mac OS, a principal architect of the Intel 80386 microprocessor line, the Microsoft Windows 95 project chief, a CEO of Apple, the current head of the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, the inaugural chair of the Computing Community Consortium, and design chiefs at Pixar and Industrial Light & Magic, protegees of graphics guru Andries van Dam.",
"The character \"Andy\" in the animated film ''Toy Story'' is taken to be an homage to Van Dam from his students employed at Pixar.",
"Van Dam denies this, but a copy of his book (''Computer Graphics: Principles and Practice'') appears on Andy's bookshelf in the film.",
"Brown computer science graduate and ''Heroes'' actor Masi Oka '97, was an animator at Industrial Light & Magic.",
"The department today is home to The CAVE.",
"This project is a virtual reality room used for everything from three-dimensional drawing classes to tours of the circulatory system for medical students.",
"In 2000 students from Brown's Technology House converted the south face of the Sciences Library into a Tetris game, the first high-rise-building Tetris ever attempted.",
"Code named La Bastille, the game used a personal computer running Linux, a radio-frequency video game controller, eleven circuit boards, a 12-story data network, and over 10,000 Christmas lights.",
"James Bucklin in Greek Revival style to house the Natural History department, is now home to the Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology\nThe Department of Egyptology and Assyriology in Wilbour Hall, the former Samuel Dorrance Mansion, built 1888.",
"Wilbour Hall is named for Charles Edwin Wilbour, class of 1854, famed Egyptologist, whose collections and papers are held in the Wilbour Library in New York\n\n===The Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology and the Ancient World===\nThe Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology and the Ancient World pursues fieldwork and excavations, regional surveys, and academic study of the archaeology and art of the ancient Mediterranean, Egypt, and Western Asia from the Levant to the Caucasus.",
"The Institute has a very active fieldwork profile, with faculty-led excavations and regional surveys presently in Petra, Jordan, in West-Central Turkey, at Abydos in Egypt, and in Sudan, Italy, Mexico, Guatemala, Montserrat in the West Indies, and Providence, Rhode Island.",
"The Institute's faculty includes cross-appointments from the departments of Egyptology, Assyriology, Classics, Anthropology, and History of Art and Architecture.",
"Faculty research and publication areas include Greek and Roman art and architecture, landscape archaeology, urban and religious architecture of the Levant, Roman provincial studies, the Aegean Bronze Age, and the archaeology of the Caucasus.",
"The Institute offers visiting teaching appointments and postdoctoral fellowships which have, in recent years, included Near Eastern Archaeology and Art, Classical Archaeology and Art, Islamic Archaeology and Art, and Archaeology and Media Studies.",
"'''Egyptology and Assyriology'''\n\nFacing the Joukowsky Institute, across the Front Green, is the Department of Egyptology and Assyriology, formed in 2006 by the merger of Brown's renowned departments of Egyptology and History of Mathematics.",
"It is one of only a handful of such departments in the United States.",
"The curricular focus is on three principal areas: Egyptology (the study of the ancient languages, history, and culture of Egypt), Assyriology (the study of the ancient lands of present-day Iraq, Syria, and Turkey), and the history of the ancient exact sciences (astronomy, astrology, and mathematics).",
"Many courses in the department are open to all Brown undergraduates without prerequisite, and include archaeology, languages, history, and Egyptian and Mesopotamian religions, literature, and science.",
"Students concentrating (majoring) in the department choose a track of either Egyptology or Assyriology.",
"Graduate level study comprises three tracks to the doctoral degree: Egyptology, Assyriology, or the History of the Exact Sciences in Antiquity.",
"Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, built 2000-2002, designed by Rafael Viñoly\n\n=== The Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs ===\n\nThe Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs is a center for the study of global issues and public affairs and is one of the leading institutes of its type in the country.",
"It occupies an architecturally distinctive building designed by Uruguayan architect Rafael Viñoly.",
"The Institute was initially endowed by Thomas Watson, Jr., Brown class of 1937, former Ambassador to the Soviet Union, and longtime president of IBM.",
"Institute faculty includes, or formerly included, Italian prime minister and European Commission president Romano Prodi, Brazilian president Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Chilean president Ricardo Lagos Escobar, Mexican novelist and statesman Carlos Fuentes, Brazilian statesman and United Nations commission head Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro, Indian foreign minister and ambassador to the United States Nirupama Rao, American diplomat and Dayton Peace Accords author Richard Holbrooke (Brown '62), and Sergei Khrushchev, editor of the papers of his father Nikita Khrushchev, leader of the Soviet Union.",
"The Institute's curricular interest is organized into the principal themes of development, security, and governance—with further focuses on globalization, economic uncertainty, security threats, environmental degradation, and poverty.",
"Three Brown undergraduate concentrations (majors) are hosted by the Watson Institute—Development Studies, International Relations, and Public Policy.",
"Graduate programs offered at the Watson Institute include the Graduate Program in Development (Ph.D.) and the Public Policy Program (M.P.A).",
"The Institute also offers Post Doctoral, professional development and global outreach programming.",
"In support of these programs, the Institute houses various centers, including the Brazil Initiative, Brown-India Initiative, China Initiative, Middle East Studies center, The Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies (CLACS) and the Taubman Center for Public Policy.",
"In recent years, the most internationally cited product of the Watson Institute has been its Costs of War Project, first released in 2011 and continuously updated.",
"The Project comprises a team of economists, anthropologists, political scientists, legal experts, and physicians, and seeks to calculate the economic costs, human casualties, and impact on civil liberties of the wars in Iraq, Afghanistan, and Pakistan since 2001.",
"Stone and Carpenter in Ruskinian Gothic style.",
"When its foundation was dug at the south end of the College Green, neighbors objected that the Green \"upon which so many are accustomed to gaze while taking daily walks\" would be blocked from view, and Slater Hall was re-sited facing the Front Green\nAlpheus Morse in the Italian Gothic style as a chemistry laboratory, was renamed in 1989 the Salomon Center for Teaching\n\n===The School of Engineering===\n\n\nEstablished in 1847, Brown's engineering program is the oldest in the Ivy League and the third oldest civilian engineering program in the country, preceded only by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (1824) and Union College (1845).",
"In 1916 the departments of electrical, mechanical, and civil engineering were merged into a Division of Engineering, and in 2010 the division was elevated to a School of Engineering.",
"Engineering at Brown is especially interdisciplinary.",
"The School is organized without the traditional departments or boundaries found at most schools, and follows a model of connectivity between disciplines—including biology, medicine, physics, chemistry, computer science, the humanities and the social sciences.",
"The School practices an innovative clustering of faculties in which engineers team with non-engineers to bring a convergence of ideas.",
"===IE Brown Executive MBA Dual Degree Program===\nSince 2009 Brown has developed an Executive MBA program in conjunction with one of the leading Business Schools in Europe; IE Business School in Madrid.",
"This relationship has since strengthened resulting in both institutions offering a dual degree program.",
"In this partnership, Brown provides its traditional coursework while IE provides most of the business-related subjects making a differentiated alternative program to other Ivy League's EMBAs.",
"The cohort typically consists of 25-30 EMBA candidates from some 20 countries.",
"Classes are held in Providence, Madrid, Cape Town and Online.",
"===The Pembroke Center===\n\nThe Pembroke Center for Teaching and Research on Women was established at Brown in 1981 by Joan Wallach Scott as a research center on gender.",
"It was named for Pembroke College, the former women's coordinate college at Brown, and is affiliated with Brown's Sarah Doyle Women's Center.",
"It supports the undergraduate concentration in Gender and Sexuality Studies, post-doctoral research fellowships, the annual Pembroke Seminar, and other academic programs.",
"The Center also manages various collections, archives, and resources, including the Elizabeth Weed Feminist Theory Papers and the Christine Dunlap Farnham Archive.",
"===The Graduate School===\n\nEstablished in 1887, the Graduate School has around 2,000 students studying over 50 disciplines.",
"20 different master's degrees are offered as well as Ph.D. degrees in over 40 subjects ranging from applied mathematics to public policy.",
"Overall, admission to the Graduate School is most competitive with an acceptance rate of about 10 percent.",
"Jewelry District\nBrown's School of Public Health on the Riverwalk in Providence occupies a building designed by Edward Larrabee Barnes\n\n===Alpert Medical School===\n\nThe University's medical program started in 1811, but the school was suspended by President Wayland in 1827 after the program's faculty declined to live on campus (a new requirement under Wayland).",
"In 1975, the first M.D.",
"degrees from the new Program in Medicine were awarded to a graduating class of 58 students.",
"In 1991, the school was officially renamed the Brown University School of Medicine, then renamed once more to Brown Medical School in October 2000.",
"In January 2007, Warren Alpert donated $100 million to Brown Medical School, in recognition of which its name was changed to the Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University.",
"In 2014 ''U.S.",
"News & World Report'' ranked Brown's medical school the 5th most selective in the country, with an acceptance rate of 2.9 percent.",
"''U.S.",
"News'' ranks it 29th for research and 28th in primary care.",
"The medical school is known especially for its eight-year Program in Liberal Medical Education (PLME), inaugurated in 1984.",
"One of the most selective and renowned programs of its type in the country, it offered admission to 90 of the 2,290 applicants for the class entering in autumn 2015, an acceptance rate of 3.9 percent.",
"Since 1976, the Early Identification Program (EIP) has encouraged Rhode Island residents to pursue careers in medicine by recruiting sophomores from Providence College, Rhode Island College, the University of Rhode Island, and Tougaloo College.",
"In 2004, the school once again began to accept applications from premedical students at other colleges and universities via AMCAS like most other medical schools.",
"The medical school also offers combined degree programs leading to the M.D./Ph.D., M.D./M.P.H.",
"and M.D./M.P.P.",
"degrees.",
"===The Marine Biological Laboratory===\n\nThe Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL) is an independent research institution established in 1882 at Woods Hole, Massachusetts.",
"The laboratory is linked to 54 current or past Nobel Laureates who have been research or teaching faculty.",
"Since 2005 the MBL and Brown have collaborated in a Ph.D. program in biological and environmental sciences that combines faculty at both institutions, including the faculties of the Ecosystems Center, the Bay Paul Center, the Program in Cellular Dynamics, and the Marine Resources Center.",
"{| style=\"float:right; font-size:85%; margin:10px\" \"text-align:center; font-size:85%; margin:auto;\" class=\"wikitable\"\n+ ''Fall Admission Statistics''\n\n \n2017!!",
"2016!!",
"2015!!",
"2014!!",
"2013!!",
"2012\n\n Applicants\n32,724\n 32,390 \n 30,396 \n 30,431 \n 28,919 \n 28,742\n\n Admits\n2,722\n 2,919 \n 2,875 \n 2,661 \n 2,654 \n 2,759\n\n Admit rate\n8.3%\n 9.0% \n 9.5% \n 8.7% \n 9.2% \n 9.6%\n\n Enrolled\nN/A\n N/A \n 1,615 \n 1,561 \n 1,543 \n 1,539\n\n SAT range\nN/A\n N/A \n 2060-2340\n 2000-2330 \n 2000-2310 \n 1990-2310\n\n ACT range\nN/A\n N/A \n 31-34 \n 30-34 \n 29-34 \n 29-34\n\n\nFor the undergraduate class of 2021, Brown received 32,724 applications, the largest applicant pool in the University's history, of whom 2,722 were accepted, for an acceptance rate of 8.3%, the lowest in university history.",
"Additionally, for the academic year 2015-16 there were 1,834 transfer applicants, of whom 8.9% were accepted, with an SAT range of 2180-2330, ACT range of 31-34, and average college GPA of 3.85.",
"In 2013 the Graduate School accepted 17 percent of 9,215 applicants.",
"In 2014, ''U.S.",
"News'' ranked Brown's Warren Alpert Medical School the 5th most selective in the country, with an acceptance rate of 2.9 percent.",
"Brown admission policy is stipulated need-blind for all domestic applicants.",
"Brown's financial aid basics website, in August 2014, stated: \"For families (including both parents) with a total income below $60,000, and assets less than $100,000, no parent contribution is calculated towards the Expected Family Contribution (EFC).",
"For families with total income below $100,000, the loan component of the financial aid award is replaced with additional scholarship.\"",
"In 2013-14, the program awarded need-based scholarships worth $95 million.",
"The average need-based award for the class of 2017 was $43,427.",
"Brown has committed to \"minimize its energy use, reduce negative environmental impacts and promote environmental stewardship.\"",
"The Energy and Environmental Advisory Committee has developed a set of ambitious goals for the university to reduce its carbon emissions and eventually achieve carbon neutrality.",
"The \"Brown is Green\" website collects information about Brown's progress toward greenhouse gas emissions reductions and related campus initiatives, such as student groups, courses, and research.",
"Brown's grade of A-minus was the top one issued in the 2009 report of the Sustainable Endowments Institute (no A-grade was issued).",
"Brown has a number of active environmental leadership groups on campus.",
"These groups have begun a number of campus-wide environmental initiatives—including promoting the reduction of supply and demand of bottled water and investigating a composting program.",
"\nA stereoscopic image of the Brown freshman crew in competition at Lake Quinsigamond, Mass., on July 22, 1870.",
"Brown rowing, among the pioneer programs in the country, dates from June 1857.",
"Its first three-school regatta was held with Harvard and Yale at Lake Quinsigamond on July 27, 1859\nW.E.",
"White seated second from right.",
"White's appearance in an 1879 major league game may have broken baseball's color line 68 years before Jackie Robinson\nBrown is a member of the Ivy League athletic conference, which is categorized as a Division I (top level) conference of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA).",
"The Brown Bears are the third largest university sports program in the United States, sponsoring 38 varsity intercollegiate teams (Harvard sponsors 42 and Princeton 39).",
"Brown's athletic program is one of the ''U.S.",
"News & World Report'' top 20—the \"College Sports Honor Roll\"—based on breadth of program and athletes' graduation rates.",
"Brown's newest varsity team is women's rugby, promoted from club-sport status in 2014.",
"Brown women's rowing has won 7 national titles in the last 14 years.",
"Brown men's rowing perennially finishes in the top 5 in the nation, most recently winning silver, bronze, and silver in the national championship races of 2012, 2013, and 2014.",
"The men's and women's crews have also won championship trophies at the Henley Royal Regatta and the Henley Women's Regatta.",
"Brown's men's soccer is consistently ranked in the top 20, and has won 18 Ivy League titles overall; recent soccer graduates play professionally in Major League Soccer and overseas.",
"Brown football, under its most successful coach historically, Phil Estes, won Ivy League championships in 1999, 2005, and 2008.",
"(Brown football's reemergence is credited to its 1976 Ivy League championship team, \"The Magnificent Andersons,\" so named for its coach, John Anderson.)",
"High-profile alumni of the football program include Houston Texans head coach Bill O'Brien; former Penn State football coach Joe Paterno, Heisman Trophy namesake John W. Heisman, and Pollard Award namesake Fritz Pollard.",
"The Men's Lacrosse team also has a long and storied history.",
"Brown women's gymnastics won the Ivy League tournament in 2013 and 2014.",
"Brown varsity equestrian has won the Ivy League championship several times.",
"Brown also supports competitive intercollegiate club sports, including sailing and ultimate frisbee.",
"The men's ultimate team, Brownian Motion, has twice won the national championship, in 2000 and 2005.",
"The first intercollegiate ice hockey game in America was played between Brown and Harvard on January 19, 1898.",
"The first university rowing regatta larger than a dual-meet was held between Brown, Harvard, and Yale at Lake Quinsigamond in Massachusetts on July 26, 1859",
"\n===Campus Safety===\nIn 2014, Brown University tied with the University of Connecticut for the highest number of reported rapes in the nation, with its \"total of reports of rape\" on their main campus standing at 43.",
"===Spring Weekend===\n\n\nThe weekend includes an annual spring concert festival which has featured numerous famous artists, including Bob Dylan, Childish Gambino, Bruce Springsteen, Bhudda, Chance the Rapper, Vampire Weekend, and Fetty Wap.",
"=== Residential and Greek societies ===\nLadd Observatory, built 1890–1891, is on the National Register of Historic Places.",
"About 12 percent of Brown students are in fraternities and sororities.",
"There are 11 residential Greek houses: six fraternities (Beta Rho Pi, Delta Phi, Delta Tau, Phi Kappa Psi, Sigma Chi, and Theta Delta Chi; three sororities (Alpha Chi Omega, Kappa Alpha Theta, and Kappa Delta), one co-ed house (Zeta Delta Xi), and one co-ed literary society (Alpha Delta Phi).",
"Phi Sigma Kappa fraternity was present on campus from 1906 to 1939, but was unable to reactivate after World War II due to wartime losses.",
"All recognized Greek-letter organizations are located on campus in Wriston Quadrangle in university-owned housing.",
"They are overseen by the Greek Council.",
"An alternative to Greek-letter organizations are the program houses organized by themes.",
"As with Greek houses, the residents of program houses select their new members, usually at the start of the spring semester.",
"Examples of program houses are St. Anthony Hall (located in King House), Buxton International House, the Machado French/Hispanic/Latinx House, Technology House, Harambee (African culture) House, Social Action House and Interfaith House.",
"Currently, there are three student cooperative houses at Brown.",
"Two of them, Watermyn and Finlandia on Waterman Street, are owned by the Brown Association for Cooperative Housing (BACH), a non-profit corporation owned by its members.",
"The third co-op, West House, is located in a Brown-owned house on Brown Street.",
"The three organizations run a vegetarian co-op for the larger community.",
"All students not in program housing enter a lottery for general housing.",
"Students form groups and are assigned time slots during which they can pick among the remaining housing options.",
"The largest surviving Hutchings-Votey organ in the world is in Sayles Hall.",
"It has 3,355 pipes and weighs 25 tons.",
"It is pictured here for Brown's traditional Halloween midnight concert.",
"=== Societies and clubs ===\n\nThe earliest societies at Brown were devoted to oration and debate.",
"The Pronouncing Society is mentioned in the diary of Solomon Drowne, class of 1773, who was voted its president in 1771.",
"It seems to have disappeared during the American Revolutionary War.",
"We next hear of the Misokosmian Society, founded in 1794 and renamed the Philermenian Society in 1798.",
"This was effectively a secret society with membership limited to 45.",
"It met fortnightly to hear speeches and debate and thrived until the Civil War; in 1821 its library held 1594 volumes.",
"In 1799 a chapter of the Philandrian Society, also secret, was established at the College.",
"In 1806 the United Brothers was formed as an egalitarian alternative to the Philermenian Society.",
"\"These two great rivals,\" says the University historian, \"divided the student body between them for many years, surviving into the days of President Sears.",
"A tincture of political controversy sharpened their rivalry, the older society inclining to the aristocratic Federals, the younger to the Republicans, the democrats of that day.",
"...",
"The students continuing to increase in number, they outran the constitutional limits of both societies, and a third, the Franklin Society, was established in 1824; it never had the vitality of the other two, however, and died after ten years.\"",
"Other nineteenth century clubs and societies, too numerous to treat here, are described in Bronson's history of the University.",
"The sesquicentennial poster\nThe Cammarian Club—founded in 1893 and taking its name from the Latin for lobster, its members' favorite dinner food—was at first a semi-secret society which \"tapped\" 15 seniors each year.",
"In 1915, self-perpetuating membership gave way to popular election by the student body, and thenceforward the Club served as the ''de facto'' undergraduate student government.",
"In 1971, unaccountably, it voted the name Cammarian Club out of existence, thereby amputating its tradition and longevity.",
"The successor and present-day organization is the generically-named Undergraduate Council of Students.",
"Societas Domi Pacificae, known colloquially as \"Pacifica House,\" is a present-day, self-described secret society, which nonetheless publishes a website and an email address.",
"It claims a continuous line of descent from the Franklin Society of 1824, citing a supposed intermediary \"Franklin Society\" traceable in the nineteenth century.",
"But the intermediary turns out to be, on closer inspection, the well-known Providence Franklin Society, a civic organization unconnected to Brown whose origins and activity are well-documented.",
"It was founded in 1821 by merchants William Grinnell and Joseph Balch, Jr., and chartered by the General Assembly in January 1823.",
"The \"Pacifica House\" account of this (conflated) Franklin Society cites published mentions of it in 1859, 1876, and 1883.",
"But the first of these (Rhees 1859, see footnote ''infra'') is merely a sketch of the 1824 Brown organization; the second (Stockwell 1876) is a reference-book article on the Providence Franklin Society itself; and the third is the Providence Franklin Society's own publication, which the \"Pacifica House\" reference mis-ascribes to the \"Franklin Society,\" dropping the word \"Providence.\"",
"=== Student organizations ===\n\nThere are over 300 registered student organizations on campus with diverse interests.",
"The Student Activities Fair, during the orientation program, provides first-year students the opportunity to become acquainted with the wide range of organizations.",
"A sample of organizations includes:\n\n\n* Brown Badmaash Dance Company\n* ''The Brown Daily Herald''\n* Brown Debating Union\n* The Brown Derbies\n* Brown International Organization\n* ''Brown Journal of World Affairs''\n* ''The Brown Jug''\n* ''The Brown Noser''\n* Brown Opera Productions\n* ''Brown Political Review''\n* ''The Brown Spectator''\n* BSR\n* Brown Television\n* Brown University Band\n* Brown University Orchestra\n* The Chattertocks of Brown University\n* Chinese Students and Scholars Association\n* ''College Hill Independent''\n* ''Critical Review''\n* Ivy Film Festival\n* Jabberwocks\n* Production Workshop\n* Starla and Sons\n* Students for Sensible Drug Policy\n* WBRU\n\n\n=== Resource centers ===\nBrown University has several resource centers on campus.",
"The centers often act as sources of support as well as safe spaces for students to explore certain aspects of their identity.",
"Additionally, the centers often provide physical spaces for students to study and have meetings.",
"Although most centers are identity-focused, some provide academic support as well.",
"The Brown Center for Students of Color\n\nThe Brown Center for Students of Color (BCSC) is a space that provides support for students of color.",
"Established in 1972 at the demand of student protests, the BCSC encourages students to engage in critical dialogue, develop leadership skills, and promote social justice.",
"The center houses various programs for students to share their knowledge and engage in discussion.",
"Programs include the Third World Transition Program, the Minority Peer Counselor Program, the Heritage Series, and other student-led initiatives.",
"Additionally, the BCSC hopes to foster community among the students it serves by providing spaces for students to meet and study.",
"The Sarah Doyle Women's Center aims to provide a space for members of the Brown community to examine and explore issues surrounding gender.",
"The center was named after one of the first women to attend Brown University, Sarah Doyle.",
"The center emphasizes intersectionality in its conversations on gender, encouraging people to see gender as present and relevant in various aspects of life.",
"The center hosts programs and workshops in order to facilitate dialogue and provide resources for students, faculty, and staff.",
"Other centers include the LGBTQ+ Center, the First-Generation College and Low-Income Student (FLi) Center, and the Curricular Resource Center.",
"=== Controversy Over ADA Mental Health Discrimination ===\n\nLike many colleges, Brown mandates forced medical leaves for students expressing feelings of self-harm, depression, schizophrenia, or other forms of mental illness.",
"Controversy arises within the college as to whether Brown follows the US Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990, with Brown's own newspaper, The Brown Daily Herald, criticizing the University's policy behind readmission from psychological medical leave.",
"According to a 2010 article in The Brown Daily Herald, even Dean of Student Life & Chair of the Medical Leave Readmission Committee, Maria Suarez, admits that “I wish we had more resources to connect with students,” Suarez said.",
"“The support is there, but it is student-initiated.” However, Suarez has been widely criticized within and outside the University as being non-compliant with American ADA laws, often denying students readmission for little to no reason.",
"Moreover, the University leaves students with few guidelines on how to become readmitted; students report that very little communication is made with the University during a leave of absence, and that the University does not aid disabled students in their progress.",
"One mentally disabled student alleges, after 5 semesters of mandatory leave, that: \"One of the administrators Suarez, he claims, told him: \"You should consider yourself lucky because Brown's better than other schools.",
"At least you're not getting kicked out of Brown.\"'",
"The psychological leave readmission process takes place once every 6 months, and requires only a student's statement and a psychiatrist's or psychologist's statement of well-being, with no interview.",
"Many students report that the process is not thorough enough to judge one's own progress in mental health, thereby violating ADA rights; the denial letters are often short and generic, with one sentence changed at most for multiple denials.",
"\n\n\n\n\nUSNWR graduate school rankings\n\n Engineering\n 52\n\n Medicine: Primary Care\n 21\n\n Medicine: Research\n 31\n\n\n\n\n\nUSNWR departmental rankings\n\n Biological Sciences\n 34\n\n Chemistry\n 60\n\n Computer Science\n 20\n\n Earth Sciences\n 16\n\n Economics\n 19\n\n English\n 13\n\n History\n 16\n\n Mathematics\n 14\n\n Physics\n 29\n\n Political Science\n 40\n\n Psychology\n 26\n\n Public Affairs\n 56\n\n Sociology\n 24\n\n Statistics\n 42\n\n\nUniversity Hall, built 1770-71, designed by a committee that included Joseph Brown, is on the National Register of Historic Places\n\nIn 2014, National Science Foundation ranked Brown University 66th in the United States by research.",
"For 2017, ''U.S.",
"News & World Report'' ranks Brown University 85th globally.",
"The 2013 ''U.S.",
"News & World Report'' rankings' peer assessment portion gives the school a score of 4.4, tied with University of Pennsylvania, Dartmouth, Northwestern, and University of Michigan.",
"In 2014, ''Forbes'' magazine ranked Brown seventh (between Caltech and Princeton University) on its list of \"America's Most Entrepreneurial Universities.\"",
"The ''Forbes'' analysis looked at the ratio of \"alumni and students who have identified themselves as founders and business owners on LinkedIn\" and the total number of alumni and students.",
"LinkedIn particularized the ''Forbes'' rankings, placing Brown third (between MIT and Princeton) among \"Best Undergraduate Universities for Software Developers at Startups.\"",
"LinkedIn's methodology involved a career-path examination of \"millions of alumni profiles\" in its membership database.",
"Brown ranked 7th in the country (between Princeton and Columbia) in a study of high school seniors' revealed preferences for matriculation conducted by economists at Harvard, Wharton, and Boston University, and published in 2005 by the National Bureau of Economic Research.",
"The 2008 Center for College Affordability and Productivity (CCAP) ranked Brown 5th in the country among national universities.\"",
"Brown ranked 5th in the country in Newsweek/The Daily Beast's \"America's Brainiac Schools\"—based on the number of prestigious scholarships won (adjusted for student body size), including the Rhodes Scholarship, the Truman Scholarship, the Marshall Scholarship, the Gates Scholarship (since 2001), and the Fulbright scholarship (since 1993).",
"Also factored in are standardized test scores, admissions rates, and students in the top 10 percent of their high school class.",
"In 2017, ''U.S.",
"News'' ranked Brown's Warren Alpert Medical School the 7th most selective in the country, tied with the UC Davis School of Medicine and the UCLA School of Medicine, with an acceptance rate of 2.7 percent.",
"In the 2012 evaluation of MFA writing programs by ''Poets & Writers Magazine'', Brown was ranked 4th in the country, 3rd for selectivity, and 1st in the Ivy League.",
"The ''Forbes'' magazine annual ranking of \"America's Top Colleges 2016\"—which differs from the ''U.S.",
"News'' by putting research universities and liberal arts colleges in a single sequence—ranked Brown 8th overall.",
"''U.S.",
"News & World Report'' ranked Brown 14th in its 2018 edition.",
"The 2018 edition also ranked Brown 3rd for undergraduate teaching, tied with Rice University.",
"As it had in 2007 and 2010, the 2011 Princeton Review email poll of college students ranked Brown 1st in the country for \"Happiest Students.\"",
"In the 2016-17 year, Brown students received 30 Fulbright scholarships, the highest number of any institution in the United States.",
"\nAlumni in politics include U.S. Secretary of State John Hay (1852), U.S. Secretary of State and Attorney General Richard Olney (1856), Chief Justice of the United States and U.S. Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes (1881), Senator Maggie Hassan '80 of New Hampshire, Governor Jack Markell '82 of Delaware, Rhode Island Representative David Cicilline '83, and DNC Chair Tom Perez '83.",
"Important figures in the history of education include the father of American public school education Horace Mann (1819), civil libertarian and Amherst College president Alexander Meiklejohn, first president of the University of South Carolina Jonathan Maxcy (1787), Bates College founder Oren B. Cheney (1836), University of Michigan president (1871–1909) James Burrill Angell (1849), University of California president (1899–1919) Benjamin Ide Wheeler (1875), and Morehouse College's first African-American president John Hope (1894).",
"Alumni in the computer sciences and industry include architect of Intel 386, 486, and Pentium microprocessors John H. Crawford '75, and inventor of the first silicon transistor Gordon Kidd Teal '31.",
"Alumni in the arts and media include actor Daveed Diggs '04, actress Emma Watson '14, NPR program host Ira Glass '82, singer-composer Mary Chapin Carpenter '81, ''CSI: NY'' humorist and Marx Brothers screenwriter S.J.",
"Perelman '25, novelists Nathanael West '24, Jeffrey Eugenides '83, Edwidge Danticat (MFA '93), and Marilynne Robinson '66; actress Jo Beth Williams '70, composer and synthesizer pioneer Wendy Carlos '62, and journalist James Risen '77, political pundit Mara Liasson.",
"Other notable alumni include \"Lafayette of the Greek Revolution\" and its historian Samuel Gridley Howe (1821) Governor of Wyoming Territory and Governor of Nebraska John Milton Thayer (1841), Governor of Rhode Island Augustus Bourn (1855), NASA head during first seven Apollo missions Thomas O. Paine '42, diplomat Richard Holbrooke '62, sportscaster Chris Berman '77, Houston Texans head coach Bill O'Brien '92, 2018 Miss America Cara Mund '16, Penn State football coach Joe Paterno '50, Heisman Trophy namesake John W. Heisman '91, royals and nobles such as Prince Rahim Aga Khan, Prince Faisal bin Al Hussein, Princess Leila Pahlavi of Iran '92, Prince Nikolaos of Greece and Denmark, Prince Nikita Romanov, Princess Theodora of Greece and Denmark, Prince Jaime of Bourbon-Parma, Duke of San Jaime and Count of Bardi, Prince Ra'ad bin Zeid, Lady Gabriella Windsor, Prince Alexander von Fürstenberg, Countess Cosima von Bülow Pavoncelli, and her half-brother Prince Alexander-Georg von Auersperg.",
"Nobel Laureates Craig Mello '82 and Jerry White '87, Cooley-Tukey FFT algorithm co-originator John Wilder Tukey '36, biologist Stanley Falkow (PhD '59), and psychologist Aaron Beck '50.",
"Notable past or current faculty have included Nobel Laureates Michael Kosterlitz, Lars Onsager, George Stigler, Vernon L. Smith, George Snell and Leon Cooper; Fields Medal winning mathematician David Mumford, Pulitzer Prize–winning historian Gordon S. Wood, Sakurai Prize winning physicist Gerald Guralnik, computer scientist Andries van Dam, engineer Daniel C. Drucker, sociologist Lester Frank Ward, former Prime Minister of Italy and former EU chief Romano Prodi, former President of Brazil Fernando Cardoso, former President of Chile Ricardo Lagos, writers Carlos Fuentes, Chinua Achebe, and Robert Coover, philosopher Martha Nussbaum, linguist Hans Kurath, political scientist James Morone and Senior Fellow Sergei Khrushchev.",
"File:Horace Mann.jpg|Horace Mann, class of 1819, regarded as the father of American public education\nFile:Janet yellen.jpg|Janet Yellen, class of 1967, the first woman in history to head the Federal Reserve\nFile:C.M.",
"Gilbert.",
"''Family Guy'' character Brian Griffin is a Brown alumnus.",
"''The O.C.",
"''s main character Seth Cohen is denied acceptance to Brown while his girlfriend is accepted.",
"In ''Gossip Girl'', New York socialite Serena vies with her friends for a spot at Brown, and ''The Simpsons'' character Lisa Simpson is told by Harvard’s president after she fails a test that she will be unable to attend Harvard, but he can “pass (her) file along to Brown.” Amy Gardner from ''The West Wing'' is a Brown alumna.",
"\n* List of Brown University statues\n* Brown University traditions\n* Brown University Alma Mater\n* Josiah S. Carberry",
"\n\n===Bibliography===\n\n*\n*\n*",
"\n* \n* Brown Athletics site\n*"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Battles of Lostwithiel''' or '''Lostwithiel Campaign''', took place near Lostwithiel and Fowey in Cornwall during the First English Civil War in 1644. They resulted in victory for the Royalists commanded by King Charles over the Parliamentarians commanded by the Earl of Essex.\n",
"After defeating the army of Sir William Waller at the Battle of Cropredy Bridge, King Charles marched west in pursuit of the Parliamentarian army of the Earl of Essex, who was invading the Royalist stronghold of Cornwall.\n\nEssex had been misled into believing that he could expect substantial support from the people of Cornwall. When he had reached Bodmin on 28 July, he found that there was no chance of supplies or recruits, and he also learned that the Royalist army was at Launceston, close to his rear. He withdrew to Lostwithiel, covering the port of Fowey. Essex had previously arranged to rendezvous at Fowey with the Parliamentarian fleet under the Earl of Warwick, but no ships appeared. Warwick was unable to leave Portsmouth because of westerly winds.\n\nCharles's army had been reinforced as it marched, and outnumbered that of Essex by nearly two to one. The first clashes took place on 2 August, but little action took place for several days, as the King waited for all his forces to arrive and Essex waited for the fleet.\n",
"On 13 August, the Royalists began to attack in earnest, occupying several outposts on the east bank of the River Fowey, making it even more difficult for help to reach Essex. A Parliamentarian attempt to send a relieving force under Lieutenant General Middleton was defeated at Bridgwater in Somerset.\n\nOn 21 August, the Royalists attacked Essex's positions north of Lostwithiel, capturing the ruins of Restormel Castle. Royalist cavalry threatened to cut the Parliamentarians off from Fowey. Essex realised that there was no hope of relief and ordered his cavalry to break out of the encirclement. Under Sir William Balfour, they broke through the Royalist lines on the night of 31 August, eventually reaching Plymouth thirty miles to the east.\n\nThe increasingly demoralised Parliamentarian infantry fell back towards Fowey in pouring rain. They were forced to abandon several guns which became bogged down in the muddy roads. On 1 September, the pursuing Royalists captured Castle Dore, another ruined fortification which the Parliamentarians were using to anchor their lines. Essex left Sir Philip Skippon, his Sergeant Major General of Foot, in command while he himself escaped to Plymouth in a fishing boat.\n\nOn 2 September, Skippon, having been told that his infantry were unable to break out as the cavalry had done, and having been offered generous terms by the King, surrendered 6,000 infantry and all his army's guns and train.\n",
"The disarmed soldiers marched eastward to Portsmouth in continuing bad weather, being continually robbed and threatened by local people. About 1,000 died of exposure and hunger, and 1,000 more deserted or fell sick.\n\nCharles meanwhile wheeled about and marched towards London.\n\nThis setback for Parliament in Cornwall, and the last major victory for the Royalists, was reversed by Sir Thomas Fairfax leading the New Model Army at or near Tresillian Bridge, close to Truro on 12 March 1645.\n",
"*Battle of Braddock Down which took place in January 1643 a few miles from Lostwithiel.\n",
"\n",
"* ''Cornwall in the Great Civil War and Interregnum 1642 - 1660''; by Mary Coate. Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1933.\n* ''Battles Royal - Charles I and the Civil War in Cornwall and the West''; by H. Miles Brown. Libra Books, 1982 \n* ''The Civil War in South-West England 1642-1646''; by John Barratt \n* ''Civil War Battles in Cornwall, 1642 to 1646''; by Richard Holmes, Mercia, 1989 \n* ''Faction and Faith: politics and religion of the Cornish gentry before the Civil War''; by Anne Duffin. University of Exeter, 1996 \n* ''Carew: A Story of Civil War in the West Country''; by Dennis Russell. Aidan Ellis Publishing, 2001 \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Prelude",
"Battle",
"Aftermath",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading"
] | Battle of Lostwithiel | [
"On 13 August, the Royalists began to attack in earnest, occupying several outposts on the east bank of the River Fowey, making it even more difficult for help to reach Essex."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Battles of Lostwithiel''' or '''Lostwithiel Campaign''', took place near Lostwithiel and Fowey in Cornwall during the First English Civil War in 1644.",
"They resulted in victory for the Royalists commanded by King Charles over the Parliamentarians commanded by the Earl of Essex.",
"After defeating the army of Sir William Waller at the Battle of Cropredy Bridge, King Charles marched west in pursuit of the Parliamentarian army of the Earl of Essex, who was invading the Royalist stronghold of Cornwall.",
"Essex had been misled into believing that he could expect substantial support from the people of Cornwall.",
"When he had reached Bodmin on 28 July, he found that there was no chance of supplies or recruits, and he also learned that the Royalist army was at Launceston, close to his rear.",
"He withdrew to Lostwithiel, covering the port of Fowey.",
"Essex had previously arranged to rendezvous at Fowey with the Parliamentarian fleet under the Earl of Warwick, but no ships appeared.",
"Warwick was unable to leave Portsmouth because of westerly winds.",
"Charles's army had been reinforced as it marched, and outnumbered that of Essex by nearly two to one.",
"The first clashes took place on 2 August, but little action took place for several days, as the King waited for all his forces to arrive and Essex waited for the fleet.",
"A Parliamentarian attempt to send a relieving force under Lieutenant General Middleton was defeated at Bridgwater in Somerset.",
"On 21 August, the Royalists attacked Essex's positions north of Lostwithiel, capturing the ruins of Restormel Castle.",
"Royalist cavalry threatened to cut the Parliamentarians off from Fowey.",
"Essex realised that there was no hope of relief and ordered his cavalry to break out of the encirclement.",
"Under Sir William Balfour, they broke through the Royalist lines on the night of 31 August, eventually reaching Plymouth thirty miles to the east.",
"The increasingly demoralised Parliamentarian infantry fell back towards Fowey in pouring rain.",
"They were forced to abandon several guns which became bogged down in the muddy roads.",
"On 1 September, the pursuing Royalists captured Castle Dore, another ruined fortification which the Parliamentarians were using to anchor their lines.",
"Essex left Sir Philip Skippon, his Sergeant Major General of Foot, in command while he himself escaped to Plymouth in a fishing boat.",
"On 2 September, Skippon, having been told that his infantry were unable to break out as the cavalry had done, and having been offered generous terms by the King, surrendered 6,000 infantry and all his army's guns and train.",
"The disarmed soldiers marched eastward to Portsmouth in continuing bad weather, being continually robbed and threatened by local people.",
"About 1,000 died of exposure and hunger, and 1,000 more deserted or fell sick.",
"Charles meanwhile wheeled about and marched towards London.",
"This setback for Parliament in Cornwall, and the last major victory for the Royalists, was reversed by Sir Thomas Fairfax leading the New Model Army at or near Tresillian Bridge, close to Truro on 12 March 1645.",
"*Battle of Braddock Down which took place in January 1643 a few miles from Lostwithiel.",
"* ''Cornwall in the Great Civil War and Interregnum 1642 - 1660''; by Mary Coate.",
"Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1933.",
"* ''Battles Royal - Charles I and the Civil War in Cornwall and the West''; by H. Miles Brown.",
"Libra Books, 1982 \n* ''The Civil War in South-West England 1642-1646''; by John Barratt \n* ''Civil War Battles in Cornwall, 1642 to 1646''; by Richard Holmes, Mercia, 1989 \n* ''Faction and Faith: politics and religion of the Cornish gentry before the Civil War''; by Anne Duffin.",
"University of Exeter, 1996 \n* ''Carew: A Story of Civil War in the West Country''; by Dennis Russell.",
"Aidan Ellis Publishing, 2001 \n*"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n'''Brian Russell De Palma''' (born September 11, 1940) is an American film director and screenwriter. He is considered part of the New Hollywood wave of filmmaking.\n\nIn a career spanning over 50 years, he is best known for his suspense, psychological thriller, and crime films. He directed successful and popular films such as the supernatural horror ''Carrie'', the erotic crime thriller ''Dressed to Kill'', the thriller ''Blow Out'', the crime dramas ''Scarface'', ''The Untouchables'', and ''Carlito's Way'', and the action spy film ''Mission: Impossible''.\n",
"De Palma, who is of Italian ancestry, is the youngest of three boys and was born in Newark, New Jersey to Vivienne (née Muti) and Anthony Federico De Palma, an orthopedic surgeon. He was raised in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and New Hampshire, and attended various Protestant and Quaker schools, eventually graduating from Friends' Central School. When he was in high school, he built computers. He won a regional science-fair prize for a project titled \"An Analog Computer to Solve Differential Equations\".\n",
"\nEnrolled at Columbia as a physics student, De Palma became enraptured with the filmmaking process after viewing ''Citizen Kane'' and ''Vertigo''. De Palma subsequently enrolled at the newly coed Sarah Lawrence College as a graduate student in their theater department in the early 1960s, becoming one of the first male students among a female population. Once there, influences as various as drama teacher Wilford Leach, the Maysles brothers, Michelangelo Antonioni, Jean-Luc Godard, Andy Warhol, and Alfred Hitchcock impressed upon De Palma the many styles and themes that would shape his own cinema in the coming decades.\n\nAn early association with a young Robert De Niro resulted in ''The Wedding Party''. The film, which was co-directed with Leach and producer Cynthia Munroe, had been shot in 1963 but remained unreleased until 1969, when De Palma's star had risen sufficiently within the Greenwich Village filmmaking scene. De Niro was unknown at the time; the credits mistakenly display his name as \"Robert .\" The film is noteworthy for its invocation of silent film techniques and an insistence on the jump-cut for effect. De Palma followed this style with various small films for the NAACP and The Treasury Department.\n\nDuring the 1960s, De Palma began making a living producing documentary films, notably ''The Responsive Eye'', a 1966 movie about ''The Responsive Eye'' op-art exhibit curated by William Seitz for MOMA in 1965. In an interview with Gelmis from 1969, De Palma described the film as \"very good and very successful. It's distributed by Pathe Contemporary and makes lots of money. I shot it in four hours, with synched sound. I had two other guys shooting people's reactions to the paintings, and the paintings themselves.\"\n\n''Dionysus in 69'' (1969) was De Palma's other major documentary from this period. The film records The Performance Group's performance of Euripides' The Bacchae, starring, amongst others, De Palma regular William Finley. The play is noted for breaking traditional barriers between performers and audience. The film's most striking quality is its extensive use of the split-screen. De Palma recalls that he was \"floored\" by this performance upon first sight, and in 1973 recounts how he \"began to try and figure out a way to capture it on film. I came up with the idea of split-screen, to be able to show the actual audience involvement, to trace the life of the audience and that of the play as they merge in and out of each other.\"\n\nDe Palma's most significant features from this decade are ''Greetings'' (1968) and ''Hi, Mom!'' (1970). Both films star Robert De Niro and espouse a Leftist revolutionary viewpoint common to their era. ''Greetings'' was entered into the 19th Berlin International Film Festival, where it won a Silver Bear award. His other major film from this period is the slasher comedy ''Murder a la Mod''. Each of these films contains experiments in narrative and intertextuality, reflecting De Palma's stated intention to become the \"American Godard\" while integrating several of the themes which permeated Hitchcock's work.\n\n''Greetings'' is about three New Yorkers dealing with the draft. The film is often considered the first to deal explicitly with the draft. The film is noteworthy for its use of various experimental techniques to convey its narrative in ultimately unconventional ways. Footage was sped up, rapid cutting was used to distance the audience from the narrative, and it was difficult to discern with whom the audience must ultimately align. \"Greetings\" ultimately grossed over $1 million at the box office and cemented De Palma's position as a bankable filmmaker.\n\nAfter the success of his 1968 breakthrough, De Palma and his producing partner, Charles Hirsch, were given the opportunity by Sigma 3 to make an unofficial sequel of sorts, initially entitled ''Son of Greetings'', and subsequently released as ''Hi, Mom!''. While \"Greetings\" accentuated its varied cast, ''Hi, Mom!'' focuses on De Niro's character, Jon Rubin, an essential carry-over from the previous film. The film is ultimately significant insofar as it displays the first enunciation of De Palma's style in all its major traits – voyeurism, guilt, and a hyper-consciousness of the medium are all on full display, not just as hallmarks, but built into this formal, material apparatus itself.\n\nThese traits come to the fore in ''Hi, Mom!'''s \"Be Black, Baby\" sequence. This sequence parodies cinéma vérité, the dominant documentary tradition of the 1960s, while simultaneously providing the audience with a visceral and disturbingly emotional experience. De Palma describes the sequence as a constant invocation of Brechtian distanciation: \"First of all, I am interested in the medium of film itself, and I am constantly standing outside and making people aware that they are always watching a film. At the same time I am evolving it. In ''Hi, Mom!'' for instance, there is a sequence where you are obviously watching a ridiculous documentary and you are told that and you are aware of it, but it still sucks you in. There is a kind of Brechtian alienation idea here: you are aware of what you are watching at the same time that you are emotionally involved with it.\"\n\n\"Be Black, Baby\" was filmed in black and white stock on 16 mm, in low-light conditions that stress the crudity of the direct cinema aesthetic. It is precisely from this crudity that the film itself gains a credibility of \"realism.\" In an interview with Michael Bliss, De Palma notes \"Be Black, Baby was rehearsed for almost three weeks... In fact, it's all scripted. But once the thing starts, they just go with the way it's going. I specifically got a very good documentary camera filmmaker (Robert Elfstrom) to just shoot it like a documentary to follow the action.\" Furthermore, \"I wanted to show in ''Hi, Mom!'' how you can really involve an audience. You take an absurd premise – \"Be Black, Baby\" – and totally involve them and really frighten them at the same time. It's very Brechtian. You suck 'em in and annihilate 'em. Then you say, \"It's just a movie, right? It's not real.\" It's just like television. You're sucked in all the time, and you're being lied to in a very documentary-like setting. The \"Be Black, Baby\" section of ''Hi, Mom!'' is probably the most important piece of film I've ever done.\"\n",
"In the 1970s, De Palma went to Hollywood where he worked on bigger budget films. In 1970, De Palma left New York for Hollywood at age thirty to make ''Get to Know Your Rabbit'', starring Orson Welles and Tommy Smothers. Making the film was a crushing experience for De Palma, as Tommy Smothers did not like many of De Palma's ideas.\n\nAfter several small, studio and independent released films that included stand-outs ''Sisters'', ''Phantom of the Paradise'', and ''Obsession'', a small film based on a novel called ''Carrie'' was released directed by Brian De Palma. The psychic thriller ''Carrie'' is seen by some as De Palma's bid for a blockbuster. In fact, the project was small, underfunded by United Artists, and well under the cultural radar during the early months of production, as Stephen King's source novel had yet to climb the bestseller list. De Palma gravitated toward the project and changed crucial plot elements based upon his own predilections, not the saleability of the novel. The cast was young and relatively new, though Sissy Spacek and John Travolta had gained attention for previous work in, respectively, film and episodic sitcoms. ''Carrie'' became a hit, the first genuine box-office success for De Palma. It garnered Spacek and Piper Laurie Oscar nominations for their performances. Preproduction for the film had coincided with the casting process for George Lucas's ''Star Wars'', and many of the actors cast in De Palma's film had been earmarked as contenders for Lucas's movie, and vice versa. The \"shock ending\" finale is effective even while it upholds horror-film convention, its suspense sequences are buttressed by teen comedy tropes, and its use of split-screen, split-diopter and slow motion shots tell the story visually rather than through dialogue.\n\nThe financial and critical success of ''Carrie'' allowed De Palma to pursue more personal material. ''The Demolished Man'' was a novel that had fascinated De Palma since the late 1950s and appealed to his background in mathematics and avant-garde storytelling. Its unconventional unfolding of plot (exemplified in its mathematical layout of dialogue) and its stress on perception have analogs in De Palma's filmmaking. He sought to adapt it on numerous occasions, though the project would carry a substantial price tag, and has yet to appear onscreen (Steven Spielberg's adaptation of Philip K. Dick's ''Minority Report'' bears striking similarities to De Palma's visual style and some of the themes of ''The Demolished Man''). The result of his experience with adapting ''The Demolished Man'' was ''The Fury'', a science fiction psychic thriller that starred Kirk Douglas, Carrie Snodgress, John Cassavetes and Amy Irving. The film was admired by Jean-Luc Godard, who featured a clip in his mammoth Histoire(s) du cinéma, and Pauline Kael who championed both ''The Fury'' and De Palma. The film boasted a larger budget than ''Carrie'', though the consensus view at the time was that De Palma was repeating himself, with diminishing returns. As a film it retains De Palma's considerable visual flair, but points more toward his work in mainstream entertainments such as ''The Untouchables'' and ''Mission: Impossible'', the thematic complex thrillers for which he is now better known.\n\nFor many film-goers, De Palma's gangster films, most notably ''Scarface'' and ''Carlito's Way'', pushed the envelope of on-screen violence and depravity, and yet greatly vary from one another in both style and content and also illustrate De Palma's evolution as a film-maker. In essence, the excesses of ''Scarface'' contrast with the more emotional tragedy of ''Carlito's Way''. Both films feature Al Pacino in what has become a fruitful working relationship. In 1984, he directed the music video of Bruce Springsteen's song ''Dancing in the Dark''. The 1980s were denoted by De Palma's other films ''Dressed To Kill'', ''Blow Out'', and ''Body Double''.\n\nLater into the 1990s and 2000s, De Palma did other films. He attempted to do dramas and a few thrillers plus science fiction. Some of these movies (''Mission: Impossible'', ''Carlito's Way'') worked and some others (''Raising Cain'', ''Mission to Mars'') failed at the box office. However, ''The Bonfire of the Vanities'' would be De Palma's biggest box office disaster, losing millions. \n\nA more political controversy erupted in a later movie from De Palma, ''Redacted'' (2007), which had the subject of American involvement in Iraq, including the committing of war atrocities there. It received limited release in the United States and grossed less than $1 million.\n\nIn 2012, his film ''Passion'' was selected to compete for the Golden Lion at the 69th Venice International Film Festival. In 2015, he was the subject of a documentary film, ''De Palma''.\n",
"\n===Themes===\nDe Palma's films can fall into two categories, his psychological thrillers (''Sisters'', ''Body Double'', ''Obsession'', ''Dressed to Kill'', ''Blow Out'', ''Raising Cain'') and his mainly commercial films (''Scarface'', ''The Untouchables'', ''Carlito's Way'', and ''Mission: Impossible''). He has often produced \"De Palma\" films one after the other before going on to direct a different genre, but would always return to his familiar territory. Because of the subject matter and graphic violence of some of De Palma's films, such as ''Dressed to Kill'', ''Scarface'' and ''Body Double'', they are often at the center of controversy with the Motion Picture Association of America, film critics and the viewing public.\n\nDe Palma is known for quoting and referencing other directors' work throughout his career. Michelangelo Antonioni's ''Blowup'' and Francis Ford Coppola's ''The Conversation'' plots were used for the basis of ''Blow Out''. ''The Untouchables'' finale shoot out in the train station is a clear borrow from the Odessa Steps sequence in Sergei Eisenstein's ''The Battleship Potemkin''. The main plot from ''Rear Window'' was used for ''Body Double'', while it also used elements of ''Vertigo''. ''Vertigo'' was also the basis for ''Obsession''. ''Dressed to Kill'' was a note-for-note homage to Hitchcock's ''Psycho'', including such moments as the surprise death of the lead actress and the exposition scene by the psychiatrist at the end.\n\n===Camera shots===\nFilm critics have often noted De Palma's penchant for unusual camera angles and compositions throughout his career. He often frames characters against the background using a canted angle shot. Split-screen techniques have been used to show two separate events happening simultaneously. To emphasize the dramatic impact of a certain scene De Palma has employed a 360-degree camera pan. Slow sweeping, panning and tracking shots are often used throughout his films, often through precisely-choreographed long takes lasting for minutes without cutting. Split focus shots, often referred to as \"di-opt\", are used by De Palma to emphasize the foreground person/object while simultaneously keeping a background person/object in focus. Slow-motion is frequently used in his films to increase suspense.\n",
"===Actors===\n\n\n\n Actor !! ''Murder a la Mod'' (1968) !! ''Greetings'' (1968) !! ''The Wedding Party'' (1969) !! ''Dionysus in '69'' (1970) !! ''Hi, Mom!'' (1970) !! ''Get to Know Your Rabbit'' (1972) !! ''Sisters'' (1973) !! ''Phantom of the Paradise'' (1974) !! ''Obsession'' (1976) !! ''Carrie'' (1976) !! ''The Fury'' (1978) !! ''Home Movies'' (1980) !! ''Dressed to Kill'' (1980) !! ''Blow Out'' (1981) !! ''Scarface'' (1983) !! ''Body Double'' (1984) !! ''The Untouchables'' (1987) !! ''Casualties of War'' (1989) !! ''The Bonfire of the Vanities'' (1990) !! ''Raising Cain'' (1992) !! ''Carlito's Way'' (1993) !! ''Mission: Impossible'' (1996) !! ''Snake Eyes'' (1998) !! ''Mission to Mars'' (2000) !! ''Femme Fatale'' (2002) !! ''The Black Dahlia'' (2006) \n\n F. Murray Abraham\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Nancy Allen\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n\n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Vito D'Ambrosio\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Steven Bauer\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Richard Belzer\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Robert De Niro\n \n\n\n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Kirk Douglas\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Kevin Dunn\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n\n \n\n\n \n\n\n Charles Durning\n \n \n \n \n\n \n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Dale Dye\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\n William Finley\n \n \n\n\n \n \n\n\n \n \n\n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Dennis Franz\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n\n\n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Allen Garfield\n \n \n \n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Keith Gordon\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Gerrit Graham\n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Melanie Griffith\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Luis Guzmán\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n\n \n \n \n\n Donald Patrick Harvey\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Gregg Henry\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n Clifton James\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Amy Irving\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Al Israel\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n John Leguizamo\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n John Lithgow\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Michael P. Moran\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n Mark Margolis\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Al Pacino\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n Sean Penn\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n Ving Rhames\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\n Angel Salazar\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n Jennifer Salt\n \n \n\n \n\n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Pepe Serna\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\n Gary Sinise\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n \n\n Mike Starr\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n\n\n\n John Travolta\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n===Cinematographers===\n\nVilmos Zsigmond\n* Obsession (1976)\n* Blow Out (1981)\n* Bonfire of the Vanities (1990)\n* The Black Dahlia (2006)\nStephen H. Burum\n* Body Double (1984)\n* The Untouchables (1987)\n* Casualties of War (1989)\n* Raising Cain (1992)\n* Carlito's Way (1993)\n* Mission Impossible (1996)\n* Snake Eyes (1998)\n* Mission to Mars (2000)\nJosé Luis Alcaine\n* Passion (2012)\n* Domino (2018)\n\n",
"De Palma has been married and divorced three times, to actress Nancy Allen (1979–1983), producer Gale Anne Hurd (1991–1993), and Darnell Gregorio (1995–1997). He has one daughter from his marriage to Gale Anne Hurd, Lolita de Palma, born in 1991, and one daughter from his marriage to Darnell Gregorio, Piper De Palma, born in 1996. He resides in Manhattan, New York.\n",
"De Palma at the 2009 Toronto International Film Festival\nDe Palma is often cited as a leading member of the New Hollywood generation of film directors, a distinct pedigree who either emerged from film schools or are overtly cine-literate. His contemporaries include Martin Scorsese, Paul Schrader, John Milius, George Lucas, Francis Ford Coppola, Steven Spielberg, John Carpenter, and Ridley Scott. His artistry in directing and use of cinematography and suspense in several of his films has often been compared to the work of Alfred Hitchcock. Psychologists have been intrigued by De Palma's fascination with pathology, by the aberrant behavior aroused in characters who find themselves manipulated by others.\n\nDe Palma has encouraged and fostered the filmmaking careers of directors such as Mark Romanek and Keith Gordon. During an interview with De Palma, Tarantino said that ''Blow Out'' is one of his all-time favorite films, and that after watching ''Scarface'' he knew how to make his own film. Terrence Malick credits seeing De Palma's early films on college campus tours as a validation of independent film, and subsequently switched his attention from philosophy to filmmaking. Other filmmakers influenced by De Palma include Quentin Tarantino, Ronny Yu, Don Mancini, Nacho Vigalondo, and Jack Thomas Smith.\n\nCritics who frequently admire De Palma's work include Pauline Kael and Roger Ebert, among others. Kael wrote in her review of ''Blow Out'', \"At forty, Brian De Palma has more than twenty years of moviemaking behind him, and he has been growing better and better. Each time a new film of his opens, everything he has done before seems to have been preparation for it.\" In his review of ''Femme Fatale'', Roger Ebert wrote about the director: \"De Palma deserves more honor as a director. Consider also these titles: ''Sisters'', ''Blow Out'', ''The Fury'', ''Dressed to Kill'', ''Carrie'', ''Scarface'', ''Wise Guys'', ''Casualties of War'', ''Carlito's Way'', ''Mission: Impossible''. Yes, there are a few failures along the way (''Snake Eyes'', ''Mission to Mars'', ''The Bonfire of the Vanities''), but look at the range here, and reflect that these movies contain treasure for those who admire the craft as well as the story, who sense the glee with which De Palma manipulates images and characters for the simple joy of being good at it. It's not just that he sometimes works in the style of Hitchcock, but that he has the nerve to.\"\n",
"Julie Salamon has written that De Palma has been accused of being \"a perverse misogynist\" by critics. De Palma has responded to accusations of misogyny by saying: \"I'm always attacked for having an erotic, sexist approach---chopping up women, putting women in peril. I'm making suspense movies! What else is going to happen to them?\"\n\nDavid Thomson wrote in his entry for De Palma, \"There is a self-conscious cunning in De Palma's work, ready to control everything except his own cruelty and indifference.\"\n",
"\n===Feature films===\n\n*''Murder a la Mod'' (1968)\n*''Greetings'' (1968)\n*''The Wedding Party'' (1969)\n*''Hi, Mom!'' (1970)\n*''Dionysus in '69'' (1970)\n*''Get to Know Your Rabbit'' (1972)\n*''Sisters'' (1973)\n*''Phantom of the Paradise'' (1974)\n*''Obsession'' (1976)\n*''Carrie'' (1976)\n*''The Fury'' (1978)\n*''Home Movies'' (1980)\n*''Dressed to Kill'' (1980)\n*''Blow Out'' (1981)\n*''Scarface'' (1983)\n*''Body Double'' (1984)\n*''Wise Guys'' (1986)\n*''The Untouchables'' (1987)\n*''Casualties of War'' (1989)\n*''The Bonfire of the Vanities'' (1990)\n*''Raising Cain'' (1992)\n*''Carlito's Way'' (1993)\n*''Mission: Impossible'' (1996)\n*''Snake Eyes'' (1998)\n*''Mission to Mars'' (2000)\n*''Femme Fatale'' (2002)\n*''The Black Dahlia'' (2006)\n*''Redacted'' (2007)\n*''Passion'' (2012)\n*''Domino'' (2018)\n\n\n===Short films===\n*''Icarus'' (1960)\n*''660124: The Story of an IBM Card'' (1961)\n*''Woton's Wake'' (1962)\n*''Jennifer'' (1964)\n*''Bridge That Gap'' (1965)\n*''Show Me a Strong Town and I'll Show You a Strong Bank'' (1966)\n*''Dancing in the Dark'' (1984)\n\n===Documentary films===\n*''The Responsive Eye'' (1966)\n*''De Palma'' (2015)\n",
"\n",
"* Thomson, David (October 26, 2010). ''The New Biographical Dictionary of Film: Fifth Edition, Completely Updated and Expanded'' (Hardcover ed.). Knopf. .\n* Salamon, Julie (1991). ''Devil's Candy: The Bonfire of the Vanities Goes to Hollywood'' (Hardcover ed.). Houghton. .\n",
"* Bliss, Michael (1986). ''Brian De Palma''. Scarecrow.\n* Blumenfeld, Samuel; Vachaud, Laurent (2001). ''Brian De Palma''. Calmann-Levy.\n* Dworkin, Susan (1984). ''Double De Palma: A Film Study with Brian De Palma''. Newmarket.\n",
"\n* \n* Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database\n* Photos and discussion around the director\n* Literature on Brian De Palma\n* Brian De Palma bibliography (via UC Berkeley)\n* ''Hi, Brian ! Brian De Palma's Community''\n* Brian De Palma's UBUWeb entry, featuring early short films \n* De Palma documentary film available online.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life",
"1960s and early career",
"Transition to Hollywood",
"Trademarks and style",
"Collaborations",
"Personal life",
"Legacy",
"Criticism",
"Filmography",
"References",
"Bibliography",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Brian De Palma | [
"(1970)\n*''Dionysus in '69'' (1970)\n*''Get to Know Your Rabbit'' (1972)\n*''Sisters'' (1973)\n*''Phantom of the Paradise'' (1974)\n*''Obsession'' (1976)\n*''Carrie'' (1976)\n*''The Fury'' (1978)\n*''Home Movies'' (1980)\n*''Dressed to Kill'' (1980)\n*''Blow Out'' (1981)\n*''Scarface'' (1983)\n*''Body Double'' (1984)\n*''Wise Guys'' (1986)\n*''The Untouchables'' (1987)\n*''Casualties of War'' (1989)\n*''The Bonfire of the Vanities'' (1990)\n*''Raising Cain'' (1992)\n*''Carlito's Way'' (1993)\n*''Mission: Impossible'' (1996)\n*''Snake Eyes'' (1998)\n*''Mission to Mars'' (2000)\n*''Femme Fatale'' (2002)\n*''The Black Dahlia'' (2006)\n*''Redacted'' (2007)\n*''Passion'' (2012)\n*''Domino'' (2018)\n\n\n===Short films===\n*''Icarus'' (1960)\n*''660124: The Story of an IBM Card'' (1961)\n*''Woton's Wake'' (1962)\n*''Jennifer'' (1964)\n*''Bridge That Gap'' (1965)\n*''Show Me a Strong Town and I'll Show You a Strong Bank'' (1966)\n*''Dancing in the Dark'' (1984)\n\n===Documentary films===\n*''The Responsive Eye'' (1966)\n*''De Palma'' (2015)"
] | [
"\n\n\n'''Brian Russell De Palma''' (born September 11, 1940) is an American film director and screenwriter.",
"He is considered part of the New Hollywood wave of filmmaking.",
"In a career spanning over 50 years, he is best known for his suspense, psychological thriller, and crime films.",
"He directed successful and popular films such as the supernatural horror ''Carrie'', the erotic crime thriller ''Dressed to Kill'', the thriller ''Blow Out'', the crime dramas ''Scarface'', ''The Untouchables'', and ''Carlito's Way'', and the action spy film ''Mission: Impossible''.",
"De Palma, who is of Italian ancestry, is the youngest of three boys and was born in Newark, New Jersey to Vivienne (née Muti) and Anthony Federico De Palma, an orthopedic surgeon.",
"He was raised in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and New Hampshire, and attended various Protestant and Quaker schools, eventually graduating from Friends' Central School.",
"When he was in high school, he built computers.",
"He won a regional science-fair prize for a project titled \"An Analog Computer to Solve Differential Equations\".",
"\nEnrolled at Columbia as a physics student, De Palma became enraptured with the filmmaking process after viewing ''Citizen Kane'' and ''Vertigo''.",
"De Palma subsequently enrolled at the newly coed Sarah Lawrence College as a graduate student in their theater department in the early 1960s, becoming one of the first male students among a female population.",
"Once there, influences as various as drama teacher Wilford Leach, the Maysles brothers, Michelangelo Antonioni, Jean-Luc Godard, Andy Warhol, and Alfred Hitchcock impressed upon De Palma the many styles and themes that would shape his own cinema in the coming decades.",
"An early association with a young Robert De Niro resulted in ''The Wedding Party''.",
"The film, which was co-directed with Leach and producer Cynthia Munroe, had been shot in 1963 but remained unreleased until 1969, when De Palma's star had risen sufficiently within the Greenwich Village filmmaking scene.",
"De Niro was unknown at the time; the credits mistakenly display his name as \"Robert .\"",
"The film is noteworthy for its invocation of silent film techniques and an insistence on the jump-cut for effect.",
"De Palma followed this style with various small films for the NAACP and The Treasury Department.",
"During the 1960s, De Palma began making a living producing documentary films, notably ''The Responsive Eye'', a 1966 movie about ''The Responsive Eye'' op-art exhibit curated by William Seitz for MOMA in 1965.",
"In an interview with Gelmis from 1969, De Palma described the film as \"very good and very successful.",
"It's distributed by Pathe Contemporary and makes lots of money.",
"I shot it in four hours, with synched sound.",
"I had two other guys shooting people's reactions to the paintings, and the paintings themselves.\"",
"''Dionysus in 69'' (1969) was De Palma's other major documentary from this period.",
"The film records The Performance Group's performance of Euripides' The Bacchae, starring, amongst others, De Palma regular William Finley.",
"The play is noted for breaking traditional barriers between performers and audience.",
"The film's most striking quality is its extensive use of the split-screen.",
"De Palma recalls that he was \"floored\" by this performance upon first sight, and in 1973 recounts how he \"began to try and figure out a way to capture it on film.",
"I came up with the idea of split-screen, to be able to show the actual audience involvement, to trace the life of the audience and that of the play as they merge in and out of each other.\"",
"De Palma's most significant features from this decade are ''Greetings'' (1968) and ''Hi, Mom!''",
"(1970).",
"Both films star Robert De Niro and espouse a Leftist revolutionary viewpoint common to their era.",
"''Greetings'' was entered into the 19th Berlin International Film Festival, where it won a Silver Bear award.",
"His other major film from this period is the slasher comedy ''Murder a la Mod''.",
"Each of these films contains experiments in narrative and intertextuality, reflecting De Palma's stated intention to become the \"American Godard\" while integrating several of the themes which permeated Hitchcock's work.",
"''Greetings'' is about three New Yorkers dealing with the draft.",
"The film is often considered the first to deal explicitly with the draft.",
"The film is noteworthy for its use of various experimental techniques to convey its narrative in ultimately unconventional ways.",
"Footage was sped up, rapid cutting was used to distance the audience from the narrative, and it was difficult to discern with whom the audience must ultimately align.",
"\"Greetings\" ultimately grossed over $1 million at the box office and cemented De Palma's position as a bankable filmmaker.",
"After the success of his 1968 breakthrough, De Palma and his producing partner, Charles Hirsch, were given the opportunity by Sigma 3 to make an unofficial sequel of sorts, initially entitled ''Son of Greetings'', and subsequently released as ''Hi, Mom!''.",
"While \"Greetings\" accentuated its varied cast, ''Hi, Mom!''",
"focuses on De Niro's character, Jon Rubin, an essential carry-over from the previous film.",
"The film is ultimately significant insofar as it displays the first enunciation of De Palma's style in all its major traits – voyeurism, guilt, and a hyper-consciousness of the medium are all on full display, not just as hallmarks, but built into this formal, material apparatus itself.",
"These traits come to the fore in ''Hi, Mom!",
"'''s \"Be Black, Baby\" sequence.",
"This sequence parodies cinéma vérité, the dominant documentary tradition of the 1960s, while simultaneously providing the audience with a visceral and disturbingly emotional experience.",
"De Palma describes the sequence as a constant invocation of Brechtian distanciation: \"First of all, I am interested in the medium of film itself, and I am constantly standing outside and making people aware that they are always watching a film.",
"At the same time I am evolving it.",
"In ''Hi, Mom!''",
"for instance, there is a sequence where you are obviously watching a ridiculous documentary and you are told that and you are aware of it, but it still sucks you in.",
"There is a kind of Brechtian alienation idea here: you are aware of what you are watching at the same time that you are emotionally involved with it.\"",
"\"Be Black, Baby\" was filmed in black and white stock on 16 mm, in low-light conditions that stress the crudity of the direct cinema aesthetic.",
"It is precisely from this crudity that the film itself gains a credibility of \"realism.\"",
"In an interview with Michael Bliss, De Palma notes \"Be Black, Baby was rehearsed for almost three weeks...",
"In fact, it's all scripted.",
"But once the thing starts, they just go with the way it's going.",
"I specifically got a very good documentary camera filmmaker (Robert Elfstrom) to just shoot it like a documentary to follow the action.\"",
"Furthermore, \"I wanted to show in ''Hi, Mom!''",
"how you can really involve an audience.",
"You take an absurd premise – \"Be Black, Baby\" – and totally involve them and really frighten them at the same time.",
"It's very Brechtian.",
"You suck 'em in and annihilate 'em.",
"Then you say, \"It's just a movie, right?",
"It's not real.\"",
"It's just like television.",
"You're sucked in all the time, and you're being lied to in a very documentary-like setting.",
"The \"Be Black, Baby\" section of ''Hi, Mom!''",
"is probably the most important piece of film I've ever done.\"",
"In the 1970s, De Palma went to Hollywood where he worked on bigger budget films.",
"In 1970, De Palma left New York for Hollywood at age thirty to make ''Get to Know Your Rabbit'', starring Orson Welles and Tommy Smothers.",
"Making the film was a crushing experience for De Palma, as Tommy Smothers did not like many of De Palma's ideas.",
"After several small, studio and independent released films that included stand-outs ''Sisters'', ''Phantom of the Paradise'', and ''Obsession'', a small film based on a novel called ''Carrie'' was released directed by Brian De Palma.",
"The psychic thriller ''Carrie'' is seen by some as De Palma's bid for a blockbuster.",
"In fact, the project was small, underfunded by United Artists, and well under the cultural radar during the early months of production, as Stephen King's source novel had yet to climb the bestseller list.",
"De Palma gravitated toward the project and changed crucial plot elements based upon his own predilections, not the saleability of the novel.",
"The cast was young and relatively new, though Sissy Spacek and John Travolta had gained attention for previous work in, respectively, film and episodic sitcoms.",
"''Carrie'' became a hit, the first genuine box-office success for De Palma.",
"It garnered Spacek and Piper Laurie Oscar nominations for their performances.",
"Preproduction for the film had coincided with the casting process for George Lucas's ''Star Wars'', and many of the actors cast in De Palma's film had been earmarked as contenders for Lucas's movie, and vice versa.",
"The \"shock ending\" finale is effective even while it upholds horror-film convention, its suspense sequences are buttressed by teen comedy tropes, and its use of split-screen, split-diopter and slow motion shots tell the story visually rather than through dialogue.",
"The financial and critical success of ''Carrie'' allowed De Palma to pursue more personal material.",
"''The Demolished Man'' was a novel that had fascinated De Palma since the late 1950s and appealed to his background in mathematics and avant-garde storytelling.",
"Its unconventional unfolding of plot (exemplified in its mathematical layout of dialogue) and its stress on perception have analogs in De Palma's filmmaking.",
"He sought to adapt it on numerous occasions, though the project would carry a substantial price tag, and has yet to appear onscreen (Steven Spielberg's adaptation of Philip K. Dick's ''Minority Report'' bears striking similarities to De Palma's visual style and some of the themes of ''The Demolished Man'').",
"The result of his experience with adapting ''The Demolished Man'' was ''The Fury'', a science fiction psychic thriller that starred Kirk Douglas, Carrie Snodgress, John Cassavetes and Amy Irving.",
"The film was admired by Jean-Luc Godard, who featured a clip in his mammoth Histoire(s) du cinéma, and Pauline Kael who championed both ''The Fury'' and De Palma.",
"The film boasted a larger budget than ''Carrie'', though the consensus view at the time was that De Palma was repeating himself, with diminishing returns.",
"As a film it retains De Palma's considerable visual flair, but points more toward his work in mainstream entertainments such as ''The Untouchables'' and ''Mission: Impossible'', the thematic complex thrillers for which he is now better known.",
"For many film-goers, De Palma's gangster films, most notably ''Scarface'' and ''Carlito's Way'', pushed the envelope of on-screen violence and depravity, and yet greatly vary from one another in both style and content and also illustrate De Palma's evolution as a film-maker.",
"In essence, the excesses of ''Scarface'' contrast with the more emotional tragedy of ''Carlito's Way''.",
"Both films feature Al Pacino in what has become a fruitful working relationship.",
"In 1984, he directed the music video of Bruce Springsteen's song ''Dancing in the Dark''.",
"The 1980s were denoted by De Palma's other films ''Dressed To Kill'', ''Blow Out'', and ''Body Double''.",
"Later into the 1990s and 2000s, De Palma did other films.",
"He attempted to do dramas and a few thrillers plus science fiction.",
"Some of these movies (''Mission: Impossible'', ''Carlito's Way'') worked and some others (''Raising Cain'', ''Mission to Mars'') failed at the box office.",
"However, ''The Bonfire of the Vanities'' would be De Palma's biggest box office disaster, losing millions.",
"A more political controversy erupted in a later movie from De Palma, ''Redacted'' (2007), which had the subject of American involvement in Iraq, including the committing of war atrocities there.",
"It received limited release in the United States and grossed less than $1 million.",
"In 2012, his film ''Passion'' was selected to compete for the Golden Lion at the 69th Venice International Film Festival.",
"In 2015, he was the subject of a documentary film, ''De Palma''.",
"\n===Themes===\nDe Palma's films can fall into two categories, his psychological thrillers (''Sisters'', ''Body Double'', ''Obsession'', ''Dressed to Kill'', ''Blow Out'', ''Raising Cain'') and his mainly commercial films (''Scarface'', ''The Untouchables'', ''Carlito's Way'', and ''Mission: Impossible'').",
"He has often produced \"De Palma\" films one after the other before going on to direct a different genre, but would always return to his familiar territory.",
"Because of the subject matter and graphic violence of some of De Palma's films, such as ''Dressed to Kill'', ''Scarface'' and ''Body Double'', they are often at the center of controversy with the Motion Picture Association of America, film critics and the viewing public.",
"De Palma is known for quoting and referencing other directors' work throughout his career.",
"Michelangelo Antonioni's ''Blowup'' and Francis Ford Coppola's ''The Conversation'' plots were used for the basis of ''Blow Out''.",
"''The Untouchables'' finale shoot out in the train station is a clear borrow from the Odessa Steps sequence in Sergei Eisenstein's ''The Battleship Potemkin''.",
"The main plot from ''Rear Window'' was used for ''Body Double'', while it also used elements of ''Vertigo''.",
"''Vertigo'' was also the basis for ''Obsession''.",
"''Dressed to Kill'' was a note-for-note homage to Hitchcock's ''Psycho'', including such moments as the surprise death of the lead actress and the exposition scene by the psychiatrist at the end.",
"===Camera shots===\nFilm critics have often noted De Palma's penchant for unusual camera angles and compositions throughout his career.",
"He often frames characters against the background using a canted angle shot.",
"Split-screen techniques have been used to show two separate events happening simultaneously.",
"To emphasize the dramatic impact of a certain scene De Palma has employed a 360-degree camera pan.",
"Slow sweeping, panning and tracking shots are often used throughout his films, often through precisely-choreographed long takes lasting for minutes without cutting.",
"Split focus shots, often referred to as \"di-opt\", are used by De Palma to emphasize the foreground person/object while simultaneously keeping a background person/object in focus.",
"Slow-motion is frequently used in his films to increase suspense.",
"===Actors===\n\n\n\n Actor !",
"!",
"''Murder a la Mod'' (1968) !",
"!",
"''Greetings'' (1968) !",
"!",
"''The Wedding Party'' (1969) !",
"!",
"''Dionysus in '69'' (1970) !",
"!",
"''Hi, Mom!''",
"(1970) !",
"!",
"''Get to Know Your Rabbit'' (1972) !",
"!",
"''Sisters'' (1973) !",
"!",
"''Phantom of the Paradise'' (1974) !",
"!",
"''Obsession'' (1976) !",
"!",
"''Carrie'' (1976) !",
"!",
"''The Fury'' (1978) !",
"!",
"''Home Movies'' (1980) !",
"!",
"''Dressed to Kill'' (1980) !",
"!",
"''Blow Out'' (1981) !",
"!",
"''Scarface'' (1983) !",
"!",
"''Body Double'' (1984) !",
"!",
"''The Untouchables'' (1987) !",
"!",
"''Casualties of War'' (1989) !",
"!",
"''The Bonfire of the Vanities'' (1990) !",
"!",
"''Raising Cain'' (1992) !",
"!",
"''Carlito's Way'' (1993) !",
"!",
"''Mission: Impossible'' (1996) !",
"!",
"''Snake Eyes'' (1998) !",
"!",
"''Mission to Mars'' (2000) !",
"!",
"''Femme Fatale'' (2002) !",
"!",
"''The Black Dahlia'' (2006) \n\n F. Murray Abraham\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Nancy Allen\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n\n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Vito D'Ambrosio\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Steven Bauer\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Richard Belzer\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Robert De Niro\n \n\n\n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Kirk Douglas\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Kevin Dunn\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n\n \n\n\n \n\n\n Charles Durning\n \n \n \n \n\n \n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Dale Dye\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\n William Finley\n \n \n\n\n \n \n\n\n \n \n\n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Dennis Franz\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n\n\n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Allen Garfield\n \n \n \n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Keith Gordon\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Gerrit Graham\n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Melanie Griffith\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Luis Guzmán\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n\n \n \n \n\n Donald Patrick Harvey\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Gregg Henry\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n Clifton James\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Amy Irving\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Al Israel\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n John Leguizamo\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n John Lithgow\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Michael P. Moran\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n Mark Margolis\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Al Pacino\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n Sean Penn\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n Ving Rhames\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\n Angel Salazar\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n Jennifer Salt\n \n \n\n \n\n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Pepe Serna\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\n Gary Sinise\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n \n\n Mike Starr\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n\n\n\n John Travolta\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n===Cinematographers===\n\nVilmos Zsigmond\n* Obsession (1976)\n* Blow Out (1981)\n* Bonfire of the Vanities (1990)\n* The Black Dahlia (2006)\nStephen H. Burum\n* Body Double (1984)\n* The Untouchables (1987)\n* Casualties of War (1989)\n* Raising Cain (1992)\n* Carlito's Way (1993)\n* Mission Impossible (1996)\n* Snake Eyes (1998)\n* Mission to Mars (2000)\nJosé Luis Alcaine\n* Passion (2012)\n* Domino (2018)",
"De Palma has been married and divorced three times, to actress Nancy Allen (1979–1983), producer Gale Anne Hurd (1991–1993), and Darnell Gregorio (1995–1997).",
"He has one daughter from his marriage to Gale Anne Hurd, Lolita de Palma, born in 1991, and one daughter from his marriage to Darnell Gregorio, Piper De Palma, born in 1996.",
"He resides in Manhattan, New York.",
"De Palma at the 2009 Toronto International Film Festival\nDe Palma is often cited as a leading member of the New Hollywood generation of film directors, a distinct pedigree who either emerged from film schools or are overtly cine-literate.",
"His contemporaries include Martin Scorsese, Paul Schrader, John Milius, George Lucas, Francis Ford Coppola, Steven Spielberg, John Carpenter, and Ridley Scott.",
"His artistry in directing and use of cinematography and suspense in several of his films has often been compared to the work of Alfred Hitchcock.",
"Psychologists have been intrigued by De Palma's fascination with pathology, by the aberrant behavior aroused in characters who find themselves manipulated by others.",
"De Palma has encouraged and fostered the filmmaking careers of directors such as Mark Romanek and Keith Gordon.",
"During an interview with De Palma, Tarantino said that ''Blow Out'' is one of his all-time favorite films, and that after watching ''Scarface'' he knew how to make his own film.",
"Terrence Malick credits seeing De Palma's early films on college campus tours as a validation of independent film, and subsequently switched his attention from philosophy to filmmaking.",
"Other filmmakers influenced by De Palma include Quentin Tarantino, Ronny Yu, Don Mancini, Nacho Vigalondo, and Jack Thomas Smith.",
"Critics who frequently admire De Palma's work include Pauline Kael and Roger Ebert, among others.",
"Kael wrote in her review of ''Blow Out'', \"At forty, Brian De Palma has more than twenty years of moviemaking behind him, and he has been growing better and better.",
"Each time a new film of his opens, everything he has done before seems to have been preparation for it.\"",
"In his review of ''Femme Fatale'', Roger Ebert wrote about the director: \"De Palma deserves more honor as a director.",
"Consider also these titles: ''Sisters'', ''Blow Out'', ''The Fury'', ''Dressed to Kill'', ''Carrie'', ''Scarface'', ''Wise Guys'', ''Casualties of War'', ''Carlito's Way'', ''Mission: Impossible''.",
"Yes, there are a few failures along the way (''Snake Eyes'', ''Mission to Mars'', ''The Bonfire of the Vanities''), but look at the range here, and reflect that these movies contain treasure for those who admire the craft as well as the story, who sense the glee with which De Palma manipulates images and characters for the simple joy of being good at it.",
"It's not just that he sometimes works in the style of Hitchcock, but that he has the nerve to.\"",
"Julie Salamon has written that De Palma has been accused of being \"a perverse misogynist\" by critics.",
"De Palma has responded to accusations of misogyny by saying: \"I'm always attacked for having an erotic, sexist approach---chopping up women, putting women in peril.",
"I'm making suspense movies!",
"What else is going to happen to them?\"",
"David Thomson wrote in his entry for De Palma, \"There is a self-conscious cunning in De Palma's work, ready to control everything except his own cruelty and indifference.\"",
"\n===Feature films===\n\n*''Murder a la Mod'' (1968)\n*''Greetings'' (1968)\n*''The Wedding Party'' (1969)\n*''Hi, Mom!''",
"* Thomson, David (October 26, 2010).",
"''The New Biographical Dictionary of Film: Fifth Edition, Completely Updated and Expanded'' (Hardcover ed.).",
"Knopf.",
".",
"* Salamon, Julie (1991).",
"''Devil's Candy: The Bonfire of the Vanities Goes to Hollywood'' (Hardcover ed.).",
"Houghton.",
".",
"* Bliss, Michael (1986).",
"''Brian De Palma''.",
"Scarecrow.",
"* Blumenfeld, Samuel; Vachaud, Laurent (2001).",
"''Brian De Palma''.",
"Calmann-Levy.",
"* Dworkin, Susan (1984).",
"''Double De Palma: A Film Study with Brian De Palma''.",
"Newmarket.",
"\n* \n* Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database\n* Photos and discussion around the director\n* Literature on Brian De Palma\n* Brian De Palma bibliography (via UC Berkeley)\n* ''Hi, Brian !",
"Brian De Palma's Community''\n* Brian De Palma's UBUWeb entry, featuring early short films \n* De Palma documentary film available online."
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\n\nThe '''North American B-25 Mitchell''' is an American twin-engine, medium bomber manufactured by North American Aviation (NAA).\n\nThe design was named in honor of Major General William \"Billy\" Mitchell, a pioneer of U.S. military aviation. Used by many Allied air forces, the B-25 served in every theater of World War II and after the war ended many remained in service, operating across four decades. Produced in numerous variants, nearly 10,000 Mitchells rolled from NAA factories. These included a few limited models, such as the United States Marine Corps' PBJ-1 patrol bomber and the United States Army Air Forces' F-10 reconnaissance aircraft and AT-24 trainers.\n",
"Nose-on view of the NA-40 prototype, showing the constant dihedral wing design discarded in early development of the successor B-25 design.\n\nThe Air Corps issued a circular (Number 38-385) in March 1938 describing the performance they required from the next bombers — a payload of with a range of at more than . Those performance specifications led NAA to submit their NA-40 design. The NA-40 had benefited from the North American XB-21 (NA-39) of 1936, which was the company's partly successful design for an earlier medium bomber that had been initially accepted and ordered, but then cancelled. However, the company's experience from the XB-21 contributed to the design and development of the NA-40. The single NA-40 built flew first at the end of January 1939. It went through several modifications to correct problems. These improvements included fitting Wright R-2600 \"Twin Cyclone\" radial engines, in March 1939, which solved the lack of power.\n\nIn March 1939, North American delivered the substantially redesigned and improved NA-40 (as NA-40B) to the United States Army Air Corps for evaluation. It was in competition with other manufacturers' designs (Douglas 7B, Stearman X-100, and the Martin Model 167F) but failed to win orders. The aircraft was originally intended to be an attack bomber for export to the United Kingdom and France, both of which had a pressing requirement for such aircraft in the early stages of World War II. However, the French had already opted for a revised Douglas 7B (as the DB-7). Unfortunately, the NA-40B was destroyed in a crash on 11 April 1939 while undergoing testing. Although the crash was not considered due to a fault with the aircraft design, the Army ordered the DB-7 as the A-20.\n\nThe Air Corps issued a specification for a medium bomber in March 1939: over at NAA used the NA-40B design to develop the NA-62, which competed for the medium bomber contract. There was no YB-25 for prototype service tests. In September 1939, the Air Corps ordered the NA-62 into production as the B-25, along with the other new Air Corps medium bomber, the Martin B-26 Marauder \"off the drawing board\".\n\nalt=Interior of huge aircraft factory where rows of bombers are being assembled\n\nEarly into B-25 production, NAA incorporated a significant redesign to the wing dihedral. The first nine aircraft had a constant-dihedral, meaning the wing had a consistent, upward angle from the fuselage to the wingtip. This design caused stability problems. \"Flattening\" the outer wing panels by giving them a slight anhedral angle just outboard of the engine nacelles nullified the problem, and gave the B-25 its gull wing configuration. Less noticeable changes during this period included an increase in the size of the tail fins and a decrease in their inward tilt at their tops.\n\nNAA continued design and development in 1940 and 1941. Both the B-25A and B-25B series entered USAAF service. The B-25B was operational in 1942. Combat requirements lead to further developments. Before the year was over, NAA was producing the B-25C and B-25D series at different plants. Also in 1942, the manufacturer began design work on the cannon-armed B-25G series. The NA-100 of 1943 and 1944 was an interim armament development at the Kansas City complex known as the B-25D2. Similar armament upgrades by U.S-based commercial modification centers involved about half of the B-25G series. Further development led to the B-25H, B-25J, and B-25J2. The gunship design concept dates to late 1942 and NAA sent a field technical representative to the SWPA. The factory-produced B-25G entered production during the NA-96 order followed by the redesigned B-25H gunship. The B-25J reverted to the bomber role, but it, too, could be outfitted as a strafer.\n\nalt=Black and white photo of an early bomber parked perpendicular to camera, facing left, rearward of the wing is a star in front of horizontal stripes.\n\nNAA manufactured the greatest number of aircraft in World War II, the first time a company had produced trainers, bombers, and fighters simultaneously (the AT-6/SNJ Texan, B-25 Mitchell, and the P-51 Mustang). It produced B-25s at both its Inglewood main plant and an additional 6,608 aircraft at its Kansas City, Kansas plant at Fairfax Airport.\n\nAfter the war, the USAF placed a contract for the TB-25L trainer in 1952. This was a modification program by Hayes of Birmingham, Alabama. Its primary role was reciprocal engine pilot training.\n\nA development of the B-25 was the North American XB-28, designed as a high-altitude bomber. Two prototypes were built with the second prototype, the XB-28A, evaluated as a photo-reconnaissance platform, but the aircraft did not enter production.\n",
"\nCrew and their B-25\nDoolittle Raid B-25Bs aboard USS ''Hornet''\n\n=== Asia-Pacific ===\nThe majority of B-25s in American service were used in the war against Japan in Asia and the Pacific. The Mitchell fought from the Northern Pacific to the South Pacific and the Far East. These areas included the campaigns in the Aleutian Islands, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, New Britain, China, Burma and the island hopping campaign in the Central Pacific. The aircraft's potential as a ground-attack aircraft emerged during the Pacific war. The jungle environment reduced the usefulness of medium-level bombing, and made low-level attack the best tactic. Using similar mast height level tactics and skip bombing, the B-25 proved itself to be a capable anti-shipping weapon and sank many enemy sea vessels of various types. An ever-increasing number of forward firing guns made the B-25 a formidable strafing aircraft for island warfare. The strafer versions were the B-25C1/D1, the B-25J1 and with the NAA strafer nose, the J2 sub-series.\n\nIn Burma, the B-25 was often used to attack Japanese communication links, especially bridges in central Burma. It also helped supply the besieged troops at Imphal in 1944. The China Air Task Force, the Chinese American Composite Wing, the First Air Commando Group, the 341st Bomb Group, and eventually, the relocated 12th Bomb Group, all operated the B-25 in the China Burma India Theater (CBI). Many of these missions involved battle field isolation, interdiction and close air support.\n\nLater in the war, as the USAAF acquired bases in other parts of the Pacific, the Mitchell could strike targets in Indochina, Formosa and Kyushu, increasing the usefulness of the B-25. It was also used in some of the shortest raids of the Pacific War, striking from Saipan against Guam and Tinian. The 41st Bomb Group used it against Japanese-occupied islands that had been bypassed by the main campaign, such as happened in the Marshall Islands.\n\n=== Middle East and Italy ===\nThe first B-25s arrived in Egypt and were carrying out independent operations by October 1942. Operations there against Axis airfields and motorized vehicle columns supported the ground actions of the Second Battle of El Alamein. Thereafter, the aircraft took part in the rest of the campaign in North Africa, the invasion of Sicily and the advance up Italy. In the Strait of Messina to the Aegean Sea the B-25 conducted sea sweeps as part of the coastal air forces. In Italy, the B-25 was used in the ground attack role, concentrating on attacks against road and rail links in Italy, Austria and the Balkans. The B-25 had a longer range than the Douglas A-20 Havoc and Douglas A-26 Invaders, allowing it to reach further into occupied Europe. The five bombardment groups – 20 squadrons – of the Ninth and Twelfth Air Forces that used the B-25 in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations were the only U.S. units to employ the B-25 in Europe.\n\n=== Europe ===\nThe RAF received nearly 900 Mitchells, using them to replace Douglas Bostons, Lockheed Venturas and Vickers Wellington bombers. The Mitchell entered active RAF service on 22 January 1943. At first, it was used to bomb targets in occupied Europe. After the Normandy invasion, the RAF and France used Mitchells in support of the Allies in Europe. Several squadrons moved to forward airbases on the continent. The USAAF did not use the B-25 in combat in the ETO.\n\n=== USAAF ===\nA B-25 Mitchell taking off from USS ''Hornet'' for the Doolittle Raid\n\nThe B-25B first gained fame as the bomber used in the 18 April 1942 Doolittle Raid, in which 16 B-25Bs led by Lieutenant Colonel Jimmy Doolittle attacked mainland Japan, four months after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. The mission gave a much-needed lift in spirits to the Americans, and alarmed the Japanese, who had believed their home islands to be inviolable by enemy forces. Although the amount of actual damage done was relatively minor, it forced the Japanese to divert troops for home defense for the remainder of the war.\n\nThe raiders took off from the carrier and successfully bombed Tokyo and four other Japanese cities without loss. Fifteen of the bombers subsequently crash-landed en route to recovery fields in eastern China. These losses were the result of the task force being spotted by a Japanese vessel, forcing the bombers to take off early, fuel exhaustion, stormy nighttime conditions with zero visibility, and lack of electronic homing aids at the recovery bases. Only one B-25 bomber landed intact, in Siberia where its five-man crew was interned and the aircraft confiscated. Of the 80 aircrew, 69 survived their historic mission and eventually made it back to American lines.\n\nFollowing a number of additional modifications, including the addition of Plexiglas dome for navigational sightings to replace the overhead window for the navigator and heavier nose armament, de-icing and anti-icing equipment, the B-25C entered USAAF operations. Through block 20 the B-25C and B-25D differed only in location of manufacture: C series at Inglewood, California; D series at Kansas City, Kansas. After block 20 some NA-96 began the transition to the G series while some NA-87 acquired interim modifications eventually produced as the B-25D2 and ordered as the NA-100. NAA built a total of 3,915 B-25Cs and Ds during World War II.\n\nAlthough the B-25 was originally designed to bomb from medium altitudes in level flight, it was used frequently in the Southwest Pacific theatre in treetop-level strafing and missions with parachute-retarded fragmentation bombs against Japanese airfields in New Guinea and the Philippines. These heavily armed Mitchells were field-modified at Townsville, Australia, under the direction of Major Paul I. \"Pappy\" Gunn and North American tech rep Jack Fox, These \"commerce destroyers\" were also used on strafing and skip bombing missions against Japanese shipping trying to resupply their armies.\n\nUnder the leadership of Lieutenant General George C. Kenney, Mitchells of the Far East Air Forces and its existing components, the Fifth and Thirteenth Air Forces devastated Japanese targets in the Southwest Pacific Theater during 1944 to 1945. The USAAF played a significant role in pushing the Japanese back to their home islands. The type operated with great effect in the Central Pacific, Alaska, North Africa, Mediterranean and China-Burma-India (CBI) theaters.\n\nThe USAAF Antisubmarine Command made great use of the B-25 in 1942 and 1943. Some of the earliest B-25 Bomb Groups also flew the Mitchell on coastal patrols after the Pearl Harbor attack, prior to the AAFAC organization. Many of the two dozen or so Antisubmarine Squadrons flew the B-25C, D and G series in the American Theater Antisubmarine campaign, often in the distinctive, white sea search camouflage.\n\n==== Combat developments ====\n\n===== Use as a gunship =====\n\n\nA view of a B-25G shows the mid-ship location of dorsal turret continued.\nIn anti-shipping operations, the USAAF had urgent need for hard-hitting aircraft, and North American responded with the B-25G. In this series the transparent nose and bombardier/navigator position was changed for a shorter, hatched nose with two fixed .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns and a 75 mm (2.95 in) M4 cannon, one of the largest weapons fitted to an aircraft, similar to the British 57 mm gun-armed Mosquito Mk. XVIII and the German Henschel Hs 129B-3, and Ju 88P heavy cannon (up to a 75 mm long-barrel ''Bordkanone BK 7,5''). The shorter nose placed the cannon breech behind the pilot where it could be manually loaded and serviced by the navigator; his crew station was moved to just behind the pilot. The navigator signalled the pilot when the gun was ready and the pilot fired the weapon using a button on his control wheel.\n\nThe Royal Air Force, U.S. Navy and the Soviet VVS each conducted trials with this series but none adopted it. The G series comprised one prototype, five pre-production C conversions, 58 C series modifications and 400 production aircraft for a total of 464 B-25G. In its final version, the G-12, an interim armament modification, eliminated the lower Bendix turret and added a starboard dual gun pack, waist guns and a canopy for the tail gunner to improve the view when firing the single tail gun. In April 1945 the air depots in Hawaii refurbished about two dozen of these and included the eight gun nose and rocket launchers in the upgrade.\n\nThe B-25H series continued the development of the gunship concept. NAA Inglewood produced 1000. The H had even more firepower. Most replaced the M4 gun with the lighter T13E1, designed specifically for the aircraft but 20-odd H-1 block aircraft completed by the Republic Aviation modification center at Evansville had the M4 and two machine gun nose armament. The 75 mm (2.95 in) gun fired at a muzzle velocity of . Due to its low rate of fire (about four rounds could be fired in a single strafing run), relative ineffectiveness against ground targets, and the substantial recoil, the 75 mm gun was sometimes removed from both G and H models and replaced with two additional .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns as a field modification. In the new FEAF these were re-designated the G1 and H1 series respectively.\n\nA restored B-25H \"Barbie III\" showing 75 mm M5 gun and four 0.50 Browning with belt feeds\n\nThe H series normally came from the factory mounting four fixed, forward-firing .50 (12.7 mm) machine guns in the nose; four more fixed guns in forward-firing, individual gun packages; two more in the manned dorsal turret, re-located forward to a position just behind the cockpit; one each in a pair of new waist positions, introduced simultaneously with the forward-relocated dorsal turret; and lastly, a pair of guns in a new tail gunner's position. Company promotional material bragged that the B-25H could \"bring to bear 10 machine guns coming and four going, in addition to the 75 mm cannon, eight rockets and 3,000 lb (1,360 kg) of bombs.\"\n\nThe H had a modified cockpit with single flight controls operated by pilot. The co-pilot's station and controls were deleted, and instead had a smaller seat used by the navigator/cannoneer, The radio operator crew position was aft the bomb bay with access to the waist guns. Factory production total were 405 B-25Gs and 1,000 B-25Hs, with 248 of the latter being used by the Navy as PBJ-1H. Elimination of the co-pilot saved weight, moving the dorsal turret forward counterbalanced in part the waist guns and the manned rear turret.\n\n\n===== Return to medium bomber =====\nFollowing the two gunship series NAA again produced the medium bomber configuration with the B-25J series.. It optimized the mix of the interim NA-100 and the H series having both the bombardier's station and fixed guns of the D and the forward turret and refined armament of the H series. NAA also produced a strafer nose first shipped to air depots as kits, then introduced on the production line in alternating blocks with the bombardier nose. The solid-metal \"strafer\" nose housed eight centerline Browning M2 .50 calibre machine guns. The remainder of the armament was as in the H-5. NAA also supplied kits to mount eight underwing 5 \"high velocity airborne rockets\" (HVAR) just outside the propeller arcs. These were mounted on zero length launch rails, four to a wing.\nThe restored B-25J Mitchell ''Take-Off Time'' at the Mid-Atlantic Air Museum for World War II Weekend 2015 in Reading, Pennsylvania\nThe final, and the most built, series of the Mitchell, the '''B-25J''', looked less like earlier series apart from the well-glazed bombardier's nose of nearly-identical appearance to the earliest B-25 subtypes. Instead, the J followed the overall configuration of the H series from the cockpit aft. It had the forward dorsal turret and other armament and airframe advancements. All J models included four .50 in (12.7 mm) light-barrel Browning AN/M2 guns in a pair of \"fuselage package\", conformal gun pods each flanking the lower cockpit, each pod containing two Browning M2s. By 1945, however, combat squadrons removed these. The J series restored the co-pilot's seat and dual flight controls. The factory made available kits to the Air Depot system to create the strafer-nose B-25J-2. This configuration carried a total of 18 .50 in (12.7 mm) light-barrel AN/M2 Browning M2 machine guns: eight in the nose, four in the flank-mount conformal gun pod packages, two in the dorsal turret, one each in the pair of waist positions, and a pair in the tail – with 14 of the guns either aimed directly forward, or aimed to fire directly forward for strafing missions. Some aircraft had eight 5 in (130 mm) high-velocity aircraft rockets (HVAR). NAA introduced the J-2 into production in alternating blocks at the J-22. Total J series production was 4,318.\n\n==== Flight characteristics ====\nThe B-25 was a safe and forgiving aircraft to fly. With one engine out, 60° banking turns into the dead engine were possible, and control could be easily maintained down to 145 mph (230 km/h). The pilot had to remember to maintain engine-out directional control at low speeds after takeoff with rudder; if this maneuver was attempted with ailerons, the aircraft could snap out of control. The tricycle landing gear made for excellent visibility while taxiing. The only significant complaint about the B-25 was the extremely high noise level produced by its engines; as a result, many pilots eventually suffered from varying degrees of hearing loss.\n\nThe high noise level was due to design and space restrictions in the engine cowlings which resulted in the exhaust \"stacks\" protruding directly from the cowling ring and partly covered by a small triangular fairing. This arrangement directed exhaust and noise directly at the pilot and crew compartments.\n\n==== Durability ====\nB-25 engine cowling assembly\n\nThe Mitchell was an exceptionally sturdy aircraft that could withstand tremendous punishment. One B-25C of the 321st Bomb Group was nicknamed \"Patches\" because its crew chief painted all the aircraft's flak hole patches with the bright yellow zinc chromate primer. By the end of the war, this aircraft had completed over 300 missions, had been belly-landed six times and had over 400 patched holes. The airframe of \"Patches\" was so distorted from battle damage that straight-and-level flight required 8° of left aileron trim and 6° of right rudder, causing the aircraft to \"crab\" sideways across the sky.\n\n=== Post war (USAF) use ===\nIn 1947 legislation created an independent United States Air Force and by that time the B-25 inventory numbered only a few hundred. Some B-25s continued in service into the 1950s in a variety of training, reconnaissance and support roles. The principal use during this period was undergraduate training of multi-engine aircraft pilots slated for reciprocating engine or turboprop cargo, aerial refuelling or reconnaissance aircraft. Others were assigned to units of the Air National Guard in training roles in support of Northrop F-89 Scorpion and Lockheed F-94 Starfire operations. \n\nIn its USAF tenure, many B-25s received the so-called \"Hayes modification\" and as a result, surviving B-25 often have exhaust system with a semi-collector ring that splits emissions into two different systems. The upper seven cylinders are collected by a ring while the other cylinders remain directed to individual ports.\n\nTB-25J-25-NC Mitchell, ''44-30854'', the last B-25 in the USAF inventory, assigned at March AFB, California as of March 1960, was flown to Eglin AFB, Florida, from Turner Air Force Base, Georgia, on 21 May 1960, the last flight by a USAF B-25, and presented by Brigadier General A. J. Russell, Commander of SAC's 822d Air Division at Turner AFB, to the Air Proving Ground Center Commander, Brigadier General Robert H. Warren, who in turn presented the bomber to Valparaiso, Florida Mayor Randall Roberts on behalf of the Niceville-Valparaiso Chamber of Commerce. Four of the original Tokyo Raiders were present for the ceremony, Colonel (later Major General) David Jones, Colonel Jack Simms, Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Manske, and retired Master Sergeant Edwin W. Horton. It was donated back to the Air Force Armament Museum c. 1974 and marked as Doolittle's ''40-2344''.\n\n=== U.S. Navy and USMC ===\n\nThe U.S. Navy designation for the Mitchell was the PBJ-1 and apart from increased use of radar, it was configured like its Army Air Forces counterparts. Under the pre-1962 USN/USMC/USCG aircraft designation system, PBJ-1 stood for Patrol (P) Bomber (B) built by North American Aviation (J), first variant (-1) under the existing American naval aircraft designation system of the era. The PBJ had its origin in an inter-service agreement of mid-1942 between the Navy and the USAAF exchanging the Boeing Renton plant for the Kansas plant for B-29 Superfortress production. The Boeing XPBB Sea Ranger flying boat, competing for B-29 engines, was cancelled in exchange for part of the Kansas City Mitchell production. Other terms included the inter-service transfer of 50 B-25C and 152 B-25D to the Navy. The bombers carried Navy bureau numbers (BuNos), beginning with BuNo 34998. The first PBJ-1 arrived in February 1943 and nearly all reached Marine Corps squadrons, beginning with Marine Bombing Squadron 413 (VMB-413). Following the AAFAC format, the Marine Mitchells had search radar in a retractable radome replacing the remotely-operated ventral turret. Later D and J series had nose mounted APS-3 radar; and later still, J and H series mounted radar in the starboard wingtip. The large quantities of B-25H and J series became known as PBJ-1H and PBJ-1J respectively. These aircraft often operated along with earlier PBJ series in Marine squadrons.\n\nThe PBJs were operated almost exclusively by the Marine Corps as land-based bombers. To operate them, the U.S. Marine Corps established a number of Marine bomber squadrons (VMB), beginning with VMB-413, in March 1943 at MCAS Cherry Point, North Carolina. Eight VMB squadrons were flying PBJs by the end of 1943, forming the initial Marine medium bombardment group. Four more squadrons were in the process of formation in late 1945, but had not yet deployed by the time the war ended.\n\nOperational use of the Marine Corps PBJ-1s began in March 1944. The Marine PBJs operated from the Philippines, Saipan, Iwo Jima and Okinawa during the last few months of the Pacific war. Their primary mission was the long range interdiction of enemy shipping trying to run the blockade which was strangling Japan. The weapon of choice during these missions was usually the five-inch HVAR rocket, eight of which could be carried. Some VMB-612 intruder PBJ-1D and J series flew without top turrets to save weight and increase range on night patrols, especially towards the end of the war when air superiority existed.\n\nDuring the war the Navy tested the cannon-armed G series and conducted carrier trial with an H equipped with arresting gear. After World War II, some PBJs stationed at the Navy's then-rocket laboratory site in Inyokern, California, site of the present-day Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake, tested various air-to-ground rockets and arrangements. One arrangement was a twin-barrel nose arrangement that could fire 10 spin-stabilized five-inch rockets in one salvo.\n\n=== Royal Air Force ===\nThe Royal Air Force (RAF) was an early customer for the B-25 via Lend-Lease. The first Mitchells were given the service name Mitchell I by the RAF and were delivered in August 1941, to No. 111 Operational Training Unit based in the Bahamas. These bombers were used exclusively for training and familiarization and never achieved operational status. The B-25Cs and Ds were designated Mitchell II. Altogether, 167 B-25Cs and 371 B-25Ds were delivered to the RAF. The RAF tested the cannon-armed G series but did not adopt the series nor the follow on H series.\n\nBy the end of 1942 the RAF had taken delivery of a total of 93 Mitchell marks I and II. Some served with squadrons of No. 2 Group RAF, the RAF's tactical medium bomber force. The first RAF operation with the Mitchell II took place on 22 January 1943, when six aircraft from No. 180 Squadron RAF attacked oil installations at Ghent. After the invasion of Europe (by which point 2 Group was part of Second Tactical Air Force), all four Mitchell squadrons moved to bases in France and Belgium (Melsbroek) to support Allied ground forces. The British Mitchell squadrons were joined by No. 342 (Lorraine) Squadron of the French Air Force in April 1945.\n\nAs part of its move from Bomber Command, No 305 (Polish) Squadron flew Mitchell IIs from September to December 1943 before converting to the de Havilland Mosquito. In addition to No. 2 Group, the B-25 was used by various second-line RAF units in the UK and abroad. In the Far East, No. 3 PRU, which consisted of Nos. 681 and 684 Squadrons, flew the Mitchell (primarily Mk IIs) on photographic reconnaissance sorties.\n\nThe RAF was allocated 316 B-25J which entered service as the Mitchell III. Deliveries took place between August 1944 and August 1945. However, only about 240 of these bombers actually reached Britain, with some being diverted to No. 111 OTU in the Bahamas, some crashing during delivery and some being retained in the United States.\n\n=== Royal Canadian Air Force ===\nThe Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) used the B-25 Mitchell for training during the war. Post-war use saw continued operations with most of 162 Mitchells received. The first B-25s had originally been diverted to Canada from RAF orders. These included one Mitchell I, 42 Mitchell IIs, and 19 Mitchell IIIs. No 13 (P) Squadron was formed unofficially at RCAF Rockcliffe in May 1944 and used Mitchell IIs on high-altitude aerial photography sorties. No. 5 OTU (Operational Training Unit) at Boundary Bay, British Columbia and Abbotsford, British Columbia, operated the B-25D Mitchell in the training role together with B-24 Liberators for Heavy Conversion as part of the BCATP. The RCAF retained the Mitchell until October 1963.\n\nNo 418 (Auxiliary) Squadron received its first Mitchell IIs in January 1947. It was followed by No 406 (auxiliary), which flew Mitchell IIs and IIIs from April 1947 to June 1958. No 418 Operated a mix of IIs and IIIs until March 1958. No 12 Squadron of Air Transport Command also flew Mitchell IIIs along with other types from September 1956 to November 1960. In 1951, the RCAF received an additional 75 B-25Js from USAF stocks to make up for attrition and to equip various second-line units.\n\n=== Royal Australian Air Force ===\nThe Australians received Mitchells by the spring of 1944. The joint Australian-Dutch No. 18 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF had more than enough Mitchells for one squadron, so the surplus went to re-equip the RAAF's No. 2 Squadron, replacing their Beauforts.\n\n=== Dutch Air Force ===\nB-25 Mitchells assigned to No. 18 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF in 1943\nDuring World War II, the Mitchell served in fairly large numbers with the Air Force of the Dutch government-in-exile. They participated in combat in the East Indies as well as on the European front. On 30 June 1941, the Netherlands Purchasing Commission, acting on behalf of the Dutch government-in-exile in London, signed a contract with North American Aviation for 162 B-25C aircraft. The bombers were to be delivered to the Netherlands East Indies to help deter any Japanese aggression into the region.\n\nIn February 1942, the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) agreed to ferry 20 Dutch B-25s from Florida to Australia travelling via Africa and India, and an additional ten via the South Pacific route from California. During March, five of the bombers on the Dutch order had reached Bangalore, India and 12 had reached Archerfield in Australia. It was agreed that the B-25s in Australia would be used as the nucleus of a new squadron, designated No. 18. This squadron was staffed jointly by Australian and Dutch aircrews plus a smattering of aircrews from other nations, and operated under Royal Australian Air Force command for the remainder of the war.\n\nThe B-25s of No. 18 Squadron were painted with the Dutch national insignia (at this time a rectangular Netherlands flag) and carried NEIAF serials. Discounting the ten \"temporary\" B-25s delivered to 18 Squadron in early 1942, a total of 150 Mitchells were taken on strength by the NEIAF, 19 in 1942, 16 in 1943, 87 in 1944, and 28 in 1945. They flew bombing raids against Japanese targets in the East Indies. In 1944, the more capable B-25J Mitchell replaced most of the earlier C and D models.\n\nIn June 1940, No. 320 Squadron RAF had been formed from personnel formerly serving with the Royal Dutch Naval Air Service who had escaped to England after the German occupation of the Netherlands. Equipped with various British aircraft, No. 320 Squadron flew anti-submarine patrols, convoy escort missions, and performed air-sea rescue duties. They acquired the Mitchell II in September 1943, performing operations over Europe against gun emplacements, railway yards, bridges, troops and other tactical targets. They moved to Belgium in October 1944, and transitioned to the Mitchell III in 1945. No. 320 Squadron was disbanded in August 1945. Following the war, B-25s were used by Dutch forces during the Indonesian National Revolution.\n\n=== Soviet Air Force ===\nThe U.S. supplied 862 B-25s (B, D, G, and J types) to the Soviet Union under Lend-Lease during World War II via the Alaska–Siberia ALSIB ferry route.\n\nOther damaged aircraft arrived or crashed in the Far East of Russia, and one Doolittle Raid aircraft landed there short of fuel after attacking Japan. The lone airworthy aircraft to reach the Soviet Union was lost in a hangar fire in the early 50s while undergoing routine maintenance. In general, the B-25 was operated as a ground-support and tactical daylight bomber (as similar Douglas A-20 Havocs were used). It saw action in fights from Stalingrad (with B/D models) to the German surrender during May 1945 (with G/J types).\n\nB-25s that remained in Soviet Air Force service after the war were assigned the NATO reporting name \"'''Bank'''\".\n\n=== China ===\nWell over 100 B-25Cs and Ds were supplied to the Nationalist Chinese during the Second Sino-Japanese War. In addition, a total of 131 B-25Js were supplied to China under Lend-Lease.\n\nThe four squadrons of the 1st BG (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th) of the 1st Medium Bomber Group were formed during the war. They formerly operated Russian-built Tupolev SB bombers, then transferred to the B-25. The 1st BG was under the command of CACW (Chinese-American Composite Wing) while operating B-25s. Following the end of the war in the Pacific, these four bombardment squadrons were established to fight against the Communist insurgency that was rapidly spreading throughout the country. During the Chinese Civil War, Chinese Mitchells fought alongside de Havilland Mosquitos.\n\nIn December 1948, the Nationalists were forced to retreat to the island of Taiwan, taking many of their Mitchells with them. However, some B-25s were left behind and were pressed into service with the air force of the new People's Republic of China.\n\n=== Brazilian Air Force ===\nB-25J Mitchell ''44-30069'' at ''Museu Aerospacial'' in ''Campos dos Afonsos Air Force Base'', Rio de Janeiro\n\nDuring the war, the Força Aérea Brasileira (FAB) received a few B-25s under Lend-Lease. Brazil declared war against the Axis powers in August 1942 and participated in the war against the U-boats in the southern Atlantic. The last Brazilian B-25 was finally declared surplus in 1970.\n\n=== Free French ===\nThe Royal Air Force issued at least 21 Mitchell IIIs to No 342 Squadron, which was made up primarily of Free French aircrews. Following the liberation of France, this squadron transferred to the newly formed French Air Force (''Armée de l'Air'') as GB I/20 Lorraine. The aircraft continued in operation after the war, with some being converted into fast VIP transports. They were struck off charge in June 1947.\n",
"B-25C Mitchell\nUSAAF B-25C/D. Note the early radar with transverse-dipole Yagi antenna fitted to the nose\nB-25J\n\n;NA-40\n:Twin-engined five-seat bomber to meet 1938 USAAF requirement for attack bomber. Powered by two Pratt & Whitney R-1830-56C3G radials. Wingspan 66 ft (20.12 m), length 48 ft 3 in (14.71 m) length. First flew on 29 January 1939 but proved to be underpowered and unstable.\n;NA-40B\n: The NA-40B (also known as the NA-40-2) was a modification of the NA-40 prototype with two Wright R-2600-A71-3 radials and numerous minor changes. First flew in revised form on 1 March 1939. Crashed: 11 April 1940.\n;B-25\n:Initial production version of B-25, powered by R-2600-9 engines. Up to 3,600 lb (1,600 kg) bombs and defensive armament of three .30 machine guns in nose, waist and ventral positions, with one .50 machine gun in the tail. The first nine aircraft were built with constant dihedral angle. Due to low stability, the wing was redesigned so that the dihedral was eliminated on the outboard section. (Number made: 24.)\n;B-25A\n:Version of the B-25 modified to make it combat ready; additions included self-sealing fuel tanks, crew armor, and an improved tail gunner station. No changes were made in the armament. Re-designated obsolete (''RB-25A'') in 1942. (Number made: 40.)\n;B-25B\n:Tail and gun position removed and replaced by manned dorsal turret on rear fuselage and retractable, remotely operated ventral turret, each with a pair of .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns. A total of 120 were built (this version was used in the Doolittle Raid). A total of 23 were supplied to the Royal Air Force as the '''Mitchell Mk I'''.\n;B-25C\n:Improved version of the B-25B: powerplants upgraded from Wright R-2600-9 radials to R-2600-13s; de-icing and anti-icing equipment added; the navigator received a sighting blister; nose armament was increased to two .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns, one fixed and one flexible. The B-25C model was the first mass-produced B-25 version; it was also used in the United Kingdom (as the Mitchell II), in Canada, China, the Netherlands and the Soviet Union. (Number made: 1,625.)\n;ZB-25C\n;B-25D\n:Through block 20 the series was near identical to the B-25C. The series designation differentiated that the B-25D was made in Kansas City, Kansas, whereas the B-25C was made in Inglewood, California. Later blocks with interim armament upgrades were the D2. First flew on 3 January 1942. (Number made: 2,290.)\n;F-10An F-10 reconnaissance aircraft\n:The F-10 designation distinguished 45 B-25D modified for photographic reconnaissance. All armament, armor and bombing equipment was stripped. Three K.17 cameras were installed, one pointing down and two more mounted at oblique angles within blisters on each side of the nose. Optionally, a second downward-pointing camera could also be installed in the aft fuselage. Although designed for combat operations these aircraft were mainly used for ground mapping.\n;B-25D Weather reconnaissance variant\n:In 1944, four B-25Ds were converted for weather reconnaissance. One later user was the 53d Weather Reconnaissance Squadron, originally called the Army Hurricane Reconnaissance Unit, now called the \"Hurricane Hunters\". Weather reconnaissance first started in 1943 with the 1st Weather Reconnaissance Squadron, with flights on the North Atlantic ferry routes.\n\n;ZB-25D\n;XB-25E\n:Single B-25C modified to test de-icing and anti-icing equipment that circulated exhaust from the engines in chambers in the leading and trailing edges and empennage. The aircraft was tested for almost two years, beginning in 1942; while the system proved extremely effective, no production models were built that used it prior to the end of World War II. Many surviving warbird-flown B-25 aircraft today use the de-icing system from the XB-25E. (Number made: 1, converted.)\n;ZXB-25E\n;XB-25F-A\n:Modified B-25C with insulated electrical coils mounted inside the wing and empennage leading edges to test the effectiveness as a de-icing system. The hot air de-icing system tested on the XB-25E was determined to be the more practical of the two. (Number made: 1, converted.)\n;XB-25G\n:Modified B-25C in which the transparent nose was replaced to create a short nosed gunship carrying two fixed .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns and a 75 mm (2.95 in) M4 cannon, then the largest weapon ever carried on an American bomber. (Number made: 1, converted.)\n;B-25G\n:The B-25G followed the success of the prototype XB-25G and production was a continuation of the NA96. The production model featured increased armor and a greater fuel supply than the XB-25G. One B-25G was passed to the British, who gave it the name '''Mitchell II''' that had been used for the B-25C. The USSR also tested the G. (Number made: 463; 5 converted Cs; 58 modified Cs; 400 production.)\n;B-25H\nB-25H ''Barbie III'' taxiing at Centennial Airport, Colorado\n:An improved version of the B-25G. This version relocated the manned dorsal turret to a more forward location on the fuselage just aft of the flight deck. It also featured two additional fixed .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns in the nose and in the H-5 onward, four in fuselage-mounted pods. the T13E1 light weight cannon replaced the heavy M4 cannon 75 mm (2.95 in). Single controls from factory with navigator in right seat. (Number made: 1000; two airworthy )\n;B-25J-NC\n: Follow-on production at Kansas city, the B-25J, could be called a cross between the B-25D and the B-25H. It had a transparent nose, but many of the delivered aircraft were modified to have a strafer nose (J2). Most of its 14–18 machine guns were forward-facing for strafing missions, including the two guns of the forward-located dorsal turret. The RAF received 316 aircraft, which were known as the '''Mitchell III'''. The J series was the last factory series production of the B-25. (Number made: 4,318.)\n;CB-25J\n:Utility transport version.\n;VB-25J\n:A number of B-25s were converted for use as staff and VIP transports. Henry H. Arnold and Dwight D. Eisenhower both used converted B-25Js as their personal transports. The last VB-25J in active service was retired in May 1960 at the Eglin Air Force Base in Florida.\n\n=== Trainer variants ===\nMost models of the B-25 were used at some point as training aircraft.\n;TB-25D\n:Originally designated '''AT-24A''' (Advanced Trainer, Model 24, Version A). Trainer modification of B-25D often with the dorsal turret omitted. In total, 60 AT-24s were built.\n;TB-25G\n:Originally designated '''AT-24B'''. Trainer modification of B-25G.\n;TB-25C\n:Originally designated '''AT-24C'''. Trainer modification of B-25C.\n;TB-25J\n:Originally designated '''AT-24D'''. Trainer modification of B-25J. Another 600 B-25Js were modified after the war.\n;TB-25K\n:Hughes E1 fire-control radar trainer (Hughes). (Number made: 117.)\n;TB-25L\n:Hayes pilot-trainer conversion. (Number made: 90.)\n;TB-25M\n:Hughes E5 fire-control radar trainer. (Number made: 40.)\n;TB-25N\n:Hayes navigator-trainer conversion. (Number made: 47.)\n\n=== U.S. Navy / U.S. Marine Corps variants ===\nA PBJ-1H of VMB-613.\nTwo PBJ-1Ds on Mindanao,1945.\n;PBJ-1C\n:Similar to the B-25C for the U.S. Navy; often fitted with airborne search radar and used in the anti-submarine role.\n;PBJ-1D\n:Similar to the B-25D for the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps. Differed in having a single .50 in (12.7 mm) machine gun in the tail turret and waist gun positions similar to the B-25H. Often fitted with airborne search radar and used in the anti-submarine role.\n;PBJ-1G\n:U.S. Navy/U.S. Marine Corps designation for the B-25G. Trials only.\n;PBJ-1H\n:U.S. Navy/U.S. Marine Corps designation for the B-25H\n:One PBJ-1H was modified with carrier takeoff and landing equipment and successfully tested on the USS ''Shangri-La'', but the Navy did not continue development.\n;PBJ-1J\n:U.S. Navy designation for the B-25J-NC (Blocks −1 through −35) with improvements in radio and other equipment. Beside the standard armament package, the Marines often fitted with 5\" underwing rockets and search radar for the anti-shipping/anti-submarine role. The large Tiny Tim rocket-powered warhead saw use in 1945.\n",
"No. 18 (NEI) Squadron RAAF on a training flight near Canberra in 1942\n\n;\n* Royal Australian Air Force operated 50 aircraft\n** No. 2 Squadron RAAF\n;\n* Biafran Air Force operated two aircraft.\n;\nBolivian North American B-25J Mitchell\n* Bolivian Air Force operated 13 aircraft\n;\n* Brazilian Air Force operated 75 aircraft including B-25B, B-25C, B-25J)\n;\n* Royal Canadian Air Force – operated 164 aircraft in bomber, light transport, trainer and \"special\" mission roles\n** 13 Squadron (Mitchell II)\n;\n* Republic of China Air Force operated more than 180 aircraft\n;\n* People's Liberation Army Air Force operated captured Nationalist Chinese aircraft.\n;\n* Chilean Air Force operated 12 aircraft\n;\n* Colombian Air Force operated three aircraft\n;\n* Cuban Army Air Force operated six aircraft\n* Fuerza Aérea del Ejército de Cuba\n* Cuerpo de Aviación del Ejército de Cuba\n;\n* Dominican Air Force operated five aircraft\n;\n* French Air Force operated 11 aircraft\n* Free French Air Force operated 18 aircraft\n;\n* Indonesian Air Force received some B-25 Mitchells from Netherlands, the last example retired in 1979.\n;\n* Mexican Air Force received three B-25Js in December 1945, which remained in use until at least 1950.\n* Eight Mexican civil registrations were allocated to B-25s, including one aircraft registered to the Bank of Mexico but used by the President of Mexico.\n;\n* Royal Netherlands Air Force operated 62 aircraft\n** No. 18 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF\n** No. 119 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF\n** No. 320 Squadron RAF\n* Dutch Naval Aviation Service operated 107 aircraft\n** No. 320 Squadron RAF\n* Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force – operated 149 aircraft, including many postwar\n;\n* Peruvian Air Force received 8 B-25Js in 1947, which formed Bomber Squadron N° 21 at Talara.\n;\n* Polish Air Forces on exile in Great Britain\n** No. 305 Polish Bomber Squadron\n;\n* Spanish Air Force operated 1 ex-USAAF example interned in 1944 and operated between 1948 and 1956.\n;\n* Soviet Air Force (''Voyenno-Vozdushnye Sily'' or VVS) received a total of 866 B-25s of the C, D, G* & J series. * trials only (5).\n\n;\n* Royal Air Force received just over 700 aircraft.\n** No. 98 Squadron RAF – September 1942 – November 1945 (converted to the Mosquito\n** No. 180 Squadron RAF – September 1942 – September 1945 (converted to the Mosquito)\n** No. 226 Squadron RAF – May 1943 – September 1945 (disbanded)\n** No. 305 Squadron RAF – September 1943 – December 1943 (converted to the Mosquito)\n** No. 320 Squadron RAF – March 1943 – August 1945 (transferred to Netherlands)\n** No. 342 Squadron RAF – March 1945 – December 1945 (transferred to France)\n** No. 681 Squadron RAF – January 1943 – December 1943 (Mitchell withdrawn)\n** No. 684 Squadron RAF – September 1943 – April 1944 (Replaced by Mosquito)\n** No. 111 Operational Training Unit RAF August 1942 – August 1945 (disbanded)\n* Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm\n** operated 1 aircraft for evaluation \n;\n* United States Army Air Forces\n: see B-25 Mitchell units of the United States Army Air Forces\n* United States Navy received 706 aircraft, most of which were then transferred to the USMC.\n* United States Marine Corps\n;\n* Uruguayan Air Force operated 15 examples\n;\n* Venezuelan Air Force operated 24 examples\n",
"Mitchell III, in RAF configuration with invasion stripes, of the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum during the Brantford Air Show at Brantford, Ontario, Canada\n\n\nMany B-25s are currently kept in airworthy condition by air museums and collectors.\n",
"\n",
";Empire State Building crash\n\nAt 9:40 on Saturday, 28 July 1945, a USAAF B-25D crashed in thick fog into the north side of the Empire State Building between the 79th and 80th floors. Fourteen people died — 11 in the building and the three occupants of the aircraft, including the pilot, Colonel William F. Smith. Betty Lou Oliver, an elevator attendant, survived the impact and the subsequent fall of the elevator cage 75 stories to the basement.\n",
"\n",
"\n\n",
"\n",
"\n=== Notes ===\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\n\n* Borth, Christy. ''Masters of Mass Production''. Indianapolis, Indiana: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1945.\n* Bridgman, Leonard, ed. \"The North American Mitchell.\" ''Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War II''. London: Studio, 1946. .\n* Caidin, Martin. ''Air Force.'' New York: Arno Press, 1957.\n* Chorlton, Martyn. \"Database: North American B-25 Mitchell\". ''Aeroplane'', Vol. 41, No. 5, May 2013. pp. 69–86.\n* Dorr, Robert F. \"North American B-25 Variant Briefing\". ''Wings of Fame'', Volume 3, 1996. London: Aerospace Publishing. . . pp. 118–141.\n* Green, William. ''Famous Bombers of the Second World War''. New York: Doubleday & Company, 1975. .\n* Hagedorn, Dan. \"Latin Mitchells: North American B-25s in South America, Part One\". ''Air Enthusiast'', No. 105, May/June 2003. pp. 52–55.\n* Hardesty, Von. ''Red Phoenix: The Rise of Soviet Air Power 1941–1945''. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1991, first edition 1982. .\n* Heller, Joseph. ''Catch 22''. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1961. .\n* Herman, Arthur. ''Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II,'' New York: Random House, 2012. .\n* Higham, Roy and Carol Williams, eds. ''Flying Combat Aircraft of USAAF-USAF (Vol. 1)''. Andrews AFB, Maryland: Air Force Historical Foundation, 1975. .\n* Higham, Roy and Carol Williams, eds. ''Flying Combat Aircraft of USAAF-USAF (Vol. 2)''. Andrews AFB, Maryland: Air Force Historical Foundation, 1978. .\n* Johnsen, Frederick A. ''North American B-25 Mitchell''. Stillwater, Minnesota: Voyageur Press, 1997. .\n* Kingwell, Mark. ''Nearest Thing to Heaven: The Empire State Building and American Dreams''. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2007. .\n* Kinzey, Bert. ''B-25 Mitchell In Detail''. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1999. .\n* Kit, Mister and Jean-Pierre De Cock. ''North American B-25 Mitchell'' (in French). Paris, France: Éditions Atlas, 1980.\n* McDowell, Ernest R. ''B-25 Mitchell in Action (Aircraft number 34)''. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1978. .\n* McDowell, Ernest R. ''North American B-25A/J Mitchell'' (Aircam No.22). Canterbury, Kent, UK: Osprey Publications Ltd., 1971. .\n* Mizrahi, J.V. ''North American B-25: The Full Story of World War II's Classic Medium''. Hollywood, California: Challenge Publications Inc., 1965.\n* Norton, Bill. ''American Bomber Aircraft Development in World War 2.'' Hersham, Surrey, UK: Midland Publishing, 2012. .\n* Pace, Steve. ''B-25 Mitchell Units in the MTO''. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2002. .\n* Pace, Steve. ''Warbird History: B-25 Mitchell''. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1994. .\n* Parker, Dana T. ''Building Victory: Aircraft Manufacturing in the Los Angeles Area in World War II''. Cypress, California: Dana Parker Enterprises, 2013. .\n* Powell, Albrecht. \"Mystery in the Mon\". 1994\n* Scutts, Jerry. ''B-25 Mitchell at War''. London: Ian Allan Ltd., 1983. .\n* Scutts, Jerry. ''North American B-25 Mitchell''. Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, UK: Crowood Press, 2001. .\n* Skaarup, Harold A. ''Canadian Warplanes''. Bloomington, Indiana: IUniverse, 2009. .\n* Swanborough, F.G. and Peter M. Bowers. ''United States Military Aircraft since 1909''. London: Putnam, 1963.\n* Swanborough, Gordon. ''North American, An Aircraft Album No. 6''. New York: Arco Publishing Company Inc., 1973. .\n* Tallman, Frank. ''Flying the Old Planes''. New York: Doubleday and Company, 1973. .\n* Wolf, William. ''North American B-25 Mitchell, The Ultimate Look: from Drawing Board to Flying Arsenal''. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2008. .\n* Yenne, Bill. ''Rockwell: The Heritage of North American''. New York: Crescent Books, 1989. .\n\n",
"\n* North American B-25 Mitchell Joe Baugher, ''American Military Aircraft: US Bomber Aircraft''\n* \n* I Fly Mitchell's, February 1944 ''Popular Science'' article on B-25s in North Africa Theater\n* Flying Big Gun, February 1944, ''Popular Science'' article on 75 mm cannon mount\n* Early B-25 model's tail gun position, extremely rare photo\n* A collection photos of the Marine VMB-613 post in the Kwajalein Island at the University of Houston Digital Library\n* Hi-res spherical panoramas; B-25H: A look inside & out – \"Barbie III\"\n* (1943) Report No. NA-5785 Temporary Handbook of Erection and Maintenance Instructions for the B-25 H-1-NA Medium Bombardment Airplanes\n* \"The B-25 Mitchell in the USSR\", an account of the service history of the Mitchell in the Soviet Union's VVS during World War II\n* Lake Murray's Mitchell\n* B-25 Recovery and Preservation Project Rubicon Foundation\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Design and development ",
" Operational history ",
" Variants ",
" Operators ",
" Surviving aircraft ",
" Specifications (B-25H) ",
" Accidents and incidents ",
" Notable appearances in media ",
" See also ",
" Notes ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | North American B-25 Mitchell | [
"B-25s that remained in Soviet Air Force service after the war were assigned the NATO reporting name \"'''Bank'''\".",
"* Eight Mexican civil registrations were allocated to B-25s, including one aircraft registered to the Bank of Mexico but used by the President of Mexico."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\nThe '''North American B-25 Mitchell''' is an American twin-engine, medium bomber manufactured by North American Aviation (NAA).",
"The design was named in honor of Major General William \"Billy\" Mitchell, a pioneer of U.S. military aviation.",
"Used by many Allied air forces, the B-25 served in every theater of World War II and after the war ended many remained in service, operating across four decades.",
"Produced in numerous variants, nearly 10,000 Mitchells rolled from NAA factories.",
"These included a few limited models, such as the United States Marine Corps' PBJ-1 patrol bomber and the United States Army Air Forces' F-10 reconnaissance aircraft and AT-24 trainers.",
"Nose-on view of the NA-40 prototype, showing the constant dihedral wing design discarded in early development of the successor B-25 design.",
"The Air Corps issued a circular (Number 38-385) in March 1938 describing the performance they required from the next bombers — a payload of with a range of at more than .",
"Those performance specifications led NAA to submit their NA-40 design.",
"The NA-40 had benefited from the North American XB-21 (NA-39) of 1936, which was the company's partly successful design for an earlier medium bomber that had been initially accepted and ordered, but then cancelled.",
"However, the company's experience from the XB-21 contributed to the design and development of the NA-40.",
"The single NA-40 built flew first at the end of January 1939.",
"It went through several modifications to correct problems.",
"These improvements included fitting Wright R-2600 \"Twin Cyclone\" radial engines, in March 1939, which solved the lack of power.",
"In March 1939, North American delivered the substantially redesigned and improved NA-40 (as NA-40B) to the United States Army Air Corps for evaluation.",
"It was in competition with other manufacturers' designs (Douglas 7B, Stearman X-100, and the Martin Model 167F) but failed to win orders.",
"The aircraft was originally intended to be an attack bomber for export to the United Kingdom and France, both of which had a pressing requirement for such aircraft in the early stages of World War II.",
"However, the French had already opted for a revised Douglas 7B (as the DB-7).",
"Unfortunately, the NA-40B was destroyed in a crash on 11 April 1939 while undergoing testing.",
"Although the crash was not considered due to a fault with the aircraft design, the Army ordered the DB-7 as the A-20.",
"The Air Corps issued a specification for a medium bomber in March 1939: over at NAA used the NA-40B design to develop the NA-62, which competed for the medium bomber contract.",
"There was no YB-25 for prototype service tests.",
"In September 1939, the Air Corps ordered the NA-62 into production as the B-25, along with the other new Air Corps medium bomber, the Martin B-26 Marauder \"off the drawing board\".",
"alt=Interior of huge aircraft factory where rows of bombers are being assembled\n\nEarly into B-25 production, NAA incorporated a significant redesign to the wing dihedral.",
"The first nine aircraft had a constant-dihedral, meaning the wing had a consistent, upward angle from the fuselage to the wingtip.",
"This design caused stability problems.",
"\"Flattening\" the outer wing panels by giving them a slight anhedral angle just outboard of the engine nacelles nullified the problem, and gave the B-25 its gull wing configuration.",
"Less noticeable changes during this period included an increase in the size of the tail fins and a decrease in their inward tilt at their tops.",
"NAA continued design and development in 1940 and 1941.",
"Both the B-25A and B-25B series entered USAAF service.",
"The B-25B was operational in 1942.",
"Combat requirements lead to further developments.",
"Before the year was over, NAA was producing the B-25C and B-25D series at different plants.",
"Also in 1942, the manufacturer began design work on the cannon-armed B-25G series.",
"The NA-100 of 1943 and 1944 was an interim armament development at the Kansas City complex known as the B-25D2.",
"Similar armament upgrades by U.S-based commercial modification centers involved about half of the B-25G series.",
"Further development led to the B-25H, B-25J, and B-25J2.",
"The gunship design concept dates to late 1942 and NAA sent a field technical representative to the SWPA.",
"The factory-produced B-25G entered production during the NA-96 order followed by the redesigned B-25H gunship.",
"The B-25J reverted to the bomber role, but it, too, could be outfitted as a strafer.",
"alt=Black and white photo of an early bomber parked perpendicular to camera, facing left, rearward of the wing is a star in front of horizontal stripes.",
"NAA manufactured the greatest number of aircraft in World War II, the first time a company had produced trainers, bombers, and fighters simultaneously (the AT-6/SNJ Texan, B-25 Mitchell, and the P-51 Mustang).",
"It produced B-25s at both its Inglewood main plant and an additional 6,608 aircraft at its Kansas City, Kansas plant at Fairfax Airport.",
"After the war, the USAF placed a contract for the TB-25L trainer in 1952.",
"This was a modification program by Hayes of Birmingham, Alabama.",
"Its primary role was reciprocal engine pilot training.",
"A development of the B-25 was the North American XB-28, designed as a high-altitude bomber.",
"Two prototypes were built with the second prototype, the XB-28A, evaluated as a photo-reconnaissance platform, but the aircraft did not enter production.",
"\nCrew and their B-25\nDoolittle Raid B-25Bs aboard USS ''Hornet''\n\n=== Asia-Pacific ===\nThe majority of B-25s in American service were used in the war against Japan in Asia and the Pacific.",
"The Mitchell fought from the Northern Pacific to the South Pacific and the Far East.",
"These areas included the campaigns in the Aleutian Islands, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, New Britain, China, Burma and the island hopping campaign in the Central Pacific.",
"The aircraft's potential as a ground-attack aircraft emerged during the Pacific war.",
"The jungle environment reduced the usefulness of medium-level bombing, and made low-level attack the best tactic.",
"Using similar mast height level tactics and skip bombing, the B-25 proved itself to be a capable anti-shipping weapon and sank many enemy sea vessels of various types.",
"An ever-increasing number of forward firing guns made the B-25 a formidable strafing aircraft for island warfare.",
"The strafer versions were the B-25C1/D1, the B-25J1 and with the NAA strafer nose, the J2 sub-series.",
"In Burma, the B-25 was often used to attack Japanese communication links, especially bridges in central Burma.",
"It also helped supply the besieged troops at Imphal in 1944.",
"The China Air Task Force, the Chinese American Composite Wing, the First Air Commando Group, the 341st Bomb Group, and eventually, the relocated 12th Bomb Group, all operated the B-25 in the China Burma India Theater (CBI).",
"Many of these missions involved battle field isolation, interdiction and close air support.",
"Later in the war, as the USAAF acquired bases in other parts of the Pacific, the Mitchell could strike targets in Indochina, Formosa and Kyushu, increasing the usefulness of the B-25.",
"It was also used in some of the shortest raids of the Pacific War, striking from Saipan against Guam and Tinian.",
"The 41st Bomb Group used it against Japanese-occupied islands that had been bypassed by the main campaign, such as happened in the Marshall Islands.",
"=== Middle East and Italy ===\nThe first B-25s arrived in Egypt and were carrying out independent operations by October 1942.",
"Operations there against Axis airfields and motorized vehicle columns supported the ground actions of the Second Battle of El Alamein.",
"Thereafter, the aircraft took part in the rest of the campaign in North Africa, the invasion of Sicily and the advance up Italy.",
"In the Strait of Messina to the Aegean Sea the B-25 conducted sea sweeps as part of the coastal air forces.",
"In Italy, the B-25 was used in the ground attack role, concentrating on attacks against road and rail links in Italy, Austria and the Balkans.",
"The B-25 had a longer range than the Douglas A-20 Havoc and Douglas A-26 Invaders, allowing it to reach further into occupied Europe.",
"The five bombardment groups – 20 squadrons – of the Ninth and Twelfth Air Forces that used the B-25 in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations were the only U.S. units to employ the B-25 in Europe.",
"=== Europe ===\nThe RAF received nearly 900 Mitchells, using them to replace Douglas Bostons, Lockheed Venturas and Vickers Wellington bombers.",
"The Mitchell entered active RAF service on 22 January 1943.",
"At first, it was used to bomb targets in occupied Europe.",
"After the Normandy invasion, the RAF and France used Mitchells in support of the Allies in Europe.",
"Several squadrons moved to forward airbases on the continent.",
"The USAAF did not use the B-25 in combat in the ETO.",
"=== USAAF ===\nA B-25 Mitchell taking off from USS ''Hornet'' for the Doolittle Raid\n\nThe B-25B first gained fame as the bomber used in the 18 April 1942 Doolittle Raid, in which 16 B-25Bs led by Lieutenant Colonel Jimmy Doolittle attacked mainland Japan, four months after the bombing of Pearl Harbor.",
"The mission gave a much-needed lift in spirits to the Americans, and alarmed the Japanese, who had believed their home islands to be inviolable by enemy forces.",
"Although the amount of actual damage done was relatively minor, it forced the Japanese to divert troops for home defense for the remainder of the war.",
"The raiders took off from the carrier and successfully bombed Tokyo and four other Japanese cities without loss.",
"Fifteen of the bombers subsequently crash-landed en route to recovery fields in eastern China.",
"These losses were the result of the task force being spotted by a Japanese vessel, forcing the bombers to take off early, fuel exhaustion, stormy nighttime conditions with zero visibility, and lack of electronic homing aids at the recovery bases.",
"Only one B-25 bomber landed intact, in Siberia where its five-man crew was interned and the aircraft confiscated.",
"Of the 80 aircrew, 69 survived their historic mission and eventually made it back to American lines.",
"Following a number of additional modifications, including the addition of Plexiglas dome for navigational sightings to replace the overhead window for the navigator and heavier nose armament, de-icing and anti-icing equipment, the B-25C entered USAAF operations.",
"Through block 20 the B-25C and B-25D differed only in location of manufacture: C series at Inglewood, California; D series at Kansas City, Kansas.",
"After block 20 some NA-96 began the transition to the G series while some NA-87 acquired interim modifications eventually produced as the B-25D2 and ordered as the NA-100.",
"NAA built a total of 3,915 B-25Cs and Ds during World War II.",
"Although the B-25 was originally designed to bomb from medium altitudes in level flight, it was used frequently in the Southwest Pacific theatre in treetop-level strafing and missions with parachute-retarded fragmentation bombs against Japanese airfields in New Guinea and the Philippines.",
"These heavily armed Mitchells were field-modified at Townsville, Australia, under the direction of Major Paul I.",
"\"Pappy\" Gunn and North American tech rep Jack Fox, These \"commerce destroyers\" were also used on strafing and skip bombing missions against Japanese shipping trying to resupply their armies.",
"Under the leadership of Lieutenant General George C. Kenney, Mitchells of the Far East Air Forces and its existing components, the Fifth and Thirteenth Air Forces devastated Japanese targets in the Southwest Pacific Theater during 1944 to 1945.",
"The USAAF played a significant role in pushing the Japanese back to their home islands.",
"The type operated with great effect in the Central Pacific, Alaska, North Africa, Mediterranean and China-Burma-India (CBI) theaters.",
"The USAAF Antisubmarine Command made great use of the B-25 in 1942 and 1943.",
"Some of the earliest B-25 Bomb Groups also flew the Mitchell on coastal patrols after the Pearl Harbor attack, prior to the AAFAC organization.",
"Many of the two dozen or so Antisubmarine Squadrons flew the B-25C, D and G series in the American Theater Antisubmarine campaign, often in the distinctive, white sea search camouflage.",
"==== Combat developments ====\n\n===== Use as a gunship =====\n\n\nA view of a B-25G shows the mid-ship location of dorsal turret continued.",
"In anti-shipping operations, the USAAF had urgent need for hard-hitting aircraft, and North American responded with the B-25G.",
"In this series the transparent nose and bombardier/navigator position was changed for a shorter, hatched nose with two fixed .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns and a 75 mm (2.95 in) M4 cannon, one of the largest weapons fitted to an aircraft, similar to the British 57 mm gun-armed Mosquito Mk.",
"XVIII and the German Henschel Hs 129B-3, and Ju 88P heavy cannon (up to a 75 mm long-barrel ''Bordkanone BK 7,5'').",
"The shorter nose placed the cannon breech behind the pilot where it could be manually loaded and serviced by the navigator; his crew station was moved to just behind the pilot.",
"The navigator signalled the pilot when the gun was ready and the pilot fired the weapon using a button on his control wheel.",
"The Royal Air Force, U.S. Navy and the Soviet VVS each conducted trials with this series but none adopted it.",
"The G series comprised one prototype, five pre-production C conversions, 58 C series modifications and 400 production aircraft for a total of 464 B-25G.",
"In its final version, the G-12, an interim armament modification, eliminated the lower Bendix turret and added a starboard dual gun pack, waist guns and a canopy for the tail gunner to improve the view when firing the single tail gun.",
"In April 1945 the air depots in Hawaii refurbished about two dozen of these and included the eight gun nose and rocket launchers in the upgrade.",
"The B-25H series continued the development of the gunship concept.",
"NAA Inglewood produced 1000.",
"The H had even more firepower.",
"Most replaced the M4 gun with the lighter T13E1, designed specifically for the aircraft but 20-odd H-1 block aircraft completed by the Republic Aviation modification center at Evansville had the M4 and two machine gun nose armament.",
"The 75 mm (2.95 in) gun fired at a muzzle velocity of .",
"Due to its low rate of fire (about four rounds could be fired in a single strafing run), relative ineffectiveness against ground targets, and the substantial recoil, the 75 mm gun was sometimes removed from both G and H models and replaced with two additional .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns as a field modification.",
"In the new FEAF these were re-designated the G1 and H1 series respectively.",
"A restored B-25H \"Barbie III\" showing 75 mm M5 gun and four 0.50 Browning with belt feeds\n\nThe H series normally came from the factory mounting four fixed, forward-firing .50 (12.7 mm) machine guns in the nose; four more fixed guns in forward-firing, individual gun packages; two more in the manned dorsal turret, re-located forward to a position just behind the cockpit; one each in a pair of new waist positions, introduced simultaneously with the forward-relocated dorsal turret; and lastly, a pair of guns in a new tail gunner's position.",
"Company promotional material bragged that the B-25H could \"bring to bear 10 machine guns coming and four going, in addition to the 75 mm cannon, eight rockets and 3,000 lb (1,360 kg) of bombs.\"",
"The H had a modified cockpit with single flight controls operated by pilot.",
"The co-pilot's station and controls were deleted, and instead had a smaller seat used by the navigator/cannoneer, The radio operator crew position was aft the bomb bay with access to the waist guns.",
"Factory production total were 405 B-25Gs and 1,000 B-25Hs, with 248 of the latter being used by the Navy as PBJ-1H.",
"Elimination of the co-pilot saved weight, moving the dorsal turret forward counterbalanced in part the waist guns and the manned rear turret.",
"===== Return to medium bomber =====\nFollowing the two gunship series NAA again produced the medium bomber configuration with the B-25J series..",
"It optimized the mix of the interim NA-100 and the H series having both the bombardier's station and fixed guns of the D and the forward turret and refined armament of the H series.",
"NAA also produced a strafer nose first shipped to air depots as kits, then introduced on the production line in alternating blocks with the bombardier nose.",
"The solid-metal \"strafer\" nose housed eight centerline Browning M2 .50 calibre machine guns.",
"The remainder of the armament was as in the H-5.",
"NAA also supplied kits to mount eight underwing 5 \"high velocity airborne rockets\" (HVAR) just outside the propeller arcs.",
"These were mounted on zero length launch rails, four to a wing.",
"The restored B-25J Mitchell ''Take-Off Time'' at the Mid-Atlantic Air Museum for World War II Weekend 2015 in Reading, Pennsylvania\nThe final, and the most built, series of the Mitchell, the '''B-25J''', looked less like earlier series apart from the well-glazed bombardier's nose of nearly-identical appearance to the earliest B-25 subtypes.",
"Instead, the J followed the overall configuration of the H series from the cockpit aft.",
"It had the forward dorsal turret and other armament and airframe advancements.",
"All J models included four .50 in (12.7 mm) light-barrel Browning AN/M2 guns in a pair of \"fuselage package\", conformal gun pods each flanking the lower cockpit, each pod containing two Browning M2s.",
"By 1945, however, combat squadrons removed these.",
"The J series restored the co-pilot's seat and dual flight controls.",
"The factory made available kits to the Air Depot system to create the strafer-nose B-25J-2.",
"This configuration carried a total of 18 .50 in (12.7 mm) light-barrel AN/M2 Browning M2 machine guns: eight in the nose, four in the flank-mount conformal gun pod packages, two in the dorsal turret, one each in the pair of waist positions, and a pair in the tail – with 14 of the guns either aimed directly forward, or aimed to fire directly forward for strafing missions.",
"Some aircraft had eight 5 in (130 mm) high-velocity aircraft rockets (HVAR).",
"NAA introduced the J-2 into production in alternating blocks at the J-22.",
"Total J series production was 4,318.",
"==== Flight characteristics ====\nThe B-25 was a safe and forgiving aircraft to fly.",
"With one engine out, 60° banking turns into the dead engine were possible, and control could be easily maintained down to 145 mph (230 km/h).",
"The pilot had to remember to maintain engine-out directional control at low speeds after takeoff with rudder; if this maneuver was attempted with ailerons, the aircraft could snap out of control.",
"The tricycle landing gear made for excellent visibility while taxiing.",
"The only significant complaint about the B-25 was the extremely high noise level produced by its engines; as a result, many pilots eventually suffered from varying degrees of hearing loss.",
"The high noise level was due to design and space restrictions in the engine cowlings which resulted in the exhaust \"stacks\" protruding directly from the cowling ring and partly covered by a small triangular fairing.",
"This arrangement directed exhaust and noise directly at the pilot and crew compartments.",
"==== Durability ====\nB-25 engine cowling assembly\n\nThe Mitchell was an exceptionally sturdy aircraft that could withstand tremendous punishment.",
"One B-25C of the 321st Bomb Group was nicknamed \"Patches\" because its crew chief painted all the aircraft's flak hole patches with the bright yellow zinc chromate primer.",
"By the end of the war, this aircraft had completed over 300 missions, had been belly-landed six times and had over 400 patched holes.",
"The airframe of \"Patches\" was so distorted from battle damage that straight-and-level flight required 8° of left aileron trim and 6° of right rudder, causing the aircraft to \"crab\" sideways across the sky.",
"=== Post war (USAF) use ===\nIn 1947 legislation created an independent United States Air Force and by that time the B-25 inventory numbered only a few hundred.",
"Some B-25s continued in service into the 1950s in a variety of training, reconnaissance and support roles.",
"The principal use during this period was undergraduate training of multi-engine aircraft pilots slated for reciprocating engine or turboprop cargo, aerial refuelling or reconnaissance aircraft.",
"Others were assigned to units of the Air National Guard in training roles in support of Northrop F-89 Scorpion and Lockheed F-94 Starfire operations.",
"In its USAF tenure, many B-25s received the so-called \"Hayes modification\" and as a result, surviving B-25 often have exhaust system with a semi-collector ring that splits emissions into two different systems.",
"The upper seven cylinders are collected by a ring while the other cylinders remain directed to individual ports.",
"TB-25J-25-NC Mitchell, ''44-30854'', the last B-25 in the USAF inventory, assigned at March AFB, California as of March 1960, was flown to Eglin AFB, Florida, from Turner Air Force Base, Georgia, on 21 May 1960, the last flight by a USAF B-25, and presented by Brigadier General A. J. Russell, Commander of SAC's 822d Air Division at Turner AFB, to the Air Proving Ground Center Commander, Brigadier General Robert H. Warren, who in turn presented the bomber to Valparaiso, Florida Mayor Randall Roberts on behalf of the Niceville-Valparaiso Chamber of Commerce.",
"Four of the original Tokyo Raiders were present for the ceremony, Colonel (later Major General) David Jones, Colonel Jack Simms, Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Manske, and retired Master Sergeant Edwin W. Horton.",
"It was donated back to the Air Force Armament Museum c. 1974 and marked as Doolittle's ''40-2344''.",
"=== U.S. Navy and USMC ===\n\nThe U.S. Navy designation for the Mitchell was the PBJ-1 and apart from increased use of radar, it was configured like its Army Air Forces counterparts.",
"Under the pre-1962 USN/USMC/USCG aircraft designation system, PBJ-1 stood for Patrol (P) Bomber (B) built by North American Aviation (J), first variant (-1) under the existing American naval aircraft designation system of the era.",
"The PBJ had its origin in an inter-service agreement of mid-1942 between the Navy and the USAAF exchanging the Boeing Renton plant for the Kansas plant for B-29 Superfortress production.",
"The Boeing XPBB Sea Ranger flying boat, competing for B-29 engines, was cancelled in exchange for part of the Kansas City Mitchell production.",
"Other terms included the inter-service transfer of 50 B-25C and 152 B-25D to the Navy.",
"The bombers carried Navy bureau numbers (BuNos), beginning with BuNo 34998.",
"The first PBJ-1 arrived in February 1943 and nearly all reached Marine Corps squadrons, beginning with Marine Bombing Squadron 413 (VMB-413).",
"Following the AAFAC format, the Marine Mitchells had search radar in a retractable radome replacing the remotely-operated ventral turret.",
"Later D and J series had nose mounted APS-3 radar; and later still, J and H series mounted radar in the starboard wingtip.",
"The large quantities of B-25H and J series became known as PBJ-1H and PBJ-1J respectively.",
"These aircraft often operated along with earlier PBJ series in Marine squadrons.",
"The PBJs were operated almost exclusively by the Marine Corps as land-based bombers.",
"To operate them, the U.S. Marine Corps established a number of Marine bomber squadrons (VMB), beginning with VMB-413, in March 1943 at MCAS Cherry Point, North Carolina.",
"Eight VMB squadrons were flying PBJs by the end of 1943, forming the initial Marine medium bombardment group.",
"Four more squadrons were in the process of formation in late 1945, but had not yet deployed by the time the war ended.",
"Operational use of the Marine Corps PBJ-1s began in March 1944.",
"The Marine PBJs operated from the Philippines, Saipan, Iwo Jima and Okinawa during the last few months of the Pacific war.",
"Their primary mission was the long range interdiction of enemy shipping trying to run the blockade which was strangling Japan.",
"The weapon of choice during these missions was usually the five-inch HVAR rocket, eight of which could be carried.",
"Some VMB-612 intruder PBJ-1D and J series flew without top turrets to save weight and increase range on night patrols, especially towards the end of the war when air superiority existed.",
"During the war the Navy tested the cannon-armed G series and conducted carrier trial with an H equipped with arresting gear.",
"After World War II, some PBJs stationed at the Navy's then-rocket laboratory site in Inyokern, California, site of the present-day Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake, tested various air-to-ground rockets and arrangements.",
"One arrangement was a twin-barrel nose arrangement that could fire 10 spin-stabilized five-inch rockets in one salvo.",
"=== Royal Air Force ===\nThe Royal Air Force (RAF) was an early customer for the B-25 via Lend-Lease.",
"The first Mitchells were given the service name Mitchell I by the RAF and were delivered in August 1941, to No.",
"111 Operational Training Unit based in the Bahamas.",
"These bombers were used exclusively for training and familiarization and never achieved operational status.",
"The B-25Cs and Ds were designated Mitchell II.",
"Altogether, 167 B-25Cs and 371 B-25Ds were delivered to the RAF.",
"The RAF tested the cannon-armed G series but did not adopt the series nor the follow on H series.",
"By the end of 1942 the RAF had taken delivery of a total of 93 Mitchell marks I and II.",
"Some served with squadrons of No.",
"2 Group RAF, the RAF's tactical medium bomber force.",
"The first RAF operation with the Mitchell II took place on 22 January 1943, when six aircraft from No.",
"180 Squadron RAF attacked oil installations at Ghent.",
"After the invasion of Europe (by which point 2 Group was part of Second Tactical Air Force), all four Mitchell squadrons moved to bases in France and Belgium (Melsbroek) to support Allied ground forces.",
"The British Mitchell squadrons were joined by No.",
"342 (Lorraine) Squadron of the French Air Force in April 1945.",
"As part of its move from Bomber Command, No 305 (Polish) Squadron flew Mitchell IIs from September to December 1943 before converting to the de Havilland Mosquito.",
"In addition to No.",
"2 Group, the B-25 was used by various second-line RAF units in the UK and abroad.",
"In the Far East, No.",
"3 PRU, which consisted of Nos.",
"681 and 684 Squadrons, flew the Mitchell (primarily Mk IIs) on photographic reconnaissance sorties.",
"The RAF was allocated 316 B-25J which entered service as the Mitchell III.",
"Deliveries took place between August 1944 and August 1945.",
"However, only about 240 of these bombers actually reached Britain, with some being diverted to No.",
"111 OTU in the Bahamas, some crashing during delivery and some being retained in the United States.",
"=== Royal Canadian Air Force ===\nThe Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) used the B-25 Mitchell for training during the war.",
"Post-war use saw continued operations with most of 162 Mitchells received.",
"The first B-25s had originally been diverted to Canada from RAF orders.",
"These included one Mitchell I, 42 Mitchell IIs, and 19 Mitchell IIIs.",
"No 13 (P) Squadron was formed unofficially at RCAF Rockcliffe in May 1944 and used Mitchell IIs on high-altitude aerial photography sorties.",
"No.",
"5 OTU (Operational Training Unit) at Boundary Bay, British Columbia and Abbotsford, British Columbia, operated the B-25D Mitchell in the training role together with B-24 Liberators for Heavy Conversion as part of the BCATP.",
"The RCAF retained the Mitchell until October 1963.",
"No 418 (Auxiliary) Squadron received its first Mitchell IIs in January 1947.",
"It was followed by No 406 (auxiliary), which flew Mitchell IIs and IIIs from April 1947 to June 1958.",
"No 418 Operated a mix of IIs and IIIs until March 1958.",
"No 12 Squadron of Air Transport Command also flew Mitchell IIIs along with other types from September 1956 to November 1960.",
"In 1951, the RCAF received an additional 75 B-25Js from USAF stocks to make up for attrition and to equip various second-line units.",
"=== Royal Australian Air Force ===\nThe Australians received Mitchells by the spring of 1944.",
"The joint Australian-Dutch No.",
"18 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF had more than enough Mitchells for one squadron, so the surplus went to re-equip the RAAF's No.",
"2 Squadron, replacing their Beauforts.",
"=== Dutch Air Force ===\nB-25 Mitchells assigned to No.",
"18 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF in 1943\nDuring World War II, the Mitchell served in fairly large numbers with the Air Force of the Dutch government-in-exile.",
"They participated in combat in the East Indies as well as on the European front.",
"On 30 June 1941, the Netherlands Purchasing Commission, acting on behalf of the Dutch government-in-exile in London, signed a contract with North American Aviation for 162 B-25C aircraft.",
"The bombers were to be delivered to the Netherlands East Indies to help deter any Japanese aggression into the region.",
"In February 1942, the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) agreed to ferry 20 Dutch B-25s from Florida to Australia travelling via Africa and India, and an additional ten via the South Pacific route from California.",
"During March, five of the bombers on the Dutch order had reached Bangalore, India and 12 had reached Archerfield in Australia.",
"It was agreed that the B-25s in Australia would be used as the nucleus of a new squadron, designated No.",
"18.",
"This squadron was staffed jointly by Australian and Dutch aircrews plus a smattering of aircrews from other nations, and operated under Royal Australian Air Force command for the remainder of the war.",
"The B-25s of No.",
"18 Squadron were painted with the Dutch national insignia (at this time a rectangular Netherlands flag) and carried NEIAF serials.",
"Discounting the ten \"temporary\" B-25s delivered to 18 Squadron in early 1942, a total of 150 Mitchells were taken on strength by the NEIAF, 19 in 1942, 16 in 1943, 87 in 1944, and 28 in 1945.",
"They flew bombing raids against Japanese targets in the East Indies.",
"In 1944, the more capable B-25J Mitchell replaced most of the earlier C and D models.",
"In June 1940, No.",
"320 Squadron RAF had been formed from personnel formerly serving with the Royal Dutch Naval Air Service who had escaped to England after the German occupation of the Netherlands.",
"Equipped with various British aircraft, No.",
"320 Squadron flew anti-submarine patrols, convoy escort missions, and performed air-sea rescue duties.",
"They acquired the Mitchell II in September 1943, performing operations over Europe against gun emplacements, railway yards, bridges, troops and other tactical targets.",
"They moved to Belgium in October 1944, and transitioned to the Mitchell III in 1945.",
"No.",
"320 Squadron was disbanded in August 1945.",
"Following the war, B-25s were used by Dutch forces during the Indonesian National Revolution.",
"=== Soviet Air Force ===\nThe U.S. supplied 862 B-25s (B, D, G, and J types) to the Soviet Union under Lend-Lease during World War II via the Alaska–Siberia ALSIB ferry route.",
"Other damaged aircraft arrived or crashed in the Far East of Russia, and one Doolittle Raid aircraft landed there short of fuel after attacking Japan.",
"The lone airworthy aircraft to reach the Soviet Union was lost in a hangar fire in the early 50s while undergoing routine maintenance.",
"In general, the B-25 was operated as a ground-support and tactical daylight bomber (as similar Douglas A-20 Havocs were used).",
"It saw action in fights from Stalingrad (with B/D models) to the German surrender during May 1945 (with G/J types).",
"=== China ===\nWell over 100 B-25Cs and Ds were supplied to the Nationalist Chinese during the Second Sino-Japanese War.",
"In addition, a total of 131 B-25Js were supplied to China under Lend-Lease.",
"The four squadrons of the 1st BG (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th) of the 1st Medium Bomber Group were formed during the war.",
"They formerly operated Russian-built Tupolev SB bombers, then transferred to the B-25.",
"The 1st BG was under the command of CACW (Chinese-American Composite Wing) while operating B-25s.",
"Following the end of the war in the Pacific, these four bombardment squadrons were established to fight against the Communist insurgency that was rapidly spreading throughout the country.",
"During the Chinese Civil War, Chinese Mitchells fought alongside de Havilland Mosquitos.",
"In December 1948, the Nationalists were forced to retreat to the island of Taiwan, taking many of their Mitchells with them.",
"However, some B-25s were left behind and were pressed into service with the air force of the new People's Republic of China.",
"=== Brazilian Air Force ===\nB-25J Mitchell ''44-30069'' at ''Museu Aerospacial'' in ''Campos dos Afonsos Air Force Base'', Rio de Janeiro\n\nDuring the war, the Força Aérea Brasileira (FAB) received a few B-25s under Lend-Lease.",
"Brazil declared war against the Axis powers in August 1942 and participated in the war against the U-boats in the southern Atlantic.",
"The last Brazilian B-25 was finally declared surplus in 1970.",
"=== Free French ===\nThe Royal Air Force issued at least 21 Mitchell IIIs to No 342 Squadron, which was made up primarily of Free French aircrews.",
"Following the liberation of France, this squadron transferred to the newly formed French Air Force (''Armée de l'Air'') as GB I/20 Lorraine.",
"The aircraft continued in operation after the war, with some being converted into fast VIP transports.",
"They were struck off charge in June 1947.",
"B-25C Mitchell\nUSAAF B-25C/D.",
"Note the early radar with transverse-dipole Yagi antenna fitted to the nose\nB-25J\n\n;NA-40\n:Twin-engined five-seat bomber to meet 1938 USAAF requirement for attack bomber.",
"Powered by two Pratt & Whitney R-1830-56C3G radials.",
"Wingspan 66 ft (20.12 m), length 48 ft 3 in (14.71 m) length.",
"First flew on 29 January 1939 but proved to be underpowered and unstable.",
";NA-40B\n: The NA-40B (also known as the NA-40-2) was a modification of the NA-40 prototype with two Wright R-2600-A71-3 radials and numerous minor changes.",
"First flew in revised form on 1 March 1939.",
"Crashed: 11 April 1940.\n;B-25\n:Initial production version of B-25, powered by R-2600-9 engines.",
"Up to 3,600 lb (1,600 kg) bombs and defensive armament of three .30 machine guns in nose, waist and ventral positions, with one .50 machine gun in the tail.",
"The first nine aircraft were built with constant dihedral angle.",
"Due to low stability, the wing was redesigned so that the dihedral was eliminated on the outboard section.",
"(Number made: 24.)",
";B-25A\n:Version of the B-25 modified to make it combat ready; additions included self-sealing fuel tanks, crew armor, and an improved tail gunner station.",
"No changes were made in the armament.",
"Re-designated obsolete (''RB-25A'') in 1942.",
"(Number made: 40.)",
";B-25B\n:Tail and gun position removed and replaced by manned dorsal turret on rear fuselage and retractable, remotely operated ventral turret, each with a pair of .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns.",
"A total of 120 were built (this version was used in the Doolittle Raid).",
"A total of 23 were supplied to the Royal Air Force as the '''Mitchell Mk I'''.",
";B-25C\n:Improved version of the B-25B: powerplants upgraded from Wright R-2600-9 radials to R-2600-13s; de-icing and anti-icing equipment added; the navigator received a sighting blister; nose armament was increased to two .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns, one fixed and one flexible.",
"The B-25C model was the first mass-produced B-25 version; it was also used in the United Kingdom (as the Mitchell II), in Canada, China, the Netherlands and the Soviet Union.",
"(Number made: 1,625.)",
";ZB-25C\n;B-25D\n:Through block 20 the series was near identical to the B-25C.",
"The series designation differentiated that the B-25D was made in Kansas City, Kansas, whereas the B-25C was made in Inglewood, California.",
"Later blocks with interim armament upgrades were the D2.",
"First flew on 3 January 1942.",
"(Number made: 2,290.)",
";F-10An F-10 reconnaissance aircraft\n:The F-10 designation distinguished 45 B-25D modified for photographic reconnaissance.",
"All armament, armor and bombing equipment was stripped.",
"Three K.17 cameras were installed, one pointing down and two more mounted at oblique angles within blisters on each side of the nose.",
"Optionally, a second downward-pointing camera could also be installed in the aft fuselage.",
"Although designed for combat operations these aircraft were mainly used for ground mapping.",
";B-25D Weather reconnaissance variant\n:In 1944, four B-25Ds were converted for weather reconnaissance.",
"One later user was the 53d Weather Reconnaissance Squadron, originally called the Army Hurricane Reconnaissance Unit, now called the \"Hurricane Hunters\".",
"Weather reconnaissance first started in 1943 with the 1st Weather Reconnaissance Squadron, with flights on the North Atlantic ferry routes.",
";ZB-25D\n;XB-25E\n:Single B-25C modified to test de-icing and anti-icing equipment that circulated exhaust from the engines in chambers in the leading and trailing edges and empennage.",
"The aircraft was tested for almost two years, beginning in 1942; while the system proved extremely effective, no production models were built that used it prior to the end of World War II.",
"Many surviving warbird-flown B-25 aircraft today use the de-icing system from the XB-25E.",
"(Number made: 1, converted.)",
";ZXB-25E\n;XB-25F-A\n:Modified B-25C with insulated electrical coils mounted inside the wing and empennage leading edges to test the effectiveness as a de-icing system.",
"The hot air de-icing system tested on the XB-25E was determined to be the more practical of the two.",
"(Number made: 1, converted.)",
";XB-25G\n:Modified B-25C in which the transparent nose was replaced to create a short nosed gunship carrying two fixed .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns and a 75 mm (2.95 in) M4 cannon, then the largest weapon ever carried on an American bomber.",
"(Number made: 1, converted.)",
";B-25G\n:The B-25G followed the success of the prototype XB-25G and production was a continuation of the NA96.",
"The production model featured increased armor and a greater fuel supply than the XB-25G.",
"One B-25G was passed to the British, who gave it the name '''Mitchell II''' that had been used for the B-25C.",
"The USSR also tested the G. (Number made: 463; 5 converted Cs; 58 modified Cs; 400 production.)",
";B-25H\nB-25H ''Barbie III'' taxiing at Centennial Airport, Colorado\n:An improved version of the B-25G.",
"This version relocated the manned dorsal turret to a more forward location on the fuselage just aft of the flight deck.",
"It also featured two additional fixed .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns in the nose and in the H-5 onward, four in fuselage-mounted pods.",
"the T13E1 light weight cannon replaced the heavy M4 cannon 75 mm (2.95 in).",
"Single controls from factory with navigator in right seat.",
"(Number made: 1000; two airworthy )\n;B-25J-NC\n: Follow-on production at Kansas city, the B-25J, could be called a cross between the B-25D and the B-25H.",
"It had a transparent nose, but many of the delivered aircraft were modified to have a strafer nose (J2).",
"Most of its 14–18 machine guns were forward-facing for strafing missions, including the two guns of the forward-located dorsal turret.",
"The RAF received 316 aircraft, which were known as the '''Mitchell III'''.",
"The J series was the last factory series production of the B-25.",
"(Number made: 4,318.)",
";CB-25J\n:Utility transport version.",
";VB-25J\n:A number of B-25s were converted for use as staff and VIP transports.",
"Henry H. Arnold and Dwight D. Eisenhower both used converted B-25Js as their personal transports.",
"The last VB-25J in active service was retired in May 1960 at the Eglin Air Force Base in Florida.",
"=== Trainer variants ===\nMost models of the B-25 were used at some point as training aircraft.",
";TB-25D\n:Originally designated '''AT-24A''' (Advanced Trainer, Model 24, Version A).",
"Trainer modification of B-25D often with the dorsal turret omitted.",
"In total, 60 AT-24s were built.",
";TB-25G\n:Originally designated '''AT-24B'''.",
"Trainer modification of B-25G.",
";TB-25C\n:Originally designated '''AT-24C'''.",
"Trainer modification of B-25C.",
";TB-25J\n:Originally designated '''AT-24D'''.",
"Trainer modification of B-25J.",
"Another 600 B-25Js were modified after the war.",
";TB-25K\n:Hughes E1 fire-control radar trainer (Hughes).",
"(Number made: 117.)",
";TB-25L\n:Hayes pilot-trainer conversion.",
"(Number made: 90.)",
";TB-25M\n:Hughes E5 fire-control radar trainer.",
"(Number made: 40.)",
";TB-25N\n:Hayes navigator-trainer conversion.",
"(Number made: 47.)",
"=== U.S. Navy / U.S. Marine Corps variants ===\nA PBJ-1H of VMB-613.",
"Two PBJ-1Ds on Mindanao,1945.",
";PBJ-1C\n:Similar to the B-25C for the U.S. Navy; often fitted with airborne search radar and used in the anti-submarine role.",
";PBJ-1D\n:Similar to the B-25D for the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps.",
"Differed in having a single .50 in (12.7 mm) machine gun in the tail turret and waist gun positions similar to the B-25H.",
"Often fitted with airborne search radar and used in the anti-submarine role.",
";PBJ-1G\n:U.S. Navy/U.S.",
"Marine Corps designation for the B-25G.",
"Trials only.",
";PBJ-1H\n:U.S. Navy/U.S.",
"Marine Corps designation for the B-25H\n:One PBJ-1H was modified with carrier takeoff and landing equipment and successfully tested on the USS ''Shangri-La'', but the Navy did not continue development.",
";PBJ-1J\n:U.S. Navy designation for the B-25J-NC (Blocks −1 through −35) with improvements in radio and other equipment.",
"Beside the standard armament package, the Marines often fitted with 5\" underwing rockets and search radar for the anti-shipping/anti-submarine role.",
"The large Tiny Tim rocket-powered warhead saw use in 1945.",
"No.",
"18 (NEI) Squadron RAAF on a training flight near Canberra in 1942\n\n;\n* Royal Australian Air Force operated 50 aircraft\n** No.",
"2 Squadron RAAF\n;\n* Biafran Air Force operated two aircraft.",
";\nBolivian North American B-25J Mitchell\n* Bolivian Air Force operated 13 aircraft\n;\n* Brazilian Air Force operated 75 aircraft including B-25B, B-25C, B-25J)\n;\n* Royal Canadian Air Force – operated 164 aircraft in bomber, light transport, trainer and \"special\" mission roles\n** 13 Squadron (Mitchell II)\n;\n* Republic of China Air Force operated more than 180 aircraft\n;\n* People's Liberation Army Air Force operated captured Nationalist Chinese aircraft.",
";\n* Chilean Air Force operated 12 aircraft\n;\n* Colombian Air Force operated three aircraft\n;\n* Cuban Army Air Force operated six aircraft\n* Fuerza Aérea del Ejército de Cuba\n* Cuerpo de Aviación del Ejército de Cuba\n;\n* Dominican Air Force operated five aircraft\n;\n* French Air Force operated 11 aircraft\n* Free French Air Force operated 18 aircraft\n;\n* Indonesian Air Force received some B-25 Mitchells from Netherlands, the last example retired in 1979.\n;\n* Mexican Air Force received three B-25Js in December 1945, which remained in use until at least 1950.",
";\n* Royal Netherlands Air Force operated 62 aircraft\n** No.",
"18 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF\n** No.",
"119 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF\n** No.",
"320 Squadron RAF\n* Dutch Naval Aviation Service operated 107 aircraft\n** No.",
"320 Squadron RAF\n* Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force – operated 149 aircraft, including many postwar\n;\n* Peruvian Air Force received 8 B-25Js in 1947, which formed Bomber Squadron N° 21 at Talara.",
";\n* Polish Air Forces on exile in Great Britain\n** No.",
"305 Polish Bomber Squadron\n;\n* Spanish Air Force operated 1 ex-USAAF example interned in 1944 and operated between 1948 and 1956.\n;\n* Soviet Air Force (''Voyenno-Vozdushnye Sily'' or VVS) received a total of 866 B-25s of the C, D, G* & J series.",
"* trials only (5).",
";\n* Royal Air Force received just over 700 aircraft.",
"** No.",
"98 Squadron RAF – September 1942 – November 1945 (converted to the Mosquito\n** No.",
"180 Squadron RAF – September 1942 – September 1945 (converted to the Mosquito)\n** No.",
"226 Squadron RAF – May 1943 – September 1945 (disbanded)\n** No.",
"305 Squadron RAF – September 1943 – December 1943 (converted to the Mosquito)\n** No.",
"320 Squadron RAF – March 1943 – August 1945 (transferred to Netherlands)\n** No.",
"342 Squadron RAF – March 1945 – December 1945 (transferred to France)\n** No.",
"681 Squadron RAF – January 1943 – December 1943 (Mitchell withdrawn)\n** No.",
"684 Squadron RAF – September 1943 – April 1944 (Replaced by Mosquito)\n** No.",
"111 Operational Training Unit RAF August 1942 – August 1945 (disbanded)\n* Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm\n** operated 1 aircraft for evaluation \n;\n* United States Army Air Forces\n: see B-25 Mitchell units of the United States Army Air Forces\n* United States Navy received 706 aircraft, most of which were then transferred to the USMC.",
"* United States Marine Corps\n;\n* Uruguayan Air Force operated 15 examples\n;\n* Venezuelan Air Force operated 24 examples",
"Mitchell III, in RAF configuration with invasion stripes, of the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum during the Brantford Air Show at Brantford, Ontario, Canada\n\n\nMany B-25s are currently kept in airworthy condition by air museums and collectors.",
";Empire State Building crash\n\nAt 9:40 on Saturday, 28 July 1945, a USAAF B-25D crashed in thick fog into the north side of the Empire State Building between the 79th and 80th floors.",
"Fourteen people died — 11 in the building and the three occupants of the aircraft, including the pilot, Colonel William F. Smith.",
"Betty Lou Oliver, an elevator attendant, survived the impact and the subsequent fall of the elevator cage 75 stories to the basement.",
"\n=== Notes ===\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\n\n* Borth, Christy.",
"''Masters of Mass Production''.",
"Indianapolis, Indiana: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1945.",
"* Bridgman, Leonard, ed.",
"\"The North American Mitchell.\"",
"''Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War II''.",
"London: Studio, 1946. .",
"* Caidin, Martin.",
"''Air Force.''",
"New York: Arno Press, 1957.",
"* Chorlton, Martyn.",
"\"Database: North American B-25 Mitchell\".",
"''Aeroplane'', Vol.",
"41, No.",
"5, May 2013. pp. 69–86.",
"* Dorr, Robert F. \"North American B-25 Variant Briefing\".",
"''Wings of Fame'', Volume 3, 1996.",
"London: Aerospace Publishing.",
".",
".",
"pp. 118–141.",
"* Green, William.",
"''Famous Bombers of the Second World War''.",
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"Andrews AFB, Maryland: Air Force Historical Foundation, 1975. .",
"* Higham, Roy and Carol Williams, eds.",
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"Andrews AFB, Maryland: Air Force Historical Foundation, 1978. .",
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"* Kingwell, Mark.",
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"New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2007. .",
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"''B-25 Mitchell In Detail''.",
"Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1999. .",
"* Kit, Mister and Jean-Pierre De Cock.",
"''North American B-25 Mitchell'' (in French).",
"Paris, France: Éditions Atlas, 1980.",
"* McDowell, Ernest R. ''B-25 Mitchell in Action (Aircraft number 34)''.",
"Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1978. .",
"* McDowell, Ernest R. ''North American B-25A/J Mitchell'' (Aircam No.22).",
"Canterbury, Kent, UK: Osprey Publications Ltd., 1971. .",
"* Mizrahi, J.V.",
"''North American B-25: The Full Story of World War II's Classic Medium''.",
"Hollywood, California: Challenge Publications Inc., 1965.",
"* Norton, Bill.",
"''American Bomber Aircraft Development in World War 2.''",
"Hersham, Surrey, UK: Midland Publishing, 2012. .",
"* Pace, Steve.",
"''B-25 Mitchell Units in the MTO''.",
"Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2002. .",
"* Pace, Steve.",
"''Warbird History: B-25 Mitchell''.",
"St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1994. .",
"* Parker, Dana T. ''Building Victory: Aircraft Manufacturing in the Los Angeles Area in World War II''.",
"Cypress, California: Dana Parker Enterprises, 2013. .",
"* Powell, Albrecht.",
"\"Mystery in the Mon\".",
"1994\n* Scutts, Jerry.",
"''B-25 Mitchell at War''.",
"London: Ian Allan Ltd., 1983. .",
"* Scutts, Jerry.",
"''North American B-25 Mitchell''.",
"Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, UK: Crowood Press, 2001. .",
"* Skaarup, Harold A.",
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"Bloomington, Indiana: IUniverse, 2009. .",
"* Swanborough, F.G. and Peter M. Bowers.",
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"London: Putnam, 1963.",
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"\n* North American B-25 Mitchell Joe Baugher, ''American Military Aircraft: US Bomber Aircraft''\n* \n* I Fly Mitchell's, February 1944 ''Popular Science'' article on B-25s in North Africa Theater\n* Flying Big Gun, February 1944, ''Popular Science'' article on 75 mm cannon mount\n* Early B-25 model's tail gun position, extremely rare photo\n* A collection photos of the Marine VMB-613 post in the Kwajalein Island at the University of Houston Digital Library\n* Hi-res spherical panoramas; B-25H: A look inside & out – \"Barbie III\"\n* (1943) Report No.",
"NA-5785 Temporary Handbook of Erection and Maintenance Instructions for the B-25 H-1-NA Medium Bombardment Airplanes\n* \"The B-25 Mitchell in the USSR\", an account of the service history of the Mitchell in the Soviet Union's VVS during World War II\n* Lake Murray's Mitchell\n* B-25 Recovery and Preservation Project Rubicon Foundation"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n'''''Barry Lyndon''''' is a 1975 British-American period drama film written, produced, and directed by Stanley Kubrick, based on the 1844 novel ''The Luck of Barry Lyndon'' by William Makepeace Thackeray. It stars Ryan O'Neal, Marisa Berenson, Patrick Magee, and Hardy Krüger. The film recounts the exploits of a fictional 18th-century Irish adventurer. Exteriors were shot on location in Ireland, England and Germany. \n\nAt the 1975 Academy Awards, the film won four Oscars in production categories. Although having had a modest commercial success and a mixed reception from critics on release, ''Barry Lyndon'' is today regarded as one of Kubrick's finest films. In numerous polls, including those of ''Village Voice'' (1999), ''Sight & Sound'' (2002, 2012), ''Time'' (2005) and BBC, it has been named one of the greatest films ever made.\n",
"\n===Act I===\n:''By What Means Redmond Barry Acquired the Style and Title of Barry Lyndon''\nAn omniscient (though possibly unreliable) narrator relates that in 1750s Ireland, the father of Redmond Barry is killed in a duel over a sale of some horses. The widow, disdaining offers of marriage, devotes herself to her only son.\n\nAs a despondent young man, Barry becomes infatuated with his older cousin, Nora Brady. Though she charms him during a card game, she later shows interest in a well-off British Army captain, John Quin, much to Barry's dismay. Nora and her family plan to leverage their finances through marriage, while Barry holds Quin in contempt and escalates the situation until a fateful duel beside a river when Barry shoots Quin. In the aftermath, Barry is urged to flee from incoming police and head through the countryside towards Dublin, but along the way he is robbed of purse, pistol, and horse by Captain Feeney, an infamous highwayman.\n\nDejected, Barry carries on to the next town, where he hears a promotional spiel to join the British Army, offering the chance at fame and glory (and a lifelong pension) in return for good service. Barry enlists. Some time after joining the regiment, Barry encounters Captain Grogan, a warm-hearted family friend. Grogan informs him that Barry did not in fact kill Quin, his dueling pistol having only been loaded with tow. The duel was staged by Nora's family to be rid of Barry so that their finances would be secured through a lucrative marriage.\n\nBarry’s regiment is sent to Germany to fight in the Seven Years' War, where Captain Grogan is fatally wounded by the French in a skirmish at the Battle of Minden. Fed up with the war, Barry deserts the army, stealing an officer courier's uniform, horse, and identification papers. En route to neutral Holland he encounters the Prussian Captain Potzdorf, who, seeing through his disguise, offers him the choice of being turned back over to the British where he will be shot as a deserter, or enlisting in the Prussian Army. Barry enlists in his second army and later receives a special commendation from Frederick the Great for saving Potzdorf's life in a battle.\n\nTwo years later, after the war ends in 1763, Barry is employed by Captain Potzdorf's uncle in the Prussian Ministry of Police to become the servant of the Chevalier de Balibari, an expatriate Irishman and professional gambler. The Prussians suspect he is a spy and send Barry as an undercover agent to verify this. Barry reveals himself to the Chevalier right away and they become confederates at the card table, where Barry and his fine eyesight relay information to his partner. After he and the Chevalier cheat the Prince of Tübingen at the card table, the Prince accuses the Chevalier (without proof) and refuses to pay his debt and demands satisfaction. When Barry relays this to his Prussian handlers, they (still suspecting that the Chevalier is a spy) are wary of allowing another meeting between the Chevalier and the Prince. So, the Prussians arrange for the Chevalier to be expelled from the country. Barry conveys this plan to the Chevalier, who flees in the night. The next morning, Barry, under disguise as the Chevalier, is escorted from Prussian territory by Prussian army officers.\n\nOver the next few years, Barry and the Chevalier travel the spas and parlors of Europe, profiting from their gambling with Barry forcing payment from reluctant debtors with sword duels. Seeing that his life is going nowhere, Barry decides to marry into wealth. At a gambling table in Spa, he encounters the beautiful and wealthy Countess of Lyndon. He seduces and later marries her after the death of her elderly husband, Sir Charles Lyndon.\n\n===Act II===\nBarry's first meeting with the Countess\n:''Containing an Account of the Misfortunes and Disasters Which Befell Barry Lyndon''\nIn 1773, Barry takes the Countess' last name in marriage and settles in England to enjoy her wealth, still with no money of his own. Lord Bullingdon, Lady Lyndon's ten-year-old son by Sir Charles, does not approve of the marriage and quickly comes to despise Barry, calling him a 'common opportunist' who does not truly love his mother. Barry retaliates by subjecting Bullingdon to systematic physical abuse. \n\nThe Countess bears Barry a son, Bryan Patrick, but the marriage is unhappy: Barry is openly unfaithful and enjoys spending his wife's money on self-indulgent luxuries, while keeping his wife in seclusion.\n\nSome years later, Barry's mother comes to live with him at the Lyndon estate. She warns her son that if Lady Lyndon were to die, all her wealth would go to her first-born son Lord Bullingdon, leaving Barry and his son Bryan penniless. Barry's mother advises him to obtain a noble title to protect himself. To further this goal, he cultivates the acquaintance of the influential Lord Wendover and begins to expend even larger sums of money to ingratiate himself to high society. All this effort is wasted, however, during a birthday party for Lady Lyndon. A now young adult Lord Bullingdon crashes the event where he publicly enumerates the reasons that he detests his stepfather so dearly, declaring it his intent to leave the family estate for as long as Barry remains there and married to his mother. Seething with hatred, Barry savagely assaults Bullingdon until he is pulled off by the guests. This loses Barry all the wealthy and powerful friends he has worked so hard to entreat and he is cast out of polite society. Nevertheless, Bullingdon makes good on his word by leaving the estate and England itself for parts unknown.\n\nIn contrast to his mistreatment of his stepson, Barry proves an overindulgent and doting father to Bryan, with whom he spends all his time after Bullingdon's departure. He cannot refuse his son anything, and succumbs to Bryan's insistence on receiving a full-grown horse for his ninth birthday. The spoiled Bryan disobeys his parents' direct instructions that Bryan ride the horse only in the presence of his father, is thrown by the horse, is paralyzed, and dies a few days later from his injuries.\n\nThe grief-stricken Barry turns to alcohol, while Lady Lyndon seeks solace in religion, assisted by the Reverend Samuel Runt, who had been tutor first to Lord Bullingdon and then to Bryan. Left in charge of the families' affairs while Barry and Lady Lyndon grieve, Barry's mother dismisses the Reverend, both because the family no longer needs (nor can afford, due to Barry's spending debts) a tutor and for fear that his influence worsens Lady Lyndon's condition. Plunging even deeper into grief, Lady Lyndon later attempts suicide (though she ingests only enough poison to make herself ill). The Reverend and the family's accountant Graham then seek out Lord Bullingdon. Upon hearing of these events, Lord Bullingdon returns to England where he finds Barry drunk in a gentlemen's club, mourning the loss of his son rather than being with Lady Lyndon. Bullingdon demands satisfaction for Barry's public assault, challenging him to a duel.\n\nThe duel with pistols is held in a tithe barn. A coin-toss gives Bullingdon the right of first fire, but he nervously misfires his pistol as he prepares to shoot. Barry, reluctant to shoot Bullingdon, magnanimously fires into the ground, but the unmoved Bullingdon refuses to let the duel end, claiming he has not received \"satisfaction\". In the second round, Bullingdon shoots Barry in his left leg. At a nearby inn, a surgeon informs Barry that the leg will need to be amputated below the knee if he is to survive.\n\nWhile Barry is recovering, Bullingdon re-takes control of the Lyndon estate. A few days later, Lord Bullingdon sends a very nervous Graham to the inn with a proposition: Lord Bullingdon will grant Barry an annuity of five hundred guineas a year on the condition that he leave England, with payments ending the moment should Barry ever return. Otherwise, with his credit and bank accounts exhausted, Barry's creditors and bill collectors will assuredly see that he is jailed. Defeated in mind and body, Barry accepts. \n\nThe narrator states that Barry went first back to Ireland with his mother, then to the European continent to resume his former profession of gambler (though without his former success). Barry kept his word and never returned to England or ever saw Lady Lyndon again. The final scene (set in December 1789) shows a middle-aged Lady Lyndon signing Barry's annuity cheque as her son looks on.\n\n===Epilogue===\n:''It was in the reign of George III that the aforesaid personages lived and quarrelled; good or bad, handsome or ugly, rich or poor, they are all equal now.''\n",
"Suits worn in ''Barry Lyndon''\n\n* Michael Hordern (''voice'') as Narrator\n* Ryan O'Neal as Redmond Barry (later Redmond Barry Lyndon)\n* Marisa Berenson as Lady Lyndon\n* Patrick Magee as the Chevalier du Balibari\n* Hardy Krüger as Captain Potzdorf\n* Gay Hamilton as Nora Brady\n* Godfrey Quigley as Captain Grogan\n* Steven Berkoff as Lord Ludd\n* Wolf Kahler as Prince of Tübingen\n* Marie Kean as Belle, Barry's mother\n* Murray Melvin as Reverend Samuel Runt\n* Frank Middlemass as Sir Charles Reginald Lyndon\n* Leon Vitali as Lord Bullingdon\n** Dominic Savage as young Bullingdon\n* Leonard Rossiter as Captain John Quin\n* André Morell as Lord Wendover\n* Anthony Sharp as Lord Hallam\n* Philip Stone as Graham\n* David Morley as Bryan Patrick Lyndon\n* Diana Koerner as Lischen (German Girl)\n* Arthur O'Sullivan as Captain Feeney\n* Billy Boyle as Seamus Feeney\n* Roger Booth as King George III\n\nCritic Tim Robey suggests that the film \"makes you realise that the most undervalued aspect of Kubrick's genius could well be his way with actors.\" He adds that the supporting cast is a \"glittering procession of cameos, not from star names but from vital character players.\"\n\nThe cast featured Leon Vitali as the older Lord Bullingdon, who would then become Kubrick's personal assistant, working as the casting director on his following films, and supervising film-to-video transfers for Kubrick. Their relationship lasted until Kubrick's death. The film's cinematographer, John Alcott, appears at the men's club in the non-speaking role of the man asleep in a chair near the title character when Lord Bullingdon challenges Barry to a duel. Kubrick's daughter Vivian also appears (in an uncredited role) as a guest at Bryan's birthday party.\n\nKubrick stalwarts Patrick Magee (who had played the handicapped writer in ''A Clockwork Orange'') and Philip Stone (who had played Alex's father in the same film, and would go on to play the dead caretaker Grady in ''The Shining'') are featured as the Chevalier du Balibari and as Graham, respectively.\n",
"\n===Development===\nAfter ''2001: A Space Odyssey'', Kubrick made plans for a film about Napoleon. During pre-production, however, Sergei Bondarchuk and Dino De Laurentiis' ''Waterloo'' was released and subsequently failed at the box office. As a result, Kubrick's financiers pulled their funding for the film and he turned his attention to his next film, ''A Clockwork Orange''. Subsequently, Kubrick showed an interest in Thackeray's ''Vanity Fair'' but dropped the project when a serialised version for television was produced. He told an interviewer, \"At one time, ''Vanity Fair'' interested me as a possible film but, in the end, I decided the story could not be successfully compressed into the relatively short time-span of a feature film...as soon as I read ''Barry Lyndon'' I became very excited about it.\"\n\nHaving garnered Oscar nominations for ''Dr. Strangelove'', ''2001: A Space Odyssey'' and ''A Clockwork Orange'', Kubrick's reputation in the early 1970s was that of \"a perfectionist auteur who loomed larger over his movies than any concept or star.\" His studio—Warner Bros.—was therefore \"eager to bankroll\" his next project, which Kubrick kept \"shrouded in secrecy\" from the press partly due to the furor surrounding the controversially violent ''A Clockwork Orange'' (particularly in the UK) and partly due to his \"long-standing paranoia about the tabloid press.\"\n\nHaving felt compelled to set aside his plans for a film about Napoleon Bonaparte, Kubrick set his sights on Thackeray's 1844 \"satirical picaresque about the fortune-hunting of an Irish rogue,\" ''Barry Lyndon'', the setting of which allowed Kubrick to take advantage of the copious period research he had done for the now-aborted ''Napoleon''. At the time, Kubrick merely announced that his next film would star Ryan O'Neal (deemed \"a seemingly un-Kubricky choice of leading man\") and Marisa Berenson, a former ''Vogue'' and ''Time'' magazine cover model, and be shot largely in Ireland. So heightened was the secrecy surrounding the film that \"Even Berenson, when Kubrick first approached her, was told only that it was to be an 18th-century costume piece and she was instructed to keep out of the sun in the months before production, to achieve the period-specific pallor he required.\"\n\n===Principal photography===\nPrincipal photography took 300 days, from spring 1973 through early 1974, with a break for Christmas.\n\nMany of the film's exteriors were shot in Ireland, playing \"itself, England, and Prussia during the Seven Years' War.\" Drawing inspiration from \"the landscapes of Watteau and Gainsborough,\" Kubrick and cinematographer Alcott also relied on the \"scrupulously researched art direction\" of Ken Adam and Roy Walker. Alcott, Adam and Walker would be among those who would win Oscars for their \"amazing work\" on the film.\n\nSeveral of the interior scenes were filmed in Powerscourt House, a famous 18th-century mansion in County Wicklow, Republic of Ireland. The house was destroyed in an accidental fire several months after filming (November 1974), so the film serves as a record of the lost interiors, particularly the \"Saloon\" which was used for more than one scene. The Wicklow Mountains are visible, for example, through the window of the saloon during a scene set in Berlin. Other locations included Kells Priory (the English Redcoat encampment) Blenheim Palace, Castle Howard (exteriors of the Lyndon estate), Huntington Castle, Clonegal (exterior), Corsham Court (various interiors and the music room scene), Petworth House (chapel, and so on.), Stourhead (lake and temple), Longleat, and Wilton House (interior and exterior) in England, Dunrobin Castle (exterior and garden as Spa) in Scotland, Dublin Castle in Ireland (the chevalier's home), Ludwigsburg Palace near Stuttgart and Frederick the Great's Neues Palais at Potsdam near Berlin (suggesting Berlin's main street Unter den Linden as construction in Potsdam had just begun in 1763). Some exterior shots were also filmed at Waterford Castle (now a luxury hotel and golf course) and Little Island, Waterford. Moorstown Castle in Tipperary also featured. Several scenes were filmed at Castletown House outside Carrick-on-Suir, Co. Tipperary, and at Youghal, Co. Cork.\n\n===Cinematography===\nThe film—as with \"almost every Kubrick film\"—is a \"showcase for a major innovation in technique.\" While ''2001: A Space Odyssey'' had featured \"revolutionary effects,\" and ''The Shining'' would later feature heavy use of the Steadicam, ''Barry Lyndon'' saw a considerable number of sequences shot \"without recourse to electric light.\" Cinematography was overseen by director of photography John Alcott (who won an Oscar for his work), and is particularly noted for the technical innovations that made some of its most spectacular images possible. To achieve photography without electric lighting \"for the many densely furnished interior scenes... meant shooting by candlelight,\" which is known to be difficult in still photography, \"let alone with moving images.\"\n\nultra-fast lenses were used for ''Barry Lyndon'' to allow filming using only natural light.\nKubrick was \"determined not to reproduce the set-bound, artificially lit look of other costume dramas from that time.\" After \"tinkering with different combinations of lenses and film stock,\" the production obtained three super-fast 50mm lenses (Carl Zeiss Planar 50mm f/0.7) developed by Zeiss for use by NASA in the Apollo moon landings, which Kubrick had discovered. These super-fast lenses \"with their huge aperture (the film actually features the lowest f-stop in film history) and fixed focal length\" were problematic to mount, and were extensively modified into three versions by Cinema Products Corp. for Kubrick so to gain a wider angle of view, with input from optics expert Richard Vetter of Todd-AO. The rear element of the lens had to be 2.5mm away from the film plane, requiring special modification to the rotating camera shutter. This allowed Kubrick and Alcott to shoot scenes lit with actual candles to an average lighting volume of only three candela, \"recreating the huddle and glow of a pre-electrical age.\" In addition, Kubrick had the entire film push-developed by one stop.\n\nAlthough Kubrick's express desire was to avoid electric lighting where possible, most shots were achieved with conventional lenses and lighting, but were lit to deliberately mimic natural light rather than for compositional reasons. In addition to potentially seeming more realistic, these methods also gave a particular period look to the film which has often been likened to 18th-century paintings (which were, of course, depicting a world devoid of electric lighting), in particular owing \"a lot to William Hogarth, with whom Thackeray had always been fascinated.\"\n\nHogarth's ''The Country Dance'' (c.1745) illustrates the type of interior scene that Kubrick sought to emulate with ''Barry Lyndon''.\nAccording to critic Tim Robey, the film has a \"stately, painterly, often determinedly static quality.\" For example, to help light some interior scenes, lights were placed outside and aimed through the windows, which were covered in a diffuse material to scatter the light evenly through the room rather than being placed inside for maximum use as most conventional films do. A sign of this method occurs in the scene where Barry duels Lord Bullingdon. Though it appears to be lit entirely with natural light, one can see that the light coming in through the cross-shaped windows in the tithe barn appears blue in color, while the main lighting of the scene coming in from the side is not. This is because the light through the cross-shaped windows is daylight from the sun, which when recorded on the film stock used by Kubrick showed up as blue-tinted compared to the incandescent electric light coming in from the side.\n\nDespite such slight tinting effects, this method of lighting not only gave the look of natural daylight coming in through the windows, but it also protected the historic locations from the damage caused by mounting the lights on walls or ceilings and the heat from the lights. This helped the film \"fit... perfectly with Kubrick's gilded-cage aesthetic – the film is consciously a museum piece, its characters pinned to the frame like butterflies.\"\n\n===Music===\nThe film's period setting allowed Kubrick to indulge his penchant for classical music, and the film score uses pieces by Johann Sebastian Bach (an arrangement of the Concerto for violin and oboe in C minor), Antonio Vivaldi (Cello Concerto in E-Minor, a transcription of the Cello Sonata in E Minor RV 40), Giovanni Paisiello, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Franz Schubert (German Dance No. 1 in C major, Piano Trio in E-Flat, Opus 100 and Impromptu No. 1 in C minor), as well as the Hohenfriedberger March. The piece most associated with the film, however, is the main title music: George Frideric Handel's stately ''Sarabande'' from the Suite in D minor HWV 437. Originally for solo harpsichord, the versions for the main and end titles are performed very romantically with orchestral strings, harpsichord, and timpani. It is used at various points in the film, in various arrangements, to indicate the implacable working of impersonal fate.\n\nThe score also includes Irish folk music, including Seán Ó Riada's song ''Women of Ireland'', arranged by Paddy Moloney and performed by The Chieftains. The British Grenadiers also features in scenes with Redcoats marching.\n",
"The film \"was not the commercial success Warner Bros. had been hoping for\" within the United States, although it fared better in Europe. This mixed reaction saw the film (in the words of one retrospective review) \"greeted, on its release, with dutiful admiration – but not love. Critics... railed against the perceived coldness of Kubrick's style, the film's self-conscious artistry and slow pace. Audiences, on the whole, rather agreed...\" This \"air of disappointment\" factored into Kubrick's decision for his next film – Stephen King's ''The Shining'' – a project that would not only please him artistically, but also be more likely to succeed financially. Still, several other critics, including Gene Siskel, praised the film's technical quality and strong narrative, and Siskel himself counted it as one of the five best films of the year.\n\nIn recent years, the film has gained a more positive reaction. it holds a 97% \"Certified Fresh\" rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 52 reviews, eight of which are from the site's \"top critics.\" Roger Ebert added the film to his 'Great Movies' list on 9 September 2009, writing, \"It defies us to care, it asks us to remain only observers of its stately elegance\", and it \"must be one of the most beautiful films ever made.\"\n\nDirector Martin Scorsese has named ''Barry Lyndon'' as his favorite Kubrick film, and it is also one of Lars von Trier's favorite films. Quotations from its script have also appeared in such disparate works as Ridley Scott's ''The Duellists'', Scorsese's ''The Age of Innocence'', and Wes Anderson's ''Rushmore''.\n\n===Awards===\nIn 1976, at the 48th Academy Awards, the film won four awards, for Best Art Direction (Ken Adam, Roy Walker, Vernon Dixon), Best Cinematography (John Alcott), Best Costume Design (Milena Canonero, Ulla-Britt Söderlund) and Best Musical Score (Leonard Rosenman, \"for his arrangements of Schubert and Handel\".) Kubrick was nominated three times, for Best Director, Best Picture, and Best Adapted Screenplay.\n\nKubrick won the British Academy of Film and Television Arts Award for Best Direction. John Alcott won for Best Cinematography. ''Barry Lyndon'' was also nominated for Best Film, Art Direction, and Costume Design.\n",
"Kubrick based his adapted screenplay on William Makepeace Thackeray's ''The Luck of Barry Lyndon'' (republished as the novel ''Memoirs of Barry Lyndon, Esq.),'' a picaresque tale written and published in serial form in 1844.\n\nThe film departs from the novel in several ways. In Thackeray's writings, events are related in the first person by Barry himself. A comic tone pervades the work, as Barry proves both a raconteur and an unreliable narrator. Kubrick's film, by contrast, presents the story objectively. Though the film contains voice-over (by actor Michael Hordern), the comments expressed are not Barry's, but those of an omniscient narrator. Kubrick felt that using a first-person narrative would not be useful in a film adaptation:\n\n\n\nKubrick also changed the plot. For example, the novel does not include a final duel. The film begins with a duel where Barry's father is shot dead, and duels recur throughout the film.\n",
"* List of American films of 1975",
"",
"\n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* Screenplay of Barry Lyndon (18 February 1973) at Daily script.\n* ''Barry Lyndon'' Press Kit at Indelible inc.\n* The Kubrick Site, a \"non-profit resource archive for documentary materials\", including essays and articles.\n* Stanley Kubrick’s letter to projectionists on ''Barry Lyndon'' at Some Came Running.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Plot",
"Cast",
"Production",
"Reception",
"Source novel",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Barry Lyndon | [
"Otherwise, with his credit and bank accounts exhausted, Barry's creditors and bill collectors will assuredly see that he is jailed."
] | [
"\n\n'''''Barry Lyndon''''' is a 1975 British-American period drama film written, produced, and directed by Stanley Kubrick, based on the 1844 novel ''The Luck of Barry Lyndon'' by William Makepeace Thackeray.",
"It stars Ryan O'Neal, Marisa Berenson, Patrick Magee, and Hardy Krüger.",
"The film recounts the exploits of a fictional 18th-century Irish adventurer.",
"Exteriors were shot on location in Ireland, England and Germany.",
"At the 1975 Academy Awards, the film won four Oscars in production categories.",
"Although having had a modest commercial success and a mixed reception from critics on release, ''Barry Lyndon'' is today regarded as one of Kubrick's finest films.",
"In numerous polls, including those of ''Village Voice'' (1999), ''Sight & Sound'' (2002, 2012), ''Time'' (2005) and BBC, it has been named one of the greatest films ever made.",
"\n===Act I===\n:''By What Means Redmond Barry Acquired the Style and Title of Barry Lyndon''\nAn omniscient (though possibly unreliable) narrator relates that in 1750s Ireland, the father of Redmond Barry is killed in a duel over a sale of some horses.",
"The widow, disdaining offers of marriage, devotes herself to her only son.",
"As a despondent young man, Barry becomes infatuated with his older cousin, Nora Brady.",
"Though she charms him during a card game, she later shows interest in a well-off British Army captain, John Quin, much to Barry's dismay.",
"Nora and her family plan to leverage their finances through marriage, while Barry holds Quin in contempt and escalates the situation until a fateful duel beside a river when Barry shoots Quin.",
"In the aftermath, Barry is urged to flee from incoming police and head through the countryside towards Dublin, but along the way he is robbed of purse, pistol, and horse by Captain Feeney, an infamous highwayman.",
"Dejected, Barry carries on to the next town, where he hears a promotional spiel to join the British Army, offering the chance at fame and glory (and a lifelong pension) in return for good service.",
"Barry enlists.",
"Some time after joining the regiment, Barry encounters Captain Grogan, a warm-hearted family friend.",
"Grogan informs him that Barry did not in fact kill Quin, his dueling pistol having only been loaded with tow.",
"The duel was staged by Nora's family to be rid of Barry so that their finances would be secured through a lucrative marriage.",
"Barry’s regiment is sent to Germany to fight in the Seven Years' War, where Captain Grogan is fatally wounded by the French in a skirmish at the Battle of Minden.",
"Fed up with the war, Barry deserts the army, stealing an officer courier's uniform, horse, and identification papers.",
"En route to neutral Holland he encounters the Prussian Captain Potzdorf, who, seeing through his disguise, offers him the choice of being turned back over to the British where he will be shot as a deserter, or enlisting in the Prussian Army.",
"Barry enlists in his second army and later receives a special commendation from Frederick the Great for saving Potzdorf's life in a battle.",
"Two years later, after the war ends in 1763, Barry is employed by Captain Potzdorf's uncle in the Prussian Ministry of Police to become the servant of the Chevalier de Balibari, an expatriate Irishman and professional gambler.",
"The Prussians suspect he is a spy and send Barry as an undercover agent to verify this.",
"Barry reveals himself to the Chevalier right away and they become confederates at the card table, where Barry and his fine eyesight relay information to his partner.",
"After he and the Chevalier cheat the Prince of Tübingen at the card table, the Prince accuses the Chevalier (without proof) and refuses to pay his debt and demands satisfaction.",
"When Barry relays this to his Prussian handlers, they (still suspecting that the Chevalier is a spy) are wary of allowing another meeting between the Chevalier and the Prince.",
"So, the Prussians arrange for the Chevalier to be expelled from the country.",
"Barry conveys this plan to the Chevalier, who flees in the night.",
"The next morning, Barry, under disguise as the Chevalier, is escorted from Prussian territory by Prussian army officers.",
"Over the next few years, Barry and the Chevalier travel the spas and parlors of Europe, profiting from their gambling with Barry forcing payment from reluctant debtors with sword duels.",
"Seeing that his life is going nowhere, Barry decides to marry into wealth.",
"At a gambling table in Spa, he encounters the beautiful and wealthy Countess of Lyndon.",
"He seduces and later marries her after the death of her elderly husband, Sir Charles Lyndon.",
"===Act II===\nBarry's first meeting with the Countess\n:''Containing an Account of the Misfortunes and Disasters Which Befell Barry Lyndon''\nIn 1773, Barry takes the Countess' last name in marriage and settles in England to enjoy her wealth, still with no money of his own.",
"Lord Bullingdon, Lady Lyndon's ten-year-old son by Sir Charles, does not approve of the marriage and quickly comes to despise Barry, calling him a 'common opportunist' who does not truly love his mother.",
"Barry retaliates by subjecting Bullingdon to systematic physical abuse.",
"The Countess bears Barry a son, Bryan Patrick, but the marriage is unhappy: Barry is openly unfaithful and enjoys spending his wife's money on self-indulgent luxuries, while keeping his wife in seclusion.",
"Some years later, Barry's mother comes to live with him at the Lyndon estate.",
"She warns her son that if Lady Lyndon were to die, all her wealth would go to her first-born son Lord Bullingdon, leaving Barry and his son Bryan penniless.",
"Barry's mother advises him to obtain a noble title to protect himself.",
"To further this goal, he cultivates the acquaintance of the influential Lord Wendover and begins to expend even larger sums of money to ingratiate himself to high society.",
"All this effort is wasted, however, during a birthday party for Lady Lyndon.",
"A now young adult Lord Bullingdon crashes the event where he publicly enumerates the reasons that he detests his stepfather so dearly, declaring it his intent to leave the family estate for as long as Barry remains there and married to his mother.",
"Seething with hatred, Barry savagely assaults Bullingdon until he is pulled off by the guests.",
"This loses Barry all the wealthy and powerful friends he has worked so hard to entreat and he is cast out of polite society.",
"Nevertheless, Bullingdon makes good on his word by leaving the estate and England itself for parts unknown.",
"In contrast to his mistreatment of his stepson, Barry proves an overindulgent and doting father to Bryan, with whom he spends all his time after Bullingdon's departure.",
"He cannot refuse his son anything, and succumbs to Bryan's insistence on receiving a full-grown horse for his ninth birthday.",
"The spoiled Bryan disobeys his parents' direct instructions that Bryan ride the horse only in the presence of his father, is thrown by the horse, is paralyzed, and dies a few days later from his injuries.",
"The grief-stricken Barry turns to alcohol, while Lady Lyndon seeks solace in religion, assisted by the Reverend Samuel Runt, who had been tutor first to Lord Bullingdon and then to Bryan.",
"Left in charge of the families' affairs while Barry and Lady Lyndon grieve, Barry's mother dismisses the Reverend, both because the family no longer needs (nor can afford, due to Barry's spending debts) a tutor and for fear that his influence worsens Lady Lyndon's condition.",
"Plunging even deeper into grief, Lady Lyndon later attempts suicide (though she ingests only enough poison to make herself ill).",
"The Reverend and the family's accountant Graham then seek out Lord Bullingdon.",
"Upon hearing of these events, Lord Bullingdon returns to England where he finds Barry drunk in a gentlemen's club, mourning the loss of his son rather than being with Lady Lyndon.",
"Bullingdon demands satisfaction for Barry's public assault, challenging him to a duel.",
"The duel with pistols is held in a tithe barn.",
"A coin-toss gives Bullingdon the right of first fire, but he nervously misfires his pistol as he prepares to shoot.",
"Barry, reluctant to shoot Bullingdon, magnanimously fires into the ground, but the unmoved Bullingdon refuses to let the duel end, claiming he has not received \"satisfaction\".",
"In the second round, Bullingdon shoots Barry in his left leg.",
"At a nearby inn, a surgeon informs Barry that the leg will need to be amputated below the knee if he is to survive.",
"While Barry is recovering, Bullingdon re-takes control of the Lyndon estate.",
"A few days later, Lord Bullingdon sends a very nervous Graham to the inn with a proposition: Lord Bullingdon will grant Barry an annuity of five hundred guineas a year on the condition that he leave England, with payments ending the moment should Barry ever return.",
"Defeated in mind and body, Barry accepts.",
"The narrator states that Barry went first back to Ireland with his mother, then to the European continent to resume his former profession of gambler (though without his former success).",
"Barry kept his word and never returned to England or ever saw Lady Lyndon again.",
"The final scene (set in December 1789) shows a middle-aged Lady Lyndon signing Barry's annuity cheque as her son looks on.",
"===Epilogue===\n:''It was in the reign of George III that the aforesaid personages lived and quarrelled; good or bad, handsome or ugly, rich or poor, they are all equal now.''",
"Suits worn in ''Barry Lyndon''\n\n* Michael Hordern (''voice'') as Narrator\n* Ryan O'Neal as Redmond Barry (later Redmond Barry Lyndon)\n* Marisa Berenson as Lady Lyndon\n* Patrick Magee as the Chevalier du Balibari\n* Hardy Krüger as Captain Potzdorf\n* Gay Hamilton as Nora Brady\n* Godfrey Quigley as Captain Grogan\n* Steven Berkoff as Lord Ludd\n* Wolf Kahler as Prince of Tübingen\n* Marie Kean as Belle, Barry's mother\n* Murray Melvin as Reverend Samuel Runt\n* Frank Middlemass as Sir Charles Reginald Lyndon\n* Leon Vitali as Lord Bullingdon\n** Dominic Savage as young Bullingdon\n* Leonard Rossiter as Captain John Quin\n* André Morell as Lord Wendover\n* Anthony Sharp as Lord Hallam\n* Philip Stone as Graham\n* David Morley as Bryan Patrick Lyndon\n* Diana Koerner as Lischen (German Girl)\n* Arthur O'Sullivan as Captain Feeney\n* Billy Boyle as Seamus Feeney\n* Roger Booth as King George III\n\nCritic Tim Robey suggests that the film \"makes you realise that the most undervalued aspect of Kubrick's genius could well be his way with actors.\"",
"He adds that the supporting cast is a \"glittering procession of cameos, not from star names but from vital character players.\"",
"The cast featured Leon Vitali as the older Lord Bullingdon, who would then become Kubrick's personal assistant, working as the casting director on his following films, and supervising film-to-video transfers for Kubrick.",
"Their relationship lasted until Kubrick's death.",
"The film's cinematographer, John Alcott, appears at the men's club in the non-speaking role of the man asleep in a chair near the title character when Lord Bullingdon challenges Barry to a duel.",
"Kubrick's daughter Vivian also appears (in an uncredited role) as a guest at Bryan's birthday party.",
"Kubrick stalwarts Patrick Magee (who had played the handicapped writer in ''A Clockwork Orange'') and Philip Stone (who had played Alex's father in the same film, and would go on to play the dead caretaker Grady in ''The Shining'') are featured as the Chevalier du Balibari and as Graham, respectively.",
"\n===Development===\nAfter ''2001: A Space Odyssey'', Kubrick made plans for a film about Napoleon.",
"During pre-production, however, Sergei Bondarchuk and Dino De Laurentiis' ''Waterloo'' was released and subsequently failed at the box office.",
"As a result, Kubrick's financiers pulled their funding for the film and he turned his attention to his next film, ''A Clockwork Orange''.",
"Subsequently, Kubrick showed an interest in Thackeray's ''Vanity Fair'' but dropped the project when a serialised version for television was produced.",
"He told an interviewer, \"At one time, ''Vanity Fair'' interested me as a possible film but, in the end, I decided the story could not be successfully compressed into the relatively short time-span of a feature film...as soon as I read ''Barry Lyndon'' I became very excited about it.\"",
"Having garnered Oscar nominations for ''Dr.",
"Strangelove'', ''2001: A Space Odyssey'' and ''A Clockwork Orange'', Kubrick's reputation in the early 1970s was that of \"a perfectionist auteur who loomed larger over his movies than any concept or star.\"",
"His studio—Warner Bros.—was therefore \"eager to bankroll\" his next project, which Kubrick kept \"shrouded in secrecy\" from the press partly due to the furor surrounding the controversially violent ''A Clockwork Orange'' (particularly in the UK) and partly due to his \"long-standing paranoia about the tabloid press.\"",
"Having felt compelled to set aside his plans for a film about Napoleon Bonaparte, Kubrick set his sights on Thackeray's 1844 \"satirical picaresque about the fortune-hunting of an Irish rogue,\" ''Barry Lyndon'', the setting of which allowed Kubrick to take advantage of the copious period research he had done for the now-aborted ''Napoleon''.",
"At the time, Kubrick merely announced that his next film would star Ryan O'Neal (deemed \"a seemingly un-Kubricky choice of leading man\") and Marisa Berenson, a former ''Vogue'' and ''Time'' magazine cover model, and be shot largely in Ireland.",
"So heightened was the secrecy surrounding the film that \"Even Berenson, when Kubrick first approached her, was told only that it was to be an 18th-century costume piece and she was instructed to keep out of the sun in the months before production, to achieve the period-specific pallor he required.\"",
"===Principal photography===\nPrincipal photography took 300 days, from spring 1973 through early 1974, with a break for Christmas.",
"Many of the film's exteriors were shot in Ireland, playing \"itself, England, and Prussia during the Seven Years' War.\"",
"Drawing inspiration from \"the landscapes of Watteau and Gainsborough,\" Kubrick and cinematographer Alcott also relied on the \"scrupulously researched art direction\" of Ken Adam and Roy Walker.",
"Alcott, Adam and Walker would be among those who would win Oscars for their \"amazing work\" on the film.",
"Several of the interior scenes were filmed in Powerscourt House, a famous 18th-century mansion in County Wicklow, Republic of Ireland.",
"The house was destroyed in an accidental fire several months after filming (November 1974), so the film serves as a record of the lost interiors, particularly the \"Saloon\" which was used for more than one scene.",
"The Wicklow Mountains are visible, for example, through the window of the saloon during a scene set in Berlin.",
"Other locations included Kells Priory (the English Redcoat encampment) Blenheim Palace, Castle Howard (exteriors of the Lyndon estate), Huntington Castle, Clonegal (exterior), Corsham Court (various interiors and the music room scene), Petworth House (chapel, and so on.",
"), Stourhead (lake and temple), Longleat, and Wilton House (interior and exterior) in England, Dunrobin Castle (exterior and garden as Spa) in Scotland, Dublin Castle in Ireland (the chevalier's home), Ludwigsburg Palace near Stuttgart and Frederick the Great's Neues Palais at Potsdam near Berlin (suggesting Berlin's main street Unter den Linden as construction in Potsdam had just begun in 1763).",
"Some exterior shots were also filmed at Waterford Castle (now a luxury hotel and golf course) and Little Island, Waterford.",
"Moorstown Castle in Tipperary also featured.",
"Several scenes were filmed at Castletown House outside Carrick-on-Suir, Co. Tipperary, and at Youghal, Co. Cork.",
"===Cinematography===\nThe film—as with \"almost every Kubrick film\"—is a \"showcase for a major innovation in technique.\"",
"While ''2001: A Space Odyssey'' had featured \"revolutionary effects,\" and ''The Shining'' would later feature heavy use of the Steadicam, ''Barry Lyndon'' saw a considerable number of sequences shot \"without recourse to electric light.\"",
"Cinematography was overseen by director of photography John Alcott (who won an Oscar for his work), and is particularly noted for the technical innovations that made some of its most spectacular images possible.",
"To achieve photography without electric lighting \"for the many densely furnished interior scenes... meant shooting by candlelight,\" which is known to be difficult in still photography, \"let alone with moving images.\"",
"ultra-fast lenses were used for ''Barry Lyndon'' to allow filming using only natural light.",
"Kubrick was \"determined not to reproduce the set-bound, artificially lit look of other costume dramas from that time.\"",
"After \"tinkering with different combinations of lenses and film stock,\" the production obtained three super-fast 50mm lenses (Carl Zeiss Planar 50mm f/0.7) developed by Zeiss for use by NASA in the Apollo moon landings, which Kubrick had discovered.",
"These super-fast lenses \"with their huge aperture (the film actually features the lowest f-stop in film history) and fixed focal length\" were problematic to mount, and were extensively modified into three versions by Cinema Products Corp. for Kubrick so to gain a wider angle of view, with input from optics expert Richard Vetter of Todd-AO.",
"The rear element of the lens had to be 2.5mm away from the film plane, requiring special modification to the rotating camera shutter.",
"This allowed Kubrick and Alcott to shoot scenes lit with actual candles to an average lighting volume of only three candela, \"recreating the huddle and glow of a pre-electrical age.\"",
"In addition, Kubrick had the entire film push-developed by one stop.",
"Although Kubrick's express desire was to avoid electric lighting where possible, most shots were achieved with conventional lenses and lighting, but were lit to deliberately mimic natural light rather than for compositional reasons.",
"In addition to potentially seeming more realistic, these methods also gave a particular period look to the film which has often been likened to 18th-century paintings (which were, of course, depicting a world devoid of electric lighting), in particular owing \"a lot to William Hogarth, with whom Thackeray had always been fascinated.\"",
"Hogarth's ''The Country Dance'' (c.1745) illustrates the type of interior scene that Kubrick sought to emulate with ''Barry Lyndon''.",
"According to critic Tim Robey, the film has a \"stately, painterly, often determinedly static quality.\"",
"For example, to help light some interior scenes, lights were placed outside and aimed through the windows, which were covered in a diffuse material to scatter the light evenly through the room rather than being placed inside for maximum use as most conventional films do.",
"A sign of this method occurs in the scene where Barry duels Lord Bullingdon.",
"Though it appears to be lit entirely with natural light, one can see that the light coming in through the cross-shaped windows in the tithe barn appears blue in color, while the main lighting of the scene coming in from the side is not.",
"This is because the light through the cross-shaped windows is daylight from the sun, which when recorded on the film stock used by Kubrick showed up as blue-tinted compared to the incandescent electric light coming in from the side.",
"Despite such slight tinting effects, this method of lighting not only gave the look of natural daylight coming in through the windows, but it also protected the historic locations from the damage caused by mounting the lights on walls or ceilings and the heat from the lights.",
"This helped the film \"fit... perfectly with Kubrick's gilded-cage aesthetic – the film is consciously a museum piece, its characters pinned to the frame like butterflies.\"",
"===Music===\nThe film's period setting allowed Kubrick to indulge his penchant for classical music, and the film score uses pieces by Johann Sebastian Bach (an arrangement of the Concerto for violin and oboe in C minor), Antonio Vivaldi (Cello Concerto in E-Minor, a transcription of the Cello Sonata in E Minor RV 40), Giovanni Paisiello, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Franz Schubert (German Dance No.",
"1 in C major, Piano Trio in E-Flat, Opus 100 and Impromptu No.",
"1 in C minor), as well as the Hohenfriedberger March.",
"The piece most associated with the film, however, is the main title music: George Frideric Handel's stately ''Sarabande'' from the Suite in D minor HWV 437.",
"Originally for solo harpsichord, the versions for the main and end titles are performed very romantically with orchestral strings, harpsichord, and timpani.",
"It is used at various points in the film, in various arrangements, to indicate the implacable working of impersonal fate.",
"The score also includes Irish folk music, including Seán Ó Riada's song ''Women of Ireland'', arranged by Paddy Moloney and performed by The Chieftains.",
"The British Grenadiers also features in scenes with Redcoats marching.",
"The film \"was not the commercial success Warner Bros. had been hoping for\" within the United States, although it fared better in Europe.",
"This mixed reaction saw the film (in the words of one retrospective review) \"greeted, on its release, with dutiful admiration – but not love.",
"Critics... railed against the perceived coldness of Kubrick's style, the film's self-conscious artistry and slow pace.",
"Audiences, on the whole, rather agreed...\" This \"air of disappointment\" factored into Kubrick's decision for his next film – Stephen King's ''The Shining'' – a project that would not only please him artistically, but also be more likely to succeed financially.",
"Still, several other critics, including Gene Siskel, praised the film's technical quality and strong narrative, and Siskel himself counted it as one of the five best films of the year.",
"In recent years, the film has gained a more positive reaction.",
"it holds a 97% \"Certified Fresh\" rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 52 reviews, eight of which are from the site's \"top critics.\"",
"Roger Ebert added the film to his 'Great Movies' list on 9 September 2009, writing, \"It defies us to care, it asks us to remain only observers of its stately elegance\", and it \"must be one of the most beautiful films ever made.\"",
"Director Martin Scorsese has named ''Barry Lyndon'' as his favorite Kubrick film, and it is also one of Lars von Trier's favorite films.",
"Quotations from its script have also appeared in such disparate works as Ridley Scott's ''The Duellists'', Scorsese's ''The Age of Innocence'', and Wes Anderson's ''Rushmore''.",
"===Awards===\nIn 1976, at the 48th Academy Awards, the film won four awards, for Best Art Direction (Ken Adam, Roy Walker, Vernon Dixon), Best Cinematography (John Alcott), Best Costume Design (Milena Canonero, Ulla-Britt Söderlund) and Best Musical Score (Leonard Rosenman, \"for his arrangements of Schubert and Handel\".)",
"Kubrick was nominated three times, for Best Director, Best Picture, and Best Adapted Screenplay.",
"Kubrick won the British Academy of Film and Television Arts Award for Best Direction.",
"John Alcott won for Best Cinematography.",
"''Barry Lyndon'' was also nominated for Best Film, Art Direction, and Costume Design.",
"Kubrick based his adapted screenplay on William Makepeace Thackeray's ''The Luck of Barry Lyndon'' (republished as the novel ''Memoirs of Barry Lyndon, Esq.",
"),'' a picaresque tale written and published in serial form in 1844.",
"The film departs from the novel in several ways.",
"In Thackeray's writings, events are related in the first person by Barry himself.",
"A comic tone pervades the work, as Barry proves both a raconteur and an unreliable narrator.",
"Kubrick's film, by contrast, presents the story objectively.",
"Though the film contains voice-over (by actor Michael Hordern), the comments expressed are not Barry's, but those of an omniscient narrator.",
"Kubrick felt that using a first-person narrative would not be useful in a film adaptation:\n\n\n\nKubrick also changed the plot.",
"For example, the novel does not include a final duel.",
"The film begins with a duel where Barry's father is shot dead, and duels recur throughout the film.",
"* List of American films of 1975",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* Screenplay of Barry Lyndon (18 February 1973) at Daily script.",
"* ''Barry Lyndon'' Press Kit at Indelible inc.\n* The Kubrick Site, a \"non-profit resource archive for documentary materials\", including essays and articles.",
"* Stanley Kubrick’s letter to projectionists on ''Barry Lyndon'' at Some Came Running."
] | finance |
[
"\nAn 1874 newspaper illustration from Harper's Weekly, showing a man engaging in barter: offering chickens in exchange for his yearly newspaper subscription.\n\n\n'''Barter''' is a system of exchange where goods or services are directly exchanged for other goods or services without using a medium of exchange, such as money. It is distinguishable from gift economies in many ways; one of them is that the reciprocal exchange is immediate and not delayed in time. It is usually bilateral, but may be multilateral (i.e., mediated through a trade exchange) and, in most developed countries, usually only exists parallel to monetary systems to a very limited extent. Barter, as a replacement for money as the method of exchange, is used in times of monetary crisis, such as when the currency may be either unstable (e.g., hyperinflation or deflationary spiral) or simply unavailable for conducting commerce.\n\nEconomists since Adam Smith, looking at non-specific archaic societies as examples, have used the inefficiency of barter to explain the emergence of money, the economy, and hence the discipline of economics itself. However, ethnographic studies have shown no present or past society has used barter without any other medium of exchange or measurement, nor have anthropologists found evidence that money emerged from barter, instead finding that gift-giving (credit extended on a personal basis with an inter-personal balance maintained over the long term) was the most usual means of exchange of goods and services.\n\nSince the 1830s, barter in some western market economies has been aided by exchanges that use alternative currencies based on the labour theory of value, and are designed to prevent profit taking by intermediators. Examples include the Owenite socialists, the Cincinnati Time store, and more recently Ithaca HOURS (Time banking) and the LETS system.\n",
"\n\n===Adam Smith on the origin of money===\nAdam Smith, the father of modern economics, sought to demonstrate that markets (and economies) pre-existed the state, and hence should be free of government regulation. He argued (against conventional wisdom) that money was not the creation of governments. Markets emerged, in his view, out of the division of labour, by which individuals began to specialize in specific crafts and hence had to depend on others for subsistence goods. These goods were first exchanged by barter. Specialization depended on trade, but was hindered by the \"double coincidence of wants\" which barter requires, i.e., for the exchange to occur, each participant must want what the other has. To complete this hypothetical history, craftsmen would stockpile one particular good, be it salt or metal, that they thought no one would refuse. This is the origin of money according to Smith. Money, as a universally desired medium of exchange, allows each half of the transaction to be separated.\n\nBarter is characterized in Adam Smith's \"''The Wealth of Nations''\" by a disparaging vocabulary: \"higgling, haggling, swapping, dickering.\" It has also been characterized as negative reciprocity, or \"selfish profiteering.\"\n\nAnthropologists have argued, in contrast, \"that when something resembling barter ''does'' occur in stateless societies it is almost always between strangers.\" Barter occurred between strangers, not fellow villagers, and hence cannot be used to naturalistically explain the origin of money without the state. Since most people engaged in trade knew each other, exchange was fostered through the extension of credit. Marcel Mauss, author of 'The Gift', argued that the first economic contracts were to ''not'' act in one's economic self-interest, and that before money, exchange was fostered through the processes of reciprocity and redistribution, not barter. Everyday exchange relations in such societies are characterized by generalized reciprocity, or a non-calculative familial \"communism\" where each takes according to their needs, and gives as they have.\n\n===Advantages===\nSince direct barter does not require payment in money, it can be utilized when money is in short supply, when there is little information about the credit worthiness of trade partners, or when there is a lack of trust between those trading.\n\nBarter is an option to those who cannot afford to store their small supply of wealth in money, especially in hyperinflation situations where money devalues quickly.\n\n===Limitations===\n\nThe limitations of barter are often explained in terms of its inefficiencies in facilitating exchange in comparison to money.\n\nIt is said that barter is 'inefficient' because:\n\n;There needs to be a 'double coincidence of wants'\n: For barter to occur between two parties, both parties need to have what the other wants.\n;There is no common measure of value\n: In a monetary economy, money plays the role of a measure of value of all goods, so their values can be assessed against each other; this role may be absent in a barter economy.\n;Indivisibility of certain goods\n: If a person wants to buy a certain amount of another's goods, but only has for payment one indivisible unit of another good which is worth more than what the person wants to obtain, a barter transaction cannot occur.\n;Lack of standards for deferred payments\n: This is related to the absence of a common measure of value, although if the debt is denominated in units of the good that will eventually be used in payment, it is not a problem.\n;Difficulty in storing wealth\n: If a society relies exclusively on perishable goods, storing wealth for the future may be impractical. However, some barter economies rely on durable goods like pigs or cattle for this purpose.\n",
"\n===Silent trade===\n\nScandinavian and Russian traders bartering their wares. Olaus Magnus, 1555\nOther anthropologists have questioned whether barter is typically between \"total\" strangers, a form of barter known as \"silent trade\". Silent trade, also called silent barter, dumb barter (\"dumb\" here used in its old meaning of \"mute\"), or depot trade, is a method by which traders who cannot speak each other's language can trade without talking. However, Benjamin Orlove has shown that while barter occurs through \"silent trade\" (between strangers), it also occurs in commercial markets as well. \"Because barter is a difficult way of conducting trade, it will occur only where there are strong institutional constraints on the use of money or where the barter symbolically denotes a special social relationship and is used in well-defined conditions. To sum up, multipurpose money in markets is like lubrication for machines - necessary for the most efficient function, but not necessary for the existence of the market itself.\"\n\nIn his analysis of barter between coastal and inland villages in the Trobriand Islands, Keith Hart highlighted the difference between highly ceremonial gift exchange between community leaders, and the barter that occurs between individual households. The haggling that takes place between strangers is possible because of the larger temporary political order established by the gift exchanges of leaders. From this he concludes that barter is \"an atomized interaction predicated upon the presence of society\" (i.e. that social order established by gift exchange), and not typical between complete strangers.\n\n===Times of monetary crisis===\n\nAs Orlove noted, barter may occur in commercial economies, usually during periods of monetary crisis. During such a crisis, currency may be in short supply, or highly devalued through hyperinflation. In such cases, money ceases to be the universal medium of exchange or standard of value. Money may be in such short supply that it becomes an item of barter itself rather than the means of exchange. Barter may also occur when people cannot afford to keep money (as when hyperinflation quickly devalues it).\n\n===Exchanges===\nWhite traders bartering with the Indians c. 1820\nEconomic historian Karl Polanyi has argued that where barter is widespread, and cash supplies limited, barter is aided by the use of credit, brokerage, and money as a unit of account (i.e. used to price items). All of these strategies are found in ancient economies including Ptolemaic Egypt. They are also the basis for more recent barter exchange systems.\n\nWhile one-to-one bartering is practiced between individuals and businesses on an informal basis, organized barter exchanges have developed to conduct third party bartering which helps overcome some of the limitations of barter. A barter exchange operates as a broker and bank in which each participating member has an account that is debited when purchases are made, and credited when sales are made.\n\nModern barter and trade has evolved considerably to become an effective method of increasing sales, conserving cash, moving inventory, and making use of excess production capacity for businesses around the world. Businesses in a barter earn trade credits (instead of cash) that are deposited into their account. They then have the ability to purchase goods and services from other members utilizing their trade credits – they are not obligated to purchase from those whom they sold to, and vice versa. The exchange plays an important role because they provide the record-keeping, brokering expertise and monthly statements to each member. Commercial exchanges make money by charging a commission on each transaction either all on the buy side, all on the sell side, or a combination of both. Transaction fees typically run between 8 and 15%.\n\nThroughout the 18th century, retailers began to adandon the prevailing system of bartering. Retailers operating out of the Palais complex in Paris, France were among the first in Europe to abandon the bartering, and adopt fixed-prices thereby sparing their clientele the hassle of bartering. The Palais retailers stocked luxury goods that appealed to the wealthy elite and upper middle classes. Stores were fitted with long glass exterior windows which allowed the emerging middle-classes to window shop and indulge in fantasies, even when they may not have been able to afford the high retail prices. Thus, the Palais-Royal became one of the first examples of a new style of shopping arcade, which adopted the trappings of a sophisticated, modern shopping complex and also changed pricing structures. y both the aristocracy and the middle classes. \n\n==== Utopian socialism ====\n\nA 19th-century example of barter: A sample labor for labor note for the Cincinnati Time Store. Scanned from ''Equitable Commerce'' by Josiah Warren (1846)\n\nThe Owenite socialists in Britain and the United States in the 1830s were the first to attempt to organize barter exchanges. Owenism developed a \"theory of equitable exchange\" as a critique of the exploitative wage relationship between capitalist and labourer, by which all profit accrued to the capitalist. To counteract the uneven playing field between employers and employed, they proposed \"schemes of labour notes based on labour time, thus institutionalizing Owen's demand that human labour, not money, be made the standard of value.\" This alternate currency eliminated price variability between markets, as well as the role of merchants who bought low and sold high. The system arose in a period where paper currency was an innovation. Paper currency was an I.O.U. circulated by a bank (a promise to pay, not a payment in itself). Both merchants and an unstable paper currency created difficulties for direct producers.\n\nAn alternate currency, denominated in labour time, would prevent profit taking by middlemen; all goods exchanged would be priced only in terms of the amount of labour that went into them as expressed in the maxim 'Cost the limit of price'. It became the basis of exchanges in London, and in America, where the idea was implemented at the New Harmony communal settlement by Josiah Warren in 1826, and in his Cincinnati 'Time store' in 1827. Warren ideas were adopted by other Owenites and currency reformers, even though the labour exchanges were relatively short lived.\n\nIn England, about 30 to 40 cooperative societies sent their surplus goods to an \"exchange bazaar\" for direct barter in London, which later adopted a similar labour note. The British Association for Promoting Cooperative Knowledge established an \"equitable labour exchange\" in 1830. This was expanded as the National Equitable Labour Exchange in 1832 on Grays Inn Road in London. These efforts became the basis of the British cooperative movement of the 1840s. In 1848, the socialist and first self-designated anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon postulated a system of ''time chits''. In 1875, Karl Marx wrote of \"Labor Certificates\" (''Arbeitszertifikaten'') in his Critique of the Gotha Program of a \"certificate from society that the labourer has furnished such and such an amount of labour\", which can be used to draw \"from the social stock of means of consumption as much as costs the same amount of labour.\"\n\n====Twentieth century experiments====\n\nThe first exchange system was the Swiss WIR Bank. It was founded in 1934 as a result of currency shortages after the stock market crash of 1929. \"WIR\" is both an abbreviation of Wirtschaftsring and the word for \"we\" in German, reminding participants that the economic circle is also a community.\n\nIn Spain (particularly the Catalonia region) there is a growing number of exchange markets. These barter markets or swap meets work without money. Participants bring things they do not need and exchange them for the unwanted goods of another participant. Swapping among three parties often helps satisfy tastes when trying to get around the rule that money is not allowed.\n\nMichael Linton originated the term \"local exchange trading system\" (LETS) in 1983 and for a time ran the Comox Valley LETSystems in Courtenay, British Columbia. LETS networks use interest-free local credit so direct swaps do not need to be made. For instance, a member may earn credit by doing childcare for one person and spend it later on carpentry with another person in the same network. In LETS, unlike other local currencies, no scrip is issued, but rather transactions are recorded in a central location open to all members. As credit is issued by the network members, for the benefit of the members themselves, LETS are considered mutual credit systems.\n\n====Modern developments====\nAccording to the International Reciprocal Trade Association, the industry trade body, more than 450,000 businesses transacted $10 billion globally in 2008 – and officials expect trade volume to grow by 15% in 2009.\n\nIt is estimated that over 450,000 businesses in the United States were involved in barter exchange activities in 2010. There are approximately 400 commercial and corporate barter companies serving all parts of the world. There are many opportunities for entrepreneurs to start a barter exchange. Several major cities in the U.S. and Canada do not currently have a local barter exchange. There are two industry groups in the United States, the National Association of Trade Exchanges (NATE) and the International Reciprocal Trade Association (IRTA). Both offer training and promote high ethical standards among their members. Moreover, each has created its own currency through which its member barter companies can trade. NATE's currency is the known as the BANC and IRTA's currency is called Universal Currency (UC).\n\nIn Canada, barter continues to thrive. The largest b2b barter exchange is Tradebank, founded in 1987. P2P bartering has seen a renaissance in major Canadian cities through Bunz - built as a network of Facebook groups that went on to become a stand-alone bartering based app in January 2016. Within the first year, Bunz accumulated over 75,000 users in over 200 cities worldwide.\n\nIn the United States, the largest barter exchange and corporate trade group is International Monetary Systems, founded in 1985, now with representation in various countries.\n\nIn Australia and New Zealand the largest barter exchange is Bartercard, founded in 1991, with offices in the United Kingdom, United States, Cyprus, UAE and Thailand.\n\nCorporate barter focuses on larger transactions, which is different from a traditional, retail oriented barter exchange. Corporate barter exchanges typically use media and advertising as leverage for their larger transactions. It entails the use of a currency unit called a \"trade-credit\". The trade-credit must not only be known and guaranteed, but also be valued in an amount the media and advertising could have been purchased for had the \"client\" bought it themselves (contract to eliminate ambiguity and risk).\n\nSoviet bilateral trade is occasionally called \"barter trade\", because although the purchases were denominated in U.S. dollars, the transactions were credited to an international clearing account, avoiding the use of hard cash.\n",
"In the United States, Karl Hess used bartering to make it harder for the IRS to seize his wages and as a form of tax resistance. Hess explained how he turned to barter in an op-ed for ''The New York Times'' in 1975. However the IRS now requires barter exchanges to be reported as per the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982. Barter exchanges are considered taxable revenue by the IRS and must be reported on a 1099-B form. According to the IRS, \"The fair market value of goods and services exchanged must be included in the income of both parties.\"\n\nOther countries, though, do not have the reporting requirement that the U.S. does concerning proceeds from barter transactions, but taxation is handled the same way as a cash transaction. If one barters for a profit, one pays the appropriate tax; if one generates a loss in the transaction, they have a loss. Bartering for business is also taxed accordingly as business income or business expense. Many barter exchanges require that one register as a business. Barter of America.com 's policies of trading are found here http://barterofamerica.com/go/go/laws.asp\n",
"\n\n* Collaborative Consumption\n* Gift economy\n* International trade\n* List of international trade topics\n* Local Exchange Trading System\n* Natural economy\n* Private currency\n* Property caretaker\n* Quid pro quo\n* Simple living\n* Trading cards\n* Time Banking\n* Kanthalloor#Barter_System\n\n",
"",
"*\n*\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Economic theory",
"History",
"Tax implications",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Barter | [
"A barter exchange operates as a broker and bank in which each participating member has an account that is debited when purchases are made, and credited when sales are made.",
"circulated by a bank (a promise to pay, not a payment in itself).",
"====Twentieth century experiments====\n\nThe first exchange system was the Swiss WIR Bank."
] | [
"\nAn 1874 newspaper illustration from Harper's Weekly, showing a man engaging in barter: offering chickens in exchange for his yearly newspaper subscription.",
"'''Barter''' is a system of exchange where goods or services are directly exchanged for other goods or services without using a medium of exchange, such as money.",
"It is distinguishable from gift economies in many ways; one of them is that the reciprocal exchange is immediate and not delayed in time.",
"It is usually bilateral, but may be multilateral (i.e., mediated through a trade exchange) and, in most developed countries, usually only exists parallel to monetary systems to a very limited extent.",
"Barter, as a replacement for money as the method of exchange, is used in times of monetary crisis, such as when the currency may be either unstable (e.g., hyperinflation or deflationary spiral) or simply unavailable for conducting commerce.",
"Economists since Adam Smith, looking at non-specific archaic societies as examples, have used the inefficiency of barter to explain the emergence of money, the economy, and hence the discipline of economics itself.",
"However, ethnographic studies have shown no present or past society has used barter without any other medium of exchange or measurement, nor have anthropologists found evidence that money emerged from barter, instead finding that gift-giving (credit extended on a personal basis with an inter-personal balance maintained over the long term) was the most usual means of exchange of goods and services.",
"Since the 1830s, barter in some western market economies has been aided by exchanges that use alternative currencies based on the labour theory of value, and are designed to prevent profit taking by intermediators.",
"Examples include the Owenite socialists, the Cincinnati Time store, and more recently Ithaca HOURS (Time banking) and the LETS system.",
"\n\n===Adam Smith on the origin of money===\nAdam Smith, the father of modern economics, sought to demonstrate that markets (and economies) pre-existed the state, and hence should be free of government regulation.",
"He argued (against conventional wisdom) that money was not the creation of governments.",
"Markets emerged, in his view, out of the division of labour, by which individuals began to specialize in specific crafts and hence had to depend on others for subsistence goods.",
"These goods were first exchanged by barter.",
"Specialization depended on trade, but was hindered by the \"double coincidence of wants\" which barter requires, i.e., for the exchange to occur, each participant must want what the other has.",
"To complete this hypothetical history, craftsmen would stockpile one particular good, be it salt or metal, that they thought no one would refuse.",
"This is the origin of money according to Smith.",
"Money, as a universally desired medium of exchange, allows each half of the transaction to be separated.",
"Barter is characterized in Adam Smith's \"''The Wealth of Nations''\" by a disparaging vocabulary: \"higgling, haggling, swapping, dickering.\"",
"It has also been characterized as negative reciprocity, or \"selfish profiteering.\"",
"Anthropologists have argued, in contrast, \"that when something resembling barter ''does'' occur in stateless societies it is almost always between strangers.\"",
"Barter occurred between strangers, not fellow villagers, and hence cannot be used to naturalistically explain the origin of money without the state.",
"Since most people engaged in trade knew each other, exchange was fostered through the extension of credit.",
"Marcel Mauss, author of 'The Gift', argued that the first economic contracts were to ''not'' act in one's economic self-interest, and that before money, exchange was fostered through the processes of reciprocity and redistribution, not barter.",
"Everyday exchange relations in such societies are characterized by generalized reciprocity, or a non-calculative familial \"communism\" where each takes according to their needs, and gives as they have.",
"===Advantages===\nSince direct barter does not require payment in money, it can be utilized when money is in short supply, when there is little information about the credit worthiness of trade partners, or when there is a lack of trust between those trading.",
"Barter is an option to those who cannot afford to store their small supply of wealth in money, especially in hyperinflation situations where money devalues quickly.",
"===Limitations===\n\nThe limitations of barter are often explained in terms of its inefficiencies in facilitating exchange in comparison to money.",
"It is said that barter is 'inefficient' because:\n\n;There needs to be a 'double coincidence of wants'\n: For barter to occur between two parties, both parties need to have what the other wants.",
";There is no common measure of value\n: In a monetary economy, money plays the role of a measure of value of all goods, so their values can be assessed against each other; this role may be absent in a barter economy.",
";Indivisibility of certain goods\n: If a person wants to buy a certain amount of another's goods, but only has for payment one indivisible unit of another good which is worth more than what the person wants to obtain, a barter transaction cannot occur.",
";Lack of standards for deferred payments\n: This is related to the absence of a common measure of value, although if the debt is denominated in units of the good that will eventually be used in payment, it is not a problem.",
";Difficulty in storing wealth\n: If a society relies exclusively on perishable goods, storing wealth for the future may be impractical.",
"However, some barter economies rely on durable goods like pigs or cattle for this purpose.",
"\n===Silent trade===\n\nScandinavian and Russian traders bartering their wares.",
"Olaus Magnus, 1555\nOther anthropologists have questioned whether barter is typically between \"total\" strangers, a form of barter known as \"silent trade\".",
"Silent trade, also called silent barter, dumb barter (\"dumb\" here used in its old meaning of \"mute\"), or depot trade, is a method by which traders who cannot speak each other's language can trade without talking.",
"However, Benjamin Orlove has shown that while barter occurs through \"silent trade\" (between strangers), it also occurs in commercial markets as well.",
"\"Because barter is a difficult way of conducting trade, it will occur only where there are strong institutional constraints on the use of money or where the barter symbolically denotes a special social relationship and is used in well-defined conditions.",
"To sum up, multipurpose money in markets is like lubrication for machines - necessary for the most efficient function, but not necessary for the existence of the market itself.\"",
"In his analysis of barter between coastal and inland villages in the Trobriand Islands, Keith Hart highlighted the difference between highly ceremonial gift exchange between community leaders, and the barter that occurs between individual households.",
"The haggling that takes place between strangers is possible because of the larger temporary political order established by the gift exchanges of leaders.",
"From this he concludes that barter is \"an atomized interaction predicated upon the presence of society\" (i.e.",
"that social order established by gift exchange), and not typical between complete strangers.",
"===Times of monetary crisis===\n\nAs Orlove noted, barter may occur in commercial economies, usually during periods of monetary crisis.",
"During such a crisis, currency may be in short supply, or highly devalued through hyperinflation.",
"In such cases, money ceases to be the universal medium of exchange or standard of value.",
"Money may be in such short supply that it becomes an item of barter itself rather than the means of exchange.",
"Barter may also occur when people cannot afford to keep money (as when hyperinflation quickly devalues it).",
"===Exchanges===\nWhite traders bartering with the Indians c. 1820\nEconomic historian Karl Polanyi has argued that where barter is widespread, and cash supplies limited, barter is aided by the use of credit, brokerage, and money as a unit of account (i.e.",
"used to price items).",
"All of these strategies are found in ancient economies including Ptolemaic Egypt.",
"They are also the basis for more recent barter exchange systems.",
"While one-to-one bartering is practiced between individuals and businesses on an informal basis, organized barter exchanges have developed to conduct third party bartering which helps overcome some of the limitations of barter.",
"Modern barter and trade has evolved considerably to become an effective method of increasing sales, conserving cash, moving inventory, and making use of excess production capacity for businesses around the world.",
"Businesses in a barter earn trade credits (instead of cash) that are deposited into their account.",
"They then have the ability to purchase goods and services from other members utilizing their trade credits – they are not obligated to purchase from those whom they sold to, and vice versa.",
"The exchange plays an important role because they provide the record-keeping, brokering expertise and monthly statements to each member.",
"Commercial exchanges make money by charging a commission on each transaction either all on the buy side, all on the sell side, or a combination of both.",
"Transaction fees typically run between 8 and 15%.",
"Throughout the 18th century, retailers began to adandon the prevailing system of bartering.",
"Retailers operating out of the Palais complex in Paris, France were among the first in Europe to abandon the bartering, and adopt fixed-prices thereby sparing their clientele the hassle of bartering.",
"The Palais retailers stocked luxury goods that appealed to the wealthy elite and upper middle classes.",
"Stores were fitted with long glass exterior windows which allowed the emerging middle-classes to window shop and indulge in fantasies, even when they may not have been able to afford the high retail prices.",
"Thus, the Palais-Royal became one of the first examples of a new style of shopping arcade, which adopted the trappings of a sophisticated, modern shopping complex and also changed pricing structures.",
"y both the aristocracy and the middle classes.",
"==== Utopian socialism ====\n\nA 19th-century example of barter: A sample labor for labor note for the Cincinnati Time Store.",
"Scanned from ''Equitable Commerce'' by Josiah Warren (1846)\n\nThe Owenite socialists in Britain and the United States in the 1830s were the first to attempt to organize barter exchanges.",
"Owenism developed a \"theory of equitable exchange\" as a critique of the exploitative wage relationship between capitalist and labourer, by which all profit accrued to the capitalist.",
"To counteract the uneven playing field between employers and employed, they proposed \"schemes of labour notes based on labour time, thus institutionalizing Owen's demand that human labour, not money, be made the standard of value.\"",
"This alternate currency eliminated price variability between markets, as well as the role of merchants who bought low and sold high.",
"The system arose in a period where paper currency was an innovation.",
"Paper currency was an I.O.U.",
"Both merchants and an unstable paper currency created difficulties for direct producers.",
"An alternate currency, denominated in labour time, would prevent profit taking by middlemen; all goods exchanged would be priced only in terms of the amount of labour that went into them as expressed in the maxim 'Cost the limit of price'.",
"It became the basis of exchanges in London, and in America, where the idea was implemented at the New Harmony communal settlement by Josiah Warren in 1826, and in his Cincinnati 'Time store' in 1827.",
"Warren ideas were adopted by other Owenites and currency reformers, even though the labour exchanges were relatively short lived.",
"In England, about 30 to 40 cooperative societies sent their surplus goods to an \"exchange bazaar\" for direct barter in London, which later adopted a similar labour note.",
"The British Association for Promoting Cooperative Knowledge established an \"equitable labour exchange\" in 1830.",
"This was expanded as the National Equitable Labour Exchange in 1832 on Grays Inn Road in London.",
"These efforts became the basis of the British cooperative movement of the 1840s.",
"In 1848, the socialist and first self-designated anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon postulated a system of ''time chits''.",
"In 1875, Karl Marx wrote of \"Labor Certificates\" (''Arbeitszertifikaten'') in his Critique of the Gotha Program of a \"certificate from society that the labourer has furnished such and such an amount of labour\", which can be used to draw \"from the social stock of means of consumption as much as costs the same amount of labour.\"",
"It was founded in 1934 as a result of currency shortages after the stock market crash of 1929.",
"\"WIR\" is both an abbreviation of Wirtschaftsring and the word for \"we\" in German, reminding participants that the economic circle is also a community.",
"In Spain (particularly the Catalonia region) there is a growing number of exchange markets.",
"These barter markets or swap meets work without money.",
"Participants bring things they do not need and exchange them for the unwanted goods of another participant.",
"Swapping among three parties often helps satisfy tastes when trying to get around the rule that money is not allowed.",
"Michael Linton originated the term \"local exchange trading system\" (LETS) in 1983 and for a time ran the Comox Valley LETSystems in Courtenay, British Columbia.",
"LETS networks use interest-free local credit so direct swaps do not need to be made.",
"For instance, a member may earn credit by doing childcare for one person and spend it later on carpentry with another person in the same network.",
"In LETS, unlike other local currencies, no scrip is issued, but rather transactions are recorded in a central location open to all members.",
"As credit is issued by the network members, for the benefit of the members themselves, LETS are considered mutual credit systems.",
"====Modern developments====\nAccording to the International Reciprocal Trade Association, the industry trade body, more than 450,000 businesses transacted $10 billion globally in 2008 – and officials expect trade volume to grow by 15% in 2009.",
"It is estimated that over 450,000 businesses in the United States were involved in barter exchange activities in 2010.",
"There are approximately 400 commercial and corporate barter companies serving all parts of the world.",
"There are many opportunities for entrepreneurs to start a barter exchange.",
"Several major cities in the U.S. and Canada do not currently have a local barter exchange.",
"There are two industry groups in the United States, the National Association of Trade Exchanges (NATE) and the International Reciprocal Trade Association (IRTA).",
"Both offer training and promote high ethical standards among their members.",
"Moreover, each has created its own currency through which its member barter companies can trade.",
"NATE's currency is the known as the BANC and IRTA's currency is called Universal Currency (UC).",
"In Canada, barter continues to thrive.",
"The largest b2b barter exchange is Tradebank, founded in 1987.",
"P2P bartering has seen a renaissance in major Canadian cities through Bunz - built as a network of Facebook groups that went on to become a stand-alone bartering based app in January 2016.",
"Within the first year, Bunz accumulated over 75,000 users in over 200 cities worldwide.",
"In the United States, the largest barter exchange and corporate trade group is International Monetary Systems, founded in 1985, now with representation in various countries.",
"In Australia and New Zealand the largest barter exchange is Bartercard, founded in 1991, with offices in the United Kingdom, United States, Cyprus, UAE and Thailand.",
"Corporate barter focuses on larger transactions, which is different from a traditional, retail oriented barter exchange.",
"Corporate barter exchanges typically use media and advertising as leverage for their larger transactions.",
"It entails the use of a currency unit called a \"trade-credit\".",
"The trade-credit must not only be known and guaranteed, but also be valued in an amount the media and advertising could have been purchased for had the \"client\" bought it themselves (contract to eliminate ambiguity and risk).",
"Soviet bilateral trade is occasionally called \"barter trade\", because although the purchases were denominated in U.S. dollars, the transactions were credited to an international clearing account, avoiding the use of hard cash.",
"In the United States, Karl Hess used bartering to make it harder for the IRS to seize his wages and as a form of tax resistance.",
"Hess explained how he turned to barter in an op-ed for ''The New York Times'' in 1975.",
"However the IRS now requires barter exchanges to be reported as per the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982.",
"Barter exchanges are considered taxable revenue by the IRS and must be reported on a 1099-B form.",
"According to the IRS, \"The fair market value of goods and services exchanged must be included in the income of both parties.\"",
"Other countries, though, do not have the reporting requirement that the U.S. does concerning proceeds from barter transactions, but taxation is handled the same way as a cash transaction.",
"If one barters for a profit, one pays the appropriate tax; if one generates a loss in the transaction, they have a loss.",
"Bartering for business is also taxed accordingly as business income or business expense.",
"Many barter exchanges require that one register as a business.",
"Barter of America.com 's policies of trading are found here http://barterofamerica.com/go/go/laws.asp",
"\n\n* Collaborative Consumption\n* Gift economy\n* International trade\n* List of international trade topics\n* Local Exchange Trading System\n* Natural economy\n* Private currency\n* Property caretaker\n* Quid pro quo\n* Simple living\n* Trading cards\n* Time Banking\n* Kanthalloor#Barter_System",
"*\n*\n*"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n'''Barcelonnette''' (; ) is a commune of France and a subprefecture in the department of Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region. It is located in the southern French Alps, at the crossroads between Provence, Piedmont and the Dauphiné, and is the largest town in the Ubaye Valley. The town's inhabitants are known as ''Barcelonnettes''.\n",
"Barcelonnette was founded and named in 1231, by Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence. While the town's name is generally seen as a diminutive form of Barcelona in Catalonia, Albert Dauzat and Charles Rostaing point out an earlier attestation of the name ''Barcilona'' in Barcelonnette in around 1200, and suggest that it is derived instead from two earlier stems signifying a mountain, *''bar'' and *''cin'' (the latter of which is also seen in the name of Mont Cenis).\n\nIn the Vivaro-Alpine dialect of Occitan, the town is known as ''Barcilona de Provença'' or more rarely ''Barciloneta'' according to the classical norm; under the Mistralian norm it is called ''Barcilouna de Prouvença'' or ''Barcilouneto''. In ''Valéian'' (the dialect of Occitan spoken in the Ubaye Valley), it is called ''Barcilouna de Prouvença'' or ''Barcilounéta''. ''Barcino Nova'' is the town's Latin name meaning \"new Barcelona\"; ''Barcino'' was the Roman name for Barcelona in Catalonia from its foundation by Emperor Augustus in 10 BC, and it was only changed to ''Barcelona'' in the Middle Ages.\n\nThe inhabitants of the town are called ''Barcelonnettes'', or ''Vilandroises'' in Valéian.\n",
"\n===Origins===\nThe Barcelonnette region was populated by Ligures from the 1st millennium BC onwards, and the arrival of the Celts several centuries later led to the formation of a mixed Celto-Ligurian people, the Vesubians. Polybius described the Vesubians as belligerent but nonetheless civilised and mercantile, and Julius Caesar praised their bravery. The work ''History of the Gauls'' also places the Vesubians in the Ubaye Valley.\n\nFollowing the Roman conquest of Provence, Barcelonnette was included in a small province with modern Embrun as its capital and governed by Albanus Bassalus. This was integrated soon afterwards into Gallia Narbonensis. In 36 AD, Emperor Nero transferred Barcelonnette to the province of the Cottian Alps. The town was known as ''Rigomagensium'' under the Roman Empire and was the capital of a civitas (a provincial subdivision), though no Roman money has yet been found in the canton of Barcelonnette.\n\n===Medieval town===\nThe town of Barcelonnette was founded in 1231 by Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence. According to Charles Rostaing, this act of formal \"foundation\", according certain privileges to the town, was a means of regenerating the destroyed town of ''Barcilona''. The town was afforded a ''consulat'' (giving it the power to administer and defend itself) in 1240.\n\nControl of the area in the Middle Ages swung between the Counts of Savoy and of Provence. In 1388, after Count Louis II of Provence had left to conquer Naples, the Count of Savoy Amadeus VIII took control of Barcelonnette; however, it returned to Provençal control in 1390, with the d'Audiffret family as its lords. On the death of Louis II in 1417 it reverted to Savoy, and, although Count René again retook the area for Provence in 1471, it had returned to Savoyard dominance by the start of the 16th century, by which point the County of Provence had become united with the Kingdom of France due to the death of Count Charles V in 1481.\n\n===Ancien Régime===\nDuring Charles V's invasion of Provence in 1536, Francis I of France sent the Count of Fürstenberg's 6000 ''Landsknechte'' to ravage the area in a scorched earth policy. Barcelonnette and the Ubaye Valley remained under French sovereignty until the second Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis on 3 April 1559.\n\nIn 1588 the troops of François, Duke of Lesdiguières entered the town and set fire to the church and convent during their campaign against the Duke of Savoy. In 1600, after the Treaty of Vervins, conflict returned between Henry IV of France and Savoy, and Lesdiguières retook Barcelonnette until the conclusion of the Treaty of Lyon on 17 January the following year. In 1628, during the War of the Mantuan Succession, Barcelonnette and the other towns of the Ubaye Valley were pillaged and burned by Jacques du Blé d'Uxelles and his troops, as they passed through towards Italy to the Duke of Mantua's aid. The town was retaken by the Duke of Savoy in 1630; and in 1691 it was captured by the troops of the Marquis de Vins during the War of the League of Augsburg.\n\nBetween 1614 and 1713, Barcelonnette was the seat of one of the four prefectures under the jurisdiction of the Senate of Nice. At this time, the community of Barcelonnette successfully purchased the ''seigneurie'' of the town as it was put to auction by the Duke of Savoy; it thereby gained its own justicial powers. In 1646, a college was founded in Barcelonnette.\n\nA \"significant\" part of the town's inhabitants had, by the 16th century, converted to Protestantism, and were repressed during the French Wars of Religion.\n\nThe ''viguerie'' of Barcelonnette (also comprising Saint-Martin and Entraunes) was reattached to France in 1713 as part of a territorial exchange with the Duchy of Savoy during the Treaties of Utrecht. The town remained the site of a ''viguerie'' until the French Revolution. A decree of the council of state on 25 December 1714 reunited Barcelonnete with the general government of Provence.\n\n===Revolution===\nBarcelonnette was one of few settlements in Haute-Provence to acquire a Masonic Lodge before the Revolution, in fact having two:\n* the lodge of ''Saint-Jean-d’Écosse des amis réunis'', affiliated with the ''Saint-Jean-d'Écosse'' lodge in Marseille;\n* the lodge of ''Saint-Jean'', affiliated with the ''Saint-Jean-de-Jérusalem d'Avignon'' lodge founded in 1749.\n\nIn March 1789, riots took place as a result of a crisis in wheat production. In July, the Great Fear of aristocratic reprisal against the ongoing French Revolution struck France, arriving in the Barcelonnette area on 31 July 1789 (when the news of the storming of the Bastille first reached the town) before spreading towards Digne.\n\nThis agitation continued in the Ubaye Valley; a new revolt broke out on 14 June, and famine was declared in April 1792. The patriotic society of the commune was one of the first 21 created in Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, in spring 1792, by the envoys of the departmental administration. Around a third of the male population attended at the club. Another episode of political violence occurred in August 1792.\n\nBarcelonnette was the seat of the District of Barcelonnette from 1790 to 1800.\n\n===Modern history===\nA ''maison mexicaine'' in Barcelonnette\nIn December 1851, the town was home to a movement of republican resistance towards Napoleon III's coup. Though only a minority of the population, the movement rebelled on Sunday 7 December, the day after the news of the coup arrived. Town officials and gendarmes were disarmed and placed in the maison d'arrêt. A committee of public health was created on 8 December; on 9 December the inhabitants of Jausiers and its surroundings formed a colony under the direction of general councillor Brès, and Mayor Signoret of Saint-Paul-sur-Ubaye. This was stopped, however, on 10 December before it could reach Barcelonnette, as the priest of the subprefecture had intervened. On 11 December, several officials escaped and found refuge in L'Argentière in Piedmont. The arrival of troops on 16 December put a final end to the republican resistance without bloodshed, and 57 insurgents were tried; 38 were condemned to deportation (though several were pardoned in April).\n\nBetween 1850 and 1950, Barcelonnette was the source of a wave of emigration to Mexico. Among these emigrants was Jean Baptiste Ebrard, founder of the Liverpool department store chain in Mexico; Marcelo Ebrard, the head of government of Mexico City from 2006 to 2012, is also descended from them. On the edges of Barcelonnette and Jausiers there are several houses and villas of colonial style (known as ''maisons mexicaines''), constructed by emigrants to Mexico who returned to France between 1870 and 1930. A plaque in the town commemorates the deaths of ten Mexican citizens who returned to Barcelonnette to fight in the First World War.\n\nDuring the Second World War, 26 Jews were arrested in Barcelonnette before being deported. The 89th ''compagnie de travailleurs étrangers'' (Company of Foreign Workers), consisting of foreigners judged as undesirable by the Third Republic and the Vichy regime and committed to forced labour, was established in Barcelonnette.\n\nThe 11th Battalion of ''Chasseurs alpins'' was garrisoned at Barcelonnette between 1948 and 1990.\n",
"Barcelonnette is situated in the wide and fertile Ubaye Valley, of which it is the largest town. It lies at an elevation of 1132 m (3717 ft) on the right bank of the Ubaye River, and is surrounded by mountains which reach peaks of over 3000 m; the tallest of these is the Needle of Chambeyron at 3412 m. Barcelonnette is situated 210 km from Turin, 91 km from Nice and 68 km from Gap.\n\n===Biodiversity===\nAs a result of its relief and geographic situation, the Ubaye Valley has an \"abundance of plant and animal species\". The fauna is largely constituted of golden eagles, marmots, ibex and vultures, and the flora includes a large proportion of larches, génépis and white asphodels.\n\n===Climate===\nBarcelonnette in winter\nThe Ubaye Valley has an alpine climate and winters are harsh as a result of the altitude, but there are only light winds as a result of the relief. There are on average almost 300 days of sun and 700 mm of rain per year.\n\n===Hazards===\nNone of the 200 communes of the department is entirely free of seismic risk; the canton of Barcelonnette is placed in zone 1b (low risk) by the determinist classification of 1991 based on seismic history, and zone 4 (average risk) according to the probabilistic EC8 classification of 2011. The commune is also vulnerable to avalanches, forest fires, floods, and landslides. Barcelonnette is also exposed to the possibility of a technological hazard in that road transport of dangerous materials is allowed to pass through on the RD900.\n\nThe town has been subject to several orders of natural disaster: floods and mudslides in 1994 and 2008, and landslides in 1996 and 1999. The strongest recorded earthquakes in the region occurred on 5 April 1959, with its epicentre at Saint-Paul-sur-Ubaye and a recorded intensity of 6.5 at Barcelonnette, and on 17 February 1947, with its epicentre at Prazzo over the Italian border.\n",
"''Chasseurs alpins'' in front of the Barcelonnette town hall in May 1970\n* The town hall was constructed in the 1930s after the destruction of the Saint Maurice chapel in July 1934. Its pediment was originally from the old Dominican convent and was identified in 1988. No houses in the town date from before the 17th century, the town having been rebuilt after the fire of 1628. The old hospital in the town dates from 1717.\n* The old gendarmerie on Place Manuel was originally constructed to house the subprefecture in 1825 in a neoclassical style, and its façade occupies one entire side of the square. Place Manuel was named after the Restoration politician Jacques-Antoine Manuel; the fountain in the centre of the square contains his image sculpted by David d'Angers.\n* The parish church was originally built in the Middle Ages, but was destroyed in the fire of 1628. It was quickly reconstructed between 1634 and 1638, and further between 1643 and 1644. This was later demolished in 1926-27 to allow the construction of the current church, though this still contains the steeple from the 17th-century reconstruction.\n* The Cardinalis tower was constructed in the 14th century as a bell tower for the Dominican convent, which was founded on the bequest of Hugh of Saint-Cher. It was damaged in the wars of the 17th century and was rebuilt, though parts still exist from the original construction. It is classed as a monument historique of France.\n\nThe subprefecture has been situated since 1978 in a ''maison mexicaine'', the Villa l'Ubayette, constructed between 1901 and 1903.\n",
"\n\nIn 1471, the community of Barcelonnette (including several surrounding parishes) comprised 421 fires (households). In 1765, it had 6674 inhabitants, but emigration, particularly to Mexico, slowed the town's growth in the period before the Second World War. According to the census of 2007, Barcelonnette has a population of 2766 (municipal population) or 2939 (total) across a total of 16.42 km2. The town is characterised by low population density. Between 1990 and 1999 the town's annual mean population growth was -0.6%, though between 1999 and 2007 this increased to an average of -0.1%.\n",
"The city is mainly a tourist and resort centre, serving many ski lodges. The Pra-Loup resort is 7 km from Barcelonnette; Le Sauze is 5 km away. It and the Ubaye Valley are served by the Barcelonnette – Saint-Pons Airfield. Notably, Barcelonnette is the only subprefecture of France not served by rail transport; the Ubaye line which would have linked Chorges to Barcelonnette was never completed as a result of the First World War and the construction of the Serre-Ponçon Dam between 1955 and 1961.\n",
"An ''école normale'' (an institute for training primary school teachers) was founded in Barcelonnette in 1833, and remained there until 1888 when it was transferred to Digne. The ''lycée André-Honnorat de Barcelonnette'', originally the ''collège Saint-Maurice'' and renamed after the politician André Honnorat in 1919, is located in the town; Pierre-Gilles de Gennes and Carole Merle both studied there. Currently, three schools exist in Barcelonnette: a public nursery school, a public elementary school, and a private school (under a contract by which the teachers are paid by the national education system).\n\nIn 2010 the ''lycée André-Honnorat'' opened a boarding school aimed at gifted students of poorer social backgrounds, in order to give them better conditions in which to study. It is located in the ''Quartier Craplet'', formerly the garrison of the 11th Battalion of ''Chasseurs Alpins'' and then the French Army's ''Centre d'instruction et d'entraînement au combat en montagne'' (CIECM).\n",
"Barcelonnette is twinned with:\n* Valle de Bravo, Mexico\nIt is also the site of a Mexican honorary consulate.\n",
"*Pierre-Gilles de Gennes (1932–2007), physicist and winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1991\n*Jacques-Antoine Manuel (1775–1827), lawyer, politician and orator\n*Paul Reynaud (1878–1966), liberal politician and lawyer\n*Daniel Spagnou (born 1940), UMP politician\n*Bruno Dary (born 1952), general and military governor of Paris\n\n\n",
"\n",
"\n*\n* Tourism website \n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Toponymy",
"History",
"Geography",
"Architecture",
"Population",
"Economy",
"Education",
"International links",
"Notable residents",
"References",
"External links"
] | Barcelonnette | [
"It lies at an elevation of 1132 m (3717 ft) on the right bank of the Ubaye River, and is surrounded by mountains which reach peaks of over 3000 m; the tallest of these is the Needle of Chambeyron at 3412 m. Barcelonnette is situated 210 km from Turin, 91 km from Nice and 68 km from Gap."
] | [
"\n\n'''Barcelonnette''' (; ) is a commune of France and a subprefecture in the department of Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region.",
"It is located in the southern French Alps, at the crossroads between Provence, Piedmont and the Dauphiné, and is the largest town in the Ubaye Valley.",
"The town's inhabitants are known as ''Barcelonnettes''.",
"Barcelonnette was founded and named in 1231, by Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence.",
"While the town's name is generally seen as a diminutive form of Barcelona in Catalonia, Albert Dauzat and Charles Rostaing point out an earlier attestation of the name ''Barcilona'' in Barcelonnette in around 1200, and suggest that it is derived instead from two earlier stems signifying a mountain, *''bar'' and *''cin'' (the latter of which is also seen in the name of Mont Cenis).",
"In the Vivaro-Alpine dialect of Occitan, the town is known as ''Barcilona de Provença'' or more rarely ''Barciloneta'' according to the classical norm; under the Mistralian norm it is called ''Barcilouna de Prouvença'' or ''Barcilouneto''.",
"In ''Valéian'' (the dialect of Occitan spoken in the Ubaye Valley), it is called ''Barcilouna de Prouvença'' or ''Barcilounéta''.",
"''Barcino Nova'' is the town's Latin name meaning \"new Barcelona\"; ''Barcino'' was the Roman name for Barcelona in Catalonia from its foundation by Emperor Augustus in 10 BC, and it was only changed to ''Barcelona'' in the Middle Ages.",
"The inhabitants of the town are called ''Barcelonnettes'', or ''Vilandroises'' in Valéian.",
"\n===Origins===\nThe Barcelonnette region was populated by Ligures from the 1st millennium BC onwards, and the arrival of the Celts several centuries later led to the formation of a mixed Celto-Ligurian people, the Vesubians.",
"Polybius described the Vesubians as belligerent but nonetheless civilised and mercantile, and Julius Caesar praised their bravery.",
"The work ''History of the Gauls'' also places the Vesubians in the Ubaye Valley.",
"Following the Roman conquest of Provence, Barcelonnette was included in a small province with modern Embrun as its capital and governed by Albanus Bassalus.",
"This was integrated soon afterwards into Gallia Narbonensis.",
"In 36 AD, Emperor Nero transferred Barcelonnette to the province of the Cottian Alps.",
"The town was known as ''Rigomagensium'' under the Roman Empire and was the capital of a civitas (a provincial subdivision), though no Roman money has yet been found in the canton of Barcelonnette.",
"===Medieval town===\nThe town of Barcelonnette was founded in 1231 by Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence.",
"According to Charles Rostaing, this act of formal \"foundation\", according certain privileges to the town, was a means of regenerating the destroyed town of ''Barcilona''.",
"The town was afforded a ''consulat'' (giving it the power to administer and defend itself) in 1240.",
"Control of the area in the Middle Ages swung between the Counts of Savoy and of Provence.",
"In 1388, after Count Louis II of Provence had left to conquer Naples, the Count of Savoy Amadeus VIII took control of Barcelonnette; however, it returned to Provençal control in 1390, with the d'Audiffret family as its lords.",
"On the death of Louis II in 1417 it reverted to Savoy, and, although Count René again retook the area for Provence in 1471, it had returned to Savoyard dominance by the start of the 16th century, by which point the County of Provence had become united with the Kingdom of France due to the death of Count Charles V in 1481.",
"===Ancien Régime===\nDuring Charles V's invasion of Provence in 1536, Francis I of France sent the Count of Fürstenberg's 6000 ''Landsknechte'' to ravage the area in a scorched earth policy.",
"Barcelonnette and the Ubaye Valley remained under French sovereignty until the second Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis on 3 April 1559.",
"In 1588 the troops of François, Duke of Lesdiguières entered the town and set fire to the church and convent during their campaign against the Duke of Savoy.",
"In 1600, after the Treaty of Vervins, conflict returned between Henry IV of France and Savoy, and Lesdiguières retook Barcelonnette until the conclusion of the Treaty of Lyon on 17 January the following year.",
"In 1628, during the War of the Mantuan Succession, Barcelonnette and the other towns of the Ubaye Valley were pillaged and burned by Jacques du Blé d'Uxelles and his troops, as they passed through towards Italy to the Duke of Mantua's aid.",
"The town was retaken by the Duke of Savoy in 1630; and in 1691 it was captured by the troops of the Marquis de Vins during the War of the League of Augsburg.",
"Between 1614 and 1713, Barcelonnette was the seat of one of the four prefectures under the jurisdiction of the Senate of Nice.",
"At this time, the community of Barcelonnette successfully purchased the ''seigneurie'' of the town as it was put to auction by the Duke of Savoy; it thereby gained its own justicial powers.",
"In 1646, a college was founded in Barcelonnette.",
"A \"significant\" part of the town's inhabitants had, by the 16th century, converted to Protestantism, and were repressed during the French Wars of Religion.",
"The ''viguerie'' of Barcelonnette (also comprising Saint-Martin and Entraunes) was reattached to France in 1713 as part of a territorial exchange with the Duchy of Savoy during the Treaties of Utrecht.",
"The town remained the site of a ''viguerie'' until the French Revolution.",
"A decree of the council of state on 25 December 1714 reunited Barcelonnete with the general government of Provence.",
"===Revolution===\nBarcelonnette was one of few settlements in Haute-Provence to acquire a Masonic Lodge before the Revolution, in fact having two:\n* the lodge of ''Saint-Jean-d’Écosse des amis réunis'', affiliated with the ''Saint-Jean-d'Écosse'' lodge in Marseille;\n* the lodge of ''Saint-Jean'', affiliated with the ''Saint-Jean-de-Jérusalem d'Avignon'' lodge founded in 1749.",
"In March 1789, riots took place as a result of a crisis in wheat production.",
"In July, the Great Fear of aristocratic reprisal against the ongoing French Revolution struck France, arriving in the Barcelonnette area on 31 July 1789 (when the news of the storming of the Bastille first reached the town) before spreading towards Digne.",
"This agitation continued in the Ubaye Valley; a new revolt broke out on 14 June, and famine was declared in April 1792.",
"The patriotic society of the commune was one of the first 21 created in Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, in spring 1792, by the envoys of the departmental administration.",
"Around a third of the male population attended at the club.",
"Another episode of political violence occurred in August 1792.",
"Barcelonnette was the seat of the District of Barcelonnette from 1790 to 1800.",
"===Modern history===\nA ''maison mexicaine'' in Barcelonnette\nIn December 1851, the town was home to a movement of republican resistance towards Napoleon III's coup.",
"Though only a minority of the population, the movement rebelled on Sunday 7 December, the day after the news of the coup arrived.",
"Town officials and gendarmes were disarmed and placed in the maison d'arrêt.",
"A committee of public health was created on 8 December; on 9 December the inhabitants of Jausiers and its surroundings formed a colony under the direction of general councillor Brès, and Mayor Signoret of Saint-Paul-sur-Ubaye.",
"This was stopped, however, on 10 December before it could reach Barcelonnette, as the priest of the subprefecture had intervened.",
"On 11 December, several officials escaped and found refuge in L'Argentière in Piedmont.",
"The arrival of troops on 16 December put a final end to the republican resistance without bloodshed, and 57 insurgents were tried; 38 were condemned to deportation (though several were pardoned in April).",
"Between 1850 and 1950, Barcelonnette was the source of a wave of emigration to Mexico.",
"Among these emigrants was Jean Baptiste Ebrard, founder of the Liverpool department store chain in Mexico; Marcelo Ebrard, the head of government of Mexico City from 2006 to 2012, is also descended from them.",
"On the edges of Barcelonnette and Jausiers there are several houses and villas of colonial style (known as ''maisons mexicaines''), constructed by emigrants to Mexico who returned to France between 1870 and 1930.",
"A plaque in the town commemorates the deaths of ten Mexican citizens who returned to Barcelonnette to fight in the First World War.",
"During the Second World War, 26 Jews were arrested in Barcelonnette before being deported.",
"The 89th ''compagnie de travailleurs étrangers'' (Company of Foreign Workers), consisting of foreigners judged as undesirable by the Third Republic and the Vichy regime and committed to forced labour, was established in Barcelonnette.",
"The 11th Battalion of ''Chasseurs alpins'' was garrisoned at Barcelonnette between 1948 and 1990.",
"Barcelonnette is situated in the wide and fertile Ubaye Valley, of which it is the largest town.",
"===Biodiversity===\nAs a result of its relief and geographic situation, the Ubaye Valley has an \"abundance of plant and animal species\".",
"The fauna is largely constituted of golden eagles, marmots, ibex and vultures, and the flora includes a large proportion of larches, génépis and white asphodels.",
"===Climate===\nBarcelonnette in winter\nThe Ubaye Valley has an alpine climate and winters are harsh as a result of the altitude, but there are only light winds as a result of the relief.",
"There are on average almost 300 days of sun and 700 mm of rain per year.",
"===Hazards===\nNone of the 200 communes of the department is entirely free of seismic risk; the canton of Barcelonnette is placed in zone 1b (low risk) by the determinist classification of 1991 based on seismic history, and zone 4 (average risk) according to the probabilistic EC8 classification of 2011.",
"The commune is also vulnerable to avalanches, forest fires, floods, and landslides.",
"Barcelonnette is also exposed to the possibility of a technological hazard in that road transport of dangerous materials is allowed to pass through on the RD900.",
"The town has been subject to several orders of natural disaster: floods and mudslides in 1994 and 2008, and landslides in 1996 and 1999.",
"The strongest recorded earthquakes in the region occurred on 5 April 1959, with its epicentre at Saint-Paul-sur-Ubaye and a recorded intensity of 6.5 at Barcelonnette, and on 17 February 1947, with its epicentre at Prazzo over the Italian border.",
"''Chasseurs alpins'' in front of the Barcelonnette town hall in May 1970\n* The town hall was constructed in the 1930s after the destruction of the Saint Maurice chapel in July 1934.",
"Its pediment was originally from the old Dominican convent and was identified in 1988.",
"No houses in the town date from before the 17th century, the town having been rebuilt after the fire of 1628.",
"The old hospital in the town dates from 1717.",
"* The old gendarmerie on Place Manuel was originally constructed to house the subprefecture in 1825 in a neoclassical style, and its façade occupies one entire side of the square.",
"Place Manuel was named after the Restoration politician Jacques-Antoine Manuel; the fountain in the centre of the square contains his image sculpted by David d'Angers.",
"* The parish church was originally built in the Middle Ages, but was destroyed in the fire of 1628.",
"It was quickly reconstructed between 1634 and 1638, and further between 1643 and 1644.",
"This was later demolished in 1926-27 to allow the construction of the current church, though this still contains the steeple from the 17th-century reconstruction.",
"* The Cardinalis tower was constructed in the 14th century as a bell tower for the Dominican convent, which was founded on the bequest of Hugh of Saint-Cher.",
"It was damaged in the wars of the 17th century and was rebuilt, though parts still exist from the original construction.",
"It is classed as a monument historique of France.",
"The subprefecture has been situated since 1978 in a ''maison mexicaine'', the Villa l'Ubayette, constructed between 1901 and 1903.",
"\n\nIn 1471, the community of Barcelonnette (including several surrounding parishes) comprised 421 fires (households).",
"In 1765, it had 6674 inhabitants, but emigration, particularly to Mexico, slowed the town's growth in the period before the Second World War.",
"According to the census of 2007, Barcelonnette has a population of 2766 (municipal population) or 2939 (total) across a total of 16.42 km2.",
"The town is characterised by low population density.",
"Between 1990 and 1999 the town's annual mean population growth was -0.6%, though between 1999 and 2007 this increased to an average of -0.1%.",
"The city is mainly a tourist and resort centre, serving many ski lodges.",
"The Pra-Loup resort is 7 km from Barcelonnette; Le Sauze is 5 km away.",
"It and the Ubaye Valley are served by the Barcelonnette – Saint-Pons Airfield.",
"Notably, Barcelonnette is the only subprefecture of France not served by rail transport; the Ubaye line which would have linked Chorges to Barcelonnette was never completed as a result of the First World War and the construction of the Serre-Ponçon Dam between 1955 and 1961.",
"An ''école normale'' (an institute for training primary school teachers) was founded in Barcelonnette in 1833, and remained there until 1888 when it was transferred to Digne.",
"The ''lycée André-Honnorat de Barcelonnette'', originally the ''collège Saint-Maurice'' and renamed after the politician André Honnorat in 1919, is located in the town; Pierre-Gilles de Gennes and Carole Merle both studied there.",
"Currently, three schools exist in Barcelonnette: a public nursery school, a public elementary school, and a private school (under a contract by which the teachers are paid by the national education system).",
"In 2010 the ''lycée André-Honnorat'' opened a boarding school aimed at gifted students of poorer social backgrounds, in order to give them better conditions in which to study.",
"It is located in the ''Quartier Craplet'', formerly the garrison of the 11th Battalion of ''Chasseurs Alpins'' and then the French Army's ''Centre d'instruction et d'entraînement au combat en montagne'' (CIECM).",
"Barcelonnette is twinned with:\n* Valle de Bravo, Mexico\nIt is also the site of a Mexican honorary consulate.",
"*Pierre-Gilles de Gennes (1932–2007), physicist and winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1991\n*Jacques-Antoine Manuel (1775–1827), lawyer, politician and orator\n*Paul Reynaud (1878–1966), liberal politician and lawyer\n*Daniel Spagnou (born 1940), UMP politician\n*Bruno Dary (born 1952), general and military governor of Paris",
"\n*\n* Tourism website"
] | river |
[
"The Roman empire under Hadrian (ruled 117—138), showing the location of the '''Burgundiones''' Germanic group, then inhabiting the region between the Viadua (Oder) and Visula (Vistula) rivers (Poland) \nThe '''Burgundians''' (; ; ; ) were a large East Germanic or Vandal tribe, or group of tribes, who lived in the area of modern Poland in the time of the Roman Empire.\n\nIn the late Roman period, as the empire came under pressure from many such \"barbarian\" peoples, a powerful group of Burgundians and other Vandalic tribes moved westwards towards the Roman frontiers along the Rhine Valley, making them neighbors of the Franks who formed their kingdoms to the north, and the Suebic Alemanni who were settling to their south, also near the Rhine. They established themselves in Worms, but with Roman cooperation their descendants eventually established the Kingdom of the Burgundians much further south, and within the empire, in the western Alps region where modern Switzerland, France and Italy meet. This later became a component of the Frankish empire. The name of this Kingdom survives in the regional appellation, Burgundy, which is a region in modern France, representing only a part of that kingdom.\n\nAnother part of the Burgundians stayed in their previous homeland in the Oder-Vistula basin and formed a contingent in Attila's Hunnic army by 451.\n\nBefore clear documentary evidence begins, the Burgundians may have originally emigrated from mainland Scandinavia to the Baltic island of Bornholm, and from there to the Vistula basin, in the middle of modern Poland.\n",
"\nThe ethnonym Burgundians is commonly used in English to refer to the ''Burgundi'' (''Burgundionei'', ''Burgundiones'' or ''Burgunds'') who settled in Sapaudia (Savoy), in the western Alps, during the 5th Century. The original Kingdom of the Burgundians barely intersected the modern ''Bourgogne'' and more closely matched the boundaries of the Arpitan or Romand (Franco-Provencal) language area, centred on the ''Rôno-Arpes'' (Rhône-Alpes) region of France, Romandy in west Switzerland and '' Val d'Outa'' (Val d'Aosta), in north west Italy.\n\nIn modern usage, however, \"Burgundians\" can sometimes refer to later inhabitants of the geographical ''Bourgogne'' or ''Borgogne'' (Burgundy), named after the old kingdom, but not corresponding to the original boundaries of it. Between the 6th and 20th centuries, the boundaries and political connections of \"Burgundy\" have changed frequently. In modern times the only area still referred to as Burgundy is in France, which derives its name from the Duchy of Burgundy. But in the context of the middle ages the term Burgundian (or similar spellings) can refer even to the powerful political entity the Dukes controlled which included not only Burgundy itself but had actually expanded to have a strong association with areas now in modern Belgium. The parts of the old Kingdom not within the French controlled Duchy tended to come under different names, except for the County of Burgundy.\n",
"\n===Background===\nLocation of the island of Bornholm\nThe Burgundians had a tradition of Scandinavian origin which finds support in place-name evidence and archaeological evidence (Stjerna) and many consider their tradition to be correct (e.g. Musset, p. 62). The Burgundians are believed to have then emigrated to the Baltic island of Bornholm (\"the island of the Burgundians\" in Old Norse). However, by about 250 CE, the population of Bornholm had largely disappeared from the island. Most cemeteries ceased to be used, and those that were still used had few burials (Stjerna, in Nerman 1925:176). In ''Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar'' (''The Saga of Thorstein, Viking's Son''), the Veseti settled in an island or holm, which was called Borgund's holm, i.e. Bornholm. Alfred the Great's translation of ''Orosius'' uses the name ''Burgenda land'' to refer to a territory next to the land of Sweons (\"Swedes\"). The poet and early mythologist Viktor Rydberg (1828–1895), (''Our Fathers' Godsaga'') asserted from an early medieval source, ''Vita Sigismundi'', that they themselves retained oral traditions about their Scandinavian origin.\n\nEarly Roman sources, such as Tacitus and Pliny the Elder, knew little concerning the Germanic peoples east of the Elbe river, or on the Baltic Sea. Pliny (IV.28) however mentions them among the Vandalic or Eastern Germanic Germani peoples, including also the Goths. Claudius Ptolemy lists them as living between the Suevus (probably the Oder) and Vistula rivers, north of the Lugii, and south of the coast dwelling tribes. Around the mid 2nd century AD, there was a significant migration by Germanic tribes of Scandinavian origin (Rugii, Goths, Gepidae, Vandals, Burgundians, and others) towards the south-east, creating turmoil along the entire Roman frontier. These migrations culminated in the Marcomannic Wars, which resulted in widespread destruction and the first invasion of Italy in the Roman Empire period. Jordanes reports that during the 3rd century, the Burgundians living in the Vistula basin were almost annihilated by Fastida, king of the Gepids, whose kingdom was at the mouth of the Vistula.\n\nIn the late 3rd century, the Burgundians appear on the east bank of the Rhine, confronting Roman Gaul. Zosimus (1.68) reports them being defeated by the emperor Probus in 278 in Gaul. At this time, they were led by a Vandal king. A few years later, Claudius Mamertinus mentions them along with the Alamanni, a Suebic people. These two peoples had moved into the Agri Decumates on the eastern side of the Rhine, an area today referred to still as Swabia, at times attacking Roman Gaul together and sometimes fighting each other. He also mentions that the Goths had previously defeated the Burgundians.\n\nAmmianus Marcellinus, on the other hand, claimed that the Burgundians were descended from Romans. The Roman sources do not speak of any specific migration from Poland by the Burgundians (although other Vandalic peoples are more clearly mentioned as having moved west in this period), and so there have historically been some doubts about the link between the eastern and western Burgundians.\n\nIn 369/370, the Emperor Valentinian I enlisted the aid of the Burgundians in his war against the Alemanni.\n\nApproximately four decades later, the Burgundians appear again. Following Stilicho's withdrawal of troops to fight Alaric I the Visigoth in AD 406-408, the northern tribes crossed the Rhine and entered the Empire in the ''Völkerwanderung'', or Germanic migrations. Among them were the Alans, Vandals, the Suevi, and possibly some Burgundians. Some Burgundians migrated westwards and settled as ''foederati'' in the Roman province of Germania Secunda along the Middle Rhine. Other Burgundians stayed in their previous homeland in Oder-Vistula interfluvial and formed a contingent in Attila's Hunnic army by 451.\n\n===Kingdom===\n\n\n====Establishment====\nIn 411, the Burgundian king Gundahar (or ''Gundicar'') set up a puppet emperor, Jovinus, in cooperation with Goar, king of the Alans. With the authority of the Gallic emperor that he controlled, Gundahar settled on the left (Roman) bank of the Rhine, between the river Lauter and the Nahe, seizing Worms, Speyer, and Strassburg. Apparently as part of a truce, the Emperor Honorius later officially \"granted\" them the land, (Prosper, a. 386) with its capital at the old Celtic Roman settlement of Borbetomagus (present Worms).\n\nDespite their new status as ''foederati'', Burgundian raids into Roman Upper Gallia Belgica became intolerable and were ruthlessly brought to an end in 436, when the Roman general Aëtius called in Hun mercenaries, who overwhelmed the Rhineland kingdom in 437. Gundahar was killed in the fighting, reportedly along with the majority of the Burgundian tribe. (Prosper; ''Chronica Gallica 452''; Hydatius; and Sidonius Apollinaris)\n\nThe destruction of Worms and the Burgundian kingdom by the Huns became the subject of heroic legends that were afterwards incorporated in the ''Nibelungenlied''—on which Wagner based his Ring Cycle—where King Gunther (Gundahar) and Queen Brünhild hold their court at Worms, and Siegfried comes to woo Kriemhild. (In Old Norse sources the names are ''Gunnar'', ''Brynhild'', and ''Gudrún'' as normally rendered in English.) In fact, the ''Etzel'' of the ''Nibelungenlied'' is based on Attila the Hun.\n\n===Settlement in Savoy===\nThe Second Burgundian Kingdom between 443 and 476\nFor reasons not cited in the sources, the Burgundians were granted ''foederati'' status a second time, and in 443 were resettled by Aëtius in the region of ''Sapaudia''. (''Chronica Gallica 452'') Though the precise geography is uncertain, ''Sapaudia'' corresponds to the modern-day Savoy, and the Burgundians probably lived near ''Lugdunum'', known today as Lyon. (Wood 1994, Gregory II, 9) A new king Gundioc or ''Gunderic'', presumed to be Gundahar's son, appears to have reigned following his father's death. (Drew, p. 1) The historian Pline tells us that Gonderic reigned the areas of Saône, Dauphiny, Savoie and a part of Provence. He set up Vienne as the capital of the kingdom of Burgundy. In all, eight Burgundian kings of the house of Gundahar ruled until the kingdom was overrun by the Franks in 534.\n\nAs allies of Rome in its last decades, the Burgundians fought alongside Aëtius and a confederation of Visigoths and others in the battle against Attila at the Battle of Châlons (also called \"The Battle of the Catalaunian Fields\") in 451. The alliance between Burgundians and Visigoths seems to have been strong, as Gundioc and his brother Chilperic I accompanied Theodoric II to Spain to fight the Sueves in 455. (Jordanes, ''Getica'', 231)\n\n====Aspirations to the Empire====\nAlso in 455, an ambiguous reference ''infidoque tibi Burdundio ductu'' (Sidonius Apollinaris in ''Panegyr. Avit''. 442.) implicates an unnamed treacherous Burgundian leader in the murder of the emperor Petronius Maximus in the chaos preceding the sack of Rome by the Vandals. The Patrician Ricimer is also blamed; this event marks the first indication of the link between the Burgundians and Ricimer, who was probably Gundioc's brother-in-law and Gundobad's uncle, (John Malalas, 374)\n\nIn 456, the Burgundians, apparently confident in their growing power, negotiated a territorial expansion and power sharing arrangement with the local Roman senators. (Marius of Avenches)\n\nIn 457, Ricimer overthrew another emperor, Avitus, raising Majorian to the throne. This new emperor proved unhelpful to Ricimer and the Burgundians. The year after his ascension, Majorian stripped the Burgundians of the lands they had acquired two years earlier. After showing further signs of independence, he was murdered by Ricimer in 461.\n\nTen years later, in 472, Ricimer–who was by now the son-in-law of the Western Emperor Anthemius–was plotting with Gundobad to kill his father-in-law; Gundobad beheaded the emperor (apparently personally). (''Chronica Gallica 511''; John of Antioch, fr. 209; Jordanes, ''Getica'', 239) Ricimer then appointed Olybrius; both died, surprisingly of natural causes, within a few months. Gundobad seems then to have succeeded his uncle as Patrician and king-maker, and raised Glycerius to the throne. (Marius of Avenches; John of Antioch, fr. 209)\n\nIn 474, Burgundian influence over the empire seems to have ended. Glycerius was deposed in favor of Julius Nepos, and Gundobad returned to Burgundy, presumably at the death of his father Gundioc. At this time or shortly afterwards, the Burgundian kingdom was divided between Gundobad and his brothers, Godigisel, Chilperic II, and Gundomar I. (Gregory, II, 28)\n\n====Consolidation of the Kingdom====\nKingdom of the Burgundians in around 500\nAccording to Gregory of Tours, the years following Gundobad's return to Burgundy saw a bloody consolidation of power. Gregory states that Gundobad murdered his brother Chilperic, drowning his wife and exiling their daughters (one of whom was to become the wife of Clovis the Frank, and was reputedly responsible for his conversion). This is contested by, e.g., Bury, who points out problems in much of Gregory's chronology for the events.\n\nC.500, when Gundobad and Clovis were at war, Gundobad appears to have been betrayed by his brother Godegisel, who joined the Franks; together Godegisel's and Clovis' forces \"crushed the army of Gundobad\". (Marius a. 500; Gregory, II, 32) Gundobad was temporarily holed up in Avignon, but was able to re-muster his army and sacked Vienne, where Godegisel and many of his followers were put to death. From this point, Gundobad appears to have been the sole king of Burgundy. (e.g., Gregory, II, 33) This would imply that his brother Gundomar was already dead, though there are no specific mentions of the event in the sources.\n\nEither Gundobad and Clovis reconciled their differences, or Gundobad was forced into some sort of vassalage by Clovis' earlier victory, as the Burgundian king appears to have assisted the Franks in 507 in their victory over Alaric II the Visigoth.\n\nDuring the upheaval, sometime between 483-501, Gundobad began to set forth the ''Lex Gundobada'' (see below), issuing roughly the first half, which drew upon the ''Lex Visigothorum''. (Drew, p. 1) Following his consolidation of power, between 501 and his death in 516, Gundobad issued the second half of his law, which was more originally Burgundian.\n\n====Fall====\nBurgundy as part of the Frankish Empire between 534 and 843\n\nThe Burgundians were extending their power over southeastern Gaul; that is, northern Italy, western Switzerland, and southeastern France. In 493, Clovis, king of the Franks, married the Burgundian princess Clotilda (daughter of Chilperic), who converted him to the Catholic faith.\n\nAt first allied with Clovis' Franks against the Visigoths in the early 6th century, the Burgundians were eventually conquered at Autun by the Franks in 532 after a first attempt in the Battle of Vézeronce. The Burgundian kingdom was made part of the Merovingian kingdoms, and the Burgundians themselves were by and large absorbed as well.\n\n",
"The 5th century Gallo-Roman poet and landowner Sidonius, who at one point lived with the Burgundians, described them as a long-haired people of immense physical size:\n",
"\n\nThe '''Burgundian language''' belonged to the East Germanic language group. It appears to have become extinct during the late sixth century.\n\nLittle is known of the language. Some proper names of Burgundians are recorded, and some words used in the area in modern times are thought to be derived from the ancient Burgundian language, but it is often difficult to distinguish these from Germanic words of other origin, and in any case the modern form of the words is rarely suitable to infer much about the form in the old language.\n\n===Religion===\nSomewhere in the east the Burgundians had converted to the Arian form of Christianity from their native Germanic polytheism. Their Arianism proved a source of suspicion and distrust between the Burgundians and the Catholic Western Roman Empire. Divisions were evidently healed or healing circa AD 500, however, as Gundobad, one of the last Burgundian kings, maintained a close personal friendship with Avitus, the bishop of Vienne. Moreover, Gundobad's son and successor, Sigismund, was himself a Catholic, and there is evidence that many of the Burgundian people had converted by this time as well, including several female members of the ruling family.\n\n===Law===\nThe Burgundians left three legal codes, among the earliest from any of the Germanic tribes.\n\nThe '''Liber Constitutionum sive Lex Gundobada''' (''The Book of Constitutions or Law of Gundobad''), also known as the ''Lex Burgundionum'', or more simply the ''Lex Gundobada'' or the ''Liber'', was issued in several parts between 483 and 516, principally by Gundobad, but also by his son, Sigismund. (Drew, p. 6–7) It was a record of Burgundian customary law and is typical of the many Germanic law codes from this period. In particular, the ''Liber'' borrowed from the ''Lex Visigothorum'' (Drew, p. 6) and influenced the later ''Lex Ribuaria''. (Rivers, p. 9) The ''Liber'' is one of the primary sources for contemporary Burgundian life, as well as the history of its kings.\n\nLike many of the Germanic tribes, the Burgundians' legal traditions allowed the application of separate laws for separate ethnicities. Thus, in addition to the ''Lex Gundobada'', Gundobad also issued (or codified) a set of laws for Roman subjects of the Burgundian kingdom, the ''Lex Romana Burgundionum'' (''The Roman Law of the Burgundians'').\n\nIn addition to the above codes, Gundobad's son Sigismund later published the ''Prima Constitutio''.\n\n\n",
"\n\n* Nibelung (later legends of the Burgundian kings).\n* King of Burgundy\n* Duchy of Burgundy\n* Franche-Comté\n* Dauphiné (Dauphiny)\n* List of Germanic tribes\n",
"\n===Notes===\n\n\n===Sources===\n\n* Bury, J.B. ''The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians.'' London: Macmillan and Co., 1928.\n* Dalton, O.M. ''The History of the Franks, by Gregory of Tours.'' Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1927.\n* Drew, Katherine Fischer. ''The Burgundian Code.'' Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972.\n* Gordon, C.D. ''The Age of Attila.'' Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1961.\n* Guichard, Rene, ''Essai sur l'histoire du peuple burgonde, de Bornholm (Burgundarholm) vers la Bourgogne et les Bourguignons'', 1965, published by A. et J. Picard et Cie.\n* \n* Murray, Alexander Callander. ''From Roman to Merovingian Gaul.'' Broadview Press, 2000.\n* Musset, Lucien. ''The Germanic Invasions: The Making of Europe AD 400-600.'' University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1975. .\n* Nerman, Birger. ''Det svenska rikets uppkomst''. Generalstabens litagrafiska anstalt: Stockholm. 1925.\n* Rivers, Theodore John. ''Laws of the Salian and Ripuarian Franks.'' New York: AMS Press, 1986.\n* Rolfe, J.C., trans, ''Ammianus Marcellinus.'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1950.\n* Shanzer, Danuta. 'Dating the Baptism of Clovis.' In ''Early Medieval Europe'', volume 7, pages 29–57. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 1998.\n* Shanzer, D. and I. Wood. ''Avitus of Vienne: Letters and Selected Prose. Translated with an Introduction and Notes.'' Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2002.\n* Werner, J. (1953). \"Beiträge sur Archäologie des Attila-Reiches\", ''Die Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaft. Abhandlungen.'' Philosophische-philologische und historische Klasse. Münche\n* Wood, Ian N. 'Ethnicity and the Ethnogenesis of the Burgundians'. In Herwig Wolfram and Walter Pohl, editors, ''Typen der Ethnogenese unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Bayern'', volume 1, pages 53–69. Vienna: Denkschriften der Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1990.\n* Wood, Ian N. ''The Merovingian Kingdoms.'' Harlow, England: The Longman Group, 1994.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Name",
"History",
"Physical appearance",
"Language",
"See also",
"References"
] | Burgundians | [
"In the late 3rd century, the Burgundians appear on the east bank of the Rhine, confronting Roman Gaul.",
"With the authority of the Gallic emperor that he controlled, Gundahar settled on the left (Roman) bank of the Rhine, between the river Lauter and the Nahe, seizing Worms, Speyer, and Strassburg."
] | [
"The Roman empire under Hadrian (ruled 117—138), showing the location of the '''Burgundiones''' Germanic group, then inhabiting the region between the Viadua (Oder) and Visula (Vistula) rivers (Poland) \nThe '''Burgundians''' (; ; ; ) were a large East Germanic or Vandal tribe, or group of tribes, who lived in the area of modern Poland in the time of the Roman Empire.",
"In the late Roman period, as the empire came under pressure from many such \"barbarian\" peoples, a powerful group of Burgundians and other Vandalic tribes moved westwards towards the Roman frontiers along the Rhine Valley, making them neighbors of the Franks who formed their kingdoms to the north, and the Suebic Alemanni who were settling to their south, also near the Rhine.",
"They established themselves in Worms, but with Roman cooperation their descendants eventually established the Kingdom of the Burgundians much further south, and within the empire, in the western Alps region where modern Switzerland, France and Italy meet.",
"This later became a component of the Frankish empire.",
"The name of this Kingdom survives in the regional appellation, Burgundy, which is a region in modern France, representing only a part of that kingdom.",
"Another part of the Burgundians stayed in their previous homeland in the Oder-Vistula basin and formed a contingent in Attila's Hunnic army by 451.",
"Before clear documentary evidence begins, the Burgundians may have originally emigrated from mainland Scandinavia to the Baltic island of Bornholm, and from there to the Vistula basin, in the middle of modern Poland.",
"\nThe ethnonym Burgundians is commonly used in English to refer to the ''Burgundi'' (''Burgundionei'', ''Burgundiones'' or ''Burgunds'') who settled in Sapaudia (Savoy), in the western Alps, during the 5th Century.",
"The original Kingdom of the Burgundians barely intersected the modern ''Bourgogne'' and more closely matched the boundaries of the Arpitan or Romand (Franco-Provencal) language area, centred on the ''Rôno-Arpes'' (Rhône-Alpes) region of France, Romandy in west Switzerland and '' Val d'Outa'' (Val d'Aosta), in north west Italy.",
"In modern usage, however, \"Burgundians\" can sometimes refer to later inhabitants of the geographical ''Bourgogne'' or ''Borgogne'' (Burgundy), named after the old kingdom, but not corresponding to the original boundaries of it.",
"Between the 6th and 20th centuries, the boundaries and political connections of \"Burgundy\" have changed frequently.",
"In modern times the only area still referred to as Burgundy is in France, which derives its name from the Duchy of Burgundy.",
"But in the context of the middle ages the term Burgundian (or similar spellings) can refer even to the powerful political entity the Dukes controlled which included not only Burgundy itself but had actually expanded to have a strong association with areas now in modern Belgium.",
"The parts of the old Kingdom not within the French controlled Duchy tended to come under different names, except for the County of Burgundy.",
"\n===Background===\nLocation of the island of Bornholm\nThe Burgundians had a tradition of Scandinavian origin which finds support in place-name evidence and archaeological evidence (Stjerna) and many consider their tradition to be correct (e.g.",
"Musset, p. 62).",
"The Burgundians are believed to have then emigrated to the Baltic island of Bornholm (\"the island of the Burgundians\" in Old Norse).",
"However, by about 250 CE, the population of Bornholm had largely disappeared from the island.",
"Most cemeteries ceased to be used, and those that were still used had few burials (Stjerna, in Nerman 1925:176).",
"In ''Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar'' (''The Saga of Thorstein, Viking's Son''), the Veseti settled in an island or holm, which was called Borgund's holm, i.e.",
"Bornholm.",
"Alfred the Great's translation of ''Orosius'' uses the name ''Burgenda land'' to refer to a territory next to the land of Sweons (\"Swedes\").",
"The poet and early mythologist Viktor Rydberg (1828–1895), (''Our Fathers' Godsaga'') asserted from an early medieval source, ''Vita Sigismundi'', that they themselves retained oral traditions about their Scandinavian origin.",
"Early Roman sources, such as Tacitus and Pliny the Elder, knew little concerning the Germanic peoples east of the Elbe river, or on the Baltic Sea.",
"Pliny (IV.28) however mentions them among the Vandalic or Eastern Germanic Germani peoples, including also the Goths.",
"Claudius Ptolemy lists them as living between the Suevus (probably the Oder) and Vistula rivers, north of the Lugii, and south of the coast dwelling tribes.",
"Around the mid 2nd century AD, there was a significant migration by Germanic tribes of Scandinavian origin (Rugii, Goths, Gepidae, Vandals, Burgundians, and others) towards the south-east, creating turmoil along the entire Roman frontier.",
"These migrations culminated in the Marcomannic Wars, which resulted in widespread destruction and the first invasion of Italy in the Roman Empire period.",
"Jordanes reports that during the 3rd century, the Burgundians living in the Vistula basin were almost annihilated by Fastida, king of the Gepids, whose kingdom was at the mouth of the Vistula.",
"Zosimus (1.68) reports them being defeated by the emperor Probus in 278 in Gaul.",
"At this time, they were led by a Vandal king.",
"A few years later, Claudius Mamertinus mentions them along with the Alamanni, a Suebic people.",
"These two peoples had moved into the Agri Decumates on the eastern side of the Rhine, an area today referred to still as Swabia, at times attacking Roman Gaul together and sometimes fighting each other.",
"He also mentions that the Goths had previously defeated the Burgundians.",
"Ammianus Marcellinus, on the other hand, claimed that the Burgundians were descended from Romans.",
"The Roman sources do not speak of any specific migration from Poland by the Burgundians (although other Vandalic peoples are more clearly mentioned as having moved west in this period), and so there have historically been some doubts about the link between the eastern and western Burgundians.",
"In 369/370, the Emperor Valentinian I enlisted the aid of the Burgundians in his war against the Alemanni.",
"Approximately four decades later, the Burgundians appear again.",
"Following Stilicho's withdrawal of troops to fight Alaric I the Visigoth in AD 406-408, the northern tribes crossed the Rhine and entered the Empire in the ''Völkerwanderung'', or Germanic migrations.",
"Among them were the Alans, Vandals, the Suevi, and possibly some Burgundians.",
"Some Burgundians migrated westwards and settled as ''foederati'' in the Roman province of Germania Secunda along the Middle Rhine.",
"Other Burgundians stayed in their previous homeland in Oder-Vistula interfluvial and formed a contingent in Attila's Hunnic army by 451.",
"===Kingdom===\n\n\n====Establishment====\nIn 411, the Burgundian king Gundahar (or ''Gundicar'') set up a puppet emperor, Jovinus, in cooperation with Goar, king of the Alans.",
"Apparently as part of a truce, the Emperor Honorius later officially \"granted\" them the land, (Prosper, a.",
"386) with its capital at the old Celtic Roman settlement of Borbetomagus (present Worms).",
"Despite their new status as ''foederati'', Burgundian raids into Roman Upper Gallia Belgica became intolerable and were ruthlessly brought to an end in 436, when the Roman general Aëtius called in Hun mercenaries, who overwhelmed the Rhineland kingdom in 437.",
"Gundahar was killed in the fighting, reportedly along with the majority of the Burgundian tribe.",
"(Prosper; ''Chronica Gallica 452''; Hydatius; and Sidonius Apollinaris)\n\nThe destruction of Worms and the Burgundian kingdom by the Huns became the subject of heroic legends that were afterwards incorporated in the ''Nibelungenlied''—on which Wagner based his Ring Cycle—where King Gunther (Gundahar) and Queen Brünhild hold their court at Worms, and Siegfried comes to woo Kriemhild.",
"(In Old Norse sources the names are ''Gunnar'', ''Brynhild'', and ''Gudrún'' as normally rendered in English.)",
"In fact, the ''Etzel'' of the ''Nibelungenlied'' is based on Attila the Hun.",
"===Settlement in Savoy===\nThe Second Burgundian Kingdom between 443 and 476\nFor reasons not cited in the sources, the Burgundians were granted ''foederati'' status a second time, and in 443 were resettled by Aëtius in the region of ''Sapaudia''.",
"(''Chronica Gallica 452'') Though the precise geography is uncertain, ''Sapaudia'' corresponds to the modern-day Savoy, and the Burgundians probably lived near ''Lugdunum'', known today as Lyon.",
"(Wood 1994, Gregory II, 9) A new king Gundioc or ''Gunderic'', presumed to be Gundahar's son, appears to have reigned following his father's death.",
"(Drew, p. 1) The historian Pline tells us that Gonderic reigned the areas of Saône, Dauphiny, Savoie and a part of Provence.",
"He set up Vienne as the capital of the kingdom of Burgundy.",
"In all, eight Burgundian kings of the house of Gundahar ruled until the kingdom was overrun by the Franks in 534.",
"As allies of Rome in its last decades, the Burgundians fought alongside Aëtius and a confederation of Visigoths and others in the battle against Attila at the Battle of Châlons (also called \"The Battle of the Catalaunian Fields\") in 451.",
"The alliance between Burgundians and Visigoths seems to have been strong, as Gundioc and his brother Chilperic I accompanied Theodoric II to Spain to fight the Sueves in 455.",
"(Jordanes, ''Getica'', 231)\n\n====Aspirations to the Empire====\nAlso in 455, an ambiguous reference ''infidoque tibi Burdundio ductu'' (Sidonius Apollinaris in ''Panegyr.",
"Avit''.",
"442.)",
"implicates an unnamed treacherous Burgundian leader in the murder of the emperor Petronius Maximus in the chaos preceding the sack of Rome by the Vandals.",
"The Patrician Ricimer is also blamed; this event marks the first indication of the link between the Burgundians and Ricimer, who was probably Gundioc's brother-in-law and Gundobad's uncle, (John Malalas, 374)\n\nIn 456, the Burgundians, apparently confident in their growing power, negotiated a territorial expansion and power sharing arrangement with the local Roman senators.",
"(Marius of Avenches)\n\nIn 457, Ricimer overthrew another emperor, Avitus, raising Majorian to the throne.",
"This new emperor proved unhelpful to Ricimer and the Burgundians.",
"The year after his ascension, Majorian stripped the Burgundians of the lands they had acquired two years earlier.",
"After showing further signs of independence, he was murdered by Ricimer in 461.",
"Ten years later, in 472, Ricimer–who was by now the son-in-law of the Western Emperor Anthemius–was plotting with Gundobad to kill his father-in-law; Gundobad beheaded the emperor (apparently personally).",
"(''Chronica Gallica 511''; John of Antioch, fr.",
"209; Jordanes, ''Getica'', 239) Ricimer then appointed Olybrius; both died, surprisingly of natural causes, within a few months.",
"Gundobad seems then to have succeeded his uncle as Patrician and king-maker, and raised Glycerius to the throne.",
"(Marius of Avenches; John of Antioch, fr.",
"209)\n\nIn 474, Burgundian influence over the empire seems to have ended.",
"Glycerius was deposed in favor of Julius Nepos, and Gundobad returned to Burgundy, presumably at the death of his father Gundioc.",
"At this time or shortly afterwards, the Burgundian kingdom was divided between Gundobad and his brothers, Godigisel, Chilperic II, and Gundomar I.",
"(Gregory, II, 28)\n\n====Consolidation of the Kingdom====\nKingdom of the Burgundians in around 500\nAccording to Gregory of Tours, the years following Gundobad's return to Burgundy saw a bloody consolidation of power.",
"Gregory states that Gundobad murdered his brother Chilperic, drowning his wife and exiling their daughters (one of whom was to become the wife of Clovis the Frank, and was reputedly responsible for his conversion).",
"This is contested by, e.g., Bury, who points out problems in much of Gregory's chronology for the events.",
"C.500, when Gundobad and Clovis were at war, Gundobad appears to have been betrayed by his brother Godegisel, who joined the Franks; together Godegisel's and Clovis' forces \"crushed the army of Gundobad\".",
"(Marius a.",
"500; Gregory, II, 32) Gundobad was temporarily holed up in Avignon, but was able to re-muster his army and sacked Vienne, where Godegisel and many of his followers were put to death.",
"From this point, Gundobad appears to have been the sole king of Burgundy.",
"(e.g., Gregory, II, 33) This would imply that his brother Gundomar was already dead, though there are no specific mentions of the event in the sources.",
"Either Gundobad and Clovis reconciled their differences, or Gundobad was forced into some sort of vassalage by Clovis' earlier victory, as the Burgundian king appears to have assisted the Franks in 507 in their victory over Alaric II the Visigoth.",
"During the upheaval, sometime between 483-501, Gundobad began to set forth the ''Lex Gundobada'' (see below), issuing roughly the first half, which drew upon the ''Lex Visigothorum''.",
"(Drew, p. 1) Following his consolidation of power, between 501 and his death in 516, Gundobad issued the second half of his law, which was more originally Burgundian.",
"====Fall====\nBurgundy as part of the Frankish Empire between 534 and 843\n\nThe Burgundians were extending their power over southeastern Gaul; that is, northern Italy, western Switzerland, and southeastern France.",
"In 493, Clovis, king of the Franks, married the Burgundian princess Clotilda (daughter of Chilperic), who converted him to the Catholic faith.",
"At first allied with Clovis' Franks against the Visigoths in the early 6th century, the Burgundians were eventually conquered at Autun by the Franks in 532 after a first attempt in the Battle of Vézeronce.",
"The Burgundian kingdom was made part of the Merovingian kingdoms, and the Burgundians themselves were by and large absorbed as well.",
"The 5th century Gallo-Roman poet and landowner Sidonius, who at one point lived with the Burgundians, described them as a long-haired people of immense physical size:",
"\n\nThe '''Burgundian language''' belonged to the East Germanic language group.",
"It appears to have become extinct during the late sixth century.",
"Little is known of the language.",
"Some proper names of Burgundians are recorded, and some words used in the area in modern times are thought to be derived from the ancient Burgundian language, but it is often difficult to distinguish these from Germanic words of other origin, and in any case the modern form of the words is rarely suitable to infer much about the form in the old language.",
"===Religion===\nSomewhere in the east the Burgundians had converted to the Arian form of Christianity from their native Germanic polytheism.",
"Their Arianism proved a source of suspicion and distrust between the Burgundians and the Catholic Western Roman Empire.",
"Divisions were evidently healed or healing circa AD 500, however, as Gundobad, one of the last Burgundian kings, maintained a close personal friendship with Avitus, the bishop of Vienne.",
"Moreover, Gundobad's son and successor, Sigismund, was himself a Catholic, and there is evidence that many of the Burgundian people had converted by this time as well, including several female members of the ruling family.",
"===Law===\nThe Burgundians left three legal codes, among the earliest from any of the Germanic tribes.",
"The '''Liber Constitutionum sive Lex Gundobada''' (''The Book of Constitutions or Law of Gundobad''), also known as the ''Lex Burgundionum'', or more simply the ''Lex Gundobada'' or the ''Liber'', was issued in several parts between 483 and 516, principally by Gundobad, but also by his son, Sigismund.",
"(Drew, p. 6–7) It was a record of Burgundian customary law and is typical of the many Germanic law codes from this period.",
"In particular, the ''Liber'' borrowed from the ''Lex Visigothorum'' (Drew, p. 6) and influenced the later ''Lex Ribuaria''.",
"(Rivers, p. 9) The ''Liber'' is one of the primary sources for contemporary Burgundian life, as well as the history of its kings.",
"Like many of the Germanic tribes, the Burgundians' legal traditions allowed the application of separate laws for separate ethnicities.",
"Thus, in addition to the ''Lex Gundobada'', Gundobad also issued (or codified) a set of laws for Roman subjects of the Burgundian kingdom, the ''Lex Romana Burgundionum'' (''The Roman Law of the Burgundians'').",
"In addition to the above codes, Gundobad's son Sigismund later published the ''Prima Constitutio''.",
"\n\n* Nibelung (later legends of the Burgundian kings).",
"* King of Burgundy\n* Duchy of Burgundy\n* Franche-Comté\n* Dauphiné (Dauphiny)\n* List of Germanic tribes",
"\n===Notes===\n\n\n===Sources===\n\n* Bury, J.B. ''The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians.''",
"London: Macmillan and Co., 1928.",
"* Dalton, O.M.",
"''The History of the Franks, by Gregory of Tours.''",
"Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1927.",
"* Drew, Katherine Fischer.",
"''The Burgundian Code.''",
"Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972.",
"* Gordon, C.D.",
"''The Age of Attila.''",
"Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1961.",
"* Guichard, Rene, ''Essai sur l'histoire du peuple burgonde, de Bornholm (Burgundarholm) vers la Bourgogne et les Bourguignons'', 1965, published by A. et J. Picard et Cie.\n* \n* Murray, Alexander Callander.",
"''From Roman to Merovingian Gaul.''",
"Broadview Press, 2000.",
"* Musset, Lucien.",
"''The Germanic Invasions: The Making of Europe AD 400-600.''",
"University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1975. .",
"* Nerman, Birger.",
"''Det svenska rikets uppkomst''.",
"Generalstabens litagrafiska anstalt: Stockholm.",
"1925.",
"* Rivers, Theodore John.",
"''Laws of the Salian and Ripuarian Franks.''",
"New York: AMS Press, 1986.",
"* Rolfe, J.C., trans, ''Ammianus Marcellinus.''",
"Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1950.",
"* Shanzer, Danuta.",
"'Dating the Baptism of Clovis.'",
"In ''Early Medieval Europe'', volume 7, pages 29–57.",
"Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 1998.",
"* Shanzer, D. and I.",
"Wood.",
"''Avitus of Vienne: Letters and Selected Prose.",
"Translated with an Introduction and Notes.''",
"Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2002.",
"* Werner, J.",
"(1953).",
"\"Beiträge sur Archäologie des Attila-Reiches\", ''Die Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaft.",
"Abhandlungen.''",
"Philosophische-philologische und historische Klasse.",
"Münche\n* Wood, Ian N. 'Ethnicity and the Ethnogenesis of the Burgundians'.",
"In Herwig Wolfram and Walter Pohl, editors, ''Typen der Ethnogenese unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Bayern'', volume 1, pages 53–69.",
"Vienna: Denkschriften der Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1990.",
"* Wood, Ian N. ''The Merovingian Kingdoms.''",
"Harlow, England: The Longman Group, 1994."
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCase Blue: German advances from 7 May 1942 to 18 November 1942 \n\nThe '''Battle of Stalingrad''' (23 August 1942 – 2 February 1943) was a major battle of World War II in which Nazi Germany and its allies fought the Soviet Union for control of the city of Stalingrad (now Volgograd) in Southern Russia.\n\nMarked by fierce close quarters combat and direct assaults on civilians by air raids, it is often regarded as one of the single largest (nearly 2.2 million personnel) and bloodiest (1.7–2 million wounded, killed or captured) battles in the history of warfare. It was an extremely costly defeat for German forces, and the Army High Command had to withdraw vast military forces from the West to replace their losses.\n\nThe German offensive to capture Stalingrad began in August 1942, using the German 6th Army and elements of the 4th Panzer Army. The attack was supported by intensive ''Luftwaffe'' bombing that reduced much of the city to rubble. The fighting degenerated into house-to-house fighting, and both sides poured reinforcements into the city. By mid-November 1942, the Germans had pushed the Soviet defenders back at great cost into narrow zones along the west bank of the Volga River.\n\nOn 19 November 1942, the Red Army launched Operation Uranus, a two-pronged attack targeting the weaker Romanian and Hungarian armies protecting the German 6th Army's flanks. The Axis forces on the flanks were overrun and the 6th Army was cut off and surrounded in the Stalingrad area. Adolf Hitler ordered that the army stay in Stalingrad and make no attempt to break out; instead, attempts were made to supply the army by air and to break the encirclement from the outside. Heavy fighting continued for another two months. By the beginning of February 1943, the Axis forces in Stalingrad had exhausted their ammunition and food. The remaining units of the 6th Army surrendered. The battle lasted five months, one week, and three days.\n\n\n",
"By the spring of 1942, despite the failure of Operation Barbarossa to decisively defeat the Soviet Union in a single campaign, the Wehrmacht had captured vast expanses of territory, including Ukraine, Belarus, and the Baltic republics. Elsewhere, the war had been progressing well: the U-boat offensive in the Atlantic had been very successful and Rommel had just captured Tobruk. In the east, they had stabilized their front in a line running from Leningrad in the north to Rostov in the south. There were a number of salients, but these were not particularly threatening. Hitler was confident that he could master the Red Army after the winter of 1942, because even though Army Group Centre (''Heeresgruppe Mitte'') had suffered heavy losses west of Moscow the previous winter, 65% of Army Group Centre's infantry had not been engaged and had been rested and re-equipped. Neither Army Group North nor Army Group South had been particularly hard pressed over the winter. Stalin was expecting the main thrust of the German summer attacks to be directed against Moscow again.\n\nWith the initial operations being very successful, the Germans decided that their summer campaign in 1942 would be directed at the southern parts of the Soviet Union. The initial objectives in the region around Stalingrad were the destruction of the industrial capacity of the city and the deployment of forces to block the Volga River. The river was a key route from the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea to central Russia. Its capture would disrupt commercial river traffic. The Germans cut the pipeline from the oilfields when they captured Rostov on 23 July. The capture of Stalingrad would make the delivery of Lend Lease supplies via the Persian Corridor much more difficult.\n\nOn 23 July 1942, Hitler personally rewrote the operational objectives for the 1942 campaign, greatly expanding them to include the occupation of the city of Stalingrad. Both sides began to attach propaganda value to the city based on it bearing the name of the leader of the Soviet Union. Hitler proclaimed that after Stalingrad's capture, its male citizens were to be killed and all women and children were to be deported because its population was \"thoroughly communistic\" and \"especially dangerous\". It was assumed that the fall of the city would also firmly secure the northern and western flanks of the German armies as they advanced on Baku, with the aim of securing these strategic petroleum resources for Germany. The expansion of objectives was a significant factor in Germany's failure at Stalingrad, caused by German overconfidence and an underestimation of Soviet reserves.\n\nThe Soviets realized that they were under tremendous constraints of time and resources and ordered that anyone strong enough to hold a rifle be sent to fight.\n",
"\n\n\n\nArmy Group South was selected for a sprint forward through the southern Russian steppes into the Caucasus to capture the vital Soviet oil fields there. The planned summer offensive was code-named ''Fall Blau'' (Case Blue). It was to include the German 6th, 17th, 4th Panzer and 1st Panzer Armies. Army Group South had overrun the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1941. Poised in Eastern Ukraine, it was to spearhead the offensive.\n\nHitler intervened, however, ordering the Army Group to split in two. Army Group South (A), under the command of Wilhelm List, was to continue advancing south towards the Caucasus as planned with the 17th Army and First Panzer Army. Army Group South (B), including Friedrich Paulus's 6th Army and Hermann Hoth's 4th Panzer Army, was to move east towards the Volga and Stalingrad. Army Group B was commanded initially by Field Marshal Fedor von Bock and later by General Maximilian von Weichs.\nDon River between 7 May and 23 July.\n\nThe start of ''Case Blue'' had been planned for late May 1942. A number of German and Romanian units that were to take part in ''Blau'', however, were besieging Sevastopol on the Crimean Peninsula. Delays in ending the siege pushed back the start date for ''Blau'' several times, and the city did not fall until the end of June.\n\nOperation Fridericus I by the Germans against the \"Isium bulge\", pinched off the Soviet salient in the Second Battle of Kharkov, and resulted in the envelopment of a large Soviet force between 17 May and 29 May. Similarly, Operation Wilhelm attacked Voltshansk on 13 June and Operation Fridericus attacked Kupiansk on 22 June.\n\n''Blau'' finally opened as Army Group South began its attack into southern Russia on 28 June 1942. The German offensive started well. Soviet forces offered little resistance in the vast empty steppes and started streaming eastward. Several attempts to re-establish a defensive line failed when German units outflanked them. Two major pockets were formed and destroyed: the first, northeast of Kharkov, on 2 July, and a second, around Millerovo, Rostov Oblast, a week later. Meanwhile, the Hungarian 2nd Army and the German 4th Panzer Army had launched an assault on Voronezh, capturing the city on 5 July.\nSituation briefing near Stalingrad between a lieutenant officer and a junior commissioned officer\n\nThe initial advance of the 6th Army was so successful that Hitler intervened and ordered the 4th Panzer Army to join Army Group South (A) to the south. A massive traffic jam resulted when the 4th Panzer and the 1st Panzer both required the few roads in the area. Both armies were stopped dead while they attempted to clear the resulting mess of thousands of vehicles. The delay was long, and it is thought that it cost the advance at least one week. With the advance now slowed, Hitler changed his mind and reassigned the 4th Panzer Army back to the attack on Stalingrad.\n\nBy the end of July, the Germans had pushed the Soviets across the Don River. At this point, the Don and Volga Rivers were only apart, and the Germans left their main supply depots west of the Don, which had important implications later in the course of the battle. The Germans began using the armies of their Italian, Hungarian and Romanian allies to guard their left (northern) flank. The Italians won several accolades in official German communiques. Sometimes they were held in little regard by the Germans, and were even accused of having low morale: in reality, the Italian divisions fought comparatively well, with the 3rd Mountain Infantry Division Ravenna and 5th Infantry Division Cosseria proving to have good morale, according to a German liaison officer and being forced to retreat only after a massive armoured attack in which German reinforcements had failed to arrive in time, according to a German historian. Indeed the Italians distinguished themselves in numerous battles, as in the battle of Nikolayevka.\nStuG III assault gun advance towards the city center.\n\nOn 25 July the Germans faced stiff resistance with a Soviet bridgehead west of Kalach. \"We had had to pay a high cost in men and material...left on the Kalatch battlefield were numerous burnt-out or shot-up German tanks.\"\n\nThe Germans formed bridgeheads across the Don on 20 Aug. with the 295th and 76th Infantry Divisions, enabling the XIVth Panzer Corps \"to thrust to the Volga north of Stalingrad.\" The German 6th Army was only a few dozen kilometers from Stalingrad. The 4th Panzer Army, ordered south on 13 July to block the Soviet retreat \"weakened by the 17th Army and the 1st Panzer Army\", had turned northwards to help take the city from the south.\n\nTo the south, Army Group A was pushing far into the Caucasus, but their advance slowed as supply lines grew overextended. The two German army groups were not positioned to support one another due to the great distances involved.\n\nAfter German intentions became clear in July 1942, Stalin appointed Marshal Andrey Yeryomenko as commander of the Southeastern Front on 1 August 1942. Yeryomenko and Commissar Nikita Khrushchev were tasked with planning the defense of Stalingrad. The eastern border of Stalingrad was the wide River Volga, and over the river, additional Soviet units were deployed. These units became the newly formed 62nd Army, which Yeryomenko placed under the command of Lieutenant General Vasiliy Chuikov on 11 September 1942. The situation was extremely dire. When asked how he interpreted his task, he responded \"We will defend the city or die in the attempt.\" The 62nd Army's mission was to defend Stalingrad at all costs. Chuikov's generalship during the battle earned him one of his two Hero of the Soviet Union awards.\n",
"The German advance to Stalingrad between 24 July and 18 November\n\"Stalingrad-South\", 1942 map from the German General Staff\nDavid Glantz indicated that four hard-fought battles – collectively known as the Kotluban Operations – north of Stalingrad, where the Soviets made their greatest stand, decided Germany's fate before the Nazis ever set foot in the city itself, and were a turning point in the war. Beginning in late August, continuing in September and into October, the Soviets committed between two and four armies in hastily coordinated and poorly controlled attacks against the German's northern flank. The actions resulted in more than 200,000 Red Army casualties but did slow the German assault.\n\nOn 23 August the 6th Army reached the outskirts of Stalingrad in pursuit of the 62nd and 64th Armies, which had fallen back into the city. Kleist later said after the war:\n\n\n\nThe Soviets had enough warning of the Germans' advance to ship grain, cattle, and railway cars across the Volga and out of harm's way but most civilian residents were not evacuated. This \"harvest victory\" left the city short of food even before the German attack began. Before the ''Heer'' reached the city itself, the ''Luftwaffe'' had rendered the River Volga, vital for bringing supplies into the city, unusable to Soviet shipping. Between 25 and 31 July, 32 Soviet ships were sunk, with another nine crippled.\nSmoke over the city center after aerial bombing by the German Luftwaffe on the central station\n\nThe battle began with the heavy bombing of the city by ''Generaloberst'' Wolfram von Richthofen's ''Luftflotte 4'', which in the summer and autumn of 1942 was the single most powerful air formation in the world. Some 1,000 tons of bombs were dropped in 48 hours, more than in London at the height of the Blitz. Stalin refused to evacuate civilian population from the city, so when bombing began 400,000 civilians were trapped within city boundaries. The exact number of civilians killed during the course of the battle is unknown but was most likely very high.\nAround 40,000 were moved to Germany as slave workers, some fled the city during battle and a small number were evacuated by the Soviets. In February 1943 only between 10,000 to 60,000 civilians were still alive in Stalingrad. Much of the city was quickly turned to rubble, although some factories continued production while workers joined in the fighting. The Stalingrad Tractor Factory continued to turn out T-34 tanks literally until German troops burst into the plant. The 369th (Croatian) Reinforced Infantry Regiment was the only non-German unit selected by the ''Wehrmacht'' to enter Stalingrad city during assault operations. It fought as part of the 100th Jäger Division.\nGerman Infantry in position for attack\n\nStalin rushed all available troops to the east bank of the Volga, some from as far away as Siberia. All the regular ferries were quickly destroyed by the Luftwaffe, which then targeted troop barges being towed slowly across the river by tugs. It has been said that Stalin prevented civilians from leaving the city in the belief that their presence would encourage greater resistance from the city's defenders. Civilians, including women and children, were put to work building trenchworks and protective fortifications. A massive German air raid on 23 August caused a firestorm, killing hundreds and turning Stalingrad into a vast landscape of rubble and burnt ruins. Ninety percent of the living space in the Voroshilovskiy area was destroyed. Between 23 and 26 August, Soviet reports indicate 955 people were killed and another 1,181 wounded as a result of the bombing. Casualties of 40,000 were greatly exaggerated, and after 25 August, the Soviets did not record any civilian and military casualties as a result of air raids.\n\n\n\nThe Soviet Air Force, the ''Voyenno-Vozdushnye Sily'' (VVS), was swept aside by the Luftwaffe. The VVS bases in the immediate area lost 201 aircraft between 23 and 31 August, and despite meager reinforcements of some 100 aircraft in August, it was left with just 192 serviceable aircraft, 57 of which were fighters. The Soviets continued to pour aerial reinforcements into the Stalingrad area in late September, but continued to suffer appalling losses; the ''Luftwaffe'' had complete control of the skies.\nSoviets preparing to ward off a German assault in Stalingrad's suburbs\n\nThe burden of the initial defense of the city fell on the 1077th Anti-Aircraft Regiment, a unit made up mainly of young female volunteers who had no training for engaging ground targets. Despite this, and with no support available from other units, the AA gunners stayed at their posts and took on the advancing panzers. The German 16th Panzer Division reportedly had to fight the 1077th's gunners \"shot for shot\" until all 37 anti-aircraft guns were destroyed or overrun. The 16th Panzer was shocked to find that, due to Soviet manpower shortages, it had been fighting female soldiers. In the early stages of the battle, the NKVD organized poorly armed \"Workers' militias\" composed of civilians not directly involved in war production for immediate use in the battle. The civilians were often sent into battle without rifles. Staff and students from the local technical university formed a \"tank destroyer\" unit. They assembled tanks from leftover parts at the tractor factory. These tanks, unpainted and lacking gunsights, were driven directly from the factory floor to the front line. They could only be aimed at point-blank range through the gun barrel.\n\nBy the end of August, Army Group South (B) had finally reached the Volga, north of Stalingrad. Another advance to the river south of the city followed, while the Soviets abandoned their Rossoshka position for the inner defensive ring west of Stalingrad. The wings of the 6th Army and the 4th Panzer Army met near Jablotchni along the Zaritza on 2 Sept. By 1 September, the Soviets could only reinforce and supply their forces in Stalingrad by perilous crossings of the Volga under constant bombardment by artillery and aircraft.\n\nOn 5 September, the Soviet 24th and 66th Armies organized a massive attack against XIV Panzer Corps. The ''Luftwaffe'' helped repulse the offensive by heavily attacking Soviet artillery positions and defensive lines. The Soviets were forced to withdraw at midday after only a few hours. Of the 120 tanks the Soviets had committed, 30 were lost to air attack.\nGerman soldiers clearing the streets in Stalingrad\n\nSoviet operations were constantly hampered by the ''Luftwaffe''. On 18 September, the Soviet 1st Guards and 24th Army launched an offensive against VIII Army Corps at Kotluban. ''VIII. Fliegerkorps'' dispatched wave after wave of Stuka dive-bombers to prevent a breakthrough. The offensive was repulsed. The Stukas claimed 41 of the 106 Soviet tanks knocked out that morning, while escorting Bf 109s destroyed 77 Soviet aircraft.\nAmid the debris of the wrecked city, the Soviet 62nd and 64th Armies, which included the Soviet 13th Guards Rifle Division, anchored their defense lines with strongpoints in houses and factories.\nSoviet soldiers running through trenches in the ruins of Stalingrad\n\nFighting within the ruined city was fierce and desperate. Lieutenant General Alexander Rodimtsev was in charge of the 13th Guards Rifle Division, and received one of two Heroes of the Soviet Union awarded during the battle for his actions. Stalin's Order No. 227 of 27 July 1942 decreed that all commanders who ordered unauthorized retreat would be subject to a military tribunal. However, it was the NKVD that ordered the regular army and lectured them, on the need to show some guts. Through brutal coercion for self-sacrifice, thousands of deserters and presumed malingerers were captured or executed to discipline the troops. At Stalingrad, it is estimated that 14,000 soldiers of the Red Army were executed in order to keep the formation. \"Not a step back!\" and \"There is no land behind the Volga!\" were the slogans. The Germans pushing forward into Stalingrad suffered heavy casualties.\n\n===Fighting in the city===\nBy 12 September, at the time of their retreat into the city, the Soviet 62nd Army had been reduced to 90 tanks, 700 mortars and just 20,000 personnel. The remaining tanks were used as immobile strongpoints within the city. The initial German attack attempted to take the city in a rush. One infantry division went after the Mamayev Kurgan hill, one attacked the central rail station and one attacked toward the central landing stage on the Volga.\nOctober 1942: A German soldier with a Soviet PPSh-41 submachine gun in Barrikady factory rubble\n\nThough initially successful, the German attacks stalled in the face of Soviet reinforcements brought in from across the Volga. The Soviet 13th Guards Rifle Division, assigned to counterattack at the Mamayev Kurgan and at Railway Station No. 1 suffered particularly heavy losses. Over 30 percent of its soldiers were killed in the first 24 hours, and just 320 out of the original 10,000 survived the entire battle. Both objectives were retaken, but only temporarily. The railway station changed hands 14 times in six hours. By the following evening, the 13th Guards Rifle Division had ceased to exist.\n\nCombat raged for three days at the giant grain elevator in the south of the city. About fifty Red Army defenders, cut off from resupply, held the position for five days and fought off ten different assaults before running out of ammunition and water. Only forty dead Soviet fighters were found, though the Germans had thought there were many more due to the intensity of resistance. The Soviets burned large amounts of grain during their retreat in order to deny the enemy food. Paulus chose the grain elevator and silos as the symbol of Stalingrad for a patch he was having designed to commemorate the battle after a German victory.\nGerman soldiers of the 24th Panzer Division in action during the fighting for the southern station of Stalingrad\n\nGerman military doctrine was based on the principle of combined-arms teams and close cooperation between tanks, infantry, engineers, artillery and ground-attack aircraft. Some Soviet commanders adopted the tactic of always keeping their front-line positions as close to the Germans as physically possible; Chuikov called this \"hugging\" the Germans. This slowed the German advance and reduced the effectiveness of the German advantage in supporting fire.\n\nThe Red Army gradually adopted a strategy to hold for as long as possible all the ground in the city. Thus, they converted multi-floored apartment blocks, factories, warehouses, street corner residences and office buildings into a series of well defended strongpoints with small 5–10 man units. Manpower in the city was constantly refreshed by bringing additional troops over the Volga. When a position was lost, an immediate attempt was usually made to re-take it with fresh forces.\nSoviets defend a position\n\nBitter fighting raged for every ruin, street, factory, house, basement, and staircase. Even the sewers were the sites of firefights. The Germans, calling this unseen urban warfare ''Rattenkrieg'' (\"Rat War\"), bitterly joked about capturing the kitchen but still fighting for the living room and the bedroom. Buildings had to be cleared room by room through the bombed-out debris of residential neighborhoods, office blocks, basements and apartment high-rises. Some of the taller buildings, blasted into roofless shells by earlier German aerial bombardment, saw floor-by-floor, close quarters combat, with the Germans and Soviets on alternate levels, firing at each other through holes in the floors.\n\nFighting on and around Mamayev Kurgan, a prominent hill above the city, was particularly merciless; indeed, the position changed hands many times.\n\nIn another part of the city, a Soviet platoon under the command of Sergeant Yakov Pavlov fortified a four-story building that oversaw a square 300 meters from the river bank, later called ''Pavlov's House''. The soldiers surrounded it with minefields, set up machine-gun positions at the windows and breached the walls in the basement for better communications. The soldiers found about ten Soviet civilians hiding in the basement. They were not relieved, and not significantly reinforced, for two months. The building was labeled ''Festung'' (\"Fortress\") on German maps. Sgt. Pavlov was awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union for his actions.\nGerman soldiers positioning themselves in the urban warfare\n\nThe Germans made slow but steady progress through the city. Positions were taken individually, but the Germans were never able to capture the key crossing points along the river bank. By 27 Sept. the Germans occupied the southern portion of the city, but the Soviets held the center and northern part. Most importantly, the Soviets controlled the ferries to their supplies on the east bank of the Volga.\nSoviet assault troops in the battle\n\nThe Germans used airpower, tanks and heavy artillery to clear the city with varying degrees of success. Toward the end of the battle, the gigantic railroad gun nicknamed ''Dora'' was brought into the area. The Soviets built up a large number of artillery batteries on the east bank of the Volga. This artillery was able to bombard the German positions or at least to provide counter-battery fire.\nSoviet marines landing on the west bank of the Volga River.\n\nSnipers on both sides used the ruins to inflict casualties. The most famous Soviet sniper in Stalingrad was Vasily Zaytsev, with 225 confirmed kills during the battle. Targets were often soldiers bringing up food or water to forward positions. Artillery spotters were an especially prized target for snipers.\nSoviet soldiers in the Red October Factory\n\nA significant historical debate concerns the degree of terror in the Red Army. The British historian Antony Beevor noted the \"sinister\" message from the Stalingrad Front's Political Department on 8 October 1942 that: \"The defeatist mood is almost eliminated and the number of treasonous incidents is getting lower\" as an example of the sort of coercion Red Army soldiers experienced under the Special Detachments (later to be renamed SMERSH). On the other hand, Beevor noted the often extraordinary bravery of the Soviet soldiers in a battle that was only comparable to Verdun, and argued that terror alone cannot explain such self-sacrifice. Richard Overy addresses the question of just how important the Red Army's coercive methods were to the Soviet war effort compared with other motivational factors such as hatred for the enemy. He argues that, though it is \"easy to argue that from the summer of 1942 the Soviet army fought because it was forced to fight,\" to concentrate solely on coercion is nonetheless to \"distort our view of the Soviet war effort.\" After conducting hundreds of interviews with Soviet veterans on the subject of terror on the Eastern Front – and specifically about Order No. 227 (\"Not a step back!\") at Stalingrad – Catherine Merridale notes that, seemingly paradoxically, \"their response was frequently relief.\" Infantryman Lev Lvovich's explanation, for example, is typical for these interviews; as he recalls, \"it was a necessary and important step. We all knew where we stood after we had heard it. And we all – it's true – felt better. Yes, we felt better.\"\nPavlov's House (1943)\n\nMany women fought on the Soviet side, or were under fire. As General Chuikov acknowledged, \"Remembering the defence of Stalingrad, I can't overlook the very important question ... about the role of women in war, in the rear, but also at the front. Equally with men they bore all the burdens of combat life and together with us men, they went all the way to Berlin.\" At the beginning of the battle there were 75,000 women and girls from the Stalingrad area who had finished military or medical training, and all of whom were to serve in the battle. Women staffed a great many of the anti-aircraft batteries that fought not only the Luftwaffe but German tanks. Soviet nurses not only treated wounded personnel under fire but were involved in the highly dangerous work of bringing wounded soldiers back to the hospitals under enemy fire. Many of the Soviet wireless and telephone operators were women who often suffered heavy casualties when their command posts came under fire. Though women were not usually trained as infantry, many Soviet women fought as machine gunners, mortar operators, and scouts. Women were also snipers at Stalingrad. Three air regiments at Stalingrad were entirely female. At least three women won the title Hero of the Soviet Union while driving tanks at Stalingrad.\nSoil after the battle of Stalingrad in the Vladimir Military Museum\n\nFor both Stalin and Hitler, Stalingrad became a matter of prestige far beyond its strategic significance. The Soviet command moved units from the Red Army strategic reserve in the Moscow area to the lower Volga, and transferred aircraft from the entire country to the Stalingrad region.\n\nThe strain on both military commanders was immense: Paulus developed an uncontrollable tic in his eye, which eventually afflicted the left side of his face, while Chuikov experienced an outbreak of eczema that required him to have his hands completely bandaged. Troops on both sides faced the constant strain of close-range combat.\n\n===Air attacks===\nJunkers Ju 87 ''Stuka'' dive bomber over the neighborhood west of the Red October factory; some of the administration buildings are at lower right; Bayonet Gully is at top right.\nDetermined to crush Soviet resistance, ''Luftflotte'' 4's ''Stukawaffe'' flew 900 individual sorties against Soviet positions at the ''Dzerzhinskiy'' Tractor Factory on 5 October. Several Soviet regiments were wiped out; the entire staff of the Soviet 339th Infantry Regiment was killed the following morning during an air raid.\n\nIn mid-October, the ''Luftwaffe'' intensified its efforts against remaining Red Army positions holding the west bank. ''Luftflotte'' 4 flew 2,000 sorties on 14 October and of bombs were dropped while German infantry surrounded the three factories. ''Stukageschwader'' 1, 2, and 77 had largely silenced Soviet artillery on the eastern bank of the Volga before turning their attention to the shipping that was once again trying to reinforce the narrowing Soviet pockets of resistance. The 62nd Army had been cut in two, and, due to intensive air attack on its supply ferries, was receiving much less material support. With the Soviets forced into a strip of land on the western bank of the Volga, over 1,208 ''Stuka'' missions were flown in an effort to eliminate them.\n\nThe ''Luftwaffe'' retained air superiority into November and Soviet daytime aerial resistance was nonexistent. However, the combination of constant air support operations on the German side and the Soviet surrender of the daytime skies began to affect the strategic balance in the air. After flying 20,000 individual sorties, the ''Luftwaffe'' original strength of 1,600 serviceable aircraft had fallen to 950. The ''Kampfwaffe'' (bomber force) had been hardest hit, having only 232 out of a force of 480 left. The ''VVS'' remained qualitatively inferior, but by the time of the Soviet counter-offensive, the ''VVS'' had reached numerical superiority.\n\nRomanian IAR 80 fighter planes.\nThe Soviet bomber force, the ''Aviatsiya Dal'nego Deystviya'' (Long Range Aviation; ADD), having taken crippling losses over the past 18 months, was restricted to flying at night. The Soviets flew 11,317 night sorties over Stalingrad and the Don-bend sector between 17 July and 19 November. These raids caused little damage and were of nuisance value only.\n\nOn 8 November, substantial units from ''Luftflotte'' 4 were withdrawn to combat the Allied landings in North Africa. The German air arm found itself spread thinly across Europe, struggling to maintain its strength in the other southern sectors of the Soviet-German front. The Soviets began receiving material assistance from the American government under the Lend-Lease program. During the last quarter of 1942, the U.S. sent the Soviet Union of explosives and of aviation fuel.\n\nAs historian Chris Bellamy notes, the Germans paid a high strategic price for the aircraft sent into Stalingrad: the ''Luftwaffe'' was forced to divert much of its air strength away from the oil-rich Caucasus, which had been Hitler's original grand-strategic objective.\n\n===Germans reach the Volga===\nAfter three months of slow advance, the Germans finally reached the river banks, capturing 90% of the ruined city and splitting the remaining Soviet forces into two narrow pockets. Ice floes on the Volga now prevented boats and tugs from supplying the Soviet defenders. Nevertheless, the fighting, especially on the slopes of Mamayev Kurgan and inside the factory area in the northern part of the city, continued.\n",
"Soviet soldiers attack a house, February 1943\nRecognizing that German troops were ill prepared for offensive operations during the winter of 1942, and that most of them were redeployed elsewhere on the southern sector of the Eastern Front, the Stavka decided to conduct a number of offensive operations between 19 November 1942 and 2 February 1943. These operations opened the Winter Campaign of 1942–1943 (19 November 1942 – 3 March 1943), which involved some 15 Armies operating on several fronts.\n\nAccording to Zhukov, \"German operational blunders were aggravated by poor intelligence: they failed to spot preparations for the major counter-offensive near Stalingrad where there were 10 field, 1 tank and 4 air armies.\"\n\n===Weakness on the German flanks===\nDuring the siege, the German and allied Italian, Hungarian, and Romanian armies protecting Army Group B's flanks had pressed their headquarters for support. The Hungarian 2nd Army was given the task of defending a section of the front north of Stalingrad between the Italian Army and Voronezh. This resulted in a very thin line, with some sectors where stretches were being defended by a single platoon. These forces were also lacking in effective anti-tank weapons.\n\nZhukov states, \"Compared with the Germans, the troops of the satellites were not so well armed, less experienced and less efficient, even in defence.\"\n\nBecause of the total focus on the city, the Axis forces had neglected for months to consolidate their positions along the natural defensive line of the Don River. The Soviet forces were allowed to retain bridgeheads on the right bank from which offensive operations could be quickly launched. These bridgeheads in retrospect presented a serious threat to Army Group B.\n\nSimilarly, on the southern flank of the Stalingrad sector the front southwest of Kotelnikovo was held only by the Romanian 4th Army. Beyond that army, a single German division, the 16th Motorized Infantry, covered 400 km. Paulus had requested permission to \"withdraw the 6th Army behind the Don,\" but was rejected. According to Paulus' comments to Adam, \"There is still the order whereby no commander of an army group or an army has the right to relinquish a village, even a trench, without Hitler's consent.\"\n\n===Operation Uranus: the Soviet offensive===\n\nThe Soviet counter-attack at Stalingrad \n\nIn autumn, the Soviet generals Georgy Zhukov and Aleksandr Vasilevsky, responsible for strategic planning in the Stalingrad area, concentrated forces in the steppes to the north and south of the city. The northern flank was defended by Hungarian and Romanian units, often in open positions on the steppes. The natural line of defense, the Don River, had never been properly established by the German side. The armies in the area were also poorly equipped in terms of anti-tank weapons. The plan was to punch through the overstretched and weakly defended German flanks and surround the German forces in the Stalingrad region.\n\nDuring the preparations for the attack, Marshal Zhukov personally visited the front and noticing the poor organization, insisted on a one-week delay in the start date of the planned attack. The operation was code-named \"Uranus\" and launched in conjunction with Operation Mars, which was directed at Army Group Center. The plan was similar to the one Zhukov had used to achieve victory at Khalkhin Gol three years before, where he had sprung a double envelopment and destroyed the 23rd Division of the Japanese army.\n\nOn 19 November 1942, the Red Army launched Operation Uranus. The attacking Soviet units under the command of Gen. Nikolay Vatutin consisted of three complete armies, the 1st Guards Army, 5th Tank Army, and 21st Army, including a total of 18 infantry divisions, eight tank brigades, two motorized brigades, six cavalry divisions and one anti-tank brigade. The preparations for the attack could be heard by the Romanians, who continued to push for reinforcements, only to be refused again. Thinly spread, deployed in exposed positions, outnumbered and poorly equipped, the Romanian 3rd Army, which held the northern flank of the German 6th Army, was overrun.\n\nBehind the front lines, no preparations had been made to defend key points in the rear such as Kalach. The response by the ''Wehrmacht'' was both chaotic and indecisive. Poor weather prevented effective air action against the Soviet offensive.\n\nOn 20 November, a second Soviet offensive (two armies) was launched to the south of Stalingrad against points held by the Romanian 4th Army Corps. The Romanian forces, made up primarily of infantry, were overrun by large numbers of tanks. The Soviet forces raced west and met on 23 November at the town of Kalach, sealing the ring around Stalingrad. The link-up of the Soviet forces, not filmed at the time, was later re-enacted for a propaganda film which was shown worldwide.\n",
"Romanian soldiers near Stalingrad\nGerman soldiers as prisoners of war. In the background is the heavily fought-over Stalingrad grain elevator\nGerman dead in the city\n\nAbout 265,000 German, Romanian, and Italian soldiers, the 369th (Croatian) Reinforced Infantry Regiment, and other volunteer subsidiary troops including some 40,000 Soviet conscripts and volunteers fighting for the Germans (Beevor states that one quarter of the sixth army's frontline strength were HIWIs, as collaborationists recruited from the ranks of Soviet POWs were called) were surrounded. These Soviet HIWIs remained loyal, knowing the Soviet penalty for helping the Germans was summary execution. German strength in the pocket was about 210,000 according to strength breakdowns of the 20 field divisions (average size 9,000) and 100 battalion sized units of the Sixth Army on 19 November 1942. Inside the pocket (, literally \"cauldron\"), there were also around 10,000 Soviet civilians and several thousand Soviet soldiers the Germans had taken captive during the battle. Not all of the 6th Army was trapped; 50,000 soldiers were brushed aside outside the pocket. These belonged mostly to the other 2 divisions of the 6th Army between the Italian and Romanian Armies: the 62nd and 298th Infantry Divisions. Of the 210,000 Germans, 10,000 remained to fight on, 105,000 surrendered, 35,000 left by air and the remaining 60,000 died.\n\nArmy Group Don was formed under Field Marshal von Manstein. Under his command were the 20 German and 2 Romanian divisions encircled at Stalingrad, Adam's battle groups formed along the Chir River and on the Don bridgehead, plus the remains of the Romanian 3rd Army.\n\nThe Red Army units immediately formed two defensive fronts: a circumvallation facing inward and a contravallation facing outward. Field Marshal Erich von Manstein advised Hitler not to order the 6th Army to break out, stating that he could break through the Soviet lines and relieve the besieged 6th Army. The American historians Williamson Murray and Alan Millet wrote that it was Manstein's message to Hitler on 24 November advising him that the 6th Army should not break out, along with Göring's statements that the Luftwaffe could supply Stalingrad that \"... sealed the fate of the Sixth Army.\" After 1945, Manstein claimed that he told Hitler that the 6th Army must break out. The American historian Gerhard Weinberg wrote that Manstein distorted his record on the matter. Manstein was tasked to conduct a relief operation, named Operation Winter Storm (''Unternehmen Wintergewitter'') against Stalingrad, which he thought was feasible if the 6th Army was temporarily supplied through the air.\n\nAdolf Hitler had declared in a public speech (in the Berlin Sportpalast) on 30 September 1942 that the German army would never leave the city. At a meeting shortly after the Soviet encirclement, German army chiefs pushed for an immediate breakout to a new line on the west of the Don, but Hitler was at his Bavarian retreat of Obersalzberg in Berchtesgaden with the head of the ''Luftwaffe'', Hermann Göring. When asked by Hitler, Göring replied, after being convinced by Hans Jeschonnek, that the Luftwaffe could supply the 6th Army with an \"air bridge.\" This would allow the Germans in the city to fight on temporarily while a relief force was assembled. A similar plan had been used a year earlier at the Demyansk Pocket, albeit on a much smaller scale: a corps at Demyansk rather than an entire army.\n\nA Ju 52 approaching Stalingrad\nThe director of ''Luftflotte'' 4, Wolfram von Richthofen, tried to get this decision overturned. The forces under the 6th Army were almost twice as large as a regular German army unit, plus there was also a corps of the 4th Panzer Army trapped in the pocket. The maximum they could deliver a day – based on the number of available aircraft and with only the airfield at Pitomnik to land at – was far less than the minimum needed. To supplement the limited number of Junkers Ju 52 transports, the Germans pressed other aircraft into the role, such as the Heinkel He 177 bomber (some bombers performed adequately – the Heinkel He 111 proved to be quite capable and was much faster than the Ju 52). General Richthofen informed Manstein on 27 November of the small transport capacity of the Luftwaffe and the impossibility of supplying 300 tons a day by air. Manstein now saw the enormous technical difficulties of a supply by air of these dimensions. The next day he made a six-page situation report to the general staff. Based on the information of the expert Richthofen, he declared that contrary to the example of the pocket of Demyansk the permanent supply by air would be impossible. If only a narrow link could be established to Sixth Army, he proposed that this should be used to pull it out from the encirclement, and said that the Luftwaffe should instead of supplies deliver only enough ammunition and fuel for a breakout attempt. He acknowledged the heavy moral sacrifice that giving up Stalingrad would mean, but this would be made easier to bear by the conserving the combat power of Sixth Army and regaining the initiative. He ignored the limited mobility of the army and the difficulties of disengaging the Soviets. Hitler reiterated that Sixth Army would stay at Stalingrad and that the air bridge would supply it until the encirclement was broken by a new German offensive.\n\nSupplying the 270,000 men trapped in the \"cauldron\" required 700 tons of supplies a day. That would mean 350 Ju52 flights a day into Pitomnik. At a minimum, 500 tons were required. However, according to Adam, \"On not one single day have the minimal essential number of tons of supplies been flown in.\" The ''Luftwaffe'' was able to deliver an average of of supplies per day out of an air transport capacity of per day. The most successful day, 19 December, delivered of supplies in 154 flights. The outcome of the airlift was the Luftwaffe's failure to provide its transport units with the tools they needed to maintain an adequate count of operational aircraft – tools that included airfield facilities, supplies, manpower, and even aircraft suited to the prevailing conditions. These factors, taken together, prevented the Luftwaffe from effectively employing the full potential of its transport forces, ensuring that they were unable to deliver the quantity of supplies needed to sustain the 6th Army.\n\nIn the early parts of the operation, fuel was shipped at a higher priority than food and ammunition because of a belief that there would be a breakout from the city. Transport aircraft also evacuated technical specialists and sick or wounded personnel from the besieged enclave. Sources differ on the number flown out: at least 25,000 to at most 35,000. Carell: 42,000, of which 5000 did not survive.\n\nThe center of Stalingrad after liberation\nInitially, supply flights came in from the field at Tatsinskaya, called 'Tazi' by the German pilots. On 23 December, the Soviet 24th Tank Corps, commanded by Major-General Vasily Mikhaylovich Badanov, reached nearby Skassirskaya and in the early morning of 24 December, the tanks reached Tatsinskaya. Without any soldiers to defend the airfield, it was abandoned under heavy fire; in a little under an hour, 108 Ju 52s and 16 Ju 86s took off for Novocherkassk – leaving 72 Ju 52s and many other aircraft burning on the ground. A new base was established some from Stalingrad at Salsk, the additional distance would become another obstacle to the resupply efforts. Salsk was abandoned in turn by mid-January for a rough facility at Zverevo, near Shakhty. The field at Zverevo was attacked repeatedly on 18 January and a further 50 Ju 52s were destroyed. Winter weather conditions, technical failures, heavy Soviet anti-aircraft fire and fighter interceptions eventually led to the loss of 488 German aircraft.\n\nIn spite of the failure of the German offensive to reach the 6th Army, the air supply operation continued under ever more difficult circumstances. The 6th Army slowly starved. General Zeitzler, moved by their plight, began to limit himself to their slim rations at meal times. After a few weeks on such a diet, he had \"visibly lost weight\", according to Albert Speer, and Hitler \"commanded Zeitler to resume at once taking sufficient nourishment.\" \n\nThe toll on the ''Transportgruppen'' was heavy. 160 aircraft were destroyed and 328 were heavily damaged (beyond repair). Some 266 Junkers Ju 52s were destroyed; one-third of the fleet's strength on the Eastern Front. The He 111 ''gruppen'' lost 165 aircraft in transport operations. Other losses included 42 Ju 86s, 9 Fw 200 Condors, 5 He 177 bombers and 1 Ju 290. The ''Luftwaffe'' also lost close to 1,000 highly experienced bomber crew personnel. So heavy were the ''Luftwaffe''s losses that four of ''Luftflotte'' 4's transport units (KGrzbV 700, KGrzbV 900, I./KGrzbV 1 and II./KGzbV 1) were \"formally dissolved.\"\n",
"\n===Operation Winter Storm===\n\n\nSoviet forces consolidated their positions around Stalingrad, and fierce fighting to shrink the pocket began. Operation Winter Storm (''Operation Wintergewitter''), the German attempt led by Erich von Manstein to relieve the trapped army from the south, was initially successful. By 18 December, the German Army had pushed to within 48 km (30 mi) of Sixth Army's positions. The starving encircled forces at Stalingrad made no attempt to break out or link up with Manstein's advance. Some German officers requested that Paulus defy Hitler's orders to stand fast and instead attempt to break out of the Stalingrad pocket. Paulus refused, concerned about the Red Army attacks on the flank of Army Group Don and Army Group B in their advance on Rostov-on-Don, \"an early abandonment\" of Stalingrad \"would result in the destruction of Army Group A in the Caucasus,\" and the fact that his 6th Army tanks only had fuel for a 30 km advance towards Hoth's spearhead, a futile effort if they did not receive assurance of resupply by air. Of his questions to Army Group Don, Paulus was told, \"Wait, implement Operation 'Thunderclap' only on explicit orders!\" Operation Thunderclap being the code word initiating the breakout.\n\nOn 23 December, the attempt to relieve Stalingrad was abandoned and Manstein's forces switched over to the defensive to deal with new Soviet offensives. As Zhukov states, \"The military and political leadership of Nazi Germany sought not to relieve them, but to get them to fight on for as long possible so as to tie up the Soviet forces. The aim was to win as much time as possible to withdraw forces from the Caucasus and to rush troops from other Fronts to form a new front that would be able in some measure to check our counter-offensive.\"\n\n===Operation Little Saturn===\n\nSoviet gains (shown in blue) during Operation Little Saturn\n\nOn 16 December, the Soviets launched Operation Little Saturn, which attempted to punch through the Axis army (mainly Italians) on the Don and take Rostov. The Germans set up a \"mobile defense\" of small units that were to hold towns until supporting armor arrived. From the Soviet bridgehead at Mamon, 15 divisions – supported by at least 100 tanks – attacked the Italian Cosseria and Ravenna Divisions, and although outnumbered 9 to 1, the Italians initially fought well, with the Germans praising the quality of the Italian defenders, but on 19 December, with the Italian lines disintegrating, ARMIR headquarters ordered the battered divisions to withdraw to new lines.\n\nThe fighting forced a total revaluation of the German situation. The attempt to break through to Stalingrad was abandoned and Army Group A was ordered to pull back from the Caucasus. The 6th Army now was beyond all hope of German relief. While a motorised breakout might have been possible in the first few weeks, the 6th Army now had insufficient fuel and the German soldiers would have faced great difficulty breaking through the Soviet lines on foot in harsh winter conditions. But in its defensive position on the Volga, 6th Army continued to tie down a significant number of Soviet Armies.\n\n===Soviet victory===\n759,560 Soviet personnel were awarded this medal for the defence of Stalingrad from 22 December 1942.\n\n\nThe Red Army High Command sent three envoys while simultaneously aircraft and loudspeakers announced terms of capitulation on 7 Jan. 1943. The letter was signed by Colonel-General of Artillery Voronov and the commander-in-chief of the Don Front, Lieutenant-General Rokossovski. The German High Command informed Paulus, \"Every day that the army holds out longer helps the whole front and draws away the Russian divisions from it.\"\n\nThe Germans inside the pocket retreated from the suburbs of Stalingrad to the city itself. The loss of the two airfields, at Pitomnik on 16 January 1943 and Gumrak on the night of 21/22 January, meant an end to air supplies and to the evacuation of the wounded. The third and last serviceable runway was at the Stalingradskaya flight school, which reportedly had the last landings and takeoffs on 23 Jan. After 23 Jan. there were no more reported landings, just intermittent air drops of ammunition and food until the end.\n''Generalfeldmarschall'' Friedrich Paulus (left), with his chief of staff, ''Generalleutnant'' Arthur Schmidt (centre) and his aide, Wilhelm Adam (right), after their surrender.\n\nThe Germans were now not only starving, but running out of ammunition. Nevertheless, they continued to resist, in part because they believed the Soviets would execute any who surrendered. In particular, the so-called ''HiWis'', Soviet citizens fighting for the Germans, had no illusions about their fate if captured. The Soviets were initially surprised by the number of Germans they had trapped, and had to reinforce their encircling troops. Bloody urban warfare began again in Stalingrad, but this time it was the Germans who were pushed back to the banks of the Volga. The Germans adopted a simple defense of fixing wire nets over all windows to protect themselves from grenades. The Soviets responded by fixing fish hooks to the grenades so they stuck to the nets when thrown.\n\nThe Germans had no usable tanks in the city, and those that still functioned could, at best, be used as makeshift pillboxes. The Soviets did not bother employing tanks in areas where the urban destruction restricted their mobility. A low-level Soviet envoy party (comprising Major Aleksandr Smyslov, Captain Nikolay Dyatlenko and a trumpeter) carried an offer to Paulus: if he surrendered within 24 hours, he would receive a guarantee of safety for all prisoners, medical care for the sick and wounded, prisoners being allowed to keep their personal belongings, \"normal\" food rations, and repatriation to any country they wished after the war; but Paulus – ordered not to surrender by Hitler – did not respond.\n\nOn 22 January, Paulus requested that he be granted permission to surrender. Hitler rejected it on a point of honour. He telegraphed the 6th Army later that day, claiming that it had made a historic contribution to the greatest struggle in German history and that it should stand fast \"to the last soldier and the last bullet.\" Hitler told Goebbels that the plight of the 6th Army was a \"heroic drama of German history.\"\n\nOn 24 Jan., in his radio report to Hitler, Paulus reported \"18,000 wounded without the slightest aid of bandages and medicines.\"\n\nOn 26 January 1943, the German forces inside Stalingrad were split into two pockets north and south of Mamai-Kurgan. The northern pocket consisting of the VIIIth Corps, under General Walter Heitz, and the XIth Corps, was now cut off from telephone communication with Paulus in the southern pocket. Now \"each part of the cauldron came personally under Hitler.\"\n\nOn 28 Jan., the cauldron was split into three parts. The northern cauldron consisted of the XIth Corps, the central with the VIIIth and LIst Corps, and the southern with the XIVth Panzer Corps and IVth Corps \"without units\". The sick and wounded reached 40,000 to 50,000.\n\nOn 30 January 1943, the 10th anniversary of Hitler's coming to power, Goebbels read out a proclamation that included the sentence: \"The heroic struggle of our soldiers on the Volga should be a warning for everybody to do the utmost for the struggle for Germany's freedom and the future of our people, and thus in a wider sense for the maintenance of our entire continent.\" Hitler promoted Paulus to the rank of ''Generalfeldmarschall''. No German field marshal had ever surrendered, and the implication was clear: if Paulus surrendered, he would shame himself and would become the highest ranking German officer ever to be captured. Hitler believed that Paulus would either fight to the last man or commit suicide.\n\nOn the next day, the southern pocket in Stalingrad collapsed. Soviet forces reached the entrance to the German headquarters in the ruined GUM department store. General Schmidt negotiated a surrender of the headquarters while Paulus was unaware in another room. When interrogated by the Soviets, Paulus claimed that he had not surrendered. He said that he had been taken by surprise. He denied that he was the commander of the remaining northern pocket in Stalingrad and refused to issue an order in his name for them to surrender. The central pocket, under the command of Heitz, surrendered the same day while the northern pocket, under the command of Strecker, held out for two more days. When Strecker finally surrendered he and his Chief of Staff, Helmuth Groscurth, drafted the final signal sent from Stalingrad, purposely omitting the customary exclamation to Hitler, replacing it with \"Long live Germany!\"\n\nFour Soviet armies were deployed against the remaining northern pocket. At four in the morning on 2 February, General Strecker was informed that one of his own officers had gone to the Soviets to negotiate surrender terms. Seeing no point in continuing, he sent a radio message saying that his command had done its duty and fought to the last man. He then surrendered. Around 91,000 exhausted, ill, wounded, and starving prisoners were taken, including 3,000 Romanians (the survivors of the 20th Infantry Division, 1st Cavalry Division and \"Col. Voicu\" Detachment). The prisoners included 22 generals. Hitler was furious and confided that Paulus \"could have freed himself from all sorrow and ascended into eternity and national immortality, but he prefers to go to Moscow.\"\n",
"The aftermath of the Battle of Stalingrad\nThe German public was not officially told of the impending disaster until the end of January 1943, though positive media reports had stopped in the weeks before the announcement. Stalingrad marked the first time that the Nazi government publicly acknowledged a failure in its war effort; it was not only the first big defeat for the German military but German losses were almost equal to those of the Soviets and this was unprecedented. Previous Soviet losses were generally three times as high as those of the Germans. On 31 January, regular programmes on German state radio were replaced by a broadcast of the somber Adagio movement from Anton Bruckner's Seventh Symphony, followed by the announcement of the defeat at Stalingrad. On 18 February, Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels gave the famous ''Sportpalast'' speech in Berlin, encouraging the Germans to accept a total war that would claim all resources and efforts from the entire population.\n\nA Red Army soldier marches a German soldier into captivity.\nBased on Soviet records, over 10,000 soldiers continued to resist in isolated groups within the city for the next month. Some have presumed that they were motivated by a belief that fighting on was better than a slow death in Soviet captivity. Brown University historian Omer Bartov claims they were motivated by National Socialism. He studied 11,237 letters sent by soldiers inside of Stalingrad between 20 December 1942 and 16 January 1943 to their families in Germany. Almost every letter expressed belief in Germany's ultimate victory and their willingness to fight and die at Stalingrad to achieve that victory. Bartov reported that a great many of the soldiers were well aware that they would not be able to escape from Stalingrad but in their letters to their families boasted that they were proud to \"sacrifice themselves for the Führer\".\n\nThe remaining forces continued to resist, hiding in cellars and sewers but by early March 1943, the last small and isolated pockets of resistance had surrendered. According to Soviet intelligence documents shown in the documentary, a remarkable NKVD report from March 1943 is available showing the tenacity of some of these German groups:\n\n\n\nThe operative report of the Don Front's staff issued on 5 February 1943, 22:00 said,\n\n\n\nThe condition of the troops that surrendered was pitiful. British war correspondent Alexander Werth described the following scene in his ''Russia at War'' book, based on a first-hand account of his visit to Stalingrad from 3–5 February 1943,\n\n\n\nOut of the nearly 91,000 German prisoners captured in Stalingrad, only about 5,000 returned. Weakened by disease, starvation and lack of medical care during the encirclement, they were sent on foot marches to prisoner camps and later to labour camps all over the Soviet Union. Some 35,000 were eventually sent on transports, of which 17,000 did not survive. Most died of wounds, disease (particularly typhus), cold, overwork, mistreatment and malnutrition. Some were kept in the city to help rebuild.\n\nA handful of senior officers were taken to Moscow and used for propaganda purposes, and some of them joined the National Committee for a Free Germany. Some, including Paulus, signed anti-Hitler statements that were broadcast to German troops. Paulus testified for the prosecution during the Nuremberg Trials and assured families in Germany that those soldiers taken prisoner at Stalingrad were safe. He remained in the Soviet Union until 1952, then moved to Dresden in East Germany, where he spent the remainder of his days defending his actions at Stalingrad and was quoted as saying that Communism was the best hope for postwar Europe. General Walther von Seydlitz-Kurzbach offered to raise an anti-Hitler army from the Stalingrad survivors, but the Soviets did not accept. It was not until 1955 that the last of the 5,000–6,000 survivors were repatriated (to West Germany) after a plea to the Politburo by Konrad Adenauer.\n",
"Stalingrad has been described as the biggest defeat in the history of the German Army. It is often identified as the turning point on the Eastern Front, in the war against Germany overall, and the entire Second World War. Before Stalingrad, the German forces had gone from victory to victory on the Eastern Front, with a limited setback in the winter of 1941–42. After Stalingrad, they won no decisive battles, even in summer. The Red Army had the initiative, and the Wehrmacht was in retreat. A year of German gains during Case Blue had been wiped out. Germany's Sixth Army had ceased to exist, and the forces of Germany's European allies, except Finland, had been shattered. In a speech on 9 November 1944, Hitler himself blamed Stalingrad for Germany's impending doom.\n\nStalingrad's significance has been downplayed by some historians, who point either to the Battle of Moscow or the Battle of Kursk as more strategically decisive. Others maintain that the destruction of an entire army (the largest killed, captured, wounded figures for Axis soldiers, nearly 1 million, during the war) and the frustration of Germany's grand strategy made the battle a watershed moment. At the time, however, the global significance of the battle was not in doubt. Writing in his diary on 1 January 1943, British General Alan Brooke, Chief of the Imperial General Staff, reflected on the change in the position from a year before:\n\n\n\nAt this point, the British had won the Battle of El Alamein in November 1942. However, there were only about 50,000 German soldiers at El Alamein in Egypt, while at Stalingrad 200,000 Germans had been lost.\n\nRegardless of the strategic implications, there is little doubt about Stalingrad's symbolism. Germany's defeat shattered its reputation for invincibility and dealt a devastating blow to German morale. On 30 January 1943, the tenth anniversary of his coming to power, Hitler chose not to speak. Joseph Goebbels read the text of his speech for him on the radio. The speech contained an oblique reference to the battle, which suggested that Germany was now in a defensive war. The public mood was sullen, depressed, fearful, and war-weary. Germany was looking in the face of defeat.\n\nThe reverse was the case on the Soviet side. There was an overwhelming surge in confidence and belief in victory. A common saying was: \"You cannot stop an army which has done Stalingrad.\" Stalin was feted as the hero of the hour and made a Marshal of the Soviet Union. \n\nThe news of the battle echoed round the world, with many people now believing that Hitler's defeat was inevitable. The Turkish Consul in Moscow predicted that \"the lands which the Germans have destined for their living space will become their dying space\". Britain's conservative ''The Daily Telegraph'' proclaimed that the victory had saved European civilisation. The country celebrated \"Red Army Day\" on 23 February 1943. A ceremonial Sword of Stalingrad was forged by King George VI. After being put on public display in Britain, this was presented to Stalin by Winston Churchill at the Tehran Conference later in 1943. Soviet propaganda spared no effort and wasted no time in capitalising on the triumph, impressing a global audience. The prestige of Stalin, the Soviet Union, and the worldwide Communist movement was immense, and their political position greatly enhanced.\n\n===Commemoration===\nIn recognition of the determination of its defenders, Stalingrad was awarded the title Hero City in 1945. A colossal monument called The Motherland Calls was erected in 1967 on Mamayev Kurgan, the hill overlooking the city where bones and rusty metal splinters can still be found. The statue forms part of a war memorial complex which includes the ruins of the Grain Silo and Pavlov's House. On 2 February 2013 Volgograd hosted a a military parade and other events to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the final victory.\n",
"\n===Orders of battle===\n====Red Army====\nCollage.The Eternal Flame in Mamayev Kurgan.Volgograd, Russia\n\n\nDuring the defence of Stalingrad, the Red Army deployed five armies (28th, 51st, 57th, 62nd and 64th Armies) in and around the city and an additional nine armies in the encirclement counter offensive. The nine armies amassed for the counteroffensive were the 24th Army, 65th Army, 66th Army and 16th Air Army from the north as part of the Don Front offensive and 1st Guards Army, 5th Tank, 21st Army, 2nd Air Army and 17th Air Army from the south as part of the Southwestern Front.\n\n====Axis====\n\n\n===Casualties===\nThe calculation of casualties depends on what scope is given to the Battle of Stalingrad. The scope can vary from the fighting in the city and suburbs to the inclusion of almost all fighting on the southern wing of the Soviet–German front from the spring of 1942 to the end of the fighting in the city in the winter of 1943. Scholars have produced different estimates depending on their definition of the scope of the battle. The difference is comparing the city against the region. The Axis suffered 730,000 total casualties (wounded, killed, captured) among all branches of the German armed forces and its allies; 400,000 Germans, 109,000 Romanians of which at least 70,000 were captured or missing, 114,000 Italians and 105,000 Hungarians were killed, wounded or captured.\n\nThe Germans lost 900 aircraft (including 274 transports and 165 bombers used as transports), 500 tanks and 6,000 artillery pieces. According to a contemporary Soviet report, 5,762 guns, 1,312 mortars, 12,701 heavy machine guns, 156,987 rifles, 80,438 sub-machine guns, 10,722 trucks, 744 aircraft; 1,666 tanks, 261 other armored vehicles, 571 half-tracks and 10,679 motorcycles were captured by the Soviets. An unknown amount of Hungarian, Italian, and Romanian materiel was lost.\n\nThe USSR, according to archival figures, suffered 1,129,619 total casualties; 478,741 personnel killed or missing, and 650,878 wounded or sick. The USSR lost 4,341 tanks destroyed or damaged, 15,728 artillery pieces and 2,769 combat aircraft. 955 Soviet civilians died in Stalingrad and its suburbs from aerial bombing by ''Luftflotte'' 4 as the German 4th Panzer and 6th Armies approached the city.\n\n====Luftwaffe losses====\n\n+Luftwaffe losses for Stalingrad (24 November 1942 to 31 January 1943)\n\n Losses\n Aircraft type\n\n 269 \n Junkers Ju 52\n\n 169 \n Heinkel He 111\n\n 42 \n Junkers Ju 86\n\n 9 \n Focke-Wulf Fw 200\n\n 5 \n Heinkel He 177\n\n 1 \n Junkers Ju 290\n\n Total: 495 \n About 20 squadronsor more than anair corps\n\n\nThe losses of transport planes were especially serious, as they destroyed the capacity for supply of the trapped 6th Army. The destruction of 72 aircraft when the airfield at Tatsinskaya was overrun meant the loss of about 10 percent of the Luftwaffe transport fleet.\n\nThese losses amounted to about 50 percent of the aircraft committed and the Luftwaffe training program was stopped and sorties in other theaters of war were significantly reduced to save fuel for use at Stalingrad.\n\n===In popular culture===\n\n\nThe events of the Battle for Stalingrad have been covered in numerous media works of British, American, German, and Russian origin, for its significance as a turning point in the Second World War and for the loss of life associated with the battle. The term Stalingrad has become almost synonymous with large-scale urban battles with high casualties on both sides.\n",
"* Barmaley Fountain\n* Hitler Stalingrad Speech\n* Italian participation in the Eastern Front\n* List of officers and commanders in the Battle of Stalingrad\n* Soviet Black Sea Fleet during the Battle of Stalingrad\n",
"===Footnotes===\n\n\n===Citations===\n\n\n===Bibliography===\n\n* Adam, Wilhelm and Otto Ruhle (2015). ''With Paulus at Stalingrad'', Pen & Sword Books Ltd., England. .\n* Baird, Jay W (1969). ''The Myth of Stalingrad'', Journal of Contemporary History, Sage Publications, Ltd.\n* Bartov, Omer ''Hitler's Army: Soldiers, Nazis and War in the Third Reich'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991, .\n* \n* \n* \n* Bernig, Jorg (1997). ''Eingekesselt: Die Schlacht um Stalingrad im deutschsprachigen Roman nach 1945'': (German Life and Civilization Journal No 23), : Peter Lang publishers.\n* \n* Clark, Alan (1965). ''Barbarossa: the Russian-German Conflict, 1941–45''. \n* Craig, William (1973). ''Enemy at the Gates: The Battle for Stalingrad'' New York: Penguin Books (paperback, )\n* Einsiedel, Heinrich Graf von; Wieder, Joachim. ''Stalingrad: Memories and Reassessments''. New York: Sterling Publishing, 1998 (paperback, ); London: Cassell, 2003 (paperback, ).\n* Erickson, John. ''The Road to Stalingrad: Stalin's War with Germany, Vol. 1''. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1984 (hardcover, ); New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1985 (hardcover, ); New Haven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 1999 (paperback, ); London: Cassell, 2003 (paperback, ).\n* \n* Glantz, David M. & House, Jonathan (1995), ''When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler'', Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, \n* Glantz, David M. & House, Jonathan (2009), 'To the Gates of Stalingrad – Soviet-German combat operations April to August 1942', Kansas, Kansas University Press, \n* Glantz, David M. & House, Jonathan (2009), 'Armageddon in Stalingrad – September to November 1942', Kansas, Kansas University Press, \n* Glantz, David (2011), 'After Stalingrad: The Red Army's Winter Offensive 1942–1943', Helion and Company, \n* Goldman, Stuart D. ''Nomonhan, 1939; The Red Army's Victory That Shaped World War II''. 2012, Naval Institute Press. .\n* Golovanov, A.Ye. (2004) ''Dalnyaya bombardirovochnaya''. Delta NB, Moscow.\n* Goodwin, Doris Kearns (1994). ''No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II''. New York: Simon & Schuster (paperback, )\n* \n* Kehrig, Manfred (1974). ''Stalingrad''. Stuttgart, Deutsche Verlags Anstalt. .\n* \n* \n* \n* Manstein, Erich von; Powell, Anthony G. (Ed. & Trans.); Liddell Hart, B. H. (Preface); Blumenson, Martin (Introduction) (2004). ''Lost Victories: The War Memoirs of Hitler's Most Brilliant General''. St. Paul, MN: Zenith Press. .\n* Mark, Jason D (2002). \"Death of the Leaping Horseman:24 Panzer Division in Stalingrad\". Leaping Horseman Books. .\n* Mark, Jason D (2006). \"Island of Fire:The Battle for the Barrikady Gun Factory in Stalingrad November 1942 – February 1943\". Leaping Horseman Books. .\n* Mark, Jason D (2008). \"Angriff:The German Attack on Stalingrad in Photos\". Leaping Horseman Books. .\n* Mark, Jason D & Amir Obhodas (2010). ''Croatian Legion: The 369th Reinforced (Croatian) Infantry Regiment on The Eastern Front 1941–1943''. Leaping Horseman Books. .\n* \n* Rayfield, Donald. ''Stalin and His Hangmen: The Tyrant and Those Who Killed for Him''. New York: Random House, 2004 (hardcover, ); 2005 (paperback, ).\n* \n* Taylor, A.J.P. and Mayer, S.L., eds. (1974) ''A History Of World War Two''. London: Octopus Books. .\n* \n* Weinberg Gerhard ''A World At Arms A Global History of World War II'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, .\n\n",
"\n\n* Antill, Peter (2007). ''Stalingrad 1942'', Osprey Publishing, London. \n* Biesinger, Joseph A. (2006). ''Germany: a reference guide from the Renaissance to the present''. Infobase Publishing, New York City. \n* Bush, Reinhold (2014). ''Survivors of Stalingrad: Eyewitness Accounts From The Sixth Army, 1942–43''. Frontline Books, UK. .\n* Corum, James S. (2008). ''Wolfram von Richthofen: Master of the German Air War''. Lawrence, KS, University Press of Kansas. .\n* Dibold, Hans (2001) ''Doctor at Stalingrad''. Littleton, CO: Aberdeen, (hardcover, ).\n* * Hellbeck, Jochen. (2015) ''Stalingrad: The City That Defeated The Third Reich''. New York, NY: PublicAffairs. .\n* Holl, Adelbert. (2005) ''An Infantryman In Stalingrad: From 24 September 1942 to 2 February 1943''. Pymble, NSW, Australia: Leaping Horseman Books (hardcover, ).\n* Hoyt, Edwin Palmer. (1999) ''199 Days: The Battle for Stalingrad''. New York: A Forge Book, (paperback, ).\n* Jones, Michael K. (2007) ''Stalingrad: How the Red Army Survived the German Onslaught.'' Drexel Hill, PA: Casemate, (hardcover, ).\n* Joly, Anton (2013) ''Stalingrad Battle Atlas'', StalData Publications (paperback, ).\n* Mayer, SL & Taylor, AJP (1974). ''History of World War II''. London: Octopus Books. & \n* Raus, Erhard. ''Panzer Operations: The Eastern Front Memoir of General Raus, 1941–1945'', compiled and translated by Steven H. Newton. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2003 (hardcover, ); 2005 (paperback, ).\n* Roberts, Geoffrey. (2002) ''Victory at Stalingrad: The Battle that Changed History''. New York: Longman, (paperback, ).\n* —— (2006) ''Stalin's wars: from World War to Cold War, 1939–1953.'' Yale University Press, \n* Samsonov A.M., (1989) ''Stalingrad Battle'', 4th ed. re-edited and added-to, Moscow, Science publishing. (in Russian)\n* Snyder, David R. (2005). Review in ''The Journal of Military History'' Volume 69 (1).\n* \n\n",
"\n\n* Detailed summary of campaign\n* Story of the Stalingrad battle with pictures, maps, video and other primary and secondary sources\n* Volgograd State Panoramic Museum official homepage\n* The Battle of Stalingrad in Film and History Written with strong Socialist/Communist political under and overtones.\n* Roberts, Geoffrey. \"Victory on the Volga\", ''The Guardian'', 28 February 2003\n* Stalingrad-info.com, Russian archival docs translated into English, original battle maps, aerial photos, pictures taken at the battlefields, relics collection\n* H-Museum: Stalingrad/Volgograd 1943–2003. Memory\n* Battle of Stalingrad Pictures\n* View footage from the Battle of Stalingrad in January 1943\n* The photo album of Wehrmacht NCO named Nemela of 9. Machine-Gewehr Bataillon (mot) There are several unique photos of parade and award ceremony for Wehrmacht personnel who survived the Battle of Stalingrad.\n* Stalingrad Battle Data Project: order of battle, strength returns, interactive map\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Historical background",
"Prelude",
"Attack on Stalingrad",
"Soviet counter-offensives",
"Sixth Army surrounded",
"End of the battle",
"Aftermath",
"Significance",
"More information",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Battle of Stalingrad | [
"By mid-November 1942, the Germans had pushed the Soviet defenders back at great cost into narrow zones along the west bank of the Volga River.",
"German Infantry in position for attack\n\nStalin rushed all available troops to the east bank of the Volga, some from as far away as Siberia.",
"In another part of the city, a Soviet platoon under the command of Sergeant Yakov Pavlov fortified a four-story building that oversaw a square 300 meters from the river bank, later called ''Pavlov's House''.",
"Positions were taken individually, but the Germans were never able to capture the key crossing points along the river bank.",
"Most importantly, the Soviets controlled the ferries to their supplies on the east bank of the Volga.",
"The Soviets built up a large number of artillery batteries on the east bank of the Volga.",
"Soviet marines landing on the west bank of the Volga River.",
"In mid-October, the ''Luftwaffe'' intensified its efforts against remaining Red Army positions holding the west bank.",
"''Stukageschwader'' 1, 2, and 77 had largely silenced Soviet artillery on the eastern bank of the Volga before turning their attention to the shipping that was once again trying to reinforce the narrowing Soviet pockets of resistance.",
"With the Soviets forced into a strip of land on the western bank of the Volga, over 1,208 ''Stuka'' missions were flown in an effort to eliminate them.",
"The Soviet forces were allowed to retain bridgeheads on the right bank from which offensive operations could be quickly launched."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCase Blue: German advances from 7 May 1942 to 18 November 1942 \n\nThe '''Battle of Stalingrad''' (23 August 1942 – 2 February 1943) was a major battle of World War II in which Nazi Germany and its allies fought the Soviet Union for control of the city of Stalingrad (now Volgograd) in Southern Russia.",
"Marked by fierce close quarters combat and direct assaults on civilians by air raids, it is often regarded as one of the single largest (nearly 2.2 million personnel) and bloodiest (1.7–2 million wounded, killed or captured) battles in the history of warfare.",
"It was an extremely costly defeat for German forces, and the Army High Command had to withdraw vast military forces from the West to replace their losses.",
"The German offensive to capture Stalingrad began in August 1942, using the German 6th Army and elements of the 4th Panzer Army.",
"The attack was supported by intensive ''Luftwaffe'' bombing that reduced much of the city to rubble.",
"The fighting degenerated into house-to-house fighting, and both sides poured reinforcements into the city.",
"On 19 November 1942, the Red Army launched Operation Uranus, a two-pronged attack targeting the weaker Romanian and Hungarian armies protecting the German 6th Army's flanks.",
"The Axis forces on the flanks were overrun and the 6th Army was cut off and surrounded in the Stalingrad area.",
"Adolf Hitler ordered that the army stay in Stalingrad and make no attempt to break out; instead, attempts were made to supply the army by air and to break the encirclement from the outside.",
"Heavy fighting continued for another two months.",
"By the beginning of February 1943, the Axis forces in Stalingrad had exhausted their ammunition and food.",
"The remaining units of the 6th Army surrendered.",
"The battle lasted five months, one week, and three days.",
"By the spring of 1942, despite the failure of Operation Barbarossa to decisively defeat the Soviet Union in a single campaign, the Wehrmacht had captured vast expanses of territory, including Ukraine, Belarus, and the Baltic republics.",
"Elsewhere, the war had been progressing well: the U-boat offensive in the Atlantic had been very successful and Rommel had just captured Tobruk.",
"In the east, they had stabilized their front in a line running from Leningrad in the north to Rostov in the south.",
"There were a number of salients, but these were not particularly threatening.",
"Hitler was confident that he could master the Red Army after the winter of 1942, because even though Army Group Centre (''Heeresgruppe Mitte'') had suffered heavy losses west of Moscow the previous winter, 65% of Army Group Centre's infantry had not been engaged and had been rested and re-equipped.",
"Neither Army Group North nor Army Group South had been particularly hard pressed over the winter.",
"Stalin was expecting the main thrust of the German summer attacks to be directed against Moscow again.",
"With the initial operations being very successful, the Germans decided that their summer campaign in 1942 would be directed at the southern parts of the Soviet Union.",
"The initial objectives in the region around Stalingrad were the destruction of the industrial capacity of the city and the deployment of forces to block the Volga River.",
"The river was a key route from the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea to central Russia.",
"Its capture would disrupt commercial river traffic.",
"The Germans cut the pipeline from the oilfields when they captured Rostov on 23 July.",
"The capture of Stalingrad would make the delivery of Lend Lease supplies via the Persian Corridor much more difficult.",
"On 23 July 1942, Hitler personally rewrote the operational objectives for the 1942 campaign, greatly expanding them to include the occupation of the city of Stalingrad.",
"Both sides began to attach propaganda value to the city based on it bearing the name of the leader of the Soviet Union.",
"Hitler proclaimed that after Stalingrad's capture, its male citizens were to be killed and all women and children were to be deported because its population was \"thoroughly communistic\" and \"especially dangerous\".",
"It was assumed that the fall of the city would also firmly secure the northern and western flanks of the German armies as they advanced on Baku, with the aim of securing these strategic petroleum resources for Germany.",
"The expansion of objectives was a significant factor in Germany's failure at Stalingrad, caused by German overconfidence and an underestimation of Soviet reserves.",
"The Soviets realized that they were under tremendous constraints of time and resources and ordered that anyone strong enough to hold a rifle be sent to fight.",
"\n\n\n\nArmy Group South was selected for a sprint forward through the southern Russian steppes into the Caucasus to capture the vital Soviet oil fields there.",
"The planned summer offensive was code-named ''Fall Blau'' (Case Blue).",
"It was to include the German 6th, 17th, 4th Panzer and 1st Panzer Armies.",
"Army Group South had overrun the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1941.",
"Poised in Eastern Ukraine, it was to spearhead the offensive.",
"Hitler intervened, however, ordering the Army Group to split in two.",
"Army Group South (A), under the command of Wilhelm List, was to continue advancing south towards the Caucasus as planned with the 17th Army and First Panzer Army.",
"Army Group South (B), including Friedrich Paulus's 6th Army and Hermann Hoth's 4th Panzer Army, was to move east towards the Volga and Stalingrad.",
"Army Group B was commanded initially by Field Marshal Fedor von Bock and later by General Maximilian von Weichs.",
"Don River between 7 May and 23 July.",
"The start of ''Case Blue'' had been planned for late May 1942.",
"A number of German and Romanian units that were to take part in ''Blau'', however, were besieging Sevastopol on the Crimean Peninsula.",
"Delays in ending the siege pushed back the start date for ''Blau'' several times, and the city did not fall until the end of June.",
"Operation Fridericus I by the Germans against the \"Isium bulge\", pinched off the Soviet salient in the Second Battle of Kharkov, and resulted in the envelopment of a large Soviet force between 17 May and 29 May.",
"Similarly, Operation Wilhelm attacked Voltshansk on 13 June and Operation Fridericus attacked Kupiansk on 22 June.",
"''Blau'' finally opened as Army Group South began its attack into southern Russia on 28 June 1942.",
"The German offensive started well.",
"Soviet forces offered little resistance in the vast empty steppes and started streaming eastward.",
"Several attempts to re-establish a defensive line failed when German units outflanked them.",
"Two major pockets were formed and destroyed: the first, northeast of Kharkov, on 2 July, and a second, around Millerovo, Rostov Oblast, a week later.",
"Meanwhile, the Hungarian 2nd Army and the German 4th Panzer Army had launched an assault on Voronezh, capturing the city on 5 July.",
"Situation briefing near Stalingrad between a lieutenant officer and a junior commissioned officer\n\nThe initial advance of the 6th Army was so successful that Hitler intervened and ordered the 4th Panzer Army to join Army Group South (A) to the south.",
"A massive traffic jam resulted when the 4th Panzer and the 1st Panzer both required the few roads in the area.",
"Both armies were stopped dead while they attempted to clear the resulting mess of thousands of vehicles.",
"The delay was long, and it is thought that it cost the advance at least one week.",
"With the advance now slowed, Hitler changed his mind and reassigned the 4th Panzer Army back to the attack on Stalingrad.",
"By the end of July, the Germans had pushed the Soviets across the Don River.",
"At this point, the Don and Volga Rivers were only apart, and the Germans left their main supply depots west of the Don, which had important implications later in the course of the battle.",
"The Germans began using the armies of their Italian, Hungarian and Romanian allies to guard their left (northern) flank.",
"The Italians won several accolades in official German communiques.",
"Sometimes they were held in little regard by the Germans, and were even accused of having low morale: in reality, the Italian divisions fought comparatively well, with the 3rd Mountain Infantry Division Ravenna and 5th Infantry Division Cosseria proving to have good morale, according to a German liaison officer and being forced to retreat only after a massive armoured attack in which German reinforcements had failed to arrive in time, according to a German historian.",
"Indeed the Italians distinguished themselves in numerous battles, as in the battle of Nikolayevka.",
"StuG III assault gun advance towards the city center.",
"On 25 July the Germans faced stiff resistance with a Soviet bridgehead west of Kalach.",
"\"We had had to pay a high cost in men and material...left on the Kalatch battlefield were numerous burnt-out or shot-up German tanks.\"",
"The Germans formed bridgeheads across the Don on 20 Aug. with the 295th and 76th Infantry Divisions, enabling the XIVth Panzer Corps \"to thrust to the Volga north of Stalingrad.\"",
"The German 6th Army was only a few dozen kilometers from Stalingrad.",
"The 4th Panzer Army, ordered south on 13 July to block the Soviet retreat \"weakened by the 17th Army and the 1st Panzer Army\", had turned northwards to help take the city from the south.",
"To the south, Army Group A was pushing far into the Caucasus, but their advance slowed as supply lines grew overextended.",
"The two German army groups were not positioned to support one another due to the great distances involved.",
"After German intentions became clear in July 1942, Stalin appointed Marshal Andrey Yeryomenko as commander of the Southeastern Front on 1 August 1942.",
"Yeryomenko and Commissar Nikita Khrushchev were tasked with planning the defense of Stalingrad.",
"The eastern border of Stalingrad was the wide River Volga, and over the river, additional Soviet units were deployed.",
"These units became the newly formed 62nd Army, which Yeryomenko placed under the command of Lieutenant General Vasiliy Chuikov on 11 September 1942.",
"The situation was extremely dire.",
"When asked how he interpreted his task, he responded \"We will defend the city or die in the attempt.\"",
"The 62nd Army's mission was to defend Stalingrad at all costs.",
"Chuikov's generalship during the battle earned him one of his two Hero of the Soviet Union awards.",
"The German advance to Stalingrad between 24 July and 18 November\n\"Stalingrad-South\", 1942 map from the German General Staff\nDavid Glantz indicated that four hard-fought battles – collectively known as the Kotluban Operations – north of Stalingrad, where the Soviets made their greatest stand, decided Germany's fate before the Nazis ever set foot in the city itself, and were a turning point in the war.",
"Beginning in late August, continuing in September and into October, the Soviets committed between two and four armies in hastily coordinated and poorly controlled attacks against the German's northern flank.",
"The actions resulted in more than 200,000 Red Army casualties but did slow the German assault.",
"On 23 August the 6th Army reached the outskirts of Stalingrad in pursuit of the 62nd and 64th Armies, which had fallen back into the city.",
"Kleist later said after the war:\n\n\n\nThe Soviets had enough warning of the Germans' advance to ship grain, cattle, and railway cars across the Volga and out of harm's way but most civilian residents were not evacuated.",
"This \"harvest victory\" left the city short of food even before the German attack began.",
"Before the ''Heer'' reached the city itself, the ''Luftwaffe'' had rendered the River Volga, vital for bringing supplies into the city, unusable to Soviet shipping.",
"Between 25 and 31 July, 32 Soviet ships were sunk, with another nine crippled.",
"Smoke over the city center after aerial bombing by the German Luftwaffe on the central station\n\nThe battle began with the heavy bombing of the city by ''Generaloberst'' Wolfram von Richthofen's ''Luftflotte 4'', which in the summer and autumn of 1942 was the single most powerful air formation in the world.",
"Some 1,000 tons of bombs were dropped in 48 hours, more than in London at the height of the Blitz.",
"Stalin refused to evacuate civilian population from the city, so when bombing began 400,000 civilians were trapped within city boundaries.",
"The exact number of civilians killed during the course of the battle is unknown but was most likely very high.",
"Around 40,000 were moved to Germany as slave workers, some fled the city during battle and a small number were evacuated by the Soviets.",
"In February 1943 only between 10,000 to 60,000 civilians were still alive in Stalingrad.",
"Much of the city was quickly turned to rubble, although some factories continued production while workers joined in the fighting.",
"The Stalingrad Tractor Factory continued to turn out T-34 tanks literally until German troops burst into the plant.",
"The 369th (Croatian) Reinforced Infantry Regiment was the only non-German unit selected by the ''Wehrmacht'' to enter Stalingrad city during assault operations.",
"It fought as part of the 100th Jäger Division.",
"All the regular ferries were quickly destroyed by the Luftwaffe, which then targeted troop barges being towed slowly across the river by tugs.",
"It has been said that Stalin prevented civilians from leaving the city in the belief that their presence would encourage greater resistance from the city's defenders.",
"Civilians, including women and children, were put to work building trenchworks and protective fortifications.",
"A massive German air raid on 23 August caused a firestorm, killing hundreds and turning Stalingrad into a vast landscape of rubble and burnt ruins.",
"Ninety percent of the living space in the Voroshilovskiy area was destroyed.",
"Between 23 and 26 August, Soviet reports indicate 955 people were killed and another 1,181 wounded as a result of the bombing.",
"Casualties of 40,000 were greatly exaggerated, and after 25 August, the Soviets did not record any civilian and military casualties as a result of air raids.",
"The Soviet Air Force, the ''Voyenno-Vozdushnye Sily'' (VVS), was swept aside by the Luftwaffe.",
"The VVS bases in the immediate area lost 201 aircraft between 23 and 31 August, and despite meager reinforcements of some 100 aircraft in August, it was left with just 192 serviceable aircraft, 57 of which were fighters.",
"The Soviets continued to pour aerial reinforcements into the Stalingrad area in late September, but continued to suffer appalling losses; the ''Luftwaffe'' had complete control of the skies.",
"Soviets preparing to ward off a German assault in Stalingrad's suburbs\n\nThe burden of the initial defense of the city fell on the 1077th Anti-Aircraft Regiment, a unit made up mainly of young female volunteers who had no training for engaging ground targets.",
"Despite this, and with no support available from other units, the AA gunners stayed at their posts and took on the advancing panzers.",
"The German 16th Panzer Division reportedly had to fight the 1077th's gunners \"shot for shot\" until all 37 anti-aircraft guns were destroyed or overrun.",
"The 16th Panzer was shocked to find that, due to Soviet manpower shortages, it had been fighting female soldiers.",
"In the early stages of the battle, the NKVD organized poorly armed \"Workers' militias\" composed of civilians not directly involved in war production for immediate use in the battle.",
"The civilians were often sent into battle without rifles.",
"Staff and students from the local technical university formed a \"tank destroyer\" unit.",
"They assembled tanks from leftover parts at the tractor factory.",
"These tanks, unpainted and lacking gunsights, were driven directly from the factory floor to the front line.",
"They could only be aimed at point-blank range through the gun barrel.",
"By the end of August, Army Group South (B) had finally reached the Volga, north of Stalingrad.",
"Another advance to the river south of the city followed, while the Soviets abandoned their Rossoshka position for the inner defensive ring west of Stalingrad.",
"The wings of the 6th Army and the 4th Panzer Army met near Jablotchni along the Zaritza on 2 Sept. By 1 September, the Soviets could only reinforce and supply their forces in Stalingrad by perilous crossings of the Volga under constant bombardment by artillery and aircraft.",
"On 5 September, the Soviet 24th and 66th Armies organized a massive attack against XIV Panzer Corps.",
"The ''Luftwaffe'' helped repulse the offensive by heavily attacking Soviet artillery positions and defensive lines.",
"The Soviets were forced to withdraw at midday after only a few hours.",
"Of the 120 tanks the Soviets had committed, 30 were lost to air attack.",
"German soldiers clearing the streets in Stalingrad\n\nSoviet operations were constantly hampered by the ''Luftwaffe''.",
"On 18 September, the Soviet 1st Guards and 24th Army launched an offensive against VIII Army Corps at Kotluban.",
"''VIII.",
"Fliegerkorps'' dispatched wave after wave of Stuka dive-bombers to prevent a breakthrough.",
"The offensive was repulsed.",
"The Stukas claimed 41 of the 106 Soviet tanks knocked out that morning, while escorting Bf 109s destroyed 77 Soviet aircraft.",
"Amid the debris of the wrecked city, the Soviet 62nd and 64th Armies, which included the Soviet 13th Guards Rifle Division, anchored their defense lines with strongpoints in houses and factories.",
"Soviet soldiers running through trenches in the ruins of Stalingrad\n\nFighting within the ruined city was fierce and desperate.",
"Lieutenant General Alexander Rodimtsev was in charge of the 13th Guards Rifle Division, and received one of two Heroes of the Soviet Union awarded during the battle for his actions.",
"Stalin's Order No.",
"227 of 27 July 1942 decreed that all commanders who ordered unauthorized retreat would be subject to a military tribunal.",
"However, it was the NKVD that ordered the regular army and lectured them, on the need to show some guts.",
"Through brutal coercion for self-sacrifice, thousands of deserters and presumed malingerers were captured or executed to discipline the troops.",
"At Stalingrad, it is estimated that 14,000 soldiers of the Red Army were executed in order to keep the formation.",
"\"Not a step back!\"",
"and \"There is no land behind the Volga!\"",
"were the slogans.",
"The Germans pushing forward into Stalingrad suffered heavy casualties.",
"===Fighting in the city===\nBy 12 September, at the time of their retreat into the city, the Soviet 62nd Army had been reduced to 90 tanks, 700 mortars and just 20,000 personnel.",
"The remaining tanks were used as immobile strongpoints within the city.",
"The initial German attack attempted to take the city in a rush.",
"One infantry division went after the Mamayev Kurgan hill, one attacked the central rail station and one attacked toward the central landing stage on the Volga.",
"October 1942: A German soldier with a Soviet PPSh-41 submachine gun in Barrikady factory rubble\n\nThough initially successful, the German attacks stalled in the face of Soviet reinforcements brought in from across the Volga.",
"The Soviet 13th Guards Rifle Division, assigned to counterattack at the Mamayev Kurgan and at Railway Station No.",
"1 suffered particularly heavy losses.",
"Over 30 percent of its soldiers were killed in the first 24 hours, and just 320 out of the original 10,000 survived the entire battle.",
"Both objectives were retaken, but only temporarily.",
"The railway station changed hands 14 times in six hours.",
"By the following evening, the 13th Guards Rifle Division had ceased to exist.",
"Combat raged for three days at the giant grain elevator in the south of the city.",
"About fifty Red Army defenders, cut off from resupply, held the position for five days and fought off ten different assaults before running out of ammunition and water.",
"Only forty dead Soviet fighters were found, though the Germans had thought there were many more due to the intensity of resistance.",
"The Soviets burned large amounts of grain during their retreat in order to deny the enemy food.",
"Paulus chose the grain elevator and silos as the symbol of Stalingrad for a patch he was having designed to commemorate the battle after a German victory.",
"German soldiers of the 24th Panzer Division in action during the fighting for the southern station of Stalingrad\n\nGerman military doctrine was based on the principle of combined-arms teams and close cooperation between tanks, infantry, engineers, artillery and ground-attack aircraft.",
"Some Soviet commanders adopted the tactic of always keeping their front-line positions as close to the Germans as physically possible; Chuikov called this \"hugging\" the Germans.",
"This slowed the German advance and reduced the effectiveness of the German advantage in supporting fire.",
"The Red Army gradually adopted a strategy to hold for as long as possible all the ground in the city.",
"Thus, they converted multi-floored apartment blocks, factories, warehouses, street corner residences and office buildings into a series of well defended strongpoints with small 5–10 man units.",
"Manpower in the city was constantly refreshed by bringing additional troops over the Volga.",
"When a position was lost, an immediate attempt was usually made to re-take it with fresh forces.",
"Soviets defend a position\n\nBitter fighting raged for every ruin, street, factory, house, basement, and staircase.",
"Even the sewers were the sites of firefights.",
"The Germans, calling this unseen urban warfare ''Rattenkrieg'' (\"Rat War\"), bitterly joked about capturing the kitchen but still fighting for the living room and the bedroom.",
"Buildings had to be cleared room by room through the bombed-out debris of residential neighborhoods, office blocks, basements and apartment high-rises.",
"Some of the taller buildings, blasted into roofless shells by earlier German aerial bombardment, saw floor-by-floor, close quarters combat, with the Germans and Soviets on alternate levels, firing at each other through holes in the floors.",
"Fighting on and around Mamayev Kurgan, a prominent hill above the city, was particularly merciless; indeed, the position changed hands many times.",
"The soldiers surrounded it with minefields, set up machine-gun positions at the windows and breached the walls in the basement for better communications.",
"The soldiers found about ten Soviet civilians hiding in the basement.",
"They were not relieved, and not significantly reinforced, for two months.",
"The building was labeled ''Festung'' (\"Fortress\") on German maps.",
"Sgt.",
"Pavlov was awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union for his actions.",
"German soldiers positioning themselves in the urban warfare\n\nThe Germans made slow but steady progress through the city.",
"By 27 Sept. the Germans occupied the southern portion of the city, but the Soviets held the center and northern part.",
"Soviet assault troops in the battle\n\nThe Germans used airpower, tanks and heavy artillery to clear the city with varying degrees of success.",
"Toward the end of the battle, the gigantic railroad gun nicknamed ''Dora'' was brought into the area.",
"This artillery was able to bombard the German positions or at least to provide counter-battery fire.",
"Snipers on both sides used the ruins to inflict casualties.",
"The most famous Soviet sniper in Stalingrad was Vasily Zaytsev, with 225 confirmed kills during the battle.",
"Targets were often soldiers bringing up food or water to forward positions.",
"Artillery spotters were an especially prized target for snipers.",
"Soviet soldiers in the Red October Factory\n\nA significant historical debate concerns the degree of terror in the Red Army.",
"The British historian Antony Beevor noted the \"sinister\" message from the Stalingrad Front's Political Department on 8 October 1942 that: \"The defeatist mood is almost eliminated and the number of treasonous incidents is getting lower\" as an example of the sort of coercion Red Army soldiers experienced under the Special Detachments (later to be renamed SMERSH).",
"On the other hand, Beevor noted the often extraordinary bravery of the Soviet soldiers in a battle that was only comparable to Verdun, and argued that terror alone cannot explain such self-sacrifice.",
"Richard Overy addresses the question of just how important the Red Army's coercive methods were to the Soviet war effort compared with other motivational factors such as hatred for the enemy.",
"He argues that, though it is \"easy to argue that from the summer of 1942 the Soviet army fought because it was forced to fight,\" to concentrate solely on coercion is nonetheless to \"distort our view of the Soviet war effort.\"",
"After conducting hundreds of interviews with Soviet veterans on the subject of terror on the Eastern Front – and specifically about Order No.",
"227 (\"Not a step back!\")",
"at Stalingrad – Catherine Merridale notes that, seemingly paradoxically, \"their response was frequently relief.\"",
"Infantryman Lev Lvovich's explanation, for example, is typical for these interviews; as he recalls, \"it was a necessary and important step.",
"We all knew where we stood after we had heard it.",
"And we all – it's true – felt better.",
"Yes, we felt better.\"",
"Pavlov's House (1943)\n\nMany women fought on the Soviet side, or were under fire.",
"As General Chuikov acknowledged, \"Remembering the defence of Stalingrad, I can't overlook the very important question ... about the role of women in war, in the rear, but also at the front.",
"Equally with men they bore all the burdens of combat life and together with us men, they went all the way to Berlin.\"",
"At the beginning of the battle there were 75,000 women and girls from the Stalingrad area who had finished military or medical training, and all of whom were to serve in the battle.",
"Women staffed a great many of the anti-aircraft batteries that fought not only the Luftwaffe but German tanks.",
"Soviet nurses not only treated wounded personnel under fire but were involved in the highly dangerous work of bringing wounded soldiers back to the hospitals under enemy fire.",
"Many of the Soviet wireless and telephone operators were women who often suffered heavy casualties when their command posts came under fire.",
"Though women were not usually trained as infantry, many Soviet women fought as machine gunners, mortar operators, and scouts.",
"Women were also snipers at Stalingrad.",
"Three air regiments at Stalingrad were entirely female.",
"At least three women won the title Hero of the Soviet Union while driving tanks at Stalingrad.",
"Soil after the battle of Stalingrad in the Vladimir Military Museum\n\nFor both Stalin and Hitler, Stalingrad became a matter of prestige far beyond its strategic significance.",
"The Soviet command moved units from the Red Army strategic reserve in the Moscow area to the lower Volga, and transferred aircraft from the entire country to the Stalingrad region.",
"The strain on both military commanders was immense: Paulus developed an uncontrollable tic in his eye, which eventually afflicted the left side of his face, while Chuikov experienced an outbreak of eczema that required him to have his hands completely bandaged.",
"Troops on both sides faced the constant strain of close-range combat.",
"===Air attacks===\nJunkers Ju 87 ''Stuka'' dive bomber over the neighborhood west of the Red October factory; some of the administration buildings are at lower right; Bayonet Gully is at top right.",
"Determined to crush Soviet resistance, ''Luftflotte'' 4's ''Stukawaffe'' flew 900 individual sorties against Soviet positions at the ''Dzerzhinskiy'' Tractor Factory on 5 October.",
"Several Soviet regiments were wiped out; the entire staff of the Soviet 339th Infantry Regiment was killed the following morning during an air raid.",
"''Luftflotte'' 4 flew 2,000 sorties on 14 October and of bombs were dropped while German infantry surrounded the three factories.",
"The 62nd Army had been cut in two, and, due to intensive air attack on its supply ferries, was receiving much less material support.",
"The ''Luftwaffe'' retained air superiority into November and Soviet daytime aerial resistance was nonexistent.",
"However, the combination of constant air support operations on the German side and the Soviet surrender of the daytime skies began to affect the strategic balance in the air.",
"After flying 20,000 individual sorties, the ''Luftwaffe'' original strength of 1,600 serviceable aircraft had fallen to 950.",
"The ''Kampfwaffe'' (bomber force) had been hardest hit, having only 232 out of a force of 480 left.",
"The ''VVS'' remained qualitatively inferior, but by the time of the Soviet counter-offensive, the ''VVS'' had reached numerical superiority.",
"Romanian IAR 80 fighter planes.",
"The Soviet bomber force, the ''Aviatsiya Dal'nego Deystviya'' (Long Range Aviation; ADD), having taken crippling losses over the past 18 months, was restricted to flying at night.",
"The Soviets flew 11,317 night sorties over Stalingrad and the Don-bend sector between 17 July and 19 November.",
"These raids caused little damage and were of nuisance value only.",
"On 8 November, substantial units from ''Luftflotte'' 4 were withdrawn to combat the Allied landings in North Africa.",
"The German air arm found itself spread thinly across Europe, struggling to maintain its strength in the other southern sectors of the Soviet-German front.",
"The Soviets began receiving material assistance from the American government under the Lend-Lease program.",
"During the last quarter of 1942, the U.S. sent the Soviet Union of explosives and of aviation fuel.",
"As historian Chris Bellamy notes, the Germans paid a high strategic price for the aircraft sent into Stalingrad: the ''Luftwaffe'' was forced to divert much of its air strength away from the oil-rich Caucasus, which had been Hitler's original grand-strategic objective.",
"===Germans reach the Volga===\nAfter three months of slow advance, the Germans finally reached the river banks, capturing 90% of the ruined city and splitting the remaining Soviet forces into two narrow pockets.",
"Ice floes on the Volga now prevented boats and tugs from supplying the Soviet defenders.",
"Nevertheless, the fighting, especially on the slopes of Mamayev Kurgan and inside the factory area in the northern part of the city, continued.",
"Soviet soldiers attack a house, February 1943\nRecognizing that German troops were ill prepared for offensive operations during the winter of 1942, and that most of them were redeployed elsewhere on the southern sector of the Eastern Front, the Stavka decided to conduct a number of offensive operations between 19 November 1942 and 2 February 1943.",
"These operations opened the Winter Campaign of 1942–1943 (19 November 1942 – 3 March 1943), which involved some 15 Armies operating on several fronts.",
"According to Zhukov, \"German operational blunders were aggravated by poor intelligence: they failed to spot preparations for the major counter-offensive near Stalingrad where there were 10 field, 1 tank and 4 air armies.\"",
"===Weakness on the German flanks===\nDuring the siege, the German and allied Italian, Hungarian, and Romanian armies protecting Army Group B's flanks had pressed their headquarters for support.",
"The Hungarian 2nd Army was given the task of defending a section of the front north of Stalingrad between the Italian Army and Voronezh.",
"This resulted in a very thin line, with some sectors where stretches were being defended by a single platoon.",
"These forces were also lacking in effective anti-tank weapons.",
"Zhukov states, \"Compared with the Germans, the troops of the satellites were not so well armed, less experienced and less efficient, even in defence.\"",
"Because of the total focus on the city, the Axis forces had neglected for months to consolidate their positions along the natural defensive line of the Don River.",
"These bridgeheads in retrospect presented a serious threat to Army Group B.",
"Similarly, on the southern flank of the Stalingrad sector the front southwest of Kotelnikovo was held only by the Romanian 4th Army.",
"Beyond that army, a single German division, the 16th Motorized Infantry, covered 400 km.",
"Paulus had requested permission to \"withdraw the 6th Army behind the Don,\" but was rejected.",
"According to Paulus' comments to Adam, \"There is still the order whereby no commander of an army group or an army has the right to relinquish a village, even a trench, without Hitler's consent.\"",
"===Operation Uranus: the Soviet offensive===\n\nThe Soviet counter-attack at Stalingrad \n\nIn autumn, the Soviet generals Georgy Zhukov and Aleksandr Vasilevsky, responsible for strategic planning in the Stalingrad area, concentrated forces in the steppes to the north and south of the city.",
"The northern flank was defended by Hungarian and Romanian units, often in open positions on the steppes.",
"The natural line of defense, the Don River, had never been properly established by the German side.",
"The armies in the area were also poorly equipped in terms of anti-tank weapons.",
"The plan was to punch through the overstretched and weakly defended German flanks and surround the German forces in the Stalingrad region.",
"During the preparations for the attack, Marshal Zhukov personally visited the front and noticing the poor organization, insisted on a one-week delay in the start date of the planned attack.",
"The operation was code-named \"Uranus\" and launched in conjunction with Operation Mars, which was directed at Army Group Center.",
"The plan was similar to the one Zhukov had used to achieve victory at Khalkhin Gol three years before, where he had sprung a double envelopment and destroyed the 23rd Division of the Japanese army.",
"On 19 November 1942, the Red Army launched Operation Uranus.",
"The attacking Soviet units under the command of Gen. Nikolay Vatutin consisted of three complete armies, the 1st Guards Army, 5th Tank Army, and 21st Army, including a total of 18 infantry divisions, eight tank brigades, two motorized brigades, six cavalry divisions and one anti-tank brigade.",
"The preparations for the attack could be heard by the Romanians, who continued to push for reinforcements, only to be refused again.",
"Thinly spread, deployed in exposed positions, outnumbered and poorly equipped, the Romanian 3rd Army, which held the northern flank of the German 6th Army, was overrun.",
"Behind the front lines, no preparations had been made to defend key points in the rear such as Kalach.",
"The response by the ''Wehrmacht'' was both chaotic and indecisive.",
"Poor weather prevented effective air action against the Soviet offensive.",
"On 20 November, a second Soviet offensive (two armies) was launched to the south of Stalingrad against points held by the Romanian 4th Army Corps.",
"The Romanian forces, made up primarily of infantry, were overrun by large numbers of tanks.",
"The Soviet forces raced west and met on 23 November at the town of Kalach, sealing the ring around Stalingrad.",
"The link-up of the Soviet forces, not filmed at the time, was later re-enacted for a propaganda film which was shown worldwide.",
"Romanian soldiers near Stalingrad\nGerman soldiers as prisoners of war.",
"In the background is the heavily fought-over Stalingrad grain elevator\nGerman dead in the city\n\nAbout 265,000 German, Romanian, and Italian soldiers, the 369th (Croatian) Reinforced Infantry Regiment, and other volunteer subsidiary troops including some 40,000 Soviet conscripts and volunteers fighting for the Germans (Beevor states that one quarter of the sixth army's frontline strength were HIWIs, as collaborationists recruited from the ranks of Soviet POWs were called) were surrounded.",
"These Soviet HIWIs remained loyal, knowing the Soviet penalty for helping the Germans was summary execution.",
"German strength in the pocket was about 210,000 according to strength breakdowns of the 20 field divisions (average size 9,000) and 100 battalion sized units of the Sixth Army on 19 November 1942.",
"Inside the pocket (, literally \"cauldron\"), there were also around 10,000 Soviet civilians and several thousand Soviet soldiers the Germans had taken captive during the battle.",
"Not all of the 6th Army was trapped; 50,000 soldiers were brushed aside outside the pocket.",
"These belonged mostly to the other 2 divisions of the 6th Army between the Italian and Romanian Armies: the 62nd and 298th Infantry Divisions.",
"Of the 210,000 Germans, 10,000 remained to fight on, 105,000 surrendered, 35,000 left by air and the remaining 60,000 died.",
"Army Group Don was formed under Field Marshal von Manstein.",
"Under his command were the 20 German and 2 Romanian divisions encircled at Stalingrad, Adam's battle groups formed along the Chir River and on the Don bridgehead, plus the remains of the Romanian 3rd Army.",
"The Red Army units immediately formed two defensive fronts: a circumvallation facing inward and a contravallation facing outward.",
"Field Marshal Erich von Manstein advised Hitler not to order the 6th Army to break out, stating that he could break through the Soviet lines and relieve the besieged 6th Army.",
"The American historians Williamson Murray and Alan Millet wrote that it was Manstein's message to Hitler on 24 November advising him that the 6th Army should not break out, along with Göring's statements that the Luftwaffe could supply Stalingrad that \"... sealed the fate of the Sixth Army.\"",
"After 1945, Manstein claimed that he told Hitler that the 6th Army must break out.",
"The American historian Gerhard Weinberg wrote that Manstein distorted his record on the matter.",
"Manstein was tasked to conduct a relief operation, named Operation Winter Storm (''Unternehmen Wintergewitter'') against Stalingrad, which he thought was feasible if the 6th Army was temporarily supplied through the air.",
"Adolf Hitler had declared in a public speech (in the Berlin Sportpalast) on 30 September 1942 that the German army would never leave the city.",
"At a meeting shortly after the Soviet encirclement, German army chiefs pushed for an immediate breakout to a new line on the west of the Don, but Hitler was at his Bavarian retreat of Obersalzberg in Berchtesgaden with the head of the ''Luftwaffe'', Hermann Göring.",
"When asked by Hitler, Göring replied, after being convinced by Hans Jeschonnek, that the Luftwaffe could supply the 6th Army with an \"air bridge.\"",
"This would allow the Germans in the city to fight on temporarily while a relief force was assembled.",
"A similar plan had been used a year earlier at the Demyansk Pocket, albeit on a much smaller scale: a corps at Demyansk rather than an entire army.",
"A Ju 52 approaching Stalingrad\nThe director of ''Luftflotte'' 4, Wolfram von Richthofen, tried to get this decision overturned.",
"The forces under the 6th Army were almost twice as large as a regular German army unit, plus there was also a corps of the 4th Panzer Army trapped in the pocket.",
"The maximum they could deliver a day – based on the number of available aircraft and with only the airfield at Pitomnik to land at – was far less than the minimum needed.",
"To supplement the limited number of Junkers Ju 52 transports, the Germans pressed other aircraft into the role, such as the Heinkel He 177 bomber (some bombers performed adequately – the Heinkel He 111 proved to be quite capable and was much faster than the Ju 52).",
"General Richthofen informed Manstein on 27 November of the small transport capacity of the Luftwaffe and the impossibility of supplying 300 tons a day by air.",
"Manstein now saw the enormous technical difficulties of a supply by air of these dimensions.",
"The next day he made a six-page situation report to the general staff.",
"Based on the information of the expert Richthofen, he declared that contrary to the example of the pocket of Demyansk the permanent supply by air would be impossible.",
"If only a narrow link could be established to Sixth Army, he proposed that this should be used to pull it out from the encirclement, and said that the Luftwaffe should instead of supplies deliver only enough ammunition and fuel for a breakout attempt.",
"He acknowledged the heavy moral sacrifice that giving up Stalingrad would mean, but this would be made easier to bear by the conserving the combat power of Sixth Army and regaining the initiative.",
"He ignored the limited mobility of the army and the difficulties of disengaging the Soviets.",
"Hitler reiterated that Sixth Army would stay at Stalingrad and that the air bridge would supply it until the encirclement was broken by a new German offensive.",
"Supplying the 270,000 men trapped in the \"cauldron\" required 700 tons of supplies a day.",
"That would mean 350 Ju52 flights a day into Pitomnik.",
"At a minimum, 500 tons were required.",
"However, according to Adam, \"On not one single day have the minimal essential number of tons of supplies been flown in.\"",
"The ''Luftwaffe'' was able to deliver an average of of supplies per day out of an air transport capacity of per day.",
"The most successful day, 19 December, delivered of supplies in 154 flights.",
"The outcome of the airlift was the Luftwaffe's failure to provide its transport units with the tools they needed to maintain an adequate count of operational aircraft – tools that included airfield facilities, supplies, manpower, and even aircraft suited to the prevailing conditions.",
"These factors, taken together, prevented the Luftwaffe from effectively employing the full potential of its transport forces, ensuring that they were unable to deliver the quantity of supplies needed to sustain the 6th Army.",
"In the early parts of the operation, fuel was shipped at a higher priority than food and ammunition because of a belief that there would be a breakout from the city.",
"Transport aircraft also evacuated technical specialists and sick or wounded personnel from the besieged enclave.",
"Sources differ on the number flown out: at least 25,000 to at most 35,000.",
"Carell: 42,000, of which 5000 did not survive.",
"The center of Stalingrad after liberation\nInitially, supply flights came in from the field at Tatsinskaya, called 'Tazi' by the German pilots.",
"On 23 December, the Soviet 24th Tank Corps, commanded by Major-General Vasily Mikhaylovich Badanov, reached nearby Skassirskaya and in the early morning of 24 December, the tanks reached Tatsinskaya.",
"Without any soldiers to defend the airfield, it was abandoned under heavy fire; in a little under an hour, 108 Ju 52s and 16 Ju 86s took off for Novocherkassk – leaving 72 Ju 52s and many other aircraft burning on the ground.",
"A new base was established some from Stalingrad at Salsk, the additional distance would become another obstacle to the resupply efforts.",
"Salsk was abandoned in turn by mid-January for a rough facility at Zverevo, near Shakhty.",
"The field at Zverevo was attacked repeatedly on 18 January and a further 50 Ju 52s were destroyed.",
"Winter weather conditions, technical failures, heavy Soviet anti-aircraft fire and fighter interceptions eventually led to the loss of 488 German aircraft.",
"In spite of the failure of the German offensive to reach the 6th Army, the air supply operation continued under ever more difficult circumstances.",
"The 6th Army slowly starved.",
"General Zeitzler, moved by their plight, began to limit himself to their slim rations at meal times.",
"After a few weeks on such a diet, he had \"visibly lost weight\", according to Albert Speer, and Hitler \"commanded Zeitler to resume at once taking sufficient nourishment.\"",
"The toll on the ''Transportgruppen'' was heavy.",
"160 aircraft were destroyed and 328 were heavily damaged (beyond repair).",
"Some 266 Junkers Ju 52s were destroyed; one-third of the fleet's strength on the Eastern Front.",
"The He 111 ''gruppen'' lost 165 aircraft in transport operations.",
"Other losses included 42 Ju 86s, 9 Fw 200 Condors, 5 He 177 bombers and 1 Ju 290.",
"The ''Luftwaffe'' also lost close to 1,000 highly experienced bomber crew personnel.",
"So heavy were the ''Luftwaffe''s losses that four of ''Luftflotte'' 4's transport units (KGrzbV 700, KGrzbV 900, I./KGrzbV 1 and II./KGzbV 1) were \"formally dissolved.\"",
"\n===Operation Winter Storm===\n\n\nSoviet forces consolidated their positions around Stalingrad, and fierce fighting to shrink the pocket began.",
"Operation Winter Storm (''Operation Wintergewitter''), the German attempt led by Erich von Manstein to relieve the trapped army from the south, was initially successful.",
"By 18 December, the German Army had pushed to within 48 km (30 mi) of Sixth Army's positions.",
"The starving encircled forces at Stalingrad made no attempt to break out or link up with Manstein's advance.",
"Some German officers requested that Paulus defy Hitler's orders to stand fast and instead attempt to break out of the Stalingrad pocket.",
"Paulus refused, concerned about the Red Army attacks on the flank of Army Group Don and Army Group B in their advance on Rostov-on-Don, \"an early abandonment\" of Stalingrad \"would result in the destruction of Army Group A in the Caucasus,\" and the fact that his 6th Army tanks only had fuel for a 30 km advance towards Hoth's spearhead, a futile effort if they did not receive assurance of resupply by air.",
"Of his questions to Army Group Don, Paulus was told, \"Wait, implement Operation 'Thunderclap' only on explicit orders!\"",
"Operation Thunderclap being the code word initiating the breakout.",
"On 23 December, the attempt to relieve Stalingrad was abandoned and Manstein's forces switched over to the defensive to deal with new Soviet offensives.",
"As Zhukov states, \"The military and political leadership of Nazi Germany sought not to relieve them, but to get them to fight on for as long possible so as to tie up the Soviet forces.",
"The aim was to win as much time as possible to withdraw forces from the Caucasus and to rush troops from other Fronts to form a new front that would be able in some measure to check our counter-offensive.\"",
"===Operation Little Saturn===\n\nSoviet gains (shown in blue) during Operation Little Saturn\n\nOn 16 December, the Soviets launched Operation Little Saturn, which attempted to punch through the Axis army (mainly Italians) on the Don and take Rostov.",
"The Germans set up a \"mobile defense\" of small units that were to hold towns until supporting armor arrived.",
"From the Soviet bridgehead at Mamon, 15 divisions – supported by at least 100 tanks – attacked the Italian Cosseria and Ravenna Divisions, and although outnumbered 9 to 1, the Italians initially fought well, with the Germans praising the quality of the Italian defenders, but on 19 December, with the Italian lines disintegrating, ARMIR headquarters ordered the battered divisions to withdraw to new lines.",
"The fighting forced a total revaluation of the German situation.",
"The attempt to break through to Stalingrad was abandoned and Army Group A was ordered to pull back from the Caucasus.",
"The 6th Army now was beyond all hope of German relief.",
"While a motorised breakout might have been possible in the first few weeks, the 6th Army now had insufficient fuel and the German soldiers would have faced great difficulty breaking through the Soviet lines on foot in harsh winter conditions.",
"But in its defensive position on the Volga, 6th Army continued to tie down a significant number of Soviet Armies.",
"===Soviet victory===\n759,560 Soviet personnel were awarded this medal for the defence of Stalingrad from 22 December 1942.",
"The Red Army High Command sent three envoys while simultaneously aircraft and loudspeakers announced terms of capitulation on 7 Jan. 1943.",
"The letter was signed by Colonel-General of Artillery Voronov and the commander-in-chief of the Don Front, Lieutenant-General Rokossovski.",
"The German High Command informed Paulus, \"Every day that the army holds out longer helps the whole front and draws away the Russian divisions from it.\"",
"The Germans inside the pocket retreated from the suburbs of Stalingrad to the city itself.",
"The loss of the two airfields, at Pitomnik on 16 January 1943 and Gumrak on the night of 21/22 January, meant an end to air supplies and to the evacuation of the wounded.",
"The third and last serviceable runway was at the Stalingradskaya flight school, which reportedly had the last landings and takeoffs on 23 Jan. After 23 Jan. there were no more reported landings, just intermittent air drops of ammunition and food until the end.",
"''Generalfeldmarschall'' Friedrich Paulus (left), with his chief of staff, ''Generalleutnant'' Arthur Schmidt (centre) and his aide, Wilhelm Adam (right), after their surrender.",
"The Germans were now not only starving, but running out of ammunition.",
"Nevertheless, they continued to resist, in part because they believed the Soviets would execute any who surrendered.",
"In particular, the so-called ''HiWis'', Soviet citizens fighting for the Germans, had no illusions about their fate if captured.",
"The Soviets were initially surprised by the number of Germans they had trapped, and had to reinforce their encircling troops.",
"Bloody urban warfare began again in Stalingrad, but this time it was the Germans who were pushed back to the banks of the Volga.",
"The Germans adopted a simple defense of fixing wire nets over all windows to protect themselves from grenades.",
"The Soviets responded by fixing fish hooks to the grenades so they stuck to the nets when thrown.",
"The Germans had no usable tanks in the city, and those that still functioned could, at best, be used as makeshift pillboxes.",
"The Soviets did not bother employing tanks in areas where the urban destruction restricted their mobility.",
"A low-level Soviet envoy party (comprising Major Aleksandr Smyslov, Captain Nikolay Dyatlenko and a trumpeter) carried an offer to Paulus: if he surrendered within 24 hours, he would receive a guarantee of safety for all prisoners, medical care for the sick and wounded, prisoners being allowed to keep their personal belongings, \"normal\" food rations, and repatriation to any country they wished after the war; but Paulus – ordered not to surrender by Hitler – did not respond.",
"On 22 January, Paulus requested that he be granted permission to surrender.",
"Hitler rejected it on a point of honour.",
"He telegraphed the 6th Army later that day, claiming that it had made a historic contribution to the greatest struggle in German history and that it should stand fast \"to the last soldier and the last bullet.\"",
"Hitler told Goebbels that the plight of the 6th Army was a \"heroic drama of German history.\"",
"On 24 Jan., in his radio report to Hitler, Paulus reported \"18,000 wounded without the slightest aid of bandages and medicines.\"",
"On 26 January 1943, the German forces inside Stalingrad were split into two pockets north and south of Mamai-Kurgan.",
"The northern pocket consisting of the VIIIth Corps, under General Walter Heitz, and the XIth Corps, was now cut off from telephone communication with Paulus in the southern pocket.",
"Now \"each part of the cauldron came personally under Hitler.\"",
"On 28 Jan., the cauldron was split into three parts.",
"The northern cauldron consisted of the XIth Corps, the central with the VIIIth and LIst Corps, and the southern with the XIVth Panzer Corps and IVth Corps \"without units\".",
"The sick and wounded reached 40,000 to 50,000.",
"On 30 January 1943, the 10th anniversary of Hitler's coming to power, Goebbels read out a proclamation that included the sentence: \"The heroic struggle of our soldiers on the Volga should be a warning for everybody to do the utmost for the struggle for Germany's freedom and the future of our people, and thus in a wider sense for the maintenance of our entire continent.\"",
"Hitler promoted Paulus to the rank of ''Generalfeldmarschall''.",
"No German field marshal had ever surrendered, and the implication was clear: if Paulus surrendered, he would shame himself and would become the highest ranking German officer ever to be captured.",
"Hitler believed that Paulus would either fight to the last man or commit suicide.",
"On the next day, the southern pocket in Stalingrad collapsed.",
"Soviet forces reached the entrance to the German headquarters in the ruined GUM department store.",
"General Schmidt negotiated a surrender of the headquarters while Paulus was unaware in another room.",
"When interrogated by the Soviets, Paulus claimed that he had not surrendered.",
"He said that he had been taken by surprise.",
"He denied that he was the commander of the remaining northern pocket in Stalingrad and refused to issue an order in his name for them to surrender.",
"The central pocket, under the command of Heitz, surrendered the same day while the northern pocket, under the command of Strecker, held out for two more days.",
"When Strecker finally surrendered he and his Chief of Staff, Helmuth Groscurth, drafted the final signal sent from Stalingrad, purposely omitting the customary exclamation to Hitler, replacing it with \"Long live Germany!\"",
"Four Soviet armies were deployed against the remaining northern pocket.",
"At four in the morning on 2 February, General Strecker was informed that one of his own officers had gone to the Soviets to negotiate surrender terms.",
"Seeing no point in continuing, he sent a radio message saying that his command had done its duty and fought to the last man.",
"He then surrendered.",
"Around 91,000 exhausted, ill, wounded, and starving prisoners were taken, including 3,000 Romanians (the survivors of the 20th Infantry Division, 1st Cavalry Division and \"Col. Voicu\" Detachment).",
"The prisoners included 22 generals.",
"Hitler was furious and confided that Paulus \"could have freed himself from all sorrow and ascended into eternity and national immortality, but he prefers to go to Moscow.\"",
"The aftermath of the Battle of Stalingrad\nThe German public was not officially told of the impending disaster until the end of January 1943, though positive media reports had stopped in the weeks before the announcement.",
"Stalingrad marked the first time that the Nazi government publicly acknowledged a failure in its war effort; it was not only the first big defeat for the German military but German losses were almost equal to those of the Soviets and this was unprecedented.",
"Previous Soviet losses were generally three times as high as those of the Germans.",
"On 31 January, regular programmes on German state radio were replaced by a broadcast of the somber Adagio movement from Anton Bruckner's Seventh Symphony, followed by the announcement of the defeat at Stalingrad.",
"On 18 February, Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels gave the famous ''Sportpalast'' speech in Berlin, encouraging the Germans to accept a total war that would claim all resources and efforts from the entire population.",
"A Red Army soldier marches a German soldier into captivity.",
"Based on Soviet records, over 10,000 soldiers continued to resist in isolated groups within the city for the next month.",
"Some have presumed that they were motivated by a belief that fighting on was better than a slow death in Soviet captivity.",
"Brown University historian Omer Bartov claims they were motivated by National Socialism.",
"He studied 11,237 letters sent by soldiers inside of Stalingrad between 20 December 1942 and 16 January 1943 to their families in Germany.",
"Almost every letter expressed belief in Germany's ultimate victory and their willingness to fight and die at Stalingrad to achieve that victory.",
"Bartov reported that a great many of the soldiers were well aware that they would not be able to escape from Stalingrad but in their letters to their families boasted that they were proud to \"sacrifice themselves for the Führer\".",
"The remaining forces continued to resist, hiding in cellars and sewers but by early March 1943, the last small and isolated pockets of resistance had surrendered.",
"According to Soviet intelligence documents shown in the documentary, a remarkable NKVD report from March 1943 is available showing the tenacity of some of these German groups:\n\n\n\nThe operative report of the Don Front's staff issued on 5 February 1943, 22:00 said,\n\n\n\nThe condition of the troops that surrendered was pitiful.",
"British war correspondent Alexander Werth described the following scene in his ''Russia at War'' book, based on a first-hand account of his visit to Stalingrad from 3–5 February 1943,\n\n\n\nOut of the nearly 91,000 German prisoners captured in Stalingrad, only about 5,000 returned.",
"Weakened by disease, starvation and lack of medical care during the encirclement, they were sent on foot marches to prisoner camps and later to labour camps all over the Soviet Union.",
"Some 35,000 were eventually sent on transports, of which 17,000 did not survive.",
"Most died of wounds, disease (particularly typhus), cold, overwork, mistreatment and malnutrition.",
"Some were kept in the city to help rebuild.",
"A handful of senior officers were taken to Moscow and used for propaganda purposes, and some of them joined the National Committee for a Free Germany.",
"Some, including Paulus, signed anti-Hitler statements that were broadcast to German troops.",
"Paulus testified for the prosecution during the Nuremberg Trials and assured families in Germany that those soldiers taken prisoner at Stalingrad were safe.",
"He remained in the Soviet Union until 1952, then moved to Dresden in East Germany, where he spent the remainder of his days defending his actions at Stalingrad and was quoted as saying that Communism was the best hope for postwar Europe.",
"General Walther von Seydlitz-Kurzbach offered to raise an anti-Hitler army from the Stalingrad survivors, but the Soviets did not accept.",
"It was not until 1955 that the last of the 5,000–6,000 survivors were repatriated (to West Germany) after a plea to the Politburo by Konrad Adenauer.",
"Stalingrad has been described as the biggest defeat in the history of the German Army.",
"It is often identified as the turning point on the Eastern Front, in the war against Germany overall, and the entire Second World War.",
"Before Stalingrad, the German forces had gone from victory to victory on the Eastern Front, with a limited setback in the winter of 1941–42.",
"After Stalingrad, they won no decisive battles, even in summer.",
"The Red Army had the initiative, and the Wehrmacht was in retreat.",
"A year of German gains during Case Blue had been wiped out.",
"Germany's Sixth Army had ceased to exist, and the forces of Germany's European allies, except Finland, had been shattered.",
"In a speech on 9 November 1944, Hitler himself blamed Stalingrad for Germany's impending doom.",
"Stalingrad's significance has been downplayed by some historians, who point either to the Battle of Moscow or the Battle of Kursk as more strategically decisive.",
"Others maintain that the destruction of an entire army (the largest killed, captured, wounded figures for Axis soldiers, nearly 1 million, during the war) and the frustration of Germany's grand strategy made the battle a watershed moment.",
"At the time, however, the global significance of the battle was not in doubt.",
"Writing in his diary on 1 January 1943, British General Alan Brooke, Chief of the Imperial General Staff, reflected on the change in the position from a year before:\n\n\n\nAt this point, the British had won the Battle of El Alamein in November 1942.",
"However, there were only about 50,000 German soldiers at El Alamein in Egypt, while at Stalingrad 200,000 Germans had been lost.",
"Regardless of the strategic implications, there is little doubt about Stalingrad's symbolism.",
"Germany's defeat shattered its reputation for invincibility and dealt a devastating blow to German morale.",
"On 30 January 1943, the tenth anniversary of his coming to power, Hitler chose not to speak.",
"Joseph Goebbels read the text of his speech for him on the radio.",
"The speech contained an oblique reference to the battle, which suggested that Germany was now in a defensive war.",
"The public mood was sullen, depressed, fearful, and war-weary.",
"Germany was looking in the face of defeat.",
"The reverse was the case on the Soviet side.",
"There was an overwhelming surge in confidence and belief in victory.",
"A common saying was: \"You cannot stop an army which has done Stalingrad.\"",
"Stalin was feted as the hero of the hour and made a Marshal of the Soviet Union.",
"The news of the battle echoed round the world, with many people now believing that Hitler's defeat was inevitable.",
"The Turkish Consul in Moscow predicted that \"the lands which the Germans have destined for their living space will become their dying space\".",
"Britain's conservative ''The Daily Telegraph'' proclaimed that the victory had saved European civilisation.",
"The country celebrated \"Red Army Day\" on 23 February 1943.",
"A ceremonial Sword of Stalingrad was forged by King George VI.",
"After being put on public display in Britain, this was presented to Stalin by Winston Churchill at the Tehran Conference later in 1943.",
"Soviet propaganda spared no effort and wasted no time in capitalising on the triumph, impressing a global audience.",
"The prestige of Stalin, the Soviet Union, and the worldwide Communist movement was immense, and their political position greatly enhanced.",
"===Commemoration===\nIn recognition of the determination of its defenders, Stalingrad was awarded the title Hero City in 1945.",
"A colossal monument called The Motherland Calls was erected in 1967 on Mamayev Kurgan, the hill overlooking the city where bones and rusty metal splinters can still be found.",
"The statue forms part of a war memorial complex which includes the ruins of the Grain Silo and Pavlov's House.",
"On 2 February 2013 Volgograd hosted a a military parade and other events to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the final victory.",
"\n===Orders of battle===\n====Red Army====\nCollage.The Eternal Flame in Mamayev Kurgan.Volgograd, Russia\n\n\nDuring the defence of Stalingrad, the Red Army deployed five armies (28th, 51st, 57th, 62nd and 64th Armies) in and around the city and an additional nine armies in the encirclement counter offensive.",
"The nine armies amassed for the counteroffensive were the 24th Army, 65th Army, 66th Army and 16th Air Army from the north as part of the Don Front offensive and 1st Guards Army, 5th Tank, 21st Army, 2nd Air Army and 17th Air Army from the south as part of the Southwestern Front.",
"====Axis====\n\n\n===Casualties===\nThe calculation of casualties depends on what scope is given to the Battle of Stalingrad.",
"The scope can vary from the fighting in the city and suburbs to the inclusion of almost all fighting on the southern wing of the Soviet–German front from the spring of 1942 to the end of the fighting in the city in the winter of 1943.",
"Scholars have produced different estimates depending on their definition of the scope of the battle.",
"The difference is comparing the city against the region.",
"The Axis suffered 730,000 total casualties (wounded, killed, captured) among all branches of the German armed forces and its allies; 400,000 Germans, 109,000 Romanians of which at least 70,000 were captured or missing, 114,000 Italians and 105,000 Hungarians were killed, wounded or captured.",
"The Germans lost 900 aircraft (including 274 transports and 165 bombers used as transports), 500 tanks and 6,000 artillery pieces.",
"According to a contemporary Soviet report, 5,762 guns, 1,312 mortars, 12,701 heavy machine guns, 156,987 rifles, 80,438 sub-machine guns, 10,722 trucks, 744 aircraft; 1,666 tanks, 261 other armored vehicles, 571 half-tracks and 10,679 motorcycles were captured by the Soviets.",
"An unknown amount of Hungarian, Italian, and Romanian materiel was lost.",
"The USSR, according to archival figures, suffered 1,129,619 total casualties; 478,741 personnel killed or missing, and 650,878 wounded or sick.",
"The USSR lost 4,341 tanks destroyed or damaged, 15,728 artillery pieces and 2,769 combat aircraft.",
"955 Soviet civilians died in Stalingrad and its suburbs from aerial bombing by ''Luftflotte'' 4 as the German 4th Panzer and 6th Armies approached the city.",
"====Luftwaffe losses====\n\n+Luftwaffe losses for Stalingrad (24 November 1942 to 31 January 1943)\n\n Losses\n Aircraft type\n\n 269 \n Junkers Ju 52\n\n 169 \n Heinkel He 111\n\n 42 \n Junkers Ju 86\n\n 9 \n Focke-Wulf Fw 200\n\n 5 \n Heinkel He 177\n\n 1 \n Junkers Ju 290\n\n Total: 495 \n About 20 squadronsor more than anair corps\n\n\nThe losses of transport planes were especially serious, as they destroyed the capacity for supply of the trapped 6th Army.",
"The destruction of 72 aircraft when the airfield at Tatsinskaya was overrun meant the loss of about 10 percent of the Luftwaffe transport fleet.",
"These losses amounted to about 50 percent of the aircraft committed and the Luftwaffe training program was stopped and sorties in other theaters of war were significantly reduced to save fuel for use at Stalingrad.",
"===In popular culture===\n\n\nThe events of the Battle for Stalingrad have been covered in numerous media works of British, American, German, and Russian origin, for its significance as a turning point in the Second World War and for the loss of life associated with the battle.",
"The term Stalingrad has become almost synonymous with large-scale urban battles with high casualties on both sides.",
"* Barmaley Fountain\n* Hitler Stalingrad Speech\n* Italian participation in the Eastern Front\n* List of officers and commanders in the Battle of Stalingrad\n* Soviet Black Sea Fleet during the Battle of Stalingrad",
"===Footnotes===\n\n\n===Citations===\n\n\n===Bibliography===\n\n* Adam, Wilhelm and Otto Ruhle (2015).",
"''With Paulus at Stalingrad'', Pen & Sword Books Ltd., England.",
".",
"* Baird, Jay W (1969).",
"''The Myth of Stalingrad'', Journal of Contemporary History, Sage Publications, Ltd.\n* Bartov, Omer ''Hitler's Army: Soldiers, Nazis and War in the Third Reich'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991, .",
"* \n* \n* \n* Bernig, Jorg (1997).",
"''Eingekesselt: Die Schlacht um Stalingrad im deutschsprachigen Roman nach 1945'': (German Life and Civilization Journal No 23), : Peter Lang publishers.",
"* \n* Clark, Alan (1965).",
"''Barbarossa: the Russian-German Conflict, 1941–45''.",
"* Craig, William (1973).",
"''Enemy at the Gates: The Battle for Stalingrad'' New York: Penguin Books (paperback, )\n* Einsiedel, Heinrich Graf von; Wieder, Joachim.",
"''Stalingrad: Memories and Reassessments''.",
"New York: Sterling Publishing, 1998 (paperback, ); London: Cassell, 2003 (paperback, ).",
"* Erickson, John.",
"''The Road to Stalingrad: Stalin's War with Germany, Vol.",
"1''.",
"Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1984 (hardcover, ); New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1985 (hardcover, ); New Haven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 1999 (paperback, ); London: Cassell, 2003 (paperback, ).",
"* \n* Glantz, David M. & House, Jonathan (1995), ''When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler'', Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, \n* Glantz, David M. & House, Jonathan (2009), 'To the Gates of Stalingrad – Soviet-German combat operations April to August 1942', Kansas, Kansas University Press, \n* Glantz, David M. & House, Jonathan (2009), 'Armageddon in Stalingrad – September to November 1942', Kansas, Kansas University Press, \n* Glantz, David (2011), 'After Stalingrad: The Red Army's Winter Offensive 1942–1943', Helion and Company, \n* Goldman, Stuart D. ''Nomonhan, 1939; The Red Army's Victory That Shaped World War II''.",
"2012, Naval Institute Press.",
".",
"* Golovanov, A.Ye.",
"(2004) ''Dalnyaya bombardirovochnaya''.",
"Delta NB, Moscow.",
"* Goodwin, Doris Kearns (1994).",
"''No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II''.",
"New York: Simon & Schuster (paperback, )\n* \n* Kehrig, Manfred (1974).",
"''Stalingrad''.",
"Stuttgart, Deutsche Verlags Anstalt.",
".",
"* \n* \n* \n* Manstein, Erich von; Powell, Anthony G. (Ed.",
"& Trans.",
"); Liddell Hart, B. H. (Preface); Blumenson, Martin (Introduction) (2004).",
"''Lost Victories: The War Memoirs of Hitler's Most Brilliant General''.",
"St. Paul, MN: Zenith Press.",
".",
"* Mark, Jason D (2002).",
"\"Death of the Leaping Horseman:24 Panzer Division in Stalingrad\".",
"Leaping Horseman Books.",
".",
"* Mark, Jason D (2006).",
"\"Island of Fire:The Battle for the Barrikady Gun Factory in Stalingrad November 1942 – February 1943\".",
"Leaping Horseman Books.",
".",
"* Mark, Jason D (2008).",
"\"Angriff:The German Attack on Stalingrad in Photos\".",
"Leaping Horseman Books.",
".",
"* Mark, Jason D & Amir Obhodas (2010).",
"''Croatian Legion: The 369th Reinforced (Croatian) Infantry Regiment on The Eastern Front 1941–1943''.",
"Leaping Horseman Books.",
".",
"* \n* Rayfield, Donald.",
"''Stalin and His Hangmen: The Tyrant and Those Who Killed for Him''.",
"New York: Random House, 2004 (hardcover, ); 2005 (paperback, ).",
"* \n* Taylor, A.J.P.",
"and Mayer, S.L., eds.",
"(1974) ''A History Of World War Two''.",
"London: Octopus Books.",
".",
"* \n* Weinberg Gerhard ''A World At Arms A Global History of World War II'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, .",
"\n\n* Antill, Peter (2007).",
"''Stalingrad 1942'', Osprey Publishing, London.",
"* Biesinger, Joseph A.",
"(2006).",
"''Germany: a reference guide from the Renaissance to the present''.",
"Infobase Publishing, New York City.",
"* Bush, Reinhold (2014).",
"''Survivors of Stalingrad: Eyewitness Accounts From The Sixth Army, 1942–43''.",
"Frontline Books, UK.",
".",
"* Corum, James S. (2008).",
"''Wolfram von Richthofen: Master of the German Air War''.",
"Lawrence, KS, University Press of Kansas.",
".",
"* Dibold, Hans (2001) ''Doctor at Stalingrad''.",
"Littleton, CO: Aberdeen, (hardcover, ).",
"* * Hellbeck, Jochen.",
"(2015) ''Stalingrad: The City That Defeated The Third Reich''.",
"New York, NY: PublicAffairs.",
".",
"* Holl, Adelbert.",
"(2005) ''An Infantryman In Stalingrad: From 24 September 1942 to 2 February 1943''.",
"Pymble, NSW, Australia: Leaping Horseman Books (hardcover, ).",
"* Hoyt, Edwin Palmer.",
"(1999) ''199 Days: The Battle for Stalingrad''.",
"New York: A Forge Book, (paperback, ).",
"* Jones, Michael K. (2007) ''Stalingrad: How the Red Army Survived the German Onslaught.''",
"Drexel Hill, PA: Casemate, (hardcover, ).",
"* Joly, Anton (2013) ''Stalingrad Battle Atlas'', StalData Publications (paperback, ).",
"* Mayer, SL & Taylor, AJP (1974).",
"''History of World War II''.",
"London: Octopus Books.",
"& \n* Raus, Erhard.",
"''Panzer Operations: The Eastern Front Memoir of General Raus, 1941–1945'', compiled and translated by Steven H. Newton.",
"Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2003 (hardcover, ); 2005 (paperback, ).",
"* Roberts, Geoffrey.",
"(2002) ''Victory at Stalingrad: The Battle that Changed History''.",
"New York: Longman, (paperback, ).",
"* —— (2006) ''Stalin's wars: from World War to Cold War, 1939–1953.''",
"Yale University Press, \n* Samsonov A.M., (1989) ''Stalingrad Battle'', 4th ed.",
"re-edited and added-to, Moscow, Science publishing.",
"(in Russian)\n* Snyder, David R. (2005).",
"Review in ''The Journal of Military History'' Volume 69 (1).",
"*",
"\n\n* Detailed summary of campaign\n* Story of the Stalingrad battle with pictures, maps, video and other primary and secondary sources\n* Volgograd State Panoramic Museum official homepage\n* The Battle of Stalingrad in Film and History Written with strong Socialist/Communist political under and overtones.",
"* Roberts, Geoffrey.",
"\"Victory on the Volga\", ''The Guardian'', 28 February 2003\n* Stalingrad-info.com, Russian archival docs translated into English, original battle maps, aerial photos, pictures taken at the battlefields, relics collection\n* H-Museum: Stalingrad/Volgograd 1943–2003.",
"Memory\n* Battle of Stalingrad Pictures\n* View footage from the Battle of Stalingrad in January 1943\n* The photo album of Wehrmacht NCO named Nemela of 9.",
"Machine-Gewehr Bataillon (mot) There are several unique photos of parade and award ceremony for Wehrmacht personnel who survived the Battle of Stalingrad.",
"* Stalingrad Battle Data Project: order of battle, strength returns, interactive map"
] | river |
[
"\nThe '''Baltimore Ravens''' are a professional American football team based in Baltimore, Maryland. The Ravens compete in the National Football League. The team plays its home games at M&T Bank Stadium and is headquartered in Owings Mills.\n\nThe Ravens were established in 1996, when Art Modell, who was then the owner of the Cleveland Browns, announced plans to relocate the franchise from Cleveland to Baltimore. As part of a settlement between the league and the city of Cleveland, Modell was required to leave the Browns' history and records in Cleveland for a replacement team and replacement personnel that would take control in 1999. In return, he was allowed to take his own personnel and team to Baltimore, where such personnel would then form an expansion team.\n\nThe Ravens have been one of the more successful franchises since their inception, having qualified for the NFL playoffs ten times since 2000, with two Super Bowl victories (Super Bowl XXXV and Super Bowl XLVII), two AFC Championship titles (2000 and 2012), 15 playoff victories, four AFC Championship game appearances (2000, 2008, 2011 and 2012), four AFC North division titles (2003, 2006, 2011 and 2012), and are currently the only team in the NFL to hold a perfect record in multiple Super Bowl and Thanksgiving Day appearances. The Ravens organization has been led by general manager Ozzie Newsome since 1996, and has had three head coaches: Ted Marchibroda, Brian Billick, and John Harbaugh. With a record-breaking defensive unit in their 2000 season, the team established a reputation for relying on strong defensive play, led by players like middle linebacker Ray Lewis, who, until his retirement, was considered the \"face of the franchise.\" The team is owned by Steve Bisciotti and valued at $1.5 billion, making the Ravens the 24th-most valuable sports franchise in the world.\n\n",
"\n\n===Team name===\nThe name \"Ravens\" was inspired by Edgar Allan Poe's poem ''The Raven''. Chosen in a fan contest that drew 33,288 voters, the allusion honors Poe, who spent the early part of his career in Baltimore and is buried there. As the ''Baltimore Sun'' reported at the time, fans also \"liked the tie-in with the other birds in town, the Orioles, and found it easy to visualize a tough, menacing black bird.\"\n\n===Background===\nAfter the controversial relocation of the Colts to Indianapolis, several attempts were made to bring an NFL team back to Baltimore. In 1993, ahead of the 1995 league expansion, the city was considered a favorite, behind only St. Louis, to be granted one of two new franchises. League officials and team owners feared litigation due to conflicts between rival bidding groups if St. Louis was awarded a franchise, and in October Charlotte, North Carolina was the first city chosen. Several weeks later, Baltimore's bid for a franchise—dubbed the Baltimore Bombers, in honor of the locally produced Martin B-26 Marauder bomber—had three ownership groups in place and a state financial package which included a proposed $200 million, rent-free stadium and permission to charge up to $80 million in personal seat license fees. Baltimore, however, was unexpectedly passed over in favor of Jacksonville, Florida, despite Jacksonville's minor TV market status and that the city had withdrawn from contention in the summer, only to return with then-Commissioner Paul Tagliabue's urging. Although league officials denied that any city had been favored, it was reported that Taglibue and his longtime friend Washington Redskins owner Jack Kent Cooke had lobbied against Baltimore due to its proximity to Washington, D.C., and that Taglibue had used the initial committee voting system to prevent the entire league ownership from voting on Baltimore's bid. This led to public outrage and the ''Baltimore Sun'' describing Taglibue as having an \"Anybody But Baltimore\" policy. Maryland governor William Donald Schaefer said afterward that Taglibue had led him on, praising Baltimore and the proposed owners while working behind-the-scenes to oppose Baltimore's bid.\n\nBy May 1994, Baltimore Orioles owner Peter Angelos had gathered a new group of investors, including author Tom Clancy, to bid on teams whose owners had expressed interest in relocating. Angelos found a potential partner in Georgia Frontiere, who was open to moving the Los Angeles Rams to Baltimore. Jack Kent Cooke opposed the move, intending to build the Redskins' new stadium in Laurel, Maryland, close enough to Baltimore to cool outside interest in bringing in a new franchise. This led to heated arguments between Cooke and Angelos, who accused Cooke of being a \"carpetbagger.\" The league eventually persuaded Rams team president John Shaw to relocate to St. Louis instead, leading to a league-wide rumor that Tagliabue was again steering interest away from Baltimore, a claim which Tagliabue denied. In response to anger in Baltimore, including Governor Schaefer's threat to announce over the loudspeakers Tagliabue's exact location in Camden Yards any time he attended a Baltimore Orioles game, Tagliabue remarked of Baltimore's financial package: \"Maybe (Baltimore) can open another museum with that money.\" Following this, Angelos made an unsuccessful $200 million bid to bring the Tampa Bay Buccaneers to Baltimore.\n\nHaving failed to obtain a franchise via the expansion, the city, despite having \"misgivings,\" turned to the possibility of obtaining the Cleveland Browns, whose owner Art Modell was financially struggling and at odds with the city of Cleveland over needed improvements to the team's stadium.\n\n===New expansion team===\n\n\nEnticed by Baltimore's available funds for a first-class stadium and a promised yearly operating subsidy of $25 million dollars, Modell announced on November 6, 1995 his intention to relocate the team from Cleveland to Baltimore the following year. The resulting controversy ended when representatives of Cleveland and the NFL reached a settlement on February 8, 1996. Tagliabue promised the city of Cleveland that an NFL team would be located in Cleveland, either through relocation or expansion, \"no later than 1999\". Additionally, the agreement stipulated that the Browns' name, colors, uniform design and franchise records would remain in Cleveland. The franchise history includes Browns club records and connections with Pro Football Hall of Fame players. Modell's Baltimore team, while retaining all current player contracts, would, for purposes of team history, appear as an expansion team, a new franchise. Not all players, staff or front office would make the move to Baltimore, however.\nArt Modell moved the Browns to Baltimore and remained the owner of the Ravens through 2003.\nAfter relocation, Modell hired Ted Marchibroda as the head coach for his new team in Baltimore. Marchibroda was already well known because of his work as head coach of the Baltimore Colts during the 1970s and the Indianapolis Colts during the early 1990s. Ozzie Newsome, the Browns' tight end for many seasons, joined Modell in Baltimore as director of football operations. He was later promoted to vice-president/general manager.\n\nThe home stadium for the Ravens first two seasons was Baltimore's Memorial Stadium, home field of the Baltimore Colts and Baltimore Stallions years before. The Ravens moved to their own new stadium next to Camden Yards in 1998. Raven Stadium would subsequently wear the names PSI Net Stadium and then M&T Bank Stadium.\n\n===The early years and Ted Marchibroda era (1996–1998)===\n\n====1996====\n\nIn the 1996 NFL Draft, the Ravens, with two picks in the first round, drafted offensive tackle Jonathan Ogden at No. 4 overall and linebacker Ray Lewis at No. 26 overall.\n\nJonathan Ogden at the 2006 Pro Bowl. Ogden played offensive tackle for the Ravens from 1996 through 2007 and was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2013.\nThe 1996 Ravens won their opening game against the Oakland Raiders, but finished the season 4–12 despite receiver Michael Jackson leading the league with 14 touchdown catches.\n\n====1997====\n\n\nThe 1997 Ravens started 3–1. Peter Boulware, a rookie defender from Florida State, recorded 11.5 sacks and was named AFC Defensive Rookie of the Year. The team finished 6–9–1. On October 26, the team made its first trip to Landover, Maryland to play their new regional rivals, the Washington Redskins, for the first time in the regular season, at the new Jack Kent Cooke Stadium (replacing the still-standing RFK Stadium in Washington, DC). The Ravens won the game 20–17.\n\n====1998====\n\n\nQuarterback Vinny Testaverde left for the New York Jets before the 1998 season, and was replaced by former Indianapolis Colt Jim Harbaugh, and later Eric Zeier. Cornerback Rod Woodson joined the team after a successful stint with the Pittsburgh Steelers, and Priest Holmes started getting the first playing time of his career and ran for 1,000 yards.\n\nThe Ravens finished 1998 with a 6–10 record. On November 29, the Ravens welcomed the Colts back to Baltimore for the first time in 15 years. Amidst a shower of negative cheers towards the Colts, the Ravens, with Jim Harbaugh at quarterback, won 38–31.\n\n===Brian Billick era and first Super Bowl victory (1999–2007)===\n\n====1999====\n\nBaltimore's text logo\n\nThree consecutive losing seasons under Marchibroda led to a change in the head coach. Brian Billick took over as head coach in 1999. Billick had been offensive coordinator for the record-setting Minnesota Vikings the season before. Quarterback Tony Banks came to Baltimore from the St. Louis Rams and had the best season of his career with 17 touchdown passes and an 81.2 pass rating. He was joined by receiver Qadry Ismail, who posted a 1,000-yard season. The Ravens initially struggled with a record of 4–7 but managed to finish with an 8–8 record.\n\nDue to continual financial hardships for the organization, the NFL took an unusual move and directed Modell to initiate the sale of his franchise. On March 27, 2000, NFL owners approved the sale of 49% of the Ravens to Steve Bisciotti. In the deal, Bisciotti had an option to purchase the remaining 51% for $325 million in 2004 from Art Modell. On April 9, 2004 the NFL approved Steve Bisciotti's purchase of the majority stake in the club.\n\n====2000: Super Bowl XXXV champions====\n\nBanks shared playing time in the 2000 regular season with Trent Dilfer. Both players put up decent numbers (and a 1,364-yard rushing season by rookie Jamal Lewis helped too) but the defense became the team's hallmark and bailed a struggling offense out in many instances through the season. Ray Lewis was named Defensive Player of the Year. Two of his defensive teammates, Sam Adams and Rod Woodson, made the Pro Bowl. Baltimore's season started strong with a 5–1 record. But the team struggled through mid-season, at one point going five games without scoring an offensive touchdown. The team regrouped and won each of their last seven games, finishing 12–4 and making the playoffs for the first time.\n\nDuring the 2000 season, the Ravens defense broke two notable NFL records. They held opposing teams to 165 total points, surpassing the 1985 Chicago Bears mark of 198 points for a 16-game season as well as surpassing the 1986 Chicago Bears mark of 187 points for a 16-game season, which at that time was the current NFL record.\n\nSince the divisional rival Tennessee Titans had a record of 13–3, the Ravens had to play in the wild card round. They dominated the Denver Broncos 21–3 in their first game. In the divisional playoff, they went on the road to Tennessee. With the score tied 10–10 in the fourth quarter, an Al Del Greco field goal attempt was blocked and returned for a touchdown by Anthony Mitchell, and a Ray Lewis interception return for a score put the game squarely in Baltimore's favor. The 24–10 win put the Ravens in the AFC Championship against the Oakland Raiders. The game was rarely in doubt. Shannon Sharpe's 96-yard touchdown catch early in the second quarter followed by an injury to Raiders quarterback Rich Gannon were crucial as the Ravens won easily, 16–3.\nThe Ravens meet President George W. Bush in 2001. Bush is at center. On the left is Rod Woodson, and on the right is Brian Billick.\nBaltimore then went to Tampa for Super Bowl XXXV against the New York Giants. The game was also dominated by the Ravens. They recorded four sacks and forced five turnovers, one of which was a Kerry Collins interception returned for a touchdown by Duane Starks. The Giants' only score was a Ron Dixon kickoff return for another touchdown; however, the Ravens immediately countered with a return by Jermaine Lewis. The Ravens became champions with a 34–7 win, becoming only the third wild card team to win a Super Bowl championship.\n\n====2001====\n\n\nIn 2001, the Ravens attempted to defend their title with Elvis Grbac as their new starting quarterback, but a season-ending injury to Jamal Lewis on the first day of training camp and poor offensive performances stymied the team. After a 3–3 start, the Ravens defeated the Minnesota Vikings in the final week to clinch a wild card berth at 10–6. In the first round the Ravens showed flashes of their previous year with a 20–3 win over the Miami Dolphins, in which the team forced three turnovers and out-gained the Dolphins 347 yards to 151. In the divisional playoff the Ravens played the Pittsburgh Steelers. Three interceptions by Grbac ended the Ravens' season, as they lost 27–10.\n\n====2002====\n\n\nBaltimore ran into salary cap problems entering the 2002 season and was forced to part with a number of impact players. In the NFL Draft, the team selected Ed Reed with the 24th overall pick. Reed would go on to become one of the best safeties in NFL history, making nine Pro Bowls until leaving the Ravens for the Houston Texans in 2013. Despite low expectations, the Ravens stayed somewhat competitive in 2002 until a losing streak in December eliminated any chances of a post-season berth. Their final record that year was 7–9.\n\n====2003====\n\nCoach Gary Zauner (front) and Brian Billick with the Baltimore Ravens in 2003.\nIn 2003, the Ravens drafted their new quarterback, Kyle Boller, but he was injured midway through the season and was replaced by Anthony Wright. Jamal Lewis ran for 2,066 yards (including a record 295 yards in one game against the Cleveland Browns on September 14). With a 10–6 record, Baltimore won their first AFC North division title. Their first playoff game, at home against the Tennessee Titans, went back and forth, with the Ravens being held to only 54 yards total rushing. The Titans won 20–17 on a late field goal, and Baltimore's season ended early.\n\nRay Lewis was also named Defensive Player of the year for the second time in his career.\n\nIn April 2003, Art Modell sold 49% of the team to Steve Bisciotti, a local businessman who had made his fortune in the temporary staffing field. After the season, Art Modell sold his remaining 51% ownership to Bisciotti, ending over 40 years of tenure as an NFL franchise owner.\n\n====2004====\n\n\nThe Ravens did not make the playoffs in 2004 and finished the season with a record of 9–7 with Kyle Boller spending the season at QB. They did get good play from veteran corner Deion Sanders and third year safety Ed Reed, who won the NFL Defensive Player of the Year award. They were also the only team to defeat the 15–1 Pittsburgh Steelers in the regular season.\n\n====2005====\n\n\nIn the 2005 offseason the Ravens looked to augment their receiving corps (which was second-worst in the NFL in 2004) by signing Derrick Mason from the Titans and drafting star Oklahoma wide receiver Mark Clayton in the first round of the 2005 NFL Draft. However, the Ravens ended their season 6–10, but defeated the Green Bay Packers 48–3 on Monday Night Football and the Super Bowl champion Steelers.\n\n====2006====\n\nDerrick Mason played mainly as the Ravens No. 1 receiver from 2005 through 2010.\nThe 2006 Baltimore Ravens season began with the team trying to improve on their 6–10 record of 2005. The Ravens, for the first time in franchise history, started 4–0, under the leadership of former Titans quarterback Steve McNair.\n\nThe Ravens lost two straight games mid-season on offensive troubles, prompting coach Billick to drop their offensive coordinator Jim Fassel in their week seven bye. After the bye, and with Billick calling the offense, Baltimore would record a five-game win streak before losing to the Cincinnati Bengals in week 13.\n\nStill ranked second overall to first-place San Diego Chargers, the Ravens continued on. They defeated the Kansas City Chiefs, and held the defending Super Bowl champion Pittsburgh Steelers to only one touchdown at Heinz Field, allowing the Ravens to clinch the AFC North.\n\nThe Ravens ended the regular season with a franchise-best 13–3 record. Baltimore had secured the AFC North title, the No. 2 AFC playoff seed, and clinched a 1st-round bye by season's end. The Ravens were slated to face the Indianapolis Colts in the second round of the playoffs, in the first meeting of the two teams in the playoffs. Many Baltimore and Indianapolis fans saw this historic meeting as a sort of \"Judgment Day\" with the new team of Baltimore facing the old team of Baltimore (the former Baltimore Colts having left Baltimore under questionable circumstances in 1984). Both Indianapolis and Baltimore were held to scoring only field goals as the two defenses slugged it out all over M&T Bank Stadium. McNair threw two costly interceptions, including one at the 1-yard line. The eventual Super Bowl champion Colts won 15–6, ending Baltimore's season.\n\n====2007====\n\nWillis McGahee played four seasons as a running back for the Ravens.\nAfter a stellar 2006 season, the Ravens hoped to improve upon their 13–3 record but injuries and poor play plagued the team. The Ravens finished the 2007 season in the AFC North cellar with a disappointing 5–11 record. A humiliating 22–16 overtime loss to the previously winless Miami Dolphins on December 16 ultimately led to Billick's dismissal on New Year's Eve, one day after the end of the regular season. He was replaced by John Harbaugh, the special teams coach of the Philadelphia Eagles and the older brother of former Ravens quarterback Jim Harbaugh (1998).\n\n===John Harbaugh/Joe Flacco era; second Super Bowl (2008–present)===\n\n====2008: Arrival of John Harbaugh, Flacco, and Ray Rice====\n\nJoe Flacco (right) and Kyle Boller during 2008 Training Camp.\nWith rookies at head coach (John Harbaugh) and quarterback (Joe Flacco), the Ravens entered the 2008 campaign with lots of uncertainty. Baltimore smartly recovered in 2008, winning eleven games and achieving a wild card spot in the postseason. On the strength of four interceptions, one resulting in an Ed Reed touchdown, the Ravens began its postseason run by winning a rematch over Miami 27–9 at Dolphin Stadium on January 4, 2009 in a wild-card game. Six days later, they advanced to the AFC Championship Game by avenging a Week 5 loss to the Titans 13–10 at LP Field on a Matt Stover field goal with 53 seconds left in regulation time. The Ravens fell one victory short of Super Bowl XLIII by losing to the Steelers 23–14 at Heinz Field on January 18, 2009.\n\n====2009====\n\nRay Lewis during a 2008 regular season game.\nIn 2009, the Ravens won their first three matches, then lost the next three, including a close match in Minnesota. The rest of the season was an uneven string of wins and losses, which included a home victory over Pittsburgh in overtime followed by a Monday Night loss in Green Bay. That game was notable for the huge number of penalties committed, costing a total of 310 yards, and almost tying with the record set by Tampa Bay and Seattle in 1976. Afterwards, the Ravens easily crushed the Lions and Bears, giving up less than ten points in both games. The next match was against the Steelers, where Baltimore lost a close one before beating the Raiders to end the season. With a record of 9–7, the team finished second in the division and gained another wild card. Moving into the playoffs, they overwhelmed the Patriots; nevertheless they did not reach the AFC Championship because they were routed 20–3 by the Colts in the divisional round a week later.\n\n====2010====\n\nBaltimore managed to beat the Jets 10–9 on the 2010 opener, but then lost a poorly-played game against Cincinnati the following week. The Ravens rebounded against the other two division teams, beating Cleveland 24–17 in Week 3 and then Pittsburgh 17–14 in Week 4. The Ravens scored a fine win (31–17) at home against Denver in Week 5. After an overtime loss to New England, they narrowly avoided losing at home to the winless Bills. Next, the Ravens hosted Miami and won 26–10, breaking that team's 4–0 road streak. On Thursday Night, the team headed to Atlanta and lost 26–21 in a game that had some criticizing the officiating. The Ravens finished the season 12–4, second in the division due to a tiebreaker with Pittsburgh, and earning a wild card spot. Baltimore headed to Kansas City and crushed the unprepared Chiefs 34–7, but once again were knocked from the playoffs by Pittsburgh in a hard-fought battle.\n\n====2011====\n\nTerrell Suggs during practice in 2011.\nThe Ravens hosted their arch-enemy in Week 1 of the 2011 season. On a hot, humid day in M&T Bank Stadium, crowd noise and multiple Steelers mistakes allowed Baltimore to crush them with three touchdowns 35–7. The frustrated Pittsburgh players also committed several costly penalties. Thus, the Ravens had gained their first ever victory over the Steelers with Ben Roethlisberger playing and avenged themselves of repeated regular and postseason losses in the series.\n\nBut in Week 2, the Ravens collapsed in Tennessee and lost 26–13. They rebounded by routing the Rams in Week 3 and then overpowering the Jets 34–17 in Week 4.\nWeek 5, the Ravens had a bye week, following a game against the Texans. But in Week 7, Baltimore had a stunning MNF upset loss in Jacksonville as they were held to one touchdown in a 12–7 loss. Their final scoring drive failed as Joe Flacco threw an interception in the closing seconds of the game.\n\nAfter beating the Cincinnati Bengals in Week 17 of the regular season, the Ravens advanced to the playoffs as the Number 2 seed in the AFC with a record of 12-4. They gained the distinction of AFC North Champions over Pittsburgh (12-4) due to a tie breaker.\n\nRavens' Lee Evans was stripped of a 14-yard touchdown pass by the Patriots Sterling Moore with 22 seconds left and Ravens kicker Billy Cundiff pushed a 32-yard field goal attempt wide left on fourth down as the Patriots held on to beat the Ravens 23-20 during the AFC championship game and advance to Super Bowl XLVI.\n\n====2012: Ray Lewis' final season and 2nd Super Bowl====\n\nJacoby Jones dives for the end zone during the second quarter of Super Bowl XLVII.\nLombardi trophy presentation following Super Bowl XLVII.\nThe Ravens' attempt to convert Joe Flacco into a pocket passer remained a work in progress as the 2012 season began. Terrell Suggs suffered a tendon injury during an off-season basketball game and was unable to play for at least several weeks. In the opener on September 10, Baltimore routed Cincinnati 44-13. After this easy win, the team headed to Philadelphia. The Eagles had struggled during their Week 1 match in Cleveland and were not expected to win, but a bizarre game ensued thanks to the NFL facing another lockout mess, this one involving the league's referees, who were replaced by ex-college officials. The replacement officials were widely criticized throughout the league. This game featured multiple questionable calls that went against the Ravens, perhaps costing them the game 24-23.\n\nReturning home for a primetime rematch of the AFC Championship, another bizarre game ensued. New England picked apart the Baltimore defense (which was considerably weakened without Terrell Suggs and some other players lost over the off-season) for the first half. Trouble began early in the game when a streaker ran out onto the field and had to be tackled by security, and accelerated when, at 2:18 in the 4th quarter, the referees made a holding call on RG Marshal Yanda. Enraged fans repeatedly chanted an obscenity at this penalty. The Ravens finally drove downfield and on the last play of the game, Justin Tucker kicked a 27-yard field goal to win the game 31-30, capping off a second intense and controversially-officiated game in a row for the Ravens.\n\nThe Ravens would win the AFC North with a 10-6 record, but finished 4th in the AFC playoff seeding, and thus had to play a wild-card game. After defeating the Indianapolis Colts 24-9 at home (the final home game of Ray Lewis), the Ravens traveled to Denver to play against the top seeded Broncos. In a very back-and-forth contest, the Ravens pulled out a 38-35 victory in double overtime. They then won their 2nd AFC championship by coming back from a 13-7 halftime deficit to defeat the New England Patriots once again, 28-13.\n\nThe Ravens played the Super Bowl XLVII on February 3, 2013, against the San Francisco 49ers. Baltimore built a 28–6 lead early in the third quarter before a partial power outage in the Superdome suspended play for 34 minutes (earning the game the added nickname of the Blackout Bowl). After play resumed, San Francisco scored 17 unanswered third-quarter points to cut the Ravens' lead, 28–23, and continued to chip away in the fourth quarter. With the Ravens leading late in the game, 34–29, the 49ers advanced to the Baltimore 7-yard line just before the two-minute warning but turned the ball over on downs. The Ravens then took an intentional safety in the waning moments of the game to preserve the victory. Baltimore quarterback Joe Flacco, who completed 22 of 33 passes for 287 yards and three touchdowns, was named Super Bowl MVP.\n\n====2013====\n\nComing off as the defending Super Bowl champions, this was the first year in franchise history for the team without Ray Lewis. The Ravens started out 3-2, and started the 2-0 Houston Texans 14-loss streak by shutting them 30-9 in Week 3. However, the Ravens lost their next 3 games, losing to the Green Bay Packers and Pittsburgh Steelers in last-minute field goals and were shut out in an attempt to tie the game against the Cleveland Browns 18-24. \n\nAfter winning and losing their next game, the Baltimore Ravens came out 4-6, but managed winning their next four games in dominating the Jets 19-3 in Baltimore, a Steelers win 20-22 during Thanksgiving, a booming ending in Baltimore against the Vikings 29-26, and a 18-16 win at Detroit, including Justin Tucker's 61-yard game-winning field goal. The Ravens were 8-6, with the 6th seed, but after losing their next two games, and the San Diego Chargers winning their next two to clinch the 6th seed, the Ravens finished 8-8 and missed the playoffs for the first time since 2007.\n\n====2014====\n\n\nOn January 27, 2014, the Ravens hired former Houston Texans head coach Gary Kubiak to be their new offensive coordinator after Jim Caldwell accepted the new available head coaching job with the Detroit Lions. On February 15, 2014, star running back Ray Rice and his fiancée Janay Palmer were arrested and charged with assault after a physical altercation at Revel Casino in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Celebrity news website TMZ posted a video of Rice dragging Palmer's body out of an elevator after apparently knocking her out. For the incident, Rice was initially suspended for the first two games of the 2014 NFL season on July 25, 2014, which led to widespread criticism of the NFL.\n\nIn Week 1, on September 7, the Baltimore Ravens lost to the Cincinnati Bengals, 23-16. The next day, on September 8, 2014, TMZ released additional footage from an elevator camera showing Rice punching Palmer. The Baltimore Ravens terminated Rice's contract as a result, and was later indefinitely suspended by the NFL. Although starting out 0-1 for two straight seasons and having received unwanted media attention for the Ray Rice incident, on September 11, 2014, the Ravens rallied back and beat the Pittsburgh Steelers 26-6, to improve to 1-1. In Week 12, the Ravens traveled down for an interconference battle with the New Orleans Saints, which the Ravens won 34-27, reaching a 4-0 sweep of the NFC south. In Week 16, the Ravens traveled to Houston to take on the Texans. In one of Joe Flacco's worst performances, the offense sputtered against the Houston defense and Flacco threw three interceptions, falling to the Texans 25-13. With their playoff chances and season hanging in the balance, the Ravens took on the Browns in Week 17 at home. After three quarters had gone by and down 10-3, Joe Flacco led the Ravens on a comeback scoring 17 unanswered points, winning 20-10. With the win, and the Kansas City Chiefs defeating the San Diego Chargers, the Ravens clinched their sixth playoff berth in seven seasons, and the first since winning Super Bowl XLVII.\n\nIn the wildcard playoff game, the Ravens won 30-17 against their divisional rivals, the Pittsburgh Steelers, at Heinz Field. In the next game in the Divisional round, the Ravens faced the New England Patriots. Despite a strong offensive effort and having a 14-point lead twice in the game, the Ravens were defeated by the Patriots 35-31, ending their season.\n\n====2015====\n\n\nThe 2015 season marked 20 seasons of the franchise's existence, competing in the NFL which the franchise have recognized with a special badge being worn on their uniforms during the 2015 NFL season.\nAfter coming up just short against the Patriots in the playoffs, the Ravens were picked by some to win the AFC and even the Super Bowl. However, they lost key players such as Joe Flacco, Justin Forsett, Terrell Suggs, Steve Smith Sr., and Eugene Monroe to season-ending injuries. Injuries and their inability to win close games early in the season led to the first losing season in the John Harbaugh-Flacco era.\n\n====2016====\n\nThe 2016 Ravens improved on their 5–11 record from 2015, finishing 8–8, but failed to qualify the playoffs for the second straight year. They were eliminated from playoff contention after their Week 16 loss to their division rivals, the Steelers. This was the first time the Ravens missed the playoffs in consecutive seasons since 2004–2005, as well as the first in the Harbaugh/Flacco era.\n",
"\n\n Steelers quarterback Ben Roethlisberger sacked by Bart Scott and Jarret Johnson. Terrell Suggs looks on.\n\n===Pittsburgh Steelers===\nBy far the team's biggest rival is the Pittsburgh Steelers. Pittsburgh and Baltimore are separated by a less-than-5-hour drive along Interstate 70. Both teams are known for their hard-hitting physical style of play. They play twice a year in the AFC North, and have met four times in the playoffs. Games between these two teams usually come down to the wire as most within the last 5 years have come down to 3 points or less.\nThe rivalry is considered one of the most significant and intense in the NFL today.\n\n===Indianapolis Colts===\nAlthough the Steelers rivalry is based on mutual respect and antagonism for each other, the Ravens' rivalry with the Indianapolis Colts is fueled by the fans' animosity towards the organization, not contention between the players. This is due to the fact that the then-Colts owner, Robert Irsay, under the threat of eminent domain from the city of Baltimore, was forced to sneak the Colts out of Baltimore in the middle of the night to take them to Indianapolis. During Ravens home games the scoreboard lists the away team simply as \"Away\" or \"Indy\" rather than the team name that is traditionally used for the visiting opponent. The PA announcer will also refer to the Colts as the Indianapolis Professional Football Team; although on January 6, 2013 the scoreboard at the playoff game between the Baltimore Ravens and Indianapolis Colts at M&T Bank Stadium listed the away team as \"Colts\". The Indianapolis Colts hold an all-time 9–4 advantage over the Baltimore Ravens, including a 2–1 advantage in the playoffs.\n\n===Other AFC North rivals===\nB. J. Sams (36) and Musa Smith (32) playing against the Cincinnati Bengals in November 2006.\n\nThe Ravens also have divisional rivalries with the Cleveland Browns and Cincinnati Bengals.\n\nThe reactivated Cleveland Browns and their fans maintain a hatred of Baltimore's team due to its move from Cleveland. The rivalry with the Browns has been very one-sided; Baltimore holds an advantage of 27-9 against Cleveland.\n\nThe rivalry with Cincinnati has been closer, with both teams tied at 21-21 following the 2016 season.\n\n===New England Patriots===\nThe Ravens first met the New England Patriots in 1996, but the rivalry truly started in 2007 when the Ravens suffered a bitter 27–24 loss in the Patriots quest for perfection. The rivalry began to escalate in 2009 when the Patriots beat the Ravens 27–21 in a game that involved a confrontation between Patriots quarterback Tom Brady and Ravens linebacker Terrell Suggs. Both players would go on to take verbal shots at each other through the media after the game. The Ravens faced the Patriots in a 2009 AFC wild card playoff game and won 33–14; the Ravens ran the ball for more than 250 yards.\n\nThe Ravens faced the Patriots in Week 6 of the 2010 season; the Ravens ended up losing 23–20 in overtime; the game caused controversy due to a hit to the helmet of tight end Todd Heap by Patriots safety Brandon Meriweather.\n\nThe Ravens played the Patriots for the third consecutive season, in the 2011 AFC championship game in which the Ravens lost 23–20. The rivalry reached a new level of friction with this, the second career playoff game between the two clubs. The Ravens clawed to a 20–16 lead in the fourth quarter but Patriots quarterback Tom Brady dove into the end zone to make the score 23–20 with around 11 minutes remaining; this proved to be the winning touchdown. On the Ravens last possession of the game, quarterback Joe Flacco threw a pass to wide receiver Lee Evans in the corner of the end zone which looked to be the game-winning touchdown, before a last second strip by Sterling Moore forced the ball from the hands of Evans, forcing the game to be decided on a last minute field goal by Ravens placekicker Billy Cundiff. With eleven seconds remaining on the clock, the kicker missed the 32-yard field goal attempt by a very wide margin, allowing the Patriots to kill the clock on their way to Super Bowl XLVI.\n\nThe Ravens' first regular-season win over the Patriots came on September 23, 2012. The game was emotional as receiver Torrey Smith was competing following the death of his brother in a motorcycle accident just the night before. Smith caught two touchdowns in a back and forth game; the Ravens erased a 13–0 deficit in the first half and led 14–13, but the Patriots scored at the end of the second quarter for a 20–14 lead. The lead changed twice in the third quarter and the Patriots led 30–21 in the fourth, but the Ravens scored on Smith's second touchdown catch. The Ravens were stopped on fourth down but the Patriots had to punt; in the final two minutes a pass interference penalty on Devin McCourty put the ball at the Patriots 7-yard line; new Ravens kicker Justin Tucker booted a 27-yard field goal on the final play; the ball sailed directly over the upright and was ruled good; the quality of officiating by replacement referees caused controversy as Bill Belichick angrily reached for one of the referees as they were leaving the field, leading to a $50,000 fine later that week.\n\nThe two teams met again on January 20, 2013 in the AFC Championship, where the Ravens won 28–13. The Patriots led at halftime, 13–7, but the Ravens' defense gave up no points in the second half. It was the first time ever that Tom Brady lost a game at home after leading at halftime, and the first time a road team beat the Patriots in the AFC Championship.\n\nOn December 22, 2013 the teams met again, this rematch of the AFC championship game was a mismatch from the outset. New England took a 17-0 lead early in the second quarter and never let up behind a defense that forced four turnovers and had four sacks. New England would go on to win the game 41-7.\n\nOn January 10, 2015, the two teams would meet in the Divisional Round of the playoffs. Unlike the previous meeting, the Ravens put up a strong offensive performance, leading by 14 points twice in the game. However, Tom Brady would bring the Patriots back by attacking the Ravens vulnerable secondary and taking a 35-31 lead late in the 4th quarter. Joe Flacco would drive to the Patriots side of the field with under two minutes to play in regulation. However, a key interception by Flacco due to a misplay on the ball by Torrey Smith essentially sealed the game in the Patriots favor to send them to the AFC Championship.\n",
"Baltimore Ravens logo (1996–1998)\nBouchat's original sketch\n\nThe team's first helmet logo, used from 1996 through 1998, featured raven wings outspread from a shield displaying a letter ''B'' framed by the word ''Ravens'' overhead and a cross bottony underneath. The US Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed a jury verdict that the logo infringed on a copyright retained by Frederick E. Bouchat, an amateur artist and security guard in Maryland, but that he was entitled to only three dollars in damages from the NFL.\n\nBouchat had submitted his design to the Maryland Stadium Authority by fax after learning that Baltimore was to acquire an NFL team. He was not credited for the design when the logo was announced. Bouchat sued the team, claiming to be the designer of the emblem; representatives of the team asserted that the image had been designed independently. The court ruled in favor of Bouchat, noting that team owner Modell had access to Bouchat's work. Bouchat's fax had gone to John Moag, the Maryland Stadium Authority chairman, whose office was located in the same building as Modell's. Bouchat ultimately was not awarded monetary compensation in the damages phase of the case.\n\nThe ''Baltimore Sun'' ran a poll showing three designs for new helmet logos. Fans participating in the poll expressed a preference for a raven's head in profile over other designs. Art Modell announced that he would honor this preference but still wanted a letter ''B'' to appear somewhere in the design. The new Ravens logo featured a raven's head in profile with the letter superimposed. The secondary logo is a shield that honors Baltimore's history of heraldry. Alternating Calvert and Crossland emblems (seen also in the flag of Maryland and the flag of Baltimore) are interlocked with stylized letters ''B'' and ''R''.\n",
"The design of the Ravens uniform has remained essentially unchanged since the team's inaugural season in 1996. Art Modell admitted to ESPN's Roy Firestone that the Ravens' colors, introduced in early 1996, were inspired by the Northwestern Wildcats 1995 dream season. Helmets are black with purple \"talon\" stripes rising from the facemask to the crown. Players normally wear purple jerseys at home and white jerseys on the road. In 1996 the team wore black pants with a single large white stripe for all games. At home games the combination of black pants with purple jersey made the Ravens the first NFL team to wear dark colors head to calf. A number of NFL teams have since donned the look, beginning with the all-black home uniform worn in three games by the 2001 New Orleans Saints.\n\nBaltimore Ravens uniform combination\n\nIn 1997 the Ravens opted for a more classic NFL look with white pants sporting stripes in purple and black, along with the jerseys sporting a different font for the uniform numbers. The white pants were worn with both home and road jerseys. The road uniform (white pants with white jerseys) was worn by the Ravens in Super Bowl XXXV, at the end of the 2000 NFL season.\n\nIn the 2002 season the Ravens began the practice of wearing white jerseys for the home opener and, occasionally, other early games in the season that have a 1:00 kickoff. Since John Harbaugh became the head coach in 2008, the Ravens have also worn their white jerseys at home for preseason games.\n\nIn November 2004 the team introduced an alternate uniform design featuring black jerseys and solid black pants with black socks. The all-black uniform was first worn for a home game against the Cleveland Browns, entitled \"Pitch Black\" night, that resulted in a Ravens win. The uniform has since been worn for select prime-time national game broadcasts and other games of significance.\n\nThe Ravens began wearing black pants again with the white jersey in 2008. On December 7, 2008, during a Sunday Night Football game against the Washington Redskins, the Ravens introduced a new combination of black jersey with white pants. It was believed to be due to the fact that John Harbaugh doesn't like the \"blackout\" look. However, on December 19, 2010, the Ravens wore their black jerseys and black pants in a 30–24 victory over the New Orleans Saints.\n\nOn December 5, 2010, the Ravens reverted to the black pants with the purple jerseys versus the Pittsburgh Steelers during NBC's ''Sunday Night Football'' telecast. The Ravens lost to the Steelers 13–10. They wore the same look again for their game against the Cleveland Browns on December 24, 2011, and they won, 20–14. They wore this combination a third time against the Houston Texans on January 15, 2012 in the AFC Divisional playoff. They won 20–13. They would again wear this combination on January 6, 2013, during the AFC Wild Card playoff and what turned out to be Ray Lewis' final home game, where they defeated the Indianapolis Colts 24-9.\n\nFrom their inaugural season until 2006, the Ravens wore white cleats with their uniforms; they switched to black cleats in 2007.\n\nOn December 20, 2015, the team unexpectedly debuted gold pants for the first time, wearing them with their regular purple jerseys against the Kansas City Chiefs. Although gold is an official accent color of the Ravens, the pants got an overwhelmingly negative response on social media by both Ravens fans and fans of other NFL teams, with some comparisons being made to the rival Pittsburgh Steelers' pants.\n",
"\nThe team marching band is called Baltimore's Marching Ravens. They began as the Colts' marching band and have operated continuously from September 7, 1947 to the present. They helped campaign for football to return to Baltimore after the Colts moved. Because they stayed in Baltimore after the Colts left, the band is nicknamed \"the band that would not die\" and were the subject of an episode of ESPN's ''30 for 30''. The Washington Redskins are the only other NFL team that currently has a marching band.\n",
"\n\n===Current roster===\n\n\n\n\n\n'''''Note''': The following lists players who officially played for the Ravens. For other Hall of Famers, players whose numbers were retired, and players who played for the Baltimore Colts, see Indianapolis Colts. Bold number notes player inducted as a Raven. For Cleveland Browns players, including those in the Hall of Fame and those whose numbers were retired, see Cleveland Browns''\n\n\n===Pro Football Hall of Fame===\n\n'''Baltimore Ravens Hall of Famers'''\n\nNo.\nName\nPosition\nTenure\nInducted\nNotes\n\n — \n Mike Singletary \n LB Coach \n 2003–2004 \n 1998 \n Inducted as a linebacker\n\n — \n Ozzie Newsome \n Executive/GM \n 1996–present \n 1999 \n Inducted as a tight end.\n\n 26 \n Rod Woodson \n S \n 1998–2001 \n 2009 \n Super Bowl XXXV Champion\n\n 82 \n Shannon Sharpe \n TE \n 2000–2001 \n 2011 \n Super Bowl XXXV Champion\n\n 37 \n Deion Sanders \n CB \n 2004–2005 \n 2011 \n\n\n '''75''' \n Jonathan Ogden \n OT \n 1996–2007 \n 2013 \n Super Bowl XXXV Champion\n\n\n===Retired numbers===\nThe Ravens do not officially have retired numbers. However, the number '''19''' is not issued out of respect for Baltimore Colts quarterback Johnny Unitas, except for quarterback Scott Mitchell in his lone season in Baltimore in 1999. In addition, numbers '''75''', '''52''', and '''20''', in honor of Jonathan Ogden, Ray Lewis, and Ed Reed respectively, have not been issued since those players' retirements from football. The number '''3''' has been in very limited circulation (offseason only) in respect to former kicker Matt Stover.\n\n===Ring of Honor===\n\nRing of Honor member Matt Stover\n\nThe Ravens have a \"Ring of Honor\" which is on permanent display encircling the field of M&T Bank Stadium. The ring currently honors the following, including 8 former members of the Baltimore Colts. Bold Numbers are those whose numbers have not been issued or reissued after a player's time in Baltimore:\n\n\n'''Key/Legend'''\n\n\n\nPro Football Hall of Fame finalist \n\n\nInducted or Enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame \n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Baltimore Ravens Ring of Honor Members'''\n\n '''#''' \n '''Inductee''' \n '''Position(s)''' \n '''Seasons in Baltimore''' \n '''Date of Induction''' \n '''Achievements in Baltimore'''\n\n 21 \n Earnest Byner \nRB, coach \n1996–2003 (8) \n November 26, 2000 \n The \"tie between two cities\"\n\n '''19''' \nJohnny Unitas \nQB \n1956–1972 (17) \n October 20, 2002 \n 10 Pro Bowl selections, 7 All-Pro selections, 4× NFL MVP\n\n 24 \nLenny Moore \nHB \n1956–1967 (12) \n 7 Pro Bowl selections, 7 All-Pro selections\n\n 70 \nArt Donovan \nDT \n1953–1961 (9) \n 5 Pro Bowl selections, 4 All-Pro selections\n\n 77 \nJim Parker \nOL \n1957–1967 (11) \n 8 Pro Bowl selections, 10 All-Pro selections\n\n 82 \nRaymond Berry \nWR \n1955–1967 (13) \n 6 Pro Bowl selections, 5 All-Pro selections\n\n 83 \nTed Hendricks \nLB \n1969–1973 (5) \n 3 Pro Bowl selections, 3 All-Pro selections\n\n 88 \nJohn Mackey \nTE \n1963–1971 (9) \n 5 Pro Bowl selections, 3 All-Pro selections\n\n 89 \nGino Marchetti \nDE \n1953–1966 (14) \n 11 Pro Bowl selections, 10 All-Pro selections\n\n — \nArt Modell \nMajority owner \n1996–2003 (8) \n January 3, 2004 \n Returned the NFL to Baltimore\n\n 99 \n Michael McCrary \nDE \n1997–2002 (6) \n October 4, 2004 \n 2 Pro Bowl selections, 1 All-Pro selection\n\n 58 \n Peter Boulware \nLB \n1997–2005 (9) \n November 5, 2006 \n 4 Pro Bowl selections, 1 All-Pro selection, Defensive Rookie of the Year\n\n '''75''' \nJonathan Ogden \nOT \n1996–2007 (12) \n October 26, 2008 \n 11 Pro Bowl selections, 9 All-Pro selections\n\n '''3''' \n Matt Stover \nPK \n1996–2008 (13) \n November 20, 2011 \n 1 Pro Bowl selection, 1 All-Pro selection\n\n 31 \n Jamal Lewis \nRB \n2000–2006 (7) \n September 27, 2012 \n 1 Pro Bowl selection, 1 All-Pro selection, Offensive Player of the Year, 2,000-yard club\n\n '''52''' \n Ray Lewis \nLB \n1996–2012 (17) \n September 22, 2013 \n 13 Pro Bowl selections, 10 All-Pro selections, 2× Defensive Player of Year, Super Bowl MVP\n\n 86 \n Todd Heap \nTE \n2001–2010 (10) \n September 28, 2014 \n 2 Pro Bowl selections, 1 All-Pro selection\n\n '''20''' \n Ed Reed \nFS \n2002–2012 (11) \n November 22, 2015 \n 9 Pro Bowl selections, 8 All-Pro selections, Defensive Player of Year\n\n",
"\nThe Baltimore Ravens had their first draft in 1996, where they selected offensive lineman from UCLA and current NFL Hall of Famer, and 11-time Pro-Bowler Jonathan Ogden. Along with their pick in the next year's draft, this was the highest first-round draft pick that the Ravens have had. They also selected Ray Lewis with the 26th pick. In both 1996 and 2000, the Ravens had two first-round draft picks. However, in 2004 they had none. In their history, the Ravens have drafted 4 offensive linemen, 3 linebackers, 2 wide receivers, 2 cornerbacks, 2 quarterbacks, a running back, tight end, safety, and defensive tackle. The Ravens have 56 combined Pro-Bowl appearances from their first-round draft picks.\n",
"\n\n=== Passing ===\n\n\n Rookie\n\n !! Career !! Season !! Game !! Career !! Season !! Game !! Season !! Game\n\nCompletions \n2915Joe Flacco \n436Joe Flacco2016 \n37Joe Flacco2016-12-12 @NWE \n253Joe Flacco \n73Joe Flacco2012 \n28Joe Flacco2015-01-10 @NWE \n257Joe Flacco2008 \n28Joe Flacco2008-10-12 @IND \n\nPass Attempts \n4742Joe Flacco \n672Joe Flacco2016 \n63Elvis Grbac2001-09-23 @CIN \n447Joe Flacco \n126Joe Flacco2012 \n45Joe Flacco2015-01-10 @NWE \n428Joe Flacco2008 \n43Kyle Boller2003-09-07 @PIT \n\nPassing Yards \n32639Joe Flacco \n4317Joe Flacco2016 \n429Vinny Testaverde1996-10-27 STL \n3223Joe Flacco \n1140Joe Flacco2012 \n331Joe Flacco2013-01-12 @DEN \n2971Joe Flacco2008 \n302Kyle Boller2003-10-19 @CIN \n\nPassing TDs \n182Joe Flacco \n33Vinny Testaverde1996 \n5Tony Banks2000-09-10 JAXJoe Flacco2014-10-12 @TAM \n25Joe Flacco \n11Joe Flacco2012 \n4Joe Flacco2015-01-10 @NWE \n14Joe Flacco2008 \n2Kyle Boller2003-10-19 @CINJoe Flacco2008-11-02 @CLE2008-11-09 @HOU2008-11-23 PHI2008-11-30 @CIN \n\nIntercepted \n117Joe Flacco \n22Joe Flacco2013 \n5Joe Flacco2013-09-29 @BUF \n10Joe Flacco \n3Elvis Grbac2001Joe Flacco2008, 2009 \n3Elvis Grbac2002-01-20 @PITJoe Flacco2009-01-18 @PIT \n12Joe Flacco2008 \n3Kyle Boller2003-09-28 KANJoe Flacco2008-10-12 @IND2009-01-18 @PIT \n\nPasser Rating \n84.5Joe Flacco \n101.1Eric Zeier1997 \n149.7Joe Flacco2014-10-12 @TAM \n88.6Joe Flacco \n117.2Joe Flacco2012 \n125.6Joe Flacco2013-01-06 IND \n80.3Joe Flacco2008 \n120.2Joe Flacco2008-10-19 @MIA \n\nSacked \n290Joe Flacco \n48Joe Flacco2013 \n7Eric Zeier1997-12-21 @CINTony Banks1999-11-21 @CINJeff Blake2002-11-17 @MIA \n28Joe Flacco \n10Trent Dilfer2000 \n5Joe Flacco2011-01-15 @PIT2012-01-15 HOU \n32Joe Flacco2008 \n5Joe Flacco2008-09-29 @PIT2008-12-20 @DAL \n\nYds/Pass Att \n7.01+Vinny Testaverde \n8.26#Eric Zeier1997 \n12.92*Jeff Blake2002-12-29 @PIT \n8.08#Trent Dilfer \n9.05*Joe Flacco2012 \n12.26*Joe Flacco2013-01-06 IND \n6.94#Joe Flacco2008 \n12.91*Joe Flacco2008-12-28 JAX \n\nPass Yds/Game \n246.5+Vinny Testaverde \n279.1#Joe Flacco2015 \n\n214.9#Joe Flacco \n285*Joe Flacco2012 \n\n185.7#Joe Flacco2008 \n\n\n+ = min. 500 attempts, # = min. 100 attempts, ∗ = minimum 15 attempts,\n\n=== Rushing ===\n\n\n Rookie\n\nStatistic !! Career !! Season !! Game !! Career !! Season !! Game !! Season !! Game\n\nRush Attempts \n1822Jamal Lewis \n387Jamal Lewis2003 \n36Bam Morris1997-10-26 @WASPriest Holmes1998-11-22 @CIN \n201Ray Rice \n103Jamal Lewis2000 \n30Jamal Lewis2000-12-31 DENRay Rice2013-01-12 @DEN2013-02-03 NSFO \n309Jamal Lewis2000 \n35Jay Graham1997-11-16 PHI \n\nRush Yards \n7801Jamal Lewis \n2066Jamal Lewis2003 \n295Jamal Lewis2003-09-14 CLE \n750Ray Rice \n338Jamal Lewis2000 \n159Ray Rice2010-01-10 @NWE \n1364Jamal Lewis2000 \n187Jamal Lewis2000-11-19 DAL \n\nRush Yds/Att \n4.32+Ray Rice \n5.39#Justin Forsett2014 \n10.44*Willis McGahee2010-01-03 @OAK \n3.73#Ray Rice \n6.46*Ray Rice2009 \n7.23*Ray Rice2010-01-10 @NWE \n4.93#Bernard Pierce2012 \n7.33*Ray Rice2008-11-02 @CLE \n\nRushing TDs \n45Jamal Lewis \n14Jamal Lewis2003 \n3Jamal Lewis2003-12-07 CIN2006-11-19 ATLWillis McGahee2010-01-03 @OAK \n5Ray Rice \n4Jamal Lewis2000 \n2Jamal Lewis2000-12-31 DENWillis McGahee2009-01-18 @PITRay Rice2010-01-10 @NWE \n6Jamal Lewis2000 \n2Jamal Lewis2000-11-26 CLE2000-12-31 DENJason Brookins2001-11-25 @JAX \n\nRush Yds/Game \n85.7+Jamal Lewis \n129.1#Jamal Lewis2003 \n\n71#Jamal Lewis \n113*Ray Rice2009 \n\n85.3*Jamal Lewis2000 \n\n\n∗ = minimum 15 attempts, # = min. 100 attempts, + = min. 500 attempts\n\n=== Receiving ===\n\n\n Rookie\n\nStatistic !! Career !! Season !! Game !! Career !! Season !! Game !! Season !! Game\n\nReceptions \n471Derrick Mason \n103Derrick Mason2007 \n13Priest Holmes1998-10-11 TENSteve Smith2015-09-27 CIN \n38Anquan Boldin \n22Anquan Boldin2012 \n10Todd Heap2011-01-09 @KAN \n50Torrey Smith2011 \n12Javorius Allen2015-12-06 @MIA \n\nReceiving Yds \n5777Derrick Mason \n1201Michael Jackson1996 \n258Qadry Ismail1999-12-12 @PIT \n616Anquan Boldin \n380Anquan Boldin2012 \n145Anquan Boldin2013-01-06 IND \n841Torrey Smith2011 \n165Torrey Smith2011-11-20 CIN \n\nYds/Rec \n16.86+Torrey Smith \n19.12#Jermaine Lewis1998 \n43*Qadry Ismail1999-12-12 @PIT \n20.7#Torrey Smith \n38.33*Shannon Sharpe2000 \n29*Anquan Boldin2013-01-06 IND \n18#Demetrius Williams2006 \n30.4*Torrey Smith2011-09-25 @STL \n\nReceiving TDs \n41Todd Heap \n14Michael Jackson1996 \n4Marcus Robinson2003-11-23 SEA \n6Anquan Boldin \n4Anquan Boldin2012 \n2Anquan Boldin2013-01-20 @NWE \n7Torrey Smith2011Marlon Brown2013 \n3Torrey Smith2011-09-25 @STL \n\nRec Yds/Game \n60.2+Derrick Mason \n95.7#Steve Smith2015 \n\n77*Anquan Boldin \n95#Anquan Boldin2012 \n\n52.6#Torrey Smith2011 \n\n\n∗ = minimum 4 receptions, # = min. 20 receptions, + = min. 200 receptions\n\n=== Other ===\n\n\n Rookie\n\nStatistic !! Career !! Season !! Game !! Career !! Season !! Game !! Season !! Game\n\nTotal TDs \n47Jamal Lewis \n15Ray Rice2011 \n4Marcus Robinson2003-11-23 SEA \n6Ray RiceAnquan Boldin \n4Jamal Lewis2000Anquan Boldin2012 \n2(6 times)\n7Torrey Smith2011Marlon Brown2013 \n3Torrey Smith2011-09-25 @STL \n\nYds from Scrimmage \n9214Ray Rice \n2271Jamal Lewis2003 \n295Jamal Lewis2003-09-14 CLE \n1046Ray Rice \n394Ray Rice2012 \n159Ray Rice2010-01-10 @NWE \n1660Jamal Lewis2000 \n170Jamal Lewis2000-11-26 CLEJavorius Allen2015-12-06 @MIA \n\nAll Purpose Yds \n9377Ray Rice \n2271Jamal Lewis2003 \n308Jermaine Lewis1997-12-07 SEA \n1077Ray Rice \n619Jacoby Jones2012 \n290Jacoby Jones2013-02-03 NSFO \n1660Jamal Lewis2000 \n250B.J. Sams2004-10-04 KAN \n\n\n==== Returns ====\n\n\n Playoffs\n\nStatistic !! Career !! Season !! Game !! Career !! Season !! Game\n\nKick Returns \n139Jermaine Lewis \n59B.J. Sams2004 \n8Corey Harris1998-12-13 MINB.J. Sams2005-11-27 @CIN \n25Jacoby Jones \n14Jacoby Jones2012 \n6Cory Ross2007-01-13 INDJacoby Jones2015-01-10 @NWE \n\nKick Ret Yds \n3,161B.J. Sams \n1,251B.J. Sams2004 \n243Corey Harris1998-12-13 MIN \n627Jacoby Jones \n362Jacoby Jones2012 \n206Jacoby Jones2013-02-03 NSFO \n\nYds/KR \n30.07Jacoby Jones \n32.8Raheem Mostert2015 \n53Jacoby Jones2012-10-14 DAL \n26.64Jermaine Lewis \n37.8Jermaine Lewis2000 \n41.2Jacoby Jones2013-02-03 NSFO \n\nKick Ret TDs \n4Jacoby Jones \n2Jacoby Jones2012 \n1(9 times) \n 1Jacoby Jones2013-02-03 NSFO Jermaine Lewis2001-01-28 NNYG\n\nPunt Returns \n231Jermaine Lewis \n57Jermaine Lewis1999 \n7(5 times) \n16Jermaine Lewis \n11Jermaine Lewis2000 \n6Jim Leonhard2009-01-18 @PIT \n\nPunt Ret Yds \n2,730Jermaine Lewis \n578Jermaine Lewis2000 \n184Jermaine Lewis1997-12-07 SEA \n224Jermaine Lewis \n122Jermaine Lewis2000 \n99Jermaine Lewis2002-01-20 @PIT \n\nYds/PR \n15.26Tandon Doss \n16.07Lamont Brightful2002 \n43.25Jermaine Lewis2000-12-24 NYJ \n14Jermaine Lewis \n20.4Jermaine Lewis2001 \n33Jermaine Lewis2002-01-20 @PIT \n\nPunt Ret TDs \n6Jermaine Lewis \n2Jermaine Lewis1997, 1998, 2000B.J. Sams2004 \n2Jermaine Lewis1997-12-07 SEA2000-12-24 NYJ \n 1Jermaine Lewis2002-01-20 @PIT \n\nTotal Return Yds \n5,883Jermaine Lewis \n1,826B.J. Sams2004 \n275Jermaine Lewis1997-12-07 SEA \n757Jacoby Jones \n472Jacoby Jones2012 \n181Jermaine Lewis2002-01-20 @PIT \n\n\n==== Kicking ====\n\n Playoffs\n\nStatistic !! Career !! Season !! Game !! Career !! Season !! Game\n\nExtra Points \n402Matt Stover \n42Justin Tucker2012, 2014 \n6Billy Cundiff2009-12-13 DET \n23Justin Tucker \n16Justin Tucker2012 \n5Justin Tucker2013-01-12 @DEN \n\nField Goals \n354Matt Stover \n38Justin Tucker2013, 2016 \n6Justin Tucker2013-12-16 @DET \n16Matt Stover \n6Matt Stover2000 \n3Matt Stover2001-01-14 @OAKBilly Cundiff2011-01-09 @KANJustin Tucker2015-01-03 @PIT \n\nPunts \n862Sam Koch \n103Kyle Richardson1999 \n10Kyle Richardson1998-09-20 @JAX2000-12-24 NYJNick Murphy2004-11-28 @NWESam Koch2007-11-05 @PIT \n80Sam Koch \n33Kyle Richardson2000 \n10Kyle Richardson2000-12-31 DEN2001-01-28 NNYG \n\nPunt Yards \n38,989Sam Koch \n4,355Kyle Richardson1999 \n491Kyle Richardson1998-09-20 @JAX \n3568Sam Koch \n1318Kyle Richardson2000 \n444Sam Koch2012-01-15 HOU \n\nYards / Punt \n45.23Sam Koch \n47.35Sam Koch2014 \n54.67Sam Koch2013-12-08 MIN \n44.6Sam Koch \n50Sam Koch2014 \n53.75Sam Koch2011-01-15 @PIT \n\n\n==== Defense ====\n\n\n Playoffs\n\nStatistic !! Career !! Season !! Game !! Career !! Season !! Game\n\nInterceptions \n61Ed Reed \n9Ed Reed2004, 2008 \n2(28 times) \n9Ed Reed \n3Duane Starks2000Lardarius Webb2011 \n2Duane Starks2001-01-14 @OAKEd Reed2007-01-13 IND2009-01-04 @MIALardarius Webb2012-01-15 HOUCorey Graham2013-01-12 @DEN\n\nInt Ret Yds \n1541Ed Reed \n358Ed Reed2004 \n150Ed Reed2008-11-23 PHI \n168Ed Reed \n93Duane Starks2000 \n76Ed Reed2009-01-04 @MIA \n\nInt Ret TDs \n7Ed Reed \n2Rod Woodson1998, 1999Chris McAlister2006Ed Reed2008Terrell Suggs2008 \n1(44 times) \n 1(5 times)\n\nSacks (since 1982) \n114.5Terrell Suggs \n17Elvis Dumervil2014 \n4Michael McCrary1998-11-08 OAKPeter Boulware2002-01-07 MIN \n12.5Terrell Suggs \n6Michael McCrary2000 \n3Michael McCrary2000-12-31 DENTerrell Suggs2011-01-15 @PIT \n\n\n=== Exceptional Performances ===\n\n\nRookie Games\n\n300+ yard passing games \n32Joe Flacco \n6Joe Flacco2012 \n2Joe Flacco \n1Kyle Boller2003 \n\n100+ yard rushing games \n32Jamal Lewis \n12Jamal Lewis2003 \n2Jamal LewisRay Rice \n7Jamal Lewis2000 \n\n100+ yard receiving games \n9Anquan BoldinMark ClaytonSteve Smith \n5Steve Smith2014 \n3Anquan Boldin \n2Torrey Smith2011 \n\nGames with 1+ TD scored \n39Jamal Lewis \n10Michael Jackson1996Jamal Lewis2003Le'Ron McClain2008Ray Rice2011, 2012 \n5Anquan BoldinRay Rice \n8Jamal Lewis2000 \n\nGames with 2+ TD scored \n11Ray Rice \n5Willis McGahee2009 \n1(6 times) \n2Jamal Lewis2000Clarence Moore2004 \n\nGames with 3+ TD scored \n2Jamal Lewis \n1(10 times) \n0 \n1Torrey Smith2011 \n\n\n=== Other Career Records ===\n*Most Tackles: Ray Lewis, 1,573 (1996–2012)\n*Most Forced Fumbles: Terrell Suggs, 28 (2003–present)\n*Longest Field Goal Made: Justin Tucker, 61 yards (2012–present)\n\n''All records as of February 9, 2017 per Pro-Football Reference.com''\n",
"\n\n\n #\n Name\n Term\n Regular season\n Playoffs\n Awards/Notes\n Reference\n\n GC\n W\n L\n T\n pct\n GC\n W\n L\n\n1\nTed Marchibroda\n1996–1998\n48\n16\n31\n1\n.344\n—\n—\n—\n\n\n\n2\nBrian Billick\n1999–2007\n144\n80\n64\n0\n.556\n8\n5\n3\nSuper Boxl XXXV Champion\n\n\n3\nJohn Harbaugh\n2008–''Present''\n144\n85\n59\n0\n.596\n15\n10\n5\nSuper Bowl XLVII ChampionNFL Salute to Service Award (2013)\n\n\n\n===Current staff===\n\n",
"The Ravens' flagship radio stations are WIYY (98 Rock) and WBAL 1090 AM, with Gerry Sandusky (WBAL-TV Sports Anchor since 1988) as the play-by-play announcer and analysts Stan White (Baltimore Colts LB 1972–1979) and Qadry Ismail (Baltimore Ravens WR 1999–2001). \n\nThe team's flagship station is WBAL-TV, which broadcasts pre-season games and team programming throughout the season. The programming is syndicated to WJLA-TV in Washington, WGAL in the Harrisburg-Lebanon-York-Lancaster, PA market, and until 2017, was carried through the remainder of the team's region by CSN Mid-Atlantic. In January 2017, the Ravens announced that it had cut ties with CSN Mid-Atlantic, as the network was cutting back on its day-to-day coverage of other teams in the region in order to focus more extensively on the Washington Capitals and Wizards—whose games are broadcast by CSN Mid-Atlantic, and whose owner holds a stake in the network. The team announced that it would seek a new partner; until 2010, these rights were held by MASN.\n\nRavens regular season games are typically broadcast by WJZ-TV as part of CBS's rights to the AFC, but games may occasionally be broadcast on WBAL (''Sunday Night Football'' and simulcasts of games on cable) or WBFF-TV.\n\n===Radio===\nMap of radio affiliates.\n\nTerrestrial affiliates\n\nMarket\nFrequency\nCall sign\n\n Annapolis\n 1430 AM\n WNAV\n\n Baltimore\n 1090 AM & 97.9 FM\n WBAL & WIYY\n\n Cambridge\n 1240 AM & 106.3 FM\n WCEM & WCEM-FM\n\n Cumberland\n 107.1 FM\n WCBC-FM\n\n Georgetown\n 93.5 FM\n WZBH\n\n Hagerstown\n 1490 AM\n WARK\n\n Lexington Park\n 97.7 FM\n WMDM\n\n Martinsburg\n 1340 AM\n WEPM\n\n Salisbury\n 92.5 FM\n WICO-FM\n\n Strasburg\n 104.9 FM\n WZFC\n\n Thurmont\n 1450 AM\n WTHU\n\n Washington, D.C.\n 100.3 FM\n WBIG-FM\n\n Westminster\n 1470 AM\n WTTR\n\n Winchester\n 105.5 FM\n WXBN\n\n York\n 910 AM\n WSBA\n\n",
"\n",
"* ( available online)\n",
"\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Rivalries",
"Logo controversy",
"Uniforms",
"Marching band",
"Players of note",
"First round draft picks",
"Team records",
"Head coaches",
"Broadcast media",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Baltimore Ravens | [
"The team plays its home games at M&T Bank Stadium and is headquartered in Owings Mills.",
"Raven Stadium would subsequently wear the names PSI Net Stadium and then M&T Bank Stadium.",
"Both Indianapolis and Baltimore were held to scoring only field goals as the two defenses slugged it out all over M&T Bank Stadium.",
"On a hot, humid day in M&T Bank Stadium, crowd noise and multiple Steelers mistakes allowed Baltimore to crush them with three touchdowns 35–7.",
"The PA announcer will also refer to the Colts as the Indianapolis Professional Football Team; although on January 6, 2013 the scoreboard at the playoff game between the Baltimore Ravens and Indianapolis Colts at M&T Bank Stadium listed the away team as \"Colts\".",
"===Ring of Honor===\n\nRing of Honor member Matt Stover\n\nThe Ravens have a \"Ring of Honor\" which is on permanent display encircling the field of M&T Bank Stadium."
] | [
"\nThe '''Baltimore Ravens''' are a professional American football team based in Baltimore, Maryland.",
"The Ravens compete in the National Football League.",
"The Ravens were established in 1996, when Art Modell, who was then the owner of the Cleveland Browns, announced plans to relocate the franchise from Cleveland to Baltimore.",
"As part of a settlement between the league and the city of Cleveland, Modell was required to leave the Browns' history and records in Cleveland for a replacement team and replacement personnel that would take control in 1999.",
"In return, he was allowed to take his own personnel and team to Baltimore, where such personnel would then form an expansion team.",
"The Ravens have been one of the more successful franchises since their inception, having qualified for the NFL playoffs ten times since 2000, with two Super Bowl victories (Super Bowl XXXV and Super Bowl XLVII), two AFC Championship titles (2000 and 2012), 15 playoff victories, four AFC Championship game appearances (2000, 2008, 2011 and 2012), four AFC North division titles (2003, 2006, 2011 and 2012), and are currently the only team in the NFL to hold a perfect record in multiple Super Bowl and Thanksgiving Day appearances.",
"The Ravens organization has been led by general manager Ozzie Newsome since 1996, and has had three head coaches: Ted Marchibroda, Brian Billick, and John Harbaugh.",
"With a record-breaking defensive unit in their 2000 season, the team established a reputation for relying on strong defensive play, led by players like middle linebacker Ray Lewis, who, until his retirement, was considered the \"face of the franchise.\"",
"The team is owned by Steve Bisciotti and valued at $1.5 billion, making the Ravens the 24th-most valuable sports franchise in the world.",
"\n\n===Team name===\nThe name \"Ravens\" was inspired by Edgar Allan Poe's poem ''The Raven''.",
"Chosen in a fan contest that drew 33,288 voters, the allusion honors Poe, who spent the early part of his career in Baltimore and is buried there.",
"As the ''Baltimore Sun'' reported at the time, fans also \"liked the tie-in with the other birds in town, the Orioles, and found it easy to visualize a tough, menacing black bird.\"",
"===Background===\nAfter the controversial relocation of the Colts to Indianapolis, several attempts were made to bring an NFL team back to Baltimore.",
"In 1993, ahead of the 1995 league expansion, the city was considered a favorite, behind only St. Louis, to be granted one of two new franchises.",
"League officials and team owners feared litigation due to conflicts between rival bidding groups if St. Louis was awarded a franchise, and in October Charlotte, North Carolina was the first city chosen.",
"Several weeks later, Baltimore's bid for a franchise—dubbed the Baltimore Bombers, in honor of the locally produced Martin B-26 Marauder bomber—had three ownership groups in place and a state financial package which included a proposed $200 million, rent-free stadium and permission to charge up to $80 million in personal seat license fees.",
"Baltimore, however, was unexpectedly passed over in favor of Jacksonville, Florida, despite Jacksonville's minor TV market status and that the city had withdrawn from contention in the summer, only to return with then-Commissioner Paul Tagliabue's urging.",
"Although league officials denied that any city had been favored, it was reported that Taglibue and his longtime friend Washington Redskins owner Jack Kent Cooke had lobbied against Baltimore due to its proximity to Washington, D.C., and that Taglibue had used the initial committee voting system to prevent the entire league ownership from voting on Baltimore's bid.",
"This led to public outrage and the ''Baltimore Sun'' describing Taglibue as having an \"Anybody But Baltimore\" policy.",
"Maryland governor William Donald Schaefer said afterward that Taglibue had led him on, praising Baltimore and the proposed owners while working behind-the-scenes to oppose Baltimore's bid.",
"By May 1994, Baltimore Orioles owner Peter Angelos had gathered a new group of investors, including author Tom Clancy, to bid on teams whose owners had expressed interest in relocating.",
"Angelos found a potential partner in Georgia Frontiere, who was open to moving the Los Angeles Rams to Baltimore.",
"Jack Kent Cooke opposed the move, intending to build the Redskins' new stadium in Laurel, Maryland, close enough to Baltimore to cool outside interest in bringing in a new franchise.",
"This led to heated arguments between Cooke and Angelos, who accused Cooke of being a \"carpetbagger.\"",
"The league eventually persuaded Rams team president John Shaw to relocate to St. Louis instead, leading to a league-wide rumor that Tagliabue was again steering interest away from Baltimore, a claim which Tagliabue denied.",
"In response to anger in Baltimore, including Governor Schaefer's threat to announce over the loudspeakers Tagliabue's exact location in Camden Yards any time he attended a Baltimore Orioles game, Tagliabue remarked of Baltimore's financial package: \"Maybe (Baltimore) can open another museum with that money.\"",
"Following this, Angelos made an unsuccessful $200 million bid to bring the Tampa Bay Buccaneers to Baltimore.",
"Having failed to obtain a franchise via the expansion, the city, despite having \"misgivings,\" turned to the possibility of obtaining the Cleveland Browns, whose owner Art Modell was financially struggling and at odds with the city of Cleveland over needed improvements to the team's stadium.",
"===New expansion team===\n\n\nEnticed by Baltimore's available funds for a first-class stadium and a promised yearly operating subsidy of $25 million dollars, Modell announced on November 6, 1995 his intention to relocate the team from Cleveland to Baltimore the following year.",
"The resulting controversy ended when representatives of Cleveland and the NFL reached a settlement on February 8, 1996.",
"Tagliabue promised the city of Cleveland that an NFL team would be located in Cleveland, either through relocation or expansion, \"no later than 1999\".",
"Additionally, the agreement stipulated that the Browns' name, colors, uniform design and franchise records would remain in Cleveland.",
"The franchise history includes Browns club records and connections with Pro Football Hall of Fame players.",
"Modell's Baltimore team, while retaining all current player contracts, would, for purposes of team history, appear as an expansion team, a new franchise.",
"Not all players, staff or front office would make the move to Baltimore, however.",
"Art Modell moved the Browns to Baltimore and remained the owner of the Ravens through 2003.",
"After relocation, Modell hired Ted Marchibroda as the head coach for his new team in Baltimore.",
"Marchibroda was already well known because of his work as head coach of the Baltimore Colts during the 1970s and the Indianapolis Colts during the early 1990s.",
"Ozzie Newsome, the Browns' tight end for many seasons, joined Modell in Baltimore as director of football operations.",
"He was later promoted to vice-president/general manager.",
"The home stadium for the Ravens first two seasons was Baltimore's Memorial Stadium, home field of the Baltimore Colts and Baltimore Stallions years before.",
"The Ravens moved to their own new stadium next to Camden Yards in 1998.",
"===The early years and Ted Marchibroda era (1996–1998)===\n\n====1996====\n\nIn the 1996 NFL Draft, the Ravens, with two picks in the first round, drafted offensive tackle Jonathan Ogden at No.",
"4 overall and linebacker Ray Lewis at No.",
"26 overall.",
"Jonathan Ogden at the 2006 Pro Bowl.",
"Ogden played offensive tackle for the Ravens from 1996 through 2007 and was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2013.",
"The 1996 Ravens won their opening game against the Oakland Raiders, but finished the season 4–12 despite receiver Michael Jackson leading the league with 14 touchdown catches.",
"====1997====\n\n\nThe 1997 Ravens started 3–1.",
"Peter Boulware, a rookie defender from Florida State, recorded 11.5 sacks and was named AFC Defensive Rookie of the Year.",
"The team finished 6–9–1.",
"On October 26, the team made its first trip to Landover, Maryland to play their new regional rivals, the Washington Redskins, for the first time in the regular season, at the new Jack Kent Cooke Stadium (replacing the still-standing RFK Stadium in Washington, DC).",
"The Ravens won the game 20–17.",
"====1998====\n\n\nQuarterback Vinny Testaverde left for the New York Jets before the 1998 season, and was replaced by former Indianapolis Colt Jim Harbaugh, and later Eric Zeier.",
"Cornerback Rod Woodson joined the team after a successful stint with the Pittsburgh Steelers, and Priest Holmes started getting the first playing time of his career and ran for 1,000 yards.",
"The Ravens finished 1998 with a 6–10 record.",
"On November 29, the Ravens welcomed the Colts back to Baltimore for the first time in 15 years.",
"Amidst a shower of negative cheers towards the Colts, the Ravens, with Jim Harbaugh at quarterback, won 38–31.",
"===Brian Billick era and first Super Bowl victory (1999–2007)===\n\n====1999====\n\nBaltimore's text logo\n\nThree consecutive losing seasons under Marchibroda led to a change in the head coach.",
"Brian Billick took over as head coach in 1999.",
"Billick had been offensive coordinator for the record-setting Minnesota Vikings the season before.",
"Quarterback Tony Banks came to Baltimore from the St. Louis Rams and had the best season of his career with 17 touchdown passes and an 81.2 pass rating.",
"He was joined by receiver Qadry Ismail, who posted a 1,000-yard season.",
"The Ravens initially struggled with a record of 4–7 but managed to finish with an 8–8 record.",
"Due to continual financial hardships for the organization, the NFL took an unusual move and directed Modell to initiate the sale of his franchise.",
"On March 27, 2000, NFL owners approved the sale of 49% of the Ravens to Steve Bisciotti.",
"In the deal, Bisciotti had an option to purchase the remaining 51% for $325 million in 2004 from Art Modell.",
"On April 9, 2004 the NFL approved Steve Bisciotti's purchase of the majority stake in the club.",
"====2000: Super Bowl XXXV champions====\n\nBanks shared playing time in the 2000 regular season with Trent Dilfer.",
"Both players put up decent numbers (and a 1,364-yard rushing season by rookie Jamal Lewis helped too) but the defense became the team's hallmark and bailed a struggling offense out in many instances through the season.",
"Ray Lewis was named Defensive Player of the Year.",
"Two of his defensive teammates, Sam Adams and Rod Woodson, made the Pro Bowl.",
"Baltimore's season started strong with a 5–1 record.",
"But the team struggled through mid-season, at one point going five games without scoring an offensive touchdown.",
"The team regrouped and won each of their last seven games, finishing 12–4 and making the playoffs for the first time.",
"During the 2000 season, the Ravens defense broke two notable NFL records.",
"They held opposing teams to 165 total points, surpassing the 1985 Chicago Bears mark of 198 points for a 16-game season as well as surpassing the 1986 Chicago Bears mark of 187 points for a 16-game season, which at that time was the current NFL record.",
"Since the divisional rival Tennessee Titans had a record of 13–3, the Ravens had to play in the wild card round.",
"They dominated the Denver Broncos 21–3 in their first game.",
"In the divisional playoff, they went on the road to Tennessee.",
"With the score tied 10–10 in the fourth quarter, an Al Del Greco field goal attempt was blocked and returned for a touchdown by Anthony Mitchell, and a Ray Lewis interception return for a score put the game squarely in Baltimore's favor.",
"The 24–10 win put the Ravens in the AFC Championship against the Oakland Raiders.",
"The game was rarely in doubt.",
"Shannon Sharpe's 96-yard touchdown catch early in the second quarter followed by an injury to Raiders quarterback Rich Gannon were crucial as the Ravens won easily, 16–3.",
"The Ravens meet President George W. Bush in 2001.",
"Bush is at center.",
"On the left is Rod Woodson, and on the right is Brian Billick.",
"Baltimore then went to Tampa for Super Bowl XXXV against the New York Giants.",
"The game was also dominated by the Ravens.",
"They recorded four sacks and forced five turnovers, one of which was a Kerry Collins interception returned for a touchdown by Duane Starks.",
"The Giants' only score was a Ron Dixon kickoff return for another touchdown; however, the Ravens immediately countered with a return by Jermaine Lewis.",
"The Ravens became champions with a 34–7 win, becoming only the third wild card team to win a Super Bowl championship.",
"====2001====\n\n\nIn 2001, the Ravens attempted to defend their title with Elvis Grbac as their new starting quarterback, but a season-ending injury to Jamal Lewis on the first day of training camp and poor offensive performances stymied the team.",
"After a 3–3 start, the Ravens defeated the Minnesota Vikings in the final week to clinch a wild card berth at 10–6.",
"In the first round the Ravens showed flashes of their previous year with a 20–3 win over the Miami Dolphins, in which the team forced three turnovers and out-gained the Dolphins 347 yards to 151.",
"In the divisional playoff the Ravens played the Pittsburgh Steelers.",
"Three interceptions by Grbac ended the Ravens' season, as they lost 27–10.",
"====2002====\n\n\nBaltimore ran into salary cap problems entering the 2002 season and was forced to part with a number of impact players.",
"In the NFL Draft, the team selected Ed Reed with the 24th overall pick.",
"Reed would go on to become one of the best safeties in NFL history, making nine Pro Bowls until leaving the Ravens for the Houston Texans in 2013.",
"Despite low expectations, the Ravens stayed somewhat competitive in 2002 until a losing streak in December eliminated any chances of a post-season berth.",
"Their final record that year was 7–9.",
"====2003====\n\nCoach Gary Zauner (front) and Brian Billick with the Baltimore Ravens in 2003.",
"In 2003, the Ravens drafted their new quarterback, Kyle Boller, but he was injured midway through the season and was replaced by Anthony Wright.",
"Jamal Lewis ran for 2,066 yards (including a record 295 yards in one game against the Cleveland Browns on September 14).",
"With a 10–6 record, Baltimore won their first AFC North division title.",
"Their first playoff game, at home against the Tennessee Titans, went back and forth, with the Ravens being held to only 54 yards total rushing.",
"The Titans won 20–17 on a late field goal, and Baltimore's season ended early.",
"Ray Lewis was also named Defensive Player of the year for the second time in his career.",
"In April 2003, Art Modell sold 49% of the team to Steve Bisciotti, a local businessman who had made his fortune in the temporary staffing field.",
"After the season, Art Modell sold his remaining 51% ownership to Bisciotti, ending over 40 years of tenure as an NFL franchise owner.",
"====2004====\n\n\nThe Ravens did not make the playoffs in 2004 and finished the season with a record of 9–7 with Kyle Boller spending the season at QB.",
"They did get good play from veteran corner Deion Sanders and third year safety Ed Reed, who won the NFL Defensive Player of the Year award.",
"They were also the only team to defeat the 15–1 Pittsburgh Steelers in the regular season.",
"====2005====\n\n\nIn the 2005 offseason the Ravens looked to augment their receiving corps (which was second-worst in the NFL in 2004) by signing Derrick Mason from the Titans and drafting star Oklahoma wide receiver Mark Clayton in the first round of the 2005 NFL Draft.",
"However, the Ravens ended their season 6–10, but defeated the Green Bay Packers 48–3 on Monday Night Football and the Super Bowl champion Steelers.",
"====2006====\n\nDerrick Mason played mainly as the Ravens No.",
"1 receiver from 2005 through 2010.",
"The 2006 Baltimore Ravens season began with the team trying to improve on their 6–10 record of 2005.",
"The Ravens, for the first time in franchise history, started 4–0, under the leadership of former Titans quarterback Steve McNair.",
"The Ravens lost two straight games mid-season on offensive troubles, prompting coach Billick to drop their offensive coordinator Jim Fassel in their week seven bye.",
"After the bye, and with Billick calling the offense, Baltimore would record a five-game win streak before losing to the Cincinnati Bengals in week 13.",
"Still ranked second overall to first-place San Diego Chargers, the Ravens continued on.",
"They defeated the Kansas City Chiefs, and held the defending Super Bowl champion Pittsburgh Steelers to only one touchdown at Heinz Field, allowing the Ravens to clinch the AFC North.",
"The Ravens ended the regular season with a franchise-best 13–3 record.",
"Baltimore had secured the AFC North title, the No.",
"2 AFC playoff seed, and clinched a 1st-round bye by season's end.",
"The Ravens were slated to face the Indianapolis Colts in the second round of the playoffs, in the first meeting of the two teams in the playoffs.",
"Many Baltimore and Indianapolis fans saw this historic meeting as a sort of \"Judgment Day\" with the new team of Baltimore facing the old team of Baltimore (the former Baltimore Colts having left Baltimore under questionable circumstances in 1984).",
"McNair threw two costly interceptions, including one at the 1-yard line.",
"The eventual Super Bowl champion Colts won 15–6, ending Baltimore's season.",
"====2007====\n\nWillis McGahee played four seasons as a running back for the Ravens.",
"After a stellar 2006 season, the Ravens hoped to improve upon their 13–3 record but injuries and poor play plagued the team.",
"The Ravens finished the 2007 season in the AFC North cellar with a disappointing 5–11 record.",
"A humiliating 22–16 overtime loss to the previously winless Miami Dolphins on December 16 ultimately led to Billick's dismissal on New Year's Eve, one day after the end of the regular season.",
"He was replaced by John Harbaugh, the special teams coach of the Philadelphia Eagles and the older brother of former Ravens quarterback Jim Harbaugh (1998).",
"===John Harbaugh/Joe Flacco era; second Super Bowl (2008–present)===\n\n====2008: Arrival of John Harbaugh, Flacco, and Ray Rice====\n\nJoe Flacco (right) and Kyle Boller during 2008 Training Camp.",
"With rookies at head coach (John Harbaugh) and quarterback (Joe Flacco), the Ravens entered the 2008 campaign with lots of uncertainty.",
"Baltimore smartly recovered in 2008, winning eleven games and achieving a wild card spot in the postseason.",
"On the strength of four interceptions, one resulting in an Ed Reed touchdown, the Ravens began its postseason run by winning a rematch over Miami 27–9 at Dolphin Stadium on January 4, 2009 in a wild-card game.",
"Six days later, they advanced to the AFC Championship Game by avenging a Week 5 loss to the Titans 13–10 at LP Field on a Matt Stover field goal with 53 seconds left in regulation time.",
"The Ravens fell one victory short of Super Bowl XLIII by losing to the Steelers 23–14 at Heinz Field on January 18, 2009.",
"====2009====\n\nRay Lewis during a 2008 regular season game.",
"In 2009, the Ravens won their first three matches, then lost the next three, including a close match in Minnesota.",
"The rest of the season was an uneven string of wins and losses, which included a home victory over Pittsburgh in overtime followed by a Monday Night loss in Green Bay.",
"That game was notable for the huge number of penalties committed, costing a total of 310 yards, and almost tying with the record set by Tampa Bay and Seattle in 1976.",
"Afterwards, the Ravens easily crushed the Lions and Bears, giving up less than ten points in both games.",
"The next match was against the Steelers, where Baltimore lost a close one before beating the Raiders to end the season.",
"With a record of 9–7, the team finished second in the division and gained another wild card.",
"Moving into the playoffs, they overwhelmed the Patriots; nevertheless they did not reach the AFC Championship because they were routed 20–3 by the Colts in the divisional round a week later.",
"====2010====\n\nBaltimore managed to beat the Jets 10–9 on the 2010 opener, but then lost a poorly-played game against Cincinnati the following week.",
"The Ravens rebounded against the other two division teams, beating Cleveland 24–17 in Week 3 and then Pittsburgh 17–14 in Week 4.",
"The Ravens scored a fine win (31–17) at home against Denver in Week 5.",
"After an overtime loss to New England, they narrowly avoided losing at home to the winless Bills.",
"Next, the Ravens hosted Miami and won 26–10, breaking that team's 4–0 road streak.",
"On Thursday Night, the team headed to Atlanta and lost 26–21 in a game that had some criticizing the officiating.",
"The Ravens finished the season 12–4, second in the division due to a tiebreaker with Pittsburgh, and earning a wild card spot.",
"Baltimore headed to Kansas City and crushed the unprepared Chiefs 34–7, but once again were knocked from the playoffs by Pittsburgh in a hard-fought battle.",
"====2011====\n\nTerrell Suggs during practice in 2011.",
"The Ravens hosted their arch-enemy in Week 1 of the 2011 season.",
"The frustrated Pittsburgh players also committed several costly penalties.",
"Thus, the Ravens had gained their first ever victory over the Steelers with Ben Roethlisberger playing and avenged themselves of repeated regular and postseason losses in the series.",
"But in Week 2, the Ravens collapsed in Tennessee and lost 26–13.",
"They rebounded by routing the Rams in Week 3 and then overpowering the Jets 34–17 in Week 4.",
"Week 5, the Ravens had a bye week, following a game against the Texans.",
"But in Week 7, Baltimore had a stunning MNF upset loss in Jacksonville as they were held to one touchdown in a 12–7 loss.",
"Their final scoring drive failed as Joe Flacco threw an interception in the closing seconds of the game.",
"After beating the Cincinnati Bengals in Week 17 of the regular season, the Ravens advanced to the playoffs as the Number 2 seed in the AFC with a record of 12-4.",
"They gained the distinction of AFC North Champions over Pittsburgh (12-4) due to a tie breaker.",
"Ravens' Lee Evans was stripped of a 14-yard touchdown pass by the Patriots Sterling Moore with 22 seconds left and Ravens kicker Billy Cundiff pushed a 32-yard field goal attempt wide left on fourth down as the Patriots held on to beat the Ravens 23-20 during the AFC championship game and advance to Super Bowl XLVI.",
"====2012: Ray Lewis' final season and 2nd Super Bowl====\n\nJacoby Jones dives for the end zone during the second quarter of Super Bowl XLVII.",
"Lombardi trophy presentation following Super Bowl XLVII.",
"The Ravens' attempt to convert Joe Flacco into a pocket passer remained a work in progress as the 2012 season began.",
"Terrell Suggs suffered a tendon injury during an off-season basketball game and was unable to play for at least several weeks.",
"In the opener on September 10, Baltimore routed Cincinnati 44-13.",
"After this easy win, the team headed to Philadelphia.",
"The Eagles had struggled during their Week 1 match in Cleveland and were not expected to win, but a bizarre game ensued thanks to the NFL facing another lockout mess, this one involving the league's referees, who were replaced by ex-college officials.",
"The replacement officials were widely criticized throughout the league.",
"This game featured multiple questionable calls that went against the Ravens, perhaps costing them the game 24-23.",
"Returning home for a primetime rematch of the AFC Championship, another bizarre game ensued.",
"New England picked apart the Baltimore defense (which was considerably weakened without Terrell Suggs and some other players lost over the off-season) for the first half.",
"Trouble began early in the game when a streaker ran out onto the field and had to be tackled by security, and accelerated when, at 2:18 in the 4th quarter, the referees made a holding call on RG Marshal Yanda.",
"Enraged fans repeatedly chanted an obscenity at this penalty.",
"The Ravens finally drove downfield and on the last play of the game, Justin Tucker kicked a 27-yard field goal to win the game 31-30, capping off a second intense and controversially-officiated game in a row for the Ravens.",
"The Ravens would win the AFC North with a 10-6 record, but finished 4th in the AFC playoff seeding, and thus had to play a wild-card game.",
"After defeating the Indianapolis Colts 24-9 at home (the final home game of Ray Lewis), the Ravens traveled to Denver to play against the top seeded Broncos.",
"In a very back-and-forth contest, the Ravens pulled out a 38-35 victory in double overtime.",
"They then won their 2nd AFC championship by coming back from a 13-7 halftime deficit to defeat the New England Patriots once again, 28-13.",
"The Ravens played the Super Bowl XLVII on February 3, 2013, against the San Francisco 49ers.",
"Baltimore built a 28–6 lead early in the third quarter before a partial power outage in the Superdome suspended play for 34 minutes (earning the game the added nickname of the Blackout Bowl).",
"After play resumed, San Francisco scored 17 unanswered third-quarter points to cut the Ravens' lead, 28–23, and continued to chip away in the fourth quarter.",
"With the Ravens leading late in the game, 34–29, the 49ers advanced to the Baltimore 7-yard line just before the two-minute warning but turned the ball over on downs.",
"The Ravens then took an intentional safety in the waning moments of the game to preserve the victory.",
"Baltimore quarterback Joe Flacco, who completed 22 of 33 passes for 287 yards and three touchdowns, was named Super Bowl MVP.",
"====2013====\n\nComing off as the defending Super Bowl champions, this was the first year in franchise history for the team without Ray Lewis.",
"The Ravens started out 3-2, and started the 2-0 Houston Texans 14-loss streak by shutting them 30-9 in Week 3.",
"However, the Ravens lost their next 3 games, losing to the Green Bay Packers and Pittsburgh Steelers in last-minute field goals and were shut out in an attempt to tie the game against the Cleveland Browns 18-24.",
"After winning and losing their next game, the Baltimore Ravens came out 4-6, but managed winning their next four games in dominating the Jets 19-3 in Baltimore, a Steelers win 20-22 during Thanksgiving, a booming ending in Baltimore against the Vikings 29-26, and a 18-16 win at Detroit, including Justin Tucker's 61-yard game-winning field goal.",
"The Ravens were 8-6, with the 6th seed, but after losing their next two games, and the San Diego Chargers winning their next two to clinch the 6th seed, the Ravens finished 8-8 and missed the playoffs for the first time since 2007.",
"====2014====\n\n\nOn January 27, 2014, the Ravens hired former Houston Texans head coach Gary Kubiak to be their new offensive coordinator after Jim Caldwell accepted the new available head coaching job with the Detroit Lions.",
"On February 15, 2014, star running back Ray Rice and his fiancée Janay Palmer were arrested and charged with assault after a physical altercation at Revel Casino in Atlantic City, New Jersey.",
"Celebrity news website TMZ posted a video of Rice dragging Palmer's body out of an elevator after apparently knocking her out.",
"For the incident, Rice was initially suspended for the first two games of the 2014 NFL season on July 25, 2014, which led to widespread criticism of the NFL.",
"In Week 1, on September 7, the Baltimore Ravens lost to the Cincinnati Bengals, 23-16.",
"The next day, on September 8, 2014, TMZ released additional footage from an elevator camera showing Rice punching Palmer.",
"The Baltimore Ravens terminated Rice's contract as a result, and was later indefinitely suspended by the NFL.",
"Although starting out 0-1 for two straight seasons and having received unwanted media attention for the Ray Rice incident, on September 11, 2014, the Ravens rallied back and beat the Pittsburgh Steelers 26-6, to improve to 1-1.",
"In Week 12, the Ravens traveled down for an interconference battle with the New Orleans Saints, which the Ravens won 34-27, reaching a 4-0 sweep of the NFC south.",
"In Week 16, the Ravens traveled to Houston to take on the Texans.",
"In one of Joe Flacco's worst performances, the offense sputtered against the Houston defense and Flacco threw three interceptions, falling to the Texans 25-13.",
"With their playoff chances and season hanging in the balance, the Ravens took on the Browns in Week 17 at home.",
"After three quarters had gone by and down 10-3, Joe Flacco led the Ravens on a comeback scoring 17 unanswered points, winning 20-10.",
"With the win, and the Kansas City Chiefs defeating the San Diego Chargers, the Ravens clinched their sixth playoff berth in seven seasons, and the first since winning Super Bowl XLVII.",
"In the wildcard playoff game, the Ravens won 30-17 against their divisional rivals, the Pittsburgh Steelers, at Heinz Field.",
"In the next game in the Divisional round, the Ravens faced the New England Patriots.",
"Despite a strong offensive effort and having a 14-point lead twice in the game, the Ravens were defeated by the Patriots 35-31, ending their season.",
"====2015====\n\n\nThe 2015 season marked 20 seasons of the franchise's existence, competing in the NFL which the franchise have recognized with a special badge being worn on their uniforms during the 2015 NFL season.",
"After coming up just short against the Patriots in the playoffs, the Ravens were picked by some to win the AFC and even the Super Bowl.",
"However, they lost key players such as Joe Flacco, Justin Forsett, Terrell Suggs, Steve Smith Sr., and Eugene Monroe to season-ending injuries.",
"Injuries and their inability to win close games early in the season led to the first losing season in the John Harbaugh-Flacco era.",
"====2016====\n\nThe 2016 Ravens improved on their 5–11 record from 2015, finishing 8–8, but failed to qualify the playoffs for the second straight year.",
"They were eliminated from playoff contention after their Week 16 loss to their division rivals, the Steelers.",
"This was the first time the Ravens missed the playoffs in consecutive seasons since 2004–2005, as well as the first in the Harbaugh/Flacco era.",
"\n\n Steelers quarterback Ben Roethlisberger sacked by Bart Scott and Jarret Johnson.",
"Terrell Suggs looks on.",
"===Pittsburgh Steelers===\nBy far the team's biggest rival is the Pittsburgh Steelers.",
"Pittsburgh and Baltimore are separated by a less-than-5-hour drive along Interstate 70.",
"Both teams are known for their hard-hitting physical style of play.",
"They play twice a year in the AFC North, and have met four times in the playoffs.",
"Games between these two teams usually come down to the wire as most within the last 5 years have come down to 3 points or less.",
"The rivalry is considered one of the most significant and intense in the NFL today.",
"===Indianapolis Colts===\nAlthough the Steelers rivalry is based on mutual respect and antagonism for each other, the Ravens' rivalry with the Indianapolis Colts is fueled by the fans' animosity towards the organization, not contention between the players.",
"This is due to the fact that the then-Colts owner, Robert Irsay, under the threat of eminent domain from the city of Baltimore, was forced to sneak the Colts out of Baltimore in the middle of the night to take them to Indianapolis.",
"During Ravens home games the scoreboard lists the away team simply as \"Away\" or \"Indy\" rather than the team name that is traditionally used for the visiting opponent.",
"The Indianapolis Colts hold an all-time 9–4 advantage over the Baltimore Ravens, including a 2–1 advantage in the playoffs.",
"===Other AFC North rivals===\nB. J. Sams (36) and Musa Smith (32) playing against the Cincinnati Bengals in November 2006.",
"The Ravens also have divisional rivalries with the Cleveland Browns and Cincinnati Bengals.",
"The reactivated Cleveland Browns and their fans maintain a hatred of Baltimore's team due to its move from Cleveland.",
"The rivalry with the Browns has been very one-sided; Baltimore holds an advantage of 27-9 against Cleveland.",
"The rivalry with Cincinnati has been closer, with both teams tied at 21-21 following the 2016 season.",
"===New England Patriots===\nThe Ravens first met the New England Patriots in 1996, but the rivalry truly started in 2007 when the Ravens suffered a bitter 27–24 loss in the Patriots quest for perfection.",
"The rivalry began to escalate in 2009 when the Patriots beat the Ravens 27–21 in a game that involved a confrontation between Patriots quarterback Tom Brady and Ravens linebacker Terrell Suggs.",
"Both players would go on to take verbal shots at each other through the media after the game.",
"The Ravens faced the Patriots in a 2009 AFC wild card playoff game and won 33–14; the Ravens ran the ball for more than 250 yards.",
"The Ravens faced the Patriots in Week 6 of the 2010 season; the Ravens ended up losing 23–20 in overtime; the game caused controversy due to a hit to the helmet of tight end Todd Heap by Patriots safety Brandon Meriweather.",
"The Ravens played the Patriots for the third consecutive season, in the 2011 AFC championship game in which the Ravens lost 23–20.",
"The rivalry reached a new level of friction with this, the second career playoff game between the two clubs.",
"The Ravens clawed to a 20–16 lead in the fourth quarter but Patriots quarterback Tom Brady dove into the end zone to make the score 23–20 with around 11 minutes remaining; this proved to be the winning touchdown.",
"On the Ravens last possession of the game, quarterback Joe Flacco threw a pass to wide receiver Lee Evans in the corner of the end zone which looked to be the game-winning touchdown, before a last second strip by Sterling Moore forced the ball from the hands of Evans, forcing the game to be decided on a last minute field goal by Ravens placekicker Billy Cundiff.",
"With eleven seconds remaining on the clock, the kicker missed the 32-yard field goal attempt by a very wide margin, allowing the Patriots to kill the clock on their way to Super Bowl XLVI.",
"The Ravens' first regular-season win over the Patriots came on September 23, 2012.",
"The game was emotional as receiver Torrey Smith was competing following the death of his brother in a motorcycle accident just the night before.",
"Smith caught two touchdowns in a back and forth game; the Ravens erased a 13–0 deficit in the first half and led 14–13, but the Patriots scored at the end of the second quarter for a 20–14 lead.",
"The lead changed twice in the third quarter and the Patriots led 30–21 in the fourth, but the Ravens scored on Smith's second touchdown catch.",
"The Ravens were stopped on fourth down but the Patriots had to punt; in the final two minutes a pass interference penalty on Devin McCourty put the ball at the Patriots 7-yard line; new Ravens kicker Justin Tucker booted a 27-yard field goal on the final play; the ball sailed directly over the upright and was ruled good; the quality of officiating by replacement referees caused controversy as Bill Belichick angrily reached for one of the referees as they were leaving the field, leading to a $50,000 fine later that week.",
"The two teams met again on January 20, 2013 in the AFC Championship, where the Ravens won 28–13.",
"The Patriots led at halftime, 13–7, but the Ravens' defense gave up no points in the second half.",
"It was the first time ever that Tom Brady lost a game at home after leading at halftime, and the first time a road team beat the Patriots in the AFC Championship.",
"On December 22, 2013 the teams met again, this rematch of the AFC championship game was a mismatch from the outset.",
"New England took a 17-0 lead early in the second quarter and never let up behind a defense that forced four turnovers and had four sacks.",
"New England would go on to win the game 41-7.",
"On January 10, 2015, the two teams would meet in the Divisional Round of the playoffs.",
"Unlike the previous meeting, the Ravens put up a strong offensive performance, leading by 14 points twice in the game.",
"However, Tom Brady would bring the Patriots back by attacking the Ravens vulnerable secondary and taking a 35-31 lead late in the 4th quarter.",
"Joe Flacco would drive to the Patriots side of the field with under two minutes to play in regulation.",
"However, a key interception by Flacco due to a misplay on the ball by Torrey Smith essentially sealed the game in the Patriots favor to send them to the AFC Championship.",
"Baltimore Ravens logo (1996–1998)\nBouchat's original sketch\n\nThe team's first helmet logo, used from 1996 through 1998, featured raven wings outspread from a shield displaying a letter ''B'' framed by the word ''Ravens'' overhead and a cross bottony underneath.",
"The US Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed a jury verdict that the logo infringed on a copyright retained by Frederick E. Bouchat, an amateur artist and security guard in Maryland, but that he was entitled to only three dollars in damages from the NFL.",
"Bouchat had submitted his design to the Maryland Stadium Authority by fax after learning that Baltimore was to acquire an NFL team.",
"He was not credited for the design when the logo was announced.",
"Bouchat sued the team, claiming to be the designer of the emblem; representatives of the team asserted that the image had been designed independently.",
"The court ruled in favor of Bouchat, noting that team owner Modell had access to Bouchat's work.",
"Bouchat's fax had gone to John Moag, the Maryland Stadium Authority chairman, whose office was located in the same building as Modell's.",
"Bouchat ultimately was not awarded monetary compensation in the damages phase of the case.",
"The ''Baltimore Sun'' ran a poll showing three designs for new helmet logos.",
"Fans participating in the poll expressed a preference for a raven's head in profile over other designs.",
"Art Modell announced that he would honor this preference but still wanted a letter ''B'' to appear somewhere in the design.",
"The new Ravens logo featured a raven's head in profile with the letter superimposed.",
"The secondary logo is a shield that honors Baltimore's history of heraldry.",
"Alternating Calvert and Crossland emblems (seen also in the flag of Maryland and the flag of Baltimore) are interlocked with stylized letters ''B'' and ''R''.",
"The design of the Ravens uniform has remained essentially unchanged since the team's inaugural season in 1996.",
"Art Modell admitted to ESPN's Roy Firestone that the Ravens' colors, introduced in early 1996, were inspired by the Northwestern Wildcats 1995 dream season.",
"Helmets are black with purple \"talon\" stripes rising from the facemask to the crown.",
"Players normally wear purple jerseys at home and white jerseys on the road.",
"In 1996 the team wore black pants with a single large white stripe for all games.",
"At home games the combination of black pants with purple jersey made the Ravens the first NFL team to wear dark colors head to calf.",
"A number of NFL teams have since donned the look, beginning with the all-black home uniform worn in three games by the 2001 New Orleans Saints.",
"Baltimore Ravens uniform combination\n\nIn 1997 the Ravens opted for a more classic NFL look with white pants sporting stripes in purple and black, along with the jerseys sporting a different font for the uniform numbers.",
"The white pants were worn with both home and road jerseys.",
"The road uniform (white pants with white jerseys) was worn by the Ravens in Super Bowl XXXV, at the end of the 2000 NFL season.",
"In the 2002 season the Ravens began the practice of wearing white jerseys for the home opener and, occasionally, other early games in the season that have a 1:00 kickoff.",
"Since John Harbaugh became the head coach in 2008, the Ravens have also worn their white jerseys at home for preseason games.",
"In November 2004 the team introduced an alternate uniform design featuring black jerseys and solid black pants with black socks.",
"The all-black uniform was first worn for a home game against the Cleveland Browns, entitled \"Pitch Black\" night, that resulted in a Ravens win.",
"The uniform has since been worn for select prime-time national game broadcasts and other games of significance.",
"The Ravens began wearing black pants again with the white jersey in 2008.",
"On December 7, 2008, during a Sunday Night Football game against the Washington Redskins, the Ravens introduced a new combination of black jersey with white pants.",
"It was believed to be due to the fact that John Harbaugh doesn't like the \"blackout\" look.",
"However, on December 19, 2010, the Ravens wore their black jerseys and black pants in a 30–24 victory over the New Orleans Saints.",
"On December 5, 2010, the Ravens reverted to the black pants with the purple jerseys versus the Pittsburgh Steelers during NBC's ''Sunday Night Football'' telecast.",
"The Ravens lost to the Steelers 13–10.",
"They wore the same look again for their game against the Cleveland Browns on December 24, 2011, and they won, 20–14.",
"They wore this combination a third time against the Houston Texans on January 15, 2012 in the AFC Divisional playoff.",
"They won 20–13.",
"They would again wear this combination on January 6, 2013, during the AFC Wild Card playoff and what turned out to be Ray Lewis' final home game, where they defeated the Indianapolis Colts 24-9.",
"From their inaugural season until 2006, the Ravens wore white cleats with their uniforms; they switched to black cleats in 2007.",
"On December 20, 2015, the team unexpectedly debuted gold pants for the first time, wearing them with their regular purple jerseys against the Kansas City Chiefs.",
"Although gold is an official accent color of the Ravens, the pants got an overwhelmingly negative response on social media by both Ravens fans and fans of other NFL teams, with some comparisons being made to the rival Pittsburgh Steelers' pants.",
"\nThe team marching band is called Baltimore's Marching Ravens.",
"They began as the Colts' marching band and have operated continuously from September 7, 1947 to the present.",
"They helped campaign for football to return to Baltimore after the Colts moved.",
"Because they stayed in Baltimore after the Colts left, the band is nicknamed \"the band that would not die\" and were the subject of an episode of ESPN's ''30 for 30''.",
"The Washington Redskins are the only other NFL team that currently has a marching band.",
"\n\n===Current roster===\n\n\n\n\n\n'''''Note''': The following lists players who officially played for the Ravens.",
"For other Hall of Famers, players whose numbers were retired, and players who played for the Baltimore Colts, see Indianapolis Colts.",
"Bold number notes player inducted as a Raven.",
"For Cleveland Browns players, including those in the Hall of Fame and those whose numbers were retired, see Cleveland Browns''\n\n\n===Pro Football Hall of Fame===\n\n'''Baltimore Ravens Hall of Famers'''\n\nNo.",
"Name\nPosition\nTenure\nInducted\nNotes\n\n — \n Mike Singletary \n LB Coach \n 2003–2004 \n 1998 \n Inducted as a linebacker\n\n — \n Ozzie Newsome \n Executive/GM \n 1996–present \n 1999 \n Inducted as a tight end.",
"26 \n Rod Woodson \n S \n 1998–2001 \n 2009 \n Super Bowl XXXV Champion\n\n 82 \n Shannon Sharpe \n TE \n 2000–2001 \n 2011 \n Super Bowl XXXV Champion\n\n 37 \n Deion Sanders \n CB \n 2004–2005 \n 2011 \n\n\n '''75''' \n Jonathan Ogden \n OT \n 1996–2007 \n 2013 \n Super Bowl XXXV Champion\n\n\n===Retired numbers===\nThe Ravens do not officially have retired numbers.",
"However, the number '''19''' is not issued out of respect for Baltimore Colts quarterback Johnny Unitas, except for quarterback Scott Mitchell in his lone season in Baltimore in 1999.",
"In addition, numbers '''75''', '''52''', and '''20''', in honor of Jonathan Ogden, Ray Lewis, and Ed Reed respectively, have not been issued since those players' retirements from football.",
"The number '''3''' has been in very limited circulation (offseason only) in respect to former kicker Matt Stover.",
"The ring currently honors the following, including 8 former members of the Baltimore Colts.",
"Bold Numbers are those whose numbers have not been issued or reissued after a player's time in Baltimore:\n\n\n'''Key/Legend'''\n\n\n\nPro Football Hall of Fame finalist \n\n\nInducted or Enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame \n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Baltimore Ravens Ring of Honor Members'''\n\n '''#''' \n '''Inductee''' \n '''Position(s)''' \n '''Seasons in Baltimore''' \n '''Date of Induction''' \n '''Achievements in Baltimore'''\n\n 21 \n Earnest Byner \nRB, coach \n1996–2003 (8) \n November 26, 2000 \n The \"tie between two cities\"\n\n '''19''' \nJohnny Unitas \nQB \n1956–1972 (17) \n October 20, 2002 \n 10 Pro Bowl selections, 7 All-Pro selections, 4× NFL MVP\n\n 24 \nLenny Moore \nHB \n1956–1967 (12) \n 7 Pro Bowl selections, 7 All-Pro selections\n\n 70 \nArt Donovan \nDT \n1953–1961 (9) \n 5 Pro Bowl selections, 4 All-Pro selections\n\n 77 \nJim Parker \nOL \n1957–1967 (11) \n 8 Pro Bowl selections, 10 All-Pro selections\n\n 82 \nRaymond Berry \nWR \n1955–1967 (13) \n 6 Pro Bowl selections, 5 All-Pro selections\n\n 83 \nTed Hendricks \nLB \n1969–1973 (5) \n 3 Pro Bowl selections, 3 All-Pro selections\n\n 88 \nJohn Mackey \nTE \n1963–1971 (9) \n 5 Pro Bowl selections, 3 All-Pro selections\n\n 89 \nGino Marchetti \nDE \n1953–1966 (14) \n 11 Pro Bowl selections, 10 All-Pro selections\n\n — \nArt Modell \nMajority owner \n1996–2003 (8) \n January 3, 2004 \n Returned the NFL to Baltimore\n\n 99 \n Michael McCrary \nDE \n1997–2002 (6) \n October 4, 2004 \n 2 Pro Bowl selections, 1 All-Pro selection\n\n 58 \n Peter Boulware \nLB \n1997–2005 (9) \n November 5, 2006 \n 4 Pro Bowl selections, 1 All-Pro selection, Defensive Rookie of the Year\n\n '''75''' \nJonathan Ogden \nOT \n1996–2007 (12) \n October 26, 2008 \n 11 Pro Bowl selections, 9 All-Pro selections\n\n '''3''' \n Matt Stover \nPK \n1996–2008 (13) \n November 20, 2011 \n 1 Pro Bowl selection, 1 All-Pro selection\n\n 31 \n Jamal Lewis \nRB \n2000–2006 (7) \n September 27, 2012 \n 1 Pro Bowl selection, 1 All-Pro selection, Offensive Player of the Year, 2,000-yard club\n\n '''52''' \n Ray Lewis \nLB \n1996–2012 (17) \n September 22, 2013 \n 13 Pro Bowl selections, 10 All-Pro selections, 2× Defensive Player of Year, Super Bowl MVP\n\n 86 \n Todd Heap \nTE \n2001–2010 (10) \n September 28, 2014 \n 2 Pro Bowl selections, 1 All-Pro selection\n\n '''20''' \n Ed Reed \nFS \n2002–2012 (11) \n November 22, 2015 \n 9 Pro Bowl selections, 8 All-Pro selections, Defensive Player of Year",
"\nThe Baltimore Ravens had their first draft in 1996, where they selected offensive lineman from UCLA and current NFL Hall of Famer, and 11-time Pro-Bowler Jonathan Ogden.",
"Along with their pick in the next year's draft, this was the highest first-round draft pick that the Ravens have had.",
"They also selected Ray Lewis with the 26th pick.",
"In both 1996 and 2000, the Ravens had two first-round draft picks.",
"However, in 2004 they had none.",
"In their history, the Ravens have drafted 4 offensive linemen, 3 linebackers, 2 wide receivers, 2 cornerbacks, 2 quarterbacks, a running back, tight end, safety, and defensive tackle.",
"The Ravens have 56 combined Pro-Bowl appearances from their first-round draft picks.",
"\n\n=== Passing ===\n\n\n Rookie\n\n !",
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"Career !",
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"Game\n\nCompletions \n2915Joe Flacco \n436Joe Flacco2016 \n37Joe Flacco2016-12-12 @NWE \n253Joe Flacco \n73Joe Flacco2012 \n28Joe Flacco2015-01-10 @NWE \n257Joe Flacco2008 \n28Joe Flacco2008-10-12 @IND \n\nPass Attempts \n4742Joe Flacco \n672Joe Flacco2016 \n63Elvis Grbac2001-09-23 @CIN \n447Joe Flacco \n126Joe Flacco2012 \n45Joe Flacco2015-01-10 @NWE \n428Joe Flacco2008 \n43Kyle Boller2003-09-07 @PIT \n\nPassing Yards \n32639Joe Flacco \n4317Joe Flacco2016 \n429Vinny Testaverde1996-10-27 STL \n3223Joe Flacco \n1140Joe Flacco2012 \n331Joe Flacco2013-01-12 @DEN \n2971Joe Flacco2008 \n302Kyle Boller2003-10-19 @CIN \n\nPassing TDs \n182Joe Flacco \n33Vinny Testaverde1996 \n5Tony Banks2000-09-10 JAXJoe Flacco2014-10-12 @TAM \n25Joe Flacco \n11Joe Flacco2012 \n4Joe Flacco2015-01-10 @NWE \n14Joe Flacco2008 \n2Kyle Boller2003-10-19 @CINJoe Flacco2008-11-02 @CLE2008-11-09 @HOU2008-11-23 PHI2008-11-30 @CIN \n\nIntercepted \n117Joe Flacco \n22Joe Flacco2013 \n5Joe Flacco2013-09-29 @BUF \n10Joe Flacco \n3Elvis Grbac2001Joe Flacco2008, 2009 \n3Elvis Grbac2002-01-20 @PITJoe Flacco2009-01-18 @PIT \n12Joe Flacco2008 \n3Kyle Boller2003-09-28 KANJoe Flacco2008-10-12 @IND2009-01-18 @PIT \n\nPasser Rating \n84.5Joe Flacco \n101.1Eric Zeier1997 \n149.7Joe Flacco2014-10-12 @TAM \n88.6Joe Flacco \n117.2Joe Flacco2012 \n125.6Joe Flacco2013-01-06 IND \n80.3Joe Flacco2008 \n120.2Joe Flacco2008-10-19 @MIA \n\nSacked \n290Joe Flacco \n48Joe Flacco2013 \n7Eric Zeier1997-12-21 @CINTony Banks1999-11-21 @CINJeff Blake2002-11-17 @MIA \n28Joe Flacco \n10Trent Dilfer2000 \n5Joe Flacco2011-01-15 @PIT2012-01-15 HOU \n32Joe Flacco2008 \n5Joe Flacco2008-09-29 @PIT2008-12-20 @DAL \n\nYds/Pass Att \n7.01+Vinny Testaverde \n8.26#Eric Zeier1997 \n12.92*Jeff Blake2002-12-29 @PIT \n8.08#Trent Dilfer \n9.05*Joe Flacco2012 \n12.26*Joe Flacco2013-01-06 IND \n6.94#Joe Flacco2008 \n12.91*Joe Flacco2008-12-28 JAX \n\nPass Yds/Game \n246.5+Vinny Testaverde \n279.1#Joe Flacco2015 \n\n214.9#Joe Flacco \n285*Joe Flacco2012 \n\n185.7#Joe Flacco2008 \n\n\n+ = min.",
"500 attempts, # = min.",
"100 attempts, ∗ = minimum 15 attempts,\n\n=== Rushing ===\n\n\n Rookie\n\nStatistic !",
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"Game\n\nRush Attempts \n1822Jamal Lewis \n387Jamal Lewis2003 \n36Bam Morris1997-10-26 @WASPriest Holmes1998-11-22 @CIN \n201Ray Rice \n103Jamal Lewis2000 \n30Jamal Lewis2000-12-31 DENRay Rice2013-01-12 @DEN2013-02-03 NSFO \n309Jamal Lewis2000 \n35Jay Graham1997-11-16 PHI \n\nRush Yards \n7801Jamal Lewis \n2066Jamal Lewis2003 \n295Jamal Lewis2003-09-14 CLE \n750Ray Rice \n338Jamal Lewis2000 \n159Ray Rice2010-01-10 @NWE \n1364Jamal Lewis2000 \n187Jamal Lewis2000-11-19 DAL \n\nRush Yds/Att \n4.32+Ray Rice \n5.39#Justin Forsett2014 \n10.44*Willis McGahee2010-01-03 @OAK \n3.73#Ray Rice \n6.46*Ray Rice2009 \n7.23*Ray Rice2010-01-10 @NWE \n4.93#Bernard Pierce2012 \n7.33*Ray Rice2008-11-02 @CLE \n\nRushing TDs \n45Jamal Lewis \n14Jamal Lewis2003 \n3Jamal Lewis2003-12-07 CIN2006-11-19 ATLWillis McGahee2010-01-03 @OAK \n5Ray Rice \n4Jamal Lewis2000 \n2Jamal Lewis2000-12-31 DENWillis McGahee2009-01-18 @PITRay Rice2010-01-10 @NWE \n6Jamal Lewis2000 \n2Jamal Lewis2000-11-26 CLE2000-12-31 DENJason Brookins2001-11-25 @JAX \n\nRush Yds/Game \n85.7+Jamal Lewis \n129.1#Jamal Lewis2003 \n\n71#Jamal Lewis \n113*Ray Rice2009 \n\n85.3*Jamal Lewis2000 \n\n\n∗ = minimum 15 attempts, # = min.",
"100 attempts, + = min.",
"500 attempts\n\n=== Receiving ===\n\n\n Rookie\n\nStatistic !",
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"Game\n\nReceptions \n471Derrick Mason \n103Derrick Mason2007 \n13Priest Holmes1998-10-11 TENSteve Smith2015-09-27 CIN \n38Anquan Boldin \n22Anquan Boldin2012 \n10Todd Heap2011-01-09 @KAN \n50Torrey Smith2011 \n12Javorius Allen2015-12-06 @MIA \n\nReceiving Yds \n5777Derrick Mason \n1201Michael Jackson1996 \n258Qadry Ismail1999-12-12 @PIT \n616Anquan Boldin \n380Anquan Boldin2012 \n145Anquan Boldin2013-01-06 IND \n841Torrey Smith2011 \n165Torrey Smith2011-11-20 CIN \n\nYds/Rec \n16.86+Torrey Smith \n19.12#Jermaine Lewis1998 \n43*Qadry Ismail1999-12-12 @PIT \n20.7#Torrey Smith \n38.33*Shannon Sharpe2000 \n29*Anquan Boldin2013-01-06 IND \n18#Demetrius Williams2006 \n30.4*Torrey Smith2011-09-25 @STL \n\nReceiving TDs \n41Todd Heap \n14Michael Jackson1996 \n4Marcus Robinson2003-11-23 SEA \n6Anquan Boldin \n4Anquan Boldin2012 \n2Anquan Boldin2013-01-20 @NWE \n7Torrey Smith2011Marlon Brown2013 \n3Torrey Smith2011-09-25 @STL \n\nRec Yds/Game \n60.2+Derrick Mason \n95.7#Steve Smith2015 \n\n77*Anquan Boldin \n95#Anquan Boldin2012 \n\n52.6#Torrey Smith2011 \n\n\n∗ = minimum 4 receptions, # = min.",
"20 receptions, + = min.",
"200 receptions\n\n=== Other ===\n\n\n Rookie\n\nStatistic !",
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"Game\n\nTotal TDs \n47Jamal Lewis \n15Ray Rice2011 \n4Marcus Robinson2003-11-23 SEA \n6Ray RiceAnquan Boldin \n4Jamal Lewis2000Anquan Boldin2012 \n2(6 times)\n7Torrey Smith2011Marlon Brown2013 \n3Torrey Smith2011-09-25 @STL \n\nYds from Scrimmage \n9214Ray Rice \n2271Jamal Lewis2003 \n295Jamal Lewis2003-09-14 CLE \n1046Ray Rice \n394Ray Rice2012 \n159Ray Rice2010-01-10 @NWE \n1660Jamal Lewis2000 \n170Jamal Lewis2000-11-26 CLEJavorius Allen2015-12-06 @MIA \n\nAll Purpose Yds \n9377Ray Rice \n2271Jamal Lewis2003 \n308Jermaine Lewis1997-12-07 SEA \n1077Ray Rice \n619Jacoby Jones2012 \n290Jacoby Jones2013-02-03 NSFO \n1660Jamal Lewis2000 \n250B.J.",
"Sams2004-10-04 KAN \n\n\n==== Returns ====\n\n\n Playoffs\n\nStatistic !",
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"Game\n\nKick Returns \n139Jermaine Lewis \n59B.J.",
"Sams2004 \n8Corey Harris1998-12-13 MINB.J.",
"Sams2005-11-27 @CIN \n25Jacoby Jones \n14Jacoby Jones2012 \n6Cory Ross2007-01-13 INDJacoby Jones2015-01-10 @NWE \n\nKick Ret Yds \n3,161B.J.",
"Sams \n1,251B.J.",
"Sams2004 \n243Corey Harris1998-12-13 MIN \n627Jacoby Jones \n362Jacoby Jones2012 \n206Jacoby Jones2013-02-03 NSFO \n\nYds/KR \n30.07Jacoby Jones \n32.8Raheem Mostert2015 \n53Jacoby Jones2012-10-14 DAL \n26.64Jermaine Lewis \n37.8Jermaine Lewis2000 \n41.2Jacoby Jones2013-02-03 NSFO \n\nKick Ret TDs \n4Jacoby Jones \n2Jacoby Jones2012 \n1(9 times) \n 1Jacoby Jones2013-02-03 NSFO Jermaine Lewis2001-01-28 NNYG\n\nPunt Returns \n231Jermaine Lewis \n57Jermaine Lewis1999 \n7(5 times) \n16Jermaine Lewis \n11Jermaine Lewis2000 \n6Jim Leonhard2009-01-18 @PIT \n\nPunt Ret Yds \n2,730Jermaine Lewis \n578Jermaine Lewis2000 \n184Jermaine Lewis1997-12-07 SEA \n224Jermaine Lewis \n122Jermaine Lewis2000 \n99Jermaine Lewis2002-01-20 @PIT \n\nYds/PR \n15.26Tandon Doss \n16.07Lamont Brightful2002 \n43.25Jermaine Lewis2000-12-24 NYJ \n14Jermaine Lewis \n20.4Jermaine Lewis2001 \n33Jermaine Lewis2002-01-20 @PIT \n\nPunt Ret TDs \n6Jermaine Lewis \n2Jermaine Lewis1997, 1998, 2000B.J.",
"Sams2004 \n2Jermaine Lewis1997-12-07 SEA2000-12-24 NYJ \n 1Jermaine Lewis2002-01-20 @PIT \n\nTotal Return Yds \n5,883Jermaine Lewis \n1,826B.J.",
"Sams2004 \n275Jermaine Lewis1997-12-07 SEA \n757Jacoby Jones \n472Jacoby Jones2012 \n181Jermaine Lewis2002-01-20 @PIT \n\n\n==== Kicking ====\n\n Playoffs\n\nStatistic !",
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"Game\n\nExtra Points \n402Matt Stover \n42Justin Tucker2012, 2014 \n6Billy Cundiff2009-12-13 DET \n23Justin Tucker \n16Justin Tucker2012 \n5Justin Tucker2013-01-12 @DEN \n\nField Goals \n354Matt Stover \n38Justin Tucker2013, 2016 \n6Justin Tucker2013-12-16 @DET \n16Matt Stover \n6Matt Stover2000 \n3Matt Stover2001-01-14 @OAKBilly Cundiff2011-01-09 @KANJustin Tucker2015-01-03 @PIT \n\nPunts \n862Sam Koch \n103Kyle Richardson1999 \n10Kyle Richardson1998-09-20 @JAX2000-12-24 NYJNick Murphy2004-11-28 @NWESam Koch2007-11-05 @PIT \n80Sam Koch \n33Kyle Richardson2000 \n10Kyle Richardson2000-12-31 DEN2001-01-28 NNYG \n\nPunt Yards \n38,989Sam Koch \n4,355Kyle Richardson1999 \n491Kyle Richardson1998-09-20 @JAX \n3568Sam Koch \n1318Kyle Richardson2000 \n444Sam Koch2012-01-15 HOU \n\nYards / Punt \n45.23Sam Koch \n47.35Sam Koch2014 \n54.67Sam Koch2013-12-08 MIN \n44.6Sam Koch \n50Sam Koch2014 \n53.75Sam Koch2011-01-15 @PIT \n\n\n==== Defense ====\n\n\n Playoffs\n\nStatistic !",
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"Season !",
"!",
"Game\n\nInterceptions \n61Ed Reed \n9Ed Reed2004, 2008 \n2(28 times) \n9Ed Reed \n3Duane Starks2000Lardarius Webb2011 \n2Duane Starks2001-01-14 @OAKEd Reed2007-01-13 IND2009-01-04 @MIALardarius Webb2012-01-15 HOUCorey Graham2013-01-12 @DEN\n\nInt Ret Yds \n1541Ed Reed \n358Ed Reed2004 \n150Ed Reed2008-11-23 PHI \n168Ed Reed \n93Duane Starks2000 \n76Ed Reed2009-01-04 @MIA \n\nInt Ret TDs \n7Ed Reed \n2Rod Woodson1998, 1999Chris McAlister2006Ed Reed2008Terrell Suggs2008 \n1(44 times) \n 1(5 times)\n\nSacks (since 1982) \n114.5Terrell Suggs \n17Elvis Dumervil2014 \n4Michael McCrary1998-11-08 OAKPeter Boulware2002-01-07 MIN \n12.5Terrell Suggs \n6Michael McCrary2000 \n3Michael McCrary2000-12-31 DENTerrell Suggs2011-01-15 @PIT \n\n\n=== Exceptional Performances ===\n\n\nRookie Games\n\n300+ yard passing games \n32Joe Flacco \n6Joe Flacco2012 \n2Joe Flacco \n1Kyle Boller2003 \n\n100+ yard rushing games \n32Jamal Lewis \n12Jamal Lewis2003 \n2Jamal LewisRay Rice \n7Jamal Lewis2000 \n\n100+ yard receiving games \n9Anquan BoldinMark ClaytonSteve Smith \n5Steve Smith2014 \n3Anquan Boldin \n2Torrey Smith2011 \n\nGames with 1+ TD scored \n39Jamal Lewis \n10Michael Jackson1996Jamal Lewis2003Le'Ron McClain2008Ray Rice2011, 2012 \n5Anquan BoldinRay Rice \n8Jamal Lewis2000 \n\nGames with 2+ TD scored \n11Ray Rice \n5Willis McGahee2009 \n1(6 times) \n2Jamal Lewis2000Clarence Moore2004 \n\nGames with 3+ TD scored \n2Jamal Lewis \n1(10 times) \n0 \n1Torrey Smith2011 \n\n\n=== Other Career Records ===\n*Most Tackles: Ray Lewis, 1,573 (1996–2012)\n*Most Forced Fumbles: Terrell Suggs, 28 (2003–present)\n*Longest Field Goal Made: Justin Tucker, 61 yards (2012–present)\n\n''All records as of February 9, 2017 per Pro-Football Reference.com''",
"\n\n\n #\n Name\n Term\n Regular season\n Playoffs\n Awards/Notes\n Reference\n\n GC\n W\n L\n T\n pct\n GC\n W\n L\n\n1\nTed Marchibroda\n1996–1998\n48\n16\n31\n1\n.344\n—\n—\n—\n\n\n\n2\nBrian Billick\n1999–2007\n144\n80\n64\n0\n.556\n8\n5\n3\nSuper Boxl XXXV Champion\n\n\n3\nJohn Harbaugh\n2008–''Present''\n144\n85\n59\n0\n.596\n15\n10\n5\nSuper Bowl XLVII ChampionNFL Salute to Service Award (2013)\n\n\n\n===Current staff===",
"The Ravens' flagship radio stations are WIYY (98 Rock) and WBAL 1090 AM, with Gerry Sandusky (WBAL-TV Sports Anchor since 1988) as the play-by-play announcer and analysts Stan White (Baltimore Colts LB 1972–1979) and Qadry Ismail (Baltimore Ravens WR 1999–2001).",
"The team's flagship station is WBAL-TV, which broadcasts pre-season games and team programming throughout the season.",
"The programming is syndicated to WJLA-TV in Washington, WGAL in the Harrisburg-Lebanon-York-Lancaster, PA market, and until 2017, was carried through the remainder of the team's region by CSN Mid-Atlantic.",
"In January 2017, the Ravens announced that it had cut ties with CSN Mid-Atlantic, as the network was cutting back on its day-to-day coverage of other teams in the region in order to focus more extensively on the Washington Capitals and Wizards—whose games are broadcast by CSN Mid-Atlantic, and whose owner holds a stake in the network.",
"The team announced that it would seek a new partner; until 2010, these rights were held by MASN.",
"Ravens regular season games are typically broadcast by WJZ-TV as part of CBS's rights to the AFC, but games may occasionally be broadcast on WBAL (''Sunday Night Football'' and simulcasts of games on cable) or WBFF-TV.",
"===Radio===\nMap of radio affiliates.",
"Terrestrial affiliates\n\nMarket\nFrequency\nCall sign\n\n Annapolis\n 1430 AM\n WNAV\n\n Baltimore\n 1090 AM & 97.9 FM\n WBAL & WIYY\n\n Cambridge\n 1240 AM & 106.3 FM\n WCEM & WCEM-FM\n\n Cumberland\n 107.1 FM\n WCBC-FM\n\n Georgetown\n 93.5 FM\n WZBH\n\n Hagerstown\n 1490 AM\n WARK\n\n Lexington Park\n 97.7 FM\n WMDM\n\n Martinsburg\n 1340 AM\n WEPM\n\n Salisbury\n 92.5 FM\n WICO-FM\n\n Strasburg\n 104.9 FM\n WZFC\n\n Thurmont\n 1450 AM\n WTHU\n\n Washington, D.C.\n 100.3 FM\n WBIG-FM\n\n Westminster\n 1470 AM\n WTTR\n\n Winchester\n 105.5 FM\n WXBN\n\n York\n 910 AM\n WSBA",
"* ( available online)",
"\n*"
] | river |
[
"Funerary stela of one of Nero's ''Corporis Custodes'', the imperial Germanic bodyguard. The bodyguard, Indus, was of the Batavian tribe.\nThe '''Batavi''' were an ancient Germanic tribe that lived around the modern Dutch Rhine delta in the area that the Romans called Batavia, from the second half of the first century BC to the third century AD. The name is also applied to several military units employed by the Romans that were originally raised among the Batavi. The tribal name, probably a derivation from ''batawjō'' (\"good island\", from Germanic ''bat-'' \"good, excellent,\" which is also in the English \"better,\" and ''awjō'' \"island, land near water\"), refers to the region's fertility, today known as the ''fruitbasket of the Netherlands'' (the Betuwe).\n\nFinds of wooden tablets show that at least some were literate.\n",
"left\nThe Batavi themselves are not mentioned by Julius Caesar in his commentary ''Commentarii de Bello Gallico''. But he did mention the \"Batavian island\" in the Rhine river. The island's easternmost point is at a split in the Rhine, one arm being the Waal the other the Lower Rhine/Old Rhine (hence the Latin name ''Insula Batavorum'', \"Island of the Batavi\"). Much later Tacitus wrote that they had originally been a tribe of the Chatti, a tribe in Germany never mentioned by Caesar, who were forced by internal dissension to move to their new home. The time when this happened is unknown, but Caesar does describe similar movements of two tribes in his time, the Usipetes and Tencteri.\n\nTacitus also reports that before their arrival the area had been \"an uninhabited district on the extremity of the coast of Gaul, and also of a neighbouring island, surrounded by the ocean in front, and by the river Rhine in the rear and on either side\". This view, however, is contradicted by the archeological evidence, which shows continuous habitation from at least the third century BC onward. \n \nThe strategic position, to wit the high bank of the Waal—which offered an unimpeded view far into Germania Transrhenana (Germania Beyond the Rhine)—was recognized first by Drusus, who built a massive fortress (''castra'') and a headquarters (''praetorium'') in imperial style. The latter was in use until the Batavian revolt.\n\nArcheological evidence suggests they lived in small villages, composed of six to 12 houses in the very fertile lands between the rivers, and lived by agriculture and cattle-raising. Finds of horse skeletons in graves suggest a strong equestrian preoccupation. On the south bank of the Waal (in what is now Nijmegen) a Roman administrative center was built, called ''Oppidum Batavorum''. An Oppidum was a fortified warehouse, where a tribe's treasures were stored and guarded. This centre was razed during the Batavian Revolt.\n",
"''The Conspiracy of the Batavians under Claudius Civilis'' by Rembrandt van Rijn\n\nThe first Batavi commander we know of is named Chariovalda, who led a charge across the Vīsurgis (Weser) river against the Cherusci led by Arminius during the campaigns of Germanicus in ''Germania Transrhenana''.\n\nTacitus (''De origine et situ Germanorum'' XXIX) described the Batavi as the bravest of the tribes of the area, hardened in the Germanic wars, with cohorts under their own commanders transferred to Britannia. They retained the honour of the ancient association with the Romans, not required to pay tribute or taxes and used by the Romans only for war: \"They furnished to the Empire nothing but men and arms\", Tacitus remarked. Well regarded for their skills in horsemanship and swimming—for men and horses could cross the Rhine without losing formation, according to Tacitus. Dio Cassius describes this surprise tactic employed by Aulus Plautius against the \"barbarians\"—the British Celts— at the battle of the River Medway, 43:\n\n:''The barbarians thought that Romans would not be able to cross it without a bridge, and consequently bivouacked in rather careless fashion on the opposite bank; but he sent across a detachment of Germanic tribesmen, who were accustomed to swim easily in full armour across the most turbulent streams. ... Thence the Britons retired to the river Thames at a point near where it empties into the ocean and at flood-tide forms a lake. This they easily crossed because they knew where the firm ground and the easy passages in this region were to be found; but the Romans in attempting to follow them were not so successful. However, the Germans swam across again and some others got over by a bridge a little way up-stream, after which they assailed the barbarians from several sides at once and cut down many of them.'' (Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 60:20)\nIt is uncertain how they were able to accomplish this feat. The late 4th century writer on Roman military affairs Vegetius mentions soldiers using reed rafts, drawn by leather leads, to transport equipment across rivers. But the sources suggest the Batavi were able to swim across rivers actually wearing full armour and weapons. This would only have been possible by the use of some kind of buoyancy device: Ammianus Marcellinus mentions that the ''Cornuti'' regiment swam across a river floating on their shields \"as on a canoe\" (357). Since the shields were wooden, they may have provided sufficient buoyancy\n\nThe Batavi were used to form the bulk of the Emperor's personal Germanic bodyguard from Augustus to Galba. They also provided a contingent for their indirect successors, the Emperor's horse guards, the ''Equites singulares Augusti''.\n\nA Batavian contingent was used in an amphibious assault on Ynys Mon (Anglesey), taking the assembled Druids by surprise, as they were only expecting Roman ships.\n\nNumerous altars and tombstones of the cohorts of Batavi, dating to the 2nd century and 3rd century, have been found along Hadrian's Wall, notably at Castlecary and Carrawburgh, Germany, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Romania and Austria.\n\n===Revolt of the Batavi===\n\nDespite the alliance, one of the high-ranking Batavi, Julius Paullus, to give him his Roman name, was executed by Fonteius Capito on a false charge of rebellion. His kinsman Gaius Julius Civilis was paraded in chains in Rome before Nero; though he was acquitted by Galba, he was retained at Rome, and when he returned to his kin in the year of upheaval in the Roman Empire, 69, he headed a Batavian rebellion. He managed to capture Castra Vetera, the Romans lost two legions while two others (I Germanica and XVI Gallica) were controlled by the rebels. The rebellion became a real threat to the Empire when the conflict escalated to northern Gaul and Germania. The Roman army retaliated and invaded the ''insula Batavorum''. A bridge was built over the river Nabalia, where the warring parties approached each other on both sides to negotiate peace. The narrative was told in great detail in Tacitus' History, book iv, although, unfortunately, the narrative breaks off abruptly at the climax. Following the uprising, Legio X ''Gemina'' was housed in a stone ''castra'' to keep an eye on the Batavians.\n",
"The Batavi were still mentioned in 355 during the reign of Constantius II (317 - 361), when their island was already dominated by the Salii, a Frankish tribe that had sought Roman protection there in 297 after having been expelled from their own country by the Saxons.\n\nConstantius Gallus added inhabitants of Batavia to his legions, \"of whose discipline we still make use.\" It has been assumed they merged with the Salii shortly before or after and, after having been expelled by another tribe (it has been proposed this was the Chamavi), shared their subsequent migration to Toxandria. In the Late Roman army there was a unit called ''Batavi''.\n\nThe name of the Bavarian town of Passau descends from the Roman ''Batavis'', which was named after the Batavi. The town's name is old as it shows the typical effects of the High German consonant shift (b > p, t > ss).\n",
"\nIn the 16th-century emergence of a popular foundation story and origin myth for the Dutch people, the Batavians came to be regarded as their ancestors during their national struggle for independence during the Eighty Years War. The mix of fancy and fact in the ''Cronyke van Hollandt, Zeelandt ende Vriesland'' (called the ''Divisiekroniek'') by the Augustinian friar and humanist Cornelius Gerardi Aurelius, first published in 1517, brought the spare remarks in Tacitus' newly rediscovered ''Germania'' to a popular public; it was being reprinted as late as 1802. Contemporary Dutch virtues of independence, fortitude and industry were fully recognizable among the Batavians in more scholarly history represented in Hugo Grotius' ''Liber de Antiquitate Republicae Batavicorum'' (1610). The origin was perpetuated by Romeyn de Hooghe's ''Spiegel van Staat der Vereenigden Nederlanden'' (\"Mirror of the State of the United Netherlands,\" 1706), which also ran to many editions, and it was revived in the atmosphere of Romantic nationalism in the late eighteenth-century reforms that saw a short-lived Batavian Republic and, in the colony of the Dutch East Indies, a capital that was named Batavia. Though since Indonesian independence the city is called Jakarta, its inhabitants up to the present still themselves ''Betawi'' or ''Orang Betawi'', i.e. \"People of Batavia\" - a name ultimately derived from the ancient Batavians. \n\nThe success of this tale of origins was mostly due to resemblance in anthropology, which was based on tribal knowledge. Being politically and geographically inclusive, this historical vision filled the needs of Dutch nation-building and integration in the 1890-1914 era.\n\nHowever, a disadvantage of this historical nationalism soon became apparent. It suggested there were no strong external borders, while allowing for the fairly clear-cut internal borders that were emerging as the society pillarized into three parts. After 1945 the tribal knowledge lost its grip on anthropology and mostly vanished. Modern variants of the Batavian founding myth are made more accurate by pointing out that the Batavians were one part of the ancestry of the Dutch people - together with the Frisians, Franks and Saxons - by tracing patterns of DNA. Echoes of this cultural continuity can still be found among various areas of Dutch modern culture, such as the very popular replica of the ship ''Batavia'' that can today be found in Lelystad.\n",
"\n* Laeti\n* List of Germanic peoples\n",
"\n",
"* Nico Roymans, \"Hercules and the construction of a Batavian identity in the context of the Roman empire\", in Ton Derks, Nico Roymans (ed.), ''Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition'' (Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2009) (Amsterdam Archaeological Studies, 13), 219-238.\n* Ton Derks, \"Ethnic identity in the Roman frontier. The epigraphy of Batavi and other Lower Rhine tribes\", in Ton Derks, Nico Roymans (ed.), ''Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition'' (Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2009) (Amsterdam Archaeological Studies, 13), 239-282.\n* The Batavian Myth: A Study Pack from the Department of Dutch, University College London\n* Prof. M. Speidel: \"Riding for Caesar: the Roman Emperors' Horse-Guard\", (Boston, Routledge, 1994)\n",
"* Tacitus, ''Histories'', Book iv\n* A map of the Roman province Germania Inferior and neighbouring tribes.\n* Cohors Primae Batavorum\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Location",
"Military units",
" Fate of the Batavi",
"The Batavian revival",
"See also",
"Notes",
"Bibliography",
"External links"
] | Batavi (Germanic tribe) | [
"The strategic position, to wit the high bank of the Waal—which offered an unimpeded view far into Germania Transrhenana (Germania Beyond the Rhine)—was recognized first by Drusus, who built a massive fortress (''castra'') and a headquarters (''praetorium'') in imperial style.",
"On the south bank of the Waal (in what is now Nijmegen) a Roman administrative center was built, called ''Oppidum Batavorum''.",
"Dio Cassius describes this surprise tactic employed by Aulus Plautius against the \"barbarians\"—the British Celts— at the battle of the River Medway, 43:\n\n:''The barbarians thought that Romans would not be able to cross it without a bridge, and consequently bivouacked in rather careless fashion on the opposite bank; but he sent across a detachment of Germanic tribesmen, who were accustomed to swim easily in full armour across the most turbulent streams."
] | [
"Funerary stela of one of Nero's ''Corporis Custodes'', the imperial Germanic bodyguard.",
"The bodyguard, Indus, was of the Batavian tribe.",
"The '''Batavi''' were an ancient Germanic tribe that lived around the modern Dutch Rhine delta in the area that the Romans called Batavia, from the second half of the first century BC to the third century AD.",
"The name is also applied to several military units employed by the Romans that were originally raised among the Batavi.",
"The tribal name, probably a derivation from ''batawjō'' (\"good island\", from Germanic ''bat-'' \"good, excellent,\" which is also in the English \"better,\" and ''awjō'' \"island, land near water\"), refers to the region's fertility, today known as the ''fruitbasket of the Netherlands'' (the Betuwe).",
"Finds of wooden tablets show that at least some were literate.",
"left\nThe Batavi themselves are not mentioned by Julius Caesar in his commentary ''Commentarii de Bello Gallico''.",
"But he did mention the \"Batavian island\" in the Rhine river.",
"The island's easternmost point is at a split in the Rhine, one arm being the Waal the other the Lower Rhine/Old Rhine (hence the Latin name ''Insula Batavorum'', \"Island of the Batavi\").",
"Much later Tacitus wrote that they had originally been a tribe of the Chatti, a tribe in Germany never mentioned by Caesar, who were forced by internal dissension to move to their new home.",
"The time when this happened is unknown, but Caesar does describe similar movements of two tribes in his time, the Usipetes and Tencteri.",
"Tacitus also reports that before their arrival the area had been \"an uninhabited district on the extremity of the coast of Gaul, and also of a neighbouring island, surrounded by the ocean in front, and by the river Rhine in the rear and on either side\".",
"This view, however, is contradicted by the archeological evidence, which shows continuous habitation from at least the third century BC onward.",
"The latter was in use until the Batavian revolt.",
"Archeological evidence suggests they lived in small villages, composed of six to 12 houses in the very fertile lands between the rivers, and lived by agriculture and cattle-raising.",
"Finds of horse skeletons in graves suggest a strong equestrian preoccupation.",
"An Oppidum was a fortified warehouse, where a tribe's treasures were stored and guarded.",
"This centre was razed during the Batavian Revolt.",
"''The Conspiracy of the Batavians under Claudius Civilis'' by Rembrandt van Rijn\n\nThe first Batavi commander we know of is named Chariovalda, who led a charge across the Vīsurgis (Weser) river against the Cherusci led by Arminius during the campaigns of Germanicus in ''Germania Transrhenana''.",
"Tacitus (''De origine et situ Germanorum'' XXIX) described the Batavi as the bravest of the tribes of the area, hardened in the Germanic wars, with cohorts under their own commanders transferred to Britannia.",
"They retained the honour of the ancient association with the Romans, not required to pay tribute or taxes and used by the Romans only for war: \"They furnished to the Empire nothing but men and arms\", Tacitus remarked.",
"Well regarded for their skills in horsemanship and swimming—for men and horses could cross the Rhine without losing formation, according to Tacitus.",
"... Thence the Britons retired to the river Thames at a point near where it empties into the ocean and at flood-tide forms a lake.",
"This they easily crossed because they knew where the firm ground and the easy passages in this region were to be found; but the Romans in attempting to follow them were not so successful.",
"However, the Germans swam across again and some others got over by a bridge a little way up-stream, after which they assailed the barbarians from several sides at once and cut down many of them.''",
"(Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 60:20)\nIt is uncertain how they were able to accomplish this feat.",
"The late 4th century writer on Roman military affairs Vegetius mentions soldiers using reed rafts, drawn by leather leads, to transport equipment across rivers.",
"But the sources suggest the Batavi were able to swim across rivers actually wearing full armour and weapons.",
"This would only have been possible by the use of some kind of buoyancy device: Ammianus Marcellinus mentions that the ''Cornuti'' regiment swam across a river floating on their shields \"as on a canoe\" (357).",
"Since the shields were wooden, they may have provided sufficient buoyancy\n\nThe Batavi were used to form the bulk of the Emperor's personal Germanic bodyguard from Augustus to Galba.",
"They also provided a contingent for their indirect successors, the Emperor's horse guards, the ''Equites singulares Augusti''.",
"A Batavian contingent was used in an amphibious assault on Ynys Mon (Anglesey), taking the assembled Druids by surprise, as they were only expecting Roman ships.",
"Numerous altars and tombstones of the cohorts of Batavi, dating to the 2nd century and 3rd century, have been found along Hadrian's Wall, notably at Castlecary and Carrawburgh, Germany, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Romania and Austria.",
"===Revolt of the Batavi===\n\nDespite the alliance, one of the high-ranking Batavi, Julius Paullus, to give him his Roman name, was executed by Fonteius Capito on a false charge of rebellion.",
"His kinsman Gaius Julius Civilis was paraded in chains in Rome before Nero; though he was acquitted by Galba, he was retained at Rome, and when he returned to his kin in the year of upheaval in the Roman Empire, 69, he headed a Batavian rebellion.",
"He managed to capture Castra Vetera, the Romans lost two legions while two others (I Germanica and XVI Gallica) were controlled by the rebels.",
"The rebellion became a real threat to the Empire when the conflict escalated to northern Gaul and Germania.",
"The Roman army retaliated and invaded the ''insula Batavorum''.",
"A bridge was built over the river Nabalia, where the warring parties approached each other on both sides to negotiate peace.",
"The narrative was told in great detail in Tacitus' History, book iv, although, unfortunately, the narrative breaks off abruptly at the climax.",
"Following the uprising, Legio X ''Gemina'' was housed in a stone ''castra'' to keep an eye on the Batavians.",
"The Batavi were still mentioned in 355 during the reign of Constantius II (317 - 361), when their island was already dominated by the Salii, a Frankish tribe that had sought Roman protection there in 297 after having been expelled from their own country by the Saxons.",
"Constantius Gallus added inhabitants of Batavia to his legions, \"of whose discipline we still make use.\"",
"It has been assumed they merged with the Salii shortly before or after and, after having been expelled by another tribe (it has been proposed this was the Chamavi), shared their subsequent migration to Toxandria.",
"In the Late Roman army there was a unit called ''Batavi''.",
"The name of the Bavarian town of Passau descends from the Roman ''Batavis'', which was named after the Batavi.",
"The town's name is old as it shows the typical effects of the High German consonant shift (b > p, t > ss).",
"\nIn the 16th-century emergence of a popular foundation story and origin myth for the Dutch people, the Batavians came to be regarded as their ancestors during their national struggle for independence during the Eighty Years War.",
"The mix of fancy and fact in the ''Cronyke van Hollandt, Zeelandt ende Vriesland'' (called the ''Divisiekroniek'') by the Augustinian friar and humanist Cornelius Gerardi Aurelius, first published in 1517, brought the spare remarks in Tacitus' newly rediscovered ''Germania'' to a popular public; it was being reprinted as late as 1802.",
"Contemporary Dutch virtues of independence, fortitude and industry were fully recognizable among the Batavians in more scholarly history represented in Hugo Grotius' ''Liber de Antiquitate Republicae Batavicorum'' (1610).",
"The origin was perpetuated by Romeyn de Hooghe's ''Spiegel van Staat der Vereenigden Nederlanden'' (\"Mirror of the State of the United Netherlands,\" 1706), which also ran to many editions, and it was revived in the atmosphere of Romantic nationalism in the late eighteenth-century reforms that saw a short-lived Batavian Republic and, in the colony of the Dutch East Indies, a capital that was named Batavia.",
"Though since Indonesian independence the city is called Jakarta, its inhabitants up to the present still themselves ''Betawi'' or ''Orang Betawi'', i.e.",
"\"People of Batavia\" - a name ultimately derived from the ancient Batavians.",
"The success of this tale of origins was mostly due to resemblance in anthropology, which was based on tribal knowledge.",
"Being politically and geographically inclusive, this historical vision filled the needs of Dutch nation-building and integration in the 1890-1914 era.",
"However, a disadvantage of this historical nationalism soon became apparent.",
"It suggested there were no strong external borders, while allowing for the fairly clear-cut internal borders that were emerging as the society pillarized into three parts.",
"After 1945 the tribal knowledge lost its grip on anthropology and mostly vanished.",
"Modern variants of the Batavian founding myth are made more accurate by pointing out that the Batavians were one part of the ancestry of the Dutch people - together with the Frisians, Franks and Saxons - by tracing patterns of DNA.",
"Echoes of this cultural continuity can still be found among various areas of Dutch modern culture, such as the very popular replica of the ship ''Batavia'' that can today be found in Lelystad.",
"\n* Laeti\n* List of Germanic peoples",
"* Nico Roymans, \"Hercules and the construction of a Batavian identity in the context of the Roman empire\", in Ton Derks, Nico Roymans (ed.",
"), ''Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition'' (Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2009) (Amsterdam Archaeological Studies, 13), 219-238.",
"* Ton Derks, \"Ethnic identity in the Roman frontier.",
"The epigraphy of Batavi and other Lower Rhine tribes\", in Ton Derks, Nico Roymans (ed.",
"), ''Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition'' (Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2009) (Amsterdam Archaeological Studies, 13), 239-282.",
"* The Batavian Myth: A Study Pack from the Department of Dutch, University College London\n* Prof. M. Speidel: \"Riding for Caesar: the Roman Emperors' Horse-Guard\", (Boston, Routledge, 1994)",
"* Tacitus, ''Histories'', Book iv\n* A map of the Roman province Germania Inferior and neighbouring tribes.",
"* Cohors Primae Batavorum"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Bethlehem''' (; , \"House of Meat\"; '''', , \"House of Bread\"; ; ) is a Palestinian city located in the central West Bank, Palestine, about south of Jerusalem. Its population is approximately 25,000 people. It is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate. The economy is primarily tourist-driven.\n\nThe earliest known mention of the city was in the Amarna correspondence of 1350–1330 BCE during its habitation by the Canaanites. The Hebrew Bible, which says that the city of Bethlehem was built up as a fortified city by Rehoboam, identifies it as the city David was from and where he was crowned as the king of Israel. The New Testament identifies Bethlehem as the birthplace of Jesus. Bethlehem was destroyed by the Emperor Hadrian during the second-century Bar Kokhba revolt; its rebuilding was promoted by Empress Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, who commissioned the building of its great Church of the Nativity in 327 CE. The church was badly damaged by the Samaritans, who sacked it during a revolt in 529, but was rebuilt a century later by Emperor Justinian I.\n\nBethlehem became part of Jund Filastin following the Muslim conquest in 637. Muslim rule continued in Bethlehem until its conquest in 1099 by a crusading army, who replaced the town's Greek Orthodox clergy with a Latin one. In the mid-13th century, the Mamluks demolished the city's walls, which were subsequently rebuilt under the Ottomans in the early 16th century. Control of Bethlehem passed from the Ottomans to the British at the end of World War I. Bethlehem came under Jordanian rule during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and was later captured by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War. Since the 1995 Oslo Accords, Bethlehem has been administered by the Palestinian Authority.\n\nBethlehem now has a Muslim majority, but is still home to a significant Palestinian Christian community. Bethlehem's chief economic sector is tourism, which peaks during the Christmas season when Christians make pilgrimage to the Church of the Nativity, as they have done for almost 2,000 years. Bethlehem has over 30 hotels and 300 handicraft workshops. Rachel's Tomb, an important Jewish holy site, is located at the northern entrance of Bethlehem.\n",
"\n=== Canaanite period ===\nThe earliest reference to Bethlehem appears in the Amarna correspondence (c. 1400 BCE). In one of his six letters to Pharaoh, Abdi-Heba, Egypt's governor for Jerusalem, appeals for aid in retaking \"''Bit-Lahmi''\" in the wake of disturbances by Apiru mercenaries: \"now even a town near Jerusalem, Bit-Lahmi by name, a village which once belonged to the king, has fallen to the enemy . . . Let the king hear the words of your servant Abdi-Heba, and send archers to restore the imperial lands of the king!\"\n\nIt is thought that the similarity of this name to its modern forms indicates that this was a settlement of Canaanites who shared a Semitic cultural and linguistic heritage with the later arrivals. ''Lachmo'' was the Chaldean god of fertility, worshipped by the Canaanites as ''Lachama''. Some time in the 3rd millennium BCE, they erected a temple to worship the god on the hill now known as the Hill of the Nativity. The town was known as ''Beit Lachama'', meaning \"House of Lachama.\" The Philistines later established a garrison there. William F. Albright notes that the pronunciation of the name remained essentially the same for 3,500 years, but has meant different things: \"'Temple of the God Lakhmu' in Canaanite, 'House of Bread' in Hebrew and Aramaic, 'House of Meat' in Arabic.\"\n\nA burial ground discovered in spring 2013, and surveyed in 2015 by a joint Italian-Palestinian team found that the necropolis covered 3 hectares (more than 7 acres) and originally contained more than 100 tombs in use between roughly 2200 B.C. and 650 B.C. The archaeologists were able to identify at least 30 tombs.\n\n=== Israelite and Judean period ===\nArchaeological confirmation of Bethlehem as a city in the Kingdom of Judah was uncovered in 2012 at the archaeological dig at the City of David in the form of a ''bulla'' (seal impression in dried clay) in ancient Hebrew script that reads \"From the town of Bethlehem to the King,\" indicating that it was used to seal the string closing a shipment of grain, wine, or other goods sent as a tax payment in the 8th or 7th century BCE.\n\nBiblical scholars believe Bethlehem, located in the \"hill country\" of Judah, may be the same as the Biblical Ephrath, which means \"fertile\", as there is a reference to it in the Book of Micah as Bethlehem Ephratah. The Bible also calls it Beth-Lehem Judah, and the New Testament describes it as the \"City of David\". It is first mentioned in the Tanakh and the Bible as the place where the matriarch Rachel died and was buried \"by the wayside\" (Gen. 48:7). Rachel's Tomb, the traditional grave site, stands at the entrance to Bethlehem. According to the Book of Ruth, the valley to the east is where Ruth of Moab gleaned the fields and returned to town with Naomi. It was the home of Jesse, father of King David of Israel, and the site of David's anointment by the prophet Samuel. It was from the well of Bethlehem that three of his warriors brought him water when he was hiding in the cave of Adullam.\n\nWriting in the 4th century, the Pilgrim of Bordeaux reported that the sepulchers of David, Ezekiel, Asaph, Job, Jesse, and Solomon were located near Bethlehem. There has been no corroboration of this.\n\n=== Classical period ===\nAccording to the New Testament, Jesus was born in Bethlehem.\n\nAfter the Bar Kokhba revolt was crushed, Hadrian converted the Christian site above the Grotto into a shrine dedicated to the Greek god Adonis, to honour his favourite, the Greek youth Antinous. Some scholars hold the view that this site was one that had originally been dedicated to Adonis-Tammuz and Christians had taken it over.\n\nIn 326–328, the empress Helena, consort of the emperor Constantius Chlorus, and mother of the emperor Constantine the Great, made a pilgrimage to Syra-Palaestina, in the course of which she visited the ruins of Bethlehem. The empress promoted the rebuilding of the city, and Eusebius of Caesarea writes that she was responsible for the construction of the Church of the Nativity.\n\nDuring the Samaritan revolt of 529, Bethlehem was sacked and its walls and the Church of the Nativity destroyed; they were rebuilt on the orders of the Emperor Justinian I. In 614, the Persian Sassanid Empire, supported by Jewish rebels, invaded Palestina Prima and captured Bethlehem. A story recounted in later sources holds that they refrained from destroying the church on seeing the magi depicted in Persian clothing in a mosaic.\n\n=== Middle Ages ===\n1698 sketch by Cornelis de Bruijn\n\nIn 637, shortly after Jerusalem was captured by the Muslim armies, 'Umar ibn al-Khattāb, the second Caliph, promised that the Church of the Nativity would be preserved for Christian use. A mosque dedicated to Umar was built upon the place in the city where he prayed, next to the church. Bethlehem then passed through the control of the Islamic caliphates of the Umayyads in the 8th century, then the Abbasids in the 9th century. A Persian geographer recorded in the mid-9th century that a well preserved and much venerated church existed in the town. In 985, the Arab geographer al-Muqaddasi visited Bethlehem, and referred to its church as the \"Basilica of Constantine, the equal of which does not exist anywhere in the country-round.\" In 1009, during the reign of the sixth Fatimid Caliph, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, the Church of the Nativity was ordered to be demolished, but was spared by local Muslims, because they had been permitted to worship in the structure's southern transept.\n\nIn 1099, Bethlehem was captured by the Crusaders, who fortified it and built a new monastery and cloister on the north side of the Church of the Nativity. The Greek Orthodox clergy were removed from their sees and replaced with Latin clerics. Up until that point the official Christian presence in the region was Greek Orthodox. On Christmas Day 1100, Baldwin I, first king of the Frankish Kingdom of Jerusalem, was crowned in Bethlehem, and that year a Latin episcopate was also established in the town.\n\nIn 1187, Saladin, the Sultan of Egypt and Syria who led the Muslim Ayyubids, captured Bethlehem from the Crusaders. The Latin clerics were forced to leave, allowing the Greek Orthodox clergy to return. Saladin agreed to the return of two Latin priests and two deacons in 1192. However, Bethlehem suffered from the loss of the pilgrim trade, as there was a sharp decrease of European pilgrims. William IV, Count of Nevers had promised the Christian bishops of Bethlehem that if Bethlehem should fall under Muslim control, he would welcome them in the small town of Clamecy in present-day Burgundy, France. As a result, the Bishop of Bethlehem duly took up residence in the hospital of Panthenor, Clamecy, in 1223. Clamecy remained the continuous 'in partibus infidelium' seat of the Bishopric of Bethlehem for almost 600 years, until the French Revolution in 1789.\n\nBethlehem, along with Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Sidon, was briefly ceded to the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem by a treaty between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and Ayyubid Sultan al-Kamil in 1229, in return for a ten-year truce between the Ayyubids and the Crusaders. The treaty expired in 1239, and Bethlehem was recaptured by the Muslims in 1244. In 1250, with the coming to power of the Mamluks under Rukn al-Din Baibars, tolerance of Christianity declined. Members of the clergy left the city, and in 1263 the town walls were demolished. The Latin clergy returned to Bethlehem the following century, establishing themselves in the monastery adjoining the Basilica of the Nativity. The Greek Orthodox were given control of the basilica and shared control of the Milk Grotto with the Latins and the Armenians.\n\n=== Ottoman era ===\nA painting of Bethlehem by Vasily Polenov, 1882\n\nView of Bethlehem, Christmas Day 1898\n\nFrom 1517, during the years of Ottoman control, custody of the Basilica was bitterly disputed between the Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches. By the end of the 16th century, Bethlehem had become one of the largest villages in the District of Jerusalem, and was subdivided into seven quarters. The Basbus family served as the heads of Bethlehem among other leaders during this period. The Ottoman tax record and census from 1596 indicates that Bethlehem had a population of 1,435, making it the 13th largest village in Palestine at the time. Its total revenue amounted to 30,000 akce.\n\nBethlehem paid taxes on wheat, barley and grapes. The Muslims and Christians were organized into separate communities, each having its own leader. Five leaders represented the village in the mid-16th century, three of whom were Muslims. Ottoman tax records suggest that the Christian population was slightly more prosperous or grew more grain than grapes (the former being a more valuable commodity).\n\nFrom 1831 to 1841, Palestine was under the rule of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty of Egypt. During this period, the town suffered an earthquake as well as the destruction of the Muslim quarter in 1834 by Egyptian troops, apparently as a reprisal for the murder of a favored loyalist of Ibrahim Pasha. In 1841, Bethlehem came under Ottoman rule once again and remained so until the end of World War I. Under the Ottomans, Bethlehem's inhabitants faced unemployment, compulsory military service, and heavy taxes, resulting in mass emigration, particularly to South America. An American missionary in the 1850s reported a population of under 4,000, nearly all of whom belonged to the Greek Church. He also noted that a lack of water crippled the town's growth.\n\nSocin found from an official Ottoman village list from about 1870 that Bethlehem had a population of 179 Muslims in 59 houses, 979 \"Latins\" in 256 houses, 824 \"Greeks\" in 213 houses, and 41 Armenians in 11 houses, a total of 539 houses. The population count included men, only. Hartmann found that Bethlehem had 520 houses.\n\n=== Modern era ===\nBethlehem was administered by the British Mandate from 1920 to 1948. In the United Nations General Assembly's 1947 resolution to partition Palestine, Bethlehem was included in the special international enclave of Jerusalem to be administered by the United Nations.\nJordan captured the city during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Many refugees from areas captured by Israeli forces in 1947–48 fled to the Bethlehem area, primarily settling in what became the official refugee camps of 'Azza (Beit Jibrin) and 'Aida in the north and Dheisheh in the south. The influx of refugees significantly transformed Bethlehem's Christian majority into a Muslim one.\n\nJordan retained control of the city until the Six-Day War in 1967, when Bethlehem was captured by Israel, along with the rest of the West Bank. Following the Six-Day War, Israel took control of the city. In 1995, Israel turned it over to the Palestinian National Authority in accordance with the Oslo peace accord.\n\nIsraeli soldiers in Bethlehem, 1978\n\nToday, the city is surrounded by two bypass roads for settlers, leaving the inhabitants squeezed between 37 Jewish enclaves, where a quarter of all West Bank settlers, roughly 170,000, live, and the gap between the two roads closed by the 8-metre high Israeli West Bank barrier, which cuts Bethlehem off from its sister city Jerusalem.\n\n==== Palestinian control ====\nOn December 21, 1995, Israeli troops withdrew from Bethlehem, and three days later the city came under the complete administration and military control of the Palestinian National Authority in conformance with the Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip in 1995.\nDuring the Second Palestinian Intifada in 2000–2005, Bethlehem's infrastructure and tourism industry were damaged. In 2002, it was a primary combat zone in Operation Defensive Shield, a major military counteroffensive by the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF). During the counteroffensive, the IDF besieged the Church of the Nativity, where dozens of Palestinian militants had sought refuge. The siege lasted for 39 days. Several militants were killed. It ended with an agreement to exile 13 of the wanted militants to various foreign countries.\n",
"Residence of the Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Jesus of Betharram, 2008\n\nBethlehem is located at an elevation of about above sea level, higher than nearby Jerusalem. Bethlehem is situated on the southern portion in the Judean Mountains.\n\nThe city is located northeast of Gaza City and the Mediterranean Sea, west of Amman, Jordan, southeast of Tel Aviv, Israel and south of Jerusalem. Nearby cities and towns include Beit Safafa and Jerusalem to the north, Beit Jala to the northwest, Husan to the west, al-Khadr and Artas to the southwest, and Beit Sahour to the east. Beit Jala and the latter form an agglomeration with Bethlehem. The Aida and Azza refugee camps are located within the city limits.\n\nIn the center of Bethlehem is its old city. The old city consists of eight quarters, laid out in a mosaic style, forming the area around the Manger Square. The quarters include the Christian an-Najajreh, al-Farahiyeh, al-Anatreh, al-Tarajmeh, al-Qawawsa and Hreizat quarters and al-Fawaghreh — the only Muslim quarter. Most of the Christian quarters are named after the Arab Ghassanid clans that settled there. Al-Qawawsa Quarter was formed by Arab Christian emigrants from the nearby town of Tuqu' in the 18th century. There is also a Syriac quarter outside of the old city, whose inhabitants originate from Midyat and Ma'asarte in Turkey. The total population of the old city is about 5,000.\n",
"Bethlehem has a Mediterranean climate, with hot and dry summers and mild, wetter winters. Winter temperatures (mid-December to mid-March) can be cool and rainy. January is the coldest month, with temperatures ranging from 1 to 13 degree Celsius (33–55 °F). From May through September, the weather is warm and sunny. August is the hottest month, with a high of 30 degrees Celsius (86 °F). Bethlehem receives an average of of rainfall annually, 70% between November and January.\n\nBethlehem's average annual relative humidity is 60% and reaches its highest rates between January and February. Humidity levels are at their lowest in May. Night dew may occur in up to 180 days per year. The city is influenced by the Mediterranean Sea breeze that occurs around mid-day. However, Bethlehem is affected also by annual waves of hot, dry, sandy and dust ''Khamaseen'' winds from the Arabian Desert, during April, May and mid-June.\n\n\n",
"\n=== Population ===\n\n\n Year\n Population\n\n1867 \n3,000–4,000\n\n1945 \n8,820\n\n1961 \n22,450\n\n1983 \n16,300\n\n1997 \n21,930\n\n2007 \n25,266\n\n\nMosque of Omar (Umar), built in 1860 to commemorate the Caliph Umar's visit to Bethlehem\n\nAccording to Ottoman tax records, Christians made up roughly 60% of the population in the early 16th century, while the Christian and Muslim population became equal by the mid-16th century. However, there were no Muslim inhabitants counted by the end of the century, with a recorded population of 287 adult male tax-payers. Christians, like all non-Muslims throughout the Ottoman Empire, were required to pay the jizya tax. In 1867 an American visitor describes the town as having a population of 3,000 to 4,000; of whom about 100 were Protestants, 300 were Muslims and \"the remainder belonging to the Latin and Greek Churches with a few Armenians.\" Another report from the same year puts the Christian population at 3,000, with an additional 50 Muslims. An 1885 source put the population at approximately 6,000 of \"principally Christians, Latins and Greeks\" with no Jewish inhabitants.\n\nIn 1948, the religious makeup of the city was 85% Christian, mostly of the Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic denominations, and 13% Muslim. In the 1967 census taken by Israel authorities, the town of Bethlehem proper numbered 14,439 inhabitants, its 7,790 Muslim inhabitants represented 53.9% of the population, while the Christians of various denominations numbered 6,231 or 46.1%.\n\nIn the PCBS's 1997 census, the city had a population of 21,670, including a total of 6,570 refugees, accounting for 30.3% of the city's population. In 1997, the age distribution of Bethlehem's inhabitants was 27.4% under the age of 10, 20% from 10 to 19, 17.3% from 20–29, 17.7% from 30 to 44, 12.1% from 45–64 and 5.3% above the age of 65. There were 11,079 males and 10,594 females. In the 2007 PCBS census, Bethlehem had a population of 25,266, of which 12,753 were males and 12,513 were females. There were 6,709 housing units, of which 5,211 were households. The average household consisted of 4.8 family members.\n\n=== Christian population ===\n\n\nAfter the Muslim conquest of the Levant in the 630s, the local Christians were Arabized even though large numbers were ethnically Arabs of the Ghassanid clans. Bethlehem's two largest Arab Christian clans trace their ancestry to the Ghassanids, including al-Farahiyyah and an-Najajreh. The former have descended from the Ghassanids who migrated from Yemen and from the Wadi Musa area in present-day Jordan and an-Najajreh descend from Najran. Another Bethlehem clan, al-Anatreh, also trace their ancestry to the Ghassanids.\n\nFour Bethlehem Christian women, 1911\n\nThe percentage of Christians in the town has been steadily declining over the years, primarily due to emigration. The lower birth rate of Christians also accounts for some of the decline. In 1947, Christians made up 85% of the population, but by 1998 the figure had declined to 40%. In 2005, the mayor of Bethlehem, Victor Batarseh explained that \"due to the stress, either physical or psychological, and the bad economic situation, many people are emigrating, either Christians or Muslims, but it is more apparent among Christians, because they already are a minority.\" The Palestinian Authority is officially committed to equality for Christians, although there have been incidents of violence against them by the Preventive Security Service and militant factions. The only mosque in the Old City is the Mosque of Omar, located in the Manger Square.\n\nThe outbreak of the Second Intifada and the resulting decrease in tourism also affected the Christian minority, since they are the owners of many Bethlehem hotels and services that cater to foreign tourists. A statistical analysis of the Christian exodus cited lack of economic and educational opportunity, especially due to the Christians' middle-class status and higher education. Since the Second Intifada, 10% of the Christian population have left the city.\n\nIn 2006, the Palestinian Centre for Research and Cultural Dialogue conducted a poll among the city's Christians according to which 90% said they had had Muslim friends, 73.3% agreed that the PNA treated Christian heritage in the city with respect and 78% attributed the exodus of Christians to the Israeli blockade. However, it is likely that there are many factors, most of which are shared with the Palestinian population as a whole.\n",
"Church of the Nativity\n\nShopping is a major attraction, especially during the Christmas season. The city's main streets and old markets are lined with shops selling Palestinian handicrafts, Middle Eastern spices, jewelry and oriental sweets such as baklawa. Olive wood carvings are the item most purchased by tourists visiting Bethlehem. Religious handicrafts include ornaments handmade from mother-of-pearl, as well as olive wood statues, boxes, and crosses. Other industries include stone and marble-cutting, textiles, furniture and furnishings. Bethlehem factories also produce paints, plastics, synthetic rubber, pharmaceuticals, construction materials and food products, mainly pasta and confectionery.\n\nCremisan Wine, founded in 1885, is a winery run by monks in the Monastery of Cremisan. The grapes are grown mainly in the al-Khader district. In 2007, the monastery's wine production was around 700,000 liters per year.\n\nIn 2008, Bethlehem hosted the largest economic conference to date in the Palestinian territories. It was initiated by Palestinian Prime Minister and former Finance Minister Salam Fayyad to convince more than a thousand businessmen, bankers and government officials from throughout the Middle East to invest in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. A total of 1.4 billion US dollars was secured for business investments in the Palestinian territories.\n\n=== Tourism ===\nPope Francis in Bethlehem, 25 May 2014\n\nTourism is Bethlehem's main industry. Unlike other Palestinian localities prior to 2000, the majority of the employed residents did not have jobs in Israel. More than 20% of the working population is employed in the industry. Tourism accounts for approximately 65% of the city's economy and 11% of the Palestinian National Authority. The city has more than two million visitors every year.\n\nThe Church of the Nativity is one of Bethlehem's major tourist attractions and a magnet for Christian pilgrims. It stands in the center of the city — a part of the Manger Square — over a grotto or cave called the Holy Crypt, where Jesus is believed to have been born. Nearby is the Milk Grotto where the Holy Family took refuge on their Flight to Egypt and next door is the cave where St. Jerome spent thirty years creating the Vulgate, the dominant Latin version of the Bible until the Reformation.\n\nThere are over thirty hotels in Bethlehem. Jacir Palace, built in 1910 near the church, is one of Bethlehem's most successful hotels and its oldest. It was closed down in 2000 due to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, but reopened in 2005 as the Jacir Palace InterContinental at Bethlehem.\n",
"\n=== Birthplace of Jesus ===\n\nSilver star marking the place where Jesus was born according to Christian tradition\n\nEarly Christian traditions describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem: in one, a verse in the Book of Micah is interpreted as a prophecy that the Messiah would be born there. The New Testament has two different accounts of the birth. In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus' parents live in Nazareth and travel for the Census of Quirinius to Bethlehem, where Jesus is born, after which they return home. The Gospel of Matthew mentions Bethlehem but not the census. Told that a 'King of the Jews' has been born in the town, Herod orders the killing of all the boys aged two and under in the town and surrounding area. Joseph, warned of by an angel of the Lord, flees to Egypt with his family; the Holy Family later settles in Nazareth.\n\nCatholic procession on Christmas Eve, 2006\nChristmas tree in Bethlehem, behind it Church of the Nativity, 2014\nMany modern scholars question the idea that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, seeing the biblical stories not as historical accounts but as symbolic narratives invented to present the birth as fulfillment of prophecy and imply a connection to the lineage of King David. The Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of John do not include a nativity narrative, but refer to him only as being from Nazareth. In a 2005 article in ''Archaeology'' magazine, archaeologist Aviram Oshri points to an absence of evidence for the settlement of Bethlehem near Jerusalem at the time when Jesus was born, and postulates that Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Galilee. In a 2011 article in ''Biblical Archaeology Review'' magazine, Jerome Murphy-O'Connor argues for the traditional position that Jesus was born in Bethlehem near Jerusalem.\n\nThe existence of early traditions of Jesus' birth in Bethlehem is attested by the Christian apologist Justin Martyr, who stated in his ''Dialogue with Trypho'' (c. 155–161) that the Holy Family had taken refuge in a cave outside of the town. Origen of Alexandria, writing around the year 247, referred to a cave in the town of Bethlehem which local people believed was the birthplace of Jesus. This cave was possibly one which had previously been a site of the cult of Tammuz.\n\n=== Christmas celebrations ===\nChristmas pilgrims, 1890\n\nChristmas rites are held in Bethlehem on three different dates: December 25 is the traditional date by the Roman Catholic and Protestant denominations, but Greek, Coptic and Syrian Orthodox Christians celebrate Christmas on January 6 and Armenian Orthodox Christians on January 19. Most Christmas processions pass through Manger Square, the plaza outside the Basilica of the Nativity. Roman Catholic services take place in St. Catherine's Church and Protestants often hold services at Shepherds' Fields.\n\n=== Other religious festivals ===\nBethlehem celebrates festivals related to saints and prophets associated with Palestinian folklore. One such festival is the annual Feast of Saint George (al-Khadr) on 5–6 May. During the celebrations, Greek Orthodox Christians from the city march in procession to the nearby town of al-Khader to baptize newborns in the waters around the Monastery of St. George and sacrifice a sheep in ritual. The Feast of St. Elijah is commemorated by a procession to Mar Elias, a Greek Orthodox monastery north of Bethlehem.\n",
"\n=== Embroidery ===\n\nWoman in traditional Bethlehem costume\n\nThe women embroiderers of Bethlehem were known for their bridalwear. Bethlehem embroidery was renowned for its \"strong overall effect of colors and metallic brilliance.\" Less formal dresses were made of indigo fabric with a sleeveless coat (''bisht'') from locally woven wool worn over top. Dresses for special occasions were made of striped silk with winged sleeves with a short ''taqsireh'' jacket known as the Bethlehem jacket. The taqsireh was made of velvet or broadcloth, usually with heavy embroidery.\n\nBethlehem work was unique in its use of couched gold or silver cord, or silk cord onto the silk, wool, felt or velvet used for the garment, to create stylized floral patterns with free or rounded lines. This technique was used for \"royal\" wedding dresses (''thob malak''), taqsirehs and the ''shatwehs'' worn by married women. It has been traced by some to Byzantium, and by others to the formal costumes of the Ottoman Empire's elite. As a Christian village, local women were also exposed to the detailing on church vestments with their heavy embroidery and silver brocade.\n\n=== Mother-of-pearl carving ===\nThe art of mother-of-pearl carving is said to have been a Bethlehem tradition since the 15th century when it was introduced by Franciscan friars from Italy. A constant stream of pilgrims generated a demand for these items, which also provided jobs for women. The industry was noted by Richard Pococke, who visited Bethlehem in 1727.\n\n=== Cultural centers and museums ===\nmother-of-pearl, early 20th century\nBethlehem is home to the Palestinian Heritage Center, established in 1991. The center aims to preserve and promote Palestinian embroidery, art and folklore. The International Center of Bethlehem is another cultural center that concentrates primarily on the culture of Bethlehem. It provides language and guide training, woman's studies and arts and crafts displays, and training.\n\nThe Bethlehem branch of the Edward Said National Conservatory of Music has about 500 students. Its primary goals are to teach children music, train teachers for other schools, sponsor music research, and the study of Palestinian folklore music.\n\nBethlehem has four museums: The Crib of the Nativity Theatre and Museum offers visitors 31 3D models depicting the significant stages of the life of Jesus. Its theater presents a 20-minute animated show. The Badd Giacaman Museum, located in the Old City of Bethlehem, dates back to the 18th century and is primarily dedicated to the history and process of olive oil production. Baituna al-Talhami Museum, established in 1972, contains displays of Bethlehem culture. The International Museum of Nativity was built by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to exhibit \"high artistic quality in an evocative atmosphere\".\n",
"A Hamas rally in Bethlehem\nBethlehem is the ''muhfaza'' (seat) or district capital of the Bethlehem Governorate.\n\nBethlehem held its first municipal elections in 1876, after the ''mukhtars'' (\"heads\") of the quarters of Bethlehem's Old City (excluding the Syriac Quarter) made the decision to elect a local council of seven members to represent each clan in the town. A Basic Law was established so that if the victor for mayor was a Catholic, his deputy should be of the Greek Orthodox community.\n\nThroughout, Bethlehem's rule by the British and Jordan, the Syriac Quarter was allowed to participate in the election, as were the Ta'amrah Bedouins and Palestinian refugees, hence ratifying the number of municipal members in the council to 11. In 1976, an amendment was passed to allow women to vote and become council members and later the voting age was increased from 21 to 25.\n\nToday, the Bethlehem Municipal Council consists of 15 elected members, including the mayor and deputy mayor. A special statute requires that the mayor and a majority of the municipal council be Christian, while the remainder are open seats, not restricted to any religion.\n\nThere are several branches of political parties on the council, including Communist, Islamist, and secular. The leftist factions of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) such as the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and the Palestinian People's Party (PPP) usually dominate the reserved seats. Hamas gained the majority of the open seats in the 2005 Palestinian municipal elections.\n\n=== Mayors ===\nThe mayor and the deputy mayor of Bethlehem are required by municipal law to be Christian. In the October 2012 municipal elections, Fatah member Vera Baboun won, becoming the first female mayor of Bethlehem.\n\n\n* Mikhail Abu Saadeh – 1876\n* Khalil Yaqub – 1880\n* Suleiman Jacir – 1884\n* Issa Abdullah Marcus – 1888\n* Yaqub Khalil Elias – 1892\n* Hanna Mansur – 1895–1915\n* Salim Issa al-Batarseh – 1916–17\n* Salah Giries Jaqaman – 1917–21\n* Musa Qattan – 1921–25\n* Hanna Ibrahim Miladah – 1926–28\n* Nicoloa Attalah Shain – 1929–1933\n\n* Hanna Issa al-Qawwas – 1936–46\n* Issa Basil Bandak – 1946–51\n* Elias Bandak – 1951–53\n* Afif Salm Batarseh – 1952–53\n* Elias Bandak – 1953–57\n* Ayyub Musallam – 1958–62\n* Elias Bandak – 1963–72\n* Elias Freij – 1972–97\n* Hanna Nasser – 1997–2005\n* Victor Batarseh 2005–2012\n* Vera Baboun – 2012–Present\n\n",
"According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS), in 1997, approximately 84% of Bethlehem's population over the age of 10 was literate. Of the city's population, 10,414 were enrolled in schools (4,015 in primary school, 3,578 in secondary and 2,821 in high school). About 14.1% of high school students received diplomas. There were 135 schools in the Bethlehem Governorate in 2006; 100 run the Education Ministry of the Palestinian National Authority, seven by the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) and 28 were private.\n\nBethlehem is home to Bethlehem University, a Catholic Christian co-educational institution of higher learning founded in 1973 in the Lasallian tradition, open to students of all faiths. Bethlehem University is the first university established in the West Bank, and can trace its roots to 1893 when the De La Salle Christian Brothers opened schools throughout Palestine and Egypt.\n",
"A street in Bethlehem\nBethlehem has three bus stations owned by private companies which offer service to Jerusalem, Beit Jala, Beit Sahour, Hebron, Nahalin, Battir, al-Khader, al-Ubeidiya and Beit Fajjar. There are two taxi stations that make trips to Beit Sahour, Beit Jala, Jerusalem, Tuqu' and Herodium. There are also two car rental departments: Murad and 'Orabi. Buses and taxis with West Bank licenses are not allowed to enter Israel, including Jerusalem, without a permit.\n\nThe Israeli construction of the West Bank barrier has affected Bethlehem politically, socially, and economically. The barrier is located along the northern side of the town's built-up area, within m of houses in 'Aida refugee camp on one side, and the Jerusalem municipality on the other. Most entrances and exits from the Bethlehem agglomeration to the rest of the West Bank are currently subjected to Israeli checkpoints and roadblocks. The level of access varies based on Israeli security directives. Travel for Bethlehem's Palestinian residents from the West Bank into Jerusalem is regulated by a permit-system. Palestinians require a permit to enter the Jewish holy site of Rachel's Tomb. Israeli citizens are barred from entering Bethlehem and the nearby biblical Solomon's Pools.\n",
"Bethlehem is twinned with:\n\n\n\n\n* Marrickville, Australia\n* Steyr, Austria\n* Natal, Brazil\n* Valinhos, Brazil\n* São Pedro do Butiá, Brazil\n* Haapsalu, Estonia ''(since 2010)''\n* Chartres, France\n* Grenoble, France\n* Montpellier, France\n* Paray-le-Monial, France\n* Cologne, Germany\n* Athens, Greece\n* Kalocsa, Hungary\n\n\n* Assisi, Italy\n* Civitavecchia, Italy\n* Conversano, Italy\n* Florence, Italy\n* Greccio, Italy\n* Milan, Italy ''(since 2000)''\n* Orvieto, Italy\n* Pratovecchio, Italy\n* Sant'Anastasia, Italy\n* Umbria, Italy\n* Madaba, Jordan\n* Monterrey, Mexico\n\n\n* Rabat, Morocco\n* The Hague, Netherlands\n* Sarpsborg, Norway\n* Cusco, Peru\n* Częstochowa, Poland\n* Lisbon, Portugal\n* Saint Petersburg, Russia\n* Pretoria, South Africa\n* Tournai, Belgium ''(since 2012)''\n* Zaragoza, Spain\n* Yalvaç, Turkey\n* Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates\n* Glasgow, Scotland\n* Burlington, Vermont, USA\n* Orlando, Florida, USA\n* Sacramento, California, USA ''(since 2009)''\n\n",
"\n* Bethlehem, Pennsylvania\n* Bethlehem, Wales\n* Massacre of the Innocents\n* Star of Bethlehem\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Sawsan & Qustandi Shomali. Bethlehem 2000. A Guide to Bethlehem and it Surroundings.Waldbrol, Flamm Druck Wagener GMBH, 1997.\n* \n*\n*\n* \n* \n* \n\n",
"\n\n\n* Pastor's Vision to put Christ back in Bethlehem during Christmas\n* Bethlehem Municipality\n* Bethlehem Peace Center\n* Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land website – pages on Bethlehem\n* Bible Land Library*\n* Open Bethlehem civil society project\n* Bethlehem: Muslim-Christian living together\n* Photo: Christmas in Bethlehem, 2008\n* Photo Gallery of Bethlehem from 2007\n* Bethlehem Fair Trade Artisans\n* Bethlehem University\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" History ",
" Geography ",
" Climate ",
" Demographics ",
" Economy ",
" Religious significance and commemoration ",
" Culture ",
" Local government ",
" Education ",
" Transportation ",
" Twin towns and sister cities ",
" See also ",
" References ",
" Bibliography ",
" External links "
] | Bethlehem | [
"\n\n\n\n'''Bethlehem''' (; , \"House of Meat\"; '''', , \"House of Bread\"; ; ) is a Palestinian city located in the central West Bank, Palestine, about south of Jerusalem.",
"Jordan retained control of the city until the Six-Day War in 1967, when Bethlehem was captured by Israel, along with the rest of the West Bank.",
"Israeli soldiers in Bethlehem, 1978\n\nToday, the city is surrounded by two bypass roads for settlers, leaving the inhabitants squeezed between 37 Jewish enclaves, where a quarter of all West Bank settlers, roughly 170,000, live, and the gap between the two roads closed by the 8-metre high Israeli West Bank barrier, which cuts Bethlehem off from its sister city Jerusalem.",
"==== Palestinian control ====\nOn December 21, 1995, Israeli troops withdrew from Bethlehem, and three days later the city came under the complete administration and military control of the Palestinian National Authority in conformance with the Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip in 1995.",
"It was initiated by Palestinian Prime Minister and former Finance Minister Salam Fayyad to convince more than a thousand businessmen, bankers and government officials from throughout the Middle East to invest in the West Bank and Gaza Strip.",
"Bethlehem University is the first university established in the West Bank, and can trace its roots to 1893 when the De La Salle Christian Brothers opened schools throughout Palestine and Egypt.",
"Buses and taxis with West Bank licenses are not allowed to enter Israel, including Jerusalem, without a permit.",
"The Israeli construction of the West Bank barrier has affected Bethlehem politically, socially, and economically.",
"Most entrances and exits from the Bethlehem agglomeration to the rest of the West Bank are currently subjected to Israeli checkpoints and roadblocks.",
"Travel for Bethlehem's Palestinian residents from the West Bank into Jerusalem is regulated by a permit-system."
] | [
"Its population is approximately 25,000 people.",
"It is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate.",
"The economy is primarily tourist-driven.",
"The earliest known mention of the city was in the Amarna correspondence of 1350–1330 BCE during its habitation by the Canaanites.",
"The Hebrew Bible, which says that the city of Bethlehem was built up as a fortified city by Rehoboam, identifies it as the city David was from and where he was crowned as the king of Israel.",
"The New Testament identifies Bethlehem as the birthplace of Jesus.",
"Bethlehem was destroyed by the Emperor Hadrian during the second-century Bar Kokhba revolt; its rebuilding was promoted by Empress Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, who commissioned the building of its great Church of the Nativity in 327 CE.",
"The church was badly damaged by the Samaritans, who sacked it during a revolt in 529, but was rebuilt a century later by Emperor Justinian I.\n\nBethlehem became part of Jund Filastin following the Muslim conquest in 637.",
"Muslim rule continued in Bethlehem until its conquest in 1099 by a crusading army, who replaced the town's Greek Orthodox clergy with a Latin one.",
"In the mid-13th century, the Mamluks demolished the city's walls, which were subsequently rebuilt under the Ottomans in the early 16th century.",
"Control of Bethlehem passed from the Ottomans to the British at the end of World War I. Bethlehem came under Jordanian rule during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and was later captured by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War.",
"Since the 1995 Oslo Accords, Bethlehem has been administered by the Palestinian Authority.",
"Bethlehem now has a Muslim majority, but is still home to a significant Palestinian Christian community.",
"Bethlehem's chief economic sector is tourism, which peaks during the Christmas season when Christians make pilgrimage to the Church of the Nativity, as they have done for almost 2,000 years.",
"Bethlehem has over 30 hotels and 300 handicraft workshops.",
"Rachel's Tomb, an important Jewish holy site, is located at the northern entrance of Bethlehem.",
"\n=== Canaanite period ===\nThe earliest reference to Bethlehem appears in the Amarna correspondence (c. 1400 BCE).",
"In one of his six letters to Pharaoh, Abdi-Heba, Egypt's governor for Jerusalem, appeals for aid in retaking \"''Bit-Lahmi''\" in the wake of disturbances by Apiru mercenaries: \"now even a town near Jerusalem, Bit-Lahmi by name, a village which once belonged to the king, has fallen to the enemy .",
".",
".",
"Let the king hear the words of your servant Abdi-Heba, and send archers to restore the imperial lands of the king!\"",
"It is thought that the similarity of this name to its modern forms indicates that this was a settlement of Canaanites who shared a Semitic cultural and linguistic heritage with the later arrivals.",
"''Lachmo'' was the Chaldean god of fertility, worshipped by the Canaanites as ''Lachama''.",
"Some time in the 3rd millennium BCE, they erected a temple to worship the god on the hill now known as the Hill of the Nativity.",
"The town was known as ''Beit Lachama'', meaning \"House of Lachama.\"",
"The Philistines later established a garrison there.",
"William F. Albright notes that the pronunciation of the name remained essentially the same for 3,500 years, but has meant different things: \"'Temple of the God Lakhmu' in Canaanite, 'House of Bread' in Hebrew and Aramaic, 'House of Meat' in Arabic.\"",
"A burial ground discovered in spring 2013, and surveyed in 2015 by a joint Italian-Palestinian team found that the necropolis covered 3 hectares (more than 7 acres) and originally contained more than 100 tombs in use between roughly 2200 B.C.",
"and 650 B.C.",
"The archaeologists were able to identify at least 30 tombs.",
"=== Israelite and Judean period ===\nArchaeological confirmation of Bethlehem as a city in the Kingdom of Judah was uncovered in 2012 at the archaeological dig at the City of David in the form of a ''bulla'' (seal impression in dried clay) in ancient Hebrew script that reads \"From the town of Bethlehem to the King,\" indicating that it was used to seal the string closing a shipment of grain, wine, or other goods sent as a tax payment in the 8th or 7th century BCE.",
"Biblical scholars believe Bethlehem, located in the \"hill country\" of Judah, may be the same as the Biblical Ephrath, which means \"fertile\", as there is a reference to it in the Book of Micah as Bethlehem Ephratah.",
"The Bible also calls it Beth-Lehem Judah, and the New Testament describes it as the \"City of David\".",
"It is first mentioned in the Tanakh and the Bible as the place where the matriarch Rachel died and was buried \"by the wayside\" (Gen. 48:7).",
"Rachel's Tomb, the traditional grave site, stands at the entrance to Bethlehem.",
"According to the Book of Ruth, the valley to the east is where Ruth of Moab gleaned the fields and returned to town with Naomi.",
"It was the home of Jesse, father of King David of Israel, and the site of David's anointment by the prophet Samuel.",
"It was from the well of Bethlehem that three of his warriors brought him water when he was hiding in the cave of Adullam.",
"Writing in the 4th century, the Pilgrim of Bordeaux reported that the sepulchers of David, Ezekiel, Asaph, Job, Jesse, and Solomon were located near Bethlehem.",
"There has been no corroboration of this.",
"=== Classical period ===\nAccording to the New Testament, Jesus was born in Bethlehem.",
"After the Bar Kokhba revolt was crushed, Hadrian converted the Christian site above the Grotto into a shrine dedicated to the Greek god Adonis, to honour his favourite, the Greek youth Antinous.",
"Some scholars hold the view that this site was one that had originally been dedicated to Adonis-Tammuz and Christians had taken it over.",
"In 326–328, the empress Helena, consort of the emperor Constantius Chlorus, and mother of the emperor Constantine the Great, made a pilgrimage to Syra-Palaestina, in the course of which she visited the ruins of Bethlehem.",
"The empress promoted the rebuilding of the city, and Eusebius of Caesarea writes that she was responsible for the construction of the Church of the Nativity.",
"During the Samaritan revolt of 529, Bethlehem was sacked and its walls and the Church of the Nativity destroyed; they were rebuilt on the orders of the Emperor Justinian I.",
"In 614, the Persian Sassanid Empire, supported by Jewish rebels, invaded Palestina Prima and captured Bethlehem.",
"A story recounted in later sources holds that they refrained from destroying the church on seeing the magi depicted in Persian clothing in a mosaic.",
"=== Middle Ages ===\n1698 sketch by Cornelis de Bruijn\n\nIn 637, shortly after Jerusalem was captured by the Muslim armies, 'Umar ibn al-Khattāb, the second Caliph, promised that the Church of the Nativity would be preserved for Christian use.",
"A mosque dedicated to Umar was built upon the place in the city where he prayed, next to the church.",
"Bethlehem then passed through the control of the Islamic caliphates of the Umayyads in the 8th century, then the Abbasids in the 9th century.",
"A Persian geographer recorded in the mid-9th century that a well preserved and much venerated church existed in the town.",
"In 985, the Arab geographer al-Muqaddasi visited Bethlehem, and referred to its church as the \"Basilica of Constantine, the equal of which does not exist anywhere in the country-round.\"",
"In 1009, during the reign of the sixth Fatimid Caliph, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, the Church of the Nativity was ordered to be demolished, but was spared by local Muslims, because they had been permitted to worship in the structure's southern transept.",
"In 1099, Bethlehem was captured by the Crusaders, who fortified it and built a new monastery and cloister on the north side of the Church of the Nativity.",
"The Greek Orthodox clergy were removed from their sees and replaced with Latin clerics.",
"Up until that point the official Christian presence in the region was Greek Orthodox.",
"On Christmas Day 1100, Baldwin I, first king of the Frankish Kingdom of Jerusalem, was crowned in Bethlehem, and that year a Latin episcopate was also established in the town.",
"In 1187, Saladin, the Sultan of Egypt and Syria who led the Muslim Ayyubids, captured Bethlehem from the Crusaders.",
"The Latin clerics were forced to leave, allowing the Greek Orthodox clergy to return.",
"Saladin agreed to the return of two Latin priests and two deacons in 1192.",
"However, Bethlehem suffered from the loss of the pilgrim trade, as there was a sharp decrease of European pilgrims.",
"William IV, Count of Nevers had promised the Christian bishops of Bethlehem that if Bethlehem should fall under Muslim control, he would welcome them in the small town of Clamecy in present-day Burgundy, France.",
"As a result, the Bishop of Bethlehem duly took up residence in the hospital of Panthenor, Clamecy, in 1223.",
"Clamecy remained the continuous 'in partibus infidelium' seat of the Bishopric of Bethlehem for almost 600 years, until the French Revolution in 1789.",
"Bethlehem, along with Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Sidon, was briefly ceded to the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem by a treaty between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and Ayyubid Sultan al-Kamil in 1229, in return for a ten-year truce between the Ayyubids and the Crusaders.",
"The treaty expired in 1239, and Bethlehem was recaptured by the Muslims in 1244.",
"In 1250, with the coming to power of the Mamluks under Rukn al-Din Baibars, tolerance of Christianity declined.",
"Members of the clergy left the city, and in 1263 the town walls were demolished.",
"The Latin clergy returned to Bethlehem the following century, establishing themselves in the monastery adjoining the Basilica of the Nativity.",
"The Greek Orthodox were given control of the basilica and shared control of the Milk Grotto with the Latins and the Armenians.",
"=== Ottoman era ===\nA painting of Bethlehem by Vasily Polenov, 1882\n\nView of Bethlehem, Christmas Day 1898\n\nFrom 1517, during the years of Ottoman control, custody of the Basilica was bitterly disputed between the Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches.",
"By the end of the 16th century, Bethlehem had become one of the largest villages in the District of Jerusalem, and was subdivided into seven quarters.",
"The Basbus family served as the heads of Bethlehem among other leaders during this period.",
"The Ottoman tax record and census from 1596 indicates that Bethlehem had a population of 1,435, making it the 13th largest village in Palestine at the time.",
"Its total revenue amounted to 30,000 akce.",
"Bethlehem paid taxes on wheat, barley and grapes.",
"The Muslims and Christians were organized into separate communities, each having its own leader.",
"Five leaders represented the village in the mid-16th century, three of whom were Muslims.",
"Ottoman tax records suggest that the Christian population was slightly more prosperous or grew more grain than grapes (the former being a more valuable commodity).",
"From 1831 to 1841, Palestine was under the rule of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty of Egypt.",
"During this period, the town suffered an earthquake as well as the destruction of the Muslim quarter in 1834 by Egyptian troops, apparently as a reprisal for the murder of a favored loyalist of Ibrahim Pasha.",
"In 1841, Bethlehem came under Ottoman rule once again and remained so until the end of World War I.",
"Under the Ottomans, Bethlehem's inhabitants faced unemployment, compulsory military service, and heavy taxes, resulting in mass emigration, particularly to South America.",
"An American missionary in the 1850s reported a population of under 4,000, nearly all of whom belonged to the Greek Church.",
"He also noted that a lack of water crippled the town's growth.",
"Socin found from an official Ottoman village list from about 1870 that Bethlehem had a population of 179 Muslims in 59 houses, 979 \"Latins\" in 256 houses, 824 \"Greeks\" in 213 houses, and 41 Armenians in 11 houses, a total of 539 houses.",
"The population count included men, only.",
"Hartmann found that Bethlehem had 520 houses.",
"=== Modern era ===\nBethlehem was administered by the British Mandate from 1920 to 1948.",
"In the United Nations General Assembly's 1947 resolution to partition Palestine, Bethlehem was included in the special international enclave of Jerusalem to be administered by the United Nations.",
"Jordan captured the city during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.",
"Many refugees from areas captured by Israeli forces in 1947–48 fled to the Bethlehem area, primarily settling in what became the official refugee camps of 'Azza (Beit Jibrin) and 'Aida in the north and Dheisheh in the south.",
"The influx of refugees significantly transformed Bethlehem's Christian majority into a Muslim one.",
"Following the Six-Day War, Israel took control of the city.",
"In 1995, Israel turned it over to the Palestinian National Authority in accordance with the Oslo peace accord.",
"During the Second Palestinian Intifada in 2000–2005, Bethlehem's infrastructure and tourism industry were damaged.",
"In 2002, it was a primary combat zone in Operation Defensive Shield, a major military counteroffensive by the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF).",
"During the counteroffensive, the IDF besieged the Church of the Nativity, where dozens of Palestinian militants had sought refuge.",
"The siege lasted for 39 days.",
"Several militants were killed.",
"It ended with an agreement to exile 13 of the wanted militants to various foreign countries.",
"Residence of the Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Jesus of Betharram, 2008\n\nBethlehem is located at an elevation of about above sea level, higher than nearby Jerusalem.",
"Bethlehem is situated on the southern portion in the Judean Mountains.",
"The city is located northeast of Gaza City and the Mediterranean Sea, west of Amman, Jordan, southeast of Tel Aviv, Israel and south of Jerusalem.",
"Nearby cities and towns include Beit Safafa and Jerusalem to the north, Beit Jala to the northwest, Husan to the west, al-Khadr and Artas to the southwest, and Beit Sahour to the east.",
"Beit Jala and the latter form an agglomeration with Bethlehem.",
"The Aida and Azza refugee camps are located within the city limits.",
"In the center of Bethlehem is its old city.",
"The old city consists of eight quarters, laid out in a mosaic style, forming the area around the Manger Square.",
"The quarters include the Christian an-Najajreh, al-Farahiyeh, al-Anatreh, al-Tarajmeh, al-Qawawsa and Hreizat quarters and al-Fawaghreh — the only Muslim quarter.",
"Most of the Christian quarters are named after the Arab Ghassanid clans that settled there.",
"Al-Qawawsa Quarter was formed by Arab Christian emigrants from the nearby town of Tuqu' in the 18th century.",
"There is also a Syriac quarter outside of the old city, whose inhabitants originate from Midyat and Ma'asarte in Turkey.",
"The total population of the old city is about 5,000.",
"Bethlehem has a Mediterranean climate, with hot and dry summers and mild, wetter winters.",
"Winter temperatures (mid-December to mid-March) can be cool and rainy.",
"January is the coldest month, with temperatures ranging from 1 to 13 degree Celsius (33–55 °F).",
"From May through September, the weather is warm and sunny.",
"August is the hottest month, with a high of 30 degrees Celsius (86 °F).",
"Bethlehem receives an average of of rainfall annually, 70% between November and January.",
"Bethlehem's average annual relative humidity is 60% and reaches its highest rates between January and February.",
"Humidity levels are at their lowest in May.",
"Night dew may occur in up to 180 days per year.",
"The city is influenced by the Mediterranean Sea breeze that occurs around mid-day.",
"However, Bethlehem is affected also by annual waves of hot, dry, sandy and dust ''Khamaseen'' winds from the Arabian Desert, during April, May and mid-June.",
"\n=== Population ===\n\n\n Year\n Population\n\n1867 \n3,000–4,000\n\n1945 \n8,820\n\n1961 \n22,450\n\n1983 \n16,300\n\n1997 \n21,930\n\n2007 \n25,266\n\n\nMosque of Omar (Umar), built in 1860 to commemorate the Caliph Umar's visit to Bethlehem\n\nAccording to Ottoman tax records, Christians made up roughly 60% of the population in the early 16th century, while the Christian and Muslim population became equal by the mid-16th century.",
"However, there were no Muslim inhabitants counted by the end of the century, with a recorded population of 287 adult male tax-payers.",
"Christians, like all non-Muslims throughout the Ottoman Empire, were required to pay the jizya tax.",
"In 1867 an American visitor describes the town as having a population of 3,000 to 4,000; of whom about 100 were Protestants, 300 were Muslims and \"the remainder belonging to the Latin and Greek Churches with a few Armenians.\"",
"Another report from the same year puts the Christian population at 3,000, with an additional 50 Muslims.",
"An 1885 source put the population at approximately 6,000 of \"principally Christians, Latins and Greeks\" with no Jewish inhabitants.",
"In 1948, the religious makeup of the city was 85% Christian, mostly of the Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic denominations, and 13% Muslim.",
"In the 1967 census taken by Israel authorities, the town of Bethlehem proper numbered 14,439 inhabitants, its 7,790 Muslim inhabitants represented 53.9% of the population, while the Christians of various denominations numbered 6,231 or 46.1%.",
"In the PCBS's 1997 census, the city had a population of 21,670, including a total of 6,570 refugees, accounting for 30.3% of the city's population.",
"In 1997, the age distribution of Bethlehem's inhabitants was 27.4% under the age of 10, 20% from 10 to 19, 17.3% from 20–29, 17.7% from 30 to 44, 12.1% from 45–64 and 5.3% above the age of 65.",
"There were 11,079 males and 10,594 females.",
"In the 2007 PCBS census, Bethlehem had a population of 25,266, of which 12,753 were males and 12,513 were females.",
"There were 6,709 housing units, of which 5,211 were households.",
"The average household consisted of 4.8 family members.",
"=== Christian population ===\n\n\nAfter the Muslim conquest of the Levant in the 630s, the local Christians were Arabized even though large numbers were ethnically Arabs of the Ghassanid clans.",
"Bethlehem's two largest Arab Christian clans trace their ancestry to the Ghassanids, including al-Farahiyyah and an-Najajreh.",
"The former have descended from the Ghassanids who migrated from Yemen and from the Wadi Musa area in present-day Jordan and an-Najajreh descend from Najran.",
"Another Bethlehem clan, al-Anatreh, also trace their ancestry to the Ghassanids.",
"Four Bethlehem Christian women, 1911\n\nThe percentage of Christians in the town has been steadily declining over the years, primarily due to emigration.",
"The lower birth rate of Christians also accounts for some of the decline.",
"In 1947, Christians made up 85% of the population, but by 1998 the figure had declined to 40%.",
"In 2005, the mayor of Bethlehem, Victor Batarseh explained that \"due to the stress, either physical or psychological, and the bad economic situation, many people are emigrating, either Christians or Muslims, but it is more apparent among Christians, because they already are a minority.\"",
"The Palestinian Authority is officially committed to equality for Christians, although there have been incidents of violence against them by the Preventive Security Service and militant factions.",
"The only mosque in the Old City is the Mosque of Omar, located in the Manger Square.",
"The outbreak of the Second Intifada and the resulting decrease in tourism also affected the Christian minority, since they are the owners of many Bethlehem hotels and services that cater to foreign tourists.",
"A statistical analysis of the Christian exodus cited lack of economic and educational opportunity, especially due to the Christians' middle-class status and higher education.",
"Since the Second Intifada, 10% of the Christian population have left the city.",
"In 2006, the Palestinian Centre for Research and Cultural Dialogue conducted a poll among the city's Christians according to which 90% said they had had Muslim friends, 73.3% agreed that the PNA treated Christian heritage in the city with respect and 78% attributed the exodus of Christians to the Israeli blockade.",
"However, it is likely that there are many factors, most of which are shared with the Palestinian population as a whole.",
"Church of the Nativity\n\nShopping is a major attraction, especially during the Christmas season.",
"The city's main streets and old markets are lined with shops selling Palestinian handicrafts, Middle Eastern spices, jewelry and oriental sweets such as baklawa.",
"Olive wood carvings are the item most purchased by tourists visiting Bethlehem.",
"Religious handicrafts include ornaments handmade from mother-of-pearl, as well as olive wood statues, boxes, and crosses.",
"Other industries include stone and marble-cutting, textiles, furniture and furnishings.",
"Bethlehem factories also produce paints, plastics, synthetic rubber, pharmaceuticals, construction materials and food products, mainly pasta and confectionery.",
"Cremisan Wine, founded in 1885, is a winery run by monks in the Monastery of Cremisan.",
"The grapes are grown mainly in the al-Khader district.",
"In 2007, the monastery's wine production was around 700,000 liters per year.",
"In 2008, Bethlehem hosted the largest economic conference to date in the Palestinian territories.",
"A total of 1.4 billion US dollars was secured for business investments in the Palestinian territories.",
"=== Tourism ===\nPope Francis in Bethlehem, 25 May 2014\n\nTourism is Bethlehem's main industry.",
"Unlike other Palestinian localities prior to 2000, the majority of the employed residents did not have jobs in Israel.",
"More than 20% of the working population is employed in the industry.",
"Tourism accounts for approximately 65% of the city's economy and 11% of the Palestinian National Authority.",
"The city has more than two million visitors every year.",
"The Church of the Nativity is one of Bethlehem's major tourist attractions and a magnet for Christian pilgrims.",
"It stands in the center of the city — a part of the Manger Square — over a grotto or cave called the Holy Crypt, where Jesus is believed to have been born.",
"Nearby is the Milk Grotto where the Holy Family took refuge on their Flight to Egypt and next door is the cave where St. Jerome spent thirty years creating the Vulgate, the dominant Latin version of the Bible until the Reformation.",
"There are over thirty hotels in Bethlehem.",
"Jacir Palace, built in 1910 near the church, is one of Bethlehem's most successful hotels and its oldest.",
"It was closed down in 2000 due to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, but reopened in 2005 as the Jacir Palace InterContinental at Bethlehem.",
"\n=== Birthplace of Jesus ===\n\nSilver star marking the place where Jesus was born according to Christian tradition\n\nEarly Christian traditions describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem: in one, a verse in the Book of Micah is interpreted as a prophecy that the Messiah would be born there.",
"The New Testament has two different accounts of the birth.",
"In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus' parents live in Nazareth and travel for the Census of Quirinius to Bethlehem, where Jesus is born, after which they return home.",
"The Gospel of Matthew mentions Bethlehem but not the census.",
"Told that a 'King of the Jews' has been born in the town, Herod orders the killing of all the boys aged two and under in the town and surrounding area.",
"Joseph, warned of by an angel of the Lord, flees to Egypt with his family; the Holy Family later settles in Nazareth.",
"Catholic procession on Christmas Eve, 2006\nChristmas tree in Bethlehem, behind it Church of the Nativity, 2014\nMany modern scholars question the idea that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, seeing the biblical stories not as historical accounts but as symbolic narratives invented to present the birth as fulfillment of prophecy and imply a connection to the lineage of King David.",
"The Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of John do not include a nativity narrative, but refer to him only as being from Nazareth.",
"In a 2005 article in ''Archaeology'' magazine, archaeologist Aviram Oshri points to an absence of evidence for the settlement of Bethlehem near Jerusalem at the time when Jesus was born, and postulates that Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Galilee.",
"In a 2011 article in ''Biblical Archaeology Review'' magazine, Jerome Murphy-O'Connor argues for the traditional position that Jesus was born in Bethlehem near Jerusalem.",
"The existence of early traditions of Jesus' birth in Bethlehem is attested by the Christian apologist Justin Martyr, who stated in his ''Dialogue with Trypho'' (c. 155–161) that the Holy Family had taken refuge in a cave outside of the town.",
"Origen of Alexandria, writing around the year 247, referred to a cave in the town of Bethlehem which local people believed was the birthplace of Jesus.",
"This cave was possibly one which had previously been a site of the cult of Tammuz.",
"=== Christmas celebrations ===\nChristmas pilgrims, 1890\n\nChristmas rites are held in Bethlehem on three different dates: December 25 is the traditional date by the Roman Catholic and Protestant denominations, but Greek, Coptic and Syrian Orthodox Christians celebrate Christmas on January 6 and Armenian Orthodox Christians on January 19.",
"Most Christmas processions pass through Manger Square, the plaza outside the Basilica of the Nativity.",
"Roman Catholic services take place in St. Catherine's Church and Protestants often hold services at Shepherds' Fields.",
"=== Other religious festivals ===\nBethlehem celebrates festivals related to saints and prophets associated with Palestinian folklore.",
"One such festival is the annual Feast of Saint George (al-Khadr) on 5–6 May.",
"During the celebrations, Greek Orthodox Christians from the city march in procession to the nearby town of al-Khader to baptize newborns in the waters around the Monastery of St. George and sacrifice a sheep in ritual.",
"The Feast of St. Elijah is commemorated by a procession to Mar Elias, a Greek Orthodox monastery north of Bethlehem.",
"\n=== Embroidery ===\n\nWoman in traditional Bethlehem costume\n\nThe women embroiderers of Bethlehem were known for their bridalwear.",
"Bethlehem embroidery was renowned for its \"strong overall effect of colors and metallic brilliance.\"",
"Less formal dresses were made of indigo fabric with a sleeveless coat (''bisht'') from locally woven wool worn over top.",
"Dresses for special occasions were made of striped silk with winged sleeves with a short ''taqsireh'' jacket known as the Bethlehem jacket.",
"The taqsireh was made of velvet or broadcloth, usually with heavy embroidery.",
"Bethlehem work was unique in its use of couched gold or silver cord, or silk cord onto the silk, wool, felt or velvet used for the garment, to create stylized floral patterns with free or rounded lines.",
"This technique was used for \"royal\" wedding dresses (''thob malak''), taqsirehs and the ''shatwehs'' worn by married women.",
"It has been traced by some to Byzantium, and by others to the formal costumes of the Ottoman Empire's elite.",
"As a Christian village, local women were also exposed to the detailing on church vestments with their heavy embroidery and silver brocade.",
"=== Mother-of-pearl carving ===\nThe art of mother-of-pearl carving is said to have been a Bethlehem tradition since the 15th century when it was introduced by Franciscan friars from Italy.",
"A constant stream of pilgrims generated a demand for these items, which also provided jobs for women.",
"The industry was noted by Richard Pococke, who visited Bethlehem in 1727.",
"=== Cultural centers and museums ===\nmother-of-pearl, early 20th century\nBethlehem is home to the Palestinian Heritage Center, established in 1991.",
"The center aims to preserve and promote Palestinian embroidery, art and folklore.",
"The International Center of Bethlehem is another cultural center that concentrates primarily on the culture of Bethlehem.",
"It provides language and guide training, woman's studies and arts and crafts displays, and training.",
"The Bethlehem branch of the Edward Said National Conservatory of Music has about 500 students.",
"Its primary goals are to teach children music, train teachers for other schools, sponsor music research, and the study of Palestinian folklore music.",
"Bethlehem has four museums: The Crib of the Nativity Theatre and Museum offers visitors 31 3D models depicting the significant stages of the life of Jesus.",
"Its theater presents a 20-minute animated show.",
"The Badd Giacaman Museum, located in the Old City of Bethlehem, dates back to the 18th century and is primarily dedicated to the history and process of olive oil production.",
"Baituna al-Talhami Museum, established in 1972, contains displays of Bethlehem culture.",
"The International Museum of Nativity was built by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to exhibit \"high artistic quality in an evocative atmosphere\".",
"A Hamas rally in Bethlehem\nBethlehem is the ''muhfaza'' (seat) or district capital of the Bethlehem Governorate.",
"Bethlehem held its first municipal elections in 1876, after the ''mukhtars'' (\"heads\") of the quarters of Bethlehem's Old City (excluding the Syriac Quarter) made the decision to elect a local council of seven members to represent each clan in the town.",
"A Basic Law was established so that if the victor for mayor was a Catholic, his deputy should be of the Greek Orthodox community.",
"Throughout, Bethlehem's rule by the British and Jordan, the Syriac Quarter was allowed to participate in the election, as were the Ta'amrah Bedouins and Palestinian refugees, hence ratifying the number of municipal members in the council to 11.",
"In 1976, an amendment was passed to allow women to vote and become council members and later the voting age was increased from 21 to 25.",
"Today, the Bethlehem Municipal Council consists of 15 elected members, including the mayor and deputy mayor.",
"A special statute requires that the mayor and a majority of the municipal council be Christian, while the remainder are open seats, not restricted to any religion.",
"There are several branches of political parties on the council, including Communist, Islamist, and secular.",
"The leftist factions of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) such as the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and the Palestinian People's Party (PPP) usually dominate the reserved seats.",
"Hamas gained the majority of the open seats in the 2005 Palestinian municipal elections.",
"=== Mayors ===\nThe mayor and the deputy mayor of Bethlehem are required by municipal law to be Christian.",
"In the October 2012 municipal elections, Fatah member Vera Baboun won, becoming the first female mayor of Bethlehem.",
"* Mikhail Abu Saadeh – 1876\n* Khalil Yaqub – 1880\n* Suleiman Jacir – 1884\n* Issa Abdullah Marcus – 1888\n* Yaqub Khalil Elias – 1892\n* Hanna Mansur – 1895–1915\n* Salim Issa al-Batarseh – 1916–17\n* Salah Giries Jaqaman – 1917–21\n* Musa Qattan – 1921–25\n* Hanna Ibrahim Miladah – 1926–28\n* Nicoloa Attalah Shain – 1929–1933\n\n* Hanna Issa al-Qawwas – 1936–46\n* Issa Basil Bandak – 1946–51\n* Elias Bandak – 1951–53\n* Afif Salm Batarseh – 1952–53\n* Elias Bandak – 1953–57\n* Ayyub Musallam – 1958–62\n* Elias Bandak – 1963–72\n* Elias Freij – 1972–97\n* Hanna Nasser – 1997–2005\n* Victor Batarseh 2005–2012\n* Vera Baboun – 2012–Present",
"According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS), in 1997, approximately 84% of Bethlehem's population over the age of 10 was literate.",
"Of the city's population, 10,414 were enrolled in schools (4,015 in primary school, 3,578 in secondary and 2,821 in high school).",
"About 14.1% of high school students received diplomas.",
"There were 135 schools in the Bethlehem Governorate in 2006; 100 run the Education Ministry of the Palestinian National Authority, seven by the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) and 28 were private.",
"Bethlehem is home to Bethlehem University, a Catholic Christian co-educational institution of higher learning founded in 1973 in the Lasallian tradition, open to students of all faiths.",
"A street in Bethlehem\nBethlehem has three bus stations owned by private companies which offer service to Jerusalem, Beit Jala, Beit Sahour, Hebron, Nahalin, Battir, al-Khader, al-Ubeidiya and Beit Fajjar.",
"There are two taxi stations that make trips to Beit Sahour, Beit Jala, Jerusalem, Tuqu' and Herodium.",
"There are also two car rental departments: Murad and 'Orabi.",
"The barrier is located along the northern side of the town's built-up area, within m of houses in 'Aida refugee camp on one side, and the Jerusalem municipality on the other.",
"The level of access varies based on Israeli security directives.",
"Palestinians require a permit to enter the Jewish holy site of Rachel's Tomb.",
"Israeli citizens are barred from entering Bethlehem and the nearby biblical Solomon's Pools.",
"Bethlehem is twinned with:\n\n\n\n\n* Marrickville, Australia\n* Steyr, Austria\n* Natal, Brazil\n* Valinhos, Brazil\n* São Pedro do Butiá, Brazil\n* Haapsalu, Estonia ''(since 2010)''\n* Chartres, France\n* Grenoble, France\n* Montpellier, France\n* Paray-le-Monial, France\n* Cologne, Germany\n* Athens, Greece\n* Kalocsa, Hungary\n\n\n* Assisi, Italy\n* Civitavecchia, Italy\n* Conversano, Italy\n* Florence, Italy\n* Greccio, Italy\n* Milan, Italy ''(since 2000)''\n* Orvieto, Italy\n* Pratovecchio, Italy\n* Sant'Anastasia, Italy\n* Umbria, Italy\n* Madaba, Jordan\n* Monterrey, Mexico\n\n\n* Rabat, Morocco\n* The Hague, Netherlands\n* Sarpsborg, Norway\n* Cusco, Peru\n* Częstochowa, Poland\n* Lisbon, Portugal\n* Saint Petersburg, Russia\n* Pretoria, South Africa\n* Tournai, Belgium ''(since 2012)''\n* Zaragoza, Spain\n* Yalvaç, Turkey\n* Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates\n* Glasgow, Scotland\n* Burlington, Vermont, USA\n* Orlando, Florida, USA\n* Sacramento, California, USA ''(since 2009)''",
"\n* Bethlehem, Pennsylvania\n* Bethlehem, Wales\n* Massacre of the Innocents\n* Star of Bethlehem",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Sawsan & Qustandi Shomali.",
"Bethlehem 2000.",
"A Guide to Bethlehem and it Surroundings.Waldbrol, Flamm Druck Wagener GMBH, 1997.",
"* \n*\n*\n* \n* \n*",
"\n\n\n* Pastor's Vision to put Christ back in Bethlehem during Christmas\n* Bethlehem Municipality\n* Bethlehem Peace Center\n* Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land website – pages on Bethlehem\n* Bible Land Library*\n* Open Bethlehem civil society project\n* Bethlehem: Muslim-Christian living together\n* Photo: Christmas in Bethlehem, 2008\n* Photo Gallery of Bethlehem from 2007\n* Bethlehem Fair Trade Artisans\n* Bethlehem University"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''''Blackadder''''' is a series of four BBC1 period British sitcoms, along with several one-off instalments. All television episodes starred Rowan Atkinson as the anti-hero Edmund Blackadder, and Tony Robinson as Blackadder's dogsbody, Baldrick. Each series was set in a different historical period, with the two protagonists accompanied by different characters, though several reappear in one series or another, for example Melchett (Stephen Fry) and Lord Flashheart (Rik Mayall).\n\nThe first series, ''The Black Adder'', was written by Richard Curtis and Rowan Atkinson, while subsequent episodes were written by Curtis and Ben Elton. The shows were produced by John Lloyd. In 2000, the fourth series, ''Blackadder Goes Forth'', ranked at 16 in the \"100 Greatest British Television Programmes\", a list created by the British Film Institute. Also in the 2004 TV poll to find \"Britain's Best Sitcom\", ''Blackadder'' was voted the second-best British sitcom of all time, topped by ''Only Fools and Horses''. It was also ranked as the 9th-best TV show of all time by ''Empire'' magazine.\n",
"Although each series is set in a different era, all follow the \"misfortunes\" of Edmund Blackadder (played by Atkinson), who in each is a member of a British family dynasty present at many significant periods and places in British history. It is implied in each series that the Blackadder character is a descendant of the previous one (the end theme lyrics of series 2, episode \"Head\", specify that he is the great-grandson of the previous), although it is never specified how or when any of the Blackadders (who are usually bachelors) managed to father children.\n\nAs the generations progress, each Blackadder becomes increasingly clever and perceptive, while the family's social status steadily erodes. However, each Blackadder remains a cynical, cowardly opportunist, maintaining and increasing his own status and fortunes, regardless of his surroundings.\n\nThe life of each Blackadder is also entwined with his servant, each from the Baldrick family line (played by Tony Robinson). Each generation acts as the dogsbody to his respective Blackadder. They decrease in intelligence (and in personal-hygiene standards) as their masters' intellect increases. Each Blackadder and Baldrick is also saddled with tolerating the presence of a dim-witted aristocrat. This role was taken in the first two series by Lord Percy Percy, played by Tim McInnerny; with Hugh Laurie playing the role in the third and fourth series, as Prince George, Prince Regent; and Lieutenant George, respectively.\n\nEach series was set in a different period of British history, beginning in 1485 and ending in 1917, and comprised six half-hour episodes. The first series, made in 1983, was called ''The Black Adder'' and was set in the fictional reign of \"Richard IV\". The second series, ''Blackadder II'' (1986), was set during the reign of Elizabeth I. ''Blackadder the Third'' (1987) was set during the late 18th and early 19th centuries in the reign of George III, and ''Blackadder Goes Forth'' (1989) was set in 1917 in the trenches of the Great War.\n",
"\n\n===Series 1: ''The Black Adder''===\n\n''The Black Adder'', the first series of ''Blackadder'', was written by Richard Curtis and Rowan Atkinson and produced by John Lloyd. It originally aired on BBC1 from 15 June 1983 to 20 July 1983, and was a joint production with the Australian Seven Network.\n\nSet in 1485 at the end of the British Middle Ages, the series is written as an alternative history in which King Richard III won the Battle of Bosworth Field only to be mistaken for someone else and murdered, and is succeeded by Richard IV (Brian Blessed), one of the Princes in the Tower. The series follows the exploits of Richard IV's unfavoured second son Edmund, the Duke of Edinburgh (who calls himself \"The Black Adder\") in his various attempts to increase his standing with his father and his eventual quest to overthrow him.\n\nConceived while Atkinson and Curtis were working on ''Not the Nine O'Clock News'', the series dealt comically with a number of medieval issues in Britain: witchcraft, Royal succession, European relations, the Crusades, and the conflict between the Church and the Crown. Along with the secret history, many historical events portrayed in the series were anachronistic (for example, the last Crusade to the Holy Land ended in 1291); this dramatic licence would continue in the subsequent ''Blackadders''. The filming of the series was highly ambitious, with a large cast and much location shooting. The series also featured Shakespearean dialogue, often adapted for comic effect; the end credits featured the words \"Additional Dialogue by William Shakespeare\".\n\n===Series 2: ''Blackadder II''===\n\n''Blackadder II'' is set in England during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603), who is portrayed by Miranda Richardson. The principal character is Edmund, Lord Blackadder, the great-grandson of the original Black Adder. During the series, he regularly deals with the Queen, her obsequious Lord Chamberlain Lord Melchett (Stephen Fry)—his rival—and the Queen's demented former nanny Nursie (Patsy Byrne).\n\nFollowing the BBC's request for improvements (and a severe budget reduction), several changes were made. The second series was the first to establish the familiar Blackadder character: cunning, shrewd, and witty, in sharp contrast to the first series' bumbling Prince Edmund. To make the show more cost-effective, it was also shot with virtually no outdoor scenes (the first series was shot largely on location) and several frequently used indoor sets, such as the Queen's throne room and Blackadder's front room.\n\nA quote from this series ranked number three in a list of the top 25 television \"putdowns\" of the last 40 years by the ''Radio Times'' magazine: \"The eyes are open, the mouth moves, but Mr. Brain has long since departed, hasn't he, Percy?\"\n\n===Series 3: ''Blackadder the Third''===\n\n\n''Blackadder the Third'' is set in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, a period known as the Regency. In the series, Edmund Blackadder Esquire is the butler to the Prince Regent, the Prince of Wales (the prince is played by Hugh Laurie as a complete fop and idiot). Despite Edmund's respected intelligence and abilities, he has no personal fortune to speak of, apart from his frequently-fluctuating wage packet (as well, it seems, from stealing and selling off the Prince's socks) from the Prince: \"If I'm running short of cash, all I have to do is go upstairs and ask Prince Fat-Head for a rise.\"\n\nAs well as Rowan Atkinson and Tony Robinson in their usual roles, this series starred Hugh Laurie as the Prince Regent, and Helen Atkinson-Wood as Mrs. Miggins. The series features Dr. Samuel Johnson (Robbie Coltrane), William Pitt the Younger (Simon Osborne), the French Revolution (featuring Chris Barrie, Nigel Planer and Tim McInnerny as the Scarlet Pimpernel), over-the-top theatrical actors, a squirrel-hating cross-dressing highwayman (Miranda Richardson), and a duel with the Duke of Wellington (Stephen Fry).\n\n===Series 4: ''Blackadder Goes Forth''===\n\nThis series is set in 1917, on the Western Front in the trenches of the First World War. Another \"big push\" is planned, and Captain Blackadder's one goal is to avoid being killed, but his schemes always land him back in the trenches. Blackadder is joined by his batman Private S. Baldrick (Tony Robinson) and idealistic Edwardian twit Lieutenant George (Hugh Laurie). General Melchett (Stephen Fry) rallies his troops from a French château thirty-five miles from the front, where he is aided and abetted by his assistant, Captain Kevin Darling (Tim McInnerny), pencil-pusher supreme and Blackadder's nemesis, whose name is played on for maximum comedic value.\n\nThe series' tone is somewhat darker than the other ''Blackadder''s; it details the deprivations of trench warfare as well as the incompetence and life-wasting strategies of the top brass. For example, Baldrick is reduced to making coffee from mud and cooking rats, while General Melchett hatches a plan for the troops to walk very slowly toward the German lines, because \"it'll be the last thing Fritz will expect.\"\n\nThe final episode, \"Goodbyeee\", is known for being extraordinarily poignant for a comedy—especially the final scene, which sees the main characters (Blackadder, Baldrick, George, and Darling) finally going \"over the top\" and charging off into the fog and smoke of no man's land to die. In a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes, drawn up by the British Film Institute in 2000 and voted for by industry professionals, ''Blackadder Goes Forth'' was placed 16th.\n\n===Specials===\n\n====Pilot episode====\n\nThe ''Blackadder'' pilot was shot but never aired on terrestrial TV in the UK (although some scenes were shown in the 25th anniversary special ''Blackadder Rides Again''). One notable difference in the pilot, as in many pilots, is the casting. Baldrick is played not by Tony Robinson, but by Philip Fox. Another significant difference is that the character of Prince Edmund presented in the pilot is much closer to the intelligent, conniving Blackadder of the later series than the snivelling, weak buffoon of the original. Set in the year 1582, the script of the pilot is roughly the same as the episode \"Born to be King\", albeit with some different jokes, with some lines appearing in other episodes of the series.\n\n====''Blackadder: The Cavalier Years''====\n\nThis special, set in the English Civil War, was shown as part of Comic Relief's Red Nose Day on Friday 5 February 1988. The 15-minute episode is set in November 1648, during the last days of the Civil War. Sir Edmund Blackadder and his servant, Baldrick, are the last two men loyal to the defeated King Charles I of England (played by Stephen Fry, portrayed as a soft-spoken, ineffective, slightly dim character, with the voice and mannerisms of Charles I's namesake, the current Prince of Wales). However, due to a misunderstanding between Oliver Cromwell (guest-star Warren Clarke) and Baldrick, the king is arrested and sent to the Tower of London. The rest of the episode revolves around Blackadder's attempts to save the king, as well as improve his standing.\n\n====''Blackadder's Christmas Carol''====\n\nThe second special was broadcast on Friday 23 December 1988. In a twist on Charles Dickens' ''A Christmas Carol'', Ebenezer Blackadder is the \"kindest and loveliest\" man in England. The Spirit of Christmas shows Blackadder the contrary antics of his ancestors and descendants, and reluctantly informs him that if he turns evil his descendants will enjoy power and fortune, while if he remains the same a future Blackadder will live shamefully subjugated to a future incompetent Baldrick. This remarkable encounter causes him to proclaim, \"Bad guys have all the fun\", and adopt the personality with which viewers are more familiar.\n\n====''Blackadder: Back & Forth''====\n\n''Blackadder: Back & Forth'' was originally shown in the Millennium Dome in 2000, followed by a screening on Sky One in the same year (and later on BBC1). It is set on the turn of the millennium, and features Lord Blackadder placing a bet with his friends – modern versions of Queenie (Miranda Richardson), Melchett (Stephen Fry), George (Hugh Laurie) and Darling (Tim McInnerny) – that he has built a working time machine. While this is intended as a clever con trick, the machine, surprisingly, works, sending Blackadder and Baldrick back to the Cretaceous period, where they manage to cause the extinction of the dinosaurs, through the use of Baldrick's best-worst-and-only pair of underpants as a weapon against a hungry T. Rex. Finding that Baldrick has forgotten to write dates on the machine's dials, the rest of the film follows their attempts to find their way back to 1999, often creating huge historical anomalies in the process that must be corrected before the end. The film includes cameo appearances from Kate Moss and Colin Firth.\n\n===Chronological order===\n\n\n Title !! Type !! Production / air date !! Set in century\n\n ''The Black Adder (pilot)'' \n Pilot \n 1982 (unaired) \n 16th\n\n ''The Black Adder'' \n Series \n 1983 \n 15th\n\n ''Blackadder II'' \n Series \n 1986 \n 16th\n\n ''Blackadder the Third'' \n Series \n 1987 \n 18th-19th\n\n ''Blackadder: The Cavalier Years'' \n Comic Relief Special \n 1988 \n 17th\n\n ''Children in Need'' \n Special \n 1988 \n Unclear (anachronistic)\n\n ''Clown Court'' \n Special \n 1988 \n Unclear (anachronistic)\n\n ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol'' \n Christmas Special \n 1988 \n 19th\n\n ''Woman's Hour Invasion'' \n Radio \n 1988 \n 20th, Various\n\n ''Blackadder Goes Forth'' \n Series \n 1989 \n 20th\n\n ''Blackadder and the King's Birthday'' \n Sketch \n 1998 \n 17th\n\n ''Blackadder: Back & Forth'' \n Millennium Special \n 1999 \n 20th, Various\n\n ''Blackadder: The Army Years'' \n Theatre \n 2000 \n 21st\n\n ''The Royal Gardener/The Jubilee Girl'' (for the Party at the Palace)\n Sketch \n 2002 \n 21st\n\n ''Blackadder Exclusive: The Whole Rotten Saga'' \n Documentary \n 2008 \n n/a\n\n ''Blackadder Rides Again'' \n Documentary \n 2008 \n n/a\n\n ''CEO of Melchett, Melchett and Darling Inquiry''\n \n Theatre \n 2012 \n 21st\n\n",
"\n===Series development===\nRowan Atkinson and Richard Curtis developed the idea for the sitcom while working on ''Not the Nine O'Clock News''. Eager to avoid comparisons to the critically acclaimed ''Fawlty Towers'', they proposed the idea of a historical sitcom. An unaired pilot episode was made in 1982, and a six episode series was commissioned. The budget for the series was considerable, with much location shooting particularly at Alnwick Castle in Northumberland and the surrounding countryside in February 1983. The series also used large casts of extras, horses and expensive medieval-style costumes. Atkinson has said about the making of the first series:\n\nThe first series was odd, it was very extravagant. It cost a million pounds for the six programmes ... which was a lot of money to spend ... It looked great, but it wasn't as consistently funny as we would have liked.\n\nDue to the high cost of the first series, the then-controller of programming of BBC1, Michael Grade, was reluctant to sign off a second series without major improvements and cost cutting to be made to the show, leaving a gap of three years between the two series. Atkinson did not wish to continue writing for the second series.\n\nA chance meeting between Richard Curtis and comedian Ben Elton led to the decision to collaborate on a new series of Blackadder. Recognising the main faults of the first series, Curtis and Elton agreed that ''Blackadder II'' would be a studio-only production (along with the inclusion of a live audience during recording, instead of showing the episodes to one after taping). Besides adding a greater comedy focus, Elton suggested a major change in character emphasis: Baldrick would become the stupid sidekick, while Edmund Blackadder evolved into a cunning sycophant. This led to the familiar set-up that was maintained in the following series.\n\nOnly in the ''Back & Forth'' millennium special was the shooting once again on location, because this was a production with a budget estimated at £3 million, and was a joint venture between Tiger Aspect, Sky Television, the New Millennium Experience Company and the BBC, rather than the BBC alone.\n\n===Casting===\n\nEach series tended to feature the same set of regular actors in different period settings, although throughout the four series and specials, only Blackadder and Baldrick were constant characters. Several regular cast members recurred as characters with similar names, implying, like Blackadder, that they were descendants.\n\n====Recurring cast====\nVarious actors have appeared in more than one of the Blackadder series and/or specials. These are:\n\n\n\n\n''The Black Adder''\n''Blackadder II''\n''Blackadder the Third''\n''Blackadder Goes Forth''\n''Blackadder: The Cavalier Years''\n''Blackadder's Christmas Carol''\n''Blackadder: Back and Forth''\n\nRowan Atkinson\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nTony Robinson\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nTim McInnerny\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nHugh Laurie\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nStephen Fry\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nMiranda Richardson\n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n\nRik Mayall\n \n \n\n \n\n \n \n\nMiriam Margolyes\n \n \n\n\n\n \n \n\nGabrielle Glaister\n \n \n\n\n\n \n \n\nBill Wallis\n \n \n\n \n\n \n \n\nRobbie Coltrane\n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n\nJim Broadbent\n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\nStephen Frost\n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\nMark Arden\n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\nLee Cornes\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nPatsy Byrne\n \n \n\n \n\n \n \n\nWarren Clarke\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nPhilip Pope\n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\nBarbara Miller\n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\nDavid Nunn\n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\nDenis Lill\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n====Main cast====\n*Rowan Atkinson as Edmund Blackadder, the series' protagonist.\n*Tony Robinson as S. Baldrick, his servant.\n*Stephen Fry played Melchett in two series, first as Lord Melchett, the sycophantic adviser to Queen Elizabeth I in series two and secondly as General Melchett, a blustering buffoon and presumed descendant in series four. Fry also appeared as Arthur Wellesley, The Duke Of Wellington in series three and as various characters in ''Blackadder Back & Forth''.\n*Tim McInnerny played Lord Percy Percy, Blackadder's dimwitted sidekick in series one and two before a change of character to antagonist Captain Kevin Darling in series four. He also appeared as The Scarlet Pimpernel (alias Lord Topper and Le Comte de Frou Frou) for one episode in the third series, and reprised his role as Darling in ''Blackadder: Back & Forth''.\n*Hugh Laurie played George in series three and four, first as HRH The Prince Regent, and later Lieutenant George in series four. Laurie also appeared twice in series two; firstly as Simon \"Farters Parters\" Partridge and then as Prince Ludwig the Indestructible in the final instalment of ''Blackadder II''. He similarly reprised this role in ''Back & Forth''.\n*Miranda Richardson was only a regular cast member for series two, where she played Queen Elizabeth I, reprising the role in ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol'' and ''Back & Forth''. However, she also played significant one-off roles as Amy Hardwood (a.k.a. The Shadow) in \"Amy and Amiability\" in the third series and Mary Fletcher-Brown, a dutiful nurse in \"General Hospital\" from the fourth.\n\n====Non-recurring cast====\n*Brian Blessed, Elspet Gray and Robert East appeared in all six episodes of the first series as the Black Adder's father, mother and brother respectively. Gray had also appeared in the non-broadcast pilot.\n*Patsy Byrne played Nursie in all six episodes of ''Blackadder II'', but never featured in either of the subsequent series, either as a regular character or one-off. She briefly reprised the character in ''Blackadder: Back & Forth'' and ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol''.\n*Helen Atkinson-Wood played the role of Mrs. Miggins in all six episodes of ''Blackadder the Third'', but did not appear again in the series, although the character was mentioned several times in ''Blackadder II'' and in the final episode of ''Blackadder Goes Forth''.\n\n====Guest cast====\nBen Elton's arrival after the first series heralded the more frequent recruitment of comic actors from the famed \"alternative\" era for guest appearances, including Robbie Coltrane, Rik Mayall (who had appeared in the final episode of the first series as \"Mad Gerald\"), Adrian Edmondson, Nigel Planer, Mark Arden, Stephen Frost, Chris Barrie and Jeremy Hardy. Elton himself played an anarchist in ''Blackadder the Third''.\n\nGabrielle Glaister played Bob—an attractive girl who poses as a man—in both series 2 and 4. Rik Mayall plays Lord Flashheart, a vulgar friend in his first appearance and then a successful rival of Blackadder in a later episode of series 2 and 4. He also played a decidedly Flashheart-like Robin Hood in ''Back & Forth''. Lee Cornes also appeared in an episode of all three Curtis-Elton series. He appeared as a guard in the episode \"Chains\" of ''Blackadder II''; as the poet Shelley in the episode \"Ink and Incapability' of ''Blackadder the Third''; and as firing squad soldier Private Fraser in the episode \"Corporal Punishment\" of ''Blackadder Goes Forth''.\n\nMore \"establishment\"-style actors, some at the veteran stage of their careers, were also recruited for roles. These included Peter Cook, John Grillo, Simon Jones, Tom Baker, Jim Broadbent, Hugh Paddick, Frank Finlay, Kenneth Connor, Bill Wallis, Ronald Lacey, Roger Blake, Denis Lill, Warren Clarke and Geoffrey Palmer, who played Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig in \"Goodbyeee\", the final episode of ''Blackadder Goes Forth''. Miriam Margolyes played three different guest roles: The Spanish Infanta in The Queen of Spain's Beard, Lady Whiteadder in Beer, and Queen Victoria in Blackadder's Christmas Carol.\n\nUnusually for a sitcom based loosely on factual events and in the historical past, a man was recruited for one episode essentially to play himself. Political commentator Vincent Hanna played a character billed as \"his own great-great-great grandfather\" in the episode \"Dish and Dishonesty\" of ''Blackadder the Third''. Hanna was asked to take part because the scene was of a by-election in which Baldrick was a candidate and, in the style of modern television, Hanna gave a long-running \"live\" commentary of events at the count (and interviewed candidates and election agents) to a crowd through the town hall window.\n\n===Theme tune===\nHoward Goodall's theme tune has the same melody throughout all the series, but is played in roughly the style of the period in which it is set. It is performed mostly with trumpets and timpani in ''The Black Adder'', the fanfares used suggesting typical medieval court fanfares; with a combination of recorder, string quartet and electric guitar in ''Blackadder II''; on oboe, cello and harpsichord (in the style of a minuet) for ''Blackadder the Third''; by The Band of the 3rd Battalion, Royal Anglian Regiment in ''Blackadder Goes Forth''; sung by carol singers in ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol''; and by an orchestra in ''Blackadder: The Cavalier Years'' and ''Blackadder: Back & Forth''.\n",
"In 2000, the fourth series, ''Blackadder Goes Forth'', ranked at 16 in the \"100 Greatest British Television Programmes\", a list created by the British Film Institute. In 2004, a BBC TV poll for \"Britain's Best Sitcom\", ''Blackadder'' was voted the second best British sitcom of all time, topped by ''Only Fools and Horses''. It was also ranked as the 20th Best TV Show of All Time by ''Empire'' magazine.\n",
"Despite regular statements denying any plans for a fifth series, cast members are regularly asked about the possibility of a new series.\n\nIn January 2005, Tony Robinson told ITV's ''This Morning'' that Rowan Atkinson was more keen than he has been in the past to do a fifth series, set in the 1960s (centred on a rock band called the \"Black Adder Five\", with Baldrick – a.k.a. 'Bald Rick' – as the drummer). In the documentary ''Blackadder Rides Again'', Robinson stated that the series would present Blackadder as the bastard son of Queen Elizabeth II and running a Beatles-like rock band. Rowan Atkinson, Tony Robinson, Hugh Laurie, Stephen Fry, Tim McInnerny and Miranda Richardson would have reprised their roles, and reportedly, Brian Blessed, Elspet Gray and Robert East would have returned from the first series to play Blackadder's biological family. Robinson in a stage performance 1 June 2007, again mentioned this idea, but in the context of a movie.\n\nOne idea mentioned by Curtis was that it was Baldrick who had accidentally assassinated John F. Kennedy. However, aside from a brief mention in June 2005,\nthere have been no further announcements from the BBC that a new series is being planned. Furthermore, in November 2005, Rowan Atkinson told ''BBC Breakfast'' that, although he would very much like to do a new series set in Colditz or another prisoner-of-war camp during World War II, something which both he and Stephen Fry reiterated at the end of ''Blackadder Rides Again'', the chances of it happening are extremely slim.\n\nThere were a couple of ideas that had previously floated for the fifth series. ''Batadder'' was intended to be a parody of ''Batman'' with Baldrick as the counterpart of Robin (suggested by John Lloyd). This idea eventually came to surface as part of the ''Comic Relief'' sketch \"Spider-Plant Man\" in 2005, with Atkinson as the title hero, Robinson as Robin, Jim Broadbent as Batman and Rachel Stevens as Mary Jane. ''Star Adder'' was to be set in space in the future (suggested by Atkinson), though this too was touched upon in ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol''.\n\nOn 10 April 2007, ''Hello!'' reported that Atkinson was moving forward with his ideas for a fifth series. He said, \"I like the idea of him being a prisoner of war in Colditz. That would have the right level of authority and hierarchy which is apparent in all the Blackadders.\"\n\nA post on BlackAdderHall.com by Ben Elton in early 2007 said that ''Blackadder'' would return in some form, whether it be a TV series or movie. Elton has since not given any more information on the putative ''Blackadder 5''.\n\nDuring an interview in August 2007 about his movie ''Mr. Bean's Holiday'', Atkinson was asked about the possibility of a further ''Blackadder'' series, to which the simple reply \"No, no chance\" was given:\n\n:\"There was a plan for a film set in the Russian revolution, a very interesting one called ''The Red Adder''. He would have been a lieutenant in the Secret Police. Then the revolution happened and at the end he is in the same office doing the same job but just the colours on his uniform have changed. It was quite a sweet idea and we got quite a long way with it but in the end it died a death.\"\n\nStephen Fry has expressed the view that, since the series went out on such a good \"high\", a film might not be a good idea.\n\nDuring his June 2007 stage performance, chronicled on the Tony Robinson's Cunning Night Out DVD, Robinson states that, after filming the ''Back & Forth special'', the general idea was to reunite for another special in 2010. Robinson jokingly remarked that Hugh Laurie's success on ''House'' may make that difficult.\n\nAt the end of ''Blackadder Rides Again'', Robinson asked Tim McInnerny if he would do another series and he responded \"no\", because he thought people would not want to see them as they are now and would rather remember them for how they were. In the same documentary, Rowan Atkinson voiced his similar view; 'Times past; that's what they were!' However, Miranda Richardson and Tony Robinson expressed enthusiasm towards the idea of a series set in the Wild West, whilst John Lloyd favoured an idea for a series with a Neanderthal Blackadder. Lastly, Stephen Fry suggested a series set in a prisoner of war camp during World War II, but later remarked that \"perhaps it's best to leave these things as a memory.\"\n\nOn 28 November 2012, Rowan Atkinson reprised the role at the \"We are most amused\" comedy gala for the Prince's Trust at the Royal Albert Hall. He was joined by Tony Robinson as Baldrick. The sketch involved Blackadder as CEO of Melchett, Melchett and Darling bank facing an enquiry over the banking crisis.\n\nIn August 2015, Tony Robinson said in an interview \"I do think a new series of Blackadder is on the cards. I have spoken to virtually all the cast about this now. The only problem is Hugh Laurie's fee. He's a huge star now.\"\n",
"All series and many of the specials are available on DVD and video. Many are also available on BBC audio cassette. As of 2008, a \"Best of BBC\" edition box set is available containing all four major series together with ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol'' and ''Back & Forth''. All four series and the Christmas special are also available for download on iTunes.\n\n===VHS releases===\n\n5 February 1990, BBC Enterprises Ltd released the first series on two single videos.\n\n\n\nVHS video title\nYear of release\nEpisodes\nBBFC rating\n\n\n''The Blackadder- The Foretelling'' (BBCV 4293)\n\n5 February 1990\n\nThe Foretelling, Born to Be King, the Archbishop\n\nPG\n\n\n''The Blackadder- The Queen of Spain's Beard'' (BBCV 4296)\n\n5 February 1990\n\nThe Queen of Spain's Beard, Witchsmeller Pursuivant, The Black Seal\n\n15\n\n\n2 October 1989, BBC Enterprises Ltd released the second series on two single videos.\n\n\n\nVHS video title\nYear of release\nEpisodes\nBBFC rating\n\n\n''Blackadder II- Parte the Firste'' (BBCV 4298)\n\n2 October 1989\n\nBells, Head, Potato\n\nPG\n\n\n''Blackadder II- Parte the Seconde'' (BBCV 4299)\n\n2 October 1989\n\nMoney, Beer, Chains\n\n15\n\n\n6 March 1989, BBC Enterprises Ltd released the third series on two single videos.\n\n\n\nVHS video title\nYear of release\nEpisodes\nBBFC rating\n\n\n''Blackadder The Third- Dish and Dishonesty'' (BBCV 4142)\n\n6 March 1989\n\nDish and Dishonesty, Ink and Incapability, Nob and Nobility\n\nPG\n\n\n''Blackadder The Third- Sense and Senility'' (BBCV 4143)\n\n6 March 1989\n\nSense and Senility, Amy and Amibility, Duel and Duality\n\n15\n\n\n10 September 1990, BBC Enterprises Ltd released the fourth and final series on two single videos.\n\n\n\nVHS video title\nYear of release\nEpisodes\nBBFC rating\n\n\n''Blackadder Goes Forth- Captain Cook'' (BBCV 4349)\n\n10 September 1990\n\nCaptain Cook, Corporal Punishment, Major Star\n\nPG\n\n\n''Blackadder Goes Forth- Private Plane'' (BBCV 4350)\n\n10 September 1990\n\nPrivate Plane, General Hospital, Goodbyeee\n\n15\n\n\nOn 7 September 1992, all eight single Blackadder video releases were re-released as four \"complete\" double VHS releases. The four entire series videos were re-released as single video releases on 2 October 1995.\n\n\n\nVHS video title\nYear of release/Cat No. (Double Video)\nYear of release/Cat No. (Single Video)\nEpisodes\nBBFC rating\n\n\n\n''The Blackadder- The Complete Entire Historic First Series''\n\n7 September 1992 (BBCV 4782)\n\n2 October 1995 (BBCV 5711)\n\nThe Foretelling, Born to Be King, the Archbishop, The Queen of Spain's Beard, Witchsmeller Pursuivant, The Black Seal\n\n15\n\n\n''Blackadder II- The Complete Entire Historic Second Series''\n\n7 September 1992 (BBCV 4785)\n\n2 October 1995 (BBCV 5712)\n\nBells, Head, Potato, Money, Beer, Chains\n\n15\n\n\n''Blackadder the Third- The Complete Entire Historic Third Series''\n\n7 September 1992 (BBCV 4786)\n\n2 October 1995 (BBCV 5713)\n\nDish and Dishonesty, Ink and Incapability, Nob and Nobility, Sense and Senility, Amy and Amibility, Duel and Duality\n\n15\n\n\n''Blackadder Goes Forth- The Complete Entire Historic Fourth Series''\n\n7 September 1992 (BBCV 4787)\n\n2 October 1995 (BBCV 5714)\n\nCaptain Cook, Corporal Punishment, Major Star, Private Plane, General Hospital, Goodbyeee\n\n15\n\n\nOn 5 January 1998, five episodes of the first two series were released on a 15 rated compiled video by BBC Worldwide Ltd.\n\n\n\nVHS video title\nYear of release\nEpisodes\n\n\n''The Very Best of Blackadder'' (BBCV 6360)\n\n5 January 1998\n\nSeries 1, Episode 3- The ArchbishopSeries 1, Episode 4- The Queen Of Spain's BeardSeries 2, Episode 1- BellsSeries 2, Episode 2- Head Series 2, Episode 6- Chains\n\n\nOn 4 November 1991, ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol'' was released on a single video release rated PG (Cat. No. BBCV 4646)\n\n===Single DVD releases===\n\n\nDVD title !! Region 1 !! Region 2 !! Region 4\n\nSeries 1''The Black Adder''\n 26 June 2001 \n 1 November 1999 \n 29 November 1999\n\nSeries 2''Blackadder II'' \n 26 June 2001 \n 6 November 2000 \n 11 July 2001\n\nSeries 3''Blackadder the Third''\n 26 June 2001 \n 5 February 2001 \n 3 October 2001\n\nSeries 4''Blackadder Goes Forth'' \n 26 June 2001 \n 22 October 2001 \n 28 February 2002\n\nSpecial 1 \"Blackadder's Christmas Carol\" \n 26 June 2001 \n 18 November 2002 \n 4 November 2002\n\nSpecial 2\"Blackadder: Back & Forth\" \n 26 June 2001 \n 15 September 2003 \n 11 November 2004\n\n\n===Box set DVD releases===\n\n\nDVD title !! DVD content !! Region 1 !! Region 2 !! Region 4\n\n The Complete Blackadder – All Four Series \nThe Black AdderBlackadder IIBlackadder The ThirdBlackadder Goes Forth\n \n 12 November 2001 \n 3 October 2002\n\n Blackadder – The Complete Series \nThe Black AdderBlackadder IIBlackadder The ThirdBlackadder Goes ForthBlackadder's Christmas CarolBlackadder: Back & ForthBlackadder: The Cavalier Years\n 26 June 2001 \n 3 October 2005 \n \n\n Blackadder Remastered – The Ultimate Edition \nThe Black Adder (Remastered)Blackadder II (Remastered)Blackadder the Third (Remastered)Blackadder Goes Forth (Remastered)Blackadder's Christmas Carol (Remastered)Blackadder: Back & Forth (Remastered)Blackadder: The Cavalier Years (Remastered)Blackadder Rides Again+Audio Commentary+Interviews\n 20 October 2009 \n 15 June 2009 \n 1 October 2009\n\n",
"\n",
"* Richard Curtis, Ben Elton, and Rowan Atkinson, ''Blackadder: The Whole Damn Dynasty 1485–1917'' (Penguin Books, 2000). . Being the—almost—complete scripts of the four regular series.\n* Chris Howarth, and Steve Lyons, ''Cunning: The Blackadder Programme Guide'' (Virgin Publishing, 2002). . An unofficial guide to the series, with asides, anecdotes and observations.\n* Richard Curtis and Ben Elton, ''Blackadder: Back & Forth'' (Penguin Books, 2000). . A script book with copious photographs from the most recent outing.\n* J.F. Roberts, ''The True History of the Black Adder: The Unadulterated Tale of the Creation of a Comedy Legend'' (Preface publishing, 2000). . A 420-page history of the Blackadder episodes and characters, as well as its birth, its writers and actors, and all the specials.\n",
"\n*\n*\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Premise",
"Series and specials",
"Production",
"Awards",
"Future",
"Home media",
"References",
"Literature",
"External links"
] | Blackadder | [
"The sketch involved Blackadder as CEO of Melchett, Melchett and Darling bank facing an enquiry over the banking crisis."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n'''''Blackadder''''' is a series of four BBC1 period British sitcoms, along with several one-off instalments.",
"All television episodes starred Rowan Atkinson as the anti-hero Edmund Blackadder, and Tony Robinson as Blackadder's dogsbody, Baldrick.",
"Each series was set in a different historical period, with the two protagonists accompanied by different characters, though several reappear in one series or another, for example Melchett (Stephen Fry) and Lord Flashheart (Rik Mayall).",
"The first series, ''The Black Adder'', was written by Richard Curtis and Rowan Atkinson, while subsequent episodes were written by Curtis and Ben Elton.",
"The shows were produced by John Lloyd.",
"In 2000, the fourth series, ''Blackadder Goes Forth'', ranked at 16 in the \"100 Greatest British Television Programmes\", a list created by the British Film Institute.",
"Also in the 2004 TV poll to find \"Britain's Best Sitcom\", ''Blackadder'' was voted the second-best British sitcom of all time, topped by ''Only Fools and Horses''.",
"It was also ranked as the 9th-best TV show of all time by ''Empire'' magazine.",
"Although each series is set in a different era, all follow the \"misfortunes\" of Edmund Blackadder (played by Atkinson), who in each is a member of a British family dynasty present at many significant periods and places in British history.",
"It is implied in each series that the Blackadder character is a descendant of the previous one (the end theme lyrics of series 2, episode \"Head\", specify that he is the great-grandson of the previous), although it is never specified how or when any of the Blackadders (who are usually bachelors) managed to father children.",
"As the generations progress, each Blackadder becomes increasingly clever and perceptive, while the family's social status steadily erodes.",
"However, each Blackadder remains a cynical, cowardly opportunist, maintaining and increasing his own status and fortunes, regardless of his surroundings.",
"The life of each Blackadder is also entwined with his servant, each from the Baldrick family line (played by Tony Robinson).",
"Each generation acts as the dogsbody to his respective Blackadder.",
"They decrease in intelligence (and in personal-hygiene standards) as their masters' intellect increases.",
"Each Blackadder and Baldrick is also saddled with tolerating the presence of a dim-witted aristocrat.",
"This role was taken in the first two series by Lord Percy Percy, played by Tim McInnerny; with Hugh Laurie playing the role in the third and fourth series, as Prince George, Prince Regent; and Lieutenant George, respectively.",
"Each series was set in a different period of British history, beginning in 1485 and ending in 1917, and comprised six half-hour episodes.",
"The first series, made in 1983, was called ''The Black Adder'' and was set in the fictional reign of \"Richard IV\".",
"The second series, ''Blackadder II'' (1986), was set during the reign of Elizabeth I.",
"''Blackadder the Third'' (1987) was set during the late 18th and early 19th centuries in the reign of George III, and ''Blackadder Goes Forth'' (1989) was set in 1917 in the trenches of the Great War.",
"\n\n===Series 1: ''The Black Adder''===\n\n''The Black Adder'', the first series of ''Blackadder'', was written by Richard Curtis and Rowan Atkinson and produced by John Lloyd.",
"It originally aired on BBC1 from 15 June 1983 to 20 July 1983, and was a joint production with the Australian Seven Network.",
"Set in 1485 at the end of the British Middle Ages, the series is written as an alternative history in which King Richard III won the Battle of Bosworth Field only to be mistaken for someone else and murdered, and is succeeded by Richard IV (Brian Blessed), one of the Princes in the Tower.",
"The series follows the exploits of Richard IV's unfavoured second son Edmund, the Duke of Edinburgh (who calls himself \"The Black Adder\") in his various attempts to increase his standing with his father and his eventual quest to overthrow him.",
"Conceived while Atkinson and Curtis were working on ''Not the Nine O'Clock News'', the series dealt comically with a number of medieval issues in Britain: witchcraft, Royal succession, European relations, the Crusades, and the conflict between the Church and the Crown.",
"Along with the secret history, many historical events portrayed in the series were anachronistic (for example, the last Crusade to the Holy Land ended in 1291); this dramatic licence would continue in the subsequent ''Blackadders''.",
"The filming of the series was highly ambitious, with a large cast and much location shooting.",
"The series also featured Shakespearean dialogue, often adapted for comic effect; the end credits featured the words \"Additional Dialogue by William Shakespeare\".",
"===Series 2: ''Blackadder II''===\n\n''Blackadder II'' is set in England during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603), who is portrayed by Miranda Richardson.",
"The principal character is Edmund, Lord Blackadder, the great-grandson of the original Black Adder.",
"During the series, he regularly deals with the Queen, her obsequious Lord Chamberlain Lord Melchett (Stephen Fry)—his rival—and the Queen's demented former nanny Nursie (Patsy Byrne).",
"Following the BBC's request for improvements (and a severe budget reduction), several changes were made.",
"The second series was the first to establish the familiar Blackadder character: cunning, shrewd, and witty, in sharp contrast to the first series' bumbling Prince Edmund.",
"To make the show more cost-effective, it was also shot with virtually no outdoor scenes (the first series was shot largely on location) and several frequently used indoor sets, such as the Queen's throne room and Blackadder's front room.",
"A quote from this series ranked number three in a list of the top 25 television \"putdowns\" of the last 40 years by the ''Radio Times'' magazine: \"The eyes are open, the mouth moves, but Mr.",
"Brain has long since departed, hasn't he, Percy?\"",
"===Series 3: ''Blackadder the Third''===\n\n\n''Blackadder the Third'' is set in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, a period known as the Regency.",
"In the series, Edmund Blackadder Esquire is the butler to the Prince Regent, the Prince of Wales (the prince is played by Hugh Laurie as a complete fop and idiot).",
"Despite Edmund's respected intelligence and abilities, he has no personal fortune to speak of, apart from his frequently-fluctuating wage packet (as well, it seems, from stealing and selling off the Prince's socks) from the Prince: \"If I'm running short of cash, all I have to do is go upstairs and ask Prince Fat-Head for a rise.\"",
"As well as Rowan Atkinson and Tony Robinson in their usual roles, this series starred Hugh Laurie as the Prince Regent, and Helen Atkinson-Wood as Mrs. Miggins.",
"The series features Dr. Samuel Johnson (Robbie Coltrane), William Pitt the Younger (Simon Osborne), the French Revolution (featuring Chris Barrie, Nigel Planer and Tim McInnerny as the Scarlet Pimpernel), over-the-top theatrical actors, a squirrel-hating cross-dressing highwayman (Miranda Richardson), and a duel with the Duke of Wellington (Stephen Fry).",
"===Series 4: ''Blackadder Goes Forth''===\n\nThis series is set in 1917, on the Western Front in the trenches of the First World War.",
"Another \"big push\" is planned, and Captain Blackadder's one goal is to avoid being killed, but his schemes always land him back in the trenches.",
"Blackadder is joined by his batman Private S. Baldrick (Tony Robinson) and idealistic Edwardian twit Lieutenant George (Hugh Laurie).",
"General Melchett (Stephen Fry) rallies his troops from a French château thirty-five miles from the front, where he is aided and abetted by his assistant, Captain Kevin Darling (Tim McInnerny), pencil-pusher supreme and Blackadder's nemesis, whose name is played on for maximum comedic value.",
"The series' tone is somewhat darker than the other ''Blackadder''s; it details the deprivations of trench warfare as well as the incompetence and life-wasting strategies of the top brass.",
"For example, Baldrick is reduced to making coffee from mud and cooking rats, while General Melchett hatches a plan for the troops to walk very slowly toward the German lines, because \"it'll be the last thing Fritz will expect.\"",
"The final episode, \"Goodbyeee\", is known for being extraordinarily poignant for a comedy—especially the final scene, which sees the main characters (Blackadder, Baldrick, George, and Darling) finally going \"over the top\" and charging off into the fog and smoke of no man's land to die.",
"In a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes, drawn up by the British Film Institute in 2000 and voted for by industry professionals, ''Blackadder Goes Forth'' was placed 16th.",
"===Specials===\n\n====Pilot episode====\n\nThe ''Blackadder'' pilot was shot but never aired on terrestrial TV in the UK (although some scenes were shown in the 25th anniversary special ''Blackadder Rides Again'').",
"One notable difference in the pilot, as in many pilots, is the casting.",
"Baldrick is played not by Tony Robinson, but by Philip Fox.",
"Another significant difference is that the character of Prince Edmund presented in the pilot is much closer to the intelligent, conniving Blackadder of the later series than the snivelling, weak buffoon of the original.",
"Set in the year 1582, the script of the pilot is roughly the same as the episode \"Born to be King\", albeit with some different jokes, with some lines appearing in other episodes of the series.",
"====''Blackadder: The Cavalier Years''====\n\nThis special, set in the English Civil War, was shown as part of Comic Relief's Red Nose Day on Friday 5 February 1988.",
"The 15-minute episode is set in November 1648, during the last days of the Civil War.",
"Sir Edmund Blackadder and his servant, Baldrick, are the last two men loyal to the defeated King Charles I of England (played by Stephen Fry, portrayed as a soft-spoken, ineffective, slightly dim character, with the voice and mannerisms of Charles I's namesake, the current Prince of Wales).",
"However, due to a misunderstanding between Oliver Cromwell (guest-star Warren Clarke) and Baldrick, the king is arrested and sent to the Tower of London.",
"The rest of the episode revolves around Blackadder's attempts to save the king, as well as improve his standing.",
"====''Blackadder's Christmas Carol''====\n\nThe second special was broadcast on Friday 23 December 1988.",
"In a twist on Charles Dickens' ''A Christmas Carol'', Ebenezer Blackadder is the \"kindest and loveliest\" man in England.",
"The Spirit of Christmas shows Blackadder the contrary antics of his ancestors and descendants, and reluctantly informs him that if he turns evil his descendants will enjoy power and fortune, while if he remains the same a future Blackadder will live shamefully subjugated to a future incompetent Baldrick.",
"This remarkable encounter causes him to proclaim, \"Bad guys have all the fun\", and adopt the personality with which viewers are more familiar.",
"====''Blackadder: Back & Forth''====\n\n''Blackadder: Back & Forth'' was originally shown in the Millennium Dome in 2000, followed by a screening on Sky One in the same year (and later on BBC1).",
"It is set on the turn of the millennium, and features Lord Blackadder placing a bet with his friends – modern versions of Queenie (Miranda Richardson), Melchett (Stephen Fry), George (Hugh Laurie) and Darling (Tim McInnerny) – that he has built a working time machine.",
"While this is intended as a clever con trick, the machine, surprisingly, works, sending Blackadder and Baldrick back to the Cretaceous period, where they manage to cause the extinction of the dinosaurs, through the use of Baldrick's best-worst-and-only pair of underpants as a weapon against a hungry T. Rex.",
"Finding that Baldrick has forgotten to write dates on the machine's dials, the rest of the film follows their attempts to find their way back to 1999, often creating huge historical anomalies in the process that must be corrected before the end.",
"The film includes cameo appearances from Kate Moss and Colin Firth.",
"===Chronological order===\n\n\n Title !",
"!",
"Type !",
"!",
"Production / air date !",
"!",
"Set in century\n\n ''The Black Adder (pilot)'' \n Pilot \n 1982 (unaired) \n 16th\n\n ''The Black Adder'' \n Series \n 1983 \n 15th\n\n ''Blackadder II'' \n Series \n 1986 \n 16th\n\n ''Blackadder the Third'' \n Series \n 1987 \n 18th-19th\n\n ''Blackadder: The Cavalier Years'' \n Comic Relief Special \n 1988 \n 17th\n\n ''Children in Need'' \n Special \n 1988 \n Unclear (anachronistic)\n\n ''Clown Court'' \n Special \n 1988 \n Unclear (anachronistic)\n\n ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol'' \n Christmas Special \n 1988 \n 19th\n\n ''Woman's Hour Invasion'' \n Radio \n 1988 \n 20th, Various\n\n ''Blackadder Goes Forth'' \n Series \n 1989 \n 20th\n\n ''Blackadder and the King's Birthday'' \n Sketch \n 1998 \n 17th\n\n ''Blackadder: Back & Forth'' \n Millennium Special \n 1999 \n 20th, Various\n\n ''Blackadder: The Army Years'' \n Theatre \n 2000 \n 21st\n\n ''The Royal Gardener/The Jubilee Girl'' (for the Party at the Palace)\n Sketch \n 2002 \n 21st\n\n ''Blackadder Exclusive: The Whole Rotten Saga'' \n Documentary \n 2008 \n n/a\n\n ''Blackadder Rides Again'' \n Documentary \n 2008 \n n/a\n\n ''CEO of Melchett, Melchett and Darling Inquiry''\n \n Theatre \n 2012 \n 21st",
"\n===Series development===\nRowan Atkinson and Richard Curtis developed the idea for the sitcom while working on ''Not the Nine O'Clock News''.",
"Eager to avoid comparisons to the critically acclaimed ''Fawlty Towers'', they proposed the idea of a historical sitcom.",
"An unaired pilot episode was made in 1982, and a six episode series was commissioned.",
"The budget for the series was considerable, with much location shooting particularly at Alnwick Castle in Northumberland and the surrounding countryside in February 1983.",
"The series also used large casts of extras, horses and expensive medieval-style costumes.",
"Atkinson has said about the making of the first series:\n\nThe first series was odd, it was very extravagant.",
"It cost a million pounds for the six programmes ... which was a lot of money to spend ...",
"It looked great, but it wasn't as consistently funny as we would have liked.",
"Due to the high cost of the first series, the then-controller of programming of BBC1, Michael Grade, was reluctant to sign off a second series without major improvements and cost cutting to be made to the show, leaving a gap of three years between the two series.",
"Atkinson did not wish to continue writing for the second series.",
"A chance meeting between Richard Curtis and comedian Ben Elton led to the decision to collaborate on a new series of Blackadder.",
"Recognising the main faults of the first series, Curtis and Elton agreed that ''Blackadder II'' would be a studio-only production (along with the inclusion of a live audience during recording, instead of showing the episodes to one after taping).",
"Besides adding a greater comedy focus, Elton suggested a major change in character emphasis: Baldrick would become the stupid sidekick, while Edmund Blackadder evolved into a cunning sycophant.",
"This led to the familiar set-up that was maintained in the following series.",
"Only in the ''Back & Forth'' millennium special was the shooting once again on location, because this was a production with a budget estimated at £3 million, and was a joint venture between Tiger Aspect, Sky Television, the New Millennium Experience Company and the BBC, rather than the BBC alone.",
"===Casting===\n\nEach series tended to feature the same set of regular actors in different period settings, although throughout the four series and specials, only Blackadder and Baldrick were constant characters.",
"Several regular cast members recurred as characters with similar names, implying, like Blackadder, that they were descendants.",
"====Recurring cast====\nVarious actors have appeared in more than one of the Blackadder series and/or specials.",
"These are:\n\n\n\n\n''The Black Adder''\n''Blackadder II''\n''Blackadder the Third''\n''Blackadder Goes Forth''\n''Blackadder: The Cavalier Years''\n''Blackadder's Christmas Carol''\n''Blackadder: Back and Forth''\n\nRowan Atkinson\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nTony Robinson\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nTim McInnerny\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nHugh Laurie\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nStephen Fry\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nMiranda Richardson\n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n\nRik Mayall\n \n \n\n \n\n \n \n\nMiriam Margolyes\n \n \n\n\n\n \n \n\nGabrielle Glaister\n \n \n\n\n\n \n \n\nBill Wallis\n \n \n\n \n\n \n \n\nRobbie Coltrane\n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n\nJim Broadbent\n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\nStephen Frost\n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\nMark Arden\n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\nLee Cornes\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nPatsy Byrne\n \n \n\n \n\n \n \n\nWarren Clarke\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nPhilip Pope\n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\nBarbara Miller\n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\nDavid Nunn\n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n\nDenis Lill\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n====Main cast====\n*Rowan Atkinson as Edmund Blackadder, the series' protagonist.",
"*Tony Robinson as S. Baldrick, his servant.",
"*Stephen Fry played Melchett in two series, first as Lord Melchett, the sycophantic adviser to Queen Elizabeth I in series two and secondly as General Melchett, a blustering buffoon and presumed descendant in series four.",
"Fry also appeared as Arthur Wellesley, The Duke Of Wellington in series three and as various characters in ''Blackadder Back & Forth''.",
"*Tim McInnerny played Lord Percy Percy, Blackadder's dimwitted sidekick in series one and two before a change of character to antagonist Captain Kevin Darling in series four.",
"He also appeared as The Scarlet Pimpernel (alias Lord Topper and Le Comte de Frou Frou) for one episode in the third series, and reprised his role as Darling in ''Blackadder: Back & Forth''.",
"*Hugh Laurie played George in series three and four, first as HRH The Prince Regent, and later Lieutenant George in series four.",
"Laurie also appeared twice in series two; firstly as Simon \"Farters Parters\" Partridge and then as Prince Ludwig the Indestructible in the final instalment of ''Blackadder II''.",
"He similarly reprised this role in ''Back & Forth''.",
"*Miranda Richardson was only a regular cast member for series two, where she played Queen Elizabeth I, reprising the role in ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol'' and ''Back & Forth''.",
"However, she also played significant one-off roles as Amy Hardwood (a.k.a.",
"The Shadow) in \"Amy and Amiability\" in the third series and Mary Fletcher-Brown, a dutiful nurse in \"General Hospital\" from the fourth.",
"====Non-recurring cast====\n*Brian Blessed, Elspet Gray and Robert East appeared in all six episodes of the first series as the Black Adder's father, mother and brother respectively.",
"Gray had also appeared in the non-broadcast pilot.",
"*Patsy Byrne played Nursie in all six episodes of ''Blackadder II'', but never featured in either of the subsequent series, either as a regular character or one-off.",
"She briefly reprised the character in ''Blackadder: Back & Forth'' and ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol''.",
"*Helen Atkinson-Wood played the role of Mrs. Miggins in all six episodes of ''Blackadder the Third'', but did not appear again in the series, although the character was mentioned several times in ''Blackadder II'' and in the final episode of ''Blackadder Goes Forth''.",
"====Guest cast====\nBen Elton's arrival after the first series heralded the more frequent recruitment of comic actors from the famed \"alternative\" era for guest appearances, including Robbie Coltrane, Rik Mayall (who had appeared in the final episode of the first series as \"Mad Gerald\"), Adrian Edmondson, Nigel Planer, Mark Arden, Stephen Frost, Chris Barrie and Jeremy Hardy.",
"Elton himself played an anarchist in ''Blackadder the Third''.",
"Gabrielle Glaister played Bob—an attractive girl who poses as a man—in both series 2 and 4.",
"Rik Mayall plays Lord Flashheart, a vulgar friend in his first appearance and then a successful rival of Blackadder in a later episode of series 2 and 4.",
"He also played a decidedly Flashheart-like Robin Hood in ''Back & Forth''.",
"Lee Cornes also appeared in an episode of all three Curtis-Elton series.",
"He appeared as a guard in the episode \"Chains\" of ''Blackadder II''; as the poet Shelley in the episode \"Ink and Incapability' of ''Blackadder the Third''; and as firing squad soldier Private Fraser in the episode \"Corporal Punishment\" of ''Blackadder Goes Forth''.",
"More \"establishment\"-style actors, some at the veteran stage of their careers, were also recruited for roles.",
"These included Peter Cook, John Grillo, Simon Jones, Tom Baker, Jim Broadbent, Hugh Paddick, Frank Finlay, Kenneth Connor, Bill Wallis, Ronald Lacey, Roger Blake, Denis Lill, Warren Clarke and Geoffrey Palmer, who played Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig in \"Goodbyeee\", the final episode of ''Blackadder Goes Forth''.",
"Miriam Margolyes played three different guest roles: The Spanish Infanta in The Queen of Spain's Beard, Lady Whiteadder in Beer, and Queen Victoria in Blackadder's Christmas Carol.",
"Unusually for a sitcom based loosely on factual events and in the historical past, a man was recruited for one episode essentially to play himself.",
"Political commentator Vincent Hanna played a character billed as \"his own great-great-great grandfather\" in the episode \"Dish and Dishonesty\" of ''Blackadder the Third''.",
"Hanna was asked to take part because the scene was of a by-election in which Baldrick was a candidate and, in the style of modern television, Hanna gave a long-running \"live\" commentary of events at the count (and interviewed candidates and election agents) to a crowd through the town hall window.",
"===Theme tune===\nHoward Goodall's theme tune has the same melody throughout all the series, but is played in roughly the style of the period in which it is set.",
"It is performed mostly with trumpets and timpani in ''The Black Adder'', the fanfares used suggesting typical medieval court fanfares; with a combination of recorder, string quartet and electric guitar in ''Blackadder II''; on oboe, cello and harpsichord (in the style of a minuet) for ''Blackadder the Third''; by The Band of the 3rd Battalion, Royal Anglian Regiment in ''Blackadder Goes Forth''; sung by carol singers in ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol''; and by an orchestra in ''Blackadder: The Cavalier Years'' and ''Blackadder: Back & Forth''.",
"In 2000, the fourth series, ''Blackadder Goes Forth'', ranked at 16 in the \"100 Greatest British Television Programmes\", a list created by the British Film Institute.",
"In 2004, a BBC TV poll for \"Britain's Best Sitcom\", ''Blackadder'' was voted the second best British sitcom of all time, topped by ''Only Fools and Horses''.",
"It was also ranked as the 20th Best TV Show of All Time by ''Empire'' magazine.",
"Despite regular statements denying any plans for a fifth series, cast members are regularly asked about the possibility of a new series.",
"In January 2005, Tony Robinson told ITV's ''This Morning'' that Rowan Atkinson was more keen than he has been in the past to do a fifth series, set in the 1960s (centred on a rock band called the \"Black Adder Five\", with Baldrick – a.k.a.",
"'Bald Rick' – as the drummer).",
"In the documentary ''Blackadder Rides Again'', Robinson stated that the series would present Blackadder as the bastard son of Queen Elizabeth II and running a Beatles-like rock band.",
"Rowan Atkinson, Tony Robinson, Hugh Laurie, Stephen Fry, Tim McInnerny and Miranda Richardson would have reprised their roles, and reportedly, Brian Blessed, Elspet Gray and Robert East would have returned from the first series to play Blackadder's biological family.",
"Robinson in a stage performance 1 June 2007, again mentioned this idea, but in the context of a movie.",
"One idea mentioned by Curtis was that it was Baldrick who had accidentally assassinated John F. Kennedy.",
"However, aside from a brief mention in June 2005,\nthere have been no further announcements from the BBC that a new series is being planned.",
"Furthermore, in November 2005, Rowan Atkinson told ''BBC Breakfast'' that, although he would very much like to do a new series set in Colditz or another prisoner-of-war camp during World War II, something which both he and Stephen Fry reiterated at the end of ''Blackadder Rides Again'', the chances of it happening are extremely slim.",
"There were a couple of ideas that had previously floated for the fifth series.",
"''Batadder'' was intended to be a parody of ''Batman'' with Baldrick as the counterpart of Robin (suggested by John Lloyd).",
"This idea eventually came to surface as part of the ''Comic Relief'' sketch \"Spider-Plant Man\" in 2005, with Atkinson as the title hero, Robinson as Robin, Jim Broadbent as Batman and Rachel Stevens as Mary Jane.",
"''Star Adder'' was to be set in space in the future (suggested by Atkinson), though this too was touched upon in ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol''.",
"On 10 April 2007, ''Hello!''",
"reported that Atkinson was moving forward with his ideas for a fifth series.",
"He said, \"I like the idea of him being a prisoner of war in Colditz.",
"That would have the right level of authority and hierarchy which is apparent in all the Blackadders.\"",
"A post on BlackAdderHall.com by Ben Elton in early 2007 said that ''Blackadder'' would return in some form, whether it be a TV series or movie.",
"Elton has since not given any more information on the putative ''Blackadder 5''.",
"During an interview in August 2007 about his movie ''Mr.",
"Bean's Holiday'', Atkinson was asked about the possibility of a further ''Blackadder'' series, to which the simple reply \"No, no chance\" was given:\n\n:\"There was a plan for a film set in the Russian revolution, a very interesting one called ''The Red Adder''.",
"He would have been a lieutenant in the Secret Police.",
"Then the revolution happened and at the end he is in the same office doing the same job but just the colours on his uniform have changed.",
"It was quite a sweet idea and we got quite a long way with it but in the end it died a death.\"",
"Stephen Fry has expressed the view that, since the series went out on such a good \"high\", a film might not be a good idea.",
"During his June 2007 stage performance, chronicled on the Tony Robinson's Cunning Night Out DVD, Robinson states that, after filming the ''Back & Forth special'', the general idea was to reunite for another special in 2010.",
"Robinson jokingly remarked that Hugh Laurie's success on ''House'' may make that difficult.",
"At the end of ''Blackadder Rides Again'', Robinson asked Tim McInnerny if he would do another series and he responded \"no\", because he thought people would not want to see them as they are now and would rather remember them for how they were.",
"In the same documentary, Rowan Atkinson voiced his similar view; 'Times past; that's what they were!'",
"However, Miranda Richardson and Tony Robinson expressed enthusiasm towards the idea of a series set in the Wild West, whilst John Lloyd favoured an idea for a series with a Neanderthal Blackadder.",
"Lastly, Stephen Fry suggested a series set in a prisoner of war camp during World War II, but later remarked that \"perhaps it's best to leave these things as a memory.\"",
"On 28 November 2012, Rowan Atkinson reprised the role at the \"We are most amused\" comedy gala for the Prince's Trust at the Royal Albert Hall.",
"He was joined by Tony Robinson as Baldrick.",
"In August 2015, Tony Robinson said in an interview \"I do think a new series of Blackadder is on the cards.",
"I have spoken to virtually all the cast about this now.",
"The only problem is Hugh Laurie's fee.",
"He's a huge star now.\"",
"All series and many of the specials are available on DVD and video.",
"Many are also available on BBC audio cassette.",
"As of 2008, a \"Best of BBC\" edition box set is available containing all four major series together with ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol'' and ''Back & Forth''.",
"All four series and the Christmas special are also available for download on iTunes.",
"===VHS releases===\n\n5 February 1990, BBC Enterprises Ltd released the first series on two single videos.",
"VHS video title\nYear of release\nEpisodes\nBBFC rating\n\n\n''The Blackadder- The Foretelling'' (BBCV 4293)\n\n5 February 1990\n\nThe Foretelling, Born to Be King, the Archbishop\n\nPG\n\n\n''The Blackadder- The Queen of Spain's Beard'' (BBCV 4296)\n\n5 February 1990\n\nThe Queen of Spain's Beard, Witchsmeller Pursuivant, The Black Seal\n\n15\n\n\n2 October 1989, BBC Enterprises Ltd released the second series on two single videos.",
"VHS video title\nYear of release\nEpisodes\nBBFC rating\n\n\n''Blackadder II- Parte the Firste'' (BBCV 4298)\n\n2 October 1989\n\nBells, Head, Potato\n\nPG\n\n\n''Blackadder II- Parte the Seconde'' (BBCV 4299)\n\n2 October 1989\n\nMoney, Beer, Chains\n\n15\n\n\n6 March 1989, BBC Enterprises Ltd released the third series on two single videos.",
"VHS video title\nYear of release\nEpisodes\nBBFC rating\n\n\n''Blackadder The Third- Dish and Dishonesty'' (BBCV 4142)\n\n6 March 1989\n\nDish and Dishonesty, Ink and Incapability, Nob and Nobility\n\nPG\n\n\n''Blackadder The Third- Sense and Senility'' (BBCV 4143)\n\n6 March 1989\n\nSense and Senility, Amy and Amibility, Duel and Duality\n\n15\n\n\n10 September 1990, BBC Enterprises Ltd released the fourth and final series on two single videos.",
"VHS video title\nYear of release\nEpisodes\nBBFC rating\n\n\n''Blackadder Goes Forth- Captain Cook'' (BBCV 4349)\n\n10 September 1990\n\nCaptain Cook, Corporal Punishment, Major Star\n\nPG\n\n\n''Blackadder Goes Forth- Private Plane'' (BBCV 4350)\n\n10 September 1990\n\nPrivate Plane, General Hospital, Goodbyeee\n\n15\n\n\nOn 7 September 1992, all eight single Blackadder video releases were re-released as four \"complete\" double VHS releases.",
"The four entire series videos were re-released as single video releases on 2 October 1995.",
"VHS video title\nYear of release/Cat No.",
"(Double Video)\nYear of release/Cat No.",
"(Single Video)\nEpisodes\nBBFC rating\n\n\n\n''The Blackadder- The Complete Entire Historic First Series''\n\n7 September 1992 (BBCV 4782)\n\n2 October 1995 (BBCV 5711)\n\nThe Foretelling, Born to Be King, the Archbishop, The Queen of Spain's Beard, Witchsmeller Pursuivant, The Black Seal\n\n15\n\n\n''Blackadder II- The Complete Entire Historic Second Series''\n\n7 September 1992 (BBCV 4785)\n\n2 October 1995 (BBCV 5712)\n\nBells, Head, Potato, Money, Beer, Chains\n\n15\n\n\n''Blackadder the Third- The Complete Entire Historic Third Series''\n\n7 September 1992 (BBCV 4786)\n\n2 October 1995 (BBCV 5713)\n\nDish and Dishonesty, Ink and Incapability, Nob and Nobility, Sense and Senility, Amy and Amibility, Duel and Duality\n\n15\n\n\n''Blackadder Goes Forth- The Complete Entire Historic Fourth Series''\n\n7 September 1992 (BBCV 4787)\n\n2 October 1995 (BBCV 5714)\n\nCaptain Cook, Corporal Punishment, Major Star, Private Plane, General Hospital, Goodbyeee\n\n15\n\n\nOn 5 January 1998, five episodes of the first two series were released on a 15 rated compiled video by BBC Worldwide Ltd.\n\n\n\nVHS video title\nYear of release\nEpisodes\n\n\n''The Very Best of Blackadder'' (BBCV 6360)\n\n5 January 1998\n\nSeries 1, Episode 3- The ArchbishopSeries 1, Episode 4- The Queen Of Spain's BeardSeries 2, Episode 1- BellsSeries 2, Episode 2- Head Series 2, Episode 6- Chains\n\n\nOn 4 November 1991, ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol'' was released on a single video release rated PG (Cat.",
"No.",
"BBCV 4646)\n\n===Single DVD releases===\n\n\nDVD title !",
"!",
"Region 1 !",
"!",
"Region 2 !",
"!",
"Region 4\n\nSeries 1''The Black Adder''\n 26 June 2001 \n 1 November 1999 \n 29 November 1999\n\nSeries 2''Blackadder II'' \n 26 June 2001 \n 6 November 2000 \n 11 July 2001\n\nSeries 3''Blackadder the Third''\n 26 June 2001 \n 5 February 2001 \n 3 October 2001\n\nSeries 4''Blackadder Goes Forth'' \n 26 June 2001 \n 22 October 2001 \n 28 February 2002\n\nSpecial 1 \"Blackadder's Christmas Carol\" \n 26 June 2001 \n 18 November 2002 \n 4 November 2002\n\nSpecial 2\"Blackadder: Back & Forth\" \n 26 June 2001 \n 15 September 2003 \n 11 November 2004\n\n\n===Box set DVD releases===\n\n\nDVD title !",
"!",
"DVD content !",
"!",
"Region 1 !",
"!",
"Region 2 !",
"!",
"Region 4\n\n The Complete Blackadder – All Four Series \nThe Black AdderBlackadder IIBlackadder The ThirdBlackadder Goes Forth\n \n 12 November 2001 \n 3 October 2002\n\n Blackadder – The Complete Series \nThe Black AdderBlackadder IIBlackadder The ThirdBlackadder Goes ForthBlackadder's Christmas CarolBlackadder: Back & ForthBlackadder: The Cavalier Years\n 26 June 2001 \n 3 October 2005 \n \n\n Blackadder Remastered – The Ultimate Edition \nThe Black Adder (Remastered)Blackadder II (Remastered)Blackadder the Third (Remastered)Blackadder Goes Forth (Remastered)Blackadder's Christmas Carol (Remastered)Blackadder: Back & Forth (Remastered)Blackadder: The Cavalier Years (Remastered)Blackadder Rides Again+Audio Commentary+Interviews\n 20 October 2009 \n 15 June 2009 \n 1 October 2009",
"* Richard Curtis, Ben Elton, and Rowan Atkinson, ''Blackadder: The Whole Damn Dynasty 1485–1917'' (Penguin Books, 2000).",
".",
"Being the—almost—complete scripts of the four regular series.",
"* Chris Howarth, and Steve Lyons, ''Cunning: The Blackadder Programme Guide'' (Virgin Publishing, 2002).",
".",
"An unofficial guide to the series, with asides, anecdotes and observations.",
"* Richard Curtis and Ben Elton, ''Blackadder: Back & Forth'' (Penguin Books, 2000).",
".",
"A script book with copious photographs from the most recent outing.",
"* J.F.",
"Roberts, ''The True History of the Black Adder: The Unadulterated Tale of the Creation of a Comedy Legend'' (Preface publishing, 2000).",
".",
"A 420-page history of the Blackadder episodes and characters, as well as its birth, its writers and actors, and all the specials.",
"\n*\n*\n*"
] | finance |
[
"\n\nMap showing the approximate location of the Boii in Bohemia and in Italy. The contemporary La Tène culture is indicated in green tones, the preceding Hallstatt culture in yellow.\n\nThe '''Boii''' (Latin plural, singular ''Boius''; ) were a Gallic tribe of the later Iron Age, attested at various times in Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy), Pannonia (Hungary and its western neighbours), parts of Bavaria, in and around Bohemia (after whom the region is named in most languages; comprising the bulk of the Czech Republic), and Gallia Narbonensis. In addition the archaeological evidence indicates that in the 2nd century BC Celts expanded from Bohemia through the Kłodzko Valley into Silesia, now part of Poland and the Czech Republic.\n\nThey first appear in history in connection with the Gallic invasion of north Italy, 390 BC, when they made the Etruscan city of Felsina their new capital, Bononia (Bologna). After a series of wars they were decisively beaten by the Romans in a Battle of Mutina (193 BCE) and their territory became part of the Roman province of Cisalpine Gaul. According to Strabo, writing two centuries after the events, rather than being destroyed by the Romans like their Celtic neighbours,\n\nAround 60 BC, a group of Boii joined the Helvetii's ill-fated attempt to conquer land in western Gaul and were defeated by Julius Caesar, along with their allies, in the battle of Bibracte. Caesar settled the remnants of that group in Gorgobina, from where they sent two thousand to Vercingetorix's aid at the battle of Alesia six years later. The eastern Boii on the Danube were incorporated into the Roman Empire in 8 AD.\n",
"From all the different names of the same Celtic people in literature and inscriptions it is possible to abstract a Continental Celtic segment, ''boio''-. There are two major derivations of this segment, both presupposing that it belongs to the family of Indo-European languages: from 'cow' and from 'warrior.' The Boii would thus be either \"the herding people\" or \"the warrior people.\"\n\nThe \"cow\" derivation depends most immediately on the Old Irish legal term for \"outsider:\" ''ambue'', from Proto-Celtic ''*ambouios'' (<''*an-bouios''), \"not a cattle owner.\" In a reference to the first known historical Boii, Polybius relates that their wealth consisted of cattle and gold, that they depended on agriculture and war, and that a man's status depended on the number of associates and assistants he had. The latter were presumably the ''*ambouii'', as opposed to the man of status, who was ''*bouios'', a cattle owner, and the ''*bouii'' were originally a class, \"the cattle owners.\"\n\nDepiction of a soldier wearing a plumed pot helmet, Hallstatt culture bronze belt plaque from Vače, Slovenia, ca. 400 BC\nThe \"warrior\" derivation was adopted by the linguist Julius Pokorny, who presented it as being from Indo-European *bhei(ə)-, *bhī-, \"hit;\" however, not finding any Celtic names close to it (except for the Boii), he adduces examples somewhat more widely from originals further back in time: phohiio-s-, a Venetic personal name; Boioi, an Illyrian tribe; Boiōtoi, a Greek tribal name (\"the Boeotians\") and a few others. Boii would be from the o-grade of *bhei-, which is *bhoi-. Such a connection is possible if the original form of Boii belonged to a tribe of Proto-Indo-European speakers long before the time of the historic Boii. If that is the case, then the Celtic tribe of central Europe must have been a final daughter population of a linguistically diversifying ancestor tribe.\n\nThe same wider connections can be hypothesized for the \"cow\" derivation: the Boeotians have been known for well over a century as a people of kine, which might have been parallel to the meaning of Italy as a \"land of calves.\" Indo-European reconstructions can be made using \"cow\" as a basis, such as ; the root may itself be echoic of the sound a cow makes.\n\nContemporary derived words include ''Boiorix'' (\"king of the Boii\", one of the chieftains of the Cimbri) and ''Boiodurum'' (\"gate/fort of the Boii\", modern Passau) in Germany. Their memory also survives in the modern regional names of Bohemia (''Boiohaemum''), a mixed-language form from boio- and Proto-Germanic *''haimaz'', \"home\": \"home of the Boii,\" and 'Bayern', Bavaria, which is derived from the Germanic ''Baiovarii'' tribe (Germ. ''*baja-warjaz'': the first component is most plausibly explained as a Germanic version of ''Boii''; the second part is a common formational morpheme of Germanic tribal names, meaning 'dwellers', as in Old English ''-ware''); this combination \"Boii-dwellers\" may have meant \"those who dwell where the Boii formerly dwelt\".\n",
"Roman accounts of movements of the Boii\n\n===Settlement in north Italy===\nAccording to the ancient authors, the Boii arrived in northern Italy by crossing the Alps. While of the other tribes who had come to Italy along with the Boii, the Senones, Lingones and Cenomani are also attested in Gaul at the time of the Roman conquest, there is no such clear evidence for the Boii in Gaul. It remains therefore unclear where exactly the Central European origins of the Boii lay, if somewhere in Gaul, Southern Germany or in Bohemia.\n\nPolybius relates that the Celts were close neighbors of the Etruscan civilization and \"cast covetous eyes on their beautiful country.\" Invading the Po Valley with a large army, they drove out the Etruscans and resettled it, the Boii taking the right bank in the center of the valley. Strabo confirms that the Boii emigrated from their lands across the Alps and were one of the largest tribes of the Celts. The Boii occupied the old Etruscan settlement of Felsina, which they named ''Bononia'' (modern Bologna). Polybius describes the Celtic way of life in Cisalpine Gaul as follows:\n\n\nThe archaeological evidence from Bologna and its vicinity contradicts the testimony of Polybius and Livy on some points, who say the Boii expelled the Etruscans and perhaps some were forced to leave. It much rather indicates that the Boii neither destroyed nor depopulated Felsinum, but simply moved in and became part of the population by intermarriage. The cemeteries of the period in Bologna contain La Tène weapons and other artifacts, as well as Etruscan items such as bronze mirrors. At Monte Bibele not far away one grave contained La Tène weapons and a pot with an Etruscan female name scratched on it.\n\n===War against Rome===\nIn the second half of the 3rd century BC, the Boii allied with the other Cisalpine Gauls and the Etruscans against Rome. They also fought alongside Hannibal, killing the Roman general Lucius Postumius Albinus in 216 BC, whose skull was then turned into a sacrificial bowl. A short time earlier, they had been defeated at the Battle of Telamon in 224 BC, and were again at Placentia in 194 BC (modern Piacenza) and Mutina in 193 BC (modern Modena). After the loss of their capital, according to Strabo, a large portion of the Boii left Italy.\n\n===Boii on the Danube===\nContrary to the interpretation of the classical writers, the Pannonian Boii attested in later sources are not simply the remnants of those who had fled from Italy, but rather another division of the tribe, which had settled there much earlier. The burial rites of the Italian Boii show many similarities with contemporary Bohemia, such as inhumation, which was uncommon with the other Cisalpine Gauls, or the absence of the typically western Celtic torcs. This makes it much more likely that the Cisalpine Boii had actually originated from Bohemia rather than the other way round. Having migrated to Italy from north of the Alps, some of the defeated Celts simply moved back to their kinsfolk.\n\nThe Pannonian Boii are mentioned again in the late 2nd century BC when they repelled the Cimbri and Teutones (Strabo VII, 2, 2). Later on, they attacked the city of Noreia (in modern Austria) shortly before a group of Boii (32,000 according to Julius Caesar - the number is probably an exaggeration) joined the Helvetii in their attempt to settle in western Gaul. After the Helvetian defeat at Bibracte, the influential Aedui tribe allowed the Boii survivors to settle on their territory, where they occupied the ''oppidum'' of Gorgobina. Although attacked by Vercingetorix during one phase of the war, they supported him with two thousand troops at the battle of Alesia (Caes. Bell. Gall., VII, 75).\n\nAgain, other parts of the Boii had remained closer to their traditional home, and settled in the Slovak and Hungarian lowlands by the Danube and the Mura, with a centre at Bratislava. Around 60 BC they clashed with the rising power of the Dacians under their king Burebista and were defeated. When the Romans finally conquered Pannonia in 8 AD, the Boii seem not to have opposed them. Their former territory was now called ''deserta Boiorum'' (deserta meaning 'empty or sparsely populated lands'). However, the Boii had not been exterminated: There was a ''civitas Boiorum et Azaliorum'' (the Azalii being a neighbouring tribe) which was under the jurisdiction of a prefect of the Danube shore (''praefectus ripae Danuvii''). This civitas, a common Roman administrative term designating both a city and the tribal district around it, was later adjoined to the city of Carnuntum.\n",
"\n===Plautus===\nPlautus refers to the Boii in ''Captivi'':\n:''At nunc Siculus non est, Boius est, Boiam terit''\n:But now he is not a Sicilian — he is a Boius, he has got a Boio woman.\nThere is a play on words: ''Boia'' means \"woman of the Boii\", also \"convicted criminal's restraint collar\".\n\n===Livy===\nIn volume 21 of his ''Ab Urbe Condita Libri'', Livy (59 BC - 17 AD) claims that it was a Boio man that offered to show Hannibal the way across the Alps.\n\n\n===Inscriptions===\nIn the first century BC, the Boii living in an oppidum of Bratislava minted Biatecs, high-quality coins with inscriptions (probably the names of kings) in Latin letters. This is the only \"written source\" provided by the Boii themselves.\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Etymology and name",
"History",
"The Boii in ancient sources",
"Notes",
"Sources",
"Bibliography"
] | Boii | [
"Invading the Po Valley with a large army, they drove out the Etruscans and resettled it, the Boii taking the right bank in the center of the valley."
] | [
"\n\nMap showing the approximate location of the Boii in Bohemia and in Italy.",
"The contemporary La Tène culture is indicated in green tones, the preceding Hallstatt culture in yellow.",
"The '''Boii''' (Latin plural, singular ''Boius''; ) were a Gallic tribe of the later Iron Age, attested at various times in Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy), Pannonia (Hungary and its western neighbours), parts of Bavaria, in and around Bohemia (after whom the region is named in most languages; comprising the bulk of the Czech Republic), and Gallia Narbonensis.",
"In addition the archaeological evidence indicates that in the 2nd century BC Celts expanded from Bohemia through the Kłodzko Valley into Silesia, now part of Poland and the Czech Republic.",
"They first appear in history in connection with the Gallic invasion of north Italy, 390 BC, when they made the Etruscan city of Felsina their new capital, Bononia (Bologna).",
"After a series of wars they were decisively beaten by the Romans in a Battle of Mutina (193 BCE) and their territory became part of the Roman province of Cisalpine Gaul.",
"According to Strabo, writing two centuries after the events, rather than being destroyed by the Romans like their Celtic neighbours,\n\nAround 60 BC, a group of Boii joined the Helvetii's ill-fated attempt to conquer land in western Gaul and were defeated by Julius Caesar, along with their allies, in the battle of Bibracte.",
"Caesar settled the remnants of that group in Gorgobina, from where they sent two thousand to Vercingetorix's aid at the battle of Alesia six years later.",
"The eastern Boii on the Danube were incorporated into the Roman Empire in 8 AD.",
"From all the different names of the same Celtic people in literature and inscriptions it is possible to abstract a Continental Celtic segment, ''boio''-.",
"There are two major derivations of this segment, both presupposing that it belongs to the family of Indo-European languages: from 'cow' and from 'warrior.'",
"The Boii would thus be either \"the herding people\" or \"the warrior people.\"",
"The \"cow\" derivation depends most immediately on the Old Irish legal term for \"outsider:\" ''ambue'', from Proto-Celtic ''*ambouios'' (<''*an-bouios''), \"not a cattle owner.\"",
"In a reference to the first known historical Boii, Polybius relates that their wealth consisted of cattle and gold, that they depended on agriculture and war, and that a man's status depended on the number of associates and assistants he had.",
"The latter were presumably the ''*ambouii'', as opposed to the man of status, who was ''*bouios'', a cattle owner, and the ''*bouii'' were originally a class, \"the cattle owners.\"",
"Depiction of a soldier wearing a plumed pot helmet, Hallstatt culture bronze belt plaque from Vače, Slovenia, ca.",
"400 BC\nThe \"warrior\" derivation was adopted by the linguist Julius Pokorny, who presented it as being from Indo-European *bhei(ə)-, *bhī-, \"hit;\" however, not finding any Celtic names close to it (except for the Boii), he adduces examples somewhat more widely from originals further back in time: phohiio-s-, a Venetic personal name; Boioi, an Illyrian tribe; Boiōtoi, a Greek tribal name (\"the Boeotians\") and a few others.",
"Boii would be from the o-grade of *bhei-, which is *bhoi-.",
"Such a connection is possible if the original form of Boii belonged to a tribe of Proto-Indo-European speakers long before the time of the historic Boii.",
"If that is the case, then the Celtic tribe of central Europe must have been a final daughter population of a linguistically diversifying ancestor tribe.",
"The same wider connections can be hypothesized for the \"cow\" derivation: the Boeotians have been known for well over a century as a people of kine, which might have been parallel to the meaning of Italy as a \"land of calves.\"",
"Indo-European reconstructions can be made using \"cow\" as a basis, such as ; the root may itself be echoic of the sound a cow makes.",
"Contemporary derived words include ''Boiorix'' (\"king of the Boii\", one of the chieftains of the Cimbri) and ''Boiodurum'' (\"gate/fort of the Boii\", modern Passau) in Germany.",
"Their memory also survives in the modern regional names of Bohemia (''Boiohaemum''), a mixed-language form from boio- and Proto-Germanic *''haimaz'', \"home\": \"home of the Boii,\" and 'Bayern', Bavaria, which is derived from the Germanic ''Baiovarii'' tribe (Germ.",
"''*baja-warjaz'': the first component is most plausibly explained as a Germanic version of ''Boii''; the second part is a common formational morpheme of Germanic tribal names, meaning 'dwellers', as in Old English ''-ware''); this combination \"Boii-dwellers\" may have meant \"those who dwell where the Boii formerly dwelt\".",
"Roman accounts of movements of the Boii\n\n===Settlement in north Italy===\nAccording to the ancient authors, the Boii arrived in northern Italy by crossing the Alps.",
"While of the other tribes who had come to Italy along with the Boii, the Senones, Lingones and Cenomani are also attested in Gaul at the time of the Roman conquest, there is no such clear evidence for the Boii in Gaul.",
"It remains therefore unclear where exactly the Central European origins of the Boii lay, if somewhere in Gaul, Southern Germany or in Bohemia.",
"Polybius relates that the Celts were close neighbors of the Etruscan civilization and \"cast covetous eyes on their beautiful country.\"",
"Strabo confirms that the Boii emigrated from their lands across the Alps and were one of the largest tribes of the Celts.",
"The Boii occupied the old Etruscan settlement of Felsina, which they named ''Bononia'' (modern Bologna).",
"Polybius describes the Celtic way of life in Cisalpine Gaul as follows:\n\n\nThe archaeological evidence from Bologna and its vicinity contradicts the testimony of Polybius and Livy on some points, who say the Boii expelled the Etruscans and perhaps some were forced to leave.",
"It much rather indicates that the Boii neither destroyed nor depopulated Felsinum, but simply moved in and became part of the population by intermarriage.",
"The cemeteries of the period in Bologna contain La Tène weapons and other artifacts, as well as Etruscan items such as bronze mirrors.",
"At Monte Bibele not far away one grave contained La Tène weapons and a pot with an Etruscan female name scratched on it.",
"===War against Rome===\nIn the second half of the 3rd century BC, the Boii allied with the other Cisalpine Gauls and the Etruscans against Rome.",
"They also fought alongside Hannibal, killing the Roman general Lucius Postumius Albinus in 216 BC, whose skull was then turned into a sacrificial bowl.",
"A short time earlier, they had been defeated at the Battle of Telamon in 224 BC, and were again at Placentia in 194 BC (modern Piacenza) and Mutina in 193 BC (modern Modena).",
"After the loss of their capital, according to Strabo, a large portion of the Boii left Italy.",
"===Boii on the Danube===\nContrary to the interpretation of the classical writers, the Pannonian Boii attested in later sources are not simply the remnants of those who had fled from Italy, but rather another division of the tribe, which had settled there much earlier.",
"The burial rites of the Italian Boii show many similarities with contemporary Bohemia, such as inhumation, which was uncommon with the other Cisalpine Gauls, or the absence of the typically western Celtic torcs.",
"This makes it much more likely that the Cisalpine Boii had actually originated from Bohemia rather than the other way round.",
"Having migrated to Italy from north of the Alps, some of the defeated Celts simply moved back to their kinsfolk.",
"The Pannonian Boii are mentioned again in the late 2nd century BC when they repelled the Cimbri and Teutones (Strabo VII, 2, 2).",
"Later on, they attacked the city of Noreia (in modern Austria) shortly before a group of Boii (32,000 according to Julius Caesar - the number is probably an exaggeration) joined the Helvetii in their attempt to settle in western Gaul.",
"After the Helvetian defeat at Bibracte, the influential Aedui tribe allowed the Boii survivors to settle on their territory, where they occupied the ''oppidum'' of Gorgobina.",
"Although attacked by Vercingetorix during one phase of the war, they supported him with two thousand troops at the battle of Alesia (Caes.",
"Bell.",
"Gall., VII, 75).",
"Again, other parts of the Boii had remained closer to their traditional home, and settled in the Slovak and Hungarian lowlands by the Danube and the Mura, with a centre at Bratislava.",
"Around 60 BC they clashed with the rising power of the Dacians under their king Burebista and were defeated.",
"When the Romans finally conquered Pannonia in 8 AD, the Boii seem not to have opposed them.",
"Their former territory was now called ''deserta Boiorum'' (deserta meaning 'empty or sparsely populated lands').",
"However, the Boii had not been exterminated: There was a ''civitas Boiorum et Azaliorum'' (the Azalii being a neighbouring tribe) which was under the jurisdiction of a prefect of the Danube shore (''praefectus ripae Danuvii'').",
"This civitas, a common Roman administrative term designating both a city and the tribal district around it, was later adjoined to the city of Carnuntum.",
"\n===Plautus===\nPlautus refers to the Boii in ''Captivi'':\n:''At nunc Siculus non est, Boius est, Boiam terit''\n:But now he is not a Sicilian — he is a Boius, he has got a Boio woman.",
"There is a play on words: ''Boia'' means \"woman of the Boii\", also \"convicted criminal's restraint collar\".",
"===Livy===\nIn volume 21 of his ''Ab Urbe Condita Libri'', Livy (59 BC - 17 AD) claims that it was a Boio man that offered to show Hannibal the way across the Alps.",
"===Inscriptions===\nIn the first century BC, the Boii living in an oppidum of Bratislava minted Biatecs, high-quality coins with inscriptions (probably the names of kings) in Latin letters.",
"This is the only \"written source\" provided by the Boii themselves.",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\nThe '''Baltimore Orioles''' are an American professional baseball team based in Baltimore, Maryland. The Orioles compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member of the American League (AL) East division. As one of the AL's original eight charter franchises when the league was established in 1901, this particular franchise spent its first year as a major league club in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, as the '''Milwaukee Brewers''' before moving to St. Louis, Missouri to become the '''St. Louis Browns'''. After 52 often-beleaguered years in St. Louis, the franchise was purchased in November 1953 by a syndicate of Baltimore business and civic interests led by attorney/civic activist Clarence Miles and Mayor Thomas D'Alesandro, Jr. The team's current majority owner is lawyer Peter Angelos.\n\nThe Orioles adopted their team name in honor of the official state bird of Maryland; it had also been used by several previous major and minor league baseball clubs in Baltimore, including the team that moved and was later renamed the New York Yankees. Nicknames for the team include the '''\"O's\"''' and the '''\"Birds\"'''.\n\nThe Orioles experienced their greatest success from 1966 to 1983, when they made six World Series appearances, winning three of them (1966, 1970, 1983). This era saw the club feature several future Hall of Famers who would later be inducted representing the Orioles, such as third baseman Brooks Robinson, outfielder Frank Robinson, starting pitcher Jim Palmer, first baseman Eddie Murray, shortstop Cal Ripken, Jr., and manager Earl Weaver. The Orioles have won a total of nine division championships (1969–1971, 1973–1974, 1979, 1983, 1997, 2014), six pennants (1966, 1969–1971, 1979, 1983), and three wild card berths (1996, 2012, 2016). \n\nAfter suffering a stretch of 14 straight losing seasons from 1998 to 2011, the team has qualified for the postseason three times since 2012 under manager Buck Showalter, including a division title and advancement to the American League Championship Series for the first time in 17 years in 2014. The Orioles are also well known for their successful stadium, the trend-setting Oriole Park at Camden Yards, which opened in 1992 in downtown Baltimore.\n",
"\nThe modern Orioles franchise can trace its roots back to the original Milwaukee Brewers of the minor Western League, beginning in 1894, when the league reorganized. The Brewers were there when the WL renamed itself the American League in 1900.\n\n===Milwaukee Brewers===\nAt the end of the 1900 season, the American League removed itself from baseball's National Agreement (the formal understanding between the NL and the minor leagues). Two months later, the AL declared itself a competing major league. As a result of several franchise shifts, the Brewers were one of only two Western League teams that didn't fold, move or get kicked out of the league (the other being the Detroit Tigers). In its first game in the American League, the team lost to the Detroit Tigers 14–13 after blowing a nine-run lead in the 9th inning. To this day, it is a major league record for the biggest deficit overcome that late in the game. During the first American League season in 1901, they finished last (eighth place) with a record of 48–89. Its lone Major League season, the team played at Lloyd Street Grounds, between 16th and 18th Streets in Milwaukee.\n\n===St. Louis Browns===\n\nAfter one year in Milwaukee the club relocated to St Louis, and for a while enjoyed some success, especially in the 1920s behind Hall of Fame first baseman George Sisler. However, the team's fortunes declined from then on, as playing success and gate receipts instead went increasingly to the Browns' own tenants at Sportsman's Park, the National League Cardinals. During this period the Browns only won one pennant, in the 1944 season stocked with wartime replacement players, and lost to the Cardinals in the third and last World Series ever played entirely in one ballpark. In 1921 and 1922 the New York Giants and the New York Yankees played the entire World Series at the Polo Grounds in New York. In 1953, with the Browns unable to afford even stadium upkeep, owner Bill Veeck sold Sportsman's Park to the Cards and attempted to move the club back to Milwaukee, but this was vetoed by the other Major League owners. Instead, Veeck sold his franchise to a partnership of Baltimore businessmen.\n\n===Baltimore Orioles===\nThe \"Oriole Bird\", which has been the official mascot figure since April 6, 1979.\n\nThe Miles-Krieger (Gunther Brewing Company)-Hoffberger group renamed their new team the Baltimore Orioles soon after taking control of the franchise. The name has a rich history in Baltimore, having been used by a National League team in the 1890s. In 1901, Baltimore and McGraw were awarded an expansion franchise in the growing American League, naming the team the Orioles. After a battle with Ban Johnson, the Head of the American League in 1902, McGraw took many of the top players including Walter Scott \"Steve\" Brodie, Dan McGann, Roger Bresnahan and Joe McGinnity to the New York Giants. As an affront to Johnson, McGraw kept the black and orange colors of the New York Giants, which San Francisco wears to this day. In 1903, the rest of the team was transferred to New York where they were nicknamed the Highlanders until circa 1912, by which time Yanks or Yankees had taken over as their popular monicker. As a member of the high-minor league level International League, the Orioles competed at what is now known as the AAA level from 1903 to 1953; the IL Orioles' most famous player was a local Baltimore product, a hard-hitting lefthanded pitcher named George Herman Ruth. When Oriole Park burned down in 1944, the team moved to a temporary home, Municipal Stadium, where they won the Junior World Series. Their large postseason crowds caught the attention of the major leagues, eventually leading to a new MLB franchise in Baltimore.\n\n====Seeds of success (1954–1959)====\nAfter starting the 1954 campaign with a two-game split against the Tigers in Detroit, the Orioles returned to Baltimore on April 15 to a welcoming parade that wound through the streets of downtown, with an estimated 350,000 spectators lining the route. In its first-ever home opener at Memorial Stadium later in the afternoon, they treated a sellout crowd of 46,354 to a 3–1 victory over the Chicago White Sox. The remainder of the season would not be as pleasant, with the team enduring 100 losses while avoiding the AL cellar by only three games. With fellow investors both frustrated with his domination of the franchise's business operations and dissatisfied with yet another seventh-place finish, Clarence Miles resigned in early November 1955. Real estate developer James Keelty, Jr. succeeded him as president with investment banker Joseph Iglehart the new board chairman.\n\nThe seeds of long-term success were planted on September 14, 1954, when the Orioles hired Paul Richards to become the ballclub's manager and general manager. He laid the foundation for what would years later be called the '''''Oriole Way'''''. The instruction of baseball fundamentals became uniform in every detail between all classes within the organization. Players were patiently refined until fundamentally sound instead of being hastily advanced to the next level.\n\nFor the remainder of the 1950s, the Orioles crawled up the standings, reaching as high as fifth place with a 76–76 record in 1957. Richards succeeded in stocking the franchise with a plethora of young talent which included Dave Nicholson, Pete Ward, Ron Hansen (1960 AL Rookie of the Year), Milt Pappas, Jerry Adair, Steve Barber (20 wins in 1963), Boog Powell, Dave McNally and Brooks Robinson. Unfortunately, Richards also had the tendency to recklessly spend money on individuals with dubious baseball skills. This became a major problem as bidding wars between the ballclubs to land the best amateur players escalated signing bonuses.\n\nThe solution came on November 5, 1958, when Lee MacPhail was appointed general manager, allowing Richards to focus on his managerial duties. MacPhail added much needed discipline to the scouting staff by establishing cross-checkers who thoroughly evaluated young hopefuls to determine whether they were worthy of being tendered a contract. He also accepted the title of president after Keelty resigned in mid-December 1959.\n\n====Pennant contenders (1960–1965)====\nOne month prior to the end of the 1961 season, Richards resigned as the team's skipper to become the general manager of the expansion Houston Colt .45s. A year earlier, he succeeded in establishing the Orioles as a legitimate contender when they stood atop the AL standings as late as early September before finishing in second place at 89–65.\n\nIn 1964, the Birds, piloted by Hank Bauer in his first year of managing the ballclub, were involved in a tight pennant race against the Yankees and White Sox. They ended up in third place with a 97–65 record, only two games out. It has been suggested that they would likely have advanced to the Fall Classic had it not been for a minor wrist injury that sidelined Powell for two weeks in late August. Nevertheless, Robinson enjoyed a breakout season with a league-high 118 RBIs and won the AL Most Valuable Player Award.\n\nThe television/radio network of CBS' purchase of a majority stake in the Yankees on September 9 of that same year resulted in a change to the ownership situation in Baltimore. Iglehart, the Orioles' largest shareholder at 32% and owner of a sizable amount of CBS stock, straightened out his conflict of interest issues on May 25, 1965 by selling his 64,000 shares in the ball-club to the National Brewing Company, an original team investor which finally had controlling interest at 65%. Brewery president Jerold Hoffberger became the Orioles' new chairman of the board. Hoffberger's first action was installing Frank Cashen, the Director of Advertising for the National Brewery, as Senior Vice President & Chief Operating Officer for the Orioles.\n\nWith the benefit of a deep talent pool and superior scouts, the franchise continued to make improvements at the major league level. Three months before the start of the 1963 season, the Orioles stabilized its infield by acquiring Luis Aparicio in a transaction that involved sending a trio of homegrown players (Hansen, Nicholson and Ward) to the White Sox. They also scoured the minor leagues for selections in the Rule 5 draft (Paul Blair from the Mets in 1962, Moe Drabowsky from the Cardinals in 1965) and claims off waivers (Curt Blefary, 1965 AL Rookie of the Year, from the Yankees in 1963).\n\n====Milt Pappas for Frank Robinson====\nFrank Robinson statue by Antonio Tobias Mendez.\nOn December 9, 1965, the Orioles traded pitcher Milt Pappas (and several others) to the Cincinnati Reds in exchange for slugging outfielder Frank Robinson. The following year, Robinson won the American League Most Valuable Player award, thus becoming the first (and so far only) man to win the MVP in each league (Robinson won the NL MVP in 1961, leading the Reds to the pennant). In addition to winning the 1966 MVP, Robinson also won the Triple Crown (leading the American League in batting average, home runs, and runs batted in), a feat also achieved the following season by Boston's Carl Yastrzemski. The Orioles won their first-ever American League championship in 1966, and in a major upset, swept the World Series by out-dueling the defending World Champion Los Angeles Dodgers, whose pitching staff was led by aces Sandy Koufax and Don Drysdale. The only home run ball ever hit completely out of Memorial Stadium was slugged by Robinson on Mother's Day in 1966, off Cleveland Indians pitcher Luis Tiant. It cleared the left field single-deck portion of the grandstand. A flag was later erected near the spot the ball cleared the back wall, with simply the word \"HERE\" upon it. The flag is now in the Baltimore Orioles Museum.\n\nPappas went 30–29 in a little over two years with the Reds before being traded. Although he would go on to have back-to-back 17-win seasons for the Chicago Cubs in 1971 and 1972, including a no-hitter in the latter season, this did not help the Reds, who ended up losing the 1970 World Series to Robinson and the Orioles. This trade has become renowned as one of the most lopsided in baseball history, including a mention by Susan Sarandon in her opening soliloquy in the 1988 film ''Bull Durham'': \"Bad trades are a part of baseball. I mean, who can forget Frank Robinson for Milt Pappas?\"\n\n====Glory years (1966–1983)====\nIn the 1960s, the Orioles farm system produced an especially large number of high-quality players and coaches and laid the foundation for two decades of on-field success. This period included eighteen consecutive winning seasons (1968–1985) -- a run of success that saw the Orioles become the envy of the league, and the winningest team in baseball.\n\nDuring this period, the Orioles played baseball the \"Oriole Way\", an organizational ethic best described by longtime farm hand and coach Cal Ripken, Sr.'s phrase \"perfect practice makes perfect!\" The Oriole Way was a belief that hard work, professionalism, and a strong understanding of fundamentals were the keys to success at the major league level. It was based on the belief that if every coach, at every level, taught the game the same way, the organization could produce \"replacement parts\" that could be substituted seamlessly into the big league club with little or no adjustment. Elaborations on the Oriole way include pitching coach and manager Ray Miller's maxim \"Work fast, change speeds, and throw strikes\" and manager Earl Weaver's maxim \"Pitching, defense and three-run homers.\"\n\"\nThe \"Oriole Way\" began flourishing in 1966 after the Robinson-for-Pappas deal, as Robinson won the \"Triple Crown Award\". His Orioles would easily sweep the Los Angeles Dodgers in the 1966 World Series. After a mediocre 1967 season, Hank Bauer would be replaced by Earl Weaver halfway into 1968. The Orioles would finish second in the American League. This would only be a prelude to 1969, when the Orioles won 109 games and easily won the newly created American League East division title. Mike Cuellar shared the Cy Young Award with Detroit's Denny McLain. After sweeping Minnesota in the American League Championship Series, Baltimore was shocked by losing to the New York Mets in a five-game World Series. The next year, Boog Powell won the MVP and the Orioles won another 108 games. After sweeping the Twins once again in the ALCS, the Orioles won the 1970 World Series by defeating the Cincinnati Reds' Big Red Machine in five games.\n\nIn 1971, the Orioles won another division title thanks to four 20-game winners on their pitching staff (Cuellar, Jim Palmer, Pat Dobson, and Dave McNally). After defeating the young Oakland A's in the ALCS, the Orioles would lose a heartbreaking seven-game World Series to the Pittsburgh Pirates. The Orioles would miss the playoffs in 1972, but rebounded to win the division in 1973 and 1974. Each time, they would lose to Oakland in the ALCS. During this stretch, the Orioles began to phase out their veteran infield by replacing Davey Johnson and Brooks Robinson with younger stars Bobby Grich and Doug DeCinces, respectively. Johnson would be dealt along with Johnny Oates to the Atlanta Braves for catcher and 1971 National League Rookie of the Year Earl Williams. Although Williams had hit 63 home runs in two seasons with Atlanta, he would only hit 36 homers in two seasons with the Orioles.\n\nIn 1975, the Birds acquired slugger Lee May in a trade with Houston, and traded Dave McNally, Rich Coggins and minor-league pitcher Bill Kirkpatrick to Montreal for star outfielder Ken Singleton, and future 20-game winner Mike Torrez. Jim Palmer won the Cy Young Award, but the Orioles lost the division title to the Boston Red Sox and their mega-rookies Fred Lynn and Jim Rice. The 1976 season brought Reggie Jackson and Ken Holtzman from a trade with Oakland, but the Orioles only won 88 games. It was this season when the Orioles made a trade that brought them players such as Tippy Martinez and Rick Dempsey. This young foundation, along with the departures of the unhappy Jackson and Holtzman, would create the basis for 1977. The \"No Name Orioles\", along with Rookie of the Year Eddie Murray, won 97 games and finished tied for second place with Boston. After finishing fourth in 1978, the Orioles finally won the division in 1979 thanks to strong play from Ken Singleton and Cy Young winner Mike Flanagan. The Orioles defeated the Angels in the ALCS, but lost to Pittsburgh in another stunning World Series. This started a short period of heartbreak for Baltimore that would nevertheless culminate in a championship.\n\nThe Orioles won 100 games in 1980 thanks to Cy Young winner Steve Stone, but the Yankees won 103 games. Although Baltimore had the best overall record in the AL East in 1981, they finished second in each half. As a result, they were out of the playoffs due to the postseason structure that year because of the strike. The 1982 campaign saw Baltimore eliminated on the final weekend of the season by the Milwaukee Brewers. In an unforgettable scene, despite the season-ending loss eliminating them from the playoffs, fans stayed to honor the retiring Earl Weaver, who would be succeeded by Joe Altobelli. In 1983, Altobelli would lead the Orioles to 98 wins and a division title thanks to MVP Cal Ripken, Jr.. The Orioles defeated the Chicago White Sox in the ALCS thanks to a 10th-inning homer by Tito Landrum in the deciding game. The Orioles won the World Series in five games by defeating the Philadelphia Phillies.\n\nDuring their most productive years and only World Series championships thus far, the Orioles saw three of its players named MVP: Frank Robinson in 1966; Boog Powell in 1970; and Cal Ripken, Jr. in 1983. Additionally, Brooks Robinson was named Most Valuable Player in 1964, just two years before the 1966–1983 golden era began. The pitching staff was phenomenal, with four pitchers winning six Cy Young Awards (Mike Cuellar in 1969; Jim Palmer in 1973, 1975, and 1976; Mike Flanagan in 1979; and Steve Stone in 1980). In 1971, the team's four starting pitchers, McNally, Cuellar, Palmer, and Pat Dobson, all won 20 games, a feat that has not been replicated. In that year, the Birds went on to post a 101–61 record for their third-straight AL East title. Also during this stretch three players were named rookies of the year: Al Bumbry (1973); Eddie Murray (1977); and Cal Ripken, Jr. (1982). One might date the glory years of the Orioles dating back to 1964, which would include two third-place seasons, 1964–65, in which the Orioles won 97 and 94 games, respectively, and a year in which third-baseman Brooks Robinson won his Most Valuable Player Award (1964). The glory years of the Orioles effectively ended when the Detroit Tigers, a divisional rival at the time, went 35–5 to open the 1984 season on the way to winning the World Series, in which Hall-of-Fame pitcher Jim Palmer retired during the 1984 season.\n\n====Final seasons at Memorial Stadium (1984–1991)====\nThe Orioles hosting one of the final games at Memorial Stadium in 1991.\nAfter winning the 1983 World Series, the Orioles spent the next five years in steady decline, finishing 1986 in last place for the first time since the franchise moved to Baltimore. The team hit bottom in 1988 when it started the season 0–21, en route to 107 losses and the worst record in the majors that year. The \"Why Not?\" Orioles surprised the baseball world the following year by spending most of the summer in first place until September when the Toronto Blue Jays overtook them and seized the AL East title on the final weekend of the regular season. The next two years were spent below the .500 mark, highlighted only by Cal Ripken, Jr. winning his second AL MVP Award in 1991. The Orioles said goodbye to Memorial Stadium, the team's home for 38 years, at the end of the 1991 campaign.\n\nThe Orioles wordmark (1988–1994)\n\n====Camden Yards opens (1992–1993)====\n\nOpening to much fanfare in 1992, Oriole Park at Camden Yards was an instant success, spawning other retro-designed major league ballparks within the next two decades. The stadium became the site of the 1993 All-Star Game. The Orioles returned to contention in those first two seasons at Camden Yards, only to finish in third place both times.\n\n=====Angelos takes over=====\nAlso in 1993, with then-owner Eli Jacobs forced to divest himself of the franchise, Baltimore-based attorney Peter Angelos, along with the ownership syndicate he headed, was awarded the Orioles in bankruptcy court in New York City, returning the team to local ownership for the first time since 1979.\n\n====Strike year (1994)====\n\nAfter the 1993 season, the Orioles acquired first baseman Rafael Palmeiro from the Texas Rangers. The Orioles, who spent all of 1994 chasing the New York Yankees, occupied second place in the new five-team AL East when the players strike, which began on August 11, forced the eventual cancellation of the season.\n\n====Ripken breaks the streak (1995)====\nThe numbers on the Orioles' warehouse changed from 2130 to 2131 to celebrate Cal Ripken, Jr. passing Lou Gehrig's consecutive games played streak.\n\nThe labor impasse would continue into the spring of 1995. Almost all of the major league clubs held spring training using replacement players, with the intention of beginning the season with them. The Orioles, whose owner was a labor union lawyer, were the lone dissenters against creating an ersatz team, choosing instead to sit out spring training and possibly the entire season. Had they fielded a substitute team, Cal Ripken, Jr.'s consecutive games streak would have been jeopardized. The replacements questions became moot when the strike was finally settled.\n\nThe Ripken countdown resumed once the season began. Ripken finally broke Lou Gehrig's consecutive games streak of 2,130 games in a nationally televised game on September 6. This was later voted the all-time baseball moment of the 20th century by fans from around the country in 1999. Ripken finished his streak with 2,632 straight games, finally sitting on September 20, 1998, the Orioles final home game of the season against the Yankees at Camden Yards.\n\nThe Orioles finished two games under .500 (71–73) in third place in Phil Regan's only season of managing the ballclub.\n\n====Playoff years (1996–1997)====\n\n=====1996 season=====\n\nBefore the 1996 season, Angelos hired Pat Gillick as general manager. Given the green light to spend heavily on established talent, Gillick signed several premium players like B.J. Surhoff, Randy Myers, David Wells and Roberto Alomar. Under new manager Davey Johnson and on the strength of a then-major league record 257 home runs in a single season, the Orioles returned to the playoffs after a 12-year absence by clinching the AL wild card berth. Alomar set off a firestorm in September when he spat into home plate umpire John Hirschbeck's face during an argument in Toronto. He was later suspended for the first five games of the 1997 season, even though most wanted him banned from the postseason. After dethroning the defending American League champion Cleveland Indians 3–1 in the Division Series, the Orioles fell to the Yankees 4–1 in an ALCS notable for right field umpire Rich Garcia's failure to call fan interference in the first game of the series, when 12-year-old Yankee fan Jeffrey Maier reached over the outfield wall to catch an in-play ball, which was scored as a home run for Derek Jeter, tying the game at 4–4 in the eighth inning. Absent Maier's interference, it appeared as if the ball might have been off the wall or caught by right fielder Tony Tarasco. The Yankees went on to win the game in extra innings on an ensuing walk-off home run by Bernie Williams.\n\n=====1997 season=====\n\n\nThe Orioles went \"wire-to-wire\" (first place from start to finish) in winning the AL East title in 1997. After eliminating the Seattle Mariners 3–1 in the Division Series, the team lost again in the ALCS, this time to the underdog Indians 4–2, with each Oriole loss by only a run. Johnson resigned as manager after the season, largely due to a spat with Angelos concerning Alomar's fine for missing a team function being donated to Johnson's wife's charity. Pitching coach Ray Miller replaced Johnson.\n\n====Beginning of a downturn (1998–2002)====\n\n=====1998 season=====\n\n\nWith Miller at the helm, the Orioles found themselves not only out of the playoffs, but also with a losing season. When Gillick's contract expired in 1998, it was not renewed. Angelos brought in Frank Wren to take over as GM. The Orioles added volatile slugger Albert Belle, but the team's woes continued in the 1999 season, with stars like Rafael Palmeiro, Roberto Alomar, and Eric Davis leaving in free agency. After a second straight losing season, Angelos fired both Miller and Wren. He named Syd Thrift the new GM and brought in former Cleveland manager Mike Hargrove.\n\n=====1999 season=====\n\n\nLogo (1999–2008).In a rare event on March 28, 1999, the Orioles staged an exhibition series against the Cuban national team in Havana. The Orioles won the game 3–2 in 11 innings. They were the first Major League team to play in Cuba since 1959, when the Los Angeles Dodgers faced the Orioles in an exhibition. The Cuban team visited Baltimore in May 1999. Cuba won the second game 10–6.\n\n=====2000–2002 seasons=====\n\nCal Ripken, Jr. achieved his 3000th hit early in the season. A fire sale occurred late in the season, where the Orioles traded away many veterans for unproven young players and minor league prospects. The Orioles called up many of their AAA players to finish the season. The only acquired player that would have a long-term career with the organization was Melvin Mora.\n\n\nThis was Cal Ripken, Jr.'s final season. His number (8) was retired in a ceremony before the final home game of the season.\n\n\n\n====Post-Ripken era and downfall (2003–2011)====\n\n=====2003–2004 seasons=====\nThis version of the script logo has been on the front of the home jerseys since 2004.\n\nIn an effort to right the Orioles' sinking ship, changes began to sweep through the organization in 2003. General manager Syd Thrift was fired and to replace him, the Orioles hired Jim Beattie as executive vice-president and Mike Flanagan as the vice president of baseball operations. After another losing season, manager Mike Hargrove was not retained and Yankees coach Lee Mazzilli was brought in as the new manager. The team signed powerful hitters in SS Miguel Tejada, C Javy López, and former Oriole 1B Rafael Palmeiro. The following season, the Orioles traded for OF Sammy Sosa.\n\n=====2005 season=====\nThe Orioles taking on the Kansas City Royals at home in 2005.\n\n\nThe team got hot early in 2005 and jumped out in front of the AL East division, holding onto first place for 62 straight days. However, turmoil on and off the field began to take its toll as the Orioles started struggling around the All-Star break, dropping them close to the surging Yankees and Red Sox. Injuries to Lopez, Sosa, Luis Matos, Brian Roberts, and Larry Bigbie came within weeks of each other, and the team grew increasingly dissatisfied with the \"band-aid\" moves of the front office and manager Mazzilli to help them through this period of struggle. Various minor league players such as Single-A Frederick OF Jeff Fiorentino were brought up in place of more experienced players such as OF David Newhan, who had batted .311 the previous season.\n\nAfter starting the season 42–28 (.600), the Orioles finished the season with a stretch of 32–60 (.348), ending at 74–88 (.457). Only the Kansas City Royals (.346) had a worse winning percentage for the season than did the Orioles for the final 92 games. The club's major off-season acquisition, Sammy Sosa, posted his worst performance in a decade, with 14 home runs and a .221 batting average. The Orioles did not attempt to re-sign him. The Orioles also allowed Palmeiro to file for free agency and publicly stated they would not re-sign him. On August 25, pitcher Sidney Ponson was arrested for DUI, and on September 1, the Orioles moved to void his contract (on a morals clause) and released him. The Major League Baseball Players Association filed a grievance on Ponson's behalf and the case was sent to arbitration and was eventually resolved.\n\n=====2006 season=====\n\n\nIn the 2006 World Baseball Classic, the Orioles contributed more players than any other major league team, with eleven players suiting up for their home nations. Érik Bédard and Adam Loewen pitched for Canada; Rodrigo López and Gerónimo Gil (released before the season began by the club) played for Mexico; Daniel Cabrera and Miguel Tejada for the Dominican Republic; Javy López and Luis Matos for Puerto Rico; Bruce Chen for Panama; Ramón Hernández for Venezuela; and John Stephens for Australia. The Orioles finished the 2006 season with a record of 70 wins and 92 losses, 27 games behind the AL East-leading Yankees.\n\n=====2007 season=====\n\n\nOn June 18, the Orioles fired Sam Perlozzo after losing eight straight games. He was replaced on interim basis by Dave Trembley. On June 22, Miguel Tejada's consecutive-games streak came to an end due to an injury, the fifth-longest streak in major league history. Aubrey Huff became the first Oriole to hit for the cycle at home, on June 29 against the Angels. On July 7, Érik Bédard struck out 15 batters in a game against the Texas Rangers to tie a franchise record held by Mike Mussina. On July 31, 2007, Andy MacPhail named Dave Trembley as the Orioles manager through the remainder of the 2007 season, and advised him to \"Keep up the good work.\" Facing the Texas Rangers in a doubleheader at Camden Yards on August 22, the Orioles surrendered 30 runs in the first game, a modern-era record for a single game, in a 30–3 defeat. The Orioles led the game 3–0 after three innings of play. Sixteen of Texas' thirty runs were scored in the final two innings. The Orioles would also fall in the nightcap, 9–7.\n\n=====2008 season=====\n\n\nThe Orioles began the 2008 season in a rebuilding mode under President of Baseball Operations Andy MacPhail. The Orioles traded away star players Miguel Tejada to the Astros and ace Érik Bédard to the Seattle Mariners for prized prospect Adam Jones, lefty reliever George Sherrill, and minor league pitchers Kam Mickolio, Chris Tillman, and Tony Butler. The Orioles started off the first couple weeks of the season near the top of their division as players such as Nick Markakis and newcomer Luke Scott led the team offensively. Although the Orioles hovered around .500 for much of the season, they had fallen back by September and were over 20 games behind the first place Tampa Bay Rays. They finished the season losing 11 of their final 12 games and 28 of their final 34. The team finished last for the first time since their 1988 season.\n\nAfter the season ended, the Orioles showcased altered uniforms, with a circular 'Maryland' patch added to the left-hand sleeve of all jerseys and the grey road jerseys displaying \"Baltimore\" across the chest for the first time in a quarter-century; this reflected the arrival of the Washington Nationals, because ever since the Washington Senators had departed for Texas in 1972, the Orioles had claimed to represent the Baltimore-Washington metro area.\n\n=====2009 season=====\n\nAdam Jones and Nick Markakis, Orioles v. Tampa Bay Rays, Camden Yards, April 12, 2009.\n\nOn June 30, the Orioles rallied to score 10 runs against Boston Red Sox after facing a 10–1 deficit in the 7th inning, winning the game by 11–10, setting a Major League Baseball record for the largest comeback by a last-place team over a first-place team. However, the team finished the 2009 season with 64 wins and 98 losses, making it the worst record in the 2009 American League season. Despite this, Manager Dave Trembley was re-hired for the 2010 season. Centerfielder Adam Jones was named to the 2009 All Star team and awarded a Gold Glove award for his defensive play.\n\n=====2010 season=====\n\n\nOn April 12, the team set a club record for the lowest paid attendance in Camden Yards history, only 9,129 attended the game versus the Tampa Bay Rays. The Orioles then went 2–16 to begin the season, one of the worst openings in MLB history. For much of the first half of the season, they had the worst record in the league.\n\nOn June 4, with an 8 game losing streak and the worst record in the league at 15-39, the Orioles replaced Dave Trembley as manager with third base coach Juan Samuel as interim manager. They did well at first, but then they started losing again. The Orioles hired Buck Showalter on July 29 to be the full-time manager. He was introduced on August 2 and made his debut on August 3, after the Orioles fired Samuel. Showalter's arrival produced, or coincided with, a turnaround; the Birds went 34–24 in August, September and October.\n\nThe Orioles celebrate a 6–5 victory over the Mariners at Camden Yards on May 13, 2010.\n\n=====2011 season=====\n\n\nOn February 4, 2011, the Orioles signed free agent Vladimir Guerrero to be the team's designated hitter. Playing for the Texas Rangers during the 2010 season, Guerrero had hit 29 home runs, with a .300 batting average. (His career batting average was .320 with 436 home runs.)\n\nThe Orioles 2011 record was 69–93, the 14th consecutive losing season for the franchise dating back to 1998. The highlight of the season was their final game on September 28, when they defeated the Boston Red Sox 4–3 thanks to 9th inning heroics by Nolan Reimold and Robert Andino. The Orioles victory prevented the Red Sox from earning the wild card berth as part of \"Game 162\", one of the most dramatic nights in Major League Baseball history. On November 8, the Orioles announced the hiring of Dan Duquette as the vice president of baseball operations (de facto GM) in the hopes of turning the corner.\n\n====Return to success (2012–present)====\n\n=====2012 season=====\n\n\nThe Orioles finished the first half of the 2012 season with a winning record for only the second time since going wire to wire in 1997, with a record of 45–40 before the All-Star break. On May 6, the Orioles played a 17-inning game against the Boston Red Sox, the first game since 1925 in which both teams used a position player as a pitcher. The Orioles won that game, and designated hitter Chris Davis received the win. The Orioles won their 81st game on September 13, ending the streak of 14 straight years with a losing record, as well as ensuring that the team would spend the entire year with a record of .500 or higher. On September 16, they won their 82nd game, securing the first season with a winning record since 1997.\n\nOn September 21, closer Jim Johnson earned his 46th save of the season, setting a new Orioles franchise record for saves by one pitcher in a single season. It was previously held by Randy Myers, who had 45 saves in 1997. Johnson became the tenth player to record 50 saves in Major League history. He finished the regular season with 51 saves.\n\nWith the win against the Boston Red Sox on September 30 and the loss of the Los Angeles Angels to the Texas Rangers in the second game of a double header, the Orioles clinched a playoff berth. This season marked the Orioles return to postseason play.\n\nThe Orioles finished the regular season in second place in the AL East with a record of 93–69, reversing the 69–93 record from the previous year. Despite a poor run differential (+7, the lowest of all playoff teams in 2012), they benefited from a 29–9 record in games decided by one run and a 16–2 record in extra-inning games. They went on the road to face the team that finished first in the Wild Card race, the Texas Rangers for a one-game playoff series on October 5, winning 5–1 to advance to the ALDS against the New York Yankees on October 7.\n\nThe season was also distinctive for the fact that Orioles became the only team in MLB history, since 1900, never to have lost a game due to an opponent's walk-off hit. Despite a regular season of avoiding walk-off losses, they lost in Game 3 of the ALDS when Yankee Raúl Ibañez hit his own record-setting, game-winning home run in the bottom of the 12th inning. The Orioles would lose the 2012 American League Division Series in five games.\n\n=====2013 season=====\n\nDuring the home opener on April 5, first baseman Chris Davis set a new MLB record with 16 RBI's during the first four games of a season, as well as becoming the fourth player ever to hit home runs in the first four games, including a grand slam in the fourth. On September 13, Davis hit his 50th home run of the season, against the Toronto Blue Jays, tying Brady Anderson for the most home runs in Orioles history. Davis would break Anderson's record four days later against the Boston Red Sox. His 51st home run also tied Anderson's record of 92 extra-base hits in a single season, a record he would again break four days later. Davis would go on to finish the season with 53 home runs.\n\nOn September 18, the Orioles played their 114th errorless game of the season, setting a new MLB record for the most errorless games in one season since 1900. They played 119 games without an error, ending on September 27.\n\nOn September 20, the Orioles played the Tampa Bay Rays in an 18 inning game that lasted 6 hours, 54 minutes, a new record for the longest game in terms of time for both franchises, as well as innings for the Rays. The Rays won 5–4.\n\nWhile the Orioles would ultimately miss the playoffs in 2013, they finished with a record of 85–77, tying the Yankees for third place in the AL East. By posting winning records in 2012 and 2013, the Orioles achieved the feat of back-to-back winning seasons for the first time since 1996 and 1997.\n\n=====2014 season=====\n\nOn September 16, the Orioles clinched the division for the first time since 1997 with a win against the Toronto Blue Jays as well as making it back to the postseason for the second time in three years. The Orioles finished the 2014 season with a 96–66 record and went on to sweep the Detroit Tigers in the ALDS. Notably, the three Tigers starters were winners of the previous 3 AL Cy Young Awards; Max Scherzer (2013), Justin Verlander (2011), and David Price (2012). The O's were then in turn swept by the Kansas City Royals in the ALCS.\n\n=====2015 season=====\n\nOn April 26, the Orioles scored 18 runs against the Boston Red Sox, the most runs they had scored in a single game, since they defeated the Cleveland Indians 18–9 on April 19, 2006. The Orioles beat the Red Sox 18–7. On June 16, the Orioles scored 19 runs against the Philadelphia Phillies, making it the most runs the Orioles have scored since earlier in the season against the Red Sox. The Orioles had 8 home runs during the game, a franchise record. The team then later got their 5000th win as the Orioles on June 28 with a shutout 4–0 win over the Indians. On August 16, the Orioles defeated the Oakland Athletics 18–2, during which the team tied a franchise record for hits in a single game with 26. On September 11, the Orioles rallied from a two run deficit of 6–4 in the bottom of the 8th inning, against the Kansas City Royals. The Orioles won the game 14–8. The rally included left fielder Nolan Reimold and designated hitter Steve Clevenger both hitting their first career grand slams, making the Orioles the only franchise in the history of Major League Baseball to hit multiple grand slams in the same inning in two different games, the last time being in 1986. On September 30, in a reverse of fortune, the Toronto Blue Jays clinched the AL East with a win over the Orioles in Baltimore where they watched the Orioles celebrate their division title clinch the previous year.\n\n======Response to 2015 unrest======\nOut of an abundance of caution, the Baltimore Orioles announced the postponement of the April 27 and 28 games against the Chicago White Sox following violent riots in West Baltimore following the death of Freddie Gray. Following the announcement of the second postponement, the Orioles also announced that the third game in the series scheduled for Wednesday, April 29 was to be closed to the public and would be televised only, apparently the first time in 145 years of Major League Baseball that a game had no spectators and breaking the previous 131-year-old record for lowest paid attendance to an official game (the previous record being 6.) The Orioles beat the White Sox, 8–2. The Orioles said the make-up games would be played Thursday, May 28, as a double-header. In addition, the weekend games against the Tampa Bay Rays was moved to the Rays' home stadium in St. Petersburg where Baltimore played as the home team.\n",
"The 2012 uniforms. Left to right: Home, Away, Saturday (away with gray pants), Friday (away with gray pants.).\nThe Orioles' home uniform is white with the word \"Orioles\" written across the chest. The road uniform is gray with the word \"Baltimore\" written across the chest. A long campaign of several decades was waged by numerous fans and sportswriters to return the name of the city to the \"away\" jerseys which was used since the 1950s and had been formerly dropped during the 1970s era of Edward Bennett Williams when the ownership was continuing to market the team also to fans in the nation's capital region after the moving of the former Washington Senators in 1971. After several decades, approximately 20% of the team's attendance came from the metro Washington area. An alternate uniform is black with the word \"Orioles\" written across the chest. The Orioles wear their black alternate jerseys for Friday night games with the alternate \"O's\" cap, whether at home or on the road; the cartoon bird batting helmet is still used with this uniform (see description on home and road design).\n\nFor 2012, the team unveiled its new uniforms. There was a change to the cap insignia, with the cartoon Oriole returning. Home caps are white in front and black at the back with an orange bill, while the road caps are all black on top with an orange bill. The Orioles also introduced a new alternate orange uniform to be worn on Saturday home games throughout the 2012 season.\n\nIn 2013, ESPN ran a \"Battle of the Uniforms\" contest between all 30 Major League clubs. Despite using a ranking system that had the Orioles as a #13 seed, the Birds beat the #1 seed Cardinals in the championship round.\n\nOn June 27, 2014, the Orioles announced since their win in New York against the New York Yankees they will wear their 'new orange' jerseys every Saturday for the rest of the 2014 season both home and away. They have since continued to wear the orange jerseys on most Saturday road games.\n\nFor 2017, the Orioles began to use their batting practice caps for select games with the black uniforms. The aforementioned caps resemble their regular road caps save for the black bill.\n",
"\n\n===Radio===\nIn Baltimore, Orioles games on radio can be heard over WJZ-FM (105.7 FM). Fred Manfra and Joe Angel alternate as play-by-play announcers. WJZ-FM also feeds the games to a network of 36 stations, covering Washington, D.C. and all or portions of Maryland, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Virginia, West Virginia, and North Carolina.\n\nWJZ-FM is in its second stint as the Orioles' flagship radio outlet; the station had carried the team previously from 2007 through 2010. Previous radio flagships for the Orioles have been WCBM (680 AM) from 1954 to 1956, and again for the 1987 season; WBAL (1090 AM) over three separate stints (1957 to 1978, 1988 to 2006, and 2011 to 2014); and WFBR (1300 AM, now WJZ) from 1979 through 1986.\n\n===Television===\nThe Mid-Atlantic Sports Network (MASN), co-owned by the Orioles and the Washington Nationals, is the team's exclusive television broadcaster. MASN airs almost the entire slate of regular season games. Some exceptions include Saturday games on either Fox (via its Baltimore affiliate, WBFF) or Fox Sports 1, or ''Sunday Night Baseball'' on ESPN. Many MASN telecasts in conflict with Nationals' game telecasts air on an alternate MASN2 feed. MASN also produces an over-the-air package of games for broadcast locally by CBS–owned WJZ-TV (channel 13); these broadcasts are branded as '''\"MASN on WJZ 13\"'''. Veteran sportscaster Gary Thorne is the current lead television announcer, with Jim Hunter as his backup along with Hall of Fame member and former Orioles pitcher Jim Palmer and former Oriole infielder Mike Bordick as color analysts, who almost always work separately. All telecasts on MASN and WJZ-TV are shown in high-definition.\n\nAs part of the settlement of a television broadcast rights dispute with Comcast SportsNet Mid-Atlantic, the Orioles severed their Comcast ties at the end of the 2006 season. Comcast SportsNet had been the Orioles' cable partner since 1984, when it was Home Team Sports.\n\nWJZ-TV has been the Orioles' broadcast TV home since 1994. The station has previously carried the team from their arrival in Baltimore in 1954 through 1978; in the first four seasons, WJZ-TV shared coverage with Baltimore's other two stations, WMAR-TV and WBAL-TV. The games moved to WMAR from 1979 through 1993 before returning to WJZ-TV. From 1994 to 2009, some Orioles games aired on WNUV.\n\nSix former Oriole franchise radio announcers have received the Hall of Fame's Ford C. Frick Award for excellence in broadcasting: Chuck Thompson (who was also the voice of the old NFL Baltimore Colts); Jon Miller (now with the San Francisco Giants); Ernie Harwell, Herb Carneal; Bob Murphy and Harry Caray (as a St. Louis Browns announcer in the 1940s.).\n\nOther former Baltimore announcers include Josh Lewin (currently with New York Mets), Bill O'Donnell, Tom Marr, Scott Garceau, Mel Proctor, Michael Reghi, former major league catcher Buck Martinez (now Toronto Blue Jays play-by-play), and former Oriole players including Brooks Robinson, pitcher Mike Flanagan and outfielder John Lowenstein. In 1991, the Orioles experimented with longtime TV writer/producer Ken Levine as a play-by-play broadcaster. Levine was best noted for his work on TV shows such as ''Cheers'' and ''M*A*S*H'', but only lasted one season in the Orioles broadcast booth.\n",
"\n===\"O!\"===\nSince its introduction at games by the \"Roar from 34\", led by Wild Bill Hagy and others, in the late 1970s, it has been a tradition at Orioles games for fans to yell out the \"Oh\" in the line \"Oh, say does that Star-Spangled Banner yet wave\" in \"The Star-Spangled Banner\". \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" has special meaning to Baltimore historically, as it was written during the Battle of Baltimore in the War of 1812 by Francis Scott Key, a Baltimorean. \"O\" is not only short for \"Oriole\", but the vowel is also a stand-out aspect of the Baltimorean accent.\n\nThe tradition is often carried out at other sporting events, both professional or amateur, and even sometimes at non-sporting events where the anthem is played, throughout the Baltimore/Washington area and beyond. Fans in Norfolk, Virginia, chanted \"O!\" even before the Tides became an Orioles affiliate. The practice caught some attention in the spring of 2005, when fans performed the \"O!\" cry at Washington Nationals games at RFK Stadium. The \"O!\" chant is also common at sporting events for the various Maryland Terrapins teams at the University of Maryland, College Park. At Cal Ripken, Jr.'s induction into the National Baseball Hall of Fame, the crowd, comprising mostly Orioles fans, carried out the \"O!\" tradition during Tony Gwynn's daughter's rendition of \"The Star-Spangled Banner.\" Additionally, a faint but audible \"O!\" could be heard on the television broadcast of Barack Obama's pre-inaugural visit to Baltimore as the National Anthem played before his entrance. A resounding \"O!\" bellowed from the nearly 30,000 Ravens fans that attended the November 21, 2010, away game at the Carolina Panthers' Bank of America Stadium in Charlotte, North Carolina. A similar loud \"O!\" was heard from fans attending Super Bowl XLVII between the Baltimore Ravens and the San Francisco 49ers. The \"O!\" chant was also heard during the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, when Baltimore native Michael Phelps received one of his gold medals on August 9, 2016.\n\nIn recent years, when the Orioles host the Toronto Blue Jays, fans have begun to shout out the multiple instances of the word \"O\" in ''\"O Canada''\". Washington Capitals fans will do the same when they play one of the NHL's Canadian teams.\n\n===\"Thank God I'm a Country Boy\"===\nIt has been an Orioles tradition since 1975 to play John Denver's \"Thank God I'm a Country Boy\" during the seventh-inning stretch.\n\nIn the edition of July 5, 2007 of Baltimore's weekly sports publication ''Press Box'', an article by Mike Gibbons covered the details of how this tradition came to be. During \"Thank God I'm a Country Boy\", Charlie Zill, then an usher, would put on overalls, a straw hat, and false teeth and dance around the club level section (244) that he tended to. He also has an orange violin that spins for the fiddle solos. He went by the name Zillbilly and had done the skit from the 1999 season until shortly before he died in early 2013. During a nationally televised game on September 20, 1997, Denver himself danced to the song atop the Orioles' dugout, one of his final public appearances before dying in a plane crash three weeks later.\n\n===\"Orioles Magic\" and other songs===\nSongs from notable games in the team's history include \"One Moment in Time\" for Cal Ripken's record-breaking game in 1995, as well as the theme from ''Pearl Harbor'', \"There You'll Be\" by Faith Hill, during his final game in 2001. The theme from ''Field of Dreams'' was played at the last game at Memorial Stadium in 1991, and the song \"Magic to Do\" from the stage musical ''Pippin'' was used that season to commemorate \"Orioles Magic\" on 33rd Street. During the Orioles' heyday in the 1970s, a club song, appropriately titled \"Orioles Magic (Feel It Happen)\", was composed by Walt Woodward, and played when the team ran out until Opening Day of 2008. Since then, the song (a favorite among all fans, who appreciated its references to Wild Bill Hagy and Earl Weaver) is only played (along with a video featuring several Orioles stars performing the song) after wins. Seven Nation Army is played as a hype song while the fans chant the signature bass riff as a rally cry during key moments of a game or after a walk-off hit.\n\n===The First Army Band===\nDuring the Orioles' final homestand of the season, it is a tradition to display a replica of the 15-star, 15-stripe American flag at Camden Yards. Prior to 1992, the 15-star, 15-stripe flag flew from Memorial Stadium's center-field flagpole in place of the 50-star, 13-stripe flag during the final homestand. Since the move to Camden Yards, the former flag has been displayed on the batters' eye. During the Orioles' final home game of the season, The United States Army Field Band from Fort Meade performs the National Anthem prior to the start of the game. The Band has also played the National Anthem at the finales of three World Series in which the Orioles played in: 1970, 1971 and 1979. They are introduced as the \"First Army Band\" during the pregame ceremonies.\n",
"For 23 years, Rex Barney was the PA announcer for the Orioles. His voice became a fixture of both Memorial Stadium and Camden Yards, and his expression \"Give that fan a contract\", uttered whenever a fan caught a foul ball, was one of his trademarks – the other being his distinct \"Thank Yooooou...\" following every announcement. (He was also known on occasion to say \"Give that fan an error\" after a dropped foul ball.) Barney died on August 12, 1997, and in his honor that night's game at Camden Yards against the Oakland Athletics was held without a public–address announcer.\n\nBarney was replaced as Camden Yards' PA announcer by Dave McGowan, who held the position until December 2011.\n\nLifelong Orioles fan and former MLB Fan Cave resident Ryan Wagner is the current PA announcer. He was chosen out of a field of more than 670 applicants in the 2011–2012 offseason.\n",
"Of the eight original American League teams, the Orioles were the last of the eight to win the World Series, doing so in 1966 with its four–game sweep of the heavily favored Los Angeles Dodgers. When the Orioles were the St. Louis Browns, they played in only one World Series, the 1944 matchup against their Sportsman's Park tenants, the Cardinals. The Orioles won the first-ever American League Championship Series in 1969, and in 2012 the Orioles beat the Texas Rangers in the inaugural American League Wild Card game, where for the first time two Wild Card teams faced each other during postseason play.\n\n\n\nYear\nWild Card Game\nALDS\nALCS\nWorld Series\n\n1944\ncolspan=6 \nSt. Louis Cardinals\n\n\n'''1966'''\ncolspan=6 \nLos Angeles Dodgers\n\n\n1969\ncolspan=4 \nMinnesota Twins\n\nNew York Mets\n\n\n'''1970'''\ncolspan=4 \nMinnesota Twins\n\nCincinnati Reds\n\n\n1971\ncolspan=4 \nOakland Athletics\n\nPittsburgh Pirates\n\n\n1973\ncolspan=4 \nOakland Athletics\n\n\n\n1974\ncolspan=4 \nOakland Athletics\n\n \n\n1979\ncolspan=4 \nCalifornia Angels\n\nPittsburgh Pirates\n\n\n'''1983'''\ncolspan=4 \nChicago White Sox\n\nPhiladelphia Phillies\n\n\n1996\ncolspan=2 \nCleveland Indians\n\nNew York Yankees\n\n\n\n1997\ncolspan=2 \nSeattle Mariners\n\nCleveland Indians\n\n\n\n2012\nTexas Rangers\n\nNew York Yankees\n\n\n\n2014\ncolspan=2 \nDetroit Tigers\n\nKansas City Royals\n\n\n\n2016\nToronto Blue Jays\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n",
"\n\n\n===Ford C. Frick Award (broadcasters only)===\n\n\n===Retired numbers===\n\nThe Orioles will only retire a number when a player has been inducted into the Hall of Fame with Cal Ripken, Jr. being the only exception. However, the Orioles have placed moratoriums on other former Orioles's numbers following their deaths (see note below). To date, the Orioles have retired the following numbers:\n\n\n\n'''Note:''' Cal Ripken, Sr.'s number '''7''', Elrod Hendricks' number '''44''', and Mike Flanagan's number '''46''' have not officially been retired, but a moratorium has been placed on them and they have not been issued by the team since their deaths.\n\n†''Jackie Robinson's number 42 is retired throughout Major League Baseball''\n\n===Team Hall of Fame===\n\n\nThe Orioles also have an official team hall of fame, located on display on Eutaw Street at Camden Yards. The most recent inductees are John Lowenstein, Gary Roenicke, and Melvin Mora, who were inducted in 2015.\n\n===Team captains===\n*33 Eddie Murray, 1B/DH, 1986–1988\n",
"\n",
"\n\n\nLevel\nTeam\nLeague\nLocation\n\n ''AAA''\n Norfolk Tides\n International League\n Norfolk, Virginia\n\n ''AA''\n Bowie Baysox\n Eastern League\n Bowie, Maryland\n\n ''A Advanced''\n Frederick Keys\n Carolina League\n Frederick, Maryland\n\n ''A''\n Delmarva Shorebirds\n South Atlantic League\n Salisbury, Maryland\n\n''Short Season A''\n Aberdeen IronBirds\n New York–Penn League\n Aberdeen, Maryland\n\n''Rookie''\n GCL Orioles\n Gulf Coast League\n Sarasota, Florida\n\n DSL Orioles 1\n Dominican Summer League\n Dominican Republic\n\n DSL Orioles 2\n Dominican Summer League\n Dominican Republic\n\n",
"\n\n===Season records===\n\n===Individual records – Batting===\n*Highest batting average: .340, Melvin Mora (2004)\n*Most at bats: 673, B. J. Surhoff (1999)\n*Most plate appearances: 749, Brady Anderson (1992)\n*Most games: 163, Brooks Robinson (1961, 1964) and Cal Ripken (1996)\n*Most runs: 132, Roberto Alomar (1996)\n*Most hits: 214, Miguel Tejada (2006)\n*Most total bases: 370, Chris Davis (2013)\n*Highest slugging %: .646, Jim Gentile (1961)\n*Highest on-base %: .442, Bob Nieman (1956)\n*Most singles: 158, Al Bumbry (1980)\n*Most doubles: 56, Brian Roberts (2009)\n*Most triples: 12, Paul Blair (1967)\n*Most home runs, RHB: 49, Frank Robinson (1966)\n*Most home runs, LHB: 53, Chris Davis (2013)\n*Most home runs, leadoff hitter: 35, Brady Anderson (1996)\n*Most home runs, leading off game: 12, Brady Anderson (1996)\n*Most consecutive games leading off with a home run: 4, Brady Anderson (April 18, 1996 – April 21, 1996)\n*Most extra base hits: 96, Chris Davis (2013)\n*Most RBI, LHB: 142, Rafael Palmeiro (1996)\n*Most RBI, RHB: 150, Miguel Tejada (2004)\n*Most RBI, switch: 124, Eddie Murray (1985)\n*Most RBI, month: 37, Albert Belle (June 2000)\n*Most GWRBI: 25, Rafael Palmeiro (1998)\n*Most consecutive games hit safely: 30, Eric Davis (1998)\n*Most sac hits: 23, Mark Belanger (1975)\n*Most sac flies: 17, Bobby Bonilla (1996)\n*Most stolen bases: 57, Luis Aparicio (1964)\n*Most walks: 118, Ken Singleton (1975)\n*Most intentional walks: 25, Eddie Murray (1984)\n*Most strikeouts: 199, Chris Davis (2013)\n*Fewest strikeouts: 19, Rich Dauer (1980)\n*Most hit by pitch: 24, Brady Anderson (1999)\n*Most GIDP: 32, Cal Ripken (1985)\n*Most pinch hits: 24, Dave Philley (1961)\n*Most consecutive pinch hits: 6, Bob Johnson (1964)\n*Most pinch hit RBI: 18, Dave Philley (1961)\n\n===Individual records – Pitching===\n*Most games: 81, Jamie Walker (2007)\n*Most games, rookie: 67, Jorge Julio (2002)\n*Most games, started: 40, Dave McNally (1969–70), Mike Cuellar (1970), Jim Palmer (1976), and Mike Flanagan (1978)\n*Most games started, rookie: 36, Bob Milacki (1989)\n*Most complete games: 25, Jim Palmer (1975)\n*Most games finished: 63, Jim Johnson (2012–13)\n*Most wins: 25, Steve Stone (1980)\n*Most wins, rookie: 19, Wally Bunker (1964)\n*Most losses: 21, Don Larsen (1954)\n*Best won-lost %: .808, Dave McNally (1971)\n*Most bases on balls: 181, Bob Turley (1954)\n*Most hit batsmen: 18, Daniel Cabrera (2008)\n*Most strikeouts: 221, Érik Bédard (2007)\n*Most innings pitched: 323, Jim Palmer (1975)\n*Most innings pitched, rookie: 243, Bob Milacki (1989)\n*Most shutouts: 10, Jim Palmer (1975)\n*Most consecutive shutout innings: 36, Hal Brown (July 7, 1961 – August 8,1961)\n*Most home runs allowed: 35, 4 times; last: Jeremy Guthrie (2009)\n*Fewest home runs allowed (by qualifier): 8, Milt Pappas (209 IP) (1959) and Billy Loes (155 IP) (1957)\n*Lowest ERA (by qualifier): 1.95, Dave McNally (1968)\n*Highest ERA (by qualifier): 5.90, Rodrigo Lopez (2006)\n*Most saves: 51, Jim Johnson (2012)\n*Most saves, rookie: 27, Gregg Olson (1989)\n*Most wins, reliever: 14, Stu Miller (1965)\n*Most relief points: 131, Randy Myers (1997)\n*Most innings pitched by reliever: 140.1, Sammy Stewart (1983)\n*Most consecutive wins: 15, Dave McNally (April 12, 1969 – August 3, 1969)\n*Most consecutive losses: 10, Jay Tibbs (July 10, 1988 – October 1, 1988)\n*Most consecutive losses, start of season: 8, Mike Boddicker (1988) and Jason Johnson (2000)\n*Most wins vs. one club: 6, Wally Bunker vs. Kansas City (1964)\n*Most losses vs. one club: 5 Don Larsen vs. White Sox (1954), Joe Coleman vs. Yankees (1954), and Jim Wilson vs. Cleveland (1955)\n*Most wins by opponent: 6, Andy Pettitte, Yankees (2003) and Bud Daley, Kansas City (1959)\n*Most losses by opponent: 5, Ned Garver, Kansas City (1957), Dick Stigman, Minnesota (1963), Stan Williams, Cleveland (1969), and Catfish Hunter, Yankees (1976)\n",
"The Orioles have a burgeoning regional rivalry with the nearby Washington Nationals nicknamed the Beltway Series or Battle of the Beltways. Baltimore currently leads the series with a 26–20 record over the Nationals.\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"*Bready, James H. ''The Home Team''. 4th ed. Baltimore: 1984.\n*Eisenberg, John. ''From 33rd Street to Camden Yards''. New York: Contemporary Books, 2001.\n*Hawkins, John C. ''This Date in Baltimore Orioles & St. Louis Browns History''. Briarcliff Manor, New York: Stein & Day, 1983.\n*Miller, James Edward. ''The Baseball Business''. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1990.\n*Patterson, Ted. ''The Baltimore Orioles''. Dallas: Taylor Publishing Co., 1994.\n",
"\n*\n* Waldman, Ed. \"Sold! Angelos scored with '93 home run\", ''The Baltimore Sun'', August 1, 2004\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Uniform",
"Radio and television coverage",
"Musical traditions",
"PA announcer",
"Postseason appearances",
"Baseball Hall of Famers",
"Current roster",
"Minor league affiliates",
"Franchise records and award winners",
"Rivalry with the Washington Nationals",
"Notes",
"References",
"Bibliography",
"External links"
] | Baltimore Orioles | [
"bellowed from the nearly 30,000 Ravens fans that attended the November 21, 2010, away game at the Carolina Panthers' Bank of America Stadium in Charlotte, North Carolina."
] | [
"\n\n\n\nThe '''Baltimore Orioles''' are an American professional baseball team based in Baltimore, Maryland.",
"The Orioles compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member of the American League (AL) East division.",
"As one of the AL's original eight charter franchises when the league was established in 1901, this particular franchise spent its first year as a major league club in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, as the '''Milwaukee Brewers''' before moving to St. Louis, Missouri to become the '''St.",
"Louis Browns'''.",
"After 52 often-beleaguered years in St. Louis, the franchise was purchased in November 1953 by a syndicate of Baltimore business and civic interests led by attorney/civic activist Clarence Miles and Mayor Thomas D'Alesandro, Jr.",
"The team's current majority owner is lawyer Peter Angelos.",
"The Orioles adopted their team name in honor of the official state bird of Maryland; it had also been used by several previous major and minor league baseball clubs in Baltimore, including the team that moved and was later renamed the New York Yankees.",
"Nicknames for the team include the '''\"O's\"''' and the '''\"Birds\"'''.",
"The Orioles experienced their greatest success from 1966 to 1983, when they made six World Series appearances, winning three of them (1966, 1970, 1983).",
"This era saw the club feature several future Hall of Famers who would later be inducted representing the Orioles, such as third baseman Brooks Robinson, outfielder Frank Robinson, starting pitcher Jim Palmer, first baseman Eddie Murray, shortstop Cal Ripken, Jr., and manager Earl Weaver.",
"The Orioles have won a total of nine division championships (1969–1971, 1973–1974, 1979, 1983, 1997, 2014), six pennants (1966, 1969–1971, 1979, 1983), and three wild card berths (1996, 2012, 2016).",
"After suffering a stretch of 14 straight losing seasons from 1998 to 2011, the team has qualified for the postseason three times since 2012 under manager Buck Showalter, including a division title and advancement to the American League Championship Series for the first time in 17 years in 2014.",
"The Orioles are also well known for their successful stadium, the trend-setting Oriole Park at Camden Yards, which opened in 1992 in downtown Baltimore.",
"\nThe modern Orioles franchise can trace its roots back to the original Milwaukee Brewers of the minor Western League, beginning in 1894, when the league reorganized.",
"The Brewers were there when the WL renamed itself the American League in 1900.",
"===Milwaukee Brewers===\nAt the end of the 1900 season, the American League removed itself from baseball's National Agreement (the formal understanding between the NL and the minor leagues).",
"Two months later, the AL declared itself a competing major league.",
"As a result of several franchise shifts, the Brewers were one of only two Western League teams that didn't fold, move or get kicked out of the league (the other being the Detroit Tigers).",
"In its first game in the American League, the team lost to the Detroit Tigers 14–13 after blowing a nine-run lead in the 9th inning.",
"To this day, it is a major league record for the biggest deficit overcome that late in the game.",
"During the first American League season in 1901, they finished last (eighth place) with a record of 48–89.",
"Its lone Major League season, the team played at Lloyd Street Grounds, between 16th and 18th Streets in Milwaukee.",
"===St.",
"Louis Browns===\n\nAfter one year in Milwaukee the club relocated to St Louis, and for a while enjoyed some success, especially in the 1920s behind Hall of Fame first baseman George Sisler.",
"However, the team's fortunes declined from then on, as playing success and gate receipts instead went increasingly to the Browns' own tenants at Sportsman's Park, the National League Cardinals.",
"During this period the Browns only won one pennant, in the 1944 season stocked with wartime replacement players, and lost to the Cardinals in the third and last World Series ever played entirely in one ballpark.",
"In 1921 and 1922 the New York Giants and the New York Yankees played the entire World Series at the Polo Grounds in New York.",
"In 1953, with the Browns unable to afford even stadium upkeep, owner Bill Veeck sold Sportsman's Park to the Cards and attempted to move the club back to Milwaukee, but this was vetoed by the other Major League owners.",
"Instead, Veeck sold his franchise to a partnership of Baltimore businessmen.",
"===Baltimore Orioles===\nThe \"Oriole Bird\", which has been the official mascot figure since April 6, 1979.",
"The Miles-Krieger (Gunther Brewing Company)-Hoffberger group renamed their new team the Baltimore Orioles soon after taking control of the franchise.",
"The name has a rich history in Baltimore, having been used by a National League team in the 1890s.",
"In 1901, Baltimore and McGraw were awarded an expansion franchise in the growing American League, naming the team the Orioles.",
"After a battle with Ban Johnson, the Head of the American League in 1902, McGraw took many of the top players including Walter Scott \"Steve\" Brodie, Dan McGann, Roger Bresnahan and Joe McGinnity to the New York Giants.",
"As an affront to Johnson, McGraw kept the black and orange colors of the New York Giants, which San Francisco wears to this day.",
"In 1903, the rest of the team was transferred to New York where they were nicknamed the Highlanders until circa 1912, by which time Yanks or Yankees had taken over as their popular monicker.",
"As a member of the high-minor league level International League, the Orioles competed at what is now known as the AAA level from 1903 to 1953; the IL Orioles' most famous player was a local Baltimore product, a hard-hitting lefthanded pitcher named George Herman Ruth.",
"When Oriole Park burned down in 1944, the team moved to a temporary home, Municipal Stadium, where they won the Junior World Series.",
"Their large postseason crowds caught the attention of the major leagues, eventually leading to a new MLB franchise in Baltimore.",
"====Seeds of success (1954–1959)====\nAfter starting the 1954 campaign with a two-game split against the Tigers in Detroit, the Orioles returned to Baltimore on April 15 to a welcoming parade that wound through the streets of downtown, with an estimated 350,000 spectators lining the route.",
"In its first-ever home opener at Memorial Stadium later in the afternoon, they treated a sellout crowd of 46,354 to a 3–1 victory over the Chicago White Sox.",
"The remainder of the season would not be as pleasant, with the team enduring 100 losses while avoiding the AL cellar by only three games.",
"With fellow investors both frustrated with his domination of the franchise's business operations and dissatisfied with yet another seventh-place finish, Clarence Miles resigned in early November 1955.",
"Real estate developer James Keelty, Jr. succeeded him as president with investment banker Joseph Iglehart the new board chairman.",
"The seeds of long-term success were planted on September 14, 1954, when the Orioles hired Paul Richards to become the ballclub's manager and general manager.",
"He laid the foundation for what would years later be called the '''''Oriole Way'''''.",
"The instruction of baseball fundamentals became uniform in every detail between all classes within the organization.",
"Players were patiently refined until fundamentally sound instead of being hastily advanced to the next level.",
"For the remainder of the 1950s, the Orioles crawled up the standings, reaching as high as fifth place with a 76–76 record in 1957.",
"Richards succeeded in stocking the franchise with a plethora of young talent which included Dave Nicholson, Pete Ward, Ron Hansen (1960 AL Rookie of the Year), Milt Pappas, Jerry Adair, Steve Barber (20 wins in 1963), Boog Powell, Dave McNally and Brooks Robinson.",
"Unfortunately, Richards also had the tendency to recklessly spend money on individuals with dubious baseball skills.",
"This became a major problem as bidding wars between the ballclubs to land the best amateur players escalated signing bonuses.",
"The solution came on November 5, 1958, when Lee MacPhail was appointed general manager, allowing Richards to focus on his managerial duties.",
"MacPhail added much needed discipline to the scouting staff by establishing cross-checkers who thoroughly evaluated young hopefuls to determine whether they were worthy of being tendered a contract.",
"He also accepted the title of president after Keelty resigned in mid-December 1959.",
"====Pennant contenders (1960–1965)====\nOne month prior to the end of the 1961 season, Richards resigned as the team's skipper to become the general manager of the expansion Houston Colt .45s.",
"A year earlier, he succeeded in establishing the Orioles as a legitimate contender when they stood atop the AL standings as late as early September before finishing in second place at 89–65.",
"In 1964, the Birds, piloted by Hank Bauer in his first year of managing the ballclub, were involved in a tight pennant race against the Yankees and White Sox.",
"They ended up in third place with a 97–65 record, only two games out.",
"It has been suggested that they would likely have advanced to the Fall Classic had it not been for a minor wrist injury that sidelined Powell for two weeks in late August.",
"Nevertheless, Robinson enjoyed a breakout season with a league-high 118 RBIs and won the AL Most Valuable Player Award.",
"The television/radio network of CBS' purchase of a majority stake in the Yankees on September 9 of that same year resulted in a change to the ownership situation in Baltimore.",
"Iglehart, the Orioles' largest shareholder at 32% and owner of a sizable amount of CBS stock, straightened out his conflict of interest issues on May 25, 1965 by selling his 64,000 shares in the ball-club to the National Brewing Company, an original team investor which finally had controlling interest at 65%.",
"Brewery president Jerold Hoffberger became the Orioles' new chairman of the board.",
"Hoffberger's first action was installing Frank Cashen, the Director of Advertising for the National Brewery, as Senior Vice President & Chief Operating Officer for the Orioles.",
"With the benefit of a deep talent pool and superior scouts, the franchise continued to make improvements at the major league level.",
"Three months before the start of the 1963 season, the Orioles stabilized its infield by acquiring Luis Aparicio in a transaction that involved sending a trio of homegrown players (Hansen, Nicholson and Ward) to the White Sox.",
"They also scoured the minor leagues for selections in the Rule 5 draft (Paul Blair from the Mets in 1962, Moe Drabowsky from the Cardinals in 1965) and claims off waivers (Curt Blefary, 1965 AL Rookie of the Year, from the Yankees in 1963).",
"====Milt Pappas for Frank Robinson====\nFrank Robinson statue by Antonio Tobias Mendez.",
"On December 9, 1965, the Orioles traded pitcher Milt Pappas (and several others) to the Cincinnati Reds in exchange for slugging outfielder Frank Robinson.",
"The following year, Robinson won the American League Most Valuable Player award, thus becoming the first (and so far only) man to win the MVP in each league (Robinson won the NL MVP in 1961, leading the Reds to the pennant).",
"In addition to winning the 1966 MVP, Robinson also won the Triple Crown (leading the American League in batting average, home runs, and runs batted in), a feat also achieved the following season by Boston's Carl Yastrzemski.",
"The Orioles won their first-ever American League championship in 1966, and in a major upset, swept the World Series by out-dueling the defending World Champion Los Angeles Dodgers, whose pitching staff was led by aces Sandy Koufax and Don Drysdale.",
"The only home run ball ever hit completely out of Memorial Stadium was slugged by Robinson on Mother's Day in 1966, off Cleveland Indians pitcher Luis Tiant.",
"It cleared the left field single-deck portion of the grandstand.",
"A flag was later erected near the spot the ball cleared the back wall, with simply the word \"HERE\" upon it.",
"The flag is now in the Baltimore Orioles Museum.",
"Pappas went 30–29 in a little over two years with the Reds before being traded.",
"Although he would go on to have back-to-back 17-win seasons for the Chicago Cubs in 1971 and 1972, including a no-hitter in the latter season, this did not help the Reds, who ended up losing the 1970 World Series to Robinson and the Orioles.",
"This trade has become renowned as one of the most lopsided in baseball history, including a mention by Susan Sarandon in her opening soliloquy in the 1988 film ''Bull Durham'': \"Bad trades are a part of baseball.",
"I mean, who can forget Frank Robinson for Milt Pappas?\"",
"====Glory years (1966–1983)====\nIn the 1960s, the Orioles farm system produced an especially large number of high-quality players and coaches and laid the foundation for two decades of on-field success.",
"This period included eighteen consecutive winning seasons (1968–1985) -- a run of success that saw the Orioles become the envy of the league, and the winningest team in baseball.",
"During this period, the Orioles played baseball the \"Oriole Way\", an organizational ethic best described by longtime farm hand and coach Cal Ripken, Sr.'s phrase \"perfect practice makes perfect!\"",
"The Oriole Way was a belief that hard work, professionalism, and a strong understanding of fundamentals were the keys to success at the major league level.",
"It was based on the belief that if every coach, at every level, taught the game the same way, the organization could produce \"replacement parts\" that could be substituted seamlessly into the big league club with little or no adjustment.",
"Elaborations on the Oriole way include pitching coach and manager Ray Miller's maxim \"Work fast, change speeds, and throw strikes\" and manager Earl Weaver's maxim \"Pitching, defense and three-run homers.\"",
"\"\nThe \"Oriole Way\" began flourishing in 1966 after the Robinson-for-Pappas deal, as Robinson won the \"Triple Crown Award\".",
"His Orioles would easily sweep the Los Angeles Dodgers in the 1966 World Series.",
"After a mediocre 1967 season, Hank Bauer would be replaced by Earl Weaver halfway into 1968.",
"The Orioles would finish second in the American League.",
"This would only be a prelude to 1969, when the Orioles won 109 games and easily won the newly created American League East division title.",
"Mike Cuellar shared the Cy Young Award with Detroit's Denny McLain.",
"After sweeping Minnesota in the American League Championship Series, Baltimore was shocked by losing to the New York Mets in a five-game World Series.",
"The next year, Boog Powell won the MVP and the Orioles won another 108 games.",
"After sweeping the Twins once again in the ALCS, the Orioles won the 1970 World Series by defeating the Cincinnati Reds' Big Red Machine in five games.",
"In 1971, the Orioles won another division title thanks to four 20-game winners on their pitching staff (Cuellar, Jim Palmer, Pat Dobson, and Dave McNally).",
"After defeating the young Oakland A's in the ALCS, the Orioles would lose a heartbreaking seven-game World Series to the Pittsburgh Pirates.",
"The Orioles would miss the playoffs in 1972, but rebounded to win the division in 1973 and 1974.",
"Each time, they would lose to Oakland in the ALCS.",
"During this stretch, the Orioles began to phase out their veteran infield by replacing Davey Johnson and Brooks Robinson with younger stars Bobby Grich and Doug DeCinces, respectively.",
"Johnson would be dealt along with Johnny Oates to the Atlanta Braves for catcher and 1971 National League Rookie of the Year Earl Williams.",
"Although Williams had hit 63 home runs in two seasons with Atlanta, he would only hit 36 homers in two seasons with the Orioles.",
"In 1975, the Birds acquired slugger Lee May in a trade with Houston, and traded Dave McNally, Rich Coggins and minor-league pitcher Bill Kirkpatrick to Montreal for star outfielder Ken Singleton, and future 20-game winner Mike Torrez.",
"Jim Palmer won the Cy Young Award, but the Orioles lost the division title to the Boston Red Sox and their mega-rookies Fred Lynn and Jim Rice.",
"The 1976 season brought Reggie Jackson and Ken Holtzman from a trade with Oakland, but the Orioles only won 88 games.",
"It was this season when the Orioles made a trade that brought them players such as Tippy Martinez and Rick Dempsey.",
"This young foundation, along with the departures of the unhappy Jackson and Holtzman, would create the basis for 1977.",
"The \"No Name Orioles\", along with Rookie of the Year Eddie Murray, won 97 games and finished tied for second place with Boston.",
"After finishing fourth in 1978, the Orioles finally won the division in 1979 thanks to strong play from Ken Singleton and Cy Young winner Mike Flanagan.",
"The Orioles defeated the Angels in the ALCS, but lost to Pittsburgh in another stunning World Series.",
"This started a short period of heartbreak for Baltimore that would nevertheless culminate in a championship.",
"The Orioles won 100 games in 1980 thanks to Cy Young winner Steve Stone, but the Yankees won 103 games.",
"Although Baltimore had the best overall record in the AL East in 1981, they finished second in each half.",
"As a result, they were out of the playoffs due to the postseason structure that year because of the strike.",
"The 1982 campaign saw Baltimore eliminated on the final weekend of the season by the Milwaukee Brewers.",
"In an unforgettable scene, despite the season-ending loss eliminating them from the playoffs, fans stayed to honor the retiring Earl Weaver, who would be succeeded by Joe Altobelli.",
"In 1983, Altobelli would lead the Orioles to 98 wins and a division title thanks to MVP Cal Ripken, Jr..",
"The Orioles defeated the Chicago White Sox in the ALCS thanks to a 10th-inning homer by Tito Landrum in the deciding game.",
"The Orioles won the World Series in five games by defeating the Philadelphia Phillies.",
"During their most productive years and only World Series championships thus far, the Orioles saw three of its players named MVP: Frank Robinson in 1966; Boog Powell in 1970; and Cal Ripken, Jr. in 1983.",
"Additionally, Brooks Robinson was named Most Valuable Player in 1964, just two years before the 1966–1983 golden era began.",
"The pitching staff was phenomenal, with four pitchers winning six Cy Young Awards (Mike Cuellar in 1969; Jim Palmer in 1973, 1975, and 1976; Mike Flanagan in 1979; and Steve Stone in 1980).",
"In 1971, the team's four starting pitchers, McNally, Cuellar, Palmer, and Pat Dobson, all won 20 games, a feat that has not been replicated.",
"In that year, the Birds went on to post a 101–61 record for their third-straight AL East title.",
"Also during this stretch three players were named rookies of the year: Al Bumbry (1973); Eddie Murray (1977); and Cal Ripken, Jr. (1982).",
"One might date the glory years of the Orioles dating back to 1964, which would include two third-place seasons, 1964–65, in which the Orioles won 97 and 94 games, respectively, and a year in which third-baseman Brooks Robinson won his Most Valuable Player Award (1964).",
"The glory years of the Orioles effectively ended when the Detroit Tigers, a divisional rival at the time, went 35–5 to open the 1984 season on the way to winning the World Series, in which Hall-of-Fame pitcher Jim Palmer retired during the 1984 season.",
"====Final seasons at Memorial Stadium (1984–1991)====\nThe Orioles hosting one of the final games at Memorial Stadium in 1991.",
"After winning the 1983 World Series, the Orioles spent the next five years in steady decline, finishing 1986 in last place for the first time since the franchise moved to Baltimore.",
"The team hit bottom in 1988 when it started the season 0–21, en route to 107 losses and the worst record in the majors that year.",
"The \"Why Not?\"",
"Orioles surprised the baseball world the following year by spending most of the summer in first place until September when the Toronto Blue Jays overtook them and seized the AL East title on the final weekend of the regular season.",
"The next two years were spent below the .500 mark, highlighted only by Cal Ripken, Jr. winning his second AL MVP Award in 1991.",
"The Orioles said goodbye to Memorial Stadium, the team's home for 38 years, at the end of the 1991 campaign.",
"The Orioles wordmark (1988–1994)\n\n====Camden Yards opens (1992–1993)====\n\nOpening to much fanfare in 1992, Oriole Park at Camden Yards was an instant success, spawning other retro-designed major league ballparks within the next two decades.",
"The stadium became the site of the 1993 All-Star Game.",
"The Orioles returned to contention in those first two seasons at Camden Yards, only to finish in third place both times.",
"=====Angelos takes over=====\nAlso in 1993, with then-owner Eli Jacobs forced to divest himself of the franchise, Baltimore-based attorney Peter Angelos, along with the ownership syndicate he headed, was awarded the Orioles in bankruptcy court in New York City, returning the team to local ownership for the first time since 1979.",
"====Strike year (1994)====\n\nAfter the 1993 season, the Orioles acquired first baseman Rafael Palmeiro from the Texas Rangers.",
"The Orioles, who spent all of 1994 chasing the New York Yankees, occupied second place in the new five-team AL East when the players strike, which began on August 11, forced the eventual cancellation of the season.",
"====Ripken breaks the streak (1995)====\nThe numbers on the Orioles' warehouse changed from 2130 to 2131 to celebrate Cal Ripken, Jr. passing Lou Gehrig's consecutive games played streak.",
"The labor impasse would continue into the spring of 1995.",
"Almost all of the major league clubs held spring training using replacement players, with the intention of beginning the season with them.",
"The Orioles, whose owner was a labor union lawyer, were the lone dissenters against creating an ersatz team, choosing instead to sit out spring training and possibly the entire season.",
"Had they fielded a substitute team, Cal Ripken, Jr.'s consecutive games streak would have been jeopardized.",
"The replacements questions became moot when the strike was finally settled.",
"The Ripken countdown resumed once the season began.",
"Ripken finally broke Lou Gehrig's consecutive games streak of 2,130 games in a nationally televised game on September 6.",
"This was later voted the all-time baseball moment of the 20th century by fans from around the country in 1999.",
"Ripken finished his streak with 2,632 straight games, finally sitting on September 20, 1998, the Orioles final home game of the season against the Yankees at Camden Yards.",
"The Orioles finished two games under .500 (71–73) in third place in Phil Regan's only season of managing the ballclub.",
"====Playoff years (1996–1997)====\n\n=====1996 season=====\n\nBefore the 1996 season, Angelos hired Pat Gillick as general manager.",
"Given the green light to spend heavily on established talent, Gillick signed several premium players like B.J.",
"Surhoff, Randy Myers, David Wells and Roberto Alomar.",
"Under new manager Davey Johnson and on the strength of a then-major league record 257 home runs in a single season, the Orioles returned to the playoffs after a 12-year absence by clinching the AL wild card berth.",
"Alomar set off a firestorm in September when he spat into home plate umpire John Hirschbeck's face during an argument in Toronto.",
"He was later suspended for the first five games of the 1997 season, even though most wanted him banned from the postseason.",
"After dethroning the defending American League champion Cleveland Indians 3–1 in the Division Series, the Orioles fell to the Yankees 4–1 in an ALCS notable for right field umpire Rich Garcia's failure to call fan interference in the first game of the series, when 12-year-old Yankee fan Jeffrey Maier reached over the outfield wall to catch an in-play ball, which was scored as a home run for Derek Jeter, tying the game at 4–4 in the eighth inning.",
"Absent Maier's interference, it appeared as if the ball might have been off the wall or caught by right fielder Tony Tarasco.",
"The Yankees went on to win the game in extra innings on an ensuing walk-off home run by Bernie Williams.",
"=====1997 season=====\n\n\nThe Orioles went \"wire-to-wire\" (first place from start to finish) in winning the AL East title in 1997.",
"After eliminating the Seattle Mariners 3–1 in the Division Series, the team lost again in the ALCS, this time to the underdog Indians 4–2, with each Oriole loss by only a run.",
"Johnson resigned as manager after the season, largely due to a spat with Angelos concerning Alomar's fine for missing a team function being donated to Johnson's wife's charity.",
"Pitching coach Ray Miller replaced Johnson.",
"====Beginning of a downturn (1998–2002)====\n\n=====1998 season=====\n\n\nWith Miller at the helm, the Orioles found themselves not only out of the playoffs, but also with a losing season.",
"When Gillick's contract expired in 1998, it was not renewed.",
"Angelos brought in Frank Wren to take over as GM.",
"The Orioles added volatile slugger Albert Belle, but the team's woes continued in the 1999 season, with stars like Rafael Palmeiro, Roberto Alomar, and Eric Davis leaving in free agency.",
"After a second straight losing season, Angelos fired both Miller and Wren.",
"He named Syd Thrift the new GM and brought in former Cleveland manager Mike Hargrove.",
"=====1999 season=====\n\n\nLogo (1999–2008).In a rare event on March 28, 1999, the Orioles staged an exhibition series against the Cuban national team in Havana.",
"The Orioles won the game 3–2 in 11 innings.",
"They were the first Major League team to play in Cuba since 1959, when the Los Angeles Dodgers faced the Orioles in an exhibition.",
"The Cuban team visited Baltimore in May 1999.",
"Cuba won the second game 10–6.",
"=====2000–2002 seasons=====\n\nCal Ripken, Jr. achieved his 3000th hit early in the season.",
"A fire sale occurred late in the season, where the Orioles traded away many veterans for unproven young players and minor league prospects.",
"The Orioles called up many of their AAA players to finish the season.",
"The only acquired player that would have a long-term career with the organization was Melvin Mora.",
"This was Cal Ripken, Jr.'s final season.",
"His number (8) was retired in a ceremony before the final home game of the season.",
"====Post-Ripken era and downfall (2003–2011)====\n\n=====2003–2004 seasons=====\nThis version of the script logo has been on the front of the home jerseys since 2004.",
"In an effort to right the Orioles' sinking ship, changes began to sweep through the organization in 2003.",
"General manager Syd Thrift was fired and to replace him, the Orioles hired Jim Beattie as executive vice-president and Mike Flanagan as the vice president of baseball operations.",
"After another losing season, manager Mike Hargrove was not retained and Yankees coach Lee Mazzilli was brought in as the new manager.",
"The team signed powerful hitters in SS Miguel Tejada, C Javy López, and former Oriole 1B Rafael Palmeiro.",
"The following season, the Orioles traded for OF Sammy Sosa.",
"=====2005 season=====\nThe Orioles taking on the Kansas City Royals at home in 2005.",
"The team got hot early in 2005 and jumped out in front of the AL East division, holding onto first place for 62 straight days.",
"However, turmoil on and off the field began to take its toll as the Orioles started struggling around the All-Star break, dropping them close to the surging Yankees and Red Sox.",
"Injuries to Lopez, Sosa, Luis Matos, Brian Roberts, and Larry Bigbie came within weeks of each other, and the team grew increasingly dissatisfied with the \"band-aid\" moves of the front office and manager Mazzilli to help them through this period of struggle.",
"Various minor league players such as Single-A Frederick OF Jeff Fiorentino were brought up in place of more experienced players such as OF David Newhan, who had batted .311 the previous season.",
"After starting the season 42–28 (.600), the Orioles finished the season with a stretch of 32–60 (.348), ending at 74–88 (.457).",
"Only the Kansas City Royals (.346) had a worse winning percentage for the season than did the Orioles for the final 92 games.",
"The club's major off-season acquisition, Sammy Sosa, posted his worst performance in a decade, with 14 home runs and a .221 batting average.",
"The Orioles did not attempt to re-sign him.",
"The Orioles also allowed Palmeiro to file for free agency and publicly stated they would not re-sign him.",
"On August 25, pitcher Sidney Ponson was arrested for DUI, and on September 1, the Orioles moved to void his contract (on a morals clause) and released him.",
"The Major League Baseball Players Association filed a grievance on Ponson's behalf and the case was sent to arbitration and was eventually resolved.",
"=====2006 season=====\n\n\nIn the 2006 World Baseball Classic, the Orioles contributed more players than any other major league team, with eleven players suiting up for their home nations.",
"Érik Bédard and Adam Loewen pitched for Canada; Rodrigo López and Gerónimo Gil (released before the season began by the club) played for Mexico; Daniel Cabrera and Miguel Tejada for the Dominican Republic; Javy López and Luis Matos for Puerto Rico; Bruce Chen for Panama; Ramón Hernández for Venezuela; and John Stephens for Australia.",
"The Orioles finished the 2006 season with a record of 70 wins and 92 losses, 27 games behind the AL East-leading Yankees.",
"=====2007 season=====\n\n\nOn June 18, the Orioles fired Sam Perlozzo after losing eight straight games.",
"He was replaced on interim basis by Dave Trembley.",
"On June 22, Miguel Tejada's consecutive-games streak came to an end due to an injury, the fifth-longest streak in major league history.",
"Aubrey Huff became the first Oriole to hit for the cycle at home, on June 29 against the Angels.",
"On July 7, Érik Bédard struck out 15 batters in a game against the Texas Rangers to tie a franchise record held by Mike Mussina.",
"On July 31, 2007, Andy MacPhail named Dave Trembley as the Orioles manager through the remainder of the 2007 season, and advised him to \"Keep up the good work.\"",
"Facing the Texas Rangers in a doubleheader at Camden Yards on August 22, the Orioles surrendered 30 runs in the first game, a modern-era record for a single game, in a 30–3 defeat.",
"The Orioles led the game 3–0 after three innings of play.",
"Sixteen of Texas' thirty runs were scored in the final two innings.",
"The Orioles would also fall in the nightcap, 9–7.",
"=====2008 season=====\n\n\nThe Orioles began the 2008 season in a rebuilding mode under President of Baseball Operations Andy MacPhail.",
"The Orioles traded away star players Miguel Tejada to the Astros and ace Érik Bédard to the Seattle Mariners for prized prospect Adam Jones, lefty reliever George Sherrill, and minor league pitchers Kam Mickolio, Chris Tillman, and Tony Butler.",
"The Orioles started off the first couple weeks of the season near the top of their division as players such as Nick Markakis and newcomer Luke Scott led the team offensively.",
"Although the Orioles hovered around .500 for much of the season, they had fallen back by September and were over 20 games behind the first place Tampa Bay Rays.",
"They finished the season losing 11 of their final 12 games and 28 of their final 34.",
"The team finished last for the first time since their 1988 season.",
"After the season ended, the Orioles showcased altered uniforms, with a circular 'Maryland' patch added to the left-hand sleeve of all jerseys and the grey road jerseys displaying \"Baltimore\" across the chest for the first time in a quarter-century; this reflected the arrival of the Washington Nationals, because ever since the Washington Senators had departed for Texas in 1972, the Orioles had claimed to represent the Baltimore-Washington metro area.",
"=====2009 season=====\n\nAdam Jones and Nick Markakis, Orioles v. Tampa Bay Rays, Camden Yards, April 12, 2009.",
"On June 30, the Orioles rallied to score 10 runs against Boston Red Sox after facing a 10–1 deficit in the 7th inning, winning the game by 11–10, setting a Major League Baseball record for the largest comeback by a last-place team over a first-place team.",
"However, the team finished the 2009 season with 64 wins and 98 losses, making it the worst record in the 2009 American League season.",
"Despite this, Manager Dave Trembley was re-hired for the 2010 season.",
"Centerfielder Adam Jones was named to the 2009 All Star team and awarded a Gold Glove award for his defensive play.",
"=====2010 season=====\n\n\nOn April 12, the team set a club record for the lowest paid attendance in Camden Yards history, only 9,129 attended the game versus the Tampa Bay Rays.",
"The Orioles then went 2–16 to begin the season, one of the worst openings in MLB history.",
"For much of the first half of the season, they had the worst record in the league.",
"On June 4, with an 8 game losing streak and the worst record in the league at 15-39, the Orioles replaced Dave Trembley as manager with third base coach Juan Samuel as interim manager.",
"They did well at first, but then they started losing again.",
"The Orioles hired Buck Showalter on July 29 to be the full-time manager.",
"He was introduced on August 2 and made his debut on August 3, after the Orioles fired Samuel.",
"Showalter's arrival produced, or coincided with, a turnaround; the Birds went 34–24 in August, September and October.",
"The Orioles celebrate a 6–5 victory over the Mariners at Camden Yards on May 13, 2010.",
"=====2011 season=====\n\n\nOn February 4, 2011, the Orioles signed free agent Vladimir Guerrero to be the team's designated hitter.",
"Playing for the Texas Rangers during the 2010 season, Guerrero had hit 29 home runs, with a .300 batting average.",
"(His career batting average was .320 with 436 home runs.)",
"The Orioles 2011 record was 69–93, the 14th consecutive losing season for the franchise dating back to 1998.",
"The highlight of the season was their final game on September 28, when they defeated the Boston Red Sox 4–3 thanks to 9th inning heroics by Nolan Reimold and Robert Andino.",
"The Orioles victory prevented the Red Sox from earning the wild card berth as part of \"Game 162\", one of the most dramatic nights in Major League Baseball history.",
"On November 8, the Orioles announced the hiring of Dan Duquette as the vice president of baseball operations (de facto GM) in the hopes of turning the corner.",
"====Return to success (2012–present)====\n\n=====2012 season=====\n\n\nThe Orioles finished the first half of the 2012 season with a winning record for only the second time since going wire to wire in 1997, with a record of 45–40 before the All-Star break.",
"On May 6, the Orioles played a 17-inning game against the Boston Red Sox, the first game since 1925 in which both teams used a position player as a pitcher.",
"The Orioles won that game, and designated hitter Chris Davis received the win.",
"The Orioles won their 81st game on September 13, ending the streak of 14 straight years with a losing record, as well as ensuring that the team would spend the entire year with a record of .500 or higher.",
"On September 16, they won their 82nd game, securing the first season with a winning record since 1997.",
"On September 21, closer Jim Johnson earned his 46th save of the season, setting a new Orioles franchise record for saves by one pitcher in a single season.",
"It was previously held by Randy Myers, who had 45 saves in 1997.",
"Johnson became the tenth player to record 50 saves in Major League history.",
"He finished the regular season with 51 saves.",
"With the win against the Boston Red Sox on September 30 and the loss of the Los Angeles Angels to the Texas Rangers in the second game of a double header, the Orioles clinched a playoff berth.",
"This season marked the Orioles return to postseason play.",
"The Orioles finished the regular season in second place in the AL East with a record of 93–69, reversing the 69–93 record from the previous year.",
"Despite a poor run differential (+7, the lowest of all playoff teams in 2012), they benefited from a 29–9 record in games decided by one run and a 16–2 record in extra-inning games.",
"They went on the road to face the team that finished first in the Wild Card race, the Texas Rangers for a one-game playoff series on October 5, winning 5–1 to advance to the ALDS against the New York Yankees on October 7.",
"The season was also distinctive for the fact that Orioles became the only team in MLB history, since 1900, never to have lost a game due to an opponent's walk-off hit.",
"Despite a regular season of avoiding walk-off losses, they lost in Game 3 of the ALDS when Yankee Raúl Ibañez hit his own record-setting, game-winning home run in the bottom of the 12th inning.",
"The Orioles would lose the 2012 American League Division Series in five games.",
"=====2013 season=====\n\nDuring the home opener on April 5, first baseman Chris Davis set a new MLB record with 16 RBI's during the first four games of a season, as well as becoming the fourth player ever to hit home runs in the first four games, including a grand slam in the fourth.",
"On September 13, Davis hit his 50th home run of the season, against the Toronto Blue Jays, tying Brady Anderson for the most home runs in Orioles history.",
"Davis would break Anderson's record four days later against the Boston Red Sox.",
"His 51st home run also tied Anderson's record of 92 extra-base hits in a single season, a record he would again break four days later.",
"Davis would go on to finish the season with 53 home runs.",
"On September 18, the Orioles played their 114th errorless game of the season, setting a new MLB record for the most errorless games in one season since 1900.",
"They played 119 games without an error, ending on September 27.",
"On September 20, the Orioles played the Tampa Bay Rays in an 18 inning game that lasted 6 hours, 54 minutes, a new record for the longest game in terms of time for both franchises, as well as innings for the Rays.",
"The Rays won 5–4.",
"While the Orioles would ultimately miss the playoffs in 2013, they finished with a record of 85–77, tying the Yankees for third place in the AL East.",
"By posting winning records in 2012 and 2013, the Orioles achieved the feat of back-to-back winning seasons for the first time since 1996 and 1997.",
"=====2014 season=====\n\nOn September 16, the Orioles clinched the division for the first time since 1997 with a win against the Toronto Blue Jays as well as making it back to the postseason for the second time in three years.",
"The Orioles finished the 2014 season with a 96–66 record and went on to sweep the Detroit Tigers in the ALDS.",
"Notably, the three Tigers starters were winners of the previous 3 AL Cy Young Awards; Max Scherzer (2013), Justin Verlander (2011), and David Price (2012).",
"The O's were then in turn swept by the Kansas City Royals in the ALCS.",
"=====2015 season=====\n\nOn April 26, the Orioles scored 18 runs against the Boston Red Sox, the most runs they had scored in a single game, since they defeated the Cleveland Indians 18–9 on April 19, 2006.",
"The Orioles beat the Red Sox 18–7.",
"On June 16, the Orioles scored 19 runs against the Philadelphia Phillies, making it the most runs the Orioles have scored since earlier in the season against the Red Sox.",
"The Orioles had 8 home runs during the game, a franchise record.",
"The team then later got their 5000th win as the Orioles on June 28 with a shutout 4–0 win over the Indians.",
"On August 16, the Orioles defeated the Oakland Athletics 18–2, during which the team tied a franchise record for hits in a single game with 26.",
"On September 11, the Orioles rallied from a two run deficit of 6–4 in the bottom of the 8th inning, against the Kansas City Royals.",
"The Orioles won the game 14–8.",
"The rally included left fielder Nolan Reimold and designated hitter Steve Clevenger both hitting their first career grand slams, making the Orioles the only franchise in the history of Major League Baseball to hit multiple grand slams in the same inning in two different games, the last time being in 1986.",
"On September 30, in a reverse of fortune, the Toronto Blue Jays clinched the AL East with a win over the Orioles in Baltimore where they watched the Orioles celebrate their division title clinch the previous year.",
"======Response to 2015 unrest======\nOut of an abundance of caution, the Baltimore Orioles announced the postponement of the April 27 and 28 games against the Chicago White Sox following violent riots in West Baltimore following the death of Freddie Gray.",
"Following the announcement of the second postponement, the Orioles also announced that the third game in the series scheduled for Wednesday, April 29 was to be closed to the public and would be televised only, apparently the first time in 145 years of Major League Baseball that a game had no spectators and breaking the previous 131-year-old record for lowest paid attendance to an official game (the previous record being 6.)",
"The Orioles beat the White Sox, 8–2.",
"The Orioles said the make-up games would be played Thursday, May 28, as a double-header.",
"In addition, the weekend games against the Tampa Bay Rays was moved to the Rays' home stadium in St. Petersburg where Baltimore played as the home team.",
"The 2012 uniforms.",
"Left to right: Home, Away, Saturday (away with gray pants), Friday (away with gray pants.).",
"The Orioles' home uniform is white with the word \"Orioles\" written across the chest.",
"The road uniform is gray with the word \"Baltimore\" written across the chest.",
"A long campaign of several decades was waged by numerous fans and sportswriters to return the name of the city to the \"away\" jerseys which was used since the 1950s and had been formerly dropped during the 1970s era of Edward Bennett Williams when the ownership was continuing to market the team also to fans in the nation's capital region after the moving of the former Washington Senators in 1971.",
"After several decades, approximately 20% of the team's attendance came from the metro Washington area.",
"An alternate uniform is black with the word \"Orioles\" written across the chest.",
"The Orioles wear their black alternate jerseys for Friday night games with the alternate \"O's\" cap, whether at home or on the road; the cartoon bird batting helmet is still used with this uniform (see description on home and road design).",
"For 2012, the team unveiled its new uniforms.",
"There was a change to the cap insignia, with the cartoon Oriole returning.",
"Home caps are white in front and black at the back with an orange bill, while the road caps are all black on top with an orange bill.",
"The Orioles also introduced a new alternate orange uniform to be worn on Saturday home games throughout the 2012 season.",
"In 2013, ESPN ran a \"Battle of the Uniforms\" contest between all 30 Major League clubs.",
"Despite using a ranking system that had the Orioles as a #13 seed, the Birds beat the #1 seed Cardinals in the championship round.",
"On June 27, 2014, the Orioles announced since their win in New York against the New York Yankees they will wear their 'new orange' jerseys every Saturday for the rest of the 2014 season both home and away.",
"They have since continued to wear the orange jerseys on most Saturday road games.",
"For 2017, the Orioles began to use their batting practice caps for select games with the black uniforms.",
"The aforementioned caps resemble their regular road caps save for the black bill.",
"\n\n===Radio===\nIn Baltimore, Orioles games on radio can be heard over WJZ-FM (105.7 FM).",
"Fred Manfra and Joe Angel alternate as play-by-play announcers.",
"WJZ-FM also feeds the games to a network of 36 stations, covering Washington, D.C. and all or portions of Maryland, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Virginia, West Virginia, and North Carolina.",
"WJZ-FM is in its second stint as the Orioles' flagship radio outlet; the station had carried the team previously from 2007 through 2010.",
"Previous radio flagships for the Orioles have been WCBM (680 AM) from 1954 to 1956, and again for the 1987 season; WBAL (1090 AM) over three separate stints (1957 to 1978, 1988 to 2006, and 2011 to 2014); and WFBR (1300 AM, now WJZ) from 1979 through 1986.",
"===Television===\nThe Mid-Atlantic Sports Network (MASN), co-owned by the Orioles and the Washington Nationals, is the team's exclusive television broadcaster.",
"MASN airs almost the entire slate of regular season games.",
"Some exceptions include Saturday games on either Fox (via its Baltimore affiliate, WBFF) or Fox Sports 1, or ''Sunday Night Baseball'' on ESPN.",
"Many MASN telecasts in conflict with Nationals' game telecasts air on an alternate MASN2 feed.",
"MASN also produces an over-the-air package of games for broadcast locally by CBS–owned WJZ-TV (channel 13); these broadcasts are branded as '''\"MASN on WJZ 13\"'''.",
"Veteran sportscaster Gary Thorne is the current lead television announcer, with Jim Hunter as his backup along with Hall of Fame member and former Orioles pitcher Jim Palmer and former Oriole infielder Mike Bordick as color analysts, who almost always work separately.",
"All telecasts on MASN and WJZ-TV are shown in high-definition.",
"As part of the settlement of a television broadcast rights dispute with Comcast SportsNet Mid-Atlantic, the Orioles severed their Comcast ties at the end of the 2006 season.",
"Comcast SportsNet had been the Orioles' cable partner since 1984, when it was Home Team Sports.",
"WJZ-TV has been the Orioles' broadcast TV home since 1994.",
"The station has previously carried the team from their arrival in Baltimore in 1954 through 1978; in the first four seasons, WJZ-TV shared coverage with Baltimore's other two stations, WMAR-TV and WBAL-TV.",
"The games moved to WMAR from 1979 through 1993 before returning to WJZ-TV.",
"From 1994 to 2009, some Orioles games aired on WNUV.",
"Six former Oriole franchise radio announcers have received the Hall of Fame's Ford C. Frick Award for excellence in broadcasting: Chuck Thompson (who was also the voice of the old NFL Baltimore Colts); Jon Miller (now with the San Francisco Giants); Ernie Harwell, Herb Carneal; Bob Murphy and Harry Caray (as a St. Louis Browns announcer in the 1940s.).",
"Other former Baltimore announcers include Josh Lewin (currently with New York Mets), Bill O'Donnell, Tom Marr, Scott Garceau, Mel Proctor, Michael Reghi, former major league catcher Buck Martinez (now Toronto Blue Jays play-by-play), and former Oriole players including Brooks Robinson, pitcher Mike Flanagan and outfielder John Lowenstein.",
"In 1991, the Orioles experimented with longtime TV writer/producer Ken Levine as a play-by-play broadcaster.",
"Levine was best noted for his work on TV shows such as ''Cheers'' and ''M*A*S*H'', but only lasted one season in the Orioles broadcast booth.",
"\n===\"O!",
"\"===\nSince its introduction at games by the \"Roar from 34\", led by Wild Bill Hagy and others, in the late 1970s, it has been a tradition at Orioles games for fans to yell out the \"Oh\" in the line \"Oh, say does that Star-Spangled Banner yet wave\" in \"The Star-Spangled Banner\".",
"\"The Star-Spangled Banner\" has special meaning to Baltimore historically, as it was written during the Battle of Baltimore in the War of 1812 by Francis Scott Key, a Baltimorean.",
"\"O\" is not only short for \"Oriole\", but the vowel is also a stand-out aspect of the Baltimorean accent.",
"The tradition is often carried out at other sporting events, both professional or amateur, and even sometimes at non-sporting events where the anthem is played, throughout the Baltimore/Washington area and beyond.",
"Fans in Norfolk, Virginia, chanted \"O!\"",
"even before the Tides became an Orioles affiliate.",
"The practice caught some attention in the spring of 2005, when fans performed the \"O!\"",
"cry at Washington Nationals games at RFK Stadium.",
"The \"O!\"",
"chant is also common at sporting events for the various Maryland Terrapins teams at the University of Maryland, College Park.",
"At Cal Ripken, Jr.'s induction into the National Baseball Hall of Fame, the crowd, comprising mostly Orioles fans, carried out the \"O!\"",
"tradition during Tony Gwynn's daughter's rendition of \"The Star-Spangled Banner.\"",
"Additionally, a faint but audible \"O!\"",
"could be heard on the television broadcast of Barack Obama's pre-inaugural visit to Baltimore as the National Anthem played before his entrance.",
"A resounding \"O!\"",
"A similar loud \"O!\"",
"was heard from fans attending Super Bowl XLVII between the Baltimore Ravens and the San Francisco 49ers.",
"The \"O!\"",
"chant was also heard during the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, when Baltimore native Michael Phelps received one of his gold medals on August 9, 2016.",
"In recent years, when the Orioles host the Toronto Blue Jays, fans have begun to shout out the multiple instances of the word \"O\" in ''\"O Canada''\".",
"Washington Capitals fans will do the same when they play one of the NHL's Canadian teams.",
"===\"Thank God I'm a Country Boy\"===\nIt has been an Orioles tradition since 1975 to play John Denver's \"Thank God I'm a Country Boy\" during the seventh-inning stretch.",
"In the edition of July 5, 2007 of Baltimore's weekly sports publication ''Press Box'', an article by Mike Gibbons covered the details of how this tradition came to be.",
"During \"Thank God I'm a Country Boy\", Charlie Zill, then an usher, would put on overalls, a straw hat, and false teeth and dance around the club level section (244) that he tended to.",
"He also has an orange violin that spins for the fiddle solos.",
"He went by the name Zillbilly and had done the skit from the 1999 season until shortly before he died in early 2013.",
"During a nationally televised game on September 20, 1997, Denver himself danced to the song atop the Orioles' dugout, one of his final public appearances before dying in a plane crash three weeks later.",
"===\"Orioles Magic\" and other songs===\nSongs from notable games in the team's history include \"One Moment in Time\" for Cal Ripken's record-breaking game in 1995, as well as the theme from ''Pearl Harbor'', \"There You'll Be\" by Faith Hill, during his final game in 2001.",
"The theme from ''Field of Dreams'' was played at the last game at Memorial Stadium in 1991, and the song \"Magic to Do\" from the stage musical ''Pippin'' was used that season to commemorate \"Orioles Magic\" on 33rd Street.",
"During the Orioles' heyday in the 1970s, a club song, appropriately titled \"Orioles Magic (Feel It Happen)\", was composed by Walt Woodward, and played when the team ran out until Opening Day of 2008.",
"Since then, the song (a favorite among all fans, who appreciated its references to Wild Bill Hagy and Earl Weaver) is only played (along with a video featuring several Orioles stars performing the song) after wins.",
"Seven Nation Army is played as a hype song while the fans chant the signature bass riff as a rally cry during key moments of a game or after a walk-off hit.",
"===The First Army Band===\nDuring the Orioles' final homestand of the season, it is a tradition to display a replica of the 15-star, 15-stripe American flag at Camden Yards.",
"Prior to 1992, the 15-star, 15-stripe flag flew from Memorial Stadium's center-field flagpole in place of the 50-star, 13-stripe flag during the final homestand.",
"Since the move to Camden Yards, the former flag has been displayed on the batters' eye.",
"During the Orioles' final home game of the season, The United States Army Field Band from Fort Meade performs the National Anthem prior to the start of the game.",
"The Band has also played the National Anthem at the finales of three World Series in which the Orioles played in: 1970, 1971 and 1979.",
"They are introduced as the \"First Army Band\" during the pregame ceremonies.",
"For 23 years, Rex Barney was the PA announcer for the Orioles.",
"His voice became a fixture of both Memorial Stadium and Camden Yards, and his expression \"Give that fan a contract\", uttered whenever a fan caught a foul ball, was one of his trademarks – the other being his distinct \"Thank Yooooou...\" following every announcement.",
"(He was also known on occasion to say \"Give that fan an error\" after a dropped foul ball.)",
"Barney died on August 12, 1997, and in his honor that night's game at Camden Yards against the Oakland Athletics was held without a public–address announcer.",
"Barney was replaced as Camden Yards' PA announcer by Dave McGowan, who held the position until December 2011.",
"Lifelong Orioles fan and former MLB Fan Cave resident Ryan Wagner is the current PA announcer.",
"He was chosen out of a field of more than 670 applicants in the 2011–2012 offseason.",
"Of the eight original American League teams, the Orioles were the last of the eight to win the World Series, doing so in 1966 with its four–game sweep of the heavily favored Los Angeles Dodgers.",
"When the Orioles were the St. Louis Browns, they played in only one World Series, the 1944 matchup against their Sportsman's Park tenants, the Cardinals.",
"The Orioles won the first-ever American League Championship Series in 1969, and in 2012 the Orioles beat the Texas Rangers in the inaugural American League Wild Card game, where for the first time two Wild Card teams faced each other during postseason play.",
"Year\nWild Card Game\nALDS\nALCS\nWorld Series\n\n1944\ncolspan=6 \nSt. Louis Cardinals\n\n\n'''1966'''\ncolspan=6 \nLos Angeles Dodgers\n\n\n1969\ncolspan=4 \nMinnesota Twins\n\nNew York Mets\n\n\n'''1970'''\ncolspan=4 \nMinnesota Twins\n\nCincinnati Reds\n\n\n1971\ncolspan=4 \nOakland Athletics\n\nPittsburgh Pirates\n\n\n1973\ncolspan=4 \nOakland Athletics\n\n\n\n1974\ncolspan=4 \nOakland Athletics\n\n \n\n1979\ncolspan=4 \nCalifornia Angels\n\nPittsburgh Pirates\n\n\n'''1983'''\ncolspan=4 \nChicago White Sox\n\nPhiladelphia Phillies\n\n\n1996\ncolspan=2 \nCleveland Indians\n\nNew York Yankees\n\n\n\n1997\ncolspan=2 \nSeattle Mariners\n\nCleveland Indians\n\n\n\n2012\nTexas Rangers\n\nNew York Yankees\n\n\n\n2014\ncolspan=2 \nDetroit Tigers\n\nKansas City Royals\n\n\n\n2016\nToronto Blue Jays",
"\n\n\n===Ford C. Frick Award (broadcasters only)===\n\n\n===Retired numbers===\n\nThe Orioles will only retire a number when a player has been inducted into the Hall of Fame with Cal Ripken, Jr. being the only exception.",
"However, the Orioles have placed moratoriums on other former Orioles's numbers following their deaths (see note below).",
"To date, the Orioles have retired the following numbers:\n\n\n\n'''Note:''' Cal Ripken, Sr.'s number '''7''', Elrod Hendricks' number '''44''', and Mike Flanagan's number '''46''' have not officially been retired, but a moratorium has been placed on them and they have not been issued by the team since their deaths.",
"†''Jackie Robinson's number 42 is retired throughout Major League Baseball''\n\n===Team Hall of Fame===\n\n\nThe Orioles also have an official team hall of fame, located on display on Eutaw Street at Camden Yards.",
"The most recent inductees are John Lowenstein, Gary Roenicke, and Melvin Mora, who were inducted in 2015.",
"===Team captains===\n*33 Eddie Murray, 1B/DH, 1986–1988",
"\n\n\nLevel\nTeam\nLeague\nLocation\n\n ''AAA''\n Norfolk Tides\n International League\n Norfolk, Virginia\n\n ''AA''\n Bowie Baysox\n Eastern League\n Bowie, Maryland\n\n ''A Advanced''\n Frederick Keys\n Carolina League\n Frederick, Maryland\n\n ''A''\n Delmarva Shorebirds\n South Atlantic League\n Salisbury, Maryland\n\n''Short Season A''\n Aberdeen IronBirds\n New York–Penn League\n Aberdeen, Maryland\n\n''Rookie''\n GCL Orioles\n Gulf Coast League\n Sarasota, Florida\n\n DSL Orioles 1\n Dominican Summer League\n Dominican Republic\n\n DSL Orioles 2\n Dominican Summer League\n Dominican Republic",
"\n\n===Season records===\n\n===Individual records – Batting===\n*Highest batting average: .340, Melvin Mora (2004)\n*Most at bats: 673, B. J. Surhoff (1999)\n*Most plate appearances: 749, Brady Anderson (1992)\n*Most games: 163, Brooks Robinson (1961, 1964) and Cal Ripken (1996)\n*Most runs: 132, Roberto Alomar (1996)\n*Most hits: 214, Miguel Tejada (2006)\n*Most total bases: 370, Chris Davis (2013)\n*Highest slugging %: .646, Jim Gentile (1961)\n*Highest on-base %: .442, Bob Nieman (1956)\n*Most singles: 158, Al Bumbry (1980)\n*Most doubles: 56, Brian Roberts (2009)\n*Most triples: 12, Paul Blair (1967)\n*Most home runs, RHB: 49, Frank Robinson (1966)\n*Most home runs, LHB: 53, Chris Davis (2013)\n*Most home runs, leadoff hitter: 35, Brady Anderson (1996)\n*Most home runs, leading off game: 12, Brady Anderson (1996)\n*Most consecutive games leading off with a home run: 4, Brady Anderson (April 18, 1996 – April 21, 1996)\n*Most extra base hits: 96, Chris Davis (2013)\n*Most RBI, LHB: 142, Rafael Palmeiro (1996)\n*Most RBI, RHB: 150, Miguel Tejada (2004)\n*Most RBI, switch: 124, Eddie Murray (1985)\n*Most RBI, month: 37, Albert Belle (June 2000)\n*Most GWRBI: 25, Rafael Palmeiro (1998)\n*Most consecutive games hit safely: 30, Eric Davis (1998)\n*Most sac hits: 23, Mark Belanger (1975)\n*Most sac flies: 17, Bobby Bonilla (1996)\n*Most stolen bases: 57, Luis Aparicio (1964)\n*Most walks: 118, Ken Singleton (1975)\n*Most intentional walks: 25, Eddie Murray (1984)\n*Most strikeouts: 199, Chris Davis (2013)\n*Fewest strikeouts: 19, Rich Dauer (1980)\n*Most hit by pitch: 24, Brady Anderson (1999)\n*Most GIDP: 32, Cal Ripken (1985)\n*Most pinch hits: 24, Dave Philley (1961)\n*Most consecutive pinch hits: 6, Bob Johnson (1964)\n*Most pinch hit RBI: 18, Dave Philley (1961)\n\n===Individual records – Pitching===\n*Most games: 81, Jamie Walker (2007)\n*Most games, rookie: 67, Jorge Julio (2002)\n*Most games, started: 40, Dave McNally (1969–70), Mike Cuellar (1970), Jim Palmer (1976), and Mike Flanagan (1978)\n*Most games started, rookie: 36, Bob Milacki (1989)\n*Most complete games: 25, Jim Palmer (1975)\n*Most games finished: 63, Jim Johnson (2012–13)\n*Most wins: 25, Steve Stone (1980)\n*Most wins, rookie: 19, Wally Bunker (1964)\n*Most losses: 21, Don Larsen (1954)\n*Best won-lost %: .808, Dave McNally (1971)\n*Most bases on balls: 181, Bob Turley (1954)\n*Most hit batsmen: 18, Daniel Cabrera (2008)\n*Most strikeouts: 221, Érik Bédard (2007)\n*Most innings pitched: 323, Jim Palmer (1975)\n*Most innings pitched, rookie: 243, Bob Milacki (1989)\n*Most shutouts: 10, Jim Palmer (1975)\n*Most consecutive shutout innings: 36, Hal Brown (July 7, 1961 – August 8,1961)\n*Most home runs allowed: 35, 4 times; last: Jeremy Guthrie (2009)\n*Fewest home runs allowed (by qualifier): 8, Milt Pappas (209 IP) (1959) and Billy Loes (155 IP) (1957)\n*Lowest ERA (by qualifier): 1.95, Dave McNally (1968)\n*Highest ERA (by qualifier): 5.90, Rodrigo Lopez (2006)\n*Most saves: 51, Jim Johnson (2012)\n*Most saves, rookie: 27, Gregg Olson (1989)\n*Most wins, reliever: 14, Stu Miller (1965)\n*Most relief points: 131, Randy Myers (1997)\n*Most innings pitched by reliever: 140.1, Sammy Stewart (1983)\n*Most consecutive wins: 15, Dave McNally (April 12, 1969 – August 3, 1969)\n*Most consecutive losses: 10, Jay Tibbs (July 10, 1988 – October 1, 1988)\n*Most consecutive losses, start of season: 8, Mike Boddicker (1988) and Jason Johnson (2000)\n*Most wins vs. one club: 6, Wally Bunker vs. Kansas City (1964)\n*Most losses vs. one club: 5 Don Larsen vs. White Sox (1954), Joe Coleman vs. Yankees (1954), and Jim Wilson vs. Cleveland (1955)\n*Most wins by opponent: 6, Andy Pettitte, Yankees (2003) and Bud Daley, Kansas City (1959)\n*Most losses by opponent: 5, Ned Garver, Kansas City (1957), Dick Stigman, Minnesota (1963), Stan Williams, Cleveland (1969), and Catfish Hunter, Yankees (1976)",
"The Orioles have a burgeoning regional rivalry with the nearby Washington Nationals nicknamed the Beltway Series or Battle of the Beltways.",
"Baltimore currently leads the series with a 26–20 record over the Nationals.",
"*Bready, James H. ''The Home Team''.",
"4th ed.",
"Baltimore: 1984.",
"*Eisenberg, John.",
"''From 33rd Street to Camden Yards''.",
"New York: Contemporary Books, 2001.",
"*Hawkins, John C. ''This Date in Baltimore Orioles & St. Louis Browns History''.",
"Briarcliff Manor, New York: Stein & Day, 1983.",
"*Miller, James Edward.",
"''The Baseball Business''.",
"Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1990.",
"*Patterson, Ted.",
"''The Baltimore Orioles''.",
"Dallas: Taylor Publishing Co., 1994.",
"\n*\n* Waldman, Ed.",
"\"Sold!",
"Angelos scored with '93 home run\", ''The Baltimore Sun'', August 1, 2004\n*"
] | river |
[
"\n\nMap showing Roman Dacia and surrounding peoples in AD 125\nThe '''Bastarnae''' (Latin variants: ''Bastarni'', or ''Basternae''; ) were an ancient people who between 200 BC and 300 AD inhabited the region between the Carpathian mountains and the river Dnieper, to the north and east of ancient Dacia. The Peucini, denoted a branch of the Bastarnae by Greco-Roman writers, occupied the region north of the Danube delta.\n\nThe ethno-linguistic affiliation of the Bastarnae was probably Germanic, which is supported by ancient historians and modern archeology. However, some ancient literary sources imply Celtic or Scytho-Sarmatian influences. The most likely scenario is that they were originally a group of East Germanic tribes, originally resident in the lower Vistula river valley. In ca. 200 BC, these tribes then migrated, possibly accompanied by some Celtic elements, southeastwards into the North Pontic region. Some elements appear to have become assimilated, to some extent, by the surrounding Sarmatians by the 3rd century.\n\nAlthough largely sedentary, some elements may have adopted a semi-nomadic lifestyle. It has not, so far, been possible to identify archaeological sites which can be conclusively attributed to the Bastarnae. The archaeological horizons most often associated by scholars with the Bastarnae are the Zarubintsy and Poienesti-Lukashevka cultures.\n\nThe Bastarnae first came into conflict with the Romans during the 1st century BC, when, in alliance with Dacians and Sarmatians, they unsuccessfully resisted Roman expansion into Moesia and Pannonia. Later, they appear to have maintained friendly relations with the Roman empire during the first two centuries AD. This changed from c. 180, when the Bastarnae are recorded as participants in an invasion of Roman territory, once again in alliance with Sarmatian and Dacian elements. In the mid-3rd century, the Bastarnae were part of a Gothic-led grand coalition of lower Danube tribes that repeatedly invaded the Balkan provinces of the Roman empire.\n\nLarge numbers of Bastarnae were resettled within the Roman empire in the late 3rd century.\n",
"The origin of the tribal name is uncertain. It is not even clear whether it was an exonym (a name ascribed to them by outsiders) or an endonym (a name by which the Bastarnae described themselves). A related question is whether the groups denoted \"Bastarnae\" by the Romans considered themselves a distinct ethnic group at all (endonym) or whether it was a generic exonym used by the Greco-Romans to denote a disparate group of tribes of the Carpathian region that could not be classified as Dacians or Sarmatians.\n\nOne possible derivation is from the proto-Germanic word ''*bastjan'' (from Proto-Indo-European root *''bʰas-'') means \"binding\" or \"tie\". In this case, ''Bastarnae'' may have had the original meaning of a coalition or ''bund'' of tribes.\n\nIt is possible that the Roman term ''basterna'', denoting a type of wagon or litter, is derived from the name of this people (or, if it is an exonym, the name of the people is derived from it) which was known, like many Germanic tribes, to travel with a wagon-train for their families.\n\nIt has also been suggested that the name is linked with the Germanic word ''bastard'', meaning illegitimate or mongrel. But Batty considers this derivation unlikely. If the name is an endonym, then this derivation is unlikely, as most endonyms have flattering meanings (e.g. \"brave\", \"strong\", \"noble\").\n\nTrubačev proposes a derivation from Old Persian, Avestan ''bast-'' \"bound, tied; slave\" (cf. Ossetic bættən \"bind\", bast \"bound\") and Iranian ''*arna-'' \"offspring\", equating it with the ''δουλόσποροι'' \"slave Sporoi\" mentioned by Nonnus and Cosmas, where Sporoi is the people Procopius mentions as the ancestors of the Slavs.\n",
"\nThe original homeland of the Bastarnae remains uncertain. Babeş and Shchukin argue in favour of an origin in eastern Pomerania on the Baltic coast of NW Poland, on the grounds of correspondences in archaeological material e.g. a Pomeranian-style fibula found in a Poieneşti site in Moldavia (although Batty considers the evidence insufficient). Babeş identifies the Sidoni, a branch of the Bastarnae which Strabo places north of the Danube delta with the ''Sidini'' located by Ptolemy in Pomerania.\n\nBatty argues that Greco-Roman sources of the 1st century AD locate the Bastarnae homeland on the northern side of the Northern Carpathian mountain range, encompassing S.E. Poland and SW Ukraine (i.e. the region traditionally known as Galicia). Pliny locates the Bastarnae between the Suebi and the Dacians (''contermini Dacis''). The Peutinger Map (produced in ca. 400 AD, but including material from as early as the 1st century) shows the Bastarnae (mis-spelt ''Blastarni'') north of the Carpathian mountains and appears to name the Galician Carpathians as the ''Alpes Bastarnicae''.\n\nFrom Galicia, the Bastarnae expanded into modern-day Moldavia and Bessarabia, reaching the Danube delta. Strabo describes the Bastarnae as inhabiting the territory \"between the ''Ister'' (river Danube) and the ''Borysthenes'' (river Dnieper)\". He identifies three sub-tribes of the Bastarnae: the Atmoni, Sidoni and Peucini. The latter derived their name from Peuce, a large island in the Danube delta, which they had colonised. The 2nd-century geographer Ptolemy states that the ''Carpiani'' or Carpi (believed to have occupied Moldavia) separated the Peucini from the other Bastarnae \"above Dacia\" (i.e. north of Dacia).\n\nIt thus appears that the Bastarnae were settled in a vast arc stretching around the northern and eastern flanks of the Carpathians from SE Poland to the Danube delta. The larger group inhabited the northern and eastern slopes of the Carpathians and the region between the Prut and Dnieper rivers (Moldova Republic/Western Ukraine), while a separate group (the Peucini, Sidoni and Atmoni) dwelt in and north of the Danube delta region.\n",
"\nScholars hold divergent theories about the ethnicity of the Bastarnae. The mainstream view, following what appears to be the most authoritative view among ancient scholars, is that they were Germanic. However others hold that they were mixed Celtic/Germanic, or mixed Germanic/Sarmatian. A fringe theory is that they were Proto-Slavic. Shchukin argues that ethnicity of the Bastarnae was unique and rather than trying to label the Bastanae as Celtic, Germanic or Sarmatian, it should be accepted that the \"Basternae were the Basternae\". Batty argues that assigning an \"ethnicity\" to the Bastarnae is meaningless, as in the context of the Iron Age Pontic-Danubian region, with its multiple overlapping peoples and languages, ethnicity was a very fluid concept: it could and did change rapidly and frequently, according to socio-political vicissitudes. This was especially true of the Bastarnae, who are attested over a relatively vast area.\n\n\n\n=== Germanic ===\nGreco-Roman geographers of the 1st century AD are unanimous and specific that the Bastarnae were Germanic in language and culture. The Greek geographer Strabo (writing c. AD 5-20) says the Bastarnae are \"of Germanic stock\". The Roman geographer Pliny the Elder (c. AD 77), classifies the Bastarnae and Peucini as constituting one of the 5 main subdivisions of Germanic peoples (he lists the other subdivisions as the ''Inguaeones'', ''Istuaeones'' and ''Hermiones'' (West Germanic tribes), and the ''Vandili'' (Vandals, East Germanic, but he classifies differently than the Bastarnae).\n\nThe Roman historian Tacitus (c. AD 100) describes the Bastaenae as Germans with substantial Sarmatian influence, but moves on to state: \"The Peucini, however, who are sometimes called Bastarnae, are like the Germans in their language, way of life and types of dwelling.\"\n\n=== Celtic ===\n\nA leading reason to consider the Bastarnae as Celtic is that the regions they are documented to have occupied (northern and eastern slopes of the Carpathians) overlapped to a great extent with the locations of Celtic tribes attested in the northern Carpathians. Indeed, a large part of this region, Galicia, may derive its name from its former Celtic inhabitants the Taurisci, Osi, Cotini and Anartes of Slovakia and northern Romania and the Britogalli of the Danubian Mouth region. In addition, archaeological cultures, which some scholars have linked to the Bastarnae (Poieneşti-Lukashevka asnd Zarubintsy), display pronounced Celtic influences. Finally, the arrival of the Bastarnae in the Pontic-Danubian region, which can be dated to 233-216 BC according to two ancient sources, coincides with the latter phase of Celtic migration into the region (400-200 BC).\n\nThe Roman historian Livy, writing in c. AD 10, appears to imply that the Bastarnae were of Celtic speech. Relating the Bastarnic invasion of the Balkans of 179 BC (see Conflict with Rome below), he describes them then as \"similar in language and customs\" to the Scordisci, a tribe of Pannonia, whose onomastics and material culture have been identified as Celtic by several scholars. The Scordisci are described as Celtic by Strabo (although he adds that they had mingled with Illyrians and Thracians). However, a Celtic identity for the Bastarnae is apparently contradicted by Polybius (writing ca. 150 BC), who was an actual contemporary of the events described, unlike Livy, who was writing some 200 years later. Polybius clearly distinguishes the Bastarnae from the \"Galatae\" (i.e. Celts): \"an embassy from the Dardani arrived at the Roman Senate, talking of the Bastarnae, their huge numbers, the strength and valour of their warriors, and also reporting that Perseus king of Macedon and the Galatae were in league with this tribe\". In addition, inscription AE (1905) 14, recording a campaign on the Hungarian Plain by the Augustan-era general Marcus Vinucius (10 BC or 8 BC), also appears to distinguish the Bastarnae from neighbouring Celtic tribes: \"Marcus Vinucius... governor of Illyricum, the first Roman general to advance across the river Danube, defeated in battle and routed an army of Dacians and Basternae, and subjugated the Cotini, Osi,...missing tribal name and Anartii to the power of the emperor Augustus and of the people of Rome.\"\n\nThe names of three Bastarnae leaders are preserved in the ancient sources: Cotto, Clondicus, and Teutagonus These names have been identified as Celtic by some scholars. However, the names could also be Germanic, according to Müllenhoff, and thus do not assist determination of whether the Bastarnae were Celtic or Germanic.\n\n===Scytho-Sarmatian ===\n\nStrabo includes the Roxolani, generally considered by scholars to have been a Sarmatian tribe, in a list of Bastarnae subgroups. However, this may simply be an error due to the close proximity of the two peoples north of the Danube delta. In the 3rd century, the Greek historian Dio Cassius states that the \"Bastarnae are properly classed as Scythians\" and \"members of the Scythian race\". Likewise, the 6th-century historian Zosimus, reporting events around AD 280, refers to \"the Bastarnae, a Scythian people\". However, it appears that these late Greco-Roman chroniclers used the term \"Scythian\" more often in a geographical sense (i.e. inhabitants of the region they called Scythia i.e. the Pontic region north of the Danube) rather than in an ethnic one (i.e. members of the Scythian people, steppe nomads of Iranic origin, related to the Sarmatians, who had supplanted the Scythians' dominance of the steppes in the period BC). For example, Zosimus also routinely refers to the Goths, who were undoubtedly Germanic-speakers, as \"Scythians\".\n\nIt is possible that some Bastarnae may have been assimilated by the surrounding (and possibly dominant) Sarmatians, perhaps adopting their tongue (which belonged to the Iranian group of Indo-European languages) and/or Sarmatian customs. Thus Tacitus' comment that \"mixed marriages are giving the Bastarnae to some extent the vile appearance of the Sarmatians\". On the other hand, the Bastarnae maintained a separate name-identity until ca. AD 300, probably implying retention of their distinctive ethno-linguistic heritage until that time. It seems, on balance, likely that the core population of Bastarnae had always been, and continued to be, Germanic in language and culture.\n",
"Attempt to reconstruct Bastarnae costumes, in display at the Archaeological Museum of Kraków. Such clothing and weapons were commonplace among barbarian peoples on the empire's borders\n'Archaeological cultures' in the early Roman period, c. 100 AD\n\nAccording to Todd, traditional archaeology has not been able to construct a typology of Bastarnae material culture, and thus to ascribe particular archaeological sites to the Bastarnae. A complicating factor is that the regions where Bastarnae are attested contained a patchwork of peoples and cultures (Sarmatians, Scythians, Dacians, Thracians, Celts, Germans and others), some sedentary, some nomadic. In any event, post-1960's archaeological theory questions the validity of equating material \"cultures\", as defined by archaeologists, with distinct ethnic groups. On this view, it is impossible to attribute a \"culture\" to a particular ethnic group: it is likely that the material cultures discerned in the region belonged to several, if not all, of the groups inhabiting it. These cultures probably represent relatively large-scale socio-economic interactions between disparate communities of the broad region, possibly including mutually antagonistic groups.\n\nIt is not even certain whether the Bastarnae were sedentary or nomadic (or semi-nomadic). Tacitus' statement that they were \"German in their way of life and types of dwelling\" implies a sedentary bias, but their close relations with the Sarmatians, who were nomadic, may indicate a more nomadic lifestyle for some Bastarnae, as does the wide geographical range of their attested inhabitation. If the Bastarnae were nomadic, then the sedentary \"cultures\" identified by archaeologists in their ''lebensraum'' would not represent them. Nomadic peoples generally leave scant traces, due to the impermanent materials and foundations used in the construction of their dwellings.\n\nScholars have identified two closely related sedentary \"cultures\" as possible candidates to represent the Bastarnae (among other peoples) as their locations broadly correspond to where ancient sources placed the Basternae: the Zarubintsy culture lying in the forest-steppe zone in northern Ukraine-southern Belarus, and the '''Poieneşti-Lukashevka''' (Lucăşeuca) culture in northern Moldavia. These cultures were characterised by agriculture, documented by numerous finds of sickles. Dwellings were either of surface or semi-subterranean types, with posts supporting the walls, a hearth in the middle, and large conical pits located nearby. Some sites were defended by ditches and banks, structures thought to have been built to defend against nomadic tribes from the steppe. Inhabitants practiced cremation. Cremated remains were either placed in large, hand-made ceramic urns, or were placed in a large pit and surrounded by food and ornaments such as spiral bracelets and Middle to Late La Tène-type ''fibulae'' (attesting the continuing strength of Celtic influence in this region).\n\nA major problem with associating Lukashevka and Zarubintsy with the Bastarnae is that both cultures had disappeared by the early 1st century AD, although the Bastarnae continue to be attested in those regions throughout the Roman Principate. Another issue is that the Poieneşti-Lukashevka culture has also been attributed to the Costoboci, a people considered ethnic-Dacian by mainstream scholarship, which inhabited northern Moldavia, according to Ptolemy (ca. AD 140). Indeed, Mircea Babeş and Silvia Theodor, the two Romanian archaeologists who identified Lukashevka as Bastarnic, nevertheless insisted that the majority of the population in the Lukashevka sphere (N. Moldavia) was \"Geto-Dacian\". A further problem is that neither of these cultures were present in the Danube delta region, where a major concentration of Bastarnae are attested by the ancient sources.\n\nStarting in about AD 200, the Chernyakhov culture became established in the W. Ukraine/Moldova region inhabited by the Bastarnae. The culture is characterised by a high degree of sophistication in the production of metal and ceramic artefacts, as well as of uniformity over a vast area. Although this culture has conventionally been identified with the migration of the Gothic ''ethnos'' into the region from the Northwest, Todd argues that its most important origin is Scytho-Sarmatian. Although the Goths certainly contributed to it, so probably did other peoples of the region such as the Dacians, proto-Slavs, Carpi, and possibly the Bastarnae.\n",
"\n=== Roman Republican era (to 30 BC) ===\n\n==== Allies of Philip of Macedon (179-8 BC) ====\nSilver tetradrachm of Philip V of Macedon. British Museum, London \n\nThe Bastarnae first appear in the historical record in 179 BC, when they crossed the Danube in massive force. They did so at the invitation of their long-time ally, king Philip V of Macedon, a direct descendant of Antigonus, one of the Diadochi, the generals of Alexander the Great who had shared out his empire after his death in 323 BC. The Macedonian king had suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Romans in the Second Macedonian War (200-197 BC), which had reduced him from a powerful Hellenistic monarch to the status of a petty client-king with a much-reduced territory and a tiny army. After nearly 20 years of slavish adherence to the Roman Senate's dictats, Philip had been goaded beyond endurance by the incessant and devastating raiding of the Dardani, a warlike Thraco-Illyrian tribe on his northern border, which his treaty-limited army was too small to counter effectively. Counting on the Bastarnae, with whom he had forged friendly relations in earlier times, he plotted a strategy to deal with the Dardani and then to regain his lost territories in Greece and his political independence. First, he would unleash the Bastarnae against the Dardani. After the latter had been crushed, Philip planned to settle Bastarnae families in Dardania (southern Kosovo/Skopje region), to ensure that the region was permanently subdued. In a second phase, Philip aimed to launch the Bastarnae on an invasion of Italy via the Adriatic coast. Although he was aware that the Bastarnae were hardly likely to achieve the same success as Hannibal some 40 years earlier, and would most likely end up cut to pieces by the Romans, Philip hoped that the Romans would be distracted long enough to allow him to reoccupy his former possessions in Greece.\n\nBut Philip, now 60 years of age, died before the Bastarnae could arrive. The Bastarnae host was still ''en route'' through Thrace, where it became embroiled in hostilities with the locals, who were unable (or unwilling) to provide them with sufficient food at affordable prices as they marched through. Probably in the vicinity of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv, Bulgaria), the Bastarnae broke out of their marching columns and pillaged the land far and wide. The terrified local Thracians took refuge with their families and animal herds on the slopes of ''Mons Donuca'', the highest mountain in Thrace (Mt. Musala, Rila Mts., Bulgaria). A large force of Bastarnae chased them up the mountain, but were driven back and scattered by a massive hailstorm. Then the Thracians ambushed them, turning their descent into a panic-stricken rout. Back at their wagon-laager in the plain, around half the demoralised Bastarnae decided to return home, leaving c. 30,000 to press on to Macedonia.\n\nPhilip's son and successor Perseus, while protesting his loyalty to Rome, deployed his Bastarnae guests in winter quarters in a valley in Dardania, presumably as a prelude to a campaign against the Dardani the following summer. But in the depths of winter their camp was attacked by the Dardani. The Bastarnae easily beat off the attackers, chased them back to their chief town, and besieged them. But they were surprised in the rear by a second force of Dardani, which had approached their camp stealthily by mountain paths, and proceeded to storm and ransack it. Having lost their entire baggage and supplies, the Bastarnae were obliged to withdraw from Dardania and to return home. Most perished as they crossed the frozen Danube on foot, only for the ice to give way. Despite the failure of Philip's Bastarnae strategy, the suspicion aroused by these events in the Roman Senate, which had been warned by the Dardani of the Bastarnae invasion, ensured the demise of Macedonia as an independent state. Rome declared war on Perseus in 171 BC and after the Macedonian army was crushed at the Battle of Pydna (168 BC), Macedonia was split up into 4 Roman puppet-cantons (167 BC). 21 years later, these were in turn abolished and annexed to the Roman Republic as the province of Macedonia (146 BC).\n\n==== Allies of Getae high king Burebista (62 BC) ====\nMap of Scythia Minor (Dobruja), showing the Greek coastal cities of Histria, Tomis, Callatis and Dionysopolis (Istria, Constanţa, Mangalia and Balchik).\nHistria (Sinoe)\nThe Bastarnae first came into direct conflict with Rome as a result of expansion into the lower Danube region by the proconsuls (governors) of Macedonia in the period 75-72 BC. Gaius Scribonius Curio (proconsul 75-3 BC) campaigned successfully against the Dardani and the Moesi, becoming the first Roman general to reach the river Danube with his army. His successor, Marcus Licinius Lucullus (brother of the famous Lucius Lucullus), campaigned against the Thracian Bessi tribe and the Moesi, ravaging the whole of Moesia, the region between the Haemus (Balkan) mountain range and the Danube. In 72 BC, his troops occupied the Greek coastal cities of Scythia Minor (modern Dobruja region, Romania/Bulgaria), which had sided with Rome's Hellenistic arch-enemy, king Mithridates VI of Pontus, in the Third Mithridatic War (73-63 BC).\n\nThe presence of Roman forces in the Danube delta was seen as a major threat by all the neighbouring transdanubian peoples: the Peucini Bastarnae, the Sarmatians and, most importantly, by Burebista (ruled 82-44 BC), king of the Getae. The Getae occupied the region today called Wallachia as well as Scythia Minor and were either a Dacian- or Thracian- speaking people. Burebista had unified the Getae tribes into a single kingdom, for which the Greek cities were vital trade outlets. In addition, he had established his hegemony over neighbouring Sarmatian and Bastarnae tribes. At its peak, the Getae kingdom reportedly was able to muster 200,000 warriors. Burebista led his transdanubian coalition in a struggle against Roman encroachment, conducting many raids against Roman allies in Moesia and Thrace, penetrating as far as Macedonia and Illyria.\n\nThe coalition's main chance came in 62 BC, when the Greek cities rebelled against Roman rule. In 61 BC, the notoriously oppressive and militarily incompetent proconsul of Macedonia, Gaius Antonius, nicknamed ''Hybrida'' (\"The Monster\", an uncle of the famous Mark Antony) led an army against the Greek cities. As his army approached Histria (Sinoe), Antonius detached his entire mounted force from the marching column and led it away on a lengthy excursion, leaving his infantry without cavalry cover, a tactic he had already used with disastrous results against the Dardani. Dio implies that he did so out of cowardice, in order to avoid the imminent clash with the opposition. But it is more likely that he was pursuing a large enemy cavalry force, probably Sarmatians. A Bastarnae host, which had crossed the Danube to assist the Histrians, promptly attacked, surrounded and massacred the Roman infantry, capturing several of their ''vexilla'' (military standards). This battle resulted in the collapse of the Roman position on the lower Danube. Burebista apparently annexed the Greek cities (55-48 BC). At the same time, the subjugated \"allied\" tribes of Moesia and Thrace evidently repudiated their treaties with Rome, as they had to be re-conquered by Augustus in 29-8 BC (see below).\n\nFor 44 BC, Roman dictator-for-life Julius Caesar planned to lead a major campaign to crush Burebista and his allies once and for all, but he was assassinated before it could start. However, the campaign was made redundant by Burebista's overthrow and death in the same year, after which his Getae empire fragmented into 4, later 5 independent petty kingdoms. These were militarily far weaker, as Strabo assessed their combined military potential at just 40,000 armed men, and were often involved in internecine warfare. The Geto-Dacians did not again become a threat to Roman hegemony in the lower Danube until the rise of Decebal 130 years later (AD 86).\n\n=== Roman Principate (30 BC - AD 284) ===\n\n==== Augustan era (30 BC - AD 14) ====\nStatue of Augustus in the garb of Roman ''imperator'' (military supreme commander). By the end of his sole rule (AD 14), Augustus had expanded the empire to the line of the Danube river, which was to remain its central/eastern European border for its entire history (except for the occupation of Dacia 105-275). Musei Vaticani, Rome \n\nOnce he had established himself as sole ruler of the Roman state in 30 BC, Caesar's grand-nephew and adopted son Augustus inaugurated a strategy of advancing the empire's southeastern European border to the line of the Danube from the Alps, the Dinaric Alps and Macedonia. The primary objective was to increase strategic depth between the border and Italy and also to provide a major fluvial supply-route between the Roman armies in the region.\n\nOn the lower Danube, which was given priority over the upper Danube, this required the annexation of Moesia. The Romans' target were thus the tribes which inhabited Moesia, namely (from West to East) the Triballi, Moesi and those Getae who dwelt South of the Danube. The Bastarnae were also a target because they had recently subjugated the Triballi, whose territory lay on the southern bank of the Danube between the tributary rivers ''Utus'' (Vit) and ''Ciabrus'' (Tsibritsa), with their chief town at Oescus (Gigen, Bulgaria). In addition, Augustus wanted to avenge the defeat of C. Antonius at Histria (Sinoe) 32 years before and to recover the lost military standards. These were held in a powerful fortress called Genucla (Isaccea, near modern Tulcea, Romania, in the Danube delta region), controlled by Zyraxes, the local Getan king. The man selected for the task was Marcus Licinius Crassus, grandson of Crassus the triumvir and an experienced general at 33 years of age, who was appointed proconsul of Macedonia in 29 BC.\n\nThe Bastarnae provided the ''casus belli'' by crossing the Haemus and attacking the Dentheletae, a Thracian tribe who were Roman allies. Crassus marched to the Dentheletae's assistance, but the Bastarnae host hastily withdrew over the Haemus at his approach. Crassus followed them closely into Moesia but they would not be drawn into battle, withdrawing beyond the Tsibritsa. Crassus now turned his attention to the Moesi, his prime target. After a successful campaign which resulted in the submission of a substantial section of the Moesi, Crassus again sought out the Bastarnae. Discovering their location from some peace envoys they had sent to him, he lured them into battle near the Tsibritsa by a stratagem. Hiding his main body of troops in a wood, he stationed as bait a smaller vanguard in open ground before the wood. As expected, the Bastarnae attacked the vanguard in force, only to find themselves entangled in the full-scale pitched battle with the Romans that they had tried to avoid. The Bastarnae tried to retreat into the forest but were hampered by the wagon-train carrying their women and children, as these could not move through the trees. Trapped into fighting to save their families, the Bastarnae were routed. Crassus personally killed their king, Deldo, in combat, a feat which qualified him for Rome's highest military honour, ''spolia opima'', but Augustus refused to award it on a technicality. Thousands of fleeing Bastarnae perished, many asphyxiated in nearby woods by encircling fires set by the Romans, others drowned trying to swim across the Danube. Nevertheless, a substantial force dug themselves into a powerful hillfort. Crassus laid siege to fort, but had to enlist the assistance of Rholes, a Getan petty king, to dislodge them, for which service Rholes was granted the title of ''socius et amicus populi Romani'' (\"ally and friend of the Roman people\").\n\nThe following year (28 BC), Crassus marched on Genucla. Petty king Zyraxes escaped with his treasure and fled over the Danube into Scythia to seek aid from the Bastarnae. But before he was able to bring reinforcements, Genucla fell to a combined land and fluvial assault by the Romans. The strategic result of Crassus' campaigns was the permanent annexation of Moesia by Rome.\n\nAbout a decade later, in 10 BC, the Bastarnae again clashed with Rome during Augustus' conquest of Pannonia (the ''bellum Pannonicum'' 14–9 BC). Inscription AE (1905) 14 records a campaign on the Hungarian Plain by the Augustan-era general Marcus Vinucius: \"Marcus Vinucius...patronymic, Consul in 19 BC...various official titles, governor of Illyricum, the first Roman general to advance across the river Danube, defeated in battle and routed an army of Dacians and Basternae, and subjugated the Cotini, Osi,...missing tribal name and Anartii to the power of the emperor Augustus and of the people of Rome.\" Most likely, the Bastarnae, in alliance with Dacians, were attempting to assist the hard-pressed Illyrian/Celtic tribes of Pannonia in their resistance to Rome.\n\n==== 1st and 2nd centuries ====\nIt appears that in the final years of Augustus' rule, the Bastarnae made their peace with Rome. The ''Res Gestae Divi Augusti'' (\"Acts of the divine Augustus\" AD 14), a self-congratulatory inscription commissioned by Augustus to list his achievements, states that he received an embassy from the Bastarnae seeking a treaty of friendship.\n\nIt appears that a treaty was concluded and apparently proved remarkably effective, as no hostilities with the Bastarnae are recorded in surviving ancient sources until c. 175, some 160 years after Augustus' inscription was carved. But surviving evidence for the history of this period is so thin that it cannot be excluded that the Bastarnae clashed with Rome during it. The Bastarnae may have been involved in the Dacian Wars of Domitian (86-88) and Trajan (101-102 and 105-106), since these took place in the lower Danube region and it is known that both sides were supported by neighbouring indigenous tribes.\n\nIn the late 2nd century, the ''Historia Augusta'' mentions that in the rule of Marcus Aurelius (161-80), an alliance of lower Danube tribes including the Bastarnae, the Sarmatian Roxolani and the Costoboci took advantage of the emperor's difficulties on the upper Danube (the Marcomannic Wars) to invade Roman territory.\n\n==== 3rd century ====\nDuring the late 2nd century, the main ethnic change in the northern Black sea region was the immigration, from the Vistula valley in the North, of the Goths and accompanying Germanic tribes such as the Taifali and the Hasdingi, a branch of the Vandal people. This migration was part of a series of major population movements in the European ''barbaricum'' (the Roman term for regions outside their empire). The Goths appear to have established a loose political hegemony over the existing tribes in the region.\n\nUnder the leadership of the Goths, a series of major invasions of the Roman empire were launched by a grand coalition of lower Danubian tribes from c. 238 onwards. The participation of the Bastarnae in these is likely but largely unspecified, due to Zosimus' and other chroniclers' tendency to lump all these tribes under the general term \"Scythians\" - meaning all the inhabitants of Scythia, rather than the specific Iranic-speaking people called the Scythians. Thus, in 250-1, the Bastarnae were probably involved in the Gothic and Sarmatian invasions which culminated in the Roman defeat at the Battle of Abrittus and the slaying of the emperor Decius (251). This disaster was the start of the Third Century Crisis of the Roman empire, a period of military and economic chaos. At this critical moment, the Roman army was crippled by the outbreak of a second smallpox pandemic, the plague of Cyprian (251-70). The effects are described by Zosimus as even worse than the earlier Antonine plague (166-80), which probably killed 15-30% of the empire's inhabitants.\n\nTaking advantage of Roman military disarray, a vast number of barbarian peoples overran much of the empire. The Sarmato-Gothic alliance of the lower Danube carried out major invasions of the Balkans region in 252, and in the periods 253-8 and 260-8. The Peucini Bastarnae are specifically mentioned in the 267/8 invasion, when the coalition built a fleet in the estuary of the river ''Tyras'' (Dnieper). The Peucini Bastarnae would have been critical to this venture since, as coastal and delta dwellers, they would have had seafaring experience that the nomadic Sarmatians and Goths lacked. The barbarians sailed along the Black Sea coast to Tomis in Moesia Inferior, which they tried to take by assault without success. They then attacked the provincial capital Marcianopolis (Devnya, Bulg.), also in vain. Sailing on through the Bosporus, the expedition laid siege to Thessalonica in Macedonia. Driven off by Roman forces, the coalition host moved overland into Thracia, where finally it was crushed by emperor Claudius II (r. 268-70) at Naissus (269).\n\nClaudius II was the first of a sequence of military emperors (the so-called \"Illyrian emperors\" from their main ethnic origin) who restored order in the empire in the late 3rd century. These emperors followed a policy of large-scale resettlement within the empire of defeated barbarian tribes, granting them land in return for an obligation of military service much heavier than the usual conscription quota. The policy had the triple benefit, from the Roman point of view, of weakening the hostile tribe, repopulating the plague-ravaged frontier provinces (bringing their abandoned fields back into cultivation) and providing a pool of first-rate recruits for the army. But it could also be popular with the barbarian prisoners, who were often delighted by the prospect of a land grant within the empire. In the 4th century, such communities were known as ''laeti''.\n\nThe emperor Probus (r. 276-82) is recorded as resettling 100,000 Bastarnae in Moesia, in addition to other peoples (Goths, Gepids and Vandals). The Bastarnae are reported to have honoured their oath of allegiance to the emperor, while the other resettled peoples mutinied while Probus was distracted by usurpation attempts and ravaged the Danubian provinces far and wide. A further massive transfer of Bastarnae was carried out by emperor Diocletian (ruled 284-305) after he and his colleague Galerius defeated a coalition of Bastarnae and Carpi in 299.\n\n=== Later Roman empire (AD 305 onwards) ===\n\nThe remaining transdanubian Bastarnae disappear into historical obscurity in the late empire. Neither of the main ancient sources for this period, Ammianus Marcellinus and Zosimus, mention the Bastarnae in their accounts of the 4th century, possibly implying the loss of their separate identity, presumably assimilated by the regional hegemons, the Goths. Such assimilation would have been facilitated if, as is possible, the Bastarnae spoke an East Germanic language closely related to Gothic. If the Bastarnae remained an identifiable group, it is highly likely that they participated in the vast Gothic-led migration, driven by Hunnic pressure, that was admitted into Moesia by emperor Valens in 376 and eventually defeated and killed Valens at Adrianople in 378. Although Ammianus refers to the migrants collectively as \"Goths\", he states that, in addition, \"Taifali and other tribes\" were involved.\n\nHowever, after a gap of 150 years, there is a final mention of Bastarnae in the mid-5th century. In 451, the Hunnic leader Attila invaded Gaul with a large army which was ultimately routed at the Battle of Châlons by a Roman-led coalition under the general Aetius. Attila's host, according to Jordanes, included contingents from the \"innumerable tribes that had been brought under his sway.\" One such were the Bastarnae, according to the Gallic nobleman Sidonius Apollinaris. However, E.A. Thompson argues that Sidonius' mention of Bastarnae at Chalons is probably false: his purpose was to write a panegyric and not a history, and Sidonius added some spurious names to the list of real participants (e.g. Burgundians, Sciri and Franks) for dramatic effect.\n",
"\n* List of Germanic tribes\n* List of Celtic tribes\n* Carpi (Dacian tribe)\n* Dacians\n* Early Slavs\n* Goths\n* Sarmatians\n* Slavs\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"\n=== Ancient ===\n* ''Res Gestae Divi Augusti'' (c. AD 14)\n* Ammianus Marcellinus ''Res Gestae'' (c. AD 395)\n* Dio Cassius ''Roman History'' (c. AD 230)\n* Eutropius ''Historiae Romanae Breviarium'' (c. 360)\n* Anonymous ''Historia Augusta'' (c. 400)\n* Livy ''Ab urbe condita'' (c. AD 20)\n* Jordanes ''Getica'' (c. 550)\n* Pliny the Elder ''Naturalis Historia'' (c. AD 70)\n* Ptolemy ''Geographia'' (c. 140)\n* Sextus Aurelius Victor ''De Caesaribus'' (c. 380)\n* Sidonius Apollinaris ''Carmina'' (late 5th century)\n* Strabo ''Geographica'' (c. AD 10)\n* Tacitus ''Annales'' (c. AD 100)\n* Tacitus ''Germania'' (c. 100)\n* Zosimus ''Historia Nova'' (c. 500)\n\n=== Modern ===\n* Babeş, Mircea: ''Noi date privind arheologia şi istoria bastarnilor'' in SCIV 20 (1969) 195-218\n* Barrington (2000): ''Atlas of the Greek and Roman World''\n* Batty, Roger (2008): ''Rome and the Nomads: the Pontic-Danubian region in Antiquity''\n* Crişan, Ion (1978): ''Burebista and his Time''\n* Faliyeyev, Alexander (2007): ''Dictionary of Continental Celtic Placenames'' (online)\n* Goldsworthy, Adrian (2000): ''Roman Warfare''\n*\n*\n* Heather, Peter (2009): ''Empires and Barbarians''\n* Jones, A.H.M. (1964): ''Later Roman Empire''\n* Köbler, Gerhard (2000): ''Indo-Germanisches Wörterbuch'' (online)\n* Müllenhoff, Karl (1887): ''Deutsche altertumskunde'' (vol. II)\n* Shchukin, Mark (1989): ''Rome and the Barbarians in central and eastern Europe: 1st century BC - 1st century AD''\n* Thompson, E.A. (1996): ''The Huns''\n* Todd, Malcolm (2004): ''The early Germans''\n* O. N. Trubačev (1999): ''INDOARICA в Северном Причерноморье''\n*\n* Wolfram, Herwig (1988): ''History of the Goths''\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Name etymology ",
" Territory ",
" Ethno-linguistic affiliation ",
" Material culture ",
" Conflict with Rome ",
" See also ",
" Notes ",
" Notes ",
" References ",
" Further reading "
] | Bastarnae | [
"The Bastarnae were also a target because they had recently subjugated the Triballi, whose territory lay on the southern bank of the Danube between the tributary rivers ''Utus'' (Vit) and ''Ciabrus'' (Tsibritsa), with their chief town at Oescus (Gigen, Bulgaria)."
] | [
"\n\nMap showing Roman Dacia and surrounding peoples in AD 125\nThe '''Bastarnae''' (Latin variants: ''Bastarni'', or ''Basternae''; ) were an ancient people who between 200 BC and 300 AD inhabited the region between the Carpathian mountains and the river Dnieper, to the north and east of ancient Dacia.",
"The Peucini, denoted a branch of the Bastarnae by Greco-Roman writers, occupied the region north of the Danube delta.",
"The ethno-linguistic affiliation of the Bastarnae was probably Germanic, which is supported by ancient historians and modern archeology.",
"However, some ancient literary sources imply Celtic or Scytho-Sarmatian influences.",
"The most likely scenario is that they were originally a group of East Germanic tribes, originally resident in the lower Vistula river valley.",
"In ca.",
"200 BC, these tribes then migrated, possibly accompanied by some Celtic elements, southeastwards into the North Pontic region.",
"Some elements appear to have become assimilated, to some extent, by the surrounding Sarmatians by the 3rd century.",
"Although largely sedentary, some elements may have adopted a semi-nomadic lifestyle.",
"It has not, so far, been possible to identify archaeological sites which can be conclusively attributed to the Bastarnae.",
"The archaeological horizons most often associated by scholars with the Bastarnae are the Zarubintsy and Poienesti-Lukashevka cultures.",
"The Bastarnae first came into conflict with the Romans during the 1st century BC, when, in alliance with Dacians and Sarmatians, they unsuccessfully resisted Roman expansion into Moesia and Pannonia.",
"Later, they appear to have maintained friendly relations with the Roman empire during the first two centuries AD.",
"This changed from c. 180, when the Bastarnae are recorded as participants in an invasion of Roman territory, once again in alliance with Sarmatian and Dacian elements.",
"In the mid-3rd century, the Bastarnae were part of a Gothic-led grand coalition of lower Danube tribes that repeatedly invaded the Balkan provinces of the Roman empire.",
"Large numbers of Bastarnae were resettled within the Roman empire in the late 3rd century.",
"The origin of the tribal name is uncertain.",
"It is not even clear whether it was an exonym (a name ascribed to them by outsiders) or an endonym (a name by which the Bastarnae described themselves).",
"A related question is whether the groups denoted \"Bastarnae\" by the Romans considered themselves a distinct ethnic group at all (endonym) or whether it was a generic exonym used by the Greco-Romans to denote a disparate group of tribes of the Carpathian region that could not be classified as Dacians or Sarmatians.",
"One possible derivation is from the proto-Germanic word ''*bastjan'' (from Proto-Indo-European root *''bʰas-'') means \"binding\" or \"tie\".",
"In this case, ''Bastarnae'' may have had the original meaning of a coalition or ''bund'' of tribes.",
"It is possible that the Roman term ''basterna'', denoting a type of wagon or litter, is derived from the name of this people (or, if it is an exonym, the name of the people is derived from it) which was known, like many Germanic tribes, to travel with a wagon-train for their families.",
"It has also been suggested that the name is linked with the Germanic word ''bastard'', meaning illegitimate or mongrel.",
"But Batty considers this derivation unlikely.",
"If the name is an endonym, then this derivation is unlikely, as most endonyms have flattering meanings (e.g.",
"\"brave\", \"strong\", \"noble\").",
"Trubačev proposes a derivation from Old Persian, Avestan ''bast-'' \"bound, tied; slave\" (cf.",
"Ossetic bættən \"bind\", bast \"bound\") and Iranian ''*arna-'' \"offspring\", equating it with the ''δουλόσποροι'' \"slave Sporoi\" mentioned by Nonnus and Cosmas, where Sporoi is the people Procopius mentions as the ancestors of the Slavs.",
"\nThe original homeland of the Bastarnae remains uncertain.",
"Babeş and Shchukin argue in favour of an origin in eastern Pomerania on the Baltic coast of NW Poland, on the grounds of correspondences in archaeological material e.g.",
"a Pomeranian-style fibula found in a Poieneşti site in Moldavia (although Batty considers the evidence insufficient).",
"Babeş identifies the Sidoni, a branch of the Bastarnae which Strabo places north of the Danube delta with the ''Sidini'' located by Ptolemy in Pomerania.",
"Batty argues that Greco-Roman sources of the 1st century AD locate the Bastarnae homeland on the northern side of the Northern Carpathian mountain range, encompassing S.E.",
"Poland and SW Ukraine (i.e.",
"the region traditionally known as Galicia).",
"Pliny locates the Bastarnae between the Suebi and the Dacians (''contermini Dacis'').",
"The Peutinger Map (produced in ca.",
"400 AD, but including material from as early as the 1st century) shows the Bastarnae (mis-spelt ''Blastarni'') north of the Carpathian mountains and appears to name the Galician Carpathians as the ''Alpes Bastarnicae''.",
"From Galicia, the Bastarnae expanded into modern-day Moldavia and Bessarabia, reaching the Danube delta.",
"Strabo describes the Bastarnae as inhabiting the territory \"between the ''Ister'' (river Danube) and the ''Borysthenes'' (river Dnieper)\".",
"He identifies three sub-tribes of the Bastarnae: the Atmoni, Sidoni and Peucini.",
"The latter derived their name from Peuce, a large island in the Danube delta, which they had colonised.",
"The 2nd-century geographer Ptolemy states that the ''Carpiani'' or Carpi (believed to have occupied Moldavia) separated the Peucini from the other Bastarnae \"above Dacia\" (i.e.",
"north of Dacia).",
"It thus appears that the Bastarnae were settled in a vast arc stretching around the northern and eastern flanks of the Carpathians from SE Poland to the Danube delta.",
"The larger group inhabited the northern and eastern slopes of the Carpathians and the region between the Prut and Dnieper rivers (Moldova Republic/Western Ukraine), while a separate group (the Peucini, Sidoni and Atmoni) dwelt in and north of the Danube delta region.",
"\nScholars hold divergent theories about the ethnicity of the Bastarnae.",
"The mainstream view, following what appears to be the most authoritative view among ancient scholars, is that they were Germanic.",
"However others hold that they were mixed Celtic/Germanic, or mixed Germanic/Sarmatian.",
"A fringe theory is that they were Proto-Slavic.",
"Shchukin argues that ethnicity of the Bastarnae was unique and rather than trying to label the Bastanae as Celtic, Germanic or Sarmatian, it should be accepted that the \"Basternae were the Basternae\".",
"Batty argues that assigning an \"ethnicity\" to the Bastarnae is meaningless, as in the context of the Iron Age Pontic-Danubian region, with its multiple overlapping peoples and languages, ethnicity was a very fluid concept: it could and did change rapidly and frequently, according to socio-political vicissitudes.",
"This was especially true of the Bastarnae, who are attested over a relatively vast area.",
"=== Germanic ===\nGreco-Roman geographers of the 1st century AD are unanimous and specific that the Bastarnae were Germanic in language and culture.",
"The Greek geographer Strabo (writing c. AD 5-20) says the Bastarnae are \"of Germanic stock\".",
"The Roman geographer Pliny the Elder (c. AD 77), classifies the Bastarnae and Peucini as constituting one of the 5 main subdivisions of Germanic peoples (he lists the other subdivisions as the ''Inguaeones'', ''Istuaeones'' and ''Hermiones'' (West Germanic tribes), and the ''Vandili'' (Vandals, East Germanic, but he classifies differently than the Bastarnae).",
"The Roman historian Tacitus (c. AD 100) describes the Bastaenae as Germans with substantial Sarmatian influence, but moves on to state: \"The Peucini, however, who are sometimes called Bastarnae, are like the Germans in their language, way of life and types of dwelling.\"",
"=== Celtic ===\n\nA leading reason to consider the Bastarnae as Celtic is that the regions they are documented to have occupied (northern and eastern slopes of the Carpathians) overlapped to a great extent with the locations of Celtic tribes attested in the northern Carpathians.",
"Indeed, a large part of this region, Galicia, may derive its name from its former Celtic inhabitants the Taurisci, Osi, Cotini and Anartes of Slovakia and northern Romania and the Britogalli of the Danubian Mouth region.",
"In addition, archaeological cultures, which some scholars have linked to the Bastarnae (Poieneşti-Lukashevka asnd Zarubintsy), display pronounced Celtic influences.",
"Finally, the arrival of the Bastarnae in the Pontic-Danubian region, which can be dated to 233-216 BC according to two ancient sources, coincides with the latter phase of Celtic migration into the region (400-200 BC).",
"The Roman historian Livy, writing in c. AD 10, appears to imply that the Bastarnae were of Celtic speech.",
"Relating the Bastarnic invasion of the Balkans of 179 BC (see Conflict with Rome below), he describes them then as \"similar in language and customs\" to the Scordisci, a tribe of Pannonia, whose onomastics and material culture have been identified as Celtic by several scholars.",
"The Scordisci are described as Celtic by Strabo (although he adds that they had mingled with Illyrians and Thracians).",
"However, a Celtic identity for the Bastarnae is apparently contradicted by Polybius (writing ca.",
"150 BC), who was an actual contemporary of the events described, unlike Livy, who was writing some 200 years later.",
"Polybius clearly distinguishes the Bastarnae from the \"Galatae\" (i.e.",
"Celts): \"an embassy from the Dardani arrived at the Roman Senate, talking of the Bastarnae, their huge numbers, the strength and valour of their warriors, and also reporting that Perseus king of Macedon and the Galatae were in league with this tribe\".",
"In addition, inscription AE (1905) 14, recording a campaign on the Hungarian Plain by the Augustan-era general Marcus Vinucius (10 BC or 8 BC), also appears to distinguish the Bastarnae from neighbouring Celtic tribes: \"Marcus Vinucius... governor of Illyricum, the first Roman general to advance across the river Danube, defeated in battle and routed an army of Dacians and Basternae, and subjugated the Cotini, Osi,...missing tribal name and Anartii to the power of the emperor Augustus and of the people of Rome.\"",
"The names of three Bastarnae leaders are preserved in the ancient sources: Cotto, Clondicus, and Teutagonus These names have been identified as Celtic by some scholars.",
"However, the names could also be Germanic, according to Müllenhoff, and thus do not assist determination of whether the Bastarnae were Celtic or Germanic.",
"===Scytho-Sarmatian ===\n\nStrabo includes the Roxolani, generally considered by scholars to have been a Sarmatian tribe, in a list of Bastarnae subgroups.",
"However, this may simply be an error due to the close proximity of the two peoples north of the Danube delta.",
"In the 3rd century, the Greek historian Dio Cassius states that the \"Bastarnae are properly classed as Scythians\" and \"members of the Scythian race\".",
"Likewise, the 6th-century historian Zosimus, reporting events around AD 280, refers to \"the Bastarnae, a Scythian people\".",
"However, it appears that these late Greco-Roman chroniclers used the term \"Scythian\" more often in a geographical sense (i.e.",
"inhabitants of the region they called Scythia i.e.",
"the Pontic region north of the Danube) rather than in an ethnic one (i.e.",
"members of the Scythian people, steppe nomads of Iranic origin, related to the Sarmatians, who had supplanted the Scythians' dominance of the steppes in the period BC).",
"For example, Zosimus also routinely refers to the Goths, who were undoubtedly Germanic-speakers, as \"Scythians\".",
"It is possible that some Bastarnae may have been assimilated by the surrounding (and possibly dominant) Sarmatians, perhaps adopting their tongue (which belonged to the Iranian group of Indo-European languages) and/or Sarmatian customs.",
"Thus Tacitus' comment that \"mixed marriages are giving the Bastarnae to some extent the vile appearance of the Sarmatians\".",
"On the other hand, the Bastarnae maintained a separate name-identity until ca.",
"AD 300, probably implying retention of their distinctive ethno-linguistic heritage until that time.",
"It seems, on balance, likely that the core population of Bastarnae had always been, and continued to be, Germanic in language and culture.",
"Attempt to reconstruct Bastarnae costumes, in display at the Archaeological Museum of Kraków.",
"Such clothing and weapons were commonplace among barbarian peoples on the empire's borders\n'Archaeological cultures' in the early Roman period, c. 100 AD\n\nAccording to Todd, traditional archaeology has not been able to construct a typology of Bastarnae material culture, and thus to ascribe particular archaeological sites to the Bastarnae.",
"A complicating factor is that the regions where Bastarnae are attested contained a patchwork of peoples and cultures (Sarmatians, Scythians, Dacians, Thracians, Celts, Germans and others), some sedentary, some nomadic.",
"In any event, post-1960's archaeological theory questions the validity of equating material \"cultures\", as defined by archaeologists, with distinct ethnic groups.",
"On this view, it is impossible to attribute a \"culture\" to a particular ethnic group: it is likely that the material cultures discerned in the region belonged to several, if not all, of the groups inhabiting it.",
"These cultures probably represent relatively large-scale socio-economic interactions between disparate communities of the broad region, possibly including mutually antagonistic groups.",
"It is not even certain whether the Bastarnae were sedentary or nomadic (or semi-nomadic).",
"Tacitus' statement that they were \"German in their way of life and types of dwelling\" implies a sedentary bias, but their close relations with the Sarmatians, who were nomadic, may indicate a more nomadic lifestyle for some Bastarnae, as does the wide geographical range of their attested inhabitation.",
"If the Bastarnae were nomadic, then the sedentary \"cultures\" identified by archaeologists in their ''lebensraum'' would not represent them.",
"Nomadic peoples generally leave scant traces, due to the impermanent materials and foundations used in the construction of their dwellings.",
"Scholars have identified two closely related sedentary \"cultures\" as possible candidates to represent the Bastarnae (among other peoples) as their locations broadly correspond to where ancient sources placed the Basternae: the Zarubintsy culture lying in the forest-steppe zone in northern Ukraine-southern Belarus, and the '''Poieneşti-Lukashevka''' (Lucăşeuca) culture in northern Moldavia.",
"These cultures were characterised by agriculture, documented by numerous finds of sickles.",
"Dwellings were either of surface or semi-subterranean types, with posts supporting the walls, a hearth in the middle, and large conical pits located nearby.",
"Some sites were defended by ditches and banks, structures thought to have been built to defend against nomadic tribes from the steppe.",
"Inhabitants practiced cremation.",
"Cremated remains were either placed in large, hand-made ceramic urns, or were placed in a large pit and surrounded by food and ornaments such as spiral bracelets and Middle to Late La Tène-type ''fibulae'' (attesting the continuing strength of Celtic influence in this region).",
"A major problem with associating Lukashevka and Zarubintsy with the Bastarnae is that both cultures had disappeared by the early 1st century AD, although the Bastarnae continue to be attested in those regions throughout the Roman Principate.",
"Another issue is that the Poieneşti-Lukashevka culture has also been attributed to the Costoboci, a people considered ethnic-Dacian by mainstream scholarship, which inhabited northern Moldavia, according to Ptolemy (ca.",
"AD 140).",
"Indeed, Mircea Babeş and Silvia Theodor, the two Romanian archaeologists who identified Lukashevka as Bastarnic, nevertheless insisted that the majority of the population in the Lukashevka sphere (N. Moldavia) was \"Geto-Dacian\".",
"A further problem is that neither of these cultures were present in the Danube delta region, where a major concentration of Bastarnae are attested by the ancient sources.",
"Starting in about AD 200, the Chernyakhov culture became established in the W. Ukraine/Moldova region inhabited by the Bastarnae.",
"The culture is characterised by a high degree of sophistication in the production of metal and ceramic artefacts, as well as of uniformity over a vast area.",
"Although this culture has conventionally been identified with the migration of the Gothic ''ethnos'' into the region from the Northwest, Todd argues that its most important origin is Scytho-Sarmatian.",
"Although the Goths certainly contributed to it, so probably did other peoples of the region such as the Dacians, proto-Slavs, Carpi, and possibly the Bastarnae.",
"\n=== Roman Republican era (to 30 BC) ===\n\n==== Allies of Philip of Macedon (179-8 BC) ====\nSilver tetradrachm of Philip V of Macedon.",
"British Museum, London \n\nThe Bastarnae first appear in the historical record in 179 BC, when they crossed the Danube in massive force.",
"They did so at the invitation of their long-time ally, king Philip V of Macedon, a direct descendant of Antigonus, one of the Diadochi, the generals of Alexander the Great who had shared out his empire after his death in 323 BC.",
"The Macedonian king had suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Romans in the Second Macedonian War (200-197 BC), which had reduced him from a powerful Hellenistic monarch to the status of a petty client-king with a much-reduced territory and a tiny army.",
"After nearly 20 years of slavish adherence to the Roman Senate's dictats, Philip had been goaded beyond endurance by the incessant and devastating raiding of the Dardani, a warlike Thraco-Illyrian tribe on his northern border, which his treaty-limited army was too small to counter effectively.",
"Counting on the Bastarnae, with whom he had forged friendly relations in earlier times, he plotted a strategy to deal with the Dardani and then to regain his lost territories in Greece and his political independence.",
"First, he would unleash the Bastarnae against the Dardani.",
"After the latter had been crushed, Philip planned to settle Bastarnae families in Dardania (southern Kosovo/Skopje region), to ensure that the region was permanently subdued.",
"In a second phase, Philip aimed to launch the Bastarnae on an invasion of Italy via the Adriatic coast.",
"Although he was aware that the Bastarnae were hardly likely to achieve the same success as Hannibal some 40 years earlier, and would most likely end up cut to pieces by the Romans, Philip hoped that the Romans would be distracted long enough to allow him to reoccupy his former possessions in Greece.",
"But Philip, now 60 years of age, died before the Bastarnae could arrive.",
"The Bastarnae host was still ''en route'' through Thrace, where it became embroiled in hostilities with the locals, who were unable (or unwilling) to provide them with sufficient food at affordable prices as they marched through.",
"Probably in the vicinity of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv, Bulgaria), the Bastarnae broke out of their marching columns and pillaged the land far and wide.",
"The terrified local Thracians took refuge with their families and animal herds on the slopes of ''Mons Donuca'', the highest mountain in Thrace (Mt.",
"Musala, Rila Mts., Bulgaria).",
"A large force of Bastarnae chased them up the mountain, but were driven back and scattered by a massive hailstorm.",
"Then the Thracians ambushed them, turning their descent into a panic-stricken rout.",
"Back at their wagon-laager in the plain, around half the demoralised Bastarnae decided to return home, leaving c. 30,000 to press on to Macedonia.",
"Philip's son and successor Perseus, while protesting his loyalty to Rome, deployed his Bastarnae guests in winter quarters in a valley in Dardania, presumably as a prelude to a campaign against the Dardani the following summer.",
"But in the depths of winter their camp was attacked by the Dardani.",
"The Bastarnae easily beat off the attackers, chased them back to their chief town, and besieged them.",
"But they were surprised in the rear by a second force of Dardani, which had approached their camp stealthily by mountain paths, and proceeded to storm and ransack it.",
"Having lost their entire baggage and supplies, the Bastarnae were obliged to withdraw from Dardania and to return home.",
"Most perished as they crossed the frozen Danube on foot, only for the ice to give way.",
"Despite the failure of Philip's Bastarnae strategy, the suspicion aroused by these events in the Roman Senate, which had been warned by the Dardani of the Bastarnae invasion, ensured the demise of Macedonia as an independent state.",
"Rome declared war on Perseus in 171 BC and after the Macedonian army was crushed at the Battle of Pydna (168 BC), Macedonia was split up into 4 Roman puppet-cantons (167 BC).",
"21 years later, these were in turn abolished and annexed to the Roman Republic as the province of Macedonia (146 BC).",
"==== Allies of Getae high king Burebista (62 BC) ====\nMap of Scythia Minor (Dobruja), showing the Greek coastal cities of Histria, Tomis, Callatis and Dionysopolis (Istria, Constanţa, Mangalia and Balchik).",
"Histria (Sinoe)\nThe Bastarnae first came into direct conflict with Rome as a result of expansion into the lower Danube region by the proconsuls (governors) of Macedonia in the period 75-72 BC.",
"Gaius Scribonius Curio (proconsul 75-3 BC) campaigned successfully against the Dardani and the Moesi, becoming the first Roman general to reach the river Danube with his army.",
"His successor, Marcus Licinius Lucullus (brother of the famous Lucius Lucullus), campaigned against the Thracian Bessi tribe and the Moesi, ravaging the whole of Moesia, the region between the Haemus (Balkan) mountain range and the Danube.",
"In 72 BC, his troops occupied the Greek coastal cities of Scythia Minor (modern Dobruja region, Romania/Bulgaria), which had sided with Rome's Hellenistic arch-enemy, king Mithridates VI of Pontus, in the Third Mithridatic War (73-63 BC).",
"The presence of Roman forces in the Danube delta was seen as a major threat by all the neighbouring transdanubian peoples: the Peucini Bastarnae, the Sarmatians and, most importantly, by Burebista (ruled 82-44 BC), king of the Getae.",
"The Getae occupied the region today called Wallachia as well as Scythia Minor and were either a Dacian- or Thracian- speaking people.",
"Burebista had unified the Getae tribes into a single kingdom, for which the Greek cities were vital trade outlets.",
"In addition, he had established his hegemony over neighbouring Sarmatian and Bastarnae tribes.",
"At its peak, the Getae kingdom reportedly was able to muster 200,000 warriors.",
"Burebista led his transdanubian coalition in a struggle against Roman encroachment, conducting many raids against Roman allies in Moesia and Thrace, penetrating as far as Macedonia and Illyria.",
"The coalition's main chance came in 62 BC, when the Greek cities rebelled against Roman rule.",
"In 61 BC, the notoriously oppressive and militarily incompetent proconsul of Macedonia, Gaius Antonius, nicknamed ''Hybrida'' (\"The Monster\", an uncle of the famous Mark Antony) led an army against the Greek cities.",
"As his army approached Histria (Sinoe), Antonius detached his entire mounted force from the marching column and led it away on a lengthy excursion, leaving his infantry without cavalry cover, a tactic he had already used with disastrous results against the Dardani.",
"Dio implies that he did so out of cowardice, in order to avoid the imminent clash with the opposition.",
"But it is more likely that he was pursuing a large enemy cavalry force, probably Sarmatians.",
"A Bastarnae host, which had crossed the Danube to assist the Histrians, promptly attacked, surrounded and massacred the Roman infantry, capturing several of their ''vexilla'' (military standards).",
"This battle resulted in the collapse of the Roman position on the lower Danube.",
"Burebista apparently annexed the Greek cities (55-48 BC).",
"At the same time, the subjugated \"allied\" tribes of Moesia and Thrace evidently repudiated their treaties with Rome, as they had to be re-conquered by Augustus in 29-8 BC (see below).",
"For 44 BC, Roman dictator-for-life Julius Caesar planned to lead a major campaign to crush Burebista and his allies once and for all, but he was assassinated before it could start.",
"However, the campaign was made redundant by Burebista's overthrow and death in the same year, after which his Getae empire fragmented into 4, later 5 independent petty kingdoms.",
"These were militarily far weaker, as Strabo assessed their combined military potential at just 40,000 armed men, and were often involved in internecine warfare.",
"The Geto-Dacians did not again become a threat to Roman hegemony in the lower Danube until the rise of Decebal 130 years later (AD 86).",
"=== Roman Principate (30 BC - AD 284) ===\n\n==== Augustan era (30 BC - AD 14) ====\nStatue of Augustus in the garb of Roman ''imperator'' (military supreme commander).",
"By the end of his sole rule (AD 14), Augustus had expanded the empire to the line of the Danube river, which was to remain its central/eastern European border for its entire history (except for the occupation of Dacia 105-275).",
"Musei Vaticani, Rome \n\nOnce he had established himself as sole ruler of the Roman state in 30 BC, Caesar's grand-nephew and adopted son Augustus inaugurated a strategy of advancing the empire's southeastern European border to the line of the Danube from the Alps, the Dinaric Alps and Macedonia.",
"The primary objective was to increase strategic depth between the border and Italy and also to provide a major fluvial supply-route between the Roman armies in the region.",
"On the lower Danube, which was given priority over the upper Danube, this required the annexation of Moesia.",
"The Romans' target were thus the tribes which inhabited Moesia, namely (from West to East) the Triballi, Moesi and those Getae who dwelt South of the Danube.",
"In addition, Augustus wanted to avenge the defeat of C. Antonius at Histria (Sinoe) 32 years before and to recover the lost military standards.",
"These were held in a powerful fortress called Genucla (Isaccea, near modern Tulcea, Romania, in the Danube delta region), controlled by Zyraxes, the local Getan king.",
"The man selected for the task was Marcus Licinius Crassus, grandson of Crassus the triumvir and an experienced general at 33 years of age, who was appointed proconsul of Macedonia in 29 BC.",
"The Bastarnae provided the ''casus belli'' by crossing the Haemus and attacking the Dentheletae, a Thracian tribe who were Roman allies.",
"Crassus marched to the Dentheletae's assistance, but the Bastarnae host hastily withdrew over the Haemus at his approach.",
"Crassus followed them closely into Moesia but they would not be drawn into battle, withdrawing beyond the Tsibritsa.",
"Crassus now turned his attention to the Moesi, his prime target.",
"After a successful campaign which resulted in the submission of a substantial section of the Moesi, Crassus again sought out the Bastarnae.",
"Discovering their location from some peace envoys they had sent to him, he lured them into battle near the Tsibritsa by a stratagem.",
"Hiding his main body of troops in a wood, he stationed as bait a smaller vanguard in open ground before the wood.",
"As expected, the Bastarnae attacked the vanguard in force, only to find themselves entangled in the full-scale pitched battle with the Romans that they had tried to avoid.",
"The Bastarnae tried to retreat into the forest but were hampered by the wagon-train carrying their women and children, as these could not move through the trees.",
"Trapped into fighting to save their families, the Bastarnae were routed.",
"Crassus personally killed their king, Deldo, in combat, a feat which qualified him for Rome's highest military honour, ''spolia opima'', but Augustus refused to award it on a technicality.",
"Thousands of fleeing Bastarnae perished, many asphyxiated in nearby woods by encircling fires set by the Romans, others drowned trying to swim across the Danube.",
"Nevertheless, a substantial force dug themselves into a powerful hillfort.",
"Crassus laid siege to fort, but had to enlist the assistance of Rholes, a Getan petty king, to dislodge them, for which service Rholes was granted the title of ''socius et amicus populi Romani'' (\"ally and friend of the Roman people\").",
"The following year (28 BC), Crassus marched on Genucla.",
"Petty king Zyraxes escaped with his treasure and fled over the Danube into Scythia to seek aid from the Bastarnae.",
"But before he was able to bring reinforcements, Genucla fell to a combined land and fluvial assault by the Romans.",
"The strategic result of Crassus' campaigns was the permanent annexation of Moesia by Rome.",
"About a decade later, in 10 BC, the Bastarnae again clashed with Rome during Augustus' conquest of Pannonia (the ''bellum Pannonicum'' 14–9 BC).",
"Inscription AE (1905) 14 records a campaign on the Hungarian Plain by the Augustan-era general Marcus Vinucius: \"Marcus Vinucius...patronymic, Consul in 19 BC...various official titles, governor of Illyricum, the first Roman general to advance across the river Danube, defeated in battle and routed an army of Dacians and Basternae, and subjugated the Cotini, Osi,...missing tribal name and Anartii to the power of the emperor Augustus and of the people of Rome.\"",
"Most likely, the Bastarnae, in alliance with Dacians, were attempting to assist the hard-pressed Illyrian/Celtic tribes of Pannonia in their resistance to Rome.",
"==== 1st and 2nd centuries ====\nIt appears that in the final years of Augustus' rule, the Bastarnae made their peace with Rome.",
"The ''Res Gestae Divi Augusti'' (\"Acts of the divine Augustus\" AD 14), a self-congratulatory inscription commissioned by Augustus to list his achievements, states that he received an embassy from the Bastarnae seeking a treaty of friendship.",
"It appears that a treaty was concluded and apparently proved remarkably effective, as no hostilities with the Bastarnae are recorded in surviving ancient sources until c. 175, some 160 years after Augustus' inscription was carved.",
"But surviving evidence for the history of this period is so thin that it cannot be excluded that the Bastarnae clashed with Rome during it.",
"The Bastarnae may have been involved in the Dacian Wars of Domitian (86-88) and Trajan (101-102 and 105-106), since these took place in the lower Danube region and it is known that both sides were supported by neighbouring indigenous tribes.",
"In the late 2nd century, the ''Historia Augusta'' mentions that in the rule of Marcus Aurelius (161-80), an alliance of lower Danube tribes including the Bastarnae, the Sarmatian Roxolani and the Costoboci took advantage of the emperor's difficulties on the upper Danube (the Marcomannic Wars) to invade Roman territory.",
"==== 3rd century ====\nDuring the late 2nd century, the main ethnic change in the northern Black sea region was the immigration, from the Vistula valley in the North, of the Goths and accompanying Germanic tribes such as the Taifali and the Hasdingi, a branch of the Vandal people.",
"This migration was part of a series of major population movements in the European ''barbaricum'' (the Roman term for regions outside their empire).",
"The Goths appear to have established a loose political hegemony over the existing tribes in the region.",
"Under the leadership of the Goths, a series of major invasions of the Roman empire were launched by a grand coalition of lower Danubian tribes from c. 238 onwards.",
"The participation of the Bastarnae in these is likely but largely unspecified, due to Zosimus' and other chroniclers' tendency to lump all these tribes under the general term \"Scythians\" - meaning all the inhabitants of Scythia, rather than the specific Iranic-speaking people called the Scythians.",
"Thus, in 250-1, the Bastarnae were probably involved in the Gothic and Sarmatian invasions which culminated in the Roman defeat at the Battle of Abrittus and the slaying of the emperor Decius (251).",
"This disaster was the start of the Third Century Crisis of the Roman empire, a period of military and economic chaos.",
"At this critical moment, the Roman army was crippled by the outbreak of a second smallpox pandemic, the plague of Cyprian (251-70).",
"The effects are described by Zosimus as even worse than the earlier Antonine plague (166-80), which probably killed 15-30% of the empire's inhabitants.",
"Taking advantage of Roman military disarray, a vast number of barbarian peoples overran much of the empire.",
"The Sarmato-Gothic alliance of the lower Danube carried out major invasions of the Balkans region in 252, and in the periods 253-8 and 260-8.",
"The Peucini Bastarnae are specifically mentioned in the 267/8 invasion, when the coalition built a fleet in the estuary of the river ''Tyras'' (Dnieper).",
"The Peucini Bastarnae would have been critical to this venture since, as coastal and delta dwellers, they would have had seafaring experience that the nomadic Sarmatians and Goths lacked.",
"The barbarians sailed along the Black Sea coast to Tomis in Moesia Inferior, which they tried to take by assault without success.",
"They then attacked the provincial capital Marcianopolis (Devnya, Bulg.",
"), also in vain.",
"Sailing on through the Bosporus, the expedition laid siege to Thessalonica in Macedonia.",
"Driven off by Roman forces, the coalition host moved overland into Thracia, where finally it was crushed by emperor Claudius II (r. 268-70) at Naissus (269).",
"Claudius II was the first of a sequence of military emperors (the so-called \"Illyrian emperors\" from their main ethnic origin) who restored order in the empire in the late 3rd century.",
"These emperors followed a policy of large-scale resettlement within the empire of defeated barbarian tribes, granting them land in return for an obligation of military service much heavier than the usual conscription quota.",
"The policy had the triple benefit, from the Roman point of view, of weakening the hostile tribe, repopulating the plague-ravaged frontier provinces (bringing their abandoned fields back into cultivation) and providing a pool of first-rate recruits for the army.",
"But it could also be popular with the barbarian prisoners, who were often delighted by the prospect of a land grant within the empire.",
"In the 4th century, such communities were known as ''laeti''.",
"The emperor Probus (r. 276-82) is recorded as resettling 100,000 Bastarnae in Moesia, in addition to other peoples (Goths, Gepids and Vandals).",
"The Bastarnae are reported to have honoured their oath of allegiance to the emperor, while the other resettled peoples mutinied while Probus was distracted by usurpation attempts and ravaged the Danubian provinces far and wide.",
"A further massive transfer of Bastarnae was carried out by emperor Diocletian (ruled 284-305) after he and his colleague Galerius defeated a coalition of Bastarnae and Carpi in 299.",
"=== Later Roman empire (AD 305 onwards) ===\n\nThe remaining transdanubian Bastarnae disappear into historical obscurity in the late empire.",
"Neither of the main ancient sources for this period, Ammianus Marcellinus and Zosimus, mention the Bastarnae in their accounts of the 4th century, possibly implying the loss of their separate identity, presumably assimilated by the regional hegemons, the Goths.",
"Such assimilation would have been facilitated if, as is possible, the Bastarnae spoke an East Germanic language closely related to Gothic.",
"If the Bastarnae remained an identifiable group, it is highly likely that they participated in the vast Gothic-led migration, driven by Hunnic pressure, that was admitted into Moesia by emperor Valens in 376 and eventually defeated and killed Valens at Adrianople in 378.",
"Although Ammianus refers to the migrants collectively as \"Goths\", he states that, in addition, \"Taifali and other tribes\" were involved.",
"However, after a gap of 150 years, there is a final mention of Bastarnae in the mid-5th century.",
"In 451, the Hunnic leader Attila invaded Gaul with a large army which was ultimately routed at the Battle of Châlons by a Roman-led coalition under the general Aetius.",
"Attila's host, according to Jordanes, included contingents from the \"innumerable tribes that had been brought under his sway.\"",
"One such were the Bastarnae, according to the Gallic nobleman Sidonius Apollinaris.",
"However, E.A.",
"Thompson argues that Sidonius' mention of Bastarnae at Chalons is probably false: his purpose was to write a panegyric and not a history, and Sidonius added some spurious names to the list of real participants (e.g.",
"Burgundians, Sciri and Franks) for dramatic effect.",
"\n* List of Germanic tribes\n* List of Celtic tribes\n* Carpi (Dacian tribe)\n* Dacians\n* Early Slavs\n* Goths\n* Sarmatians\n* Slavs",
"\n=== Ancient ===\n* ''Res Gestae Divi Augusti'' (c. AD 14)\n* Ammianus Marcellinus ''Res Gestae'' (c. AD 395)\n* Dio Cassius ''Roman History'' (c. AD 230)\n* Eutropius ''Historiae Romanae Breviarium'' (c. 360)\n* Anonymous ''Historia Augusta'' (c. 400)\n* Livy ''Ab urbe condita'' (c. AD 20)\n* Jordanes ''Getica'' (c. 550)\n* Pliny the Elder ''Naturalis Historia'' (c. AD 70)\n* Ptolemy ''Geographia'' (c. 140)\n* Sextus Aurelius Victor ''De Caesaribus'' (c. 380)\n* Sidonius Apollinaris ''Carmina'' (late 5th century)\n* Strabo ''Geographica'' (c. AD 10)\n* Tacitus ''Annales'' (c. AD 100)\n* Tacitus ''Germania'' (c. 100)\n* Zosimus ''Historia Nova'' (c. 500)\n\n=== Modern ===\n* Babeş, Mircea: ''Noi date privind arheologia şi istoria bastarnilor'' in SCIV 20 (1969) 195-218\n* Barrington (2000): ''Atlas of the Greek and Roman World''\n* Batty, Roger (2008): ''Rome and the Nomads: the Pontic-Danubian region in Antiquity''\n* Crişan, Ion (1978): ''Burebista and his Time''\n* Faliyeyev, Alexander (2007): ''Dictionary of Continental Celtic Placenames'' (online)\n* Goldsworthy, Adrian (2000): ''Roman Warfare''\n*\n*\n* Heather, Peter (2009): ''Empires and Barbarians''\n* Jones, A.H.M.",
"(1964): ''Later Roman Empire''\n* Köbler, Gerhard (2000): ''Indo-Germanisches Wörterbuch'' (online)\n* Müllenhoff, Karl (1887): ''Deutsche altertumskunde'' (vol.",
"II)\n* Shchukin, Mark (1989): ''Rome and the Barbarians in central and eastern Europe: 1st century BC - 1st century AD''\n* Thompson, E.A.",
"(1996): ''The Huns''\n* Todd, Malcolm (2004): ''The early Germans''\n* O. N. Trubačev (1999): ''INDOARICA в Северном Причерноморье''\n*\n* Wolfram, Herwig (1988): ''History of the Goths''"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''BBC Radio 1''' is a British radio station operated by the British Broadcasting Corporation which also broadcasts internationally, specialising in modern and current popular music and chart hits throughout the day. Radio 1 provides alternative genres after 7:00 pm, including electronic dance, hip hop, rock, indie or interviews. It was launched in 1967 to meet the demand for music generated by pirate radio stations, when the average age of the UK population was 27. Recently, the BBC claimed that it still targets the 15–29 age group, although the average age of its UK audience in 2008 had risen to 33. BBC Radio 1 started 24-hour broadcasting on 1 May 1991.\n",
"\n===First broadcast===\nRadio 1 was established in 1967 (along with the more middle of the road BBC Radio 2) as a successor to the BBC Light Programme, which had broadcast popular music and other entertainment since 1945. Radio 1 was conceived as a direct response to the popularity of offshore pirate radio stations such as Radio Caroline and Radio London, which had been outlawed by Act of Parliament. Radio 1 was launched at 6:55 am on Saturday 30 September 1967.\n\nThe first disc jockey to broadcast on the new station was Tony Blackburn, whose cheery style, first heard on Radio Caroline and Radio London, won him the prime slot on what became known as the \"Radio 1 Breakfast Show\". The first words on Radio 1 – after a countdown by the Controller of Radios 1 and 2, Robin Scott, and a jingle, recorded at PAMS in Dallas, Texas, beginning \"The voice of Radio 1\" – were \"... And, good morning everyone. Welcome to the exciting new sound of Radio 1\". This was the first use of US-style jingles on BBC radio, but the style was familiar to listeners who were acquainted with Blackburn and other DJs from their days on pirate radio. The first music to be heard on the station was \"Theme One\", specially composed for the launch by George Martin. It was followed by an extract from \"Beefeaters\" by Johnny Dankworth. The first complete record played on Radio 1 was \"Flowers in the Rain\" by The Move. The second single was \"Massachusetts\" by The Bee Gees. The breakfast show remains the most prized slot in the Radio 1 schedule, with every change of breakfast show presenter exciting considerable media interest.\nThe initial rota of staff included John Peel and a gaggle of others, some hired from pirates, such as Keith Skues, Ed Stewart, Mike Raven, David Ryder, Jim Fisher, Jimmy Young, Dave Cash, Kenny Everett, Simon Dee, Terry Wogan, Duncan Johnson, Doug Crawford, Tommy Vance, Chris Denning, Emperor Rosko, Pete Murray, and Bob Holness. Many of the most popular pirate radio voices, such as Simon Dee, had only a one-hour slot per week, (\"Midday Spin.\") Annie Nightingale, who joined in 1970, was Britain's first female DJ and is now the longest serving presenter, having constantly evolved her musical tastes with the times.\n\n===1970s peak===\n\n\nInitially, the station was unpopular with some of its target audience who, it is claimed, disliked the fact that much of its airtime was shared with Radio 2 and that it was less unequivocally aimed at a young audience than the offshore stations, with some DJs such as Jimmy Young being in their 40s. The very fact that it was part of an \"establishment\" institution such as the BBC was a turn-off for some, and needle time restrictions prevented it from playing as many records as offshore stations had. It also had limited finances (partially because the BBC did not increase its licence fee to fund the new station) and often, as in January 1975, suffered disproportionately when the BBC had to make financial cutbacks, strengthening an impression that it was regarded as a lower priority by senior BBC executives.\n\nDespite this, it gained massive audiences, becoming the most listened to station in the world with audiences of over 10 million claimed for some of its shows (up to 20 million for some of the combined Radio 1 and Radio 2 shows). In the early-mid-1970s Radio 1 presenters were rarely out of the British tabloids, thanks to the Publicity Department's high-profile work. The popularity of Radio 1's touring summer live broadcasts the Radio 1 Roadshow – usually as part of the BBC 'Radio Weeks' promotions that took Radio 1, 2 and 4 shows on the road – drew some of the largest crowds of the decade. The station undoubtedly played a role in maintaining the high sales of 45 rpm single records although it benefited from a lack of competition, apart from Radio Luxembourg and Manx Radio in the Isle of Man. (Independent Local Radio did not begin until October 1973 and took many years to cover virtually all of the UK). Alan Freeman's 'Saturday Rock Show' was voted 'Best Radio Show' 5 years running by readers of a national music publication, and was then axed by controller Derek Chinnery.\n\n===1990s changes===\n\nIn his last few months as controller, Johnny Beerling commissioned a handful of new shows that in some ways set the tone for what was to come under Matthew Bannister. One of these \"Loud'n'proud\" was the UK's first national radio series aimed at a gay audience (made in Manchester and was aired from August 1993). Far from being a parting quirk, the show was a surprise hit and led to the network's first coverage of the large outdoor Gay Pride event in 1994. Bannister took the reins fully in October 1993. His aim was to rid the station of its 'Smashie and Nicey' image and make it appeal to the under 25s. Although originally launched as a youth station, by the early 1990s, its loyal listeners (and DJs) had aged with the station over its 25-year history. Many long-standing DJs, such as Simon Bates, Dave Lee Travis, Alan Freeman, Bob Harris, Gary Davies, and later Steve Wright, Bruno Brookes and Johnnie Walker left the station or were sacked, and in January 1995 old music (typically anything recorded before 1990) was banned from the daytime playlist.\n\nMany listeners rebelled as the first new DJs to be introduced represented a crossover from other parts of the BBC (notably Bannister and Trevor Dann's former colleagues at the BBC's London station, GLR) with Emma Freud and Danny Baker. Another problem was that, at the time, Radio 2 was sticking resolutely to a format which appealed mainly to those who had been listening since the days of the Light Programme, and commercial radio, which was targeting the \"Radio 1 and a half\" audience, consequently enjoyed a massive increase in its audience share at the expense of Radio 1.\n\nAfter the departure of Steve Wright, who had been unsuccessfully moved from his long-running afternoon show to the breakfast show in January 1994, Bannister hired Chris Evans to present the prime morning slot in April 1995. Evans was a popular but controversial presenter who was eventually sacked in 1997 after he demanded to present the breakfast show for only four days per week. Evans was replaced from 17 February 1997 by Mark and Lard – Mark Radcliffe (along with his sidekick Marc Riley), who found the slick, mass-audience style required for a breakfast show did not come naturally to them. They were replaced by Zoë Ball and Kevin Greening eight months later in October 1997, with Greening moving on and leaving Ball as solo presenter. The reinvention of the station happened at a fortuitous time, with the rise of Britpop in the mid-90s – bands like Oasis, Blur and Pulp were popular and credible at the time and the station's popularity rose with them. Documentaries like John Peel's \"Lost in Music\" which looked at the influence that the use of drugs have had over popular musicians received critical acclaim but were slated inside Broadcasting House.\n\nLater in the 1990s the Britpop boom declined, and manufactured chart pop (boy bands and acts aimed at sub-teenagers) came to dominate the charts. New-genre music occupied the evenings (indie on weekdays and dance at weekends), with a mix of specialist shows and playlist fillers through late nights. The rise of rave culture through the late 1980s and early 1990s gave the station the opportunity to move into a controversial and youth-orientated movement by bringing in club DJ Pete Tong amongst others. There had been a dance music programme on Radio 1 since 1987 and Pete Tong was the second DJ to present an all dance music show. This quickly gave birth to the Essential Mix where underground DJs mix electronic and club based music in a two-hour slot. Dance music has been a permanent feature on Radio 1 since with club DJs such as Judge Jules, Danny Rampling and Seb Fontaine all having shows as well as Radio 1 hosting an annual weekend in Ibiza.\n\n===2000s===\n\nSteve Lamacq, Jo Whiley and Zane Lowe\n\nListening numbers continued to decline but the station succeeded in targeting a younger age-group and more cross gender groups. Eventually, this change in content was reflected by a rise in audience that is continuing to this day. Notably, the station has received praise for shows such as The Surgery with Aled, Bobby Friction and Nihal, ''The Evening Session'' with Steve Lamacq and its successor Zane Lowe. Its website has also been well received.\nHowever, the breakfast show and the UK Top 40 continued to struggle. In 2000, Zoë Ball was replaced in the mornings by friend and fellow ladette Sara Cox, but, despite heavy promotion, listening figures for the breakfast show continued to fall. In 2004 Cox was replaced by Chris Moyles. The newly rebranded breakfast show was known as The Chris Moyles Show and it increased its audience, ahead of The Today Programme on Radio 4 as the second most popular breakfast show (after The Chris Evans Breakfast Show hosted by Chris Evans). Moyles continued to use innovative ways to try to tempt listeners from the 'Wake up with Wogan' show; in 2006, for example, creating a 'SAY NO TO WOGAN' campaign live on-air. This angered the BBC hierarchy, though the row simmered down when it was clear that the 'campaign' had totally failed to alter the listening trends of the time – Wogan still increased figures at a faster rate than Moyles.\nThe chart show's ratings fell after the departure of long-time host Mark Goodier, amid falling single sales in the UK. Ratings for the show fell in 2002 whilst Goodier was still presenting the show, meaning that commercial radio's Network Chart overtook it in the ratings for the first time. However, the BBC denied he was being sacked. The BBC show now competes with networked commercial radio's The Big Top 40 Show which is broadcast at the same time.\n\nMany DJs either ousted by Bannister or who left during his tenure (such as Johnnie Walker, Bob Harris and Steve Wright) have joined Radio 2 which has now overtaken Radio 1 as the UK's most popular radio station, using a style that Radio 1 had until the early 1990s.\nThe success of Moyles' show has come alongside increased success for the station in general. In 2006, DJs Chris Moyles, Scott Mills and Zane Lowe all won gold Sony Radio Awards, while the station itself came away with the best station award.\nA new evening schedule was introduced in September 2006, dividing the week by genre. Monday was mainly pop-funkrock-oriented, Tuesday was R&B and hip-hop, Thursdays and Fridays were primarily dance, with specialist R&B and reggae shows.\nFollowing the death of John Peel in October 2004, Annie Nightingale is now the longest serving presenter, having worked there since 1970.\n\n===2010s===\nThe licence-fee funding of Radio 1, alongside Radio 2, is often criticised by the commercial sector. In the first quarter of 2011 Radio 1 was part of an efficiency review conducted by John Myers. His role, according to Andrew Harrison, the chief executive of RadioCentre, was \"to identify both areas of best practice and possible savings.\"\n\nThe controller of Radio 1 and sister station 1Xtra changed to Ben Cooper on 28 October 2011, following the departure of Andy Parfitt. Ben Cooper answers to the Director of BBC Audio and Music, Tim Davie.\n\nOn 7 December 2011, Ben Cooper's first major changes to the station were announced. Skream & Benga, Toddla T, Charlie Sloth and Friction replaced Judge Jules, Gilles Peterson, Kissy Sell Out and Fabio & Grooverider. A number of shows were shuffled to incorporate the new line up. On 28 February 2012, further changes were announced. Greg James and Scott Mills swapped shows and Jameela Jamil, Gemma Cairney and Danny Howard joined the station. The new line up of DJs for ''In New DJs We Trust'' was also announced with B.Traits, Mosca, Jordan Suckley and Julio Bashmore hosting shows on a four weekly rotation. This new schedule took effect on Monday, 2 April 2012.\n\nIn September 2012, Nick Grimshaw replaced Chris Moyles as host of \"Radio 1's Breakfast Show\". Grimshaw previously hosted Mon-Thurs 10pm-Midnight, Weekend Breakfast and Sunday evenings alongside Annie Mac. Grimshaw was replaced by Phil Taggart and Alice Levine on the 10pm-Midnight show.\n\nIn November 2012, another series of changes were announced. This included the departure of Reggie Yates and Vernon Kay. Jameela Jamil was announced as the new presenter of ''The Official Chart''. Matt Edmondson will host a weekend morning show and Tom Deacon will return to present a Wednesday night show. Dan Howell and Phil Lester, famous YouTubers also joined the station. The changes took effect in January 2013.\n\nFormer breakfast presenter Sara Cox hosted her last show on Radio 1 in February 2014 before moving to Radio 2. In March 2014, Gemma Cairney left the weekend breakfast show to host the weekday early breakfast slot, swapping shows with Dev.\n\nIn September 2014, Radio 1 operated a series of changes to their output which saw many notable presenters leave the station – including Edith Bowman, Nihal and Rob da Bank. Huw Stephens gained a new show hosting 10pm-1am Mon-Wed with Alice Levine presenting weekends 1pm-4pm. Radio 1's Residency also expanded with Skream joining the rotational line-up on Thursday nights 10pm-1am.\n\nFrom December 2014 to April 2016, Radio 1 included a weekly late night show presented by a well known Internet personality called ''The Internet Takeover''. Shows have been presented by various YouTubers such as Jim Chapman and Hannah Witton.\n\nIn January 2015, Clara Amfo replaced Jameela Jamil as host of The Official Chart on Sundays (4pm-7pm) and in March, Zane Lowe left Radio 1 and was replaced by Annie Mac on the new music evening show.\n\nIn May 2015, Fearne Cotton left the station after almost 10 years. Her weekday morning show was taken over by Clara Amfo. Adele Roberts also joined the weekday schedule line-up, hosting the Early Breakfast show.\n\nIn July 2015, The Official Chart moved to a Friday from 4pm-5.45pm, hosted by Greg James. The move took place in order to take into account the changes to the release dates of music globally. Cel Spellman joined Radio 1 to host Sunday evenings 4pm-7pm.\n",
"===Studios===\n\nFrom inception for over 20 years, Radio 1 broadcast from an adjacent pair of continuity suites (originally Con A and Con B) in the main control room of Broadcasting House. These cons were configured to allow DJs to operate the equipment themselves and play their own records and jingle cartridges (called self-op). This was a departure from traditional BBC practice, where a studio manager would play in discs from the studio control cubicle. Due to needle time restrictions, much of the music was played from tapes of BBC session recordings. The DJs were assisted by one or more technical operators (TOs) who would set up tapes and control sound levels during broadcasts.\n\nIn 1985, Radio 1 moved across the road from Broadcasting House to Egton House. The station moved to Yalding House in 1996, and Egton House was demolished in 2003 to make way for extension to Broadcasting House. This extension would eventually be renamed the Egton Wing, and then the Peel Wing.\n\nUntil recently, the studios were located in the basement of Yalding House (near to BBC Broadcasting House) which is on Great Portland Street in central London. They used to broadcast from two main studios in the basement; Y2 and Y3 (there is also a smaller studio, YP1, used mainly for production). These two main studios (Y2 and Y3) are separated by the \"Live Lounge\", although it is mainly used as an office; there are rarely live sets recorded from it, as Maida Vale Studios is used instead for larger set-ups. The studios are linked by webcams and windows through the \"Live Lounge\", allowing DJs to see each other when changing between shows. Y2 is the studio from where ''The Chris Moyles Show'' was broadcast and is also the studio rigged with static cameras for when the station broadcasts on the \"Live Cam\". The station moved there in 1996 from Egton House.\n\nIn December 2012 Radio 1 moved from Yalding House to new studios on the 8th floor of the new BBC Broadcasting House, Portland Place, just a few metres away from the \"Peel Wing\", formerly the \"Egton Wing\", which occupies the land on which Egton House previously stood: it was renamed the \"Peel Wing\" in 2012 in honour of the long-serving BBC Radio 1 presenter, John Peel, who broadcast on the station from its launch in 1967 up until his death in 2004.\n\nProgrammes have also regularly been broadcast from other regions, notably ''The Mark and Lard Show'', broadcast every weekday from New Broadcasting House, Oxford Road, Manchester for over a decade (October 1993 – March 2004) — the longest regular broadcast on the network from outside the capital.\n\n===UK analogue frequencies===\nRadio 1 originally broadcast on 1214 kHz medium wave (or 247 metres). On 23 November 1978, the station was moved to 1053/1089 kHz (275/285 m), but did not broadcast nationally on its own FM frequencies until late 1987. The BBC was allocated three FM frequency ranges in 1955, for the then Light Programme (now BBC Radio 2), Third Programme (now BBC Radio 3) and Home Service (now BBC Radio 4) stations. This meant when Radio 1 was launched, there was no FM frequency range allocated for the station, the official reason being that there was no space, even though no commercial stations had yet launched on FM. Because of this, from launch until the end of the 1980s Radio 1 was allowed to take over Radio 2's FM transmitters for a few hours per week – Saturday afternoons, Sunday teatime and evening – most notably for the Top 40 Singles Chart on Sunday afternoons – 10:00 pm to midnight on weeknights including Sounds of the Seventies until 1975, and thereafter the John Peel show (Mon – Thurs) and the Friday Rock Show and most Bank Holiday afternoons when Radio 2 was broadcasting a bank holiday edition of Sport on 2.\n\nTo coincide with Radio 1's 20th birthday, the first full-time FM broadcast went live in the London area on 31 October 1987, but this was at low power on 104.8 MHz FM. A year later the FM frequencies became national when the police communication allocation changed, freeing up what is known today as 97–99 FM, which the BBC acquired. The rollout of Radio 1 on FM began on 1 September 1988, starting with Central Scotland, the Midlands and the north of England. A month later, to coincide with an extension of broadcast hours, Radio 1 stopped broadcasting on Radio 2's FM frequencies on weeknights and on Sunday evenings and by 1990 all usage of Radio 2's FM frequencies had ended. Radio 1 made great efforts to promote its new FM service, renaming itself on-air initially to 'Radio 1 FM' and later as '1FM' until 1995. The engineering programme was initially completed in 1995.\n\nThe Conservative government decided to increase competition on AM and disallowed the simulcasting of services on both AM and FM, affecting both BBC and Independent Local Radio. Radio 1's medium wave frequencies were reallocated to Independent National Radio. Radio 1's last broadcast on MW was on 1 July 1994, with Stephen Duffy's \"Kiss Me\" being the last record played on MW just before 9:00 am. For those who continued to listen, just after 9:00 am, Radio 1 jingles were played in reverse chronological order ending with its first jingle from 30 September 1967. In the initial months after this closure a pre-recorded message with Mark Goodier was played to warn listeners that Radio 1 was now an \"FM-only\" station. Around this time, Radio 1 began broadcasting on spare audio subcarriers on Sky Television's analogue satellite service, initially in mono (on UK Gold) and later in stereo (on UK Living).\n\n===Digital distribution===\nThe BBC launched its national radio stations on DAB digital radio in 1995, however the technology was expensive at the time and so was not marketed, instead used as a test for future technologies. DAB was \"officially\" launched in 2002 as sets became cheaper. Today it can also be heard on UK digital TV services Freeview, Virgin Media, Sky and the Internet as well as FM. In July 2005, Sirius Satellite Radio began simulcasting Radio 1 across the United States as channel 11 on its own service and channel 6011 on Dish Network satellite TV. Sirius Canada began simulcasting Radio 1 when it was launched on 1 December 2005 (also on channel 11). The Sirius simulcasts were time shifted five hours to allow U.S. and Canadian listeners in the Eastern Time Zone to hear Radio 1 at the same time of day as UK listeners. On 12 November 2008, Radio 1 made its debut on XM Satellite Radio in both the US and Canada on channel 29, moving to XM 15 and Sirius 15 on 4 May 2011. Until the full station was removed in August 2011, Radio 1 was able to be heard by approximately 20.6 million listeners in North America on satellite radio alone.\nBBC Radio 1 can be heard on cable in the Netherlands at 105.10 FM.\n\n===SiriusXM cancellation in North America===\n\n\nAt 12am on 9 August 2011, Sirius XM ceased carrying BBC Radio 1 programming with no prior warning. On 10 August 2011 the BBC issued the following statement:\nThe BBC’s commercial arm BBC Worldwide has been in partnership with SIRIUS Satellite Radio to broadcast Radio 1 on their main network, since 2005. This agreement has now unfortunately come to an end and BBC Worldwide are in current discussions with the satellite radio station to find ways to continue to bring popular music channel, BBC Radio 1, to the US audience. We will keep you posted.\n\nThousands of angry Sirius XM customers began a campaign on Facebook and other social media to reinstate BBC Radio 1 on Sirius XM Radio. One week later, Sirius and the BBC agreed on a new carriage agreement that saw Radio 1 broadcast on a time-shifted format on the Sirius XM Internet Radio platform only, on channel 815. The channel is still unavailable on the satellite platform of the service.\n\nStarting on 15 January 2012, ''The Official Chart Show'' began broadcasting on SiriusXM ''20on20'' channel 3, at 4pm and 9pm Eastern Standard Time.\n\nOn 19 August 2014, SiriusXM again stopped carrying BBC Radio 1 programming with no advanced notice. The stream is no longer available on the Internet Radio platform.\n\n===Regionalisation===\nFrom 1999 until 2012, Radio 1 split the home nations for localised programming in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, to allow the broadcast of a showcase programme for regional talent. Most recently, these shows were under the BBC Introducing brand. Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland had their own shows, which were broadcast on a 3-week rotational basis in England.\n\nFrom January 2011 until June 2012, Scotland's show was presented by Ally McCrae. Previously it was hosted by Vic Galloway (who also presents for BBC Radio Scotland); who had presented the show solo since 2004, after his original co-host Gill Mills departed.\n\nWales's show was hosted by Jen Long between January 2011 until May 2012. Previously Bethan Elfyn occupied the slot, who had at one time hosted alongside Huw Stephens, until Stephens left to join the national network, although he still broadcasts a show for Wales - a Welsh-language music show on BBC Radio Cymru on Thursday evenings)\n\nPhil Taggart presented the Northern Ireland programme between November 2011 and May 2012. The show was formerly presented by Rory McConnell. Before joining the national network, Colin Murray was a presenter on the Session in Northern Ireland, along with Donna Legge; after Murray's promotion to the network Legge hosted alone for a time, and on her departure McConnell took her place.\n\nThe regional opt-outs originally went out from 8:00 pm to 10:00 pm on Thursdays (the Evening Session's time slot) and were known as the Session in the Nations (the 'Session' tag was later dropped due to the demise of the Evening Session); they later moved to run from 7:30 pm to 9:00 pm, with the first half-hour of Zane Lowe's programme going out across the whole of the UK. On 18 October 2007 the regional programmes moved to a Wednesday night/Thursday morning slot from 12:00 am to 2:00 am under the ''BBC Introducing'' banner, allowing Lowe's Thursday show to be aired across the network; prior to this change Huw Stephens had presented the Wednesday midnight show nationally. In January 2011, BBC Introducing was moved to the new time slot of 00:00 to 02:00 on Monday mornings, and the Scottish and Welsh shows were given new presenters in the form of Ally McCrae and Jen Long.\n\nThe opt-outs were only available to listeners on the FM frequencies. Because of the way the DAB and digital TV services of Radio 1 are broadcast (a single-frequency network on DAB and a single broadcast feed of Radio 1 on TV platforms), the digital version of the station was not regionalised.\n\nThe BBC Trust announced in May 2012 that the regional music programmes on Radio 1 would be replaced with a single programme offering a UK-wide platform for new music as part of a series of cost-cutting measures across the BBC. In June 2012, the regional shows ended and were replaced by a single ''BBC Introducing'' show presented by Jen Long and Ally McCrae.\n",
"===Music===\nBecause of its youth-orientated nature, Radio 1 plays a mix of current songs, including independent/alternative, rap, hip hop, rock, house, electronica, dance, drum and bass, dubstep and pop.\n\nDue to restrictions on the amount of commercial music that could be played on radio in the UK until 1988 (the \"needle time\" limitation) the station has recorded many live performances. Studio sessions (recordings of about four tracks made in a single day), also supplemented the live music content, many them finding their way to commercially available LPs and CDs. The sessions recorded for John Peel's late night programme are particularly renowned.\n\nThe station also broadcasts documentaries and interviews. Although this type of programming arose from necessity it has given the station diversity. The needletime restrictions meant the station tended to have a higher level of speech by DJs. While the station is often criticised for \"waffling\" by presenters, an experimental \"more music day\" in 1988 was declared a failure after only a third of callers favoured it.\n\n===News and current affairs===\n\nRadio 1 has a public service broadcasting obligation to provide news, which it fulfills through Newsbeat bulletins throughout the day. Shared with 1Xtra, short news summaries are provided roughly hourly on the half-hour during daytime hours with two 15-minute bulletins at 12:45 and 17:45 on weekdays. The main presenter is Chris Smith, with Tina Daheley presenting during Radio 1's breakfast hours.\n\n===Online visualisation and social media===\nIn recent years, Radio 1 has aimed to include more of its content online in order to relate to the changing nature of its audience. Its YouTube channel now has over 3 million subscribers and many features and events are streamed on both that and the Radio 1 website.\n\nThe station also has a heavy presence on social media, with audience interaction now occurring mainly through Facebook and Twitter as well as text messaging.\n\nIt was announced in 2013 that Radio 1 had submitted plans to launch its own dedicated video channel on the BBC iPlayer where videos of live performances as well as some features and shows would be streamed in a central location. Plans were approved by the BBC Trust in November 2014 and the channel launched on 10 November 2014.\n",
"\n\n\n Years served !! Controller\n\n 1967–1968 \n Robin Scott\n\n 1968–1976 \n Douglas Muggeridge\n\n 1976–1978 \n Charles McLelland\n\n 1978–1985 \n Derek Chinnery\n\n 1985–1993 \n Johnny Beerling\n\n 1993–1998 \n Matthew Bannister\n\n 1998–2011 \n Andy Parfitt\n\n 2011–present \n Ben Cooper\n\n\n",
"BBC Radio 1 operates a system that separates all of the DJs between 'Day' and 'Night' DJs.\n* 'Day' DJs play music generally orientated around the Radio 1 Playlist\n* 'Night' DJs play more eclectic and specialised 'New Music'.\n\n===Daytime===\n\n\n'''Weekdays'''\n\n* 04:00 – 06:30 – ''Adele Roberts''\n* 06:30 – 10:00 – ''The Radio 1 Breakfast Show with Nick Grimshaw''\n* 10:00 – 12:45 – ''Clara Amfo''\n* 12:45 – 13:00 – ''Newsbeat''\n* 13:00 – 16:00 – ''Scott Mills''\n* 16:00 – 17:45 – ''The Radio 1 Drivetime Show with Greg James'' (Monday to Thursday)\n**(Including ''The Official Chart Update'': Monday: 17:30–17:45)\n* 16:00 – 17:45 – ''The Official Chart with Greg James'' (Friday)\n* 17:45 – 18:00 – ''Newsbeat''\n* 18:00 – 19:00 – ''The Radio 1 Drivetime Show with Greg James'' (Monday to Thursday)\n* 18:00 – 19:00 – ''BBC Radio 1's Dance Anthems with Greg James'' (Friday)\n\n'''Weekends'''\n* 06:00 – 10:00 – ''Dev''\n* 10:00 – 13:00 – ''Matt Edmondson''\n* 13:00 – 16:00 – ''Alice Levine''\n* 16:00 – 19:00 – ''BBC Radio 1's Dance Anthems with Danny Howard'' (Saturday)\n* 16:00 – 19:00 – ''Cel Spellman'' (Sunday)\n\n\n===Nighttime===\n\n\n'''Monday to Thursday'''\n* 19:00 – 21:00 – ''Annie Mac''\n* 21:00 – 22:00 – ''Radio 1's Specialist Chart with Phil Taggart'' (Monday)\n* 21:00 – 22:00 – ''Radio 1 & 1Xtra's Stories'' (Tuesday)\n* 21:00 – 22:00 – ''The Surgery with Katie and Dr Radha'' (Wednesday)\n* 21:00 – 22:00 – ''Radio 1's Artist Takeover with...'' (Thursday)\n* 22:00 – 01:00 – ''Huw Stephens'' (Monday to Wednesday)\n* 22:00 – 01:00 – ''Radio 1's Residency'' (Thursday)\n* 01:00 – 04:00 – ''Friction'' (Tuesday)\n* 01:00 – 04:00 – ''Annie Nightingale'' (Wednesday)\n* 01:00 – 04:00 – ''Benji B'' (Thursday)\n* 01:00 – 04:00 – ''Toddla T'' (Friday)\n\n'''Friday evenings''' feature 11 hours of dance music.\n* 19:00 – 22:00 – ''Annie Mac''\n* 22:00 – 01:00 – ''Pete Tong''\n* 01:00 – 04:00 – ''B.Traits''\n* 04:00 – 06:00 – ''BBC Radio 1's Essential Mix''\n'''Saturday evenings''' include 11 hours of urban music ''1Xtra Takeover'' which, since October 2009, has been simulcast entirely on BBC Radio 1Xtra.\n* 19:00 – 22:00 – ''MistaJam''\n* 22:00 – 01:00 – ''The Rap Show with Charlie Sloth''\n* 01:00 – 04:00 – ''DJ Target''\n* 04:00 – 06:00 – ''Diplo and Friends''\n'''Sunday evenings'''\n* 19:00 – 22:00 – ''Rock Show with Daniel P. Carter''\n* 22:00 – 01:00 – ''Phil Taggart''\n* 01:00 – 04:00 – ''Monki''\n\n",
"===Breakfast===\n\nThe breakfast show has been presented by many famous names over the years. Currently this slot is broadcast between 6:30 am and 10:00 am, Monday to Friday and is hosted by Nick Grimshaw.\n\n===The Official Chart Show On BBC Radio 1===\n\nBBC Radio 1's chart show had aired the UK Singles Chart exclusively on Sunday afternoons since the programme began; but this was moved to Fridays in July 2015. Currently broadcasting from 4:00 pm until 5:45 pm, the format, length and starting time have varied over the years. For many years, the show prided itself on playing all 40 singles in the top 40 but this practice ended when Wes Butters took over as presenter in 2003; then only tracks below number 20 to be played were the new entries. The show took its current format on 10 July 2015, being presented by Greg James in his usual drive time slot. Numbers 40 to 26 are quickly overviewed and then the top 25 are played in full.\n\n===Special programming===\n====Bank Holiday programming====\nRadio 1 provides alternative programming on some Bank Holidays. Programmes have included 'The 10 Hour Takeover', a request-based special, in which the DJs on air would encourage listeners to select any available track to play, 'One Hit Wonder Day' and 'The Chart Of The Decade' where the 150 biggest selling singles in the last 10 years were counted down and played in full.\n\n====40th birthday====\nOn Sunday 30 September 2007, Radio 1 celebrated its 40th birthday. To mark this anniversary Radio 1 hosted a week of special features, including:\n* Special shows hosted by music legends at 9:00 pm each weekday.\n* Between 9:00 am and 10:00 am on the Chris Moyles show, the best music from the last 40 years (a re-creation of Simon Bates' Golden Hour).\n* Playing Radio 1's old jingles, which were created by JAM Creative Productions.\n* 40 different artists performed 40 different covers, one from each year since Radio 1 was established. All 40 songs were played in the weeks leading up to the release of the compilation album ''Radio 1 Established 1967''.\n* On the anniversary day Chris Moyles was joined on a special Breakfast Show by Tony Blackburn\n* Vernon Kay interviewed past Breakfast Show presenters including Noel Edmonds, Dave Lee Travis and Mike Smith.\n* Ex Breakfast Show hosts Sara Cox & Zoë Ball teamed up to present an anniversary show on the Sunday.\n* Past newsreaders including Peter Bowes, Richard Evans & Rod McKenzie returned to present bulletins.\n\n====50th birthday====\nOn Saturday 30 September 2017, Radio 1 celebrated its 50th birthday. Tony Blackburn recreated the first ever Radio 1 broadcast on Radio 2, simulcast on pop-up station Radio 1 Vintage, followed by The Radio 1 Breakfast Show celebration, tricast on Radio 1, Radio 2 and Radio 1 Vintage, presented by Tony Blackburn and Nick Grimshaw, featuring former presenters Simon Mayo, Sara Cox and Mike Read .\n\n====Charity====\nRadio 1 regularly supports charities Comic Relief, Sport Relief and Children in Need.\n\nOn 18 March 2011, BBC's Radio 1 longest serving breakfast DJ Chris Moyles and sidekick Dave Vitty broadcast for 52 hours as part of a Guinness World Record attempt, in aid of Comic Relief. The pair stayed on air for 52 hours in total setting a new world record for 'Radio DJ Endurance Marathon (Team)’ after already breaking Simon Mayo's 12-year record for Radio 1's Longest Show of 37 hours which he set in 1999, also for Comic Relief.\n\nThe presenters started on 16 March 2011 and came off air at 10:30 am on 18 March 2011. During this Fearne Cotton made a bet with DJ Chris Moyles that if they raise over £2,000,000 she will appear on the show in a swimsuit. After passing the £2,000,000 mark, Cotton appeared on the studio webcam in a stripy monochrome swimsuit. The appearance of Cotton between 10:10 am and 10:30 am caused the Radio 1 website to crash due to a high volume of traffic.\n\nIn total the event raised £2,622,421 for Comic Relief.\n\n====Drama====\nIn 1981, Radio 1 broadcast a radio adaptation of the space opera film, ''Star Wars''. The 13-episode serial was adapted for radio by the author Brian Daley and directed by John Madden, and was a co-production between the BBC and the American Broadcaster NPR.\n",
"===Radio 1 Roadshows===\nThe Radio 1 Roadshow, which usually involved Radio 1 DJs and pop stars travelling around popular UK seaside destinations, began in 1973, hosted by Alan Freeman in Newquay, Cornwall, with the final one held at Heaton Park, Manchester in 1999. Although the Roadshow attracted large crowds and the style changed with the style of the station itself—such as the introduction of whistlestop audio postcards of each location in 1994 (\"2minuteTour\")—they were still rooted in the older style of the station, and therefore fit for retirement.\n\n===BBC Radio 1's Big Weekend===\n\nIn March 2000, Radio 1 decided to change the Roadshow format, renaming it ''One Big Sunday'' in the process. Several of these ''Sundays'' were held in large city-centre parks. In 2003, the event changed again and was rebranded ''One Big Weekend'', with each event occurring biannually and covering two days. Under this name, it visited Derry in Northern Ireland, as part of the ''Music Lives'' campaign, and Perry Park in Birmingham.\n\nThe most recent change occurred in 2005 when the event was yet again renamed and the decision taken to hold only one per year, this time as Radio 1's Big Weekend. Venues under this title have included Herrington Country Park, Camperdown Country Park, Moor Park–which was the first ''Weekend'' to feature a third stage–Mote Park, Lydiard Park, Bangor and Carlisle Airport.\n\nTickets for each ''Big Weekend'' are given away free of charge, making it the largest free ticketed music festival in Europe.\n\nBBC Radio 1's Big Weekend was replaced by a larger festival in 2012, named 'Radio 1's Hackney Weekend', with a crowd capacity of 100,000. The Hackney Weekend took place over the weekend of 23–24 June 2012 in Hackney Marshes, Hackney, London. The event was to celebrate the 2012 Cultural Olympiad in London and had artists such as Rihanna, Jay-Z and Florence and the Machine.\n\nIn 2013, Radio 1's Big Weekend returned to Derry as part of the City of Culture 2013 celebrations. So far, Derry is the only city to have hosted the Big Weekend twice.\n\nIn May 2014, Radio 1's Big Weekend was held in Glasgow, Scotland. Acts which played at the event included Rita Ora, The 1975, Katy Perry, Jake Bugg and Pharrell Williams. The event was opened on the Friday with a dance set in George Square, featuring Radio 1 Dance DJs such as Danny Howard and Pete Tong, and other well-known acts such as Martin Garrix and Tiesto.\n\nIn 2015, the event was held in Norwich and featured performances from the likes of Taylor Swift, Muse, David Guetta, Years & Years and others.\n\n2016 saw the event make its way to Exeter. It was headlined by Coldplay who closed the weekend on the Sunday evening.\n\nThe event was in Hull in 2017 and saw performances by artists such as Zara Larsson, Shawn Mendes, Stormzy, Katy Perry, Little Mix, Sean Paul, Rita Ora, The Chainsmokers, Clean Bandit and Kings Of Leon.\n\n===Ibiza Weekend===\nRadio 1 has annually held a dance music weekend broadcast live from Ibiza since the 1990s. The weekend is usually the first weekend in August and has performances from world-famous DJs and Radio 1's own dance music talent such as Pete Tong and Annie Mac.\n\n===BBC Radio 1's Teen Awards===\nSince 2008 Radio 1 has held an annual event for teenagers aged 14 to 17 years. Originally named BBC Switch Live, the first event was held on 12 October 2008 at the Hammersmith Apollo. The event has been hosted by various Radio 1 DJs and guest co-hosts.\n\nIn 2010 the event was renamed 'BBC Radio 1's Teen Awards', and includes awards given to celebrities and particularly inspirational young people. Now hosted at Wembley Arena, the event has included guests such as One Direction, Tinie Tempah, Fall Out Boy and Jessie J.\n\nThe 2014 event took place on 19 October and was hosted by Nick Grimshaw and Rita Ora.\n\nThe 2015 event took place on 8 November and was hosted by Nick Grimshaw and Demi Lovato at Wembley Arena.\n\nThe 2016 event took place on 23 October and was hosted by Nick Grimshaw and Dua Lipa.\n\n===Edinburgh Festival===\nRadio 1 often has a presence at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe. Past events have included 'The Fun and Filth Cabaret' and 'Scott Mills: The Musical'.\n",
"* List of BBC radio stations\n* Radio 1 Podcasts\n* Musicube\n",
"\n\n===Sources===\n\n* \n\n\n",
"* \n",
"\n*\n* \n* BBC Radio 1 Playlist\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Broadcast",
"Content",
"Controllers",
"Presenters",
"Notable programming",
"Events",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | BBC Radio 1 | [
"In September 2014, Radio 1 operated a series of changes to their output which saw many notable presenters leave the station – including Edith Bowman, Nihal and Rob da Bank.",
"Because of this, from launch until the end of the 1980s Radio 1 was allowed to take over Radio 2's FM transmitters for a few hours per week – Saturday afternoons, Sunday teatime and evening – most notably for the Top 40 Singles Chart on Sunday afternoons – 10:00 pm to midnight on weeknights including Sounds of the Seventies until 1975, and thereafter the John Peel show (Mon – Thurs) and the Friday Rock Show and most Bank Holiday afternoons when Radio 2 was broadcasting a bank holiday edition of Sport on 2.",
"===Special programming===\n====Bank Holiday programming====\nRadio 1 provides alternative programming on some Bank Holidays."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n'''BBC Radio 1''' is a British radio station operated by the British Broadcasting Corporation which also broadcasts internationally, specialising in modern and current popular music and chart hits throughout the day.",
"Radio 1 provides alternative genres after 7:00 pm, including electronic dance, hip hop, rock, indie or interviews.",
"It was launched in 1967 to meet the demand for music generated by pirate radio stations, when the average age of the UK population was 27.",
"Recently, the BBC claimed that it still targets the 15–29 age group, although the average age of its UK audience in 2008 had risen to 33.",
"BBC Radio 1 started 24-hour broadcasting on 1 May 1991.",
"\n===First broadcast===\nRadio 1 was established in 1967 (along with the more middle of the road BBC Radio 2) as a successor to the BBC Light Programme, which had broadcast popular music and other entertainment since 1945.",
"Radio 1 was conceived as a direct response to the popularity of offshore pirate radio stations such as Radio Caroline and Radio London, which had been outlawed by Act of Parliament.",
"Radio 1 was launched at 6:55 am on Saturday 30 September 1967.",
"The first disc jockey to broadcast on the new station was Tony Blackburn, whose cheery style, first heard on Radio Caroline and Radio London, won him the prime slot on what became known as the \"Radio 1 Breakfast Show\".",
"The first words on Radio 1 – after a countdown by the Controller of Radios 1 and 2, Robin Scott, and a jingle, recorded at PAMS in Dallas, Texas, beginning \"The voice of Radio 1\" – were \"... And, good morning everyone.",
"Welcome to the exciting new sound of Radio 1\".",
"This was the first use of US-style jingles on BBC radio, but the style was familiar to listeners who were acquainted with Blackburn and other DJs from their days on pirate radio.",
"The first music to be heard on the station was \"Theme One\", specially composed for the launch by George Martin.",
"It was followed by an extract from \"Beefeaters\" by Johnny Dankworth.",
"The first complete record played on Radio 1 was \"Flowers in the Rain\" by The Move.",
"The second single was \"Massachusetts\" by The Bee Gees.",
"The breakfast show remains the most prized slot in the Radio 1 schedule, with every change of breakfast show presenter exciting considerable media interest.",
"The initial rota of staff included John Peel and a gaggle of others, some hired from pirates, such as Keith Skues, Ed Stewart, Mike Raven, David Ryder, Jim Fisher, Jimmy Young, Dave Cash, Kenny Everett, Simon Dee, Terry Wogan, Duncan Johnson, Doug Crawford, Tommy Vance, Chris Denning, Emperor Rosko, Pete Murray, and Bob Holness.",
"Many of the most popular pirate radio voices, such as Simon Dee, had only a one-hour slot per week, (\"Midday Spin.\")",
"Annie Nightingale, who joined in 1970, was Britain's first female DJ and is now the longest serving presenter, having constantly evolved her musical tastes with the times.",
"===1970s peak===\n\n\nInitially, the station was unpopular with some of its target audience who, it is claimed, disliked the fact that much of its airtime was shared with Radio 2 and that it was less unequivocally aimed at a young audience than the offshore stations, with some DJs such as Jimmy Young being in their 40s.",
"The very fact that it was part of an \"establishment\" institution such as the BBC was a turn-off for some, and needle time restrictions prevented it from playing as many records as offshore stations had.",
"It also had limited finances (partially because the BBC did not increase its licence fee to fund the new station) and often, as in January 1975, suffered disproportionately when the BBC had to make financial cutbacks, strengthening an impression that it was regarded as a lower priority by senior BBC executives.",
"Despite this, it gained massive audiences, becoming the most listened to station in the world with audiences of over 10 million claimed for some of its shows (up to 20 million for some of the combined Radio 1 and Radio 2 shows).",
"In the early-mid-1970s Radio 1 presenters were rarely out of the British tabloids, thanks to the Publicity Department's high-profile work.",
"The popularity of Radio 1's touring summer live broadcasts the Radio 1 Roadshow – usually as part of the BBC 'Radio Weeks' promotions that took Radio 1, 2 and 4 shows on the road – drew some of the largest crowds of the decade.",
"The station undoubtedly played a role in maintaining the high sales of 45 rpm single records although it benefited from a lack of competition, apart from Radio Luxembourg and Manx Radio in the Isle of Man.",
"(Independent Local Radio did not begin until October 1973 and took many years to cover virtually all of the UK).",
"Alan Freeman's 'Saturday Rock Show' was voted 'Best Radio Show' 5 years running by readers of a national music publication, and was then axed by controller Derek Chinnery.",
"===1990s changes===\n\nIn his last few months as controller, Johnny Beerling commissioned a handful of new shows that in some ways set the tone for what was to come under Matthew Bannister.",
"One of these \"Loud'n'proud\" was the UK's first national radio series aimed at a gay audience (made in Manchester and was aired from August 1993).",
"Far from being a parting quirk, the show was a surprise hit and led to the network's first coverage of the large outdoor Gay Pride event in 1994.",
"Bannister took the reins fully in October 1993.",
"His aim was to rid the station of its 'Smashie and Nicey' image and make it appeal to the under 25s.",
"Although originally launched as a youth station, by the early 1990s, its loyal listeners (and DJs) had aged with the station over its 25-year history.",
"Many long-standing DJs, such as Simon Bates, Dave Lee Travis, Alan Freeman, Bob Harris, Gary Davies, and later Steve Wright, Bruno Brookes and Johnnie Walker left the station or were sacked, and in January 1995 old music (typically anything recorded before 1990) was banned from the daytime playlist.",
"Many listeners rebelled as the first new DJs to be introduced represented a crossover from other parts of the BBC (notably Bannister and Trevor Dann's former colleagues at the BBC's London station, GLR) with Emma Freud and Danny Baker.",
"Another problem was that, at the time, Radio 2 was sticking resolutely to a format which appealed mainly to those who had been listening since the days of the Light Programme, and commercial radio, which was targeting the \"Radio 1 and a half\" audience, consequently enjoyed a massive increase in its audience share at the expense of Radio 1.",
"After the departure of Steve Wright, who had been unsuccessfully moved from his long-running afternoon show to the breakfast show in January 1994, Bannister hired Chris Evans to present the prime morning slot in April 1995.",
"Evans was a popular but controversial presenter who was eventually sacked in 1997 after he demanded to present the breakfast show for only four days per week.",
"Evans was replaced from 17 February 1997 by Mark and Lard – Mark Radcliffe (along with his sidekick Marc Riley), who found the slick, mass-audience style required for a breakfast show did not come naturally to them.",
"They were replaced by Zoë Ball and Kevin Greening eight months later in October 1997, with Greening moving on and leaving Ball as solo presenter.",
"The reinvention of the station happened at a fortuitous time, with the rise of Britpop in the mid-90s – bands like Oasis, Blur and Pulp were popular and credible at the time and the station's popularity rose with them.",
"Documentaries like John Peel's \"Lost in Music\" which looked at the influence that the use of drugs have had over popular musicians received critical acclaim but were slated inside Broadcasting House.",
"Later in the 1990s the Britpop boom declined, and manufactured chart pop (boy bands and acts aimed at sub-teenagers) came to dominate the charts.",
"New-genre music occupied the evenings (indie on weekdays and dance at weekends), with a mix of specialist shows and playlist fillers through late nights.",
"The rise of rave culture through the late 1980s and early 1990s gave the station the opportunity to move into a controversial and youth-orientated movement by bringing in club DJ Pete Tong amongst others.",
"There had been a dance music programme on Radio 1 since 1987 and Pete Tong was the second DJ to present an all dance music show.",
"This quickly gave birth to the Essential Mix where underground DJs mix electronic and club based music in a two-hour slot.",
"Dance music has been a permanent feature on Radio 1 since with club DJs such as Judge Jules, Danny Rampling and Seb Fontaine all having shows as well as Radio 1 hosting an annual weekend in Ibiza.",
"===2000s===\n\nSteve Lamacq, Jo Whiley and Zane Lowe\n\nListening numbers continued to decline but the station succeeded in targeting a younger age-group and more cross gender groups.",
"Eventually, this change in content was reflected by a rise in audience that is continuing to this day.",
"Notably, the station has received praise for shows such as The Surgery with Aled, Bobby Friction and Nihal, ''The Evening Session'' with Steve Lamacq and its successor Zane Lowe.",
"Its website has also been well received.",
"However, the breakfast show and the UK Top 40 continued to struggle.",
"In 2000, Zoë Ball was replaced in the mornings by friend and fellow ladette Sara Cox, but, despite heavy promotion, listening figures for the breakfast show continued to fall.",
"In 2004 Cox was replaced by Chris Moyles.",
"The newly rebranded breakfast show was known as The Chris Moyles Show and it increased its audience, ahead of The Today Programme on Radio 4 as the second most popular breakfast show (after The Chris Evans Breakfast Show hosted by Chris Evans).",
"Moyles continued to use innovative ways to try to tempt listeners from the 'Wake up with Wogan' show; in 2006, for example, creating a 'SAY NO TO WOGAN' campaign live on-air.",
"This angered the BBC hierarchy, though the row simmered down when it was clear that the 'campaign' had totally failed to alter the listening trends of the time – Wogan still increased figures at a faster rate than Moyles.",
"The chart show's ratings fell after the departure of long-time host Mark Goodier, amid falling single sales in the UK.",
"Ratings for the show fell in 2002 whilst Goodier was still presenting the show, meaning that commercial radio's Network Chart overtook it in the ratings for the first time.",
"However, the BBC denied he was being sacked.",
"The BBC show now competes with networked commercial radio's The Big Top 40 Show which is broadcast at the same time.",
"Many DJs either ousted by Bannister or who left during his tenure (such as Johnnie Walker, Bob Harris and Steve Wright) have joined Radio 2 which has now overtaken Radio 1 as the UK's most popular radio station, using a style that Radio 1 had until the early 1990s.",
"The success of Moyles' show has come alongside increased success for the station in general.",
"In 2006, DJs Chris Moyles, Scott Mills and Zane Lowe all won gold Sony Radio Awards, while the station itself came away with the best station award.",
"A new evening schedule was introduced in September 2006, dividing the week by genre.",
"Monday was mainly pop-funkrock-oriented, Tuesday was R&B and hip-hop, Thursdays and Fridays were primarily dance, with specialist R&B and reggae shows.",
"Following the death of John Peel in October 2004, Annie Nightingale is now the longest serving presenter, having worked there since 1970.",
"===2010s===\nThe licence-fee funding of Radio 1, alongside Radio 2, is often criticised by the commercial sector.",
"In the first quarter of 2011 Radio 1 was part of an efficiency review conducted by John Myers.",
"His role, according to Andrew Harrison, the chief executive of RadioCentre, was \"to identify both areas of best practice and possible savings.\"",
"The controller of Radio 1 and sister station 1Xtra changed to Ben Cooper on 28 October 2011, following the departure of Andy Parfitt.",
"Ben Cooper answers to the Director of BBC Audio and Music, Tim Davie.",
"On 7 December 2011, Ben Cooper's first major changes to the station were announced.",
"Skream & Benga, Toddla T, Charlie Sloth and Friction replaced Judge Jules, Gilles Peterson, Kissy Sell Out and Fabio & Grooverider.",
"A number of shows were shuffled to incorporate the new line up.",
"On 28 February 2012, further changes were announced.",
"Greg James and Scott Mills swapped shows and Jameela Jamil, Gemma Cairney and Danny Howard joined the station.",
"The new line up of DJs for ''In New DJs We Trust'' was also announced with B.Traits, Mosca, Jordan Suckley and Julio Bashmore hosting shows on a four weekly rotation.",
"This new schedule took effect on Monday, 2 April 2012.",
"In September 2012, Nick Grimshaw replaced Chris Moyles as host of \"Radio 1's Breakfast Show\".",
"Grimshaw previously hosted Mon-Thurs 10pm-Midnight, Weekend Breakfast and Sunday evenings alongside Annie Mac.",
"Grimshaw was replaced by Phil Taggart and Alice Levine on the 10pm-Midnight show.",
"In November 2012, another series of changes were announced.",
"This included the departure of Reggie Yates and Vernon Kay.",
"Jameela Jamil was announced as the new presenter of ''The Official Chart''.",
"Matt Edmondson will host a weekend morning show and Tom Deacon will return to present a Wednesday night show.",
"Dan Howell and Phil Lester, famous YouTubers also joined the station.",
"The changes took effect in January 2013.",
"Former breakfast presenter Sara Cox hosted her last show on Radio 1 in February 2014 before moving to Radio 2.",
"In March 2014, Gemma Cairney left the weekend breakfast show to host the weekday early breakfast slot, swapping shows with Dev.",
"Huw Stephens gained a new show hosting 10pm-1am Mon-Wed with Alice Levine presenting weekends 1pm-4pm.",
"Radio 1's Residency also expanded with Skream joining the rotational line-up on Thursday nights 10pm-1am.",
"From December 2014 to April 2016, Radio 1 included a weekly late night show presented by a well known Internet personality called ''The Internet Takeover''.",
"Shows have been presented by various YouTubers such as Jim Chapman and Hannah Witton.",
"In January 2015, Clara Amfo replaced Jameela Jamil as host of The Official Chart on Sundays (4pm-7pm) and in March, Zane Lowe left Radio 1 and was replaced by Annie Mac on the new music evening show.",
"In May 2015, Fearne Cotton left the station after almost 10 years.",
"Her weekday morning show was taken over by Clara Amfo.",
"Adele Roberts also joined the weekday schedule line-up, hosting the Early Breakfast show.",
"In July 2015, The Official Chart moved to a Friday from 4pm-5.45pm, hosted by Greg James.",
"The move took place in order to take into account the changes to the release dates of music globally.",
"Cel Spellman joined Radio 1 to host Sunday evenings 4pm-7pm.",
"===Studios===\n\nFrom inception for over 20 years, Radio 1 broadcast from an adjacent pair of continuity suites (originally Con A and Con B) in the main control room of Broadcasting House.",
"These cons were configured to allow DJs to operate the equipment themselves and play their own records and jingle cartridges (called self-op).",
"This was a departure from traditional BBC practice, where a studio manager would play in discs from the studio control cubicle.",
"Due to needle time restrictions, much of the music was played from tapes of BBC session recordings.",
"The DJs were assisted by one or more technical operators (TOs) who would set up tapes and control sound levels during broadcasts.",
"In 1985, Radio 1 moved across the road from Broadcasting House to Egton House.",
"The station moved to Yalding House in 1996, and Egton House was demolished in 2003 to make way for extension to Broadcasting House.",
"This extension would eventually be renamed the Egton Wing, and then the Peel Wing.",
"Until recently, the studios were located in the basement of Yalding House (near to BBC Broadcasting House) which is on Great Portland Street in central London.",
"They used to broadcast from two main studios in the basement; Y2 and Y3 (there is also a smaller studio, YP1, used mainly for production).",
"These two main studios (Y2 and Y3) are separated by the \"Live Lounge\", although it is mainly used as an office; there are rarely live sets recorded from it, as Maida Vale Studios is used instead for larger set-ups.",
"The studios are linked by webcams and windows through the \"Live Lounge\", allowing DJs to see each other when changing between shows.",
"Y2 is the studio from where ''The Chris Moyles Show'' was broadcast and is also the studio rigged with static cameras for when the station broadcasts on the \"Live Cam\".",
"The station moved there in 1996 from Egton House.",
"In December 2012 Radio 1 moved from Yalding House to new studios on the 8th floor of the new BBC Broadcasting House, Portland Place, just a few metres away from the \"Peel Wing\", formerly the \"Egton Wing\", which occupies the land on which Egton House previously stood: it was renamed the \"Peel Wing\" in 2012 in honour of the long-serving BBC Radio 1 presenter, John Peel, who broadcast on the station from its launch in 1967 up until his death in 2004.",
"Programmes have also regularly been broadcast from other regions, notably ''The Mark and Lard Show'', broadcast every weekday from New Broadcasting House, Oxford Road, Manchester for over a decade (October 1993 – March 2004) — the longest regular broadcast on the network from outside the capital.",
"===UK analogue frequencies===\nRadio 1 originally broadcast on 1214 kHz medium wave (or 247 metres).",
"On 23 November 1978, the station was moved to 1053/1089 kHz (275/285 m), but did not broadcast nationally on its own FM frequencies until late 1987.",
"The BBC was allocated three FM frequency ranges in 1955, for the then Light Programme (now BBC Radio 2), Third Programme (now BBC Radio 3) and Home Service (now BBC Radio 4) stations.",
"This meant when Radio 1 was launched, there was no FM frequency range allocated for the station, the official reason being that there was no space, even though no commercial stations had yet launched on FM.",
"To coincide with Radio 1's 20th birthday, the first full-time FM broadcast went live in the London area on 31 October 1987, but this was at low power on 104.8 MHz FM.",
"A year later the FM frequencies became national when the police communication allocation changed, freeing up what is known today as 97–99 FM, which the BBC acquired.",
"The rollout of Radio 1 on FM began on 1 September 1988, starting with Central Scotland, the Midlands and the north of England.",
"A month later, to coincide with an extension of broadcast hours, Radio 1 stopped broadcasting on Radio 2's FM frequencies on weeknights and on Sunday evenings and by 1990 all usage of Radio 2's FM frequencies had ended.",
"Radio 1 made great efforts to promote its new FM service, renaming itself on-air initially to 'Radio 1 FM' and later as '1FM' until 1995.",
"The engineering programme was initially completed in 1995.",
"The Conservative government decided to increase competition on AM and disallowed the simulcasting of services on both AM and FM, affecting both BBC and Independent Local Radio.",
"Radio 1's medium wave frequencies were reallocated to Independent National Radio.",
"Radio 1's last broadcast on MW was on 1 July 1994, with Stephen Duffy's \"Kiss Me\" being the last record played on MW just before 9:00 am.",
"For those who continued to listen, just after 9:00 am, Radio 1 jingles were played in reverse chronological order ending with its first jingle from 30 September 1967.",
"In the initial months after this closure a pre-recorded message with Mark Goodier was played to warn listeners that Radio 1 was now an \"FM-only\" station.",
"Around this time, Radio 1 began broadcasting on spare audio subcarriers on Sky Television's analogue satellite service, initially in mono (on UK Gold) and later in stereo (on UK Living).",
"===Digital distribution===\nThe BBC launched its national radio stations on DAB digital radio in 1995, however the technology was expensive at the time and so was not marketed, instead used as a test for future technologies.",
"DAB was \"officially\" launched in 2002 as sets became cheaper.",
"Today it can also be heard on UK digital TV services Freeview, Virgin Media, Sky and the Internet as well as FM.",
"In July 2005, Sirius Satellite Radio began simulcasting Radio 1 across the United States as channel 11 on its own service and channel 6011 on Dish Network satellite TV.",
"Sirius Canada began simulcasting Radio 1 when it was launched on 1 December 2005 (also on channel 11).",
"The Sirius simulcasts were time shifted five hours to allow U.S. and Canadian listeners in the Eastern Time Zone to hear Radio 1 at the same time of day as UK listeners.",
"On 12 November 2008, Radio 1 made its debut on XM Satellite Radio in both the US and Canada on channel 29, moving to XM 15 and Sirius 15 on 4 May 2011.",
"Until the full station was removed in August 2011, Radio 1 was able to be heard by approximately 20.6 million listeners in North America on satellite radio alone.",
"BBC Radio 1 can be heard on cable in the Netherlands at 105.10 FM.",
"===SiriusXM cancellation in North America===\n\n\nAt 12am on 9 August 2011, Sirius XM ceased carrying BBC Radio 1 programming with no prior warning.",
"On 10 August 2011 the BBC issued the following statement:\nThe BBC’s commercial arm BBC Worldwide has been in partnership with SIRIUS Satellite Radio to broadcast Radio 1 on their main network, since 2005.",
"This agreement has now unfortunately come to an end and BBC Worldwide are in current discussions with the satellite radio station to find ways to continue to bring popular music channel, BBC Radio 1, to the US audience.",
"We will keep you posted.",
"Thousands of angry Sirius XM customers began a campaign on Facebook and other social media to reinstate BBC Radio 1 on Sirius XM Radio.",
"One week later, Sirius and the BBC agreed on a new carriage agreement that saw Radio 1 broadcast on a time-shifted format on the Sirius XM Internet Radio platform only, on channel 815.",
"The channel is still unavailable on the satellite platform of the service.",
"Starting on 15 January 2012, ''The Official Chart Show'' began broadcasting on SiriusXM ''20on20'' channel 3, at 4pm and 9pm Eastern Standard Time.",
"On 19 August 2014, SiriusXM again stopped carrying BBC Radio 1 programming with no advanced notice.",
"The stream is no longer available on the Internet Radio platform.",
"===Regionalisation===\nFrom 1999 until 2012, Radio 1 split the home nations for localised programming in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, to allow the broadcast of a showcase programme for regional talent.",
"Most recently, these shows were under the BBC Introducing brand.",
"Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland had their own shows, which were broadcast on a 3-week rotational basis in England.",
"From January 2011 until June 2012, Scotland's show was presented by Ally McCrae.",
"Previously it was hosted by Vic Galloway (who also presents for BBC Radio Scotland); who had presented the show solo since 2004, after his original co-host Gill Mills departed.",
"Wales's show was hosted by Jen Long between January 2011 until May 2012.",
"Previously Bethan Elfyn occupied the slot, who had at one time hosted alongside Huw Stephens, until Stephens left to join the national network, although he still broadcasts a show for Wales - a Welsh-language music show on BBC Radio Cymru on Thursday evenings)\n\nPhil Taggart presented the Northern Ireland programme between November 2011 and May 2012.",
"The show was formerly presented by Rory McConnell.",
"Before joining the national network, Colin Murray was a presenter on the Session in Northern Ireland, along with Donna Legge; after Murray's promotion to the network Legge hosted alone for a time, and on her departure McConnell took her place.",
"The regional opt-outs originally went out from 8:00 pm to 10:00 pm on Thursdays (the Evening Session's time slot) and were known as the Session in the Nations (the 'Session' tag was later dropped due to the demise of the Evening Session); they later moved to run from 7:30 pm to 9:00 pm, with the first half-hour of Zane Lowe's programme going out across the whole of the UK.",
"On 18 October 2007 the regional programmes moved to a Wednesday night/Thursday morning slot from 12:00 am to 2:00 am under the ''BBC Introducing'' banner, allowing Lowe's Thursday show to be aired across the network; prior to this change Huw Stephens had presented the Wednesday midnight show nationally.",
"In January 2011, BBC Introducing was moved to the new time slot of 00:00 to 02:00 on Monday mornings, and the Scottish and Welsh shows were given new presenters in the form of Ally McCrae and Jen Long.",
"The opt-outs were only available to listeners on the FM frequencies.",
"Because of the way the DAB and digital TV services of Radio 1 are broadcast (a single-frequency network on DAB and a single broadcast feed of Radio 1 on TV platforms), the digital version of the station was not regionalised.",
"The BBC Trust announced in May 2012 that the regional music programmes on Radio 1 would be replaced with a single programme offering a UK-wide platform for new music as part of a series of cost-cutting measures across the BBC.",
"In June 2012, the regional shows ended and were replaced by a single ''BBC Introducing'' show presented by Jen Long and Ally McCrae.",
"===Music===\nBecause of its youth-orientated nature, Radio 1 plays a mix of current songs, including independent/alternative, rap, hip hop, rock, house, electronica, dance, drum and bass, dubstep and pop.",
"Due to restrictions on the amount of commercial music that could be played on radio in the UK until 1988 (the \"needle time\" limitation) the station has recorded many live performances.",
"Studio sessions (recordings of about four tracks made in a single day), also supplemented the live music content, many them finding their way to commercially available LPs and CDs.",
"The sessions recorded for John Peel's late night programme are particularly renowned.",
"The station also broadcasts documentaries and interviews.",
"Although this type of programming arose from necessity it has given the station diversity.",
"The needletime restrictions meant the station tended to have a higher level of speech by DJs.",
"While the station is often criticised for \"waffling\" by presenters, an experimental \"more music day\" in 1988 was declared a failure after only a third of callers favoured it.",
"===News and current affairs===\n\nRadio 1 has a public service broadcasting obligation to provide news, which it fulfills through Newsbeat bulletins throughout the day.",
"Shared with 1Xtra, short news summaries are provided roughly hourly on the half-hour during daytime hours with two 15-minute bulletins at 12:45 and 17:45 on weekdays.",
"The main presenter is Chris Smith, with Tina Daheley presenting during Radio 1's breakfast hours.",
"===Online visualisation and social media===\nIn recent years, Radio 1 has aimed to include more of its content online in order to relate to the changing nature of its audience.",
"Its YouTube channel now has over 3 million subscribers and many features and events are streamed on both that and the Radio 1 website.",
"The station also has a heavy presence on social media, with audience interaction now occurring mainly through Facebook and Twitter as well as text messaging.",
"It was announced in 2013 that Radio 1 had submitted plans to launch its own dedicated video channel on the BBC iPlayer where videos of live performances as well as some features and shows would be streamed in a central location.",
"Plans were approved by the BBC Trust in November 2014 and the channel launched on 10 November 2014.",
"\n\n\n Years served !",
"!",
"Controller\n\n 1967–1968 \n Robin Scott\n\n 1968–1976 \n Douglas Muggeridge\n\n 1976–1978 \n Charles McLelland\n\n 1978–1985 \n Derek Chinnery\n\n 1985–1993 \n Johnny Beerling\n\n 1993–1998 \n Matthew Bannister\n\n 1998–2011 \n Andy Parfitt\n\n 2011–present \n Ben Cooper",
"BBC Radio 1 operates a system that separates all of the DJs between 'Day' and 'Night' DJs.",
"* 'Day' DJs play music generally orientated around the Radio 1 Playlist\n* 'Night' DJs play more eclectic and specialised 'New Music'.",
"===Daytime===\n\n\n'''Weekdays'''\n\n* 04:00 – 06:30 – ''Adele Roberts''\n* 06:30 – 10:00 – ''The Radio 1 Breakfast Show with Nick Grimshaw''\n* 10:00 – 12:45 – ''Clara Amfo''\n* 12:45 – 13:00 – ''Newsbeat''\n* 13:00 – 16:00 – ''Scott Mills''\n* 16:00 – 17:45 – ''The Radio 1 Drivetime Show with Greg James'' (Monday to Thursday)\n**(Including ''The Official Chart Update'': Monday: 17:30–17:45)\n* 16:00 – 17:45 – ''The Official Chart with Greg James'' (Friday)\n* 17:45 – 18:00 – ''Newsbeat''\n* 18:00 – 19:00 – ''The Radio 1 Drivetime Show with Greg James'' (Monday to Thursday)\n* 18:00 – 19:00 – ''BBC Radio 1's Dance Anthems with Greg James'' (Friday)\n\n'''Weekends'''\n* 06:00 – 10:00 – ''Dev''\n* 10:00 – 13:00 – ''Matt Edmondson''\n* 13:00 – 16:00 – ''Alice Levine''\n* 16:00 – 19:00 – ''BBC Radio 1's Dance Anthems with Danny Howard'' (Saturday)\n* 16:00 – 19:00 – ''Cel Spellman'' (Sunday)\n\n\n===Nighttime===\n\n\n'''Monday to Thursday'''\n* 19:00 – 21:00 – ''Annie Mac''\n* 21:00 – 22:00 – ''Radio 1's Specialist Chart with Phil Taggart'' (Monday)\n* 21:00 – 22:00 – ''Radio 1 & 1Xtra's Stories'' (Tuesday)\n* 21:00 – 22:00 – ''The Surgery with Katie and Dr Radha'' (Wednesday)\n* 21:00 – 22:00 – ''Radio 1's Artist Takeover with...'' (Thursday)\n* 22:00 – 01:00 – ''Huw Stephens'' (Monday to Wednesday)\n* 22:00 – 01:00 – ''Radio 1's Residency'' (Thursday)\n* 01:00 – 04:00 – ''Friction'' (Tuesday)\n* 01:00 – 04:00 – ''Annie Nightingale'' (Wednesday)\n* 01:00 – 04:00 – ''Benji B'' (Thursday)\n* 01:00 – 04:00 – ''Toddla T'' (Friday)\n\n'''Friday evenings''' feature 11 hours of dance music.",
"* 19:00 – 22:00 – ''Annie Mac''\n* 22:00 – 01:00 – ''Pete Tong''\n* 01:00 – 04:00 – ''B.Traits''\n* 04:00 – 06:00 – ''BBC Radio 1's Essential Mix''\n'''Saturday evenings''' include 11 hours of urban music ''1Xtra Takeover'' which, since October 2009, has been simulcast entirely on BBC Radio 1Xtra.",
"* 19:00 – 22:00 – ''MistaJam''\n* 22:00 – 01:00 – ''The Rap Show with Charlie Sloth''\n* 01:00 – 04:00 – ''DJ Target''\n* 04:00 – 06:00 – ''Diplo and Friends''\n'''Sunday evenings'''\n* 19:00 – 22:00 – ''Rock Show with Daniel P. Carter''\n* 22:00 – 01:00 – ''Phil Taggart''\n* 01:00 – 04:00 – ''Monki''",
"===Breakfast===\n\nThe breakfast show has been presented by many famous names over the years.",
"Currently this slot is broadcast between 6:30 am and 10:00 am, Monday to Friday and is hosted by Nick Grimshaw.",
"===The Official Chart Show On BBC Radio 1===\n\nBBC Radio 1's chart show had aired the UK Singles Chart exclusively on Sunday afternoons since the programme began; but this was moved to Fridays in July 2015.",
"Currently broadcasting from 4:00 pm until 5:45 pm, the format, length and starting time have varied over the years.",
"For many years, the show prided itself on playing all 40 singles in the top 40 but this practice ended when Wes Butters took over as presenter in 2003; then only tracks below number 20 to be played were the new entries.",
"The show took its current format on 10 July 2015, being presented by Greg James in his usual drive time slot.",
"Numbers 40 to 26 are quickly overviewed and then the top 25 are played in full.",
"Programmes have included 'The 10 Hour Takeover', a request-based special, in which the DJs on air would encourage listeners to select any available track to play, 'One Hit Wonder Day' and 'The Chart Of The Decade' where the 150 biggest selling singles in the last 10 years were counted down and played in full.",
"====40th birthday====\nOn Sunday 30 September 2007, Radio 1 celebrated its 40th birthday.",
"To mark this anniversary Radio 1 hosted a week of special features, including:\n* Special shows hosted by music legends at 9:00 pm each weekday.",
"* Between 9:00 am and 10:00 am on the Chris Moyles show, the best music from the last 40 years (a re-creation of Simon Bates' Golden Hour).",
"* Playing Radio 1's old jingles, which were created by JAM Creative Productions.",
"* 40 different artists performed 40 different covers, one from each year since Radio 1 was established.",
"All 40 songs were played in the weeks leading up to the release of the compilation album ''Radio 1 Established 1967''.",
"* On the anniversary day Chris Moyles was joined on a special Breakfast Show by Tony Blackburn\n* Vernon Kay interviewed past Breakfast Show presenters including Noel Edmonds, Dave Lee Travis and Mike Smith.",
"* Ex Breakfast Show hosts Sara Cox & Zoë Ball teamed up to present an anniversary show on the Sunday.",
"* Past newsreaders including Peter Bowes, Richard Evans & Rod McKenzie returned to present bulletins.",
"====50th birthday====\nOn Saturday 30 September 2017, Radio 1 celebrated its 50th birthday.",
"Tony Blackburn recreated the first ever Radio 1 broadcast on Radio 2, simulcast on pop-up station Radio 1 Vintage, followed by The Radio 1 Breakfast Show celebration, tricast on Radio 1, Radio 2 and Radio 1 Vintage, presented by Tony Blackburn and Nick Grimshaw, featuring former presenters Simon Mayo, Sara Cox and Mike Read .",
"====Charity====\nRadio 1 regularly supports charities Comic Relief, Sport Relief and Children in Need.",
"On 18 March 2011, BBC's Radio 1 longest serving breakfast DJ Chris Moyles and sidekick Dave Vitty broadcast for 52 hours as part of a Guinness World Record attempt, in aid of Comic Relief.",
"The pair stayed on air for 52 hours in total setting a new world record for 'Radio DJ Endurance Marathon (Team)’ after already breaking Simon Mayo's 12-year record for Radio 1's Longest Show of 37 hours which he set in 1999, also for Comic Relief.",
"The presenters started on 16 March 2011 and came off air at 10:30 am on 18 March 2011.",
"During this Fearne Cotton made a bet with DJ Chris Moyles that if they raise over £2,000,000 she will appear on the show in a swimsuit.",
"After passing the £2,000,000 mark, Cotton appeared on the studio webcam in a stripy monochrome swimsuit.",
"The appearance of Cotton between 10:10 am and 10:30 am caused the Radio 1 website to crash due to a high volume of traffic.",
"In total the event raised £2,622,421 for Comic Relief.",
"====Drama====\nIn 1981, Radio 1 broadcast a radio adaptation of the space opera film, ''Star Wars''.",
"The 13-episode serial was adapted for radio by the author Brian Daley and directed by John Madden, and was a co-production between the BBC and the American Broadcaster NPR.",
"===Radio 1 Roadshows===\nThe Radio 1 Roadshow, which usually involved Radio 1 DJs and pop stars travelling around popular UK seaside destinations, began in 1973, hosted by Alan Freeman in Newquay, Cornwall, with the final one held at Heaton Park, Manchester in 1999.",
"Although the Roadshow attracted large crowds and the style changed with the style of the station itself—such as the introduction of whistlestop audio postcards of each location in 1994 (\"2minuteTour\")—they were still rooted in the older style of the station, and therefore fit for retirement.",
"===BBC Radio 1's Big Weekend===\n\nIn March 2000, Radio 1 decided to change the Roadshow format, renaming it ''One Big Sunday'' in the process.",
"Several of these ''Sundays'' were held in large city-centre parks.",
"In 2003, the event changed again and was rebranded ''One Big Weekend'', with each event occurring biannually and covering two days.",
"Under this name, it visited Derry in Northern Ireland, as part of the ''Music Lives'' campaign, and Perry Park in Birmingham.",
"The most recent change occurred in 2005 when the event was yet again renamed and the decision taken to hold only one per year, this time as Radio 1's Big Weekend.",
"Venues under this title have included Herrington Country Park, Camperdown Country Park, Moor Park–which was the first ''Weekend'' to feature a third stage–Mote Park, Lydiard Park, Bangor and Carlisle Airport.",
"Tickets for each ''Big Weekend'' are given away free of charge, making it the largest free ticketed music festival in Europe.",
"BBC Radio 1's Big Weekend was replaced by a larger festival in 2012, named 'Radio 1's Hackney Weekend', with a crowd capacity of 100,000.",
"The Hackney Weekend took place over the weekend of 23–24 June 2012 in Hackney Marshes, Hackney, London.",
"The event was to celebrate the 2012 Cultural Olympiad in London and had artists such as Rihanna, Jay-Z and Florence and the Machine.",
"In 2013, Radio 1's Big Weekend returned to Derry as part of the City of Culture 2013 celebrations.",
"So far, Derry is the only city to have hosted the Big Weekend twice.",
"In May 2014, Radio 1's Big Weekend was held in Glasgow, Scotland.",
"Acts which played at the event included Rita Ora, The 1975, Katy Perry, Jake Bugg and Pharrell Williams.",
"The event was opened on the Friday with a dance set in George Square, featuring Radio 1 Dance DJs such as Danny Howard and Pete Tong, and other well-known acts such as Martin Garrix and Tiesto.",
"In 2015, the event was held in Norwich and featured performances from the likes of Taylor Swift, Muse, David Guetta, Years & Years and others.",
"2016 saw the event make its way to Exeter.",
"It was headlined by Coldplay who closed the weekend on the Sunday evening.",
"The event was in Hull in 2017 and saw performances by artists such as Zara Larsson, Shawn Mendes, Stormzy, Katy Perry, Little Mix, Sean Paul, Rita Ora, The Chainsmokers, Clean Bandit and Kings Of Leon.",
"===Ibiza Weekend===\nRadio 1 has annually held a dance music weekend broadcast live from Ibiza since the 1990s.",
"The weekend is usually the first weekend in August and has performances from world-famous DJs and Radio 1's own dance music talent such as Pete Tong and Annie Mac.",
"===BBC Radio 1's Teen Awards===\nSince 2008 Radio 1 has held an annual event for teenagers aged 14 to 17 years.",
"Originally named BBC Switch Live, the first event was held on 12 October 2008 at the Hammersmith Apollo.",
"The event has been hosted by various Radio 1 DJs and guest co-hosts.",
"In 2010 the event was renamed 'BBC Radio 1's Teen Awards', and includes awards given to celebrities and particularly inspirational young people.",
"Now hosted at Wembley Arena, the event has included guests such as One Direction, Tinie Tempah, Fall Out Boy and Jessie J.",
"The 2014 event took place on 19 October and was hosted by Nick Grimshaw and Rita Ora.",
"The 2015 event took place on 8 November and was hosted by Nick Grimshaw and Demi Lovato at Wembley Arena.",
"The 2016 event took place on 23 October and was hosted by Nick Grimshaw and Dua Lipa.",
"===Edinburgh Festival===\nRadio 1 often has a presence at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe.",
"Past events have included 'The Fun and Filth Cabaret' and 'Scott Mills: The Musical'.",
"* List of BBC radio stations\n* Radio 1 Podcasts\n* Musicube",
"\n\n===Sources===\n\n*",
"*",
"\n*\n* \n* BBC Radio 1 Playlist"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Battle of Waterloo''' was fought on Sunday, 18 June 1815, near Waterloo in present-day Belgium, then part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. A French army under the command of Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated by two of the armies of the Seventh Coalition: a British-led Allied army under the command of the Duke of Wellington, and a Prussian army under the command of Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, Prince of Wahlstatt.\n\nUpon Napoleon's return to power in March 1815, many states that had opposed him formed the Seventh Coalition, and began to mobilize armies. Wellington and Blücher's armies were cantoned close to the north-eastern border of France. Napoleon chose to attack them separately in the hope of destroying them before they could join in a co-ordinated invasion of France with other members of the coalition. Napoleon successfully attacked the bulk of the Prussian army at the Battle of Ligny with his main force, while at the same time a portion of the French army attacked an Allied army at the Battle of Quatre Bras. Despite holding his ground at Quatre Bras, the defeat of the Prussians forced Wellington to withdraw to Waterloo. Napoleon sent a third of his forces to pursue the Prussians, who had withdrawn parallel to Wellington. This resulted in the separate and simultaneous Battle of Wavre with the Prussian rear-guard.\n\nUpon learning that the Prussian army was able to support him, Wellington decided to offer battle on the Mont-Saint-Jean escarpment, across the Brussels road. Here he withstood repeated attacks by the French throughout the afternoon, aided by the progressively arriving Prussians. In the evening Napoleon committed his last reserves to a desperate final attack, which was narrowly beaten back. With the Prussians breaking through on the French right flank, Wellington's Anglo-allied army counter-attacked in the centre, and the French army was routed.\n\nWaterloo was the decisive engagement of the Waterloo Campaign and Napoleon's last. According to Wellington, the battle was \"the nearest-run thing you ever saw in your life\". Napoleon abdicated four days later, and on 7 July coalition forces entered Paris. The defeat at Waterloo ended Napoleon's rule as Emperor of the French, and marked the end of his Hundred Days return from exile. This ended the First French Empire, and set a chronological milestone between serial European wars and decades of relative peace.\n\nThe battlefield is located in the municipalities of Braine-l'Alleud and Lasne, about south of Brussels, and about from the town of Waterloo. The site of the battlefield today is dominated by a large monument, the Lion's Mound. As this mound was constructed from earth taken from the battlefield itself, the contemporary topography of the battlefield near the mound has not been preserved.\n",
"\nfronts. Napoleon was forced to leave 20,000 men in Western France to reduce a royalist insurrection.\nOn 13 March 1815, six days before Napoleon reached Paris, the powers at the Congress of Vienna declared him an outlaw. Four days later, the United Kingdom, Russia, Austria, and Prussia mobilised armies to defeat Napoleon. Critically outnumbered, Napoleon knew that once his attempts at dissuading one or more members of the Seventh Coalition from invading France had failed, his only chance of remaining in power was to attack before the coalition mobilised.\n\nHad Napoleon succeeded in destroying the existing coalition forces south of Brussels before they were reinforced, he might have been able to drive the British back to the sea and knock the Prussians out of the war. Crucially, this would have bought him time to recruit and train more men before turning his armies against the Austrians and Russians.\n\nAn additional consideration for Napoleon was that a French victory might cause French speaking sympathisers in Belgium to launch a friendly revolution. Also, coalition troops in Belgium were largely second-line, as many units were of dubious quality and loyalty, and most of the British veterans of the Peninsular War had been sent to North America to fight in the War of 1812.\n\nA map of the Waterloo campaign\nNapoleon's strategy was to isolate the Allied and Prussian armies and annihilate each one separately. 1st Duke of Wellington, commander of the Anglo-allied army\n\nWellington's initial dispositions were intended to counter the threat of Napoleon enveloping the Coalition armies by moving through Mons to the south-west of Brussels. This would have pushed Wellington closer to Blücher, but may have cut Wellington's communications with his base at Ostend. In order to delay Wellington's deployment, Napoleon spread false intelligence which suggested that Wellington's supply chain from the channel ports would be cut.\n\nBy June, Napoleon had raised a total army strength of about 300,000 men. The force at his disposal at Waterloo was less than one third that size, but the rank and file were nearly all loyal and experienced soldiers. Napoleon divided his army into a left wing commanded by Marshal Ney, a right wing commanded by Marshal Grouchy and a reserve under his command (although all three elements remained close enough to support one another). Crossing the frontier near Charleroi before dawn on 15 June, the French rapidly overran Coalition outposts, securing Napoleon's \"central position\" between Wellington's and Blücher's armies. He hoped this would prevent them from combining, and he would be able to destroy first the Prussian's army, then Wellington's.\n\nOnly very late on the night of 15 June was Wellington certain that the Charleroi attack was the main French thrust. In the early hours of 16 June, at the Duchess of Richmond's ball in Brussels, he received a dispatch from the Prince of Orange and was shocked by the speed of Napoleon's advance. He hastily ordered his army to concentrate on Quatre Bras, where the Prince of Orange, with the brigade of Prince Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, was holding a tenuous position against the soldiers of Ney's left wing.\n\nNey's orders were to secure the crossroads of Quatre Bras, so that he could later swing east and reinforce Napoleon if necessary. Ney found the crossroads of Quatre Bras lightly held by the Prince of Orange, who repelled Ney's initial attacks but was gradually driven back by overwhelming numbers of French troops. First reinforcements, and then Wellington arrived. He took command and drove Ney back, securing the crossroads by early evening, too late to send help to the Prussians, who had already been defeated.\n\nMeanwhile on 16 June, Napoleon attacked and defeated Blücher's Prussians at the Battle of Ligny using part of the reserve and the right wing of his army. The Prussian centre gave way under heavy French assaults, but the flanks held their ground. The Prussian retreat from Ligny went uninterrupted and seemingly unnoticed by the French. The bulk of their rearguard units held their positions until about midnight, and some elements did not move out until the following morning, ignored by the French.\n\nCrucially, the Prussians did not retreat to the east, along their own lines of communication. Instead, they, too, fell back northwards—parallel to Wellington's line of march, still within supporting distance and in communication with him throughout. The Prussians rallied on Bülow's IV Corps, which had not been engaged at Ligny and was in a strong position south of Wavre.\n\nWith the Prussian retreat from Ligny, Wellington's position at Quatre Bras was untenable. The next day he withdrew northwards, to a defensive position he had reconnoitred the previous year—the low ridge of Mont-Saint-Jean, south of the village of Waterloo and the Sonian Forest.\n\nNapoleon, with the reserves, made a late start on 17 June and joined Ney at Quatre Bras at 13:00 to attack Wellington's army but found the position empty. The French pursued Wellington's retreating army to Waterloo; however, due to bad weather, mud and the head start that Napoleon's tardy advance had allowed Wellington, apart from a cavalry action at Genappe, there was no substantial engagement.\n\nBefore leaving Ligny, Napoleon had ordered Grouchy, who commanded the right wing, to follow up the retreating Prussians with 33,000 men. A late start, uncertainty about the direction the Prussians had taken, and the vagueness of the orders given to him, meant that Grouchy was too late to prevent the Prussian army reaching Wavre, from where it could march to support Wellington. More importantly, the heavily outnumbered Prussian rear-guard was able to use the River Dyle to enable a savage and prolonged action to delay Grouchy.\n\nAs the 17th of June drew to a close, Wellington's army had arrived at its position at Waterloo, with the main body of Napoleon's army following. Blücher's army was gathering in and around Wavre, around to the east of the city. Early on the morning of the 18th, Wellington received an assurance from Blücher that the Prussian army would support him. He decided to hold his ground and give battle.\n",
"\nThree armies were involved in the battle: Napoleon's ''Armée du Nord'', a multinational army under Wellington, and a Prussian army under Blücher.\n\n\nThe French army of around 69,000 consisted of 48,000 infantry, 14,000 cavalry, and 7,000 artillery with 250 guns. Napoleon had used conscription to fill the ranks of the French army throughout his rule, but he did not conscript men for the 1815 campaign. His troops were mainly veterans with considerable experience and a fierce devotion to their Emperor. The cavalry in particular was both numerous and formidable, and included fourteen regiments of armoured heavy cavalry, and seven of highly versatile lancers who were armed with lances, sabres and firearms.\n\nHowever as the army took shape, French officers were allocated to units as they presented themselves for duty, so that many units were commanded by officers the soldiers didn't know, and often didn't trust. Crucially, some of these officers had little experience in working together as a unified force, so that support for other units was often not given.\n\nThe French army was forced to march through rain and black coal-dust mud to reach Waterloo, and then to contend with mud and rain as it slept in the open. Little food was available for the soldiers, but nevertheless the veteran French soldiers were fiercely loyal to Napoleon.\n\nWellington later said that he had \"an infamous army, very weak and ill-equipped, and a very inexperienced Staff\". His troops consisted of 67,000 men: 50,000 infantry, 11,000 cavalry, and 6,000 artillery with 150 guns. Of these, 25,000 were British, with another 6,000 from the King's German Legion (KGL). All of the British Army troops were regular soldiers, but only 7,000 of them were Peninsular War veterans. In addition, there were 17,000 Dutch and Belgian troops, 11,000 from Hanover, 6,000 from Brunswick, and 3,000 from Nassau.\n\nMany of the troops in the Coalition armies were inexperienced. The Dutch army had been re-established in 1815, following the earlier defeat of Napoleon. With the exception of the British and some from Hanover and Brunswick who had fought with the British army in Spain, many of the professional soldiers in the Coalition armies had spent some of their time in the French army or in armies allied to the Napoleonic regime. The historian Barbero states that in this heterogeneous army the difference between British and ''foreign'' troops did not prove significant under fire.\n\nWellington was also acutely short of heavy cavalry, having only seven British and three Dutch regiments. The Duke of York imposed many of his staff officers on Wellington, including his second-in-command the Earl of Uxbridge. Uxbridge commanded the cavalry and had carte blanche from Wellington to commit these forces at his discretion. Wellington stationed a further 17,000 troops at Halle, away to the west. They were not recalled to participate in the battle but were to serve as a fallback position should the battle be lost. They were mostly composed of Dutch troops under Prince of Orange's younger brother Prince Frederick of the Netherlands. They were placed as a guard against any possible wide flanking movement by the French forces, and also to act as a rearguard if Wellington was forced to retreat towards Antwerp and the coast.\n\nThe Prussian army was in the throes of reorganisation. In 1815, the former Reserve regiments, Legions, and ''Freikorps'' volunteer formations from the wars of 1813–1814 were in the process of being absorbed into the line, along with many ''Landwehr'' (militia) regiments. The ''Landwehr'' were mostly untrained and unequipped when they arrived in Belgium. The Prussian cavalry were in a similar state. Its artillery was also reorganising and did not give its best performance – guns and equipment continued to arrive during and after the battle.\n\nOffsetting these handicaps, the Prussian Army had excellent and professional leadership in its General Staff organisation. These officers came from four schools developed for this purpose and thus worked to a common standard of training. This system was in marked contrast to the conflicting, vague orders issued by the French army. This staff system ensured that before Ligny, three-quarters of the Prussian army concentrated for battle with 24 hours notice.\n\nAfter Ligny, the Prussian army, although defeated, was able to realign its supply train, reorganise itself, and intervene decisively on the Waterloo battlefield within 48 hours. Two and a half Prussian army corps, or 48,000 men, were engaged at Waterloo; two brigades under Bülow, commander of IV Corps, attacked Lobau at 16:30, while Zieten's I Corps and parts of Pirch I's II Corps engaged at about 18:00.\n",
"\nA view of the battlefield from the Lion's mound. On the top right are the buildings of La Haye Sainte.\nThe Waterloo position was a strong one. It consisted of a long ridge running east-west, perpendicular to, and bisected by, the main road to Brussels. Along the crest of the ridge ran the Ohain road, a deep sunken lane. Near the crossroads with the Brussels road was a large elm tree that was roughly in the centre of Wellington's position and served as his command post for much of the day. Wellington deployed his infantry in a line just behind the crest of the ridge following the Ohain road.\n\nUsing the reverse slope, as he had many times previously, Wellington concealed his strength from the French, with the exception of his skirmishers and artillery. The length of front of the battlefield was also relatively short at . This allowed Wellington to draw up his forces in depth, which he did in the centre and on the right, all the way towards the village of Braine-l'Alleud, in the expectation that the Prussians would reinforce his left during the day.\n\nAn 1816 map showing the local geography, with Waterloo defending the approach to Brussels\nIn front of the ridge, there were three positions that could be fortified. On the extreme right were the château, garden, and orchard of Hougoumont. This was a large and well-built country house, initially hidden in trees. The house faced north along a sunken, covered lane (usually described by the British as \"the hollow-way\") along which it could be supplied. On the extreme left was the hamlet of Papelotte.\n\nBoth Hougoumont and Papelotte were fortified and garrisoned, and thus anchored Wellington's flanks securely. Papelotte also commanded the road to Wavre that the Prussians would use to send reinforcements to Wellington's position. On the western side of the main road, and in front of the rest of Wellington's line, was the farmhouse and orchard of La Haye Sainte, which was garrisoned with 400 light infantry of the King's German Legion. On the opposite side of the road was a disused sand quarry, where the 95th Rifles were posted as sharpshooters.\n\nWellington's forces positioning presented a formidable challenge to any attacking force. Any attempt to turn Wellington's right would entail taking the entrenched Hougoumont position. Any attack on his right centre would mean the attackers would have to march between enfilading fire from Hougoumont and La Haye Sainte. On the left, any attack would also be enfiladed by fire from La Haye Sainte and its adjoining sandpit, and any attempt at turning the left flank would entail fighting through the lanes and hedgerows surrounding Papelotte and the other garrisoned buildings on that flank, and some very wet ground in the Smohain defile.\n\nThe French army formed on the slopes of another ridge to the south. Napoleon could not see Wellington's positions, so he drew his forces up symmetrically about the Brussels road. On the right was I Corps under d'Erlon with 16,000 infantry and 1,500 cavalry, plus a cavalry reserve of 4,700. On the left was II Corps under Reille with 13,000 infantry, and 1,300 cavalry, and a cavalry reserve of 4,600. In the centre about the road south of the inn ''La Belle Alliance'' were a reserve including Lobau's VI Corps with 6,000 men, the 13,000 infantry of the Imperial Guard, and a cavalry reserve of 2,000.\n\nIn the right rear of the French position was the substantial village of Plancenoit, and at the extreme right, the ''Bois de Paris'' wood. Napoleon initially commanded the battle from Rossomme farm, where he could see the entire battlefield, but moved to a position near ''La Belle Alliance'' early in the afternoon. Command on the battlefield (which was largely hidden from his view) was delegated to Ney.\n\nA panorama of the Waterloo battlefield in 2012\n",
"===Preparation===\nGebhard Leberecht von Blücher, who had led one of the coalition armies defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig, commanded the Prussian army\nWellington rose at around 02:00 or 03:00 on 18 June, and wrote letters until dawn. He had earlier written to Blücher confirming that he would give battle at Mont-Saint-Jean if Blücher could provide him with at least one corps; otherwise he would retreat towards Brussels. At a late-night council, Blücher's chief of staff, August Neidhardt von Gneisenau, had been distrustful of Wellington's strategy, but Blücher persuaded him that they should march to join Wellington's army. In the morning Wellington duly received a reply from Blücher, promising to support him with three corps.\n\nFrom 06:00 Wellington was in the field supervising the deployment of his forces. At Wavre, the Prussian IV Corps under Bülow was designated to lead the march to Waterloo as it was in the best shape, not having been involved in the Battle of Ligny. Although they had not taken casualties, IV Corps had been marching for two days, covering the retreat of the three other corps of the Prussian army from the battlefield of Ligny. They had been posted farthest away from the battlefield, and progress was very slow. The roads were in poor condition after the night's heavy rain, and Bülow's men had to pass through the congested streets of Wavre and move 88 artillery pieces. Matters were not helped when a fire broke out in Wavre, blocking several streets along Bülow's intended route. As a result, the last part of the corps left at 10:00, six hours after the leading elements had moved out towards Waterloo. Bülow's men were followed to Waterloo first by I Corps and then by II Corps.\n\nNapoleon breakfasted off silver plate at ''Le Caillou'', the house where he had spent the night. When Soult suggested that Grouchy should be recalled to join the main force, Napoleon said, \"Just because you have all been beaten by Wellington, you think he's a good general. I tell you Wellington is a bad general, the English are bad troops, and this affair is nothing more than eating breakfast\".\n\nNapoleon's seemingly dismissive remark may have been strategic, given his maxim \"in war, morale is everything\". He had acted similarly in the past, and on the morning of the battle of Waterloo may have been responding to the pessimism and objections of his chief of staff and senior generals.\n\nLater on, being told by his brother, Jerome, of some gossip overheard by a waiter between British officers at lunch at the 'King of Spain' inn in Genappe that the Prussians were to march over from Wavre, Napoleon declared that the Prussians would need at least two days to recover and would be dealt with by Grouchy. Surprisingly, Jerome's overheard gossip aside, the French commanders present at the pre-battle conference at ''Le Caillou'' had no information about the alarming proximity of the Prussians and did not suspect that Blücher's men would start erupting onto the field of battle in great numbers just five hours later.\n\nBattle of Mont-Saint-Jean\nNapoleon had delayed the start of the battle owing to the sodden ground, which would have made manoeuvring cavalry and artillery difficult. In addition, many of his forces had bivouacked well to the south of ''La Belle Alliance''. At 10:00, in response to a dispatch he had received from Grouchy six hours earlier, he sent a reply telling Grouchy to \"head for Wavre to Grouchy's north in order to draw near to us to the west of Grouchy\" and then \"push before him\" the Prussians to arrive at Waterloo \"as soon as possible\".\n\nAt 11:00, Napoleon drafted his general order: Reille's Corps on the left and d'Erlon's Corps to the right were to attack the village of Mont-Saint-Jean and keep abreast of one another. This order assumed Wellington's battle-line was in the village, rather than at the more forward position on the ridge. To enable this, Jerome's division would make an initial attack on Hougoumont, which Napoleon expected would draw in Wellington's reserves, since its loss would threaten his communications with the sea. A ''grande batterie'' of the reserve artillery of I, II, and VI Corps was to then bombard the centre of Wellington's position from about 13:00. D'Erlon's corps would then attack Wellington's left, break through, and roll up his line from east to west. In his memoirs, Napoleon wrote that his intention was to separate Wellington's army from the Prussians and drive it back towards the sea.\n\n===Hougoumont===\n\n\nFighting at the Hougoumont farm\nThe historian Andrew Roberts notes that \"It is a curious fact about the Battle of Waterloo that no one is absolutely certain when it actually began\". Wellington recorded in his dispatches that at \"about ten o'clock Napoleon commenced a furious attack upon our post at Hougoumont\". Other sources state that the attack began around 11:30. The house and its immediate environs were defended by four light companies of Guards, and the wood and park by Hanoverian ''Jäger'' and the 1/2nd Nassau.\n\nThe initial attack by Bauduin's brigade emptied the wood and park, but was driven back by heavy British artillery fire, and cost Bauduin his life. As the British guns were distracted by a duel with French artillery, a second attack by Soye's brigade and what had been Bauduin's succeeded in reaching the north gate of the house. Sous-Lieutenant Legros, a French officer, broke the gate open with an axe, and some French troops managed to enter the courtyard. The Coldstream Guards and the Scots Guards arrived to support the defence. There was a fierce melee, and the British managed to close the gate on the French troops streaming in. The Frenchmen trapped in the courtyard were all killed. Only a young drummer boy was spared.\n\nGate on the north side assaulted by the ''1st Légère'' who were led by ''sous-lieutenant'' Legros\nFighting continued around Hougoumont all afternoon. Its surroundings were heavily invested by French light infantry, and coordinated attacks were made against the troops behind Hougoumont. Wellington's army defended the house and the hollow way running north from it. In the afternoon, Napoleon personally ordered the house to be shelled to set it on fire, resulting in the destruction of all but the chapel. Du Plat's brigade of the King's German Legion was brought forward to defend the hollow way, which they had to do without senior officers. Eventually they were relieved by the 71st Highlanders, a British infantry regiment. Adam's brigade was further reinforced by Hugh Halkett's 3rd Hanoverian Brigade, and successfully repulsed further infantry and cavalry attacks sent by Reille. Hougoumont held out until the end of the battle.\n\n\n\n\n\nThe fighting at Hougoumont has often been characterised as a diversionary attack to draw in Wellington's reserves which escalated into an all-day battle and drew in French reserves instead. In fact there is a good case to believe that both Napoleon and Wellington thought that holding Hougoumont was key to winning the battle. Hougoumont was a part of the battlefield that Napoleon could see clearly, and he continued to direct resources towards it and its surroundings all afternoon (33 battalions in all, 14,000 troops). Similarly, though the house never contained a large number of troops, Wellington devoted 21 battalions (12,000 troops) over the course of the afternoon in keeping the hollow way open to allow fresh troops and ammunition to reach the buildings. He moved several artillery batteries from his hard-pressed centre to support Hougoumont, and later stated that \"the success of the battle turned upon closing the gates at Hougoumont\".\n\n===The Grand Battery starts its bombardment===\nMap of the battle. Napoleon's units are in blue, Wellington's in red, Blücher's in grey.\n\nThe 80 guns of Napoleon's ''grande batterie'' drew up in the centre. These opened fire at 11:50, according to Lord Hill (commander of the Anglo-allied II Corps), while other sources put the time between noon and 13:30. The ''grande batterie'' was too far back to aim accurately, and the only other troops they could see were skirmishers of the regiments of Kempt and Pack, and Perponcher's 2nd Dutch division (the others were employing Wellington's characteristic \"reverse slope defence\").\nNevertheless, the bombardment caused a large number of casualties. Though some projectiles buried themselves in the soft soil, most found their marks on the reverse slope of the ridge. The bombardment forced the cavalry of the Union Brigade (in third line) to move to its left, as did the Scots Greys, to reduce their casualty rate.\n\n===Napoleon spots Prussians===\nAt about 13:00, Napoleon saw the first columns of Prussians around the village of Lasne-Chapelle-Saint-Lambert, four or five miles (six to eight kilometres) away from his right flank—about three hours march for an army. Napoleon's reaction was to have Marshal Soult send a message to Grouchy telling him to come towards the battlefield and attack the arriving Prussians. Grouchy, however, had been executing Napoleon's previous orders to follow the Prussians \"with your sword against his back\" towards Wavre, and was by then too far away to reach Waterloo. Grouchy was advised by his subordinate, Gérard, to \"march to the sound of the guns\", but stuck to his orders and engaged the Prussian III Corps rear guard under the command of Lieutenant-General Baron Johann von Thielmann at the Battle of Wavre. Moreover, Soult's letter ordering Grouchy to move quickly to join Napoleon and attack Bülow would not actually reach Grouchy until after 20:00.\n\n===First French infantry attack===\nA little after 13:00, I Corps' attack began in large columns. Bernard Cornwell writes \"column suggests an elongated formation with its narrow end aimed like a spear at the enemy line, while in truth it was much more like a brick advancing sideways and d'Erlon's assault was made up of four such bricks, each one a division of French infantry\". Each division, with one exception, was drawn up in huge masses, consisting of the eight or nine battalions of which they were formed, deployed, and placed in a column one behind the other, with only five paces interval between the battalions.\n\nThe one exception was the 1st Division (Commanded by Quiot, the leader of the 1st Brigade). Its two brigades were formed in a similar manner, but side by side instead of behind one another. This was done because, being on the left of the four divisions, it was ordered to send one (Quiot's brigade) against the south and west of La Haye Sainte, while the other (Bourgeois') was to attack the eastern side of the same post.\n\nThe divisions were to advance in echelon from the left at a distance of 400 paces apart — the 2nd Division (Donzelot's) on the right of Bourgeois' brigade, the 3rd Division (Marcognet's) next, and the 4th Division (Durutte's) on the right.They were led by Ney to the assault, each column having a front of about a hundred and sixty to two hundred files.\n\nThe leftmost division, advanced on La Haye Sainte. The farmhouse was defended by the King's German Legion. While one French battalion engaged the defenders from the front, the following battalions fanned out to either side and, with the support of several squadrons of cuirassiers, succeeded in isolating the farmhouse. The King's German Legion resolutely defended the farmhouse. Each time the French tried to scale the walls the outnumbered Germans somehow held them off. The Prince of Orange saw that La Haye Sainte had been cut off and tried to reinforce it by sending forward the Hanoverian Lüneberg Battalion in line. Cuirassiers concealed in a fold in the ground caught and destroyed it in minutes and then rode on past La Haye Sainte, almost to the crest of the ridge, where they covered d'Erlon's left flank as his attack developed.\n\nAt about 13:30, d'Erlon started to advance his three other divisions, some 14,000 men over a front of about , against Wellington's left wing. At the point they aimed for they faced 6,000 men: the first line consisted of the Dutch 1st \"Brigade van Bylandt\" of the 2nd Dutch division, flanked by the British brigades of Kempt and Pack on either side. The second line consisted of British and Hanoverian troops under Sir Thomas Picton, who were lying down in dead ground behind the ridge. All had suffered badly at Quatre Bras. In addition, the Bijlandt brigade had been ordered to deploy its skirmishers in the hollow road and on the forward slope. The rest of the brigade was lying down just behind the road.\n\nAt the moment these skirmishers were rejoining their parent battalions, the brigade was ordered to its feet and started to return fire. On the left of the brigade, where the 7th Dutch Militia stood, a \"few files were shot down and an opening in the line thus occurred\". The battalion had no reserves and was unable to close the gap. D'Erlon's troops pushed through this gap in the line and the remaining battalions in the Bylandt brigade (8th Dutch Militia and Belgian 7th Line Battalion) were forced to retreat to the square of the 5th Dutch Militia, which was in reserve between Picton's troops, about 100 paces to the rear. There they regrouped under the command of Colonel Van Zuylen van Nijevelt. A moment later the Prince of Orange ordered a counterattack, which actually occurred around 10 minutes later. Bylandt was wounded and retired off the field, passing command of the brigade to Lt. Kol. De Jongh.\n\n''The Battle of Waterloo'' by Clément-Auguste Andrieux\n\nD'Erlon's men ascended the slope and advanced on the sunken road, ''Chemin d'Ohain'', that ran from behind La Haye Sainte and continued east. It was lined on both sides by thick hedges, with Bylandt's brigade just across the road while the British brigades had been lying down some 100 yards back from the road, Pack's to Bylandt's left and Kempt's to Bylandt's right. Kempt's 1,900 men were engaged by Bourgeois' brigade of 1,900 men of Quiot's division. In the centre, Donzelot's division had pushed back Bylandt's brigade. On the right of the French advance was Marcognet's division led by Grenier's brigade consisting of the ''45e Régiment de Ligne'' and followed by the ''25e Régiment de Ligne'', somewhat less than 2,000 men, and behind them, Nogue's brigade of the ''21e'' and ''45e'' regiments. Opposing them on the other side of the road was Pack's 9th Brigade consisting of three Scottish regiments: the Royal Scots, the 42nd Black Watch, the 92nd Gordons and the 44th Foot totaling something over 2,000 men. A very even fight between British and French infantry was about to occur.\n\nThe French advance drove in the British skirmishers and reached the sunken road. As they did so, Pack's men stood up, formed into a four deep line formation for fear of the French cavalry, advanced, and opened fire. However, a firefight had been anticipated and the French infantry had accordingly advanced in more linear formation. Now, fully deployed into line, they returned fire and successfully pressed the British troops; although the attack faltered at the centre, the line in front of d'Erlon's right started to crumble. Picton was killed shortly after ordering the counter-attack and the British and Hanoverian troops also began to give way under the pressure of numbers. Pack's regiments, all four ranks deep, advanced to attack the French in the road but faltered and began to fire on the French instead of charging. The 42nd Black Watch halted at the hedge and the resulting fire-fight drove back the British 92nd Foot while the leading French ''45e Ligne'' burst through the hedge cheering. Along the sunken road, the French were forcing the Allies back, the British line was dispersing, and at two o'clock in the afternoon Napoleon was winning the Battle of Waterloo.\n\nReports from Baron von Muffling, the Prussian liaison officer attached to Wellington's army, relate that: \"After 3 o’clock the Duke's situation became critical, unless the succour of the Prussian army arrived soon\".\n\n===Charge of the British heavy cavalry===\n\n\nCharge of the Scots Greys at Waterloo, painted by Elizabeth Thompson\n\nAt this crucial juncture, Uxbridge ordered his two brigades of British heavy cavalry—formed unseen behind the ridge—to charge in support of the hard-pressed infantry. The 1st Brigade, known as the Household Brigade, commanded by Major-General Lord Edward Somerset, consisted of guards regiments: the 1st and 2nd Life Guards, the Royal Horse Guards (the Blues), and the 1st (King's) Dragoon Guards. The 2nd Brigade, also known as the Union Brigade, commanded by Major-General Sir William Ponsonby, was so called as it consisted of an English, the 1st (The Royals); a Scottish, 2nd ('Scots Greys'); and an Irish, 6th (Inniskilling); regiment of heavy dragoons.\n\nBritish Household Cavalry charging\n\nMore than 20 years of warfare had eroded the numbers of suitable cavalry mounts available on the European continent; this resulted in the British heavy cavalry entering the 1815 campaign with the finest horses of any contemporary cavalry arm. British cavalry troopers also received excellent mounted swordsmanship training. They were, however, inferior to the French in manoeuvring in large formations, cavalier in attitude, and unlike the infantry some units had scant experience of warfare. The Scots Greys, for example, had not been in action since 1795. According to Wellington, though they were superior individual horsemen, they were inflexible and lacked tactical ability. \"I considered one squadron a match for two French, I didn't like to see four British opposed to four French: and as the numbers increased and order, of course, became more necessary I was the more unwilling to risk our men without having a superiority in numbers\".\n\nThe two brigades had a combined field strength of about 2,000 (2,651 official strength); they charged with the 47-year-old Uxbridge leading them and a very inadequate number of squadrons held in reserve. There is evidence that Uxbridge gave an order, the morning of the battle, to all cavalry brigade commanders to commit their commands on their own initiative, as direct orders from himself might not always be forthcoming, and to \"support movements to their front\". It appears that Uxbridge expected the brigades of Sir John Ormsby Vandeleur, Hussey Vivian and the Dutch cavalry to provide support to the British heavies. Uxbridge later regretted leading the charge in person, saying \"I committed a great mistake\", when he should have been organising an adequate reserve to move forward in support.\n\nSergeant Ewart of the Scots Greys capturing the eagle of the 45''ème Ligne'' by Richard Ansdell\n\nThe Household Brigade crossed the crest of the Allied position and charged downhill. The cuirassiers guarding d'Erlon's left flank were still dispersed, and so were swept over the deeply sunken main road and then routed.\n\n\n\nContinuing their attack, the squadrons on the left of the Household Brigade then destroyed Aulard's brigade. Despite attempts to recall them, they continued past La Haye Sainte and found themselves at the bottom of the hill on blown horses facing Schmitz's brigade formed in squares.\n\nTo their left, the Union Brigade suddenly swept through the infantry lines, giving rise to the legend that some of the 92nd Gordon Highland Regiment clung onto their stirrups and accompanied them into the charge. From the centre leftwards, the Royal Dragoons destroyed Bourgeois' brigade, capturing the eagle of the 105th ''Ligne''. The Inniskillings routed the other brigade of Quoit's division, and the Scots Greys came upon the lead French regiment, 45th ''Ligne'', as it was still reforming after having crossed the sunken road and broken through the hedge row in pursuit of the British infantry. The Greys captured the eagle of the 45th ''Ligne'' and overwhelmed Grenier's brigade. These would be the only two French eagles captured by the British during the battle. On Wellington's extreme left, Durutte's division had time to form squares and fend off groups of Greys.\n\nPrivate of the Chevau-légers of the line (lancers) who routed the Union Brigade\n\nAs with the Household Cavalry, the officers of the Royals and Inniskillings found it very difficult to rein back their troops, who lost all cohesion. Having taken casualties, and still trying to reorder themselves, the Scots Greys and the rest of the Union Brigade found themselves before the main French lines. Their horses were blown, and they were still in disorder without any idea of what their next collective objective was. Some attacked nearby gun batteries of the Grande Battery.\n Though the Greys had neither the time nor means to disable the cannon or carry them off, they put very many out of action as the gun crews were killed or fled the battlefield. Sergeant Major Dickinson of the Greys stated that his regiment was rallied before going on to attack the French artillery: Hamilton, the regimental commander, rather than holding them back cried out to his men \"Charge, charge the guns!\".\n\nNapoleon promptly responded by ordering a counter-attack by the cuirassier brigades of Farine and Travers and Jaquinot's two Chevau-léger (lancer) regiments in the I Corps light cavalry division. Disorganized and milling about the bottom of the valley between Hougoumont and La Belle Alliance, the Scots Greys and the rest of the British heavy cavalry were taken by surprise by the countercharge of Milhaud's cuirassiers, joined by lancers from Baron Jaquinot's 1st Cavalry Division.\n\nAs Ponsonby tried to rally his men against the French cuirassers, he was attacked by Jaquinot's lancers and captured. A nearby party of Scots Greys saw the capture and attempted to rescue their brigade commander. However, the French lancer who had captured Ponsonby killed him and then used his lance to kill three of the Scots Greys who had attempted the rescue. By the time Ponsonby died, the momentum had entirely returned in favour of the French. Milhaud's and Jaquinot's cavalrymen drove the Union Brigade from the valley. The result was very heavy losses for the British cavalry. A countercharge, by British light dragoons under Major-General Vandeleur and Dutch–Belgian light dragoons and hussars under Major-General Ghigny on the left wing, and Dutch–Belgian ''carabiniers'' under Major-General Trip in the centre, repelled the French cavalry.\n\nAll figures quoted for the losses of the cavalry brigades as a result of this charge are estimates, as casualties were only noted down after the day of the battle and were for the battle as a whole. Some historians, Barbero for example, believe the official rolls tend to overestimate the number of cavalrymen present in their squadrons on the field of battle and that the proportionate losses were, as a result, considerably higher than the numbers on paper might suggest. The Union Brigade lost heavily in both officers and men killed (including its commander, William Ponsonby, and Colonel Hamilton of the Scots Greys) and wounded. The 2nd Life Guards and the King's Dragoon Guards of the Household Brigade also lost heavily (with Colonel Fuller, commander of the King's DG, killed). However, the 1st Life Guards, on the extreme right of the charge, and the Blues, who formed a reserve, had kept their cohesion and consequently suffered significantly fewer casualties. On the rolls the official, or paper strength, for both Brigades is given as 2,651 while Barbero and others estimate the actual strength at around 2,000 and the official recorded losses for the two heavy cavalry brigades during the battle was 1,205 troopers and 1,303 horses.\n\nJan Willem Pieneman: The Battle of Waterloo (1824). Duke of Wellington, centre, flanked on his left by Lord Uxbridge in hussar uniform. On the image's far left, Cpl. Styles of the Royal Dragoons flourishes the eagle of the 105''eme'' ''Ligne''. The wounded Prince of Orange is carried from the field in the foreground.\n\nSome historians, such as Chandler and Weller, assert that the British heavy cavalry were destroyed as a viable force following their first, epic charge. Barbero states that the Scots Grey were practically wiped out and that the other two regiments of the Union Brigade suffered comparable losses. Other historians, such as Clark-Kennedy and Wood, citing British eyewitness accounts, describe the continuing role of the heavy cavalry after their charge. The heavy brigades, far from being ineffective, continued to provide valuable services. They countercharged French cavalry numerous times (both brigades), halted a combined cavalry and infantry attack (Household Brigade only), were used to bolster the morale of those units in their vicinity at times of crisis, and filled gaps in the Anglo-allied line caused by high casualties in infantry formations (both brigades). This service was rendered at a very high cost, as close combat with French cavalry, carbine fire, infantry musketry and—more deadly than all of these—artillery fire steadily eroded the number of effectives in the two brigades. At 6 o'clock in the afternoon the whole Union Brigade could field only 3 squadrons, though these countercharged French cavalry, losing half their number in the process. At the end of the fighting the two brigades, by this time combined, could muster one squadron.\n\n14,000 French troops of D'Erlon's I Corps had been committed to this attack. The I Corps had been driven in rout back across the valley costing Napoleon 3,000 casualties including over 2,000 prisoners taken. Also some valuable time was lost, the charge had dispersed numerous units and it would take until 16:00 hours for D'Erlon's shaken corps to reform. And although elements of the Prussians now began to appear on the field to his right, Napoleon had already ordered Lobau's VI corps to move to the right flank to hold them back before D'Erlon's attack began.\n\n===The French cavalry attack===\nMarshal Ney leading the French cavalry charge, from Louis Dumoulin's ''Panorama of the Battle of Waterloo''\nA little before 16:00, Ney noted an apparent exodus from Wellington's centre. He mistook the movement of casualties to the rear for the beginnings of a retreat, and sought to exploit it. Following the defeat of d'Erlon's Corps, Ney had few infantry reserves left, as most of the infantry had been committed either to the futile Hougoumont attack or to the defence of the French right. Ney therefore tried to break Wellington's centre with cavalry alone.\nInitially Milhaud's reserve cavalry corps of cuirassiers and Lefebvre-Desnoëttes' light cavalry division of the Imperial Guard, some 4,800 sabres, were committed. When these were repulsed, Kellermann's heavy cavalry corps and Guyot's heavy cavalry of the Guard were added to the massed assault, a total of around 9,000 cavalry in 67 squadrons. When Napoleon saw the charge he said it was an hour too soon.\n\n''French Cuirassiers'', by Louis Dumoulin\n\nWellington's infantry responded by forming squares (hollow box-formations four ranks deep). Squares were much smaller than usually depicted in paintings of the battle – a 500-man battalion square would have been no more than in length on a side. Squares that stood their ground were deadly to cavalry, as cavalry could not engage with soldiers behind a hedge of bayonets, but were themselves vulnerable to fire from the squares. Horses would not charge a square, nor could they be outflanked, but they were vulnerable to artillery or infantry. Wellington ordered his artillery crews to take shelter within the squares as the cavalry approached, and to return to their guns and resume fire as they retreated.\n\nWitnesses in the British infantry recorded as many as 12 assaults, though this probably includes successive waves of the same general attack; the number of general assaults was undoubtedly far fewer. Kellermann, recognising the futility of the attacks, tried to reserve the elite ''carabinier'' brigade from joining in, but eventually Ney spotted them and insisted on their involvement.\n\nA British eyewitness of the first French cavalry attack, an officer in the Foot Guards, recorded his impressions very lucidly and somewhat poetically:\n\n\n\nGeorge Jones).\n\nIn essence this type of massed cavalry attack relied almost entirely on psychological shock for effect. Close artillery support could disrupt infantry squares and allow cavalry to penetrate; at Waterloo, however, co-operation between the French cavalry and artillery was not impressive. The French artillery did not get close enough to the Anglo-allied infantry in sufficient numbers to be decisive. Artillery fire between charges did produce mounting casualties, but most of this fire was at relatively long range and was often indirect, at targets beyond the ridge. If infantry being attacked held firm in their square defensive formations, and were not panicked, cavalry on their own could do very little damage to them. The French cavalry attacks were repeatedly repelled by the steadfast infantry squares, the harrying fire of British artillery as the French cavalry recoiled down the slopes to regroup, and the decisive countercharges of Wellington's light cavalry regiments, the Dutch heavy cavalry brigade, and the remaining effectives of the Household Cavalry. At least one artillery officer disobeyed Wellington's order to seek shelter in the adjacent squares during the charges. Captain Mercer, who commanded 'G' Troop, Royal Horse Artillery, thought the Brunswick troops on either side of him so shaky that he kept his battery of six nine-pounders in action against the cavalry throughout, to great effect.\n\n\n\nA British square puts up dogged resistance against attacking French cavalry.\n\nFor reasons that remain unclear, no attempt was made to spike other allied guns while they were in French possession. In line with Wellington's orders, gunners were able to return to their pieces and fire into the French cavalry as they withdrew after each attack. After numerous costly but fruitless attacks on the Mont-Saint-Jean ridge, the French cavalry was spent. Their casualties cannot easily be estimated. Senior French cavalry officers, in particular the generals, experienced heavy losses. Four divisional commanders were wounded, nine brigadiers wounded, and one killed – testament to their courage and their habit of leading from the front. Illustratively, Houssaye reports that the ''Grenadiers à Cheval'' numbered 796 of all ranks on 15 June, but just 462 on 19 June, while the Empress Dragoons lost 416 of 816 over the same period. Overall Guyot's Guard heavy cavalry division lost 47% of its strength.\n\n2nd Guard Lancers with the ''Grenadiers à Cheval'' in support\n\n===Second French infantry attack===\nEventually it became obvious, even to Ney, that cavalry alone were achieving little. Belatedly, he organised a combined-arms attack, using Bachelu's division and Tissot's regiment of Foy's division from Reille's II Corps (about 6,500 infantrymen) plus those French cavalry that remained in a fit state to fight. This assault was directed along much the same route as the previous heavy cavalry attacks (between Hougoumont and La Haye Sainte). It was halted by a charge of the Household Brigade cavalry led by Uxbridge. The British cavalry were unable, however, to break the French infantry, and fell back with losses from musketry fire.\n\nUxbridge recorded that he tried to lead the Dutch Carabiniers, under Major-General Trip, to renew the attack and that they refused to follow him. Other members of the British cavalry staff also commented on this occurrence. However, there is no support for this incident in Dutch or Belgian sources. Meanwhile, Bachelu's and Tissot's men and their cavalry supports were being hard hit by fire from artillery and from Adam's infantry brigade, and they eventually fell back. Although the French cavalry caused few direct casualties to Wellington's centre, artillery fire onto his infantry squares caused many. Wellington's cavalry, except for Sir John Vandeleur's and Sir Hussey Vivian's brigades on the far left, had all been committed to the fight, and had taken significant losses. The situation appeared so desperate that the Cumberland Hussars, the only Hanoverian cavalry regiment present, fled the field spreading alarm all the way to Brussels.\n\nThe storming of La Haye Sainte by Knötel\n\n===French capture of La Haye Sainte===\nAt approximately the same time as Ney's combined-arms assault on the centre-right of Wellington's line, rallied elements of D'Erlon's I Corps, spearheaded by the 13th ''Légère,'' renewed the attack on La Haye Sainte and this time were successful, partly because the King's German Legion's ammunition ran out. However, the Germans had held the centre of the battlefield for almost the entire day, and this had stalled the French advance.\n\nWith La Haye Sainte captured, Ney then moved skirmishers and horse artillery up towards Wellington's centre. French artillery began to pulverise the infantry squares at short range with canister. The 30th and 73rd Regiments suffered such heavy losses that they had to combine to form a viable square.\n\n\n\nThe success Napoleon needed to continue his offensive had occurred. Ney was on the verge of breaking the Allied centre.\n\nAlong with this artillery fire a multitude of French ''tirailleurs'' occupied the dominant positions behind La Haye Sainte and poured an effective fire into the squares. The situation was now so dire that the 33rd Regiment's colours and all of Halkett's brigade's colours were sent to the rear for safety, described by historian Alessandro Barbero as, \"... a measure that was without precedent\". Wellington, noticing the slackening of fire from La Haye Sainte, with his staff rode closer to it. French skirmishers appeared around the building and fired on the British command as it struggled to get away through the hedgerow along the road. Alten ordered a single battalion, the Fifth KGL to recapture the farm. Their Colonel Ompteda obeyed and chased off some French skirmishers until French cuirassiers fell on his open flank, killed him, destroyed his battalion and took its colour. A Dutch–Belgian cavalry regiment ordered to charge, retreated from the field instead, fired on by their own infantry. Merlen's Light Cavalry Brigade charged the French artillery taking position near La Haye Sainte but were shot to pieces and the brigade fell apart. The Netherlands Cavalry Division, Wellington's last cavalry reserve behind the centre having lost half their strength was now useless and the French cavalry, despite its losses, were masters of the field compelling the allied infantry to remain in square. More and more French artillery was brought forward.\n\nA French battery advanced to within 300 yards of the 1/1st Nassau square causing heavy casualties. When the Nassauers attempted to attack the battery they were ridden down by a squadron of cuirassiers . Yet another battery deployed on the flank of Mercer's battery and shot up its horses and limbers and pushed Mercer back. Mercer later recalled, \"The rapidity and precision of this fire was quite appaling. Every shot almost took effect, and I certainly expected we should all be annihilated. ... The saddle-bags, in many instances were torn from horses' backs ... One shell I saw explode under the two finest wheel-horses in the troop down they dropped\".\n\nFrench ''tirailleurs'' occupied the dominant positions, especially one on a knoll overlooking the square of the 27th. Unable to break square to drive off the French infantry because of the presence of French cavalry and artillery, the 27th had to remain in that formation and endure the fire of the ''tirailleurs''. That fire nearly annihilated the 27th Foot, the Inniskillings, who lost two-thirds of their strength within that three or four hours.\n\n\n\nDuring this time many of Wellington's generals and aides were killed or wounded including Somerset, Canning, de Lancey, Alten and Cooke. The situation was now critical and Wellington, trapped in an infantry square and ignorant of events beyond it, was desperate for the arrival of help from the Prussians. He later wrote, \n\n===Arrival of the Prussian IV Corps: Plancenoit===\n\n\n\nThe Prussian attack on Plancenoit painted by Adolph Northen\n\nThe first Prussian corps to arrive in strength was Bülow's IV Corps. Bülow's objective was Plancenoit, which the Prussians intended to use as a springboard into the rear of the French positions. Blücher intended to secure his right upon the Châteaux Frichermont using the Bois de Paris road. Blücher and Wellington had been exchanging communications since 10:00 and had agreed to this advance on Frichermont if Wellington's centre was under attack. General Bülow noted that the way to Plancenoit lay open and that the time was 16:30.\n\nAt about this time, the 15th Brigade IV Corps was sent to link up with the Nassauers of Wellington's left flank in the Frichermont-La Haie area, with the brigade's horse artillery battery and additional brigade artillery deployed to its left in support. Napoleon sent Lobau's corps to stop the rest of Bülow's IV Corps proceeding to Plancenoit. The 15th Brigade threw Lobau's troops out of Frichermont with a determined bayonet charge, then proceeded up the Frichermont heights, battering French Chasseurs with 12-pounder artillery fire, and pushed on to Plancenoit. This sent Lobau's corps into retreat to the Plancenoit area, driving Lobau past the rear of the ''Armee Du Nord's'' right flank and directly threatening its only line of retreat. Hiller's 16th Brigade also pushed forward with six battalions against Plancenoit.\n\nNapoleon had dispatched all eight battalions of the Young Guard to reinforce Lobau, who was now seriously pressed. The Young Guard counter-attacked and, after very hard fighting, secured Plancenoit, but were themselves counter-attacked and driven out. Napoleon sent two battalions of the Middle/Old Guard into Plancenoit and after ferocious bayonet fighting—they did not deign to fire their muskets—this force recaptured the village.\n\n===Zieten's flank march===\nSituation from 17:30 to 20:00\n\nThroughout the late afternoon, Zieten's I Corps had been arriving in greater strength in the area just north of La Haie. General Müffling, Prussian liaison to Wellington, rode to meet I Corps.\n\nZieten had by this time brought up his 1st Brigade, but had become concerned at the sight of stragglers and casualties from the Nassau units on Wellington's left and from the Prussian 15th Brigade. These troops appeared to be withdrawing and Zieten, fearing that his own troops would be caught up in a general retreat, was starting to move away from Wellington's flank and towards the Prussian main body near Plancenoit. Zieten had also received a direct order from Blücher to support Bülow, which Zieten obeyed and marched to Bülow's aid.\n\nMüffling saw this movement away and persuaded Zieten to support Wellington's left flank. Müffling warned Zieten that \"The battle is lost if the corps does not keep on the move and immediately support the English army\". Zieten resumed his march to support Wellington directly, and the arrival of his troops allowed Wellington to reinforce his crumbling centre by moving cavalry from his left.\n\nThe French were expecting Grouchy to march to their support from Wavre, and when Zieten's I Corps appeared at Waterloo instead of Grouchy, \"the shock of disillusionment shattered French morale\" and \"the sight of Zieten's arrival caused turmoil to rage in Napoleon's army\". I Corps proceeded to attack the French troops before Papelotte and by 19:30 the French position was bent into a rough horseshoe shape. The ends of the line were now based on Hougoumont on the left, Plancenoit on the right, and the centre on La Haie. Durutte had taken the positions of La Haie and Papelotte in a series of attacks, but now retreated behind Smohain without opposing the Prussian 24th Regiment as it retook both. The 24th advanced against the new French position, was repulsed, and returned to the attack supported by Silesian ''Schützen'' (riflemen) and the F/1st ''Landwehr''. The French initially fell back before the renewed assault, but now began seriously to contest ground, attempting to regain Smohain and hold on to the ridgeline and the last few houses of Papelotte.\n\nThe 24th Regiment linked up with a Highlander battalion on its far right and along with the 13th ''Landwehr'' regiment and cavalry support threw the French out of these positions. Further attacks by the 13th ''Landwehr'' and the 15th Brigade drove the French from Frichermont. Durutte's division, finding itself about to be charged by massed squadrons of Zieten's I Corps cavalry reserve, retreated from the battlefield. The soldiers of D’Erlon's Corps alongside this attack on Durutte's division also broke and fled in panic, while to the west the French Middle Guard were assaulting Wellington's centre. The Prussian I Corps then advanced towards the Brussels road and the only line of retreat available to the French.\n\n===Attack of the Imperial Guard===\nMeanwhile, with Wellington's centre exposed by the fall of La Haye Sainte and the Plancenoit front temporarily stabilised, Napoleon committed his last reserve, the hitherto-undefeated Imperial Guard infantry. This attack, mounted at around 19:30, was intended to break through Wellington's centre and roll up his line away from the Prussians. Although it is one of the most celebrated passages of arms in military history, it had been unclear which units actually participated. It appears that it was mounted by five battalions of the Middle Guard, and not by the grenadiers or chasseurs of the Old Guard. Three Old Guard battalions did move forward and formed the attack's second line, though they remained in reserve and did not directly assault the allied line.\n\nNapoleon addresses the Old Guard as it prepares to attack the Anglo-allied centre at Waterloo.\n\n\n\nGrenadier of the Old Guard, by Édouard Detaille\n\nNapoleon himself oversaw the initial deployment of the Middle and Old Guard. The Middle Guard formed in battalion squares, each about 550 men strong, with the 1st/3rd Grenadiers, led by Generals Friant and Poret de Morvan, on the right along the road, to their left and rear was General Harlet leading the square of the 4th Grenadiers, then the 1st/3rd Chasseurs under General Michel, next the 2nd/3rd Chasseurs and finally the large single square of two battalions of 800 soldiers of the 4th Chasseurs led by General Henrion. Two batteries of Imperial Guard Horse Artillery accompanied them with sections of two guns between the squares. Each square was led by a general and Marshal Ney, mounted on his 5th horse of the day, led the advance. Behind them, in reserve, were the three battalions of the Old Guard, right to left 1st/2nd Grenadiers, 2nd/2nd Chasseurs and 1st/2nd Chasseurs. Napoleon left Ney to conduct the assault, however Ney led the Middle Guard on an oblique towards the Allied centre right instead of attacking straight up the centre. Napoleon sent Ney's senior ADC Colonel Crabbé to order Ney to adjust, but Crabbé was unable to get there in time.\n\nOther troops rallied to support the advance of the Guard. On the left infantry from Reille's corps that was not engaged with Hougoumont and cavalry advanced. On the right all the now rallied elements of D'Érlon's corps once again ascended the ridge and engaged the allied line. Of these, Pégot's brigade broke into skirmish order and moved north and west of La Haye Sainte and provided fire support to Ney, once again unhorsed, and Friant's 1st/3rd Grenadiers. The Guards first received fire from some Brunswick battalions, but the return fire of the grenadiers forced them to retire. Next, Colin Halket's brigade front line consisting of the 30th Foot and 73rd traded fire but they were driven back in confusion into the 33rd and 69th regiments, Halket was shot in the face and seriously wounded and the whole brigade retreated in a mob. Other allied troops began to give way as well. A counterattack by the Nassauers and the remains of Kielmansegge's brigade from the allied second line, led by the Prince of Orange, was also thrown back and the Prince of Orange was seriously wounded. General Harlet brought up the 4th Grenadiers and the allied centre was now in serious danger of breaking.\nGeneral David Hendrik Chassé \nIt was at this moment that the timely arrival of the Dutch General Chassé turned the tide in favour of the Anglo-allied army.Chassé's relatively fresh Dutch division was sent against them, led by a battery of Dutch horse-artillery commanded by Captain Krahmer de Bichin. The battery opened a destructive fire into the 1st/3rd Grenadiers' flank. This still did not stop the Guard's advance, so Chassé ordered his first brigade (Colonel Hendrik Detmers) to charge the outnumbered French with the bayonet; the French grenadiers then faltered and broke. The 4th Grenadiers, seeing their comrades retreat and having suffered heavy casualties themselves, now wheeled right about and retired.\n\nBritish 10th Hussars of Vivian's Brigade (red shakos – blue uniforms) attacking mixed French troops, including a square of Guard grenadiers (left, middle distance) in the final stages of the battle.\n\nTo the left of the 4th Grenadiers were the two squares of the 1st/ and 2nd/3rd Chasseurs who angled further to the west and had suffered more from artillery fire than the grenadiers. But as their advance mounted the ridge they found it apparently abandoned and covered with dead. Suddenly 1,500 British Foot Guards under Maitland who had been lying down to protect themselves from the French artillery rose and devastated them with point-blank volleys. The chasseurs deployed to answer the fire, but some 300 fell from the first volley, including Colonel Mallet and General Michel, and both battalion commanders. A bayonet charge by the Foot Guards then broke the leaderless squares, which fell back onto the following column. The 4th Chasseurs battalion, 800 strong, now came up onto the exposed battalions of British Foot Guards, who lost all cohesion and dashed back up the slope as a disorganized crowd with the chasseurs in pursuit. At the crest the chasseurs came upon the battery that had caused severe casualties on the 1st and 2nd/3rd Chasseurs. They opened fire and swept away the gunners. The left flank of their square now came under fire from a heavy formation of British skirmishers, which the chasseurs drove back. But the skirmishers were replaced by the 52nd Light Infantry, led by John Colborne, which wheeled in line onto the chasseurs' flank and poured a devastating fire into them. The chasseurs returned a very sharp fire which killed or wounded some 150 men of the 52nd. The 52nd then charged, and under this onslaught, the chasseurs broke.\n\nThe last of the Guard retreated headlong. A ripple of panic passed through the French lines as the astounding news spread: \"''La Garde recule. Sauve qui peut''!\" (\"The Guard is retreating. Every man for himself!\") Wellington now stood up in Copenhagen's stirrups and waved his hat in the air to signal a general advance. His army rushed forward from the lines and threw themselves upon the retreating French. \n\nThe surviving Imperial Guard rallied on their three reserve battalions (some sources say four) just south of La Haye Sainte for a last stand. A charge from Adam's Brigade and the Hanoverian ''Landwehr'' Osnabrück Battalion, plus Vivian's and Vandeleur's relatively fresh cavalry brigades to their right, threw them into confusion. Those left in semi-cohesive units retreated towards ''La Belle Alliance''. It was during this retreat that some of the Guards were invited to surrender, eliciting the famous, if apocryphal, retort \"''La Garde meurt, elle ne se rend pas!''\" (\"The Guard dies, it does not surrender!\")\n\n===Prussian capture of Plancenoit===\nThe storming of Plancenoit by Ludwig Elsholtz\nAt about the same time, the Prussian 5th, 14th, and 16th Brigades were starting to push through Plancenoit, in the third assault of the day. The church was by now on fire, while its graveyard—the French centre of resistance—had corpses strewn about \"as if by a whirlwind\". Five Guard battalions were deployed in support of the Young Guard, virtually all of which was now committed to the defence, along with remnants of Lobau's corps. The key to the Plancenoit position proved to be the Chantelet woods to the south. Pirch's II Corps had arrived with two brigades and reinforced the attack of IV Corps, advancing through the woods.\n\nThe 25th Regiment's musketeer battalions threw the 1/2e Grenadiers (Old Guard) out of the Chantelet woods, outflanking Plancenoit and forcing a retreat. The Old Guard retreated in good order until they met the mass of troops retreating in panic, and became part of that rout. The Prussian IV Corps advanced beyond Plancenoit to find masses of French retreating in disorder from British pursuit. The Prussians were unable to fire for fear of hitting Wellington's units. This was the fifth and final time that Plancenoit changed hands.\n\nFrench forces not retreating with the Guard were surrounded in their positions and eliminated, neither side asking for nor offering quarter. The French Young Guard Division reported 96 per cent casualties, and two-thirds of Lobau's Corps ceased to exist.\n\nCarabinier-à-Cheval'' cuirass holed by a cannonball at Waterloo, belonging to Antoine Fauveau (Musée de l'Armée)\n\n\n\n===French disintegration===\nLord Hill invites the last remnants of the French Imperial Guard to surrender, painted by Robert Alexander Hillingford.\n\nThe French right, left, and centre had all now failed. The last cohesive French force consisted of two battalions of the Old Guard stationed around ''La Belle Alliance''; they had been so placed to act as a final reserve and to protect Napoleon in the event of a French retreat. He hoped to rally the French army behind them, but as retreat turned into rout, they too were forced to withdraw, one on either side of ''La Belle Alliance'', in square as protection against Coalition cavalry. Until persuaded that the battle was lost and he should leave, Napoleon commanded the square to the left of the inn. Adam's Brigade charged and forced back this square, while the Prussians engaged the other.\n\nAs dusk fell, both squares withdrew in relatively good order, but the French artillery and everything else fell into the hands of the Prussian and Anglo-allied armies. The retreating Guards were surrounded by thousands of fleeing, broken French troops. Coalition cavalry harried the fugitives until about 23:00, with Gneisenau pursuing them as far as Genappe before ordering a halt. There, Napoleon's abandoned carriage was captured, still containing an annotated copy of Machiavelli's ''The Prince'', and diamonds left behind in the rush to escape. These diamonds became part of King Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia's crown jewels; one Major Keller of the F/15th received the Pour le Mérite with oak leaves for the feat. By this time 78 guns and 2,000 prisoners had also been taken, including more generals.\n\n\n\n\n\nOther sources agree that the meeting of the commanders took place near ''La Belle Alliance'', with this occurring at around 21:00.\n",
"\n\"The morning after the battle of Waterloo\", by John Heaviside Clark, 1816\n\nWaterloo cost Wellington around 15,000 dead or wounded and Blücher some 7,000 (810 of which were suffered by just one unit: the 18th Regiment, which served in Bülow's 15th Brigade, had fought at both Frichermont and Plancenoit, and won 33 Iron Crosses). Napoleon's losses were 24,000 to 26,000 killed or wounded and included 6,000 to 7,000 captured with an additional 15,000 deserting subsequent to the battle and over the following days.\n\n\n\nInvasion of France by the Seventh Coalition armies in 1815\n\nAt 10:30 on 19 June General Grouchy, still following his orders, defeated General Thielemann at Wavre and withdrew in good order—though at the cost of 33,000 French troops that never reached the Waterloo battlefield. Wellington sent his official dispatch describing the battle to England on 19 June 1815; it arrived in London on 21 June 1815 and was published as a ''London Gazette Extraordinary'' on 22 June. Wellington, Blücher and other Coalition forces advanced upon Paris.\n\nNapoleon announced his second abdication on 24 June 1815. In the final skirmish of the Napoleonic Wars, Marshal Davout, Napoleon's minister of war, was defeated by Blücher at Issy on 3 July 1815. Allegedly, Napoleon tried to escape to North America, but the Royal Navy was blockading French ports to forestall such a move. He finally surrendered to Captain Frederick Maitland of HMS ''Bellerophon'' on 15 July. There was a campaign against French fortresses that still held out; Longwy capitulated on 13 September 1815, the last to do so. Louis XVIII was restored to the throne of France and Napoleon was exiled to Saint Helena, where he died in 1821. The Treaty of Paris was signed on 20 November 1815.\n\n\n\nSir David Wilkie, ''The Chelsea Pensioners reading the Waterloo Dispatch'', 1822\n\nMaitland's 1st Foot Guards, who had defeated the Chasseurs of the Guard, were thought to have defeated the Grenadiers, although they had only faced Chasseurs of the newly raised Middle Guard. They were nevertheless awarded the title of Grenadier Guards in recognition of their feat and adopted bearskins in the style of the Grenadiers. Britain's Household Cavalry likewise adopted the cuirass in 1821 in recognition of their success against their armoured French counterparts. The effectiveness of the lance was noted by all participants and this weapon subsequently became more widespread throughout Europe; the British converted their first light cavalry regiment to lancers in 1816, their uniforms, of Polish origin, were based on those of the Imperial Guard lancers.\n\nTeeth of tens of thousands of dead soldiers were removed by surviving troops, locals or even scavengers who had travelled there from Britain, then used for making denture replacements in Britain and elsewhere.\n",
"===Historical importance===\n\nWaterloo was a decisive battle in more than one sense. Every generation in Europe up to the outbreak of the First World War looked back at Waterloo as the turning point that dictated the course of subsequent world history. In retrospect, it was seen as the event that ushered in the Concert of Europe, an era characterised by relative peace, material prosperity and technological progress. The battle definitively ended the series of wars that had convulsed Europe, and involved many other regions of the world, since the French Revolution of the early 1790s. It also ended the First French Empire and the political and military career of Napoleon Bonaparte, one of the greatest commanders and statesmen in history.\n\nIt was followed by almost four decades of international peace in Europe. No further major conflict occurred until the Crimean War. Changes to the configuration of European states, as refashioned after Waterloo, included the formation of the Holy Alliance of reactionary governments intent on repressing revolutionary and democratic ideas, and the reshaping of the former Holy Roman Empire into a German Confederation increasingly marked by the political dominance of Prussia. The bicentenary of Waterloo has prompted renewed attention to the geopolitical and economic legacy of the battle and the century of relative transatlantic peace which followed.\n\n\n===Views on the reasons for Napoleon's defeat===\nGeneral Antoine-Henri, Baron Jomini, one of the leading military writers on the Napoleonic art of war, had a number of very cogent explanations of the reasons behind Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo.\n\n\n\nThe Prussian soldier, historian, and theorist Carl von Clausewitz, who as a young colonel had served as chief-of-staff to Thielmann's Prussian III Corps during the Waterloo campaign, expressed the following opinion:\n\n\n\nWellington himself wrote in his official dispatch back to London: \"I should not do justice to my own feelings, or to Marshal Blücher and the Prussian army, if I did not attribute the successful result of this arduous day to the cordial and timely assistance I received from them. The operation of General Bülow upon the enemy's flank was a most decisive one; and, even if I had not found myself in a situation to make the attack which produced the final result, it would have forced the enemy to retire if his attacks should have failed, and would have prevented him from taking advantage of them if they should unfortunately have succeeded\".\n\nDespite their differences on other matters, discussed at length in Carl von Clausewitz's study of the ''Campaign of 1815'' and ''Wellington's famous 1842 essay'' in reply to it, the Prussian Clausewitz agreed with Wellington on this assessment. Indeed, Clausewitz viewed the battle prior to the Prussian intervention more as a mutually exhausting stalemate than as an impending French victory, with the advantage, if any, leaning towards Wellington.\n\nAn alternative view is that towards the end of the battle Wellington's Anglo-allied army faced imminent defeat without Prussian help. For example, Parkinson (2000) writes: \"Neither army beat Napoleon alone. But whatever the part played by Prussian troops in the actual moment when the Imperial Guard was repulsed, it is difficult to see how Wellington could have staved off defeat, when his centre had been almost shattered, his reserves were almost all committed, the French right remained unmolested and the Imperial Guard intact. …. Blücher may not have been totally responsible for victory over Napoleon, but he deserved full credit for preventing a British defeat\". Steele (2014) writes: \"Blücher's arrival not only diverted vital reinforcements, but also forced Napoleon to accelerate his effort against Wellington. The tide of battle had been turned by the hard-driving Blücher. As his Prussians pushed in Napoleon's flank. Wellington was able to shift to the offensive\".\n",
"\nThe Lion's Mound at Waterloo\n\nSome portions of the terrain on the battlefield have been altered from their 1815 appearance. Tourism began the day after the battle, with Captain Mercer noting that on 19 June \"a carriage drove on the ground from Brussels, the inmates of which, alighting, proceeded to examine the field\". In 1820, the Netherlands' King William I ordered the construction of a monument. The Lion's Hillock, a giant mound, was constructed here using of earth taken from the ridge at the centre of the British line, effectively removing the southern bank of Wellington's sunken road.\n\n\n\nThe alleged remark by Wellington about the alteration of the battlefield as described by Hugo was never documented, however.\n\nOther terrain features and notable landmarks on the field have remained virtually unchanged since the battle. These include the rolling farmland to the east of the Brussels–Charleroi Road as well as the buildings at Hougoumont, La Haye Sainte, and La Belle Alliance.\n\nApart from the Lion Mound, there are several more conventional but noteworthy monuments throughout the battlefield. A cluster of monuments at the Brussels–Charleroi and Braine L'Alleud–Ohain crossroads marks the mass graves of British, Dutch, Hanoverian and King's German Legion troops. A monument to the French dead, entitled ''L'Aigle blessé'' (\"The Wounded Eagle\"), marks the location where it is believed one of the Imperial Guard units formed a square during the closing moments of the battle.\n\nA monument to the Prussian dead is located in the village of Plancenoit on the site where one of their artillery batteries took position. The Duhesme mausoleum is one among the few graves of the fallen. It is located at the side of Saint Martin's Church in Ways, a hamlet in the municipality of Genappe. Seventeen fallen officers are buried in the crypt of the British Monument in the Brussels Cemetery in Evere. The remains of a 23-year-old soldier named Friederich Brandt were discovered in 2012. He was a slightly hunchbacked infantryman, tall, and was hit in the chest by a French bullet. His rifle, coins, and position on the battlefield identified him as an Hanoverian fighting in the King's German Legion.\n",
"As part of the bicentennial celebration of the battle, in 2015 Belgium minted a 2 Euro coin depicting the Lion monument over a map of the field of battle. France officially protested this issue, while the Belgian government noted that the French mint sells souvenir medals at Waterloo. After 180,000 coins were minted but not released, the issue was melted. Instead, Belgium issued an identical commemorative coin in the non-standard value of 2½ Euros. Legally only valid within the issuing country (but unlikely to circulate) it was minted in brass, packaged, and sold by the Belgian mint for 6 Euros. A 10 Euro coin, showing Wellington, Blücher, their troops and the silhouette of Napoleon, was also available in silver for 42 Euros.\n",
"\n* Lord Uxbridge's leg was shattered by a grape-shot at the Battle of Waterloo and removed by a surgeon. The artificial leg used by Uxbridge for the rest of his life was donated to a Waterloo Museum after his death. There is also a leg on display at his house, Plas Newydd, on Anglesey.\n* Order of battle of the Waterloo Campaign\n* Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815): involved Napoleon Bonaparte's French Empire against the United Kingdom and various combinations of other European powers in the Third to Seventh coalitions.\n* Timeline of the Napoleonic era\n* Waterloo in popular culture: describes the cultural impact of the battle.\n* Waterloo Medal awarded to those soldiers of the British Army who fought at the battle.\n* Battle of Waterloo reenactment\n",
"\n\n",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* .\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* (Project Gutenberg)\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* (Translated by Benet S.V.)\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* . \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n",
"'''Articles'''\n* Anonymous. Napoleon's Guard at Waterloo 1815\n* Bijl, Marco, 8th Dutch Militia a history of the 8th Dutch Militia battalion and the Bylandt Brigade, of which it was a part, in the 1815 campaign (using original sources from the Dutch and Belgian national archives)\n\n* de Wit, Pierre. The campaign of 1815: a study. Study of the campaign of 1815, based on sources from all participating armies.\n* based on \n\n'''Books'''\n* \n* \n* \n* This on-line text contains Clausewitz's 58-chapter study of the ''Campaign of 1815'' and Wellington's lengthy 1842 essay written in response to Clausewitz, as well as supporting documents and essays by the editors.\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n'''Historiography and memory'''\n* \n\n'''Maps'''\n* The map from the 1911 edition is also available online.\n* Battle of Waterloo maps and diagrams\n* Map of the battlefield on modern Google map and satellite photographs showing main locations of the battlefield\n* 1816 Map of the battlefield with initial dispositions by Willem Benjamin Craan\n* \n\n'''Primary sources'''\n\n\n* Earliest report of the battle in a London newspaper from The Morning Post 22 June 1815\n* Casualty returns.\n* \n* \n* – \"For records of medals awarded for service before 1914, search by name on the Ancestry website. There are separate search pages for the Army (sourced from WO 100)...\"\n* Staff, '' Empire and Sea Power: The Battle of Waterloo'' Retrieved on 9 June 2006\n* BBC History Waterloo, Retrieved on 9 June 2006\n\n'''Uniforms'''\n* French, Prussian and Anglo-Allies uniforms during the Battle of Waterloo : Mont-Saint-Jean (FR)\n",
"\n* Interview with Andrew Roberts on ''Napoleon & Wellington: The Battle of Waterloo and the Great Commanders Who Fought It''\n* Official guides of the Waterloo battlefield.\n* (British site)\n* \n* George Nafgizer collection Waterloo ORBATs for French, Allied.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Prelude",
"Armies",
"Battlefield",
"Battle",
"Aftermath",
"Analysis",
"Battlefield today",
"Coin controversy",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Battle of Waterloo | [
"The Lion's Hillock, a giant mound, was constructed here using of earth taken from the ridge at the centre of the British line, effectively removing the southern bank of Wellington's sunken road."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Battle of Waterloo''' was fought on Sunday, 18 June 1815, near Waterloo in present-day Belgium, then part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.",
"A French army under the command of Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated by two of the armies of the Seventh Coalition: a British-led Allied army under the command of the Duke of Wellington, and a Prussian army under the command of Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, Prince of Wahlstatt.",
"Upon Napoleon's return to power in March 1815, many states that had opposed him formed the Seventh Coalition, and began to mobilize armies.",
"Wellington and Blücher's armies were cantoned close to the north-eastern border of France.",
"Napoleon chose to attack them separately in the hope of destroying them before they could join in a co-ordinated invasion of France with other members of the coalition.",
"Napoleon successfully attacked the bulk of the Prussian army at the Battle of Ligny with his main force, while at the same time a portion of the French army attacked an Allied army at the Battle of Quatre Bras.",
"Despite holding his ground at Quatre Bras, the defeat of the Prussians forced Wellington to withdraw to Waterloo.",
"Napoleon sent a third of his forces to pursue the Prussians, who had withdrawn parallel to Wellington.",
"This resulted in the separate and simultaneous Battle of Wavre with the Prussian rear-guard.",
"Upon learning that the Prussian army was able to support him, Wellington decided to offer battle on the Mont-Saint-Jean escarpment, across the Brussels road.",
"Here he withstood repeated attacks by the French throughout the afternoon, aided by the progressively arriving Prussians.",
"In the evening Napoleon committed his last reserves to a desperate final attack, which was narrowly beaten back.",
"With the Prussians breaking through on the French right flank, Wellington's Anglo-allied army counter-attacked in the centre, and the French army was routed.",
"Waterloo was the decisive engagement of the Waterloo Campaign and Napoleon's last.",
"According to Wellington, the battle was \"the nearest-run thing you ever saw in your life\".",
"Napoleon abdicated four days later, and on 7 July coalition forces entered Paris.",
"The defeat at Waterloo ended Napoleon's rule as Emperor of the French, and marked the end of his Hundred Days return from exile.",
"This ended the First French Empire, and set a chronological milestone between serial European wars and decades of relative peace.",
"The battlefield is located in the municipalities of Braine-l'Alleud and Lasne, about south of Brussels, and about from the town of Waterloo.",
"The site of the battlefield today is dominated by a large monument, the Lion's Mound.",
"As this mound was constructed from earth taken from the battlefield itself, the contemporary topography of the battlefield near the mound has not been preserved.",
"\nfronts.",
"Napoleon was forced to leave 20,000 men in Western France to reduce a royalist insurrection.",
"On 13 March 1815, six days before Napoleon reached Paris, the powers at the Congress of Vienna declared him an outlaw.",
"Four days later, the United Kingdom, Russia, Austria, and Prussia mobilised armies to defeat Napoleon.",
"Critically outnumbered, Napoleon knew that once his attempts at dissuading one or more members of the Seventh Coalition from invading France had failed, his only chance of remaining in power was to attack before the coalition mobilised.",
"Had Napoleon succeeded in destroying the existing coalition forces south of Brussels before they were reinforced, he might have been able to drive the British back to the sea and knock the Prussians out of the war.",
"Crucially, this would have bought him time to recruit and train more men before turning his armies against the Austrians and Russians.",
"An additional consideration for Napoleon was that a French victory might cause French speaking sympathisers in Belgium to launch a friendly revolution.",
"Also, coalition troops in Belgium were largely second-line, as many units were of dubious quality and loyalty, and most of the British veterans of the Peninsular War had been sent to North America to fight in the War of 1812.",
"A map of the Waterloo campaign\nNapoleon's strategy was to isolate the Allied and Prussian armies and annihilate each one separately.",
"1st Duke of Wellington, commander of the Anglo-allied army\n\nWellington's initial dispositions were intended to counter the threat of Napoleon enveloping the Coalition armies by moving through Mons to the south-west of Brussels.",
"This would have pushed Wellington closer to Blücher, but may have cut Wellington's communications with his base at Ostend.",
"In order to delay Wellington's deployment, Napoleon spread false intelligence which suggested that Wellington's supply chain from the channel ports would be cut.",
"By June, Napoleon had raised a total army strength of about 300,000 men.",
"The force at his disposal at Waterloo was less than one third that size, but the rank and file were nearly all loyal and experienced soldiers.",
"Napoleon divided his army into a left wing commanded by Marshal Ney, a right wing commanded by Marshal Grouchy and a reserve under his command (although all three elements remained close enough to support one another).",
"Crossing the frontier near Charleroi before dawn on 15 June, the French rapidly overran Coalition outposts, securing Napoleon's \"central position\" between Wellington's and Blücher's armies.",
"He hoped this would prevent them from combining, and he would be able to destroy first the Prussian's army, then Wellington's.",
"Only very late on the night of 15 June was Wellington certain that the Charleroi attack was the main French thrust.",
"In the early hours of 16 June, at the Duchess of Richmond's ball in Brussels, he received a dispatch from the Prince of Orange and was shocked by the speed of Napoleon's advance.",
"He hastily ordered his army to concentrate on Quatre Bras, where the Prince of Orange, with the brigade of Prince Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, was holding a tenuous position against the soldiers of Ney's left wing.",
"Ney's orders were to secure the crossroads of Quatre Bras, so that he could later swing east and reinforce Napoleon if necessary.",
"Ney found the crossroads of Quatre Bras lightly held by the Prince of Orange, who repelled Ney's initial attacks but was gradually driven back by overwhelming numbers of French troops.",
"First reinforcements, and then Wellington arrived.",
"He took command and drove Ney back, securing the crossroads by early evening, too late to send help to the Prussians, who had already been defeated.",
"Meanwhile on 16 June, Napoleon attacked and defeated Blücher's Prussians at the Battle of Ligny using part of the reserve and the right wing of his army.",
"The Prussian centre gave way under heavy French assaults, but the flanks held their ground.",
"The Prussian retreat from Ligny went uninterrupted and seemingly unnoticed by the French.",
"The bulk of their rearguard units held their positions until about midnight, and some elements did not move out until the following morning, ignored by the French.",
"Crucially, the Prussians did not retreat to the east, along their own lines of communication.",
"Instead, they, too, fell back northwards—parallel to Wellington's line of march, still within supporting distance and in communication with him throughout.",
"The Prussians rallied on Bülow's IV Corps, which had not been engaged at Ligny and was in a strong position south of Wavre.",
"With the Prussian retreat from Ligny, Wellington's position at Quatre Bras was untenable.",
"The next day he withdrew northwards, to a defensive position he had reconnoitred the previous year—the low ridge of Mont-Saint-Jean, south of the village of Waterloo and the Sonian Forest.",
"Napoleon, with the reserves, made a late start on 17 June and joined Ney at Quatre Bras at 13:00 to attack Wellington's army but found the position empty.",
"The French pursued Wellington's retreating army to Waterloo; however, due to bad weather, mud and the head start that Napoleon's tardy advance had allowed Wellington, apart from a cavalry action at Genappe, there was no substantial engagement.",
"Before leaving Ligny, Napoleon had ordered Grouchy, who commanded the right wing, to follow up the retreating Prussians with 33,000 men.",
"A late start, uncertainty about the direction the Prussians had taken, and the vagueness of the orders given to him, meant that Grouchy was too late to prevent the Prussian army reaching Wavre, from where it could march to support Wellington.",
"More importantly, the heavily outnumbered Prussian rear-guard was able to use the River Dyle to enable a savage and prolonged action to delay Grouchy.",
"As the 17th of June drew to a close, Wellington's army had arrived at its position at Waterloo, with the main body of Napoleon's army following.",
"Blücher's army was gathering in and around Wavre, around to the east of the city.",
"Early on the morning of the 18th, Wellington received an assurance from Blücher that the Prussian army would support him.",
"He decided to hold his ground and give battle.",
"\nThree armies were involved in the battle: Napoleon's ''Armée du Nord'', a multinational army under Wellington, and a Prussian army under Blücher.",
"The French army of around 69,000 consisted of 48,000 infantry, 14,000 cavalry, and 7,000 artillery with 250 guns.",
"Napoleon had used conscription to fill the ranks of the French army throughout his rule, but he did not conscript men for the 1815 campaign.",
"His troops were mainly veterans with considerable experience and a fierce devotion to their Emperor.",
"The cavalry in particular was both numerous and formidable, and included fourteen regiments of armoured heavy cavalry, and seven of highly versatile lancers who were armed with lances, sabres and firearms.",
"However as the army took shape, French officers were allocated to units as they presented themselves for duty, so that many units were commanded by officers the soldiers didn't know, and often didn't trust.",
"Crucially, some of these officers had little experience in working together as a unified force, so that support for other units was often not given.",
"The French army was forced to march through rain and black coal-dust mud to reach Waterloo, and then to contend with mud and rain as it slept in the open.",
"Little food was available for the soldiers, but nevertheless the veteran French soldiers were fiercely loyal to Napoleon.",
"Wellington later said that he had \"an infamous army, very weak and ill-equipped, and a very inexperienced Staff\".",
"His troops consisted of 67,000 men: 50,000 infantry, 11,000 cavalry, and 6,000 artillery with 150 guns.",
"Of these, 25,000 were British, with another 6,000 from the King's German Legion (KGL).",
"All of the British Army troops were regular soldiers, but only 7,000 of them were Peninsular War veterans.",
"In addition, there were 17,000 Dutch and Belgian troops, 11,000 from Hanover, 6,000 from Brunswick, and 3,000 from Nassau.",
"Many of the troops in the Coalition armies were inexperienced.",
"The Dutch army had been re-established in 1815, following the earlier defeat of Napoleon.",
"With the exception of the British and some from Hanover and Brunswick who had fought with the British army in Spain, many of the professional soldiers in the Coalition armies had spent some of their time in the French army or in armies allied to the Napoleonic regime.",
"The historian Barbero states that in this heterogeneous army the difference between British and ''foreign'' troops did not prove significant under fire.",
"Wellington was also acutely short of heavy cavalry, having only seven British and three Dutch regiments.",
"The Duke of York imposed many of his staff officers on Wellington, including his second-in-command the Earl of Uxbridge.",
"Uxbridge commanded the cavalry and had carte blanche from Wellington to commit these forces at his discretion.",
"Wellington stationed a further 17,000 troops at Halle, away to the west.",
"They were not recalled to participate in the battle but were to serve as a fallback position should the battle be lost.",
"They were mostly composed of Dutch troops under Prince of Orange's younger brother Prince Frederick of the Netherlands.",
"They were placed as a guard against any possible wide flanking movement by the French forces, and also to act as a rearguard if Wellington was forced to retreat towards Antwerp and the coast.",
"The Prussian army was in the throes of reorganisation.",
"In 1815, the former Reserve regiments, Legions, and ''Freikorps'' volunteer formations from the wars of 1813–1814 were in the process of being absorbed into the line, along with many ''Landwehr'' (militia) regiments.",
"The ''Landwehr'' were mostly untrained and unequipped when they arrived in Belgium.",
"The Prussian cavalry were in a similar state.",
"Its artillery was also reorganising and did not give its best performance – guns and equipment continued to arrive during and after the battle.",
"Offsetting these handicaps, the Prussian Army had excellent and professional leadership in its General Staff organisation.",
"These officers came from four schools developed for this purpose and thus worked to a common standard of training.",
"This system was in marked contrast to the conflicting, vague orders issued by the French army.",
"This staff system ensured that before Ligny, three-quarters of the Prussian army concentrated for battle with 24 hours notice.",
"After Ligny, the Prussian army, although defeated, was able to realign its supply train, reorganise itself, and intervene decisively on the Waterloo battlefield within 48 hours.",
"Two and a half Prussian army corps, or 48,000 men, were engaged at Waterloo; two brigades under Bülow, commander of IV Corps, attacked Lobau at 16:30, while Zieten's I Corps and parts of Pirch I's II Corps engaged at about 18:00.",
"\nA view of the battlefield from the Lion's mound.",
"On the top right are the buildings of La Haye Sainte.",
"The Waterloo position was a strong one.",
"It consisted of a long ridge running east-west, perpendicular to, and bisected by, the main road to Brussels.",
"Along the crest of the ridge ran the Ohain road, a deep sunken lane.",
"Near the crossroads with the Brussels road was a large elm tree that was roughly in the centre of Wellington's position and served as his command post for much of the day.",
"Wellington deployed his infantry in a line just behind the crest of the ridge following the Ohain road.",
"Using the reverse slope, as he had many times previously, Wellington concealed his strength from the French, with the exception of his skirmishers and artillery.",
"The length of front of the battlefield was also relatively short at .",
"This allowed Wellington to draw up his forces in depth, which he did in the centre and on the right, all the way towards the village of Braine-l'Alleud, in the expectation that the Prussians would reinforce his left during the day.",
"An 1816 map showing the local geography, with Waterloo defending the approach to Brussels\nIn front of the ridge, there were three positions that could be fortified.",
"On the extreme right were the château, garden, and orchard of Hougoumont.",
"This was a large and well-built country house, initially hidden in trees.",
"The house faced north along a sunken, covered lane (usually described by the British as \"the hollow-way\") along which it could be supplied.",
"On the extreme left was the hamlet of Papelotte.",
"Both Hougoumont and Papelotte were fortified and garrisoned, and thus anchored Wellington's flanks securely.",
"Papelotte also commanded the road to Wavre that the Prussians would use to send reinforcements to Wellington's position.",
"On the western side of the main road, and in front of the rest of Wellington's line, was the farmhouse and orchard of La Haye Sainte, which was garrisoned with 400 light infantry of the King's German Legion.",
"On the opposite side of the road was a disused sand quarry, where the 95th Rifles were posted as sharpshooters.",
"Wellington's forces positioning presented a formidable challenge to any attacking force.",
"Any attempt to turn Wellington's right would entail taking the entrenched Hougoumont position.",
"Any attack on his right centre would mean the attackers would have to march between enfilading fire from Hougoumont and La Haye Sainte.",
"On the left, any attack would also be enfiladed by fire from La Haye Sainte and its adjoining sandpit, and any attempt at turning the left flank would entail fighting through the lanes and hedgerows surrounding Papelotte and the other garrisoned buildings on that flank, and some very wet ground in the Smohain defile.",
"The French army formed on the slopes of another ridge to the south.",
"Napoleon could not see Wellington's positions, so he drew his forces up symmetrically about the Brussels road.",
"On the right was I Corps under d'Erlon with 16,000 infantry and 1,500 cavalry, plus a cavalry reserve of 4,700.",
"On the left was II Corps under Reille with 13,000 infantry, and 1,300 cavalry, and a cavalry reserve of 4,600.",
"In the centre about the road south of the inn ''La Belle Alliance'' were a reserve including Lobau's VI Corps with 6,000 men, the 13,000 infantry of the Imperial Guard, and a cavalry reserve of 2,000.",
"In the right rear of the French position was the substantial village of Plancenoit, and at the extreme right, the ''Bois de Paris'' wood.",
"Napoleon initially commanded the battle from Rossomme farm, where he could see the entire battlefield, but moved to a position near ''La Belle Alliance'' early in the afternoon.",
"Command on the battlefield (which was largely hidden from his view) was delegated to Ney.",
"A panorama of the Waterloo battlefield in 2012",
"===Preparation===\nGebhard Leberecht von Blücher, who had led one of the coalition armies defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig, commanded the Prussian army\nWellington rose at around 02:00 or 03:00 on 18 June, and wrote letters until dawn.",
"He had earlier written to Blücher confirming that he would give battle at Mont-Saint-Jean if Blücher could provide him with at least one corps; otherwise he would retreat towards Brussels.",
"At a late-night council, Blücher's chief of staff, August Neidhardt von Gneisenau, had been distrustful of Wellington's strategy, but Blücher persuaded him that they should march to join Wellington's army.",
"In the morning Wellington duly received a reply from Blücher, promising to support him with three corps.",
"From 06:00 Wellington was in the field supervising the deployment of his forces.",
"At Wavre, the Prussian IV Corps under Bülow was designated to lead the march to Waterloo as it was in the best shape, not having been involved in the Battle of Ligny.",
"Although they had not taken casualties, IV Corps had been marching for two days, covering the retreat of the three other corps of the Prussian army from the battlefield of Ligny.",
"They had been posted farthest away from the battlefield, and progress was very slow.",
"The roads were in poor condition after the night's heavy rain, and Bülow's men had to pass through the congested streets of Wavre and move 88 artillery pieces.",
"Matters were not helped when a fire broke out in Wavre, blocking several streets along Bülow's intended route.",
"As a result, the last part of the corps left at 10:00, six hours after the leading elements had moved out towards Waterloo.",
"Bülow's men were followed to Waterloo first by I Corps and then by II Corps.",
"Napoleon breakfasted off silver plate at ''Le Caillou'', the house where he had spent the night.",
"When Soult suggested that Grouchy should be recalled to join the main force, Napoleon said, \"Just because you have all been beaten by Wellington, you think he's a good general.",
"I tell you Wellington is a bad general, the English are bad troops, and this affair is nothing more than eating breakfast\".",
"Napoleon's seemingly dismissive remark may have been strategic, given his maxim \"in war, morale is everything\".",
"He had acted similarly in the past, and on the morning of the battle of Waterloo may have been responding to the pessimism and objections of his chief of staff and senior generals.",
"Later on, being told by his brother, Jerome, of some gossip overheard by a waiter between British officers at lunch at the 'King of Spain' inn in Genappe that the Prussians were to march over from Wavre, Napoleon declared that the Prussians would need at least two days to recover and would be dealt with by Grouchy.",
"Surprisingly, Jerome's overheard gossip aside, the French commanders present at the pre-battle conference at ''Le Caillou'' had no information about the alarming proximity of the Prussians and did not suspect that Blücher's men would start erupting onto the field of battle in great numbers just five hours later.",
"Battle of Mont-Saint-Jean\nNapoleon had delayed the start of the battle owing to the sodden ground, which would have made manoeuvring cavalry and artillery difficult.",
"In addition, many of his forces had bivouacked well to the south of ''La Belle Alliance''.",
"At 10:00, in response to a dispatch he had received from Grouchy six hours earlier, he sent a reply telling Grouchy to \"head for Wavre to Grouchy's north in order to draw near to us to the west of Grouchy\" and then \"push before him\" the Prussians to arrive at Waterloo \"as soon as possible\".",
"At 11:00, Napoleon drafted his general order: Reille's Corps on the left and d'Erlon's Corps to the right were to attack the village of Mont-Saint-Jean and keep abreast of one another.",
"This order assumed Wellington's battle-line was in the village, rather than at the more forward position on the ridge.",
"To enable this, Jerome's division would make an initial attack on Hougoumont, which Napoleon expected would draw in Wellington's reserves, since its loss would threaten his communications with the sea.",
"A ''grande batterie'' of the reserve artillery of I, II, and VI Corps was to then bombard the centre of Wellington's position from about 13:00.",
"D'Erlon's corps would then attack Wellington's left, break through, and roll up his line from east to west.",
"In his memoirs, Napoleon wrote that his intention was to separate Wellington's army from the Prussians and drive it back towards the sea.",
"===Hougoumont===\n\n\nFighting at the Hougoumont farm\nThe historian Andrew Roberts notes that \"It is a curious fact about the Battle of Waterloo that no one is absolutely certain when it actually began\".",
"Wellington recorded in his dispatches that at \"about ten o'clock Napoleon commenced a furious attack upon our post at Hougoumont\".",
"Other sources state that the attack began around 11:30.",
"The house and its immediate environs were defended by four light companies of Guards, and the wood and park by Hanoverian ''Jäger'' and the 1/2nd Nassau.",
"The initial attack by Bauduin's brigade emptied the wood and park, but was driven back by heavy British artillery fire, and cost Bauduin his life.",
"As the British guns were distracted by a duel with French artillery, a second attack by Soye's brigade and what had been Bauduin's succeeded in reaching the north gate of the house.",
"Sous-Lieutenant Legros, a French officer, broke the gate open with an axe, and some French troops managed to enter the courtyard.",
"The Coldstream Guards and the Scots Guards arrived to support the defence.",
"There was a fierce melee, and the British managed to close the gate on the French troops streaming in.",
"The Frenchmen trapped in the courtyard were all killed.",
"Only a young drummer boy was spared.",
"Gate on the north side assaulted by the ''1st Légère'' who were led by ''sous-lieutenant'' Legros\nFighting continued around Hougoumont all afternoon.",
"Its surroundings were heavily invested by French light infantry, and coordinated attacks were made against the troops behind Hougoumont.",
"Wellington's army defended the house and the hollow way running north from it.",
"In the afternoon, Napoleon personally ordered the house to be shelled to set it on fire, resulting in the destruction of all but the chapel.",
"Du Plat's brigade of the King's German Legion was brought forward to defend the hollow way, which they had to do without senior officers.",
"Eventually they were relieved by the 71st Highlanders, a British infantry regiment.",
"Adam's brigade was further reinforced by Hugh Halkett's 3rd Hanoverian Brigade, and successfully repulsed further infantry and cavalry attacks sent by Reille.",
"Hougoumont held out until the end of the battle.",
"The fighting at Hougoumont has often been characterised as a diversionary attack to draw in Wellington's reserves which escalated into an all-day battle and drew in French reserves instead.",
"In fact there is a good case to believe that both Napoleon and Wellington thought that holding Hougoumont was key to winning the battle.",
"Hougoumont was a part of the battlefield that Napoleon could see clearly, and he continued to direct resources towards it and its surroundings all afternoon (33 battalions in all, 14,000 troops).",
"Similarly, though the house never contained a large number of troops, Wellington devoted 21 battalions (12,000 troops) over the course of the afternoon in keeping the hollow way open to allow fresh troops and ammunition to reach the buildings.",
"He moved several artillery batteries from his hard-pressed centre to support Hougoumont, and later stated that \"the success of the battle turned upon closing the gates at Hougoumont\".",
"===The Grand Battery starts its bombardment===\nMap of the battle.",
"Napoleon's units are in blue, Wellington's in red, Blücher's in grey.",
"The 80 guns of Napoleon's ''grande batterie'' drew up in the centre.",
"These opened fire at 11:50, according to Lord Hill (commander of the Anglo-allied II Corps), while other sources put the time between noon and 13:30.",
"The ''grande batterie'' was too far back to aim accurately, and the only other troops they could see were skirmishers of the regiments of Kempt and Pack, and Perponcher's 2nd Dutch division (the others were employing Wellington's characteristic \"reverse slope defence\").",
"Nevertheless, the bombardment caused a large number of casualties.",
"Though some projectiles buried themselves in the soft soil, most found their marks on the reverse slope of the ridge.",
"The bombardment forced the cavalry of the Union Brigade (in third line) to move to its left, as did the Scots Greys, to reduce their casualty rate.",
"===Napoleon spots Prussians===\nAt about 13:00, Napoleon saw the first columns of Prussians around the village of Lasne-Chapelle-Saint-Lambert, four or five miles (six to eight kilometres) away from his right flank—about three hours march for an army.",
"Napoleon's reaction was to have Marshal Soult send a message to Grouchy telling him to come towards the battlefield and attack the arriving Prussians.",
"Grouchy, however, had been executing Napoleon's previous orders to follow the Prussians \"with your sword against his back\" towards Wavre, and was by then too far away to reach Waterloo.",
"Grouchy was advised by his subordinate, Gérard, to \"march to the sound of the guns\", but stuck to his orders and engaged the Prussian III Corps rear guard under the command of Lieutenant-General Baron Johann von Thielmann at the Battle of Wavre.",
"Moreover, Soult's letter ordering Grouchy to move quickly to join Napoleon and attack Bülow would not actually reach Grouchy until after 20:00.",
"===First French infantry attack===\nA little after 13:00, I Corps' attack began in large columns.",
"Bernard Cornwell writes \"column suggests an elongated formation with its narrow end aimed like a spear at the enemy line, while in truth it was much more like a brick advancing sideways and d'Erlon's assault was made up of four such bricks, each one a division of French infantry\".",
"Each division, with one exception, was drawn up in huge masses, consisting of the eight or nine battalions of which they were formed, deployed, and placed in a column one behind the other, with only five paces interval between the battalions.",
"The one exception was the 1st Division (Commanded by Quiot, the leader of the 1st Brigade).",
"Its two brigades were formed in a similar manner, but side by side instead of behind one another.",
"This was done because, being on the left of the four divisions, it was ordered to send one (Quiot's brigade) against the south and west of La Haye Sainte, while the other (Bourgeois') was to attack the eastern side of the same post.",
"The divisions were to advance in echelon from the left at a distance of 400 paces apart — the 2nd Division (Donzelot's) on the right of Bourgeois' brigade, the 3rd Division (Marcognet's) next, and the 4th Division (Durutte's) on the right.They were led by Ney to the assault, each column having a front of about a hundred and sixty to two hundred files.",
"The leftmost division, advanced on La Haye Sainte.",
"The farmhouse was defended by the King's German Legion.",
"While one French battalion engaged the defenders from the front, the following battalions fanned out to either side and, with the support of several squadrons of cuirassiers, succeeded in isolating the farmhouse.",
"The King's German Legion resolutely defended the farmhouse.",
"Each time the French tried to scale the walls the outnumbered Germans somehow held them off.",
"The Prince of Orange saw that La Haye Sainte had been cut off and tried to reinforce it by sending forward the Hanoverian Lüneberg Battalion in line.",
"Cuirassiers concealed in a fold in the ground caught and destroyed it in minutes and then rode on past La Haye Sainte, almost to the crest of the ridge, where they covered d'Erlon's left flank as his attack developed.",
"At about 13:30, d'Erlon started to advance his three other divisions, some 14,000 men over a front of about , against Wellington's left wing.",
"At the point they aimed for they faced 6,000 men: the first line consisted of the Dutch 1st \"Brigade van Bylandt\" of the 2nd Dutch division, flanked by the British brigades of Kempt and Pack on either side.",
"The second line consisted of British and Hanoverian troops under Sir Thomas Picton, who were lying down in dead ground behind the ridge.",
"All had suffered badly at Quatre Bras.",
"In addition, the Bijlandt brigade had been ordered to deploy its skirmishers in the hollow road and on the forward slope.",
"The rest of the brigade was lying down just behind the road.",
"At the moment these skirmishers were rejoining their parent battalions, the brigade was ordered to its feet and started to return fire.",
"On the left of the brigade, where the 7th Dutch Militia stood, a \"few files were shot down and an opening in the line thus occurred\".",
"The battalion had no reserves and was unable to close the gap.",
"D'Erlon's troops pushed through this gap in the line and the remaining battalions in the Bylandt brigade (8th Dutch Militia and Belgian 7th Line Battalion) were forced to retreat to the square of the 5th Dutch Militia, which was in reserve between Picton's troops, about 100 paces to the rear.",
"There they regrouped under the command of Colonel Van Zuylen van Nijevelt.",
"A moment later the Prince of Orange ordered a counterattack, which actually occurred around 10 minutes later.",
"Bylandt was wounded and retired off the field, passing command of the brigade to Lt. Kol.",
"De Jongh.",
"''The Battle of Waterloo'' by Clément-Auguste Andrieux\n\nD'Erlon's men ascended the slope and advanced on the sunken road, ''Chemin d'Ohain'', that ran from behind La Haye Sainte and continued east.",
"It was lined on both sides by thick hedges, with Bylandt's brigade just across the road while the British brigades had been lying down some 100 yards back from the road, Pack's to Bylandt's left and Kempt's to Bylandt's right.",
"Kempt's 1,900 men were engaged by Bourgeois' brigade of 1,900 men of Quiot's division.",
"In the centre, Donzelot's division had pushed back Bylandt's brigade.",
"On the right of the French advance was Marcognet's division led by Grenier's brigade consisting of the ''45e Régiment de Ligne'' and followed by the ''25e Régiment de Ligne'', somewhat less than 2,000 men, and behind them, Nogue's brigade of the ''21e'' and ''45e'' regiments.",
"Opposing them on the other side of the road was Pack's 9th Brigade consisting of three Scottish regiments: the Royal Scots, the 42nd Black Watch, the 92nd Gordons and the 44th Foot totaling something over 2,000 men.",
"A very even fight between British and French infantry was about to occur.",
"The French advance drove in the British skirmishers and reached the sunken road.",
"As they did so, Pack's men stood up, formed into a four deep line formation for fear of the French cavalry, advanced, and opened fire.",
"However, a firefight had been anticipated and the French infantry had accordingly advanced in more linear formation.",
"Now, fully deployed into line, they returned fire and successfully pressed the British troops; although the attack faltered at the centre, the line in front of d'Erlon's right started to crumble.",
"Picton was killed shortly after ordering the counter-attack and the British and Hanoverian troops also began to give way under the pressure of numbers.",
"Pack's regiments, all four ranks deep, advanced to attack the French in the road but faltered and began to fire on the French instead of charging.",
"The 42nd Black Watch halted at the hedge and the resulting fire-fight drove back the British 92nd Foot while the leading French ''45e Ligne'' burst through the hedge cheering.",
"Along the sunken road, the French were forcing the Allies back, the British line was dispersing, and at two o'clock in the afternoon Napoleon was winning the Battle of Waterloo.",
"Reports from Baron von Muffling, the Prussian liaison officer attached to Wellington's army, relate that: \"After 3 o’clock the Duke's situation became critical, unless the succour of the Prussian army arrived soon\".",
"===Charge of the British heavy cavalry===\n\n\nCharge of the Scots Greys at Waterloo, painted by Elizabeth Thompson\n\nAt this crucial juncture, Uxbridge ordered his two brigades of British heavy cavalry—formed unseen behind the ridge—to charge in support of the hard-pressed infantry.",
"The 1st Brigade, known as the Household Brigade, commanded by Major-General Lord Edward Somerset, consisted of guards regiments: the 1st and 2nd Life Guards, the Royal Horse Guards (the Blues), and the 1st (King's) Dragoon Guards.",
"The 2nd Brigade, also known as the Union Brigade, commanded by Major-General Sir William Ponsonby, was so called as it consisted of an English, the 1st (The Royals); a Scottish, 2nd ('Scots Greys'); and an Irish, 6th (Inniskilling); regiment of heavy dragoons.",
"British Household Cavalry charging\n\nMore than 20 years of warfare had eroded the numbers of suitable cavalry mounts available on the European continent; this resulted in the British heavy cavalry entering the 1815 campaign with the finest horses of any contemporary cavalry arm.",
"British cavalry troopers also received excellent mounted swordsmanship training.",
"They were, however, inferior to the French in manoeuvring in large formations, cavalier in attitude, and unlike the infantry some units had scant experience of warfare.",
"The Scots Greys, for example, had not been in action since 1795.",
"According to Wellington, though they were superior individual horsemen, they were inflexible and lacked tactical ability.",
"\"I considered one squadron a match for two French, I didn't like to see four British opposed to four French: and as the numbers increased and order, of course, became more necessary I was the more unwilling to risk our men without having a superiority in numbers\".",
"The two brigades had a combined field strength of about 2,000 (2,651 official strength); they charged with the 47-year-old Uxbridge leading them and a very inadequate number of squadrons held in reserve.",
"There is evidence that Uxbridge gave an order, the morning of the battle, to all cavalry brigade commanders to commit their commands on their own initiative, as direct orders from himself might not always be forthcoming, and to \"support movements to their front\".",
"It appears that Uxbridge expected the brigades of Sir John Ormsby Vandeleur, Hussey Vivian and the Dutch cavalry to provide support to the British heavies.",
"Uxbridge later regretted leading the charge in person, saying \"I committed a great mistake\", when he should have been organising an adequate reserve to move forward in support.",
"Sergeant Ewart of the Scots Greys capturing the eagle of the 45''ème Ligne'' by Richard Ansdell\n\nThe Household Brigade crossed the crest of the Allied position and charged downhill.",
"The cuirassiers guarding d'Erlon's left flank were still dispersed, and so were swept over the deeply sunken main road and then routed.",
"Continuing their attack, the squadrons on the left of the Household Brigade then destroyed Aulard's brigade.",
"Despite attempts to recall them, they continued past La Haye Sainte and found themselves at the bottom of the hill on blown horses facing Schmitz's brigade formed in squares.",
"To their left, the Union Brigade suddenly swept through the infantry lines, giving rise to the legend that some of the 92nd Gordon Highland Regiment clung onto their stirrups and accompanied them into the charge.",
"From the centre leftwards, the Royal Dragoons destroyed Bourgeois' brigade, capturing the eagle of the 105th ''Ligne''.",
"The Inniskillings routed the other brigade of Quoit's division, and the Scots Greys came upon the lead French regiment, 45th ''Ligne'', as it was still reforming after having crossed the sunken road and broken through the hedge row in pursuit of the British infantry.",
"The Greys captured the eagle of the 45th ''Ligne'' and overwhelmed Grenier's brigade.",
"These would be the only two French eagles captured by the British during the battle.",
"On Wellington's extreme left, Durutte's division had time to form squares and fend off groups of Greys.",
"Private of the Chevau-légers of the line (lancers) who routed the Union Brigade\n\nAs with the Household Cavalry, the officers of the Royals and Inniskillings found it very difficult to rein back their troops, who lost all cohesion.",
"Having taken casualties, and still trying to reorder themselves, the Scots Greys and the rest of the Union Brigade found themselves before the main French lines.",
"Their horses were blown, and they were still in disorder without any idea of what their next collective objective was.",
"Some attacked nearby gun batteries of the Grande Battery.",
"Though the Greys had neither the time nor means to disable the cannon or carry them off, they put very many out of action as the gun crews were killed or fled the battlefield.",
"Sergeant Major Dickinson of the Greys stated that his regiment was rallied before going on to attack the French artillery: Hamilton, the regimental commander, rather than holding them back cried out to his men \"Charge, charge the guns!\".",
"Napoleon promptly responded by ordering a counter-attack by the cuirassier brigades of Farine and Travers and Jaquinot's two Chevau-léger (lancer) regiments in the I Corps light cavalry division.",
"Disorganized and milling about the bottom of the valley between Hougoumont and La Belle Alliance, the Scots Greys and the rest of the British heavy cavalry were taken by surprise by the countercharge of Milhaud's cuirassiers, joined by lancers from Baron Jaquinot's 1st Cavalry Division.",
"As Ponsonby tried to rally his men against the French cuirassers, he was attacked by Jaquinot's lancers and captured.",
"A nearby party of Scots Greys saw the capture and attempted to rescue their brigade commander.",
"However, the French lancer who had captured Ponsonby killed him and then used his lance to kill three of the Scots Greys who had attempted the rescue.",
"By the time Ponsonby died, the momentum had entirely returned in favour of the French.",
"Milhaud's and Jaquinot's cavalrymen drove the Union Brigade from the valley.",
"The result was very heavy losses for the British cavalry.",
"A countercharge, by British light dragoons under Major-General Vandeleur and Dutch–Belgian light dragoons and hussars under Major-General Ghigny on the left wing, and Dutch–Belgian ''carabiniers'' under Major-General Trip in the centre, repelled the French cavalry.",
"All figures quoted for the losses of the cavalry brigades as a result of this charge are estimates, as casualties were only noted down after the day of the battle and were for the battle as a whole.",
"Some historians, Barbero for example, believe the official rolls tend to overestimate the number of cavalrymen present in their squadrons on the field of battle and that the proportionate losses were, as a result, considerably higher than the numbers on paper might suggest.",
"The Union Brigade lost heavily in both officers and men killed (including its commander, William Ponsonby, and Colonel Hamilton of the Scots Greys) and wounded.",
"The 2nd Life Guards and the King's Dragoon Guards of the Household Brigade also lost heavily (with Colonel Fuller, commander of the King's DG, killed).",
"However, the 1st Life Guards, on the extreme right of the charge, and the Blues, who formed a reserve, had kept their cohesion and consequently suffered significantly fewer casualties.",
"On the rolls the official, or paper strength, for both Brigades is given as 2,651 while Barbero and others estimate the actual strength at around 2,000 and the official recorded losses for the two heavy cavalry brigades during the battle was 1,205 troopers and 1,303 horses.",
"Jan Willem Pieneman: The Battle of Waterloo (1824).",
"Duke of Wellington, centre, flanked on his left by Lord Uxbridge in hussar uniform.",
"On the image's far left, Cpl.",
"Styles of the Royal Dragoons flourishes the eagle of the 105''eme'' ''Ligne''.",
"The wounded Prince of Orange is carried from the field in the foreground.",
"Some historians, such as Chandler and Weller, assert that the British heavy cavalry were destroyed as a viable force following their first, epic charge.",
"Barbero states that the Scots Grey were practically wiped out and that the other two regiments of the Union Brigade suffered comparable losses.",
"Other historians, such as Clark-Kennedy and Wood, citing British eyewitness accounts, describe the continuing role of the heavy cavalry after their charge.",
"The heavy brigades, far from being ineffective, continued to provide valuable services.",
"They countercharged French cavalry numerous times (both brigades), halted a combined cavalry and infantry attack (Household Brigade only), were used to bolster the morale of those units in their vicinity at times of crisis, and filled gaps in the Anglo-allied line caused by high casualties in infantry formations (both brigades).",
"This service was rendered at a very high cost, as close combat with French cavalry, carbine fire, infantry musketry and—more deadly than all of these—artillery fire steadily eroded the number of effectives in the two brigades.",
"At 6 o'clock in the afternoon the whole Union Brigade could field only 3 squadrons, though these countercharged French cavalry, losing half their number in the process.",
"At the end of the fighting the two brigades, by this time combined, could muster one squadron.",
"14,000 French troops of D'Erlon's I Corps had been committed to this attack.",
"The I Corps had been driven in rout back across the valley costing Napoleon 3,000 casualties including over 2,000 prisoners taken.",
"Also some valuable time was lost, the charge had dispersed numerous units and it would take until 16:00 hours for D'Erlon's shaken corps to reform.",
"And although elements of the Prussians now began to appear on the field to his right, Napoleon had already ordered Lobau's VI corps to move to the right flank to hold them back before D'Erlon's attack began.",
"===The French cavalry attack===\nMarshal Ney leading the French cavalry charge, from Louis Dumoulin's ''Panorama of the Battle of Waterloo''\nA little before 16:00, Ney noted an apparent exodus from Wellington's centre.",
"He mistook the movement of casualties to the rear for the beginnings of a retreat, and sought to exploit it.",
"Following the defeat of d'Erlon's Corps, Ney had few infantry reserves left, as most of the infantry had been committed either to the futile Hougoumont attack or to the defence of the French right.",
"Ney therefore tried to break Wellington's centre with cavalry alone.",
"Initially Milhaud's reserve cavalry corps of cuirassiers and Lefebvre-Desnoëttes' light cavalry division of the Imperial Guard, some 4,800 sabres, were committed.",
"When these were repulsed, Kellermann's heavy cavalry corps and Guyot's heavy cavalry of the Guard were added to the massed assault, a total of around 9,000 cavalry in 67 squadrons.",
"When Napoleon saw the charge he said it was an hour too soon.",
"''French Cuirassiers'', by Louis Dumoulin\n\nWellington's infantry responded by forming squares (hollow box-formations four ranks deep).",
"Squares were much smaller than usually depicted in paintings of the battle – a 500-man battalion square would have been no more than in length on a side.",
"Squares that stood their ground were deadly to cavalry, as cavalry could not engage with soldiers behind a hedge of bayonets, but were themselves vulnerable to fire from the squares.",
"Horses would not charge a square, nor could they be outflanked, but they were vulnerable to artillery or infantry.",
"Wellington ordered his artillery crews to take shelter within the squares as the cavalry approached, and to return to their guns and resume fire as they retreated.",
"Witnesses in the British infantry recorded as many as 12 assaults, though this probably includes successive waves of the same general attack; the number of general assaults was undoubtedly far fewer.",
"Kellermann, recognising the futility of the attacks, tried to reserve the elite ''carabinier'' brigade from joining in, but eventually Ney spotted them and insisted on their involvement.",
"A British eyewitness of the first French cavalry attack, an officer in the Foot Guards, recorded his impressions very lucidly and somewhat poetically:\n\n\n\nGeorge Jones).",
"In essence this type of massed cavalry attack relied almost entirely on psychological shock for effect.",
"Close artillery support could disrupt infantry squares and allow cavalry to penetrate; at Waterloo, however, co-operation between the French cavalry and artillery was not impressive.",
"The French artillery did not get close enough to the Anglo-allied infantry in sufficient numbers to be decisive.",
"Artillery fire between charges did produce mounting casualties, but most of this fire was at relatively long range and was often indirect, at targets beyond the ridge.",
"If infantry being attacked held firm in their square defensive formations, and were not panicked, cavalry on their own could do very little damage to them.",
"The French cavalry attacks were repeatedly repelled by the steadfast infantry squares, the harrying fire of British artillery as the French cavalry recoiled down the slopes to regroup, and the decisive countercharges of Wellington's light cavalry regiments, the Dutch heavy cavalry brigade, and the remaining effectives of the Household Cavalry.",
"At least one artillery officer disobeyed Wellington's order to seek shelter in the adjacent squares during the charges.",
"Captain Mercer, who commanded 'G' Troop, Royal Horse Artillery, thought the Brunswick troops on either side of him so shaky that he kept his battery of six nine-pounders in action against the cavalry throughout, to great effect.",
"A British square puts up dogged resistance against attacking French cavalry.",
"For reasons that remain unclear, no attempt was made to spike other allied guns while they were in French possession.",
"In line with Wellington's orders, gunners were able to return to their pieces and fire into the French cavalry as they withdrew after each attack.",
"After numerous costly but fruitless attacks on the Mont-Saint-Jean ridge, the French cavalry was spent.",
"Their casualties cannot easily be estimated.",
"Senior French cavalry officers, in particular the generals, experienced heavy losses.",
"Four divisional commanders were wounded, nine brigadiers wounded, and one killed – testament to their courage and their habit of leading from the front.",
"Illustratively, Houssaye reports that the ''Grenadiers à Cheval'' numbered 796 of all ranks on 15 June, but just 462 on 19 June, while the Empress Dragoons lost 416 of 816 over the same period.",
"Overall Guyot's Guard heavy cavalry division lost 47% of its strength.",
"2nd Guard Lancers with the ''Grenadiers à Cheval'' in support\n\n===Second French infantry attack===\nEventually it became obvious, even to Ney, that cavalry alone were achieving little.",
"Belatedly, he organised a combined-arms attack, using Bachelu's division and Tissot's regiment of Foy's division from Reille's II Corps (about 6,500 infantrymen) plus those French cavalry that remained in a fit state to fight.",
"This assault was directed along much the same route as the previous heavy cavalry attacks (between Hougoumont and La Haye Sainte).",
"It was halted by a charge of the Household Brigade cavalry led by Uxbridge.",
"The British cavalry were unable, however, to break the French infantry, and fell back with losses from musketry fire.",
"Uxbridge recorded that he tried to lead the Dutch Carabiniers, under Major-General Trip, to renew the attack and that they refused to follow him.",
"Other members of the British cavalry staff also commented on this occurrence.",
"However, there is no support for this incident in Dutch or Belgian sources.",
"Meanwhile, Bachelu's and Tissot's men and their cavalry supports were being hard hit by fire from artillery and from Adam's infantry brigade, and they eventually fell back.",
"Although the French cavalry caused few direct casualties to Wellington's centre, artillery fire onto his infantry squares caused many.",
"Wellington's cavalry, except for Sir John Vandeleur's and Sir Hussey Vivian's brigades on the far left, had all been committed to the fight, and had taken significant losses.",
"The situation appeared so desperate that the Cumberland Hussars, the only Hanoverian cavalry regiment present, fled the field spreading alarm all the way to Brussels.",
"The storming of La Haye Sainte by Knötel\n\n===French capture of La Haye Sainte===\nAt approximately the same time as Ney's combined-arms assault on the centre-right of Wellington's line, rallied elements of D'Erlon's I Corps, spearheaded by the 13th ''Légère,'' renewed the attack on La Haye Sainte and this time were successful, partly because the King's German Legion's ammunition ran out.",
"However, the Germans had held the centre of the battlefield for almost the entire day, and this had stalled the French advance.",
"With La Haye Sainte captured, Ney then moved skirmishers and horse artillery up towards Wellington's centre.",
"French artillery began to pulverise the infantry squares at short range with canister.",
"The 30th and 73rd Regiments suffered such heavy losses that they had to combine to form a viable square.",
"The success Napoleon needed to continue his offensive had occurred.",
"Ney was on the verge of breaking the Allied centre.",
"Along with this artillery fire a multitude of French ''tirailleurs'' occupied the dominant positions behind La Haye Sainte and poured an effective fire into the squares.",
"The situation was now so dire that the 33rd Regiment's colours and all of Halkett's brigade's colours were sent to the rear for safety, described by historian Alessandro Barbero as, \"... a measure that was without precedent\".",
"Wellington, noticing the slackening of fire from La Haye Sainte, with his staff rode closer to it.",
"French skirmishers appeared around the building and fired on the British command as it struggled to get away through the hedgerow along the road.",
"Alten ordered a single battalion, the Fifth KGL to recapture the farm.",
"Their Colonel Ompteda obeyed and chased off some French skirmishers until French cuirassiers fell on his open flank, killed him, destroyed his battalion and took its colour.",
"A Dutch–Belgian cavalry regiment ordered to charge, retreated from the field instead, fired on by their own infantry.",
"Merlen's Light Cavalry Brigade charged the French artillery taking position near La Haye Sainte but were shot to pieces and the brigade fell apart.",
"The Netherlands Cavalry Division, Wellington's last cavalry reserve behind the centre having lost half their strength was now useless and the French cavalry, despite its losses, were masters of the field compelling the allied infantry to remain in square.",
"More and more French artillery was brought forward.",
"A French battery advanced to within 300 yards of the 1/1st Nassau square causing heavy casualties.",
"When the Nassauers attempted to attack the battery they were ridden down by a squadron of cuirassiers .",
"Yet another battery deployed on the flank of Mercer's battery and shot up its horses and limbers and pushed Mercer back.",
"Mercer later recalled, \"The rapidity and precision of this fire was quite appaling.",
"Every shot almost took effect, and I certainly expected we should all be annihilated.",
"...",
"The saddle-bags, in many instances were torn from horses' backs ... One shell I saw explode under the two finest wheel-horses in the troop down they dropped\".",
"French ''tirailleurs'' occupied the dominant positions, especially one on a knoll overlooking the square of the 27th.",
"Unable to break square to drive off the French infantry because of the presence of French cavalry and artillery, the 27th had to remain in that formation and endure the fire of the ''tirailleurs''.",
"That fire nearly annihilated the 27th Foot, the Inniskillings, who lost two-thirds of their strength within that three or four hours.",
"During this time many of Wellington's generals and aides were killed or wounded including Somerset, Canning, de Lancey, Alten and Cooke.",
"The situation was now critical and Wellington, trapped in an infantry square and ignorant of events beyond it, was desperate for the arrival of help from the Prussians.",
"He later wrote, \n\n===Arrival of the Prussian IV Corps: Plancenoit===\n\n\n\nThe Prussian attack on Plancenoit painted by Adolph Northen\n\nThe first Prussian corps to arrive in strength was Bülow's IV Corps.",
"Bülow's objective was Plancenoit, which the Prussians intended to use as a springboard into the rear of the French positions.",
"Blücher intended to secure his right upon the Châteaux Frichermont using the Bois de Paris road.",
"Blücher and Wellington had been exchanging communications since 10:00 and had agreed to this advance on Frichermont if Wellington's centre was under attack.",
"General Bülow noted that the way to Plancenoit lay open and that the time was 16:30.",
"At about this time, the 15th Brigade IV Corps was sent to link up with the Nassauers of Wellington's left flank in the Frichermont-La Haie area, with the brigade's horse artillery battery and additional brigade artillery deployed to its left in support.",
"Napoleon sent Lobau's corps to stop the rest of Bülow's IV Corps proceeding to Plancenoit.",
"The 15th Brigade threw Lobau's troops out of Frichermont with a determined bayonet charge, then proceeded up the Frichermont heights, battering French Chasseurs with 12-pounder artillery fire, and pushed on to Plancenoit.",
"This sent Lobau's corps into retreat to the Plancenoit area, driving Lobau past the rear of the ''Armee Du Nord's'' right flank and directly threatening its only line of retreat.",
"Hiller's 16th Brigade also pushed forward with six battalions against Plancenoit.",
"Napoleon had dispatched all eight battalions of the Young Guard to reinforce Lobau, who was now seriously pressed.",
"The Young Guard counter-attacked and, after very hard fighting, secured Plancenoit, but were themselves counter-attacked and driven out.",
"Napoleon sent two battalions of the Middle/Old Guard into Plancenoit and after ferocious bayonet fighting—they did not deign to fire their muskets—this force recaptured the village.",
"===Zieten's flank march===\nSituation from 17:30 to 20:00\n\nThroughout the late afternoon, Zieten's I Corps had been arriving in greater strength in the area just north of La Haie.",
"General Müffling, Prussian liaison to Wellington, rode to meet I Corps.",
"Zieten had by this time brought up his 1st Brigade, but had become concerned at the sight of stragglers and casualties from the Nassau units on Wellington's left and from the Prussian 15th Brigade.",
"These troops appeared to be withdrawing and Zieten, fearing that his own troops would be caught up in a general retreat, was starting to move away from Wellington's flank and towards the Prussian main body near Plancenoit.",
"Zieten had also received a direct order from Blücher to support Bülow, which Zieten obeyed and marched to Bülow's aid.",
"Müffling saw this movement away and persuaded Zieten to support Wellington's left flank.",
"Müffling warned Zieten that \"The battle is lost if the corps does not keep on the move and immediately support the English army\".",
"Zieten resumed his march to support Wellington directly, and the arrival of his troops allowed Wellington to reinforce his crumbling centre by moving cavalry from his left.",
"The French were expecting Grouchy to march to their support from Wavre, and when Zieten's I Corps appeared at Waterloo instead of Grouchy, \"the shock of disillusionment shattered French morale\" and \"the sight of Zieten's arrival caused turmoil to rage in Napoleon's army\".",
"I Corps proceeded to attack the French troops before Papelotte and by 19:30 the French position was bent into a rough horseshoe shape.",
"The ends of the line were now based on Hougoumont on the left, Plancenoit on the right, and the centre on La Haie.",
"Durutte had taken the positions of La Haie and Papelotte in a series of attacks, but now retreated behind Smohain without opposing the Prussian 24th Regiment as it retook both.",
"The 24th advanced against the new French position, was repulsed, and returned to the attack supported by Silesian ''Schützen'' (riflemen) and the F/1st ''Landwehr''.",
"The French initially fell back before the renewed assault, but now began seriously to contest ground, attempting to regain Smohain and hold on to the ridgeline and the last few houses of Papelotte.",
"The 24th Regiment linked up with a Highlander battalion on its far right and along with the 13th ''Landwehr'' regiment and cavalry support threw the French out of these positions.",
"Further attacks by the 13th ''Landwehr'' and the 15th Brigade drove the French from Frichermont.",
"Durutte's division, finding itself about to be charged by massed squadrons of Zieten's I Corps cavalry reserve, retreated from the battlefield.",
"The soldiers of D’Erlon's Corps alongside this attack on Durutte's division also broke and fled in panic, while to the west the French Middle Guard were assaulting Wellington's centre.",
"The Prussian I Corps then advanced towards the Brussels road and the only line of retreat available to the French.",
"===Attack of the Imperial Guard===\nMeanwhile, with Wellington's centre exposed by the fall of La Haye Sainte and the Plancenoit front temporarily stabilised, Napoleon committed his last reserve, the hitherto-undefeated Imperial Guard infantry.",
"This attack, mounted at around 19:30, was intended to break through Wellington's centre and roll up his line away from the Prussians.",
"Although it is one of the most celebrated passages of arms in military history, it had been unclear which units actually participated.",
"It appears that it was mounted by five battalions of the Middle Guard, and not by the grenadiers or chasseurs of the Old Guard.",
"Three Old Guard battalions did move forward and formed the attack's second line, though they remained in reserve and did not directly assault the allied line.",
"Napoleon addresses the Old Guard as it prepares to attack the Anglo-allied centre at Waterloo.",
"Grenadier of the Old Guard, by Édouard Detaille\n\nNapoleon himself oversaw the initial deployment of the Middle and Old Guard.",
"The Middle Guard formed in battalion squares, each about 550 men strong, with the 1st/3rd Grenadiers, led by Generals Friant and Poret de Morvan, on the right along the road, to their left and rear was General Harlet leading the square of the 4th Grenadiers, then the 1st/3rd Chasseurs under General Michel, next the 2nd/3rd Chasseurs and finally the large single square of two battalions of 800 soldiers of the 4th Chasseurs led by General Henrion.",
"Two batteries of Imperial Guard Horse Artillery accompanied them with sections of two guns between the squares.",
"Each square was led by a general and Marshal Ney, mounted on his 5th horse of the day, led the advance.",
"Behind them, in reserve, were the three battalions of the Old Guard, right to left 1st/2nd Grenadiers, 2nd/2nd Chasseurs and 1st/2nd Chasseurs.",
"Napoleon left Ney to conduct the assault, however Ney led the Middle Guard on an oblique towards the Allied centre right instead of attacking straight up the centre.",
"Napoleon sent Ney's senior ADC Colonel Crabbé to order Ney to adjust, but Crabbé was unable to get there in time.",
"Other troops rallied to support the advance of the Guard.",
"On the left infantry from Reille's corps that was not engaged with Hougoumont and cavalry advanced.",
"On the right all the now rallied elements of D'Érlon's corps once again ascended the ridge and engaged the allied line.",
"Of these, Pégot's brigade broke into skirmish order and moved north and west of La Haye Sainte and provided fire support to Ney, once again unhorsed, and Friant's 1st/3rd Grenadiers.",
"The Guards first received fire from some Brunswick battalions, but the return fire of the grenadiers forced them to retire.",
"Next, Colin Halket's brigade front line consisting of the 30th Foot and 73rd traded fire but they were driven back in confusion into the 33rd and 69th regiments, Halket was shot in the face and seriously wounded and the whole brigade retreated in a mob.",
"Other allied troops began to give way as well.",
"A counterattack by the Nassauers and the remains of Kielmansegge's brigade from the allied second line, led by the Prince of Orange, was also thrown back and the Prince of Orange was seriously wounded.",
"General Harlet brought up the 4th Grenadiers and the allied centre was now in serious danger of breaking.",
"General David Hendrik Chassé \nIt was at this moment that the timely arrival of the Dutch General Chassé turned the tide in favour of the Anglo-allied army.Chassé's relatively fresh Dutch division was sent against them, led by a battery of Dutch horse-artillery commanded by Captain Krahmer de Bichin.",
"The battery opened a destructive fire into the 1st/3rd Grenadiers' flank.",
"This still did not stop the Guard's advance, so Chassé ordered his first brigade (Colonel Hendrik Detmers) to charge the outnumbered French with the bayonet; the French grenadiers then faltered and broke.",
"The 4th Grenadiers, seeing their comrades retreat and having suffered heavy casualties themselves, now wheeled right about and retired.",
"British 10th Hussars of Vivian's Brigade (red shakos – blue uniforms) attacking mixed French troops, including a square of Guard grenadiers (left, middle distance) in the final stages of the battle.",
"To the left of the 4th Grenadiers were the two squares of the 1st/ and 2nd/3rd Chasseurs who angled further to the west and had suffered more from artillery fire than the grenadiers.",
"But as their advance mounted the ridge they found it apparently abandoned and covered with dead.",
"Suddenly 1,500 British Foot Guards under Maitland who had been lying down to protect themselves from the French artillery rose and devastated them with point-blank volleys.",
"The chasseurs deployed to answer the fire, but some 300 fell from the first volley, including Colonel Mallet and General Michel, and both battalion commanders.",
"A bayonet charge by the Foot Guards then broke the leaderless squares, which fell back onto the following column.",
"The 4th Chasseurs battalion, 800 strong, now came up onto the exposed battalions of British Foot Guards, who lost all cohesion and dashed back up the slope as a disorganized crowd with the chasseurs in pursuit.",
"At the crest the chasseurs came upon the battery that had caused severe casualties on the 1st and 2nd/3rd Chasseurs.",
"They opened fire and swept away the gunners.",
"The left flank of their square now came under fire from a heavy formation of British skirmishers, which the chasseurs drove back.",
"But the skirmishers were replaced by the 52nd Light Infantry, led by John Colborne, which wheeled in line onto the chasseurs' flank and poured a devastating fire into them.",
"The chasseurs returned a very sharp fire which killed or wounded some 150 men of the 52nd.",
"The 52nd then charged, and under this onslaught, the chasseurs broke.",
"The last of the Guard retreated headlong.",
"A ripple of panic passed through the French lines as the astounding news spread: \"''La Garde recule.",
"Sauve qui peut''!\"",
"(\"The Guard is retreating.",
"Every man for himself!\")",
"Wellington now stood up in Copenhagen's stirrups and waved his hat in the air to signal a general advance.",
"His army rushed forward from the lines and threw themselves upon the retreating French.",
"The surviving Imperial Guard rallied on their three reserve battalions (some sources say four) just south of La Haye Sainte for a last stand.",
"A charge from Adam's Brigade and the Hanoverian ''Landwehr'' Osnabrück Battalion, plus Vivian's and Vandeleur's relatively fresh cavalry brigades to their right, threw them into confusion.",
"Those left in semi-cohesive units retreated towards ''La Belle Alliance''.",
"It was during this retreat that some of the Guards were invited to surrender, eliciting the famous, if apocryphal, retort \"''La Garde meurt, elle ne se rend pas!''\"",
"(\"The Guard dies, it does not surrender!\")",
"===Prussian capture of Plancenoit===\nThe storming of Plancenoit by Ludwig Elsholtz\nAt about the same time, the Prussian 5th, 14th, and 16th Brigades were starting to push through Plancenoit, in the third assault of the day.",
"The church was by now on fire, while its graveyard—the French centre of resistance—had corpses strewn about \"as if by a whirlwind\".",
"Five Guard battalions were deployed in support of the Young Guard, virtually all of which was now committed to the defence, along with remnants of Lobau's corps.",
"The key to the Plancenoit position proved to be the Chantelet woods to the south.",
"Pirch's II Corps had arrived with two brigades and reinforced the attack of IV Corps, advancing through the woods.",
"The 25th Regiment's musketeer battalions threw the 1/2e Grenadiers (Old Guard) out of the Chantelet woods, outflanking Plancenoit and forcing a retreat.",
"The Old Guard retreated in good order until they met the mass of troops retreating in panic, and became part of that rout.",
"The Prussian IV Corps advanced beyond Plancenoit to find masses of French retreating in disorder from British pursuit.",
"The Prussians were unable to fire for fear of hitting Wellington's units.",
"This was the fifth and final time that Plancenoit changed hands.",
"French forces not retreating with the Guard were surrounded in their positions and eliminated, neither side asking for nor offering quarter.",
"The French Young Guard Division reported 96 per cent casualties, and two-thirds of Lobau's Corps ceased to exist.",
"Carabinier-à-Cheval'' cuirass holed by a cannonball at Waterloo, belonging to Antoine Fauveau (Musée de l'Armée)\n\n\n\n===French disintegration===\nLord Hill invites the last remnants of the French Imperial Guard to surrender, painted by Robert Alexander Hillingford.",
"The French right, left, and centre had all now failed.",
"The last cohesive French force consisted of two battalions of the Old Guard stationed around ''La Belle Alliance''; they had been so placed to act as a final reserve and to protect Napoleon in the event of a French retreat.",
"He hoped to rally the French army behind them, but as retreat turned into rout, they too were forced to withdraw, one on either side of ''La Belle Alliance'', in square as protection against Coalition cavalry.",
"Until persuaded that the battle was lost and he should leave, Napoleon commanded the square to the left of the inn.",
"Adam's Brigade charged and forced back this square, while the Prussians engaged the other.",
"As dusk fell, both squares withdrew in relatively good order, but the French artillery and everything else fell into the hands of the Prussian and Anglo-allied armies.",
"The retreating Guards were surrounded by thousands of fleeing, broken French troops.",
"Coalition cavalry harried the fugitives until about 23:00, with Gneisenau pursuing them as far as Genappe before ordering a halt.",
"There, Napoleon's abandoned carriage was captured, still containing an annotated copy of Machiavelli's ''The Prince'', and diamonds left behind in the rush to escape.",
"These diamonds became part of King Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia's crown jewels; one Major Keller of the F/15th received the Pour le Mérite with oak leaves for the feat.",
"By this time 78 guns and 2,000 prisoners had also been taken, including more generals.",
"Other sources agree that the meeting of the commanders took place near ''La Belle Alliance'', with this occurring at around 21:00.",
"\n\"The morning after the battle of Waterloo\", by John Heaviside Clark, 1816\n\nWaterloo cost Wellington around 15,000 dead or wounded and Blücher some 7,000 (810 of which were suffered by just one unit: the 18th Regiment, which served in Bülow's 15th Brigade, had fought at both Frichermont and Plancenoit, and won 33 Iron Crosses).",
"Napoleon's losses were 24,000 to 26,000 killed or wounded and included 6,000 to 7,000 captured with an additional 15,000 deserting subsequent to the battle and over the following days.",
"Invasion of France by the Seventh Coalition armies in 1815\n\nAt 10:30 on 19 June General Grouchy, still following his orders, defeated General Thielemann at Wavre and withdrew in good order—though at the cost of 33,000 French troops that never reached the Waterloo battlefield.",
"Wellington sent his official dispatch describing the battle to England on 19 June 1815; it arrived in London on 21 June 1815 and was published as a ''London Gazette Extraordinary'' on 22 June.",
"Wellington, Blücher and other Coalition forces advanced upon Paris.",
"Napoleon announced his second abdication on 24 June 1815.",
"In the final skirmish of the Napoleonic Wars, Marshal Davout, Napoleon's minister of war, was defeated by Blücher at Issy on 3 July 1815.",
"Allegedly, Napoleon tried to escape to North America, but the Royal Navy was blockading French ports to forestall such a move.",
"He finally surrendered to Captain Frederick Maitland of HMS ''Bellerophon'' on 15 July.",
"There was a campaign against French fortresses that still held out; Longwy capitulated on 13 September 1815, the last to do so.",
"Louis XVIII was restored to the throne of France and Napoleon was exiled to Saint Helena, where he died in 1821.",
"The Treaty of Paris was signed on 20 November 1815.",
"Sir David Wilkie, ''The Chelsea Pensioners reading the Waterloo Dispatch'', 1822\n\nMaitland's 1st Foot Guards, who had defeated the Chasseurs of the Guard, were thought to have defeated the Grenadiers, although they had only faced Chasseurs of the newly raised Middle Guard.",
"They were nevertheless awarded the title of Grenadier Guards in recognition of their feat and adopted bearskins in the style of the Grenadiers.",
"Britain's Household Cavalry likewise adopted the cuirass in 1821 in recognition of their success against their armoured French counterparts.",
"The effectiveness of the lance was noted by all participants and this weapon subsequently became more widespread throughout Europe; the British converted their first light cavalry regiment to lancers in 1816, their uniforms, of Polish origin, were based on those of the Imperial Guard lancers.",
"Teeth of tens of thousands of dead soldiers were removed by surviving troops, locals or even scavengers who had travelled there from Britain, then used for making denture replacements in Britain and elsewhere.",
"===Historical importance===\n\nWaterloo was a decisive battle in more than one sense.",
"Every generation in Europe up to the outbreak of the First World War looked back at Waterloo as the turning point that dictated the course of subsequent world history.",
"In retrospect, it was seen as the event that ushered in the Concert of Europe, an era characterised by relative peace, material prosperity and technological progress.",
"The battle definitively ended the series of wars that had convulsed Europe, and involved many other regions of the world, since the French Revolution of the early 1790s.",
"It also ended the First French Empire and the political and military career of Napoleon Bonaparte, one of the greatest commanders and statesmen in history.",
"It was followed by almost four decades of international peace in Europe.",
"No further major conflict occurred until the Crimean War.",
"Changes to the configuration of European states, as refashioned after Waterloo, included the formation of the Holy Alliance of reactionary governments intent on repressing revolutionary and democratic ideas, and the reshaping of the former Holy Roman Empire into a German Confederation increasingly marked by the political dominance of Prussia.",
"The bicentenary of Waterloo has prompted renewed attention to the geopolitical and economic legacy of the battle and the century of relative transatlantic peace which followed.",
"===Views on the reasons for Napoleon's defeat===\nGeneral Antoine-Henri, Baron Jomini, one of the leading military writers on the Napoleonic art of war, had a number of very cogent explanations of the reasons behind Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo.",
"The Prussian soldier, historian, and theorist Carl von Clausewitz, who as a young colonel had served as chief-of-staff to Thielmann's Prussian III Corps during the Waterloo campaign, expressed the following opinion:\n\n\n\nWellington himself wrote in his official dispatch back to London: \"I should not do justice to my own feelings, or to Marshal Blücher and the Prussian army, if I did not attribute the successful result of this arduous day to the cordial and timely assistance I received from them.",
"The operation of General Bülow upon the enemy's flank was a most decisive one; and, even if I had not found myself in a situation to make the attack which produced the final result, it would have forced the enemy to retire if his attacks should have failed, and would have prevented him from taking advantage of them if they should unfortunately have succeeded\".",
"Despite their differences on other matters, discussed at length in Carl von Clausewitz's study of the ''Campaign of 1815'' and ''Wellington's famous 1842 essay'' in reply to it, the Prussian Clausewitz agreed with Wellington on this assessment.",
"Indeed, Clausewitz viewed the battle prior to the Prussian intervention more as a mutually exhausting stalemate than as an impending French victory, with the advantage, if any, leaning towards Wellington.",
"An alternative view is that towards the end of the battle Wellington's Anglo-allied army faced imminent defeat without Prussian help.",
"For example, Parkinson (2000) writes: \"Neither army beat Napoleon alone.",
"But whatever the part played by Prussian troops in the actual moment when the Imperial Guard was repulsed, it is difficult to see how Wellington could have staved off defeat, when his centre had been almost shattered, his reserves were almost all committed, the French right remained unmolested and the Imperial Guard intact.",
"….",
"Blücher may not have been totally responsible for victory over Napoleon, but he deserved full credit for preventing a British defeat\".",
"Steele (2014) writes: \"Blücher's arrival not only diverted vital reinforcements, but also forced Napoleon to accelerate his effort against Wellington.",
"The tide of battle had been turned by the hard-driving Blücher.",
"As his Prussians pushed in Napoleon's flank.",
"Wellington was able to shift to the offensive\".",
"\nThe Lion's Mound at Waterloo\n\nSome portions of the terrain on the battlefield have been altered from their 1815 appearance.",
"Tourism began the day after the battle, with Captain Mercer noting that on 19 June \"a carriage drove on the ground from Brussels, the inmates of which, alighting, proceeded to examine the field\".",
"In 1820, the Netherlands' King William I ordered the construction of a monument.",
"The alleged remark by Wellington about the alteration of the battlefield as described by Hugo was never documented, however.",
"Other terrain features and notable landmarks on the field have remained virtually unchanged since the battle.",
"These include the rolling farmland to the east of the Brussels–Charleroi Road as well as the buildings at Hougoumont, La Haye Sainte, and La Belle Alliance.",
"Apart from the Lion Mound, there are several more conventional but noteworthy monuments throughout the battlefield.",
"A cluster of monuments at the Brussels–Charleroi and Braine L'Alleud–Ohain crossroads marks the mass graves of British, Dutch, Hanoverian and King's German Legion troops.",
"A monument to the French dead, entitled ''L'Aigle blessé'' (\"The Wounded Eagle\"), marks the location where it is believed one of the Imperial Guard units formed a square during the closing moments of the battle.",
"A monument to the Prussian dead is located in the village of Plancenoit on the site where one of their artillery batteries took position.",
"The Duhesme mausoleum is one among the few graves of the fallen.",
"It is located at the side of Saint Martin's Church in Ways, a hamlet in the municipality of Genappe.",
"Seventeen fallen officers are buried in the crypt of the British Monument in the Brussels Cemetery in Evere.",
"The remains of a 23-year-old soldier named Friederich Brandt were discovered in 2012.",
"He was a slightly hunchbacked infantryman, tall, and was hit in the chest by a French bullet.",
"His rifle, coins, and position on the battlefield identified him as an Hanoverian fighting in the King's German Legion.",
"As part of the bicentennial celebration of the battle, in 2015 Belgium minted a 2 Euro coin depicting the Lion monument over a map of the field of battle.",
"France officially protested this issue, while the Belgian government noted that the French mint sells souvenir medals at Waterloo.",
"After 180,000 coins were minted but not released, the issue was melted.",
"Instead, Belgium issued an identical commemorative coin in the non-standard value of 2½ Euros.",
"Legally only valid within the issuing country (but unlikely to circulate) it was minted in brass, packaged, and sold by the Belgian mint for 6 Euros.",
"A 10 Euro coin, showing Wellington, Blücher, their troops and the silhouette of Napoleon, was also available in silver for 42 Euros.",
"\n* Lord Uxbridge's leg was shattered by a grape-shot at the Battle of Waterloo and removed by a surgeon.",
"The artificial leg used by Uxbridge for the rest of his life was donated to a Waterloo Museum after his death.",
"There is also a leg on display at his house, Plas Newydd, on Anglesey.",
"* Order of battle of the Waterloo Campaign\n* Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815): involved Napoleon Bonaparte's French Empire against the United Kingdom and various combinations of other European powers in the Third to Seventh coalitions.",
"* Timeline of the Napoleonic era\n* Waterloo in popular culture: describes the cultural impact of the battle.",
"* Waterloo Medal awarded to those soldiers of the British Army who fought at the battle.",
"* Battle of Waterloo reenactment",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* .",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* (Project Gutenberg)\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* (Translated by Benet S.V.)",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* .",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*",
"'''Articles'''\n* Anonymous.",
"Napoleon's Guard at Waterloo 1815\n* Bijl, Marco, 8th Dutch Militia a history of the 8th Dutch Militia battalion and the Bylandt Brigade, of which it was a part, in the 1815 campaign (using original sources from the Dutch and Belgian national archives)\n\n* de Wit, Pierre.",
"The campaign of 1815: a study.",
"Study of the campaign of 1815, based on sources from all participating armies.",
"* based on \n\n'''Books'''\n* \n* \n* \n* This on-line text contains Clausewitz's 58-chapter study of the ''Campaign of 1815'' and Wellington's lengthy 1842 essay written in response to Clausewitz, as well as supporting documents and essays by the editors.",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n'''Historiography and memory'''\n* \n\n'''Maps'''\n* The map from the 1911 edition is also available online.",
"* Battle of Waterloo maps and diagrams\n* Map of the battlefield on modern Google map and satellite photographs showing main locations of the battlefield\n* 1816 Map of the battlefield with initial dispositions by Willem Benjamin Craan\n* \n\n'''Primary sources'''\n\n\n* Earliest report of the battle in a London newspaper from The Morning Post 22 June 1815\n* Casualty returns.",
"* \n* \n* – \"For records of medals awarded for service before 1914, search by name on the Ancestry website.",
"There are separate search pages for the Army (sourced from WO 100)...\"\n* Staff, '' Empire and Sea Power: The Battle of Waterloo'' Retrieved on 9 June 2006\n* BBC History Waterloo, Retrieved on 9 June 2006\n\n'''Uniforms'''\n* French, Prussian and Anglo-Allies uniforms during the Battle of Waterloo : Mont-Saint-Jean (FR)",
"\n* Interview with Andrew Roberts on ''Napoleon & Wellington: The Battle of Waterloo and the Great Commanders Who Fought It''\n* Official guides of the Waterloo battlefield.",
"* (British site)\n* \n* George Nafgizer collection Waterloo ORBATs for French, Allied."
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n \n'''Brian Charles Lara''', TC, OCC, AM (born 2 May 1969) is a Trinidadian former international cricket player. He is widely acknowledged as one of the greatest batsmen of all time. He topped the Test batting rankings on several occasions and holds several cricketing records, including the record for the highest individual score in first-class cricket, with 501 not out for Warwickshire against Durham at Edgbaston in 1994, which is the only quintuple hundred in first-class cricket history.\n\nLara also holds the record for the highest individual score in a Test innings after scoring 400 not out against England at Antigua in 2004. He is the only batsman to have ever scored a century, a double century, a triple century, a quadruple century and a quintuple century in first class games over the course of a senior career. Lara also shares the test record of scoring the highest number of runs in a single over in a Test match, when he scored 28 runs off an over by Robin Peterson of South Africa in 2003 (matched in 2013 by Australia's George Bailey).\n\nLara's match-winning performance of 153 not out against Australia in Bridgetown, Barbados in 1999 has been rated by Wisden as the second best batting performance in the history of Test cricket, next only to the 270 runs scored by Sir Donald Bradman in The Ashes Test match of 1937. Muttiah Muralitharan, rated as the greatest Test match bowler ever by ''Wisden Cricketers' Almanack'', and the highest wicket-taker in both Test cricket and in One Day Internationals (ODIs), has hailed Lara as his toughest opponent among all batsmen in the world. Lara was awarded the Wisden Leading Cricketer in the World awards in 1994 and 1995 and is also one of only three cricketers to receive the prestigious BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year, the other two being Sir Garfield Sobers and Shane Warne.\n\nBrian Lara was appointed honorary member of the Order of Australia on 27 November 2009. On 14 September 2012 he was inducted to the ICC's Hall of Fame at the awards ceremony held in Colombo, Sri Lanka as a 2012–13 season inductee along with Australians Glenn McGrath and former England women all-rounder Enid Bakewell. In 2013, Lara received Honorary Life Membership of the MCC becoming the 31st West Indian to receive the honor.\n\nBrian Lara is popularly nicknamed as \"The Prince of Port of Spain\" or simply \"The Prince\". He has the dubious distinction of playing in the second highest number of test matches (63) in which his team was on the losing side, just behind Shivnarine Chanderpaul (68).\n",
"Brian was 1 of 11 children. His father Bunty and one of his older sisters Agnes Cyrus enrolled him in the local Harvard Coaching Clinic at the age of six for weekly coaching sessions on Sundays. As a result, Lara had a very early education in correct batting technique. Lara's first school was St. Joseph's Roman Catholic primary. He then went to San Juan Secondary School, which is located on Moreau Road, Lower Santa Cruz. A year later, at fourteen years old, he moved on to Fatima College where he started his development as a promising young player under cricket coach Mr. Harry Ramdass. Aged 14, he amassed 745 runs in the schoolboys' league, with an average of 126.16 per innings, which earned him selection for the Trinidad national under-16 team. When he was 15 years old, he played in his first West Indian under-19 youth tournament and that same year, Lara represented West Indies in Under-19 cricket.\n",
"1987 was a breakthrough year for Lara, when in the West Indies Youth Championships he scored 498 runs breaking the record of 480 by Carl Hooper set the previous year. He captained the tournament-winning Trinidad and Tobago, who profited from a match-winning 116 from Lara.\n\nIn January 1988, Lara made his first-class debut for Trinidad and Tobago in the Red Stripe Cup against Leeward Islands. In his second first-class match he made 92 against a Barbados attack containing Joel Garner and Malcolm Marshall, two greats of West Indies teams. Later in the same year, he captained the West Indies team in Australia for the Bicentennial Youth World Cup where the West Indies reached the semi-finals. Later that year, his innings of 182 as captain of the West Indies Under-23s against the touring Indian team further elevated his reputation.\n\nHis first selection for the full West Indies team followed in due course, but unfortunately coincided with the death of his father and Lara withdrew from the team. In 1989, he captained a West Indies B Team in Zimbabwe and scored 145.\n\nIn 1990, at the age of 20, Lara became Trinidad and Tobago's youngest-ever captain, leading them that season to victory in the one-day Geddes Grant Shield. It was also in 1990 that he made his belated Test debut for West Indies against Pakistan, scoring 44 and 5. He had made his ODI debut a month earlier against Pakistan, scoring 11.\n",
"\n\nIn January 1993, Lara scored 277 versus Australia in Sydney. This, his maiden Test century in his fifth Test, was the turning point of the series as West Indies won the final two Tests to win the series 2–1. Lara went on to name his daughter Sydney after scoring 277 at SCG.\n\n\n'''Lara's results in international matches'''\n\n \nMatches\nWon\nLost\nDrawn\nTied\nNo result\n\nTest \n131\n32\n63\n36\n0\n–\n\nODI \n299\n139\n144\n–\n3\n13\n\nLara holds several world records for high scoring. He has the highest individual score in both first-class cricket (501 not out for Warwickshire against Durham in 1994) and Test cricket (400 not out for the West Indies against England in 2004). Lara amassed his world record 501 in 474 minutes off only 427 balls. He hit 308 in boundaries (10 sixes and 62 fours). His partners were Roger Twose (115 partnership – 2nd wicket), Trevor Penney (314 – 3rd), Paul Smith (51 – 4th) and Keith Piper (322 unbroken – 5th). Earlier in that season Lara scored six centuries in seven innings while playing for Warwickshire.\n\nIndia at Kensington Oval, Bridgetown, Barbados, in 2002.\n\nHe is the only man to have reclaimed the Test record score, having scored 375 against England in 1994, a record that stood until Matthew Hayden's 380 against Zimbabwe in 2003. His 400 not out also made him the second player (after Donald Bradman) to score two Test triple-centuries, and the second (after Bill Ponsford) to score two first-class quadruple-centuries. He has scored nine double centuries in Test cricket, third after Bradman's twelve and Kumar Sangakkara's eleven. As a captain, he scored five double centuries, which is the highest by any one who is in charge. In 1995 Lara in the Test match away series against England, scored 3 hundreds in Three consecutive Matches which earned him the Man of the Series award. The Test Series was eventually drawn 2–2. He also held the record for the highest total number of runs in a Test career, after overtaking Allan Border in an innings of 226 played at Adelaide Oval, Australia in November 2005. This would be later broken by Sachin Tendulkar of India on 17 October 2008 whilst playing against Australia at Mohali in the 2nd Test of the Border-Gavaskar Trophy 2008.\n\nLara captained the West Indies from 1998 to 1999, when West Indies suffered their first whitewash at the hands of South Africa. Following this they played Australia in a four-Test series which was drawn 2–2, with Lara scoring 546 runs including three centuries and one double hundred. In the second Test at Kingston he scored 213 while in the third Test he scored 153* in the second innings as West Indies chased down 311 with one wicket left. He won the Man of the Match award for both matches and was also named Man of the Series.\n\nThe Wisden 100 rates Lara's 153 not out against Australia in Bridgetown in 1998–99 as the second best innings ever after Sir Donald Bradman's 270 against England in Melbourne in 1936–37.\n\nIn 2001 Lara was named the Man of the Carlton Series in Australia with an average of 46.50, the highest average by a West Indian in that series, scoring two half centuries and one century, 116 against Australia. That same year Lara amassed 688 runs in the three match away Test series against Sri Lanka making three centuries, and one fifty – including the double century and a century in the first and second innings of the 3rd Test Match at the Sinhalese Sports Ground, equating to 42% of the team's runs in that series. These extraordinary performances led Muttiah Muralitharan to state that Lara was the most dangerous batsman he had ever bowled to.\n\nLara was reappointed as captain against the touring Australians in 2003, and struck 110 in his first Test match back in charge, showing a return to stellar performance. Later that season, under his captaincy, West Indies won the two match Test series against Sri Lanka 1–0 with Lara making a double century in the First Test. In September 2004, West Indies won the ICC Champions Trophy in England under his captaincy.\n\nIn March 2005, Lara declined selection for the West Indies team because of a dispute over his personal Cable & Wireless sponsorship deal, which clashed with the Cricket Board's main sponsor, Digicel. Six other players were involved in this dispute, including stars Chris Gayle, Ramnaresh Sarwan and Dwayne Bravo. Lara said he declined selection in a stand of solidarity, when these players were dropped because of their sponsorship deals. The issue was resolved after the first Test of the series against the touring South African team.\n\nLara returned to the team for the second Test (and scored a huge first innings score of 196), but in the process lost his captaincy indefinitely to the newly appointed Shivnarine Chanderpaul. In the next Test, against the same opponents, he scored a 176 in the first innings. After a one-day series against South Africa, he scored his first Test century against the visiting Pakistanis in the first Test at Kensington Oval, Bridgetown, Barbados which the West Indies eventually won.\n\nLara during his lap of honour in his final international match, 2007 Cricket World Cup.\n\nOn 26 April 2006 Lara was reappointed the captain of the West Indies cricket team for the third time. This followed the resignation of Shivnarine Chanderpaul, who had been captain for thirteen months – in which the West Indies won just one of the 14 Test matches they had competed. In May 2006, Lara led the West Indies to successful One-Day series victories against Zimbabwe and India. Lara's team played Australia in the finals of the DLF Cup and the ICC Champions Trophy where they finished runners up in both finals.\n\nOn 16 December 2006 he became the first player for the West Indies to pass 10,000 One Day International runs. along with Sachin Tendulkar one of only two players, at the time, to do so in both forms of the game. On 10 April 2007 Lara confirmed his retirement from one day cricket post the 2007 Cricket World Cup. A few days later he announced that he would in fact be retiring from all international cricket after the tournament.\n\nLara played his final international game on 21 April 2007 in a dead rubber World Cup game against England. He was run out for 18 after a mix up with Marlon Samuels; England won the game by 1 wicket. Before the end of this World Cup Glenn McGrath stated that Lara is the greatest batsman that he has ever bowled to.\n",
"On 19 April 2007 Lara announced his retirement from all forms of international cricket, indicating that the West Indies vs England match on 21 April 2007 would be his last international appearance. He was run out after a bad mixup with Marlon Samuels for 18, as England went on to win the match by one wicket.\n\nHe announced before the 2007 Cricket World Cup that this would be his last appearance in One Day Internationals. After his last match, in the post-game presentation interview, he asked the fans, \"Did I entertain?\", to which he received a resounding cheer from the crowd, after which he went out and took his 'lap of honour' where he met and shook hands with many of the fans. Lara stated this would be his last appearance in international cricket, he has also indicated his interest in retaining some involvement in the sport.\n\nOn 23 July 2007 Lara agreed to sign for the Indian Cricket League. He is the former captain of the Mumbai Champs. He volunteered to play for his home team Trinidad during the start of 2008 domestic season. He had not played for Trinidad for the last two years. He made his comeback a memorable one with a match winning hundred over Guyana, followed by a dismissive undefeated half-century in the second innings, scored at over two runs per ball. In the third-round game (Trinidad got a bye in the second round).\n\nLara suffered a fractured arm against the Leeward Islands in St Maarten on 19 January, which kept him out of the ICL season. He nevertheless affirmed his commitment to returning to Twenty20 cricket, and on 27 June 2010 appeared for the Marylebone Cricket Club match against a touring Pakistan team, scoring 37 from 32 balls.\n\nIn 2013, Lara became involved with the Bangladesh Premier League team Chittagong Kings as their ambassador.\n\nOn the occasion of bicentennial anniversary of Lord's ground he played for the team of MCC, under the leadership of Sachin Tendulkar against the Rest of World XI in a 50 over game.\n",
"After negotiations between Surrey and Lara for the 2010 Friends Provident t20 failed to come to anything, Lara declared that he still wanted to sign a contract to play Twenty20 cricket. Late in the year he joined Southern Rocks, a Zimbabwean side, to compete in the 2010–11 Stanbic Bank 20 Series. On his debut for the Rocks, and his first-ever Twenty20 match, he scored a half-century, top-scoring for the Rocks with 65. He added 34 runs in his next two innings, but then left the competition, citing \"commitments elsewhere\".\n\nAfter expressing his interest to play in the 2011 fourth edition of the Indian Premier League (IPL), and despite not having played active cricket for four years, Brian Lara still managed to attract the highest reserve price of $400,000 ahead of the IPL players' auction in early January 2011; however, no franchise bought him.\n\nIn July 2014, he played for the MCC side in the Bicentenary Celebration match at Lord's.\n\nOn 18 November 2016, Brian Lara signed with Newcastle C&S D5’s side The Bennett Hotel Centurions.\n",
"On the fourth day of the first Test match at Antigua Recreation Ground, St John's, Antigua during India's tour of West Indies, 2006, Mahendra Singh Dhoni's flick off Dave Mohammed to the midwicket region was caught by Daren Ganga. As the batsman started to walk back, captain Rahul Dravid declared the innings. The confusion started as the umpires were not certain if the fielder had stepped on the ropes and Dhoni stayed for the umpire's verdict. While the replays were inconclusive, Lara, the captain of the West Indies side, felt that Dhoni should walk off, based on the fielder's assertion of the catch. The impasse continued for more than 15 minutes. Ultimately, Dhoni walked off and Dravid's declaration was effected, although the game was delayed. Lara was called by the match referee for an explanation of his actions but was not fined.\n\nIn March 2015, Lara criticised the ICC for fining Pakistani cricket player Wahab Riaz after his 'shocking spell', as it was dubbed, when he managed to puzzle Australian player Shane Watson by giving him sarcastic claps, throwing the ball at him and sending him flying kisses. Watson was unable to cope with that and Riaz's high-quality bowling in the 2015 ICC World Cup. The team lost but Riaz was fined 50% of his match fee for his behaviour. Lara criticised this decision by the ICC and said it was 'uncalled for'. He said it was the only highlights of the game and said he would pay the fine himself. He said he wanted to meet Riaz himself.\n",
"\nBarack Obama and Lara during the US President's tour of Trinidad and Tobago in 2009. Obama had asked to meet Lara, whom he described as the \"Michael Jordan of cricket\".\n\nLara has established the Pearl and Bunty Lara Foundation, which is a charitable organisation in memory of his parents that aims to address health and social care issues. He is an Ambassador for Sport of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, and travels on a diplomatic passport to promote his country throughout the world. Brian Lara received an honorary doctorate from the University of Sheffield on Wednesday 10 January 2007. The ceremony took place at the Trinidad Hilton, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.\n\nOn 7 September 2008 he took part in Soccer Aid 2008, and on 6 June 2010 in Soccer Aid 2010, playing for the Rest of the World vs a team of England celebrities and ex pros. Lara was also a talented football player in his youth and often played with his close friends Dwight Yorke, Shaka Hislop and Russell Latapy while growing up together in Trinidad. Yorke, Hislop and Latapy would go on to play for Trinidad and Tobago at the 2006 FIFA World Cup.\n\nBrian Lara is also a golf player. He has participated in golfing tournaments throughout the caribbean region and has won titles. In September 2009, Lara was inducted as an honorary lifetime member of the Royal St. Kitts Golf Club.\nHe wrote an autobiography ''Beating the Field: My Own Story'' co-written with Brian Scovell.\n\nThe Brian Lara Stadium opened in 2017 was named in his honour.\n",
"Lara has dated former Durham County Cricket Club receptionist and British lingerie model Lynnsey Ward. During the West Indies tour to Australia in late 2000, Lara was accompanied by Ward.\n\nLara is the father of two girls one called Sydney (born 1996) whom he fathered with Trinidadian journalist and model Leasel Rovedas. Sydney was named as a tribute to one of Lara's favourite grounds, the Sydney Cricket Ground, where Lara scored his first Test century- the highly acclaimed 277 in the 1992–93 season. His second daughter Tyla was also with Leasel Rovedas she was born in 2010.\n\nHis father died in 1989 of a heart attack and his mother died in 2002 of cancer.\n\nIn 2009, Lara was made an honorary Member of the Order of Australia (AM) for services to West Indian and Australian cricket.\n",
"\nBrian Lara's career performance graph.\n\n* Lara struck 277 runs against Australia in Sydney, his '''maiden Test century''', the fourth highest maiden Test century by any batsman, the highest individual score in all Tests between the two teams and the fourth-highest century ever recorded against Australia by any Test batsman.\n* He became the '''first man to score seven centuries in eight first-class innings''', the first being the record 375 against England and the last being the record 501 not out against Durham.\n* After Matthew Hayden had eclipsed his '''Test record for highest individual score''' 375 by five runs in 2003, he '''reclaimed''' the record scoring 400 not out in 2004 against England. With these innings he became the second player to score two Test triple centuries, the first & only player to score two 350+ scores in test history, the second player to score two career quadruple centuries, the only player to achieve both these milestones, and regained the distinction of being the holder of both the record first-class individual innings and the record Test individual innings. He is the only player to break the world record twice.\n* He also set the record for the highest individual test score as captain(400*)\n* In the same innings, he became the second batsman to score 1000 Test runs in five different years, four days after Matthew Hayden first set the record.\n* He was the '''all-time leading run scorer in Test cricket''', a record he attained on 26 November 2005 until surpassed by Sachin Tendulkar on 17 October 2008.\n* He was the fastest batsman to score 10,000 (with Sachin Tendulkar) and 11,000 Test runs, in terms of number of innings.\n* He scored 34 centuries; joint-fifth along with Sunil Gavaskar, on the all-time list behind Sachin Tendulkar (51), Jacques Kallis (45), Ricky Ponting (41) and Rahul Dravid (36).\n** He has the '''most centuries for a West Indian'''\n** Nine of his centuries are double centuries (surpassed only by Kumar Sangakkara and Donald Bradman)\n** Two of them are triple-centuries (matched by Australia's Donald Bradman, India's Virender Sehwag, and West Indies' Chris Gayle).\n** He has scored '''centuries against all Test-playing nations'''. He achieved this feat in 2005 by scoring his first Test century against Pakistan at the Kensington Oval in Bridgetown, Barbados.\n* He became the sixth batsman to score a century in one session, doing so against Pakistan on 21 November 2006.\n* Lara has '''scored an 20% of his team runs''', a feat surpassed only by Bradman (23%) and George Headley (21%). Lara scored 688 runs (42% of team output, a record for a series of three or more Tests, and the second highest aggregate runs in history for a three-Test series) in the 2001–02 tour of Sri Lanka.\n* He also scored a century and a double century in the third Test in that same Sri Lanka tour, a feat repeated only five other times in Test cricket history.\n* He has scored the most runs (351) on a losing side in a Test.\n* He scored the largest proportion (53.83 per cent) of his team's runs in a Test (221 out of 390 and 130 out of 262). He eclipsed the long-standing record of 51.88 per cent by the South African J. H. Sinclair (106 out of 177 and 4 out of 35) against England at Cape Town in an 1898–1899 series.\n* Lara holds the '''world record of scoring most runs in a single over''' (28 runs against left-arm spinner RJ Peterson of South Africa) in Test cricket. He also scored 26 runs in a single over off the bowling of Danish Kaneria at Multan Cricket Stadium on 21 November 2006.\n* He scored the ninth fastest Test century, doing so off 77 balls against Pakistan on 21 November 2006.\n* With 164 catches, He is the eighth all-time catch-taker of non-wicketkeepers, behind Rahul Dravid, Mahela Jayawardene, Jacques Kallis, Ricky Ponting, Mark Waugh, Stephen Fleming and Graeme Smith.\n* In 1994, he was awarded the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality Award. In 1995, he was chosen as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year.\n* Comfortably averaging over 50 per innings (the benchmark for batting greatness in Test cricket), Lara has been ranked the '''number one batsman in Test cricket''' in the PricewaterhouseCoopers Cricket Ratings several times.\n* Lara has played some of his best innings in recent years. Wisden published a top 100 list in July 2001, a distillation of the best performances from 1,552 Tests, 54,494 innings and 29,730 bowling performances. Three innings by Lara were placed in the top 15 (the most for any batsman in that range). His 153 not out in Bridgetown, Barbados, during West Indies' 2–2 home series draw against Australia in *1998–1999 was deemed the second greatest Test innings ever played, behind Bradman's 270 against England in the Third Test of the 1936–1937 series at Melbourne.\n",
"\n\n===Test Cricket===\n\n\nMan of the Match awards – Brian Lara\n\nYear\n\n '''1''' \n 277 \n \n Sydney, Australia \n Sydney Cricket Ground \n Match Drawn \n1993\n\n '''2''' \n 167 \n \n Georgetown, Guyana \n Bourda \n West Indies won by an innings and 44 runs \n 1994\n\n '''3''' \n 375 \n \n St John's, Antigua \n Antigua Recreation Ground \n Match Drawn \n1994\n\n '''4''' \n 179 \n \n London, England \n Kennington Oval \n Match Drawn \n1995\n\n '''5''' \n 104 \n \n St John’s, Antigua \n Antigua Recreation Ground \n Match Drawn \n1997\n\n '''6''' \n 213 \n \n Kingston, Jamaica \n Sabina Park \n West Indies won by 10 wickets \n1999\n\n '''7''' \n 8/153* \n \n Bridgetown, Barbados \n Kensington Oval \n West Indies won by 1 wicket \n1999\n\n '''8''' \n 221/130 \n \n Colombo, Sri Lanka \n Sinhalese Sport Club Ground \n Sri Lanka won by 10 wickets \n2001\n\n '''9''' \n 209 \n \n Gros Islet, Saint Lucia \n Beausejour Stadium \n Match Drawn \n2003\n\n '''10''' \n 191/1 \n \n Bulawayo, Zimbabwe \n Queens Sports Club \n West Indies won by 128 runs \n2003\n\n '''11''' \n 400* \n \n St John’s, Antigua \n Antigua Recreation Ground \n Match Drawn \n2004\n\n '''12''' \n 226/17 \n \n Adelaide, Australia \n Adelaide Oval \n Australia won by 7 wickets\n2005\n\n\n===One-Day International Cricket===\n\n\nMan of the Match Awards – Brian Lara\n\nYear\n\n '''1''' \n 54 \n \n Karachi, Pakistan \n National Stadium \n West Indies won by 24 runs \n1991\n\n '''2''' \n 69 \n \n Brisbane, Australia \n Brisbane Cricket Ground \n West Indies won by 12 runs \n 1992\n\n '''3''' \n 88 \n \n Melbourne, Australia \n Melbourne Cricket Ground \n West Indies won by 10 wickets \n1992\n\n '''4''' \n 72 \n \n Brisbane, Australia \n Brisbane Cricket Ground \n West Indies won by 75 runs \n1992\n\n '''5''' \n 86 \n \n Port of Spain, Trinidad \n Queens Park Oval \n West Indies won by 10 wickets \n1992\n\n '''6''' \n 128 \n \n Durban, South Africa \n Kingsmead \n West Indies won by 124 runs \n1993\n\n '''7''' \n 111* \n \n Bloemfontein, South Africa \n Springbok Park \n West Indies won by 9 wickets\n1993\n\n '''8''' \n 114 \n \n Kingston, Jamaica \n Sabina Park \n West Indies won by 4 wickets \n1993\n\n '''9''' \n 95* \n \n Port of Spain, Trinidad \n Queens Park Oval \n West Indies won by 5 wickets \n1993\n\n '''10''' \n 153 \n \n Sharjah, UAE \n Sharjah C.A. Stadium \n West Indies won by 6 wickets \n1993\n\n '''11''' \n 82 \n \n Kolkata, India \n Eden Gardens \n West Indies won by 7 wickets \n1993\n\n '''12''' \n 55* \n \n Auckland, New Zealand \n Eden Park \n West Indies won by 25 runs \n1995\n\n '''13''' \n 72 \n \n Wellington, New Zealand \n Basin Reserve\n West Indies won by 41 runs \n1995\n\n '''14''' \n 139 \n \n Port of Spain, Trinidad \n Queens Park Oval \n West Indies won by 133 runs \n 1995\n\n '''15''' \n 169 \n \n Sharjah, UAE \n Sharjah C. A. Stadium\n West Indies won by 4 runs \n1995\n\n '''16''' \n 111 \n \n Karachi, Pakistan \n National Stadium \n West Indies won by 19 runs \n1996\n\n '''17''' \n 146* \n \n Port of Spain, Trinidad \n Queens Park Oval \n West Indies won by 7 wickets \n1996\n\n '''18''' \n 103* \n \n Perth, Australia \n W.A.C.A Grounds \n West Indies won by 5 wickets \n1997\n\n '''19''' \n 90 \n \n Perth, Australia \n W.A.C.A Grounds \n West Indies won by 4 wickets \n1997\n\n '''20''' \n 88 \n \n Sharjah, UAE \n Sharjah C.A. Stadium \n West Indies won by 43 runs \n1997\n\n '''21''' \n 51 \n \n Kingstown, Saint Vincent \n Arnos Vale Ground \n West Indies won by 4 wickets \n 1998\n\n '''22''' \n 60 \n \n Singapore \n Kallang Ground \n West Indies won by 42 runs \n 1999\n\n '''23''' \n 117 \n \n Dhaka, Bangladesh \n Bangabandhu National Stadium \n West Indies won by 109 runs \n1999\n\n '''24''' \n 116* \n \n Sydney, Australia \n Sydney Cricket Ground \n Australia won by 28 runs\n2001\n\n '''25''' \n 83* \n \n Perth, Australia \n W.A.C.A Grounds \n West Indies won by 44 runs \n2001\n\n '''26''' \n 59* \n \n Gros Islet, Saint Lucia \n Beausejour Stadium \n West Indies won by 7 wickets \n2002\n\n '''27''' \n 103* \n \n Colombo, Sri Lanka \n Sinhalese Sports Club Ground \n West Indies won by 29 runs \n2002\n\n '''28''' \n 116 \n \n Cape Town, South Africa \n Newlands \n West Indies won by 3 runs \n2003\n\n '''29''' \n 80 \n \n Port of Spain, Trinidad \n Queens Park Oval \n West Indies won by 39 runs \n2003\n\n '''30''' \n 156 \n \n Adelaide, Australia \n Adelaide Oval \n West Indies won by 58 runs \n 2005\n\n\n",
"Lara was inducted into ICC Hall of Fame in January 2012.\n",
"\n* ''Brian Lara Cricket series of video games''\n* Brian Lara Stadium\n\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n* \n* Brian Lara's Test Statistics (by HowSTAT!)\n* \n\n\n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n\n\n \n\n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life",
"Early first-class career",
"International career",
"Retirement",
"2010 return",
"Controversies",
"Off the field",
"Personal life",
"Records",
"Man of the match awards",
"ICC Hall of Fame",
"See also",
"Notes and references",
"External links"
] | Brian Lara | [
"Late in the year he joined Southern Rocks, a Zimbabwean side, to compete in the 2010–11 Stanbic Bank 20 Series."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n \n'''Brian Charles Lara''', TC, OCC, AM (born 2 May 1969) is a Trinidadian former international cricket player.",
"He is widely acknowledged as one of the greatest batsmen of all time.",
"He topped the Test batting rankings on several occasions and holds several cricketing records, including the record for the highest individual score in first-class cricket, with 501 not out for Warwickshire against Durham at Edgbaston in 1994, which is the only quintuple hundred in first-class cricket history.",
"Lara also holds the record for the highest individual score in a Test innings after scoring 400 not out against England at Antigua in 2004.",
"He is the only batsman to have ever scored a century, a double century, a triple century, a quadruple century and a quintuple century in first class games over the course of a senior career.",
"Lara also shares the test record of scoring the highest number of runs in a single over in a Test match, when he scored 28 runs off an over by Robin Peterson of South Africa in 2003 (matched in 2013 by Australia's George Bailey).",
"Lara's match-winning performance of 153 not out against Australia in Bridgetown, Barbados in 1999 has been rated by Wisden as the second best batting performance in the history of Test cricket, next only to the 270 runs scored by Sir Donald Bradman in The Ashes Test match of 1937.",
"Muttiah Muralitharan, rated as the greatest Test match bowler ever by ''Wisden Cricketers' Almanack'', and the highest wicket-taker in both Test cricket and in One Day Internationals (ODIs), has hailed Lara as his toughest opponent among all batsmen in the world.",
"Lara was awarded the Wisden Leading Cricketer in the World awards in 1994 and 1995 and is also one of only three cricketers to receive the prestigious BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year, the other two being Sir Garfield Sobers and Shane Warne.",
"Brian Lara was appointed honorary member of the Order of Australia on 27 November 2009.",
"On 14 September 2012 he was inducted to the ICC's Hall of Fame at the awards ceremony held in Colombo, Sri Lanka as a 2012–13 season inductee along with Australians Glenn McGrath and former England women all-rounder Enid Bakewell.",
"In 2013, Lara received Honorary Life Membership of the MCC becoming the 31st West Indian to receive the honor.",
"Brian Lara is popularly nicknamed as \"The Prince of Port of Spain\" or simply \"The Prince\".",
"He has the dubious distinction of playing in the second highest number of test matches (63) in which his team was on the losing side, just behind Shivnarine Chanderpaul (68).",
"Brian was 1 of 11 children.",
"His father Bunty and one of his older sisters Agnes Cyrus enrolled him in the local Harvard Coaching Clinic at the age of six for weekly coaching sessions on Sundays.",
"As a result, Lara had a very early education in correct batting technique.",
"Lara's first school was St. Joseph's Roman Catholic primary.",
"He then went to San Juan Secondary School, which is located on Moreau Road, Lower Santa Cruz.",
"A year later, at fourteen years old, he moved on to Fatima College where he started his development as a promising young player under cricket coach Mr. Harry Ramdass.",
"Aged 14, he amassed 745 runs in the schoolboys' league, with an average of 126.16 per innings, which earned him selection for the Trinidad national under-16 team.",
"When he was 15 years old, he played in his first West Indian under-19 youth tournament and that same year, Lara represented West Indies in Under-19 cricket.",
"1987 was a breakthrough year for Lara, when in the West Indies Youth Championships he scored 498 runs breaking the record of 480 by Carl Hooper set the previous year.",
"He captained the tournament-winning Trinidad and Tobago, who profited from a match-winning 116 from Lara.",
"In January 1988, Lara made his first-class debut for Trinidad and Tobago in the Red Stripe Cup against Leeward Islands.",
"In his second first-class match he made 92 against a Barbados attack containing Joel Garner and Malcolm Marshall, two greats of West Indies teams.",
"Later in the same year, he captained the West Indies team in Australia for the Bicentennial Youth World Cup where the West Indies reached the semi-finals.",
"Later that year, his innings of 182 as captain of the West Indies Under-23s against the touring Indian team further elevated his reputation.",
"His first selection for the full West Indies team followed in due course, but unfortunately coincided with the death of his father and Lara withdrew from the team.",
"In 1989, he captained a West Indies B Team in Zimbabwe and scored 145.",
"In 1990, at the age of 20, Lara became Trinidad and Tobago's youngest-ever captain, leading them that season to victory in the one-day Geddes Grant Shield.",
"It was also in 1990 that he made his belated Test debut for West Indies against Pakistan, scoring 44 and 5.",
"He had made his ODI debut a month earlier against Pakistan, scoring 11.",
"\n\nIn January 1993, Lara scored 277 versus Australia in Sydney.",
"This, his maiden Test century in his fifth Test, was the turning point of the series as West Indies won the final two Tests to win the series 2–1.",
"Lara went on to name his daughter Sydney after scoring 277 at SCG.",
"'''Lara's results in international matches'''\n\n \nMatches\nWon\nLost\nDrawn\nTied\nNo result\n\nTest \n131\n32\n63\n36\n0\n–\n\nODI \n299\n139\n144\n–\n3\n13\n\nLara holds several world records for high scoring.",
"He has the highest individual score in both first-class cricket (501 not out for Warwickshire against Durham in 1994) and Test cricket (400 not out for the West Indies against England in 2004).",
"Lara amassed his world record 501 in 474 minutes off only 427 balls.",
"He hit 308 in boundaries (10 sixes and 62 fours).",
"His partners were Roger Twose (115 partnership – 2nd wicket), Trevor Penney (314 – 3rd), Paul Smith (51 – 4th) and Keith Piper (322 unbroken – 5th).",
"Earlier in that season Lara scored six centuries in seven innings while playing for Warwickshire.",
"India at Kensington Oval, Bridgetown, Barbados, in 2002.",
"He is the only man to have reclaimed the Test record score, having scored 375 against England in 1994, a record that stood until Matthew Hayden's 380 against Zimbabwe in 2003.",
"His 400 not out also made him the second player (after Donald Bradman) to score two Test triple-centuries, and the second (after Bill Ponsford) to score two first-class quadruple-centuries.",
"He has scored nine double centuries in Test cricket, third after Bradman's twelve and Kumar Sangakkara's eleven.",
"As a captain, he scored five double centuries, which is the highest by any one who is in charge.",
"In 1995 Lara in the Test match away series against England, scored 3 hundreds in Three consecutive Matches which earned him the Man of the Series award.",
"The Test Series was eventually drawn 2–2.",
"He also held the record for the highest total number of runs in a Test career, after overtaking Allan Border in an innings of 226 played at Adelaide Oval, Australia in November 2005.",
"This would be later broken by Sachin Tendulkar of India on 17 October 2008 whilst playing against Australia at Mohali in the 2nd Test of the Border-Gavaskar Trophy 2008.",
"Lara captained the West Indies from 1998 to 1999, when West Indies suffered their first whitewash at the hands of South Africa.",
"Following this they played Australia in a four-Test series which was drawn 2–2, with Lara scoring 546 runs including three centuries and one double hundred.",
"In the second Test at Kingston he scored 213 while in the third Test he scored 153* in the second innings as West Indies chased down 311 with one wicket left.",
"He won the Man of the Match award for both matches and was also named Man of the Series.",
"The Wisden 100 rates Lara's 153 not out against Australia in Bridgetown in 1998–99 as the second best innings ever after Sir Donald Bradman's 270 against England in Melbourne in 1936–37.",
"In 2001 Lara was named the Man of the Carlton Series in Australia with an average of 46.50, the highest average by a West Indian in that series, scoring two half centuries and one century, 116 against Australia.",
"That same year Lara amassed 688 runs in the three match away Test series against Sri Lanka making three centuries, and one fifty – including the double century and a century in the first and second innings of the 3rd Test Match at the Sinhalese Sports Ground, equating to 42% of the team's runs in that series.",
"These extraordinary performances led Muttiah Muralitharan to state that Lara was the most dangerous batsman he had ever bowled to.",
"Lara was reappointed as captain against the touring Australians in 2003, and struck 110 in his first Test match back in charge, showing a return to stellar performance.",
"Later that season, under his captaincy, West Indies won the two match Test series against Sri Lanka 1–0 with Lara making a double century in the First Test.",
"In September 2004, West Indies won the ICC Champions Trophy in England under his captaincy.",
"In March 2005, Lara declined selection for the West Indies team because of a dispute over his personal Cable & Wireless sponsorship deal, which clashed with the Cricket Board's main sponsor, Digicel.",
"Six other players were involved in this dispute, including stars Chris Gayle, Ramnaresh Sarwan and Dwayne Bravo.",
"Lara said he declined selection in a stand of solidarity, when these players were dropped because of their sponsorship deals.",
"The issue was resolved after the first Test of the series against the touring South African team.",
"Lara returned to the team for the second Test (and scored a huge first innings score of 196), but in the process lost his captaincy indefinitely to the newly appointed Shivnarine Chanderpaul.",
"In the next Test, against the same opponents, he scored a 176 in the first innings.",
"After a one-day series against South Africa, he scored his first Test century against the visiting Pakistanis in the first Test at Kensington Oval, Bridgetown, Barbados which the West Indies eventually won.",
"Lara during his lap of honour in his final international match, 2007 Cricket World Cup.",
"On 26 April 2006 Lara was reappointed the captain of the West Indies cricket team for the third time.",
"This followed the resignation of Shivnarine Chanderpaul, who had been captain for thirteen months – in which the West Indies won just one of the 14 Test matches they had competed.",
"In May 2006, Lara led the West Indies to successful One-Day series victories against Zimbabwe and India.",
"Lara's team played Australia in the finals of the DLF Cup and the ICC Champions Trophy where they finished runners up in both finals.",
"On 16 December 2006 he became the first player for the West Indies to pass 10,000 One Day International runs.",
"along with Sachin Tendulkar one of only two players, at the time, to do so in both forms of the game.",
"On 10 April 2007 Lara confirmed his retirement from one day cricket post the 2007 Cricket World Cup.",
"A few days later he announced that he would in fact be retiring from all international cricket after the tournament.",
"Lara played his final international game on 21 April 2007 in a dead rubber World Cup game against England.",
"He was run out for 18 after a mix up with Marlon Samuels; England won the game by 1 wicket.",
"Before the end of this World Cup Glenn McGrath stated that Lara is the greatest batsman that he has ever bowled to.",
"On 19 April 2007 Lara announced his retirement from all forms of international cricket, indicating that the West Indies vs England match on 21 April 2007 would be his last international appearance.",
"He was run out after a bad mixup with Marlon Samuels for 18, as England went on to win the match by one wicket.",
"He announced before the 2007 Cricket World Cup that this would be his last appearance in One Day Internationals.",
"After his last match, in the post-game presentation interview, he asked the fans, \"Did I entertain?",
"\", to which he received a resounding cheer from the crowd, after which he went out and took his 'lap of honour' where he met and shook hands with many of the fans.",
"Lara stated this would be his last appearance in international cricket, he has also indicated his interest in retaining some involvement in the sport.",
"On 23 July 2007 Lara agreed to sign for the Indian Cricket League.",
"He is the former captain of the Mumbai Champs.",
"He volunteered to play for his home team Trinidad during the start of 2008 domestic season.",
"He had not played for Trinidad for the last two years.",
"He made his comeback a memorable one with a match winning hundred over Guyana, followed by a dismissive undefeated half-century in the second innings, scored at over two runs per ball.",
"In the third-round game (Trinidad got a bye in the second round).",
"Lara suffered a fractured arm against the Leeward Islands in St Maarten on 19 January, which kept him out of the ICL season.",
"He nevertheless affirmed his commitment to returning to Twenty20 cricket, and on 27 June 2010 appeared for the Marylebone Cricket Club match against a touring Pakistan team, scoring 37 from 32 balls.",
"In 2013, Lara became involved with the Bangladesh Premier League team Chittagong Kings as their ambassador.",
"On the occasion of bicentennial anniversary of Lord's ground he played for the team of MCC, under the leadership of Sachin Tendulkar against the Rest of World XI in a 50 over game.",
"After negotiations between Surrey and Lara for the 2010 Friends Provident t20 failed to come to anything, Lara declared that he still wanted to sign a contract to play Twenty20 cricket.",
"On his debut for the Rocks, and his first-ever Twenty20 match, he scored a half-century, top-scoring for the Rocks with 65.",
"He added 34 runs in his next two innings, but then left the competition, citing \"commitments elsewhere\".",
"After expressing his interest to play in the 2011 fourth edition of the Indian Premier League (IPL), and despite not having played active cricket for four years, Brian Lara still managed to attract the highest reserve price of $400,000 ahead of the IPL players' auction in early January 2011; however, no franchise bought him.",
"In July 2014, he played for the MCC side in the Bicentenary Celebration match at Lord's.",
"On 18 November 2016, Brian Lara signed with Newcastle C&S D5’s side The Bennett Hotel Centurions.",
"On the fourth day of the first Test match at Antigua Recreation Ground, St John's, Antigua during India's tour of West Indies, 2006, Mahendra Singh Dhoni's flick off Dave Mohammed to the midwicket region was caught by Daren Ganga.",
"As the batsman started to walk back, captain Rahul Dravid declared the innings.",
"The confusion started as the umpires were not certain if the fielder had stepped on the ropes and Dhoni stayed for the umpire's verdict.",
"While the replays were inconclusive, Lara, the captain of the West Indies side, felt that Dhoni should walk off, based on the fielder's assertion of the catch.",
"The impasse continued for more than 15 minutes.",
"Ultimately, Dhoni walked off and Dravid's declaration was effected, although the game was delayed.",
"Lara was called by the match referee for an explanation of his actions but was not fined.",
"In March 2015, Lara criticised the ICC for fining Pakistani cricket player Wahab Riaz after his 'shocking spell', as it was dubbed, when he managed to puzzle Australian player Shane Watson by giving him sarcastic claps, throwing the ball at him and sending him flying kisses.",
"Watson was unable to cope with that and Riaz's high-quality bowling in the 2015 ICC World Cup.",
"The team lost but Riaz was fined 50% of his match fee for his behaviour.",
"Lara criticised this decision by the ICC and said it was 'uncalled for'.",
"He said it was the only highlights of the game and said he would pay the fine himself.",
"He said he wanted to meet Riaz himself.",
"\nBarack Obama and Lara during the US President's tour of Trinidad and Tobago in 2009.",
"Obama had asked to meet Lara, whom he described as the \"Michael Jordan of cricket\".",
"Lara has established the Pearl and Bunty Lara Foundation, which is a charitable organisation in memory of his parents that aims to address health and social care issues.",
"He is an Ambassador for Sport of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, and travels on a diplomatic passport to promote his country throughout the world.",
"Brian Lara received an honorary doctorate from the University of Sheffield on Wednesday 10 January 2007.",
"The ceremony took place at the Trinidad Hilton, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.",
"On 7 September 2008 he took part in Soccer Aid 2008, and on 6 June 2010 in Soccer Aid 2010, playing for the Rest of the World vs a team of England celebrities and ex pros.",
"Lara was also a talented football player in his youth and often played with his close friends Dwight Yorke, Shaka Hislop and Russell Latapy while growing up together in Trinidad.",
"Yorke, Hislop and Latapy would go on to play for Trinidad and Tobago at the 2006 FIFA World Cup.",
"Brian Lara is also a golf player.",
"He has participated in golfing tournaments throughout the caribbean region and has won titles.",
"In September 2009, Lara was inducted as an honorary lifetime member of the Royal St. Kitts Golf Club.",
"He wrote an autobiography ''Beating the Field: My Own Story'' co-written with Brian Scovell.",
"The Brian Lara Stadium opened in 2017 was named in his honour.",
"Lara has dated former Durham County Cricket Club receptionist and British lingerie model Lynnsey Ward.",
"During the West Indies tour to Australia in late 2000, Lara was accompanied by Ward.",
"Lara is the father of two girls one called Sydney (born 1996) whom he fathered with Trinidadian journalist and model Leasel Rovedas.",
"Sydney was named as a tribute to one of Lara's favourite grounds, the Sydney Cricket Ground, where Lara scored his first Test century- the highly acclaimed 277 in the 1992–93 season.",
"His second daughter Tyla was also with Leasel Rovedas she was born in 2010.",
"His father died in 1989 of a heart attack and his mother died in 2002 of cancer.",
"In 2009, Lara was made an honorary Member of the Order of Australia (AM) for services to West Indian and Australian cricket.",
"\nBrian Lara's career performance graph.",
"* Lara struck 277 runs against Australia in Sydney, his '''maiden Test century''', the fourth highest maiden Test century by any batsman, the highest individual score in all Tests between the two teams and the fourth-highest century ever recorded against Australia by any Test batsman.",
"* He became the '''first man to score seven centuries in eight first-class innings''', the first being the record 375 against England and the last being the record 501 not out against Durham.",
"* After Matthew Hayden had eclipsed his '''Test record for highest individual score''' 375 by five runs in 2003, he '''reclaimed''' the record scoring 400 not out in 2004 against England.",
"With these innings he became the second player to score two Test triple centuries, the first & only player to score two 350+ scores in test history, the second player to score two career quadruple centuries, the only player to achieve both these milestones, and regained the distinction of being the holder of both the record first-class individual innings and the record Test individual innings.",
"He is the only player to break the world record twice.",
"* He also set the record for the highest individual test score as captain(400*)\n* In the same innings, he became the second batsman to score 1000 Test runs in five different years, four days after Matthew Hayden first set the record.",
"* He was the '''all-time leading run scorer in Test cricket''', a record he attained on 26 November 2005 until surpassed by Sachin Tendulkar on 17 October 2008.",
"* He was the fastest batsman to score 10,000 (with Sachin Tendulkar) and 11,000 Test runs, in terms of number of innings.",
"* He scored 34 centuries; joint-fifth along with Sunil Gavaskar, on the all-time list behind Sachin Tendulkar (51), Jacques Kallis (45), Ricky Ponting (41) and Rahul Dravid (36).",
"** He has the '''most centuries for a West Indian'''\n** Nine of his centuries are double centuries (surpassed only by Kumar Sangakkara and Donald Bradman)\n** Two of them are triple-centuries (matched by Australia's Donald Bradman, India's Virender Sehwag, and West Indies' Chris Gayle).",
"** He has scored '''centuries against all Test-playing nations'''.",
"He achieved this feat in 2005 by scoring his first Test century against Pakistan at the Kensington Oval in Bridgetown, Barbados.",
"* He became the sixth batsman to score a century in one session, doing so against Pakistan on 21 November 2006.",
"* Lara has '''scored an 20% of his team runs''', a feat surpassed only by Bradman (23%) and George Headley (21%).",
"Lara scored 688 runs (42% of team output, a record for a series of three or more Tests, and the second highest aggregate runs in history for a three-Test series) in the 2001–02 tour of Sri Lanka.",
"* He also scored a century and a double century in the third Test in that same Sri Lanka tour, a feat repeated only five other times in Test cricket history.",
"* He has scored the most runs (351) on a losing side in a Test.",
"* He scored the largest proportion (53.83 per cent) of his team's runs in a Test (221 out of 390 and 130 out of 262).",
"He eclipsed the long-standing record of 51.88 per cent by the South African J. H. Sinclair (106 out of 177 and 4 out of 35) against England at Cape Town in an 1898–1899 series.",
"* Lara holds the '''world record of scoring most runs in a single over''' (28 runs against left-arm spinner RJ Peterson of South Africa) in Test cricket.",
"He also scored 26 runs in a single over off the bowling of Danish Kaneria at Multan Cricket Stadium on 21 November 2006.",
"* He scored the ninth fastest Test century, doing so off 77 balls against Pakistan on 21 November 2006.",
"* With 164 catches, He is the eighth all-time catch-taker of non-wicketkeepers, behind Rahul Dravid, Mahela Jayawardene, Jacques Kallis, Ricky Ponting, Mark Waugh, Stephen Fleming and Graeme Smith.",
"* In 1994, he was awarded the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality Award.",
"In 1995, he was chosen as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year.",
"* Comfortably averaging over 50 per innings (the benchmark for batting greatness in Test cricket), Lara has been ranked the '''number one batsman in Test cricket''' in the PricewaterhouseCoopers Cricket Ratings several times.",
"* Lara has played some of his best innings in recent years.",
"Wisden published a top 100 list in July 2001, a distillation of the best performances from 1,552 Tests, 54,494 innings and 29,730 bowling performances.",
"Three innings by Lara were placed in the top 15 (the most for any batsman in that range).",
"His 153 not out in Bridgetown, Barbados, during West Indies' 2–2 home series draw against Australia in *1998–1999 was deemed the second greatest Test innings ever played, behind Bradman's 270 against England in the Third Test of the 1936–1937 series at Melbourne.",
"\n\n===Test Cricket===\n\n\nMan of the Match awards – Brian Lara\n\nYear\n\n '''1''' \n 277 \n \n Sydney, Australia \n Sydney Cricket Ground \n Match Drawn \n1993\n\n '''2''' \n 167 \n \n Georgetown, Guyana \n Bourda \n West Indies won by an innings and 44 runs \n 1994\n\n '''3''' \n 375 \n \n St John's, Antigua \n Antigua Recreation Ground \n Match Drawn \n1994\n\n '''4''' \n 179 \n \n London, England \n Kennington Oval \n Match Drawn \n1995\n\n '''5''' \n 104 \n \n St John’s, Antigua \n Antigua Recreation Ground \n Match Drawn \n1997\n\n '''6''' \n 213 \n \n Kingston, Jamaica \n Sabina Park \n West Indies won by 10 wickets \n1999\n\n '''7''' \n 8/153* \n \n Bridgetown, Barbados \n Kensington Oval \n West Indies won by 1 wicket \n1999\n\n '''8''' \n 221/130 \n \n Colombo, Sri Lanka \n Sinhalese Sport Club Ground \n Sri Lanka won by 10 wickets \n2001\n\n '''9''' \n 209 \n \n Gros Islet, Saint Lucia \n Beausejour Stadium \n Match Drawn \n2003\n\n '''10''' \n 191/1 \n \n Bulawayo, Zimbabwe \n Queens Sports Club \n West Indies won by 128 runs \n2003\n\n '''11''' \n 400* \n \n St John’s, Antigua \n Antigua Recreation Ground \n Match Drawn \n2004\n\n '''12''' \n 226/17 \n \n Adelaide, Australia \n Adelaide Oval \n Australia won by 7 wickets\n2005\n\n\n===One-Day International Cricket===\n\n\nMan of the Match Awards – Brian Lara\n\nYear\n\n '''1''' \n 54 \n \n Karachi, Pakistan \n National Stadium \n West Indies won by 24 runs \n1991\n\n '''2''' \n 69 \n \n Brisbane, Australia \n Brisbane Cricket Ground \n West Indies won by 12 runs \n 1992\n\n '''3''' \n 88 \n \n Melbourne, Australia \n Melbourne Cricket Ground \n West Indies won by 10 wickets \n1992\n\n '''4''' \n 72 \n \n Brisbane, Australia \n Brisbane Cricket Ground \n West Indies won by 75 runs \n1992\n\n '''5''' \n 86 \n \n Port of Spain, Trinidad \n Queens Park Oval \n West Indies won by 10 wickets \n1992\n\n '''6''' \n 128 \n \n Durban, South Africa \n Kingsmead \n West Indies won by 124 runs \n1993\n\n '''7''' \n 111* \n \n Bloemfontein, South Africa \n Springbok Park \n West Indies won by 9 wickets\n1993\n\n '''8''' \n 114 \n \n Kingston, Jamaica \n Sabina Park \n West Indies won by 4 wickets \n1993\n\n '''9''' \n 95* \n \n Port of Spain, Trinidad \n Queens Park Oval \n West Indies won by 5 wickets \n1993\n\n '''10''' \n 153 \n \n Sharjah, UAE \n Sharjah C.A.",
"Stadium \n West Indies won by 6 wickets \n1993\n\n '''11''' \n 82 \n \n Kolkata, India \n Eden Gardens \n West Indies won by 7 wickets \n1993\n\n '''12''' \n 55* \n \n Auckland, New Zealand \n Eden Park \n West Indies won by 25 runs \n1995\n\n '''13''' \n 72 \n \n Wellington, New Zealand \n Basin Reserve\n West Indies won by 41 runs \n1995\n\n '''14''' \n 139 \n \n Port of Spain, Trinidad \n Queens Park Oval \n West Indies won by 133 runs \n 1995\n\n '''15''' \n 169 \n \n Sharjah, UAE \n Sharjah C. A. Stadium\n West Indies won by 4 runs \n1995\n\n '''16''' \n 111 \n \n Karachi, Pakistan \n National Stadium \n West Indies won by 19 runs \n1996\n\n '''17''' \n 146* \n \n Port of Spain, Trinidad \n Queens Park Oval \n West Indies won by 7 wickets \n1996\n\n '''18''' \n 103* \n \n Perth, Australia \n W.A.C.A Grounds \n West Indies won by 5 wickets \n1997\n\n '''19''' \n 90 \n \n Perth, Australia \n W.A.C.A Grounds \n West Indies won by 4 wickets \n1997\n\n '''20''' \n 88 \n \n Sharjah, UAE \n Sharjah C.A.",
"Stadium \n West Indies won by 43 runs \n1997\n\n '''21''' \n 51 \n \n Kingstown, Saint Vincent \n Arnos Vale Ground \n West Indies won by 4 wickets \n 1998\n\n '''22''' \n 60 \n \n Singapore \n Kallang Ground \n West Indies won by 42 runs \n 1999\n\n '''23''' \n 117 \n \n Dhaka, Bangladesh \n Bangabandhu National Stadium \n West Indies won by 109 runs \n1999\n\n '''24''' \n 116* \n \n Sydney, Australia \n Sydney Cricket Ground \n Australia won by 28 runs\n2001\n\n '''25''' \n 83* \n \n Perth, Australia \n W.A.C.A Grounds \n West Indies won by 44 runs \n2001\n\n '''26''' \n 59* \n \n Gros Islet, Saint Lucia \n Beausejour Stadium \n West Indies won by 7 wickets \n2002\n\n '''27''' \n 103* \n \n Colombo, Sri Lanka \n Sinhalese Sports Club Ground \n West Indies won by 29 runs \n2002\n\n '''28''' \n 116 \n \n Cape Town, South Africa \n Newlands \n West Indies won by 3 runs \n2003\n\n '''29''' \n 80 \n \n Port of Spain, Trinidad \n Queens Park Oval \n West Indies won by 39 runs \n2003\n\n '''30''' \n 156 \n \n Adelaide, Australia \n Adelaide Oval \n West Indies won by 58 runs \n 2005",
"Lara was inducted into ICC Hall of Fame in January 2012.",
"\n* ''Brian Lara Cricket series of video games''\n* Brian Lara Stadium",
"\n* \n* \n* Brian Lara's Test Statistics (by HowSTAT!)",
"*"
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[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Barry Lamar Bonds''' (born July 24, 1964) is an American former professional baseball left fielder who played 22 seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB) with the Pittsburgh Pirates and San Francisco Giants. Bonds received seven NL MVP awards and 14 All-Star selections, and is considered to be one of the greatest baseball players of all time.\n\nBonds was regarded as an exceptional hitter: he led MLB in on-base plus slugging six times, and placed within the top five hitters in 12 of his 17 qualifying seasons. He holds many MLB hitting records, including most career home runs, most home runs in a single season (73, set in 2001) and most career walks. He also received eight Gold Gloves for his defense in the outfield. He is ranked second in career Wins Above Replacement among all major league position players by both Fangraphs and Baseball-Reference.com, behind only Babe Ruth.\n\nBonds led a controversial career, notably as a central figure in baseball's steroids scandal. In 2007, he was indicted on charges of perjury and obstruction of justice for allegedly lying to the grand jury during the federal government's investigation of BALCO. The perjury charges against Bonds were dropped and an initial obstruction of justice conviction was overturned in 2015.\n\nBonds has not been elected into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in his first five years of eligibility.\n\nBonds served as the hitting coach for the Miami Marlins in 2016, and was let go at the end of the season.\n",
"Born in Riverside, California to Patricia (née Howard) and former major leaguer Bobby Bonds, Bonds grew up in San Carlos and attended Junípero Serra High School in San Mateo, where he excelled in baseball, basketball, and football. He played on the junior varsity team during his freshman year and the remainder of his high school career on the varsity team. He batted for a .467 batting average his senior year, and was named prep All-American. The Giants drafted Bonds in the second round of the 1982 MLB draft as a high school senior, but the Giants and Bonds were unable to agree on contract terms when Tom Haller's maximum offer was $70,000 ($ today) and Bond's minimum to go pro was $75,000, so Bonds instead decided to attend college.\n",
"Bonds attended Arizona State University, hitting .347 with 45 home runs and 175 runs batted in (RBI). In 1984 he batted .360 and had 30 stolen bases. In 1985, he hit 23 home runs with 66 RBIs and a .368 batting average. He was a Sporting News All-American selection that year. He tied the NCAA record with seven consecutive hits in the College World Series as sophomore and was named to All-Time College World Series Team in 1996. He graduated from Arizona State in 1986 with a degree in criminology. He was named ASU On Deck Circle Most Valuable Player; other winners include Dustin Pedroia, Willie Bloomquist, Paul Lo Duca, and Ike Davis. During college, he played part of one summer in the amateur Alaska Baseball League with the Alaska Goldpanners.\n",
"\n===Draft and minor leagues===\nThe Pittsburgh Pirates drafted Bonds as the sixth overall pick of the 1985 Major League Baseball draft. He joined the Prince William Pirates of the Carolina League and was named July 1985 Player of the Month for the league. In 1986, he hit .311 in 44 games for the Hawaii Islanders of the Pacific Coast League.\n\n===Pittsburgh Pirates (1986–92)===\nBefore Bonds made it to the major leagues in Pittsburgh, Pirate fan attendance was low, with 1984 and 1985 attendance below 10,000 per game for the 81-game home schedule. Bonds made his major league debut on May 30, 1986. In 1986, Bonds led National League (NL) rookies with 16 home runs, 48 RBI, 36 stolen bases and 65 walks, but he finished 6th in Rookie of the Year voting. He played center field in 1986, but switched to left field with the arrival of centerfielder Andy Van Slyke in 1987.\n\nIn his early years, Bonds batted as the leadoff hitter. With Van Slyke also in the outfield, the Pirates had a venerable defensive tandem that worked together to cover a lot of ground on the field although they were not close off the field. The Pirates experienced a surge in fan enthusiasm with Bonds on the team and set the club attendance record of 52,119 in the 1987 home opener. That year, he hit 25 home runs in his second season, along with 32 stolen bases and 59 RBIs.\n\nBonds improved in 1988, hitting .283 with 24 home runs. The Pirates broke the record set the previous year with 54,089 attending the home opener. Bonds now fit into a highly respected lineup featuring Bobby Bonilla, Van Slyke and Jay Bell. He finished with 19 homers, 58 RBIs, and 14 outfield assists in 1989, which was second in the NL. Following the season, rumors that he would be traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers for Jeff Hamilton and John Wetteland, but the team denied the rumors and no such trade occurred.\n\nBonds won his first MVP Award in 1990, hitting .301 with 33 home runs and 114 RBIs. He also stole 52 bases, which were third in the league, to become a first-time member of the 30–30 club. He won his first Gold Glove Award and Silver Slugger Award. That year, the Pirates won the National League East title for their first postseason berth since winning the 1979 World Series. However, the Cincinnati Reds (whose last post-season berth had also been in 1979; they lost to the Pirates in that year's NLCS) defeated the Pirates in the NLCS en route to winning the World Championship.\n\nIn 1991, Bonds also put up great numbers, hitting 25 homers and driving in 116 runs, and obtained another Gold Glove and Silver Slugger. He finished second to the Atlanta Braves' Terry Pendleton (the NL batting champion) in the MVP voting. The Pirates slugging outfield of Bonds, Bonilla and Van Slyke performed miserably in the 1990 and 1991 playoffs hitting .190 in 1990 (12 for 63) and .200 in 1991 (15 for 75).\n\nIn March 1992, Pirates general manager Ted Simmons agreed to a deal with Atlanta Braves counterpart John Schuerholz to trade Bonds, in exchange for Alejandro Peña, Keith Mitchell, and a player to be named later. Pirates manager Jim Leyland opposed the trade vehemently, and the proposal was rescinded. Bonds stayed with Pittsburgh and won his second MVP award that season. While hitting .311 with 34 homers and 103 RBIs, he propelled the Pirates to their third straight National League East division title. However, Pittsburgh was defeated by the Braves in a seven-game National League Championship Series. Bonds participated in the final play of Game 7 of the NLCS, whereby he fielded a base hit by Francisco Cabrera and attempted to throw out Sid Bream at home plate. But the throw to Pirates catcher Mike LaValliere was late and Bream scored the winning run. For the third consecutive season, the NL East Champion Pirates were denied a trip to the World Series. Following the loss, Bonds and star teammate Doug Drabek were expected to command salaries too high for Pittsburgh to again sign them.\n\n===San Francisco Giants (1993–2007)===\nBonds in 1993\n\n====1993 season====\nIn 1993, Bonds left the Pirates to sign a lucrative free agent contract worth a then-record $43.75 million ($ million today) over six years with the Giants, with whom his father had spent the first seven years of his career, and with whom his godfather Willie Mays played 22 of his 24 Major League seasons. The deal was at that time the largest in baseball history, in terms of both total value and average annual salary.\n\nOnce he signed with the Giants, Bonds had intended to wear 24, his number during most of his stay with the Pirates, and after receiving Mays' blessing the Giants were willing to unretire it until the public commotion from fans and media became too much. To honor his father, Bonds switched his jersey number to 25, as it had been Bobby's number in San Francisco.\n\nBonds hit .336 in 1993, leading the league with 46 home runs and 123 RBI en route to his second consecutive MVP award, and third overall. As good as the Giants were (winning 103 games), the Atlanta Braves won 104 in what some call the last great pennant race (because the wild card was instituted shortly thereafter).\n\n====1994 season====\nIn the lockout-shortened season of 1994, Bonds hit .312 with 37 home runs and a league-leading 74 walks, and he finished 4th in MVP voting.\n\n====1995 season====\nIn 1995, Bonds hit 33 homers and drove in 104 runs, hitting .294 but finished only 12th in MVP voting. In 1994, he appeared in a small role as himself in the television film ''Jane's House'', starring James Woods and Anne Archer.\n\n====1996 season====\nBonds on the field\nIn 1996, Bonds became the first National League player and second (of the current list of four) major league player(s) to hit 40 home runs and steal 40 bases in the same season. The other members of the 40–40 club are José Canseco–1988, Alex Rodriguez–1998, and Alfonso Soriano–2006; his father Bobby Bonds was one home run short in 1973 when he hit 39 home runs and stole 43 bases.\n\nBonds hit his 300th and 301st home runs off the Florida Marlins' John Burkett on April 27. He became the fourth player in history to join the 300–300 club with 300 stolen bases and 300 home runs for a career, joining Willie Mays, Andre Dawson, and his father. Bonds's totals for the season included 129 runs driven in, a .308 average and a then-National League record 151 walks. He finished fifth in the MVP balloting.\n\n====1997 season====\nIn 1997, Bonds hit .291, his lowest average since 1989. He hit 40 home runs for the second straight year and drove in 101 runs, leading the league in walks again with 145. He tied his father in 1997 for having the most 30/30 seasons, and he again placed fifth in the MVP balloting.\n\n====1998 season====\nWith two outs in the 9th inning of a game against the Arizona Diamondbacks on May 28, 1998, Bonds became only the fifth player in baseball history to be given an intentional walk with the bases loaded. Nap Lajoie (1901), Del Bissonette (1928) and Bill Nicholson (1944) were three others in the 20th century who received that rare honor. The first to receive one was Abner Dalrymple in 1881. During a game against the Philadelphia Phillies on August 2, Bonds was hit by a pitch thrown by Ricky Bottalico, leading to Bonds charging the mound and triggering a bench-clearing brawl.\n\nOn August 23, Bonds hit his 400th career home run. By doing so, he became the first player ever to enter the 400–400 club by having career totals of 400 home runs and 400 stolen bases. The milestone home run came off Kirt Ojala, who, like Burkett, was pitching for the Marlins. For the season, he hit .303 with 37 home runs and drove in 122 runs, winning his eighth Gold Glove, He finished 8th in the MVP voting.\n\n====1999 season====\nBonds at the plate with the Giants\nBill James ranked Bonds as the best player of the 1990s. He added that the decade's second-best player, Craig Biggio, had been closer in production to the decade's 10th-best player than to Bonds. In 1999, with statistics through 1997 being considered, Bonds ranked Number 34 on The Sporting News' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, making him the highest-ranking active player.\n\nWhen the Sporting News list was redone in 2005, Bonds was ranked 6th behind Babe Ruth, Willie Mays, Ty Cobb, Walter Johnson, and Hank Aaron. Bonds was omitted from 1999's Major League Baseball All-Century Team, to which Ken Griffey, Jr. was elected. James wrote of Bonds, \"Certainly the most unappreciated superstar of my lifetime. ... Griffey has always been more popular, but Bonds has been a far, far greater player.\" In 1999, he rated Bonds as the 16th-best player of all time. \"When people begin to take in all of his accomplishments\", he predicted, \"Bonds may well be rated among the five greatest players in the history of the game.\"\n\n====2000 season====\nIn 2000, the following year, Bonds hit .306 with career bests through that time in both slugging percentage (.688) and home runs (49) in just 143 games. He also drew a league-leading 117 walks.\n\n====2001 season====\nThe next year, Bonds's offensive production reached even higher levels, breaking not only his own personal records but several major league records. In the Giants' first 50 games in 2001, he hit 28 home runs, including 17 in May—a career high. This early stretch included his 500th home run hit on April 17 against Terry Adams of the Los Angeles Dodgers. He also hit 39 home runs by the All-star break (a major league record), drew a major league record 177 walks, and had a .515 on-base average, a feat not seen since Mickey Mantle and Ted Williams over forty years earlier. Bonds's slugging percentage was a major league record .863 (411 total bases in 476 at-bats), and, most impressively, he ended the season with a major league record 73 home runs.\n\nOn October 4, Bonds tied the previous record of 70 set by Mark McGwire – which McGwire set in the 162nd game in 1998 – by homering off Wilfredo Rodríguez in the 159th game of the season. He then hit numbers 71 and 72 the following night off Chan Ho Park. Bonds added his 73rd off Dennis Springer on October 7. The ball was later sold to toy manufacturer Todd McFarlane for $450,000. He previously bought Mark McGwire's 70th home run ball from 1998. Bonds received the Babe Ruth Home Run Award for leading MLB in homers that season.\n\n====2002 season====\nBonds re-signed with the Giants for a five-year, $90 million contract in January 2002. He hit five home runs in the Giants' first four games of the season, tying Lou Brock's 35-year record for most home runs after four games. He won the NL batting title with a career-high .370 average and struck out only 47 times. He hit 46 home runs in 403 at-bats.\n\nDespite playing in nine fewer games than the previous season, he drew 198 walks, a major-league record; 68 of them were intentional walks, surpassing Willie McCovey's 45 in 1969 for another Major League record. He slugged .799, then the fourth-highest total all time. Bonds broke Ted Williams' major league record for on-base average with .582. Bonds also hit his 600th home run, less than a year and a half after hitting his 500th. The home run came on August 9 at home against Kip Wells of the Pirates.\n\n====2002 postseason====\nBonds batted .322 with 8 home runs, 16 RBI, and 27 walks in the postseason en route to the 2002 World Series, which the Giants lost 4–3 to the Anaheim Angels.\n\n====2003 season====\nIn 2003, Bonds played in just 130 games. He hit 45 home runs in just 390 at-bats, along with a .341 batting average. He slugged .749, walked 148 times, and had an on-base average well over .500 (.529) for the third straight year. He also became the only member of the career 500 home run/500 stolen base club by stealing second base on June 23 off of pitcher Éric Gagné in the 11th inning of a tied ball game against the Los Angeles Dodgers (against whom Bonds had tallied his 500th home run). Bonds scored the game-winning run later that inning.\n\n====2004 season====\nIn 2004, Bonds had perhaps his best season. He hit .362 en route to his second National League batting title, and broke his own record by walking 232 times. He slugged .812, which was fourth-highest of all time, and broke his on-base percentage record with a .609 average. Bonds passed Mays on the career home run list by hitting his 661st off of Ben Ford on April 13, He then hit his 700th off of Jake Peavy on September 17. Bonds hit 45 home runs in 373 at-bats, and struck out just 41 times, putting himself in elite company, as few major leaguers have ever had more home runs than strikeouts in a season. Bonds would win his fourth consecutive MVP award and his seventh overall. His seven MVP awards are four more than any other player in history. In addition, no other player from either league has been awarded the MVP four times in a row. (The MVP award was first given in 1931). The 40-year-old Bonds also broke Willie Stargell's 25-year record as the oldest player to win a Most Valuable Player Award (Stargell, at 39 years, 8 months, was National League co-MVP with Keith Hernandez in 1979). On July 4, he tied and passed Rickey Henderson's career bases on balls record with his 2190th and 2191st career walks.\n\nAs Bonds neared Aaron's record, Aaron was called on for his opinion of Bonds. He clarified that he was a fan and admirer of Bonds and avoided the controversy regarding whether the record should be denoted with an asterisk for Bonds's alleged steroid usage. He felt recognition and respect for the award was something to be determined by the fans. As the steroid controversy received greater media attention during the offseason before the 2005 season, Aaron expressed some reservations about the statements Bonds made on the issue. Aaron expressed that he felt drug and steroid use to boost athletic performance was inappropriate. Aaron was frustrated that the media could not focus on events that occurred in the field of play and wished drugs or gambling allegations such as those associated with Pete Rose could be emphasized less. In 2007, Aaron felt the whole steroid use issue was very controversial and decided that he would not attend any possible record-breaking games. Aaron congratulated Bonds through the media including a video played on the scoreboard when Bonds eventually broke Aaron's record in August 2007.\n\n====2005 season====\nBonds's salary for the 2005 season was $22 million, the second-highest salary in Major League Baseball (the Yankees' Alex Rodriguez earned the highest, $25.2 million).\nBonds endured a knee injury, multiple surgeries, and rehabilitation. He was activated on September 12 and started in left field. In his return against the San Diego Padres, he nearly hit a home run in his first at-bat. Bonds finished the night 1-for-4. Upon his return, Bonds resumed his high-caliber performance at the plate, hitting home runs in four consecutive games from September 18 to 21 and finishing with five homers in only 14 games.\n\n====2006 season====\nBonds batting against the Chicago Cubs in 2006\nIn 2006, Bonds earned $20 million (not including bonuses), the fourth highest salary in baseball. Through the 2006 season he had earned approximately $172 million during his then 21-year career, making him baseball's all-time highest paid player. Bonds hit under .200 for his first 10 games of the season and did not hit a home run until April 22. This 10-game stretch was his longest home run slump since the 1998 season. On May 7, Bonds drew within one home run of tying Babe Ruth for second place on the all-time list, hitting his 713th career home run into the second level of Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia, off pitcher Jon Lieber in a game in which the Giants lost to the Philadelphia Phillies. The towering home run—one of the longest in Citizens Bank Park's two-season history, traveling an estimated 450 feet (140 m)—hit off the facade of the third deck in right field.\n\nOn May 20, Bonds tied Ruth, hitting his 714th career home run to deep right field to lead off the top of the 2nd inning. The home run came off left-handed pitcher Brad Halsey of the Oakland A's, in an interleague game played in Oakland, California. Since this was an interleague game at an American League stadium, Bonds was batting as the designated hitter in the lineup for the Giants. Bonds was quoted after the game as being \"glad it's over with\" and stated that more attention could be focused on Albert Pujols, who was on a very rapid home run pace in early 2006.\n\n\nOn May 28, Bonds passed Ruth, hitting his 715th career home run to center field off Colorado Rockies pitcher Byung-hyun Kim. The ball was hit an estimated 445 feet (140 m) into center field where it went through the hands of several fans but then fell onto an elevated platform in center field. Then it rolled off the platform where Andrew Morbitzer, a 38-year-old San Francisco resident, caught the ball while he was in line at a concession stand. Mysteriously, radio broadcaster Dave Flemming's radio play-by-play of the home run went silent just as the ball was hit, apparently from a microphone failure. But the televised version, called by Giants broadcaster Duane Kuiper, was not affected.\n\nBonds in August 2006 with the Giants\nOn September 22, Bonds tied Henry Aaron's National League career home run record of 733. The home run came in the top of the 6th inning of a high-scoring game against the Milwaukee Brewers, at Miller Park in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The achievement was notable for its occurrence in the very city where Aaron began (with the Milwaukee Braves) and concluded (with the Brewers, then in the American League) his career. With the Giants trailing 10–8, Bonds hit a blast to deep center field on a 2–0 pitch off the Brewers' Chris Spurling with runners on first and second and one out. Though the Giants were at the time clinging to only a slim chance of making the playoffs, Bonds's home run provided the additional drama of giving the Giants an 11–10 lead late in a critical game in the final days of a pennant race. The Brewers eventually won the game, 13–12, though Bonds went 3 for 5, with 2 doubles, the record-tying home run, and 6 runs batted in.\n\nOn September 23, Bonds surpassed Aaron for the NL career home run record. Hit in Milwaukee like the previous one, this was a solo home run off Chris Capuano of the Brewers. This was the last home run Bonds hit in 2006. In 2006, Bonds recorded his lowest slugging percentage (a statistic that he has historically ranked among league leaders season after season) since 1991 with the Pittsburgh Pirates.\n\nIn January 2007, the ''New York Daily News'' reported that Bonds had tested positive for amphetamines. Under baseball's amphetamine policy, which had been in effect for one season, players testing positive were to submit to six additional tests and undergo treatment and counseling. The policy also stated that players were not to be identified for a first positive test, but the ''New York Daily News'' leaked the test's results. When the Players Association informed Bonds of the test results, he initially attributed it to a substance he had taken from the locker of Giants teammate Mark Sweeney, but would later retract this claim and publicly apologize to Sweeney.\n\n====2007 season====\nBonds at the plate against the Rockies in 2007\nOn January 29, 2007, the Giants finalized a contract with Bonds for the 2007 season. After the commissioner's office rejected Bonds's one-year, $15.8 million deal because it contained a personal-appearance provision, the team sent revised documents to his agent, Jeff Borris, who stated that \"At this time, Barry is not signing the new documents.\" Bonds signed a revised one-year, $15.8 million contract on February 15 and reported to the Giants' Spring training camp on time.\n\nBonds resumed his march to the all-time record early in the 2007 season. After an opening game in which all he had was a first-inning single past third base against a right-shifted infield (immediately followed by a stolen base and then a base-running misjudgment that got him thrown out at home) and a deep out to left field late in the game, Bonds returned the next day, April 4, with another mission. In his first at-bat of the season's second game at the Giants' AT&T Park, Bonds hit a Chris Young (of the San Diego Padres) pitch just over the wall to the left of straightaway center field for career home run 735. This home run put Bonds past the midway point between Ruth and Aaron.\n\nBonds did not homer again until April 13, when he hit two (736 and 737) in a 3 for 3 night that included 4 RBI against the Pittsburgh Pirates. Bonds splashed a pitch by St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Ryan Franklin into McCovey Cove on April 18 for home run 738. Home runs number 739 and 740 came in back to back games on April 21 and 22 against the Arizona Diamondbacks.\n\nThe hype surrounding Bonds's pursuit of the home run record escalated on May 14. On this day, Sports Auction for Heritage (a Dallas-based auction house) offered US$1 million to the fan who would catch Bonds's record-breaking 756th-career home run. The million dollar offer was rescinded on June 11 out of concern of fan safety. Home run 748 came on Father's Day, June 17, in the final game of a 3-game road series against the Boston Red Sox at Fenway Park, where Bonds had never previously played. With this homer, Fenway Park became the 36th major league ballpark in which Bonds had hit a home run. He hit a Tim Wakefield knuckleball just over the low fence into the Giant's bullpen in right field. It was his first home run off his former Pittsburgh Pirate teammate, who became the 441st different pitcher to surrender a four-bagger to Bonds. The 750th career home run, hit on June 29, also came off a former teammate: Liván Hernández. The blast came in the 8th inning and at that point tied the game at 3–3.\n\nOn July 19, after a 21 at-bat hitless streak, Bonds hit 2 home runs, numbers 752 and 753, against the Chicago Cubs. He went 3–3 with 2 home runs, 6 RBIs, and a walk on that day. The struggling last place Giants still lost the game, 9–8. On July 27, Bonds hit home run 754 against Florida Marlins pitcher Rick VandenHurk. Bonds was then walked his next 4 at-bats in the game, but a 2-run shot helped the Giants win the game 12–10. It marked the first time since he had hit #747 that Bonds had homered in a game the Giants won. On August 4, Bonds hit a 382 foot (116 m) home run against Clay Hensley of the San Diego Padres for home run number 755, tying Hank Aaron's all-time record. Bonds greeted his son, Nikolai, with an extended bear hug after crossing home plate. Bonds greeted his teammates and then his wife, Liz Watson, and daughter Aisha Lynn behind the backstop. Hensley was the 445th different pitcher to give up a home run to Bonds. Ironically, given the cloud of suspicion that surrounded Bonds, the tying home run was hit off a pitcher who had been suspended by baseball in 2005 for steroid use. He was walked in his next at bat and eventually scored on a fielder's choice.\n\nOn August 7 at 8:51 PM PDT, at the Giants home AT&T Park in San Francisco, Bonds hit a 435 foot (133 m) home run, his 756th, off a pitch from Mike Bacsik of the Washington Nationals, breaking the all-time career home run record, formerly held by Hank Aaron. Coincidentally, Bacsik's father had faced Aaron (as a pitcher for the Texas Rangers) after Aaron had hit his 755th home run. On August 23, 1976, Michael J. Bacsik held Aaron to a single and a fly out to right field. The younger Bacsik commented later, \"If my dad had been gracious enough to let Hank Aaron hit a home run, we both would have given up 756.\" After hitting the home run, Bonds gave Bacsik an autographed bat.\n\nThe pitch, the seventh of the at-bat, was a 3–2 pitch which Bonds hit into the right-center field bleachers. The fan who ended up with the ball, 22-year-old Matt Murphy from Queens, New York (and a Mets fan), was promptly protected and escorted away from the mayhem by a group of San Francisco police officers. After Bonds finished his home run trot, a ten-minute delay followed, including a brief video by Aaron congratulating Bonds on breaking the record Aaron had held for 33 years, and expressing the hope that \"the achievement of this record will inspire others to chase their own dreams.\" Bonds made an impromptu emotional statement on the field, with Willie Mays, his godfather, at his side and thanked his teammates, family and his late father. Bonds sat out the rest of the game.\n\nBonds's 756th home run ball in the Hall of Fame\nThe commissioner, Bud Selig, was not in attendance in this game but was represented by the Executive Vice President of Baseball Operations, Jimmie Lee Solomon. Selig called Bonds later that night to congratulate him on breaking the record. President George W. Bush also called Bonds the next day to congratulate him. On August 24, San Francisco honored and celebrated Bonds's career accomplishments and breaking the home run record with a large rally in Justin Herman Plaza. The rally included video messages from Lou Brock, Ernie Banks, Ozzie Smith, Joe Montana, Wayne Gretzky and Michael Jordan. Speeches were made by Willie Mays, Giants teammates Omar Vizquel and Rich Aurilia, and Giants owner Peter Magowan. Mayor Gavin Newsom presented Bonds the key to the City and County of San Francisco and Giants vice president Larry Baer gave Bonds the home plate he touched after hitting his 756th career home run.\n\nThe record-setting ball was consigned to an auction house on August 21. Bidding began on August 28 and closed with a winning bid of US$752,467 on September 15 after a three phase online auction. The high bidder, fashion designer Marc Ecko, created a website to let fans decide its fate. Subsequently, Ben Padnos, who submitted the (US) $186,750 winning bid on Bonds's record-tying 755th home run ball also set up a website to let fans decide its fate. Of Ecko's plans, Bonds said \"He spent $750,000 on the ball and that's what he's doing with it? What he's doing is stupid.\" 10 million voters helped Ecko decide to brand the ball with an asterisk and send it to the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum. Padnos sold 5-year ads on a website, www.endthedebate.com, where people voted by a two-to-one margin to smash the ball.\n\nBonds concluded the 2007 season with a .276 batting average, 28 home runs, and 66 RBIs in 126 games and 340 at bats. At the age of 43, he led both leagues in walks with 132.\n",
"On September 21, 2007, the San Francisco Giants confirmed that they would not re-sign Bonds for the 2008 season. The story was first announced on Bonds's own web site earlier that day. Bonds officially filed for free agency on October 29, 2007. His agent Jeff Borris said: \"I'm anticipating widespread interest from every Major League team.\"\n\nThere was much speculation before the 2008 season about where Bonds might play. However, no one signed him during the 2008 or 2009 seasons. If he had returned to Major League Baseball, Bonds would have been within close range of several significant hitting milestones: needing just 65 hits to reach 3,000, 4 runs batted in to reach 2,000, and 38 home runs to reach 800. He would have needed 69 more runs scored to move past Rickey Henderson as the all-time runs champion, and 37 extra base hits to move past Hank Aaron as the all-time extra base hits champion.\n\nAs of November 13, 2009, Borris maintained that Bonds was still not retired. On December 9, however, Borris told the ''San Francisco Chronicle'' that Bonds had played his last major league game. Bonds announced on April 11, 2010, that he was proud of McGwire for admitting his use of steroids. Bonds said that it was not the time to retire, but he noted that he was not in shape to play immediately if an interested club called him. In May 2015, Bonds filed a grievance against Major League Baseball through the players' union arguing that the league colluded in not signing him after the 2007 season. In August 2015, an arbitrator ruled in favor of MLB and against Bonds in his collusion case.\n\nBonds has not had a jersey number retired by either the Pirates or Giants, although there have been calls by fans of both teams to retire their respective uniform numbers held by Bonds. His number 24 with the Pirates remains in circulation, most prominently worn by Brian Giles from 1999 to 2003 and by Pedro Alvarez from 2011 to 2015. The Giants have not reissued Bonds's number 25.\n\nOn December 15, 2011, Bonds was sentenced to 30 days of house arrest, two years of probation and 250 hours of community service, for an obstruction of justice conviction stemming from a grand jury appearance in 2003. However, U.S. District Judge Susan Illston then delayed the sentence pending an appeal. In 2013 his conviction was upheld on appeal by a three judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. However, the full court later granted Bonds an en banc rehearing, and on April 22, 2015, an 11-judge panel of the Ninth Circuit voted 10-1 to overturn his conviction.\n\nOn March 10, 2014, Bonds began a seven-day stint as a roving spring training instructor for the Giants. On December 4, 2015, he was announced as the new hitting coach for the Miami Marlins, but was relieved of his duties on October 3, 2016, after just one season. He followed up with a public thank-you letter, acknowledging owner Jeffrey Loria, and the opportunity as \"one of the most rewarding experiences of my baseball career.\" In 2017, Bonds officially rejoined the Giants organization as a special advisor to the CEO. On July 8, 2017, Bonds was added to the Giants Wall of Fame.\n\nIn his first five years of eligibility for induction to the National Baseball Hall of Fame, Bonds received 36.2%, 34.7%, 36.8%, 44.3%, and 53.8% of the vote, all short of the 75% needed for induction.\n",
"During his playing career, Bonds was frequently described as a difficult person, surly, standoffish and ungrateful, among other unflattering adjectives. However, in one interview with Terence Moore in 2016, he acknowledged regret over the persona which he had created. He attributed it to a response to the pressure he felt to perform as a young player with the Pirates. Remarked Bonds,\n\n\n\n\n\nFor a short time during his playing days with the Giants, Bonds temporarily changed his demeanor at the behest of a group of teammates, resulting in him smiling much more frequently and engaging more with others with a pleasant demeanor. Shortly thereafter, in the midst of a slump, the same group of teammates pleaded that he revert, having seemingly lost his competitive edge, and causing the team lose more. In spite of his protest that they would not appreciate the results, his teammates insisted, and Bonds complied, maintaining that familiar standoffish edge the rest of his playing career.\n\nFollowing his retirement from playing, Bonds became much more gregarious and engaging with the public, quick to flash what started to become a more-and-more familiar smile.\n",
"===BALCO scandal===\nMug shot taken after 2007 indictment\nSince 2003, Bonds has been a key figure in the Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative (BALCO) scandal. BALCO marketed tetrahydrogestrinone (\"the Clear\"), a performance-enhancing steroid that was undetectable by doping tests. He was under investigation by a federal grand jury regarding his testimony in the BALCO case, and was indicted on perjury and obstruction of justice charges on November 15, 2007. The indictment alleges that Bonds lied while under oath about his alleged use of steroids.\n\nIn 2003, Bonds first became embroiled in a scandal when Greg Anderson of the Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative (BALCO), Bonds's trainer since 2000, was indicted by a federal grand jury in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California and charged with supplying anabolic steroids to athletes, including a number of baseball players. This led to speculation that Bonds had used performance-enhancing drugs during a time when there was no mandatory testing in Major League Baseball. Bonds declared his innocence, attributing his changed physique and increased power to a strict regimen of bodybuilding, diet, and legitimate supplements.\n\nDuring grand jury testimony on December 4, 2003, Bonds said that he used a clear substance and a cream that he received from his personal strength trainer, Greg Anderson, who told him they were the nutritional supplement flaxseed oil and a rubbing balm for arthritis. This testimony, as reported by Lance Williams and Mark Fainaru-Wada, has frequently been misrepresented. Later reports on Bonds's leaked grand-jury testimony contend that he admitted to unknowingly using \"the cream\" and \"the clear\".\n\nIn July 2005, all four defendants in the BALCO steroid scandal trial, including Anderson, struck deals with federal prosecutors that did not require them to reveal names of athletes who may have used banned drugs.\n\n====Perjury case====\n\nOn November 15, 2007, Bonds was indicted on four counts of perjury and one count of obstruction of justice as it relates to the government investigation of BALCO.\n\nOn February 14, 2008 a typo in court papers filed by Federal prosecutors erroneously alleged that Bonds tested positive for steroids in November 2001, a month after hitting his record 73rd home run. The reference was meant instead to refer to a November 2000 test that had already been disclosed and previously reported. The typo sparked a brief media frenzy.\n\nHis trial for obstruction of justice was to have begun on March 2, 2009, but jury selection was postponed by 11th-hour appeals by the prosecution. The trial commenced on March 21, 2011, in U. S. District Court, Northern District of California, with Judge Susan Illston presiding. He was convicted on April 13, 2011 on the obstruction of justice charge, for giving an evasive answer to a question under oath. His sentence did not include prison. The conviction was initially upheld by a three judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in 2013, but a larger panel of the court voted 10-1 to overturn the conviction on April 22, 2015.\n\n===Players' Union===\nBonds withdrew from the MLB Players Association's (MLBPA) licensing agreement because he felt independent marketing deals would be more lucrative for him. Bonds is the first player in the thirty-year history of the licensing program not to sign. Because of this withdrawal, his name and likeness are not usable in any merchandise licensed by the MLBPA. In order to use his name or likeness, a company must deal directly with Bonds. For this reason he does not appear in some baseball video games, forcing game-makers to create generic athletes to replace him. For example, Bonds is replaced by \"Jon Dowd\" in ''MVP Baseball 2005.'' \n\n===''Game of Shadows''===\n\nIn March 2006 the book ''Game of Shadows'', written by Lance Williams and Mark Fainaru-Wada, was released amid a storm of media publicity including the cover of ''Sports Illustrated''. Initially small excerpts of the book were released by the authors in the issue of ''Sports Illustrated''. The book alleges Bonds used stanozolol and a host of other steroids, and is perhaps most responsible for the change in public opinion regarding Bonds's steroid use.\n\nThe book contained excerpts of grand jury testimony that is supposed to be sealed and confidential by law. The authors have been steadfast in their refusal to divulge their sources and at one point faced jail time. On February 14, 2007, Troy Ellerman, one of Victor Conte's lawyers, pleaded guilty to leaking grand jury testimony. Through the plea agreement, he will spend two and a half years in jail.\n\n===''Love Me, Hate Me''===\nIn May 2006, former ''Sports Illustrated'' writer Jeff Pearlman released a revealing biography of Bonds entitled ''Love Me, Hate Me: Barry Bonds and the Making of an Anti-Hero.'' The book also contained many allegations against Bonds. The book, which describes Bonds as a polarizing insufferable braggart with a legendary ego and staggering ability, relied on over five hundred interviews, except with Bonds himself.\n\n===''Bonds on Bonds''===\n\nIn April 2006 and May 2006, ESPN aired a few episodes of a 10-part reality TV (unscripted, documentary-style) series starring Bonds. The show, titled ''Bonds on Bonds'', focused on Bonds's chase of Babe Ruth's and Hank Aaron's home run records. Some felt the show should be put on hiatus until baseball investigated Bonds's steroid use allegations. The series was canceled in June 2006, ESPN and producer Tollin/Robbins Productions citing \"creative control\" issues with Bonds and his representatives.\n",
"Bonds met Susann (\"Sun\") Margreth Branco, the mother of his first two children (Nikolai and Shikari), in Montreal, Quebec in August 1987. They eloped to Las Vegas February 5, 1988. The couple separated in June 1994, divorced in December 1994, and had their marriage annulled in 1997 by the Catholic Church. The divorce was a media affair because Bonds had his Swedish spouse sign a prenuptial agreement in which she \"waived her right to a share of his present and future earnings\" and which was upheld. Bonds had been providing his wife $20,000/month in child support and $10,000 in spousal support at the time of the ruling. During the hearings to set permanent support levels, allegations of abuse came from both parties. The trial dragged on for months, but Bonds was awarded both houses and reduced support. On August 21, 2000, the Supreme Court of California, in an opinion signed by Chief Justice Ronald M. George, unanimously held that \"substantial evidence supports the determination of the trial court that the prenuptial agreement in the present case was entered into voluntarily.\" In reaction to the decision, significant changes in California law relating to the validity and enforceability of premarital agreements soon followed.\n\nIn 2010, Bonds's son Nikolai, who served as a Giants batboy during his father's years playing in San Francisco and always sat next to his dad in the dugout during games, was charged with five misdemeanors resulting from a confrontation with his mother, Sun. Barry accompanied him to San Mateo County Superior Court.\n\nAfter the end of his first marriage, Bonds had an extensive intimate relationship with Kimberly Bell from 1994 through May 2003. Bonds purchased a home in Scottsdale, Arizona for Kimberly.\n\nOn January 10, 1998, Bonds married his second wife, Liz Watson, at the San Francisco Ritz-Carlton Hotel in front of 240 guests. The couple lived in Los Altos Hills, California, with their daughter Aisha during their ten-and-a-half years of marriage before Watson filed for legal separation on June 9, 2009, citing irreconcilable differences. On July 21, 2009, just six weeks later, Watson announced that she was withdrawing her Legal Separation action. The couple were reconciled for seven months before Watson formally filed for divorce in Los Angeles on February 26, 2010. On June 6, 2011, Bonds and Watson filed a legal agreement not to take the divorce to trial and instead settle it in an \"uncontested manner\", effectively agreeing to take the proceedings out of the public eye and end the marriage privately at an unspecified later date without further court involvement.\n\nSeveral of Bonds's family and extended family members have been involved in athletics as either a career or a notable pastime. Bonds has a younger brother, Bobby, Jr., who was also a professional baseball player. His paternal aunt, Rosie Bonds, is a former American record holder in the 80 meter hurdles, and competed in the 1964 Olympics. In addition, he is a distant cousin of Hall of Famer Reggie Jackson.\n\nAmong Bonds's many real estate properties is a home he owns in the exclusive gated community of Beverly Park in Beverly Hills, California.\n\nAn avid cyclist, the activity became one of Bonds's primary means of keeping in shape and great passion since his playing career. Because knee surgeries, back surgeries, and hip surgeries made it much more difficult to run, cycling has allowed him to engage in sufficient cardiovascular activity to help keep in shape. As a result of the cycling, he has lost 25 pounds from his final playing weight of 240 pounds.\n",
"Besides holding Major League career records in home runs (762), walks (2,558), and intentional walks (688), at the time of his retirement, Bonds also led all active players in RBI (1,996), on-base percentage (.444), runs (2,227), games (2,986), extra-base hits (1,440), at-bats per home run (12.92), and total bases (5,976). He is 2nd in doubles (601), slugging percentage (.607), stolen bases (514), at-bats (9,847), and hits (2,935), and 6th in triples (77), 8th in sacrifice flies (91), and 9th in strikeouts (1,539), through September 26, 2007.\n\nBonds is the lone member of the 500–500 club, which means he has hit at least 500 home runs (762) and stolen at least 500 bases (514). He is also one of only four baseball players all-time to be in the 40–40 club (1996), which means he hit 40 home runs (42) and stole 40 bases (40) in the same season; the other members are José Canseco, Alex Rodriguez, and Alfonso Soriano.\n\n===Records held===\n\n* Home runs in a single season (73), 2001\n* Home runs (career) (762)\n* Home runs against different pitchers (449)\n* Home runs since turning 40 years old (74)\n* Home runs in the year he turned 43 years old (28)\n* Consecutive seasons with 30 or more home runs (13), 1992–2004\n* Slugging percentage in a single season (.863), 2001\n* Slugging percentage in a World Series (1.294), 2002\n* Consecutive seasons with .600 slugging percentage or higher (8), 1998–2005\n* On-base percentage in a single season (.609), 2004\n* Walks in a single season (232), 2004\n* Intentional walks in a single season (120), 2004\n* Consecutive games with a walk (18)\n*MVP awards (7—closest competitors trail with 3), 1990, 1992–93, 2001–04\n* Consecutive MVP awards (4), 2001–04\n* National League Player of the Month selections (13) (2nd place, either league, Frank Thomas, 8; 2nd place, N.L., George Foster, Pete Rose, and Dale Murphy, 6)\n* Oldest player (age 38) to win the National League batting title (.370) for the first time, 2002\n\n===Records shared===\n* Consecutive plate appearances with a walk (7)\n* Consecutive plate appearances reaching base (15)\n* Tied with his father, Bobby, for most seasons with 30 home runs and 30 stolen bases (5) and are the only father-son members of the 30–30 club\n* Home runs in a single post-season (8), 2002\n\n===Other accomplishments===\n\n+ '''National League statistical leader'''\n\nCategory\n\nSeasons\n\n Adjusted OPS+ leader \n 9\n 1990−93, 2000−04\n\n Bases on balls leader \n 12\n 1992, 1994−97, 2000−04, 2006, 2007\n\n Batting champion \n 2\n 2002, 2004\n\n Extra base hits leader \n 3 \n 1992, 1993, 2001\n\n Games played leader \n 1 \n 1995\n\n Home run leader \n 2 \n 1993, 2001\n\n Intentional base on balls leader \n 12 \n 1992−98, 2002−04, 2006, 2007\n\n On-base percentage leader \n 10\n 1991−93, 1995, 2001−04, 2006, 2007\n\n On-base plus slugging leader \n 9 \n 1990−93, 1995, 2001−04\n\n Runs batted in leader \n 1 \n 1993\n\n Runs scored leader \n 1 \n 1992\n\n Slugging percentage leader \n 7\n 1990, 1992, 1993, 2001−04\n\n Total bases leader \n 1\n 1993\n\n\n\n;Awards & distinctions\n\n+ '''Awards received'''\n\nAward\n# of Times\nDates\n\n\n Babe Ruth Home Run Award \n 1\n 2001\n \n\n ''Baseball America'' All-Star \n 7\n 1993, 1998, 2000–04\n\n\n ''Baseball America'' Major League Player of the Year \n 3\n 2001, 2003, 2004\n \n\n MLB All-Star \n 14\n 1990, 1992–98, 2000–04, 2007\n \n\n Major League Player of the Year \n 3\n 1990, 2001, 2004\n \n\n Rawlings Gold Glove Award at outfield \n 8\n 1990–94, 1996–98\n \n\n Silver Slugger Award at outfield \n 12\n 1990–94, 1996–97, 2000–04\n \n\n\n* 5-time SF Giants Player of the Year (1998, 2001–04)\n* 3-Time NL Hank Aaron Award winner (2001–02, 2004)\n* Listed at #6 on ''The Sporting News'' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, the highest-ranked active player, i n 2005.\n* Named a finalist to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team in 1999, but not elected to the team in the fan balloting.\n* Rating of 352 on Baseball-Reference.com's Hall of Fame monitor (100 is a good HOF candidate); 9th among all hitters, highest among hitters not in HOF yet.\n* Only the second player to twice have a single-season slugging percentage over .800, with his record .863 in 2001 and .812 in 2004. Babe Ruth was the other, with .847 in 1920 and .846 in 1921.\n* Became the first player in history with more times on base (376) than official at-bats (373) in 2004. This was due to the record number of walks, which count as a time on base but not an at-bat. He had 135 hits, 232 walks, and 9 hit-by-pitches for the 376 number.\n* With his father Bobby (332, 461), leads all father-son combinations in combined home runs (1,094) and stolen bases (975), respectively through September 26, 2007.\n* Played minor league baseball in both Alaska and Hawaii. In 1983, he played for the Alaska Goldpanners of Fairbanks in the Alaska Baseball League, and in 1986, he played for the Hawaii Islanders in the Pacific Coast League.\n*Featured on the cover of Sports Illustrated. He has appeared as the main subject on the cover eight times in total; seven with the Giants and once with the Pirates. He has also appeared in an inset on the cover twice. He was the most recent Pirate player to appear on the cover, until Jason Grilli was featured in SIs edition of July 22, 2013.\n",
"\n\n* 30–30 club\n* 40–40 club\n* 50 home run club\n* 500 home run club\n* List of Major League Baseball annual runs batted in leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball annual home run leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball annual runs scored leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball batting champions\n* List of Major League Baseball career at-bat leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career bases on balls leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career doubles leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career extra base hits leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career games played leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career hit by pitch leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career on-base percentage leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career OPS leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career plate appearance leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career records\n* List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career slugging percentage leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career strikeouts by batters leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career total bases leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball doubles records\n* List of Major League Baseball home run records\n* List of Major League Baseball individual streaks\n* List of Major League Baseball progressive career home runs leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball progressive single-season home run leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball record breakers by season\n* List of Major League Baseball record holders\n* List of Major League Baseball runs batted in records\n* List of Major League Baseball runs records\n* List of Major League Baseball single-season records\n* List of milestone home runs by Barry Bonds\n* List of second-generation Major League Baseball players\n* Major League Baseball titles leaders\n\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n, or Retrosheet, or Pura Pelota (Venezuelan Winter League)\n* \n* Bonds archive at ''Los Angeles Times''\n\n\n\n Championship succession boxes\n\n\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n Award succession boxes\n\n\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n Records succession boxes\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life",
"College career",
"Professional career",
"Post-playing career",
"Public persona",
"Controversies",
"Personal life",
"Career distinctions",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Barry Bonds | [
"On May 7, Bonds drew within one home run of tying Babe Ruth for second place on the all-time list, hitting his 713th career home run into the second level of Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia, off pitcher Jon Lieber in a game in which the Giants lost to the Philadelphia Phillies.",
"The towering home run—one of the longest in Citizens Bank Park's two-season history, traveling an estimated 450 feet (140 m)—hit off the facade of the third deck in right field."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Barry Lamar Bonds''' (born July 24, 1964) is an American former professional baseball left fielder who played 22 seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB) with the Pittsburgh Pirates and San Francisco Giants.",
"Bonds received seven NL MVP awards and 14 All-Star selections, and is considered to be one of the greatest baseball players of all time.",
"Bonds was regarded as an exceptional hitter: he led MLB in on-base plus slugging six times, and placed within the top five hitters in 12 of his 17 qualifying seasons.",
"He holds many MLB hitting records, including most career home runs, most home runs in a single season (73, set in 2001) and most career walks.",
"He also received eight Gold Gloves for his defense in the outfield.",
"He is ranked second in career Wins Above Replacement among all major league position players by both Fangraphs and Baseball-Reference.com, behind only Babe Ruth.",
"Bonds led a controversial career, notably as a central figure in baseball's steroids scandal.",
"In 2007, he was indicted on charges of perjury and obstruction of justice for allegedly lying to the grand jury during the federal government's investigation of BALCO.",
"The perjury charges against Bonds were dropped and an initial obstruction of justice conviction was overturned in 2015.",
"Bonds has not been elected into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in his first five years of eligibility.",
"Bonds served as the hitting coach for the Miami Marlins in 2016, and was let go at the end of the season.",
"Born in Riverside, California to Patricia (née Howard) and former major leaguer Bobby Bonds, Bonds grew up in San Carlos and attended Junípero Serra High School in San Mateo, where he excelled in baseball, basketball, and football.",
"He played on the junior varsity team during his freshman year and the remainder of his high school career on the varsity team.",
"He batted for a .467 batting average his senior year, and was named prep All-American.",
"The Giants drafted Bonds in the second round of the 1982 MLB draft as a high school senior, but the Giants and Bonds were unable to agree on contract terms when Tom Haller's maximum offer was $70,000 ($ today) and Bond's minimum to go pro was $75,000, so Bonds instead decided to attend college.",
"Bonds attended Arizona State University, hitting .347 with 45 home runs and 175 runs batted in (RBI).",
"In 1984 he batted .360 and had 30 stolen bases.",
"In 1985, he hit 23 home runs with 66 RBIs and a .368 batting average.",
"He was a Sporting News All-American selection that year.",
"He tied the NCAA record with seven consecutive hits in the College World Series as sophomore and was named to All-Time College World Series Team in 1996.",
"He graduated from Arizona State in 1986 with a degree in criminology.",
"He was named ASU On Deck Circle Most Valuable Player; other winners include Dustin Pedroia, Willie Bloomquist, Paul Lo Duca, and Ike Davis.",
"During college, he played part of one summer in the amateur Alaska Baseball League with the Alaska Goldpanners.",
"\n===Draft and minor leagues===\nThe Pittsburgh Pirates drafted Bonds as the sixth overall pick of the 1985 Major League Baseball draft.",
"He joined the Prince William Pirates of the Carolina League and was named July 1985 Player of the Month for the league.",
"In 1986, he hit .311 in 44 games for the Hawaii Islanders of the Pacific Coast League.",
"===Pittsburgh Pirates (1986–92)===\nBefore Bonds made it to the major leagues in Pittsburgh, Pirate fan attendance was low, with 1984 and 1985 attendance below 10,000 per game for the 81-game home schedule.",
"Bonds made his major league debut on May 30, 1986.",
"In 1986, Bonds led National League (NL) rookies with 16 home runs, 48 RBI, 36 stolen bases and 65 walks, but he finished 6th in Rookie of the Year voting.",
"He played center field in 1986, but switched to left field with the arrival of centerfielder Andy Van Slyke in 1987.",
"In his early years, Bonds batted as the leadoff hitter.",
"With Van Slyke also in the outfield, the Pirates had a venerable defensive tandem that worked together to cover a lot of ground on the field although they were not close off the field.",
"The Pirates experienced a surge in fan enthusiasm with Bonds on the team and set the club attendance record of 52,119 in the 1987 home opener.",
"That year, he hit 25 home runs in his second season, along with 32 stolen bases and 59 RBIs.",
"Bonds improved in 1988, hitting .283 with 24 home runs.",
"The Pirates broke the record set the previous year with 54,089 attending the home opener.",
"Bonds now fit into a highly respected lineup featuring Bobby Bonilla, Van Slyke and Jay Bell.",
"He finished with 19 homers, 58 RBIs, and 14 outfield assists in 1989, which was second in the NL.",
"Following the season, rumors that he would be traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers for Jeff Hamilton and John Wetteland, but the team denied the rumors and no such trade occurred.",
"Bonds won his first MVP Award in 1990, hitting .301 with 33 home runs and 114 RBIs.",
"He also stole 52 bases, which were third in the league, to become a first-time member of the 30–30 club.",
"He won his first Gold Glove Award and Silver Slugger Award.",
"That year, the Pirates won the National League East title for their first postseason berth since winning the 1979 World Series.",
"However, the Cincinnati Reds (whose last post-season berth had also been in 1979; they lost to the Pirates in that year's NLCS) defeated the Pirates in the NLCS en route to winning the World Championship.",
"In 1991, Bonds also put up great numbers, hitting 25 homers and driving in 116 runs, and obtained another Gold Glove and Silver Slugger.",
"He finished second to the Atlanta Braves' Terry Pendleton (the NL batting champion) in the MVP voting.",
"The Pirates slugging outfield of Bonds, Bonilla and Van Slyke performed miserably in the 1990 and 1991 playoffs hitting .190 in 1990 (12 for 63) and .200 in 1991 (15 for 75).",
"In March 1992, Pirates general manager Ted Simmons agreed to a deal with Atlanta Braves counterpart John Schuerholz to trade Bonds, in exchange for Alejandro Peña, Keith Mitchell, and a player to be named later.",
"Pirates manager Jim Leyland opposed the trade vehemently, and the proposal was rescinded.",
"Bonds stayed with Pittsburgh and won his second MVP award that season.",
"While hitting .311 with 34 homers and 103 RBIs, he propelled the Pirates to their third straight National League East division title.",
"However, Pittsburgh was defeated by the Braves in a seven-game National League Championship Series.",
"Bonds participated in the final play of Game 7 of the NLCS, whereby he fielded a base hit by Francisco Cabrera and attempted to throw out Sid Bream at home plate.",
"But the throw to Pirates catcher Mike LaValliere was late and Bream scored the winning run.",
"For the third consecutive season, the NL East Champion Pirates were denied a trip to the World Series.",
"Following the loss, Bonds and star teammate Doug Drabek were expected to command salaries too high for Pittsburgh to again sign them.",
"===San Francisco Giants (1993–2007)===\nBonds in 1993\n\n====1993 season====\nIn 1993, Bonds left the Pirates to sign a lucrative free agent contract worth a then-record $43.75 million ($ million today) over six years with the Giants, with whom his father had spent the first seven years of his career, and with whom his godfather Willie Mays played 22 of his 24 Major League seasons.",
"The deal was at that time the largest in baseball history, in terms of both total value and average annual salary.",
"Once he signed with the Giants, Bonds had intended to wear 24, his number during most of his stay with the Pirates, and after receiving Mays' blessing the Giants were willing to unretire it until the public commotion from fans and media became too much.",
"To honor his father, Bonds switched his jersey number to 25, as it had been Bobby's number in San Francisco.",
"Bonds hit .336 in 1993, leading the league with 46 home runs and 123 RBI en route to his second consecutive MVP award, and third overall.",
"As good as the Giants were (winning 103 games), the Atlanta Braves won 104 in what some call the last great pennant race (because the wild card was instituted shortly thereafter).",
"====1994 season====\nIn the lockout-shortened season of 1994, Bonds hit .312 with 37 home runs and a league-leading 74 walks, and he finished 4th in MVP voting.",
"====1995 season====\nIn 1995, Bonds hit 33 homers and drove in 104 runs, hitting .294 but finished only 12th in MVP voting.",
"In 1994, he appeared in a small role as himself in the television film ''Jane's House'', starring James Woods and Anne Archer.",
"====1996 season====\nBonds on the field\nIn 1996, Bonds became the first National League player and second (of the current list of four) major league player(s) to hit 40 home runs and steal 40 bases in the same season.",
"The other members of the 40–40 club are José Canseco–1988, Alex Rodriguez–1998, and Alfonso Soriano–2006; his father Bobby Bonds was one home run short in 1973 when he hit 39 home runs and stole 43 bases.",
"Bonds hit his 300th and 301st home runs off the Florida Marlins' John Burkett on April 27.",
"He became the fourth player in history to join the 300–300 club with 300 stolen bases and 300 home runs for a career, joining Willie Mays, Andre Dawson, and his father.",
"Bonds's totals for the season included 129 runs driven in, a .308 average and a then-National League record 151 walks.",
"He finished fifth in the MVP balloting.",
"====1997 season====\nIn 1997, Bonds hit .291, his lowest average since 1989.",
"He hit 40 home runs for the second straight year and drove in 101 runs, leading the league in walks again with 145.",
"He tied his father in 1997 for having the most 30/30 seasons, and he again placed fifth in the MVP balloting.",
"====1998 season====\nWith two outs in the 9th inning of a game against the Arizona Diamondbacks on May 28, 1998, Bonds became only the fifth player in baseball history to be given an intentional walk with the bases loaded.",
"Nap Lajoie (1901), Del Bissonette (1928) and Bill Nicholson (1944) were three others in the 20th century who received that rare honor.",
"The first to receive one was Abner Dalrymple in 1881.",
"During a game against the Philadelphia Phillies on August 2, Bonds was hit by a pitch thrown by Ricky Bottalico, leading to Bonds charging the mound and triggering a bench-clearing brawl.",
"On August 23, Bonds hit his 400th career home run.",
"By doing so, he became the first player ever to enter the 400–400 club by having career totals of 400 home runs and 400 stolen bases.",
"The milestone home run came off Kirt Ojala, who, like Burkett, was pitching for the Marlins.",
"For the season, he hit .303 with 37 home runs and drove in 122 runs, winning his eighth Gold Glove, He finished 8th in the MVP voting.",
"====1999 season====\nBonds at the plate with the Giants\nBill James ranked Bonds as the best player of the 1990s.",
"He added that the decade's second-best player, Craig Biggio, had been closer in production to the decade's 10th-best player than to Bonds.",
"In 1999, with statistics through 1997 being considered, Bonds ranked Number 34 on The Sporting News' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, making him the highest-ranking active player.",
"When the Sporting News list was redone in 2005, Bonds was ranked 6th behind Babe Ruth, Willie Mays, Ty Cobb, Walter Johnson, and Hank Aaron.",
"Bonds was omitted from 1999's Major League Baseball All-Century Team, to which Ken Griffey, Jr. was elected.",
"James wrote of Bonds, \"Certainly the most unappreciated superstar of my lifetime.",
"... Griffey has always been more popular, but Bonds has been a far, far greater player.\"",
"In 1999, he rated Bonds as the 16th-best player of all time.",
"\"When people begin to take in all of his accomplishments\", he predicted, \"Bonds may well be rated among the five greatest players in the history of the game.\"",
"====2000 season====\nIn 2000, the following year, Bonds hit .306 with career bests through that time in both slugging percentage (.688) and home runs (49) in just 143 games.",
"He also drew a league-leading 117 walks.",
"====2001 season====\nThe next year, Bonds's offensive production reached even higher levels, breaking not only his own personal records but several major league records.",
"In the Giants' first 50 games in 2001, he hit 28 home runs, including 17 in May—a career high.",
"This early stretch included his 500th home run hit on April 17 against Terry Adams of the Los Angeles Dodgers.",
"He also hit 39 home runs by the All-star break (a major league record), drew a major league record 177 walks, and had a .515 on-base average, a feat not seen since Mickey Mantle and Ted Williams over forty years earlier.",
"Bonds's slugging percentage was a major league record .863 (411 total bases in 476 at-bats), and, most impressively, he ended the season with a major league record 73 home runs.",
"On October 4, Bonds tied the previous record of 70 set by Mark McGwire – which McGwire set in the 162nd game in 1998 – by homering off Wilfredo Rodríguez in the 159th game of the season.",
"He then hit numbers 71 and 72 the following night off Chan Ho Park.",
"Bonds added his 73rd off Dennis Springer on October 7.",
"The ball was later sold to toy manufacturer Todd McFarlane for $450,000.",
"He previously bought Mark McGwire's 70th home run ball from 1998.",
"Bonds received the Babe Ruth Home Run Award for leading MLB in homers that season.",
"====2002 season====\nBonds re-signed with the Giants for a five-year, $90 million contract in January 2002.",
"He hit five home runs in the Giants' first four games of the season, tying Lou Brock's 35-year record for most home runs after four games.",
"He won the NL batting title with a career-high .370 average and struck out only 47 times.",
"He hit 46 home runs in 403 at-bats.",
"Despite playing in nine fewer games than the previous season, he drew 198 walks, a major-league record; 68 of them were intentional walks, surpassing Willie McCovey's 45 in 1969 for another Major League record.",
"He slugged .799, then the fourth-highest total all time.",
"Bonds broke Ted Williams' major league record for on-base average with .582.",
"Bonds also hit his 600th home run, less than a year and a half after hitting his 500th.",
"The home run came on August 9 at home against Kip Wells of the Pirates.",
"====2002 postseason====\nBonds batted .322 with 8 home runs, 16 RBI, and 27 walks in the postseason en route to the 2002 World Series, which the Giants lost 4–3 to the Anaheim Angels.",
"====2003 season====\nIn 2003, Bonds played in just 130 games.",
"He hit 45 home runs in just 390 at-bats, along with a .341 batting average.",
"He slugged .749, walked 148 times, and had an on-base average well over .500 (.529) for the third straight year.",
"He also became the only member of the career 500 home run/500 stolen base club by stealing second base on June 23 off of pitcher Éric Gagné in the 11th inning of a tied ball game against the Los Angeles Dodgers (against whom Bonds had tallied his 500th home run).",
"Bonds scored the game-winning run later that inning.",
"====2004 season====\nIn 2004, Bonds had perhaps his best season.",
"He hit .362 en route to his second National League batting title, and broke his own record by walking 232 times.",
"He slugged .812, which was fourth-highest of all time, and broke his on-base percentage record with a .609 average.",
"Bonds passed Mays on the career home run list by hitting his 661st off of Ben Ford on April 13, He then hit his 700th off of Jake Peavy on September 17.",
"Bonds hit 45 home runs in 373 at-bats, and struck out just 41 times, putting himself in elite company, as few major leaguers have ever had more home runs than strikeouts in a season.",
"Bonds would win his fourth consecutive MVP award and his seventh overall.",
"His seven MVP awards are four more than any other player in history.",
"In addition, no other player from either league has been awarded the MVP four times in a row.",
"(The MVP award was first given in 1931).",
"The 40-year-old Bonds also broke Willie Stargell's 25-year record as the oldest player to win a Most Valuable Player Award (Stargell, at 39 years, 8 months, was National League co-MVP with Keith Hernandez in 1979).",
"On July 4, he tied and passed Rickey Henderson's career bases on balls record with his 2190th and 2191st career walks.",
"As Bonds neared Aaron's record, Aaron was called on for his opinion of Bonds.",
"He clarified that he was a fan and admirer of Bonds and avoided the controversy regarding whether the record should be denoted with an asterisk for Bonds's alleged steroid usage.",
"He felt recognition and respect for the award was something to be determined by the fans.",
"As the steroid controversy received greater media attention during the offseason before the 2005 season, Aaron expressed some reservations about the statements Bonds made on the issue.",
"Aaron expressed that he felt drug and steroid use to boost athletic performance was inappropriate.",
"Aaron was frustrated that the media could not focus on events that occurred in the field of play and wished drugs or gambling allegations such as those associated with Pete Rose could be emphasized less.",
"In 2007, Aaron felt the whole steroid use issue was very controversial and decided that he would not attend any possible record-breaking games.",
"Aaron congratulated Bonds through the media including a video played on the scoreboard when Bonds eventually broke Aaron's record in August 2007.",
"====2005 season====\nBonds's salary for the 2005 season was $22 million, the second-highest salary in Major League Baseball (the Yankees' Alex Rodriguez earned the highest, $25.2 million).",
"Bonds endured a knee injury, multiple surgeries, and rehabilitation.",
"He was activated on September 12 and started in left field.",
"In his return against the San Diego Padres, he nearly hit a home run in his first at-bat.",
"Bonds finished the night 1-for-4.",
"Upon his return, Bonds resumed his high-caliber performance at the plate, hitting home runs in four consecutive games from September 18 to 21 and finishing with five homers in only 14 games.",
"====2006 season====\nBonds batting against the Chicago Cubs in 2006\nIn 2006, Bonds earned $20 million (not including bonuses), the fourth highest salary in baseball.",
"Through the 2006 season he had earned approximately $172 million during his then 21-year career, making him baseball's all-time highest paid player.",
"Bonds hit under .200 for his first 10 games of the season and did not hit a home run until April 22.",
"This 10-game stretch was his longest home run slump since the 1998 season.",
"On May 20, Bonds tied Ruth, hitting his 714th career home run to deep right field to lead off the top of the 2nd inning.",
"The home run came off left-handed pitcher Brad Halsey of the Oakland A's, in an interleague game played in Oakland, California.",
"Since this was an interleague game at an American League stadium, Bonds was batting as the designated hitter in the lineup for the Giants.",
"Bonds was quoted after the game as being \"glad it's over with\" and stated that more attention could be focused on Albert Pujols, who was on a very rapid home run pace in early 2006.",
"On May 28, Bonds passed Ruth, hitting his 715th career home run to center field off Colorado Rockies pitcher Byung-hyun Kim.",
"The ball was hit an estimated 445 feet (140 m) into center field where it went through the hands of several fans but then fell onto an elevated platform in center field.",
"Then it rolled off the platform where Andrew Morbitzer, a 38-year-old San Francisco resident, caught the ball while he was in line at a concession stand.",
"Mysteriously, radio broadcaster Dave Flemming's radio play-by-play of the home run went silent just as the ball was hit, apparently from a microphone failure.",
"But the televised version, called by Giants broadcaster Duane Kuiper, was not affected.",
"Bonds in August 2006 with the Giants\nOn September 22, Bonds tied Henry Aaron's National League career home run record of 733.",
"The home run came in the top of the 6th inning of a high-scoring game against the Milwaukee Brewers, at Miller Park in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.",
"The achievement was notable for its occurrence in the very city where Aaron began (with the Milwaukee Braves) and concluded (with the Brewers, then in the American League) his career.",
"With the Giants trailing 10–8, Bonds hit a blast to deep center field on a 2–0 pitch off the Brewers' Chris Spurling with runners on first and second and one out.",
"Though the Giants were at the time clinging to only a slim chance of making the playoffs, Bonds's home run provided the additional drama of giving the Giants an 11–10 lead late in a critical game in the final days of a pennant race.",
"The Brewers eventually won the game, 13–12, though Bonds went 3 for 5, with 2 doubles, the record-tying home run, and 6 runs batted in.",
"On September 23, Bonds surpassed Aaron for the NL career home run record.",
"Hit in Milwaukee like the previous one, this was a solo home run off Chris Capuano of the Brewers.",
"This was the last home run Bonds hit in 2006.",
"In 2006, Bonds recorded his lowest slugging percentage (a statistic that he has historically ranked among league leaders season after season) since 1991 with the Pittsburgh Pirates.",
"In January 2007, the ''New York Daily News'' reported that Bonds had tested positive for amphetamines.",
"Under baseball's amphetamine policy, which had been in effect for one season, players testing positive were to submit to six additional tests and undergo treatment and counseling.",
"The policy also stated that players were not to be identified for a first positive test, but the ''New York Daily News'' leaked the test's results.",
"When the Players Association informed Bonds of the test results, he initially attributed it to a substance he had taken from the locker of Giants teammate Mark Sweeney, but would later retract this claim and publicly apologize to Sweeney.",
"====2007 season====\nBonds at the plate against the Rockies in 2007\nOn January 29, 2007, the Giants finalized a contract with Bonds for the 2007 season.",
"After the commissioner's office rejected Bonds's one-year, $15.8 million deal because it contained a personal-appearance provision, the team sent revised documents to his agent, Jeff Borris, who stated that \"At this time, Barry is not signing the new documents.\"",
"Bonds signed a revised one-year, $15.8 million contract on February 15 and reported to the Giants' Spring training camp on time.",
"Bonds resumed his march to the all-time record early in the 2007 season.",
"After an opening game in which all he had was a first-inning single past third base against a right-shifted infield (immediately followed by a stolen base and then a base-running misjudgment that got him thrown out at home) and a deep out to left field late in the game, Bonds returned the next day, April 4, with another mission.",
"In his first at-bat of the season's second game at the Giants' AT&T Park, Bonds hit a Chris Young (of the San Diego Padres) pitch just over the wall to the left of straightaway center field for career home run 735.",
"This home run put Bonds past the midway point between Ruth and Aaron.",
"Bonds did not homer again until April 13, when he hit two (736 and 737) in a 3 for 3 night that included 4 RBI against the Pittsburgh Pirates.",
"Bonds splashed a pitch by St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Ryan Franklin into McCovey Cove on April 18 for home run 738.",
"Home runs number 739 and 740 came in back to back games on April 21 and 22 against the Arizona Diamondbacks.",
"The hype surrounding Bonds's pursuit of the home run record escalated on May 14.",
"On this day, Sports Auction for Heritage (a Dallas-based auction house) offered US$1 million to the fan who would catch Bonds's record-breaking 756th-career home run.",
"The million dollar offer was rescinded on June 11 out of concern of fan safety.",
"Home run 748 came on Father's Day, June 17, in the final game of a 3-game road series against the Boston Red Sox at Fenway Park, where Bonds had never previously played.",
"With this homer, Fenway Park became the 36th major league ballpark in which Bonds had hit a home run.",
"He hit a Tim Wakefield knuckleball just over the low fence into the Giant's bullpen in right field.",
"It was his first home run off his former Pittsburgh Pirate teammate, who became the 441st different pitcher to surrender a four-bagger to Bonds.",
"The 750th career home run, hit on June 29, also came off a former teammate: Liván Hernández.",
"The blast came in the 8th inning and at that point tied the game at 3–3.",
"On July 19, after a 21 at-bat hitless streak, Bonds hit 2 home runs, numbers 752 and 753, against the Chicago Cubs.",
"He went 3–3 with 2 home runs, 6 RBIs, and a walk on that day.",
"The struggling last place Giants still lost the game, 9–8.",
"On July 27, Bonds hit home run 754 against Florida Marlins pitcher Rick VandenHurk.",
"Bonds was then walked his next 4 at-bats in the game, but a 2-run shot helped the Giants win the game 12–10.",
"It marked the first time since he had hit #747 that Bonds had homered in a game the Giants won.",
"On August 4, Bonds hit a 382 foot (116 m) home run against Clay Hensley of the San Diego Padres for home run number 755, tying Hank Aaron's all-time record.",
"Bonds greeted his son, Nikolai, with an extended bear hug after crossing home plate.",
"Bonds greeted his teammates and then his wife, Liz Watson, and daughter Aisha Lynn behind the backstop.",
"Hensley was the 445th different pitcher to give up a home run to Bonds.",
"Ironically, given the cloud of suspicion that surrounded Bonds, the tying home run was hit off a pitcher who had been suspended by baseball in 2005 for steroid use.",
"He was walked in his next at bat and eventually scored on a fielder's choice.",
"On August 7 at 8:51 PM PDT, at the Giants home AT&T Park in San Francisco, Bonds hit a 435 foot (133 m) home run, his 756th, off a pitch from Mike Bacsik of the Washington Nationals, breaking the all-time career home run record, formerly held by Hank Aaron.",
"Coincidentally, Bacsik's father had faced Aaron (as a pitcher for the Texas Rangers) after Aaron had hit his 755th home run.",
"On August 23, 1976, Michael J. Bacsik held Aaron to a single and a fly out to right field.",
"The younger Bacsik commented later, \"If my dad had been gracious enough to let Hank Aaron hit a home run, we both would have given up 756.\"",
"After hitting the home run, Bonds gave Bacsik an autographed bat.",
"The pitch, the seventh of the at-bat, was a 3–2 pitch which Bonds hit into the right-center field bleachers.",
"The fan who ended up with the ball, 22-year-old Matt Murphy from Queens, New York (and a Mets fan), was promptly protected and escorted away from the mayhem by a group of San Francisco police officers.",
"After Bonds finished his home run trot, a ten-minute delay followed, including a brief video by Aaron congratulating Bonds on breaking the record Aaron had held for 33 years, and expressing the hope that \"the achievement of this record will inspire others to chase their own dreams.\"",
"Bonds made an impromptu emotional statement on the field, with Willie Mays, his godfather, at his side and thanked his teammates, family and his late father.",
"Bonds sat out the rest of the game.",
"Bonds's 756th home run ball in the Hall of Fame\nThe commissioner, Bud Selig, was not in attendance in this game but was represented by the Executive Vice President of Baseball Operations, Jimmie Lee Solomon.",
"Selig called Bonds later that night to congratulate him on breaking the record.",
"President George W. Bush also called Bonds the next day to congratulate him.",
"On August 24, San Francisco honored and celebrated Bonds's career accomplishments and breaking the home run record with a large rally in Justin Herman Plaza.",
"The rally included video messages from Lou Brock, Ernie Banks, Ozzie Smith, Joe Montana, Wayne Gretzky and Michael Jordan.",
"Speeches were made by Willie Mays, Giants teammates Omar Vizquel and Rich Aurilia, and Giants owner Peter Magowan.",
"Mayor Gavin Newsom presented Bonds the key to the City and County of San Francisco and Giants vice president Larry Baer gave Bonds the home plate he touched after hitting his 756th career home run.",
"The record-setting ball was consigned to an auction house on August 21.",
"Bidding began on August 28 and closed with a winning bid of US$752,467 on September 15 after a three phase online auction.",
"The high bidder, fashion designer Marc Ecko, created a website to let fans decide its fate.",
"Subsequently, Ben Padnos, who submitted the (US) $186,750 winning bid on Bonds's record-tying 755th home run ball also set up a website to let fans decide its fate.",
"Of Ecko's plans, Bonds said \"He spent $750,000 on the ball and that's what he's doing with it?",
"What he's doing is stupid.\"",
"10 million voters helped Ecko decide to brand the ball with an asterisk and send it to the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum.",
"Padnos sold 5-year ads on a website, www.endthedebate.com, where people voted by a two-to-one margin to smash the ball.",
"Bonds concluded the 2007 season with a .276 batting average, 28 home runs, and 66 RBIs in 126 games and 340 at bats.",
"At the age of 43, he led both leagues in walks with 132.",
"On September 21, 2007, the San Francisco Giants confirmed that they would not re-sign Bonds for the 2008 season.",
"The story was first announced on Bonds's own web site earlier that day.",
"Bonds officially filed for free agency on October 29, 2007.",
"His agent Jeff Borris said: \"I'm anticipating widespread interest from every Major League team.\"",
"There was much speculation before the 2008 season about where Bonds might play.",
"However, no one signed him during the 2008 or 2009 seasons.",
"If he had returned to Major League Baseball, Bonds would have been within close range of several significant hitting milestones: needing just 65 hits to reach 3,000, 4 runs batted in to reach 2,000, and 38 home runs to reach 800.",
"He would have needed 69 more runs scored to move past Rickey Henderson as the all-time runs champion, and 37 extra base hits to move past Hank Aaron as the all-time extra base hits champion.",
"As of November 13, 2009, Borris maintained that Bonds was still not retired.",
"On December 9, however, Borris told the ''San Francisco Chronicle'' that Bonds had played his last major league game.",
"Bonds announced on April 11, 2010, that he was proud of McGwire for admitting his use of steroids.",
"Bonds said that it was not the time to retire, but he noted that he was not in shape to play immediately if an interested club called him.",
"In May 2015, Bonds filed a grievance against Major League Baseball through the players' union arguing that the league colluded in not signing him after the 2007 season.",
"In August 2015, an arbitrator ruled in favor of MLB and against Bonds in his collusion case.",
"Bonds has not had a jersey number retired by either the Pirates or Giants, although there have been calls by fans of both teams to retire their respective uniform numbers held by Bonds.",
"His number 24 with the Pirates remains in circulation, most prominently worn by Brian Giles from 1999 to 2003 and by Pedro Alvarez from 2011 to 2015.",
"The Giants have not reissued Bonds's number 25.",
"On December 15, 2011, Bonds was sentenced to 30 days of house arrest, two years of probation and 250 hours of community service, for an obstruction of justice conviction stemming from a grand jury appearance in 2003.",
"However, U.S. District Judge Susan Illston then delayed the sentence pending an appeal.",
"In 2013 his conviction was upheld on appeal by a three judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.",
"However, the full court later granted Bonds an en banc rehearing, and on April 22, 2015, an 11-judge panel of the Ninth Circuit voted 10-1 to overturn his conviction.",
"On March 10, 2014, Bonds began a seven-day stint as a roving spring training instructor for the Giants.",
"On December 4, 2015, he was announced as the new hitting coach for the Miami Marlins, but was relieved of his duties on October 3, 2016, after just one season.",
"He followed up with a public thank-you letter, acknowledging owner Jeffrey Loria, and the opportunity as \"one of the most rewarding experiences of my baseball career.\"",
"In 2017, Bonds officially rejoined the Giants organization as a special advisor to the CEO.",
"On July 8, 2017, Bonds was added to the Giants Wall of Fame.",
"In his first five years of eligibility for induction to the National Baseball Hall of Fame, Bonds received 36.2%, 34.7%, 36.8%, 44.3%, and 53.8% of the vote, all short of the 75% needed for induction.",
"During his playing career, Bonds was frequently described as a difficult person, surly, standoffish and ungrateful, among other unflattering adjectives.",
"However, in one interview with Terence Moore in 2016, he acknowledged regret over the persona which he had created.",
"He attributed it to a response to the pressure he felt to perform as a young player with the Pirates.",
"Remarked Bonds,\n\n\n\n\n\nFor a short time during his playing days with the Giants, Bonds temporarily changed his demeanor at the behest of a group of teammates, resulting in him smiling much more frequently and engaging more with others with a pleasant demeanor.",
"Shortly thereafter, in the midst of a slump, the same group of teammates pleaded that he revert, having seemingly lost his competitive edge, and causing the team lose more.",
"In spite of his protest that they would not appreciate the results, his teammates insisted, and Bonds complied, maintaining that familiar standoffish edge the rest of his playing career.",
"Following his retirement from playing, Bonds became much more gregarious and engaging with the public, quick to flash what started to become a more-and-more familiar smile.",
"===BALCO scandal===\nMug shot taken after 2007 indictment\nSince 2003, Bonds has been a key figure in the Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative (BALCO) scandal.",
"BALCO marketed tetrahydrogestrinone (\"the Clear\"), a performance-enhancing steroid that was undetectable by doping tests.",
"He was under investigation by a federal grand jury regarding his testimony in the BALCO case, and was indicted on perjury and obstruction of justice charges on November 15, 2007.",
"The indictment alleges that Bonds lied while under oath about his alleged use of steroids.",
"In 2003, Bonds first became embroiled in a scandal when Greg Anderson of the Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative (BALCO), Bonds's trainer since 2000, was indicted by a federal grand jury in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California and charged with supplying anabolic steroids to athletes, including a number of baseball players.",
"This led to speculation that Bonds had used performance-enhancing drugs during a time when there was no mandatory testing in Major League Baseball.",
"Bonds declared his innocence, attributing his changed physique and increased power to a strict regimen of bodybuilding, diet, and legitimate supplements.",
"During grand jury testimony on December 4, 2003, Bonds said that he used a clear substance and a cream that he received from his personal strength trainer, Greg Anderson, who told him they were the nutritional supplement flaxseed oil and a rubbing balm for arthritis.",
"This testimony, as reported by Lance Williams and Mark Fainaru-Wada, has frequently been misrepresented.",
"Later reports on Bonds's leaked grand-jury testimony contend that he admitted to unknowingly using \"the cream\" and \"the clear\".",
"In July 2005, all four defendants in the BALCO steroid scandal trial, including Anderson, struck deals with federal prosecutors that did not require them to reveal names of athletes who may have used banned drugs.",
"====Perjury case====\n\nOn November 15, 2007, Bonds was indicted on four counts of perjury and one count of obstruction of justice as it relates to the government investigation of BALCO.",
"On February 14, 2008 a typo in court papers filed by Federal prosecutors erroneously alleged that Bonds tested positive for steroids in November 2001, a month after hitting his record 73rd home run.",
"The reference was meant instead to refer to a November 2000 test that had already been disclosed and previously reported.",
"The typo sparked a brief media frenzy.",
"His trial for obstruction of justice was to have begun on March 2, 2009, but jury selection was postponed by 11th-hour appeals by the prosecution.",
"The trial commenced on March 21, 2011, in U. S. District Court, Northern District of California, with Judge Susan Illston presiding.",
"He was convicted on April 13, 2011 on the obstruction of justice charge, for giving an evasive answer to a question under oath.",
"His sentence did not include prison.",
"The conviction was initially upheld by a three judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in 2013, but a larger panel of the court voted 10-1 to overturn the conviction on April 22, 2015.",
"===Players' Union===\nBonds withdrew from the MLB Players Association's (MLBPA) licensing agreement because he felt independent marketing deals would be more lucrative for him.",
"Bonds is the first player in the thirty-year history of the licensing program not to sign.",
"Because of this withdrawal, his name and likeness are not usable in any merchandise licensed by the MLBPA.",
"In order to use his name or likeness, a company must deal directly with Bonds.",
"For this reason he does not appear in some baseball video games, forcing game-makers to create generic athletes to replace him.",
"For example, Bonds is replaced by \"Jon Dowd\" in ''MVP Baseball 2005.''",
"===''Game of Shadows''===\n\nIn March 2006 the book ''Game of Shadows'', written by Lance Williams and Mark Fainaru-Wada, was released amid a storm of media publicity including the cover of ''Sports Illustrated''.",
"Initially small excerpts of the book were released by the authors in the issue of ''Sports Illustrated''.",
"The book alleges Bonds used stanozolol and a host of other steroids, and is perhaps most responsible for the change in public opinion regarding Bonds's steroid use.",
"The book contained excerpts of grand jury testimony that is supposed to be sealed and confidential by law.",
"The authors have been steadfast in their refusal to divulge their sources and at one point faced jail time.",
"On February 14, 2007, Troy Ellerman, one of Victor Conte's lawyers, pleaded guilty to leaking grand jury testimony.",
"Through the plea agreement, he will spend two and a half years in jail.",
"===''Love Me, Hate Me''===\nIn May 2006, former ''Sports Illustrated'' writer Jeff Pearlman released a revealing biography of Bonds entitled ''Love Me, Hate Me: Barry Bonds and the Making of an Anti-Hero.''",
"The book also contained many allegations against Bonds.",
"The book, which describes Bonds as a polarizing insufferable braggart with a legendary ego and staggering ability, relied on over five hundred interviews, except with Bonds himself.",
"===''Bonds on Bonds''===\n\nIn April 2006 and May 2006, ESPN aired a few episodes of a 10-part reality TV (unscripted, documentary-style) series starring Bonds.",
"The show, titled ''Bonds on Bonds'', focused on Bonds's chase of Babe Ruth's and Hank Aaron's home run records.",
"Some felt the show should be put on hiatus until baseball investigated Bonds's steroid use allegations.",
"The series was canceled in June 2006, ESPN and producer Tollin/Robbins Productions citing \"creative control\" issues with Bonds and his representatives.",
"Bonds met Susann (\"Sun\") Margreth Branco, the mother of his first two children (Nikolai and Shikari), in Montreal, Quebec in August 1987.",
"They eloped to Las Vegas February 5, 1988.",
"The couple separated in June 1994, divorced in December 1994, and had their marriage annulled in 1997 by the Catholic Church.",
"The divorce was a media affair because Bonds had his Swedish spouse sign a prenuptial agreement in which she \"waived her right to a share of his present and future earnings\" and which was upheld.",
"Bonds had been providing his wife $20,000/month in child support and $10,000 in spousal support at the time of the ruling.",
"During the hearings to set permanent support levels, allegations of abuse came from both parties.",
"The trial dragged on for months, but Bonds was awarded both houses and reduced support.",
"On August 21, 2000, the Supreme Court of California, in an opinion signed by Chief Justice Ronald M. George, unanimously held that \"substantial evidence supports the determination of the trial court that the prenuptial agreement in the present case was entered into voluntarily.\"",
"In reaction to the decision, significant changes in California law relating to the validity and enforceability of premarital agreements soon followed.",
"In 2010, Bonds's son Nikolai, who served as a Giants batboy during his father's years playing in San Francisco and always sat next to his dad in the dugout during games, was charged with five misdemeanors resulting from a confrontation with his mother, Sun.",
"Barry accompanied him to San Mateo County Superior Court.",
"After the end of his first marriage, Bonds had an extensive intimate relationship with Kimberly Bell from 1994 through May 2003.",
"Bonds purchased a home in Scottsdale, Arizona for Kimberly.",
"On January 10, 1998, Bonds married his second wife, Liz Watson, at the San Francisco Ritz-Carlton Hotel in front of 240 guests.",
"The couple lived in Los Altos Hills, California, with their daughter Aisha during their ten-and-a-half years of marriage before Watson filed for legal separation on June 9, 2009, citing irreconcilable differences.",
"On July 21, 2009, just six weeks later, Watson announced that she was withdrawing her Legal Separation action.",
"The couple were reconciled for seven months before Watson formally filed for divorce in Los Angeles on February 26, 2010.",
"On June 6, 2011, Bonds and Watson filed a legal agreement not to take the divorce to trial and instead settle it in an \"uncontested manner\", effectively agreeing to take the proceedings out of the public eye and end the marriage privately at an unspecified later date without further court involvement.",
"Several of Bonds's family and extended family members have been involved in athletics as either a career or a notable pastime.",
"Bonds has a younger brother, Bobby, Jr., who was also a professional baseball player.",
"His paternal aunt, Rosie Bonds, is a former American record holder in the 80 meter hurdles, and competed in the 1964 Olympics.",
"In addition, he is a distant cousin of Hall of Famer Reggie Jackson.",
"Among Bonds's many real estate properties is a home he owns in the exclusive gated community of Beverly Park in Beverly Hills, California.",
"An avid cyclist, the activity became one of Bonds's primary means of keeping in shape and great passion since his playing career.",
"Because knee surgeries, back surgeries, and hip surgeries made it much more difficult to run, cycling has allowed him to engage in sufficient cardiovascular activity to help keep in shape.",
"As a result of the cycling, he has lost 25 pounds from his final playing weight of 240 pounds.",
"Besides holding Major League career records in home runs (762), walks (2,558), and intentional walks (688), at the time of his retirement, Bonds also led all active players in RBI (1,996), on-base percentage (.444), runs (2,227), games (2,986), extra-base hits (1,440), at-bats per home run (12.92), and total bases (5,976).",
"He is 2nd in doubles (601), slugging percentage (.607), stolen bases (514), at-bats (9,847), and hits (2,935), and 6th in triples (77), 8th in sacrifice flies (91), and 9th in strikeouts (1,539), through September 26, 2007.",
"Bonds is the lone member of the 500–500 club, which means he has hit at least 500 home runs (762) and stolen at least 500 bases (514).",
"He is also one of only four baseball players all-time to be in the 40–40 club (1996), which means he hit 40 home runs (42) and stole 40 bases (40) in the same season; the other members are José Canseco, Alex Rodriguez, and Alfonso Soriano.",
"===Records held===\n\n* Home runs in a single season (73), 2001\n* Home runs (career) (762)\n* Home runs against different pitchers (449)\n* Home runs since turning 40 years old (74)\n* Home runs in the year he turned 43 years old (28)\n* Consecutive seasons with 30 or more home runs (13), 1992–2004\n* Slugging percentage in a single season (.863), 2001\n* Slugging percentage in a World Series (1.294), 2002\n* Consecutive seasons with .600 slugging percentage or higher (8), 1998–2005\n* On-base percentage in a single season (.609), 2004\n* Walks in a single season (232), 2004\n* Intentional walks in a single season (120), 2004\n* Consecutive games with a walk (18)\n*MVP awards (7—closest competitors trail with 3), 1990, 1992–93, 2001–04\n* Consecutive MVP awards (4), 2001–04\n* National League Player of the Month selections (13) (2nd place, either league, Frank Thomas, 8; 2nd place, N.L., George Foster, Pete Rose, and Dale Murphy, 6)\n* Oldest player (age 38) to win the National League batting title (.370) for the first time, 2002\n\n===Records shared===\n* Consecutive plate appearances with a walk (7)\n* Consecutive plate appearances reaching base (15)\n* Tied with his father, Bobby, for most seasons with 30 home runs and 30 stolen bases (5) and are the only father-son members of the 30–30 club\n* Home runs in a single post-season (8), 2002\n\n===Other accomplishments===\n\n+ '''National League statistical leader'''\n\nCategory\n\nSeasons\n\n Adjusted OPS+ leader \n 9\n 1990−93, 2000−04\n\n Bases on balls leader \n 12\n 1992, 1994−97, 2000−04, 2006, 2007\n\n Batting champion \n 2\n 2002, 2004\n\n Extra base hits leader \n 3 \n 1992, 1993, 2001\n\n Games played leader \n 1 \n 1995\n\n Home run leader \n 2 \n 1993, 2001\n\n Intentional base on balls leader \n 12 \n 1992−98, 2002−04, 2006, 2007\n\n On-base percentage leader \n 10\n 1991−93, 1995, 2001−04, 2006, 2007\n\n On-base plus slugging leader \n 9 \n 1990−93, 1995, 2001−04\n\n Runs batted in leader \n 1 \n 1993\n\n Runs scored leader \n 1 \n 1992\n\n Slugging percentage leader \n 7\n 1990, 1992, 1993, 2001−04\n\n Total bases leader \n 1\n 1993\n\n\n\n;Awards & distinctions\n\n+ '''Awards received'''\n\nAward\n# of Times\nDates\n\n\n Babe Ruth Home Run Award \n 1\n 2001\n \n\n ''Baseball America'' All-Star \n 7\n 1993, 1998, 2000–04\n\n\n ''Baseball America'' Major League Player of the Year \n 3\n 2001, 2003, 2004\n \n\n MLB All-Star \n 14\n 1990, 1992–98, 2000–04, 2007\n \n\n Major League Player of the Year \n 3\n 1990, 2001, 2004\n \n\n Rawlings Gold Glove Award at outfield \n 8\n 1990–94, 1996–98\n \n\n Silver Slugger Award at outfield \n 12\n 1990–94, 1996–97, 2000–04\n \n\n\n* 5-time SF Giants Player of the Year (1998, 2001–04)\n* 3-Time NL Hank Aaron Award winner (2001–02, 2004)\n* Listed at #6 on ''The Sporting News'' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, the highest-ranked active player, i n 2005.",
"* Named a finalist to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team in 1999, but not elected to the team in the fan balloting.",
"* Rating of 352 on Baseball-Reference.com's Hall of Fame monitor (100 is a good HOF candidate); 9th among all hitters, highest among hitters not in HOF yet.",
"* Only the second player to twice have a single-season slugging percentage over .800, with his record .863 in 2001 and .812 in 2004.",
"Babe Ruth was the other, with .847 in 1920 and .846 in 1921.",
"* Became the first player in history with more times on base (376) than official at-bats (373) in 2004.",
"This was due to the record number of walks, which count as a time on base but not an at-bat.",
"He had 135 hits, 232 walks, and 9 hit-by-pitches for the 376 number.",
"* With his father Bobby (332, 461), leads all father-son combinations in combined home runs (1,094) and stolen bases (975), respectively through September 26, 2007.",
"* Played minor league baseball in both Alaska and Hawaii.",
"In 1983, he played for the Alaska Goldpanners of Fairbanks in the Alaska Baseball League, and in 1986, he played for the Hawaii Islanders in the Pacific Coast League.",
"*Featured on the cover of Sports Illustrated.",
"He has appeared as the main subject on the cover eight times in total; seven with the Giants and once with the Pirates.",
"He has also appeared in an inset on the cover twice.",
"He was the most recent Pirate player to appear on the cover, until Jason Grilli was featured in SIs edition of July 22, 2013.",
"\n\n* 30–30 club\n* 40–40 club\n* 50 home run club\n* 500 home run club\n* List of Major League Baseball annual runs batted in leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball annual home run leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball annual runs scored leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball batting champions\n* List of Major League Baseball career at-bat leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career bases on balls leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career doubles leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career extra base hits leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career games played leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career hit by pitch leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career on-base percentage leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career OPS leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career plate appearance leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career records\n* List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career slugging percentage leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career strikeouts by batters leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball career total bases leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball doubles records\n* List of Major League Baseball home run records\n* List of Major League Baseball individual streaks\n* List of Major League Baseball progressive career home runs leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball progressive single-season home run leaders\n* List of Major League Baseball record breakers by season\n* List of Major League Baseball record holders\n* List of Major League Baseball runs batted in records\n* List of Major League Baseball runs records\n* List of Major League Baseball single-season records\n* List of milestone home runs by Barry Bonds\n* List of second-generation Major League Baseball players\n* Major League Baseball titles leaders",
"\n* \n, or Retrosheet, or Pura Pelota (Venezuelan Winter League)\n* \n* Bonds archive at ''Los Angeles Times''\n\n\n\n Championship succession boxes\n\n\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n Award succession boxes\n\n\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n Records succession boxes"
] | river |
[
"\n\n \n\nThe '''railway system in Great Britain''' is the oldest in the world: the world's first locomotive-hauled public railway opened in 1825. Most of the railway track is managed by Network Rail, which in 2016 had a network of of standard-gauge lines, of which were electrified. These lines range from single to quadruple track or more. In addition, some cities have separate rail-based mass transit systems (including the extensive and historic London Underground). There are also several private railways (some of them narrow-gauge), which are primarily short tourist lines. The British railway network is connected with that of continental Europe by an undersea rail link, the Channel Tunnel, opened in 1994.\n\nThe United Kingdom is a member of the International Union of Railways (UIC). The UIC Country Code for United Kingdom is 70. The UK has the 17th largest railway network in the world; despite many lines having closed in the 20th century it remains one of the densest rail networks. It is one of the busiest railways in Europe, with 20% more train services than France, 60% more than Italy, and more than Spain, Switzerland, The Netherlands, Portugal and Norway combined, as well as representing more than 20% of all passenger journeys in Europe.\n\nIn 2016, there were 1.718 billion journeys on the National Rail network, making the British network the fifth most used in the world (Great Britain ranks 23rd in world population). Unlike a number of other countries, rail travel in the United Kingdom has enjoyed a renaissance in recent years, with passenger numbers reaching their highest ever level (see usage figures below). This has coincided with the privatisation of British Rail, but the effect of this is disputed. The growth is partly attributed to a shift away from private motoring due to growing road congestion and increasing petrol prices, but also to the overall increase in travel due to affluence. However passenger journeys have grown much more quickly than in comparable countries such as France and Germany.\n\nTo cope with increasing passenger numbers, there is a large ongoing programme of upgrades to the network, including Thameslink, Crossrail, electrification of lines, in-cab signalling, new inter-city trains and a new high-speed line.\n",
"Ireland, the United Kingdom and the Isle of Man are shown in black, heritage lines in green, subway lines in red and former railway lines in light blue.\nRail Passengers in Great Britain from 1829-2016, showing the early era of small railway companies, the amalgamation into the \"Big Four\", nationalisation and finally the current era of privatisation\n\n\nThe early railways were a patchwork of local lines operated by small private railway companies. Over the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries, these amalgamated or were bought by competitors until only a handful of larger companies remained (see railway mania). The entire network was brought under government control during the First World War and a number of advantages of amalgamation and planning were revealed. However, the government resisted calls for the nationalisation of the network (first proposed by 19th century Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone as early as the 1830s). Instead, from 1 January 1923, almost all the remaining companies were grouped into the \"big four\": the Great Western Railway, the London and North Eastern Railway, the London, Midland and Scottish Railway and the Southern Railway companies (there were also a number of other joint railways such as the Midland and Great Northern Joint Railway and the Cheshire Lines Committee as well as special joint railways such as the Forth Bridge Railway, Ryde Pier Railway and at one time the East London Railway). The \"Big Four\" were joint-stock public companies and they continued to run the railway system until 31 December 1947.\n\nThe growth in road transport during the 1920s and 1930s greatly reduced revenue for the rail companies. Rail companies accused the government of favouring road haulage through the subsidised construction of roads. The railways entered a slow decline owing to a lack of investment and changes in transport policy and lifestyles. During the Second World War the companies' managements joined together, effectively forming one company. A maintenance backlog developed during the war and the private sector only had two years to deal with this after the war ended. After 1945, for both practical and ideological reasons, the government decided to bring the rail service into the public sector.\n\n===Nationalisation===\n\nFrom the start of 1948, the \"big four\" were nationalised to form British Railways (latterly \"British Rail\") under the control of the British Transport Commission. Although BR was a single entity, it was divided into six (later five) regional authorities in accordance with the existing areas of operation. Though there were few initial changes to the service, usage increased and the network became profitable. Regeneration of track and railway stations was completed by 1954. In the same year, changes to the British Transport Commission, including the privatisation of road haulage, ended the coordination of transport in Great Britain. Rail revenue fell and in 1955 the network again ceased to be profitable. The mid-1950s saw the rapid introduction of diesel and electric rolling stock, but the expected transfer back from road to rail did not occur and losses began to mount.\n\nThe national network might have looked like this by the 1980s if the lines not proposed for development in Beeching II had closed.\n\nThe desire for profitability led to a major reduction in the network during the mid-1960s, with ICI manager Dr. Richard Beeching commissioned by the government under Ernest Marples with reorganising the railways. Many branch lines (and a number of main lines) were closed because they were deemed uneconomic (\"the Beeching Axe\" of 1963), removing much feeder traffic from main line passenger services. In the second Beeching report of 1965, only the \"major trunk routes\" were selected for large-scale investment, leading many to speculate the rest of the network would eventually be closed. This was never implemented by BR.\n\nPassenger services experienced a renaissance with the introduction of the InterCity 125 trains in the 1970s. Passenger levels fluctuated since then, increasing during periods of economic growth and falling during recessions. The 1980s saw severe cuts in government funding and above-inflation increases in fares, and the service became more cost-effective. In the early 1990s, the five geographical Regions were replaced by a Sectored organisation, in which passenger services were organised into InterCity, Network SouthEast and Regional Railways sectors.\n\n===Privatisation===\n\nBritish Rail operations were privatised during 1994–1997. Ownership of the track and infrastructure passed to Railtrack, whilst passenger operations were franchised to individual private sector operators (originally there were 25 franchises) and the goods services sold outright (six companies were set up, but five of these were sold to the same buyer). The government said privatisation would see an improvement in passenger services and satisfaction (according to the National Rail Passenger survey) has indeed gone up from 76% in 1999 (when the survey started) to 83% in 2013 and the number of passengers not satisfied with their journey dropped from 10% to 6%. Since privatisation, passenger levels have more than doubled, and have surpassed their level in the late 1940s. Train fares cost 2.7% more than under British Rail in real terms on average. However, while the price of anytime and off-peak tickets has increased, the price of Advance tickets has dramatically decreased in real terms: the average Advance ticket in 1995 cost £9.14 (in 2014 prices) compared to £5.17 in 2014.\n\nRail subsidy per passenger journey for the UK, Germany, France, Italy and Spain\nRail subsidies have increased from £bn in 1992-93 to £bn in 2015-16 (in current prices), although subsidy per journey has fallen from £ per journey to £ per journey. However, this masks great regional variation, as in 2014-15 funding varied from \"£1.41 per passenger journey in England to £6.51 per journey in Scotland and £8.34 per journey in Wales.\"\n\nRail fatalities per billion passenger-km in European countries\nThe public image of rail travel was severely damaged by a series of significant accidents after privatisation. These included the Hatfield accident, caused by a rail fragmenting due to the development of microscopic cracks. Following this, the rail infrastructure company Railtrack imposed over 1,200 emergency speed restrictions across its network and instigated an extremely costly nationwide track replacement programme. The consequent severe operational disruption to the national network and the company's spiralling costs set in motion a series of events which resulted in the collapse of the company and its replacement with Network Rail, a state-owned, not-for-profit company. According to the European Railway Agency, in 2013 Britain had the safest railways in Europe based on the number of train safety incidents.\n\nAt the end of September 2003, the first part of High Speed 1, a high-speed link to the Channel Tunnel and onward to France and Belgium, was completed, significantly adding to the rail infrastructure of the country. The rest of the link, from north Kent to St Pancras railway station in London, opened in 2007. A major programme of remedial work on the West Coast Main Line started in 1997 and finished in 2009.\n\nIn the 2010s, many upgrades are under way, such as the Thameslink Programme, Crossrail, the Northern Hub and electrification of the Great Western Main Line. Electrification plans for the Midland Main Line and the cross-Pennine line between Manchester and Leeds have been paused with the start of work on these projects postponed to some indefinite date(s)in the 2020s. Planning for High Speed 2 is underway, with a projected completion date of 2026 for Phase 1 (London to Birmingham) and 2033 for Phase 2.\n\n\n\n",
"\nAn East Midlands Trains Class 222 Meridian on a London to Nottingham service. These trains are used for InterCity services from London to the East Midlands and South Yorkshire. A CrossCountry Class 170 numbered 170113 with a service from London Stansted Airport to Birmingham New Street First Capital Connect Class 365 'Networker' numbered 365538 at Cambridge Rail Station\nPassenger services in Great Britain are divided into regional franchises and run by private (that is, non-state owned) train operating companies. These companies bid for seven- to eight-year contracts to run individual franchises. Most contracts are awarded by the Department for Transport (DfT), with the exception of Merseyrail, where the franchise is awarded by Merseyside Passenger Transport Executive, and ScotRail, where the DfT awards on the advice of the Scottish Government. Initially, there were 25 franchises, but the number of different operating companies is smaller as some firms, including FirstGroup and Stagecoach Group, run more than one franchise. In addition, some franchises have since been combined. There are also a number of local or specialised rail services operated on an 'open access' basis outside the franchise arrangements. Examples include Heathrow Express and Hull Trains.\n\nIn the 2015–16 operating year, franchised services provided 1,718 million journeys totalling (64.7 billion billion passenger km) of travel, an increase over 1994–5 of 117% in journeys (from 761 million) and just over doubling the passenger miles. The passenger-miles figure, after being flat from 1965 to 1995, surpassed the 1947 figure for the first time in 1998 and continues to rise steeply.\n\nThe key index used to assess passenger train performance is the Public Performance Measure, which combines figures for punctuality and reliability. From a base of 90% of trains arriving on time in 1998, the measure dipped to 75% in mid-2001 due to stringent safety restrictions put in place after the Hatfield crash in October 2000. However, in June 2015 the PPM stood at 91.2% after a period of steady increases in the annual moving average since 2003 until around 2012 when the improvements levelled off.\n\nTrain fares cost 2.7% more than under British Rail in real terms on average. For some years, Britain has been said to have the highest rail fares in Europe, with peak-time and season tickets considerably higher than other countries, partly because rail subsidies in Europe are higher. However, they are also able to obtain some of the cheapest fares in Europe if they book in advance or travel at off-peak times.\n\nUK rail operators point out rail fare increases have been at a substantially lower rate than petrol prices for private motoring. The difference in price has also been blamed on the fact Britain has the most restrictive loading gauge (maximum width and height of trains that can fit through tunnels, bridges etc.) in the world which means any trains must be significantly narrower and less tall than those used elsewhere. This means British trains cannot be bought \"off-the-shelf\" and must be specially built to fit British standards.\n\nAverage rolling-stock age fell slightly from the third quarter of 2001–2 to the fourth quarter of 2013–4, from 20.7 years old to 19.4 years old.\n\nAlthough passengers rarely have cause to refer to either document, all travel is subject to the National Rail Conditions of Carriage and all tickets are valid subject to the rules set out in a number of so-called technical manuals, which are centrally produced for the network.\n\n\n===Annual passenger numbers===\nStevenage railway station along the East Coast Main Line.\n\nLargs railway station with a Class 380 run by Abellio ScotRail a subsidiary of Nederlandse Spoorwegen.\nBelow are the total number of passengers using heavy rail transport in Britain. The numbers are calculated from September to August. (This table does not include Eurostar, Heathrow Express, Heathrow Connect or \"open access operators\" such as Grand Central and Hull Trains)\n\n\n+ '''Annual passenger numbers\n\n Year\n Passengers\n Passenger% Change\n Journeys\n Journeys% Change\n\n\n2004–2005\n781,343,720\n\n902,695,324\n\n\n2005–2006\n800,669,217\n\n920,849,661\n\n\n2006–2007\n958,095,205\n\n1,091,288,285\n\n\n2007–2008\n1,024,602,056\n\n1,167,233,872\n\n\n2008–2009\n1,073,753,933\n\n1,220,145,654\n\n\n2009–2010\n1,065,386,249\n\n1,218,715,041\n\n\n2010–2011\n1,156,896,521\n\n1,322,426,386\n\n\n2011–2012\n1,227,960,111\n\n1,428,575,382\n\n\n2012–2013\n1,268,979,546\n\n1,480,120,447\n\n\n2013-2014\n1,332,561,756\n\n1,558,753,504\n\n\n2014-2015\n1,392,535,310\n\n1,622,975,245\n\n\n2015-2016\n1,463,777,211\n\n1,685,933,571\n\n\nThe following table is according to the Office of Rail and Road and includes \"open access operators\" such as Grand Central and Hull Trains.\nShepreth Rail Station along the Great Northern line\n\n\n+ '''Annual Passenger Numbers (millions)\n\n Year\n Long distance\n London andSouth East\n Regional\n Non-franchisedoperators\n Total\n Total % Change\n\n2002–2003\n77.2\n679.1\n219.2\n0\n975.5\n\n\n2003–2004\n81.5\n690.0\n240.2\n0\n1,011.7\n3.71\n\n2004–2005\n83.7\n704.5\n251.3\n0\n1,039.5\n2.75\n\n2005–2006\n89.5\n719.7\n267.3\n0\n1,076.5\n3.56\n\n2006–2007\n99.0\n769.5\n276.5\n0\n1,145.0\n6.36\n\n2007–2008\n103.9\n828.4\n285.8\n0\n1,218.1\n6.38\n\n2008–2009\n109.4\n854.3\n302.8\n0\n1,266.5\n3.97\n\n2009–2010\n111.6\n842.2\n304.0\n1.4\n1,259.3\n0.68\n\n2010–2011\n117.9\n917.6\n318.2\n1.8\n1,3555.6\n7.65\n\n2011–2012\n125.3\n993.8\n340.9\n1.5\n1,461.5\n7.82\n\n2012–2013\n127.7\n1,032.4\n340.9\n1.7\n1,502.6\n2.81\n\n2013–2014\n129.0\n1,106.9\n350.5\n1.9\n1,588.3\n5.70\n\n2014–2015\n134.2\n1,154.9\n364.7\n2.1\n1,655.8 \n4.25\n\n2015–2016\n138.3\n1,202.8\n374.2\n2.3\n1,717.6\n3.72\n\n\n\n===Railway stations===\n\nLondon Victoria\nThere are 2,563 passenger railway stations on the Network Rail network. This does not include the London Underground, nor other systems which are not part of the national network, such as heritage railways. Most date from the Victorian era and a number are in or on the edge of town and city centres. Major stations lie for the most part in large cities, with the largest conurbations (e.g. Liverpool, Birmingham, Bristol, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Glasgow and Manchester) typically having more than one main station. London is a major hub of the network, with 12 main-line termini forming a \"ring\" around central London. Birmingham, Leeds, Manchester, Glasgow, Bristol and Reading are major interchanges for many cross-country journeys that do not involve London. However, some important railway junction stations lie in smaller cities and towns, for example York, Crewe and Ely. Some other places expanded into towns and cities because of the railway network. Swindon, for example, was little more than a village before the Great Western Railway chose to site its locomotive works there. In many instances geography, politics or military considerations originally caused stations to be sited further from the towns they served until, with time, these issues could be overcome (for example, Portsmouth had its original station at Gosport).\n\n\n\n===High-speed rail===\nOverview map of the North-South main lines in the UK.\nSoutheastern Class 395 at London St Pancras railway station\n\n\nHigh-speed rail (above ) was first introduced in Great Britain in the 1970s by British Rail. BR had pursued two development projects in parallel, the development of a tilting train technology, the 'Advanced Passenger Train' (APT), and development of a conventional high-speed diesel train, the 'High Speed Train' (HST). The APT project was abandoned, but the HST design entered service as the British Rail Classes 253, 254 and 255 trains. The prototype HST, the British Rail Class 252, reached a world speed record for diesel trains of 143.2 mph, while the main fleet entered service limited to a service speed of 125 mph, and were introduced progressively on main lines across the country, with a rebranding of their services as the ''InterCity 125''. With electrification of the East Coast Main Line, high-speed rail in Great Britain was augmented with the introduction of the British Rail Class 91, intended for passenger service at up to 140 mph (225 km/h), and thus branded as the ''InterCity 225''. The Class 91 units were designed for a maximum service speed of 140 mph, and running at this speed was trialled with a 'flashing green' signal aspect under the British signalling system. The trains were eventually limited to the same speed as the HST, to 125 mph, with higher speeds deemed to require cab signalling, which as of 2010 was not in place on the normal British railway network (but was used on the Channel Tunnel Rail Link). A final attempt by the nationalised British Rail at High Speed Rail was the cancelled InterCity 250 project in the 1990s for the West Coast Main Line.\n\nPost privatisation, a plan to upgrade the West Coast Main Line to speeds of up to 140 mph with infrastructure improvements were finally abandoned, although the tilting train Class 390 ''Pendolino'' fleet designed for this maximum speed of service were still built and entered service in 2002, and operates limited to 125 mph. Other routes in the UK were upgraded with trains capable of top speeds of up to 125 mph running with the introduction between 2000 and 2005 of Class 180 ''Adelante'' DMUs and the Bombardier Voyager family of DEMUs (Classes 220, 221 and 222).\n\n====High Speed 1====\n\nThe first implementation of high-speed rail up to 186 mph in regular passenger service in Great Britain was the Channel Tunnel Rail Link (now known as High Speed 1), when its first phase opened in 2003 linking the British end of the Channel Tunnel at Folkestone with Fawkham Junction in Kent. This is used by international only passenger trains for the Eurostar service, using British Rail Class 373 trains. The line was later extended all the way into London St Pancras in 2007.\n\nAfter the building of the first of a new British Rail Class 395 train fleet for use partly on High Speed 1 and parts of the rest of the UK rail network, the first domestic high-speed running over 125 mph (to about 140 mph) began in December 2009, including a special Olympic Javelin shuttle for the 2012 Olympics. These services are operated by the Southeastern franchise.\n\n====Intercity Express Programme====\n\nFor replacement of the domestic fleet of Intercity 125 and 225 trains on the existing national network, the Intercity Express Programme was announced. In 2009 it was announced the preferred rolling stock option for this project was the Hitachi Super Express family of multiple units, and they are expected to enter service from 2017 on the Great Western Main Line and 2018 on the East Coast Main Line. The trains will be capable of a maximum speed of 140 mph with \"minor modifications\", with the necessary signalling modifications required of the Network Rail infrastructure in Britain likely to come from the phased roll out of the Europe-wide European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS).\n\n====High Speed 2====\n\nFollowing several studies and consultations on high-speed rail, in 2009 the UK Government formally announced the High Speed 2 project, establishing a company to produce a feasibility study to examine route options and financing for a new high-speed railway in the UK. This study began on the assumption the route would be a new purpose-built high-speed line, from London to the West Midlands, via London Heathrow, relieving traffic on the West Coast Main Line, and would use conventional high-speed rail technology as opposed to Maglev. The rolling stock would be capable of travelling on the existing Network Rail infrastructure if required, and the route will intersect with the existing West Coast Main Line (WCML). A second phase of the project is planned to reach further north to Manchester, Sheffield and Leeds, as well as linking into the WCML, the Midland Main Line and the East Coast Main Line.\n\n====High Speed 3====\n\nIn June 2014, Chancellor of the Exchequer, George Osborne proposed a high-speed rail link High Speed 3 (HS3) between Liverpool and Newcastle/Sheffield/Hull. The line would utilise the existing route between Liverpool and Newcastle/Hull and a new route from to Sheffield will follow the same route to Manchester Victoria and then a new line from Victoria to Sheffield, with additional tunnels and other infrastructure.\n\n====High-speed rolling stock====\nIn August 2009 the speeds of the fastest trains operating in Great Britain capable of a top speed of over 125 mph were as follows:\n\n\nName\nLocomotive class\nType\nMax. recorded speed (mph (km/h))\nMax. design speed (mph (km/h))\nMax. speed in service (mph (km/h))\n\n\nEurostar, e320\n\n374\n\nEMU\n\n219 (352)\n\n200 (320)\n\nN/A\n\n\nEurostar, e300\n\n373\n\nEMU\n\n209 (334.7)\n\n186 (300)\n\n186 (300)\n\n\nJavelin\n\n395\n\nEMU\n\n157 (252)\n\n140 (225)\n\n140 (225)\n\n\nInterCity 225\n\n91\n\nElectric Loco\n\n162 (261)\n\n140 (225)\n\n125 (200)\n\n\nPendolino\n\n390\n\nEMU\n\n162 (261)\n\n140 (225)\n\n125 (200)\n\n\nInterCity 125\n\n43 (HST)\n\nDiesel Loco\n\n148 (~240)\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\n\nAdelante\n\n180\n\nDMU\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\n\nVoyager\n\n220\n\nDEMU\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\n\nSuper Voyager\n\n221\n\nDEMU\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\n\nMeridian/Pioneer\n\n222\n\nDEMU\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\n\nClass 67\n\n67\n\nDiesel Loco\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\nIn 2011 the fastest timetabled start-to-stop run by a UK domestic train service was the Hull Trains 07.30 King's Cross to Hull, which covered the 125.4 km (78 miles) from Stevenage to Grantham in 42 minutes at an average speed of 179.1 km/h (111.4 mph). This is operated by a Class 180 diesel unit running \"under the wires\" on this East Coast route. This was matched by several Leeds to London Class 91-operated East Coast trains if their two-minute recovery allowance for this section is excluded from the public timetable.\n\n===Local metro and other rail systems===\nright\nLondon Underground S-stock train\n\nA number of towns and cities have rapid transit systems. Heavy rail underground technology is used in the London and Glasgow Underground systems. Light and heavy rail with underground sections in the city centre exist in Newcastle upon Tyne on the Tyne and Wear Metro, Liverpool on the Merseyrail system, and in the London Docklands. The light rail systems in Nottingham, Sheffield, Manchester, Croydon, Birmingham/Black Country and Edinburgh use a combination of street running in the city centres and, where available, reserved right of way or former conventional rail lines in some suburbs. Blackpool has the one remaining traditional tram system. Monorails, heritage tramways, miniature railways and funiculars also exist in several places. In addition, there are a number of heritage (mainly steam) standard and narrow gauge railways, and a few industrial railways and tramways. Some lines which appear to be heritage operations sometimes claim to be part of the public transport network; the Romney, Hythe and Dymchurch Railway in Kent regularly transports schoolchildren.\n\nMost major cities have some form of commuter rail network. These include Belfast, Birmingham, Bristol, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Leeds, Liverpool, London, Manchester and Sheffield.\n\n:\n\n",
"\nFreightliner Class 66 pulling coal at Chesterfield, Derbyshire.\nminers' strike.\nThere are four main goods operating companies in the UK, the largest of which is DB Cargo UK (formerly DB Schenker formerly English Welsh & Scottish (EWS)). There are also several smaller independent operators including Mendip Rail. Types of freight carried include ''intermodal'' — in essence containerised freight — and coal, metals, oil, and construction material. The Beeching Cuts, in contrast to passenger services, greatly modernised the goods sector, replacing inefficient wagons with containerised regional hubs. Freight services had been in steady decline since the 1930s, initially because of the loss of manufacturing and then road haulage's cost advantage in combination with higher wages. Since 1995, however, the amount of freight carried on the railways has increased sharply due to increased reliability and competition, as well as international services. The Department for Transport's ''Transport Ten Year Plan'' calls for an 80% increase in rail freight measured from a 2000–1 base.\n\nStatistics on freight are specified in terms of the weight of freight lifted, and the ''net tonne kilometre'', being freight weight multiplied by distance carried. 116.6 million tonnes of freight was lifted in the 2013–4 period, against 138 million tonnes in 1986–7, a decrease of 16%. However, a record 22.7 billion net tonne kilometres (14 billion net ton miles) of freight movement were recorded in 2013-4, against 16.6 billion (10.1 billion) in 1986–7, an increase of 38%. Coal makes up 36% of the total ''net tonne kilometre'', though its share is declining. Rail freight has increased its market share since privatisation (by net tonne kilometres) from 7.4% in 1998 to 11.1% in 2013. Recent growth is partly due to more international services including the Channel Tunnel and Port of Felixstowe, which is containerised. Nevertheless, network bottlenecks and insufficient investment in catering for 9' 6\" high shipping containers restrict growth.\n\nA symbolic loss to the rail freight industry in Great Britain was the custom of the Royal Mail, which from 2004 discontinued use of its 49-train fleet, and switching to road haulage after a near 170-year-preference for trains. Mail trains had long been part of the tradition of the railways in Great Britain, famously celebrated in the film ''Night Mail'', for which W. H. Auden wrote the poem of the same name. Although Royal Mail suspended the Mail train in January 2004, this decision was reversed in December of the same year, and Class 325s are now used on some routes including between London, Warrington and Scotland.\n",
"\nFragonset Railways class 47 railway locomotive, Virginia Water railway station, April 2004\nAt the time of privatisation, the rolling stock of British Rail was sold to the new operators, as in the case of the freight companies, or to the three ROSCOs (rolling stock operating companies) which lease or hire stock to passenger and freight train operators. Leasing is relatively commonplace in transport, since it enables operating companies to avoid the complication associated with raising sufficient capital to purchase assets; instead, assets are leased and paid for from ongoing revenue. Since 1994 there has been a growth in smaller spot-hire companies that provide rolling stock on short-term contracts. Many of these have grown thanks to the major selling-off of locomotives by the large freight operators, especially EWS.\n\nUnlike other major players in the privatised railway system of Great Britain, the ROSCOs are not subject to close regulation by the economic regulatory authority. They were expected to compete with one another, and they do, although not in all respects.\n\n===Competition codes of practice===\nSince privatisation in 1995, the ROSCOs have faced criticism from several quarters - including passenger train operating companies such as GNER, Arriva and FirstGroup - on the basis they are acting as an oligopoly to keep lease prices higher than they would be in a competitive market. In 1998, Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott asked Rail Regulator John Swift QC to investigate the market's operation and make recommendations. Many believed Prescott favoured much closer regulation of the ROSCOs, perhaps bringing them into the net of contract-specific regulation, i.e., requiring every rolling stock lease to be approved by the Rail Regulator before it could be valid. Swift's report did not find major problems with the operation of what was then an infant market, and instead recommended the ROSCOs sign up to voluntary, non-binding codes of practice in relation to their future behaviour. Prescott did not like this, but he did not have the legislative time allocation to do much about it. Swift's successor as Rail Regulator, Tom Winsor, agreed with Swift and the ROSCOs were happy to go along with codes of practice, coupled with the Rail Regulator's new powers to deal with abuse of dominance and anti-competitive behaviour under the Competition Act 1998. In establishing these codes, the Rail Regulator made it clear he expected the ROSCOs to adhere to their letter and spirit. The codes of practice were duly put in place and for the next five years the Rail Regulator received no complaints about ROSCO behaviour.\n\n===White paper 2004===\nA Virgin Pendolino Train\nIn July 2004, the Department for Transport's White Paper on the future of the railways contained a statement it was dissatisfied with the operation of the rolling stock leasing market and believed there may have been excessive pricing on the part of the ROSCOs.\n\nIn June 2006, Gwyneth Dunwoody, the House of Commons Transport Committee chair, called for an investigation into the companies. Transport commentator Christian Wolmar has asserted the high cost of leasing is due to the way the franchises are distributed to the train operating companies. While the TOCs are negotiating for a franchise they have some freedom to propose different rolling stock options. It is only once they have won the franchise, however, they start negotiating with the ROSCOs. The ROSCO will know the TOC's requirements and also knows the TOC has to obtain a fixed mix of rolling stock which puts the train operating company at a disadvantage in its negotiations with the ROSCO. However, Wolmar considers it a mistake to blame the ROSCOs who are simply behaving as commercial companies always behave. Ultimately the problem for Wolmar is the system – and that is down to the government, who he believes are not prepared to seek a more workable solution.\n\n===Competition Commission===\nOn 29 November 2006, following a June 2006 complaint by the Department for Transport alleging excessive pricing by the ROSCOs, the Office of Rail Regulation (as it was then called) announced it was minded to refer the operation of the market for passenger rolling stock to the Competition Commission, citing, amongst other factors, problems in the DfT's own franchising policy as responsible for what may be regarded as a dysfunctional market. ORR said it will consult the industry and the public on what to do, and will publish its decision in April 2007. If the ORR does refer the market to the Competition Commission, there may well be a hiatus in investment in new rolling stock whilst the ROSCOs and their parent companies wait to hear what return they will be allowed to make on their train fleets. This could have the unintended consequence of intensifying the problem of overcrowding on some routes because TOCs will be unable to lengthen their trains or acquire new ones if they need the ROSCOs to co-operate in their acquisition or financing. Some commentators have suggested that such an outcome would be detrimental to the public interest. This is especially striking since the National Audit Office, in its November 2006 report on the renewal and upgrade of the West Coast main line, said that the capacity of the trains and the network will be full in the next few years and advocated train lengthening as an important measure to cope with sharply higher passenger numbers.\n\nThe Competition Commission conducted an investigation and published provisional findings on 7 August 2008. The report was published on 7 April 2009. A press release\n summarised the recommendations as follows:\n\n* introduce longer franchise terms (in the region of 12 to 15 years or longer), which would allow TOCs to realise the benefits and recover the costs of switching to alternative new or used rolling stock over a longer period, which should increase the incentives and ability for TOCs to exercise choice\n* assess the benefits of alternative new or used rolling stock proposals beyond the franchise term and across other franchises when evaluating franchise bids. This will encourage a wider choice of rolling stock to be considered in franchise proposals, irrespective of franchise length\n* ensure franchise invitations to tender (ITTs) are specified in such a way franchise bidders are allowed a choice of rolling stock\n* requiring the ROSCOs to remove non-discrimination requirements from the Codes of Practice, which would provide greater incentives for the TOCs to seek improved terms from the ROSCOs\n* requiring rolling stock lessors to provide TOCs with a set list of information when making a lease rental offer for used rolling stock, which would give TOCs the ability to negotiate more effectively\n\n===Leasing companies (ROSCO)===\n:''See also Rolling stock operating company''\n\nThree companies took over British Rail's rolling stock on privatisation:\n* '''Angel Trains''' - owned by a consortium of private equity investors, mainly comprising pension funds and insurance companies, and has 4,400 vehicles in the UK.\n* '''Eversholt Rail Group''' - owns a fleet of over 4,000 vehicles and is owned by a consortium including 3i Infrastructure and Morgan Stanley.\n* '''Porterbrook''' - leases some 3,500 locomotives, trains and freight wagons; owned by a consortium including Deutsche Bank, Lloyds TSB (who withdrew in October 2010) and BNP Paribas.\n\nA number of other companies have since entered the leasing market:\n* '''Sovereign Trains''' - a company that forms part of the same group as the open-access operator Grand Central. Sovereign Trains owns the rolling stock operated by Grand Central.\n* '''QW Rail Leasing''' - a joint venture between the National Australia Bank and SMBC Leasing and Finance to provide the EMU rolling stock to London Overground.\n* '''Diesel Trains''' - in March 2009, the Department for Transport also launched its own ROSCO to order 202 new diesel train carriages for the Thames Valley area, around Bristol and on longer distances in northern England. The trains were due to enter service by 2012 for train operators First Great Western, First TransPennine Express and Northern Rail. However, in August 2009 the order was cancelled due to the planned electrification of the Great Western Main Line and Diesel Trains was later dissolved in July 2012.\n* '''Lloyds TSB General Leasing''' - in April 2009, Lloyds TSB entered the rolling stock market by funding the purchase of 30 new EMU trains for National Express East Anglia.\n* '''Beacon Rail Leasing''', owns Class 68 and Class 88 locomotives, as well as and DMUs.\n* UK Rail Leasing, owns some Class 56 locomotives\n\n\n\n===Spot-hire companies===\nSpot-hire companies provide short-term leasing of rolling stock.\n* '''MiddlePeak Railways''', a locomotive hire & lease company with a stock of locomotives similar to Class 08 & NS 0-6-0 600 Class shunting locomotives, other locomotives, rolling stock & parts.\n* '''GL Railease''' owned by GATX Capital, and Lombard, a subsidiary of the Royal Bank of Scotland.\n* '''Harry Needle Railroad Company Ltd''', an industrial and main line locomotive hire and overhaul company. Operates Class 08 shunting locomotives, and Class 20 locomotives.\n*'''Riviera Trains''', a spot-hire company with a fleet of Class 47 locomotives. This company works closely with DB Cargo UK.\n*'''West Coast Railway Company''', a spot-hire and railtour-operator with a stock of Class 37 and Class 47 locomotives, as well as the rebuild Class 57 locomotive.\n\n\n",
"\n\nRailways in Great Britain are in the private sector, but they are subject to control by central government, and to economic and safety regulation by arms of government.\n\nIn 2006, using powers in the Railways Act 2005, the Department for Transport took over most of the functions of the now wound up Strategic Rail Authority. The DfT now itself runs competitions for the award of passenger rail franchises, and, once awarded, monitors and enforces the contracts with the private sector franchisees. Franchises specify the passenger rail services which are to be run and the quality and other conditions (for example, the cleanliness of trains, station facilities and opening hours, the punctuality and reliability of trains) which the operators have to meet. Some franchises receive a subsidy from the DfT for doing so, and some are cash-positive, which means the franchisee pays the DfT for the contract. Some franchises start life as subsidised and, over their life, move to being cash-positive.\n\nThe other regulatory authority for the privatised railway is the Office of Rail and Road (previously the Office of Rail Regulation), which, following the Railways Act 2005, is the combined economic and safety regulator. It replaced the Rail Regulator on 5 July 2004. The Rail Safety and Standards Board still exists, however; established in 2003 on the recommendations of a public inquiry, it leads the industry's progress in health and safety matters.\n\nThe principal modern railway statutes are:\n\n* Railways Act 1993'''\n* Competition Act 1998 (insofar as it confers competition powers on the Office of Rail and Road)\n* Transport Act 2000\n* Railways and Transport Safety Act 2003\n* Railways Act 2005\n",
"\n===Statutory authorities===\n*Office of Rail and Road – Website\n*Department for Transport – Website\n*UK Notified Bodies – Website\n\n===Rail network and signalling operations===\n*Railtrack (1996–2002)\n*Network Rail (2002–) – Website – (A \"not for dividend\" company limited by guarantee)\n\n===Other national entities===\n*Association of Train Operating Companies – ATOC – Website\n* Institution of Railway Operators – Website\n* Rail Freight Group – Website\n* Rail Passengers Council and Committees – Website\n* Rail Safety and Standards Board – RSSB – Website\n* The Railway Forum – Website\n* Railway Mission – Website\n* Railway Study Association – Website\n\n====Trade unions====\nThe railways are one of the most heavily unionised industrial sectors in the UK.\n*Associated Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen – ASLEF – Website\n*National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers – RMT – Website\n*Transport Salaried Staffs' Association – TSSA – Website\n\n===Regional entities===\n''See Passenger transport executive''\n* Transport for West Midlands) – Website\n* TfGM (Transport for Greater Manchester) – Website\n* Merseytravel – Website\n* Metro (West Yorkshire Metro) – Website\n* Nexus (Tyne and Wear Passenger Transport Executive) – Website\n* Travel South Yorkshire (South Yorkshire Passenger Transport Executive) – Website\n* SPT (Strathclyde Partnership for Transport) – Website\n* TfL (Transport for London) – Website\n\nSee List of companies operating trains in the United Kingdom.\n\n===Freight railway companies===\n*GB Railfreight – Website\n*DB Cargo UK – Website\n*Freightliner – Website\n*Direct Rail Services – Website\n*Colas Rail – Website\n*Devon and Cornwall Railways – Website\n*Mendip Rail – Website\n\n===Open access operators and other non-franchised passenger operators===\n*Eurostar – Website\n*Grand Central – Website\n*Heathrow Express – Website\n*Hull Trains – Website\n*Venice-Simplon Orient Express (VSOE) – Website\n",
"This is only the earliest of the main line openings: for a more comprehensive list of the hundreds of early railways see List of early British railway companies\n*Stockton and Darlington Railway (1825) - First steam-hauled passenger railway in the world. \n*Canterbury and Whitstable Railway (1830) - First steam-hauled passenger railway to issue season tickets. \n*Liverpool and Manchester Railway (1830) - First InterCity passenger railway. \n*Grand Junction Railway (1833) - The line built by the company was the first trunk railway to be completed in England, and arguably the world's first long-distance railway with steam traction. \n*London and Greenwich Railway (1836) - First steam railway in the capital, the first to be built specifically for passengers, and the first elevated railway.\n*London and Birmingham Railway (1837) - First Intercity line to be built into London. \n*Midland Counties Railway (1839)\n*Birmingham and Derby Junction Railway (BDJR) (1839)\n*North Midland Railway (1840)\n*Taff Vale Railway (1840)\n",
"\nlocomotive (BR Standard 7MT 70013 ''Oliver Cromwell'')\non the North Norfolk Railway on 11 March 2010.\n\nMany lines closed by British Railways, including many closed during the Beeching cuts, have been restored and reopened as heritage railways. A few have been relaid as narrow-gauge but the majority are standard-gauge. Most use both steam and diesel locomotives for haulage. Most heritage railways are operated as tourist attractions and do not provide regular year-round train services.\n",
"Several pressure groups are campaigning for the re-opening of closed railway lines in Great Britain. These include:\n\n* Ashington–Bedlington–Newcastle\n* Marlow Branch (Bourne End–High Wycombe)\n* Cambridge–Oxford, East West Rail Link This project was approved by the Government in November 2011.\n* Colne–Skipton, Skipton-East Lancashire Rail Action Partnership\n*South Staffordshire Line (Stourbridge–Walsall)\n*Wealden Line (Uckfield–Lewes)\n*Woodhead Line (Hadfield–Penistone)\n*York to Beverley Line (York–Beverley)\n*Peak Rail: (Matlock–Bakewell). Under-funded line.\n*Great Central Railway Notts–Leicester\n*Portishead Railway from Portishead to Bristol Temple Meads\n\nFrom 1995 until 2009, 27 new lines (totalling 199 track miles) and 68 stations were opened, with 65 further new station sites identified by Network Rail or government for possible construction.\nOn 15 June 2009 the Association of Train Operating Companies (ATOC) published the report ''Connecting Communities: Expanding Access to the Rail Network'', detailing schemes around England where it believed there was a commercial business case for passenger network expansion. The published proposals involved the re-opening or new construction of 40 stations, serving communities with populations of over 15,000, including 14 schemes involving the re-opening or reconstruction of rail lines for passenger services. These would be short-lead-time local projects, to be completed in timescales ranging from 2 years 9 months to 6 years, once approved by local and regional governments, Network Rail and the Department for Transport, complementing existing long-term national projects.\n",
"* Great Britain (standard-gauge)\n** France (Eurostar) via the Channel Tunnel formerly by Train ferries. \n** Belgium (Eurostar) via France using the Channel Tunnel.\n\n===Rail-ferry-rail services===\n** Netherlands - Dutchflyer rail/sea/rail service\n** Ireland - Sail Rail service\n",
"\n*British narrow gauge railways\n*Concessionary fares on the British railway network\n*History of rail transport in Great Britain\n*Irish Sea tunnel\n*Metrication of British Transport\n*Timeline of future railway upgrades in Britain\n*List of funicular railways\n*Railway electrification in Great Britain\n*Rail transport by country\n*Royal Train\n*Transport in the United Kingdom\n*Mainline steam trains in Great Britain\n*Financing of the rail industry in Great Britain\n\n",
"\n* Network Rail – Making a Fresh Start – National Audit Office report, 14 May 2004\n* Railway industry topic guides from the Institution of Mechanical Engineers\n*''On The Wrong Line: How Ideology and Incompetence Wrecked Britain's Railways'', Christian Wolmar, Aurum Press Ltd, \n",
"\n* National Rail Official UK Rail timetable site\n*\n* National Rail maps page UK railway maps\n* BritRail ATOC site with timetables, maps and cross-network passes for foreign travellers in UK\n* BritRail Passes Canada Canadian source for British Rail Passes And tickets\n* ScotlandRailways Scottish Rail site with timetables, maps and cross-network passes for foreign travellers in Scotland\n* Northumbrian Railways\n* Great Scenic Railways of Devon and Cornwall\n* Collection of Google Earth locations of National Rail stations (Requires Google Earth software) from the Google Earth Community forum.\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Historical overview",
"Passenger services",
"Goods services",
"Train leasing services",
"Statutory framework",
"Railway industry",
"Early railway companies (1820s-1840s)",
"Heritage and private railways",
"Railway re-opening",
"Rail link(s) with adjacent countries",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Rail transport in Great Britain | [
"* '''Porterbrook''' - leases some 3,500 locomotives, trains and freight wagons; owned by a consortium including Deutsche Bank, Lloyds TSB (who withdrew in October 2010) and BNP Paribas.",
"* '''QW Rail Leasing''' - a joint venture between the National Australia Bank and SMBC Leasing and Finance to provide the EMU rolling stock to London Overground.",
"* '''GL Railease''' owned by GATX Capital, and Lombard, a subsidiary of the Royal Bank of Scotland."
] | [
"\n\n \n\nThe '''railway system in Great Britain''' is the oldest in the world: the world's first locomotive-hauled public railway opened in 1825.",
"Most of the railway track is managed by Network Rail, which in 2016 had a network of of standard-gauge lines, of which were electrified.",
"These lines range from single to quadruple track or more.",
"In addition, some cities have separate rail-based mass transit systems (including the extensive and historic London Underground).",
"There are also several private railways (some of them narrow-gauge), which are primarily short tourist lines.",
"The British railway network is connected with that of continental Europe by an undersea rail link, the Channel Tunnel, opened in 1994.",
"The United Kingdom is a member of the International Union of Railways (UIC).",
"The UIC Country Code for United Kingdom is 70.",
"The UK has the 17th largest railway network in the world; despite many lines having closed in the 20th century it remains one of the densest rail networks.",
"It is one of the busiest railways in Europe, with 20% more train services than France, 60% more than Italy, and more than Spain, Switzerland, The Netherlands, Portugal and Norway combined, as well as representing more than 20% of all passenger journeys in Europe.",
"In 2016, there were 1.718 billion journeys on the National Rail network, making the British network the fifth most used in the world (Great Britain ranks 23rd in world population).",
"Unlike a number of other countries, rail travel in the United Kingdom has enjoyed a renaissance in recent years, with passenger numbers reaching their highest ever level (see usage figures below).",
"This has coincided with the privatisation of British Rail, but the effect of this is disputed.",
"The growth is partly attributed to a shift away from private motoring due to growing road congestion and increasing petrol prices, but also to the overall increase in travel due to affluence.",
"However passenger journeys have grown much more quickly than in comparable countries such as France and Germany.",
"To cope with increasing passenger numbers, there is a large ongoing programme of upgrades to the network, including Thameslink, Crossrail, electrification of lines, in-cab signalling, new inter-city trains and a new high-speed line.",
"Ireland, the United Kingdom and the Isle of Man are shown in black, heritage lines in green, subway lines in red and former railway lines in light blue.",
"Rail Passengers in Great Britain from 1829-2016, showing the early era of small railway companies, the amalgamation into the \"Big Four\", nationalisation and finally the current era of privatisation\n\n\nThe early railways were a patchwork of local lines operated by small private railway companies.",
"Over the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries, these amalgamated or were bought by competitors until only a handful of larger companies remained (see railway mania).",
"The entire network was brought under government control during the First World War and a number of advantages of amalgamation and planning were revealed.",
"However, the government resisted calls for the nationalisation of the network (first proposed by 19th century Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone as early as the 1830s).",
"Instead, from 1 January 1923, almost all the remaining companies were grouped into the \"big four\": the Great Western Railway, the London and North Eastern Railway, the London, Midland and Scottish Railway and the Southern Railway companies (there were also a number of other joint railways such as the Midland and Great Northern Joint Railway and the Cheshire Lines Committee as well as special joint railways such as the Forth Bridge Railway, Ryde Pier Railway and at one time the East London Railway).",
"The \"Big Four\" were joint-stock public companies and they continued to run the railway system until 31 December 1947.",
"The growth in road transport during the 1920s and 1930s greatly reduced revenue for the rail companies.",
"Rail companies accused the government of favouring road haulage through the subsidised construction of roads.",
"The railways entered a slow decline owing to a lack of investment and changes in transport policy and lifestyles.",
"During the Second World War the companies' managements joined together, effectively forming one company.",
"A maintenance backlog developed during the war and the private sector only had two years to deal with this after the war ended.",
"After 1945, for both practical and ideological reasons, the government decided to bring the rail service into the public sector.",
"===Nationalisation===\n\nFrom the start of 1948, the \"big four\" were nationalised to form British Railways (latterly \"British Rail\") under the control of the British Transport Commission.",
"Although BR was a single entity, it was divided into six (later five) regional authorities in accordance with the existing areas of operation.",
"Though there were few initial changes to the service, usage increased and the network became profitable.",
"Regeneration of track and railway stations was completed by 1954.",
"In the same year, changes to the British Transport Commission, including the privatisation of road haulage, ended the coordination of transport in Great Britain.",
"Rail revenue fell and in 1955 the network again ceased to be profitable.",
"The mid-1950s saw the rapid introduction of diesel and electric rolling stock, but the expected transfer back from road to rail did not occur and losses began to mount.",
"The national network might have looked like this by the 1980s if the lines not proposed for development in Beeching II had closed.",
"The desire for profitability led to a major reduction in the network during the mid-1960s, with ICI manager Dr. Richard Beeching commissioned by the government under Ernest Marples with reorganising the railways.",
"Many branch lines (and a number of main lines) were closed because they were deemed uneconomic (\"the Beeching Axe\" of 1963), removing much feeder traffic from main line passenger services.",
"In the second Beeching report of 1965, only the \"major trunk routes\" were selected for large-scale investment, leading many to speculate the rest of the network would eventually be closed.",
"This was never implemented by BR.",
"Passenger services experienced a renaissance with the introduction of the InterCity 125 trains in the 1970s.",
"Passenger levels fluctuated since then, increasing during periods of economic growth and falling during recessions.",
"The 1980s saw severe cuts in government funding and above-inflation increases in fares, and the service became more cost-effective.",
"In the early 1990s, the five geographical Regions were replaced by a Sectored organisation, in which passenger services were organised into InterCity, Network SouthEast and Regional Railways sectors.",
"===Privatisation===\n\nBritish Rail operations were privatised during 1994–1997.",
"Ownership of the track and infrastructure passed to Railtrack, whilst passenger operations were franchised to individual private sector operators (originally there were 25 franchises) and the goods services sold outright (six companies were set up, but five of these were sold to the same buyer).",
"The government said privatisation would see an improvement in passenger services and satisfaction (according to the National Rail Passenger survey) has indeed gone up from 76% in 1999 (when the survey started) to 83% in 2013 and the number of passengers not satisfied with their journey dropped from 10% to 6%.",
"Since privatisation, passenger levels have more than doubled, and have surpassed their level in the late 1940s.",
"Train fares cost 2.7% more than under British Rail in real terms on average.",
"However, while the price of anytime and off-peak tickets has increased, the price of Advance tickets has dramatically decreased in real terms: the average Advance ticket in 1995 cost £9.14 (in 2014 prices) compared to £5.17 in 2014.",
"Rail subsidy per passenger journey for the UK, Germany, France, Italy and Spain\nRail subsidies have increased from £bn in 1992-93 to £bn in 2015-16 (in current prices), although subsidy per journey has fallen from £ per journey to £ per journey.",
"However, this masks great regional variation, as in 2014-15 funding varied from \"£1.41 per passenger journey in England to £6.51 per journey in Scotland and £8.34 per journey in Wales.\"",
"Rail fatalities per billion passenger-km in European countries\nThe public image of rail travel was severely damaged by a series of significant accidents after privatisation.",
"These included the Hatfield accident, caused by a rail fragmenting due to the development of microscopic cracks.",
"Following this, the rail infrastructure company Railtrack imposed over 1,200 emergency speed restrictions across its network and instigated an extremely costly nationwide track replacement programme.",
"The consequent severe operational disruption to the national network and the company's spiralling costs set in motion a series of events which resulted in the collapse of the company and its replacement with Network Rail, a state-owned, not-for-profit company.",
"According to the European Railway Agency, in 2013 Britain had the safest railways in Europe based on the number of train safety incidents.",
"At the end of September 2003, the first part of High Speed 1, a high-speed link to the Channel Tunnel and onward to France and Belgium, was completed, significantly adding to the rail infrastructure of the country.",
"The rest of the link, from north Kent to St Pancras railway station in London, opened in 2007.",
"A major programme of remedial work on the West Coast Main Line started in 1997 and finished in 2009.",
"In the 2010s, many upgrades are under way, such as the Thameslink Programme, Crossrail, the Northern Hub and electrification of the Great Western Main Line.",
"Electrification plans for the Midland Main Line and the cross-Pennine line between Manchester and Leeds have been paused with the start of work on these projects postponed to some indefinite date(s)in the 2020s.",
"Planning for High Speed 2 is underway, with a projected completion date of 2026 for Phase 1 (London to Birmingham) and 2033 for Phase 2.",
"\nAn East Midlands Trains Class 222 Meridian on a London to Nottingham service.",
"These trains are used for InterCity services from London to the East Midlands and South Yorkshire.",
"A CrossCountry Class 170 numbered 170113 with a service from London Stansted Airport to Birmingham New Street First Capital Connect Class 365 'Networker' numbered 365538 at Cambridge Rail Station\nPassenger services in Great Britain are divided into regional franchises and run by private (that is, non-state owned) train operating companies.",
"These companies bid for seven- to eight-year contracts to run individual franchises.",
"Most contracts are awarded by the Department for Transport (DfT), with the exception of Merseyrail, where the franchise is awarded by Merseyside Passenger Transport Executive, and ScotRail, where the DfT awards on the advice of the Scottish Government.",
"Initially, there were 25 franchises, but the number of different operating companies is smaller as some firms, including FirstGroup and Stagecoach Group, run more than one franchise.",
"In addition, some franchises have since been combined.",
"There are also a number of local or specialised rail services operated on an 'open access' basis outside the franchise arrangements.",
"Examples include Heathrow Express and Hull Trains.",
"In the 2015–16 operating year, franchised services provided 1,718 million journeys totalling (64.7 billion billion passenger km) of travel, an increase over 1994–5 of 117% in journeys (from 761 million) and just over doubling the passenger miles.",
"The passenger-miles figure, after being flat from 1965 to 1995, surpassed the 1947 figure for the first time in 1998 and continues to rise steeply.",
"The key index used to assess passenger train performance is the Public Performance Measure, which combines figures for punctuality and reliability.",
"From a base of 90% of trains arriving on time in 1998, the measure dipped to 75% in mid-2001 due to stringent safety restrictions put in place after the Hatfield crash in October 2000.",
"However, in June 2015 the PPM stood at 91.2% after a period of steady increases in the annual moving average since 2003 until around 2012 when the improvements levelled off.",
"Train fares cost 2.7% more than under British Rail in real terms on average.",
"For some years, Britain has been said to have the highest rail fares in Europe, with peak-time and season tickets considerably higher than other countries, partly because rail subsidies in Europe are higher.",
"However, they are also able to obtain some of the cheapest fares in Europe if they book in advance or travel at off-peak times.",
"UK rail operators point out rail fare increases have been at a substantially lower rate than petrol prices for private motoring.",
"The difference in price has also been blamed on the fact Britain has the most restrictive loading gauge (maximum width and height of trains that can fit through tunnels, bridges etc.)",
"in the world which means any trains must be significantly narrower and less tall than those used elsewhere.",
"This means British trains cannot be bought \"off-the-shelf\" and must be specially built to fit British standards.",
"Average rolling-stock age fell slightly from the third quarter of 2001–2 to the fourth quarter of 2013–4, from 20.7 years old to 19.4 years old.",
"Although passengers rarely have cause to refer to either document, all travel is subject to the National Rail Conditions of Carriage and all tickets are valid subject to the rules set out in a number of so-called technical manuals, which are centrally produced for the network.",
"===Annual passenger numbers===\nStevenage railway station along the East Coast Main Line.",
"Largs railway station with a Class 380 run by Abellio ScotRail a subsidiary of Nederlandse Spoorwegen.",
"Below are the total number of passengers using heavy rail transport in Britain.",
"The numbers are calculated from September to August.",
"(This table does not include Eurostar, Heathrow Express, Heathrow Connect or \"open access operators\" such as Grand Central and Hull Trains)\n\n\n+ '''Annual passenger numbers\n\n Year\n Passengers\n Passenger% Change\n Journeys\n Journeys% Change\n\n\n2004–2005\n781,343,720\n\n902,695,324\n\n\n2005–2006\n800,669,217\n\n920,849,661\n\n\n2006–2007\n958,095,205\n\n1,091,288,285\n\n\n2007–2008\n1,024,602,056\n\n1,167,233,872\n\n\n2008–2009\n1,073,753,933\n\n1,220,145,654\n\n\n2009–2010\n1,065,386,249\n\n1,218,715,041\n\n\n2010–2011\n1,156,896,521\n\n1,322,426,386\n\n\n2011–2012\n1,227,960,111\n\n1,428,575,382\n\n\n2012–2013\n1,268,979,546\n\n1,480,120,447\n\n\n2013-2014\n1,332,561,756\n\n1,558,753,504\n\n\n2014-2015\n1,392,535,310\n\n1,622,975,245\n\n\n2015-2016\n1,463,777,211\n\n1,685,933,571\n\n\nThe following table is according to the Office of Rail and Road and includes \"open access operators\" such as Grand Central and Hull Trains.",
"Shepreth Rail Station along the Great Northern line\n\n\n+ '''Annual Passenger Numbers (millions)\n\n Year\n Long distance\n London andSouth East\n Regional\n Non-franchisedoperators\n Total\n Total % Change\n\n2002–2003\n77.2\n679.1\n219.2\n0\n975.5\n\n\n2003–2004\n81.5\n690.0\n240.2\n0\n1,011.7\n3.71\n\n2004–2005\n83.7\n704.5\n251.3\n0\n1,039.5\n2.75\n\n2005–2006\n89.5\n719.7\n267.3\n0\n1,076.5\n3.56\n\n2006–2007\n99.0\n769.5\n276.5\n0\n1,145.0\n6.36\n\n2007–2008\n103.9\n828.4\n285.8\n0\n1,218.1\n6.38\n\n2008–2009\n109.4\n854.3\n302.8\n0\n1,266.5\n3.97\n\n2009–2010\n111.6\n842.2\n304.0\n1.4\n1,259.3\n0.68\n\n2010–2011\n117.9\n917.6\n318.2\n1.8\n1,3555.6\n7.65\n\n2011–2012\n125.3\n993.8\n340.9\n1.5\n1,461.5\n7.82\n\n2012–2013\n127.7\n1,032.4\n340.9\n1.7\n1,502.6\n2.81\n\n2013–2014\n129.0\n1,106.9\n350.5\n1.9\n1,588.3\n5.70\n\n2014–2015\n134.2\n1,154.9\n364.7\n2.1\n1,655.8 \n4.25\n\n2015–2016\n138.3\n1,202.8\n374.2\n2.3\n1,717.6\n3.72\n\n\n\n===Railway stations===\n\nLondon Victoria\nThere are 2,563 passenger railway stations on the Network Rail network.",
"This does not include the London Underground, nor other systems which are not part of the national network, such as heritage railways.",
"Most date from the Victorian era and a number are in or on the edge of town and city centres.",
"Major stations lie for the most part in large cities, with the largest conurbations (e.g.",
"Liverpool, Birmingham, Bristol, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Glasgow and Manchester) typically having more than one main station.",
"London is a major hub of the network, with 12 main-line termini forming a \"ring\" around central London.",
"Birmingham, Leeds, Manchester, Glasgow, Bristol and Reading are major interchanges for many cross-country journeys that do not involve London.",
"However, some important railway junction stations lie in smaller cities and towns, for example York, Crewe and Ely.",
"Some other places expanded into towns and cities because of the railway network.",
"Swindon, for example, was little more than a village before the Great Western Railway chose to site its locomotive works there.",
"In many instances geography, politics or military considerations originally caused stations to be sited further from the towns they served until, with time, these issues could be overcome (for example, Portsmouth had its original station at Gosport).",
"===High-speed rail===\nOverview map of the North-South main lines in the UK.",
"Southeastern Class 395 at London St Pancras railway station\n\n\nHigh-speed rail (above ) was first introduced in Great Britain in the 1970s by British Rail.",
"BR had pursued two development projects in parallel, the development of a tilting train technology, the 'Advanced Passenger Train' (APT), and development of a conventional high-speed diesel train, the 'High Speed Train' (HST).",
"The APT project was abandoned, but the HST design entered service as the British Rail Classes 253, 254 and 255 trains.",
"The prototype HST, the British Rail Class 252, reached a world speed record for diesel trains of 143.2 mph, while the main fleet entered service limited to a service speed of 125 mph, and were introduced progressively on main lines across the country, with a rebranding of their services as the ''InterCity 125''.",
"With electrification of the East Coast Main Line, high-speed rail in Great Britain was augmented with the introduction of the British Rail Class 91, intended for passenger service at up to 140 mph (225 km/h), and thus branded as the ''InterCity 225''.",
"The Class 91 units were designed for a maximum service speed of 140 mph, and running at this speed was trialled with a 'flashing green' signal aspect under the British signalling system.",
"The trains were eventually limited to the same speed as the HST, to 125 mph, with higher speeds deemed to require cab signalling, which as of 2010 was not in place on the normal British railway network (but was used on the Channel Tunnel Rail Link).",
"A final attempt by the nationalised British Rail at High Speed Rail was the cancelled InterCity 250 project in the 1990s for the West Coast Main Line.",
"Post privatisation, a plan to upgrade the West Coast Main Line to speeds of up to 140 mph with infrastructure improvements were finally abandoned, although the tilting train Class 390 ''Pendolino'' fleet designed for this maximum speed of service were still built and entered service in 2002, and operates limited to 125 mph.",
"Other routes in the UK were upgraded with trains capable of top speeds of up to 125 mph running with the introduction between 2000 and 2005 of Class 180 ''Adelante'' DMUs and the Bombardier Voyager family of DEMUs (Classes 220, 221 and 222).",
"====High Speed 1====\n\nThe first implementation of high-speed rail up to 186 mph in regular passenger service in Great Britain was the Channel Tunnel Rail Link (now known as High Speed 1), when its first phase opened in 2003 linking the British end of the Channel Tunnel at Folkestone with Fawkham Junction in Kent.",
"This is used by international only passenger trains for the Eurostar service, using British Rail Class 373 trains.",
"The line was later extended all the way into London St Pancras in 2007.",
"After the building of the first of a new British Rail Class 395 train fleet for use partly on High Speed 1 and parts of the rest of the UK rail network, the first domestic high-speed running over 125 mph (to about 140 mph) began in December 2009, including a special Olympic Javelin shuttle for the 2012 Olympics.",
"These services are operated by the Southeastern franchise.",
"====Intercity Express Programme====\n\nFor replacement of the domestic fleet of Intercity 125 and 225 trains on the existing national network, the Intercity Express Programme was announced.",
"In 2009 it was announced the preferred rolling stock option for this project was the Hitachi Super Express family of multiple units, and they are expected to enter service from 2017 on the Great Western Main Line and 2018 on the East Coast Main Line.",
"The trains will be capable of a maximum speed of 140 mph with \"minor modifications\", with the necessary signalling modifications required of the Network Rail infrastructure in Britain likely to come from the phased roll out of the Europe-wide European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS).",
"====High Speed 2====\n\nFollowing several studies and consultations on high-speed rail, in 2009 the UK Government formally announced the High Speed 2 project, establishing a company to produce a feasibility study to examine route options and financing for a new high-speed railway in the UK.",
"This study began on the assumption the route would be a new purpose-built high-speed line, from London to the West Midlands, via London Heathrow, relieving traffic on the West Coast Main Line, and would use conventional high-speed rail technology as opposed to Maglev.",
"The rolling stock would be capable of travelling on the existing Network Rail infrastructure if required, and the route will intersect with the existing West Coast Main Line (WCML).",
"A second phase of the project is planned to reach further north to Manchester, Sheffield and Leeds, as well as linking into the WCML, the Midland Main Line and the East Coast Main Line.",
"====High Speed 3====\n\nIn June 2014, Chancellor of the Exchequer, George Osborne proposed a high-speed rail link High Speed 3 (HS3) between Liverpool and Newcastle/Sheffield/Hull.",
"The line would utilise the existing route between Liverpool and Newcastle/Hull and a new route from to Sheffield will follow the same route to Manchester Victoria and then a new line from Victoria to Sheffield, with additional tunnels and other infrastructure.",
"====High-speed rolling stock====\nIn August 2009 the speeds of the fastest trains operating in Great Britain capable of a top speed of over 125 mph were as follows:\n\n\nName\nLocomotive class\nType\nMax.",
"recorded speed (mph (km/h))\nMax.",
"design speed (mph (km/h))\nMax.",
"speed in service (mph (km/h))\n\n\nEurostar, e320\n\n374\n\nEMU\n\n219 (352)\n\n200 (320)\n\nN/A\n\n\nEurostar, e300\n\n373\n\nEMU\n\n209 (334.7)\n\n186 (300)\n\n186 (300)\n\n\nJavelin\n\n395\n\nEMU\n\n157 (252)\n\n140 (225)\n\n140 (225)\n\n\nInterCity 225\n\n91\n\nElectric Loco\n\n162 (261)\n\n140 (225)\n\n125 (200)\n\n\nPendolino\n\n390\n\nEMU\n\n162 (261)\n\n140 (225)\n\n125 (200)\n\n\nInterCity 125\n\n43 (HST)\n\nDiesel Loco\n\n148 (~240)\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\n\nAdelante\n\n180\n\nDMU\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\n\nVoyager\n\n220\n\nDEMU\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\n\nSuper Voyager\n\n221\n\nDEMU\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\n\nMeridian/Pioneer\n\n222\n\nDEMU\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\n\nClass 67\n\n67\n\nDiesel Loco\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\n125 (200)\n\nIn 2011 the fastest timetabled start-to-stop run by a UK domestic train service was the Hull Trains 07.30 King's Cross to Hull, which covered the 125.4 km (78 miles) from Stevenage to Grantham in 42 minutes at an average speed of 179.1 km/h (111.4 mph).",
"This is operated by a Class 180 diesel unit running \"under the wires\" on this East Coast route.",
"This was matched by several Leeds to London Class 91-operated East Coast trains if their two-minute recovery allowance for this section is excluded from the public timetable.",
"===Local metro and other rail systems===\nright\nLondon Underground S-stock train\n\nA number of towns and cities have rapid transit systems.",
"Heavy rail underground technology is used in the London and Glasgow Underground systems.",
"Light and heavy rail with underground sections in the city centre exist in Newcastle upon Tyne on the Tyne and Wear Metro, Liverpool on the Merseyrail system, and in the London Docklands.",
"The light rail systems in Nottingham, Sheffield, Manchester, Croydon, Birmingham/Black Country and Edinburgh use a combination of street running in the city centres and, where available, reserved right of way or former conventional rail lines in some suburbs.",
"Blackpool has the one remaining traditional tram system.",
"Monorails, heritage tramways, miniature railways and funiculars also exist in several places.",
"In addition, there are a number of heritage (mainly steam) standard and narrow gauge railways, and a few industrial railways and tramways.",
"Some lines which appear to be heritage operations sometimes claim to be part of the public transport network; the Romney, Hythe and Dymchurch Railway in Kent regularly transports schoolchildren.",
"Most major cities have some form of commuter rail network.",
"These include Belfast, Birmingham, Bristol, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Leeds, Liverpool, London, Manchester and Sheffield.",
":",
"\nFreightliner Class 66 pulling coal at Chesterfield, Derbyshire.",
"miners' strike.",
"There are four main goods operating companies in the UK, the largest of which is DB Cargo UK (formerly DB Schenker formerly English Welsh & Scottish (EWS)).",
"There are also several smaller independent operators including Mendip Rail.",
"Types of freight carried include ''intermodal'' — in essence containerised freight — and coal, metals, oil, and construction material.",
"The Beeching Cuts, in contrast to passenger services, greatly modernised the goods sector, replacing inefficient wagons with containerised regional hubs.",
"Freight services had been in steady decline since the 1930s, initially because of the loss of manufacturing and then road haulage's cost advantage in combination with higher wages.",
"Since 1995, however, the amount of freight carried on the railways has increased sharply due to increased reliability and competition, as well as international services.",
"The Department for Transport's ''Transport Ten Year Plan'' calls for an 80% increase in rail freight measured from a 2000–1 base.",
"Statistics on freight are specified in terms of the weight of freight lifted, and the ''net tonne kilometre'', being freight weight multiplied by distance carried.",
"116.6 million tonnes of freight was lifted in the 2013–4 period, against 138 million tonnes in 1986–7, a decrease of 16%.",
"However, a record 22.7 billion net tonne kilometres (14 billion net ton miles) of freight movement were recorded in 2013-4, against 16.6 billion (10.1 billion) in 1986–7, an increase of 38%.",
"Coal makes up 36% of the total ''net tonne kilometre'', though its share is declining.",
"Rail freight has increased its market share since privatisation (by net tonne kilometres) from 7.4% in 1998 to 11.1% in 2013.",
"Recent growth is partly due to more international services including the Channel Tunnel and Port of Felixstowe, which is containerised.",
"Nevertheless, network bottlenecks and insufficient investment in catering for 9' 6\" high shipping containers restrict growth.",
"A symbolic loss to the rail freight industry in Great Britain was the custom of the Royal Mail, which from 2004 discontinued use of its 49-train fleet, and switching to road haulage after a near 170-year-preference for trains.",
"Mail trains had long been part of the tradition of the railways in Great Britain, famously celebrated in the film ''Night Mail'', for which W. H. Auden wrote the poem of the same name.",
"Although Royal Mail suspended the Mail train in January 2004, this decision was reversed in December of the same year, and Class 325s are now used on some routes including between London, Warrington and Scotland.",
"\nFragonset Railways class 47 railway locomotive, Virginia Water railway station, April 2004\nAt the time of privatisation, the rolling stock of British Rail was sold to the new operators, as in the case of the freight companies, or to the three ROSCOs (rolling stock operating companies) which lease or hire stock to passenger and freight train operators.",
"Leasing is relatively commonplace in transport, since it enables operating companies to avoid the complication associated with raising sufficient capital to purchase assets; instead, assets are leased and paid for from ongoing revenue.",
"Since 1994 there has been a growth in smaller spot-hire companies that provide rolling stock on short-term contracts.",
"Many of these have grown thanks to the major selling-off of locomotives by the large freight operators, especially EWS.",
"Unlike other major players in the privatised railway system of Great Britain, the ROSCOs are not subject to close regulation by the economic regulatory authority.",
"They were expected to compete with one another, and they do, although not in all respects.",
"===Competition codes of practice===\nSince privatisation in 1995, the ROSCOs have faced criticism from several quarters - including passenger train operating companies such as GNER, Arriva and FirstGroup - on the basis they are acting as an oligopoly to keep lease prices higher than they would be in a competitive market.",
"In 1998, Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott asked Rail Regulator John Swift QC to investigate the market's operation and make recommendations.",
"Many believed Prescott favoured much closer regulation of the ROSCOs, perhaps bringing them into the net of contract-specific regulation, i.e., requiring every rolling stock lease to be approved by the Rail Regulator before it could be valid.",
"Swift's report did not find major problems with the operation of what was then an infant market, and instead recommended the ROSCOs sign up to voluntary, non-binding codes of practice in relation to their future behaviour.",
"Prescott did not like this, but he did not have the legislative time allocation to do much about it.",
"Swift's successor as Rail Regulator, Tom Winsor, agreed with Swift and the ROSCOs were happy to go along with codes of practice, coupled with the Rail Regulator's new powers to deal with abuse of dominance and anti-competitive behaviour under the Competition Act 1998.",
"In establishing these codes, the Rail Regulator made it clear he expected the ROSCOs to adhere to their letter and spirit.",
"The codes of practice were duly put in place and for the next five years the Rail Regulator received no complaints about ROSCO behaviour.",
"===White paper 2004===\nA Virgin Pendolino Train\nIn July 2004, the Department for Transport's White Paper on the future of the railways contained a statement it was dissatisfied with the operation of the rolling stock leasing market and believed there may have been excessive pricing on the part of the ROSCOs.",
"In June 2006, Gwyneth Dunwoody, the House of Commons Transport Committee chair, called for an investigation into the companies.",
"Transport commentator Christian Wolmar has asserted the high cost of leasing is due to the way the franchises are distributed to the train operating companies.",
"While the TOCs are negotiating for a franchise they have some freedom to propose different rolling stock options.",
"It is only once they have won the franchise, however, they start negotiating with the ROSCOs.",
"The ROSCO will know the TOC's requirements and also knows the TOC has to obtain a fixed mix of rolling stock which puts the train operating company at a disadvantage in its negotiations with the ROSCO.",
"However, Wolmar considers it a mistake to blame the ROSCOs who are simply behaving as commercial companies always behave.",
"Ultimately the problem for Wolmar is the system – and that is down to the government, who he believes are not prepared to seek a more workable solution.",
"===Competition Commission===\nOn 29 November 2006, following a June 2006 complaint by the Department for Transport alleging excessive pricing by the ROSCOs, the Office of Rail Regulation (as it was then called) announced it was minded to refer the operation of the market for passenger rolling stock to the Competition Commission, citing, amongst other factors, problems in the DfT's own franchising policy as responsible for what may be regarded as a dysfunctional market.",
"ORR said it will consult the industry and the public on what to do, and will publish its decision in April 2007.",
"If the ORR does refer the market to the Competition Commission, there may well be a hiatus in investment in new rolling stock whilst the ROSCOs and their parent companies wait to hear what return they will be allowed to make on their train fleets.",
"This could have the unintended consequence of intensifying the problem of overcrowding on some routes because TOCs will be unable to lengthen their trains or acquire new ones if they need the ROSCOs to co-operate in their acquisition or financing.",
"Some commentators have suggested that such an outcome would be detrimental to the public interest.",
"This is especially striking since the National Audit Office, in its November 2006 report on the renewal and upgrade of the West Coast main line, said that the capacity of the trains and the network will be full in the next few years and advocated train lengthening as an important measure to cope with sharply higher passenger numbers.",
"The Competition Commission conducted an investigation and published provisional findings on 7 August 2008.",
"The report was published on 7 April 2009.",
"A press release\n summarised the recommendations as follows:\n\n* introduce longer franchise terms (in the region of 12 to 15 years or longer), which would allow TOCs to realise the benefits and recover the costs of switching to alternative new or used rolling stock over a longer period, which should increase the incentives and ability for TOCs to exercise choice\n* assess the benefits of alternative new or used rolling stock proposals beyond the franchise term and across other franchises when evaluating franchise bids.",
"This will encourage a wider choice of rolling stock to be considered in franchise proposals, irrespective of franchise length\n* ensure franchise invitations to tender (ITTs) are specified in such a way franchise bidders are allowed a choice of rolling stock\n* requiring the ROSCOs to remove non-discrimination requirements from the Codes of Practice, which would provide greater incentives for the TOCs to seek improved terms from the ROSCOs\n* requiring rolling stock lessors to provide TOCs with a set list of information when making a lease rental offer for used rolling stock, which would give TOCs the ability to negotiate more effectively\n\n===Leasing companies (ROSCO)===\n:''See also Rolling stock operating company''\n\nThree companies took over British Rail's rolling stock on privatisation:\n* '''Angel Trains''' - owned by a consortium of private equity investors, mainly comprising pension funds and insurance companies, and has 4,400 vehicles in the UK.",
"* '''Eversholt Rail Group''' - owns a fleet of over 4,000 vehicles and is owned by a consortium including 3i Infrastructure and Morgan Stanley.",
"A number of other companies have since entered the leasing market:\n* '''Sovereign Trains''' - a company that forms part of the same group as the open-access operator Grand Central.",
"Sovereign Trains owns the rolling stock operated by Grand Central.",
"* '''Diesel Trains''' - in March 2009, the Department for Transport also launched its own ROSCO to order 202 new diesel train carriages for the Thames Valley area, around Bristol and on longer distances in northern England.",
"The trains were due to enter service by 2012 for train operators First Great Western, First TransPennine Express and Northern Rail.",
"However, in August 2009 the order was cancelled due to the planned electrification of the Great Western Main Line and Diesel Trains was later dissolved in July 2012.",
"* '''Lloyds TSB General Leasing''' - in April 2009, Lloyds TSB entered the rolling stock market by funding the purchase of 30 new EMU trains for National Express East Anglia.",
"* '''Beacon Rail Leasing''', owns Class 68 and Class 88 locomotives, as well as and DMUs.",
"* UK Rail Leasing, owns some Class 56 locomotives\n\n\n\n===Spot-hire companies===\nSpot-hire companies provide short-term leasing of rolling stock.",
"* '''MiddlePeak Railways''', a locomotive hire & lease company with a stock of locomotives similar to Class 08 & NS 0-6-0 600 Class shunting locomotives, other locomotives, rolling stock & parts.",
"* '''Harry Needle Railroad Company Ltd''', an industrial and main line locomotive hire and overhaul company.",
"Operates Class 08 shunting locomotives, and Class 20 locomotives.",
"*'''Riviera Trains''', a spot-hire company with a fleet of Class 47 locomotives.",
"This company works closely with DB Cargo UK.",
"*'''West Coast Railway Company''', a spot-hire and railtour-operator with a stock of Class 37 and Class 47 locomotives, as well as the rebuild Class 57 locomotive.",
"\n\nRailways in Great Britain are in the private sector, but they are subject to control by central government, and to economic and safety regulation by arms of government.",
"In 2006, using powers in the Railways Act 2005, the Department for Transport took over most of the functions of the now wound up Strategic Rail Authority.",
"The DfT now itself runs competitions for the award of passenger rail franchises, and, once awarded, monitors and enforces the contracts with the private sector franchisees.",
"Franchises specify the passenger rail services which are to be run and the quality and other conditions (for example, the cleanliness of trains, station facilities and opening hours, the punctuality and reliability of trains) which the operators have to meet.",
"Some franchises receive a subsidy from the DfT for doing so, and some are cash-positive, which means the franchisee pays the DfT for the contract.",
"Some franchises start life as subsidised and, over their life, move to being cash-positive.",
"The other regulatory authority for the privatised railway is the Office of Rail and Road (previously the Office of Rail Regulation), which, following the Railways Act 2005, is the combined economic and safety regulator.",
"It replaced the Rail Regulator on 5 July 2004.",
"The Rail Safety and Standards Board still exists, however; established in 2003 on the recommendations of a public inquiry, it leads the industry's progress in health and safety matters.",
"The principal modern railway statutes are:\n\n* Railways Act 1993'''\n* Competition Act 1998 (insofar as it confers competition powers on the Office of Rail and Road)\n* Transport Act 2000\n* Railways and Transport Safety Act 2003\n* Railways Act 2005",
"\n===Statutory authorities===\n*Office of Rail and Road – Website\n*Department for Transport – Website\n*UK Notified Bodies – Website\n\n===Rail network and signalling operations===\n*Railtrack (1996–2002)\n*Network Rail (2002–) – Website – (A \"not for dividend\" company limited by guarantee)\n\n===Other national entities===\n*Association of Train Operating Companies – ATOC – Website\n* Institution of Railway Operators – Website\n* Rail Freight Group – Website\n* Rail Passengers Council and Committees – Website\n* Rail Safety and Standards Board – RSSB – Website\n* The Railway Forum – Website\n* Railway Mission – Website\n* Railway Study Association – Website\n\n====Trade unions====\nThe railways are one of the most heavily unionised industrial sectors in the UK.",
"*Associated Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen – ASLEF – Website\n*National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers – RMT – Website\n*Transport Salaried Staffs' Association – TSSA – Website\n\n===Regional entities===\n''See Passenger transport executive''\n* Transport for West Midlands) – Website\n* TfGM (Transport for Greater Manchester) – Website\n* Merseytravel – Website\n* Metro (West Yorkshire Metro) – Website\n* Nexus (Tyne and Wear Passenger Transport Executive) – Website\n* Travel South Yorkshire (South Yorkshire Passenger Transport Executive) – Website\n* SPT (Strathclyde Partnership for Transport) – Website\n* TfL (Transport for London) – Website\n\nSee List of companies operating trains in the United Kingdom.",
"===Freight railway companies===\n*GB Railfreight – Website\n*DB Cargo UK – Website\n*Freightliner – Website\n*Direct Rail Services – Website\n*Colas Rail – Website\n*Devon and Cornwall Railways – Website\n*Mendip Rail – Website\n\n===Open access operators and other non-franchised passenger operators===\n*Eurostar – Website\n*Grand Central – Website\n*Heathrow Express – Website\n*Hull Trains – Website\n*Venice-Simplon Orient Express (VSOE) – Website",
"This is only the earliest of the main line openings: for a more comprehensive list of the hundreds of early railways see List of early British railway companies\n*Stockton and Darlington Railway (1825) - First steam-hauled passenger railway in the world.",
"*Canterbury and Whitstable Railway (1830) - First steam-hauled passenger railway to issue season tickets.",
"*Liverpool and Manchester Railway (1830) - First InterCity passenger railway.",
"*Grand Junction Railway (1833) - The line built by the company was the first trunk railway to be completed in England, and arguably the world's first long-distance railway with steam traction.",
"*London and Greenwich Railway (1836) - First steam railway in the capital, the first to be built specifically for passengers, and the first elevated railway.",
"*London and Birmingham Railway (1837) - First Intercity line to be built into London.",
"*Midland Counties Railway (1839)\n*Birmingham and Derby Junction Railway (BDJR) (1839)\n*North Midland Railway (1840)\n*Taff Vale Railway (1840)",
"\nlocomotive (BR Standard 7MT 70013 ''Oliver Cromwell'')\non the North Norfolk Railway on 11 March 2010.",
"Many lines closed by British Railways, including many closed during the Beeching cuts, have been restored and reopened as heritage railways.",
"A few have been relaid as narrow-gauge but the majority are standard-gauge.",
"Most use both steam and diesel locomotives for haulage.",
"Most heritage railways are operated as tourist attractions and do not provide regular year-round train services.",
"Several pressure groups are campaigning for the re-opening of closed railway lines in Great Britain.",
"These include:\n\n* Ashington–Bedlington–Newcastle\n* Marlow Branch (Bourne End–High Wycombe)\n* Cambridge–Oxford, East West Rail Link This project was approved by the Government in November 2011.",
"* Colne–Skipton, Skipton-East Lancashire Rail Action Partnership\n*South Staffordshire Line (Stourbridge–Walsall)\n*Wealden Line (Uckfield–Lewes)\n*Woodhead Line (Hadfield–Penistone)\n*York to Beverley Line (York–Beverley)\n*Peak Rail: (Matlock–Bakewell).",
"Under-funded line.",
"*Great Central Railway Notts–Leicester\n*Portishead Railway from Portishead to Bristol Temple Meads\n\nFrom 1995 until 2009, 27 new lines (totalling 199 track miles) and 68 stations were opened, with 65 further new station sites identified by Network Rail or government for possible construction.",
"On 15 June 2009 the Association of Train Operating Companies (ATOC) published the report ''Connecting Communities: Expanding Access to the Rail Network'', detailing schemes around England where it believed there was a commercial business case for passenger network expansion.",
"The published proposals involved the re-opening or new construction of 40 stations, serving communities with populations of over 15,000, including 14 schemes involving the re-opening or reconstruction of rail lines for passenger services.",
"These would be short-lead-time local projects, to be completed in timescales ranging from 2 years 9 months to 6 years, once approved by local and regional governments, Network Rail and the Department for Transport, complementing existing long-term national projects.",
"* Great Britain (standard-gauge)\n** France (Eurostar) via the Channel Tunnel formerly by Train ferries.",
"** Belgium (Eurostar) via France using the Channel Tunnel.",
"===Rail-ferry-rail services===\n** Netherlands - Dutchflyer rail/sea/rail service\n** Ireland - Sail Rail service",
"\n*British narrow gauge railways\n*Concessionary fares on the British railway network\n*History of rail transport in Great Britain\n*Irish Sea tunnel\n*Metrication of British Transport\n*Timeline of future railway upgrades in Britain\n*List of funicular railways\n*Railway electrification in Great Britain\n*Rail transport by country\n*Royal Train\n*Transport in the United Kingdom\n*Mainline steam trains in Great Britain\n*Financing of the rail industry in Great Britain",
"\n* Network Rail – Making a Fresh Start – National Audit Office report, 14 May 2004\n* Railway industry topic guides from the Institution of Mechanical Engineers\n*''On The Wrong Line: How Ideology and Incompetence Wrecked Britain's Railways'', Christian Wolmar, Aurum Press Ltd,",
"\n* National Rail Official UK Rail timetable site\n*\n* National Rail maps page UK railway maps\n* BritRail ATOC site with timetables, maps and cross-network passes for foreign travellers in UK\n* BritRail Passes Canada Canadian source for British Rail Passes And tickets\n* ScotlandRailways Scottish Rail site with timetables, maps and cross-network passes for foreign travellers in Scotland\n* Northumbrian Railways\n* Great Scenic Railways of Devon and Cornwall\n* Collection of Google Earth locations of National Rail stations (Requires Google Earth software) from the Google Earth Community forum."
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n\nThe '''bald eagle''' (''Haliaeetus leucocephalus'', from Greek ''hali'' \"sea\", ''aiētos'' \"eagle\", ''leuco'' \"white\", ''cephalos'' \"head\") is a bird of prey found in North America. A sea eagle, it has two known subspecies and forms a species pair with the white-tailed eagle (''Haliaeetus albicilla''). Its range includes most of Canada and Alaska, all of the contiguous United States, and northern Mexico. It is found near large bodies of open water with an abundant food supply and old-growth trees for nesting.\n\nThe bald eagle is an opportunistic feeder which subsists mainly on fish, which it swoops down and snatches from the water with its talons. It builds the largest nest of any North American bird and the largest tree nests ever recorded for any animal species, up to deep, wide, and in weight. Sexual maturity is attained at the age of four to five years.\n\nBald eagles are not actually bald; the name derives from an older meaning of the word, \"white headed\". The adult is mainly brown with a white head and tail. The sexes are identical in plumage, but females are about 25 percent larger than males. The beak is large and hooked. The plumage of the immature is brown.\n\nThe bald eagle is both the national bird and national animal of the United States of America. The bald eagle appears on its seal. In the late 20th century it was on the brink of extirpation in the contiguous United States. Populations have since recovered and the species was removed from the U.S. government's list of endangered species on July 12, 1995 and transferred to the list of threatened species. It was removed from the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife in the Lower 48 States on June 28, 2007.\n",
"Adult and chick\nThe plumage of an adult bald eagle is evenly dark brown with a white head and tail. The tail is moderately long and slightly wedge-shaped. Males and females are identical in plumage coloration, but sexual dimorphism is evident in the species, in that females are 25% larger than males. The beak, feet and irises are bright yellow. The legs are feather-free, and the toes are short and powerful with large talons. The highly developed talon of the hind toe is used to pierce the vital areas of prey while it is held immobile by the front toes. The beak is large and hooked, with a yellow cere. The adult bald eagle is unmistakable in its native range. The closely related African fish eagle (''H. vocifer'') (from far outside the bald eagle's range) also has a brown body, white head and tail, but differs from the bald in having a white chest and black tip to the bill.\n\nThe plumage of the immature is a dark brown overlaid with messy white streaking until the fifth (rarely fourth, very rarely third) year, when it reaches sexual maturity. Immature bald eagles are distinguishable from the golden eagle (''Aquila chrysaetos''), the only other very large, non-vulturine bird in North America, in that the former has a larger, more protruding head with a larger beak, straighter edged wings which are held flat (not slightly raised) and with a stiffer wing beat and feathers which do not completely cover the legs. When seen well, the golden eagle is distinctive in plumage with a more solid warm brown color than an immature bald eagle, with a reddish-golden patch to its nape and (in immature birds) a highly contrasting set of white squares on the wing. Another distinguishing feature of the immature bald eagle over the mature bird is its black, yellow-tipped beak; the mature eagle has a fully yellow beak.\n\nThe bald eagle has sometimes been considered the largest true raptor (accipitrid) in North America. The only larger species of raptor-like bird is the California condor (''Gymnogyps californianus''), a New World vulture which today is not generally considered a taxonomic ally of true accipitrids. However, the golden eagle, averaging and in wing chord length in its American race (''A. c. canadensis''), is merely lighter in mean body mass and exceeds the bald eagle in mean wing chord length by around . Additionally, the bald eagle's close cousins, the relatively longer-winged but shorter-tailed white-tailed eagle and the overall larger Steller's sea eagle (''H. pelagicus''), may, rarely, wander to coastal Alaska from Asia.\n\n\n\n\nThe bald eagle has a body length of . Typical wingspan is between and mass is normally between . Females are about 25% larger than males, averaging , and against the males' average weight of . The size of the bird varies by location and generally corresponds with Bergmann's rule, since the species increases in size further away from the Equator and the tropics. For example, eagles from South Carolina average in mass and in wingspan, smaller than their northern counterparts. The largest eagles are from Alaska, where large females may weigh up to and span across the wings. A survey of adult weights in Alaska showed that females weighed on average and males weighed . Among standard linear measurements, the wing chord is , the tail is long, and the tarsus is . The culmen reportedly ranges from , while the measurement from the gape to the tip of the bill is .\n\nThe call consists of weak staccato, chirping whistles, ''kleek kik ik ik ik'', somewhat similar in cadence to a gull's call. The calls of young birds tend to be more harsh and shrill than those of adults.\n",
"The bald eagle placed in the genus ''Haliaeetus'' (sea eagles) which gets both its common and specific scientific names from the distinctive appearance of the adult's head. ''Bald'' in the English name is derived from the word ''piebald'', and refers to the white head and tail feathers and their contrast with the darker body. The scientific name is derived from ''Haliaeetus'', New Latin for \"sea eagle\" (from the Ancient Greek ''haliaetos''), and ''leucocephalus'', Latinized Ancient Greek for \"white head,\" from λευκος ''leukos'' (\"white\") and κεφαλη ''kephale'' (\"head\").\n\nThe bald eagle was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus in his 18th century work ''Systema Naturae'', under the name ''Falco leucocephalus''.\n\nThere are two recognized subspecies of bald eagle:\n* ''H. l. leucocephalus'' (Linnaeus, 1766) is the nominate subspecies. It is found in the southern United States and Baja California Peninsula.\n* ''H. l. washingtoniensis'' (Audubon, 1827), synonym ''H. l. alascanus'' Townsend, 1897, the northern subspecies, is larger than southern nominate ''leucocephalus ''. It is found in the northern United States, Canada and Alaska.\n\nThe bald eagle forms a species pair with the Eurasian white-tailed eagle. This species pair consists of a white-headed and a tan-headed species of roughly equal size; the white-tailed eagle also has overall somewhat paler brown body plumage. The two species fill the same ecological niche in their respective ranges. The pair diverged from other sea eagles at the beginning of the Early Miocene (c. 10 Ma BP) at the latest, but possibly as early as the Early/Middle Oligocene, 28 Ma BP, if the most ancient fossil record is correctly assigned to this genus.\n",
"Bald eagle in flight at Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming\nThe bald eagle's natural range covers most of North America, including most of Canada, all of the continental United States, and northern Mexico. It is the only sea eagle endemic to North America. Occupying varied habitats from the bayous of Louisiana to the Sonoran Desert and the eastern deciduous forests of Quebec and New England, northern birds are migratory, while southern birds are resident, remaining on their breeding territory all year. At minimum population, in the 1950s, it was largely restricted to Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, northern and eastern Canada, and Florida. Today, they are much more common (almost attaining their peak numbers pre-colonization in North America), and nest in every continental state and province in the United States and Canada.\n\nBald eagles will also congregate in certain locations in winter. From November until February, one to two thousand birds winter in Squamish, British Columbia, about halfway between Vancouver and Whistler. The birds primarily gather along the Squamish and Cheakamus Rivers, attracted by the salmon spawning in the area.\n\nIt has occurred as a vagrant twice in Ireland; a juvenile was shot illegally in Fermanagh on January 11, 1973 (misidentified at first as a white-tailed eagle), and an exhausted juvenile was captured in Kerry on November 15, 1987.\n",
"Juvenile with salmon, Katmai National Park|thumb\nThe bald eagle occurs during its breeding season in virtually any kind of American wetland habitat such as seacoasts, rivers, large lakes or marshes or other large bodies of open water with an abundance of fish. Studies have shown a preference for bodies of water with a circumference greater than , and lakes with an area greater than are optimal for breeding bald eagles.\n\nThe bald eagle typically requires old-growth and mature stands of coniferous or hardwood trees for perching, roosting, and nesting. Tree species reportedly is less important to the eagle pair than the tree's height, composition and location. Perhaps of paramount importance for this species is an abundance of comparatively large trees surrounding the body of water. Selected trees must have good visibility, be over tall, an open structure, and proximity to prey. If nesting trees are in standing water such as in a mangrove swamp, the nest can be located fairly low, at as low above the ground. In a more typical tree standing on dry ground, nests may be located from in height. In Chesapeake Bay, nesting trees averaged in diameter and in total height, while in Florida, the average nesting tree stands high and is in diameter. Trees used for nesting in the Greater Yellowstone area average high. Trees or forest used for nesting should have a canopy cover of no more than 60%, and no less than 20%, and be in close proximity to water. Most nests have been found within of open water. The greatest distance from open water recorded for a bald eagle nest was over , in Florida.\n\nBald eagle nests are often very large in order to compensate for size of the birds. The largest recorded nest was found in Florida in 1963, and was measured at nearly 10 feet wide and 20 feet deep.\n\nIn Florida, nesting habitats often consist of mangrove swamps, the shorelines of lakes and rivers, pinelands, seasonally flooded flatwoods, hardwood swamps, and open prairies and pastureland with scattered tall trees. Favored nesting trees in Florida are slash pines (''Pinus elliottii''), longleaf pines (''P. palustris''), loblolly pines (''P. taeda'') and cypress trees, but for the southern coastal areas where mangroves are usually used. In Wyoming, groves of mature cottonwoods or tall pines found along streams and rivers are typical bald eagle nesting habitats. Wyoming eagles may inhabit habitat types ranging from large, old-growth stands of ponderosa pines (''Pinus ponderosa'') to narrow strips of riparian trees surrounded by rangeland. In Southeast Alaska, Sitka spruce (''Picea sitchensis'') provided 78% of the nesting trees used by eagles, followed by hemlocks (''Tsuga'') at 20%. Increasingly, eagles nest in man-made reservoirs stocked with fish.\n\nKodiak\nThe bald eagle is usually quite sensitive to human activity while nesting, and is found most commonly in areas with minimal human disturbance. It chooses sites more than from low-density human disturbance and more than from medium- to high-density human disturbance. However, bald eagles will occasionally venture into large estuaries or secluded groves within major cities, such as Hardtack Island on the Willamette River in Portland, Oregon or John Heinz National Wildlife Refuge at Tinicum in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, which are surrounded by a great quantity of human activity. Even more contrary to the usual sensitivity to disturbance, a family of bald eagles moved to the Harlem neighborhood in New York City in 2010.\n\nWhile wintering, bald eagles tend to be less habitat and disturbance sensitive. They will commonly congregate at spots with plentiful perches and waters with plentiful prey and (in Northern climes) partially unfrozen waters. Alternately, non-breeding or wintering bald eagles, particularly in areas with a lack of human disturbance, spend their time in various upland, terrestrial habitats sometimes quite far away from waterways. In the northern half of North America (especially the interior portion), this terrestrial inhabitance by bald eagles tends to be especially prevalent because unfrozen water may not be accessible. Upland wintering habitats often consist of open habitats with concentrations of medium-sized mammals, such as prairies, meadows or tundra, or open forests with regular carrion access.\n",
"Head details\nThe bald eagle is a powerful flier, and soars on thermal convection currents. It reaches speeds of when gliding and flapping, and about while carrying fish. Its dive speed is between , though it seldom dives vertically. It is partially migratory, depending on location. If its territory has access to open water, it remains there year-round, but if the body of water freezes during the winter, making it impossible to obtain food, it migrates to the south or to the coast. A number of populations are subject to post-breeding dispersal, mainly in juveniles; Florida eagles, for example, will disperse northwards in the summer. The bald eagle selects migration routes which take advantage of thermals, updrafts, and food resources. During migration, it may ascend in a thermal and then glide down, or may ascend in updrafts created by the wind against a cliff or other terrain. Migration generally takes place during the daytime, usually between the local hours of 8:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m., when thermals are produced by the sun.\n\n===Diet and feeding===\nFeeding on catfish and other various fishes. Painted by John James Audubon\nThe bald eagle is an opportunistic carnivore with the capacity to consume a great variety of prey. Throughout their range, fish often comprise the majority of the eagle's diet. In 20 food habit studies across the species' range, fish comprised 56% of the diet of nesting eagles, birds 28%, mammals 14% and other prey 2%. In Southeast Alaska, fish comprise approximately 66% of the year-around diet of bald eagles and 78% of the prey brought to the nest by the parents. Eagles living in the Columbia River Estuary in Oregon were found to rely on fish for 90% of their dietary intake. In the Pacific Northwest, spawning trout and salmon provide most of the bald eagles' diet from late summer throughout fall. Southeast Alaskan eagles largely prey on pink salmon (''Oncorhynchus gorbuscha''), coho salmon (''O. kisutch'') and, more locally, sockeye salmon (''O. nerka''), with chinook salmon (''O. tshawytscha''), due to their large size ( average adult size) probably being taken only as carrion. Also important in the estuaries and shallow coastlines of southern Alaska are Pacific herring (''Clupea pallasii''), Pacific sand lance (''Ammodytes hexapterus'') and eulachon (''Thaleichthys pacificus''). In Oregon's Columbia River Estuary, the most significant prey species were largescale suckers (''Catostomus macrocheilus'') (17.3% of the prey selected there), American shad (''Alosa sapidissima''; 13%) and common carp (''Cyprinus carpio''; 10.8%). Eagles living in the Chesapeake Bay in Maryland were found to subsist largely on American gizzard shad (''Dorosoma cepedianum''), threadfin shad (''D. petenense'') and white bass (''Morone chrysops''). Floridian eagles have been reported to prey on catfish, mostly prevalently the brown bullhead (''Ameiurus nebulosus'') and any species in the ''Ictalurus'' genus as well as mullet, trout, needlefish, and eels. Wintering eagles on the Platte River in Nebraska preyed mainly on American gizzard shads and common carp. From observation in the Columbia River, 58% of the fish were caught live by the eagle, 24% were scavenged as carcasses and 18% were pirated away from other animals.\n\nEven eagles living in relatively arid regions still typically rely primarily on fish as prey. In Sonora (Mexico) and Arizona, 77% and over 73%, respectively, of prey remains at the nests were from fish, largely various catfish and rainbow trout (''Oncorhynchus mykiss''). Prey fish targeted by bald eagles are often quite large. When experimenters offered fish of different sizes in the breeding season around Lake Britton in California, fish measuring were taken 71.8% of the time by parent eagles while fish measuring were chosen only 25% of the time. At nests around Lake Superior, the remains of fish (mostly suckers) were found to average in total length. In the Columbia River estuary, most preyed on by eagles were estimated to measure between in length, and carp flown with (laboriously) were up to in length.\n\nA bald eagle on a whale carcass.\nBenthic fishes such as catfish are usually consumed after they die and float to the surface, though while temporarily swimming in the open may be more vulnerable to predation than most fish since their eyes focus downwards. Bald eagles also regularly exploit water turbines which produce battered, stunned or dead fish easily consumed. Predators who leave behind scraps of dead fish that they kill, such as brown bears (''Ursus arctos''), gray wolves (''Canis lupus'') and red foxes (''Vulpes vulpes''), may be habitually followed in order to scavenge the kills secondarily. Once North Pacific salmon die off after spawning, usually local bald eagles eat salmon carcasses almost exclusively. Eagles in Washington need to consume of fish each day for survival, with adults generally consuming more than juveniles and thus reducing potential energy deficiency and increasing survival during winter.\n\nBehind fish, the next most significant prey base for bald eagles are other waterbirds. The contribution of such birds to the eagle's diet is variable, depending on the quantity and availability of fish near the water's surface. Waterbirds can seasonally comprise from 7% to 80% of the prey selection for eagles in certain localities. Exceptionally, in the Greater Yellowstone area, birds were eaten as regularly as fish year-around, with both prey groups comprising 43% of the studied dietary intake. Preferred avian prey includes grebes, alcids, ducks, gulls, coots, herons, egrets, and geese. Bird species most preferred as prey by eagles tend to be medium-sized, such as western grebes (''Aechmophorus occidentalis''), mallards (''Anas platyrhynchos'') and American coots (''Fulica americana'') as such prey is relatively easy for the much larger eagles to catch and fly with. American herring gull (''Larus smithsonianus'') are the favored avian prey species for eagles living around Lake Superior. Larger waterbirds are occasionally prey as well, with wintering emperor geese (''Chen canagica'') and snow geese (''C. caerulescens''), which gather in large groups, sometimes becoming regular prey. Other large waterbirds hunted at least occasionally by bald eagles have included common loons (''Gavis immer''), great black-backed gulls (''Larus marinus''), sandhill cranes (''Grus canadensis''), great blue herons (''Ardea herodias''), Canada geese (''Branta canadensis''), brown pelicans (''Pelecanus occidentalis''), and fledging American white pelicans (''P. erythrorhynchos''). Colony nesting seabirds, such as alcids, storm petrels, cormorants, northern gannets (''Morus bassanus''), terns and gulls, may be especially vulnerable to predation. Due to easy accessibility and lack of formidable nest defense by such species, bald eagles are capable of preying on such seabirds at all ages, from eggs to mature adults, and can effectively cull large portions of a colony.\n\nAlong some portions of the North Pacific coastline, bald eagles which had historically preyed mainly kelp-dwelling fish and supplementally sea otter (''Enhydra lutris'') pups are now preying mainly on seabird colonies since both the fish (possibly due to overfishing) and otters (cause unknown) have had precipitous population declines, causing concern for seabird conservation. Because of this more extensive predation, some biologist have expressed concern that murres are heading for a \"conservation collision\" due to heavy eagle predation. Eagles have been confirmed to attack nocturnally active, burrow-nesting seabird species such as storm petrels and shearwaters by digging out their burrows and feeding on all animals they find inside. If a bald eagle flies close by, waterbirds will often fly away en masse, though in other cases they may seemingly ignore a perched eagle. If the said birds are on a colony, this exposed their unprotected eggs and nestlings to scavengers such as gulls. Bird prey may occasionally be attacked in flight, with prey up to the size of Canada geese attacked and killed in mid-air. Unprecedented photographs of a bald eagle unsuccessfully attempting to prey on a much larger adult trumpeter swan (''Cygnus buccinator'') in mid-flight were taken recently. While adults often actively prey on waterbirds, congregated wintering waterfowl are frequently exploited for carcasses to scavenge by immature eagles in harsh winter weather. Bald eagles have been recorded as killing other raptors on occasion. In some cases, these may be attacks of competition or kleptoparasitism on rival species but ended with the consumption of the victim. Raptorial birds reported to be hunted by these eagles have included large adults of species such as red-tailed hawks (''Buteo jamaicensis''), ospreys (''Pandion haliaetus'') and black (''Coragyps atratus'') and turkey vultures (''Cathartes aura'').\nAndover\nMammalian prey includes rabbits, hares, ground squirrels, raccoons (''Procyon lotor''), muskrats (''Ondatra zibethicus''), beavers (''Castor canadensis''), and deer fawns. Newborn, dead, sickly or already injured mammals are often targeted. However, more formidable prey such as adult raccoons and subadult beavers are sometimes attacked. In the Chesapeake Bay area, bald eagles are reportedly the main natural predators of raccoons. Where available, seal colonies can provide much food. On Protection Island, Washington, they commonly feed on harbor seal (''Phoca vitulina'') afterbirths, still-borns and sickly seal pups. On San Juan Island in Washington, introduced European rabbits (''Oryctolagus cuniculus''), mainly those killed by auto accidents, comprise nearly 60% of the dietary intake of eagles. In landlocked areas of North America, wintering bald eagles may become habitual predators of medium-sized mammals that occur in colonies or local concentrations, such as prairie dogs (''Cynomys'') and jackrabbits (''Lepus''). Together with the golden eagle, bald eagles are occasionally accused of preying on livestock, especially sheep (''Ovis aries''). There are a handful of proven cases of lamb predation, some of specimens weighing up to , by bald eagles but they are much less likely to attack a healthy lamb than a golden eagle and both species prefer native, wild prey and are unlikely to cause any extensive detriment to human livelihoods. There is one case of a bald eagle killing and feeding on an adult, pregnant ewe (then joined in eating the kill by at least 3 other eagles), which, weighing on average over , is much larger than any other known prey taken by this species.\n\nSupplemental prey are readily taken given the opportunity. In some areas reptiles may become regular prey, especially warm areas such as Florida where reptile diversity is high. Turtles are perhaps the most regularly hunted type of reptile. In coastal New Jersey, 14 of 20 studied eagle nests included remains of turtles. The main species found were common musk turtles (''Sternotherus odoratus''), diamondback terrapin (''Malaclemys terrapin'') and juvenile common snapping turtles (''Chelydra serpentina''). In these New Jersey nests, mainly subadult and small adults were taken, ranging in carapace length from . Snakes are also taken occasionally, especially partially aquatic ones, as are amphibians and crustaceans (largely crayfish and crabs).\n\nTo hunt fish, the eagle swoops down over the water and snatches the fish out of the water with its talons. They eat by holding the fish in one claw and tearing the flesh with the other. Eagles have structures on their toes called spicules that allow them to grasp fish. Osprey also have this adaptation. Bald eagles have powerful talons and have been recorded flying with a mule deer (''Odocoileus hemionus'') fawn. This feat is the record for the heaviest load carrying ever verified for a flying bird. It has been estimated that the gripping power (pounds by square inch) of the bald eagle is ten times greater than that of a human. Bald eagles can fly with fish at least equal to their own weight, but if the fish is too heavy to lift, the eagle may be dragged into the water. It may swim to safety, in some cases pulling the catch along to the shore as it swims, but some eagles drown or succumb to hypothermia. Many sources claim that bald eagles, like all large eagles, cannot normally take flight carrying prey more than half of their own weight unless aided by favorable wind conditions. On numerous occasions, when large prey such as mature salmon or geese are attacked, eagles have been seen to make contact and then drag the prey in a strenuously labored, low flight over the water to a bank, where they then finish off and dismember the prey. When food is abundant, an eagle can gorge itself by storing up to of food in a pouch in the throat called a crop. Gorging allows the bird to fast for several days if food becomes unavailable. Occasionally, bald eagles may hunt cooperatively when confronting prey, especially relatively large prey such as jackrabbits or herons, with one bird distracting potential prey, while the other comes behind it in order to ambush it. While hunting waterfowl, bald eagles repeatedly fly at a target and cause it to dive repeatedly, hoping to exhaust the victim so it can be caught (white-tailed eagles have been recorded hunting waterfowl in the same way). When hunting concentrated prey, a successful catch which often results in the hunting eagle being pursued by other eagles and needing to find an isolated perch for consumption if it is able to carry it away successfully.\n\nUnlike some other eagle species, bald eagles rarely take on evasive or dangerous prey on their own. The species mainly target prey which is much smaller than themselves, with most live fish caught weighing and most waterbirds preyed weighing . They obtain much of their food as carrion or via a practice known as kleptoparasitism, by which they steal prey away from other predators. Due to their dietary habits, bald eagles are frequently viewed in a negative light by humans. Thanks to their superior foraging ability and experience, adults are generally more likely to hunt live prey than immature eagles, which often obtain their food from scavenging. They are not very selective about the condition or origin, whether provided by humans, other animals, auto accidents or natural causes, of a carcass's presence, but will avoid eating carrion where disturbances from humans are a regular occurrence. They will scavenge carcasses up to the size of whales, though carcasses of ungulates and large fish are seemingly preferred. Bald eagles also may sometimes feed on material scavenged or stolen from campsites and picnics, as well as garbage dumps (dump usage is habitual mainly in Alaska).\n\nWhen competing for food, eagles will usually dominate other fish-eaters and scavengers, aggressively displacing mammals such as coyotes (''Canis latrans'') and foxes, and birds such as corvids, gulls, vultures and other raptors. Occasionally, coyotes, bobcats (''Lynx rufus'') and domestic dogs (''Canis lupus familiaris'') can displace eagles from carrion, usually less confident immature birds, as has been recorded in Maine. Bald eagles are less active, bold predators than golden eagles and get relatively more of their food as carrion and from kleptoparasitism (although it is now generally thought that golden eagles eat more carrion than was previously assumed). However, the two species are roughly equal in size, aggressiveness and physical strength and so competitions can go either way. Neither species is known to be dominant, and the outcome depends on the size and disposition of the individual eagles involved. The bald eagle is thought to be much more numerous in North America than the golden eagle, with the bald species estimated to number at least 150,000 individuals, about twice as many golden eagles there are estimated to live in North America. Due to this, bald eagles often outnumber golden eagles at attractive food sources. Despite the potential for contention between these animals, in New Jersey during winter, a golden eagle and numerous bald eagles were observed to hunt snow geese alongside each other without conflict. Similarly, both eagle species have been recorded, via video-monitoring, to feed on gut pills and carcasses of white-tailed deer (''Odocoileus virginianus'') in remote forest clearings in the eastern Appalachian Mountains without apparent conflict. Many bald eagles are habitual kleptoparasites, especially in winters when fish are harder to come by. They have been recorded stealing fish from other predators such as ospreys, herons and even otters. They have also been recorded opportunistically pirating birds from peregrine falcons (''Falco peregrinus''), prairie dogs from ferruginous hawks (''Buteo regalis'') and even jackrabbits from golden eagles. When they approach scavengers like dogs, gulls or vultures at carrion sites, they often aggressively attack them and try to force them to disgorge their food. Healthy adult bald eagles are not preyed on in the wild and are thus considered apex predators.\n\n===Reproduction===\nBald eagles are sexually mature at four or five years of age. When they are old enough to breed, they often return to the area where they were born. It is thought that bald eagles mate for life. However, if one member of a pair dies or disappears, the survivor will choose a new mate. A pair which has repeatedly failed in breeding attempts may split and look for new mates. Bald eagle courtship involves elaborate, spectacular calls and flight displays. The flight includes swoops, chases, and cartwheels, in which they fly high, lock talons, and free fall, separating just before hitting the ground. Usually, a territory defended by a mature pair will be of waterside habitat.\nMating\nEgg, Collection at Museum Wiesbaden in Germany.\nChick at Everglades National Park\n\nCompared to most other raptors which mostly nest in April or May, bald eagles are early breeders: nest building or reinforcing is often by mid-February, egg laying is often late February (sometimes during deep snow in the North), and incubation is usually mid-March and early May. Eggs hatch from mid April to early May, and the young fledge late June to early July. The nest is the largest of any bird in North America; it is used repeatedly over many years and with new material added each year may eventually be as large as deep, across and weigh ; one nest in Florida was found to be deep, across, and to weigh . This nest is on record as the largest tree nest ever recorded for any animal. Usually nests are used for under five years or so, as they either collapse in storms or break the branches supporting them by their sheer weight. However, one nest in the Midwest was occupied continuously for at least 34 years. The nest is built out of branches, usually in large trees found near water. When breeding where there are no trees, the bald eagle will nest on the ground, as has been recorded largely in areas largely isolated from terrestrial predators, such as Amchitka Island in Alaska. In Sonora, Mexico, eagles have been observed nesting on top of Hecho catcuses (''Pachycereus pectinaboriginum''). Nests located on cliffs and rock pinnacles have been reported historically in California, Kansas, Nevada, New Mexico and Utah, but currently are only verified to occur only in Alaska and Arizona. The eggs average about long, ranging from , and have a breadth of , ranging from . Eggs in Alaska averaged in mass, while in Saskatchewan they averaged . As with their ultimate body size, egg size tends to increase further away from the Equator. Eagles produce between one and three eggs per year, two being typical. Rarely, four eggs have been found in nests but these may be exceptional cases of polygyny. Eagles in captivity have been capable of producing up to seven eggs. it is rare for all three chicks to successfully reach the fledging stage. The oldest chick often bears the advantage of larger size and louder voice, which tends to draw the parents attention towards it. Occasionally, as is recorded in many large raptorial birds, the oldest sibling sometimes attacks and kills its younger sibling(s), especially early in the nesting period when their sizes are most different. However, nearly half of known bald eagle produce two fledgings (more rarely three), unlike in some other \"eagle\" species such as some in the ''Aquila'' genus, in which a second fledging is typically observed in less than 20% of nests, despite two eggs typically being laid. Both the male and female take turns incubating the eggs, but the female does most of the sitting. The parent not incubating will hunt for food or look for nesting material during this stage. For the first two to three weeks of the nestling period, at least one adult is at the nest almost 100% of the time. After five to six weeks, the attendance of parents usually drops off considerably (with the parents often perching in trees nearby). A young eaglet can gain up to a day, the fastest growth rate of any North American bird. The young eaglets pick up and manipulate sticks, play tug of war with each other, practice holding things in their talons, and stretch and flap their wings. By eight weeks, the eaglets are strong enough to flap their wings, lift their feet off the nest platform, and rise up in the air. The young fledge at anywhere from 8 to 14 weeks of age, though will remain close to the nest and attended to by their parents for a further 6 weeks. Juvenile eagles first start dispersing away from their parents about 8 weeks after they fledge. Variability in departure date related to effects of sex and hatching order on growth and development. For the next four years, immature eagles wander widely in search of food until they attain adult plumage and are eligible to reproduce. Additionally, as shown by a pair of eagles in Shoal Harbor Migratory Bird Sanctuary located near Sydney, British Columbia on June 9, 2017, bald eagles have been recently recorded to occasionally adopt other raptor fledglings into their nests. The pair of eagles in question were recorded carrying a juvenile red-tailed hawk back to their nest, whereupon the chick was accepted into the family by both the parents and the eagles' three fledgelings. Whether or not the chick survived remained to be seen at the time, as bald eagles are known for committing fratricide amongst their siblings. However, the aggression of the red-tailed hawk may ensure its survival, as the hawks are well-known for their ability to successfully defend against an eagle attack. Six weeks after however, it was discovered that the hawk, nicknamed \"Spunky\" by biologists monitoring the nest, had grown to fledgeling size and was learning how to hunt, indicating that it successfully survived.\n\n===Longevity and mortality===\nNewly fledged juvenile\nThe average lifespan of bald eagles in the wild is around 20 years, with the oldest confirmed one having been 38 years of age. In captivity, they often live somewhat longer. In one instance, a captive individual in New York lived for nearly 50 years. As with size, the average lifespan of an eagle population appears to be influenced by its location and access to prey. As they are no longer heavily persecuted, adult mortality is quite low. In one study of Florida eagles, adult bald eagles reportedly had 100% annual survival rate. In Prince William Sound in Alaska, adults had an annual survival rate of 88% even after the Exxon Valdez oil spill adversely affected eagles in the area. Of 1,428 individuals from across the range necropsied by National Wildlife Health Center from 1963 to 1984, 329 (23%) eagles died from trauma, primarily impact with wires and vehicles; 309 (22%) died from gunshot; 158 (11%) died from poisoning; 130 (9%) died from electrocution; 68 (5%) died from trapping; 110 (8%) from emaciation; and 31 (2%) from disease; cause of death was undetermined in 293 (20%) of cases. In this study, 68% of mortality was human-caused. Today eagle-shooting is believed to be considerably reduced due to the species protected status. In one case, an adult eagle investigating a peregrine falcon nest for prey items sustained a concussion from a swooping parent peregrine, and ultimately died days later from it. An early natural history video depicting a cougar (''Puma concolor'') ambushing and killing an immature bald eagle feeding at a rabbit carcass is viewable online although this film may have been staged.\n\nMost non-human-related mortality involves nestlings or eggs. Around 50% of eagles survive their first year. However, in the Chesapeake Bay area, 100% of 39 radio-tagged nestlings survived to their first year. Occasionally, nestling or egg fatalities are due to nest collapses, starvation, sibling aggression or inclement weather. Another significant cause of egg and nestling mortality is predation. These have been verified to be preyed by large gulls, corvids (including ravens, crows and magpies), wolverines (''Gulo gulo''), hawks, owls, eagles, bobcats (''Lynx rufus''), American black bears (''Ursus americanus'') and raccoons. If food access is low, parental attendance at the nest may be lower because both parents may have to forage thus resulting in less protection. Nestlings are usually exempt from predation by terrestrial carnivores that are poor tree-climbers, but Arctic foxes (''Vulpes lagopus'') occasionally snatched nestlings from ground nests on Amchitka Island in Alaska before they were extirpated from the island. The bald eagle will defend its nest fiercely from all comers and has even repelled attacks from bears, having been recorded knocking a black bear out of a tree when the latter tried to climb a tree holding nestlings.\n",
"\n===Population decline and recovery===\nOnce a common sight in much of the continent, the bald eagle was severely affected in the mid-20th century by a variety of factors, among them the thinning of egg shells attributed to use of the pesticide DDT. Bald eagles, like many birds of prey, were especially affected by DDT due to biomagnification. DDT itself was not lethal to the adult bird, but it interfered with the bird's calcium metabolism, making the bird either sterile or unable to lay healthy eggs. Female eagles laid eggs that were too brittle to withstand the weight of a brooding adult, making it nearly impossible for the eggs to hatch. It is estimated that in the early 18th century, the bald eagle population was 300,000–500,000, but by the 1950s there were only 412 nesting pairs in the 48 contiguous states of the US.\nOther factors in bald eagle population reductions were a widespread loss of suitable habitat, as well as both legal and illegal shooting. In 1930 a New York City ornithologist wrote that in the state of Alaska in the previous 12 years approximately 70,000 bald eagles had been shot. Many of the hunters killed the bald eagles under the long-held beliefs that bald eagles grabbed young lambs and even children with their talons, yet the birds were innocent of most of these alleged acts of predation (lamb predation is rare, human predation is thought to be non-existent). Later illegal shooting was described as \"the leading cause of direct mortality in both adult and immature bald eagles,\" according to a 1978 report in the Endangered Species Technical Bulletin. In 1984, the National Wildlife Federation listed hunting, power-line electrocution, and collisions in flight as the leading causes of eagle deaths. Bald eagles have also been killed by oil, lead, and mercury pollution, and by human and predator intrusion at nests.\n\nThe species was first protected in the U.S. and Canada by the 1918 Migratory Bird Treaty, later extended to all of North America. The Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act, approved by the U.S. Congress in 1940, protected the bald eagle and the golden eagle, prohibiting commercial trapping and killing of the birds. The bald eagle was declared an endangered species in the U.S. in 1967, and amendments to the 1940 act between 1962 and 1972 further restricted commercial uses and increased penalties for violators. Perhaps most significant in the species' recovery, in 1972, DDT was banned from usage in the United States due to the fact that it inhibited the reproduction of many birds. DDT was completely banned in Canada in 1989, though its use had been highly restricted since the late 1970s.\nFirst-year\n\nWith regulations in place and DDT banned, the eagle population rebounded. The bald eagle can be found in growing concentrations throughout the United States and Canada, particularly near large bodies of water. In the early 1980s, the estimated total population was 100,000 individuals, with 110,000–115,000 by 1992; the U.S. state with the largest resident population is Alaska, with about 40,000–50,000, with the next highest population the Canadian province of British Columbia with 20,000–30,000 in 1992. Obtaining a precise count of bald eagles population is extremely difficult. The most recent data submitted by individual states was in 2006, when 9789 breeding pairs were reported. For some time, the stronghold breeding population of bald eagles in the lower 48 states was in Florida, where over a thousand pairs have held on while populations in other states were significantly reduced by DDT use. Today, the contiguous state with the largest number of breeding pairs of eagles is Minnesota with an estimated 1,312 pairs, surpassing Florida's most recent count of 1,166 pairs. 23, or nearly half, of the 48 contiguous states now have at least 100 breeding pairs of bald eagles. In Washington State, there were only 105 occupied nests in 1980. That number increased by about 30 per year, so that by 2005 there were 840 occupied nests. 2005 was the last year that the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife counted occupied nest. Further population increases in Washington may be limited by the availability of late winter food, particularly salmon.\n\nThe bald eagle was officially removed from the U.S. federal government's list of endangered species on July 12, 1995, by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, when it was reclassified from \"Endangered\" to \"Threatened.\" On July 6, 1999, a proposal was initiated \"To Remove the Bald Eagle in the Lower 48 States From the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife.\" It was de-listed on June 28, 2007. It has also been assigned a risk level of Least Concern category on the IUCN Red List. In the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill of 1989 an estimated 247 were killed in Prince William Sound, though the local population returned to its pre-spill level by 1995. In some areas, the population has increased such that the eagles are a pest.\n\n===Killing Permits===\nIn December 2016, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed quadrupling to 4,200 per year the amount of bald eagles that can be killed by the wind electric generation industry without paying a penalty. If issued, the permits would last 30 years, six times the current 5-year permits.\n\n===In captivity===\nLady Baltimore, a bald eagle in Alaska who survived a poaching attempt, in her Juneau Raptor Center mew, on August 15, 2015\nPermits are required to keep bald eagles in captivity in the United States. Permits are primarily issued to public educational institutions, and the eagles which they show are permanently injured individuals which cannot be released to the wild. The facilities where eagles are kept must be equipped with adequate caging and facilities, as well as workers experienced in the handling and care of eagles. Bald eagles cannot legally be kept for falconry in the United States. As a rule, the bald eagle is a poor choice for public shows, being timid, prone to becoming highly stressed, and unpredictable in nature. Native American tribes can obtain a \"Native American Religious Use\" permit to keep non-releasable eagles as well. They use their naturally molted feathers for religious and cultural ceremonies. The bald eagle can be long-lived in captivity if well cared for, but does not breed well even under the best conditions. In Canada, a license is required to keep bald eagles for falconry.\n",
"In Skagit Valley, Washington, United States\nThe bald eagle is important in various Native American cultures and, as the national bird of the United States, is prominent in seals and logos, coinage, postage stamps, and other items relating to the U.S. federal government.\n\n===Role in Native American culture===\nThe bald eagle is a sacred bird in some North American cultures, and its feathers, like those of the golden eagle, are central to many religious and spiritual customs among Native Americans. Eagles are considered spiritual messengers between gods and humans by some cultures. Many pow wow dancers use the eagle claw as part of their regalia as well. Eagle feathers are often used in traditional ceremonies, particularly in the construction of regalia worn and as a part of fans, bustles and head dresses. In the Navajo Tradition an Eagle feather is represented to be a Protector, along with the Feather Navajo Medicine Man use the leg and wing bones for ceremonial whistles. The Lakota, for instance, give an eagle feather as a symbol of honor to person who achieves a task. In modern times, it may be given on an event such as a graduation from college. The Pawnee considered eagles as symbols of fertility because their nests are built high off the ground and because they fiercely protect their young. The Choctaw considered the bald eagle, who has direct contact with the upper world of the sun, as a symbol of peace.\n\nStaff at the National Eagle Repository processing a bald eagle\nDuring the Sun Dance, which is practiced by many Plains Indian tribes, the eagle is represented in several ways. The eagle nest is represented by the fork of the lodge where the dance is held. A whistle made from the wing bone of an eagle is used during the course of the dance. Also during the dance, a medicine man may direct his fan, which is made of eagle feathers, to people who seek to be healed. The medicine man touches the fan to the center pole and then to the patient, in order to transmit power from the pole to the patient. The fan is then held up toward the sky, so that the eagle may carry the prayers for the sick to the Creator.\n\nCurrent eagle feather law stipulates that only individuals of certifiable Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain or possess bald or golden eagle feathers for religious or spiritual use. The constitutionality of these laws has been questioned by Native American groups on the basis that it violates the First Amendment by affecting ability to practice their religion freely.\n\nThe National Eagle Repository, a division of the FWS, exists as a means to receive, process, and store bald and golden eagles which are found dead, and to distribute the eagles, their parts and feathers, to federally recognized Native American tribes for use in religious ceremonies.\n\n===National bird of the United States===\nSeal of the President of the United States\nThe bald eagle is the national bird of the United States of America. The founders of the United States were fond of comparing their new republic with the Roman Republic, in which eagle imagery (usually involving the golden eagle) was prominent. On June 20, 1782, the Continental Congress adopted the design for the Great Seal of the United States depicting a bald eagle grasping 13 arrows and an olive branch with its talons.\n\nThe bald eagle appears on most official seals of the U.S. government, including the presidential seal, the presidential flag, and in the logos of many U.S. federal agencies. Between 1916 and 1945, the presidential flag (but not the seal) showed an eagle facing to its left (the viewer's right), which gave rise to the urban legend that the flag is changed to have the eagle face towards the olive branch in peace, and towards the arrows in wartime.\n\nContrary to popular legend, there is no evidence that Benjamin Franklin ever publicly supported the wild turkey (''Meleagris gallopavo''), rather than the bald eagle, as a symbol of the United States. However, in a letter written to his daughter in 1784 from Paris, criticizing the Society of the Cincinnati, he stated his personal distaste for the bald eagle's behavior. In the letter Franklin states:\n\n\n\nFranklin opposed the creation of the Society because he viewed it, with its hereditary membership, as a noble order unwelcome in the newly independent Republic, contrary to the ideals of Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, for whom the Society was named; his reference to the two kinds of birds is interpreted as a satirical comparison between the Society of the Cincinnati and Cincinnatus.\n\n",
"\n* Coat of arms of the Philippines\n* List of national birds\n* Besnard Lake\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n===Identification===\n* Grant, Peter J. (1988) \"The Co. Kerry Bald Eagle\" ''Twitching'' 1(12): 379–80 – describes plumage differences between bald eagle and white-tailed eagle in juveniles\n",
"\n\n\n* The National Eagle Center\n* American Bald Eagle Foundation\n* American Bald Eagle Information\n* Bald eagle bird sound - Florida Museum of Natural History\n\n===Video links===\n* \n* \n* Photo field guide on Flickr\n* 100+ Bald Eagles\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Description",
"Taxonomy",
"Range",
"Habitat",
"Behavior",
"Relationship with humans",
"Cultural significance",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Bald eagle | [
"On numerous occasions, when large prey such as mature salmon or geese are attacked, eagles have been seen to make contact and then drag the prey in a strenuously labored, low flight over the water to a bank, where they then finish off and dismember the prey."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\nThe '''bald eagle''' (''Haliaeetus leucocephalus'', from Greek ''hali'' \"sea\", ''aiētos'' \"eagle\", ''leuco'' \"white\", ''cephalos'' \"head\") is a bird of prey found in North America.",
"A sea eagle, it has two known subspecies and forms a species pair with the white-tailed eagle (''Haliaeetus albicilla'').",
"Its range includes most of Canada and Alaska, all of the contiguous United States, and northern Mexico.",
"It is found near large bodies of open water with an abundant food supply and old-growth trees for nesting.",
"The bald eagle is an opportunistic feeder which subsists mainly on fish, which it swoops down and snatches from the water with its talons.",
"It builds the largest nest of any North American bird and the largest tree nests ever recorded for any animal species, up to deep, wide, and in weight.",
"Sexual maturity is attained at the age of four to five years.",
"Bald eagles are not actually bald; the name derives from an older meaning of the word, \"white headed\".",
"The adult is mainly brown with a white head and tail.",
"The sexes are identical in plumage, but females are about 25 percent larger than males.",
"The beak is large and hooked.",
"The plumage of the immature is brown.",
"The bald eagle is both the national bird and national animal of the United States of America.",
"The bald eagle appears on its seal.",
"In the late 20th century it was on the brink of extirpation in the contiguous United States.",
"Populations have since recovered and the species was removed from the U.S. government's list of endangered species on July 12, 1995 and transferred to the list of threatened species.",
"It was removed from the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife in the Lower 48 States on June 28, 2007.",
"Adult and chick\nThe plumage of an adult bald eagle is evenly dark brown with a white head and tail.",
"The tail is moderately long and slightly wedge-shaped.",
"Males and females are identical in plumage coloration, but sexual dimorphism is evident in the species, in that females are 25% larger than males.",
"The beak, feet and irises are bright yellow.",
"The legs are feather-free, and the toes are short and powerful with large talons.",
"The highly developed talon of the hind toe is used to pierce the vital areas of prey while it is held immobile by the front toes.",
"The beak is large and hooked, with a yellow cere.",
"The adult bald eagle is unmistakable in its native range.",
"The closely related African fish eagle (''H.",
"vocifer'') (from far outside the bald eagle's range) also has a brown body, white head and tail, but differs from the bald in having a white chest and black tip to the bill.",
"The plumage of the immature is a dark brown overlaid with messy white streaking until the fifth (rarely fourth, very rarely third) year, when it reaches sexual maturity.",
"Immature bald eagles are distinguishable from the golden eagle (''Aquila chrysaetos''), the only other very large, non-vulturine bird in North America, in that the former has a larger, more protruding head with a larger beak, straighter edged wings which are held flat (not slightly raised) and with a stiffer wing beat and feathers which do not completely cover the legs.",
"When seen well, the golden eagle is distinctive in plumage with a more solid warm brown color than an immature bald eagle, with a reddish-golden patch to its nape and (in immature birds) a highly contrasting set of white squares on the wing.",
"Another distinguishing feature of the immature bald eagle over the mature bird is its black, yellow-tipped beak; the mature eagle has a fully yellow beak.",
"The bald eagle has sometimes been considered the largest true raptor (accipitrid) in North America.",
"The only larger species of raptor-like bird is the California condor (''Gymnogyps californianus''), a New World vulture which today is not generally considered a taxonomic ally of true accipitrids.",
"However, the golden eagle, averaging and in wing chord length in its American race (''A.",
"c. canadensis''), is merely lighter in mean body mass and exceeds the bald eagle in mean wing chord length by around .",
"Additionally, the bald eagle's close cousins, the relatively longer-winged but shorter-tailed white-tailed eagle and the overall larger Steller's sea eagle (''H.",
"pelagicus''), may, rarely, wander to coastal Alaska from Asia.",
"The bald eagle has a body length of .",
"Typical wingspan is between and mass is normally between .",
"Females are about 25% larger than males, averaging , and against the males' average weight of .",
"The size of the bird varies by location and generally corresponds with Bergmann's rule, since the species increases in size further away from the Equator and the tropics.",
"For example, eagles from South Carolina average in mass and in wingspan, smaller than their northern counterparts.",
"The largest eagles are from Alaska, where large females may weigh up to and span across the wings.",
"A survey of adult weights in Alaska showed that females weighed on average and males weighed .",
"Among standard linear measurements, the wing chord is , the tail is long, and the tarsus is .",
"The culmen reportedly ranges from , while the measurement from the gape to the tip of the bill is .",
"The call consists of weak staccato, chirping whistles, ''kleek kik ik ik ik'', somewhat similar in cadence to a gull's call.",
"The calls of young birds tend to be more harsh and shrill than those of adults.",
"The bald eagle placed in the genus ''Haliaeetus'' (sea eagles) which gets both its common and specific scientific names from the distinctive appearance of the adult's head.",
"''Bald'' in the English name is derived from the word ''piebald'', and refers to the white head and tail feathers and their contrast with the darker body.",
"The scientific name is derived from ''Haliaeetus'', New Latin for \"sea eagle\" (from the Ancient Greek ''haliaetos''), and ''leucocephalus'', Latinized Ancient Greek for \"white head,\" from λευκος ''leukos'' (\"white\") and κεφαλη ''kephale'' (\"head\").",
"The bald eagle was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus in his 18th century work ''Systema Naturae'', under the name ''Falco leucocephalus''.",
"There are two recognized subspecies of bald eagle:\n* ''H.",
"l. leucocephalus'' (Linnaeus, 1766) is the nominate subspecies.",
"It is found in the southern United States and Baja California Peninsula.",
"* ''H.",
"l. washingtoniensis'' (Audubon, 1827), synonym ''H.",
"l. alascanus'' Townsend, 1897, the northern subspecies, is larger than southern nominate ''leucocephalus ''.",
"It is found in the northern United States, Canada and Alaska.",
"The bald eagle forms a species pair with the Eurasian white-tailed eagle.",
"This species pair consists of a white-headed and a tan-headed species of roughly equal size; the white-tailed eagle also has overall somewhat paler brown body plumage.",
"The two species fill the same ecological niche in their respective ranges.",
"The pair diverged from other sea eagles at the beginning of the Early Miocene (c. 10 Ma BP) at the latest, but possibly as early as the Early/Middle Oligocene, 28 Ma BP, if the most ancient fossil record is correctly assigned to this genus.",
"Bald eagle in flight at Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming\nThe bald eagle's natural range covers most of North America, including most of Canada, all of the continental United States, and northern Mexico.",
"It is the only sea eagle endemic to North America.",
"Occupying varied habitats from the bayous of Louisiana to the Sonoran Desert and the eastern deciduous forests of Quebec and New England, northern birds are migratory, while southern birds are resident, remaining on their breeding territory all year.",
"At minimum population, in the 1950s, it was largely restricted to Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, northern and eastern Canada, and Florida.",
"Today, they are much more common (almost attaining their peak numbers pre-colonization in North America), and nest in every continental state and province in the United States and Canada.",
"Bald eagles will also congregate in certain locations in winter.",
"From November until February, one to two thousand birds winter in Squamish, British Columbia, about halfway between Vancouver and Whistler.",
"The birds primarily gather along the Squamish and Cheakamus Rivers, attracted by the salmon spawning in the area.",
"It has occurred as a vagrant twice in Ireland; a juvenile was shot illegally in Fermanagh on January 11, 1973 (misidentified at first as a white-tailed eagle), and an exhausted juvenile was captured in Kerry on November 15, 1987.",
"Juvenile with salmon, Katmai National Park|thumb\nThe bald eagle occurs during its breeding season in virtually any kind of American wetland habitat such as seacoasts, rivers, large lakes or marshes or other large bodies of open water with an abundance of fish.",
"Studies have shown a preference for bodies of water with a circumference greater than , and lakes with an area greater than are optimal for breeding bald eagles.",
"The bald eagle typically requires old-growth and mature stands of coniferous or hardwood trees for perching, roosting, and nesting.",
"Tree species reportedly is less important to the eagle pair than the tree's height, composition and location.",
"Perhaps of paramount importance for this species is an abundance of comparatively large trees surrounding the body of water.",
"Selected trees must have good visibility, be over tall, an open structure, and proximity to prey.",
"If nesting trees are in standing water such as in a mangrove swamp, the nest can be located fairly low, at as low above the ground.",
"In a more typical tree standing on dry ground, nests may be located from in height.",
"In Chesapeake Bay, nesting trees averaged in diameter and in total height, while in Florida, the average nesting tree stands high and is in diameter.",
"Trees used for nesting in the Greater Yellowstone area average high.",
"Trees or forest used for nesting should have a canopy cover of no more than 60%, and no less than 20%, and be in close proximity to water.",
"Most nests have been found within of open water.",
"The greatest distance from open water recorded for a bald eagle nest was over , in Florida.",
"Bald eagle nests are often very large in order to compensate for size of the birds.",
"The largest recorded nest was found in Florida in 1963, and was measured at nearly 10 feet wide and 20 feet deep.",
"In Florida, nesting habitats often consist of mangrove swamps, the shorelines of lakes and rivers, pinelands, seasonally flooded flatwoods, hardwood swamps, and open prairies and pastureland with scattered tall trees.",
"Favored nesting trees in Florida are slash pines (''Pinus elliottii''), longleaf pines (''P.",
"palustris''), loblolly pines (''P.",
"taeda'') and cypress trees, but for the southern coastal areas where mangroves are usually used.",
"In Wyoming, groves of mature cottonwoods or tall pines found along streams and rivers are typical bald eagle nesting habitats.",
"Wyoming eagles may inhabit habitat types ranging from large, old-growth stands of ponderosa pines (''Pinus ponderosa'') to narrow strips of riparian trees surrounded by rangeland.",
"In Southeast Alaska, Sitka spruce (''Picea sitchensis'') provided 78% of the nesting trees used by eagles, followed by hemlocks (''Tsuga'') at 20%.",
"Increasingly, eagles nest in man-made reservoirs stocked with fish.",
"Kodiak\nThe bald eagle is usually quite sensitive to human activity while nesting, and is found most commonly in areas with minimal human disturbance.",
"It chooses sites more than from low-density human disturbance and more than from medium- to high-density human disturbance.",
"However, bald eagles will occasionally venture into large estuaries or secluded groves within major cities, such as Hardtack Island on the Willamette River in Portland, Oregon or John Heinz National Wildlife Refuge at Tinicum in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, which are surrounded by a great quantity of human activity.",
"Even more contrary to the usual sensitivity to disturbance, a family of bald eagles moved to the Harlem neighborhood in New York City in 2010.",
"While wintering, bald eagles tend to be less habitat and disturbance sensitive.",
"They will commonly congregate at spots with plentiful perches and waters with plentiful prey and (in Northern climes) partially unfrozen waters.",
"Alternately, non-breeding or wintering bald eagles, particularly in areas with a lack of human disturbance, spend their time in various upland, terrestrial habitats sometimes quite far away from waterways.",
"In the northern half of North America (especially the interior portion), this terrestrial inhabitance by bald eagles tends to be especially prevalent because unfrozen water may not be accessible.",
"Upland wintering habitats often consist of open habitats with concentrations of medium-sized mammals, such as prairies, meadows or tundra, or open forests with regular carrion access.",
"Head details\nThe bald eagle is a powerful flier, and soars on thermal convection currents.",
"It reaches speeds of when gliding and flapping, and about while carrying fish.",
"Its dive speed is between , though it seldom dives vertically.",
"It is partially migratory, depending on location.",
"If its territory has access to open water, it remains there year-round, but if the body of water freezes during the winter, making it impossible to obtain food, it migrates to the south or to the coast.",
"A number of populations are subject to post-breeding dispersal, mainly in juveniles; Florida eagles, for example, will disperse northwards in the summer.",
"The bald eagle selects migration routes which take advantage of thermals, updrafts, and food resources.",
"During migration, it may ascend in a thermal and then glide down, or may ascend in updrafts created by the wind against a cliff or other terrain.",
"Migration generally takes place during the daytime, usually between the local hours of 8:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m., when thermals are produced by the sun.",
"===Diet and feeding===\nFeeding on catfish and other various fishes.",
"Painted by John James Audubon\nThe bald eagle is an opportunistic carnivore with the capacity to consume a great variety of prey.",
"Throughout their range, fish often comprise the majority of the eagle's diet.",
"In 20 food habit studies across the species' range, fish comprised 56% of the diet of nesting eagles, birds 28%, mammals 14% and other prey 2%.",
"In Southeast Alaska, fish comprise approximately 66% of the year-around diet of bald eagles and 78% of the prey brought to the nest by the parents.",
"Eagles living in the Columbia River Estuary in Oregon were found to rely on fish for 90% of their dietary intake.",
"In the Pacific Northwest, spawning trout and salmon provide most of the bald eagles' diet from late summer throughout fall.",
"Southeast Alaskan eagles largely prey on pink salmon (''Oncorhynchus gorbuscha''), coho salmon (''O.",
"kisutch'') and, more locally, sockeye salmon (''O.",
"nerka''), with chinook salmon (''O.",
"tshawytscha''), due to their large size ( average adult size) probably being taken only as carrion.",
"Also important in the estuaries and shallow coastlines of southern Alaska are Pacific herring (''Clupea pallasii''), Pacific sand lance (''Ammodytes hexapterus'') and eulachon (''Thaleichthys pacificus'').",
"In Oregon's Columbia River Estuary, the most significant prey species were largescale suckers (''Catostomus macrocheilus'') (17.3% of the prey selected there), American shad (''Alosa sapidissima''; 13%) and common carp (''Cyprinus carpio''; 10.8%).",
"Eagles living in the Chesapeake Bay in Maryland were found to subsist largely on American gizzard shad (''Dorosoma cepedianum''), threadfin shad (''D.",
"petenense'') and white bass (''Morone chrysops'').",
"Floridian eagles have been reported to prey on catfish, mostly prevalently the brown bullhead (''Ameiurus nebulosus'') and any species in the ''Ictalurus'' genus as well as mullet, trout, needlefish, and eels.",
"Wintering eagles on the Platte River in Nebraska preyed mainly on American gizzard shads and common carp.",
"From observation in the Columbia River, 58% of the fish were caught live by the eagle, 24% were scavenged as carcasses and 18% were pirated away from other animals.",
"Even eagles living in relatively arid regions still typically rely primarily on fish as prey.",
"In Sonora (Mexico) and Arizona, 77% and over 73%, respectively, of prey remains at the nests were from fish, largely various catfish and rainbow trout (''Oncorhynchus mykiss'').",
"Prey fish targeted by bald eagles are often quite large.",
"When experimenters offered fish of different sizes in the breeding season around Lake Britton in California, fish measuring were taken 71.8% of the time by parent eagles while fish measuring were chosen only 25% of the time.",
"At nests around Lake Superior, the remains of fish (mostly suckers) were found to average in total length.",
"In the Columbia River estuary, most preyed on by eagles were estimated to measure between in length, and carp flown with (laboriously) were up to in length.",
"A bald eagle on a whale carcass.",
"Benthic fishes such as catfish are usually consumed after they die and float to the surface, though while temporarily swimming in the open may be more vulnerable to predation than most fish since their eyes focus downwards.",
"Bald eagles also regularly exploit water turbines which produce battered, stunned or dead fish easily consumed.",
"Predators who leave behind scraps of dead fish that they kill, such as brown bears (''Ursus arctos''), gray wolves (''Canis lupus'') and red foxes (''Vulpes vulpes''), may be habitually followed in order to scavenge the kills secondarily.",
"Once North Pacific salmon die off after spawning, usually local bald eagles eat salmon carcasses almost exclusively.",
"Eagles in Washington need to consume of fish each day for survival, with adults generally consuming more than juveniles and thus reducing potential energy deficiency and increasing survival during winter.",
"Behind fish, the next most significant prey base for bald eagles are other waterbirds.",
"The contribution of such birds to the eagle's diet is variable, depending on the quantity and availability of fish near the water's surface.",
"Waterbirds can seasonally comprise from 7% to 80% of the prey selection for eagles in certain localities.",
"Exceptionally, in the Greater Yellowstone area, birds were eaten as regularly as fish year-around, with both prey groups comprising 43% of the studied dietary intake.",
"Preferred avian prey includes grebes, alcids, ducks, gulls, coots, herons, egrets, and geese.",
"Bird species most preferred as prey by eagles tend to be medium-sized, such as western grebes (''Aechmophorus occidentalis''), mallards (''Anas platyrhynchos'') and American coots (''Fulica americana'') as such prey is relatively easy for the much larger eagles to catch and fly with.",
"American herring gull (''Larus smithsonianus'') are the favored avian prey species for eagles living around Lake Superior.",
"Larger waterbirds are occasionally prey as well, with wintering emperor geese (''Chen canagica'') and snow geese (''C.",
"caerulescens''), which gather in large groups, sometimes becoming regular prey.",
"Other large waterbirds hunted at least occasionally by bald eagles have included common loons (''Gavis immer''), great black-backed gulls (''Larus marinus''), sandhill cranes (''Grus canadensis''), great blue herons (''Ardea herodias''), Canada geese (''Branta canadensis''), brown pelicans (''Pelecanus occidentalis''), and fledging American white pelicans (''P.",
"erythrorhynchos'').",
"Colony nesting seabirds, such as alcids, storm petrels, cormorants, northern gannets (''Morus bassanus''), terns and gulls, may be especially vulnerable to predation.",
"Due to easy accessibility and lack of formidable nest defense by such species, bald eagles are capable of preying on such seabirds at all ages, from eggs to mature adults, and can effectively cull large portions of a colony.",
"Along some portions of the North Pacific coastline, bald eagles which had historically preyed mainly kelp-dwelling fish and supplementally sea otter (''Enhydra lutris'') pups are now preying mainly on seabird colonies since both the fish (possibly due to overfishing) and otters (cause unknown) have had precipitous population declines, causing concern for seabird conservation.",
"Because of this more extensive predation, some biologist have expressed concern that murres are heading for a \"conservation collision\" due to heavy eagle predation.",
"Eagles have been confirmed to attack nocturnally active, burrow-nesting seabird species such as storm petrels and shearwaters by digging out their burrows and feeding on all animals they find inside.",
"If a bald eagle flies close by, waterbirds will often fly away en masse, though in other cases they may seemingly ignore a perched eagle.",
"If the said birds are on a colony, this exposed their unprotected eggs and nestlings to scavengers such as gulls.",
"Bird prey may occasionally be attacked in flight, with prey up to the size of Canada geese attacked and killed in mid-air.",
"Unprecedented photographs of a bald eagle unsuccessfully attempting to prey on a much larger adult trumpeter swan (''Cygnus buccinator'') in mid-flight were taken recently.",
"While adults often actively prey on waterbirds, congregated wintering waterfowl are frequently exploited for carcasses to scavenge by immature eagles in harsh winter weather.",
"Bald eagles have been recorded as killing other raptors on occasion.",
"In some cases, these may be attacks of competition or kleptoparasitism on rival species but ended with the consumption of the victim.",
"Raptorial birds reported to be hunted by these eagles have included large adults of species such as red-tailed hawks (''Buteo jamaicensis''), ospreys (''Pandion haliaetus'') and black (''Coragyps atratus'') and turkey vultures (''Cathartes aura'').",
"Andover\nMammalian prey includes rabbits, hares, ground squirrels, raccoons (''Procyon lotor''), muskrats (''Ondatra zibethicus''), beavers (''Castor canadensis''), and deer fawns.",
"Newborn, dead, sickly or already injured mammals are often targeted.",
"However, more formidable prey such as adult raccoons and subadult beavers are sometimes attacked.",
"In the Chesapeake Bay area, bald eagles are reportedly the main natural predators of raccoons.",
"Where available, seal colonies can provide much food.",
"On Protection Island, Washington, they commonly feed on harbor seal (''Phoca vitulina'') afterbirths, still-borns and sickly seal pups.",
"On San Juan Island in Washington, introduced European rabbits (''Oryctolagus cuniculus''), mainly those killed by auto accidents, comprise nearly 60% of the dietary intake of eagles.",
"In landlocked areas of North America, wintering bald eagles may become habitual predators of medium-sized mammals that occur in colonies or local concentrations, such as prairie dogs (''Cynomys'') and jackrabbits (''Lepus'').",
"Together with the golden eagle, bald eagles are occasionally accused of preying on livestock, especially sheep (''Ovis aries'').",
"There are a handful of proven cases of lamb predation, some of specimens weighing up to , by bald eagles but they are much less likely to attack a healthy lamb than a golden eagle and both species prefer native, wild prey and are unlikely to cause any extensive detriment to human livelihoods.",
"There is one case of a bald eagle killing and feeding on an adult, pregnant ewe (then joined in eating the kill by at least 3 other eagles), which, weighing on average over , is much larger than any other known prey taken by this species.",
"Supplemental prey are readily taken given the opportunity.",
"In some areas reptiles may become regular prey, especially warm areas such as Florida where reptile diversity is high.",
"Turtles are perhaps the most regularly hunted type of reptile.",
"In coastal New Jersey, 14 of 20 studied eagle nests included remains of turtles.",
"The main species found were common musk turtles (''Sternotherus odoratus''), diamondback terrapin (''Malaclemys terrapin'') and juvenile common snapping turtles (''Chelydra serpentina'').",
"In these New Jersey nests, mainly subadult and small adults were taken, ranging in carapace length from .",
"Snakes are also taken occasionally, especially partially aquatic ones, as are amphibians and crustaceans (largely crayfish and crabs).",
"To hunt fish, the eagle swoops down over the water and snatches the fish out of the water with its talons.",
"They eat by holding the fish in one claw and tearing the flesh with the other.",
"Eagles have structures on their toes called spicules that allow them to grasp fish.",
"Osprey also have this adaptation.",
"Bald eagles have powerful talons and have been recorded flying with a mule deer (''Odocoileus hemionus'') fawn.",
"This feat is the record for the heaviest load carrying ever verified for a flying bird.",
"It has been estimated that the gripping power (pounds by square inch) of the bald eagle is ten times greater than that of a human.",
"Bald eagles can fly with fish at least equal to their own weight, but if the fish is too heavy to lift, the eagle may be dragged into the water.",
"It may swim to safety, in some cases pulling the catch along to the shore as it swims, but some eagles drown or succumb to hypothermia.",
"Many sources claim that bald eagles, like all large eagles, cannot normally take flight carrying prey more than half of their own weight unless aided by favorable wind conditions.",
"When food is abundant, an eagle can gorge itself by storing up to of food in a pouch in the throat called a crop.",
"Gorging allows the bird to fast for several days if food becomes unavailable.",
"Occasionally, bald eagles may hunt cooperatively when confronting prey, especially relatively large prey such as jackrabbits or herons, with one bird distracting potential prey, while the other comes behind it in order to ambush it.",
"While hunting waterfowl, bald eagles repeatedly fly at a target and cause it to dive repeatedly, hoping to exhaust the victim so it can be caught (white-tailed eagles have been recorded hunting waterfowl in the same way).",
"When hunting concentrated prey, a successful catch which often results in the hunting eagle being pursued by other eagles and needing to find an isolated perch for consumption if it is able to carry it away successfully.",
"Unlike some other eagle species, bald eagles rarely take on evasive or dangerous prey on their own.",
"The species mainly target prey which is much smaller than themselves, with most live fish caught weighing and most waterbirds preyed weighing .",
"They obtain much of their food as carrion or via a practice known as kleptoparasitism, by which they steal prey away from other predators.",
"Due to their dietary habits, bald eagles are frequently viewed in a negative light by humans.",
"Thanks to their superior foraging ability and experience, adults are generally more likely to hunt live prey than immature eagles, which often obtain their food from scavenging.",
"They are not very selective about the condition or origin, whether provided by humans, other animals, auto accidents or natural causes, of a carcass's presence, but will avoid eating carrion where disturbances from humans are a regular occurrence.",
"They will scavenge carcasses up to the size of whales, though carcasses of ungulates and large fish are seemingly preferred.",
"Bald eagles also may sometimes feed on material scavenged or stolen from campsites and picnics, as well as garbage dumps (dump usage is habitual mainly in Alaska).",
"When competing for food, eagles will usually dominate other fish-eaters and scavengers, aggressively displacing mammals such as coyotes (''Canis latrans'') and foxes, and birds such as corvids, gulls, vultures and other raptors.",
"Occasionally, coyotes, bobcats (''Lynx rufus'') and domestic dogs (''Canis lupus familiaris'') can displace eagles from carrion, usually less confident immature birds, as has been recorded in Maine.",
"Bald eagles are less active, bold predators than golden eagles and get relatively more of their food as carrion and from kleptoparasitism (although it is now generally thought that golden eagles eat more carrion than was previously assumed).",
"However, the two species are roughly equal in size, aggressiveness and physical strength and so competitions can go either way.",
"Neither species is known to be dominant, and the outcome depends on the size and disposition of the individual eagles involved.",
"The bald eagle is thought to be much more numerous in North America than the golden eagle, with the bald species estimated to number at least 150,000 individuals, about twice as many golden eagles there are estimated to live in North America.",
"Due to this, bald eagles often outnumber golden eagles at attractive food sources.",
"Despite the potential for contention between these animals, in New Jersey during winter, a golden eagle and numerous bald eagles were observed to hunt snow geese alongside each other without conflict.",
"Similarly, both eagle species have been recorded, via video-monitoring, to feed on gut pills and carcasses of white-tailed deer (''Odocoileus virginianus'') in remote forest clearings in the eastern Appalachian Mountains without apparent conflict.",
"Many bald eagles are habitual kleptoparasites, especially in winters when fish are harder to come by.",
"They have been recorded stealing fish from other predators such as ospreys, herons and even otters.",
"They have also been recorded opportunistically pirating birds from peregrine falcons (''Falco peregrinus''), prairie dogs from ferruginous hawks (''Buteo regalis'') and even jackrabbits from golden eagles.",
"When they approach scavengers like dogs, gulls or vultures at carrion sites, they often aggressively attack them and try to force them to disgorge their food.",
"Healthy adult bald eagles are not preyed on in the wild and are thus considered apex predators.",
"===Reproduction===\nBald eagles are sexually mature at four or five years of age.",
"When they are old enough to breed, they often return to the area where they were born.",
"It is thought that bald eagles mate for life.",
"However, if one member of a pair dies or disappears, the survivor will choose a new mate.",
"A pair which has repeatedly failed in breeding attempts may split and look for new mates.",
"Bald eagle courtship involves elaborate, spectacular calls and flight displays.",
"The flight includes swoops, chases, and cartwheels, in which they fly high, lock talons, and free fall, separating just before hitting the ground.",
"Usually, a territory defended by a mature pair will be of waterside habitat.",
"Mating\nEgg, Collection at Museum Wiesbaden in Germany.",
"Chick at Everglades National Park\n\nCompared to most other raptors which mostly nest in April or May, bald eagles are early breeders: nest building or reinforcing is often by mid-February, egg laying is often late February (sometimes during deep snow in the North), and incubation is usually mid-March and early May.",
"Eggs hatch from mid April to early May, and the young fledge late June to early July.",
"The nest is the largest of any bird in North America; it is used repeatedly over many years and with new material added each year may eventually be as large as deep, across and weigh ; one nest in Florida was found to be deep, across, and to weigh .",
"This nest is on record as the largest tree nest ever recorded for any animal.",
"Usually nests are used for under five years or so, as they either collapse in storms or break the branches supporting them by their sheer weight.",
"However, one nest in the Midwest was occupied continuously for at least 34 years.",
"The nest is built out of branches, usually in large trees found near water.",
"When breeding where there are no trees, the bald eagle will nest on the ground, as has been recorded largely in areas largely isolated from terrestrial predators, such as Amchitka Island in Alaska.",
"In Sonora, Mexico, eagles have been observed nesting on top of Hecho catcuses (''Pachycereus pectinaboriginum'').",
"Nests located on cliffs and rock pinnacles have been reported historically in California, Kansas, Nevada, New Mexico and Utah, but currently are only verified to occur only in Alaska and Arizona.",
"The eggs average about long, ranging from , and have a breadth of , ranging from .",
"Eggs in Alaska averaged in mass, while in Saskatchewan they averaged .",
"As with their ultimate body size, egg size tends to increase further away from the Equator.",
"Eagles produce between one and three eggs per year, two being typical.",
"Rarely, four eggs have been found in nests but these may be exceptional cases of polygyny.",
"Eagles in captivity have been capable of producing up to seven eggs.",
"it is rare for all three chicks to successfully reach the fledging stage.",
"The oldest chick often bears the advantage of larger size and louder voice, which tends to draw the parents attention towards it.",
"Occasionally, as is recorded in many large raptorial birds, the oldest sibling sometimes attacks and kills its younger sibling(s), especially early in the nesting period when their sizes are most different.",
"However, nearly half of known bald eagle produce two fledgings (more rarely three), unlike in some other \"eagle\" species such as some in the ''Aquila'' genus, in which a second fledging is typically observed in less than 20% of nests, despite two eggs typically being laid.",
"Both the male and female take turns incubating the eggs, but the female does most of the sitting.",
"The parent not incubating will hunt for food or look for nesting material during this stage.",
"For the first two to three weeks of the nestling period, at least one adult is at the nest almost 100% of the time.",
"After five to six weeks, the attendance of parents usually drops off considerably (with the parents often perching in trees nearby).",
"A young eaglet can gain up to a day, the fastest growth rate of any North American bird.",
"The young eaglets pick up and manipulate sticks, play tug of war with each other, practice holding things in their talons, and stretch and flap their wings.",
"By eight weeks, the eaglets are strong enough to flap their wings, lift their feet off the nest platform, and rise up in the air.",
"The young fledge at anywhere from 8 to 14 weeks of age, though will remain close to the nest and attended to by their parents for a further 6 weeks.",
"Juvenile eagles first start dispersing away from their parents about 8 weeks after they fledge.",
"Variability in departure date related to effects of sex and hatching order on growth and development.",
"For the next four years, immature eagles wander widely in search of food until they attain adult plumage and are eligible to reproduce.",
"Additionally, as shown by a pair of eagles in Shoal Harbor Migratory Bird Sanctuary located near Sydney, British Columbia on June 9, 2017, bald eagles have been recently recorded to occasionally adopt other raptor fledglings into their nests.",
"The pair of eagles in question were recorded carrying a juvenile red-tailed hawk back to their nest, whereupon the chick was accepted into the family by both the parents and the eagles' three fledgelings.",
"Whether or not the chick survived remained to be seen at the time, as bald eagles are known for committing fratricide amongst their siblings.",
"However, the aggression of the red-tailed hawk may ensure its survival, as the hawks are well-known for their ability to successfully defend against an eagle attack.",
"Six weeks after however, it was discovered that the hawk, nicknamed \"Spunky\" by biologists monitoring the nest, had grown to fledgeling size and was learning how to hunt, indicating that it successfully survived.",
"===Longevity and mortality===\nNewly fledged juvenile\nThe average lifespan of bald eagles in the wild is around 20 years, with the oldest confirmed one having been 38 years of age.",
"In captivity, they often live somewhat longer.",
"In one instance, a captive individual in New York lived for nearly 50 years.",
"As with size, the average lifespan of an eagle population appears to be influenced by its location and access to prey.",
"As they are no longer heavily persecuted, adult mortality is quite low.",
"In one study of Florida eagles, adult bald eagles reportedly had 100% annual survival rate.",
"In Prince William Sound in Alaska, adults had an annual survival rate of 88% even after the Exxon Valdez oil spill adversely affected eagles in the area.",
"Of 1,428 individuals from across the range necropsied by National Wildlife Health Center from 1963 to 1984, 329 (23%) eagles died from trauma, primarily impact with wires and vehicles; 309 (22%) died from gunshot; 158 (11%) died from poisoning; 130 (9%) died from electrocution; 68 (5%) died from trapping; 110 (8%) from emaciation; and 31 (2%) from disease; cause of death was undetermined in 293 (20%) of cases.",
"In this study, 68% of mortality was human-caused.",
"Today eagle-shooting is believed to be considerably reduced due to the species protected status.",
"In one case, an adult eagle investigating a peregrine falcon nest for prey items sustained a concussion from a swooping parent peregrine, and ultimately died days later from it.",
"An early natural history video depicting a cougar (''Puma concolor'') ambushing and killing an immature bald eagle feeding at a rabbit carcass is viewable online although this film may have been staged.",
"Most non-human-related mortality involves nestlings or eggs.",
"Around 50% of eagles survive their first year.",
"However, in the Chesapeake Bay area, 100% of 39 radio-tagged nestlings survived to their first year.",
"Occasionally, nestling or egg fatalities are due to nest collapses, starvation, sibling aggression or inclement weather.",
"Another significant cause of egg and nestling mortality is predation.",
"These have been verified to be preyed by large gulls, corvids (including ravens, crows and magpies), wolverines (''Gulo gulo''), hawks, owls, eagles, bobcats (''Lynx rufus''), American black bears (''Ursus americanus'') and raccoons.",
"If food access is low, parental attendance at the nest may be lower because both parents may have to forage thus resulting in less protection.",
"Nestlings are usually exempt from predation by terrestrial carnivores that are poor tree-climbers, but Arctic foxes (''Vulpes lagopus'') occasionally snatched nestlings from ground nests on Amchitka Island in Alaska before they were extirpated from the island.",
"The bald eagle will defend its nest fiercely from all comers and has even repelled attacks from bears, having been recorded knocking a black bear out of a tree when the latter tried to climb a tree holding nestlings.",
"\n===Population decline and recovery===\nOnce a common sight in much of the continent, the bald eagle was severely affected in the mid-20th century by a variety of factors, among them the thinning of egg shells attributed to use of the pesticide DDT.",
"Bald eagles, like many birds of prey, were especially affected by DDT due to biomagnification.",
"DDT itself was not lethal to the adult bird, but it interfered with the bird's calcium metabolism, making the bird either sterile or unable to lay healthy eggs.",
"Female eagles laid eggs that were too brittle to withstand the weight of a brooding adult, making it nearly impossible for the eggs to hatch.",
"It is estimated that in the early 18th century, the bald eagle population was 300,000–500,000, but by the 1950s there were only 412 nesting pairs in the 48 contiguous states of the US.",
"Other factors in bald eagle population reductions were a widespread loss of suitable habitat, as well as both legal and illegal shooting.",
"In 1930 a New York City ornithologist wrote that in the state of Alaska in the previous 12 years approximately 70,000 bald eagles had been shot.",
"Many of the hunters killed the bald eagles under the long-held beliefs that bald eagles grabbed young lambs and even children with their talons, yet the birds were innocent of most of these alleged acts of predation (lamb predation is rare, human predation is thought to be non-existent).",
"Later illegal shooting was described as \"the leading cause of direct mortality in both adult and immature bald eagles,\" according to a 1978 report in the Endangered Species Technical Bulletin.",
"In 1984, the National Wildlife Federation listed hunting, power-line electrocution, and collisions in flight as the leading causes of eagle deaths.",
"Bald eagles have also been killed by oil, lead, and mercury pollution, and by human and predator intrusion at nests.",
"The species was first protected in the U.S. and Canada by the 1918 Migratory Bird Treaty, later extended to all of North America.",
"The Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act, approved by the U.S. Congress in 1940, protected the bald eagle and the golden eagle, prohibiting commercial trapping and killing of the birds.",
"The bald eagle was declared an endangered species in the U.S. in 1967, and amendments to the 1940 act between 1962 and 1972 further restricted commercial uses and increased penalties for violators.",
"Perhaps most significant in the species' recovery, in 1972, DDT was banned from usage in the United States due to the fact that it inhibited the reproduction of many birds.",
"DDT was completely banned in Canada in 1989, though its use had been highly restricted since the late 1970s.",
"First-year\n\nWith regulations in place and DDT banned, the eagle population rebounded.",
"The bald eagle can be found in growing concentrations throughout the United States and Canada, particularly near large bodies of water.",
"In the early 1980s, the estimated total population was 100,000 individuals, with 110,000–115,000 by 1992; the U.S. state with the largest resident population is Alaska, with about 40,000–50,000, with the next highest population the Canadian province of British Columbia with 20,000–30,000 in 1992.",
"Obtaining a precise count of bald eagles population is extremely difficult.",
"The most recent data submitted by individual states was in 2006, when 9789 breeding pairs were reported.",
"For some time, the stronghold breeding population of bald eagles in the lower 48 states was in Florida, where over a thousand pairs have held on while populations in other states were significantly reduced by DDT use.",
"Today, the contiguous state with the largest number of breeding pairs of eagles is Minnesota with an estimated 1,312 pairs, surpassing Florida's most recent count of 1,166 pairs.",
"23, or nearly half, of the 48 contiguous states now have at least 100 breeding pairs of bald eagles.",
"In Washington State, there were only 105 occupied nests in 1980.",
"That number increased by about 30 per year, so that by 2005 there were 840 occupied nests.",
"2005 was the last year that the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife counted occupied nest.",
"Further population increases in Washington may be limited by the availability of late winter food, particularly salmon.",
"The bald eagle was officially removed from the U.S. federal government's list of endangered species on July 12, 1995, by the U.S.",
"Fish & Wildlife Service, when it was reclassified from \"Endangered\" to \"Threatened.\"",
"On July 6, 1999, a proposal was initiated \"To Remove the Bald Eagle in the Lower 48 States From the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife.\"",
"It was de-listed on June 28, 2007.",
"It has also been assigned a risk level of Least Concern category on the IUCN Red List.",
"In the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill of 1989 an estimated 247 were killed in Prince William Sound, though the local population returned to its pre-spill level by 1995.",
"In some areas, the population has increased such that the eagles are a pest.",
"===Killing Permits===\nIn December 2016, the U.S.",
"Fish and Wildlife Service proposed quadrupling to 4,200 per year the amount of bald eagles that can be killed by the wind electric generation industry without paying a penalty.",
"If issued, the permits would last 30 years, six times the current 5-year permits.",
"===In captivity===\nLady Baltimore, a bald eagle in Alaska who survived a poaching attempt, in her Juneau Raptor Center mew, on August 15, 2015\nPermits are required to keep bald eagles in captivity in the United States.",
"Permits are primarily issued to public educational institutions, and the eagles which they show are permanently injured individuals which cannot be released to the wild.",
"The facilities where eagles are kept must be equipped with adequate caging and facilities, as well as workers experienced in the handling and care of eagles.",
"Bald eagles cannot legally be kept for falconry in the United States.",
"As a rule, the bald eagle is a poor choice for public shows, being timid, prone to becoming highly stressed, and unpredictable in nature.",
"Native American tribes can obtain a \"Native American Religious Use\" permit to keep non-releasable eagles as well.",
"They use their naturally molted feathers for religious and cultural ceremonies.",
"The bald eagle can be long-lived in captivity if well cared for, but does not breed well even under the best conditions.",
"In Canada, a license is required to keep bald eagles for falconry.",
"In Skagit Valley, Washington, United States\nThe bald eagle is important in various Native American cultures and, as the national bird of the United States, is prominent in seals and logos, coinage, postage stamps, and other items relating to the U.S. federal government.",
"===Role in Native American culture===\nThe bald eagle is a sacred bird in some North American cultures, and its feathers, like those of the golden eagle, are central to many religious and spiritual customs among Native Americans.",
"Eagles are considered spiritual messengers between gods and humans by some cultures.",
"Many pow wow dancers use the eagle claw as part of their regalia as well.",
"Eagle feathers are often used in traditional ceremonies, particularly in the construction of regalia worn and as a part of fans, bustles and head dresses.",
"In the Navajo Tradition an Eagle feather is represented to be a Protector, along with the Feather Navajo Medicine Man use the leg and wing bones for ceremonial whistles.",
"The Lakota, for instance, give an eagle feather as a symbol of honor to person who achieves a task.",
"In modern times, it may be given on an event such as a graduation from college.",
"The Pawnee considered eagles as symbols of fertility because their nests are built high off the ground and because they fiercely protect their young.",
"The Choctaw considered the bald eagle, who has direct contact with the upper world of the sun, as a symbol of peace.",
"Staff at the National Eagle Repository processing a bald eagle\nDuring the Sun Dance, which is practiced by many Plains Indian tribes, the eagle is represented in several ways.",
"The eagle nest is represented by the fork of the lodge where the dance is held.",
"A whistle made from the wing bone of an eagle is used during the course of the dance.",
"Also during the dance, a medicine man may direct his fan, which is made of eagle feathers, to people who seek to be healed.",
"The medicine man touches the fan to the center pole and then to the patient, in order to transmit power from the pole to the patient.",
"The fan is then held up toward the sky, so that the eagle may carry the prayers for the sick to the Creator.",
"Current eagle feather law stipulates that only individuals of certifiable Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain or possess bald or golden eagle feathers for religious or spiritual use.",
"The constitutionality of these laws has been questioned by Native American groups on the basis that it violates the First Amendment by affecting ability to practice their religion freely.",
"The National Eagle Repository, a division of the FWS, exists as a means to receive, process, and store bald and golden eagles which are found dead, and to distribute the eagles, their parts and feathers, to federally recognized Native American tribes for use in religious ceremonies.",
"===National bird of the United States===\nSeal of the President of the United States\nThe bald eagle is the national bird of the United States of America.",
"The founders of the United States were fond of comparing their new republic with the Roman Republic, in which eagle imagery (usually involving the golden eagle) was prominent.",
"On June 20, 1782, the Continental Congress adopted the design for the Great Seal of the United States depicting a bald eagle grasping 13 arrows and an olive branch with its talons.",
"The bald eagle appears on most official seals of the U.S. government, including the presidential seal, the presidential flag, and in the logos of many U.S. federal agencies.",
"Between 1916 and 1945, the presidential flag (but not the seal) showed an eagle facing to its left (the viewer's right), which gave rise to the urban legend that the flag is changed to have the eagle face towards the olive branch in peace, and towards the arrows in wartime.",
"Contrary to popular legend, there is no evidence that Benjamin Franklin ever publicly supported the wild turkey (''Meleagris gallopavo''), rather than the bald eagle, as a symbol of the United States.",
"However, in a letter written to his daughter in 1784 from Paris, criticizing the Society of the Cincinnati, he stated his personal distaste for the bald eagle's behavior.",
"In the letter Franklin states:\n\n\n\nFranklin opposed the creation of the Society because he viewed it, with its hereditary membership, as a noble order unwelcome in the newly independent Republic, contrary to the ideals of Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, for whom the Society was named; his reference to the two kinds of birds is interpreted as a satirical comparison between the Society of the Cincinnati and Cincinnatus.",
"\n* Coat of arms of the Philippines\n* List of national birds\n* Besnard Lake",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n===Identification===\n* Grant, Peter J.",
"(1988) \"The Co. Kerry Bald Eagle\" ''Twitching'' 1(12): 379–80 – describes plumage differences between bald eagle and white-tailed eagle in juveniles",
"\n\n\n* The National Eagle Center\n* American Bald Eagle Foundation\n* American Bald Eagle Information\n* Bald eagle bird sound - Florida Museum of Natural History\n\n===Video links===\n* \n* \n* Photo field guide on Flickr\n* 100+ Bald Eagles"
] | river |
[
"\nBASE jump at Majlis Al Jinn, Oman, 2013\n'''BASE jumping''', also sometimes written as '''B.A.S.E. jumping''', is parachuting or wingsuit flying from a fixed structure or cliff. \"BASE\" is an acronym that stands for four categories of fixed objects from which one can jump: building, antenna, span, and Earth (cliff). Due to the lower altitudes of the jumps, BASE jumping is significantly more dangerous than skydiving from a plane. In the U.S., BASE jumping is currently regarded by many as a fringe extreme sport or stunt. In some jurisdictions or locations, BASE jumping is prohibited or illegal; in some places, however, it is permitted, like Perrine Bridge, in Twin Falls, Idaho, United States. BASE jumping became known to the wider public by depictions of BASE jumping in a number of action movies and was featured in the 2014 documentary ''Sunshine Superman''.\n",
"The acronym \"B.A.S.E.\" (now more commonly \"BASE\") was coined by filmmaker Carl Boenish, his wife Jean Boenish, Phil Smith, and Phil Mayfield. Carl Boenish was the catalyst behind modern BASE jumping, and in 1978, he filmed the first BASE jumps to be made using ram-air parachutes and the freefall tracking technique (from El Capitan, in Yosemite National Park). While BASE jumps had been made prior to that time, the El Capitan activity was the effective birth of what is now called BASE jumping.\n\nBASE numbers are awarded to those who have made at least one jump from each of the four categories (buildings, antennas, spans and earth). When Phil Smith and Phil Mayfield jumped together from a Houston skyscraper on 18 January 1981, they became the first to attain the exclusive BASE numbers (BASE #1 and #2, respectively), having already jumped from an antenna, spans, and earthen objects. Jean and Carl Boenish qualified for BASE numbers 3 and 4 soon after. A separate \"award\" was soon enacted for Night BASE jumping when Mayfield completed each category at night, becoming Night BASE #1, with Smith qualifying a few weeks later.\n\nFaust Vrancic is widely believed to have performed a parachute jumping experiment for real and, therefore, to be the first man to build and test a parachute: according to the story passed on, Veranzio, in 1617, then over sixty-five years old, implemented his design and tested the parachute by jumping from St Mark's Campanile in Venice. This event was documented some 30 years later in a book ''Mathematical Magick or, the Wonders that may be Performed by Mechanical Geometry'' (London, 1648) written by John Wilkins, the secretary of the Royal Society in London.\n\nHowever, these and other sporadic incidents were one-time experiments, not the systematic pursuit of a new form of parachuting. After 1978, the filmed jumps from El Capitan were repeated, not as a publicity exercise or as a movie stunt, but as a true recreational activity. It was this that popularized BASE jumping more widely among parachutists. Carl Boenish continued to publish films and informational magazines on BASE jumping until his death in 1984 after a BASE-jump off of the Troll Wall. By this time, the concept had spread among skydivers worldwide, with hundreds of participants making fixed-object jumps.\n\nDuring the early eighties, nearly all BASE jumps were made using standard skydiving equipment, including two parachutes (main and reserve), and deployment components. Later on, specialized equipment and techniques were developed specifically for the unique needs of BASE jumping.\n\nJumpers from a cliff\nUpon completing a jump from all of the four object categories, a jumper may choose to apply for a \"BASE number\", awarded sequentially. The 1000th application for a BASE number was filed in March 2005 and BASE #1000 was awarded to Matt \"Harley\" Moilanen of Grand Rapids, Michigan. , over 2,000 BASE numbers have been issued.\n\n''Guinness World Records'' first listed a BASE jumping record with Carl Boenish's 1984 leap from Trollveggen (Troll Wall) in Norway. It was described as the highest BASE jump. (The jump was made two days before Boenish's death at the same site.) This record category is still in the ''Guinness'' book and is currently held by Valery Rozov. On 5 October 2016, Russia’s Valery Rozov leapt from a height of around 7,700 m (25,262 ft) from Cho Oyu – the sixth-highest mountain in the Himalayas, located on the China/Nepal border. He fell for around 90 seconds before opening his parachute, landing on a glacier approximately two minutes later at an altitude of around 6,000 m (19,685 ft). On July 8, 2006 Captain Daniel G. Schilling set the Guinness World Record for the most BASE jumps in a twenty-four-hour period. Schilling jumped off the Perrine Bridge in Twin Falls, Idaho a record 201 times.\n\nBASE competitions have been held since the early 1980s, with accurate landings or free fall aerobatics used as the judging criteria. Recent years have seen a formal competition held at the high Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, judged on landing accuracy.\n\nIn 2010 celebrated a world record with 53 Base jumpers jumping from a cliff.\n",
"* In 1912, Franz Reichelt, tailor, jumped from the first deck of the Eiffel Tower testing his invention, the coat parachute. He died by hitting the ground. It was his first-ever attempt with the parachute and both the authorities and the spectators believed he intended to test it using a dummy.\n* February 2, 1912 Rodman Law parachutes from the top of the candle/torch of the Statue of Liberty. The top of the candle is 305' 11\"\n* In 1913, it is claimed that Štefan Banič successfully jumped from a 15-story building to demonstrate his parachute design.\n* In 1913, a Russian student Vladimir Ossovski (Владимир Оссовский), from the Saint-Petersburg Conservatory, jumped from the 53-meter high bridge over the river Seine in Rouen (France), using the parachute RK-1, invented a year before that by Gleb Kotelnikov (1872–1944). Ossovski planned to jump from the Eiffel Tower too, but the Parisian authorities did not allow it.\n* In 1965, Erich Felbermayr from Wels jumped from the Kleine Zinne / Cima piccola di Lavaredo in the Dolomites.\n* In 1966, Michael Pelkey and Brian Schubert jumped from the cliff \"El Capitan\" in Yosemite Valley.\n* On January 31, 1972, Rick Sylvester skied off Yosemite Valley's El Capitan cliff, making the first skiBASE jump (he termed it a \"ski/parachute jump\" since the acronym BASE had yet to be coined), falling approximately halfway down, about 1500', before deploying his Thunderbow chute. He did this twice more, approximately two weeks later and a year later.\n* On 9 November 1975, the first person to parachute off the CN Tower in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, was Bill Eustace, a member of the tower's construction crew. He was fired.\n* In 1975, Owen J. Quinn, a jobless man, parachuted from the south tower of the World Trade Center to publicize the plight of the unemployed.\n* In 1976 Rick Sylvester skied off Canada's Mount Asgard for the ski chase sequence of the James Bond movie ''The Spy Who Loved Me'', giving the wider world its first look at BASE jumping.\n* On February 22, 1982, Wayne Allwood, an Australian skydiving accuracy champion, parachuted from a helicopter over the Sydney CBD and landed on the small top area of Sydney's Centrepoint Tower, approximately above the ground. Upon landing, Allwood discarded and secured his parachute, then used a full-sized reserve parachute to BASE jump into Hyde Park below. Video footage is also included in the Australian Base Associations' 2001 video compilation, ''Fistful of F-111''.\n* In 1986, Welshman Eric Jones became the first person to BASE jump from the Eiger.\n* In 1987 Steve Dines (Australian) BASE 157 made the first jump from the top of the Sydney Harbour Bridge.\n* In 1990 Russell Powell (British) BASE 230 illegally jumped from the Whispering Gallery inside St Paul's Cathedral London. It was the lowest indoor BASE Jump in the world at .\n* On August 26, 1992 Nic Feteris and Glenn Singleman (two Australians) made a BASE jump from an altitude of 20,600 feet (6286 meters) jump off Great Trango Towers Pakistan. It was the world's highest BASE jump off the earth at the time.\n* In 1996, one jumper was injured and three landed safely in the only authorized BASE jump from Seattle's Space Needle.\n* In 2000, Hannes Arch and Ueli Gegenschatz were the first to dare a BASE jump from the imposing 1800-metre high north face of the Eiger.\n* In 2005, Karina Hollekim became the first woman to perform a ski-BASE.\n* In April 2008, Hervé Le Gallou and David McDonnell infiltrated Burj Khalifa, and jumped off a balcony on the 155th floor. They evaded arrest following their successful jump. However, on a second attempt two days later, Le Gallou was caught and subsequently detained in Dubai for three months.\n* In 2009, three women—29-year-old Australian Livia Dickie, 28-year-old Venezuelan Ana Isabel Dao, and 32-year-old Norwegian Anniken Binz—base jumped from Angel Falls, the highest waterfall in the world. Ana Isabel Dao was the first Venezuelan woman to jump off Angel Falls.\n* On 8 January 2010, Nasr Al Niyadi and Omar Al Hegelan broke the then current world record for the highest building BASE jump after they leapt from a crane suspended platform attached to the Burj Khalifa's 160th floor at .\n* On 5 May 2013, Russian Valery Rozov, 48, jumped off Changtse’s north face from a height of . Using a specially-developed wing suit, he flew to the Rongbuk glacier breaking the world record for highest base jump.\n* In September 2013, 3 men jumped off the then-under-construction ''One World Trade Center'' in New York City. Footage of their jump was recorded using headcams and can be seen on YouTube. In March 2014 the 3 jumpers and one accomplice on the ground were arrested after turning themselves in.\n* On April 21, 2014, Fred Fugen and Vince Reffet (both from France) broke the Guinness World Record for Highest BASE Jump From A Building with a jump of 828 m (2,716 ft 6 in) from the Burj Khalifa tower in Dubai.\n* On May 27, 2014, Whisper became the world's first Wingsuit BASE jumping dog.\n* On August 21, 2014, Ramón Rojas of Chile broke the record for highest Earth-based wingsuit ski jump, off of Cerro El Plomo.\n",
"BASE jumping is often featured in action movies. The 2002 Vin Diesel film ''XXX'' includes a scene where Diesel's character catapults himself off the Foresthill Bridge in an open-topped car, landing safely as the car crashes on the ground. The movie ''Lara Croft Tomb Raider: The Cradle of Life'' includes a scene in which the main characters jump with wing suits from the IFC Tower in Hong Kong and fly over the Bank of China, finally opening their parachutes to land on a moving freighter. The stunt was done live, with no special effects, by base jumpers Martin Rosén and Per Eriksson, members of the Swedish \"Team Bautasten\". The scene was filmed by air-to-air camera man Mikael Nordqvist, from the same team. Since the 1976 Mount Asgard jump featured in the pre-credits sequence to ''The Spy Who Loved Me'', James Bond movies have featured several BASE jumps, including one from the Eiffel Tower in 1985's ''A View to a Kill'', the Rock of Gibraltar in 1987's ''The Living Daylights'', and in ''Die Another Day'', 2002, Pierce Brosnan as James Bond jumps from a melting iceberg. Of the James Bond jumps only the Mt Asgard and Eiffel Tower jumps were filmed live; the rest were special effects. And in 2005's \"Batman Begins\", Bruce Wayne uses BASE jumping as inspiration for his memory cloth cape. A series of BASE jumps are featured in the video for a remix of M83's \"Lower Your Eyelids to Die With the Sun\".\n\nIn 1938, a Sierra Club film \"Three On A Rope\" (1938) ends with a climber jumping off Baldy Mountain rather than dealing with the hassle of rappelling to the horror of a climbing partner, only to deploy a parachute hidden in his pack.\n\nThe video game ''Just Cause 3'' also involves the main character, Rico Rodriguez, performing many dangerous stunts involving his wing suit and grappling hook. One example is when, in the first mission, he jumps off a cliff onto a bridge. This mechanic has led to many crazy stunts performed by players.\n",
"BASE jumping from an antenna tower\nSapphire Tower, Istanbul.\n\nBASE jumping grew out of skydiving. BASE jumps are generally made from much lower altitudes than skydives, and a BASE jump takes place close to the object serving as the jump platform. Because BASE jumps generally entail slower airspeeds than typical skydives (due to the limited altitude), a BASE jumper does not always reach terminal velocity. Because higher airspeeds enable jumpers more aerodynamic control of their bodies, as well as more positive and quick parachute openings, the longer the delay, the better. BASE jumping is significantly more dangerous than similar sports such as skydiving from aircraft.\n\nSkydivers use the air flow to stabilize their position, allowing the parachute to deploy cleanly. BASE jumpers, falling at lower speeds, have less aerodynamic control, and may tumble. The attitude of the body at the moment of jumping determines the stability of flight in the first few seconds, before sufficient airspeed has built up to enable aerodynamic stability. On low BASE jumps, parachute deployment takes place during this early phase of flight, so if a poor \"launch\" leads into a tumble, the jumper may not be able to correct this before the opening. If the parachute is deployed while the jumper is tumbling, there is a high risk of entanglement or malfunction. The jumper may also not be facing the right direction. Such an off-heading opening is not as problematic in skydiving, but an off-heading opening that results in object strike has caused many serious injuries and deaths in BASE jumping.\n\nAt an altitude of , having been in free-fall for at least , a skydiver is falling at approximately , and is approximately 10.9 seconds from the ground. Most BASE jumps are made from less than . For example, a BASE jump from a object is about 5.6 seconds from the ground if the jumper remains in free fall. On a BASE jump, the parachute must open at about half the airspeed of a similar skydive, and more quickly (in a shorter distance fallen). Standard skydiving parachute systems are not designed for this situation, so BASE jumpers often use specially designed harnesses and parachute containers, with extra large pilot chutes, and many jump with only one parachute, since there would be little time to utilize a reserve parachute. In the early days of BASE jumping, people used modified skydiving gear, such as by removing the deployment bag and slider, stowing the lines in a tail pocket, and fitting a large pilot chute. However, modified skydiving gear is then prone to kinds of malfunction that are rare in normal skydiving (such as \"line-overs\" and broken lines). Modern purpose-built BASE jumping equipment is considered to be much safer and more reliable.\n\nAnother risk is that most BASE jumping venues have very small areas in which to land. A beginner skydiver, after parachute deployment, may have a three-minute or more parachute ride to the ground. A BASE jump from will have a parachute ride of only 10 to 15 seconds.\n\nOne way to make a parachute open very quickly is to use a static line or direct bag. These devices form an attachment between the parachute and the jump platform, which stretches out the parachute and suspension lines as the jumper falls, before separating and allowing the parachute to inflate. This method enables the very lowest jumps — below — to be made, although most BASE jumpers are more motivated to make higher jumps involving free fall. This method is similar to the paratrooper's deployment system, also called a PCA (Pilot Chute Assist).\n",
"Surreptitious BASE jumps are often made from tall buildings and antenna towers. Many such BASE jumps must be covert because the owners of these objects are generally reluctant to allow their object to be used as a platform. While BASE jumping itself is generally not illegal, making events such as the \"Go Fast Games\" at the Royal Gorge Bridge possible, the covert nature of accessing objects usually necessitates trespassing on an object. Jumpers who are caught can expect to be charged with trespassing, as well as having charges like breaking and entering, reckless endangerment, vandalism, or other such charges pressed against them. Other people accompanying the jumper, such as ground crew, may also face charges. In some jurisdictions it may be permissible to use land until specifically told not to. Perrine Bridge in Twin Falls, Idaho, is an example of a man-made structure in the United States where BASE jumping is allowed year-round without a permit.\n\nA BASE jumper leaving the Perrine Bridge in Idaho\nOnce a year, on the third Saturday in October (\"Bridge Day\"), permission to BASE jump has explicitly been granted at the New River Gorge Bridge in Fayetteville, West Virginia. The New River Gorge Bridge deck is 876 feet (267 m) above the river. This annual event attracts about 450 BASE jumpers and nearly 200,000 spectators. 1,100 jumps may occur during the six hours that it is legal provided good conditions. For many skydivers who would like to try BASE jumping, this bridge will be the only fixed object from which they ever jump. On 21 October 2006, veteran BASE jumper Brian Lee Schubert of Alta Loma, California died while jumping from the New River Gorge Bridge during Bridge Day activities because his parachute opened late; he plummeted to his death in the waters below. Jumps continued after the recovery of his body. He and his friend Michael Pelkey were the first to make a BASE jump from El Capitan in Yosemite National Park in 1966.\n\nThe National Park Service (NPS) has the authority to ban specific activities in US National Parks and has done so for BASE jumping. The authority comes from 36 CFR 2.17(3), which prohibits, \"Delivering or retrieving a person or object by parachute, helicopter, or other airborne means, except in emergencies involving public safety or serious property loss, or pursuant to the terms and conditions of a permit.\" Under that Regulation, BASE is not banned, but is allowable if a permit is issued by the Superintendent, which means that a mechanism to allow BASE in National Parks was always in place. The 2001 National Park Service Management Policies state that BASE \"is not an appropriate public use activity within national park areas ...\" (2001 Management Policy 8.2.2.7.) However, Policy 8.2.2.7 in the 2006 volume of National Park Service Management Policies, which superseded the 2001 edition, states \"Parachuting (or BASE jumping), whether from an aircraft, structure, or natural feature, is generally prohibited by 36 CFR 2.17(a)(3). However, if determined through a park planning process to be an appropriate activity, it may be allowed pursuant to the terms and conditions of a permit.\"\n\nDuring the early days of BASE jumping, the NPS issued permits that authorized jumps from El Capitan. This program ran for three months in 1980 and then collapsed amid allegations of abuse by unauthorized jumpers. The NPS has since vigorously enforced the ban, charging jumpers with \"aerial delivery into a National Park\". One jumper drowned in the Merced River while evading arresting Park Rangers, having declared 'No way are they gonna get me. Let them chase me—I'll just laugh in their faces and jump in the river.' Despite incidents like this one, illegal jumps continue in Yosemite at a rate estimated at a few hundred per year, often at night or dawn. El Capitan, Half Dome and Glacier Point have been used as jump sites.\n\nOther US public land, including land controlled by the Bureau of Land Management, does not ban air delivery, and there are numerous jumpable objects on BLM land.\n\nThe legal position is different at other sites and in other countries. For example, in Norway's Lysefjord (from the mountain Kjerag), BASE jumpers are made welcome. Many sites in the European Alps, near Chamonix and on the Eiger, are also open to jumpers. Some other Norwegian places, like the Troll Wall, are banned because of dangerous rescue missions in the past. In Austria, jumping from mountain cliffs is generally allowed, whereas the use of bridges (such as the Europabruecke near Innsbruck, Tirol) or dams is generally prohibited. Australia has some of the toughest stances on BASE jumping: it specifically bans BASE jumping from certain objects, such as the Sydney Harbour Bridge.\n",
"BASE jumping as of 2006 has an overall fatality rate estimated at about one fatality per sixty participants. A study of 20,850 BASE jumps from the same site (the Kjerag Massif in Norway) reported 9 fatalities over the 11-year period from 1995 to 2005, or 1 in every 2,317 jumps. However, at that site, 1 in every 254 jumps over that period resulted in a nonfatal accident. BASE jumping is one of the most dangerous recreational activities in the world, with a fatality and injury rate 43 times as high as parachuting from a plane.\n\n, the 'BASE Fatality List' maintained by Blincmagazine.com records 285 deaths for BASE jumping since April 1981.\n\nAmerican BASE jumper Ian Flanders died in Kemaliye, Turkey on 21 July 2015, after his parachute became tangled in his feet, causing him to fall into the Karasu river at high speed. The jump was being aired live on a local television station.\n",
"\n\n",
"* \" The Great Book of BASE\". BirdBrain Publishing. July, 2010.\n* \" The Ground's the Limit\". ''Texas Monthly''. December 1981.\n",
"\n* Parachuting from fixed objects: descriptive study of 106 fatal events in BASE jumping 1981–2006\n* Luigi Cani base jumps off a cliff\n* A Sport to Die For ESPN, Michael Abrams\n* First Dog Ever To BaseJump\n* BASE Jumping adventures in the UK & Europe during the late 1980’s, 1990’s & early 2000s by Doug Blane\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Notable jumps",
" In popular culture ",
"Comparison with skydiving",
"Legality",
"Fatalities",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | BASE jumping | [
"The movie ''Lara Croft Tomb Raider: The Cradle of Life'' includes a scene in which the main characters jump with wing suits from the IFC Tower in Hong Kong and fly over the Bank of China, finally opening their parachutes to land on a moving freighter."
] | [
"\nBASE jump at Majlis Al Jinn, Oman, 2013\n'''BASE jumping''', also sometimes written as '''B.A.S.E.",
"jumping''', is parachuting or wingsuit flying from a fixed structure or cliff.",
"\"BASE\" is an acronym that stands for four categories of fixed objects from which one can jump: building, antenna, span, and Earth (cliff).",
"Due to the lower altitudes of the jumps, BASE jumping is significantly more dangerous than skydiving from a plane.",
"In the U.S., BASE jumping is currently regarded by many as a fringe extreme sport or stunt.",
"In some jurisdictions or locations, BASE jumping is prohibited or illegal; in some places, however, it is permitted, like Perrine Bridge, in Twin Falls, Idaho, United States.",
"BASE jumping became known to the wider public by depictions of BASE jumping in a number of action movies and was featured in the 2014 documentary ''Sunshine Superman''.",
"The acronym \"B.A.S.E.\"",
"(now more commonly \"BASE\") was coined by filmmaker Carl Boenish, his wife Jean Boenish, Phil Smith, and Phil Mayfield.",
"Carl Boenish was the catalyst behind modern BASE jumping, and in 1978, he filmed the first BASE jumps to be made using ram-air parachutes and the freefall tracking technique (from El Capitan, in Yosemite National Park).",
"While BASE jumps had been made prior to that time, the El Capitan activity was the effective birth of what is now called BASE jumping.",
"BASE numbers are awarded to those who have made at least one jump from each of the four categories (buildings, antennas, spans and earth).",
"When Phil Smith and Phil Mayfield jumped together from a Houston skyscraper on 18 January 1981, they became the first to attain the exclusive BASE numbers (BASE #1 and #2, respectively), having already jumped from an antenna, spans, and earthen objects.",
"Jean and Carl Boenish qualified for BASE numbers 3 and 4 soon after.",
"A separate \"award\" was soon enacted for Night BASE jumping when Mayfield completed each category at night, becoming Night BASE #1, with Smith qualifying a few weeks later.",
"Faust Vrancic is widely believed to have performed a parachute jumping experiment for real and, therefore, to be the first man to build and test a parachute: according to the story passed on, Veranzio, in 1617, then over sixty-five years old, implemented his design and tested the parachute by jumping from St Mark's Campanile in Venice.",
"This event was documented some 30 years later in a book ''Mathematical Magick or, the Wonders that may be Performed by Mechanical Geometry'' (London, 1648) written by John Wilkins, the secretary of the Royal Society in London.",
"However, these and other sporadic incidents were one-time experiments, not the systematic pursuit of a new form of parachuting.",
"After 1978, the filmed jumps from El Capitan were repeated, not as a publicity exercise or as a movie stunt, but as a true recreational activity.",
"It was this that popularized BASE jumping more widely among parachutists.",
"Carl Boenish continued to publish films and informational magazines on BASE jumping until his death in 1984 after a BASE-jump off of the Troll Wall.",
"By this time, the concept had spread among skydivers worldwide, with hundreds of participants making fixed-object jumps.",
"During the early eighties, nearly all BASE jumps were made using standard skydiving equipment, including two parachutes (main and reserve), and deployment components.",
"Later on, specialized equipment and techniques were developed specifically for the unique needs of BASE jumping.",
"Jumpers from a cliff\nUpon completing a jump from all of the four object categories, a jumper may choose to apply for a \"BASE number\", awarded sequentially.",
"The 1000th application for a BASE number was filed in March 2005 and BASE #1000 was awarded to Matt \"Harley\" Moilanen of Grand Rapids, Michigan.",
", over 2,000 BASE numbers have been issued.",
"''Guinness World Records'' first listed a BASE jumping record with Carl Boenish's 1984 leap from Trollveggen (Troll Wall) in Norway.",
"It was described as the highest BASE jump.",
"(The jump was made two days before Boenish's death at the same site.)",
"This record category is still in the ''Guinness'' book and is currently held by Valery Rozov.",
"On 5 October 2016, Russia’s Valery Rozov leapt from a height of around 7,700 m (25,262 ft) from Cho Oyu – the sixth-highest mountain in the Himalayas, located on the China/Nepal border.",
"He fell for around 90 seconds before opening his parachute, landing on a glacier approximately two minutes later at an altitude of around 6,000 m (19,685 ft).",
"On July 8, 2006 Captain Daniel G. Schilling set the Guinness World Record for the most BASE jumps in a twenty-four-hour period.",
"Schilling jumped off the Perrine Bridge in Twin Falls, Idaho a record 201 times.",
"BASE competitions have been held since the early 1980s, with accurate landings or free fall aerobatics used as the judging criteria.",
"Recent years have seen a formal competition held at the high Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, judged on landing accuracy.",
"In 2010 celebrated a world record with 53 Base jumpers jumping from a cliff.",
"* In 1912, Franz Reichelt, tailor, jumped from the first deck of the Eiffel Tower testing his invention, the coat parachute.",
"He died by hitting the ground.",
"It was his first-ever attempt with the parachute and both the authorities and the spectators believed he intended to test it using a dummy.",
"* February 2, 1912 Rodman Law parachutes from the top of the candle/torch of the Statue of Liberty.",
"The top of the candle is 305' 11\"\n* In 1913, it is claimed that Štefan Banič successfully jumped from a 15-story building to demonstrate his parachute design.",
"* In 1913, a Russian student Vladimir Ossovski (Владимир Оссовский), from the Saint-Petersburg Conservatory, jumped from the 53-meter high bridge over the river Seine in Rouen (France), using the parachute RK-1, invented a year before that by Gleb Kotelnikov (1872–1944).",
"Ossovski planned to jump from the Eiffel Tower too, but the Parisian authorities did not allow it.",
"* In 1965, Erich Felbermayr from Wels jumped from the Kleine Zinne / Cima piccola di Lavaredo in the Dolomites.",
"* In 1966, Michael Pelkey and Brian Schubert jumped from the cliff \"El Capitan\" in Yosemite Valley.",
"* On January 31, 1972, Rick Sylvester skied off Yosemite Valley's El Capitan cliff, making the first skiBASE jump (he termed it a \"ski/parachute jump\" since the acronym BASE had yet to be coined), falling approximately halfway down, about 1500', before deploying his Thunderbow chute.",
"He did this twice more, approximately two weeks later and a year later.",
"* On 9 November 1975, the first person to parachute off the CN Tower in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, was Bill Eustace, a member of the tower's construction crew.",
"He was fired.",
"* In 1975, Owen J. Quinn, a jobless man, parachuted from the south tower of the World Trade Center to publicize the plight of the unemployed.",
"* In 1976 Rick Sylvester skied off Canada's Mount Asgard for the ski chase sequence of the James Bond movie ''The Spy Who Loved Me'', giving the wider world its first look at BASE jumping.",
"* On February 22, 1982, Wayne Allwood, an Australian skydiving accuracy champion, parachuted from a helicopter over the Sydney CBD and landed on the small top area of Sydney's Centrepoint Tower, approximately above the ground.",
"Upon landing, Allwood discarded and secured his parachute, then used a full-sized reserve parachute to BASE jump into Hyde Park below.",
"Video footage is also included in the Australian Base Associations' 2001 video compilation, ''Fistful of F-111''.",
"* In 1986, Welshman Eric Jones became the first person to BASE jump from the Eiger.",
"* In 1987 Steve Dines (Australian) BASE 157 made the first jump from the top of the Sydney Harbour Bridge.",
"* In 1990 Russell Powell (British) BASE 230 illegally jumped from the Whispering Gallery inside St Paul's Cathedral London.",
"It was the lowest indoor BASE Jump in the world at .",
"* On August 26, 1992 Nic Feteris and Glenn Singleman (two Australians) made a BASE jump from an altitude of 20,600 feet (6286 meters) jump off Great Trango Towers Pakistan.",
"It was the world's highest BASE jump off the earth at the time.",
"* In 1996, one jumper was injured and three landed safely in the only authorized BASE jump from Seattle's Space Needle.",
"* In 2000, Hannes Arch and Ueli Gegenschatz were the first to dare a BASE jump from the imposing 1800-metre high north face of the Eiger.",
"* In 2005, Karina Hollekim became the first woman to perform a ski-BASE.",
"* In April 2008, Hervé Le Gallou and David McDonnell infiltrated Burj Khalifa, and jumped off a balcony on the 155th floor.",
"They evaded arrest following their successful jump.",
"However, on a second attempt two days later, Le Gallou was caught and subsequently detained in Dubai for three months.",
"* In 2009, three women—29-year-old Australian Livia Dickie, 28-year-old Venezuelan Ana Isabel Dao, and 32-year-old Norwegian Anniken Binz—base jumped from Angel Falls, the highest waterfall in the world.",
"Ana Isabel Dao was the first Venezuelan woman to jump off Angel Falls.",
"* On 8 January 2010, Nasr Al Niyadi and Omar Al Hegelan broke the then current world record for the highest building BASE jump after they leapt from a crane suspended platform attached to the Burj Khalifa's 160th floor at .",
"* On 5 May 2013, Russian Valery Rozov, 48, jumped off Changtse’s north face from a height of .",
"Using a specially-developed wing suit, he flew to the Rongbuk glacier breaking the world record for highest base jump.",
"* In September 2013, 3 men jumped off the then-under-construction ''One World Trade Center'' in New York City.",
"Footage of their jump was recorded using headcams and can be seen on YouTube.",
"In March 2014 the 3 jumpers and one accomplice on the ground were arrested after turning themselves in.",
"* On April 21, 2014, Fred Fugen and Vince Reffet (both from France) broke the Guinness World Record for Highest BASE Jump From A Building with a jump of 828 m (2,716 ft 6 in) from the Burj Khalifa tower in Dubai.",
"* On May 27, 2014, Whisper became the world's first Wingsuit BASE jumping dog.",
"* On August 21, 2014, Ramón Rojas of Chile broke the record for highest Earth-based wingsuit ski jump, off of Cerro El Plomo.",
"BASE jumping is often featured in action movies.",
"The 2002 Vin Diesel film ''XXX'' includes a scene where Diesel's character catapults himself off the Foresthill Bridge in an open-topped car, landing safely as the car crashes on the ground.",
"The stunt was done live, with no special effects, by base jumpers Martin Rosén and Per Eriksson, members of the Swedish \"Team Bautasten\".",
"The scene was filmed by air-to-air camera man Mikael Nordqvist, from the same team.",
"Since the 1976 Mount Asgard jump featured in the pre-credits sequence to ''The Spy Who Loved Me'', James Bond movies have featured several BASE jumps, including one from the Eiffel Tower in 1985's ''A View to a Kill'', the Rock of Gibraltar in 1987's ''The Living Daylights'', and in ''Die Another Day'', 2002, Pierce Brosnan as James Bond jumps from a melting iceberg.",
"Of the James Bond jumps only the Mt Asgard and Eiffel Tower jumps were filmed live; the rest were special effects.",
"And in 2005's \"Batman Begins\", Bruce Wayne uses BASE jumping as inspiration for his memory cloth cape.",
"A series of BASE jumps are featured in the video for a remix of M83's \"Lower Your Eyelids to Die With the Sun\".",
"In 1938, a Sierra Club film \"Three On A Rope\" (1938) ends with a climber jumping off Baldy Mountain rather than dealing with the hassle of rappelling to the horror of a climbing partner, only to deploy a parachute hidden in his pack.",
"The video game ''Just Cause 3'' also involves the main character, Rico Rodriguez, performing many dangerous stunts involving his wing suit and grappling hook.",
"One example is when, in the first mission, he jumps off a cliff onto a bridge.",
"This mechanic has led to many crazy stunts performed by players.",
"BASE jumping from an antenna tower\nSapphire Tower, Istanbul.",
"BASE jumping grew out of skydiving.",
"BASE jumps are generally made from much lower altitudes than skydives, and a BASE jump takes place close to the object serving as the jump platform.",
"Because BASE jumps generally entail slower airspeeds than typical skydives (due to the limited altitude), a BASE jumper does not always reach terminal velocity.",
"Because higher airspeeds enable jumpers more aerodynamic control of their bodies, as well as more positive and quick parachute openings, the longer the delay, the better.",
"BASE jumping is significantly more dangerous than similar sports such as skydiving from aircraft.",
"Skydivers use the air flow to stabilize their position, allowing the parachute to deploy cleanly.",
"BASE jumpers, falling at lower speeds, have less aerodynamic control, and may tumble.",
"The attitude of the body at the moment of jumping determines the stability of flight in the first few seconds, before sufficient airspeed has built up to enable aerodynamic stability.",
"On low BASE jumps, parachute deployment takes place during this early phase of flight, so if a poor \"launch\" leads into a tumble, the jumper may not be able to correct this before the opening.",
"If the parachute is deployed while the jumper is tumbling, there is a high risk of entanglement or malfunction.",
"The jumper may also not be facing the right direction.",
"Such an off-heading opening is not as problematic in skydiving, but an off-heading opening that results in object strike has caused many serious injuries and deaths in BASE jumping.",
"At an altitude of , having been in free-fall for at least , a skydiver is falling at approximately , and is approximately 10.9 seconds from the ground.",
"Most BASE jumps are made from less than .",
"For example, a BASE jump from a object is about 5.6 seconds from the ground if the jumper remains in free fall.",
"On a BASE jump, the parachute must open at about half the airspeed of a similar skydive, and more quickly (in a shorter distance fallen).",
"Standard skydiving parachute systems are not designed for this situation, so BASE jumpers often use specially designed harnesses and parachute containers, with extra large pilot chutes, and many jump with only one parachute, since there would be little time to utilize a reserve parachute.",
"In the early days of BASE jumping, people used modified skydiving gear, such as by removing the deployment bag and slider, stowing the lines in a tail pocket, and fitting a large pilot chute.",
"However, modified skydiving gear is then prone to kinds of malfunction that are rare in normal skydiving (such as \"line-overs\" and broken lines).",
"Modern purpose-built BASE jumping equipment is considered to be much safer and more reliable.",
"Another risk is that most BASE jumping venues have very small areas in which to land.",
"A beginner skydiver, after parachute deployment, may have a three-minute or more parachute ride to the ground.",
"A BASE jump from will have a parachute ride of only 10 to 15 seconds.",
"One way to make a parachute open very quickly is to use a static line or direct bag.",
"These devices form an attachment between the parachute and the jump platform, which stretches out the parachute and suspension lines as the jumper falls, before separating and allowing the parachute to inflate.",
"This method enables the very lowest jumps — below — to be made, although most BASE jumpers are more motivated to make higher jumps involving free fall.",
"This method is similar to the paratrooper's deployment system, also called a PCA (Pilot Chute Assist).",
"Surreptitious BASE jumps are often made from tall buildings and antenna towers.",
"Many such BASE jumps must be covert because the owners of these objects are generally reluctant to allow their object to be used as a platform.",
"While BASE jumping itself is generally not illegal, making events such as the \"Go Fast Games\" at the Royal Gorge Bridge possible, the covert nature of accessing objects usually necessitates trespassing on an object.",
"Jumpers who are caught can expect to be charged with trespassing, as well as having charges like breaking and entering, reckless endangerment, vandalism, or other such charges pressed against them.",
"Other people accompanying the jumper, such as ground crew, may also face charges.",
"In some jurisdictions it may be permissible to use land until specifically told not to.",
"Perrine Bridge in Twin Falls, Idaho, is an example of a man-made structure in the United States where BASE jumping is allowed year-round without a permit.",
"A BASE jumper leaving the Perrine Bridge in Idaho\nOnce a year, on the third Saturday in October (\"Bridge Day\"), permission to BASE jump has explicitly been granted at the New River Gorge Bridge in Fayetteville, West Virginia.",
"The New River Gorge Bridge deck is 876 feet (267 m) above the river.",
"This annual event attracts about 450 BASE jumpers and nearly 200,000 spectators.",
"1,100 jumps may occur during the six hours that it is legal provided good conditions.",
"For many skydivers who would like to try BASE jumping, this bridge will be the only fixed object from which they ever jump.",
"On 21 October 2006, veteran BASE jumper Brian Lee Schubert of Alta Loma, California died while jumping from the New River Gorge Bridge during Bridge Day activities because his parachute opened late; he plummeted to his death in the waters below.",
"Jumps continued after the recovery of his body.",
"He and his friend Michael Pelkey were the first to make a BASE jump from El Capitan in Yosemite National Park in 1966.",
"The National Park Service (NPS) has the authority to ban specific activities in US National Parks and has done so for BASE jumping.",
"The authority comes from 36 CFR 2.17(3), which prohibits, \"Delivering or retrieving a person or object by parachute, helicopter, or other airborne means, except in emergencies involving public safety or serious property loss, or pursuant to the terms and conditions of a permit.\"",
"Under that Regulation, BASE is not banned, but is allowable if a permit is issued by the Superintendent, which means that a mechanism to allow BASE in National Parks was always in place.",
"The 2001 National Park Service Management Policies state that BASE \"is not an appropriate public use activity within national park areas ...\" (2001 Management Policy 8.2.2.7.)",
"However, Policy 8.2.2.7 in the 2006 volume of National Park Service Management Policies, which superseded the 2001 edition, states \"Parachuting (or BASE jumping), whether from an aircraft, structure, or natural feature, is generally prohibited by 36 CFR 2.17(a)(3).",
"However, if determined through a park planning process to be an appropriate activity, it may be allowed pursuant to the terms and conditions of a permit.\"",
"During the early days of BASE jumping, the NPS issued permits that authorized jumps from El Capitan.",
"This program ran for three months in 1980 and then collapsed amid allegations of abuse by unauthorized jumpers.",
"The NPS has since vigorously enforced the ban, charging jumpers with \"aerial delivery into a National Park\".",
"One jumper drowned in the Merced River while evading arresting Park Rangers, having declared 'No way are they gonna get me.",
"Let them chase me—I'll just laugh in their faces and jump in the river.'",
"Despite incidents like this one, illegal jumps continue in Yosemite at a rate estimated at a few hundred per year, often at night or dawn.",
"El Capitan, Half Dome and Glacier Point have been used as jump sites.",
"Other US public land, including land controlled by the Bureau of Land Management, does not ban air delivery, and there are numerous jumpable objects on BLM land.",
"The legal position is different at other sites and in other countries.",
"For example, in Norway's Lysefjord (from the mountain Kjerag), BASE jumpers are made welcome.",
"Many sites in the European Alps, near Chamonix and on the Eiger, are also open to jumpers.",
"Some other Norwegian places, like the Troll Wall, are banned because of dangerous rescue missions in the past.",
"In Austria, jumping from mountain cliffs is generally allowed, whereas the use of bridges (such as the Europabruecke near Innsbruck, Tirol) or dams is generally prohibited.",
"Australia has some of the toughest stances on BASE jumping: it specifically bans BASE jumping from certain objects, such as the Sydney Harbour Bridge.",
"BASE jumping as of 2006 has an overall fatality rate estimated at about one fatality per sixty participants.",
"A study of 20,850 BASE jumps from the same site (the Kjerag Massif in Norway) reported 9 fatalities over the 11-year period from 1995 to 2005, or 1 in every 2,317 jumps.",
"However, at that site, 1 in every 254 jumps over that period resulted in a nonfatal accident.",
"BASE jumping is one of the most dangerous recreational activities in the world, with a fatality and injury rate 43 times as high as parachuting from a plane.",
", the 'BASE Fatality List' maintained by Blincmagazine.com records 285 deaths for BASE jumping since April 1981.",
"American BASE jumper Ian Flanders died in Kemaliye, Turkey on 21 July 2015, after his parachute became tangled in his feet, causing him to fall into the Karasu river at high speed.",
"The jump was being aired live on a local television station.",
"* \" The Great Book of BASE\".",
"BirdBrain Publishing.",
"July, 2010.",
"* \" The Ground's the Limit\".",
"''Texas Monthly''.",
"December 1981.",
"\n* Parachuting from fixed objects: descriptive study of 106 fatal events in BASE jumping 1981–2006\n* Luigi Cani base jumps off a cliff\n* A Sport to Die For ESPN, Michael Abrams\n* First Dog Ever To BaseJump\n* BASE Jumping adventures in the UK & Europe during the late 1980’s, 1990’s & early 2000s by Doug Blane"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Barcelona''' (, ) is the capital and largest city of Catalonia, an autonomous community in Spain, and the country's second most populous municipality, with a population of 1.6 million within city limits. Its urban area extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of around 4.7 million people, being the sixth most populous urban area in the European Union after Paris, London, Madrid, the Ruhr area and Milan. It is the largest metropolis on the Mediterranean Sea, located on the coast between the mouths of the rivers Llobregat and Besòs, and bounded to the west by the Serra de Collserola mountain range, the tallest peak of which is high.\n\nFounded as a Roman city, in the Middle Ages Barcelona became the capital of the County of Barcelona. After merging with the Kingdom of Aragon, Barcelona continued to be an important city in the Crown of Aragon as an economic and administrative centre of this Crown and the capital of the Principality of Catalonia. Barcelona has a rich cultural heritage and is today an important cultural centre and a major tourist destination. Particularly renowned are the architectural works of Antoni Gaudí and Lluís Domènech i Montaner, which have been designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The headquarters of the Union for the Mediterranean is located in Barcelona. The city is known for hosting the 1992 Summer Olympics as well as world-class conferences and expositions and also many international sport tournaments.\n\nBarcelona is one of the world's leading tourist, economic, trade fair and cultural centres, and its influence in commerce, education, entertainment, media, fashion, science, and the arts all contribute to its status as one of the world's major global cities. It is a major cultural and economic centre in southwestern Europe, 24th in the world (before Zürich, after Frankfurt) and a financial centre. In 2008 it was the fourth most economically powerful city by GDP in the European Union and 35th in the world with GDP amounting to €177 billion. In 2012 Barcelona had a GDP of $170 billion; it is leading Spain in both employment rate and GDP per capita change. \n\nIn 2009 the city was ranked Europe's third and one of the world's most successful as a city brand. In the same year the city was ranked Europe's fourth best city for business and fastest improving European city, with growth improved by 17% per year, and the city has been experiencing strong and renewed growth for the past three years. Since 2011 Barcelona has been a leading smart city in Europe. Barcelona is a transport hub, with the Port of Barcelona being one of Europe's principal seaports and busiest European passenger port, an international airport, Barcelona–El Prat Airport, which handles over 40 million passengers per year, an extensive motorway network, and a high-speed rail line with a link to France and the rest of Europe.\n",
"The name ''Barcelona'' comes from the ancient Iberian ''Barkeno'', attested in an ancient coin inscription found on the right side of the coin in Iberian script as Barkeno in Levantine Iberian script, in ancient Greek sources as , ''Barkinṓn''; and in Latin as ''Barcino'', ''Barcilonum'' and ''Barcenona''.\n\nSome older sources suggest that the city may have been named after the Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca, who was supposed to have founded the city in the 3rd century BC, but there is no evidence that Barcelona was ever a Carthaginian settlement, or that its name in antiquity, ''Barcino'', had any connection with the Barcid family of Hamilcar.\nDuring the Middle Ages, the city was variously known as ''Barchinona'', ''Barçalona'', ''Barchelonaa'', and ''Barchenona''.\n\nInternationally, Barcelona's name is wrongly abbreviated to 'Barça'. However, this name refers only to FC Barcelona, the football club. The common abbreviated form used by locals is ''Barna''.\n\nAnother common abbreviation is 'BCN', which is also the IATA airport code of the Barcelona-El Prat Airport.\n\nThe city is also referred to as the ''Ciutat Comtal'' in Catalan, and ''Ciudad Condal'' in Spanish, owing to its past as the seat of the Count of Barcelona.\n",
"\nA marble plaque in the Museu d'Història de la Ciutat de Barcelona, dated from around 110–130 AD and dedicated to the Roman colony of Barcino\n\n===Prehistory===\nThe origin of the earliest settlement at the site of present-day Barcelona is unclear. The ruins of an early settlement have been \nfound, including different tombs and dwellings dating to earlier than 5000 BC. The founding of Barcelona is the subject of two different legends. The first attributes the founding of the city to the mythological Hercules. The second legend attributes the foundation of the city directly to the historical Carthaginian general, Hamilcar Barca, father of Hannibal, who supposedly named the city ''Barcino'' after his family in the 3rd century BC, but there is no historical or linguistic evidence that this is true.\n\n===Roman Barcelona===\nIn about 15 BC, the Romans redrew the town as a ''castrum'' (Roman military camp) centred on the \"''Mons Taber''\", a little hill near the contemporary city hall (Plaça de Sant Jaume). Under the Romans, it was a colony with the surname of ''Faventia'', or, in full, ''Colonia Faventia Julia Augusta Pia Barcino'' or ''Colonia Julia Augusta Faventia Paterna Barcino''. Pomponius Mela mentions it among the small towns of the district, probably as it was eclipsed by its neighbour ''Tarraco'' (modern Tarragona), but it may be gathered from later writers that it gradually grew in wealth and consequence, favoured as it was with a beautiful situation and an excellent harbour. It enjoyed immunity from imperial burdens. The city minted its own coins; some from the era of Galba survive.\nBasílica de la Mercè\n\nImportant Roman vestiges are displayed in Plaça del Rei underground, as a part of the Barcelona City History Museum MUHBA; the typically Roman grid plan is still visible today in the layout of the historical centre, the ''Barri Gòtic'' (Gothic Quarter). Some remaining fragments of the Roman walls have been incorporated into the cathedral. The cathedral, also known as the Basilica ''La Seu'', is said to have been founded in 343.\n\n===Medieval Barcelona===\nThe city was conquered by the Visigoths in the early 5th century, becoming for a few years the capital of all Hispania. After being conquered by the Arabs in the early 8th century, it was conquered in 801 by Charlemagne's son Louis, who made Barcelona the seat of the Carolingian \"Hispanic March\" (''Marca Hispanica''), a buffer zone ruled by the Count of Barcelona.\n\nThe Counts of Barcelona became increasingly independent and expanded their territory to include all of Catalonia, although on 6 July 985, Barcelona was sacked by the army of Almanzor. The sack was so traumatic that most of Barcelona's population was either killed or enslaved. In 1137, Aragon and the County of Barcelona merged in dynastic union by the marriage of Ramon Berenguer IV and Petronilla of Aragon, their titles finally borne by only one person when their son Alfonso II of Aragon ascended to the throne in 1162. His territories were later to be known as the Crown of Aragon, which conquered many overseas possessions and ruled the western Mediterranean Sea with outlying territories in Naples and Sicily and as far as Athens in the 13th century. The forging of a dynastic link between the Crowns of Aragon and Castile marked the beginning of Barcelona's decline. The Bank of Barcelona (''Taula de canvi''), probably the oldest public bank in Europe, was established by the city magistrates in 1401. It originated from necessities of the state, as did the Bank of Venice (1402) and the Bank of Genoa (1407).\n\nBarcelona in 1563\n\n===Barcelona under the Spanish monarchy===\nThe marriage of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile in 1469 united the two royal lines. Madrid became the centre of political power whilst the colonisation of the Americas reduced the financial importance (at least in relative terms) of Mediterranean trade. Barcelona was a centre of Catalan separatism, including the Catalan Revolt (1640–52) against Philip IV of Spain. The great plague of 1650–1654 halved the city's population.\n\nfortress at Montjuïc, most southerly point from which measurements were made when calculating the meridional definition of the metre\nIn the 18th century, a fortress was built at Montjuïc that overlooked the harbour. In 1794, this fortress was used by the French astronomer Pierre François André Méchain for observations relating to a survey stretching to Dunkirk that provided the official basis of the measurement of a metre. The definitive metre bar, manufactured from platinum, was presented to the French legislative assembly on 22 June 1799. Much of Barcelona was negatively affected by the Napoleonic wars, but the start of industrialisation saw the fortunes of the province improve. Urban planner Ildefons Cerdà designed the large Eixample district in the 1850s when the medieval city walls around Barcelona's old town were torn down.\n\n===The Spanish civil war and the Franco period===\nDuring the Spanish Civil War, the city, and Catalonia in general, were resolutely Republican. Many enterprises and public services were \"collectivized\" by the CNT and UGT unions. As the power of the Republican government and the Generalitat diminished, much of the city was under the effective control of anarchist groups. The anarchists lost control of the city to their own allies, the Communists and official government troops, after the street fighting of the Barcelona May Days. The fall of the city on 26 January 1939, caused a mass exodus of civilians who fled to the French border. The resistance of Barcelona to Franco's coup d'état was to have lasting effects after the defeat of the Republican government. The autonomous institutions of Catalonia were abolished, and the use of the Catalan language in public life was suppressed. Barcelona remained the second largest city in Spain, at the heart of a region which was relatively industrialised and prosperous, despite the devastation of the civil war. The result was a large-scale immigration from poorer regions of Spain (particularly Andalusia, Murcia and Galicia), which in turn led to rapid urbanisation.\n\n===Late twentieth century===\nIn 1992, Barcelona hosted the Summer Olympics. The after-effects of this are credited with driving major changes in what had, up until then, been a largely industrial city. As part of the preparation for the games, industrial buildings along the sea-front were demolished and two miles of beach were created. New construction increased the road capacity of the city by 17%, the sewage handling capacity by 27% and the amount of new green areas and beaches by 78%. Between 1990 and 2004, the number of hotel rooms in the city doubled. Perhaps more importantly, the outside perception of the city was changed making, by 2012, Barcelona the 12th most popular city destination in the world and the 5th amongst European cities.\n\n=== Recent history ===\nOn 17 August 2017, a van was driven into pedestrians on La Rambla in the city, killing 14 and injuring at least 100. Other attacks took place elsewhere in Catalonia. The Prime Minister of Spain, Mariano Rajoy, called the attack in Barcelona a jihadist attack. Amaq News Agency attributed indirect responsibility for the attack to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL).\n",
"\n\n===Location===\nBarcelona from high altitude\n\nBarcelona is located on the northeast coast of the Iberian Peninsula, facing the Mediterranean Sea, on a plain approximately wide limited by the mountain range of Collserola, the Llobregat river to the southwest and the Besòs river to the north. This plain covers an area of , of which are occupied by the city itself. It is south of the Pyrenees and the Catalan border with France.\n\nTibidabo, high, offers striking views over the city and is topped by the Torre de Collserola, a telecommunications tower that is visible from most of the city. Barcelona is peppered with small hills, most of them urbanised, that gave their name to the neighbourhoods built upon them, such as Carmel (), Putget () and Rovira (). The escarpment of Montjuïc (), situated to the southeast, overlooks the harbour and is topped by Montjuïc castle, a fortress built in the 17–18th centuries to control the city as a replacement for the Ciutadella. Today, the fortress is a museum and Montjuïc is home to several sporting and cultural venues, as well as Barcelona's biggest park and gardens.\n\nThe city borders on the municipalities of Santa Coloma de Gramenet and Sant Adrià de Besòs to the north; the Mediterranean Sea to the east; El Prat de Llobregat and L'Hospitalet de Llobregat to the south; and Sant Feliu de Llobregat, Sant Just Desvern, Esplugues de Llobregat, Sant Cugat del Vallès, and Montcada i Reixac to the west. The municipality includes two small sparsely-inhabited exclaves to the north-west.\n\n===Climate===\n\nBarcelona has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen ''Cfa'') bordering a maritime Mediterranean climate (''Csa''), with mild, humid winters and warm to hot summers, while the rainiest seasons are autumn and spring.\n\nIts average annual temperature is during the day and at night. The average annual temperature of the sea is about . In the coldest month, January, the temperature typically ranges from during the day, at night and the average sea temperature is . In the warmest month, August, the typical temperature ranges from during the day, about at night and the average sea temperature is . Generally, the summer or \"holiday\" season lasts about six months, from May to October. Two months – April and November – are transitional; sometimes the temperature exceeds , with an average temperature of during the day and at night. December, January and February are the coldest months, with average temperatures around during the day and at night. Large fluctuations in temperature are rare, particularly in the summer months. Because of the proximity to the warm sea, frosts are very rare in the city of Barcelona. In fact, only 1 day in the last 30 years was recorded with a temperature under the freezing mark, . Snow is infrequent.\n\nBarcelona averages 78 rainy days per year (≥ 1 mm), and annual average relative humidity is 72%, ranging from 69% in July to 75% in October. Rainfall totals are highest in late summer and autumn (September–November) and lowest in early and mid-summer (June–August), with a secondary winter minimum (February–March). Sunshine duration is 2,524 hours per year, from 138 (average 4.5 hours of sunshine a day) in December to 310 (average 10 hours of sunshine a day) in July.\n\n\n",
"Demographic evolution, 1900–2007, according to the Spanish Instituto Nacional de Estadística\n\nAccording to Barcelona's City Council, Barcelona's population as of 1 January 2016 was 1,608,746 people, on a land area of . It is the main component of an administrative area of Greater Barcelona, with a population of 3,218,071 in an area of (density 5,060 hab/km²). The population of the urban area was 4,223,000. It is the central nucleus of the Barcelona metropolitan area, which relies on a population of 5,083,000.\n\nSpanish is the most spoken language in Barcelona (according to the linguistic census held by the Government of Catalonia in 2013) and it is understood almost universally. After Spanish, Catalan language is the second most spoken one in the city, and it is understood by 95% of the population, while 72.3% can speak it, 79% can read it, and 53% can write it, thanks to the language immersion educational system.\n\nIn 1900, Barcelona had a population of 533,000 people, which grew steadily but slowly until 1950, when it started absorbing a high number of people from other less-industrialized parts of Spain. Barcelona's population peaked in 1979 with 1,906,998 people, and fell throughout the 1980s and 1990s as more people sought a higher quality of life in outlying cities in the Barcelona Metropolitan Area. After bottoming out in 2000 with 1,496,266 people, the city's population began to rise again as younger people started to return, causing a great increase in housing prices.\n\n===Population density===\nView over the Passeig de Gràcia avenue\n''Note: This text is entirely based on the municipal statistical database provided by the city council.''\n\nBarcelona is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. For the year 2008 the city council calculated the population to 1,621,090 living in the 102.2 km2 sized municipality, giving the city an average population density of 15,926 inhabitants per square kilometre with Eixample being the most populated district.\n\nIn the case of Barcelona though, the land distribution is extremely uneven. Half of the municipality or 50.2 km2, all of it located on the municipal edge is made up of the ten least densely populated neighbourhoods containing less than 10% of the city's population, the uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area and Montjuïc forest park. Leaving the remaining 90% or slightly below 1.5 million inhabitants living on the remaining at an average density close to 28,500 inhabitants per square kilometre.\n\nOf the 73 neighbourhoods in the city, 45 had a population density above 20,000 inhabitants per square kilometre with a combined population of 1,313,424 inhabitants living on 38.6 km2 at an average density of 33,987 inhabitants per square km. The 30 most densely populated neighbourhoods accounted for 57.5% of the city population occupying only 22,7% of the municipality, or in other words, 936,406 people living at an average density of 40,322 inhabitants per square kilometre. The city's highest density is found at and around the neighbourhood of la Sagrada Família where four of the city's most densely populated neighbourhoods are located side by side, all with a population density above 50,000 inhabitants per square kilometre.\n\n===Migration===\n\n'''Largest groups of foreign residents in Barcelona'''\n\nNationality \n Population (2016)\n\n \n 26,676\n\n \n 19,160\n\n \n 18,434\n\n \n 13,506\n\n \n 12,537\n\n \n 9,291\n\n \n 8,682\n\n \n 8,109\n\n \n 7,944\n\n \n 7,904\n\n\nIn 2016 about 59% of the inhabitants of the city were born in Catalonia and 18.5% coming from the rest of the country. In addition to that, 22.5% of the population was born outside of Spain, a proportion which has more than doubled since 2001 and more than quintupled cince 1996 when it was 8.6% respectively 3.9%.\n\nThe most important region of origin of migrants is Europe, with many coming from Italy (26,676) or France (13,506). Moreover, many migrants come from Latin American nations as Bolivia, Ecuador or Colombia. Since the 1990s, and similar to other migrants, many Latin Americans have settled in northern parts of the city.\n\nThere exists a relatively large Pakistani community in Barcelona with up to twenty thousand nationals. The community consists of significantly more men than women. Many of the Pakistanis are living in Ciutat Vella. First Pakistani migrants came in the 1970s, with increasing numbers in the 1990s.\n\nOther significant migrant groups come from Asia as from China and the Philippines. There is a Japanese community clustered in Bonanova, Les Tres Torres, Pedralbes, and other northern neighbourhoods, and a Japanese international school serves that community.\n\n===Religion===\n\nMost of the inhabitants state they are Roman Catholic (208 churches). In a 2011 survey conducted by InfoCatólica, 49.5% of Barcelona residents of all ages identified themselves as Catholic. This was the first time that more than half of respondents did not identify themselves as Catholic. The numbers reflect a broader trend in Spain whereby the numbers of self-identified Catholics have declined.\n\nThe province has the largest Muslim community in Spain, 322,698 people in Barcelona province are of Muslim religion. A considerable number of Muslims live in Barcelona due to immigration (169 locations, mostly professed by Moroccans in Spain). In 2014, 322,698 out of 5.5 million people in the province of Barcelona identified themselves as Muslim, which makes 5.6% of total population.\n\nThe city also has the largest Jewish community in Spain, with an estimated 3,500 Jews living in the city. There are also a number of other groups, including Evangelical (71 locations, mostly professed by Roma), Jehovah's Witnesses (21 Kingdom Halls), Buddhists (13 locations), and Eastern Orthodox.\n",
"===General information===\nSkyscrapers in Barcelona\n\nThe Barcelona metropolitan area comprises over 66% of the people of Catalonia, one of the richer regions in Europe and the fourth richest region per capita in Spain, with a GDP per capita amounting to €28,400 (16% more than the EU average). The greater Barcelona metropolitan area had a GDP amounting to $177 billion (equivalent to $34,821 in per capita terms, 44% more than the EU average), making it the 4th most economically powerful city by gross GDP in the European Union, and 35th in the world in 2009. Barcelona city had a very high GDP of €80,894 per head in 2004, according to Eurostat. Furthermore, Barcelona was Europe's fourth best business city and fastest improving European city, with growth improved by 17% per year .\n\nBarcelona was the 14th most \"livable city\" in the world in 2009 according to lifestyle magazine ''Monocle.'' Similarly, according to Innovation Analysts 2thinknow, Barcelona occupies 13th place in the world on ''Innovation Cities™ Global Index''.\n\nBarcelona has a long-standing mercantile tradition. Less well known is that the city industrialised early, taking off in 1833, when Catalonia's already sophisticated textile industry began to use steam power. It became the first and most important industrial city in the Mediterranean basin. Since then, manufacturing has played a large role in its history.\n\nBorsa de Barcelona (''Barcelona Stock Exchange'') is the main stock exchange in the northeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula.\n\nBarcelona was recognised as the Southern European City of the Future for 2014/15, based on its economic potential, by ''FDi Magazine'' in their bi-annual rankings.\n\n===Trade fair and exhibitions===\n\n\nDrawing upon its tradition of creative art and craftsmanship, Barcelona is known for its award-winning industrial design. It also has several congress halls, notably Fira de Barcelona – the second largest trade fair and exhibition centre in Europe, that host a quickly growing number of national and international events each year (at present above 50). The total exhibition floor space of Fira de Barcelona venues is , not counting Gran Via centre on the Plaza de Europa. However, the Eurozone crisis and deep cuts in business travel affected the Council's positioning of the city as a convention centre.\n\nAn important business centre, the World Trade Center Barcelona, is located in Barcelona's Port Vell harbour.\n\nThe city is known for hosting well as world-class conferences and expositions, including the 1888 ''Exposición Universal de Barcelona'', the 1929 Barcelona International Exposition (Expo 1929), the 2004 Universal Forum of Cultures and the 2004 World Urban Forum.\n\n===Tourism===\nPart of the beach promenade and the beach of ''La Barceloneta'' towards Port Olimpic\n\nBarcelona was the 20th-most-visited city in the world by international visitors and the fifth most visited city in Europe after London, Paris, Istanbul and Rome, with 5.5 million international visitors in 2011. By 2015, both Prague and Milan had more international visitors. With its Rambles, Barcelona is ranked the most popular city to visit in Spain.\n\nBarcelona as internationally renowned a tourist destination, with numerous recreational areas, one of the best beaches in the world, mild and warm climate, historical monuments, including eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 519 hotels as of March 2016 including 35 five star hotels, and developed tourist infrastructure.\n\nDue to its large influx of tourists each year, Barcelona, like many other tourism capitals, has to deal with pickpockets, with wallets and passports being commonly stolen items. For this reason, most travel guides recommend that visitors take precautions in order to ensure their possessions' safety, especially inside the metro premises. Despite its moderate pickpocket rate, Barcelona is considered one of the safest cities in terms of health security and personal safety, mainly because of a sophisticated policing strategy that has dropped crime by 32% in just over three years and has led it to be considered the 15th safest city in the world by Business Insider.\n\n===Manufacturing sector===\nIndustry generates 21% of the total gross domestic product (GDP) of the region, with the energy, chemical and metallurgy industries accounting for 47% of industrial production. The Barcelona metropolitan area had 67% of the total number of industrial establishments in Catalonia as of 1997.\n\nBarcelona has long been an important European automobile manufacturing centre. Formerly there were automobile factories of AFA, Abadal, Actividades Industriales, Alvarez, America, Artés de Arcos, Balandrás, Baradat-Esteve, Biscúter, J. Castro, Clúa, David, Delfín, Díaz y Grilló, Ebro trucks, Edis, Elizalde, Automóviles España, Eucort, Fenix, Fábrica Hispano, Auto Academia Garriga, Fábrica Española de Automóviles Hebe, Hispano-Suiza, Huracán Motors, Talleres Hereter, Junior SL, Kapi, La Cuadra, M.A., Automóviles Matas, Motores y Motos, Nacional Custals, National Pescara, Nacional RG, Nacional Rubi, Nacional Sitjes, Automóviles Nike, Orix, Otro Ford, Partia, Pegaso, PTV, Ricart, Ricart-España, Industrias Salvador, Siata Española, Stevenson, Romagosa y Compañía, Garaje Storm, Talleres Hereter, Trimak, Automóviles Victoria, Manufacturas Mecánicas Aleu.\n\nToday, the headquarters and a large factory of SEAT (the largest Spanish automobile manufacturer) are in one of its suburbs. There is also a Nissan factory in the logistics and industrial area of the city. The factory of Derbi, a large manufacturer of motorcycles, scooters and mopeds, also lies near the city.\n\nAs in other modern cities, the manufacturing sector has long since been overtaken by the services sector, though it remains very important. The region's leading industries are textiles, chemical, pharmaceutical, motor, electronic, printing, logistics, publishing, in telecommunications industry and culture the notable Mobile World Congress, and information technology services.\n\n===Fashion===\nThe Brandery fashion show of 2011\n\nThe traditional importance of textiles is reflected in Barcelona's drive to become a major fashion centre. There have been many attempts to launch Barcelona as a fashion capital, notably ''Gaudi Home''.\n\nBeginning in the summer of 2000, the city hosted the prestigious Bread & Butter urban fashion fair until 2009, when its organisers announced that it would be returning to Berlin. This was a hard blow for the city as the fair brought €100 m to the city in just three days.\n\nSince 2009, ''The Brandery'', an urban fashion show, has been held in Barcelona twice a year until 2012. According to the Global Language Monitor’s annual ranking of the world's top fifty fashion capitals Barcelona was named as the seventh most important fashion capital of the world right after Milano and before Berlin in 2015 .\n",
"\nPalau de la Generalitat de Catalunya\n\nAs the capital of the autonomous community of Catalonia, Barcelona is the seat of the Catalan government, known as the ''Generalitat de Catalunya''; of particular note are the executive branch, the parliament, and the Supreme Court of Catalonia. The city is also the capital of the Province of Barcelona and the Barcelonès comarca (district).\n\nBarcelona is governed by a city council formed by 41 city councillors, elected for a four-year term by universal suffrage. As one of the two biggest cities in Spain, Barcelona is subject to a special law articulated through the ''Carta Municipal'' (Municipal Law). A first version of this law was passed in 1960 and amended later, but the current version was approved in March 2006. According to this law, Barcelona's city council is organised in two levels: a political one, with elected city councillors, and one executive, which administrates the programs and executes the decisions taken on the political level. This law also gives the local government a special relationship with the central government and it also gives the mayor wider prerogatives by the means of municipal executive commissions. It expands the powers of the city council in areas like telecommunications, city traffic, road safety and public safety. It also gives a special economic regime to the city's treasury and it gives the council a veto in matters that will be decided by the central government, but that will need a favourable report from the council.\n\nThe City Hall of Barcelona\n\nThe ''Comissió de Govern'' (Government Commission) is the executive branch, formed by 24 councillors, led by the Mayor, with 5 lieutenant-mayors and 17 city councillors, each in charge of an area of government, and 5 non-elected councillors. The plenary, formed by the 41 city councillors, has advisory, planning, regulatory, and fiscal executive functions. The six ''Commissions del Consell Municipal'' (City council commissions) have executive and controlling functions in the field of their jurisdiction. They are composed by a number of councillors proportional to the number of councillors each political party has in the plenary. The city council has jurisdiction in the fields of city planning, transportation, municipal taxes, public highways security through the ''Guàrdia Urbana'' (the municipal police), city maintenance, gardens, parks and environment, facilities (like schools, nurseries, sports centres, libraries, and so on), culture, sports, youth and social welfare. Some of these competencies are not exclusive, but shared with the Generalitat de Catalunya or the central Spanish government. In some fields with shared responsibility (such as public health, education or social services), there is a shared Agency or Consortium between the city and the Generalitat to plan and manage services.\n\nThe Saló de Cent, in the City Hall of Barcelona.\n\nThe executive branch is led by a Chief Municipal Executive Officer which answers to the Mayor. It is made up of departments which are legally part of the city council and by separate legal entities of two types: autonomous public departments and public enterprises.\n\nThe seat of the city council is on the Plaça de Sant Jaume, opposite the seat of Generalitat de Catalunya. Since the coming of the Spanish democracy, Barcelona had been governed by the PSC, first with an absolute majority and later in coalition with ERC and ICV. After the May 2007 election, the ERC did not renew the coalition agreement and the PSC governed in a minority coalition with ICV as the junior partner.\n\nAfter 32 years, on 22 May 2011, CiU gained a plurality of seats at the municipal election, gaining 15 seats to the PSC's 11. The PP hold 8 seats, ICV 5 and ERC 2.\n\n===Districts===\nDistricts of Barcelona\n\n\nSince 1987, the city has been divided into 10 administrative districts (''districtes'' in Catalan, ''distritos'' in Spanish):\n* Ciutat Vella\n* Eixample\n* Sants-Montjuïc\n* Les Corts\n* Sarrià-Sant Gervasi\n* Gràcia\n* Horta-Guinardó\n* Nou Barris\n* Sant Andreu\n* Sant Martí\n\nThe districts are based mostly on historical divisions, and several are former towns annexed by the city of Barcelona in the 18th and 19th centuries that still maintain their own distinct character. Each district has its own council led by a city councillor. The composition of each district council depends on the number of votes each political party had in that district, so a district can be led by a councillor from a different party than the executive council.\n",
"\nMain hall of the University of Barcelona\n\nBarcelona has a well-developed higher education system of public universities. Most prominent among these is the University of Barcelona (established in 1450), a world-renowned research and teaching institution with campuses around the city. Barcelona is also home to the Polytechnic University of Catalonia, and the newer Pompeu Fabra University, and, in the private sector the EADA Business School founded in 1957, became the first Barcelona institution to run manager training programmes for the business community. IESE Business School, as well as the largest private educational institution, the Ramon Llull University, which encompasses internationally prestigious schools and institutes such as the ESADE Business School. The Autonomous University of Barcelona, another public university, is located in Bellaterra, a town in the Metropolitan Area. Toulouse Business School and the Open University of Catalonia (a private Internet-centred open university) are also based in Barcelona.\nBuilding of the faculty of Law of the University of Barcelona\n\nThe city has a network of public schools, from nurseries to high schools, under the responsibility of a consortium led by city council (though the curriculum is the responsibility of the Generalitat de Catalunya). There are also many private schools, some of them Roman Catholic. Most such schools receive a public subsidy on a per-student basis, are subject to inspection by the public authorities, and are required to follow the same curricular guidelines as public schools, though they charge tuition. Known as ''escoles concertades'', they are distinct from schools whose funding is entirely private (''escoles privades'').\n\nThe language of instruction at public schools and ''escoles concertades'' is Catalan, as stipulated by the 2009 Catalan Education Act. Spanish may be used as a language of instruction by teachers of Spanish literature or language, and foreign languages by teachers of those languages. An experimental partial immersion programme adopted by some schools allows for the teaching of a foreign language (English, generally) across the curriculum, though this is limited to a maximum of 30% of the school day. No public school or ''escola concertada'' in Barcelona may offer 50% or full immersion programmes in a foreign language, nor does any public school or ''escola concertada'' offer International Baccalaureate programmes.\n",
"\nBarcelona's cultural roots go back 2000 years. Since the arrival of democracy, the Catalan language (very much repressed during the dictatorship of Franco) has been promoted, both by recovering works from the past and by stimulating the creation of new works. Barcelona is designated as a world-class city by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network.\n\n===Entertainment and performing arts===\n\nThe Liceu opera house\n\nBarcelona has many venues for live music and theatre, including the world-renowned Gran Teatre del Liceu opera house, the Teatre Nacional de Catalunya, the Teatre Lliure and the Palau de la Música Catalana concert hall. Barcelona also is home to the Barcelona and Catalonia National Symphonic Orchestra (Orquestra Simfònica de Barcelona i Nacional de Catalunya, usually known as OBC), the largest symphonic orchestra in Catalonia. In 1999, the OBC inaugurated its new venue in the brand-new Auditorium (''l'Auditori''). It performs around 75 concerts per season and its current director is Eiji Oue. It is home to the Barcelona Guitar Orchestra, directed by Sergi Vicente.\nThe major thoroughfare of La Rambla is home to mime artists and street performers.\nYearly, two major pop music festivals take place in the city, the Sónar Festival and the Primavera Sound Festival. The city also has a thriving alternative music scene, with groups such as The Pinker Tones receiving international attention.\n\n===Media===\n''El Periódico de Catalunya'', ''La Vanguardia'' and ''Ara'' are Barcelona's three major daily newspapers (the first two with Catalan and Spanish editions, ''Ara'' only in Catalan) while ''Sport'' and ''El Mundo Deportivo'' (both in Spanish) are the city's two major sports daily newspapers, published by the same companies. The city is also served by a number of smaller publications such as ''Ara'' and ''El Punt Avui'' (in Catalan), by nationwide newspapers with special Barcelona editions like ''El Pais'' (in Spanish, with an online version in Catalan) and ''El Mundo'' (in Spanish), and by several free newspapers like ''20 minutos'' and ''Què'' (all bilingual).\n\nBarcelona's oldest and main online newspaper ''VilaWeb'' is also the oldest one in Europe (with Catalan and English editions).\n\nSeveral major FM stations include Catalunya Ràdio, RAC 1, RAC 105 and Cadena SER. Barcelona also has a local TV stations, BTV, owned by city council. The headquarters of Televisió de Catalunya, Catalonia's public network, are located in Sant Joan Despí, in Barcelona's metropolitan area.\n\n===Sports===\n\nEstadi Olímpic de Montjuïc (Barcelona Olympic Stadium) built for the 1936 Summer Olympics named ''People's Olympiad'', main stadium of 1992 Summer Olympics.\n\nBarcelona has a long sporting tradition and hosted the highly successful 1992 Summer Olympics as well as several matches during the 1982 FIFA World Cup (at the two stadiums). It has also hosted, among others, about 30 sports events of international significance.\nThe Camp Nou, the largest stadium in Europe.\nFC Barcelona is a sports club best known worldwide for its football team, one of the largest in the world and second richest football club in the world. It has 70 of national (likewise 46 runners-up) and 17 continental (likewise 11 runners-up) trophies, including five of the UEFA Champions League (likewise 3 runners-up) and three of the FIFA Club World Cup (likewise 1 runners-up). Also, it is the only men's club in the world to accomplish a sextuple. FC Barcelona also has professional teams in other sports like FC Barcelona Regal (basketball), FC Barcelona Handbol (handball), FC Barcelona Hoquei (roller hockey), FC Barcelona Ice Hockey (ice hockey), FC Barcelona Futsal (futsal) and FC Barcelona Rugby (rugby union), all of them winners of the highest country or/and European competitions. The club's museum is the second most visited in Catalonia and frist statue famus and world the symbol in total Catalonia is Lionel Messi Catalan and FC Barcelona flag have dedicated Barcelona fans a statue in the center of the city with mesh number 10 with brilliant colors. At least twice a season, FC Barcelona and cross-town rivals RCD Espanyol contest in the local derby in La Liga, while its basketball section has its own local derby in Liga ACB with nearby Joventut Badalona. Barcelona also has other clubs in lower categories, like CE Europa and UE Sant Andreu.\n\nPalau Sant Jordi (St. George's sporting arena) and Montjuïc Communications Tower\nBarcelona has two UEFA elite stadiums: FC Barcelona's Camp Nou, the largest stadium in Europe with a capacity of 100,000 and the publicly owned Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys, with a capacity of 55,000; used for the 1992 Olympics. Also, the city has several smaller stadiums such as Mini Estadi (also owned by FC Barcelona), with a capacity of 15,000 and Camp Municipal Narcís Sala, Nou Sardenya with a capacity of 7,000. In the suburbs of Barcelona there is a third UEFA elite stadium – Estadi Cornellà-El Prat, with a capacity of 40,000. Also, except Palau Sant Jordi (''St. George's sporting arena''), with a capacity of 12,000–24,000 (depending on use), city has two other larger sporting and concert arena: Palau Blaugrana, with a capacity of 7,500 and Palau dels Esports de Barcelona.\n\nBarcelona was also the host city for the 2013 World Aquatics Championships, which were held at the Palau San Jordi.\n\nCircuit de Catalunya/Circuit de Barcelona, race track of Formula 1 and MotoGP on the suburb of Barcelona.\nSeveral road running competitions are organised year-round in Barcelona: the Barcelona Marathon every March with over 10,000 participants in 2010, the Cursa de Bombers in April, the Cursa de El Corte Inglés in May (with about 60,000 participants each year), the Cursa de la Mercè, the Cursa Jean Bouin, the Milla Sagrada Família and the San Silvestre. There's also Ultratrail Collserola which passes through Collserola forest. The Open Seat Godó, a 50-year-old ATP World Tour 500 Series tennis tournament, is held annually in the facilities of the Real Club de Tenis Barcelona (Barcelona Royal Tennis Club). Also, each Christmas, a swimming race across the port is organised. Near Barcelona, in Montmeló, the 107,000 capacity Circuit de Catalunya / Circuit de Barcelona racetrack hosts the Formula One World Championship, Formula One Spanish Grand Prix, Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix, Spanish GT Championship and GP2 Series. Skateboarding and bicycling are also very popular in Barcelona. In the city and the metropolitan area, there are tens of km of bicycle paths.\n\n\n+ '''Top sport clubs in Barcelona:'''\n\nClub\nLeague\nSport\nVenue\nEstablished\nCapacity\n\nFC Barcelona\nPrimera División\nFootball\nCamp Nou\n1899\n100,000\n\nRCD Espanyol\nPrimera División\nFootball\nEstadi Cornellà-El Prat\n1900\n40,500\n\nCE Europa\nTercera División\nFootball\nNou Sardenya\n1907\n7,000\n\nFC Barcelona Bàsquet\nPrimera División\nBasketball\nPalau Blaugrana\n1926\n7,585\n\nFC Barcelona Handbol\nPrimera División\nHandball\nPalau Blaugrana\n1942\n7,585\n\nFC Barcelona Ice Hockey\nPrimera División\nIce hockey\nPalau de Gel\n1972\n1,256\n\nFC Barcelona Hoquei\nPrimera División\nRoller hockey\nPalau Blaugrana\n1942\n7,585\n\nFC Barcelona Futsal\nPrimera División\nFutsal\nPalau Blaugrana\n1986\n7,585\n\nFC Barcelona Rugby\nPrimera División\nRugby union\nCDMVdHT\n1924\nno data\n\nBarcelona Dragons\nWorld League\nAmerican football\nEstadi Olímpic Lluís Companys\n1991 (withheld)\n56,000\n\nBarcelona Búfals\nPrimera División\nAmerican football\nCamp Municipal Narcís Sala\n1987\n 6,550\n\n",
"\n\n===Airports===\nThe Barcelona–El Prat Airport as seen from the air\nBarcelona is served by Barcelona-El Prat Airport, about from the centre of Barcelona. It is the second-largest airport in Spain, and the largest on the Mediterranean coast, which handled more than 44.1 million passengers in 2016, showing an annual upward trend. It is a main hub for Vueling Airlines and Ryanair, and also a focus for Iberia and Air Europa. The airport mainly serves domestic and European destinations, although some airlines offer destinations in Latin America, Asia and the United States. The airport is connected to the city by highway, metro (Airport T1 and Airport T2 stations), commuter train (Barcelona Airport railway station) and scheduled bus service. A new terminal (T1) has been built, and entered service on 17 June 2009.\n\nSome low-cost airlines, also use Girona-Costa Brava Airport, about to the north, Reus Airport, to the south, or Lleida-Alguaire Airport, about to the west, of the city. Sabadell Airport is a smaller airport in the nearby town of Sabadell, devoted to pilot training, aerotaxi and private flights.\n\n===Seaport===\nThe Port of Barcelona\n\nThe Port of Barcelona has a 2000-year-old history and a great contemporary commercial importance. It is Europe's ninth largest container port, with a trade volume of 1.72 million TEU's in 2013. The port is managed by the Port Authority of Barcelona. Its are divided into three zones: Port Vell (the old port), the commercial port and the logistics port (Barcelona Free Port). The port is undergoing an enlargement that will double its size thanks to diverting the mouth of the Llobregat river (1¼ mi) to the south.\nThe Port Vell in winter\n\nThe Barcelona harbour is the leading European cruiser port and a most important Mediterranean turnaround base. In 2013, 3,6 million of pleasure cruises passengers used services of the Port of Barcelona.\n\nThe Port Vell area also houses the Maremagnum (a commercial mall), a multiplex cinema, the IMAX Port Vell and one of Europe's largest aquariums – Aquarium Barcelona, containing 8,000 fish and 11 sharks contained in 22 basins filled with 4 million litres of sea water. The Maremagnum, being situated within the confines of the port, is the only commercial mall in the city that can open on Sundays and public holidays.\n\n===Railway===\nEstación de Sants\n\nBarcelona is a major hub for RENFE, the Spanish state railway network. The city's main Inter-city rail station is Barcelona Sants railway station, whilst Estació de França terminus serves a secondary role handling suburban, regional and medium distance services. Freight services operate to local industries and to the Port of Barcelona.\n\nRENFE's AVE high-speed rail system, which is designed for speeds of , was extended from Madrid to Barcelona in 2008 in the form of the Madrid–Barcelona high-speed rail line. A shared RENFE-SNCF high-speed rail connecting Barcelona and France (Paris, Marseilles and Toulouse, through Perpignan–Barcelona high-speed rail line) was launched in 2013. Both these lines serve Barcelona Sants terminal station.\n\nBesides RENFE's services, other rail services in the Barcelona area are operated by the Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat de Catalunya (FGC), owned by the Catalan government. The FGC operates largely commuter rail services, but also carries freight to the Port of Barcelona, as well as a number of rack railways and funiculars and three of the lines of the Barcelona Metro (see ''local public transport'' below). Other suburban services are operated by Rodalies de Catalunya over RENFE tracks.\n\n===Roads and highways===\nB-20 motorway in Barcelona.\n\nBarcelona lies on three international routes, including European route E15 that follows the Mediterranean coast, European route E90 to Madrid and Lisbon, and European route E09 to Paris. It is also served by a comprehensive network of motorways and highways throughout the metropolitan area, including A-2, A-7/AP-7, C-16, C-17, C-31, C-32, C-33, C-60.\n\nThe city is circled by three half ring roads or bypasses, Ronda de Dalt (B-20) (on the mountain side), Ronda del Litoral (B-10) (along the coast) and Ronda del Mig (separated into two parts: Travessera de Dalt in the north and the Gran Via de Carles III), two partially covered fast highways with several exits that bypass the city.\n\nThe city's main arteries include Diagonal Avenue, which crosses it diagonally, Meridiana Avenue which leads to Glòries and connects with Diagonal Avenue and Gran Via de les Corts Catalanes, which crosses the city from east to west, passing through its centre. The famous boulevard of La Rambla, whilst no longer an important vehicular route, remains an important pedestrian route.\n\nThe Estació del Nord (Northern Station), a former railway station which was renovated for the 1992 Olympic Games, now serves as the terminus for long-distance and regional bus services.\n\n===Local public transport===\nBarcelona Metro\n\nBarcelona is served by a comprehensive local public transport network that includes a metro, a bus network, two separate modern tram networks, a separate historic tram line, and several funiculars and aerial cable cars. Most of these networks and lines form a coordinated fare system, administered by the Autoritat del Transport Metropolità (ATM), although they are operated by a number of different bodies. This integrated public transport is divided into different zones (1 to 6) and depending on usage various Integrated Travel Cards are available.\n\nThe largely underground Barcelona Metro network comprises twelve lines, identified by an \"L\" followed by the line number as well as by individual colours. Eight of these lines are operated on dedicated track by the Transports Metropolitans de Barcelona (TMB), whilst four lines are operated by the Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat de Catalunya (FGC) and some of them share tracks with that company's commuter lines.\n\nBarcelona Tram\n\nAnother company, TRAMMET, operates the city's two modern tram networks, known as Trambaix and Trambesòs. The historic tram line, the Tramvia Blau, connects the metro (L7, operated by FGC) to the Funicular del Tibidabo (operated by TMB). The Funicular de Tibidabo climbs the Tibidabo hill, as does the Funicular de Vallvidrera (FGC). The Funicular de Montjuïc (TMB) climbs the Montjuïc hill. The city has two aerial cable cars: the Montjuïc Cable Car (to the Montjuïc castle) and the Port Vell Aerial Tramway that runs via Torre Jaume I and Torre Sant Sebastià over the port.\n\nBuses in Barcelona are a major form of public transport, with extensive local, interurban and night bus networks. Most local services are operated by the TMB, although some other services are operated by a number of private companies, albeit still within the ATM fare structure. A separate private bus line, known as Aerobús, links the airport with the city centre, with its own fare structure.\n\nTwo typical Barcelona taxis\n\nBarcelona has a metered taxi fleet governed by the Institut Metropolità del Taxi (Metropolitan Taxi Institute), composed of more than 10,000 cars. Most of the licences are in the hands of self-employed drivers. With their black and yellow livery, Barcelona's taxis are easily spotted, and can be caught from one of many taxi ranks, hailed on street, called by telephone or via app.\n\nOn 22 March 2007, Barcelona's City Council started the Bicing service, a bicycle service understood as a public transport. Once the user has their user card, they can take a bicycle from any of the more than 400 stations spread around the city and use it anywhere the urban area of the city, and then leave it at another station. The service has been a success, with 50,000 subscribed users in three months.\n",
"Sagrada Família church, Gaudí's masterpiece\n\nThe ''Barri Gòtic'' (Catalan for \"Gothic Quarter\") is the centre of the old city of Barcelona. Many of the buildings date from medieval times, some from as far back as the Roman settlement of Barcelona. Catalan ''modernista'' architecture (related to the movement known as Art Nouveau in the rest of Europe) developed between 1885 and 1950 and left an important legacy in Barcelona. Several of these buildings are World Heritage Sites. Especially remarkable is the work of architect Antoni Gaudí, which can be seen throughout the city. His best-known work is the immense but still unfinished church of the Sagrada Família, which has been under construction since 1882 and is still financed by private donations. , completion is planned for 2026.\n\nBarcelona was also home to Mies van der Rohe's Barcelona Pavilion. Designed in 1929 for the International Exposition for Germany, it was an iconic building that came to symbolise modern architecture as the embodiment of van der Rohe's aphorisms \"less is more\" and \"God is in the details.\" The Barcelona pavilion was intended as a temporary structure and was torn down in 1930 less than a year after it was constructed. A modern re-creation by Spanish architects now stands in Barcelona, however, constructed in 1986.\n\nBarcelona won the 1999 RIBA Royal Gold Medal for its architecture, the first (and , only) time that the winner has been a city rather than an individual architect.\n\nPlaça Reial\n\n===World Heritage Sites===\nBarcelona is the home of many points of interest declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO:\n\n\n\n\n200px\n150px\n200px\n200px\n\nName\nPark Güell\nPalau Güell\nCasa Milà\nCasa Vicens\n\nCode, year\n320-001, 1984\n320–002, 1984\n320–003, 1984\n320–004, 2005\n\nCoordinates\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n200px\n200px\n150px\n200px\n\nName\nSagrada Família\nCasa Batlló\nPalau de la Música Catalana\nHospital de Sant Pau\n\nCode, year\n320-005, 2005\n320–006, 2005\n804–001, 1997\n804–002, 1997\n\nCoordinates\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n===Historic buildings and monuments===\n\n\nBarcelona Cathedral\n\n* Minor basilica of Sagrada Família, the international symbol of Barcelona\n* Palau de la Música Catalana and Hospital de Sant Pau, designed by Lluís Domènech i Montaner, included in the UNESCO Heritage List in 1997.\n* Works by Antoni Gaudí, including Park Güell, Palau Güell, Casa Milà (La Pedrera), Casa Vicens, Sagrada Família (Nativity façade and crypt), Casa Batlló, Crypt in Colonia Güell. The first three works were inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 1984. The other four were added as extensions to the site in 2005.\n* The Cathedral of the Holy Cross and St. Eulalia (Gothic)\n* Gothic basilica of Santa Maria del Mar\n* Gothic basilica of Santa Maria del Pi\n* Romanesque church of Sant Pau del Camp\n* Palau Reial Major, medieval residence of the sovereign Counts of Barcelona, later Kings of Aragon\n* The Royal Shipyard (gothic)\n* Monastery of Pedralbes (gothic)\n* The Columbus Monument\n* The Arc de Triomf, a triumphal arch built for entrance to 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition.\n* Expiatory church of the Sacred Heart of Jesus on the summit of Tibidabo.\n\n===Museums===\n\nNational Museum of Art of Catalonia.\n\nBarcelona has a great number of museums, which cover different areas and eras. The National Museum of Art of Catalonia possesses a well-known collection of Romanesque art, while the Barcelona Museum of Contemporary Art focuses on post-1945 Catalan and Spanish art. The Fundació Joan Miró, Picasso Museum, and Fundació Antoni Tàpies hold important collections of these world-renowned artists, as well as the Can Framis Museum, focused on post-1960 Catalan Art owned by Fundació Vila Casas.\nSeveral museums cover the fields of history and archaeology, like the Barcelona City History Museum (MUHBA), the Museum of the History of Catalonia, the Archeology Museum of Catalonia, the Barcelona Maritime Museum, and the privately owned Egyptian Museum. The Erotic museum of Barcelona is among the most peculiar ones, while CosmoCaixa is a science museum that received the European Museum of the Year Award in 2006.\nThe FC Barcelona Museum has been the most visited museum in the city of Barcelona, with 1,506,022 visitors in 2013.\n\n===Parks===\nParc de la Ciutadella north of La Barceloneta\nBarcelona contains sixty municipal parks, twelve of which are historic, five of which are thematic (botanical), forty-five of which are urban, and six of which are forest. They range from vest-pocket parks to large recreation areas. The urban parks alone cover 10% of the city (). The total park surface grows about per year, with a proportion of of park area per inhabitant.\n\nOf Barcelona's parks, Montjuïc is the largest, with 203 ha located on the mountain of the same name. It is followed by Parc de la Ciutadella (which occupies the site of the old military citadel and which houses the Parliament building, the Barcelona Zoo, and several museums); including the zoo), the Guinardó Park (), Park Güell (designed by Antoni Gaudí; ), Oreneta Castle Park (also ), Diagonal Mar Park (, inaugurated in 2002), Nou Barris Central Park (), Can Dragó Sports Park and Poblenou Park (both ), the Labyrinth Park (), named after the garden maze it contains. There are also several smaller parks, for example, the Parc de Les Aigües (). A part of the Collserolla Park is also within the city limits. PortAventura, one of the largest amusement parks in Europe, with 3,000,000 visitors per year, is located one hour's drive from Barcelona. Also, within the city lies Tibidabo Amusement Park, a smaller amusement park in Plaza del Tibidabo, with the Muntanya Russa amusement ride.\n\n===Beaches===\nBeaches of Barcelona\nBarcelona beach was listed as number one in a list of the top ten city beaches in the world according to ''National Geographic'' and ''Discovery Channel''. Barcelona contains seven beaches, totalling of coastline. Sant Sebastià, Barceloneta and Somorrostro beaches, both in length, are the largest, oldest and the most-frequented beaches in Barcelona.\n\nThe Olympic Harbour separates them from the other city beaches: Nova Icària, Bogatell, Mar Bella, Nova Mar Bella and Llevant. These beaches (ranging from were opened as a result of the city restructuring to host the 1992 Summer Olympics, when a great number of industrial buildings were demolished. At present, the beach sand is artificially replenished given that storms regularly remove large quantities of material. The 2004 Universal Forum of Cultures left the city a large concrete bathing zone on the eastmost part of the city's coastline. Most recently, Llevant is the first beach to allow dogs access during summer season.\n",
"\nFile:Church of Santa Maria del Mar.jpg|Santa Maria del Mar church\nFile:Barcelona SMaria del Pi.jpg|Santa Maria del Pi church\nFile:Casa de l'Ardiaca 02.jpg|The Roman and Medieval walls\nFile:Can Framis BCN.JPG|Can Framis Museum\nFile:Observatori Fabra - Vista des del Tibidabo - 1.jpg|Fabra Observatory\nFile:Arc de Triomf Barcelona 2013.jpg|The Arc de Triomf\nFile:Barcelona - Castell dels Tres Dragons (2).JPG|Castell dels Tres Dragons\nFile:14-08-05-barcelona-RalfR-032.jpg|Hotel Arts (left) and Torre Mapfre (each in height\nFile:Barcelona March 2015-2a.jpg|Torre Agbar\nFile:Torre de Collserola 2013.jpg|The Torre de Collserola on the Tibidabo is the tallest structure in Barcelona (288.4m).\nFile:Barcelona in Parc Güell.JPG|The view from Gaudí's Park Güell\nFile:14-08-05-barcelona-RalfR-003.jpg|Port Vell Aerial Tramway\nFile:Barcelona August 2014 - Seilbahn de Montjuic 001.jpg|Montjuïc Cable Car\nFile:Monument a Colom, Barcelona, Spain - Jan 07.jpg|Statue of Christopher Columbus\nFile:14-08-05-barcelona-RalfR-001.jpg|W Barcelona (Hotel Vela)\nFile:353 Plaça de toros Monumental, c. Marina - Gran Via.JPG|La Monumental\nFile:Barcelona - Edificio Colón 3.jpg|Colón building\nFile:Bcn 3530 Palauet Albeniz pp.jpg|Palauet d'Albéniz\nFile:Tunnelaquarium 14-05-2009 15-54-09.JPG|Aquarium Barcelona\nFile:Barcelona - Font Màgica - 2016.jpg|Magic Fountain of Montjuïc\nFile:Temple Expiatori del Sagrat Cor 2013.jpg|Sagrat Cor\nFile:Torres venecianes Barcelona 2013.jpg|The Venetian Towers in Plaça d'Espanya\nFile:Catalunya Barcelona1 tango7174.jpg|Plaça de Catalunya\nFile:15-10-27-Vista des de l'estàtua de Colom a Barcelona-WMA 2791.jpg|La Rambla, a popular shopping street and promenade\nFile:Barcelona - Carrer del Bisbe.jpg|Gothic Quarter\nFile:Port Authority Barcelona 2013.jpg|Barcelona's old Customs building at Port Vell\n\n",
"\n\n===Twin towns and sister cities===\nBarcelona is twinned with the following cities:(in chronological order)\n\n\n* Montpellier, France, 1963\n* Tunis, Tunisia, 1969\n* Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1972\n* Monterrey, Mexico, 1977\n* Busan, South Korea, 1983\n* Boston, USA, 1983\n* Cologne, Germany, 1984\n* São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil, 1985\n* Montevideo, Uruguay, 1985\n* Saint Petersburg, Russia, 1985\n* Havana, Cuba, 1993\n* Kobe, Japan, 1993\n* Antwerp, Belgium, 1997\n* Istanbul, Turkey, 1997\n* Dublin, Ireland, 1998\n* Gaza, Palestine, 1998\n* Tel Aviv, Israel, 1998\n* Athens, Greece, 1999\n* Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2000\n* Valparaíso, Chile, 2001\n* Shanghai, China, 2001\n* Dubai, UAE, 2006\n* San Francisco, California, USA, 2010\n\n\n===Other partnerships and co-operations===\n\nOther forms of co-operation and city friendship similar to the twin city programmes exist to many cities worldwide.\n\n* Shenzhen, China\n\n",
"Figueras y Moragas\n*Olegarius (1060–1137), bishop, archbishop and saint\n*Joanna of Aragon (1454–1517), Queen of Naples\n*Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, 8th Duke of Alburquerque (1619–1676), military officer, viceroy of New Spain and viceroy of Sicily\n*Estanislao Figueras (1819–1882), lawyer and politician, 1st President of the First Spanish Republic\n*Francesc Pi (1824–1901), President of the First Spanish Republic\n*Francesca Bonnemaison i Farriols (1872–1949), educator, established the first library exclusively for women in Europe, in Barcelona in 1909\n*Joan Peiró (1887–1942), anarchist leader and writer\n*Joan Miró (1893–1983), painter and sculptor\n*Ricardo Zamora (1901–1978), professional football player\n*Paco Godia (1921–1990), Formula 1 racing driver\n*Antoni Tàpies (1923–2012), painter and sculptor\n*Jordi Pujol (born 1930), until 2003 Chairman of the CiU, from 1980 to 2003 Government of Catalonia\n*Montserrat Caballé (born 1933), operatic soprano\n* (born 1939), Writer and illustrator\n*Manuel Vázquez Montalbán (1939–2013), writer\n*Pasqual Maragall (born 1941), mayor of Barcelona from 1982 to 1997, from 2003 to 2006 Government of Catalonia\n*Artur Mas (born 1956), former Catalan president\n*Sito Pons (born 1959), motorcycle racing driver\n*Manuel Valls (born 1962), French politician of the Catalan descent of the Parti socialiste (PS), since 1 April 2014 French Prime Minister\n*Pedro de la Rosa (born 1971), an automobile racing driver\n*Arantxa Sánchez Vicario (born 1971), tennis player\n*Sete Gibernau (born 1972), motorcycle racing driver\n*Carlos Checa (born 1972), motorcycle racing driver\n*Pau Gasol (born 1980), profesional basketball player\n*Gerard Piqué (born 1987), professional football player\n",
"\n\n* Architecture of Barcelona\n* List of markets in Barcelona\n* List of tallest buildings in Barcelona\n* Plans for Winter Olympics held in Barcelona\n* Public art in Barcelona\n* Mobile World Congress\n",
"===Notes===\n\n\n===References===\n\n\n===Bibliography===\n* \n* \n* Busquets, Joan. ''Barcelona: The Urban Evolution of a Compact City'' (Harvard UP, 2006) 468 pp.\n* \n* Marshall, Tim, ed. ''Transforming Barcelona'' (Routledge, 2004), 267 pp.\n* Ramon Resina, Joan. ''Barcelona's Vocation of Modernity: Rise and Decline of an Urban Image'' (Stanford UP, 2008). 272 pp.\n",
"\n* Official website of Barcelona\n* Official website of Barcelona in the Spain's national tourism portal\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Names",
"History",
"Geography",
"Demographics",
"Economy",
"Government and administrative divisions",
"Education",
"Culture",
"Transport",
"Main sights",
"Other sights",
"International relations",
"Notable people",
"See also",
"Notes and references",
"External links"
] | Barcelona | [
"The Bank of Barcelona (''Taula de canvi''), probably the oldest public bank in Europe, was established by the city magistrates in 1401.",
"It originated from necessities of the state, as did the Bank of Venice (1402) and the Bank of Genoa (1407)."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Barcelona''' (, ) is the capital and largest city of Catalonia, an autonomous community in Spain, and the country's second most populous municipality, with a population of 1.6 million within city limits.",
"Its urban area extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of around 4.7 million people, being the sixth most populous urban area in the European Union after Paris, London, Madrid, the Ruhr area and Milan.",
"It is the largest metropolis on the Mediterranean Sea, located on the coast between the mouths of the rivers Llobregat and Besòs, and bounded to the west by the Serra de Collserola mountain range, the tallest peak of which is high.",
"Founded as a Roman city, in the Middle Ages Barcelona became the capital of the County of Barcelona.",
"After merging with the Kingdom of Aragon, Barcelona continued to be an important city in the Crown of Aragon as an economic and administrative centre of this Crown and the capital of the Principality of Catalonia.",
"Barcelona has a rich cultural heritage and is today an important cultural centre and a major tourist destination.",
"Particularly renowned are the architectural works of Antoni Gaudí and Lluís Domènech i Montaner, which have been designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites.",
"The headquarters of the Union for the Mediterranean is located in Barcelona.",
"The city is known for hosting the 1992 Summer Olympics as well as world-class conferences and expositions and also many international sport tournaments.",
"Barcelona is one of the world's leading tourist, economic, trade fair and cultural centres, and its influence in commerce, education, entertainment, media, fashion, science, and the arts all contribute to its status as one of the world's major global cities.",
"It is a major cultural and economic centre in southwestern Europe, 24th in the world (before Zürich, after Frankfurt) and a financial centre.",
"In 2008 it was the fourth most economically powerful city by GDP in the European Union and 35th in the world with GDP amounting to €177 billion.",
"In 2012 Barcelona had a GDP of $170 billion; it is leading Spain in both employment rate and GDP per capita change.",
"In 2009 the city was ranked Europe's third and one of the world's most successful as a city brand.",
"In the same year the city was ranked Europe's fourth best city for business and fastest improving European city, with growth improved by 17% per year, and the city has been experiencing strong and renewed growth for the past three years.",
"Since 2011 Barcelona has been a leading smart city in Europe.",
"Barcelona is a transport hub, with the Port of Barcelona being one of Europe's principal seaports and busiest European passenger port, an international airport, Barcelona–El Prat Airport, which handles over 40 million passengers per year, an extensive motorway network, and a high-speed rail line with a link to France and the rest of Europe.",
"The name ''Barcelona'' comes from the ancient Iberian ''Barkeno'', attested in an ancient coin inscription found on the right side of the coin in Iberian script as Barkeno in Levantine Iberian script, in ancient Greek sources as , ''Barkinṓn''; and in Latin as ''Barcino'', ''Barcilonum'' and ''Barcenona''.",
"Some older sources suggest that the city may have been named after the Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca, who was supposed to have founded the city in the 3rd century BC, but there is no evidence that Barcelona was ever a Carthaginian settlement, or that its name in antiquity, ''Barcino'', had any connection with the Barcid family of Hamilcar.",
"During the Middle Ages, the city was variously known as ''Barchinona'', ''Barçalona'', ''Barchelonaa'', and ''Barchenona''.",
"Internationally, Barcelona's name is wrongly abbreviated to 'Barça'.",
"However, this name refers only to FC Barcelona, the football club.",
"The common abbreviated form used by locals is ''Barna''.",
"Another common abbreviation is 'BCN', which is also the IATA airport code of the Barcelona-El Prat Airport.",
"The city is also referred to as the ''Ciutat Comtal'' in Catalan, and ''Ciudad Condal'' in Spanish, owing to its past as the seat of the Count of Barcelona.",
"\nA marble plaque in the Museu d'Història de la Ciutat de Barcelona, dated from around 110–130 AD and dedicated to the Roman colony of Barcino\n\n===Prehistory===\nThe origin of the earliest settlement at the site of present-day Barcelona is unclear.",
"The ruins of an early settlement have been \nfound, including different tombs and dwellings dating to earlier than 5000 BC.",
"The founding of Barcelona is the subject of two different legends.",
"The first attributes the founding of the city to the mythological Hercules.",
"The second legend attributes the foundation of the city directly to the historical Carthaginian general, Hamilcar Barca, father of Hannibal, who supposedly named the city ''Barcino'' after his family in the 3rd century BC, but there is no historical or linguistic evidence that this is true.",
"===Roman Barcelona===\nIn about 15 BC, the Romans redrew the town as a ''castrum'' (Roman military camp) centred on the \"''Mons Taber''\", a little hill near the contemporary city hall (Plaça de Sant Jaume).",
"Under the Romans, it was a colony with the surname of ''Faventia'', or, in full, ''Colonia Faventia Julia Augusta Pia Barcino'' or ''Colonia Julia Augusta Faventia Paterna Barcino''.",
"Pomponius Mela mentions it among the small towns of the district, probably as it was eclipsed by its neighbour ''Tarraco'' (modern Tarragona), but it may be gathered from later writers that it gradually grew in wealth and consequence, favoured as it was with a beautiful situation and an excellent harbour.",
"It enjoyed immunity from imperial burdens.",
"The city minted its own coins; some from the era of Galba survive.",
"Basílica de la Mercè\n\nImportant Roman vestiges are displayed in Plaça del Rei underground, as a part of the Barcelona City History Museum MUHBA; the typically Roman grid plan is still visible today in the layout of the historical centre, the ''Barri Gòtic'' (Gothic Quarter).",
"Some remaining fragments of the Roman walls have been incorporated into the cathedral.",
"The cathedral, also known as the Basilica ''La Seu'', is said to have been founded in 343.",
"===Medieval Barcelona===\nThe city was conquered by the Visigoths in the early 5th century, becoming for a few years the capital of all Hispania.",
"After being conquered by the Arabs in the early 8th century, it was conquered in 801 by Charlemagne's son Louis, who made Barcelona the seat of the Carolingian \"Hispanic March\" (''Marca Hispanica''), a buffer zone ruled by the Count of Barcelona.",
"The Counts of Barcelona became increasingly independent and expanded their territory to include all of Catalonia, although on 6 July 985, Barcelona was sacked by the army of Almanzor.",
"The sack was so traumatic that most of Barcelona's population was either killed or enslaved.",
"In 1137, Aragon and the County of Barcelona merged in dynastic union by the marriage of Ramon Berenguer IV and Petronilla of Aragon, their titles finally borne by only one person when their son Alfonso II of Aragon ascended to the throne in 1162.",
"His territories were later to be known as the Crown of Aragon, which conquered many overseas possessions and ruled the western Mediterranean Sea with outlying territories in Naples and Sicily and as far as Athens in the 13th century.",
"The forging of a dynastic link between the Crowns of Aragon and Castile marked the beginning of Barcelona's decline.",
"Barcelona in 1563\n\n===Barcelona under the Spanish monarchy===\nThe marriage of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile in 1469 united the two royal lines.",
"Madrid became the centre of political power whilst the colonisation of the Americas reduced the financial importance (at least in relative terms) of Mediterranean trade.",
"Barcelona was a centre of Catalan separatism, including the Catalan Revolt (1640–52) against Philip IV of Spain.",
"The great plague of 1650–1654 halved the city's population.",
"fortress at Montjuïc, most southerly point from which measurements were made when calculating the meridional definition of the metre\nIn the 18th century, a fortress was built at Montjuïc that overlooked the harbour.",
"In 1794, this fortress was used by the French astronomer Pierre François André Méchain for observations relating to a survey stretching to Dunkirk that provided the official basis of the measurement of a metre.",
"The definitive metre bar, manufactured from platinum, was presented to the French legislative assembly on 22 June 1799.",
"Much of Barcelona was negatively affected by the Napoleonic wars, but the start of industrialisation saw the fortunes of the province improve.",
"Urban planner Ildefons Cerdà designed the large Eixample district in the 1850s when the medieval city walls around Barcelona's old town were torn down.",
"===The Spanish civil war and the Franco period===\nDuring the Spanish Civil War, the city, and Catalonia in general, were resolutely Republican.",
"Many enterprises and public services were \"collectivized\" by the CNT and UGT unions.",
"As the power of the Republican government and the Generalitat diminished, much of the city was under the effective control of anarchist groups.",
"The anarchists lost control of the city to their own allies, the Communists and official government troops, after the street fighting of the Barcelona May Days.",
"The fall of the city on 26 January 1939, caused a mass exodus of civilians who fled to the French border.",
"The resistance of Barcelona to Franco's coup d'état was to have lasting effects after the defeat of the Republican government.",
"The autonomous institutions of Catalonia were abolished, and the use of the Catalan language in public life was suppressed.",
"Barcelona remained the second largest city in Spain, at the heart of a region which was relatively industrialised and prosperous, despite the devastation of the civil war.",
"The result was a large-scale immigration from poorer regions of Spain (particularly Andalusia, Murcia and Galicia), which in turn led to rapid urbanisation.",
"===Late twentieth century===\nIn 1992, Barcelona hosted the Summer Olympics.",
"The after-effects of this are credited with driving major changes in what had, up until then, been a largely industrial city.",
"As part of the preparation for the games, industrial buildings along the sea-front were demolished and two miles of beach were created.",
"New construction increased the road capacity of the city by 17%, the sewage handling capacity by 27% and the amount of new green areas and beaches by 78%.",
"Between 1990 and 2004, the number of hotel rooms in the city doubled.",
"Perhaps more importantly, the outside perception of the city was changed making, by 2012, Barcelona the 12th most popular city destination in the world and the 5th amongst European cities.",
"=== Recent history ===\nOn 17 August 2017, a van was driven into pedestrians on La Rambla in the city, killing 14 and injuring at least 100.",
"Other attacks took place elsewhere in Catalonia.",
"The Prime Minister of Spain, Mariano Rajoy, called the attack in Barcelona a jihadist attack.",
"Amaq News Agency attributed indirect responsibility for the attack to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL).",
"\n\n===Location===\nBarcelona from high altitude\n\nBarcelona is located on the northeast coast of the Iberian Peninsula, facing the Mediterranean Sea, on a plain approximately wide limited by the mountain range of Collserola, the Llobregat river to the southwest and the Besòs river to the north.",
"This plain covers an area of , of which are occupied by the city itself.",
"It is south of the Pyrenees and the Catalan border with France.",
"Tibidabo, high, offers striking views over the city and is topped by the Torre de Collserola, a telecommunications tower that is visible from most of the city.",
"Barcelona is peppered with small hills, most of them urbanised, that gave their name to the neighbourhoods built upon them, such as Carmel (), Putget () and Rovira ().",
"The escarpment of Montjuïc (), situated to the southeast, overlooks the harbour and is topped by Montjuïc castle, a fortress built in the 17–18th centuries to control the city as a replacement for the Ciutadella.",
"Today, the fortress is a museum and Montjuïc is home to several sporting and cultural venues, as well as Barcelona's biggest park and gardens.",
"The city borders on the municipalities of Santa Coloma de Gramenet and Sant Adrià de Besòs to the north; the Mediterranean Sea to the east; El Prat de Llobregat and L'Hospitalet de Llobregat to the south; and Sant Feliu de Llobregat, Sant Just Desvern, Esplugues de Llobregat, Sant Cugat del Vallès, and Montcada i Reixac to the west.",
"The municipality includes two small sparsely-inhabited exclaves to the north-west.",
"===Climate===\n\nBarcelona has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen ''Cfa'') bordering a maritime Mediterranean climate (''Csa''), with mild, humid winters and warm to hot summers, while the rainiest seasons are autumn and spring.",
"Its average annual temperature is during the day and at night.",
"The average annual temperature of the sea is about .",
"In the coldest month, January, the temperature typically ranges from during the day, at night and the average sea temperature is .",
"In the warmest month, August, the typical temperature ranges from during the day, about at night and the average sea temperature is .",
"Generally, the summer or \"holiday\" season lasts about six months, from May to October.",
"Two months – April and November – are transitional; sometimes the temperature exceeds , with an average temperature of during the day and at night.",
"December, January and February are the coldest months, with average temperatures around during the day and at night.",
"Large fluctuations in temperature are rare, particularly in the summer months.",
"Because of the proximity to the warm sea, frosts are very rare in the city of Barcelona.",
"In fact, only 1 day in the last 30 years was recorded with a temperature under the freezing mark, .",
"Snow is infrequent.",
"Barcelona averages 78 rainy days per year (≥ 1 mm), and annual average relative humidity is 72%, ranging from 69% in July to 75% in October.",
"Rainfall totals are highest in late summer and autumn (September–November) and lowest in early and mid-summer (June–August), with a secondary winter minimum (February–March).",
"Sunshine duration is 2,524 hours per year, from 138 (average 4.5 hours of sunshine a day) in December to 310 (average 10 hours of sunshine a day) in July.",
"Demographic evolution, 1900–2007, according to the Spanish Instituto Nacional de Estadística\n\nAccording to Barcelona's City Council, Barcelona's population as of 1 January 2016 was 1,608,746 people, on a land area of .",
"It is the main component of an administrative area of Greater Barcelona, with a population of 3,218,071 in an area of (density 5,060 hab/km²).",
"The population of the urban area was 4,223,000.",
"It is the central nucleus of the Barcelona metropolitan area, which relies on a population of 5,083,000.",
"Spanish is the most spoken language in Barcelona (according to the linguistic census held by the Government of Catalonia in 2013) and it is understood almost universally.",
"After Spanish, Catalan language is the second most spoken one in the city, and it is understood by 95% of the population, while 72.3% can speak it, 79% can read it, and 53% can write it, thanks to the language immersion educational system.",
"In 1900, Barcelona had a population of 533,000 people, which grew steadily but slowly until 1950, when it started absorbing a high number of people from other less-industrialized parts of Spain.",
"Barcelona's population peaked in 1979 with 1,906,998 people, and fell throughout the 1980s and 1990s as more people sought a higher quality of life in outlying cities in the Barcelona Metropolitan Area.",
"After bottoming out in 2000 with 1,496,266 people, the city's population began to rise again as younger people started to return, causing a great increase in housing prices.",
"===Population density===\nView over the Passeig de Gràcia avenue\n''Note: This text is entirely based on the municipal statistical database provided by the city council.''",
"Barcelona is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe.",
"For the year 2008 the city council calculated the population to 1,621,090 living in the 102.2 km2 sized municipality, giving the city an average population density of 15,926 inhabitants per square kilometre with Eixample being the most populated district.",
"In the case of Barcelona though, the land distribution is extremely uneven.",
"Half of the municipality or 50.2 km2, all of it located on the municipal edge is made up of the ten least densely populated neighbourhoods containing less than 10% of the city's population, the uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area and Montjuïc forest park.",
"Leaving the remaining 90% or slightly below 1.5 million inhabitants living on the remaining at an average density close to 28,500 inhabitants per square kilometre.",
"Of the 73 neighbourhoods in the city, 45 had a population density above 20,000 inhabitants per square kilometre with a combined population of 1,313,424 inhabitants living on 38.6 km2 at an average density of 33,987 inhabitants per square km.",
"The 30 most densely populated neighbourhoods accounted for 57.5% of the city population occupying only 22,7% of the municipality, or in other words, 936,406 people living at an average density of 40,322 inhabitants per square kilometre.",
"The city's highest density is found at and around the neighbourhood of la Sagrada Família where four of the city's most densely populated neighbourhoods are located side by side, all with a population density above 50,000 inhabitants per square kilometre.",
"===Migration===\n\n'''Largest groups of foreign residents in Barcelona'''\n\nNationality \n Population (2016)\n\n \n 26,676\n\n \n 19,160\n\n \n 18,434\n\n \n 13,506\n\n \n 12,537\n\n \n 9,291\n\n \n 8,682\n\n \n 8,109\n\n \n 7,944\n\n \n 7,904\n\n\nIn 2016 about 59% of the inhabitants of the city were born in Catalonia and 18.5% coming from the rest of the country.",
"In addition to that, 22.5% of the population was born outside of Spain, a proportion which has more than doubled since 2001 and more than quintupled cince 1996 when it was 8.6% respectively 3.9%.",
"The most important region of origin of migrants is Europe, with many coming from Italy (26,676) or France (13,506).",
"Moreover, many migrants come from Latin American nations as Bolivia, Ecuador or Colombia.",
"Since the 1990s, and similar to other migrants, many Latin Americans have settled in northern parts of the city.",
"There exists a relatively large Pakistani community in Barcelona with up to twenty thousand nationals.",
"The community consists of significantly more men than women.",
"Many of the Pakistanis are living in Ciutat Vella.",
"First Pakistani migrants came in the 1970s, with increasing numbers in the 1990s.",
"Other significant migrant groups come from Asia as from China and the Philippines.",
"There is a Japanese community clustered in Bonanova, Les Tres Torres, Pedralbes, and other northern neighbourhoods, and a Japanese international school serves that community.",
"===Religion===\n\nMost of the inhabitants state they are Roman Catholic (208 churches).",
"In a 2011 survey conducted by InfoCatólica, 49.5% of Barcelona residents of all ages identified themselves as Catholic.",
"This was the first time that more than half of respondents did not identify themselves as Catholic.",
"The numbers reflect a broader trend in Spain whereby the numbers of self-identified Catholics have declined.",
"The province has the largest Muslim community in Spain, 322,698 people in Barcelona province are of Muslim religion.",
"A considerable number of Muslims live in Barcelona due to immigration (169 locations, mostly professed by Moroccans in Spain).",
"In 2014, 322,698 out of 5.5 million people in the province of Barcelona identified themselves as Muslim, which makes 5.6% of total population.",
"The city also has the largest Jewish community in Spain, with an estimated 3,500 Jews living in the city.",
"There are also a number of other groups, including Evangelical (71 locations, mostly professed by Roma), Jehovah's Witnesses (21 Kingdom Halls), Buddhists (13 locations), and Eastern Orthodox.",
"===General information===\nSkyscrapers in Barcelona\n\nThe Barcelona metropolitan area comprises over 66% of the people of Catalonia, one of the richer regions in Europe and the fourth richest region per capita in Spain, with a GDP per capita amounting to €28,400 (16% more than the EU average).",
"The greater Barcelona metropolitan area had a GDP amounting to $177 billion (equivalent to $34,821 in per capita terms, 44% more than the EU average), making it the 4th most economically powerful city by gross GDP in the European Union, and 35th in the world in 2009.",
"Barcelona city had a very high GDP of €80,894 per head in 2004, according to Eurostat.",
"Furthermore, Barcelona was Europe's fourth best business city and fastest improving European city, with growth improved by 17% per year .",
"Barcelona was the 14th most \"livable city\" in the world in 2009 according to lifestyle magazine ''Monocle.''",
"Similarly, according to Innovation Analysts 2thinknow, Barcelona occupies 13th place in the world on ''Innovation Cities™ Global Index''.",
"Barcelona has a long-standing mercantile tradition.",
"Less well known is that the city industrialised early, taking off in 1833, when Catalonia's already sophisticated textile industry began to use steam power.",
"It became the first and most important industrial city in the Mediterranean basin.",
"Since then, manufacturing has played a large role in its history.",
"Borsa de Barcelona (''Barcelona Stock Exchange'') is the main stock exchange in the northeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula.",
"Barcelona was recognised as the Southern European City of the Future for 2014/15, based on its economic potential, by ''FDi Magazine'' in their bi-annual rankings.",
"===Trade fair and exhibitions===\n\n\nDrawing upon its tradition of creative art and craftsmanship, Barcelona is known for its award-winning industrial design.",
"It also has several congress halls, notably Fira de Barcelona – the second largest trade fair and exhibition centre in Europe, that host a quickly growing number of national and international events each year (at present above 50).",
"The total exhibition floor space of Fira de Barcelona venues is , not counting Gran Via centre on the Plaza de Europa.",
"However, the Eurozone crisis and deep cuts in business travel affected the Council's positioning of the city as a convention centre.",
"An important business centre, the World Trade Center Barcelona, is located in Barcelona's Port Vell harbour.",
"The city is known for hosting well as world-class conferences and expositions, including the 1888 ''Exposición Universal de Barcelona'', the 1929 Barcelona International Exposition (Expo 1929), the 2004 Universal Forum of Cultures and the 2004 World Urban Forum.",
"===Tourism===\nPart of the beach promenade and the beach of ''La Barceloneta'' towards Port Olimpic\n\nBarcelona was the 20th-most-visited city in the world by international visitors and the fifth most visited city in Europe after London, Paris, Istanbul and Rome, with 5.5 million international visitors in 2011.",
"By 2015, both Prague and Milan had more international visitors.",
"With its Rambles, Barcelona is ranked the most popular city to visit in Spain.",
"Barcelona as internationally renowned a tourist destination, with numerous recreational areas, one of the best beaches in the world, mild and warm climate, historical monuments, including eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 519 hotels as of March 2016 including 35 five star hotels, and developed tourist infrastructure.",
"Due to its large influx of tourists each year, Barcelona, like many other tourism capitals, has to deal with pickpockets, with wallets and passports being commonly stolen items.",
"For this reason, most travel guides recommend that visitors take precautions in order to ensure their possessions' safety, especially inside the metro premises.",
"Despite its moderate pickpocket rate, Barcelona is considered one of the safest cities in terms of health security and personal safety, mainly because of a sophisticated policing strategy that has dropped crime by 32% in just over three years and has led it to be considered the 15th safest city in the world by Business Insider.",
"===Manufacturing sector===\nIndustry generates 21% of the total gross domestic product (GDP) of the region, with the energy, chemical and metallurgy industries accounting for 47% of industrial production.",
"The Barcelona metropolitan area had 67% of the total number of industrial establishments in Catalonia as of 1997.",
"Barcelona has long been an important European automobile manufacturing centre.",
"Formerly there were automobile factories of AFA, Abadal, Actividades Industriales, Alvarez, America, Artés de Arcos, Balandrás, Baradat-Esteve, Biscúter, J. Castro, Clúa, David, Delfín, Díaz y Grilló, Ebro trucks, Edis, Elizalde, Automóviles España, Eucort, Fenix, Fábrica Hispano, Auto Academia Garriga, Fábrica Española de Automóviles Hebe, Hispano-Suiza, Huracán Motors, Talleres Hereter, Junior SL, Kapi, La Cuadra, M.A., Automóviles Matas, Motores y Motos, Nacional Custals, National Pescara, Nacional RG, Nacional Rubi, Nacional Sitjes, Automóviles Nike, Orix, Otro Ford, Partia, Pegaso, PTV, Ricart, Ricart-España, Industrias Salvador, Siata Española, Stevenson, Romagosa y Compañía, Garaje Storm, Talleres Hereter, Trimak, Automóviles Victoria, Manufacturas Mecánicas Aleu.",
"Today, the headquarters and a large factory of SEAT (the largest Spanish automobile manufacturer) are in one of its suburbs.",
"There is also a Nissan factory in the logistics and industrial area of the city.",
"The factory of Derbi, a large manufacturer of motorcycles, scooters and mopeds, also lies near the city.",
"As in other modern cities, the manufacturing sector has long since been overtaken by the services sector, though it remains very important.",
"The region's leading industries are textiles, chemical, pharmaceutical, motor, electronic, printing, logistics, publishing, in telecommunications industry and culture the notable Mobile World Congress, and information technology services.",
"===Fashion===\nThe Brandery fashion show of 2011\n\nThe traditional importance of textiles is reflected in Barcelona's drive to become a major fashion centre.",
"There have been many attempts to launch Barcelona as a fashion capital, notably ''Gaudi Home''.",
"Beginning in the summer of 2000, the city hosted the prestigious Bread & Butter urban fashion fair until 2009, when its organisers announced that it would be returning to Berlin.",
"This was a hard blow for the city as the fair brought €100 m to the city in just three days.",
"Since 2009, ''The Brandery'', an urban fashion show, has been held in Barcelona twice a year until 2012.",
"According to the Global Language Monitor’s annual ranking of the world's top fifty fashion capitals Barcelona was named as the seventh most important fashion capital of the world right after Milano and before Berlin in 2015 .",
"\nPalau de la Generalitat de Catalunya\n\nAs the capital of the autonomous community of Catalonia, Barcelona is the seat of the Catalan government, known as the ''Generalitat de Catalunya''; of particular note are the executive branch, the parliament, and the Supreme Court of Catalonia.",
"The city is also the capital of the Province of Barcelona and the Barcelonès comarca (district).",
"Barcelona is governed by a city council formed by 41 city councillors, elected for a four-year term by universal suffrage.",
"As one of the two biggest cities in Spain, Barcelona is subject to a special law articulated through the ''Carta Municipal'' (Municipal Law).",
"A first version of this law was passed in 1960 and amended later, but the current version was approved in March 2006.",
"According to this law, Barcelona's city council is organised in two levels: a political one, with elected city councillors, and one executive, which administrates the programs and executes the decisions taken on the political level.",
"This law also gives the local government a special relationship with the central government and it also gives the mayor wider prerogatives by the means of municipal executive commissions.",
"It expands the powers of the city council in areas like telecommunications, city traffic, road safety and public safety.",
"It also gives a special economic regime to the city's treasury and it gives the council a veto in matters that will be decided by the central government, but that will need a favourable report from the council.",
"The City Hall of Barcelona\n\nThe ''Comissió de Govern'' (Government Commission) is the executive branch, formed by 24 councillors, led by the Mayor, with 5 lieutenant-mayors and 17 city councillors, each in charge of an area of government, and 5 non-elected councillors.",
"The plenary, formed by the 41 city councillors, has advisory, planning, regulatory, and fiscal executive functions.",
"The six ''Commissions del Consell Municipal'' (City council commissions) have executive and controlling functions in the field of their jurisdiction.",
"They are composed by a number of councillors proportional to the number of councillors each political party has in the plenary.",
"The city council has jurisdiction in the fields of city planning, transportation, municipal taxes, public highways security through the ''Guàrdia Urbana'' (the municipal police), city maintenance, gardens, parks and environment, facilities (like schools, nurseries, sports centres, libraries, and so on), culture, sports, youth and social welfare.",
"Some of these competencies are not exclusive, but shared with the Generalitat de Catalunya or the central Spanish government.",
"In some fields with shared responsibility (such as public health, education or social services), there is a shared Agency or Consortium between the city and the Generalitat to plan and manage services.",
"The Saló de Cent, in the City Hall of Barcelona.",
"The executive branch is led by a Chief Municipal Executive Officer which answers to the Mayor.",
"It is made up of departments which are legally part of the city council and by separate legal entities of two types: autonomous public departments and public enterprises.",
"The seat of the city council is on the Plaça de Sant Jaume, opposite the seat of Generalitat de Catalunya.",
"Since the coming of the Spanish democracy, Barcelona had been governed by the PSC, first with an absolute majority and later in coalition with ERC and ICV.",
"After the May 2007 election, the ERC did not renew the coalition agreement and the PSC governed in a minority coalition with ICV as the junior partner.",
"After 32 years, on 22 May 2011, CiU gained a plurality of seats at the municipal election, gaining 15 seats to the PSC's 11.",
"The PP hold 8 seats, ICV 5 and ERC 2.",
"===Districts===\nDistricts of Barcelona\n\n\nSince 1987, the city has been divided into 10 administrative districts (''districtes'' in Catalan, ''distritos'' in Spanish):\n* Ciutat Vella\n* Eixample\n* Sants-Montjuïc\n* Les Corts\n* Sarrià-Sant Gervasi\n* Gràcia\n* Horta-Guinardó\n* Nou Barris\n* Sant Andreu\n* Sant Martí\n\nThe districts are based mostly on historical divisions, and several are former towns annexed by the city of Barcelona in the 18th and 19th centuries that still maintain their own distinct character.",
"Each district has its own council led by a city councillor.",
"The composition of each district council depends on the number of votes each political party had in that district, so a district can be led by a councillor from a different party than the executive council.",
"\nMain hall of the University of Barcelona\n\nBarcelona has a well-developed higher education system of public universities.",
"Most prominent among these is the University of Barcelona (established in 1450), a world-renowned research and teaching institution with campuses around the city.",
"Barcelona is also home to the Polytechnic University of Catalonia, and the newer Pompeu Fabra University, and, in the private sector the EADA Business School founded in 1957, became the first Barcelona institution to run manager training programmes for the business community.",
"IESE Business School, as well as the largest private educational institution, the Ramon Llull University, which encompasses internationally prestigious schools and institutes such as the ESADE Business School.",
"The Autonomous University of Barcelona, another public university, is located in Bellaterra, a town in the Metropolitan Area.",
"Toulouse Business School and the Open University of Catalonia (a private Internet-centred open university) are also based in Barcelona.",
"Building of the faculty of Law of the University of Barcelona\n\nThe city has a network of public schools, from nurseries to high schools, under the responsibility of a consortium led by city council (though the curriculum is the responsibility of the Generalitat de Catalunya).",
"There are also many private schools, some of them Roman Catholic.",
"Most such schools receive a public subsidy on a per-student basis, are subject to inspection by the public authorities, and are required to follow the same curricular guidelines as public schools, though they charge tuition.",
"Known as ''escoles concertades'', they are distinct from schools whose funding is entirely private (''escoles privades'').",
"The language of instruction at public schools and ''escoles concertades'' is Catalan, as stipulated by the 2009 Catalan Education Act.",
"Spanish may be used as a language of instruction by teachers of Spanish literature or language, and foreign languages by teachers of those languages.",
"An experimental partial immersion programme adopted by some schools allows for the teaching of a foreign language (English, generally) across the curriculum, though this is limited to a maximum of 30% of the school day.",
"No public school or ''escola concertada'' in Barcelona may offer 50% or full immersion programmes in a foreign language, nor does any public school or ''escola concertada'' offer International Baccalaureate programmes.",
"\nBarcelona's cultural roots go back 2000 years.",
"Since the arrival of democracy, the Catalan language (very much repressed during the dictatorship of Franco) has been promoted, both by recovering works from the past and by stimulating the creation of new works.",
"Barcelona is designated as a world-class city by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network.",
"===Entertainment and performing arts===\n\nThe Liceu opera house\n\nBarcelona has many venues for live music and theatre, including the world-renowned Gran Teatre del Liceu opera house, the Teatre Nacional de Catalunya, the Teatre Lliure and the Palau de la Música Catalana concert hall.",
"Barcelona also is home to the Barcelona and Catalonia National Symphonic Orchestra (Orquestra Simfònica de Barcelona i Nacional de Catalunya, usually known as OBC), the largest symphonic orchestra in Catalonia.",
"In 1999, the OBC inaugurated its new venue in the brand-new Auditorium (''l'Auditori'').",
"It performs around 75 concerts per season and its current director is Eiji Oue.",
"It is home to the Barcelona Guitar Orchestra, directed by Sergi Vicente.",
"The major thoroughfare of La Rambla is home to mime artists and street performers.",
"Yearly, two major pop music festivals take place in the city, the Sónar Festival and the Primavera Sound Festival.",
"The city also has a thriving alternative music scene, with groups such as The Pinker Tones receiving international attention.",
"===Media===\n''El Periódico de Catalunya'', ''La Vanguardia'' and ''Ara'' are Barcelona's three major daily newspapers (the first two with Catalan and Spanish editions, ''Ara'' only in Catalan) while ''Sport'' and ''El Mundo Deportivo'' (both in Spanish) are the city's two major sports daily newspapers, published by the same companies.",
"The city is also served by a number of smaller publications such as ''Ara'' and ''El Punt Avui'' (in Catalan), by nationwide newspapers with special Barcelona editions like ''El Pais'' (in Spanish, with an online version in Catalan) and ''El Mundo'' (in Spanish), and by several free newspapers like ''20 minutos'' and ''Què'' (all bilingual).",
"Barcelona's oldest and main online newspaper ''VilaWeb'' is also the oldest one in Europe (with Catalan and English editions).",
"Several major FM stations include Catalunya Ràdio, RAC 1, RAC 105 and Cadena SER.",
"Barcelona also has a local TV stations, BTV, owned by city council.",
"The headquarters of Televisió de Catalunya, Catalonia's public network, are located in Sant Joan Despí, in Barcelona's metropolitan area.",
"===Sports===\n\nEstadi Olímpic de Montjuïc (Barcelona Olympic Stadium) built for the 1936 Summer Olympics named ''People's Olympiad'', main stadium of 1992 Summer Olympics.",
"Barcelona has a long sporting tradition and hosted the highly successful 1992 Summer Olympics as well as several matches during the 1982 FIFA World Cup (at the two stadiums).",
"It has also hosted, among others, about 30 sports events of international significance.",
"The Camp Nou, the largest stadium in Europe.",
"FC Barcelona is a sports club best known worldwide for its football team, one of the largest in the world and second richest football club in the world.",
"It has 70 of national (likewise 46 runners-up) and 17 continental (likewise 11 runners-up) trophies, including five of the UEFA Champions League (likewise 3 runners-up) and three of the FIFA Club World Cup (likewise 1 runners-up).",
"Also, it is the only men's club in the world to accomplish a sextuple.",
"FC Barcelona also has professional teams in other sports like FC Barcelona Regal (basketball), FC Barcelona Handbol (handball), FC Barcelona Hoquei (roller hockey), FC Barcelona Ice Hockey (ice hockey), FC Barcelona Futsal (futsal) and FC Barcelona Rugby (rugby union), all of them winners of the highest country or/and European competitions.",
"The club's museum is the second most visited in Catalonia and frist statue famus and world the symbol in total Catalonia is Lionel Messi Catalan and FC Barcelona flag have dedicated Barcelona fans a statue in the center of the city with mesh number 10 with brilliant colors.",
"At least twice a season, FC Barcelona and cross-town rivals RCD Espanyol contest in the local derby in La Liga, while its basketball section has its own local derby in Liga ACB with nearby Joventut Badalona.",
"Barcelona also has other clubs in lower categories, like CE Europa and UE Sant Andreu.",
"Palau Sant Jordi (St. George's sporting arena) and Montjuïc Communications Tower\nBarcelona has two UEFA elite stadiums: FC Barcelona's Camp Nou, the largest stadium in Europe with a capacity of 100,000 and the publicly owned Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys, with a capacity of 55,000; used for the 1992 Olympics.",
"Also, the city has several smaller stadiums such as Mini Estadi (also owned by FC Barcelona), with a capacity of 15,000 and Camp Municipal Narcís Sala, Nou Sardenya with a capacity of 7,000.",
"In the suburbs of Barcelona there is a third UEFA elite stadium – Estadi Cornellà-El Prat, with a capacity of 40,000.",
"Also, except Palau Sant Jordi (''St.",
"George's sporting arena''), with a capacity of 12,000–24,000 (depending on use), city has two other larger sporting and concert arena: Palau Blaugrana, with a capacity of 7,500 and Palau dels Esports de Barcelona.",
"Barcelona was also the host city for the 2013 World Aquatics Championships, which were held at the Palau San Jordi.",
"Circuit de Catalunya/Circuit de Barcelona, race track of Formula 1 and MotoGP on the suburb of Barcelona.",
"Several road running competitions are organised year-round in Barcelona: the Barcelona Marathon every March with over 10,000 participants in 2010, the Cursa de Bombers in April, the Cursa de El Corte Inglés in May (with about 60,000 participants each year), the Cursa de la Mercè, the Cursa Jean Bouin, the Milla Sagrada Família and the San Silvestre.",
"There's also Ultratrail Collserola which passes through Collserola forest.",
"The Open Seat Godó, a 50-year-old ATP World Tour 500 Series tennis tournament, is held annually in the facilities of the Real Club de Tenis Barcelona (Barcelona Royal Tennis Club).",
"Also, each Christmas, a swimming race across the port is organised.",
"Near Barcelona, in Montmeló, the 107,000 capacity Circuit de Catalunya / Circuit de Barcelona racetrack hosts the Formula One World Championship, Formula One Spanish Grand Prix, Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix, Spanish GT Championship and GP2 Series.",
"Skateboarding and bicycling are also very popular in Barcelona.",
"In the city and the metropolitan area, there are tens of km of bicycle paths.",
"+ '''Top sport clubs in Barcelona:'''\n\nClub\nLeague\nSport\nVenue\nEstablished\nCapacity\n\nFC Barcelona\nPrimera División\nFootball\nCamp Nou\n1899\n100,000\n\nRCD Espanyol\nPrimera División\nFootball\nEstadi Cornellà-El Prat\n1900\n40,500\n\nCE Europa\nTercera División\nFootball\nNou Sardenya\n1907\n7,000\n\nFC Barcelona Bàsquet\nPrimera División\nBasketball\nPalau Blaugrana\n1926\n7,585\n\nFC Barcelona Handbol\nPrimera División\nHandball\nPalau Blaugrana\n1942\n7,585\n\nFC Barcelona Ice Hockey\nPrimera División\nIce hockey\nPalau de Gel\n1972\n1,256\n\nFC Barcelona Hoquei\nPrimera División\nRoller hockey\nPalau Blaugrana\n1942\n7,585\n\nFC Barcelona Futsal\nPrimera División\nFutsal\nPalau Blaugrana\n1986\n7,585\n\nFC Barcelona Rugby\nPrimera División\nRugby union\nCDMVdHT\n1924\nno data\n\nBarcelona Dragons\nWorld League\nAmerican football\nEstadi Olímpic Lluís Companys\n1991 (withheld)\n56,000\n\nBarcelona Búfals\nPrimera División\nAmerican football\nCamp Municipal Narcís Sala\n1987\n 6,550",
"\n\n===Airports===\nThe Barcelona–El Prat Airport as seen from the air\nBarcelona is served by Barcelona-El Prat Airport, about from the centre of Barcelona.",
"It is the second-largest airport in Spain, and the largest on the Mediterranean coast, which handled more than 44.1 million passengers in 2016, showing an annual upward trend.",
"It is a main hub for Vueling Airlines and Ryanair, and also a focus for Iberia and Air Europa.",
"The airport mainly serves domestic and European destinations, although some airlines offer destinations in Latin America, Asia and the United States.",
"The airport is connected to the city by highway, metro (Airport T1 and Airport T2 stations), commuter train (Barcelona Airport railway station) and scheduled bus service.",
"A new terminal (T1) has been built, and entered service on 17 June 2009.",
"Some low-cost airlines, also use Girona-Costa Brava Airport, about to the north, Reus Airport, to the south, or Lleida-Alguaire Airport, about to the west, of the city.",
"Sabadell Airport is a smaller airport in the nearby town of Sabadell, devoted to pilot training, aerotaxi and private flights.",
"===Seaport===\nThe Port of Barcelona\n\nThe Port of Barcelona has a 2000-year-old history and a great contemporary commercial importance.",
"It is Europe's ninth largest container port, with a trade volume of 1.72 million TEU's in 2013.",
"The port is managed by the Port Authority of Barcelona.",
"Its are divided into three zones: Port Vell (the old port), the commercial port and the logistics port (Barcelona Free Port).",
"The port is undergoing an enlargement that will double its size thanks to diverting the mouth of the Llobregat river (1¼ mi) to the south.",
"The Port Vell in winter\n\nThe Barcelona harbour is the leading European cruiser port and a most important Mediterranean turnaround base.",
"In 2013, 3,6 million of pleasure cruises passengers used services of the Port of Barcelona.",
"The Port Vell area also houses the Maremagnum (a commercial mall), a multiplex cinema, the IMAX Port Vell and one of Europe's largest aquariums – Aquarium Barcelona, containing 8,000 fish and 11 sharks contained in 22 basins filled with 4 million litres of sea water.",
"The Maremagnum, being situated within the confines of the port, is the only commercial mall in the city that can open on Sundays and public holidays.",
"===Railway===\nEstación de Sants\n\nBarcelona is a major hub for RENFE, the Spanish state railway network.",
"The city's main Inter-city rail station is Barcelona Sants railway station, whilst Estació de França terminus serves a secondary role handling suburban, regional and medium distance services.",
"Freight services operate to local industries and to the Port of Barcelona.",
"RENFE's AVE high-speed rail system, which is designed for speeds of , was extended from Madrid to Barcelona in 2008 in the form of the Madrid–Barcelona high-speed rail line.",
"A shared RENFE-SNCF high-speed rail connecting Barcelona and France (Paris, Marseilles and Toulouse, through Perpignan–Barcelona high-speed rail line) was launched in 2013.",
"Both these lines serve Barcelona Sants terminal station.",
"Besides RENFE's services, other rail services in the Barcelona area are operated by the Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat de Catalunya (FGC), owned by the Catalan government.",
"The FGC operates largely commuter rail services, but also carries freight to the Port of Barcelona, as well as a number of rack railways and funiculars and three of the lines of the Barcelona Metro (see ''local public transport'' below).",
"Other suburban services are operated by Rodalies de Catalunya over RENFE tracks.",
"===Roads and highways===\nB-20 motorway in Barcelona.",
"Barcelona lies on three international routes, including European route E15 that follows the Mediterranean coast, European route E90 to Madrid and Lisbon, and European route E09 to Paris.",
"It is also served by a comprehensive network of motorways and highways throughout the metropolitan area, including A-2, A-7/AP-7, C-16, C-17, C-31, C-32, C-33, C-60.",
"The city is circled by three half ring roads or bypasses, Ronda de Dalt (B-20) (on the mountain side), Ronda del Litoral (B-10) (along the coast) and Ronda del Mig (separated into two parts: Travessera de Dalt in the north and the Gran Via de Carles III), two partially covered fast highways with several exits that bypass the city.",
"The city's main arteries include Diagonal Avenue, which crosses it diagonally, Meridiana Avenue which leads to Glòries and connects with Diagonal Avenue and Gran Via de les Corts Catalanes, which crosses the city from east to west, passing through its centre.",
"The famous boulevard of La Rambla, whilst no longer an important vehicular route, remains an important pedestrian route.",
"The Estació del Nord (Northern Station), a former railway station which was renovated for the 1992 Olympic Games, now serves as the terminus for long-distance and regional bus services.",
"===Local public transport===\nBarcelona Metro\n\nBarcelona is served by a comprehensive local public transport network that includes a metro, a bus network, two separate modern tram networks, a separate historic tram line, and several funiculars and aerial cable cars.",
"Most of these networks and lines form a coordinated fare system, administered by the Autoritat del Transport Metropolità (ATM), although they are operated by a number of different bodies.",
"This integrated public transport is divided into different zones (1 to 6) and depending on usage various Integrated Travel Cards are available.",
"The largely underground Barcelona Metro network comprises twelve lines, identified by an \"L\" followed by the line number as well as by individual colours.",
"Eight of these lines are operated on dedicated track by the Transports Metropolitans de Barcelona (TMB), whilst four lines are operated by the Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat de Catalunya (FGC) and some of them share tracks with that company's commuter lines.",
"Barcelona Tram\n\nAnother company, TRAMMET, operates the city's two modern tram networks, known as Trambaix and Trambesòs.",
"The historic tram line, the Tramvia Blau, connects the metro (L7, operated by FGC) to the Funicular del Tibidabo (operated by TMB).",
"The Funicular de Tibidabo climbs the Tibidabo hill, as does the Funicular de Vallvidrera (FGC).",
"The Funicular de Montjuïc (TMB) climbs the Montjuïc hill.",
"The city has two aerial cable cars: the Montjuïc Cable Car (to the Montjuïc castle) and the Port Vell Aerial Tramway that runs via Torre Jaume I and Torre Sant Sebastià over the port.",
"Buses in Barcelona are a major form of public transport, with extensive local, interurban and night bus networks.",
"Most local services are operated by the TMB, although some other services are operated by a number of private companies, albeit still within the ATM fare structure.",
"A separate private bus line, known as Aerobús, links the airport with the city centre, with its own fare structure.",
"Two typical Barcelona taxis\n\nBarcelona has a metered taxi fleet governed by the Institut Metropolità del Taxi (Metropolitan Taxi Institute), composed of more than 10,000 cars.",
"Most of the licences are in the hands of self-employed drivers.",
"With their black and yellow livery, Barcelona's taxis are easily spotted, and can be caught from one of many taxi ranks, hailed on street, called by telephone or via app.",
"On 22 March 2007, Barcelona's City Council started the Bicing service, a bicycle service understood as a public transport.",
"Once the user has their user card, they can take a bicycle from any of the more than 400 stations spread around the city and use it anywhere the urban area of the city, and then leave it at another station.",
"The service has been a success, with 50,000 subscribed users in three months.",
"Sagrada Família church, Gaudí's masterpiece\n\nThe ''Barri Gòtic'' (Catalan for \"Gothic Quarter\") is the centre of the old city of Barcelona.",
"Many of the buildings date from medieval times, some from as far back as the Roman settlement of Barcelona.",
"Catalan ''modernista'' architecture (related to the movement known as Art Nouveau in the rest of Europe) developed between 1885 and 1950 and left an important legacy in Barcelona.",
"Several of these buildings are World Heritage Sites.",
"Especially remarkable is the work of architect Antoni Gaudí, which can be seen throughout the city.",
"His best-known work is the immense but still unfinished church of the Sagrada Família, which has been under construction since 1882 and is still financed by private donations.",
", completion is planned for 2026.",
"Barcelona was also home to Mies van der Rohe's Barcelona Pavilion.",
"Designed in 1929 for the International Exposition for Germany, it was an iconic building that came to symbolise modern architecture as the embodiment of van der Rohe's aphorisms \"less is more\" and \"God is in the details.\"",
"The Barcelona pavilion was intended as a temporary structure and was torn down in 1930 less than a year after it was constructed.",
"A modern re-creation by Spanish architects now stands in Barcelona, however, constructed in 1986.",
"Barcelona won the 1999 RIBA Royal Gold Medal for its architecture, the first (and , only) time that the winner has been a city rather than an individual architect.",
"Plaça Reial\n\n===World Heritage Sites===\nBarcelona is the home of many points of interest declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO:\n\n\n\n\n200px\n150px\n200px\n200px\n\nName\nPark Güell\nPalau Güell\nCasa Milà\nCasa Vicens\n\nCode, year\n320-001, 1984\n320–002, 1984\n320–003, 1984\n320–004, 2005\n\nCoordinates\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n200px\n200px\n150px\n200px\n\nName\nSagrada Família\nCasa Batlló\nPalau de la Música Catalana\nHospital de Sant Pau\n\nCode, year\n320-005, 2005\n320–006, 2005\n804–001, 1997\n804–002, 1997\n\nCoordinates\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n===Historic buildings and monuments===\n\n\nBarcelona Cathedral\n\n* Minor basilica of Sagrada Família, the international symbol of Barcelona\n* Palau de la Música Catalana and Hospital de Sant Pau, designed by Lluís Domènech i Montaner, included in the UNESCO Heritage List in 1997.",
"* Works by Antoni Gaudí, including Park Güell, Palau Güell, Casa Milà (La Pedrera), Casa Vicens, Sagrada Família (Nativity façade and crypt), Casa Batlló, Crypt in Colonia Güell.",
"The first three works were inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 1984.",
"The other four were added as extensions to the site in 2005.",
"* The Cathedral of the Holy Cross and St. Eulalia (Gothic)\n* Gothic basilica of Santa Maria del Mar\n* Gothic basilica of Santa Maria del Pi\n* Romanesque church of Sant Pau del Camp\n* Palau Reial Major, medieval residence of the sovereign Counts of Barcelona, later Kings of Aragon\n* The Royal Shipyard (gothic)\n* Monastery of Pedralbes (gothic)\n* The Columbus Monument\n* The Arc de Triomf, a triumphal arch built for entrance to 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition.",
"* Expiatory church of the Sacred Heart of Jesus on the summit of Tibidabo.",
"===Museums===\n\nNational Museum of Art of Catalonia.",
"Barcelona has a great number of museums, which cover different areas and eras.",
"The National Museum of Art of Catalonia possesses a well-known collection of Romanesque art, while the Barcelona Museum of Contemporary Art focuses on post-1945 Catalan and Spanish art.",
"The Fundació Joan Miró, Picasso Museum, and Fundació Antoni Tàpies hold important collections of these world-renowned artists, as well as the Can Framis Museum, focused on post-1960 Catalan Art owned by Fundació Vila Casas.",
"Several museums cover the fields of history and archaeology, like the Barcelona City History Museum (MUHBA), the Museum of the History of Catalonia, the Archeology Museum of Catalonia, the Barcelona Maritime Museum, and the privately owned Egyptian Museum.",
"The Erotic museum of Barcelona is among the most peculiar ones, while CosmoCaixa is a science museum that received the European Museum of the Year Award in 2006.",
"The FC Barcelona Museum has been the most visited museum in the city of Barcelona, with 1,506,022 visitors in 2013.",
"===Parks===\nParc de la Ciutadella north of La Barceloneta\nBarcelona contains sixty municipal parks, twelve of which are historic, five of which are thematic (botanical), forty-five of which are urban, and six of which are forest.",
"They range from vest-pocket parks to large recreation areas.",
"The urban parks alone cover 10% of the city ().",
"The total park surface grows about per year, with a proportion of of park area per inhabitant.",
"Of Barcelona's parks, Montjuïc is the largest, with 203 ha located on the mountain of the same name.",
"It is followed by Parc de la Ciutadella (which occupies the site of the old military citadel and which houses the Parliament building, the Barcelona Zoo, and several museums); including the zoo), the Guinardó Park (), Park Güell (designed by Antoni Gaudí; ), Oreneta Castle Park (also ), Diagonal Mar Park (, inaugurated in 2002), Nou Barris Central Park (), Can Dragó Sports Park and Poblenou Park (both ), the Labyrinth Park (), named after the garden maze it contains.",
"There are also several smaller parks, for example, the Parc de Les Aigües ().",
"A part of the Collserolla Park is also within the city limits.",
"PortAventura, one of the largest amusement parks in Europe, with 3,000,000 visitors per year, is located one hour's drive from Barcelona.",
"Also, within the city lies Tibidabo Amusement Park, a smaller amusement park in Plaza del Tibidabo, with the Muntanya Russa amusement ride.",
"===Beaches===\nBeaches of Barcelona\nBarcelona beach was listed as number one in a list of the top ten city beaches in the world according to ''National Geographic'' and ''Discovery Channel''.",
"Barcelona contains seven beaches, totalling of coastline.",
"Sant Sebastià, Barceloneta and Somorrostro beaches, both in length, are the largest, oldest and the most-frequented beaches in Barcelona.",
"The Olympic Harbour separates them from the other city beaches: Nova Icària, Bogatell, Mar Bella, Nova Mar Bella and Llevant.",
"These beaches (ranging from were opened as a result of the city restructuring to host the 1992 Summer Olympics, when a great number of industrial buildings were demolished.",
"At present, the beach sand is artificially replenished given that storms regularly remove large quantities of material.",
"The 2004 Universal Forum of Cultures left the city a large concrete bathing zone on the eastmost part of the city's coastline.",
"Most recently, Llevant is the first beach to allow dogs access during summer season.",
"\nFile:Church of Santa Maria del Mar.jpg|Santa Maria del Mar church\nFile:Barcelona SMaria del Pi.jpg|Santa Maria del Pi church\nFile:Casa de l'Ardiaca 02.jpg|The Roman and Medieval walls\nFile:Can Framis BCN.JPG|Can Framis Museum\nFile:Observatori Fabra - Vista des del Tibidabo - 1.jpg|Fabra Observatory\nFile:Arc de Triomf Barcelona 2013.jpg|The Arc de Triomf\nFile:Barcelona - Castell dels Tres Dragons (2).JPG|Castell dels Tres Dragons\nFile:14-08-05-barcelona-RalfR-032.jpg|Hotel Arts (left) and Torre Mapfre (each in height\nFile:Barcelona March 2015-2a.jpg|Torre Agbar\nFile:Torre de Collserola 2013.jpg|The Torre de Collserola on the Tibidabo is the tallest structure in Barcelona (288.4m).",
"File:Barcelona in Parc Güell.JPG|The view from Gaudí's Park Güell\nFile:14-08-05-barcelona-RalfR-003.jpg|Port Vell Aerial Tramway\nFile:Barcelona August 2014 - Seilbahn de Montjuic 001.jpg|Montjuïc Cable Car\nFile:Monument a Colom, Barcelona, Spain - Jan 07.jpg|Statue of Christopher Columbus\nFile:14-08-05-barcelona-RalfR-001.jpg|W Barcelona (Hotel Vela)\nFile:353 Plaça de toros Monumental, c. Marina - Gran Via.JPG|La Monumental\nFile:Barcelona - Edificio Colón 3.jpg|Colón building\nFile:Bcn 3530 Palauet Albeniz pp.jpg|Palauet d'Albéniz\nFile:Tunnelaquarium 14-05-2009 15-54-09.JPG|Aquarium Barcelona\nFile:Barcelona - Font Màgica - 2016.jpg|Magic Fountain of Montjuïc\nFile:Temple Expiatori del Sagrat Cor 2013.jpg|Sagrat Cor\nFile:Torres venecianes Barcelona 2013.jpg|The Venetian Towers in Plaça d'Espanya\nFile:Catalunya Barcelona1 tango7174.jpg|Plaça de Catalunya\nFile:15-10-27-Vista des de l'estàtua de Colom a Barcelona-WMA 2791.jpg|La Rambla, a popular shopping street and promenade\nFile:Barcelona - Carrer del Bisbe.jpg|Gothic Quarter\nFile:Port Authority Barcelona 2013.jpg|Barcelona's old Customs building at Port Vell",
"\n\n===Twin towns and sister cities===\nBarcelona is twinned with the following cities:(in chronological order)\n\n\n* Montpellier, France, 1963\n* Tunis, Tunisia, 1969\n* Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1972\n* Monterrey, Mexico, 1977\n* Busan, South Korea, 1983\n* Boston, USA, 1983\n* Cologne, Germany, 1984\n* São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil, 1985\n* Montevideo, Uruguay, 1985\n* Saint Petersburg, Russia, 1985\n* Havana, Cuba, 1993\n* Kobe, Japan, 1993\n* Antwerp, Belgium, 1997\n* Istanbul, Turkey, 1997\n* Dublin, Ireland, 1998\n* Gaza, Palestine, 1998\n* Tel Aviv, Israel, 1998\n* Athens, Greece, 1999\n* Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2000\n* Valparaíso, Chile, 2001\n* Shanghai, China, 2001\n* Dubai, UAE, 2006\n* San Francisco, California, USA, 2010\n\n\n===Other partnerships and co-operations===\n\nOther forms of co-operation and city friendship similar to the twin city programmes exist to many cities worldwide.",
"* Shenzhen, China",
"Figueras y Moragas\n*Olegarius (1060–1137), bishop, archbishop and saint\n*Joanna of Aragon (1454–1517), Queen of Naples\n*Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, 8th Duke of Alburquerque (1619–1676), military officer, viceroy of New Spain and viceroy of Sicily\n*Estanislao Figueras (1819–1882), lawyer and politician, 1st President of the First Spanish Republic\n*Francesc Pi (1824–1901), President of the First Spanish Republic\n*Francesca Bonnemaison i Farriols (1872–1949), educator, established the first library exclusively for women in Europe, in Barcelona in 1909\n*Joan Peiró (1887–1942), anarchist leader and writer\n*Joan Miró (1893–1983), painter and sculptor\n*Ricardo Zamora (1901–1978), professional football player\n*Paco Godia (1921–1990), Formula 1 racing driver\n*Antoni Tàpies (1923–2012), painter and sculptor\n*Jordi Pujol (born 1930), until 2003 Chairman of the CiU, from 1980 to 2003 Government of Catalonia\n*Montserrat Caballé (born 1933), operatic soprano\n* (born 1939), Writer and illustrator\n*Manuel Vázquez Montalbán (1939–2013), writer\n*Pasqual Maragall (born 1941), mayor of Barcelona from 1982 to 1997, from 2003 to 2006 Government of Catalonia\n*Artur Mas (born 1956), former Catalan president\n*Sito Pons (born 1959), motorcycle racing driver\n*Manuel Valls (born 1962), French politician of the Catalan descent of the Parti socialiste (PS), since 1 April 2014 French Prime Minister\n*Pedro de la Rosa (born 1971), an automobile racing driver\n*Arantxa Sánchez Vicario (born 1971), tennis player\n*Sete Gibernau (born 1972), motorcycle racing driver\n*Carlos Checa (born 1972), motorcycle racing driver\n*Pau Gasol (born 1980), profesional basketball player\n*Gerard Piqué (born 1987), professional football player",
"\n\n* Architecture of Barcelona\n* List of markets in Barcelona\n* List of tallest buildings in Barcelona\n* Plans for Winter Olympics held in Barcelona\n* Public art in Barcelona\n* Mobile World Congress",
"===Notes===\n\n\n===References===\n\n\n===Bibliography===\n* \n* \n* Busquets, Joan.",
"''Barcelona: The Urban Evolution of a Compact City'' (Harvard UP, 2006) 468 pp.",
"* \n* Marshall, Tim, ed.",
"''Transforming Barcelona'' (Routledge, 2004), 267 pp.",
"* Ramon Resina, Joan.",
"''Barcelona's Vocation of Modernity: Rise and Decline of an Urban Image'' (Stanford UP, 2008).",
"272 pp.",
"\n* Official website of Barcelona\n* Official website of Barcelona in the Spain's national tourism portal"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n'''BCE''' or '''B.C.E.''' may stand for:\n* Before Common Era, an alternative to BC\n* Bachelor of Civil Engineering, an academic degree\n* European Central Bank in some Romance languages (e.g., ''Banque Centrale Européenne'', ''Banco Central Europeo'')\n* Banco Central del Ecuador\n* The office complex in downtown Toronto, Canada formerly known as BCE Place, now Brookfield Place\n* Basic Chess Endings, a chess book on chess endgames by Reuben Fine\n* Beauce region of the Province of France\n* BCE Inc. (formerly Bell Canada Enterprises), the largest telecom corporation in Canada\n* Behind Crimson Eyes, a hard rock band from Melbourne, Australia\n* Bhagalpur College of Engineering\n* Boundary Commission for England\n* British Columbia Hydro and Power Authority (BC Electric) \n* Broadcasting Center Europe, a RTL Group subsidiary\n* Budapesti Corvinus Egyetem, the Hungarian name for Corvinus University of Budapest\n* Business Commitment to the Environment Award, UK environmental award established in 1975\n* Bose–Einstein condensate, a state of matter of a dilute gas of bosons cooled to temperatures very close to absolute zero\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction"
] | BCE (disambiguation) | [
"may stand for:\n* Before Common Era, an alternative to BC\n* Bachelor of Civil Engineering, an academic degree\n* European Central Bank in some Romance languages (e.g., ''Banque Centrale Européenne'', ''Banco Central Europeo'')\n* Banco Central del Ecuador\n* The office complex in downtown Toronto, Canada formerly known as BCE Place, now Brookfield Place\n* Basic Chess Endings, a chess book on chess endgames by Reuben Fine\n* Beauce region of the Province of France\n* BCE Inc. (formerly Bell Canada Enterprises), the largest telecom corporation in Canada\n* Behind Crimson Eyes, a hard rock band from Melbourne, Australia\n* Bhagalpur College of Engineering\n* Boundary Commission for England\n* British Columbia Hydro and Power Authority (BC Electric) \n* Broadcasting Center Europe, a RTL Group subsidiary\n* Budapesti Corvinus Egyetem, the Hungarian name for Corvinus University of Budapest\n* Business Commitment to the Environment Award, UK environmental award established in 1975\n* Bose–Einstein condensate, a state of matter of a dilute gas of bosons cooled to temperatures very close to absolute zero"
] | [
"\n\n'''BCE''' or '''B.C.E.'''"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Helen Beatrix Potter''' (28 July 186622 December 1943) was an English writer, illustrator, natural scientist, and conservationist best known for her children's books featuring animals, such as those in ''The Tale of Peter Rabbit''.\n\nBorn into a privileged household, Potter was educated by governesses and grew up isolated from other children. She had numerous pets and spent holidays in Scotland and the Lake District, developing a love of landscape, flora, and fauna, all of which she closely observed and painted.\n\nThough Potter was typical of women of her generation in having limited opportunities for higher education, her study and watercolors of fungi led to her being widely respected in the field of mycology. In her thirties, Potter published the highly successful children's book, ''The Tale of Peter Rabbit''. Potter began writing and illustrating children's books full-time.\n\nWith the proceeds from the books and a legacy from an aunt, in 1905 Potter bought Hill Top Farm in Near Sawrey, a village in the Lake District, which at that time was in Lancashire. Over the following decades, she purchased additional farms to preserve the unique hill country landscape. In 1913, at the age of 47, she married William Heelis, a respected local solicitor from Hawkshead. Potter was also a prize-winning breeder of Herdwick sheep and a prosperous farmer keenly interested in land preservation. She continued to write and illustrate, and to design spin-off merchandise based on her children's books for British publisher Warne, until the duties of land management and her diminishing eyesight made it difficult to continue.\n\nPotter wrote about 30 books; the best known being her 24 children's tales. She died of pneumonia and heart disease on 22 December 1943 at her home in Near Sawrey at age 77, leaving almost all her property to the National Trust. She is credited with preserving much of the land that now constitutes the Lake District National Park. Potter's books continue to sell throughout the world in many languages with her stories being retold in song, film, ballet, and animation, and her life depicted in a feature film and television film.\n",
"\n===Early life===\nspringer spaniel, Spot\n\nPotter's paternal grandfather, Edmund Potter, from Glossop in Derbyshire, owned what was then the largest calico printing works in England, and later served as a member of Parliament.\n\nBeatrix's father, Rupert William Potter (1832–1914), was educated at Manchester College by the Unitarian philosopher Dr. James Martineau, an ancestor of Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge. He then trained as a barrister in London. Rupert practised law, specialising in equity law and conveyancing. He married Helen Leech (1839–1932) on 8 August 1863 at Hyde Unitarian Chapel, Gee Cross. Helen was the daughter of Jane Ashton (1806–1884) and John Leech, a wealthy cotton merchant and shipbuilder from Stalybridge. Helen's first cousin was Harriet Lupton (''née'' Ashton) – the sister of Thomas Ashton, 1st Baron Ashton of Hyde. It was reported in July 2014 that Beatrix had personally given a number of her own original hand-painted illustrations to the two daughters of Dr Arthur and Harriet Lupton, who were blood cousins to both Beatrix and the Duchess of Cambridge.\n\nBeatrix's parents lived comfortably at 2 Bolton Gardens, West Brompton, where Helen Beatrix was born on 28 July 1866 and her brother Walter Bertram on 14 March 1872. Beatrix lived in the house until her marriage in 1913. The house was destroyed in the Blitz. Bousfield Primary School now stands where the house once was. A blue plaque on the school building testifies to the former site of The Potter home.\n\nBoth parents were artistically talented, and Rupert was an adept amateur photographer. Rupert had invested in the stock market and by the early 1890s was extremely wealthy.\n\nPotter's family on both sides were from the Manchester area. They were English Unitarians, associated with dissenting Protestant congregations, influential in 19th century England, that affirmed the oneness of God and that rejected the doctrine of the Trinity.\n\nBeatrix was educated by three able governesses, the last of whom was Annie Moore (''née'' Carter), just three years older than Beatrix, who tutored Beatrix in German as well as acting as lady's companion. She and Beatrix remained friends throughout their lives and Annie's eight children were the recipients of many of Potter's delightful picture letters. It was Annie who later suggested that these letters might make good children's books.\n\nShe and her younger brother Walter Bertram (1872–1918) grew up with few friends outside their large extended family. Her parents were artistic, interested in nature, and enjoyed the countryside. As children, Beatrix and Bertram had numerous small animals as pets which they observed closely and drew endlessly. In their school room, Beatrix and Bertram kept a variety of small pets, mice, rabbits, a hedgehog and some bats, along with collections of butterflies and other insects which they drew and studied. Beatrix was devoted to the care of her small animals, often taking them with her on long holidays. In most of the first fifteen years of her life, Beatrix spent summer holidays at Dalguise, an estate on the River Tay in Perthshire, Scotland. There she sketched and explored an area that nourished her imagination and her observation. Beatrix and her brother were allowed great freedom in the country and both children became adept students of natural history. In 1887, when Dalguise was no longer available, the Potters took their first summer holiday in the Lake District, at Wray Castle near Lake Windermere. Here Beatrix met Hardwicke Rawnsley, vicar of Wray and later the founding secretary of the National Trust, whose interest in the countryside and country life inspired the same in Beatrix and who was to have a lasting impact on her life.\n\nAt about the age of 14, Beatrix began to keep a diary. It was written in a code of her own devising which was a simple letter for letter substitution. Her ''Journal'' was important to the development of her creativity, serving as both sketchbook and literary experiment: in tiny handwriting she reported on society, recorded her impressions of art and artists, recounted stories and observed life around her. The ''Journal'', decoded and transcribed by Leslie Linder in 1958, does not provide an intimate record of her personal life, but it is an invaluable source for understanding a vibrant part of British society in the late 19th century. It describes Potter's maturing artistic and intellectual interests, her often amusing insights on the places she visited, and her unusual ability to observe nature and to describe it. Started in 1881, her journal ends in 1897 when her artistic and intellectual energies were absorbed in scientific study and in efforts to publish her drawings. Precocious but reserved and often bored, she was searching for more independent activities and wished to earn some money of her own whilst dutifully taking care of her parents, dealing with her especially demanding mother, and managing their various households.\n\n===Scientific illustrations and work in mycology===\nBeatrix Potter: reproductive system of Hygrocybe coccinea, 1897.\nBeatrix Potter's parents did not discourage higher education. As was common in the Victorian era, women of her class were privately educated and rarely went to university.\n\nBeatrix Potter was interested in every branch of natural science save astronomy. Botany was a passion for most Victorians and nature study was a popular enthusiasm. Potter was eclectic in her tastes: collecting fossils, studying archeological artefacts from London excavations, and interested in entomology. In all these areas she drew and painted her specimens with increasing skill. By the 1890s her scientific interests centred on mycology. First drawn to fungi because of their colours and evanescence in nature and her delight in painting them, her interest deepened after meeting Charles McIntosh, a revered naturalist and amateur mycologist, during a summer holiday in Dunkeld in Perthshire in 1892. He helped improve the accuracy of her illustrations, taught her taxonomy, and supplied her with live specimens to paint during the winter. Curious as to how fungi reproduced, Potter began microscopic drawings of fungus spores (the agarics) and in 1895 developed a theory of their germination. Through the connections of her uncle Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe, a chemist and vice-chancellor of the University of London, she consulted with botanists at Kew Gardens, convincing George Massee of her ability to germinate spores and her theory of hybridisation. She did not believe in the theory of symbiosis proposed by Simon Schwendener, the German mycologist, as previously thought; rather she proposed a more independent process of reproduction.\n\nRebuffed by William Thiselton-Dyer, the Director at Kew, because of her sex and her amateur status, Beatrix wrote up her conclusions and submitted a paper, ''On the Germination of the Spores of the Agaricineae'', to the Linnean Society in 1897. It was introduced by Massee because, as a female, Potter could not attend proceedings or read her paper. She subsequently withdrew it, realising that some of her samples were contaminated, but continued her microscopic studies for several more years. Her paper has only recently been rediscovered, along with the rich, artistic illustrations and drawings that accompanied it. Her work is only now being properly evaluated. Potter later gave her other mycological and scientific drawings to the Armitt Museum and Library in Ambleside, where mycologists still refer to them to identify fungi. There is also a collection of her fungus paintings at the Perth Museum and Art Gallery in Perth, Scotland, donated by Charles McIntosh. In 1967, the mycologist W.P.K. Findlay included many of Potter's beautifully accurate fungus drawings in his ''Wayside & Woodland Fungi'', thereby fulfilling her desire to one day have her fungus drawings published in a book. In 1997, the Linnean Society issued a posthumous apology to Potter for the sexism displayed in its handling of her research.\n\n===Artistic and literary career===\nFirst edition, 1902\nPotter's artistic and literary interests were deeply influenced by fairies, fairy tales and fantasy. She was a student of the classic fairy tales of Western Europe. As well as stories from the Old Testament, John Bunyan's ''The Pilgrim's Progress'' and Harriet Beecher Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', she grew up with ''Aesop's Fables'', the fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm and Hans Christian Andersen, Charles Kingsley's ''The Water Babies'', the folk tales and mythology of Scotland, the German Romantics, Shakespeare, and the romances of Sir Walter Scott. As a young child, before the age of eight, Edward Lear's ''Book of Nonsense'', including the much loved ''The Owl and the Pussycat'', and Lewis Carroll's ''Alice in Wonderland'' had made their impression, although she later said of ''Alice'' that she was more interested in Tenniel's illustrations than what they were about. The ''Brer Rabbit'' stories of Joel Chandler Harris had been family favourites, and she later studied his ''Uncle Remus'' stories and illustrated them. She studied book illustration from a young age and developed her own tastes, but the work of the picture book triumvirate Walter Crane, Kate Greenaway and Randolph Caldecott, the last an illustrator whose work was later collected by her father, was a great influence. When she started to illustrate, she chose first the traditional rhymes and stories, \"Cinderella\", \"Sleeping Beauty\", \"Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves\", \"Puss-in-boots\", and \"Red Riding Hood\". But most often her illustrations were fantasies featuring her own pets: mice, rabbits, kittens, and guinea pigs.\n\nIn her teenage years, Potter was a regular visitor to the art galleries of London, particularly enjoying the summer and winter exhibitions at the Royal Academy in London. Her ''Journal'' reveals her growing sophistication as a critic as well as the influence of her father's friend, the artist Sir John Everett Millais, who recognised Beatrix's talent of observation. Although Potter was aware of art and artistic trends, her drawing and her prose style were uniquely her own.\n\nAs a way to earn money in the 1890s, Beatrix and her brother began to print Christmas cards of their own design, as well as cards for special occasions. Mice and rabbits were the most frequent subject of her fantasy paintings. In 1890, the firm of Hildesheimer and Faulkner bought several of her drawings of her rabbit Benjamin Bunny to illustrate verses by Frederic Weatherly titled ''A Happy Pair''. In 1893, the same printer bought several more drawings for Weatherly's ''Our Dear Relations'', another book of rhymes, and the following year Potter sold a series of frog illustrations and verses for ''Changing Pictures'', a popular annual offered by the art publisher Ernest Nister. Potter was pleased by this success and determined to publish her own illustrated stories.\n\nWhenever Potter went on holiday to the Lake District or Scotland, she sent letters to young friends, illustrating them with quick sketches. Many of these letters were written to the children of her former governess Annie Carter Moore, particularly to Moore's eldest son Noel who was often ill. In September 1893, Potter was on holiday at Eastwood in Dunkeld, Perthshire. She had run out of things to say to Noel and so she told him a story about \"four little rabbits whose names were Flopsy, Mopsy, Cottontail and Peter\". It became one of the most famous children's letters ever written and the basis of Potter's future career as a writer-artist-storyteller.\n\nIn 1900, Potter revised her tale about the four little rabbits, and fashioned a dummy book of it – it has been suggested, in imitation of Helen Bannerman's 1899 bestseller ''The Story of Little Black Sambo''. Unable to find a buyer for the work, she published it for family and friends at her own expense in December 1901. It was drawn in black and white with a coloured frontispiece. Family friend Canon Hardwicke Rawnsley had great faith in Potter's tale, recast it in didactic verse, and made the rounds of the London publishing houses. Frederick Warne & Co had previously rejected the tale but, eager to compete in the booming small format children's book market, reconsidered and accepted the \"bunny book\" (as the firm called it) following the recommendation of their prominent children's book artist L. Leslie Brooke. The firm declined Rawnsley's verse in favour of Potter's original prose, and Potter agreed to colour her pen and ink illustrations, choosing the then new Hentschel three-colour process to reproduce her watercolours.\nPotter used many real locations for her book illustrations. The Tower Bank Arms, Near Sawrey appears in ''The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck''.\nOn 2 October 1902, ''The Tale of Peter Rabbit'' was published, and was an immediate success. It was followed the next year by ''The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin'' and ''The Tailor of Gloucester'', which had also first been written as picture letters to the Moore children. Working with Norman Warne as her editor, Potter published two or three little books each year: 23 books in all. The last book in this format was ''Cecily Parsley's Nursery Rhymes'' in 1922, a collection of favourite rhymes. Although ''The Tale of Little Pig Robinson'' was not published until 1930, it had been written much earlier. Potter continued creating her little books until after the First World War, when her energies were increasingly directed toward her farming, sheep-breeding and land conservation.\n\nThe immense popularity of Potter's books was based on the lively quality of her illustrations, the non-didactic nature of her stories, the depiction of the rural countryside, and the imaginative qualities she lent to her animal characters.\n\nPotter was also a canny businesswoman. As early as 1903, she made and patented a Peter Rabbit doll. It was followed by other \"spin-off\" merchandise over the years, including painting books, board games, wall-paper, figurines, baby blankets and china tea-sets. All were licensed by Frederick Warne & Co and earned Potter an independent income, as well as immense profits for her publisher.\n\nIn 1905, Potter and Norman Warne became unofficially engaged. Potter's parents objected to the match because Warne was \"in trade\" and thus not socially suitable. The engagement lasted only one month until Warne died of leukemia at age 37. That same year, Potter used some of her income and a small inheritance from an aunt to buy Hill Top Farm in Near Sawrey in the English Lake District near Windermere. Potter and Warne may have hoped that Hill Top Farm would be their holiday home, but after Warne's death, Potter went ahead with its purchase as she had always wanted to own that farm, and live in \"that charming village\".\n\n===Country life===\nHill Top, Near Sawrey – Potter's former home, now owned by the National Trust and preserved as it was when she lived and wrote her stories there.\nThe tenant farmer John Cannon and his family agreed to stay on to manage the farm for her while she made physical improvements and learned the techniques of fell farming and of raising livestock, including pigs, cows and chickens; the following year she added sheep. Realising she needed to protect her boundaries, she sought advice from W.H. Heelis & Son, a local firm of solicitors with offices in nearby Hawkshead. With William Heelis acting for her she bought contiguous pasture, and in 1909 the Castle Farm across the road from Hill Top Farm. She visited Hill Top at every opportunity, and her books written during this period (such as ''The Tale of Ginger and Pickles'', about the local shop in Near Sawrey and ''The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse'', a wood mouse) reflect her increasing participation in village life and her delight in country living.\n\nOwning and managing these working farms required routine collaboration with the widely respected William Heelis. By the summer of 1912 Heelis had proposed marriage and Beatrix had accepted; although she did not immediately tell her parents, who once again disapproved because Heelis was only a country solicitor. Potter and Heelis were married on 15 October 1913 in London at St Mary Abbots in Kensington. The couple moved immediately to Near Sawrey, residing at Castle Cottage, the renovated farm house on Castle Farm, which was 34 acres large. Hill Top remained a working farm but was now remodelled to allow for the tenant family and Potter's private studio and workshop. At last her own woman, Potter settled into the partnerships that shaped the rest of her life: her country solicitor husband and his large family, her farms, the Sawrey community and the predictable rounds of country life. ''The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck'' and ''The Tale of Tom Kitten'' are representative of Hill Top Farm and of her farming life, and reflect her happiness with her country life.\n\nRupert Potter died in 1914 and, with the outbreak of World War I, Potter, now a wealthy woman, persuaded her mother to move to the Lake District and found a property for her to rent in Sawrey. Finding life in Sawrey dull, Helen Potter soon moved to Lindeth Howe (now a 34 bedroomed country house hotel) a large house the Potters had previously rented for the summer in Bowness, on the other side of Lake Windermere, Potter continued to write stories for Frederick Warne & Co and fully participated in country life. She established a Nursing Trust for local villages, and served on various committees and councils responsible for footpaths and other rural issues.\n\n===Sheep farming===\nSoon after acquiring Hill Top Farm, Potter became keenly interested in the breeding and raising of Herdwick sheep, the indigenous fell sheep. In 1923 she bought a large sheep farm in the Troutbeck Valley called Troutbeck Park Farm, formerly a deer park, restoring its land with thousands of Herdwick sheep. This established her as one of the major Herdwick sheep farmers in the county. She was admired by her shepherds and farm managers for her willingness to experiment with the latest biological remedies for the common diseases of sheep, and for her employment of the best shepherds, sheep breeders, and farm managers.\n\nBy the late 1920s Potter and her Hill Top farm manager Tom Storey had made a name for their prize-winning Herdwick flock, which took many prizes at the local agricultural shows, where Potter was often asked to serve as a judge. In 1942 she became President-elect of the Herdwick Sheepbreeders’ Association, the first time a woman had ever been elected, but died before taking office.\n",
"Potter had been a disciple of the land conservation and preservation ideals of her long-time friend and mentor, Canon Hardwicke Rawnsley, the first secretary and founding member of the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty. She supported the efforts of the National Trust to preserve not just the places of extraordinary beauty but also those heads of valleys and low grazing lands that would be irreparably ruined by development. She was also an authority on the traditional Lakeland crafts, period furniture and stonework. She restored and preserved the farms that she bought or managed, making sure that each farm house had in it a piece of antique Lakeland furniture. Potter was interested in preserving not only the Herdwick sheep, but also the way of life of fell farming. In 1930 the Heelises became partners with the National Trust in buying and managing the fell farms included in the large Monk Coniston Estate. The estate was composed of many farms spread over a wide area of north-western Lancashire, including the Tarn Hows. Potter was the ''de facto'' estate manager for the Trust for seven years until the National Trust could afford to buy most of the property back from her. Her stewardship of these farms earned her wide regard, but she was not without her critics, not the least of which were her contemporaries who felt she used her wealth and the position of her husband to acquire properties in advance of their being made public. She was notable in observing the problems of afforestation, preserving the intake grazing lands, and husbanding the quarries and timber on these farms. All her farms were stocked with Herdwick sheep and frequently with Galloway cattle.\nLake District\n",
"Potter continued to write stories and to draw, although mostly for her own pleasure. Her books in the late 1920s included the semi-autobiographical ''The Fairy Caravan'', a fanciful tale set in her beloved Troutbeck fells. It was published only in the US during Potter's lifetime, and not until 1952 in the UK. ''Sister Anne'', Potter's version of the story of Bluebeard, was written especially for her American readers, but illustrated by Katharine Sturges. A final folktale, ''Wag by Wall'', was published posthumously by ''The Horn Book Magazine'' in 1944. Potter was a generous patron of the Girl Guides, whose troupes she allowed to make their summer encampments on her land, and whose company she enjoyed as an older woman.\n\nPotter and William Heelis enjoyed a happy marriage of thirty years, continuing their farming and preservation efforts throughout the hard days of World War II. Although they were childless, Potter played an important role in William's large family, particularly enjoying her relationship with several nieces whom she helped educate, and giving comfort and aid to her husband's brothers and sisters.\n\nPotter died of complications from pneumonia and heart disease on 22 December 1943 at Castle Cottage, and her remains were cremated at Carleton Crematorium. She left nearly all her property to the National Trust, including over of land, sixteen farms, cottages and herds of cattle and Herdwick sheep. Hers was the largest gift at that time to the National Trust, and it enabled the preservation of the land now included in the Lake District National Park and the continuation of fell farming. The central office of the National Trust in Swindon was named \"Heelis\" in 2005 in her memory. William Heelis continued his stewardship of their properties and of her literary and artistic work for the eighteen months he survived her. When he died in August 1945 he left the remainder to the National Trust.\n",
"Goody and Mrs. Hackee, illustration to ''The Tale of Timmy Tiptoes'', 1911\nPotter left almost all the original illustrations for her books to the National Trust. The copyright to her stories and merchandise was then given to her publisher Frederick Warne & Co, now a division of the Penguin Group. On 1 January 2014, the copyright expired in the UK and other countries with a 70-years-after-death limit. Hill Top Farm was opened to the public by the National Trust in 1946; her artwork was displayed there until 1985 when it was moved to William Heelis's former law offices in Hawkshead, also owned by the National Trust as the Beatrix Potter Gallery.\n\nPotter gave her folios of mycological drawings to the Armitt Library and Museum in Ambleside before her death. ''The Tale of Peter Rabbit'' is owned by Frederick Warne and Company, ''The Tailor of Gloucester'' by the Tate Gallery and ''The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies'' by the British Museum.\n\nThe largest public collection of her letters and drawings is the Leslie Linder Bequest and Leslie Linder Collection at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. In the United States, the largest public collections are those in the Rare Book Department of the Free Library of Philadelphia, and the Cotsen Children's Library at Princeton University.\n\nIn 2015 a manuscript for an unpublished book was discovered by Jo Hanks, a publisher at Penguin Random House Children's Books, in the Victoria and Albert Museum archive. The book ''The Tale of Kitty-in-Boots'', with illustrations by Quentin Blake, was published 1 September 2016, to mark the 150th anniversary of Potter's birth.\n",
"There are many interpretations of Potter's literary work, the sources of her art, and her life and times. These include critical evaluations of her corpus of children's literature, and Modernist interpretations of Humphrey Carpenter and Katherine Chandler. Judy Taylor, ''That Naughty Rabbit: Beatrix Potter and Peter Rabbit'' (rev. 2002) tells the story of the first publication and many editions.\n\nPotter’s country life and her farming has also been widely discussed in the work of Susan Denyer and by other authors in the publications of The National Trust.\n\nPotter's work as a scientific illustrator and her work in mycology is highlighted in several chapters in Linda Lear, ''Beatrix Potter: A Life in Nature'', 2007; ''Beatrix Potter: The Extraordinary Life of a Victorian Genius''. 2008, UK.\n",
"In 1971, a ballet film was released, ''The Tales of Beatrix Potter'', directed by Reginald Mills, set to music by John Lanchbery with choreography by Frederick Ashton, and performed in character costume by members of the Royal Ballet and the Royal Opera House orchestra. The ballet of the same name has been performed by other dance companies around the world.\n\nIn 1982, the BBC produced ''The Tale of Beatrix Potter''. This dramatisation of her life was written by John Hawkesworth, directed by Bill Hayes, and starred Holly Aird and Penelope Wilton as the young and adult Beatrix, respectively. ''The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends'', a TV series based on her stories, which starred actress Niamh Cusack as Beatrix Potter, has been released on VHS by Pickwick Video and later Carlton Video.\n\nIn 1992, Potter's famous children's book ''The Tale of Benjamin Bunny'' was featured in the film ''Lorenzo's Oil''.\n\nIn 2006, Chris Noonan directed ''Miss Potter'', a biographical film of Potter's life focusing on her early career and romance with her editor Norman Warne. The film stars Renée Zellweger, Ewan McGregor and Emily Watson.\n\nPotter is also featured in Susan Wittig Albert's series of light mysteries called The Cottage Tales of Beatrix Potter. The first of the eight-book series is ''Tale of Hill Top Farm'' (2004), which deals with Potter's life in the Lake District and the village of Near Sawrey between 1905 and 1913.\n\nIn 2017, ''The Art of Beatrix Potter: Sketches, Paintings, and Illustrations'' by Emily Zach was published after San Francisco publisher Chronicle Books decided to mark the 150th anniversary of Beatrix Potter's birth by showing that she was \"far more than a 19th-century weekend painter. She was an artist of astonishing range.\"\n\nMore recently, John Patrick is adapting a number of Beatrix Potter's tales into an upcoming live-action/animated musical feature film for his brand-new film studio, called Storybook Studio. The film will be titled ''Beatrix Potter's The Tales of Peter Rabbit and Friends''. English actress Jackie Weiner will play Beatrix Potter herself, with the voices of Sienna Adams as Peter Rabbit, Ronan McCoid as Benjamin Bunny, and Karen Zikas as Jemima Puddle-Duck.\n",
"\n'''The 24 Tales'''\n#''The Tale of Peter Rabbit'' (1902)\n#''The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin'' (1903)\n#''The Tailor of Gloucester'' (1903)\n#''The Tale of Benjamin Bunny'' (1904)\n#''The Tale of Two Bad Mice'' (1904)\n#''The Tale of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle'' (1905)\n#''The Tale of the Pie and the Patty-Pan'' (1905)\n#''The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher'' (1906)\n#''The Story of a Fierce Bad Rabbit'' (1906)\n#''The Story of Miss Moppet'' (1906)\n#''The Tale of Tom Kitten'' (1907)\n#''The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck'' (1908)\n#''The Tale of Samuel Whiskers or, The Roly-Poly Pudding'' (1908)\n#''The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies'' (1909)\n#''The Tale of Ginger and Pickles'' (1909)\n#''The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse'' (1910)\n#''The Tale of Timmy Tiptoes'' (1911)\n#''The Tale of Mr. Tod'' (1912)\n#''The Tale of Pigling Bland'' (1913)\n#''Appley Dapply's Nursery Rhymes'' (1917)\n#''The Tale of Johnny Town-Mouse'' (1918)\n#''Cecily Parsley's Nursery Rhymes'' (1922)\n#''The Tale of Little Pig Robinson'' (1930)\n#''The Tale of Kitty-in-Boots'' (2016)\n\n'''Other books'''\n#''Peter Rabbit's Painting Book'' (1911)\n#''Tom Kitten's Painting Book'' (1917)\n#''Jemima Puddle-Duck's Painting Book'' (1925)\n#''Peter Rabbit's Almanac for 1929'' (1928)\n#''The Fairy Caravan'' (1929)\n#''Sister Anne'' (illustrated by Katharine Sturges) (1932)\n#''Wag-by-Wall'' (decorations by J. J. Lankes) (1944)\n#''The Tale of the Faithful Dove'' (illustrated by Marie Angel) (1955, 1970)\n#''The Sly Old Cat'' (written 1906; first published 1971)\n#''The Tale of Tuppenny'' (illustrated by Marie Angel) (1973)\n\nOriginal manuscript from 1914, rediscovered in 2015.\n\n",
"\n",
"\n;Letters, journals and writing collections\n\n*\n*\n*\n*\n* Potter, Beatrix. (rev. 1989). ''The Journal of Beatrix Potter, 1881–1897'', transcribed from her code writings by Leslie Linder. F. Warne & Co. \n*\n\n;Art studies\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n\n;Biographical studies\n\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n",
"\n\n\n\n* Beatrix Potter’s fossils and her interest in geology – B. G. Gardiner\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Collection of Potter materials at Victoria and Albert Museum\n* Beatrix Potter online feature at the University of Pittsburgh School of Information Sciences\n* Beatrix Potter Society, UK\n* Exhibition of Beatrix Potter's Picture Letters at the Morgan Library\n* Beatrix Potter Collection (digitized images from the Free Library of Philadelphia)\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Biography",
"Lake District conservation",
"Later life",
"Legacy",
"Themes",
"Adaptations and fictionalisations",
"Publications",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Beatrix Potter | [
"The Tower Bank Arms, Near Sawrey appears in ''The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck''."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Helen Beatrix Potter''' (28 July 186622 December 1943) was an English writer, illustrator, natural scientist, and conservationist best known for her children's books featuring animals, such as those in ''The Tale of Peter Rabbit''.",
"Born into a privileged household, Potter was educated by governesses and grew up isolated from other children.",
"She had numerous pets and spent holidays in Scotland and the Lake District, developing a love of landscape, flora, and fauna, all of which she closely observed and painted.",
"Though Potter was typical of women of her generation in having limited opportunities for higher education, her study and watercolors of fungi led to her being widely respected in the field of mycology.",
"In her thirties, Potter published the highly successful children's book, ''The Tale of Peter Rabbit''.",
"Potter began writing and illustrating children's books full-time.",
"With the proceeds from the books and a legacy from an aunt, in 1905 Potter bought Hill Top Farm in Near Sawrey, a village in the Lake District, which at that time was in Lancashire.",
"Over the following decades, she purchased additional farms to preserve the unique hill country landscape.",
"In 1913, at the age of 47, she married William Heelis, a respected local solicitor from Hawkshead.",
"Potter was also a prize-winning breeder of Herdwick sheep and a prosperous farmer keenly interested in land preservation.",
"She continued to write and illustrate, and to design spin-off merchandise based on her children's books for British publisher Warne, until the duties of land management and her diminishing eyesight made it difficult to continue.",
"Potter wrote about 30 books; the best known being her 24 children's tales.",
"She died of pneumonia and heart disease on 22 December 1943 at her home in Near Sawrey at age 77, leaving almost all her property to the National Trust.",
"She is credited with preserving much of the land that now constitutes the Lake District National Park.",
"Potter's books continue to sell throughout the world in many languages with her stories being retold in song, film, ballet, and animation, and her life depicted in a feature film and television film.",
"\n===Early life===\nspringer spaniel, Spot\n\nPotter's paternal grandfather, Edmund Potter, from Glossop in Derbyshire, owned what was then the largest calico printing works in England, and later served as a member of Parliament.",
"Beatrix's father, Rupert William Potter (1832–1914), was educated at Manchester College by the Unitarian philosopher Dr. James Martineau, an ancestor of Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge.",
"He then trained as a barrister in London.",
"Rupert practised law, specialising in equity law and conveyancing.",
"He married Helen Leech (1839–1932) on 8 August 1863 at Hyde Unitarian Chapel, Gee Cross.",
"Helen was the daughter of Jane Ashton (1806–1884) and John Leech, a wealthy cotton merchant and shipbuilder from Stalybridge.",
"Helen's first cousin was Harriet Lupton (''née'' Ashton) – the sister of Thomas Ashton, 1st Baron Ashton of Hyde.",
"It was reported in July 2014 that Beatrix had personally given a number of her own original hand-painted illustrations to the two daughters of Dr Arthur and Harriet Lupton, who were blood cousins to both Beatrix and the Duchess of Cambridge.",
"Beatrix's parents lived comfortably at 2 Bolton Gardens, West Brompton, where Helen Beatrix was born on 28 July 1866 and her brother Walter Bertram on 14 March 1872.",
"Beatrix lived in the house until her marriage in 1913.",
"The house was destroyed in the Blitz.",
"Bousfield Primary School now stands where the house once was.",
"A blue plaque on the school building testifies to the former site of The Potter home.",
"Both parents were artistically talented, and Rupert was an adept amateur photographer.",
"Rupert had invested in the stock market and by the early 1890s was extremely wealthy.",
"Potter's family on both sides were from the Manchester area.",
"They were English Unitarians, associated with dissenting Protestant congregations, influential in 19th century England, that affirmed the oneness of God and that rejected the doctrine of the Trinity.",
"Beatrix was educated by three able governesses, the last of whom was Annie Moore (''née'' Carter), just three years older than Beatrix, who tutored Beatrix in German as well as acting as lady's companion.",
"She and Beatrix remained friends throughout their lives and Annie's eight children were the recipients of many of Potter's delightful picture letters.",
"It was Annie who later suggested that these letters might make good children's books.",
"She and her younger brother Walter Bertram (1872–1918) grew up with few friends outside their large extended family.",
"Her parents were artistic, interested in nature, and enjoyed the countryside.",
"As children, Beatrix and Bertram had numerous small animals as pets which they observed closely and drew endlessly.",
"In their school room, Beatrix and Bertram kept a variety of small pets, mice, rabbits, a hedgehog and some bats, along with collections of butterflies and other insects which they drew and studied.",
"Beatrix was devoted to the care of her small animals, often taking them with her on long holidays.",
"In most of the first fifteen years of her life, Beatrix spent summer holidays at Dalguise, an estate on the River Tay in Perthshire, Scotland.",
"There she sketched and explored an area that nourished her imagination and her observation.",
"Beatrix and her brother were allowed great freedom in the country and both children became adept students of natural history.",
"In 1887, when Dalguise was no longer available, the Potters took their first summer holiday in the Lake District, at Wray Castle near Lake Windermere.",
"Here Beatrix met Hardwicke Rawnsley, vicar of Wray and later the founding secretary of the National Trust, whose interest in the countryside and country life inspired the same in Beatrix and who was to have a lasting impact on her life.",
"At about the age of 14, Beatrix began to keep a diary.",
"It was written in a code of her own devising which was a simple letter for letter substitution.",
"Her ''Journal'' was important to the development of her creativity, serving as both sketchbook and literary experiment: in tiny handwriting she reported on society, recorded her impressions of art and artists, recounted stories and observed life around her.",
"The ''Journal'', decoded and transcribed by Leslie Linder in 1958, does not provide an intimate record of her personal life, but it is an invaluable source for understanding a vibrant part of British society in the late 19th century.",
"It describes Potter's maturing artistic and intellectual interests, her often amusing insights on the places she visited, and her unusual ability to observe nature and to describe it.",
"Started in 1881, her journal ends in 1897 when her artistic and intellectual energies were absorbed in scientific study and in efforts to publish her drawings.",
"Precocious but reserved and often bored, she was searching for more independent activities and wished to earn some money of her own whilst dutifully taking care of her parents, dealing with her especially demanding mother, and managing their various households.",
"===Scientific illustrations and work in mycology===\nBeatrix Potter: reproductive system of Hygrocybe coccinea, 1897.",
"Beatrix Potter's parents did not discourage higher education.",
"As was common in the Victorian era, women of her class were privately educated and rarely went to university.",
"Beatrix Potter was interested in every branch of natural science save astronomy.",
"Botany was a passion for most Victorians and nature study was a popular enthusiasm.",
"Potter was eclectic in her tastes: collecting fossils, studying archeological artefacts from London excavations, and interested in entomology.",
"In all these areas she drew and painted her specimens with increasing skill.",
"By the 1890s her scientific interests centred on mycology.",
"First drawn to fungi because of their colours and evanescence in nature and her delight in painting them, her interest deepened after meeting Charles McIntosh, a revered naturalist and amateur mycologist, during a summer holiday in Dunkeld in Perthshire in 1892.",
"He helped improve the accuracy of her illustrations, taught her taxonomy, and supplied her with live specimens to paint during the winter.",
"Curious as to how fungi reproduced, Potter began microscopic drawings of fungus spores (the agarics) and in 1895 developed a theory of their germination.",
"Through the connections of her uncle Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe, a chemist and vice-chancellor of the University of London, she consulted with botanists at Kew Gardens, convincing George Massee of her ability to germinate spores and her theory of hybridisation.",
"She did not believe in the theory of symbiosis proposed by Simon Schwendener, the German mycologist, as previously thought; rather she proposed a more independent process of reproduction.",
"Rebuffed by William Thiselton-Dyer, the Director at Kew, because of her sex and her amateur status, Beatrix wrote up her conclusions and submitted a paper, ''On the Germination of the Spores of the Agaricineae'', to the Linnean Society in 1897.",
"It was introduced by Massee because, as a female, Potter could not attend proceedings or read her paper.",
"She subsequently withdrew it, realising that some of her samples were contaminated, but continued her microscopic studies for several more years.",
"Her paper has only recently been rediscovered, along with the rich, artistic illustrations and drawings that accompanied it.",
"Her work is only now being properly evaluated.",
"Potter later gave her other mycological and scientific drawings to the Armitt Museum and Library in Ambleside, where mycologists still refer to them to identify fungi.",
"There is also a collection of her fungus paintings at the Perth Museum and Art Gallery in Perth, Scotland, donated by Charles McIntosh.",
"In 1967, the mycologist W.P.K.",
"Findlay included many of Potter's beautifully accurate fungus drawings in his ''Wayside & Woodland Fungi'', thereby fulfilling her desire to one day have her fungus drawings published in a book.",
"In 1997, the Linnean Society issued a posthumous apology to Potter for the sexism displayed in its handling of her research.",
"===Artistic and literary career===\nFirst edition, 1902\nPotter's artistic and literary interests were deeply influenced by fairies, fairy tales and fantasy.",
"She was a student of the classic fairy tales of Western Europe.",
"As well as stories from the Old Testament, John Bunyan's ''The Pilgrim's Progress'' and Harriet Beecher Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', she grew up with ''Aesop's Fables'', the fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm and Hans Christian Andersen, Charles Kingsley's ''The Water Babies'', the folk tales and mythology of Scotland, the German Romantics, Shakespeare, and the romances of Sir Walter Scott.",
"As a young child, before the age of eight, Edward Lear's ''Book of Nonsense'', including the much loved ''The Owl and the Pussycat'', and Lewis Carroll's ''Alice in Wonderland'' had made their impression, although she later said of ''Alice'' that she was more interested in Tenniel's illustrations than what they were about.",
"The ''Brer Rabbit'' stories of Joel Chandler Harris had been family favourites, and she later studied his ''Uncle Remus'' stories and illustrated them.",
"She studied book illustration from a young age and developed her own tastes, but the work of the picture book triumvirate Walter Crane, Kate Greenaway and Randolph Caldecott, the last an illustrator whose work was later collected by her father, was a great influence.",
"When she started to illustrate, she chose first the traditional rhymes and stories, \"Cinderella\", \"Sleeping Beauty\", \"Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves\", \"Puss-in-boots\", and \"Red Riding Hood\".",
"But most often her illustrations were fantasies featuring her own pets: mice, rabbits, kittens, and guinea pigs.",
"In her teenage years, Potter was a regular visitor to the art galleries of London, particularly enjoying the summer and winter exhibitions at the Royal Academy in London.",
"Her ''Journal'' reveals her growing sophistication as a critic as well as the influence of her father's friend, the artist Sir John Everett Millais, who recognised Beatrix's talent of observation.",
"Although Potter was aware of art and artistic trends, her drawing and her prose style were uniquely her own.",
"As a way to earn money in the 1890s, Beatrix and her brother began to print Christmas cards of their own design, as well as cards for special occasions.",
"Mice and rabbits were the most frequent subject of her fantasy paintings.",
"In 1890, the firm of Hildesheimer and Faulkner bought several of her drawings of her rabbit Benjamin Bunny to illustrate verses by Frederic Weatherly titled ''A Happy Pair''.",
"In 1893, the same printer bought several more drawings for Weatherly's ''Our Dear Relations'', another book of rhymes, and the following year Potter sold a series of frog illustrations and verses for ''Changing Pictures'', a popular annual offered by the art publisher Ernest Nister.",
"Potter was pleased by this success and determined to publish her own illustrated stories.",
"Whenever Potter went on holiday to the Lake District or Scotland, she sent letters to young friends, illustrating them with quick sketches.",
"Many of these letters were written to the children of her former governess Annie Carter Moore, particularly to Moore's eldest son Noel who was often ill.",
"In September 1893, Potter was on holiday at Eastwood in Dunkeld, Perthshire.",
"She had run out of things to say to Noel and so she told him a story about \"four little rabbits whose names were Flopsy, Mopsy, Cottontail and Peter\".",
"It became one of the most famous children's letters ever written and the basis of Potter's future career as a writer-artist-storyteller.",
"In 1900, Potter revised her tale about the four little rabbits, and fashioned a dummy book of it – it has been suggested, in imitation of Helen Bannerman's 1899 bestseller ''The Story of Little Black Sambo''.",
"Unable to find a buyer for the work, she published it for family and friends at her own expense in December 1901.",
"It was drawn in black and white with a coloured frontispiece.",
"Family friend Canon Hardwicke Rawnsley had great faith in Potter's tale, recast it in didactic verse, and made the rounds of the London publishing houses.",
"Frederick Warne & Co had previously rejected the tale but, eager to compete in the booming small format children's book market, reconsidered and accepted the \"bunny book\" (as the firm called it) following the recommendation of their prominent children's book artist L. Leslie Brooke.",
"The firm declined Rawnsley's verse in favour of Potter's original prose, and Potter agreed to colour her pen and ink illustrations, choosing the then new Hentschel three-colour process to reproduce her watercolours.",
"Potter used many real locations for her book illustrations.",
"On 2 October 1902, ''The Tale of Peter Rabbit'' was published, and was an immediate success.",
"It was followed the next year by ''The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin'' and ''The Tailor of Gloucester'', which had also first been written as picture letters to the Moore children.",
"Working with Norman Warne as her editor, Potter published two or three little books each year: 23 books in all.",
"The last book in this format was ''Cecily Parsley's Nursery Rhymes'' in 1922, a collection of favourite rhymes.",
"Although ''The Tale of Little Pig Robinson'' was not published until 1930, it had been written much earlier.",
"Potter continued creating her little books until after the First World War, when her energies were increasingly directed toward her farming, sheep-breeding and land conservation.",
"The immense popularity of Potter's books was based on the lively quality of her illustrations, the non-didactic nature of her stories, the depiction of the rural countryside, and the imaginative qualities she lent to her animal characters.",
"Potter was also a canny businesswoman.",
"As early as 1903, she made and patented a Peter Rabbit doll.",
"It was followed by other \"spin-off\" merchandise over the years, including painting books, board games, wall-paper, figurines, baby blankets and china tea-sets.",
"All were licensed by Frederick Warne & Co and earned Potter an independent income, as well as immense profits for her publisher.",
"In 1905, Potter and Norman Warne became unofficially engaged.",
"Potter's parents objected to the match because Warne was \"in trade\" and thus not socially suitable.",
"The engagement lasted only one month until Warne died of leukemia at age 37.",
"That same year, Potter used some of her income and a small inheritance from an aunt to buy Hill Top Farm in Near Sawrey in the English Lake District near Windermere.",
"Potter and Warne may have hoped that Hill Top Farm would be their holiday home, but after Warne's death, Potter went ahead with its purchase as she had always wanted to own that farm, and live in \"that charming village\".",
"===Country life===\nHill Top, Near Sawrey – Potter's former home, now owned by the National Trust and preserved as it was when she lived and wrote her stories there.",
"The tenant farmer John Cannon and his family agreed to stay on to manage the farm for her while she made physical improvements and learned the techniques of fell farming and of raising livestock, including pigs, cows and chickens; the following year she added sheep.",
"Realising she needed to protect her boundaries, she sought advice from W.H.",
"Heelis & Son, a local firm of solicitors with offices in nearby Hawkshead.",
"With William Heelis acting for her she bought contiguous pasture, and in 1909 the Castle Farm across the road from Hill Top Farm.",
"She visited Hill Top at every opportunity, and her books written during this period (such as ''The Tale of Ginger and Pickles'', about the local shop in Near Sawrey and ''The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse'', a wood mouse) reflect her increasing participation in village life and her delight in country living.",
"Owning and managing these working farms required routine collaboration with the widely respected William Heelis.",
"By the summer of 1912 Heelis had proposed marriage and Beatrix had accepted; although she did not immediately tell her parents, who once again disapproved because Heelis was only a country solicitor.",
"Potter and Heelis were married on 15 October 1913 in London at St Mary Abbots in Kensington.",
"The couple moved immediately to Near Sawrey, residing at Castle Cottage, the renovated farm house on Castle Farm, which was 34 acres large.",
"Hill Top remained a working farm but was now remodelled to allow for the tenant family and Potter's private studio and workshop.",
"At last her own woman, Potter settled into the partnerships that shaped the rest of her life: her country solicitor husband and his large family, her farms, the Sawrey community and the predictable rounds of country life.",
"''The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck'' and ''The Tale of Tom Kitten'' are representative of Hill Top Farm and of her farming life, and reflect her happiness with her country life.",
"Rupert Potter died in 1914 and, with the outbreak of World War I, Potter, now a wealthy woman, persuaded her mother to move to the Lake District and found a property for her to rent in Sawrey.",
"Finding life in Sawrey dull, Helen Potter soon moved to Lindeth Howe (now a 34 bedroomed country house hotel) a large house the Potters had previously rented for the summer in Bowness, on the other side of Lake Windermere, Potter continued to write stories for Frederick Warne & Co and fully participated in country life.",
"She established a Nursing Trust for local villages, and served on various committees and councils responsible for footpaths and other rural issues.",
"===Sheep farming===\nSoon after acquiring Hill Top Farm, Potter became keenly interested in the breeding and raising of Herdwick sheep, the indigenous fell sheep.",
"In 1923 she bought a large sheep farm in the Troutbeck Valley called Troutbeck Park Farm, formerly a deer park, restoring its land with thousands of Herdwick sheep.",
"This established her as one of the major Herdwick sheep farmers in the county.",
"She was admired by her shepherds and farm managers for her willingness to experiment with the latest biological remedies for the common diseases of sheep, and for her employment of the best shepherds, sheep breeders, and farm managers.",
"By the late 1920s Potter and her Hill Top farm manager Tom Storey had made a name for their prize-winning Herdwick flock, which took many prizes at the local agricultural shows, where Potter was often asked to serve as a judge.",
"In 1942 she became President-elect of the Herdwick Sheepbreeders’ Association, the first time a woman had ever been elected, but died before taking office.",
"Potter had been a disciple of the land conservation and preservation ideals of her long-time friend and mentor, Canon Hardwicke Rawnsley, the first secretary and founding member of the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty.",
"She supported the efforts of the National Trust to preserve not just the places of extraordinary beauty but also those heads of valleys and low grazing lands that would be irreparably ruined by development.",
"She was also an authority on the traditional Lakeland crafts, period furniture and stonework.",
"She restored and preserved the farms that she bought or managed, making sure that each farm house had in it a piece of antique Lakeland furniture.",
"Potter was interested in preserving not only the Herdwick sheep, but also the way of life of fell farming.",
"In 1930 the Heelises became partners with the National Trust in buying and managing the fell farms included in the large Monk Coniston Estate.",
"The estate was composed of many farms spread over a wide area of north-western Lancashire, including the Tarn Hows.",
"Potter was the ''de facto'' estate manager for the Trust for seven years until the National Trust could afford to buy most of the property back from her.",
"Her stewardship of these farms earned her wide regard, but she was not without her critics, not the least of which were her contemporaries who felt she used her wealth and the position of her husband to acquire properties in advance of their being made public.",
"She was notable in observing the problems of afforestation, preserving the intake grazing lands, and husbanding the quarries and timber on these farms.",
"All her farms were stocked with Herdwick sheep and frequently with Galloway cattle.",
"Lake District",
"Potter continued to write stories and to draw, although mostly for her own pleasure.",
"Her books in the late 1920s included the semi-autobiographical ''The Fairy Caravan'', a fanciful tale set in her beloved Troutbeck fells.",
"It was published only in the US during Potter's lifetime, and not until 1952 in the UK.",
"''Sister Anne'', Potter's version of the story of Bluebeard, was written especially for her American readers, but illustrated by Katharine Sturges.",
"A final folktale, ''Wag by Wall'', was published posthumously by ''The Horn Book Magazine'' in 1944.",
"Potter was a generous patron of the Girl Guides, whose troupes she allowed to make their summer encampments on her land, and whose company she enjoyed as an older woman.",
"Potter and William Heelis enjoyed a happy marriage of thirty years, continuing their farming and preservation efforts throughout the hard days of World War II.",
"Although they were childless, Potter played an important role in William's large family, particularly enjoying her relationship with several nieces whom she helped educate, and giving comfort and aid to her husband's brothers and sisters.",
"Potter died of complications from pneumonia and heart disease on 22 December 1943 at Castle Cottage, and her remains were cremated at Carleton Crematorium.",
"She left nearly all her property to the National Trust, including over of land, sixteen farms, cottages and herds of cattle and Herdwick sheep.",
"Hers was the largest gift at that time to the National Trust, and it enabled the preservation of the land now included in the Lake District National Park and the continuation of fell farming.",
"The central office of the National Trust in Swindon was named \"Heelis\" in 2005 in her memory.",
"William Heelis continued his stewardship of their properties and of her literary and artistic work for the eighteen months he survived her.",
"When he died in August 1945 he left the remainder to the National Trust.",
"Goody and Mrs. Hackee, illustration to ''The Tale of Timmy Tiptoes'', 1911\nPotter left almost all the original illustrations for her books to the National Trust.",
"The copyright to her stories and merchandise was then given to her publisher Frederick Warne & Co, now a division of the Penguin Group.",
"On 1 January 2014, the copyright expired in the UK and other countries with a 70-years-after-death limit.",
"Hill Top Farm was opened to the public by the National Trust in 1946; her artwork was displayed there until 1985 when it was moved to William Heelis's former law offices in Hawkshead, also owned by the National Trust as the Beatrix Potter Gallery.",
"Potter gave her folios of mycological drawings to the Armitt Library and Museum in Ambleside before her death.",
"''The Tale of Peter Rabbit'' is owned by Frederick Warne and Company, ''The Tailor of Gloucester'' by the Tate Gallery and ''The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies'' by the British Museum.",
"The largest public collection of her letters and drawings is the Leslie Linder Bequest and Leslie Linder Collection at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.",
"In the United States, the largest public collections are those in the Rare Book Department of the Free Library of Philadelphia, and the Cotsen Children's Library at Princeton University.",
"In 2015 a manuscript for an unpublished book was discovered by Jo Hanks, a publisher at Penguin Random House Children's Books, in the Victoria and Albert Museum archive.",
"The book ''The Tale of Kitty-in-Boots'', with illustrations by Quentin Blake, was published 1 September 2016, to mark the 150th anniversary of Potter's birth.",
"There are many interpretations of Potter's literary work, the sources of her art, and her life and times.",
"These include critical evaluations of her corpus of children's literature, and Modernist interpretations of Humphrey Carpenter and Katherine Chandler.",
"Judy Taylor, ''That Naughty Rabbit: Beatrix Potter and Peter Rabbit'' (rev.",
"2002) tells the story of the first publication and many editions.",
"Potter’s country life and her farming has also been widely discussed in the work of Susan Denyer and by other authors in the publications of The National Trust.",
"Potter's work as a scientific illustrator and her work in mycology is highlighted in several chapters in Linda Lear, ''Beatrix Potter: A Life in Nature'', 2007; ''Beatrix Potter: The Extraordinary Life of a Victorian Genius''.",
"2008, UK.",
"In 1971, a ballet film was released, ''The Tales of Beatrix Potter'', directed by Reginald Mills, set to music by John Lanchbery with choreography by Frederick Ashton, and performed in character costume by members of the Royal Ballet and the Royal Opera House orchestra.",
"The ballet of the same name has been performed by other dance companies around the world.",
"In 1982, the BBC produced ''The Tale of Beatrix Potter''.",
"This dramatisation of her life was written by John Hawkesworth, directed by Bill Hayes, and starred Holly Aird and Penelope Wilton as the young and adult Beatrix, respectively.",
"''The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends'', a TV series based on her stories, which starred actress Niamh Cusack as Beatrix Potter, has been released on VHS by Pickwick Video and later Carlton Video.",
"In 1992, Potter's famous children's book ''The Tale of Benjamin Bunny'' was featured in the film ''Lorenzo's Oil''.",
"In 2006, Chris Noonan directed ''Miss Potter'', a biographical film of Potter's life focusing on her early career and romance with her editor Norman Warne.",
"The film stars Renée Zellweger, Ewan McGregor and Emily Watson.",
"Potter is also featured in Susan Wittig Albert's series of light mysteries called The Cottage Tales of Beatrix Potter.",
"The first of the eight-book series is ''Tale of Hill Top Farm'' (2004), which deals with Potter's life in the Lake District and the village of Near Sawrey between 1905 and 1913.",
"In 2017, ''The Art of Beatrix Potter: Sketches, Paintings, and Illustrations'' by Emily Zach was published after San Francisco publisher Chronicle Books decided to mark the 150th anniversary of Beatrix Potter's birth by showing that she was \"far more than a 19th-century weekend painter.",
"She was an artist of astonishing range.\"",
"More recently, John Patrick is adapting a number of Beatrix Potter's tales into an upcoming live-action/animated musical feature film for his brand-new film studio, called Storybook Studio.",
"The film will be titled ''Beatrix Potter's The Tales of Peter Rabbit and Friends''.",
"English actress Jackie Weiner will play Beatrix Potter herself, with the voices of Sienna Adams as Peter Rabbit, Ronan McCoid as Benjamin Bunny, and Karen Zikas as Jemima Puddle-Duck.",
"\n'''The 24 Tales'''\n#''The Tale of Peter Rabbit'' (1902)\n#''The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin'' (1903)\n#''The Tailor of Gloucester'' (1903)\n#''The Tale of Benjamin Bunny'' (1904)\n#''The Tale of Two Bad Mice'' (1904)\n#''The Tale of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle'' (1905)\n#''The Tale of the Pie and the Patty-Pan'' (1905)\n#''The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher'' (1906)\n#''The Story of a Fierce Bad Rabbit'' (1906)\n#''The Story of Miss Moppet'' (1906)\n#''The Tale of Tom Kitten'' (1907)\n#''The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck'' (1908)\n#''The Tale of Samuel Whiskers or, The Roly-Poly Pudding'' (1908)\n#''The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies'' (1909)\n#''The Tale of Ginger and Pickles'' (1909)\n#''The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse'' (1910)\n#''The Tale of Timmy Tiptoes'' (1911)\n#''The Tale of Mr. Tod'' (1912)\n#''The Tale of Pigling Bland'' (1913)\n#''Appley Dapply's Nursery Rhymes'' (1917)\n#''The Tale of Johnny Town-Mouse'' (1918)\n#''Cecily Parsley's Nursery Rhymes'' (1922)\n#''The Tale of Little Pig Robinson'' (1930)\n#''The Tale of Kitty-in-Boots'' (2016)\n\n'''Other books'''\n#''Peter Rabbit's Painting Book'' (1911)\n#''Tom Kitten's Painting Book'' (1917)\n#''Jemima Puddle-Duck's Painting Book'' (1925)\n#''Peter Rabbit's Almanac for 1929'' (1928)\n#''The Fairy Caravan'' (1929)\n#''Sister Anne'' (illustrated by Katharine Sturges) (1932)\n#''Wag-by-Wall'' (decorations by J. J. Lankes) (1944)\n#''The Tale of the Faithful Dove'' (illustrated by Marie Angel) (1955, 1970)\n#''The Sly Old Cat'' (written 1906; first published 1971)\n#''The Tale of Tuppenny'' (illustrated by Marie Angel) (1973)\n\nOriginal manuscript from 1914, rediscovered in 2015.",
"\n;Letters, journals and writing collections\n\n*\n*\n*\n*\n* Potter, Beatrix.",
"(rev.",
"1989).",
"''The Journal of Beatrix Potter, 1881–1897'', transcribed from her code writings by Leslie Linder.",
"F. Warne & Co. \n*\n\n;Art studies\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n\n;Biographical studies\n\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*",
"\n\n\n\n* Beatrix Potter’s fossils and her interest in geology – B. G. Gardiner\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Collection of Potter materials at Victoria and Albert Museum\n* Beatrix Potter online feature at the University of Pittsburgh School of Information Sciences\n* Beatrix Potter Society, UK\n* Exhibition of Beatrix Potter's Picture Letters at the Morgan Library\n* Beatrix Potter Collection (digitized images from the Free Library of Philadelphia)\n*"
] | finance |
[
"\nHeadquarters\n\nThe '''Bank of England''', formally the '''Governor and Company of the Bank of England''', is the central bank of the United Kingdom and the model on which most modern central banks have been based. Established in 1694, it is the second oldest central bank in operation today, after the Sveriges Riksbank. The Bank of England is the world's 8th oldest bank. It was established to act as the English Government's banker and is still one of the bankers for the Government of the United Kingdom. The Bank was privately owned by stockholders from its foundation in 1694 until it was nationalised in 1946.\n\nIn 1998, it became an independent public organisation, wholly owned by the Treasury Solicitor on behalf of the government, with independence in setting monetary policy.\n\nThe Bank is one of eight banks authorised to issue banknotes in the United Kingdom, but it has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales and regulates the issue of banknotes by commercial banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland.\n\nThe Bank's Monetary Policy Committee has a devolved responsibility for managing monetary policy. The Treasury has reserve powers to give orders to the committee \"if they are required in the public interest and by extreme economic circumstances\", but such orders must be endorsed by Parliament within 28 days. The Bank's Financial Policy Committee held its first meeting in June 2011 as a macro prudential regulator to oversee regulation of the UK's financial sector.\n\nThe Bank's headquarters have been in London's main financial district, the City of London, on Threadneedle Street, since 1734. It is sometimes known by the metonym ''The Old Lady of Threadneedle Street'' or ''The Old Lady'', a name taken from the legend of Sarah Whitehead, whose ghost is said to haunt the Bank's garden. The busy road junction outside is known as Bank junction.\n\nAs a regulator and central bank, the Bank of England has not offered consumer banking services for many years, but it still does manage some public-facing services such as exchanging superseded bank notes. Until 2016, the bank provided personal banking services as a popular privilege for employees.\n",
"\n===Founding===\nThe sealing of the Bank of England Charter (1694)\n\nEngland's crushing defeat by France, the dominant naval power, in naval engagements culminating in the 1690 Battle of Beachy Head, became the catalyst for England's rebuilding itself as a global power. England had no choice but to build a powerful navy. No public funds were available, and the credit of William III's government was so low in London that it was impossible for it to borrow the £1,200,000 (at 8% p.a.) that the government wanted.\n\nTo induce subscription to the loan, the subscribers were to be incorporated by the name of the Governor and Company of the Bank of England. The Bank was given exclusive possession of the government's balances, and was the only limited-liability corporation allowed to issue bank notes. The lenders would give the government cash (bullion) and issue notes against the government bonds, which can be lent again. The £1.2m was raised in 12 days; half of this was used to rebuild the navy.\n\nAs a side effect, the huge industrial effort needed, including establishing ironworks to make more nails and advances in agriculture feeding the quadrupled strength of the navy, started to transform the economy. This helped the new Kingdom of Great Britain – England and Scotland were formally united in 1707 – to become powerful. The power of the navy made Britain the dominant world power in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.\n\nThe establishment of the bank was devised by Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, in 1694. The plan of 1691, which had been proposed by William Paterson three years before, had not then been acted upon. (It is worth noting though, that 28 years earlier, in 1636, Financier to the king Philip Burlamachi had proposed exactly the same idea in a letter addressed to Sir Francis Windebank.) He proposed a loan of £1.2m to the government; in return the subscribers would be incorporated as '''The Governor and Company of the Bank of England''' with long-term banking privileges including the issue of notes. The Royal Charter was granted on 27 July through the passage of the Tonnage Act 1694. Public finances were in such dire condition at the time that the terms of the loan were that it was to be serviced at a rate of 8% per annum, and there was also a service charge of £4,000 per annum for the management of the loan. The first governor was Sir John Houblon, who is depicted in the £50 note issued in 1994. The charter was renewed in 1742, 1764, and 1781.\n\n===18th century===\nSatirical cartoon protesting against the introduction of paper money, by James Gillray, 1797. The \"Old Lady of Threadneedle St\" (the Bank personified) is ravished by William Pitt the Younger.\n\nThe Bank's original home was in Walbrook, a street in the City of London, where during reconstruction in 1954 archaeologists found the remains of a Roman temple of Mithras (Mithras is – rather fittingly – said to have been worshipped as, amongst other things, the God of Contracts); the Mithraeum ruins are perhaps the most famous of all 20th-century Roman discoveries in the City of London and can be viewed by the public.\n\nThe Bank moved to its current location in Threadneedle Street in 1734, and thereafter slowly acquired neighbouring land to create the edifice seen today. Sir Herbert Baker's rebuilding of the Bank, demolishing most of Sir John Soane's earlier building, was described by architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner as \"the greatest architectural crime, in the City of London, of the twentieth century\".\n\nWhen the idea and reality of the National Debt came about during the 18th century, this was also managed by the Bank. During the American war of independence, business for the Bank was so good that George Washington remained a shareholder throughout the period. By the charter renewal in 1781 it was also the bankers' bank – keeping enough gold to pay its notes on demand until 26 February 1797 when war had so diminished gold reserves that - following an invasion scare caused by the Battle of Fishguard days earlier - the government prohibited the Bank from paying out in gold by the passing of the Bank Restriction Act 1797. This prohibition lasted until 1821.\n\n===19th century===\nBank Stock of the Bank of England, issued 25. January 1876\nThe 1844 Bank Charter Act tied the issue of notes to the gold reserves and gave the Bank sole rights with regard to the issue of banknotes. Private banks that had previously had that right retained it, provided that their headquarters were outside London and that they deposited security against the notes that they issued. A few English banks continued to issue their own notes until the last of them was taken over in the 1930s. Scottish and Northern Irish private banks still have that right.\n\nThe bank acted as lender of last resort for the first time in the panic of 1866.\n\nThe last private bank in England to issue its own notes was Thomas Fox's Fox, Fowler and Company bank in Wellington, which rapidly expanded, until it merged with Lloyds Bank in 1927. They were legal tender until 1964. There are nine notes left in circulation; one is housed at Tone Dale House Wellington.\n\n===20th century===\nThe main Bank of England façade, c. 1980\n\nBritain remained on the gold standard until 1931 when the gold and foreign exchange reserves were transferred to the Treasury, but they continued to be managed by the Bank.\n\nDuring the governorship of Montagu Norman, from 1920–44, the Bank made deliberate efforts to move away from commercial banking and become a central bank. In 1946, shortly after the end of Norman's tenure, the bank was nationalised by the Labour government.\n\nAfter 1945 the Bank pursued the multiple goals of Keynesian economics, especially \"easy money\" and low interest rates to support aggregate demand. It tried to keep a fixed exchange rate, and attempted to deal with inflation and sterling weakness by credit and exchange controls.\n\nIn 1977, the Bank set up a wholly owned subsidiary called Bank of England Nominees Limited (BOEN), a private limited company, with two of its hundred £1 shares issued. According to its Memorandum & Articles of Association, its objectives are: \"To act as Nominee or agent or attorney either solely or jointly with others, for any person or persons, partnership, company, corporation, government, state, organisation, sovereign, province, authority, or public body, or any group or association of them....\" Bank of England Nominees Limited was granted an exemption by Edmund Dell, Secretary of State for Trade, from the disclosure requirements under Section 27(9) of the Companies Act 1976, because \"it was considered undesirable that the disclosure requirements should apply to certain categories of shareholders.\" The Bank of England is also protected by its Royal Charter status, and the Official Secrets Act. BOEN is a vehicle for governments and heads of state to invest in UK companies (subject to approval from the Secretary of State), providing they undertake \"not to influence the affairs of the company\". BOEN is no longer exempt from company law disclosure requirements. Although a dormant company, dormancy does not preclude a company actively operating as a nominee shareholder. BOEN has two shareholders: the Bank of England, and the Secretary of the Bank of England.\n\nIn 1981 the reserve requirement for banks to hold a minimum fixed proportion of their deposits as reserves at the Bank of England was abolished: see reserve requirement for more details. The contemporary transition from Keynesian economics to Chicago economics was analysed by Kaldor in ''The Scourge of Monetarism''\n\nOn 6 May 1997, following the 1997 general election which brought a Labour government to power for the first time since 1979, it was announced by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Gordon Brown, that the Bank would be granted operational independence over monetary policy. Under the terms of the Bank of England Act 1998 (which came into force on 1 June 1998), the Bank's Monetary Policy Committee was given sole responsibility for setting interest rates to meet the Government's Retail Prices Index (RPI) inflation target of 2.5%. The target has changed to 2% since the Consumer Price Index (CPI) replaced the Retail Prices Index as the Treasury's inflation index. If inflation overshoots or undershoots the target by more than 1%, the Governor has to write a letter to the Chancellor of the Exchequer explaining why, and how he will remedy the situation.\n\nThe success of inflation targeting in the United Kingdom has been attributed to the Bank's focus on transparency. The Bank of England has been a leader in producing innovative ways of communicating information to the public, especially through its Inflation Report, which have been emulated by many other central banks.\n\nIndependent central banks that adopt an inflation target are known as Friedmanite central banks. Inflation targets combined with central bank independence have been characterised as a \"starve the beast\" strategy creating a lack of money in the public sector. This change in Labour's politics was described by Sidelsky in ''The Return of the Master'' as a mistake and as an adoption of the Rational Expectations Hypothesis as promulgated by Walters\n\nThe handing over of monetary policy to the Bank had been a key plank of the Liberal Democrats' economic policy since the 1992 general election. Conservative MP Nicholas Budgen had also proposed this as a private member's bill in 1996, but the bill failed as it had the support of neither the government nor the opposition.\n\n===21st century===\nMark Carney assumed the post of Governor of the Bank of England on 1 July 2013. He succeeded Mervyn King, who took over on 30 June 2003. Carney, a Canadian, will serve an initial five-year term rather than the typical eight, and will seek UK citizenship. He is the first non-British citizen to hold the post. As of January 2014, the Bank also has four Deputy Governors.\n",
"There are two main areas which are tackled by the Bank to ensure it carries out these functions efficiently:\nBank House, the Bank of England offices on King Street in Leeds.\n\n===Monetary stability===\n\nNote: It is important to note that \"monetary\" and \"financial\" are synonyms.\n\nStable prices and confidence in the currency are the two main criteria for monetary stability. Stable prices are maintained by seeking to ensure that price increases meet the Government's inflation target. The Bank aims to meet this target by adjusting the base interest rate, which is decided by the Monetary Policy Committee, and through its communications strategy, such as publishing yield curves.\n\n:Maintaining financial stability involves protecting against threats to the whole financial system. Threats are detected by the Bank's surveillance and market intelligence functions. The threats are then dealt with through financial and other operations, both at home and abroad. In exceptional circumstances, the Bank may act as the lender of last resort by extending credit when no other institution will.\nThe Bank works together with other institutions to secure both monetary and financial stability, including:\n* HM Treasury, the Government department responsible for financial and economic policy; and\n* Other central banks and international organisations, with the aim of improving the international financial system.\nThe 1997 Memorandum of Understanding describes the terms under which the Bank, the Treasury and the FSA work toward the common aim of increased financial stability. In 2010 the incoming Chancellor announced his intention to merge the FSA back into the Bank. As of 2012, the current director for financial stability is Andy Haldane.\n\nThe Bank acts as the government's banker, and it maintains the government's Consolidated Fund account. It also manages the country's foreign exchange and gold reserves. The Bank also acts as the bankers' bank, especially in its capacity as a lender of last resort.\n\nThe Bank has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales. Scottish and Northern Irish banks retain the right to issue their own banknotes, but they must be backed one for one with deposits at the Bank, excepting a few million pounds representing the value of notes they had in circulation in 1845. The Bank decided to sell its banknote printing operations to De La Rue in December 2002, under the advice of Close Brothers Corporate Finance Ltd.\n\nSince 1998, the Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) has had the responsibility for setting the official interest rate. However, with the decision to grant the Bank operational independence, responsibility for government debt management was transferred in 1998 to the new Debt Management Office, which also took over government cash management in 2000. Computershare took over as the registrar for UK Government bonds (gilt-edged securities or ''gilts'') from the Bank at the end of 2004.\n\nThe Bank used to be responsible for the regulation and supervision of the banking and insurance industries. This responsibility was transferred to the Financial Services Authority in June 1998, but after the financial crises in 2008 new banking legislation transferred the responsibility for regulation and supervision of the banking and insurance industries back to the Bank.\n\nIn 2011 the interim Financial Policy Committee (FPC) was created as a mirror committee to the MPC to spearhead the Bank's new mandate on financial stability. The FPC is responsible for macro prudential regulation of all UK banks and insurance companies.\n\nTo help maintain economic stability, the Bank attempts to broaden understanding of its role, both through regular speeches and publications by senior Bank figures, a semiannual Financial Stability Report, and through a wider education strategy aimed at the general public. It maintains a free museum and runs the Target Two Point Zero competition for A-level students.\n\n===Asset purchase facility ===\nThe Bank has operated, since January 2009, an Asset Purchase Facility (APF) to buy \"high-quality assets financed by the issue of Treasury bills and the DMO's cash management operations\" and thereby improve liquidity in the credit markets. It has, since March 2009, also provided the mechanism by which the Bank's policy of quantitative easing (QE) is achieved, under the auspices of the MPC. Along with the managing the £200 billion of QE funds, the APF continues to operate its corporate facilities. Both are undertaken by a subsidiary company of the Bank of England, the Bank of England Asset Purchase Facility Fund Limited (BEAPFF).\n",
"\nThe Bank has issued banknotes since 1694. Notes were originally hand-written; although they were partially printed from 1725 onwards, cashiers still had to sign each note and make them payable to someone. Notes were fully printed from 1855. Until 1928 all notes were \"White Notes\", printed in black and with a blank reverse. In the 18th and 19th centuries White Notes were issued in £1 and £2 denominations. During the 20th century White Notes were issued in denominations between £5 and £1000.\n\nUntil the mid-19th century, commercial banks were allowed to issue their own banknotes, and notes issued by provincial banking companies were commonly in circulation. The Bank Charter Act 1844 began the process of restricting note issue to the Bank; new banks were prohibited from issuing their own banknotes and existing note-issuing banks were not permitted to expand their issue. As provincial banking companies merged to form larger banks, they lost their right to issue notes, and the English private banknote eventually disappeared, leaving the Bank with a monopoly of note issue in England and Wales. The last private bank to issue its own banknotes in England and Wales was Fox, Fowler and Company in 1921. However, the limitations of the 1844 Act only affected banks in England and Wales, and today three commercial banks in Scotland and four in Northern Ireland continue to issue their own banknotes, regulated by the Bank.\n\nAt the start of the First World War, the Currency and Bank Notes Act 1914 was passed, which granted temporary powers to HM Treasury for issuing banknotes to the values of £1 and 10/- (ten shillings). Treasury notes had full legal tender status and were not convertible into gold through the Bank; they replaced the gold coin in circulation to prevent a run on sterling and to enable raw material purchases for armament production. These notes featured an image of King George V (Bank of England notes did not begin to display an image of the monarch until 1960). The wording on each note was:\n\n\n\nTreasury notes were issued until 1928, when the Currency and Bank Notes Act 1928 returned note-issuing powers to the banks. The Bank of England issued notes for ten shillings and one pound for the first time on 22 November 1928.\n\nDuring the Second World War the German Operation Bernhard attempted to counterfeit denominations between £5 and £50, producing 500,000 notes each month in 1943. The original plan was to parachute the money into the UK in an attempt to destabilise the British economy, but it was found more useful to use the notes to pay German agents operating throughout Europe. Although most fell into Allied hands at the end of the war, forgeries frequently appeared for years afterwards, which led banknote denominations above £5 to be removed from circulation.\n\nIn 2006, over £53 million in banknotes belonging to the Bank was stolen from a depot in Tonbridge, Kent.\n\nModern banknotes are printed by contract with De La Rue Currency in Loughton, Essex.\n",
"The Bank is custodian to the official gold reserves of the United Kingdom and around 30 other countries. The vault, beneath the City of London, covers a floor space greater than that of the third-tallest building in the City, Tower 42, and needs keys that are long to open. As of April 2016, the Bank held around 400,000 bars, which is equivalent to 5,134 tonnes of gold. These gold deposits were estimated in July 2017 to have a current market value of £142,000,000,000. These estimates suggest the vault could hold as much as 3% of the gold mined throughout human history.\n",
"\n===Governors===\n\nFollowing is a list of the Governors of the Bank of England since the beginning of the 20th century:\n\n\n Period\n\n Samuel Gladstone\n 1899–1901\n\n Augustus Prevost\n 1901–03\n\n Samuel Morley\n 1903–05\n\n Alexander Wallace\n 1905–07\n\n William Campbell\n 1907–09\n\n Reginald Johnston\n 1909–11\n\n Alfred Cole\n 1911–13\n\n Walter Cunliffe\n 1913–18\n\n Brien Cokayne\n 1918–20\n\n Montagu Norman\n 1920–44\n\n Thomas Catto\n 1944–49\n\n Cameron Cobbold\n 1949–61\n\n Rowland Baring (3rd Earl of Cromer)\n 1961–66\n\n Leslie O'Brien\n 1966–73\n\n Gordon Richardson\n 1973–83\n\n Robert Leigh-Pemberton\n 1983–93\n\n Edward George\n 1993–2003\n\n Mervyn King\n 2003–13\n\n Mark Carney\n 2013–\n\n\n\n===Court of Directors===\n\n+ ''Court of Directors (2015)''\n\n Name \n Function\n\n Anthony Habgood \n Chairman of Court\n\n Mark Carney \n Governor\n\n Ben Broadbent\n Deputy Governor, Monetary Policy\n\n Sir Jon Cunliffe \n Deputy Governor, Financial Stability\n\n Sam Woods \n Deputy Governor, Prudential Regulation & Chief Executive of the Prudential Regulation Authority\n\n Michael Cohrs \n Non-Executive Director\n\n Bradley Fried \n Managing Partner of Grovepoint Capital LLP\n\n Tim Frost \n Non-Executive Director of Cairn Capital\n\n Diana 'Dido' Harding \n Non-Executive Director\n\n Dave Prentis \n General Secretary of UNISON\n\n Don Robert \n Non-Executive Director\n\n John Stewart \n Chairman, Legal and General Group plc\n\n Dorothy Thompson \n Non-Executive Director\n\n\n\n===Other staff===\nSince 2013, the Bank has had a chief operating officer (COO). , the Bank's COO has been Charlotte Hogg.\n\n, the Bank's chief economist is Andrew Haldane.\n",
"\n* List of British currencies\n* Bank of England Act\n* Bank of England club\n* Coins of the pound sterling\n* East India Company shareholders\n* Financial Sanctions Unit\n* Fractional-reserve banking\n* Commonwealth banknote-issuing institutions\n* Bank of England Museum\n* Deputy Governor of the Bank of England\n",
"\n",
"* , on nationalisation 1945–50, pp 43–76\n* Capie, Forrest. ''The Bank of England: 1950s to 1979'' (Cambridge University Press, 2010). xxviii + 890 pp. excerpt and text search\n* Clapham, J. H. ''Bank of England'' (2 vol 1944) for 1694–1914\n* Fforde, John. ''The Role of the Bank of England, 1941–1958'' (1992) excerpt and text search\n* Francis, John. ''History of the Bank of England: Its Times and Traditions'' excerpt and text search\n* Hennessy, Elizabeth. ''A Domestic History of the Bank of England, 1930–1960'' (2008) excerpt and text search\n* Roberts, Richard, and David Kynaston. ''The Bank of England: Money, Power and Influence 1694–1994'' (1995)\n* Sayers, R. S. ''The Bank of England, 1891–1944'' (1986) excerpt and text search\n* Schuster, F. ''The Bank of England and the State''\n* Wood, John H. ''A History of Central Banking in Great Britain and the United States'' (Cambridge University Press, 2005)\n",
"*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Functions of the Bank",
"Banknote issues",
"The vault",
"Governance of the Bank of England",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Bank of England | [
"\nHeadquarters\n\nThe '''Bank of England''', formally the '''Governor and Company of the Bank of England''', is the central bank of the United Kingdom and the model on which most modern central banks have been based.",
"Established in 1694, it is the second oldest central bank in operation today, after the Sveriges Riksbank.",
"The Bank of England is the world's 8th oldest bank.",
"The Bank was privately owned by stockholders from its foundation in 1694 until it was nationalised in 1946.",
"The Bank is one of eight banks authorised to issue banknotes in the United Kingdom, but it has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales and regulates the issue of banknotes by commercial banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland.",
"The Bank's Monetary Policy Committee has a devolved responsibility for managing monetary policy.",
"The Bank's Financial Policy Committee held its first meeting in June 2011 as a macro prudential regulator to oversee regulation of the UK's financial sector.",
"The Bank's headquarters have been in London's main financial district, the City of London, on Threadneedle Street, since 1734.",
"It is sometimes known by the metonym ''The Old Lady of Threadneedle Street'' or ''The Old Lady'', a name taken from the legend of Sarah Whitehead, whose ghost is said to haunt the Bank's garden.",
"The busy road junction outside is known as Bank junction.",
"As a regulator and central bank, the Bank of England has not offered consumer banking services for many years, but it still does manage some public-facing services such as exchanging superseded bank notes.",
"Until 2016, the bank provided personal banking services as a popular privilege for employees.",
"\n===Founding===\nThe sealing of the Bank of England Charter (1694)\n\nEngland's crushing defeat by France, the dominant naval power, in naval engagements culminating in the 1690 Battle of Beachy Head, became the catalyst for England's rebuilding itself as a global power.",
"To induce subscription to the loan, the subscribers were to be incorporated by the name of the Governor and Company of the Bank of England.",
"The Bank was given exclusive possession of the government's balances, and was the only limited-liability corporation allowed to issue bank notes.",
"The establishment of the bank was devised by Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, in 1694.",
"He proposed a loan of £1.2m to the government; in return the subscribers would be incorporated as '''The Governor and Company of the Bank of England''' with long-term banking privileges including the issue of notes.",
"The \"Old Lady of Threadneedle St\" (the Bank personified) is ravished by William Pitt the Younger.",
"The Bank's original home was in Walbrook, a street in the City of London, where during reconstruction in 1954 archaeologists found the remains of a Roman temple of Mithras (Mithras is – rather fittingly – said to have been worshipped as, amongst other things, the God of Contracts); the Mithraeum ruins are perhaps the most famous of all 20th-century Roman discoveries in the City of London and can be viewed by the public.",
"The Bank moved to its current location in Threadneedle Street in 1734, and thereafter slowly acquired neighbouring land to create the edifice seen today.",
"Sir Herbert Baker's rebuilding of the Bank, demolishing most of Sir John Soane's earlier building, was described by architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner as \"the greatest architectural crime, in the City of London, of the twentieth century\".",
"When the idea and reality of the National Debt came about during the 18th century, this was also managed by the Bank.",
"During the American war of independence, business for the Bank was so good that George Washington remained a shareholder throughout the period.",
"By the charter renewal in 1781 it was also the bankers' bank – keeping enough gold to pay its notes on demand until 26 February 1797 when war had so diminished gold reserves that - following an invasion scare caused by the Battle of Fishguard days earlier - the government prohibited the Bank from paying out in gold by the passing of the Bank Restriction Act 1797.",
"===19th century===\nBank Stock of the Bank of England, issued 25.",
"January 1876\nThe 1844 Bank Charter Act tied the issue of notes to the gold reserves and gave the Bank sole rights with regard to the issue of banknotes.",
"The bank acted as lender of last resort for the first time in the panic of 1866.",
"The last private bank in England to issue its own notes was Thomas Fox's Fox, Fowler and Company bank in Wellington, which rapidly expanded, until it merged with Lloyds Bank in 1927.",
"===20th century===\nThe main Bank of England façade, c. 1980\n\nBritain remained on the gold standard until 1931 when the gold and foreign exchange reserves were transferred to the Treasury, but they continued to be managed by the Bank.",
"During the governorship of Montagu Norman, from 1920–44, the Bank made deliberate efforts to move away from commercial banking and become a central bank.",
"In 1946, shortly after the end of Norman's tenure, the bank was nationalised by the Labour government.",
"After 1945 the Bank pursued the multiple goals of Keynesian economics, especially \"easy money\" and low interest rates to support aggregate demand.",
"In 1977, the Bank set up a wholly owned subsidiary called Bank of England Nominees Limited (BOEN), a private limited company, with two of its hundred £1 shares issued.",
"According to its Memorandum & Articles of Association, its objectives are: \"To act as Nominee or agent or attorney either solely or jointly with others, for any person or persons, partnership, company, corporation, government, state, organisation, sovereign, province, authority, or public body, or any group or association of them....\" Bank of England Nominees Limited was granted an exemption by Edmund Dell, Secretary of State for Trade, from the disclosure requirements under Section 27(9) of the Companies Act 1976, because \"it was considered undesirable that the disclosure requirements should apply to certain categories of shareholders.\"",
"The Bank of England is also protected by its Royal Charter status, and the Official Secrets Act.",
"BOEN has two shareholders: the Bank of England, and the Secretary of the Bank of England.",
"In 1981 the reserve requirement for banks to hold a minimum fixed proportion of their deposits as reserves at the Bank of England was abolished: see reserve requirement for more details.",
"The contemporary transition from Keynesian economics to Chicago economics was analysed by Kaldor in ''The Scourge of Monetarism''\n\nOn 6 May 1997, following the 1997 general election which brought a Labour government to power for the first time since 1979, it was announced by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Gordon Brown, that the Bank would be granted operational independence over monetary policy.",
"Under the terms of the Bank of England Act 1998 (which came into force on 1 June 1998), the Bank's Monetary Policy Committee was given sole responsibility for setting interest rates to meet the Government's Retail Prices Index (RPI) inflation target of 2.5%.",
"The success of inflation targeting in the United Kingdom has been attributed to the Bank's focus on transparency.",
"The Bank of England has been a leader in producing innovative ways of communicating information to the public, especially through its Inflation Report, which have been emulated by many other central banks.",
"Inflation targets combined with central bank independence have been characterised as a \"starve the beast\" strategy creating a lack of money in the public sector.",
"This change in Labour's politics was described by Sidelsky in ''The Return of the Master'' as a mistake and as an adoption of the Rational Expectations Hypothesis as promulgated by Walters\n\nThe handing over of monetary policy to the Bank had been a key plank of the Liberal Democrats' economic policy since the 1992 general election.",
"===21st century===\nMark Carney assumed the post of Governor of the Bank of England on 1 July 2013.",
"As of January 2014, the Bank also has four Deputy Governors.",
"There are two main areas which are tackled by the Bank to ensure it carries out these functions efficiently:\nBank House, the Bank of England offices on King Street in Leeds.",
"The Bank aims to meet this target by adjusting the base interest rate, which is decided by the Monetary Policy Committee, and through its communications strategy, such as publishing yield curves.",
"Threats are detected by the Bank's surveillance and market intelligence functions.",
"In exceptional circumstances, the Bank may act as the lender of last resort by extending credit when no other institution will.",
"The Bank works together with other institutions to secure both monetary and financial stability, including:\n* HM Treasury, the Government department responsible for financial and economic policy; and\n* Other central banks and international organisations, with the aim of improving the international financial system.",
"The 1997 Memorandum of Understanding describes the terms under which the Bank, the Treasury and the FSA work toward the common aim of increased financial stability.",
"In 2010 the incoming Chancellor announced his intention to merge the FSA back into the Bank.",
"The Bank acts as the government's banker, and it maintains the government's Consolidated Fund account.",
"The Bank also acts as the bankers' bank, especially in its capacity as a lender of last resort.",
"The Bank has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales.",
"Scottish and Northern Irish banks retain the right to issue their own banknotes, but they must be backed one for one with deposits at the Bank, excepting a few million pounds representing the value of notes they had in circulation in 1845.",
"The Bank decided to sell its banknote printing operations to De La Rue in December 2002, under the advice of Close Brothers Corporate Finance Ltd.",
"However, with the decision to grant the Bank operational independence, responsibility for government debt management was transferred in 1998 to the new Debt Management Office, which also took over government cash management in 2000.",
"Computershare took over as the registrar for UK Government bonds (gilt-edged securities or ''gilts'') from the Bank at the end of 2004.",
"The Bank used to be responsible for the regulation and supervision of the banking and insurance industries.",
"This responsibility was transferred to the Financial Services Authority in June 1998, but after the financial crises in 2008 new banking legislation transferred the responsibility for regulation and supervision of the banking and insurance industries back to the Bank.",
"In 2011 the interim Financial Policy Committee (FPC) was created as a mirror committee to the MPC to spearhead the Bank's new mandate on financial stability.",
"To help maintain economic stability, the Bank attempts to broaden understanding of its role, both through regular speeches and publications by senior Bank figures, a semiannual Financial Stability Report, and through a wider education strategy aimed at the general public.",
"===Asset purchase facility ===\nThe Bank has operated, since January 2009, an Asset Purchase Facility (APF) to buy \"high-quality assets financed by the issue of Treasury bills and the DMO's cash management operations\" and thereby improve liquidity in the credit markets.",
"It has, since March 2009, also provided the mechanism by which the Bank's policy of quantitative easing (QE) is achieved, under the auspices of the MPC.",
"Both are undertaken by a subsidiary company of the Bank of England, the Bank of England Asset Purchase Facility Fund Limited (BEAPFF).",
"\nThe Bank has issued banknotes since 1694.",
"The Bank Charter Act 1844 began the process of restricting note issue to the Bank; new banks were prohibited from issuing their own banknotes and existing note-issuing banks were not permitted to expand their issue.",
"As provincial banking companies merged to form larger banks, they lost their right to issue notes, and the English private banknote eventually disappeared, leaving the Bank with a monopoly of note issue in England and Wales.",
"The last private bank to issue its own banknotes in England and Wales was Fox, Fowler and Company in 1921.",
"However, the limitations of the 1844 Act only affected banks in England and Wales, and today three commercial banks in Scotland and four in Northern Ireland continue to issue their own banknotes, regulated by the Bank.",
"At the start of the First World War, the Currency and Bank Notes Act 1914 was passed, which granted temporary powers to HM Treasury for issuing banknotes to the values of £1 and 10/- (ten shillings).",
"Treasury notes had full legal tender status and were not convertible into gold through the Bank; they replaced the gold coin in circulation to prevent a run on sterling and to enable raw material purchases for armament production.",
"These notes featured an image of King George V (Bank of England notes did not begin to display an image of the monarch until 1960).",
"The wording on each note was:\n\n\n\nTreasury notes were issued until 1928, when the Currency and Bank Notes Act 1928 returned note-issuing powers to the banks.",
"The Bank of England issued notes for ten shillings and one pound for the first time on 22 November 1928.",
"In 2006, over £53 million in banknotes belonging to the Bank was stolen from a depot in Tonbridge, Kent.",
"The Bank is custodian to the official gold reserves of the United Kingdom and around 30 other countries.",
"As of April 2016, the Bank held around 400,000 bars, which is equivalent to 5,134 tonnes of gold.",
"\n===Governors===\n\nFollowing is a list of the Governors of the Bank of England since the beginning of the 20th century:\n\n\n Period\n\n Samuel Gladstone\n 1899–1901\n\n Augustus Prevost\n 1901–03\n\n Samuel Morley\n 1903–05\n\n Alexander Wallace\n 1905–07\n\n William Campbell\n 1907–09\n\n Reginald Johnston\n 1909–11\n\n Alfred Cole\n 1911–13\n\n Walter Cunliffe\n 1913–18\n\n Brien Cokayne\n 1918–20\n\n Montagu Norman\n 1920–44\n\n Thomas Catto\n 1944–49\n\n Cameron Cobbold\n 1949–61\n\n Rowland Baring (3rd Earl of Cromer)\n 1961–66\n\n Leslie O'Brien\n 1966–73\n\n Gordon Richardson\n 1973–83\n\n Robert Leigh-Pemberton\n 1983–93\n\n Edward George\n 1993–2003\n\n Mervyn King\n 2003–13\n\n Mark Carney\n 2013–\n\n\n\n===Court of Directors===\n\n+ ''Court of Directors (2015)''\n\n Name \n Function\n\n Anthony Habgood \n Chairman of Court\n\n Mark Carney \n Governor\n\n Ben Broadbent\n Deputy Governor, Monetary Policy\n\n Sir Jon Cunliffe \n Deputy Governor, Financial Stability\n\n Sam Woods \n Deputy Governor, Prudential Regulation & Chief Executive of the Prudential Regulation Authority\n\n Michael Cohrs \n Non-Executive Director\n\n Bradley Fried \n Managing Partner of Grovepoint Capital LLP\n\n Tim Frost \n Non-Executive Director of Cairn Capital\n\n Diana 'Dido' Harding \n Non-Executive Director\n\n Dave Prentis \n General Secretary of UNISON\n\n Don Robert \n Non-Executive Director\n\n John Stewart \n Chairman, Legal and General Group plc\n\n Dorothy Thompson \n Non-Executive Director\n\n\n\n===Other staff===\nSince 2013, the Bank has had a chief operating officer (COO).",
", the Bank's COO has been Charlotte Hogg.",
", the Bank's chief economist is Andrew Haldane.",
"\n* List of British currencies\n* Bank of England Act\n* Bank of England club\n* Coins of the pound sterling\n* East India Company shareholders\n* Financial Sanctions Unit\n* Fractional-reserve banking\n* Commonwealth banknote-issuing institutions\n* Bank of England Museum\n* Deputy Governor of the Bank of England",
"''The Bank of England: 1950s to 1979'' (Cambridge University Press, 2010).",
"excerpt and text search\n* Clapham, J. H. ''Bank of England'' (2 vol 1944) for 1694–1914\n* Fforde, John.",
"''The Role of the Bank of England, 1941–1958'' (1992) excerpt and text search\n* Francis, John.",
"''History of the Bank of England: Its Times and Traditions'' excerpt and text search\n* Hennessy, Elizabeth.",
"''A Domestic History of the Bank of England, 1930–1960'' (2008) excerpt and text search\n* Roberts, Richard, and David Kynaston.",
"''The Bank of England: Money, Power and Influence 1694–1994'' (1995)\n* Sayers, R. S. ''The Bank of England, 1891–1944'' (1986) excerpt and text search\n* Schuster, F. ''The Bank of England and the State''\n* Wood, John H. ''A History of Central Banking in Great Britain and the United States'' (Cambridge University Press, 2005)"
] | [
"It was established to act as the English Government's banker and is still one of the bankers for the Government of the United Kingdom.",
"In 1998, it became an independent public organisation, wholly owned by the Treasury Solicitor on behalf of the government, with independence in setting monetary policy.",
"The Treasury has reserve powers to give orders to the committee \"if they are required in the public interest and by extreme economic circumstances\", but such orders must be endorsed by Parliament within 28 days.",
"England had no choice but to build a powerful navy.",
"No public funds were available, and the credit of William III's government was so low in London that it was impossible for it to borrow the £1,200,000 (at 8% p.a.)",
"that the government wanted.",
"The lenders would give the government cash (bullion) and issue notes against the government bonds, which can be lent again.",
"The £1.2m was raised in 12 days; half of this was used to rebuild the navy.",
"As a side effect, the huge industrial effort needed, including establishing ironworks to make more nails and advances in agriculture feeding the quadrupled strength of the navy, started to transform the economy.",
"This helped the new Kingdom of Great Britain – England and Scotland were formally united in 1707 – to become powerful.",
"The power of the navy made Britain the dominant world power in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.",
"The plan of 1691, which had been proposed by William Paterson three years before, had not then been acted upon.",
"(It is worth noting though, that 28 years earlier, in 1636, Financier to the king Philip Burlamachi had proposed exactly the same idea in a letter addressed to Sir Francis Windebank.)",
"The Royal Charter was granted on 27 July through the passage of the Tonnage Act 1694.",
"Public finances were in such dire condition at the time that the terms of the loan were that it was to be serviced at a rate of 8% per annum, and there was also a service charge of £4,000 per annum for the management of the loan.",
"The first governor was Sir John Houblon, who is depicted in the £50 note issued in 1994.",
"The charter was renewed in 1742, 1764, and 1781.",
"===18th century===\nSatirical cartoon protesting against the introduction of paper money, by James Gillray, 1797.",
"This prohibition lasted until 1821.",
"Private banks that had previously had that right retained it, provided that their headquarters were outside London and that they deposited security against the notes that they issued.",
"A few English banks continued to issue their own notes until the last of them was taken over in the 1930s.",
"Scottish and Northern Irish private banks still have that right.",
"They were legal tender until 1964.",
"There are nine notes left in circulation; one is housed at Tone Dale House Wellington.",
"It tried to keep a fixed exchange rate, and attempted to deal with inflation and sterling weakness by credit and exchange controls.",
"BOEN is a vehicle for governments and heads of state to invest in UK companies (subject to approval from the Secretary of State), providing they undertake \"not to influence the affairs of the company\".",
"BOEN is no longer exempt from company law disclosure requirements.",
"Although a dormant company, dormancy does not preclude a company actively operating as a nominee shareholder.",
"The target has changed to 2% since the Consumer Price Index (CPI) replaced the Retail Prices Index as the Treasury's inflation index.",
"If inflation overshoots or undershoots the target by more than 1%, the Governor has to write a letter to the Chancellor of the Exchequer explaining why, and how he will remedy the situation.",
"Independent central banks that adopt an inflation target are known as Friedmanite central banks.",
"Conservative MP Nicholas Budgen had also proposed this as a private member's bill in 1996, but the bill failed as it had the support of neither the government nor the opposition.",
"He succeeded Mervyn King, who took over on 30 June 2003.",
"Carney, a Canadian, will serve an initial five-year term rather than the typical eight, and will seek UK citizenship.",
"He is the first non-British citizen to hold the post.",
"===Monetary stability===\n\nNote: It is important to note that \"monetary\" and \"financial\" are synonyms.",
"Stable prices and confidence in the currency are the two main criteria for monetary stability.",
"Stable prices are maintained by seeking to ensure that price increases meet the Government's inflation target.",
":Maintaining financial stability involves protecting against threats to the whole financial system.",
"The threats are then dealt with through financial and other operations, both at home and abroad.",
"As of 2012, the current director for financial stability is Andy Haldane.",
"It also manages the country's foreign exchange and gold reserves.",
"Since 1998, the Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) has had the responsibility for setting the official interest rate.",
"The FPC is responsible for macro prudential regulation of all UK banks and insurance companies.",
"It maintains a free museum and runs the Target Two Point Zero competition for A-level students.",
"Along with the managing the £200 billion of QE funds, the APF continues to operate its corporate facilities.",
"Notes were originally hand-written; although they were partially printed from 1725 onwards, cashiers still had to sign each note and make them payable to someone.",
"Notes were fully printed from 1855.",
"Until 1928 all notes were \"White Notes\", printed in black and with a blank reverse.",
"In the 18th and 19th centuries White Notes were issued in £1 and £2 denominations.",
"During the 20th century White Notes were issued in denominations between £5 and £1000.",
"Until the mid-19th century, commercial banks were allowed to issue their own banknotes, and notes issued by provincial banking companies were commonly in circulation.",
"During the Second World War the German Operation Bernhard attempted to counterfeit denominations between £5 and £50, producing 500,000 notes each month in 1943.",
"The original plan was to parachute the money into the UK in an attempt to destabilise the British economy, but it was found more useful to use the notes to pay German agents operating throughout Europe.",
"Although most fell into Allied hands at the end of the war, forgeries frequently appeared for years afterwards, which led banknote denominations above £5 to be removed from circulation.",
"Modern banknotes are printed by contract with De La Rue Currency in Loughton, Essex.",
"The vault, beneath the City of London, covers a floor space greater than that of the third-tallest building in the City, Tower 42, and needs keys that are long to open.",
"These gold deposits were estimated in July 2017 to have a current market value of £142,000,000,000.",
"These estimates suggest the vault could hold as much as 3% of the gold mined throughout human history.",
"* , on nationalisation 1945–50, pp 43–76\n* Capie, Forrest.",
"xxviii + 890 pp.",
"*"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\nThe '''bunyip''' is a large mythical creature from Australian Aboriginal mythology, said to lurk in swamps, billabongs, creeks, riverbeds, and waterholes.\n\nThe origin of the word ''bunyip'' has been traced to the Wemba-Wemba or Wergaia language of Aboriginal people of South-Eastern Australia. However, the bunyip appears to have formed part of traditional Aboriginal beliefs and stories throughout Australia, although its name varied according to tribal nomenclature. In his 2001 book, writer Robert Holden identified at least nine regional variations for the creature known as the bunyip across Aboriginal Australia. Various written accounts of bunyips were made by Europeans in the early and mid-19th century, as settlement spread across the country.\n",
"The word ''bunyip'' is usually translated by Aboriginal Australians today as \"devil\" or \"evil spirit\". However, this translation may not accurately represent the role of the bunyip in pre-contact Aboriginal mythology or its possible origins before written accounts were made. Some modern sources allude to a linguistic connection between the bunyip and Bunjil, \"a mythic 'Great Man' who made the mountains and rivers and man and all the animals.\" The word ''bunyip'' may not have appeared in print in English until the mid-1840s.\n\nBy the 1850s, ''bunyip'' had also become a \"synonym for impostor, pretender, humbug and the like\" in the broader Australian community. The term ''bunyip aristocracy'' was first coined in 1853 to describe Australians aspiring to be aristocrats. In the early 1990s, it was famously used by Prime Minister Paul Keating to describe members of the conservative Liberal Party of Australia opposition.\n\nThe word ''bunyip'' can still be found in a number of Australian contexts, including place names such as the Bunyip River (which flows into Westernport Bay in southern Victoria) and the town of Bunyip, Victoria.\n",
"''Bunyip'' (1935), artist unknown, from the National Library of Australia digital collections, demonstrates the variety in descriptions of the legendary creature.\n\nDescriptions of bunyips vary widely. George French Angus may have collected a description of a bunyip in his account of a \"water spirit\" from the Moorundi people of the Murray River before 1847, stating it is \"much dreaded by them ... It inhabits the Murray; but ... they have some difficulty describing it. Its most usual form ... is said to be that of an enormous starfish.\" Robert Brough Smyth's ''Aborigines of Victoria'' of 1878 devoted ten pages to the bunyip, but concluded \"in truth little is known among the blacks respecting its form, covering or habits; they appear to have been in such dread of it as to have been unable to take note of its characteristics.\" However, common features in many 19th-century newspaper accounts include a dog-like face, a crocodile like head, dark fur, a horse-like tail, flippers, and walrus-like tusks or horns or a duck-like bill.\n\nThe Challicum bunyip, an outline image of a bunyip carved by Aborigines into the bank of Fiery Creek, near Ararat, Victoria, was first recorded by ''The Australasian'' newspaper in 1851. According to the report, the bunyip had been speared after killing an Aboriginal man. Antiquarian Reynell Johns claimed that until the mid-1850s, Aboriginal people made a \"habit of visiting the place annually and retracing the outlines of the figure of the bunyip which is about 11 paces long and 4 paces in extreme breadth.\" The outline image no longer exists.\n",
"Non-Aboriginal Australians have made various attempts to understand and explain the origins of the bunyip as a physical entity over the past 150 years.\n\nWriting in 1933, Charles Fenner suggested that it was likely that the \"actual origin of the bunyip myth lies in the fact that from time to time seals have made their way up the ... Murray and Darling (Rivers)\". He provided examples of seals found as far inland as Overland Corner, Loxton, and Conargo and reminded readers that \"the smooth fur, prominent 'apricot' eyes and the bellowing cry are characteristic of the seal\", especially southern elephant seals and leopard seals.\n\nAnother suggestion is that the bunyip may be a cultural memory of extinct Australian marsupials such as the ''Diprotodon'', ''Zygomaturus'', ''Nototherium'' or ''Palorchestes''. This connection was first formally made by Dr George Bennett of the Australian Museum in 1871, but in the early 1990s, palaeontologist Pat Vickers-Rich and geologist Neil Archbold also cautiously suggested that Aboriginal legends \"perhaps had stemmed from an acquaintance with prehistoric bones or even living prehistoric animals themselves ... When confronted with the remains of some of the now extinct Australian marsupials, Aborigines would often identify them as the bunyip.\" They also note that \"legends about the'' mihirung paringmal'' of western Victorian Aborigines ... may allude to the ... extinct giant birds the Dromornithidae.\"\n\nAnother connection to the bunyip is the shy Australasian bittern (''Botaurus poiciloptilus''). During the breeding season, the male call of this marsh-dwelling bird is a \"low pitched boom\"; hence, it is occasionally called the \"bunyip bird\".\n",
"An 1882 illustration of an Aboriginal man telling the story of the bunyip to two children\n\nDuring the early settlement of Australia by Europeans, the notion that the bunyip was an actual unknown animal that awaited discovery became common. Early European settlers, unfamiliar with the sights and sounds of the island continent's peculiar fauna, regarded the bunyip as one more strange Australian animal and sometimes attributed unfamiliar animal calls or cries to it. It has also been suggested that 19th-century bunyip lore was reinforced by imported European memories, such as that of the Irish Púca.\n\nA large number of bunyip sightings occurred during the 1840s and 1850s, particularly in the southeastern colonies of Victoria, New South Wales and South Australia, as European settlers extended their reach. The following is not an exhaustive list of accounts:\n\n=== Hume find of 1818 ===\nOne of the earliest accounts relating to a large unknown freshwater animal was in 1818, when Hamilton Hume and James Meehan found some large bones at Lake Bathurst in New South Wales. They did not call the animal a bunyip, but described the remains indicating the creature as very much like a hippopotamus or manatee. The Philosophical Society of Australasia later offered to reimburse Hume for any costs incurred in recovering a specimen of the unknown animal, but for various reasons, Hume did not return to the lake. It might be noted that ''Diprotodon'' skeletons have sometimes been compared to the hippopotamus; they are a land animal, but have sometimes been found in a lake or water course.\n\n=== Wellington Caves fossils, 1830 ===\nMore significant was the discovery of fossilised bones of \"some quadruped much larger than the ox or buffalo\" in the Wellington Caves in mid-1830 by bushman George Rankin and later by Thomas Mitchell. Sydney's Reverend John Dunmore Lang announced the find as \"convincing proof of the deluge\". However, it was British anatomist Sir Richard Owen who identified the fossils as the gigantic marsupials ''Nototherium'' and ''Diprotodon''. At the same time, some settlers observed \"all natives throughout these ... districts have a tradition (of) a very large animal having at one time existed in the large creeks and rivers and by many it is said that such animals now exist.\"\n\n=== First written use of the word ''bunyip'', 1845 ===\nIn July 1845, ''The Geelong Advertiser'' announced the discovery of fossils found near Geelong, under the headline \"Wonderful Discovery of a new Animal\". This was a continuation of a story on 'fossil remains' from the previous issue. The newspaper continued, \"On the bone being shown to an intelligent black (sic), he at once recognised it as belonging to the bunyip, which he declared he had seen. On being requested to make a drawing of it, he did so without hesitation.\" The account noted a story of an Aboriginal woman being killed by a bunyip and the \"most direct evidence of all\" – that of a man named Mumbowran \"who showed several deep wounds on his breast made by the claws of the animal\". The account provided this description of the creature:\n\n\nShortly after this account appeared, it was repeated in other Australian newspapers. However, it appears to be the first use of the word ''bunyip'' in a written publication.\n\n=== Australian Museum's bunyip of 1847 ===\nThe purported bunyip skull\n\nIn January 1846, a peculiar skull was taken from the banks of Murrumbidgee River near Balranald, New South Wales. Initial reports suggested that it was the skull of something unknown to science. The squatter who found it remarked, \"all the natives to whom it was shown called it a bunyip\". By July 1847, several experts, including W. S. Macleay and Professor Owen, had identified the skull as the deformed foetal skull of a foal or calf. At the same time, however, the purported bunyip skull was put on display in the Australian Museum (Sydney) for two days. Visitors flocked to see it, and ''The Sydney Morning Herald'' said that it prompted many people to speak out about their \"bunyip sightings\". Reports of this discovery used the phrase 'Kine Pratie' as well as Bunyip and explorer William Hovell, who examined the skull, also called it a 'katen-pai'.\n\nIn March of that year \"a bunyip or an immense Platibus\" (Platypus) was sighted \"sunning himself on the placid bosom of the Yarra, just opposite the Custom House\" in Melbourne. \"Immediately a crowd gathered\" and three men set off by boat \"to secure the stranger\" who \"disappeared\" when they were \"about a yard from him\".\n\n=== William Buckley's account of bunyips, 1852 ===\nAnother early written account is attributed to escaped convict William Buckley in his 1852 biography of thirty years living with the Wathaurong people. His 1852 account records \"in ... Lake Moodewarri now Lake Modewarre as well as in most of the others inland ... is a ... very extraordinary amphibious animal, which the natives call Bunyip.\" Buckley's account suggests he saw such a creature on several occasions. He adds, \"I could never see any part, except the back, which appeared to be covered with feathers of a dusky grey colour. It seemed to be about the size of a full grown calf ... I could never learn from any of the natives that they had seen either the head or tail.\" Buckley also claimed the creature was common in the Barwon River and cites an example he heard of an Aboriginal woman being killed by one. He emphasized the bunyip was believed to have supernatural powers.\n",
"The word ''bunyip'' has been used in other Australian contexts, including ''The Bunyip'' newspaper as the banner of a local weekly newspaper published in the town of Gawler, South Australia. First published as a pamphlet by the Gawler Humbug Society in 1863, the name was chosen because \"the Bunyip is the true type of Australian Humbug!\" The word is also used in numerous other Australian contexts, including the House of the Gentle Bunyip in Clifton Hill, Victoria.\n\nNumerous tales of the bunyip in written literature appeared in the 19th and early 20th centuries. One of the earliest known is a story in Andrew Lang's ''The Brown Fairy Book'' (1904).\n\nAlexander Bunyip, created by children's author and illustrator Michael Salmon, first appeared in print in ''The Monster That Ate Canberra'' in 1972, Alexander Bunyip went on to appear in many other books and a live-action television series, ''Alexander Bunyip's Billabong''. A statue of Alexander was opened in front of the Gungahlin Library in 2011. The artwork by Anne Ross, called 'A is for Alexander, B is for Bunyip, C is for Canberra' was commissioned by the ACT Government for Gungahlin's $3.8 million town park.\n\nThe Australian tourism boom of the 1970s brought a renewed interest in bunyip mythology.\n\n* (1972) A coin-operated bunyip was built by Dennis Newell at Murray Bridge, South Australia, at Sturt Reserve on the town's riverfront.\n* (1973) Children's picture book ''The Bunyip of Berkeley's Creek''\n* (1977) The film Dot and the Kangaroo contains a song \"The Bunyip (Bunyip Moon)\".\n* (1982) Children's picture book ''The Ballad of the Blue Lake Bunyip''\n* (1996) Australian children's author Jackie French pens a handful of bunyip tales including the short story \"Bunyip's Gift\" in the anthology ''Mind's Eye''.\n* (2016) Red Billabong is a 2016 Independent Australian action adventure thriller film. Based on one of Australia's oldest legends of strange occurrences in the remote and vast outback area, Red Billabong follows two estranged brothers who find themselves stalked by a sinister supernatural creature, The Bunyip.\n\nBunyip stories have also appeared outside of Australia.\n\n* (1937) Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay wrote a Bengali novel ''Chander Pahar'' which has an account of a bunyip in it. A film adaptation ''Chander Pahar'' was also released in late 2013. The bunyip was portrayed as the primary threat to the treasure seekers in the wilderness of the Richtersveld mountains in southern Africa. In the novel, the bunyip is visualised as a three-toed ape-like hominid.\n* In the early 1950s, Bertie the Bunyip was a popular character on Channel 3 in Philadelphia.\n\nIn the Australian film ''Frog Dreaming'' (1986), the story centres around the search for a bunyip called Donkegin.\n\nIn the 21st century the bunyip can be considered part of the international consciousness.\n\n* (2000) In the Squaresoft video game Chrono Cross, the Bunyip is the boss monster that guards the Black Crystal in Another World's Fort Dragonia.\n* (2001) The Bunyip is also a familiar in the MMORPG ''RuneScape''. As a reference to its origins, it speaks with a thick Australian accent.\n* (2001) In the video game, Final Fantasy X, a Bunyip appears as an enemy in the Djose Highroad.\n* (2002) The video game series Ty the Tasmanian Tiger portrays Bunyips as peaceful mystical elders who inhabit the world of The Dreaming, though not as ferocious as their namesake and more primate looking. The robotic suits that Ty can pilot in Ty the Tasmanian Tiger 2: Bush Rescue and Ty the Tasmanian Tiger 3: Night of the Quinkan are named after the Bunyips, such as Shadow Bunyip, Battle Bunyip and Missile Bunyips.\n* (2009) A character named Bruce Bunyip appears in the book ''The Neddiad'' by Daniel Pinkwater. He is initially described as \"big and swarthy, and had tiny eyes, a scowl and his eyebrows grew together.\" Later, the character wails that his mother \"says my father is a monster and I'm a monster too.\"\n* (2009) Bunyips appeared as the focus cryptids in an episode of \"The Secret Saturdays\" however they were depicted as small, troublemaking creatures instead of monsters.\n* (2010) Bunyips appear in Naomi Novik's fantasy novel ''Tongues of Serpents'',\n* (2014) In the novel ''Afterworlds'' one of the characters is the author of a fictional book named ''Bunyip''.\n* (2014) The fantasy novel, Queen of the Dark Things, by C. Robert Cargill the 'Bunyip' appears throughout the procession of the story at the hands of Kaycee.\n",
"* Yara-ma-yha-who, a creature from Australian Aboriginal mythology\n* Yowie, or Wowee, a creature that has its origins in Australian Aboriginal mythology\n* Min Min light, a natural phenomenon that may have influenced Australian Aboriginal mythology\n* Rainbow Serpent, a common motif in the art and mythology of Aboriginal Australia\n* Marsupial lion, an extinct species of carnivorous marsupial mammal that lived in Australia from the early to the late Pleistocene\n* P. A. Yeomans, inventor of the Bunyip Slipper Imp, a plough for developing watersheds\n* Drop bear, a fictitious Australian mammal\n* Underwater panther, a similar North American creature of legend\n",
"\n",
"\n\n\n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Meaning ",
" Characteristics ",
" Debate over origins of the bunyip ",
" Early accounts of settlers ",
" In popular culture and fiction ",
" See also ",
" Notes ",
" References "
] | Bunyip | [
"The Challicum bunyip, an outline image of a bunyip carved by Aborigines into the bank of Fiery Creek, near Ararat, Victoria, was first recorded by ''The Australasian'' newspaper in 1851."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n\nThe '''bunyip''' is a large mythical creature from Australian Aboriginal mythology, said to lurk in swamps, billabongs, creeks, riverbeds, and waterholes.",
"The origin of the word ''bunyip'' has been traced to the Wemba-Wemba or Wergaia language of Aboriginal people of South-Eastern Australia.",
"However, the bunyip appears to have formed part of traditional Aboriginal beliefs and stories throughout Australia, although its name varied according to tribal nomenclature.",
"In his 2001 book, writer Robert Holden identified at least nine regional variations for the creature known as the bunyip across Aboriginal Australia.",
"Various written accounts of bunyips were made by Europeans in the early and mid-19th century, as settlement spread across the country.",
"The word ''bunyip'' is usually translated by Aboriginal Australians today as \"devil\" or \"evil spirit\".",
"However, this translation may not accurately represent the role of the bunyip in pre-contact Aboriginal mythology or its possible origins before written accounts were made.",
"Some modern sources allude to a linguistic connection between the bunyip and Bunjil, \"a mythic 'Great Man' who made the mountains and rivers and man and all the animals.\"",
"The word ''bunyip'' may not have appeared in print in English until the mid-1840s.",
"By the 1850s, ''bunyip'' had also become a \"synonym for impostor, pretender, humbug and the like\" in the broader Australian community.",
"The term ''bunyip aristocracy'' was first coined in 1853 to describe Australians aspiring to be aristocrats.",
"In the early 1990s, it was famously used by Prime Minister Paul Keating to describe members of the conservative Liberal Party of Australia opposition.",
"The word ''bunyip'' can still be found in a number of Australian contexts, including place names such as the Bunyip River (which flows into Westernport Bay in southern Victoria) and the town of Bunyip, Victoria.",
"''Bunyip'' (1935), artist unknown, from the National Library of Australia digital collections, demonstrates the variety in descriptions of the legendary creature.",
"Descriptions of bunyips vary widely.",
"George French Angus may have collected a description of a bunyip in his account of a \"water spirit\" from the Moorundi people of the Murray River before 1847, stating it is \"much dreaded by them ...",
"It inhabits the Murray; but ... they have some difficulty describing it.",
"Its most usual form ... is said to be that of an enormous starfish.\"",
"Robert Brough Smyth's ''Aborigines of Victoria'' of 1878 devoted ten pages to the bunyip, but concluded \"in truth little is known among the blacks respecting its form, covering or habits; they appear to have been in such dread of it as to have been unable to take note of its characteristics.\"",
"However, common features in many 19th-century newspaper accounts include a dog-like face, a crocodile like head, dark fur, a horse-like tail, flippers, and walrus-like tusks or horns or a duck-like bill.",
"According to the report, the bunyip had been speared after killing an Aboriginal man.",
"Antiquarian Reynell Johns claimed that until the mid-1850s, Aboriginal people made a \"habit of visiting the place annually and retracing the outlines of the figure of the bunyip which is about 11 paces long and 4 paces in extreme breadth.\"",
"The outline image no longer exists.",
"Non-Aboriginal Australians have made various attempts to understand and explain the origins of the bunyip as a physical entity over the past 150 years.",
"Writing in 1933, Charles Fenner suggested that it was likely that the \"actual origin of the bunyip myth lies in the fact that from time to time seals have made their way up the ... Murray and Darling (Rivers)\".",
"He provided examples of seals found as far inland as Overland Corner, Loxton, and Conargo and reminded readers that \"the smooth fur, prominent 'apricot' eyes and the bellowing cry are characteristic of the seal\", especially southern elephant seals and leopard seals.",
"Another suggestion is that the bunyip may be a cultural memory of extinct Australian marsupials such as the ''Diprotodon'', ''Zygomaturus'', ''Nototherium'' or ''Palorchestes''.",
"This connection was first formally made by Dr George Bennett of the Australian Museum in 1871, but in the early 1990s, palaeontologist Pat Vickers-Rich and geologist Neil Archbold also cautiously suggested that Aboriginal legends \"perhaps had stemmed from an acquaintance with prehistoric bones or even living prehistoric animals themselves ...",
"When confronted with the remains of some of the now extinct Australian marsupials, Aborigines would often identify them as the bunyip.\"",
"They also note that \"legends about the'' mihirung paringmal'' of western Victorian Aborigines ... may allude to the ... extinct giant birds the Dromornithidae.\"",
"Another connection to the bunyip is the shy Australasian bittern (''Botaurus poiciloptilus'').",
"During the breeding season, the male call of this marsh-dwelling bird is a \"low pitched boom\"; hence, it is occasionally called the \"bunyip bird\".",
"An 1882 illustration of an Aboriginal man telling the story of the bunyip to two children\n\nDuring the early settlement of Australia by Europeans, the notion that the bunyip was an actual unknown animal that awaited discovery became common.",
"Early European settlers, unfamiliar with the sights and sounds of the island continent's peculiar fauna, regarded the bunyip as one more strange Australian animal and sometimes attributed unfamiliar animal calls or cries to it.",
"It has also been suggested that 19th-century bunyip lore was reinforced by imported European memories, such as that of the Irish Púca.",
"A large number of bunyip sightings occurred during the 1840s and 1850s, particularly in the southeastern colonies of Victoria, New South Wales and South Australia, as European settlers extended their reach.",
"The following is not an exhaustive list of accounts:\n\n=== Hume find of 1818 ===\nOne of the earliest accounts relating to a large unknown freshwater animal was in 1818, when Hamilton Hume and James Meehan found some large bones at Lake Bathurst in New South Wales.",
"They did not call the animal a bunyip, but described the remains indicating the creature as very much like a hippopotamus or manatee.",
"The Philosophical Society of Australasia later offered to reimburse Hume for any costs incurred in recovering a specimen of the unknown animal, but for various reasons, Hume did not return to the lake.",
"It might be noted that ''Diprotodon'' skeletons have sometimes been compared to the hippopotamus; they are a land animal, but have sometimes been found in a lake or water course.",
"=== Wellington Caves fossils, 1830 ===\nMore significant was the discovery of fossilised bones of \"some quadruped much larger than the ox or buffalo\" in the Wellington Caves in mid-1830 by bushman George Rankin and later by Thomas Mitchell.",
"Sydney's Reverend John Dunmore Lang announced the find as \"convincing proof of the deluge\".",
"However, it was British anatomist Sir Richard Owen who identified the fossils as the gigantic marsupials ''Nototherium'' and ''Diprotodon''.",
"At the same time, some settlers observed \"all natives throughout these ... districts have a tradition (of) a very large animal having at one time existed in the large creeks and rivers and by many it is said that such animals now exist.\"",
"=== First written use of the word ''bunyip'', 1845 ===\nIn July 1845, ''The Geelong Advertiser'' announced the discovery of fossils found near Geelong, under the headline \"Wonderful Discovery of a new Animal\".",
"This was a continuation of a story on 'fossil remains' from the previous issue.",
"The newspaper continued, \"On the bone being shown to an intelligent black (sic), he at once recognised it as belonging to the bunyip, which he declared he had seen.",
"On being requested to make a drawing of it, he did so without hesitation.\"",
"The account noted a story of an Aboriginal woman being killed by a bunyip and the \"most direct evidence of all\" – that of a man named Mumbowran \"who showed several deep wounds on his breast made by the claws of the animal\".",
"The account provided this description of the creature:\n\n\nShortly after this account appeared, it was repeated in other Australian newspapers.",
"However, it appears to be the first use of the word ''bunyip'' in a written publication.",
"=== Australian Museum's bunyip of 1847 ===\nThe purported bunyip skull\n\nIn January 1846, a peculiar skull was taken from the banks of Murrumbidgee River near Balranald, New South Wales.",
"Initial reports suggested that it was the skull of something unknown to science.",
"The squatter who found it remarked, \"all the natives to whom it was shown called it a bunyip\".",
"By July 1847, several experts, including W. S. Macleay and Professor Owen, had identified the skull as the deformed foetal skull of a foal or calf.",
"At the same time, however, the purported bunyip skull was put on display in the Australian Museum (Sydney) for two days.",
"Visitors flocked to see it, and ''The Sydney Morning Herald'' said that it prompted many people to speak out about their \"bunyip sightings\".",
"Reports of this discovery used the phrase 'Kine Pratie' as well as Bunyip and explorer William Hovell, who examined the skull, also called it a 'katen-pai'.",
"In March of that year \"a bunyip or an immense Platibus\" (Platypus) was sighted \"sunning himself on the placid bosom of the Yarra, just opposite the Custom House\" in Melbourne.",
"\"Immediately a crowd gathered\" and three men set off by boat \"to secure the stranger\" who \"disappeared\" when they were \"about a yard from him\".",
"=== William Buckley's account of bunyips, 1852 ===\nAnother early written account is attributed to escaped convict William Buckley in his 1852 biography of thirty years living with the Wathaurong people.",
"His 1852 account records \"in ... Lake Moodewarri now Lake Modewarre as well as in most of the others inland ... is a ... very extraordinary amphibious animal, which the natives call Bunyip.\"",
"Buckley's account suggests he saw such a creature on several occasions.",
"He adds, \"I could never see any part, except the back, which appeared to be covered with feathers of a dusky grey colour.",
"It seemed to be about the size of a full grown calf ...",
"I could never learn from any of the natives that they had seen either the head or tail.\"",
"Buckley also claimed the creature was common in the Barwon River and cites an example he heard of an Aboriginal woman being killed by one.",
"He emphasized the bunyip was believed to have supernatural powers.",
"The word ''bunyip'' has been used in other Australian contexts, including ''The Bunyip'' newspaper as the banner of a local weekly newspaper published in the town of Gawler, South Australia.",
"First published as a pamphlet by the Gawler Humbug Society in 1863, the name was chosen because \"the Bunyip is the true type of Australian Humbug!\"",
"The word is also used in numerous other Australian contexts, including the House of the Gentle Bunyip in Clifton Hill, Victoria.",
"Numerous tales of the bunyip in written literature appeared in the 19th and early 20th centuries.",
"One of the earliest known is a story in Andrew Lang's ''The Brown Fairy Book'' (1904).",
"Alexander Bunyip, created by children's author and illustrator Michael Salmon, first appeared in print in ''The Monster That Ate Canberra'' in 1972, Alexander Bunyip went on to appear in many other books and a live-action television series, ''Alexander Bunyip's Billabong''.",
"A statue of Alexander was opened in front of the Gungahlin Library in 2011.",
"The artwork by Anne Ross, called 'A is for Alexander, B is for Bunyip, C is for Canberra' was commissioned by the ACT Government for Gungahlin's $3.8 million town park.",
"The Australian tourism boom of the 1970s brought a renewed interest in bunyip mythology.",
"* (1972) A coin-operated bunyip was built by Dennis Newell at Murray Bridge, South Australia, at Sturt Reserve on the town's riverfront.",
"* (1973) Children's picture book ''The Bunyip of Berkeley's Creek''\n* (1977) The film Dot and the Kangaroo contains a song \"The Bunyip (Bunyip Moon)\".",
"* (1982) Children's picture book ''The Ballad of the Blue Lake Bunyip''\n* (1996) Australian children's author Jackie French pens a handful of bunyip tales including the short story \"Bunyip's Gift\" in the anthology ''Mind's Eye''.",
"* (2016) Red Billabong is a 2016 Independent Australian action adventure thriller film.",
"Based on one of Australia's oldest legends of strange occurrences in the remote and vast outback area, Red Billabong follows two estranged brothers who find themselves stalked by a sinister supernatural creature, The Bunyip.",
"Bunyip stories have also appeared outside of Australia.",
"* (1937) Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay wrote a Bengali novel ''Chander Pahar'' which has an account of a bunyip in it.",
"A film adaptation ''Chander Pahar'' was also released in late 2013.",
"The bunyip was portrayed as the primary threat to the treasure seekers in the wilderness of the Richtersveld mountains in southern Africa.",
"In the novel, the bunyip is visualised as a three-toed ape-like hominid.",
"* In the early 1950s, Bertie the Bunyip was a popular character on Channel 3 in Philadelphia.",
"In the Australian film ''Frog Dreaming'' (1986), the story centres around the search for a bunyip called Donkegin.",
"In the 21st century the bunyip can be considered part of the international consciousness.",
"* (2000) In the Squaresoft video game Chrono Cross, the Bunyip is the boss monster that guards the Black Crystal in Another World's Fort Dragonia.",
"* (2001) The Bunyip is also a familiar in the MMORPG ''RuneScape''.",
"As a reference to its origins, it speaks with a thick Australian accent.",
"* (2001) In the video game, Final Fantasy X, a Bunyip appears as an enemy in the Djose Highroad.",
"* (2002) The video game series Ty the Tasmanian Tiger portrays Bunyips as peaceful mystical elders who inhabit the world of The Dreaming, though not as ferocious as their namesake and more primate looking.",
"The robotic suits that Ty can pilot in Ty the Tasmanian Tiger 2: Bush Rescue and Ty the Tasmanian Tiger 3: Night of the Quinkan are named after the Bunyips, such as Shadow Bunyip, Battle Bunyip and Missile Bunyips.",
"* (2009) A character named Bruce Bunyip appears in the book ''The Neddiad'' by Daniel Pinkwater.",
"He is initially described as \"big and swarthy, and had tiny eyes, a scowl and his eyebrows grew together.\"",
"Later, the character wails that his mother \"says my father is a monster and I'm a monster too.\"",
"* (2009) Bunyips appeared as the focus cryptids in an episode of \"The Secret Saturdays\" however they were depicted as small, troublemaking creatures instead of monsters.",
"* (2010) Bunyips appear in Naomi Novik's fantasy novel ''Tongues of Serpents'',\n* (2014) In the novel ''Afterworlds'' one of the characters is the author of a fictional book named ''Bunyip''.",
"* (2014) The fantasy novel, Queen of the Dark Things, by C. Robert Cargill the 'Bunyip' appears throughout the procession of the story at the hands of Kaycee.",
"* Yara-ma-yha-who, a creature from Australian Aboriginal mythology\n* Yowie, or Wowee, a creature that has its origins in Australian Aboriginal mythology\n* Min Min light, a natural phenomenon that may have influenced Australian Aboriginal mythology\n* Rainbow Serpent, a common motif in the art and mythology of Aboriginal Australia\n* Marsupial lion, an extinct species of carnivorous marsupial mammal that lived in Australia from the early to the late Pleistocene\n* P. A. Yeomans, inventor of the Bunyip Slipper Imp, a plough for developing watersheds\n* Drop bear, a fictitious Australian mammal\n* Underwater panther, a similar North American creature of legend",
"\n\n\n* \n* \n*"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\nThe '''Burroughs Corporation''' was a major American manufacturer of business equipment. The company was founded in 1886 as the American Arithmometer Company, and after the 1986 merger with Sperry UNIVAC was renamed Unisys. The company's history paralleled many of the major developments in computing. At its start it produced mechanical adding machines, and later moved into programmable ledgers and then computers. It was one of the largest producers of mainframe computers in the world, also producing related equipment including typewriters and printers.\n",
"1914 advertisement\nAn early Burroughs adding machine \nDesktop model in use around 1910\nIn 1886, the American Arithmometer Company was established in St. Louis, Missouri to produce and sell an adding machine invented by William Seward Burroughs (grandfather of Beat Generation author William S. Burroughs). In 1904, six years after Burroughs' death, the company moved to Detroit and changed its name to the Burroughs Adding Machine Company. It was soon the biggest adding machine company in America.\n",
"\nThe adding machine range began with the basic, hand-cranked P100 which was only capable of adding. The design included some revolutionary features, foremost of which was the dashpot. The P200 offered a subtraction capability and the P300 provided a means of keeping 2 separate totals. The P400 provided a moveable carriage, and the P600 and top-of-the-range P612 offered some limited programmability based upon the position of the carriage. The range was further extended by the inclusion of the \"J\" series which provided a single finger calculation facility, and the \"c\" series of both manual and electrical assisted comptometers. In the late 1960s, the Burroughs sponsored \"nixi-tube\" provided an electronic display calculator. Burroughs developed a range of adding machines with different capabilities, gradually increasing in their capabilities. A revolutionary adding machine was the ''Sensimatic'', which was able to perform many business functions semi-automatically. It had a moving programmable carriage to maintain ledgers. It could store 9, 18 or 27 balances during the ledger posting operations and worked with a mechanical adder named a Crossfooter. The Sensimatic developed into the ''Sensitronic'' which could store balances on a magnetic stripe which was part of the ledger card. This balance was read into the accumulator when the card was inserted into the carriage. The Sensitronic was followed by the E1000, E2000, E3000, E4000, E6000 and the E8000, which were computer systems supporting card reader/punches and a line printer.\n\nLater, Burroughs was selling more than adding machines, including typewriters. But the biggest shift in company history came in 1953: the Burroughs Adding Machine Company was renamed the Burroughs Corporation and began moving into computer products, initially for banking institutions. This move began with Burroughs' purchase, in June 1956, of the ElectroData Corporation in Pasadena, California, a spinoff of the Consolidated Engineering Corporation which had designed test instruments and had a cooperative relationship with Caltech in Pasadena. ElectroData had built the Datatron 205 and was working on the Datatron 220. The first major computer product that came from this marriage was the B205 tube computer. In the late 1960s the L and TC series range was produced (e.g. the TC500—Terminal Computer 500) which had a golf ball printer and in the beginning a 1K (64 bit) disk memory. These were popular as branch terminals to the B5500/6500/6700 systems, and sold well in the banking sector, where they were often connected to non-Burroughs mainframes. In conjunction with these products, Burroughs also manufactured an extensive range of cheque processing equipment, normally attached as terminals to a larger system such as a B2700 or B1700.\n",
"Burroughs was one of the nine major United States computer companies in the 1960s, with IBM the largest, Honeywell, NCR Corporation, Control Data Corporation (CDC), General Electric (GE), Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), RCA and Sperry Rand (UNIVAC line). In terms of sales, Burroughs was always a distant second to IBM. In fact, IBM's market share was so much larger than all of the others that this group was often referred to as \"IBM and the Seven Dwarfs.\" By 1972 when GE and RCA were no longer in the mainframe business, the remaining five companies behind IBM became known as the BUNCH, an acronym based on their initials.\n\nAt the same time, Burroughs was very much a competitor. Like IBM, Burroughs tried to supply a complete line of products for its customers, including Burroughs-designed printers, disk drives, tape drives, computer printing paper, and even typewriter ribbons.\n\nIn the 1950s, Burroughs worked with the Federal Reserve Bank on the development and computer processing of magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) especially for the processing of bank cheques. Burroughs made special MICR/OCR sorter/readers which attached to their medium systems line of computers (2700/3700/4700) and this entrenched the company in the computer side of the banking industry.\n\n===Developments and innovations===\nThe Burroughs Corporation developed three highly innovative architectures, based on the design philosophy of \"language-directed design\". Their machine instruction sets favored one or many high level programming languages, such as ALGOL, COBOL or FORTRAN. All three architectures were considered mainframe class machines:\n* The Burroughs large systems machines started with the B5000 in 1961. The B5500 came a few years later when large rotating disks replaced drums as the main external memory media. These B5000 Series systems used the world's first virtual memory multi-programming operating system. They were followed by the B6500/B6700 in the later 1960s, the B7700 in the mid 1970s, and the A series in the 1980s. The underlying architecture of these machines is similar and continues today as the Unisys ClearPath MCP line of computers: stack machines designed to be programmed in an extended Algol 60. Their operating systems, called MCP (Master Control Program—the name later borrowed by the screenwriters for ''Tron''), were programmed in ESPOL (Executive Systems Programming Oriented Language, a minor extension of ALGOL), and later in NEWP (with further extensions to ALGOL) almost a decade before Unix. The command interface developed into a compiled structured language with declarations, statements and procedures called WFL (Work Flow Language). Many computer scientists consider these series of computers to be technologically groundbreaking. Stack oriented processors, with 48 bit word length where each word was defined as data or program contributed significantly to a secure operating environment, long before spyware and viruses affected computing. And the modularity of these large systems was also unique: multiple CPUs, multiple memory modules and multiple I/O and Data Comm processors permitted incremental and cost effective growth of system performance and reliability. In industries like banking, where continuous operations was mandatory, Burroughs large systems penetrated most every large bank, including the Federal Reserve Bank. And Burroughs built the backbone switching systems for Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT) which sent its first message in 1977. Unisys is still the provider to SWIFT today.\n* Burroughs produced the B2500 or \"medium systems\" computers aimed primarily at the business world. The machines were designed to execute COBOL efficiently. This included a BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) based arithmetic unit, storing and addressing the main memory using base 10 numbering instead of binary. The designation for these systems was Burroughs B2500 through B49xx, followed by Unisys V-Series V340 through V560.\n* Burroughs produced the B1700 or \"small systems\" computers that were designed to be microprogrammed, with each process potentially getting its own virtual machine designed to be the best match to the programming language chosen for the program being run.\n* The smallest general-purpose computers were the B700 \"microprocessors\" which were used both as stand-alone systems and as special-purpose data-communications or disk-subsystem controllers.\n* Burroughs also manufactured an extensive range of accounting machines including both stand-alone systems such as the Sensimatic, L500 and B80, and dedicated terminals including the TC500 and specialised check processing equipment.\n* In 1982, Burroughs began producing personal computers, the B20 and B25 lines with the Intel 8086/8088 family of 16-bit chips as the processor. These ran the BTOS operating system, which Burroughs licensed from Convergent Technologies. These machines implemented an early Local Area Network to share a hard disk between workgroup users. These microcomputers were later manufactured in Kunming, China for use in China under agreement with Burroughs.\n* Burroughs collaborated with University of Illinois on a multiprocessor architecture developing the ILLIAC IV computer in the early 1960s. The ILLIAC had up to 128 parallel processors while the B6700 & B7700 only accommodated a total of 7 CPUs and/or IO units (the 8th unit was the memory tester).\n* Burroughs made military computers, such as the D825 (the \"D\" prefix signifying it was for defense industrial use), in its Great Valley Laboratory in Paoli, Pennsylvania. The D825 was, according to some scholars, the first true multiprocessor computer. Paoli was also home to the Defense and Space Group Marketing Division.\n* In 1964 Burroughs had also completed the D830 which was another variation of the D825 designed specifically for real-time applications, such as airline reservations. Burroughs designated it the B8300 after Trans World Airlines (TWA) ordered one in September 1965. A system with three instruction processors was installed at TWA's reservations center in Rockleigh, New Jersey in 1968. The system, which was called George, with an application programmed in JOVIAL, was intended to support some 4000 terminals, but the system experienced repeated crashes due to a filing system disk allocation error when operating under a large load. A fourth processor was added but did nothing to resolve the problem. The problem was resolved in late 1970 and the system became stable. Unfortunately the decision to cancel the project was being made at the very time that the problem was resolved. TWA canceled the project and acquired one IBM System/360 Model 75, two IBM System/360 model 65s, and IBM's PARS software for its reservations system. TWA sued Burroughs for non-fulfillment of the contract, but Burroughs counter-sued, stating that the basic system did work and that the problems were in TWA's applications software. The two companies reached an out-of-court settlement.\n* Burroughs developed a half-size version of the D825 called the D82, cutting the word size from 48 to 24 bits and simplifying the computer's instruction set. The D82 could have up to 32,768 words of core memory and continued the use of separate instruction and i/o processors. Burroughs sold a D82 to Air Canada to handle reservations for trips originating in Montreal and Quebec. This design was further refined and made much more compact as the D84 machine which was completed in 1965. A D84 processor/memory unit with 4096 words of memory occupied just 1.4 cubic feet. This system was used successfully in two military projects: field test systems used to check the electronics of the Air Force General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark fighter plane and systems used to control the countdown and launch of the Army's Pershing 1 Pershing 1a missile systems.\n",
"In September 1986, Burroughs Corporation merged with Sperry Corporation to form Unisys. For a time, the combined company retained the Burroughs processors as the A- and V-systems lines. However, as the market for large systems shifted from proprietary architectures to common servers, the company eventually dropped the V-Series line, although customers continued to use V-series systems . Unisys continues to develop and market the A-Series, now known as ClearPath.\n",
"Burroughs Payment Systems in Plymouth, Michigan, 2011\nIn 2010, UNISYS sold off its Payment Systems Division to Marlin Equity Partners, a California-based private investment firm, which incorporated it as Burroughs Payment Systems based in Plymouth, Michigan.\n",
"Burroughs B205 hardware has appeared as props in many Hollywood television and film productions from the late 1950s. For example, a B205 console was often shown in the television series ''Batman'' as the ''Bat Computer''; also as the computer in ''Lost in Space''. B205 tape drives were often seen in series such as ''The Time Tunnel'' and ''Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea''.\n",
"\n",
"* Allweiss, Jack A., \"Evolution of Burroughs Stack Architecture - Mainframe Computers\", 2010\n* Barton, Robert S. \"A New Approach to the Functional Design of a Digital Computer\" Proc. western joint computer Conf. ACM (1961).\n*Gray, George. \"Some Burroughs Transistor Computers\", ''Unisys History Newsletter'', Volume 3, Number 1, March 1999.\n*Gray, George. \"Burroughs Third-Generation Computers\", ''Unisys History Newsletter'', Volume 3, Number 5, October 1999.\n*Hauck, E.A., Dent, Ben A. \"Burroughs B6500/B7500 Stack Mechanism\", SJCC (1968) pp. 245–251.\n* Martin, Ian L. (2012) \"Too far ahead of its time: Barclays, Burroughs and real-time banking\", ''IEEE Annals of the History of Computing'' 34(2), pp. 5–19. . (Draft version)\n* Mayer, Alastair J.W., \"The Architecture of the Burroughs B5000 - 20 Years Later and Still Ahead of the Times?\", ACM Computer Architecture News, 1982 (archived at the Southwest Museum of Engineering, Communications and Computation. Glendale, Arizona)\n*McKeeman, William M. \"Language Directed Computer Design\", FJCC (1967) pp. 413–417.\n*Organick, Elliot I. \"Computer System Organization The B5700/B6700 series\", Academic Press (1973)\n*Wilner, Wayne T. \"Design of the B1700\", FJCC pp. 489–497 (1972).\n* Wilner, Wayne T., \"B1700 Design and Implementation\", Burroughs Corporation, Santa Barbara Plant, Goleta, California, May 1972.\n",
"\n* Burroughs Corporation Records Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Collection contains the records of the Burroughs Corporation, and its predecessors the American Arithmometer Company and Burroughs Adding Machine Company. Materials include corporate records, photographs, films and video tapes, scrapbooks, papers of employees and the records of companies acquired by Burroughs. CBI's Burroughs Corporation Records includes over 100,000 photographs depicting the entire visual history of Burroughs from its origin as the American Arithmometer Corporation in 1886 to its merger with the Sperry Corporation to form the Unisys Corporation in 1986.\n* Burroughs Corporation Photo Database at the Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota. The searchable photo database permits browsing and retrieval of over 550 historical images.\n* \"Burroughs B 5000 Conference, OH 98\", Oral history on 6 September 1985, Marina del Ray, California. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. The Burroughs 5000 computer series is discussed by individuals responsible for its development and marketing from 1957 through the 1960s in a 1985 conference sponsored by AFIPS and Burroughs Corporation.\n* Oral history interview with Isaac Levin Auerbach Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota. Auerbach discusses his work at Burroughs 1949–1957 managing development for the SAGE project, BEAM I computer, the Intercontinental Ballistic Missile System, a magnetic core encryption communications system, and Atlas missile.\n* Oral history interview with Robert V. D. Campbell. Discusses his work at Burroughs (1949–1966) as director of research and in program planning.\n* Oral history interview with Alfred Doughty Cavanaugh Cavanaugh discusses the work of his grandfather, A. J. Doughty, with William Seward Burroughs and the Burroughs Adding Machine Company.\n* Oral history interview with Carel Sellenraad Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota. Sellenraad describes his long association with Burroughs Adding Machine Company, and the impact of World Wars I & II on the sales and service of calculators, and adding and bookkeeping machines in Europe.\n* Oral history interview with Ovid M. Smith Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota. Smith reviews his 46½ year career at Burroughs Adding Machine Company (later Burroughs Corporation).\n* \"Early Burroughs Machines\", University of Virginia's Computer Museum.\n* Older Burroughs computer manuals online\n* Burroughs computers such as the D825 at BRL\n* An historical Burroughs Adding Machine Company/Burroughs site\n* Unofficial list of Burroughs manufacturing plants and labs\n* Ian Joyner's Burroughs page\n* The Burroughs B5900 and E-Mode: A bridge to 21st Century Computing - Jack Allweiss\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early history",
"Evolving product lines",
"A force in the computing industry",
"Merger",
" Re-emergence of the Burroughs name ",
"References in popular culture",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Burroughs Corporation | [
"In the 1950s, Burroughs worked with the Federal Reserve Bank on the development and computer processing of magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) especially for the processing of bank cheques.",
"In industries like banking, where continuous operations was mandatory, Burroughs large systems penetrated most every large bank, including the Federal Reserve Bank."
] | [
"\n\n\n\nThe '''Burroughs Corporation''' was a major American manufacturer of business equipment.",
"The company was founded in 1886 as the American Arithmometer Company, and after the 1986 merger with Sperry UNIVAC was renamed Unisys.",
"The company's history paralleled many of the major developments in computing.",
"At its start it produced mechanical adding machines, and later moved into programmable ledgers and then computers.",
"It was one of the largest producers of mainframe computers in the world, also producing related equipment including typewriters and printers.",
"1914 advertisement\nAn early Burroughs adding machine \nDesktop model in use around 1910\nIn 1886, the American Arithmometer Company was established in St. Louis, Missouri to produce and sell an adding machine invented by William Seward Burroughs (grandfather of Beat Generation author William S. Burroughs).",
"In 1904, six years after Burroughs' death, the company moved to Detroit and changed its name to the Burroughs Adding Machine Company.",
"It was soon the biggest adding machine company in America.",
"\nThe adding machine range began with the basic, hand-cranked P100 which was only capable of adding.",
"The design included some revolutionary features, foremost of which was the dashpot.",
"The P200 offered a subtraction capability and the P300 provided a means of keeping 2 separate totals.",
"The P400 provided a moveable carriage, and the P600 and top-of-the-range P612 offered some limited programmability based upon the position of the carriage.",
"The range was further extended by the inclusion of the \"J\" series which provided a single finger calculation facility, and the \"c\" series of both manual and electrical assisted comptometers.",
"In the late 1960s, the Burroughs sponsored \"nixi-tube\" provided an electronic display calculator.",
"Burroughs developed a range of adding machines with different capabilities, gradually increasing in their capabilities.",
"A revolutionary adding machine was the ''Sensimatic'', which was able to perform many business functions semi-automatically.",
"It had a moving programmable carriage to maintain ledgers.",
"It could store 9, 18 or 27 balances during the ledger posting operations and worked with a mechanical adder named a Crossfooter.",
"The Sensimatic developed into the ''Sensitronic'' which could store balances on a magnetic stripe which was part of the ledger card.",
"This balance was read into the accumulator when the card was inserted into the carriage.",
"The Sensitronic was followed by the E1000, E2000, E3000, E4000, E6000 and the E8000, which were computer systems supporting card reader/punches and a line printer.",
"Later, Burroughs was selling more than adding machines, including typewriters.",
"But the biggest shift in company history came in 1953: the Burroughs Adding Machine Company was renamed the Burroughs Corporation and began moving into computer products, initially for banking institutions.",
"This move began with Burroughs' purchase, in June 1956, of the ElectroData Corporation in Pasadena, California, a spinoff of the Consolidated Engineering Corporation which had designed test instruments and had a cooperative relationship with Caltech in Pasadena.",
"ElectroData had built the Datatron 205 and was working on the Datatron 220.",
"The first major computer product that came from this marriage was the B205 tube computer.",
"In the late 1960s the L and TC series range was produced (e.g.",
"the TC500—Terminal Computer 500) which had a golf ball printer and in the beginning a 1K (64 bit) disk memory.",
"These were popular as branch terminals to the B5500/6500/6700 systems, and sold well in the banking sector, where they were often connected to non-Burroughs mainframes.",
"In conjunction with these products, Burroughs also manufactured an extensive range of cheque processing equipment, normally attached as terminals to a larger system such as a B2700 or B1700.",
"Burroughs was one of the nine major United States computer companies in the 1960s, with IBM the largest, Honeywell, NCR Corporation, Control Data Corporation (CDC), General Electric (GE), Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), RCA and Sperry Rand (UNIVAC line).",
"In terms of sales, Burroughs was always a distant second to IBM.",
"In fact, IBM's market share was so much larger than all of the others that this group was often referred to as \"IBM and the Seven Dwarfs.\"",
"By 1972 when GE and RCA were no longer in the mainframe business, the remaining five companies behind IBM became known as the BUNCH, an acronym based on their initials.",
"At the same time, Burroughs was very much a competitor.",
"Like IBM, Burroughs tried to supply a complete line of products for its customers, including Burroughs-designed printers, disk drives, tape drives, computer printing paper, and even typewriter ribbons.",
"Burroughs made special MICR/OCR sorter/readers which attached to their medium systems line of computers (2700/3700/4700) and this entrenched the company in the computer side of the banking industry.",
"===Developments and innovations===\nThe Burroughs Corporation developed three highly innovative architectures, based on the design philosophy of \"language-directed design\".",
"Their machine instruction sets favored one or many high level programming languages, such as ALGOL, COBOL or FORTRAN.",
"All three architectures were considered mainframe class machines:\n* The Burroughs large systems machines started with the B5000 in 1961.",
"The B5500 came a few years later when large rotating disks replaced drums as the main external memory media.",
"These B5000 Series systems used the world's first virtual memory multi-programming operating system.",
"They were followed by the B6500/B6700 in the later 1960s, the B7700 in the mid 1970s, and the A series in the 1980s.",
"The underlying architecture of these machines is similar and continues today as the Unisys ClearPath MCP line of computers: stack machines designed to be programmed in an extended Algol 60.",
"Their operating systems, called MCP (Master Control Program—the name later borrowed by the screenwriters for ''Tron''), were programmed in ESPOL (Executive Systems Programming Oriented Language, a minor extension of ALGOL), and later in NEWP (with further extensions to ALGOL) almost a decade before Unix.",
"The command interface developed into a compiled structured language with declarations, statements and procedures called WFL (Work Flow Language).",
"Many computer scientists consider these series of computers to be technologically groundbreaking.",
"Stack oriented processors, with 48 bit word length where each word was defined as data or program contributed significantly to a secure operating environment, long before spyware and viruses affected computing.",
"And the modularity of these large systems was also unique: multiple CPUs, multiple memory modules and multiple I/O and Data Comm processors permitted incremental and cost effective growth of system performance and reliability.",
"And Burroughs built the backbone switching systems for Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT) which sent its first message in 1977.",
"Unisys is still the provider to SWIFT today.",
"* Burroughs produced the B2500 or \"medium systems\" computers aimed primarily at the business world.",
"The machines were designed to execute COBOL efficiently.",
"This included a BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) based arithmetic unit, storing and addressing the main memory using base 10 numbering instead of binary.",
"The designation for these systems was Burroughs B2500 through B49xx, followed by Unisys V-Series V340 through V560.",
"* Burroughs produced the B1700 or \"small systems\" computers that were designed to be microprogrammed, with each process potentially getting its own virtual machine designed to be the best match to the programming language chosen for the program being run.",
"* The smallest general-purpose computers were the B700 \"microprocessors\" which were used both as stand-alone systems and as special-purpose data-communications or disk-subsystem controllers.",
"* Burroughs also manufactured an extensive range of accounting machines including both stand-alone systems such as the Sensimatic, L500 and B80, and dedicated terminals including the TC500 and specialised check processing equipment.",
"* In 1982, Burroughs began producing personal computers, the B20 and B25 lines with the Intel 8086/8088 family of 16-bit chips as the processor.",
"These ran the BTOS operating system, which Burroughs licensed from Convergent Technologies.",
"These machines implemented an early Local Area Network to share a hard disk between workgroup users.",
"These microcomputers were later manufactured in Kunming, China for use in China under agreement with Burroughs.",
"* Burroughs collaborated with University of Illinois on a multiprocessor architecture developing the ILLIAC IV computer in the early 1960s.",
"The ILLIAC had up to 128 parallel processors while the B6700 & B7700 only accommodated a total of 7 CPUs and/or IO units (the 8th unit was the memory tester).",
"* Burroughs made military computers, such as the D825 (the \"D\" prefix signifying it was for defense industrial use), in its Great Valley Laboratory in Paoli, Pennsylvania.",
"The D825 was, according to some scholars, the first true multiprocessor computer.",
"Paoli was also home to the Defense and Space Group Marketing Division.",
"* In 1964 Burroughs had also completed the D830 which was another variation of the D825 designed specifically for real-time applications, such as airline reservations.",
"Burroughs designated it the B8300 after Trans World Airlines (TWA) ordered one in September 1965.",
"A system with three instruction processors was installed at TWA's reservations center in Rockleigh, New Jersey in 1968.",
"The system, which was called George, with an application programmed in JOVIAL, was intended to support some 4000 terminals, but the system experienced repeated crashes due to a filing system disk allocation error when operating under a large load.",
"A fourth processor was added but did nothing to resolve the problem.",
"The problem was resolved in late 1970 and the system became stable.",
"Unfortunately the decision to cancel the project was being made at the very time that the problem was resolved.",
"TWA canceled the project and acquired one IBM System/360 Model 75, two IBM System/360 model 65s, and IBM's PARS software for its reservations system.",
"TWA sued Burroughs for non-fulfillment of the contract, but Burroughs counter-sued, stating that the basic system did work and that the problems were in TWA's applications software.",
"The two companies reached an out-of-court settlement.",
"* Burroughs developed a half-size version of the D825 called the D82, cutting the word size from 48 to 24 bits and simplifying the computer's instruction set.",
"The D82 could have up to 32,768 words of core memory and continued the use of separate instruction and i/o processors.",
"Burroughs sold a D82 to Air Canada to handle reservations for trips originating in Montreal and Quebec.",
"This design was further refined and made much more compact as the D84 machine which was completed in 1965.",
"A D84 processor/memory unit with 4096 words of memory occupied just 1.4 cubic feet.",
"This system was used successfully in two military projects: field test systems used to check the electronics of the Air Force General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark fighter plane and systems used to control the countdown and launch of the Army's Pershing 1 Pershing 1a missile systems.",
"In September 1986, Burroughs Corporation merged with Sperry Corporation to form Unisys.",
"For a time, the combined company retained the Burroughs processors as the A- and V-systems lines.",
"However, as the market for large systems shifted from proprietary architectures to common servers, the company eventually dropped the V-Series line, although customers continued to use V-series systems .",
"Unisys continues to develop and market the A-Series, now known as ClearPath.",
"Burroughs Payment Systems in Plymouth, Michigan, 2011\nIn 2010, UNISYS sold off its Payment Systems Division to Marlin Equity Partners, a California-based private investment firm, which incorporated it as Burroughs Payment Systems based in Plymouth, Michigan.",
"Burroughs B205 hardware has appeared as props in many Hollywood television and film productions from the late 1950s.",
"For example, a B205 console was often shown in the television series ''Batman'' as the ''Bat Computer''; also as the computer in ''Lost in Space''.",
"B205 tape drives were often seen in series such as ''The Time Tunnel'' and ''Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea''.",
"* Allweiss, Jack A., \"Evolution of Burroughs Stack Architecture - Mainframe Computers\", 2010\n* Barton, Robert S. \"A New Approach to the Functional Design of a Digital Computer\" Proc.",
"western joint computer Conf.",
"ACM (1961).",
"*Gray, George.",
"\"Some Burroughs Transistor Computers\", ''Unisys History Newsletter'', Volume 3, Number 1, March 1999.",
"*Gray, George.",
"\"Burroughs Third-Generation Computers\", ''Unisys History Newsletter'', Volume 3, Number 5, October 1999.",
"*Hauck, E.A., Dent, Ben A.",
"\"Burroughs B6500/B7500 Stack Mechanism\", SJCC (1968) pp. 245–251.",
"* Martin, Ian L. (2012) \"Too far ahead of its time: Barclays, Burroughs and real-time banking\", ''IEEE Annals of the History of Computing'' 34(2), pp. 5–19.",
".",
"(Draft version)\n* Mayer, Alastair J.W., \"The Architecture of the Burroughs B5000 - 20 Years Later and Still Ahead of the Times?",
"\", ACM Computer Architecture News, 1982 (archived at the Southwest Museum of Engineering, Communications and Computation.",
"Glendale, Arizona)\n*McKeeman, William M. \"Language Directed Computer Design\", FJCC (1967) pp. 413–417.",
"*Organick, Elliot I.",
"\"Computer System Organization The B5700/B6700 series\", Academic Press (1973)\n*Wilner, Wayne T. \"Design of the B1700\", FJCC pp.",
"489–497 (1972).",
"* Wilner, Wayne T., \"B1700 Design and Implementation\", Burroughs Corporation, Santa Barbara Plant, Goleta, California, May 1972.",
"\n* Burroughs Corporation Records Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.",
"Collection contains the records of the Burroughs Corporation, and its predecessors the American Arithmometer Company and Burroughs Adding Machine Company.",
"Materials include corporate records, photographs, films and video tapes, scrapbooks, papers of employees and the records of companies acquired by Burroughs.",
"CBI's Burroughs Corporation Records includes over 100,000 photographs depicting the entire visual history of Burroughs from its origin as the American Arithmometer Corporation in 1886 to its merger with the Sperry Corporation to form the Unisys Corporation in 1986.",
"* Burroughs Corporation Photo Database at the Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota.",
"The searchable photo database permits browsing and retrieval of over 550 historical images.",
"* \"Burroughs B 5000 Conference, OH 98\", Oral history on 6 September 1985, Marina del Ray, California.",
"Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.",
"The Burroughs 5000 computer series is discussed by individuals responsible for its development and marketing from 1957 through the 1960s in a 1985 conference sponsored by AFIPS and Burroughs Corporation.",
"* Oral history interview with Isaac Levin Auerbach Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota.",
"Auerbach discusses his work at Burroughs 1949–1957 managing development for the SAGE project, BEAM I computer, the Intercontinental Ballistic Missile System, a magnetic core encryption communications system, and Atlas missile.",
"* Oral history interview with Robert V. D. Campbell.",
"Discusses his work at Burroughs (1949–1966) as director of research and in program planning.",
"* Oral history interview with Alfred Doughty Cavanaugh Cavanaugh discusses the work of his grandfather, A. J. Doughty, with William Seward Burroughs and the Burroughs Adding Machine Company.",
"* Oral history interview with Carel Sellenraad Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota.",
"Sellenraad describes his long association with Burroughs Adding Machine Company, and the impact of World Wars I & II on the sales and service of calculators, and adding and bookkeeping machines in Europe.",
"* Oral history interview with Ovid M. Smith Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota.",
"Smith reviews his 46½ year career at Burroughs Adding Machine Company (later Burroughs Corporation).",
"* \"Early Burroughs Machines\", University of Virginia's Computer Museum.",
"* Older Burroughs computer manuals online\n* Burroughs computers such as the D825 at BRL\n* An historical Burroughs Adding Machine Company/Burroughs site\n* Unofficial list of Burroughs manufacturing plants and labs\n* Ian Joyner's Burroughs page\n* The Burroughs B5900 and E-Mode: A bridge to 21st Century Computing - Jack Allweiss"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Battle of Jutland''' (, the Battle of Skagerrak) was a naval battle fought by the British Royal Navy's Grand Fleet under Admiral Sir John Jellicoe, against the Imperial German Navy's High Seas Fleet under Vice-Admiral Reinhard Scheer during the First World War. The battle unfolded in extensive maneuvering and three main engagements (the battlecruiser action, the fleet action and the night action), from 31 May to 1 June 1916, off the North Sea coast of Denmark's Jutland Peninsula. It was the largest naval battle and the only full-scale clash of battleships in that war. Jutland was the third fleet action between steel battleships, following the smaller but more decisive battles of the Yellow Sea (1904) and Tsushima (1905) during the Russo-Japanese War. Jutland was the last major battle in world history fought primarily by battleships.\n\nGermany's High Seas Fleet intended to lure out, trap, and destroy a portion of the Grand Fleet, as the German naval force was insufficient to openly engage the entire British fleet. This formed part of a larger strategy to break the British blockade of Germany and to allow German naval vessels access to the Atlantic. Meanwhile, Great Britain's Royal Navy pursued a strategy of engaging and destroying the High Seas Fleet, thereby keeping German naval forces contained and away from Britain and her shipping lanes.\n\nThe Germans planned to use Vice-Admiral Franz Hipper's fast scouting group of five modern battlecruisers to lure Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty's battlecruiser squadrons into the path of the main German fleet. They stationed submarines in advance across the likely routes of the British ships. However, the British learned from signal intercepts that a major fleet operation was likely, so on 30 May Jellicoe sailed with the Grand Fleet to rendezvous with Beatty, passing over the locations of the German submarine picket lines while they were unprepared. The German plan had been delayed, causing further problems for their submarines, which had reached the limit of their endurance at sea.\n\nOn the afternoon of 31 May, Beatty encountered Hipper's battlecruiser force long before the Germans had expected. In a running battle, Hipper successfully drew the British vanguard into the path of the High Seas Fleet. By the time Beatty sighted the larger force and turned back towards the British main fleet, he had lost two battlecruisers from a force of six battlecruisers and four powerful battleships – though he had sped ahead of his battleships of 5th Battle Squadron earlier in the day, effectively losing them as an integral component for much of this opening action against the five ships commanded by Hipper. Beatty's withdrawal at the sight of the High Seas Fleet, which the British had not known were in the open sea, would reverse the course of the battle by drawing the German fleet in pursuit towards the British Grand Fleet. Between 18:30, when the sun was lowering on the western horizon, back-lighting the German forces, and nightfall at about 20:30, the two fleets – totalling 250 ships between them – directly engaged twice.\n\nFourteen British and eleven German ships sank, with great loss of life. After sunset, and throughout the night, Jellicoe manoeuvred to cut the Germans off from their base, hoping to continue the battle the next morning, but under the cover of darkness Scheer broke through the British light forces forming the rearguard of the Grand Fleet and returned to port.\n\nBoth sides claimed victory. The British lost more ships and twice as many sailors but succeeded in containing the German fleet. However, the British press criticised the Grand Fleet's failure to force a decisive outcome, while Scheer's plan of destroying a substantial portion of the British fleet also failed. Finally, the British strategy of denying Germany access to both the United Kingdom and the Atlantic did succeed, which was the British long-term goal. The Germans' \"fleet in being\" continued to pose a threat, requiring the British to keep their battleships concentrated in the North Sea, but the battle reinforced the German policy of avoiding all fleet-to-fleet contact. At the end of 1916, after further unsuccessful attempts to reduce the Royal Navy's numerical advantage, the German Navy accepted that its surface ships had been successfully contained, subsequently turning its efforts and resources to unrestricted submarine warfare and the destruction of Allied and neutral shipping, which - along with the Zimmermann Telegram - by April 1917 triggered the United States of America's declaration of war on Germany.\n\nSubsequent reviews commissioned by the Royal Navy generated strong disagreement between supporters of Jellicoe and Beatty concerning the two admirals' performance in the battle. Debate over their performance and the significance of the battle continues to this day.\n\n",
"\n===German planning===\nWith 16 dreadnought-type battleships, compared with the Royal Navy's 28, the German High Seas Fleet stood little chance of winning a head-to-head clash. The Germans therefore adopted a divide-and-conquer strategy. They would stage raids into the North Sea and bombard the English coast, with the aim of luring out small British squadrons and pickets, which could then be destroyed by superior forces or submarines.\n\nIn January 1916, Admiral von Pohl, commander of the German fleet, fell ill. He was replaced by Scheer, who believed that the fleet had been used too defensively, had better ships and men than the British, and ought to take the war to them. According to Scheer, the German naval strategy should be:\n\n\n\nReinhard Scheer, German fleet commander\n\nOn 25 April 1916, a decision was made by the German admiralty to halt indiscriminate attacks by submarine on merchant shipping. This followed protests from neutral countries, notably the United States, that their nationals had been the victims of attacks. Germany agreed that future attacks would only take place in accord with internationally agreed prize rules, which required an attacker to give a warning and allow the crews of vessels time to escape, and not to attack neutral vessels at all. Scheer believed that it would not be possible to continue attacks on these terms, which took away the advantage of secret approach by submarines and left them vulnerable to even relatively small guns on the target ships. Instead, he set about deploying the submarine fleet against military vessels.\n\nIt was hoped that, following a successful German submarine attack, fast British escorts, such as destroyers, would be tied down by anti-submarine operations. If the Germans could catch the British in the expected locations, good prospects were thought to exist of at least partially redressing the balance of forces between the fleets. \"After the British sortied in response to the raiding attack force\", the Royal Navy's centuries-old instincts for aggressive action could be exploited to draw its weakened units towards the main German fleet under Scheer. The hope was that Scheer would thus be able to ambush a section of the British fleet and destroy it.\n\n====Submarine deployments====\nA plan was devised to station submarines offshore from British naval bases, and then stage some action that would draw out the British ships to the waiting submarines. The battlecruiser had been damaged in a previous engagement, but was due to be repaired by mid May, so an operation was scheduled for 17 May 1916. At the start of May, difficulties with condensers were discovered on ships of the third battleship squadron, so the operation was put back to 23 May. Ten submarines—, , , , , , , , , and —were given orders first to patrol in the central North Sea between 17 and 22 May, and then to take up waiting positions. ''U-43'' and ''U-44'' were stationed in the Pentland Firth, which the Grand Fleet was likely to cross leaving Scapa Flow, while the remainder proceeded to the Firth of Forth, awaiting battlecruisers departing Rosyth. Each boat had an allocated area, within which it could move around as necessary to avoid detection, but was instructed to keep within it. During the initial North Sea patrol the boats were instructed to sail only north–south so that any enemy who chanced to encounter one would believe it was departing or returning from operations on the west coast (which required them to pass around the north of Britain). Once at their final positions, the boats were under strict orders to avoid premature detection that might give away the operation. It was arranged that a coded signal would be transmitted to alert the submarines exactly when the operation commenced: \"Take into account the enemy's forces may be putting to sea\".\n\nAdditionally, ''UB-27'' was sent out on 20 May with instructions to work its way into the Firth of Forth past May Island. ''U-46'' was ordered to patrol the coast of Sunderland, which had been chosen for the diversionary attack, but because of engine problems it was unable to leave port and ''U-47'' was diverted to this task. On 13 May, ''U-72'' was sent to lay mines in the Firth of Forth; on the 23rd, ''U-74'' departed to lay mines in the Moray Firth; and on the 24th, ''U-75'' was dispatched similarly west of the Orkney Islands. ''UB-21'' and ''UB-22'' were sent to patrol the Humber, where (incorrect) reports had suggested the presence of British warships. ''U-22'', ''U-46'' and ''U-67'' were positioned north of Terschelling to protect against intervention by British light forces stationed at Harwich.\n\nOn 22 May 1916, it was discovered that ''Seydlitz'' was still not watertight after repairs and would not now be ready until the 29th. The ambush submarines were now on station and experiencing difficulties of their own: visibility near the coast was frequently poor due to fog, and sea conditions were either so calm the slightest ripple, as from the periscope, could give away their position, or so rough as to make it very hard to keep the vessel at a steady depth. The British had become aware of unusual submarine activity, and had begun counter patrols that forced the submarines out of position. ''UB-27'' passed Bell Rock on the night of 23 May on its way into the Firth of Forth as planned, but was halted by engine trouble. After repairs it continued to approach, following behind merchant vessels, and reached Largo Bay on 25 May. There the boat became entangled in nets that fouled one of the propellers, forcing it to abandon the operation and return home. ''U-74'' was detected by four armed trawlers on 27 May and sunk south-east of Peterhead. ''U-75'' laid its mines off the Orkney Islands, which, although they played no part in the battle, were responsible later for sinking the cruiser carrying Lord Kitchener (head of the army) on a mission to Russia on 5 June. ''U-72'' was forced to abandon its mission without laying any mines when an oil leak meant it was leaving a visible surface trail astern.\n\n====Zeppelins====\n\nThe throat of the Skagerrak, the strategic gateway to the Baltic and North Atlantic, waters off Jutland, Norway and Sweden\nThe Germans maintained a fleet of Zeppelins that they used for aerial reconnaissance and occasional bombing raids. The planned raid on Sunderland intended to use Zeppelins to watch out for the British fleet approaching from the north, which might otherwise surprise the raiders.\n\nBy 28 May, strong north-easterly winds meant that it would not be possible to send out the Zeppelins, so the raid again had to be postponed. The submarines could only stay on station until 1 June before their supplies would be exhausted and they had to return, so a decision had to be made quickly about the raid.\n\nIt was decided to use an alternative plan, abandoning the attack on Sunderland but instead sending a patrol of battlecruisers to the Skagerrak, where it was likely they would encounter merchant ships carrying British cargo and British cruiser patrols. It was felt this could be done without air support, because the action would now be much closer to Germany, relying instead on cruiser and torpedo boat patrols for reconnaissance.\n\nOrders for the alternative plan were issued on 28 May, although it was still hoped that last-minute improvements in the weather would allow the original plan to go ahead. The German fleet assembled in the Jade River and at Wilhelmshaven and was instructed to raise steam and be ready for action from midnight on 28 May.\n\nFranz Hipper, commander of the German battlecruiser squadron\n\nBy 14:00 on 30 May, the wind was still too strong and the final decision was made to use the alternative plan. The coded signal \"31 May G.G.2490\" was transmitted to the ships of the fleet to inform them the Skagerrak attack would start on 31 May. The pre-arranged signal to the waiting submarines was transmitted throughout the day from the E-Dienst radio station at Brugge, and the U-boat tender ''Arcona'' anchored at Emden. Only two of the waiting submarines, and , received the order.\n\n===British response===\nUnfortunately for the German plan, the British had obtained a copy of the main German codebook from the light cruiser , which had been boarded by the Russian Navy after the ship ran aground in Russian territorial waters in 1914. German naval radio communications could therefore often be quickly deciphered, and the British Admiralty usually knew about German activities.\n\nThe British Admiralty's Room 40 maintained direction finding and interception of German naval signals. It had intercepted and decrypted a German signal on 28 May that provided \"ample evidence that the German fleet was stirring in the North Sea.\" Further signals were intercepted, and although they were not decrypted it was clear that a major operation was likely. At 11:00 on 30 May, Jellicoe was warned that the German fleet seemed prepared to sail the following morning. By 17:00, the Admiralty had intercepted the signal from Scheer, \"31 May G.G.2490\", making it clear something significant was imminent.\n\nNot knowing the Germans' objective, Jellicoe and his staff decided to position the fleet to head off any attempt by the Germans to enter the North Atlantic, or the Baltic through the Skagerrak, by taking up a position off Norway where they could possibly cut off any German raid into the shipping lanes of the Atlantic, or prevent the Germans from heading into the Baltic. A position further west was unnecessary, as that area of the North Sea could be patrolled by air using blimps and scouting aircraft.\n\nJohn Jellicoe, British fleet commander\nConsequently, Admiral Jellicoe led the sixteen dreadnought battleships of the 1st and 4th Battle Squadrons of the Grand Fleet and three battlecruisers of the 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron eastwards out of Scapa Flow at 22:30 on 30 May. He was to meet the 2nd Battle Squadron of eight dreadnought battleships commanded by Vice-Admiral Martyn Jerram coming from Cromarty. Hipper's raiding force did not leave the Outer Jade Roads until 01:00 on 31 May, heading west of Heligoland Island following a cleared channel through the minefields, heading north at . The main German fleet of sixteen dreadnought battleships of 1st and 3rd Battle Squadrons left the Jade at 02:30, being joined off Heligoland at 04:00 by the six pre-dreadnoughts of the 2nd Battle Squadron coming from the Elbe River. Beatty's faster force of six ships of the 1st and 2nd Battlecruiser Squadrons plus the 5th Battle Squadron of four fast battleships left the Firth of Forth on the next day; Jellicoe intended to rendezvous with him west of the mouth of the Skagerrak off the coast of Jutland and wait for the Germans to appear or for their intentions to become clear. The planned position would give him the widest range of responses to likely German moves.\n",
"\nThe principle of concentration of force was fundamental to the fleet tactics of this time (as in earlier periods). Tactical doctrine called for a fleet approaching battle to be in a compact formation of parallel columns, allowing relatively easy manoeuvring, and giving shortened sight lines within the formation, which simplified the passing of the signals necessary for command and control.\n\nA fleet formed in several short columns could change its heading faster than one formed in a single long column. Since most command signals were made with flags or signal lamps between ships, the flagship was usually placed at the head of the centre column so that its signals might be more easily seen by the many ships of the formation. Wireless telegraphy was in use, though security (radio direction finding), encryption, and the limitation of the radio sets made their extensive use more problematic. Command and control of such huge fleets remained difficult.\n\nThus, it might take a very long time for a signal from the flagship to be relayed to the entire formation. It was usually necessary for a signal to be confirmed by each ship before it could be relayed to other ships, and an order for a fleet movement would have to be received and acknowledged by every ship before it could be executed. In a large single-column formation, a signal could take 10 minutes or more to be passed from one end of the line to the other, whereas in a formation of parallel columns, visibility across the diagonals was often better (and always shorter) than in a single long column, and the diagonals gave signal \"redundancy\", increasing the probability that a message would be quickly seen and correctly interpreted.\n\nHowever, before battle was joined the heavy units of the fleet would, if possible, deploy into a single column. To form the battle line in the correct orientation relative to the enemy, the commanding admiral had to know the enemy fleet's distance, bearing, heading, and speed. It was the task of the scouting forces, consisting primarily of battlecruisers and cruisers, to find the enemy and report this information in sufficient time, and, if possible, to deny the enemy's scouting forces the opportunity of obtaining the equivalent information.\n\nIdeally, the battle line would cross the intended path of the enemy column so that the maximum number of guns could be brought to bear, while the enemy could fire only with the forward guns of the leading ships, a manoeuvre known as \"crossing the T\". Admiral Tōgō, commander of the Japanese battleship fleet, had achieved this against Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky's Russian battleships in 1905 at the Battle of Tsushima, with devastating results. Jellicoe achieved this twice in one hour against the High Seas Fleet at Jutland, but on both occasions, Scheer managed to turn away and disengage, thereby avoiding a decisive action. \n\n===Ship design===\nWithin the existing technological limits, a trade-off had to be made between the weight and size of guns, the weight of armour protecting the ship, and the maximum speed. Battleships sacrificed speed for armour and heavy naval guns ( or larger). British battlecruisers sacrificed weight of armour for greater speed, while their German counterparts were armed with lighter guns and heavier armour. These weight savings allowed them to escape danger or catch other ships. Generally, the larger guns mounted on British ships allowed an engagement at greater range. In theory, a lightly armoured ship could stay out of range of a slower opponent while still scoring hits. The fast pace of development in the pre-war years meant that every few years, a new generation of ships rendered its predecessors obsolete. Thus, fairly young ships could still be obsolete compared to the newest ships, and fare badly in an engagement against them.\n\nAdmiral John Fisher, responsible for reconstruction of the British fleet in the pre-war period, favoured large guns, oil fuel, and speed. Admiral Tirpitz, responsible for the German fleet, favoured ship survivability and chose to sacrifice some gun size for improved armour. The German battlecruiser had belt armour equivalent in thickness—though not as comprehensive—to the British battleship , significantly better than on the British battlecruisers such as ''Tiger''. German ships had better internal subdivision and had fewer doors and other weak points in their bulkheads, but with the disadvantage that space for crew was greatly reduced. As they were designed only for sorties in the North Sea they did not need to be as habitable as the British vessels and their crews could live in barracks ashore when in harbour.\n",
"\n\n\n\nBritish\nGerman\n\nDreadnoughtbattleships\n28\n16\n\nPre-dreadnoughts\n0\n6\n\nBattlecruisers\n9\n5\n\nArmoured cruisers\n8\n0\n\nLight cruisers\n26\n11\n\nDestroyers\n79\n61\n\nSeaplane carrier\n1\n0\n\nWarships of the period were armed with guns firing projectiles of varying weights, bearing high explosive warheads. The sum total of weight of all the projectiles fired by all the ship's guns is referred to as \"weight of broadside\". At Jutland, the total of the British ships' weight of broadside was , while the German fleet's total was . This does not take into consideration the ability of some ships and their crews to fire more or less rapidly than others, which would increase or decrease amount of fire that one combatant was able to bring to bear on their opponent for any length of time.\n\nJellicoe's Grand Fleet was split into two sections. The dreadnought Battle Fleet, with which he sailed, formed the main force and was composed of 24 battleships and three battlecruisers. The battleships were formed into three squadrons of eight ships, further subdivided into divisions of four, each led by a flag officer. Accompanying them were eight armoured cruisers (classified by the Royal Navy since 1913 as \"cruisers\"), eight light cruisers, four scout cruisers, 51 destroyers, and one destroyer-minelayer.\n\nDavid Beatty, commander of the British battlecruiser fleet\nThe Grand Fleet sailed without three of its battleships: in refit at Invergordon, dry-docked at Rosyth and in refit at Devonport. The brand new was left behind; with only three weeks in service, her untrained crew was judged unready for battle.\n\nBritish reconnaissance was provided by the Battlecruiser Fleet under David Beatty: six battlecruisers, four fast s, 14 light cruisers and 27 destroyers. Air scouting was provided by the attachment of the seaplane tender , one of the first aircraft carriers in history to participate in a naval engagement.\n\nThe German High Seas Fleet under Scheer was also split into a main force and a separate reconnaissance force. Scheer's main battle fleet was composed of 16 battleships and six pre-dreadnought battleships arranged in an identical manner to the British. With them were six light cruisers and 31 torpedo-boats, (the latter being roughly equivalent to a British destroyer).\n\nThe German scouting force, commanded by Franz Hipper, consisted of five battlecruisers, five light cruisers and 30 torpedo-boats. The Germans had no equivalent to ''Engadine'' and no heavier-than-air aircraft to operate with the fleet but had the Imperial German Naval Airship Service's force of rigid airships available to patrol the North Sea.\n\nAll of the battleships and battlecruisers on both sides carried torpedoes of various sizes, as did the lighter craft. The British battleships carried three or four underwater torpedo tubes. The battlecruisers carried from two to five. All were either 18-inch or 21-inch diameter. The German battleships carried five or six underwater torpedo tubes in three sizes from 18 to 21 inch and the battlecruisers carried four or five tubes.\n\nThe German battle fleet was hampered by the slow speed and relatively poor armament of the six pre-dreadnoughts of II Squadron, which limited maximum fleet speed to , compared to maximum British fleet speed of . On the British side, the eight armoured cruisers were deficient in both speed and armour protection. Both of these obsolete squadrons were notably vulnerable to attacks by more modern enemy ships.\n",
"The route of the British battlecruiser fleet took it through the patrol sector allocated to ''U-32''. After receiving the order to commence the operation, the U-boat moved to a position east of May Island at dawn on 31 May. At 03:40, it sighted the cruisers and leaving the Forth at . It launched one torpedo at the leading cruiser at a range of , but its periscope jammed 'up', giving away the position of the submarine as it manoeuvred to fire a second. The lead cruiser turned away to dodge the torpedo, while the second turned towards the submarine, attempting to ram. ''U-32'' crash dived, and on raising its periscope at 04:10 saw two battlecruisers (the 2nd Battlecruiser Squadron) heading south-east. They were too far away to attack, but ''Kapitänleutnant'' von Spiegel reported the sighting of two battleships and two cruisers to Germany.\n\n''U-66'' was also supposed to be patrolling off the Firth of Forth but had been forced north to a position off Peterhead by patrolling British vessels. This now brought it into contact with the 2nd Battle Squadron, coming from the Moray Firth. At 05:00, it had to crash dive when the cruiser appeared from the mist heading toward it. It was followed by another cruiser, , and eight battleships. ''U-66'' got within of the battleships preparing to fire, but was forced to dive by an approaching destroyer and missed the opportunity. At 06:35, it reported eight battleships and cruisers heading north.\n\nThe courses reported by both submarines were incorrect, because they reflected one leg of a zigzag being used by British ships to avoid submarines. Taken with a wireless intercept of more ships leaving Scapa Flow earlier in the night, they created the impression in the German High Command that the British fleet, whatever it was doing, was split into separate sections moving apart, which was precisely as the Germans wished to meet it.\n\nJellicoe's ships proceeded to their rendezvous undamaged and undiscovered. However, he was now misled by an Admiralty intelligence report advising that the German main battle fleet was still in port. The Director of Operations Division, Rear Admiral Thomas Jackson, had asked the intelligence division, Room 40, for the current location of German call sign DK, used by Admiral Scheer. They had replied that it was currently transmitting from Wilhelmshaven. It was known to the intelligence staff that Scheer deliberately used a different call sign when at sea, but no one asked for this information or explained the reason behind the query – to locate the German fleet.\n\nThe German battlecruisers cleared the minefields surrounding the Amrum swept channel by 09:00. They then proceeded north-west, passing west of the Horn's Reef lightship heading for the Little Fisher Bank at the mouth of the Skagerrak. The High Seas Fleet followed some behind. The battlecruisers were in line ahead, with the four cruisers of the II scouting group plus supporting torpedo boats ranged in an arc ahead and to either side. The IX torpedo boat flotilla formed close support immediately surrounding the battlecruisers. The High Seas Fleet similarly adopted a line-ahead formation, with close screening by torpedo boats to either side and a further screen of five cruisers surrounding the column away. The wind had finally moderated so that Zeppelins could be used, and by 11:30 five had been sent out: ''L14'' to the Skagerrak, ''L23'' east of Noss Head in the Pentland Firth, ''L21'' off Peterhead, ''L9'' off Sunderland, and ''L16'' east of Flamborough Head. Visibility, however, was still bad, with clouds down to .\n\n===Contact===\nHMS ''Warspite'' and ''Malaya'', seen from HMS ''Valiant'' at around 14:00 hrs\nBy around 14:00, Beatty's ships were proceeding eastward at roughly the same latitude as Hipper's squadron, which was heading north. Had the courses remained unchanged, Beatty would have passed between the two German fleets, south of the battlecruisers and north of the High Seas Fleet at around 16:30, possibly trapping his ships just as the German plan envisioned. His orders were to stop his scouting patrol when he reached a point east of Britain and then turn north to meet Jellicoe, which he did at this time. Beatty's ships were divided into three columns, with the two battlecruiser squadrons leading in parallel lines apart. The 5th Battle Squadron was stationed to the north-west, on the side furthest away from any expected enemy contact, while a screen of cruisers and destroyers was spread south-east of the battlecruisers. After the turn, the 5th Battle Squadron was now leading the British ships in the westernmost column, and Beatty's squadron was centre and rearmost, with the 2nd BCS to the west.\n\n(1) 15:22 hrs, Hipper sights Beatty. (2) 15:48 hrs, First shots fired by Hipper's squadron.(3) 16:00 hrs-16:05 hrs, ''Indefatigable'' explodes, leaving two survivors. (4) 16:25 hrs, ''Queen Mary'' explodes, nine survive. (5) 16:45 hrs, Beatty's battlecruisers move out of range of Hipper.(6) 16:54 hrs, Evan-Thomas's battleships turn north behind Beatty.\n\nAt 14:20 on 31 May, despite heavy haze and scuds of fog giving poor visibility, scouts from Beatty's force reported enemy ships to the south-east; the British light units, investigating a neutral Danish steamer (''N J Fjord''), which was stopped between the two fleets, had found two German destroyers engaged on the same mission ( and ). The first shots of the battle were fired at 14:28 when and of the British 1st Light Cruiser Squadron opened on the German torpedo boats, which withdrew toward their approaching light cruisers. At 14:36, the Germans scored the first hit of the battle when , of Rear-Admiral Friedrich Boedicker's Scouting Group II, hit her British counterpart ''Galatea'' at extreme range.\n\nBeatty began to move his battlecruisers and supporting forces south-eastwards and then east to cut the German ships off from their base and ordered ''Engadine'' to launch a seaplane to try to get more information about the size and location of the German forces. This was the first time in history that a carrier-based aeroplane was used for reconnaissance in naval combat. ''Engadine''s aircraft did locate and report some German light cruisers just before 15:30 and came under anti-aircraft gunfire but attempts to relay reports from the aeroplane failed.\n\nUnfortunately for Beatty, his initial course changes at 14:32 were not received by Sir Hugh Evan-Thomas's 5th Battle Squadron (the distance being too great to read his flags), because the battlecruiser —the last ship in his column—was no longer in a position where she could relay signals by searchlight to Evan-Thomas, as she had previously been ordered to do. Whereas before the north turn, ''Tiger'' had been the closest ship to Evan-Thomas, she was now further away than Beatty in ''Lion''. Matters were aggravated because Evan-Thomas had not been briefed regarding standing orders within Beatty's squadron, as his squadron normally operated with the Grand Fleet. Fleet ships were expected to obey movement orders precisely and not deviate from them. Beatty's standing instructions expected his officers to use their initiative and keep station with the flagship. As a result, the four s—which were the fastest and most heavily armed in the world at that time—remained on the previous course for several minutes, ending up behind rather than five. Beatty also had the opportunity during the previous hours to concentrate his forces, and no reason not to do so, whereas he steamed ahead at full speed, faster than the battleships could manage. Dividing the force had serious consequences for the British, costing them what would have been an overwhelming advantage in ships and firepower during the first half-hour of the coming battle.\n\nWith visibility favouring the Germans, Hipper's battlecruisers at 15:22, steaming approximately north-west, sighted Beatty's squadron at a range of about , while Beatty's forces did not identify Hipper's battlecruisers until 15:30. (position 1 on map). At 15:45, Hipper turned south-east to lead Beatty toward Scheer, who was south-east with the main force of the High Seas Fleet.\n\n===Run to the south===\nBeatty's conduct during the next 15 minutes has received a great deal of criticism, as his ships out-ranged and outnumbered the German squadron, yet he held his fire for over 10 minutes with the German ships in range. He also failed to use the time available to rearrange his battlecruisers into a fighting formation, with the result that they were still manoeuvring when the battle started.\n\nAt 15:48, with the opposing forces roughly parallel at , with the British to the south-west of the Germans (i.e., on the right side), Hipper opened fire, followed by the British ships as their guns came to bear upon targets (position 2). Thus began the opening phase of the battlecruiser action, known as the ''Run to the South'', in which the British chased the Germans, and Hipper intentionally led Beatty toward Scheer. During the first minutes of the ensuing battle, all the British ships except ''Princess Royal'' fired far over their German opponents, due to adverse visibility conditions, before finally getting the range. Only ''Lion'' and ''Princess Royal'' had settled into formation, so the other four ships were hampered in aiming by their own turning. Beatty was to windward of Hipper, and therefore funnel and gun smoke from his own ships tended to obscure his targets, while Hipper's smoke blew clear. Also, the eastern sky was overcast and the grey German ships were indistinct and difficult to range.\n\nBeatty's flagship ''Lion'' burning after being hit by a salvo from ''Lützow''\nHMS ''Indefatigable'' sinking after being struck by shells from the German battlecruiser ''Von der Tann''\n\nBeatty had ordered his ships to engage in a line, one British ship engaging with one German and his flagship doubling on the German flagship . However, due to another mistake with signalling by flag, and possibly because ''Queen Mary'' and ''Tiger'' were unable to see the German lead ship because of smoke, the second German ship, ''Derfflinger'', was left un-engaged and free to fire without disruption. drew fire from two of Beatty's battlecruisers, but still fired with great accuracy during this time, hitting ''Tiger'' 9 times in the first 12 minutes. The Germans drew first blood. Aided by superior visibility, Hipper's five battlecruisers quickly registered hits on three of the six British battlecruisers. Seven minutes passed before the British managed to score their first hit.\n\nThe first near-kill of the Run to the South occurred at 16:00, when a shell from ''Lützow'' wrecked the \"Q\" turret amidships on Beatty's flagship ''Lion''. Dozens of crewmen were instantly killed, but far larger destruction was averted when the mortally wounded turret commander – Major Francis Harvey of the Royal Marines – promptly ordered the magazine doors shut and the magazine flooded. This prevented a magazine explosion at 16:28, when a flash fire ignited ready cordite charges beneath the turret and killed everyone in the chambers outside \"Q\" magazine. ''Lion'' was saved. was not so lucky; at 16:02, just 14 minutes into the gunnery exchange, she was hit aft by three shells from , causing damage sufficient to knock her out of line and detonating \"X\" magazine aft. Soon after, despite the near-maximum range, ''Von der Tann'' put another shell on ''Indefatigable''s \"A\" turret forward. The plunging shells probably pierced the thin upper armour, and seconds later ''Indefatigable'' was ripped apart by another magazine explosion, sinking immediately with her crew of 1,019 officers and men, leaving only two survivors. (position 3).\n\nHipper's position deteriorated somewhat by 16:15 as the 5th Battle Squadron finally came into range, so that he had to contend with gunfire from the four battleships astern as well as Beatty's five remaining battlecruisers to starboard. But he knew his baiting mission was close to completion, as his force was rapidly closing with Scheer's main body. At 16:08, the lead battleship of the 5th Battle Squadron, , caught up with Hipper and opened fire at extreme range, scoring a hit on ''Von der Tann'' within 60 seconds. Still, it was 16:15 before all the battleships of the 5th were able to fully engage at long range.\n\nAt 16:25, the battlecruiser action intensified again when was hit by what may have been a combined salvo from ''Derfflinger'' and ; she disintegrated when both forward magazines exploded, sinking with all but nine of her 1,275 man crew lost. (position 4). Commander von Hase, the first gunnery officer aboard ''Derfflingler'', noted:\n\n\n\nHMS ''Queen Mary'' blowing up\n\nDuring the Run to the South, from 15:48 to 16:54, the German battlecruisers made an estimated total of forty-two hits on the British battlecruisers (nine on ''Lion'', six on ''Princess Royal'', seven on ''Queen Mary'', 14 on ''Tiger'', one on ''New Zealand'', five on ''Indefatigable''), and two more on the battleship ''Barham'', compared with only eleven hits by the British battlecruisers (four on ''Lützow'', four on ''Seydlitz'', two on ''Moltke'', one on ''von der Tann''), and six hits by the battleships (one on ''Seydlitz'', four on ''Moltke'', one on ''von der Tann'').\n\nShortly after 16:26, a salvo struck on or around , which was obscured by spray and smoke from shell bursts. A signalman promptly leapt on to the bridge of ''Lion'' and announced \"''Princess Royal''s blown up, Sir.\" Beatty famously turned to his flag captain, saying \"Chatfield, there seems to be something wrong with our bloody ships today.\" (In popular legend, Beatty also immediately ordered his ships to \"turn two points to port\", i.e., two points nearer the enemy, but there is no official record of any such command or course change.) ''Princess Royal'', as it turned out, was still afloat after the spray cleared.\n\nAt 16:30, Scheer's leading battleships sighted the distant battlecruiser action; soon after, of Beatty's 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron led by Commodore William Goodenough sighted the main body of Scheer's High Seas Fleet, dodging numerous heavy-calibre salvos to report in detail the German strength: 16 dreadnoughts with six older battleships. This was the first news that Beatty and Jellicoe had that Scheer and his battle fleet were even at sea. Simultaneously, an all-out destroyer action raged in the space between the opposing battlecruiser forces, as British and German destroyers fought with each other and attempted to torpedo the larger enemy ships. Each side fired many torpedoes, but both battlecruiser forces turned away from the attacks and all escaped harm except ''Seydlitz'', which was hit forward at 16:57 by a torpedo fired by the British destroyer . Though taking on water, ''Seydlitz'' maintained speed. The destroyer , under the command of Captain Barry Bingham, led the British attacks. The British disabled the German torpedo boat , which the Germans soon abandoned and sank, and ''Petard'' then torpedoed and sank , her second score of the day. and rescued the crews of their sunken sister ships. But ''Nestor'' and another British destroyer – – were immobilised by shell hits, and were later sunk by Scheer's passing dreadnoughts. Bingham was rescued, and won the Victoria Cross for his leadership in the destroyer action.\n\n===Run to the north===\nAs soon as he himself sighted the vanguard of Scheer's distant battleship line away, at 16:40, Beatty turned his battlecruiser force 180°, heading north to draw the Germans toward Jellicoe. (position 5). Beatty's withdrawal toward Jellicoe is called the \"Run to the North\", in which the tables turned and the Germans chased the British. Because Beatty once again failed to signal his intentions adequately, the battleships of the 5th Battle Squadron – which were too far behind to read his flags – found themselves passing the battlecruisers on an opposing course and heading directly toward the approaching main body of the High Seas Fleet. At 16:48, at extreme range, Scheer's leading battleships opened fire.\n\nMeanwhile, at 16:47, having received Goodenough's signal and knowing that Beatty was now leading the German battle fleet north to him, Jellicoe signalled to his own forces that the fleet action they had waited so long for was finally imminent; at 16:51, by radio, he informed the Admiralty so in London.\n\nThe difficulties of the 5th Battle Squadron were compounded when Beatty gave the order to Evan-Thomas to \"turn in succession\" (rather than \"turn together\") at 16:48 as the battleships passed him. Evan-Thomas acknowledged the signal, but Lieutenant-Commander Ralph Seymour, Beatty's flag lieutenant, aggravated the situation when he did not haul down the flags (to execute the signal) for some minutes. At 16:55, when the 5BS had moved within range of the enemy battleships, Evan-Thomas issued his own flag command warning his squadron to expect sudden manoeuvres and to follow his lead, before starting to turn on his own initiative. The order to turn in succession would have resulted in all four ships turning in the same patch of sea as they reached it one by one, giving the High Seas Fleet repeated opportunity with ample time to find the proper range. However, the captain of the trailing ship () turned early, mitigating the adverse results.\n\nFor the next hour, the 5th Battle Squadron acted as Beatty's rearguard, drawing fire from all the German ships within range, while by 17:10 Beatty had deliberately eased his own squadron out of range of Hipper's now-superior battlecruiser force. Since visibility and firepower now favoured the Germans, there was no incentive for Beatty to risk further battlecruiser losses when his own gunnery could not be effective. Illustrating the imbalance, Beatty's battlecruisers did not score any hits on the Germans in this phase until 17:45, but they had rapidly received five more before he opened the range (four on ''Lion'', of which three were by ''Lützow'', and one on ''Tiger'' by ''Seydlitz''). Now the only targets the Germans could reach, the ships of the 5th Battle Squadron, received simultaneous fire from Hipper's battlecruisers to the east (which HMS ''Barham'' and engaged) and Scheer's leading battleships to the south-east (which and engaged). Three took hits: ''Barham'' (four by ''Derfflinger''), ''Warspite'' (two by ''Seydlitz''), and ''Malaya'' (seven by the German battleships). Only ''Valiant'' was unscathed.\n\nThe four battleships were far better suited to take this sort of pounding than the battlecruisers, and none were lost, though ''Malaya'' suffered heavy damage, an ammunition fire, and heavy crew casualties. At the same time, the fire of the four British ships was accurate and effective. As the two British squadrons headed north at top speed, eagerly chased by the entire German fleet, the 5th Battle Squadron scored 13 hits on the enemy battlecruisers (four on ''Lützow'', three on ''Derfflinger'', six on ''Seydlitz'') and five on battleships (although only one, on , did any serious damage). (position 6).\n\n===The fleets converge===\nJellicoe was now aware that full fleet engagement was nearing, but had insufficient information on the position and course of the Germans. To assist Beatty, early in the battle at about 16:05, Jellicoe had ordered Rear-Admiral Horace Hood's 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron to speed ahead to find and support Beatty's force, and Hood was now racing SSE well in advance of Jellicoe's northern force. Rear-Admiral Arbuthnot's 1st Cruiser Squadron patrolled the van of Jellicoe's main battleship force as it advanced steadily to the south-east.\n\nAt 17:33, the armoured cruiser of Arbuthnot's squadron, on the far southwest flank of Jellicoe's force, came within view of , which was about ahead of Beatty with the 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron, establishing the first visual link between the converging bodies of the Grand Fleet. At 17:38, the scout cruiser , screening Hood's oncoming battlecruisers, was intercepted by the van of the German scouting forces under Rear-Admiral Boedicker.\n\nHeavily outnumbered by Boedicker's four light cruisers, ''Chester'' was pounded before being relieved by Hood's heavy units, which swung westward for that purpose. Hood's flagship disabled the light cruiser shortly after 17:56. ''Wiesbaden'' became a sitting target for most of the British fleet during the next hour, but remained afloat and fired some torpedoes at the passing enemy battleships from long range. Meanwhile, Boedicker's other ships turned toward Hipper and Scheer in the mistaken belief that Hood was leading a larger force of British capital ships from the north and east. A chaotic destroyer action in mist and smoke ensued as German torpedo boats attempted to blunt the arrival of this new formation, but Hood's battlecruisers dodged all the torpedoes fired at them. In this action, after leading a torpedo counter-attack, the British destroyer was disabled, but continued to return fire at numerous passing enemy ships for the next hour.\n",
"\n===Deployment===\n\n(1) 18:00 Scouting forces rejoin their respective fleets.(2) 18:15 British fleet deploys into battle line (3) 18:30 German fleet under fire turns away(4) 19:00 German fleet turns back(5) 19:15 German fleet turns away for second time (6) 20:00(7) 21:00 Nightfall: Jellicoe assumes night cruising formation\nIn the meantime, Beatty and Evan-Thomas had resumed their engagement with Hipper's battlecruisers, this time with the visual conditions to their advantage. With several of his ships damaged, Hipper turned back toward Scheer at around 18:00, just as Beatty's flagship ''Lion'' was finally sighted from Jellicoe's flagship ''Iron Duke''. Jellicoe twice demanded the latest position of the German battlefleet from Beatty, who could not see the German battleships and failed to respond to the question until 18:14. Meanwhile, Jellicoe received confused sighting reports of varying accuracy and limited usefulness from light cruisers and battleships on the starboard (southern) flank of his force.\n\nJellicoe was in a worrying position. He needed to know the location of the German fleet to judge when and how to deploy his battleships from their cruising formation (six columns of four ships each) into a single battle line. The deployment could be on either the westernmost or the easternmost column, and had to be carried out before the Germans arrived; but early deployment could mean losing any chance of a decisive encounter. Deploying to the west would bring his fleet closer to Scheer, gaining valuable time as dusk approached, but the Germans might arrive before the manoeuvre was complete. Deploying to the east would take the force away from Scheer, but Jellicoe's ships might be able to cross the \"T\", and visibility would strongly favour British gunnery – Scheer's forces would be silhouetted against the setting sun to the west, while the Grand Fleet would be indistinct against the dark skies to the north and east, and would be hidden by reflection of the low sunlight off intervening haze and smoke. Deployment would take twenty irreplaceable minutes, and the fleets were closing at full speed. In one of the most critical and difficult tactical command decisions of the entire war, Jellicoe ordered deployment to the east at 18:15.\n\n===Windy Corner===\nMeanwhile, Hipper had rejoined Scheer, and the combined High Seas Fleet was heading north, directly toward Jellicoe. Scheer had no indication that Jellicoe was at sea, let alone that he was bearing down from the north-west, and was distracted by the intervention of Hood's ships to his north and east. Beatty's four surviving battlecruisers were now crossing the van of the British dreadnoughts to join Hood's three battlecruisers; at this time, Arbuthnot's flagship, the armoured cruiser , and her squadron-mate both charged across Beatty's bows, and ''Lion'' narrowly avoided a collision with ''Warrior''. Nearby, numerous British light cruisers and destroyers on the south-western flank of the deploying battleships were also crossing each other's courses in attempts to reach their proper stations, often barely escaping collisions, and under fire from some of the approaching German ships. This period of peril and heavy traffic attending the merger and deployment of the British forces later became known as \"Windy Corner\".\n\nArbuthnot was attracted by the drifting hull of the crippled ''Wiesbaden''. With ''Warrior'', ''Defence'' closed in for the kill, only to blunder right into the gun sights of Hipper's and Scheer's oncoming capital ships. ''Defence'' was deluged by heavy-calibre gunfire from many German battleships, which detonated her magazines in a spectacular explosion viewed by most of the deploying Grand Fleet. She sank with all hands (903 officers and men). ''Warrior'' was also hit badly, but was spared destruction by a mishap to the nearby battleship ''Warspite''. ''Warspite'' had her steering gear overheat and jam under heavy load at high speed as the 5th Battle Squadron made a turn to the north at 18:19. Steaming at top speed in wide circles, ''Warspite'' appeared as a juicy target to the German dreadnoughts and took 13 hits, inadvertently drawing fire from the hapless ''Warrior''. ''Warspite'' was brought back under control and survived the onslaught, but was badly damaged, had to reduce speed, and withdrew northward; later (at 21:07), she was ordered back to port by Evan-Thomas. ''Warspite'' went on to a long and illustrious career, serving also in World War II. ''Warrior'', on the other hand, was abandoned and sank the next day after her crew was taken off at 08:25 on 1 June by ''Engadine'', which towed the sinking armoured cruiser during the night.\n\n''Invincible'' blowing up after being struck by shells from ''Lützow'' and ''Derfflinger''\nAs ''Defence'' sank and ''Warspite'' circled, at about 18:19, Hipper moved within range of Hood's 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron, but was still also within range of Beatty's ships. At first, visibility favoured the British: hit ''Derfflinger'' three times and ''Seydlitz'' once, while ''Lützow'' quickly took 10 hits from ''Lion'', and ''Invincible'', including two below-waterline hits forward by ''Invincible'' that would ultimately doom Hipper's flagship. But at 18:30, ''Invincible'' abruptly appeared as a clear target before ''Lützow'' and ''Derfflinger''. The two German ships then fired three salvoes each at ''Invincible'', and sank her in 90 seconds. A shell from the third salvo struck ''Invincible''s Q-turret amidships, detonating the magazines below and causing her to blow up and sink. All but six of her crew of 1,032 officers and men, including Rear-Admiral Hood, were killed. Of the remaining British battlecruisers, only ''Princess Royal'' received heavy-calibre hits at this time (two by the battleship ''Markgraf''). ''Lützow'', flooding forward and unable to communicate by radio, was now out of action and began to attempt to withdraw; therefore Hipper left his flagship and transferred to the torpedo boat , hoping to board one of the other battlecruisers later.\n\n===Crossing the T===\nBy 18:30, the main battle fleet action was joined for the first time, with Jellicoe effectively \"crossing Scheer's T\". The officers on the lead German battleships, and Scheer himself, were taken completely by surprise when they emerged from drifting clouds of smoky mist to suddenly find themselves facing the massed firepower of the entire Grand Fleet main battle line, which they did not know was even at sea. Jellicoe's flagship ''Iron Duke'' quickly scored seven hits on the lead German dreadnought, but in this brief exchange, which lasted only minutes, as few as 10 of the Grand Fleet's 24 dreadnoughts actually opened fire. The Germans were hampered by poor visibility, in addition to being in an unfavourable tactical position, just as Jellicoe had intended. Realising he was heading into a death trap, Scheer ordered his fleet to turn and disengage at 18:33. Under a pall of smoke and mist, Scheer's forces succeeded in disengaging by an expertly executed 180° turn in unison (\"battle about turn to starboard\", German ''Gefechtskehrtwendung nach Steuerbord''), which was a well-practised emergency manoeuvre of the High Seas Fleet. Scheer declared:\n\n\n\nConscious of the risks to his capital ships posed by torpedoes, Jellicoe did not chase directly but headed south, determined to keep the High Seas Fleet west of him. Starting at 18:40, battleships at the rear of Jellicoe's line were in fact sighting and avoiding torpedoes, and at 18:54 was hit by a torpedo (probably from the disabled ''Wiesbaden''), which reduced her speed to . Meanwhile, Scheer, knowing that it was not yet dark enough to escape and that his fleet would suffer terribly in a stern chase, doubled back to the east at 18:55. In his memoirs he wrote, \"the manoeuvre would be bound to surprise the enemy, to upset his plans for the rest of the day, and if the blow fell heavily it would facilitate the breaking loose at night.\" But the turn to the east took his ships, again, directly towards Jellicoe's fully deployed battle line.\n\nSimultaneously, the disabled British destroyer ''HMS Shark'' fought desperately against a group of four German torpedo boats and disabled with gunfire, but was eventually torpedoed and sunk at 19:02 by the German destroyer . ''Shark''s Captain Loftus Jones won the Victoria Cross for his heroism in continuing to fight against all odds.\n\n===''Gefechtskehrtwendung''===\n under fire\nCommodore Goodenough's 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron dodged the fire of German battleships for a second time to re-establish contact with the High Seas Fleet shortly after 19:00. By 19:15, Jellicoe had crossed Scheer's \"T\" again. This time his arc of fire was tighter and deadlier, causing severe damage to the German battleships, particularly Rear-Admiral Behncke's leading 3rd Squadron (SMS ''König'', , ''Markgraf'', and all being hit, along with of the 1st Squadron), while on the British side, only the battleship was hit (twice, by but with little damage done).\n\nAt 19:17, for the second time in less than an hour, Scheer turned his outnumbered and out-gunned fleet to the west using the \"battle about turn\" (German: ''Gefechtskehrtwendung''), but this time it was executed only with difficulty, as the High Seas Fleet's lead squadrons began to lose formation under concentrated gunfire. To deter a British chase, Scheer ordered a major torpedo attack by his destroyers and a potentially sacrificial charge by Scouting Group I's four remaining battlecruisers. Hipper was still aboard the torpedo boat ''G39'' and was unable to command his squadron for this attack. Therefore, , under Captain Hartog, led the already badly damaged German battlecruisers directly into \"the greatest concentration of naval gunfire any fleet commander had ever faced\", at ranges down to .\n\nIn what became known as the \"death ride\", all the battlecruisers except were hit and further damaged, as 18 of the British battleships fired at them simultaneously. ''Derfflinger'' had two main gun turrets destroyed. The crews of Scouting Group I suffered heavy casualties, but survived the pounding and veered away with the other battlecruisers once Scheer was out of trouble and the German destroyers were moving in to attack. In this brief but intense portion of the engagement, from about 19:05 to about 19:30, the Germans sustained a total of 37 heavy hits while inflicting only two; ''Derfflinger'' alone received 14.\n\nWhile his battlecruisers drew the fire of the British fleet, Scheer slipped away, laying smoke screens. Meanwhile, from about 19:16 to about 19:40, the British battleships were also engaging Scheer's torpedo boats, which executed several waves of torpedo attacks to cover his withdrawal. Jellicoe's ships turned away from the attacks and successfully evaded all 31 of the torpedoes launched at them – though, in several cases, only just barely – and sank the German destroyer . British light forces also sank ''V48'', which had previously been disabled by HMS ''Shark''. This action, and the turn away, cost the British critical time and range in the last hour of daylight – as Scheer intended, allowing him to get his heavy ships out of immediate danger.\n\nThe last major exchanges between capital ships in this battle took place just after sunset, from about 20:19 to about 20:35, as the surviving British battlecruisers caught up with their German counterparts, which were briefly relieved by Rear-Admiral Mauve's obsolete pre-dreadnoughts (the German 2nd Squadron). The British received one heavy hit on ''Princess Royal'' but scored five more on ''Seydlitz'' and three on other German ships. As twilight faded to night and exchanged a few final shots with , neither side could have imagined that the only encounter between British and German dreadnoughts in the entire war was already concluded. \n",
"\n\nAt 21:00, Jellicoe, conscious of the Grand Fleet's deficiencies in night fighting, decided to try to avoid a major engagement until early dawn. He placed a screen of cruisers and destroyers behind his battle fleet to patrol the rear as he headed south to guard Scheer's expected escape route. In reality, Scheer opted to cross Jellicoe's wake and escape via Horns Reef. Luckily for Scheer, most of the light forces in Jellicoe's rearguard failed to report the seven separate encounters with the German fleet during the night; the very few radio reports that were sent to the British flagship were never received, possibly because the Germans were jamming British frequencies. Many of the destroyers failed to make the most of their opportunities to attack discovered ships, despite Jellicoe's expectations that the destroyer forces would, if necessary, be able to block the path of the German fleet.\n\nJellicoe and his commanders did not understand that the furious gunfire and explosions to the north (seen and heard for hours by all the British battleships) indicated that the German heavy ships were breaking through the screen astern of the British fleet. Instead, it was believed that the fighting was the result of night attacks by German destroyers. The most powerful British ships of all (the 15-inch-guns of the 5th Battle Squadron) directly observed German battleships crossing astern of them in action with British light forces, at ranges of or less, and gunners on HMS ''Malaya'' made ready to fire, but her captain declined, deferring to the authority of Rear-Admiral Evan-Thomas – and neither commander reported the sightings to Jellicoe, assuming that he could see for himself and that revealing the fleet's position by radio signals or gunfire was unwise.\n\nWhile the nature of Scheer's escape, and Jellicoe's inaction, indicate the overall German superiority in night fighting, the results of the night action were no more clear-cut than were those of the battle as a whole. In the first of many surprise encounters by darkened ships at point-blank range, ''Southampton'', Commodore Goodenough's flagship, which had scouted so proficiently, was heavily damaged in action with a German Scouting Group composed of light cruisers, but managed to torpedo , which went down at 22:23 with all hands (320 officers and men).\n\nFrom 23:20 to approximately 02:15, several British destroyer flotillas launched torpedo attacks on the German battle fleet in a series of violent and chaotic engagements at extremely short range (often under ). At the cost of five destroyers sunk and some others damaged, they managed to torpedo the light cruiser , which sank several hours later, and the pre-dreadnought , which blew up and sank with all hands (839 officers and men) at 03:10 during the last wave of attacks before dawn. Three of the British destroyers collided in the chaos, and the German battleship rammed the British destroyer , blowing away most of the British ship's superstructure merely with the muzzle blast of its big guns, which could not be aimed low enough to hit the ship. ''Nassau'' was left with a hole in her side, reducing her maximum speed to , while the removed plating was left lying on ''Spitfire''s deck. ''Spitfire'' survived and made it back to port. Another German cruiser, , was accidentally rammed by the dreadnought and abandoned, sinking early the next day. Of the British destroyers, , , , and were lost during the night fighting.\n\nJust after midnight on 1 June, and other German battleships sank of the ill-fated 1st Cruiser Squadron, which had blundered into the German battle line. Deployed as part of a screening force several miles ahead of the main force of the Grand Fleet, ''Black Prince'' had lost contact in the darkness and took a position near what she thought was the British line. The Germans soon identified the new addition to its line and opened fire. Overwhelmed by point-blank gunfire, ''Black Prince'' blew up, (857 officers and men – all hands – were lost), as her squadron leader ''Defence'' had done hours earlier. Lost in the darkness, the battlecruisers and had similar point-blank encounters with the British battle line and were recognised, but were spared the fate of ''Black Prince'' when the captains of the British ships, again, declined to open fire, reluctant to reveal their fleet's position.\n\nAt 01:45, the sinking battlecruiser ''Lützow'' – fatally damaged by ''Invincible'' during the main action – was torpedoed by the destroyer on orders of ''Lützow''s Captain Viktor von Harder after the surviving crew of 1,150 transferred to destroyers that came alongside. At 02:15, the German torpedo boat suddenly had its bow blown off; ''V2'' and ''V6'' came alongside and took off the remaining crew, and the ''V2'' then sank the hulk. Since there was no enemy nearby, it was assumed that she had hit a mine or had been torpedoed by a submarine.\n\nAt 02:15, five British ships of the 13th Destroyer Flotilla under Captain James Uchtred Farie regrouped and headed south. At 02:25, they sighted the rear of the German line. inquired of the leader as to whether he thought they were British or German ships. Answering that he thought they were German, Farie then veered off to the east and away from the German line. All but ''Moresby'' in the rear followed, as through the gloom she sighted what she thought were four pre-dreadnought battleships away. She hoisted a flag signal indicating that the enemy was to the west and then closed to firing range, letting off a torpedo set for high running at 02:37, then veering off to rejoin her flotilla. The four pre-dreadnought battleships were in fact two pre-dreadnoughts, ''Schleswig-Holstein'' and , and the battlecruisers ''Von der Tann'' and ''Derfflinger''. ''Von der Tann'' sighted the torpedo and was forced to steer sharply to starboard to avoid it as it passed close to her bows. ''Moresby'' rejoined ''Champion'' convinced she had scored a hit.\n\nFinally, at 05:20, as Scheer's fleet was safely on its way home, the battleship struck a British mine on her starboard side, killing one man and wounding ten, but was able to make port. ''Seydlitz'', critically damaged and very nearly sinking, barely survived the return voyage: after grounding and taking on even more water on the evening of 1 June, she had to be assisted stern first into port, where she dropped anchor at 07:30 on the morning of 2 June.\n\nThe Germans were helped in their escape by the failure of the British Admiralty in London to pass on seven critical radio intercepts obtained by naval intelligence indicating the true position, course and intentions of the High Seas Fleet during the night. One message was transmitted to Jellicoe at 23:15 that accurately reported the German fleet's course and speed as of 21:14. However, the erroneous signal from earlier in the day that reported the German fleet still in port, and an intelligence signal received at 22:45 giving another unlikely position for the German fleet, had reduced his confidence in intelligence reports. Had the other messages been forwarded, which confirmed the information received at 23:15, or had British ships reported accurately sightings and engagements with German destroyers, cruisers and battleships, then Jellicoe could have altered course to intercept Scheer at the Horns Reef. The unsent intercepted messages had been duly filed by the junior officer left on duty that night, who failed to appreciate their significance. By the time Jellicoe finally learned of Scheer's whereabouts at 04:15, the German fleet was too far away to catch and it was clear that the battle could no longer be resumed.\n",
"\n===Reporting===\nAt midday on 2 June, German authorities released a press statement claiming a victory, including the destruction of a battleship, two battlecruisers, two armoured cruisers, a light cruiser, a submarine and several destroyers, for the loss of ''Pommern'' and ''Wiesbaden''. News that ''Lützow'', ''Elbing'' and ''Rostock'' had been scuttled was withheld, on the grounds this information would not be known to the enemy. The victory of the Skagerrak was celebrated in the press, children were given a holiday and the nation celebrated. The Kaiser announced a new chapter in world history. Post-war, the official German history hailed the battle as a victory and it continued to be celebrated until after World War II.\n\nIn Britain, the first official news came from German wireless broadcasts. Ships began to arrive in port, their crews sending messages to friends and relatives both of their survival and the loss of some 6,000 others. Authorities considered suppressing the news, but it had already spread widely. Some crews coming ashore found rumours had already reported them dead to relatives, while others were jeered for the defeat they had suffered. At 19:00 on 2 June, the Admiralty released a statement based on information from Jellicoe containing the bare news of losses on each side. The following day British newspapers reported a German victory. The ''Daily Mirror'' described the German Director of the Naval Department telling the ''Reichstag'': \"The result of the fighting is a significant success for our forces against a much stronger adversary\". The British population was shocked that the long anticipated battle had been a victory for Germany. On 3 June, the Admiralty issued a further statement expanding on German losses, and another the following day with exaggerated claims. However, on 7 June the German admission of the losses of ''Lützow'' and ''Rostock'' started to redress the sense of the battle as a loss. International perception of the battle began to change towards a qualified British victory, the German attempt to change the balance of power in the North Sea having been repulsed. In July, bad news from the ''Somme campaign'' swept concern over Jutland from the British consciousness.\n\n===Assessments===\n\nSMS ''Seydlitz'' was heavily damaged in the battle, hit by twenty-one main calibre shells, several secondary calibre and one torpedo. 98 men were killed and 55 injured.\nAt Jutland, the Germans, with a 99-strong fleet, sank of British ships, while a 151-strong British fleet sank of German ships. The British lost 6,094 seamen; the Germans 2,551. Several other ships were badly damaged, such as and .\n\nAs of the summer of 1916, the High Seas Fleet's strategy was to whittle away the numerical advantage of the Royal Navy by bringing its full strength to bear against isolated squadrons of enemy capital ships whilst declining to be drawn into a general fleet battle until it had achieved something resembling parity in heavy ships. In tactical terms, the High Seas Fleet had clearly inflicted significantly greater losses on the Grand Fleet than it had suffered itself at Jutland and the Germans never had any intention of attempting to hold the site of the battle, so some historians support the German claim of victory at Jutland.\n\nHowever, Scheer seems to have quickly realised that further battles with a similar rate of attrition would exhaust the High Seas Fleet long before it reduced the Grand Fleet. Further, after the 19 August advance was nearly intercepted by the Grand Fleet, he no longer believed that it would be possible to trap a single squadron of Royal Navy warships without having the Grand Fleet intervene before he could return to port. Therefore, the High Seas Fleet abandoned its forays into the North Sea and turned its attention to the Baltic for most of 1917 whilst Scheer switched tactics against Britain to unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic.\n\nAt a strategic level, the outcome has been the subject of a huge amount of literature with no clear consensus. The battle was widely viewed as indecisive in the immediate aftermath and this view remains influential.\n\nDespite numerical superiority, the British had been disappointed in their hopes for a decisive victory comparable to Trafalgar and the objective of the influential strategic doctrines of Alfred Mahan. The High Seas Fleet survived as a fleet in being. Most of its losses were made good within a month – even ''Seydlitz'', the most badly damaged ship to survive the battle, was repaired by October and officially back in service by November. However, the Germans had failed in their objective of destroying a substantial portion of the British Fleet, and no progress had been made towards the goal of allowing the High Seas Fleet to operate in the Atlantic Ocean.\n\nSubsequently, there has been considerable support for the view of Jutland as a strategic victory for the British. While the British had not destroyed the German fleet and had lost more ships than their enemy, the Germans had retreated to harbour; at the end of the battle the British were in command of the area.\n\nThe German fleet would only sortie into the North Sea thrice more, with a raid on 19 August, one in October 1916 and another in April 1918. All three were unopposed by capital ships and quickly aborted as neither side were prepared to take the risks of mines and submarines.\n\nApart from these three abortive operations the High Seas Fleet – unwilling to risk another encounter with the British fleet – confined its activities to the Baltic Sea for the remainder of the war. Jellicoe issued an order prohibiting the Grand Fleet from steaming south of the line of Horns Reef owing to the threat of mines and U-boats. A German naval expert, writing publicly about Jutland in November 1918, commented, \"Our Fleet losses were severe. On 1 June 1916, it was clear to every thinking person that this battle must, and would be, the last one\".\n\nThere is also significant support for viewing the battle as a German tactical victory, due to the much higher losses sustained by the British. The Germans declared a great victory immediately afterwards, while the British by contrast had only reported short and simple results. In response to public outrage, the First Lord of the Admiralty Arthur Balfour asked Winston Churchill to write a second report that was more positive and detailed.\n\nA crew member of SMS ''Westfalen''\nAt the end of the battle, the British had maintained their numerical superiority and had 23 dreadnoughts ready and four battlecruisers still able to fight, while the Germans had only 10 dreadnoughts. One month after the battle, the Grand Fleet was stronger than it had been before sailing to Jutland. ''Warspite'' was dry docked at Rosyth, returning to the fleet on 22 July, while ''Malaya'' was repaired in the floating dock at Invergordon, returning to duty on 11 July. ''Barham'' was docked for a month at Devonport before undergoing speed trials and returning to Scapa on 8 July. ''Princess Royal'' stayed initially at Rosyth but transferred to dry dock at Portsmouth before returning to duty at Rosyth 21 July. ''Tiger'' was dry docked at Rosyth and ready for service 2 July. ''Queen Elizabeth'', ''Emperor of India'' and , which had been undergoing maintenance at the time of the battle, returned to the fleet immediately, followed shortly after by ''Resolution'' and ''Ramillies''. ''Lion'' initially remained ready for sea duty despite the damaged turret, then underwent a month's repairs in July when Q turret was removed temporarily and replaced in September.\n\nA third view, presented in a number of recent evaluations, is that Jutland, the last major fleet action between battleships, illustrated the irrelevance of battleship fleets following the development of the submarine, mine and torpedo. In this view, the most important consequence of Jutland was the decision of the Germans to engage in unrestricted submarine warfare. Although large numbers of battleships were constructed in the decades between the wars, it has been argued that this outcome reflected the social dominance among naval decision-makers of battleship advocates who constrained technological choices to fit traditional paradigms of fleet action. Battleships played a relatively minor role in World War II, in which the submarine and aircraft carrier emerged as the dominant offensive weapons of naval warfare.\n\n===British self-critique===\nThe official British Admiralty examination of the Grand Fleet's performance recognised two main problems:\n* British armour-piercing shells exploded outside the German armour rather than penetrating and exploding within. As a result, some German ships with only -thick armour survived hits from projectiles. Had these shells penetrated the armour and then exploded, German losses would probably have been far greater.\n* Communication between ships and the British commander-in-chief were comparatively poor. For most of the battle, Jellicoe had no idea where the German ships were, even though British ships were in contact. They failed to report enemy positions, contrary to the Grand Fleet's Battle Plan. Some of the most important signalling was carried out solely by flag instead of wireless or using redundant methods to ensure communications—a questionable procedure, given the mixture of haze and smoke that obscured the battlefield, and a foreshadowing of similar failures by habit-bound and conservatively minded professional officers of rank to take advantage of new technology in World War II.\n\n====Shell performance====\nGerman armour-piercing shells were far more effective than the British ones, which often failed to penetrate heavy armour. The issue particularly concerned shells striking at oblique angles, which became increasingly the case at long range. Germany had adopted trinitrotoluene (TNT) as the explosive filler for artillery shells in 1902, while the United Kingdom was still using a picric acid mixture (Lyddite). The shock of impact of a shell against armour often prematurely detonated Lyddite in advance of fuze function while TNT detonation could be delayed until after the shell had penetrated and the fuze had functioned in the vulnerable area behind the armour plate.\n\nThe issue of poorly performing shells had been known to Jellicoe, who as Third Sea Lord from 1908 to 1910 had ordered new shells to be designed. However, the matter had not been followed through after his posting to sea and new shells had never been thoroughly tested. Beatty discovered the problem at a party aboard ''Lion'' a short time after the battle, when a Swedish Naval officer was present. He had recently visited Berlin, where the German navy had scoffed at how British shells had broken up on their ships' armour. The question of shell effectiveness had also been raised after the Battle of Dogger Bank, but no action had been taken. Hipper later commented, \"It was nothing but the poor quality of their bursting charges which saved us from disaster.\"\n\nAdmiral Dreyer, writing later about the battle, during which he had been captain of the British flagship ''Iron Duke'', estimated that effective shells as later introduced would have led to the sinking of six more German capital ships, based upon the actual number of hits achieved in the battle. The system of testing shells, which remained in use up to 1944, meant that, statistically, a batch of shells of which 70% were faulty stood an even chance of being accepted. Indeed, even shells that failed this relatively mild test had still been issued to ships. Analysis of the test results afterwards by the Ordnance Board suggested the likelihood that 30–70% of shells would not have passed the standard penetration test specified by the Admiralty.\n\nEfforts to replace the shells were initially resisted by the Admiralty, and action was not taken until Jellicoe became First Sea Lord in December 1916. As an initial response, the worst of the existing shells were withdrawn from ships in early 1917 and replaced from reserve supplies. New shells were designed, but did not arrive until April 1918, and were never used in action.\n\n====Battlecruiser losses====\nBritish battlecruisers were designed to chase and destroy enemy cruisers from out of the range of those ships. They were not designed to be ships of the line and exchange broadsides with the enemy. One German and three British battlecruisers were sunk—but none were destroyed by enemy shells penetrating the belt armour and detonating the magazines. Each of the British battlecruisers was penetrated through a turret roof and her magazines ignited by flash fires passing through the turret and shell-handling rooms. ''Lützow'' sustained 24 hits and her flooding could not be contained. She was eventually sunk by her escorts' torpedoes after most of her crew had been safely removed (though six trapped stokers died when the ship was scuttled). ''Derfflinger'' and ''Seydlitz'' sustained 22 hits each but reached port (although in ''Seydlitz'''s case only just).\n\n\n\nJellicoe and Beatty, as well as other senior officers, gave an impression that the loss of the battlecruisers was caused by weak armour, despite reports by two committees and earlier statements by Jellicoe and other senior officers that Cordite and its management were to blame. This led to calls for armour to be increased, and an additional was placed over the relatively thin decks above magazines. To compensate for the increase in weight, ships had to carry correspondingly less fuel, water and other supplies. Whether or not thin deck armour was a potential weakness of British ships, the battle provided no evidence that it was the case. At least amongst the surviving ships, no enemy shell was found to have penetrated deck armour anywhere. The design of the new battlecruiser (which had started building at the time of the battle) was altered to give her of additional armour.\n\n====Ammunition handling====\nBritish and German propellant charges differed in packaging, handling, and chemistry. The British propellant was of two types, MK1 and MD. The Mark 1 cordite had a formula of 37% nitrocellulose, 58% nitroglycerine, and 5% petroleum jelly. It was a good propellant but burned hot and caused an erosion problem in gun barrels. The petroleum jelly served as both a lubricant and a stabiliser. Cordite MD was developed to reduce barrel wear, its formula being 65% nitrocellulose, 30% nitroglycerine, and 5% petroleum jelly. While cordite MD solved the gun-barrel erosion issue, it did nothing to improve its storage properties, which were poor. Cordite was very sensitive to variations of temperature, and acid propagation/cordite deterioration would take place at a very rapid rate. Cordite MD also shed micro-dust particles of nitrocellulose and iron pyrite. While cordite propellant was manageable, it required a vigilant gunnery officer, strict cordite lot control, and frequent testing of the cordite lots in the ships' magazines.\n\nBritish cordite propellant (when uncased and exposed in the silk bag) tended to burn violently, causing uncontrollable \"flash fires\" when ignited by nearby shell hits. In 1945, a test was conducted by the U.S.N. Bureau of Ordnance (Bulletin of Ordnance Information, No.245, pp. 54–60) testing the sensitivity of cordite to then-current U.S. Naval propellant powders against a measurable and repeatable flash source. It found that cordite would ignite at 530 mm/22\" from the flash, the current U.S. powder at 120 mm, /5\", and the U.S. flashless powder at 25 mm./1\"/\n\nThis meant that about 75 times the propellant would immediately ignite when exposed to flash, as compared to the U.S. powder. British ships had inadequate protection against these flash fires. German propellant (''RP C/12'', handled in brass cartridge cases) was less vulnerable and less volatile in composition. German propellants were not that different in composition from cordite—with one major exception: centralite. This was symmetrical Diethyl Diphenyl Urea, which served as a stabiliser that was superior to the petroleum jelly used in British practice. It stored better and burned but did not explode. Stored and used in brass cases, it proved much less sensitive to flash. RP C/12 was composed of 64.13% nitrocellulose, 29.77% nitroglycerine, 5.75% centralite, 0.25% magnesium oxide and 0.10% graphite.\n\nThe Royal Navy Battle Cruiser Fleet had also emphasised speed in ammunition handling over established safety protocol. In practice drills, cordite could not be supplied to the guns rapidly enough through the hoists and hatches. To bring up the propellant in good time to load for the next broadside, many safety doors were kept open that should have been shut to safeguard against flash fires. Bags of cordite were also stocked and kept locally, creating a total breakdown of safety design features. By staging charges in the chambers between the gun turret and magazine, the Royal Navy enhanced their rate of fire but left their ships vulnerable to chain reaction ammunition fires and magazine explosions. This 'bad safety habit' carried over into real battle practices. Furthermore, the doctrine of a high rate of fire also led to the decision in 1913 to increase the supply of shells and cordite held on the British ships by 50%, for fear of running out of ammunition. When this exceeded the capacity of the ships' magazines, cordite was stored in insecure places.\n\nThe British cordite charges were stored two silk bags to a metal cylindrical container, with a 16-oz gunpowder igniter charge, which was covered with a thick paper wad, four charges being used on each projectile. The gun crews were removing the charges from their containers and removing the paper covering over the gunpowder igniter charges. The effect of having eight loads at the ready was to have of exposed explosive, with each charge leaking small amounts of gunpowder from the igniter bags. In effect, the gun crews had laid an explosive train from the turret to the magazines, and one shell hit to a battlecruiser turret was enough to end a ship.\n\nA diving expedition during the summer of 2003 provided corroboration of this practice. It examined the wrecks of ''Invincible'', ''Queen Mary'', ''Defence'', and ''Lützow'' to investigate the cause of the British ships' tendency to suffer from internal explosions. From this evidence, a major part of the blame may be laid on lax handling of the cordite propellant for the shells of the main guns. The wreck of the ''Queen Mary'' revealed cordite containers stacked in the working chamber of the X turret instead of the magazine.\n\nThere was a further difference in the propellant itself. While the German ''RP C/12'' burned when exposed to fire, it did not explode, as opposed to cordite. ''RP C/12'' was extensively studied by the British and, after World War I, would form the basis of the later Cordite SC.\n\nThe memoirs of Alexander Grant, Gunner on ''Lion'', suggest that some British officers were aware of the dangers of careless handling of cordite:\n\n\n\nGrant had already introduced measures onboard ''Lion'' to limit the number of cartridges kept outside the magazine and to ensure doors were kept closed, probably contributing to her survival.\n\nOn 5 June 1916, the First Lord of the Admiralty advised Cabinet Members that the three battlecruisers had been lost due to unsafe cordite management.\n\nOn 22 November 1916, following detailed interviews of the survivors of the destroyed battlecruisers, the Third Sea Lord, Rear Admiral Tudor, issued a report detailing the stacking of charges by the gun crews in the handling rooms to speed up loading of the guns.\n\nAfter the battle, the B.C.F. Gunnery Committee issued a report (at the command of Admiral David Beatty) advocating immediate changes in flash protection and charge handling. It reported, among other things, that:\n* Some vent plates in magazines allowed flash into the magazines and should be retro-fitted to a new standard.\n* Bulkheads in HMS ''Lion''s magazine showed buckling from fire under pressure (overpressure) – despite being flooded and therefore supported by water pressure – and must be made stronger.\n* Doors opening inward to magazines were an extreme danger.\n* Current designs of turrets could not eliminate flash from shell bursts in the turret from reaching the handling rooms.\n* Ignition pads must not be attached to charges but instead be placed just before ramming.\n* Better methods must be found for safe storage of ready charges than the current method.\n* Some method for rapidly drowning charges already in the handling path must be devised.\n* Handling scuttles (special flash-proof fittings for moving propellant charges through ship's bulkheads), designed to handle overpressure, must be fitted.\n\nThe United States Navy in 1939 had quantities of Cordite N, a Canadian propellant that was much improved, yet its Bureau of Ordnance objected strongly to its use onboard U.S. warships, considering it unsuitable as a naval propellant due to its inclusion of nitroglycerin.\n\n====Gunnery====\nBritish gunnery control systems, based on Dreyer tables, were well in advance of the German ones, as demonstrated by the proportion of main calibre hits made on the German fleet. Because of its demonstrated advantages, it was installed on ships progressively as the war went on, had been fitted to a majority of British capital ships by May, 1916, and had been installed on the main guns of all but two of the Grand Fleet's capital ships. The Royal Navy used centralised fire-control systems on their capital ships, directed from a point high up on the ship where the fall of shells could best be seen, utilising a director sight for both training and elevating the guns. In contrast, the German battlecruisers controlled the fire of turrets using a training-only director, which also did not fire the guns at once. The rest of the German capital ships were without even this innovation. German range-finding equipment was generally superior to the British FT24, as its operators were trained to a higher standard due to the complexity of the Zeiss range finders. Their stereoscopic design meant that in certain conditions they could range on a target enshrouded by smoke. The German equipment was not superior in range to the British Barr & Stroud rangefinder found in the newest British capital ships, and, unlike the British range finders, the German range takers had to be replaced as often as every thirty minutes, as their eyesight became impaired, affecting the ranges provided to their gunnery equipment.\n\nThe results of the battle confirmed the value of firing guns by centralised director. The battle prompted the Royal Navy to install director firing systems in cruisers and destroyers, where it had not thus far been used, and for secondary armament on battleships.\n\nGerman ships were considered to have been quicker in determining the correct range to targets, thus obtaining an early advantage. The British used a 'bracket system', whereby a salvo was fired at the best-guess range and, depending where it landed, the range was progressively corrected up or down until successive shots were landing in front of and behind the enemy. The Germans used a 'ladder system', whereby an initial volley of three shots at different ranges was used, with the centre shot at the best-guess range. The ladder system allowed the gunners to get ranging information from the three shots more quickly than the bracket system, which required waiting between shots to see how the last had landed. British ships adopted the German system.\n\nIt was determined that range finders of the sort issued to most British ships were not adequate at long range and did not perform as well as the range finders on some of the most modern ships. In 1917, range finders of base lengths of were introduced on the battleships to improve accuracy.\n\n====Signalling====\nThroughout the battle, British ships experienced difficulties with communications, whereas the Germans did not suffer such problems. The British preferred signalling using ship-to-ship flag and lamp signals, avoiding wireless, whereas the Germans used wireless successfully. One conclusion drawn was that flag signals were not a satisfactory way to control the fleet. Experience using lamps, particularly at night when issuing challenges to other ships, demonstrated this was an excellent way to advertise your precise location to an enemy, inviting a reply by gunfire. Recognition signals by lamp, once seen, could also easily be copied in future engagements.\n\nBritish ships both failed to report engagements with the enemy but also, in the case of cruisers and destroyers, failed to actively seek out the enemy. A culture had arisen within the fleet of not acting without orders, which could prove fatal when any circumstances prevented orders being sent or received. Commanders failed to engage the enemy because they believed other, more senior officers must also be aware of the enemy nearby, and would have given orders to act if this was expected. Wireless, the most direct way to pass messages across the fleet (although it was being jammed by German ships), was avoided either for perceived reasons of not giving away the presence of ships or for fear of cluttering up the airwaves with unnecessary reports.\n\n====Fleet Standing Orders====\nNaval operations were governed by standing orders issued to all the ships. These attempted to set out what ships should do in all circumstances, particularly in situations where ships would have to react without referring to higher authority, or when communications failed. A number of changes were introduced as a result of experience gained in the battle.\n\nA new signal was introduced instructing squadron commanders to act independently as they thought best while still supporting the main fleet, particularly for use when circumstances would make it difficult to send detailed orders. The description stressed that this was not intended to be the only time commanders might take independent action, but was intended to make plain times when they definitely should. Similarly, instructions on what to do if the fleet was instructed to take evasive action against torpedoes were amended. Commanders were given discretion that if their part of the fleet was not under immediate attack, they should continue engaging the enemy rather than turning away with the rest of the fleet. In this battle, when the fleet turned away from Scheer's destroyer attack covering his retreat, not all the British ships had been affected, and could have continued to engage the enemy.\n\nA number of opportunities to attack enemy ships by torpedo had presented themselves but had been missed. All ships, not just the destroyers armed principally with torpedoes but also battleships, were reminded that they carried torpedoes intended to be used whenever an opportunity arose. Destroyers were instructed to close the enemy fleet to fire torpedoes as soon as engagements between the main ships on either side would keep enemy guns busy directed at larger targets. Destroyers should also be ready to immediately engage enemy destroyers if they should launch an attack, endeavouring to disrupt their chances of launching torpedoes and keep them away from the main fleet.\n\nTo add some flexibility when deploying for attack, a new signal was provided for deploying the fleet to the centre, rather than as previously only either to left or right of the standard closed-up formation for travelling. The fast and powerful 5th Battle Squadron was moved to the front of the cruising formation so it would have the option of deploying left or right depending upon the enemy position. In the event of engagements at night, although the fleet still preferred to avoid night fighting, a destroyer and cruiser squadron would be specifically detailed to seek out the enemy and launch destroyer attacks.\n",
"At the time, Jellicoe was criticised for his caution and for allowing Scheer to escape. Beatty, in particular, was convinced that Jellicoe had missed a tremendous opportunity to annihilate the High Seas Fleet and win what would amount to another Trafalgar. Jellicoe was promoted away from active command to become First Sea Lord, the professional head of the Royal Navy, while Beatty replaced him as commander of the Grand Fleet.\n\nThe controversy raged within the navy and in public for about a decade after the war. Criticism focused on Jellicoe's decision at 19:15. Scheer had ordered his cruisers and destroyers forward in a torpedo attack to cover the turning away of his battleships. Jellicoe chose to turn to the south-east, and so keep out of range of the torpedoes. Supporters of Jellicoe, including the historian Cyril Falls, pointed to the folly of risking defeat in battle when one already has command of the sea. Jellicoe himself, in a letter to the Admiralty seventeen months before the battle, said that he intended to turn his fleet away from any mass torpedo attack (that being the universally accepted proper tactical response to such attacks, practised by all the major navies of the world). He said that, in the event of a fleet engagement in which the enemy turned away, he would assume they intended to draw him over mines or submarines, and he would decline to be so drawn. The Admiralty approved this plan and expressed full confidence in Jellicoe at the time (October 1914).\n\nThe stakes were high, the pressure on Jellicoe immense, and his caution certainly understandable. His judgement might have been that even 90% odds in favour were not good enough to bet the British Empire. The former First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill said of the battle that Jellicoe \"was the only man on either side who could have lost the war in an afternoon.\"\n\nThe criticism of Jellicoe also fails to sufficiently credit Scheer, who was determined to preserve his fleet by avoiding the full British battle line, and who showed great skill in effecting his escape.\n\n===Beatty's actions===\nOn the other hand, some of Jellicoe's supporters condemned the actions of Beatty for the British failure to achieve a complete victory. Although Beatty was undeniably brave, his mismanagement of the initial encounter with Hipper's squadron and the High Seas Fleet cost considerable advantage in the first hours of the battle. His most glaring failure was in not providing Jellicoe with periodic information on the position, course, and speed of the High Seas Fleet. Beatty, aboard the battlecruiser ''Lion'', left behind the four fast battleships of the 5th Battle Squadron – the most powerful warships in the world at the time – engaging with six ships when better control would have given him 10 against Hipper's five. Though Beatty's larger guns out-ranged Hipper's guns by thousands of yards, Beatty held his fire for 10 minutes and closed the German squadron until within range of the Germans' superior gunnery, under lighting conditions that favoured the Germans. Most of the British losses in tonnage occurred in Beatty's force.\n",
"\n\nThe total loss of life was 9,823 men, of which the British losses were 6,784 and German losses were 3,039. Counted among the British losses are 2 members of the Royal Australian Navy, and 1 member of the Royal Canadian Navy. 6 Australian nationals serving in the Royal Navy were also killed.\n\n===British===\n113,300 tons sunk:\n* Battlecruisers , , \n* Armoured cruisers , , \n* Flotilla leaders \n* Destroyers , , , , , , \n\n===German===\n62,300 tons sunk:\n* Battlecruiser \n* Pre-Dreadnought \n* Light cruisers , , , \n* Destroyers (Heavy torpedo-boats) , , , , \n",
"The Victoria Cross is the highest military decoration awarded for valour \"in the face of the enemy\" to members of the British Empire armed forces. The Ordre pour le Mérite was the Kingdom of Prussia and consequently the German Empire's highest military order until the end of the First World War.\n\n===Pour le Mérite===\n* Franz Hipper ()\n* Reinhard Scheer ()\n\n===Victoria Cross===\n* The Hon. Edward Barry Stewart Bingham ()\n* John Travers Cornwell ()\n* Francis John William Harvey ()\n* Loftus William Jones ()\n",
", the last surviving warship that saw action at Jutland, is preserved in Belfast, Northern Ireland\nIn the years following the battle the wrecks were slowly discovered. was found by the Royal Navy minesweeper in 1919. After the Second World War some of the wrecks seem to have been commercially salvaged. For instance, the Hydrographic Office record for SMS ''Lützow'' (No.32344) shows that salvage operations were taking place on the wreck in 1960.\n\nDuring 2000–2016 a series of diving and marine survey expeditions involving veteran shipwreck historian and archaeologist Innes McCartney has located all of the wrecks sunk in the battle. It was discovered that over 60% of them had suffered from metal theft. In 2003 McCartney led a detailed survey of the wrecks for the Channel 4 documentary \"Clash of the Dreadnoughts\". The film examined the last minutes of the lost ships and revealed for the first time how both 'P' and 'Q' turrets of had been blasted out of the ship and tossed into the sea before she broke in half. This was followed by the Channel 4 documentary \"Jutland: WWI's Greatest Sea Battle\", broadcast in May 2016, which showed how several of the major losses at Jutland had actually occurred and just how accurate the \"Harper Record\" actually was.\n\nOn the 90th anniversary of the battle, in 2006, the UK Ministry of Defence belatedly announced that the 14 British vessels lost in the battle were being designated as ''protected places'' under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986. This legislation only affects British ships and citizens and in practical terms offers no real protection from non-British salvors of the wreck sites. In May 2016 a number of British newspapers named the Dutch salvage company \"Friendship Offshore\" as one of the main salvors of the Jutland wrecks in recent years and depicted leaked photographs revealing the extent of their activities on the wreck of .\n\nThe last surviving veteran of the battle, Henry Allingham, a British RAF (originally RNAS) airman, died on 18 July 2009, aged 113, by which time he was the oldest documented man in the world and one of the last surviving veterans of the whole war. Also among the combatants was the then 20-year-old Prince Albert, second in the line to the British throne, who would reign as King George VI of the United Kingdom from 1936 until his death in 1952. He served as a junior officer in the Royal Navy.\n\nIn 2013, one ship from the battle survives and is still afloat, the light cruiser . Decommissioned in 2011, she is docked at the Royal Naval Reserve depot in Belfast, Northern Ireland.\n",
"The Battle of Jutland was annually celebrated as a great victory by the right wing in Weimar Germany. This victory was used to repress the memory of the German navy's initiation of the German Revolution of 1918–1919, as well as the memory of the defeat in World War I in general. (The celebrations of the Battle of Tannenberg played a similar role.) This is especially true for the city of Wilhelmshaven, where wreath-laying ceremonies and torch-lit parades were performed until the end of the 1960s.\nIn 1916 Contreadmiral Friedrich von Kühlwetter (1865-1931) wrote a detailed analysis of the battle and published it in a book under the title \"Skagerrak\" (first anonymously published), which was reprinted in large numbers until after WWII and had a huge influence in keeping the battle in public memory amongst Germans as it was not tainted by the ideology of the Third Reich. Kühlwetter built the School for Naval Officers at Mürwik near Flensburg where he is still remembered.\n\nIn May 2016, the 100th Anniversary commemoration of the Battle of Jutland was held. On 29 May, a commemorative service was held at St Mary's Church, Wimbledon, where the ensign from HMS Inflexible is on permanent display. On 31 May, the main service was held at St Magnus Cathedral in Orkney, attended by the British Prime Minister, David Cameron, and the German President, Joachim Gauck, along with Princess Anne and Vice Admiral Sir Tim Laurence.\n",
"* ''Wrath of the Seas'' (''Die versunkene Flotte'', D 1926, director Manfred Noa, assistant director Graham Hewett)\n",
"\n* List of the largest artificial non-nuclear explosions\n* Sea War Museum Jutland\n",
"'''Explanatory notes'''\n\n\n'''Citations'''\n\n",
"\n* \n* Black, Jeremy. \"Jutland's Place in History,\" ''Naval History'' (June 2016) 30#3 pp 16–21.\n* \n* \n* \n* Costello, John (1976) ''Jutland 1916'' with Terry Hughes \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* H.W. Fawcett & G.W.W. Hooper, RN (editors), The fighting at Jutland (abridged edition); the personal experiences of forty-five officers and men of the British Fleet London: MacMillan & Co, 1921\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n",
"\n* WW1 Centenary News - Battle of Jutland\n* Jutland Centenary Initiative\n* Jutland Commemoration Exhibition\n* Interactive Map of Jutland Sailors\n* Beatty's official report\n* Jellicoe's official despatch\n* Jellicoe, extract from ''The Grand Fleet'', published 1919\n* World War I Naval Combat – Despatches\n* Scheer, ''Germany's High Seas Fleet in the World War'', published 1920\n* Henry Allingham Last known survivor of the Battle of Jutland\n* Jutland Casualties Listed by Ship\n* Some Original Documents from the British Admiralty, Room 40, regarding the Battle of Jutland: Photocopies from The National Archives, Kew, Richmond, UK.\n\n;Notable accounts\n* by Rudyard Kipling Retrieved 2009-10-31.\n* by Alexander Grant, a gunner aboard HMS ''Lion''\n* A North Sea diary, 1914–1918, by Stephen King-Hall, a junior officer on the light cruiser \n* by Paul Berryman, a junior officer on HMS ''Malaya''\n* by Moritz von Egidy, captain of SMS ''Seydlitz''\n* by Richard Foerster, gunnery officer on ''Seydlitz''\n* by Georg von Hase, gunnery officer on ''Derfflinger''\n\n:('''Note:''' Due to the time difference, entries in some of the German accounts are one hour ahead of the times in this article.)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Background and planning",
"Naval tactics in 1916",
"Order of battle",
"Battlecruiser action",
"Fleet action",
"Night action and German withdrawal",
"Outcome",
"Controversy",
"Death toll",
"Selected honours",
"Status of the survivors and wrecks",
"Remembrance",
" Film ",
"See also",
"References",
"Bibliography",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Battle of Jutland | [
"They then proceeded north-west, passing west of the Horn's Reef lightship heading for the Little Fisher Bank at the mouth of the Skagerrak.",
"The question of shell effectiveness had also been raised after the Battle of Dogger Bank, but no action had been taken."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Battle of Jutland''' (, the Battle of Skagerrak) was a naval battle fought by the British Royal Navy's Grand Fleet under Admiral Sir John Jellicoe, against the Imperial German Navy's High Seas Fleet under Vice-Admiral Reinhard Scheer during the First World War.",
"The battle unfolded in extensive maneuvering and three main engagements (the battlecruiser action, the fleet action and the night action), from 31 May to 1 June 1916, off the North Sea coast of Denmark's Jutland Peninsula.",
"It was the largest naval battle and the only full-scale clash of battleships in that war.",
"Jutland was the third fleet action between steel battleships, following the smaller but more decisive battles of the Yellow Sea (1904) and Tsushima (1905) during the Russo-Japanese War.",
"Jutland was the last major battle in world history fought primarily by battleships.",
"Germany's High Seas Fleet intended to lure out, trap, and destroy a portion of the Grand Fleet, as the German naval force was insufficient to openly engage the entire British fleet.",
"This formed part of a larger strategy to break the British blockade of Germany and to allow German naval vessels access to the Atlantic.",
"Meanwhile, Great Britain's Royal Navy pursued a strategy of engaging and destroying the High Seas Fleet, thereby keeping German naval forces contained and away from Britain and her shipping lanes.",
"The Germans planned to use Vice-Admiral Franz Hipper's fast scouting group of five modern battlecruisers to lure Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty's battlecruiser squadrons into the path of the main German fleet.",
"They stationed submarines in advance across the likely routes of the British ships.",
"However, the British learned from signal intercepts that a major fleet operation was likely, so on 30 May Jellicoe sailed with the Grand Fleet to rendezvous with Beatty, passing over the locations of the German submarine picket lines while they were unprepared.",
"The German plan had been delayed, causing further problems for their submarines, which had reached the limit of their endurance at sea.",
"On the afternoon of 31 May, Beatty encountered Hipper's battlecruiser force long before the Germans had expected.",
"In a running battle, Hipper successfully drew the British vanguard into the path of the High Seas Fleet.",
"By the time Beatty sighted the larger force and turned back towards the British main fleet, he had lost two battlecruisers from a force of six battlecruisers and four powerful battleships – though he had sped ahead of his battleships of 5th Battle Squadron earlier in the day, effectively losing them as an integral component for much of this opening action against the five ships commanded by Hipper.",
"Beatty's withdrawal at the sight of the High Seas Fleet, which the British had not known were in the open sea, would reverse the course of the battle by drawing the German fleet in pursuit towards the British Grand Fleet.",
"Between 18:30, when the sun was lowering on the western horizon, back-lighting the German forces, and nightfall at about 20:30, the two fleets – totalling 250 ships between them – directly engaged twice.",
"Fourteen British and eleven German ships sank, with great loss of life.",
"After sunset, and throughout the night, Jellicoe manoeuvred to cut the Germans off from their base, hoping to continue the battle the next morning, but under the cover of darkness Scheer broke through the British light forces forming the rearguard of the Grand Fleet and returned to port.",
"Both sides claimed victory.",
"The British lost more ships and twice as many sailors but succeeded in containing the German fleet.",
"However, the British press criticised the Grand Fleet's failure to force a decisive outcome, while Scheer's plan of destroying a substantial portion of the British fleet also failed.",
"Finally, the British strategy of denying Germany access to both the United Kingdom and the Atlantic did succeed, which was the British long-term goal.",
"The Germans' \"fleet in being\" continued to pose a threat, requiring the British to keep their battleships concentrated in the North Sea, but the battle reinforced the German policy of avoiding all fleet-to-fleet contact.",
"At the end of 1916, after further unsuccessful attempts to reduce the Royal Navy's numerical advantage, the German Navy accepted that its surface ships had been successfully contained, subsequently turning its efforts and resources to unrestricted submarine warfare and the destruction of Allied and neutral shipping, which - along with the Zimmermann Telegram - by April 1917 triggered the United States of America's declaration of war on Germany.",
"Subsequent reviews commissioned by the Royal Navy generated strong disagreement between supporters of Jellicoe and Beatty concerning the two admirals' performance in the battle.",
"Debate over their performance and the significance of the battle continues to this day.",
"\n===German planning===\nWith 16 dreadnought-type battleships, compared with the Royal Navy's 28, the German High Seas Fleet stood little chance of winning a head-to-head clash.",
"The Germans therefore adopted a divide-and-conquer strategy.",
"They would stage raids into the North Sea and bombard the English coast, with the aim of luring out small British squadrons and pickets, which could then be destroyed by superior forces or submarines.",
"In January 1916, Admiral von Pohl, commander of the German fleet, fell ill.",
"He was replaced by Scheer, who believed that the fleet had been used too defensively, had better ships and men than the British, and ought to take the war to them.",
"According to Scheer, the German naval strategy should be:\n\n\n\nReinhard Scheer, German fleet commander\n\nOn 25 April 1916, a decision was made by the German admiralty to halt indiscriminate attacks by submarine on merchant shipping.",
"This followed protests from neutral countries, notably the United States, that their nationals had been the victims of attacks.",
"Germany agreed that future attacks would only take place in accord with internationally agreed prize rules, which required an attacker to give a warning and allow the crews of vessels time to escape, and not to attack neutral vessels at all.",
"Scheer believed that it would not be possible to continue attacks on these terms, which took away the advantage of secret approach by submarines and left them vulnerable to even relatively small guns on the target ships.",
"Instead, he set about deploying the submarine fleet against military vessels.",
"It was hoped that, following a successful German submarine attack, fast British escorts, such as destroyers, would be tied down by anti-submarine operations.",
"If the Germans could catch the British in the expected locations, good prospects were thought to exist of at least partially redressing the balance of forces between the fleets.",
"\"After the British sortied in response to the raiding attack force\", the Royal Navy's centuries-old instincts for aggressive action could be exploited to draw its weakened units towards the main German fleet under Scheer.",
"The hope was that Scheer would thus be able to ambush a section of the British fleet and destroy it.",
"====Submarine deployments====\nA plan was devised to station submarines offshore from British naval bases, and then stage some action that would draw out the British ships to the waiting submarines.",
"The battlecruiser had been damaged in a previous engagement, but was due to be repaired by mid May, so an operation was scheduled for 17 May 1916.",
"At the start of May, difficulties with condensers were discovered on ships of the third battleship squadron, so the operation was put back to 23 May.",
"Ten submarines—, , , , , , , , , and —were given orders first to patrol in the central North Sea between 17 and 22 May, and then to take up waiting positions.",
"''U-43'' and ''U-44'' were stationed in the Pentland Firth, which the Grand Fleet was likely to cross leaving Scapa Flow, while the remainder proceeded to the Firth of Forth, awaiting battlecruisers departing Rosyth.",
"Each boat had an allocated area, within which it could move around as necessary to avoid detection, but was instructed to keep within it.",
"During the initial North Sea patrol the boats were instructed to sail only north–south so that any enemy who chanced to encounter one would believe it was departing or returning from operations on the west coast (which required them to pass around the north of Britain).",
"Once at their final positions, the boats were under strict orders to avoid premature detection that might give away the operation.",
"It was arranged that a coded signal would be transmitted to alert the submarines exactly when the operation commenced: \"Take into account the enemy's forces may be putting to sea\".",
"Additionally, ''UB-27'' was sent out on 20 May with instructions to work its way into the Firth of Forth past May Island.",
"''U-46'' was ordered to patrol the coast of Sunderland, which had been chosen for the diversionary attack, but because of engine problems it was unable to leave port and ''U-47'' was diverted to this task.",
"On 13 May, ''U-72'' was sent to lay mines in the Firth of Forth; on the 23rd, ''U-74'' departed to lay mines in the Moray Firth; and on the 24th, ''U-75'' was dispatched similarly west of the Orkney Islands.",
"''UB-21'' and ''UB-22'' were sent to patrol the Humber, where (incorrect) reports had suggested the presence of British warships.",
"''U-22'', ''U-46'' and ''U-67'' were positioned north of Terschelling to protect against intervention by British light forces stationed at Harwich.",
"On 22 May 1916, it was discovered that ''Seydlitz'' was still not watertight after repairs and would not now be ready until the 29th.",
"The ambush submarines were now on station and experiencing difficulties of their own: visibility near the coast was frequently poor due to fog, and sea conditions were either so calm the slightest ripple, as from the periscope, could give away their position, or so rough as to make it very hard to keep the vessel at a steady depth.",
"The British had become aware of unusual submarine activity, and had begun counter patrols that forced the submarines out of position.",
"''UB-27'' passed Bell Rock on the night of 23 May on its way into the Firth of Forth as planned, but was halted by engine trouble.",
"After repairs it continued to approach, following behind merchant vessels, and reached Largo Bay on 25 May.",
"There the boat became entangled in nets that fouled one of the propellers, forcing it to abandon the operation and return home.",
"''U-74'' was detected by four armed trawlers on 27 May and sunk south-east of Peterhead.",
"''U-75'' laid its mines off the Orkney Islands, which, although they played no part in the battle, were responsible later for sinking the cruiser carrying Lord Kitchener (head of the army) on a mission to Russia on 5 June.",
"''U-72'' was forced to abandon its mission without laying any mines when an oil leak meant it was leaving a visible surface trail astern.",
"====Zeppelins====\n\nThe throat of the Skagerrak, the strategic gateway to the Baltic and North Atlantic, waters off Jutland, Norway and Sweden\nThe Germans maintained a fleet of Zeppelins that they used for aerial reconnaissance and occasional bombing raids.",
"The planned raid on Sunderland intended to use Zeppelins to watch out for the British fleet approaching from the north, which might otherwise surprise the raiders.",
"By 28 May, strong north-easterly winds meant that it would not be possible to send out the Zeppelins, so the raid again had to be postponed.",
"The submarines could only stay on station until 1 June before their supplies would be exhausted and they had to return, so a decision had to be made quickly about the raid.",
"It was decided to use an alternative plan, abandoning the attack on Sunderland but instead sending a patrol of battlecruisers to the Skagerrak, where it was likely they would encounter merchant ships carrying British cargo and British cruiser patrols.",
"It was felt this could be done without air support, because the action would now be much closer to Germany, relying instead on cruiser and torpedo boat patrols for reconnaissance.",
"Orders for the alternative plan were issued on 28 May, although it was still hoped that last-minute improvements in the weather would allow the original plan to go ahead.",
"The German fleet assembled in the Jade River and at Wilhelmshaven and was instructed to raise steam and be ready for action from midnight on 28 May.",
"Franz Hipper, commander of the German battlecruiser squadron\n\nBy 14:00 on 30 May, the wind was still too strong and the final decision was made to use the alternative plan.",
"The coded signal \"31 May G.G.2490\" was transmitted to the ships of the fleet to inform them the Skagerrak attack would start on 31 May.",
"The pre-arranged signal to the waiting submarines was transmitted throughout the day from the E-Dienst radio station at Brugge, and the U-boat tender ''Arcona'' anchored at Emden.",
"Only two of the waiting submarines, and , received the order.",
"===British response===\nUnfortunately for the German plan, the British had obtained a copy of the main German codebook from the light cruiser , which had been boarded by the Russian Navy after the ship ran aground in Russian territorial waters in 1914.",
"German naval radio communications could therefore often be quickly deciphered, and the British Admiralty usually knew about German activities.",
"The British Admiralty's Room 40 maintained direction finding and interception of German naval signals.",
"It had intercepted and decrypted a German signal on 28 May that provided \"ample evidence that the German fleet was stirring in the North Sea.\"",
"Further signals were intercepted, and although they were not decrypted it was clear that a major operation was likely.",
"At 11:00 on 30 May, Jellicoe was warned that the German fleet seemed prepared to sail the following morning.",
"By 17:00, the Admiralty had intercepted the signal from Scheer, \"31 May G.G.2490\", making it clear something significant was imminent.",
"Not knowing the Germans' objective, Jellicoe and his staff decided to position the fleet to head off any attempt by the Germans to enter the North Atlantic, or the Baltic through the Skagerrak, by taking up a position off Norway where they could possibly cut off any German raid into the shipping lanes of the Atlantic, or prevent the Germans from heading into the Baltic.",
"A position further west was unnecessary, as that area of the North Sea could be patrolled by air using blimps and scouting aircraft.",
"John Jellicoe, British fleet commander\nConsequently, Admiral Jellicoe led the sixteen dreadnought battleships of the 1st and 4th Battle Squadrons of the Grand Fleet and three battlecruisers of the 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron eastwards out of Scapa Flow at 22:30 on 30 May.",
"He was to meet the 2nd Battle Squadron of eight dreadnought battleships commanded by Vice-Admiral Martyn Jerram coming from Cromarty.",
"Hipper's raiding force did not leave the Outer Jade Roads until 01:00 on 31 May, heading west of Heligoland Island following a cleared channel through the minefields, heading north at .",
"The main German fleet of sixteen dreadnought battleships of 1st and 3rd Battle Squadrons left the Jade at 02:30, being joined off Heligoland at 04:00 by the six pre-dreadnoughts of the 2nd Battle Squadron coming from the Elbe River.",
"Beatty's faster force of six ships of the 1st and 2nd Battlecruiser Squadrons plus the 5th Battle Squadron of four fast battleships left the Firth of Forth on the next day; Jellicoe intended to rendezvous with him west of the mouth of the Skagerrak off the coast of Jutland and wait for the Germans to appear or for their intentions to become clear.",
"The planned position would give him the widest range of responses to likely German moves.",
"\nThe principle of concentration of force was fundamental to the fleet tactics of this time (as in earlier periods).",
"Tactical doctrine called for a fleet approaching battle to be in a compact formation of parallel columns, allowing relatively easy manoeuvring, and giving shortened sight lines within the formation, which simplified the passing of the signals necessary for command and control.",
"A fleet formed in several short columns could change its heading faster than one formed in a single long column.",
"Since most command signals were made with flags or signal lamps between ships, the flagship was usually placed at the head of the centre column so that its signals might be more easily seen by the many ships of the formation.",
"Wireless telegraphy was in use, though security (radio direction finding), encryption, and the limitation of the radio sets made their extensive use more problematic.",
"Command and control of such huge fleets remained difficult.",
"Thus, it might take a very long time for a signal from the flagship to be relayed to the entire formation.",
"It was usually necessary for a signal to be confirmed by each ship before it could be relayed to other ships, and an order for a fleet movement would have to be received and acknowledged by every ship before it could be executed.",
"In a large single-column formation, a signal could take 10 minutes or more to be passed from one end of the line to the other, whereas in a formation of parallel columns, visibility across the diagonals was often better (and always shorter) than in a single long column, and the diagonals gave signal \"redundancy\", increasing the probability that a message would be quickly seen and correctly interpreted.",
"However, before battle was joined the heavy units of the fleet would, if possible, deploy into a single column.",
"To form the battle line in the correct orientation relative to the enemy, the commanding admiral had to know the enemy fleet's distance, bearing, heading, and speed.",
"It was the task of the scouting forces, consisting primarily of battlecruisers and cruisers, to find the enemy and report this information in sufficient time, and, if possible, to deny the enemy's scouting forces the opportunity of obtaining the equivalent information.",
"Ideally, the battle line would cross the intended path of the enemy column so that the maximum number of guns could be brought to bear, while the enemy could fire only with the forward guns of the leading ships, a manoeuvre known as \"crossing the T\".",
"Admiral Tōgō, commander of the Japanese battleship fleet, had achieved this against Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky's Russian battleships in 1905 at the Battle of Tsushima, with devastating results.",
"Jellicoe achieved this twice in one hour against the High Seas Fleet at Jutland, but on both occasions, Scheer managed to turn away and disengage, thereby avoiding a decisive action.",
"===Ship design===\nWithin the existing technological limits, a trade-off had to be made between the weight and size of guns, the weight of armour protecting the ship, and the maximum speed.",
"Battleships sacrificed speed for armour and heavy naval guns ( or larger).",
"British battlecruisers sacrificed weight of armour for greater speed, while their German counterparts were armed with lighter guns and heavier armour.",
"These weight savings allowed them to escape danger or catch other ships.",
"Generally, the larger guns mounted on British ships allowed an engagement at greater range.",
"In theory, a lightly armoured ship could stay out of range of a slower opponent while still scoring hits.",
"The fast pace of development in the pre-war years meant that every few years, a new generation of ships rendered its predecessors obsolete.",
"Thus, fairly young ships could still be obsolete compared to the newest ships, and fare badly in an engagement against them.",
"Admiral John Fisher, responsible for reconstruction of the British fleet in the pre-war period, favoured large guns, oil fuel, and speed.",
"Admiral Tirpitz, responsible for the German fleet, favoured ship survivability and chose to sacrifice some gun size for improved armour.",
"The German battlecruiser had belt armour equivalent in thickness—though not as comprehensive—to the British battleship , significantly better than on the British battlecruisers such as ''Tiger''.",
"German ships had better internal subdivision and had fewer doors and other weak points in their bulkheads, but with the disadvantage that space for crew was greatly reduced.",
"As they were designed only for sorties in the North Sea they did not need to be as habitable as the British vessels and their crews could live in barracks ashore when in harbour.",
"\n\n\n\nBritish\nGerman\n\nDreadnoughtbattleships\n28\n16\n\nPre-dreadnoughts\n0\n6\n\nBattlecruisers\n9\n5\n\nArmoured cruisers\n8\n0\n\nLight cruisers\n26\n11\n\nDestroyers\n79\n61\n\nSeaplane carrier\n1\n0\n\nWarships of the period were armed with guns firing projectiles of varying weights, bearing high explosive warheads.",
"The sum total of weight of all the projectiles fired by all the ship's guns is referred to as \"weight of broadside\".",
"At Jutland, the total of the British ships' weight of broadside was , while the German fleet's total was .",
"This does not take into consideration the ability of some ships and their crews to fire more or less rapidly than others, which would increase or decrease amount of fire that one combatant was able to bring to bear on their opponent for any length of time.",
"Jellicoe's Grand Fleet was split into two sections.",
"The dreadnought Battle Fleet, with which he sailed, formed the main force and was composed of 24 battleships and three battlecruisers.",
"The battleships were formed into three squadrons of eight ships, further subdivided into divisions of four, each led by a flag officer.",
"Accompanying them were eight armoured cruisers (classified by the Royal Navy since 1913 as \"cruisers\"), eight light cruisers, four scout cruisers, 51 destroyers, and one destroyer-minelayer.",
"David Beatty, commander of the British battlecruiser fleet\nThe Grand Fleet sailed without three of its battleships: in refit at Invergordon, dry-docked at Rosyth and in refit at Devonport.",
"The brand new was left behind; with only three weeks in service, her untrained crew was judged unready for battle.",
"British reconnaissance was provided by the Battlecruiser Fleet under David Beatty: six battlecruisers, four fast s, 14 light cruisers and 27 destroyers.",
"Air scouting was provided by the attachment of the seaplane tender , one of the first aircraft carriers in history to participate in a naval engagement.",
"The German High Seas Fleet under Scheer was also split into a main force and a separate reconnaissance force.",
"Scheer's main battle fleet was composed of 16 battleships and six pre-dreadnought battleships arranged in an identical manner to the British.",
"With them were six light cruisers and 31 torpedo-boats, (the latter being roughly equivalent to a British destroyer).",
"The German scouting force, commanded by Franz Hipper, consisted of five battlecruisers, five light cruisers and 30 torpedo-boats.",
"The Germans had no equivalent to ''Engadine'' and no heavier-than-air aircraft to operate with the fleet but had the Imperial German Naval Airship Service's force of rigid airships available to patrol the North Sea.",
"All of the battleships and battlecruisers on both sides carried torpedoes of various sizes, as did the lighter craft.",
"The British battleships carried three or four underwater torpedo tubes.",
"The battlecruisers carried from two to five.",
"All were either 18-inch or 21-inch diameter.",
"The German battleships carried five or six underwater torpedo tubes in three sizes from 18 to 21 inch and the battlecruisers carried four or five tubes.",
"The German battle fleet was hampered by the slow speed and relatively poor armament of the six pre-dreadnoughts of II Squadron, which limited maximum fleet speed to , compared to maximum British fleet speed of .",
"On the British side, the eight armoured cruisers were deficient in both speed and armour protection.",
"Both of these obsolete squadrons were notably vulnerable to attacks by more modern enemy ships.",
"The route of the British battlecruiser fleet took it through the patrol sector allocated to ''U-32''.",
"After receiving the order to commence the operation, the U-boat moved to a position east of May Island at dawn on 31 May.",
"At 03:40, it sighted the cruisers and leaving the Forth at .",
"It launched one torpedo at the leading cruiser at a range of , but its periscope jammed 'up', giving away the position of the submarine as it manoeuvred to fire a second.",
"The lead cruiser turned away to dodge the torpedo, while the second turned towards the submarine, attempting to ram.",
"''U-32'' crash dived, and on raising its periscope at 04:10 saw two battlecruisers (the 2nd Battlecruiser Squadron) heading south-east.",
"They were too far away to attack, but ''Kapitänleutnant'' von Spiegel reported the sighting of two battleships and two cruisers to Germany.",
"''U-66'' was also supposed to be patrolling off the Firth of Forth but had been forced north to a position off Peterhead by patrolling British vessels.",
"This now brought it into contact with the 2nd Battle Squadron, coming from the Moray Firth.",
"At 05:00, it had to crash dive when the cruiser appeared from the mist heading toward it.",
"It was followed by another cruiser, , and eight battleships.",
"''U-66'' got within of the battleships preparing to fire, but was forced to dive by an approaching destroyer and missed the opportunity.",
"At 06:35, it reported eight battleships and cruisers heading north.",
"The courses reported by both submarines were incorrect, because they reflected one leg of a zigzag being used by British ships to avoid submarines.",
"Taken with a wireless intercept of more ships leaving Scapa Flow earlier in the night, they created the impression in the German High Command that the British fleet, whatever it was doing, was split into separate sections moving apart, which was precisely as the Germans wished to meet it.",
"Jellicoe's ships proceeded to their rendezvous undamaged and undiscovered.",
"However, he was now misled by an Admiralty intelligence report advising that the German main battle fleet was still in port.",
"The Director of Operations Division, Rear Admiral Thomas Jackson, had asked the intelligence division, Room 40, for the current location of German call sign DK, used by Admiral Scheer.",
"They had replied that it was currently transmitting from Wilhelmshaven.",
"It was known to the intelligence staff that Scheer deliberately used a different call sign when at sea, but no one asked for this information or explained the reason behind the query – to locate the German fleet.",
"The German battlecruisers cleared the minefields surrounding the Amrum swept channel by 09:00.",
"The High Seas Fleet followed some behind.",
"The battlecruisers were in line ahead, with the four cruisers of the II scouting group plus supporting torpedo boats ranged in an arc ahead and to either side.",
"The IX torpedo boat flotilla formed close support immediately surrounding the battlecruisers.",
"The High Seas Fleet similarly adopted a line-ahead formation, with close screening by torpedo boats to either side and a further screen of five cruisers surrounding the column away.",
"The wind had finally moderated so that Zeppelins could be used, and by 11:30 five had been sent out: ''L14'' to the Skagerrak, ''L23'' east of Noss Head in the Pentland Firth, ''L21'' off Peterhead, ''L9'' off Sunderland, and ''L16'' east of Flamborough Head.",
"Visibility, however, was still bad, with clouds down to .",
"===Contact===\nHMS ''Warspite'' and ''Malaya'', seen from HMS ''Valiant'' at around 14:00 hrs\nBy around 14:00, Beatty's ships were proceeding eastward at roughly the same latitude as Hipper's squadron, which was heading north.",
"Had the courses remained unchanged, Beatty would have passed between the two German fleets, south of the battlecruisers and north of the High Seas Fleet at around 16:30, possibly trapping his ships just as the German plan envisioned.",
"His orders were to stop his scouting patrol when he reached a point east of Britain and then turn north to meet Jellicoe, which he did at this time.",
"Beatty's ships were divided into three columns, with the two battlecruiser squadrons leading in parallel lines apart.",
"The 5th Battle Squadron was stationed to the north-west, on the side furthest away from any expected enemy contact, while a screen of cruisers and destroyers was spread south-east of the battlecruisers.",
"After the turn, the 5th Battle Squadron was now leading the British ships in the westernmost column, and Beatty's squadron was centre and rearmost, with the 2nd BCS to the west.",
"(1) 15:22 hrs, Hipper sights Beatty.",
"(2) 15:48 hrs, First shots fired by Hipper's squadron.",
"(3) 16:00 hrs-16:05 hrs, ''Indefatigable'' explodes, leaving two survivors.",
"(4) 16:25 hrs, ''Queen Mary'' explodes, nine survive.",
"(5) 16:45 hrs, Beatty's battlecruisers move out of range of Hipper.",
"(6) 16:54 hrs, Evan-Thomas's battleships turn north behind Beatty.",
"At 14:20 on 31 May, despite heavy haze and scuds of fog giving poor visibility, scouts from Beatty's force reported enemy ships to the south-east; the British light units, investigating a neutral Danish steamer (''N J Fjord''), which was stopped between the two fleets, had found two German destroyers engaged on the same mission ( and ).",
"The first shots of the battle were fired at 14:28 when and of the British 1st Light Cruiser Squadron opened on the German torpedo boats, which withdrew toward their approaching light cruisers.",
"At 14:36, the Germans scored the first hit of the battle when , of Rear-Admiral Friedrich Boedicker's Scouting Group II, hit her British counterpart ''Galatea'' at extreme range.",
"Beatty began to move his battlecruisers and supporting forces south-eastwards and then east to cut the German ships off from their base and ordered ''Engadine'' to launch a seaplane to try to get more information about the size and location of the German forces.",
"This was the first time in history that a carrier-based aeroplane was used for reconnaissance in naval combat.",
"''Engadine''s aircraft did locate and report some German light cruisers just before 15:30 and came under anti-aircraft gunfire but attempts to relay reports from the aeroplane failed.",
"Unfortunately for Beatty, his initial course changes at 14:32 were not received by Sir Hugh Evan-Thomas's 5th Battle Squadron (the distance being too great to read his flags), because the battlecruiser —the last ship in his column—was no longer in a position where she could relay signals by searchlight to Evan-Thomas, as she had previously been ordered to do.",
"Whereas before the north turn, ''Tiger'' had been the closest ship to Evan-Thomas, she was now further away than Beatty in ''Lion''.",
"Matters were aggravated because Evan-Thomas had not been briefed regarding standing orders within Beatty's squadron, as his squadron normally operated with the Grand Fleet.",
"Fleet ships were expected to obey movement orders precisely and not deviate from them.",
"Beatty's standing instructions expected his officers to use their initiative and keep station with the flagship.",
"As a result, the four s—which were the fastest and most heavily armed in the world at that time—remained on the previous course for several minutes, ending up behind rather than five.",
"Beatty also had the opportunity during the previous hours to concentrate his forces, and no reason not to do so, whereas he steamed ahead at full speed, faster than the battleships could manage.",
"Dividing the force had serious consequences for the British, costing them what would have been an overwhelming advantage in ships and firepower during the first half-hour of the coming battle.",
"With visibility favouring the Germans, Hipper's battlecruisers at 15:22, steaming approximately north-west, sighted Beatty's squadron at a range of about , while Beatty's forces did not identify Hipper's battlecruisers until 15:30.",
"(position 1 on map).",
"At 15:45, Hipper turned south-east to lead Beatty toward Scheer, who was south-east with the main force of the High Seas Fleet.",
"===Run to the south===\nBeatty's conduct during the next 15 minutes has received a great deal of criticism, as his ships out-ranged and outnumbered the German squadron, yet he held his fire for over 10 minutes with the German ships in range.",
"He also failed to use the time available to rearrange his battlecruisers into a fighting formation, with the result that they were still manoeuvring when the battle started.",
"At 15:48, with the opposing forces roughly parallel at , with the British to the south-west of the Germans (i.e., on the right side), Hipper opened fire, followed by the British ships as their guns came to bear upon targets (position 2).",
"Thus began the opening phase of the battlecruiser action, known as the ''Run to the South'', in which the British chased the Germans, and Hipper intentionally led Beatty toward Scheer.",
"During the first minutes of the ensuing battle, all the British ships except ''Princess Royal'' fired far over their German opponents, due to adverse visibility conditions, before finally getting the range.",
"Only ''Lion'' and ''Princess Royal'' had settled into formation, so the other four ships were hampered in aiming by their own turning.",
"Beatty was to windward of Hipper, and therefore funnel and gun smoke from his own ships tended to obscure his targets, while Hipper's smoke blew clear.",
"Also, the eastern sky was overcast and the grey German ships were indistinct and difficult to range.",
"Beatty's flagship ''Lion'' burning after being hit by a salvo from ''Lützow''\nHMS ''Indefatigable'' sinking after being struck by shells from the German battlecruiser ''Von der Tann''\n\nBeatty had ordered his ships to engage in a line, one British ship engaging with one German and his flagship doubling on the German flagship .",
"However, due to another mistake with signalling by flag, and possibly because ''Queen Mary'' and ''Tiger'' were unable to see the German lead ship because of smoke, the second German ship, ''Derfflinger'', was left un-engaged and free to fire without disruption.",
"drew fire from two of Beatty's battlecruisers, but still fired with great accuracy during this time, hitting ''Tiger'' 9 times in the first 12 minutes.",
"The Germans drew first blood.",
"Aided by superior visibility, Hipper's five battlecruisers quickly registered hits on three of the six British battlecruisers.",
"Seven minutes passed before the British managed to score their first hit.",
"The first near-kill of the Run to the South occurred at 16:00, when a shell from ''Lützow'' wrecked the \"Q\" turret amidships on Beatty's flagship ''Lion''.",
"Dozens of crewmen were instantly killed, but far larger destruction was averted when the mortally wounded turret commander – Major Francis Harvey of the Royal Marines – promptly ordered the magazine doors shut and the magazine flooded.",
"This prevented a magazine explosion at 16:28, when a flash fire ignited ready cordite charges beneath the turret and killed everyone in the chambers outside \"Q\" magazine.",
"''Lion'' was saved.",
"was not so lucky; at 16:02, just 14 minutes into the gunnery exchange, she was hit aft by three shells from , causing damage sufficient to knock her out of line and detonating \"X\" magazine aft.",
"Soon after, despite the near-maximum range, ''Von der Tann'' put another shell on ''Indefatigable''s \"A\" turret forward.",
"The plunging shells probably pierced the thin upper armour, and seconds later ''Indefatigable'' was ripped apart by another magazine explosion, sinking immediately with her crew of 1,019 officers and men, leaving only two survivors.",
"(position 3).",
"Hipper's position deteriorated somewhat by 16:15 as the 5th Battle Squadron finally came into range, so that he had to contend with gunfire from the four battleships astern as well as Beatty's five remaining battlecruisers to starboard.",
"But he knew his baiting mission was close to completion, as his force was rapidly closing with Scheer's main body.",
"At 16:08, the lead battleship of the 5th Battle Squadron, , caught up with Hipper and opened fire at extreme range, scoring a hit on ''Von der Tann'' within 60 seconds.",
"Still, it was 16:15 before all the battleships of the 5th were able to fully engage at long range.",
"At 16:25, the battlecruiser action intensified again when was hit by what may have been a combined salvo from ''Derfflinger'' and ; she disintegrated when both forward magazines exploded, sinking with all but nine of her 1,275 man crew lost.",
"(position 4).",
"Commander von Hase, the first gunnery officer aboard ''Derfflingler'', noted:\n\n\n\nHMS ''Queen Mary'' blowing up\n\nDuring the Run to the South, from 15:48 to 16:54, the German battlecruisers made an estimated total of forty-two hits on the British battlecruisers (nine on ''Lion'', six on ''Princess Royal'', seven on ''Queen Mary'', 14 on ''Tiger'', one on ''New Zealand'', five on ''Indefatigable''), and two more on the battleship ''Barham'', compared with only eleven hits by the British battlecruisers (four on ''Lützow'', four on ''Seydlitz'', two on ''Moltke'', one on ''von der Tann''), and six hits by the battleships (one on ''Seydlitz'', four on ''Moltke'', one on ''von der Tann'').",
"Shortly after 16:26, a salvo struck on or around , which was obscured by spray and smoke from shell bursts.",
"A signalman promptly leapt on to the bridge of ''Lion'' and announced \"''Princess Royal''s blown up, Sir.\"",
"Beatty famously turned to his flag captain, saying \"Chatfield, there seems to be something wrong with our bloody ships today.\"",
"(In popular legend, Beatty also immediately ordered his ships to \"turn two points to port\", i.e., two points nearer the enemy, but there is no official record of any such command or course change.)",
"''Princess Royal'', as it turned out, was still afloat after the spray cleared.",
"At 16:30, Scheer's leading battleships sighted the distant battlecruiser action; soon after, of Beatty's 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron led by Commodore William Goodenough sighted the main body of Scheer's High Seas Fleet, dodging numerous heavy-calibre salvos to report in detail the German strength: 16 dreadnoughts with six older battleships.",
"This was the first news that Beatty and Jellicoe had that Scheer and his battle fleet were even at sea.",
"Simultaneously, an all-out destroyer action raged in the space between the opposing battlecruiser forces, as British and German destroyers fought with each other and attempted to torpedo the larger enemy ships.",
"Each side fired many torpedoes, but both battlecruiser forces turned away from the attacks and all escaped harm except ''Seydlitz'', which was hit forward at 16:57 by a torpedo fired by the British destroyer .",
"Though taking on water, ''Seydlitz'' maintained speed.",
"The destroyer , under the command of Captain Barry Bingham, led the British attacks.",
"The British disabled the German torpedo boat , which the Germans soon abandoned and sank, and ''Petard'' then torpedoed and sank , her second score of the day.",
"and rescued the crews of their sunken sister ships.",
"But ''Nestor'' and another British destroyer – – were immobilised by shell hits, and were later sunk by Scheer's passing dreadnoughts.",
"Bingham was rescued, and won the Victoria Cross for his leadership in the destroyer action.",
"===Run to the north===\nAs soon as he himself sighted the vanguard of Scheer's distant battleship line away, at 16:40, Beatty turned his battlecruiser force 180°, heading north to draw the Germans toward Jellicoe.",
"(position 5).",
"Beatty's withdrawal toward Jellicoe is called the \"Run to the North\", in which the tables turned and the Germans chased the British.",
"Because Beatty once again failed to signal his intentions adequately, the battleships of the 5th Battle Squadron – which were too far behind to read his flags – found themselves passing the battlecruisers on an opposing course and heading directly toward the approaching main body of the High Seas Fleet.",
"At 16:48, at extreme range, Scheer's leading battleships opened fire.",
"Meanwhile, at 16:47, having received Goodenough's signal and knowing that Beatty was now leading the German battle fleet north to him, Jellicoe signalled to his own forces that the fleet action they had waited so long for was finally imminent; at 16:51, by radio, he informed the Admiralty so in London.",
"The difficulties of the 5th Battle Squadron were compounded when Beatty gave the order to Evan-Thomas to \"turn in succession\" (rather than \"turn together\") at 16:48 as the battleships passed him.",
"Evan-Thomas acknowledged the signal, but Lieutenant-Commander Ralph Seymour, Beatty's flag lieutenant, aggravated the situation when he did not haul down the flags (to execute the signal) for some minutes.",
"At 16:55, when the 5BS had moved within range of the enemy battleships, Evan-Thomas issued his own flag command warning his squadron to expect sudden manoeuvres and to follow his lead, before starting to turn on his own initiative.",
"The order to turn in succession would have resulted in all four ships turning in the same patch of sea as they reached it one by one, giving the High Seas Fleet repeated opportunity with ample time to find the proper range.",
"However, the captain of the trailing ship () turned early, mitigating the adverse results.",
"For the next hour, the 5th Battle Squadron acted as Beatty's rearguard, drawing fire from all the German ships within range, while by 17:10 Beatty had deliberately eased his own squadron out of range of Hipper's now-superior battlecruiser force.",
"Since visibility and firepower now favoured the Germans, there was no incentive for Beatty to risk further battlecruiser losses when his own gunnery could not be effective.",
"Illustrating the imbalance, Beatty's battlecruisers did not score any hits on the Germans in this phase until 17:45, but they had rapidly received five more before he opened the range (four on ''Lion'', of which three were by ''Lützow'', and one on ''Tiger'' by ''Seydlitz'').",
"Now the only targets the Germans could reach, the ships of the 5th Battle Squadron, received simultaneous fire from Hipper's battlecruisers to the east (which HMS ''Barham'' and engaged) and Scheer's leading battleships to the south-east (which and engaged).",
"Three took hits: ''Barham'' (four by ''Derfflinger''), ''Warspite'' (two by ''Seydlitz''), and ''Malaya'' (seven by the German battleships).",
"Only ''Valiant'' was unscathed.",
"The four battleships were far better suited to take this sort of pounding than the battlecruisers, and none were lost, though ''Malaya'' suffered heavy damage, an ammunition fire, and heavy crew casualties.",
"At the same time, the fire of the four British ships was accurate and effective.",
"As the two British squadrons headed north at top speed, eagerly chased by the entire German fleet, the 5th Battle Squadron scored 13 hits on the enemy battlecruisers (four on ''Lützow'', three on ''Derfflinger'', six on ''Seydlitz'') and five on battleships (although only one, on , did any serious damage).",
"(position 6).",
"===The fleets converge===\nJellicoe was now aware that full fleet engagement was nearing, but had insufficient information on the position and course of the Germans.",
"To assist Beatty, early in the battle at about 16:05, Jellicoe had ordered Rear-Admiral Horace Hood's 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron to speed ahead to find and support Beatty's force, and Hood was now racing SSE well in advance of Jellicoe's northern force.",
"Rear-Admiral Arbuthnot's 1st Cruiser Squadron patrolled the van of Jellicoe's main battleship force as it advanced steadily to the south-east.",
"At 17:33, the armoured cruiser of Arbuthnot's squadron, on the far southwest flank of Jellicoe's force, came within view of , which was about ahead of Beatty with the 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron, establishing the first visual link between the converging bodies of the Grand Fleet.",
"At 17:38, the scout cruiser , screening Hood's oncoming battlecruisers, was intercepted by the van of the German scouting forces under Rear-Admiral Boedicker.",
"Heavily outnumbered by Boedicker's four light cruisers, ''Chester'' was pounded before being relieved by Hood's heavy units, which swung westward for that purpose.",
"Hood's flagship disabled the light cruiser shortly after 17:56.",
"''Wiesbaden'' became a sitting target for most of the British fleet during the next hour, but remained afloat and fired some torpedoes at the passing enemy battleships from long range.",
"Meanwhile, Boedicker's other ships turned toward Hipper and Scheer in the mistaken belief that Hood was leading a larger force of British capital ships from the north and east.",
"A chaotic destroyer action in mist and smoke ensued as German torpedo boats attempted to blunt the arrival of this new formation, but Hood's battlecruisers dodged all the torpedoes fired at them.",
"In this action, after leading a torpedo counter-attack, the British destroyer was disabled, but continued to return fire at numerous passing enemy ships for the next hour.",
"\n===Deployment===\n\n(1) 18:00 Scouting forces rejoin their respective fleets.",
"(2) 18:15 British fleet deploys into battle line (3) 18:30 German fleet under fire turns away(4) 19:00 German fleet turns back(5) 19:15 German fleet turns away for second time (6) 20:00(7) 21:00 Nightfall: Jellicoe assumes night cruising formation\nIn the meantime, Beatty and Evan-Thomas had resumed their engagement with Hipper's battlecruisers, this time with the visual conditions to their advantage.",
"With several of his ships damaged, Hipper turned back toward Scheer at around 18:00, just as Beatty's flagship ''Lion'' was finally sighted from Jellicoe's flagship ''Iron Duke''.",
"Jellicoe twice demanded the latest position of the German battlefleet from Beatty, who could not see the German battleships and failed to respond to the question until 18:14.",
"Meanwhile, Jellicoe received confused sighting reports of varying accuracy and limited usefulness from light cruisers and battleships on the starboard (southern) flank of his force.",
"Jellicoe was in a worrying position.",
"He needed to know the location of the German fleet to judge when and how to deploy his battleships from their cruising formation (six columns of four ships each) into a single battle line.",
"The deployment could be on either the westernmost or the easternmost column, and had to be carried out before the Germans arrived; but early deployment could mean losing any chance of a decisive encounter.",
"Deploying to the west would bring his fleet closer to Scheer, gaining valuable time as dusk approached, but the Germans might arrive before the manoeuvre was complete.",
"Deploying to the east would take the force away from Scheer, but Jellicoe's ships might be able to cross the \"T\", and visibility would strongly favour British gunnery – Scheer's forces would be silhouetted against the setting sun to the west, while the Grand Fleet would be indistinct against the dark skies to the north and east, and would be hidden by reflection of the low sunlight off intervening haze and smoke.",
"Deployment would take twenty irreplaceable minutes, and the fleets were closing at full speed.",
"In one of the most critical and difficult tactical command decisions of the entire war, Jellicoe ordered deployment to the east at 18:15.",
"===Windy Corner===\nMeanwhile, Hipper had rejoined Scheer, and the combined High Seas Fleet was heading north, directly toward Jellicoe.",
"Scheer had no indication that Jellicoe was at sea, let alone that he was bearing down from the north-west, and was distracted by the intervention of Hood's ships to his north and east.",
"Beatty's four surviving battlecruisers were now crossing the van of the British dreadnoughts to join Hood's three battlecruisers; at this time, Arbuthnot's flagship, the armoured cruiser , and her squadron-mate both charged across Beatty's bows, and ''Lion'' narrowly avoided a collision with ''Warrior''.",
"Nearby, numerous British light cruisers and destroyers on the south-western flank of the deploying battleships were also crossing each other's courses in attempts to reach their proper stations, often barely escaping collisions, and under fire from some of the approaching German ships.",
"This period of peril and heavy traffic attending the merger and deployment of the British forces later became known as \"Windy Corner\".",
"Arbuthnot was attracted by the drifting hull of the crippled ''Wiesbaden''.",
"With ''Warrior'', ''Defence'' closed in for the kill, only to blunder right into the gun sights of Hipper's and Scheer's oncoming capital ships.",
"''Defence'' was deluged by heavy-calibre gunfire from many German battleships, which detonated her magazines in a spectacular explosion viewed by most of the deploying Grand Fleet.",
"She sank with all hands (903 officers and men).",
"''Warrior'' was also hit badly, but was spared destruction by a mishap to the nearby battleship ''Warspite''.",
"''Warspite'' had her steering gear overheat and jam under heavy load at high speed as the 5th Battle Squadron made a turn to the north at 18:19.",
"Steaming at top speed in wide circles, ''Warspite'' appeared as a juicy target to the German dreadnoughts and took 13 hits, inadvertently drawing fire from the hapless ''Warrior''.",
"''Warspite'' was brought back under control and survived the onslaught, but was badly damaged, had to reduce speed, and withdrew northward; later (at 21:07), she was ordered back to port by Evan-Thomas.",
"''Warspite'' went on to a long and illustrious career, serving also in World War II.",
"''Warrior'', on the other hand, was abandoned and sank the next day after her crew was taken off at 08:25 on 1 June by ''Engadine'', which towed the sinking armoured cruiser during the night.",
"''Invincible'' blowing up after being struck by shells from ''Lützow'' and ''Derfflinger''\nAs ''Defence'' sank and ''Warspite'' circled, at about 18:19, Hipper moved within range of Hood's 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron, but was still also within range of Beatty's ships.",
"At first, visibility favoured the British: hit ''Derfflinger'' three times and ''Seydlitz'' once, while ''Lützow'' quickly took 10 hits from ''Lion'', and ''Invincible'', including two below-waterline hits forward by ''Invincible'' that would ultimately doom Hipper's flagship.",
"But at 18:30, ''Invincible'' abruptly appeared as a clear target before ''Lützow'' and ''Derfflinger''.",
"The two German ships then fired three salvoes each at ''Invincible'', and sank her in 90 seconds.",
"A shell from the third salvo struck ''Invincible''s Q-turret amidships, detonating the magazines below and causing her to blow up and sink.",
"All but six of her crew of 1,032 officers and men, including Rear-Admiral Hood, were killed.",
"Of the remaining British battlecruisers, only ''Princess Royal'' received heavy-calibre hits at this time (two by the battleship ''Markgraf'').",
"''Lützow'', flooding forward and unable to communicate by radio, was now out of action and began to attempt to withdraw; therefore Hipper left his flagship and transferred to the torpedo boat , hoping to board one of the other battlecruisers later.",
"===Crossing the T===\nBy 18:30, the main battle fleet action was joined for the first time, with Jellicoe effectively \"crossing Scheer's T\".",
"The officers on the lead German battleships, and Scheer himself, were taken completely by surprise when they emerged from drifting clouds of smoky mist to suddenly find themselves facing the massed firepower of the entire Grand Fleet main battle line, which they did not know was even at sea.",
"Jellicoe's flagship ''Iron Duke'' quickly scored seven hits on the lead German dreadnought, but in this brief exchange, which lasted only minutes, as few as 10 of the Grand Fleet's 24 dreadnoughts actually opened fire.",
"The Germans were hampered by poor visibility, in addition to being in an unfavourable tactical position, just as Jellicoe had intended.",
"Realising he was heading into a death trap, Scheer ordered his fleet to turn and disengage at 18:33.",
"Under a pall of smoke and mist, Scheer's forces succeeded in disengaging by an expertly executed 180° turn in unison (\"battle about turn to starboard\", German ''Gefechtskehrtwendung nach Steuerbord''), which was a well-practised emergency manoeuvre of the High Seas Fleet.",
"Scheer declared:\n\n\n\nConscious of the risks to his capital ships posed by torpedoes, Jellicoe did not chase directly but headed south, determined to keep the High Seas Fleet west of him.",
"Starting at 18:40, battleships at the rear of Jellicoe's line were in fact sighting and avoiding torpedoes, and at 18:54 was hit by a torpedo (probably from the disabled ''Wiesbaden''), which reduced her speed to .",
"Meanwhile, Scheer, knowing that it was not yet dark enough to escape and that his fleet would suffer terribly in a stern chase, doubled back to the east at 18:55.",
"In his memoirs he wrote, \"the manoeuvre would be bound to surprise the enemy, to upset his plans for the rest of the day, and if the blow fell heavily it would facilitate the breaking loose at night.\"",
"But the turn to the east took his ships, again, directly towards Jellicoe's fully deployed battle line.",
"Simultaneously, the disabled British destroyer ''HMS Shark'' fought desperately against a group of four German torpedo boats and disabled with gunfire, but was eventually torpedoed and sunk at 19:02 by the German destroyer .",
"''Shark''s Captain Loftus Jones won the Victoria Cross for his heroism in continuing to fight against all odds.",
"===''Gefechtskehrtwendung''===\n under fire\nCommodore Goodenough's 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron dodged the fire of German battleships for a second time to re-establish contact with the High Seas Fleet shortly after 19:00.",
"By 19:15, Jellicoe had crossed Scheer's \"T\" again.",
"This time his arc of fire was tighter and deadlier, causing severe damage to the German battleships, particularly Rear-Admiral Behncke's leading 3rd Squadron (SMS ''König'', , ''Markgraf'', and all being hit, along with of the 1st Squadron), while on the British side, only the battleship was hit (twice, by but with little damage done).",
"At 19:17, for the second time in less than an hour, Scheer turned his outnumbered and out-gunned fleet to the west using the \"battle about turn\" (German: ''Gefechtskehrtwendung''), but this time it was executed only with difficulty, as the High Seas Fleet's lead squadrons began to lose formation under concentrated gunfire.",
"To deter a British chase, Scheer ordered a major torpedo attack by his destroyers and a potentially sacrificial charge by Scouting Group I's four remaining battlecruisers.",
"Hipper was still aboard the torpedo boat ''G39'' and was unable to command his squadron for this attack.",
"Therefore, , under Captain Hartog, led the already badly damaged German battlecruisers directly into \"the greatest concentration of naval gunfire any fleet commander had ever faced\", at ranges down to .",
"In what became known as the \"death ride\", all the battlecruisers except were hit and further damaged, as 18 of the British battleships fired at them simultaneously.",
"''Derfflinger'' had two main gun turrets destroyed.",
"The crews of Scouting Group I suffered heavy casualties, but survived the pounding and veered away with the other battlecruisers once Scheer was out of trouble and the German destroyers were moving in to attack.",
"In this brief but intense portion of the engagement, from about 19:05 to about 19:30, the Germans sustained a total of 37 heavy hits while inflicting only two; ''Derfflinger'' alone received 14.",
"While his battlecruisers drew the fire of the British fleet, Scheer slipped away, laying smoke screens.",
"Meanwhile, from about 19:16 to about 19:40, the British battleships were also engaging Scheer's torpedo boats, which executed several waves of torpedo attacks to cover his withdrawal.",
"Jellicoe's ships turned away from the attacks and successfully evaded all 31 of the torpedoes launched at them – though, in several cases, only just barely – and sank the German destroyer .",
"British light forces also sank ''V48'', which had previously been disabled by HMS ''Shark''.",
"This action, and the turn away, cost the British critical time and range in the last hour of daylight – as Scheer intended, allowing him to get his heavy ships out of immediate danger.",
"The last major exchanges between capital ships in this battle took place just after sunset, from about 20:19 to about 20:35, as the surviving British battlecruisers caught up with their German counterparts, which were briefly relieved by Rear-Admiral Mauve's obsolete pre-dreadnoughts (the German 2nd Squadron).",
"The British received one heavy hit on ''Princess Royal'' but scored five more on ''Seydlitz'' and three on other German ships.",
"As twilight faded to night and exchanged a few final shots with , neither side could have imagined that the only encounter between British and German dreadnoughts in the entire war was already concluded.",
"\n\nAt 21:00, Jellicoe, conscious of the Grand Fleet's deficiencies in night fighting, decided to try to avoid a major engagement until early dawn.",
"He placed a screen of cruisers and destroyers behind his battle fleet to patrol the rear as he headed south to guard Scheer's expected escape route.",
"In reality, Scheer opted to cross Jellicoe's wake and escape via Horns Reef.",
"Luckily for Scheer, most of the light forces in Jellicoe's rearguard failed to report the seven separate encounters with the German fleet during the night; the very few radio reports that were sent to the British flagship were never received, possibly because the Germans were jamming British frequencies.",
"Many of the destroyers failed to make the most of their opportunities to attack discovered ships, despite Jellicoe's expectations that the destroyer forces would, if necessary, be able to block the path of the German fleet.",
"Jellicoe and his commanders did not understand that the furious gunfire and explosions to the north (seen and heard for hours by all the British battleships) indicated that the German heavy ships were breaking through the screen astern of the British fleet.",
"Instead, it was believed that the fighting was the result of night attacks by German destroyers.",
"The most powerful British ships of all (the 15-inch-guns of the 5th Battle Squadron) directly observed German battleships crossing astern of them in action with British light forces, at ranges of or less, and gunners on HMS ''Malaya'' made ready to fire, but her captain declined, deferring to the authority of Rear-Admiral Evan-Thomas – and neither commander reported the sightings to Jellicoe, assuming that he could see for himself and that revealing the fleet's position by radio signals or gunfire was unwise.",
"While the nature of Scheer's escape, and Jellicoe's inaction, indicate the overall German superiority in night fighting, the results of the night action were no more clear-cut than were those of the battle as a whole.",
"In the first of many surprise encounters by darkened ships at point-blank range, ''Southampton'', Commodore Goodenough's flagship, which had scouted so proficiently, was heavily damaged in action with a German Scouting Group composed of light cruisers, but managed to torpedo , which went down at 22:23 with all hands (320 officers and men).",
"From 23:20 to approximately 02:15, several British destroyer flotillas launched torpedo attacks on the German battle fleet in a series of violent and chaotic engagements at extremely short range (often under ).",
"At the cost of five destroyers sunk and some others damaged, they managed to torpedo the light cruiser , which sank several hours later, and the pre-dreadnought , which blew up and sank with all hands (839 officers and men) at 03:10 during the last wave of attacks before dawn.",
"Three of the British destroyers collided in the chaos, and the German battleship rammed the British destroyer , blowing away most of the British ship's superstructure merely with the muzzle blast of its big guns, which could not be aimed low enough to hit the ship.",
"''Nassau'' was left with a hole in her side, reducing her maximum speed to , while the removed plating was left lying on ''Spitfire''s deck.",
"''Spitfire'' survived and made it back to port.",
"Another German cruiser, , was accidentally rammed by the dreadnought and abandoned, sinking early the next day.",
"Of the British destroyers, , , , and were lost during the night fighting.",
"Just after midnight on 1 June, and other German battleships sank of the ill-fated 1st Cruiser Squadron, which had blundered into the German battle line.",
"Deployed as part of a screening force several miles ahead of the main force of the Grand Fleet, ''Black Prince'' had lost contact in the darkness and took a position near what she thought was the British line.",
"The Germans soon identified the new addition to its line and opened fire.",
"Overwhelmed by point-blank gunfire, ''Black Prince'' blew up, (857 officers and men – all hands – were lost), as her squadron leader ''Defence'' had done hours earlier.",
"Lost in the darkness, the battlecruisers and had similar point-blank encounters with the British battle line and were recognised, but were spared the fate of ''Black Prince'' when the captains of the British ships, again, declined to open fire, reluctant to reveal their fleet's position.",
"At 01:45, the sinking battlecruiser ''Lützow'' – fatally damaged by ''Invincible'' during the main action – was torpedoed by the destroyer on orders of ''Lützow''s Captain Viktor von Harder after the surviving crew of 1,150 transferred to destroyers that came alongside.",
"At 02:15, the German torpedo boat suddenly had its bow blown off; ''V2'' and ''V6'' came alongside and took off the remaining crew, and the ''V2'' then sank the hulk.",
"Since there was no enemy nearby, it was assumed that she had hit a mine or had been torpedoed by a submarine.",
"At 02:15, five British ships of the 13th Destroyer Flotilla under Captain James Uchtred Farie regrouped and headed south.",
"At 02:25, they sighted the rear of the German line.",
"inquired of the leader as to whether he thought they were British or German ships.",
"Answering that he thought they were German, Farie then veered off to the east and away from the German line.",
"All but ''Moresby'' in the rear followed, as through the gloom she sighted what she thought were four pre-dreadnought battleships away.",
"She hoisted a flag signal indicating that the enemy was to the west and then closed to firing range, letting off a torpedo set for high running at 02:37, then veering off to rejoin her flotilla.",
"The four pre-dreadnought battleships were in fact two pre-dreadnoughts, ''Schleswig-Holstein'' and , and the battlecruisers ''Von der Tann'' and ''Derfflinger''.",
"''Von der Tann'' sighted the torpedo and was forced to steer sharply to starboard to avoid it as it passed close to her bows.",
"''Moresby'' rejoined ''Champion'' convinced she had scored a hit.",
"Finally, at 05:20, as Scheer's fleet was safely on its way home, the battleship struck a British mine on her starboard side, killing one man and wounding ten, but was able to make port.",
"''Seydlitz'', critically damaged and very nearly sinking, barely survived the return voyage: after grounding and taking on even more water on the evening of 1 June, she had to be assisted stern first into port, where she dropped anchor at 07:30 on the morning of 2 June.",
"The Germans were helped in their escape by the failure of the British Admiralty in London to pass on seven critical radio intercepts obtained by naval intelligence indicating the true position, course and intentions of the High Seas Fleet during the night.",
"One message was transmitted to Jellicoe at 23:15 that accurately reported the German fleet's course and speed as of 21:14.",
"However, the erroneous signal from earlier in the day that reported the German fleet still in port, and an intelligence signal received at 22:45 giving another unlikely position for the German fleet, had reduced his confidence in intelligence reports.",
"Had the other messages been forwarded, which confirmed the information received at 23:15, or had British ships reported accurately sightings and engagements with German destroyers, cruisers and battleships, then Jellicoe could have altered course to intercept Scheer at the Horns Reef.",
"The unsent intercepted messages had been duly filed by the junior officer left on duty that night, who failed to appreciate their significance.",
"By the time Jellicoe finally learned of Scheer's whereabouts at 04:15, the German fleet was too far away to catch and it was clear that the battle could no longer be resumed.",
"\n===Reporting===\nAt midday on 2 June, German authorities released a press statement claiming a victory, including the destruction of a battleship, two battlecruisers, two armoured cruisers, a light cruiser, a submarine and several destroyers, for the loss of ''Pommern'' and ''Wiesbaden''.",
"News that ''Lützow'', ''Elbing'' and ''Rostock'' had been scuttled was withheld, on the grounds this information would not be known to the enemy.",
"The victory of the Skagerrak was celebrated in the press, children were given a holiday and the nation celebrated.",
"The Kaiser announced a new chapter in world history.",
"Post-war, the official German history hailed the battle as a victory and it continued to be celebrated until after World War II.",
"In Britain, the first official news came from German wireless broadcasts.",
"Ships began to arrive in port, their crews sending messages to friends and relatives both of their survival and the loss of some 6,000 others.",
"Authorities considered suppressing the news, but it had already spread widely.",
"Some crews coming ashore found rumours had already reported them dead to relatives, while others were jeered for the defeat they had suffered.",
"At 19:00 on 2 June, the Admiralty released a statement based on information from Jellicoe containing the bare news of losses on each side.",
"The following day British newspapers reported a German victory.",
"The ''Daily Mirror'' described the German Director of the Naval Department telling the ''Reichstag'': \"The result of the fighting is a significant success for our forces against a much stronger adversary\".",
"The British population was shocked that the long anticipated battle had been a victory for Germany.",
"On 3 June, the Admiralty issued a further statement expanding on German losses, and another the following day with exaggerated claims.",
"However, on 7 June the German admission of the losses of ''Lützow'' and ''Rostock'' started to redress the sense of the battle as a loss.",
"International perception of the battle began to change towards a qualified British victory, the German attempt to change the balance of power in the North Sea having been repulsed.",
"In July, bad news from the ''Somme campaign'' swept concern over Jutland from the British consciousness.",
"===Assessments===\n\nSMS ''Seydlitz'' was heavily damaged in the battle, hit by twenty-one main calibre shells, several secondary calibre and one torpedo.",
"98 men were killed and 55 injured.",
"At Jutland, the Germans, with a 99-strong fleet, sank of British ships, while a 151-strong British fleet sank of German ships.",
"The British lost 6,094 seamen; the Germans 2,551.",
"Several other ships were badly damaged, such as and .",
"As of the summer of 1916, the High Seas Fleet's strategy was to whittle away the numerical advantage of the Royal Navy by bringing its full strength to bear against isolated squadrons of enemy capital ships whilst declining to be drawn into a general fleet battle until it had achieved something resembling parity in heavy ships.",
"In tactical terms, the High Seas Fleet had clearly inflicted significantly greater losses on the Grand Fleet than it had suffered itself at Jutland and the Germans never had any intention of attempting to hold the site of the battle, so some historians support the German claim of victory at Jutland.",
"However, Scheer seems to have quickly realised that further battles with a similar rate of attrition would exhaust the High Seas Fleet long before it reduced the Grand Fleet.",
"Further, after the 19 August advance was nearly intercepted by the Grand Fleet, he no longer believed that it would be possible to trap a single squadron of Royal Navy warships without having the Grand Fleet intervene before he could return to port.",
"Therefore, the High Seas Fleet abandoned its forays into the North Sea and turned its attention to the Baltic for most of 1917 whilst Scheer switched tactics against Britain to unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic.",
"At a strategic level, the outcome has been the subject of a huge amount of literature with no clear consensus.",
"The battle was widely viewed as indecisive in the immediate aftermath and this view remains influential.",
"Despite numerical superiority, the British had been disappointed in their hopes for a decisive victory comparable to Trafalgar and the objective of the influential strategic doctrines of Alfred Mahan.",
"The High Seas Fleet survived as a fleet in being.",
"Most of its losses were made good within a month – even ''Seydlitz'', the most badly damaged ship to survive the battle, was repaired by October and officially back in service by November.",
"However, the Germans had failed in their objective of destroying a substantial portion of the British Fleet, and no progress had been made towards the goal of allowing the High Seas Fleet to operate in the Atlantic Ocean.",
"Subsequently, there has been considerable support for the view of Jutland as a strategic victory for the British.",
"While the British had not destroyed the German fleet and had lost more ships than their enemy, the Germans had retreated to harbour; at the end of the battle the British were in command of the area.",
"The German fleet would only sortie into the North Sea thrice more, with a raid on 19 August, one in October 1916 and another in April 1918.",
"All three were unopposed by capital ships and quickly aborted as neither side were prepared to take the risks of mines and submarines.",
"Apart from these three abortive operations the High Seas Fleet – unwilling to risk another encounter with the British fleet – confined its activities to the Baltic Sea for the remainder of the war.",
"Jellicoe issued an order prohibiting the Grand Fleet from steaming south of the line of Horns Reef owing to the threat of mines and U-boats.",
"A German naval expert, writing publicly about Jutland in November 1918, commented, \"Our Fleet losses were severe.",
"On 1 June 1916, it was clear to every thinking person that this battle must, and would be, the last one\".",
"There is also significant support for viewing the battle as a German tactical victory, due to the much higher losses sustained by the British.",
"The Germans declared a great victory immediately afterwards, while the British by contrast had only reported short and simple results.",
"In response to public outrage, the First Lord of the Admiralty Arthur Balfour asked Winston Churchill to write a second report that was more positive and detailed.",
"A crew member of SMS ''Westfalen''\nAt the end of the battle, the British had maintained their numerical superiority and had 23 dreadnoughts ready and four battlecruisers still able to fight, while the Germans had only 10 dreadnoughts.",
"One month after the battle, the Grand Fleet was stronger than it had been before sailing to Jutland.",
"''Warspite'' was dry docked at Rosyth, returning to the fleet on 22 July, while ''Malaya'' was repaired in the floating dock at Invergordon, returning to duty on 11 July.",
"''Barham'' was docked for a month at Devonport before undergoing speed trials and returning to Scapa on 8 July.",
"''Princess Royal'' stayed initially at Rosyth but transferred to dry dock at Portsmouth before returning to duty at Rosyth 21 July.",
"''Tiger'' was dry docked at Rosyth and ready for service 2 July.",
"''Queen Elizabeth'', ''Emperor of India'' and , which had been undergoing maintenance at the time of the battle, returned to the fleet immediately, followed shortly after by ''Resolution'' and ''Ramillies''.",
"''Lion'' initially remained ready for sea duty despite the damaged turret, then underwent a month's repairs in July when Q turret was removed temporarily and replaced in September.",
"A third view, presented in a number of recent evaluations, is that Jutland, the last major fleet action between battleships, illustrated the irrelevance of battleship fleets following the development of the submarine, mine and torpedo.",
"In this view, the most important consequence of Jutland was the decision of the Germans to engage in unrestricted submarine warfare.",
"Although large numbers of battleships were constructed in the decades between the wars, it has been argued that this outcome reflected the social dominance among naval decision-makers of battleship advocates who constrained technological choices to fit traditional paradigms of fleet action.",
"Battleships played a relatively minor role in World War II, in which the submarine and aircraft carrier emerged as the dominant offensive weapons of naval warfare.",
"===British self-critique===\nThe official British Admiralty examination of the Grand Fleet's performance recognised two main problems:\n* British armour-piercing shells exploded outside the German armour rather than penetrating and exploding within.",
"As a result, some German ships with only -thick armour survived hits from projectiles.",
"Had these shells penetrated the armour and then exploded, German losses would probably have been far greater.",
"* Communication between ships and the British commander-in-chief were comparatively poor.",
"For most of the battle, Jellicoe had no idea where the German ships were, even though British ships were in contact.",
"They failed to report enemy positions, contrary to the Grand Fleet's Battle Plan.",
"Some of the most important signalling was carried out solely by flag instead of wireless or using redundant methods to ensure communications—a questionable procedure, given the mixture of haze and smoke that obscured the battlefield, and a foreshadowing of similar failures by habit-bound and conservatively minded professional officers of rank to take advantage of new technology in World War II.",
"====Shell performance====\nGerman armour-piercing shells were far more effective than the British ones, which often failed to penetrate heavy armour.",
"The issue particularly concerned shells striking at oblique angles, which became increasingly the case at long range.",
"Germany had adopted trinitrotoluene (TNT) as the explosive filler for artillery shells in 1902, while the United Kingdom was still using a picric acid mixture (Lyddite).",
"The shock of impact of a shell against armour often prematurely detonated Lyddite in advance of fuze function while TNT detonation could be delayed until after the shell had penetrated and the fuze had functioned in the vulnerable area behind the armour plate.",
"The issue of poorly performing shells had been known to Jellicoe, who as Third Sea Lord from 1908 to 1910 had ordered new shells to be designed.",
"However, the matter had not been followed through after his posting to sea and new shells had never been thoroughly tested.",
"Beatty discovered the problem at a party aboard ''Lion'' a short time after the battle, when a Swedish Naval officer was present.",
"He had recently visited Berlin, where the German navy had scoffed at how British shells had broken up on their ships' armour.",
"Hipper later commented, \"It was nothing but the poor quality of their bursting charges which saved us from disaster.\"",
"Admiral Dreyer, writing later about the battle, during which he had been captain of the British flagship ''Iron Duke'', estimated that effective shells as later introduced would have led to the sinking of six more German capital ships, based upon the actual number of hits achieved in the battle.",
"The system of testing shells, which remained in use up to 1944, meant that, statistically, a batch of shells of which 70% were faulty stood an even chance of being accepted.",
"Indeed, even shells that failed this relatively mild test had still been issued to ships.",
"Analysis of the test results afterwards by the Ordnance Board suggested the likelihood that 30–70% of shells would not have passed the standard penetration test specified by the Admiralty.",
"Efforts to replace the shells were initially resisted by the Admiralty, and action was not taken until Jellicoe became First Sea Lord in December 1916.",
"As an initial response, the worst of the existing shells were withdrawn from ships in early 1917 and replaced from reserve supplies.",
"New shells were designed, but did not arrive until April 1918, and were never used in action.",
"====Battlecruiser losses====\nBritish battlecruisers were designed to chase and destroy enemy cruisers from out of the range of those ships.",
"They were not designed to be ships of the line and exchange broadsides with the enemy.",
"One German and three British battlecruisers were sunk—but none were destroyed by enemy shells penetrating the belt armour and detonating the magazines.",
"Each of the British battlecruisers was penetrated through a turret roof and her magazines ignited by flash fires passing through the turret and shell-handling rooms.",
"''Lützow'' sustained 24 hits and her flooding could not be contained.",
"She was eventually sunk by her escorts' torpedoes after most of her crew had been safely removed (though six trapped stokers died when the ship was scuttled).",
"''Derfflinger'' and ''Seydlitz'' sustained 22 hits each but reached port (although in ''Seydlitz'''s case only just).",
"Jellicoe and Beatty, as well as other senior officers, gave an impression that the loss of the battlecruisers was caused by weak armour, despite reports by two committees and earlier statements by Jellicoe and other senior officers that Cordite and its management were to blame.",
"This led to calls for armour to be increased, and an additional was placed over the relatively thin decks above magazines.",
"To compensate for the increase in weight, ships had to carry correspondingly less fuel, water and other supplies.",
"Whether or not thin deck armour was a potential weakness of British ships, the battle provided no evidence that it was the case.",
"At least amongst the surviving ships, no enemy shell was found to have penetrated deck armour anywhere.",
"The design of the new battlecruiser (which had started building at the time of the battle) was altered to give her of additional armour.",
"====Ammunition handling====\nBritish and German propellant charges differed in packaging, handling, and chemistry.",
"The British propellant was of two types, MK1 and MD.",
"The Mark 1 cordite had a formula of 37% nitrocellulose, 58% nitroglycerine, and 5% petroleum jelly.",
"It was a good propellant but burned hot and caused an erosion problem in gun barrels.",
"The petroleum jelly served as both a lubricant and a stabiliser.",
"Cordite MD was developed to reduce barrel wear, its formula being 65% nitrocellulose, 30% nitroglycerine, and 5% petroleum jelly.",
"While cordite MD solved the gun-barrel erosion issue, it did nothing to improve its storage properties, which were poor.",
"Cordite was very sensitive to variations of temperature, and acid propagation/cordite deterioration would take place at a very rapid rate.",
"Cordite MD also shed micro-dust particles of nitrocellulose and iron pyrite.",
"While cordite propellant was manageable, it required a vigilant gunnery officer, strict cordite lot control, and frequent testing of the cordite lots in the ships' magazines.",
"British cordite propellant (when uncased and exposed in the silk bag) tended to burn violently, causing uncontrollable \"flash fires\" when ignited by nearby shell hits.",
"In 1945, a test was conducted by the U.S.N.",
"Bureau of Ordnance (Bulletin of Ordnance Information, No.245, pp.",
"54–60) testing the sensitivity of cordite to then-current U.S.",
"Naval propellant powders against a measurable and repeatable flash source.",
"It found that cordite would ignite at 530 mm/22\" from the flash, the current U.S. powder at 120 mm, /5\", and the U.S. flashless powder at 25 mm./1\"/\n\nThis meant that about 75 times the propellant would immediately ignite when exposed to flash, as compared to the U.S. powder.",
"British ships had inadequate protection against these flash fires.",
"German propellant (''RP C/12'', handled in brass cartridge cases) was less vulnerable and less volatile in composition.",
"German propellants were not that different in composition from cordite—with one major exception: centralite.",
"This was symmetrical Diethyl Diphenyl Urea, which served as a stabiliser that was superior to the petroleum jelly used in British practice.",
"It stored better and burned but did not explode.",
"Stored and used in brass cases, it proved much less sensitive to flash.",
"RP C/12 was composed of 64.13% nitrocellulose, 29.77% nitroglycerine, 5.75% centralite, 0.25% magnesium oxide and 0.10% graphite.",
"The Royal Navy Battle Cruiser Fleet had also emphasised speed in ammunition handling over established safety protocol.",
"In practice drills, cordite could not be supplied to the guns rapidly enough through the hoists and hatches.",
"To bring up the propellant in good time to load for the next broadside, many safety doors were kept open that should have been shut to safeguard against flash fires.",
"Bags of cordite were also stocked and kept locally, creating a total breakdown of safety design features.",
"By staging charges in the chambers between the gun turret and magazine, the Royal Navy enhanced their rate of fire but left their ships vulnerable to chain reaction ammunition fires and magazine explosions.",
"This 'bad safety habit' carried over into real battle practices.",
"Furthermore, the doctrine of a high rate of fire also led to the decision in 1913 to increase the supply of shells and cordite held on the British ships by 50%, for fear of running out of ammunition.",
"When this exceeded the capacity of the ships' magazines, cordite was stored in insecure places.",
"The British cordite charges were stored two silk bags to a metal cylindrical container, with a 16-oz gunpowder igniter charge, which was covered with a thick paper wad, four charges being used on each projectile.",
"The gun crews were removing the charges from their containers and removing the paper covering over the gunpowder igniter charges.",
"The effect of having eight loads at the ready was to have of exposed explosive, with each charge leaking small amounts of gunpowder from the igniter bags.",
"In effect, the gun crews had laid an explosive train from the turret to the magazines, and one shell hit to a battlecruiser turret was enough to end a ship.",
"A diving expedition during the summer of 2003 provided corroboration of this practice.",
"It examined the wrecks of ''Invincible'', ''Queen Mary'', ''Defence'', and ''Lützow'' to investigate the cause of the British ships' tendency to suffer from internal explosions.",
"From this evidence, a major part of the blame may be laid on lax handling of the cordite propellant for the shells of the main guns.",
"The wreck of the ''Queen Mary'' revealed cordite containers stacked in the working chamber of the X turret instead of the magazine.",
"There was a further difference in the propellant itself.",
"While the German ''RP C/12'' burned when exposed to fire, it did not explode, as opposed to cordite.",
"''RP C/12'' was extensively studied by the British and, after World War I, would form the basis of the later Cordite SC.",
"The memoirs of Alexander Grant, Gunner on ''Lion'', suggest that some British officers were aware of the dangers of careless handling of cordite:\n\n\n\nGrant had already introduced measures onboard ''Lion'' to limit the number of cartridges kept outside the magazine and to ensure doors were kept closed, probably contributing to her survival.",
"On 5 June 1916, the First Lord of the Admiralty advised Cabinet Members that the three battlecruisers had been lost due to unsafe cordite management.",
"On 22 November 1916, following detailed interviews of the survivors of the destroyed battlecruisers, the Third Sea Lord, Rear Admiral Tudor, issued a report detailing the stacking of charges by the gun crews in the handling rooms to speed up loading of the guns.",
"After the battle, the B.C.F.",
"Gunnery Committee issued a report (at the command of Admiral David Beatty) advocating immediate changes in flash protection and charge handling.",
"It reported, among other things, that:\n* Some vent plates in magazines allowed flash into the magazines and should be retro-fitted to a new standard.",
"* Bulkheads in HMS ''Lion''s magazine showed buckling from fire under pressure (overpressure) – despite being flooded and therefore supported by water pressure – and must be made stronger.",
"* Doors opening inward to magazines were an extreme danger.",
"* Current designs of turrets could not eliminate flash from shell bursts in the turret from reaching the handling rooms.",
"* Ignition pads must not be attached to charges but instead be placed just before ramming.",
"* Better methods must be found for safe storage of ready charges than the current method.",
"* Some method for rapidly drowning charges already in the handling path must be devised.",
"* Handling scuttles (special flash-proof fittings for moving propellant charges through ship's bulkheads), designed to handle overpressure, must be fitted.",
"The United States Navy in 1939 had quantities of Cordite N, a Canadian propellant that was much improved, yet its Bureau of Ordnance objected strongly to its use onboard U.S. warships, considering it unsuitable as a naval propellant due to its inclusion of nitroglycerin.",
"====Gunnery====\nBritish gunnery control systems, based on Dreyer tables, were well in advance of the German ones, as demonstrated by the proportion of main calibre hits made on the German fleet.",
"Because of its demonstrated advantages, it was installed on ships progressively as the war went on, had been fitted to a majority of British capital ships by May, 1916, and had been installed on the main guns of all but two of the Grand Fleet's capital ships.",
"The Royal Navy used centralised fire-control systems on their capital ships, directed from a point high up on the ship where the fall of shells could best be seen, utilising a director sight for both training and elevating the guns.",
"In contrast, the German battlecruisers controlled the fire of turrets using a training-only director, which also did not fire the guns at once.",
"The rest of the German capital ships were without even this innovation.",
"German range-finding equipment was generally superior to the British FT24, as its operators were trained to a higher standard due to the complexity of the Zeiss range finders.",
"Their stereoscopic design meant that in certain conditions they could range on a target enshrouded by smoke.",
"The German equipment was not superior in range to the British Barr & Stroud rangefinder found in the newest British capital ships, and, unlike the British range finders, the German range takers had to be replaced as often as every thirty minutes, as their eyesight became impaired, affecting the ranges provided to their gunnery equipment.",
"The results of the battle confirmed the value of firing guns by centralised director.",
"The battle prompted the Royal Navy to install director firing systems in cruisers and destroyers, where it had not thus far been used, and for secondary armament on battleships.",
"German ships were considered to have been quicker in determining the correct range to targets, thus obtaining an early advantage.",
"The British used a 'bracket system', whereby a salvo was fired at the best-guess range and, depending where it landed, the range was progressively corrected up or down until successive shots were landing in front of and behind the enemy.",
"The Germans used a 'ladder system', whereby an initial volley of three shots at different ranges was used, with the centre shot at the best-guess range.",
"The ladder system allowed the gunners to get ranging information from the three shots more quickly than the bracket system, which required waiting between shots to see how the last had landed.",
"British ships adopted the German system.",
"It was determined that range finders of the sort issued to most British ships were not adequate at long range and did not perform as well as the range finders on some of the most modern ships.",
"In 1917, range finders of base lengths of were introduced on the battleships to improve accuracy.",
"====Signalling====\nThroughout the battle, British ships experienced difficulties with communications, whereas the Germans did not suffer such problems.",
"The British preferred signalling using ship-to-ship flag and lamp signals, avoiding wireless, whereas the Germans used wireless successfully.",
"One conclusion drawn was that flag signals were not a satisfactory way to control the fleet.",
"Experience using lamps, particularly at night when issuing challenges to other ships, demonstrated this was an excellent way to advertise your precise location to an enemy, inviting a reply by gunfire.",
"Recognition signals by lamp, once seen, could also easily be copied in future engagements.",
"British ships both failed to report engagements with the enemy but also, in the case of cruisers and destroyers, failed to actively seek out the enemy.",
"A culture had arisen within the fleet of not acting without orders, which could prove fatal when any circumstances prevented orders being sent or received.",
"Commanders failed to engage the enemy because they believed other, more senior officers must also be aware of the enemy nearby, and would have given orders to act if this was expected.",
"Wireless, the most direct way to pass messages across the fleet (although it was being jammed by German ships), was avoided either for perceived reasons of not giving away the presence of ships or for fear of cluttering up the airwaves with unnecessary reports.",
"====Fleet Standing Orders====\nNaval operations were governed by standing orders issued to all the ships.",
"These attempted to set out what ships should do in all circumstances, particularly in situations where ships would have to react without referring to higher authority, or when communications failed.",
"A number of changes were introduced as a result of experience gained in the battle.",
"A new signal was introduced instructing squadron commanders to act independently as they thought best while still supporting the main fleet, particularly for use when circumstances would make it difficult to send detailed orders.",
"The description stressed that this was not intended to be the only time commanders might take independent action, but was intended to make plain times when they definitely should.",
"Similarly, instructions on what to do if the fleet was instructed to take evasive action against torpedoes were amended.",
"Commanders were given discretion that if their part of the fleet was not under immediate attack, they should continue engaging the enemy rather than turning away with the rest of the fleet.",
"In this battle, when the fleet turned away from Scheer's destroyer attack covering his retreat, not all the British ships had been affected, and could have continued to engage the enemy.",
"A number of opportunities to attack enemy ships by torpedo had presented themselves but had been missed.",
"All ships, not just the destroyers armed principally with torpedoes but also battleships, were reminded that they carried torpedoes intended to be used whenever an opportunity arose.",
"Destroyers were instructed to close the enemy fleet to fire torpedoes as soon as engagements between the main ships on either side would keep enemy guns busy directed at larger targets.",
"Destroyers should also be ready to immediately engage enemy destroyers if they should launch an attack, endeavouring to disrupt their chances of launching torpedoes and keep them away from the main fleet.",
"To add some flexibility when deploying for attack, a new signal was provided for deploying the fleet to the centre, rather than as previously only either to left or right of the standard closed-up formation for travelling.",
"The fast and powerful 5th Battle Squadron was moved to the front of the cruising formation so it would have the option of deploying left or right depending upon the enemy position.",
"In the event of engagements at night, although the fleet still preferred to avoid night fighting, a destroyer and cruiser squadron would be specifically detailed to seek out the enemy and launch destroyer attacks.",
"At the time, Jellicoe was criticised for his caution and for allowing Scheer to escape.",
"Beatty, in particular, was convinced that Jellicoe had missed a tremendous opportunity to annihilate the High Seas Fleet and win what would amount to another Trafalgar.",
"Jellicoe was promoted away from active command to become First Sea Lord, the professional head of the Royal Navy, while Beatty replaced him as commander of the Grand Fleet.",
"The controversy raged within the navy and in public for about a decade after the war.",
"Criticism focused on Jellicoe's decision at 19:15.",
"Scheer had ordered his cruisers and destroyers forward in a torpedo attack to cover the turning away of his battleships.",
"Jellicoe chose to turn to the south-east, and so keep out of range of the torpedoes.",
"Supporters of Jellicoe, including the historian Cyril Falls, pointed to the folly of risking defeat in battle when one already has command of the sea.",
"Jellicoe himself, in a letter to the Admiralty seventeen months before the battle, said that he intended to turn his fleet away from any mass torpedo attack (that being the universally accepted proper tactical response to such attacks, practised by all the major navies of the world).",
"He said that, in the event of a fleet engagement in which the enemy turned away, he would assume they intended to draw him over mines or submarines, and he would decline to be so drawn.",
"The Admiralty approved this plan and expressed full confidence in Jellicoe at the time (October 1914).",
"The stakes were high, the pressure on Jellicoe immense, and his caution certainly understandable.",
"His judgement might have been that even 90% odds in favour were not good enough to bet the British Empire.",
"The former First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill said of the battle that Jellicoe \"was the only man on either side who could have lost the war in an afternoon.\"",
"The criticism of Jellicoe also fails to sufficiently credit Scheer, who was determined to preserve his fleet by avoiding the full British battle line, and who showed great skill in effecting his escape.",
"===Beatty's actions===\nOn the other hand, some of Jellicoe's supporters condemned the actions of Beatty for the British failure to achieve a complete victory.",
"Although Beatty was undeniably brave, his mismanagement of the initial encounter with Hipper's squadron and the High Seas Fleet cost considerable advantage in the first hours of the battle.",
"His most glaring failure was in not providing Jellicoe with periodic information on the position, course, and speed of the High Seas Fleet.",
"Beatty, aboard the battlecruiser ''Lion'', left behind the four fast battleships of the 5th Battle Squadron – the most powerful warships in the world at the time – engaging with six ships when better control would have given him 10 against Hipper's five.",
"Though Beatty's larger guns out-ranged Hipper's guns by thousands of yards, Beatty held his fire for 10 minutes and closed the German squadron until within range of the Germans' superior gunnery, under lighting conditions that favoured the Germans.",
"Most of the British losses in tonnage occurred in Beatty's force.",
"\n\nThe total loss of life was 9,823 men, of which the British losses were 6,784 and German losses were 3,039.",
"Counted among the British losses are 2 members of the Royal Australian Navy, and 1 member of the Royal Canadian Navy.",
"6 Australian nationals serving in the Royal Navy were also killed.",
"===British===\n113,300 tons sunk:\n* Battlecruisers , , \n* Armoured cruisers , , \n* Flotilla leaders \n* Destroyers , , , , , , \n\n===German===\n62,300 tons sunk:\n* Battlecruiser \n* Pre-Dreadnought \n* Light cruisers , , , \n* Destroyers (Heavy torpedo-boats) , , , ,",
"The Victoria Cross is the highest military decoration awarded for valour \"in the face of the enemy\" to members of the British Empire armed forces.",
"The Ordre pour le Mérite was the Kingdom of Prussia and consequently the German Empire's highest military order until the end of the First World War.",
"===Pour le Mérite===\n* Franz Hipper ()\n* Reinhard Scheer ()\n\n===Victoria Cross===\n* The Hon.",
"Edward Barry Stewart Bingham ()\n* John Travers Cornwell ()\n* Francis John William Harvey ()\n* Loftus William Jones ()",
", the last surviving warship that saw action at Jutland, is preserved in Belfast, Northern Ireland\nIn the years following the battle the wrecks were slowly discovered.",
"was found by the Royal Navy minesweeper in 1919.",
"After the Second World War some of the wrecks seem to have been commercially salvaged.",
"For instance, the Hydrographic Office record for SMS ''Lützow'' (No.32344) shows that salvage operations were taking place on the wreck in 1960.",
"During 2000–2016 a series of diving and marine survey expeditions involving veteran shipwreck historian and archaeologist Innes McCartney has located all of the wrecks sunk in the battle.",
"It was discovered that over 60% of them had suffered from metal theft.",
"In 2003 McCartney led a detailed survey of the wrecks for the Channel 4 documentary \"Clash of the Dreadnoughts\".",
"The film examined the last minutes of the lost ships and revealed for the first time how both 'P' and 'Q' turrets of had been blasted out of the ship and tossed into the sea before she broke in half.",
"This was followed by the Channel 4 documentary \"Jutland: WWI's Greatest Sea Battle\", broadcast in May 2016, which showed how several of the major losses at Jutland had actually occurred and just how accurate the \"Harper Record\" actually was.",
"On the 90th anniversary of the battle, in 2006, the UK Ministry of Defence belatedly announced that the 14 British vessels lost in the battle were being designated as ''protected places'' under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986.",
"This legislation only affects British ships and citizens and in practical terms offers no real protection from non-British salvors of the wreck sites.",
"In May 2016 a number of British newspapers named the Dutch salvage company \"Friendship Offshore\" as one of the main salvors of the Jutland wrecks in recent years and depicted leaked photographs revealing the extent of their activities on the wreck of .",
"The last surviving veteran of the battle, Henry Allingham, a British RAF (originally RNAS) airman, died on 18 July 2009, aged 113, by which time he was the oldest documented man in the world and one of the last surviving veterans of the whole war.",
"Also among the combatants was the then 20-year-old Prince Albert, second in the line to the British throne, who would reign as King George VI of the United Kingdom from 1936 until his death in 1952.",
"He served as a junior officer in the Royal Navy.",
"In 2013, one ship from the battle survives and is still afloat, the light cruiser .",
"Decommissioned in 2011, she is docked at the Royal Naval Reserve depot in Belfast, Northern Ireland.",
"The Battle of Jutland was annually celebrated as a great victory by the right wing in Weimar Germany.",
"This victory was used to repress the memory of the German navy's initiation of the German Revolution of 1918–1919, as well as the memory of the defeat in World War I in general.",
"(The celebrations of the Battle of Tannenberg played a similar role.)",
"This is especially true for the city of Wilhelmshaven, where wreath-laying ceremonies and torch-lit parades were performed until the end of the 1960s.",
"In 1916 Contreadmiral Friedrich von Kühlwetter (1865-1931) wrote a detailed analysis of the battle and published it in a book under the title \"Skagerrak\" (first anonymously published), which was reprinted in large numbers until after WWII and had a huge influence in keeping the battle in public memory amongst Germans as it was not tainted by the ideology of the Third Reich.",
"Kühlwetter built the School for Naval Officers at Mürwik near Flensburg where he is still remembered.",
"In May 2016, the 100th Anniversary commemoration of the Battle of Jutland was held.",
"On 29 May, a commemorative service was held at St Mary's Church, Wimbledon, where the ensign from HMS Inflexible is on permanent display.",
"On 31 May, the main service was held at St Magnus Cathedral in Orkney, attended by the British Prime Minister, David Cameron, and the German President, Joachim Gauck, along with Princess Anne and Vice Admiral Sir Tim Laurence.",
"* ''Wrath of the Seas'' (''Die versunkene Flotte'', D 1926, director Manfred Noa, assistant director Graham Hewett)",
"\n* List of the largest artificial non-nuclear explosions\n* Sea War Museum Jutland",
"'''Explanatory notes'''\n\n\n'''Citations'''",
"\n* \n* Black, Jeremy.",
"\"Jutland's Place in History,\" ''Naval History'' (June 2016) 30#3 pp 16–21.",
"* \n* \n* \n* Costello, John (1976) ''Jutland 1916'' with Terry Hughes \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* H.W.",
"Fawcett & G.W.W.",
"Hooper, RN (editors), The fighting at Jutland (abridged edition); the personal experiences of forty-five officers and men of the British Fleet London: MacMillan & Co, 1921\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*",
"\n* WW1 Centenary News - Battle of Jutland\n* Jutland Centenary Initiative\n* Jutland Commemoration Exhibition\n* Interactive Map of Jutland Sailors\n* Beatty's official report\n* Jellicoe's official despatch\n* Jellicoe, extract from ''The Grand Fleet'', published 1919\n* World War I Naval Combat – Despatches\n* Scheer, ''Germany's High Seas Fleet in the World War'', published 1920\n* Henry Allingham Last known survivor of the Battle of Jutland\n* Jutland Casualties Listed by Ship\n* Some Original Documents from the British Admiralty, Room 40, regarding the Battle of Jutland: Photocopies from The National Archives, Kew, Richmond, UK.",
";Notable accounts\n* by Rudyard Kipling Retrieved 2009-10-31.",
"* by Alexander Grant, a gunner aboard HMS ''Lion''\n* A North Sea diary, 1914–1918, by Stephen King-Hall, a junior officer on the light cruiser \n* by Paul Berryman, a junior officer on HMS ''Malaya''\n* by Moritz von Egidy, captain of SMS ''Seydlitz''\n* by Richard Foerster, gunnery officer on ''Seydlitz''\n* by Georg von Hase, gunnery officer on ''Derfflinger''\n\n:('''Note:''' Due to the time difference, entries in some of the German accounts are one hour ahead of the times in this article.)"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Baku''' ( , ; , ) is the capital and largest city of Azerbaijan, as well as the largest city on the Caspian Sea and of the Caucasus region. Baku is located below sea level, which makes it the lowest lying national capital in the world and also the largest city in the world located below sea level. It is located on the southern shore of the Absheron Peninsula, alongside the Bay of Baku. At the beginning of 2009, Baku's urban population was estimated at just over two million people. Officially, about 25 percent of all inhabitants of the country live in Baku's metropolitan area.\n\nBaku is divided into twelve administrative districts (raions) and 48 townships. Among these are the townships on the islands of the Baku Archipelago, and the town of Oil Rocks built on stilts in the Caspian Sea, away from Baku. The Inner City of Baku, along with the Shirvanshah's Palace and Maiden Tower, were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000. According to the Lonely Planet's ranking, Baku is also among the world's top ten destinations for urban nightlife.\n\nThe city is the scientific, cultural and industrial center of Azerbaijan. Many sizeable Azerbaijani institutions have their headquarters there. The Baku International Sea Trade Port is capable of handling two million tons of general and dry bulk cargoes per year. In recent years, Baku has become an important venue for international events. It hosted the 57th Eurovision Song Contest in 2012, the 2015 European Games, the 2016 European Grand Prix, 4th Islamic Solidarity Games and Azerbaijan Grand Prix in 2017, and will host UEFA Euro 2020.\n\nThe city is renowned for its harsh winds, which is reflected in its nickname, the \"City of Winds\".\n",
"Baku is derived from the Persian name of the city باد-کوبه ''Bād-kube'', meaning \"Wind-pounded city\", in which ''bād'' means \"wind\" and ''kube'' is rooted in the verb کوبیدن ''kubidan'', \"to pound\", thus referring to a place where wind is strong and pounding. Indeed, the city is renowned for its fierce winter snow storms and harsh winds. This is also reflected in the city's nickname as the \"City of Winds\". A less probable folk etymology explains the name as deriving from ''Baghkuy'', meaning \"God's town\". ''Baga'' (now ''بغ'' ''bagh'') and ''kuy'' are the Old Persian words for \"god\" and \"town\" respectively; the name ''Baghkuy'' may be compared with ''Baghdād'' (\"God-given\") in which ''dād'' is the Old Persian word for \"give\". Arabic sources refer to the city as ''Baku'', ''Bakukh'', ''Bakuya'', and ''Bakuye'', all of which seem to come from a Persian name.\n\nDuring Soviet rule, the city was spelled in Cyrillic as \"Бакы\". Nowadays, when Azerbaijan is using the Latin alphabet, it is spelled as \"Bakı\".\n",
"\n\n=== Antiquity ===\nGobustan dating back to 84–96 A.D.\nAround 100,000 years ago, the territory of modern Baku and Absheron was savanna with rich flora and fauna. Traces of human settlement go back to the Stone age. From the Bronze age there have been rock carvings discovered near Bayil, and a bronze figure of a small fish discovered in the territory of the Old City. These have led some to suggest the existence of a Bronze Age settlement within the city's territory. Near Nardaran, in a place called Umid Gaya, a prehistoric observatory was discovered, where on the rock the images of sun and various constellations are carved together with a primitive astronomic table. Further archeological excavations revealed various prehistoric settlements, native temples, statues and other artifacts within the territory of the modern city and around it.\n\nIn the 1st century CE, the Romans organized two Caucasian campaigns and reached Baku. Near the city, in Gobustan, Roman inscriptions dating from 84–96 CE were discovered. This is one of the earliest written evidences for Baku.\n\n=== Rise of the Shirvanshahs and the Safavid era ===\n\nminiature painting marking the downfall of the Shirvanshahs at the hands of the Safavids.\nBaku was the realm of the Shirvanshahs during the 8th century CE. The city frequently came under assault of the Khazars and (starting from the 10th century) the Rus. Shirvanshah Akhsitan I built a navy in Baku and successfully repelled another Rus assault in 1170. After a devastating earthquake struck Shamakhi, the capital of Shirvan, Shirvanshah’s court moved to Baku in 1191.\n\nRelics from the sunken Sabayil Castle.\nThe Shirvan era greatly influenced Baku and the remainder of what is present-day Azerbaijan. Between the 12th and 14th centuries, massive fortifications were undertaken in Baku and the surrounding towns. The Maiden Tower, the Ramana Tower, the Nardaran Fortress, the Shagan Castle, the Mardakan Castle, the Round Castle and also the famous Sabayil Castle on the island of the Bay of Baku was built during this period. The city walls of Baku were also rebuilt and strengthened.\n\nBy the early 16th century Baku's wealth and strategic position attracted the focus of its larger neighbors; in the previous two centuries, it was under the rule of the in Iran-centred Kara Koyunlu and Ak Koyunlu. The fall of the Ak Koyunlu brought the city immediately into the sphere of the newly formed Iranian Safavid dynasty, led by king (''shah'') Ismail I (r. 1501-1524). Ismail I laid siege to Baku in 1501 and captured it; he allowed the Shirvanshahs to remain in power, under Safavid suzerainty. His successor, king Tahmasp I (r. 1524-1576), completely removed the Shirvanshahs from power, and made Baku a part of the Shirvan province. Baku remained as an integral part of his empire and the successive Iranian dynasties to come for the next centuries, until the irrevocable cession in the first half of the 19th century. The House of Shirvan, who ruled Baku since the 9th century, was extinguished in the course of the Safavid rule.\n\nAt this time the city was enclosed within the lines of strong walls, which were washed by the sea on one side and protected by a wide trench on land. The Ottomans briefly gained control over Baku as a result of the Ottoman-Safavid War of 1578-1590; by 1603, it was again put under Iranian control. In 1604 the Baku fortress was destroyed by Shah Abbas I (r. 1588-1629).\n\n=== Downfall of the Safavids and the Khanate of Baku ===\nIn the wake of the demise of the Safavids, the Russians took advantage of the situation and invaded; the Safavids were forced to cede Baku to Russia for a few years. By 1730, the situation had deteriorated for the Russians; the successes of Nader Shah (r. 1736-1747) forced them to make an agreement near Ganja on 10 March 1735, ceding the city and all other conquered territories in the Caucasus back to Iran.\n\nThe erupation of instability following Nader Shah's death gave rise to the various Caucasian khanates. The semi-autonomous Persian-ruled Baku Khanate was once of these. It was ruled by Mirza Muhammed Khan but soon became a dependency of the much stronger Quba Khanate. During the time, the population of Baku was small (approximately 5,000), and the economy was ruined as a result of constant warfare.\n\n=== Russo-Persian Wars and Iran's forced ceding ===\nPainting of Baku's shoreline in 1861 by Alexey Bogolyubov.\n\nFrom the late 18th century, Imperial Russia switched to a more aggressive geo-political stance towards its two neighbors and rivals to the south, namely Iran and the Ottoman Empire. In the spring of 1796, by Catherine II’s order, General Valerian Zubov’s troops started a large campaign against Qajar Persia. Zubov had sent 13,000 men to capture Baku, and it was overrun subsequently without any resistance. On 13 June 1796, a Russian flotilla entered Baku Bay, and a garrison of Russian troops was placed inside the city. Later, however, Pavel I ordered the cessation of the campaign and the withdrawal of Russian forces following his predecessor, Catherine the Great her death. In March 1797, the tsarist troops left Baku and the city became part of Qajar Iran again.\n\nIn 1813, following the Russo-Persian War of 1804-1813, Qajar Iran was forced to sign the Treaty of Gulistan with Russia, which provided for the irrevocable cession of Baku and most of Iran's territories in the North Caucasus and South Caucasus to Russia. During the next and final bout of hostilities between the two, the Russo-Persian War of 1826-1828, Baku was briefly recaptured by the Iranians. However, militarily superior, the Russians ended this war in a victory as well, and the resulting Treaty of Turkmenchay made its inclusion into the Russian Empire definite.\nWhen Baku was occupied by the Russian troops during the war of 1804–13, nearly the entire population of some 8,000 people was ethnic Tat.\n\n=== Discovery of oil ===\n\nOil workers digging an oil well by hand at Bibi-Heybat.\nThe first oil well was mechanically drilled in the Bibi-Heybat suburb of Baku in 1846, though a number of hand-dug wells predate it. Large-scale oil exploration started in 1872, when Russian imperial authorities auctioned the parcels of oil-rich land around Baku to private investors. The pioneer of oil extracting from the bottom of the sea was Polish geologist Witold Zglenicki. Soon after that Swiss, British, French, Belgian, German, Swedish and American investors appeared in Baku. Among them were the firms of the Nobel brothers together with the family von Börtzell-Szuch (Carl Knut Börtzell, who also owned the Livadia Palace) and the Rothschild family. An industrial oil belt, better known as Black City, was established near Baku.\n\nProfessor A. V. Williams Jackson of Columbia University wrote in his work ''From Constantinople to the Home of Omar Khayyam'' (1911):\n\n\nBy the beginning of the 20th century, half of the oil sold in international markets was being extracted in Baku. The oil boom contributed to the massive growth of Baku. Between 1856 and 1910 Baku's population grew at a faster rate than that of London, Paris or New York.\n\n=== World War I ===\nSoldiers and officers of the army of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic shortly after the Battle of Baku.\nNeftchiler Avenue in Baku, circa 1920.\nIn 1917, after the October revolution and amidst the turmoil of World War I and the breakup of the Russian Empire, Baku came under the control of the Baku Commune, which was led by veteran Bolshevik Stepan Shahumyan. Seeking to capitalize on the existing inter-ethnic conflicts, by spring 1918, Bolsheviks inspired and condoned civil warfare in and around Baku. During the infamous March Days, Bolsheviks and Dashnaks seeking to establish control over the Baku streets, were faced with armed Azerbaijani groups. The Azerbaijanis suffered a crushing defeat by the united forces of the Baku Soviet and were massacred by Dashnak teams in what was called March Days. An estimated 3–12,000 Azerbaijanis were killed in their own capital. After the massacre, on 28 May 1918, the Azerbaijani faction of the Transcaucasian Sejm proclaimed the independence of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR) in Ganja, thereby becoming the first Muslim-majority democratic and secular republic. The newly independent Azerbaijani republic, being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, asked the Ottoman Empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. Shortly after, Azerbaijani forces, with support of the Ottoman Army of Islam led by Nuru Pasha, started their advance into Baku, eventually capturing the city from the loose coalition of Bolsheviks, Esers, Dashnaks, Mensheviks and British forces under the command of General Lionel Dunsterville on 15 September 1918.\n\nAfter the Battle of Baku, the Azerbaijani irregular troops, with the tacit support of the Turkish command, conducted four days of pillaging and killing of 10–30,000 of the Armenian residents of Baku. This pogrom was known as the September Days. Shortly after this Baku was proclaimed the new capital of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.\n\nWith Turkey having lost the war by October 1918 they conducted the Armistice of Mudros with the British which meant Baku was to be evacuated. Headed by General William Thomson, British troops of 5,000 soldiers, including parts of Dunsterforce, arrived in Baku on 17 November. Thomson declared himself military governor of Baku and implemented Martial law on the capital until \"the civil power would be strong enough to release the forces from the responsibility to maintain the public order\". British forces left before the end of 1919 having felt they had done so.\n\n=== Sovietization ===\nThe independence of the Azerbaijani republic was a significant but a short lived chapter. On 28 April 1920, the 11th Red Army invaded Baku and reinstalled the Bolsheviks, making Baku the capital of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic.\n\nThe city underwent many major changes. As a result, Baku played a great role in many branches of the Soviet life. Since about 1921, the city was headed by the Baku City Executive Committee, commonly known in Russian as ''Bakgorispolkom''. Together with the Baku Party Committee (known as the ''Baksovet''), it developed the economic significance of the Caspian metropolis. From 1922 to 1930, Baku was the venue for one of the major Trade fairs of the Soviet Union, serving as a commercial bridgehead to Iran and the Middle East.\n\n=== World War II ===\nBaku's growing importance as a major energy hub remained in sight of the major powers. During World War II and the Nazi German invasion of the southwestern Soviet Union, Baku had become of vital strategic importance. In fact, capturing the oil fields of Baku was one of the ultimate goals of Operation Edelweiss, carried out between May and November 1942. However the German Army's closest approach to Baku was no closer than some northwest of Baku in November 1942, falling far short of the city's capture before being driven back during the Soviet Operation Little Saturn in mid-December 1942.\n\n=== Fall of the Soviet Union and later ===\nAfter the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Baku embarked on a process of restructuring on a scale unseen in its history. Thousands of buildings from the Soviet period were demolished to make way for a green belt on its shores; parks and gardens were built on the land reclaimed by filling up the beaches of the Baku Bay. Improvements were made in the general cleaning, maintenance, and garbage collection, and these services are now at Western European standards. The city is growing dynamically and developing at full speed on an east-west axis along the shores of the Caspian Sea. Sustainability has become a key factor in future urban development.\n",
"Absheron Peninsular satellite image, Landsat 5, 6 September 2010\nBaku is situated on the western coast of Caspian Sea. In the vicinity of the city there are a number of mud volcanoes (Keyraki, Bogkh-bogkha, Lokbatan and others) and salt lakes (Boyukshor, Khodasan and so on).\n\n=== Climate ===\nBaku has a temperate semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: ''BSk'') with warm and dry summers, cool and occasionally wet winters, and strong winds all year long. However, unlike many other cities with this climate, Baku does not see extremely hot summers. This is largely because of its northerly latitude and the fact that it is located on a peninsula on the shore of the Caspian Sea.\nBaku and the Absheron Peninsula on which it is situated, is the most arid part of Azerbaijan (precipitation here is around or less than a year). The majority of the light annual precipitation occurs in seasons other than summer, but none of these seasons are particularly wet.\nDuring Soviet times, Baku with its long hours of sunshine and dry healthy climate, was a vacation destination where citizens could enjoy beaches or relax in now-dilapidated spa complexes overlooking the Caspian Sea. The city's past as a Soviet industrial center has left it as one of the most polluted cities in the world.\n\nAt the same time Baku is noted as a very windy city throughout the year, hence the city's nickname the \"City of Winds\", and gale-force winds, the cold northern wind ''khazri'' and the warm southern wind ''gilavar'' are typical here in all seasons. Indeed, the city is renowned for its fierce winter snow storms and harsh winds.\nThe speed of the ''khazri'' sometimes reaches 144 kph (89 mph), which can cause damage to crops, trees and roof tiles.\n\nThe daily mean temperature in July and August averages , and there is very little rainfall during that season. During summer the ''khazri'' sweeps through, bringing desired coolness. Winter is cool and occasionally wet, with the daily mean temperature in January and February averaging . During winter the ''khazri'' sweeps through, driven by polar air masses; temperatures on the coast frequently drop below freezing and make it feel bitterly cold. Winter snow storms are occasional; snow usually melts within a few days after each snowfall.\n\n\n",
"Today, Baku is divided into 12 ''rayonlar (sub-rayons)'' (administrative districts) and 5 settlements of city type. The mayor, presently Hajibala Abutalybov, embodies the executive power of the city.\n\n\n\n\n* Binagadi raion ()\n* Garadagh raion ()\n* Khatai raion ()\n* Khazar raion ()\n* Narimanov raion ()\n* Nasimi raion ()\n\n* Nizami raion ()\n* Pirallahy raion ()\n* Sabail raion ()\n* Sabunchu raion ()\n* Surakhany raion ()\n* Yasamal raion ()\n\n",
"Until 1988 Baku had very large Russian, Armenian, and Jewish populations which contributed to cultural diversity and added in various ways (music, literature, architecture and progressive outlook) to Baku's history. With the onset of the Karabakh War and the pogrom against Armenians starting in January 1990, the city's large Armenian population was expelled.\nUnder Communism, the Soviets took over the majority of Jewish property in Baku and Kuba. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Azerbaijani President Heydar Aliyev returned several synagogues and a Jewish college, nationalized by the Soviets, to the Jewish community. He encouraged the restoration of these buildings and is well liked by the Jews of Azerbaijan. Renovation has begun on seven of the original 11 synagogues, including the Gilah synagogue, built in 1896, and the large Kruei Synagogue.\n\n\n\n Year\n Azerbaijanis\n %\n Russians\n %\n Armenians\n %\n Jews\n %\n Others\n %\n Total\n\n1851\nmore than 5000\n\n\n\n405\n5.5%\n\n\n\n\n7,431\n\n1886\n37,530\n43.3\n21,390\n24.7\n24,490\n28.3\n391\n0.5\n2,810\n3.2\n86,611\n\n1897\n40,341\n36\n37,399\n33.4\n19,099\n17.1\n3,369\n3\n11,696\n10.5\n111,904\n\n1903\n44,257\n28,4\n59,955\n38,5\n26,151\n16,8\nn.a.\nn.a.\n28,513\n18,3\n155,876\n\n1913\n45,962\n21,4\n76,288\n35,5\n41,680\n19,4\n9,690\n4,5\n41,052\n19,1\n214,672\n\n1926\n118,737\n26.2\n167,373\n36.9\n76,656\n16.9\n19,589\n4.3\n70,978\n15.7\n453,333\n\n1939\n215,482\n27.4\n343,064\n43.6\n118,650\n15.1\n31,050\n3.9\n79,377\n10.1\n787,623\n\n1959\n211,372\n32.9\n223,242\n34.7\n137,111\n21.3\n24,057\n3.7\n56,725\n8.7\n652,507\n\n1970\n586,052\n46.3\n351,090\n27.7\n207,464\n16.4\n29,716\n2.3\n88,193\n6.9\n1,262,515\n\n1979\n530,556\n52.4\n229,873\n22.7\n167,226\n16.5\n22,916\n2.3\n62,865\n6.2\n1,013,436\n\n1999\n1,574,252\n88\n119,371\n6.7\n378\n0.02\n5,164\n0.3\n89,689\n5\n1,788,854\n\n2009\n1,848,107\n90.3\n108,525\n5.3\n104\n0\n6,056\n0.6\n83,023\n4.1\n2,045,815\n\n\n=== Ethnic groups ===\nThe Armenian Saint Gregory the Illuminator's Church, Baku\nToday the vast majority of the population of Baku are ethnic Azerbaijanis (more than 90%). When Baku was occupied by the Russian troops during the war of 1804–13, nearly the entire population of some 8,000 people was ethnic Tat. The intensive growth of the population started in the middle of the 19th century when Baku was a small town with a population of about 7,000 people. The population increased again from about 13,000 in the 1860s to 112,000 in 1897 and 215,000 in 1913, making Baku the largest city in the Caucasus region.\n\nBaku has been a cosmopolitan city at certain times during its history, meaning ethnic Azerbaijanis did not constitute the majority of population. In 2003 Baku additionally had 153,400 internally displaced persons and 93,400 refugees.\n\n=== Religion ===\nThe 13th century Bibi-Heybat Mosque. The mosque was built over the tomb of a descendant of Muhammad.\nThe urban landscape of Baku is shaped by many communities. The religion with the largest community of followers is Islam. The majority of the Muslims are Shia Muslims, and the Republic of Azerbaijan has the second highest Shia population percentage in the world after Iran. The city's notable mosques include Juma Mosque, Bibi-Heybat Mosque, Muhammad Mosque and Taza Pir Mosque.\n\nThere are some other faiths practiced among the different ethnic groups within the country. By article 48 of its Constitution, Azerbaijan is a secular state and ensures religious freedom. Religious minorities include Russian Orthodox Christians, Catholic Levantines, Georgian Orthodox Christians, Lutherans, Ashkenazi Jews and Sufi Muslims.\n\nZoroastrianism, although extinct in the city as well as in the rest of the country by the present time, had a long history in Azerbaijan and the Zoroastrian New Year (Nowruz) continues to be the main holiday in the city as well as in the rest of Azerbaijan.\n",
"\nBaku's largest industry is petroleum, and its petroleum exports make it a large contributor to Azerbaijan's balance of payments. The existence of petroleum has been known since the 8th century. In the 10th century, the Arabian traveler, Marudee, reported that both white and black oil were being extracted naturally from Baku. By the 15th century, oil for lamps was obtained from hand-dug surface wells.\nCommercial exploitation began in 1872, and by the beginning of the 20th century the Baku oil fields were the largest in the world. Towards the end of the 20th century much of the onshore petroleum had been exhausted, and drilling had extended into the sea offshore. By the end of the 19th century skilled workers and specialists flocked to Baku. By 1900 the city had more than 3,000 oil wells, of which 2,000 were producing oil at industrial levels. Baku ranked as one of the largest centres for the production of oil industry equipment before World War II. The World War II Battle of Stalingrad was fought to determine who would have control of the Baku oil fields. Fifty years before the battle, Baku produced half of the world's oil supply.\n\nCurrently the oil economy of Baku is undergoing a resurgence, with the development of the massive Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli field (Shallow water Gunashli by SOCAR, deeper areas by a consortium led by BP), development of the Shah Deniz gas field, the expansion of the Sangachal Terminal and the construction of the BTC Pipeline.\n\nThe Baku Stock Exchange is Azerbaijan's largest stock exchange, and largest in the Caucasian region by market capitalization. A relatively large number of transnational companies are headquartered in Baku. One of the more prominent institutions headquartered in Baku is the International Bank of Azerbaijan, which employs over 1,000 people. International banks with branches in Baku include HSBC, Société Générale and Credit Suisse.\n\n\n=== Tourism and shopping ===\nBaku is one of the most important tourist destinations in the Caucasus, with hotels in the city earning 7 million euros in 2009. Many sizable world hotel chains have a presence in the city. Baku has many popular tourist and entertainment spots, such as the downtown Fountains Square, the One and Thousand Nights Beach, Shikhov Beach and Oil Rocks. Baku's vicinities feature Yanar Dag, an ever-blazing spot of natural gas. On 2 September 2010, with the inauguration of National Flag Square, Baku became home to the world's tallest flagpole, according to the Guinness Book of Records. However, on 24 May 2011 Baku lost this record by just to the city of Dushanbe in Tajikistan.\n\nBaku has several shopping malls; the most famous city center malls are Park Bulvar, Genclik Mall, Metro Park, 28 MALL, Aygun city and AF MALL. The retail areas contain shops from chain stores up to high-end boutiques.\n\nThe city is listed 48th in the 2011 list of the most expensive cities in the world conducted by the Mercer Human Resource Consulting. Its Nizami Street is one of the most expensive streets in the world.\n",
"The city has many amenities that offer a wide range of cultural activities, drawing both from a rich local dramatic portfolio and an international repertoire. It also boasts many museums such as Baku Museum of Modern Art and Azerbaijan State Museum of History, most notably featuring historical artifacts and art. Many of the city's cultural sites were celebrated in 2009 when Baku was designated an Islamic Culture Capital. Baku was also chosen to host the Eurovision Dance Contest 2010.\n\n=== Theaters ===\n* Azerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre \n* Azerbaijan State Academic Drama Theatre\n* Azerbaijan State Russian Drama Theatre named after Samad Vurgun \n* Baku Puppet Theatre (formally Azerbaijan State Puppet Theatre named after Abdulla Shaig)\n* Azerbaijan State Theatre of Young Spectators\n* Azerbaijan State Theatre of Musical Comedy\n* Baku State Circus\n* \"Oda\" Theatre\n* Icherisheher Marionette Theatre\n* Baku Municipal Theatre\n* Azerbaijan State Pantomime Theatre\n* Mugham Azerbaijan National Music Theatre\n* Azerbaijan State Theatre of Song named after Rashid Behbudov\n* “UNS” Theatre\n* “Yugh” Theatre\n\nAmong Baku's prestigious cultural venues are Azerbaijan State Philharmonic Hall, Azerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre. The main movie theatre is Azerbaijan Cinema.\nFestivals include the Baku International Film Festival, Baku International Jazz Festival, Novruz Festival, ''Gül Bayramı'' (Flower Festival) and the National Theater Festival. International and local exhibitions are presented at the Baku Expo Center.\n\n, the city along with Ganja and Lankaran participates in Earth Hour movement.\n\n\n\nFile:National Museum of History of Azerbaijan 10.JPG|National Museum of History\nFile:Nizami Museum of Azerbaijan Literature, Baku, 2015.jpg|Nizami Museum of Literature\nFile:National Art Museum of Azerbaijan (de Burs House) edited.jpg|National Art Museum\nFile:Villa Petrolea front.jpg|Villa Petrolea\nFile:Baku Museum of Modern Art.jpg|Baku Museum of Modern Art\n\n\n",
"\nMaiden Tower in Old Baku, a UNESCO World Heritage Site built in the 11th–12th century, recognised as the symbol of the city.\nCaravanserai in Baku.\nBaku has wildly varying architecture, ranging from the Old City core to modern buildings and the spacious layout of the Baku port. Many of the city's most impressive buildings were built during the early 20th century, when architectural elements of the European styles were combined in eclectic style. Baku thus has an original and unique appearance, earning it a reputation as the 'Paris of the East'.\n\n=== Hamams ===\nHamam tradition in Baku is one of interesting one. There are a number of ancient hamams in Baku belonging to 12th, 14th and 18th centuries. Hamams also plays a very important role in the architectural appearance of Baku.\n\n==== Teze Bey Hamam ====\nTeze Bey is the most popular hamam (traditional bath) in Baku. It was built in 1886 in the center of Baku. In 2003 Teze Bey was fully restored. It meets all modern demands. Teze Bey Hamam include Oriental, Russian and Finnish baths and a swimming pool.\n\n==== Gum Hamam ====\nGum hamam was discovered during archaeological excavations. It belongs to the XII-XIV. It was under sand, that`s why it is called Gum hamam (sand bath).\n\n==== Bairamali hamam ====\nIn old times Bairamali hamam was called “Bey hamam”. The hamam belongs to the XII-XIV centuries. In 1881 the hamam was reconstructed.\n\n==== Agha Mikayil Hamam====\nAgha Mikayil Hamam was constructed in the XVIII century by Haji Agha Mikayil in Kichik Gala Street of Old city (icherisheher). It is still operating keeping its ancient atmosphere. The hamam is open to women on Mondays and Fridays, men the rest of the week.\n\nLate modern and postmodern architecture began to appear in the early 2000s. With economic development, old buildings such as Atlant House were razed to make way for new ones. Buildings with all-glass shells have appeared around the city, the most prominent examples being the Azerbaijan Tower, Heydar Aliyev Cultural Center, Flame Towers, Baku Crystal Hall, Baku White City and SOCAR Tower. These projects also caught the attention of international media as notable programmes such as Discovery Channel's Extreme Engineering did pieces focusing in on changes to the city.\n\nThe Old City of Baku, also known as the Walled City of Baku, refers to the ancient Baku settlement. Most of the walls and towers, strengthened after the Russian conquest in 1806, survived. This section is picturesque, with its maze of narrow alleys and ancient buildings: the cobbled streets past the Palace of the Shirvanshahs, two caravansaries, the baths and the Juma Mosque (which used to house the Azerbaijan National Carpet and Arts Museum but is now a mosque again). The old town core also has dozens of small mosques, often without any particular sign to distinguish them as such.\n\nIn 2003, UNESCO placed the Inner City on the List of World Heritage in Danger, citing damage from a November 2000 earthquake, poor conservation as well as \"dubious\" restoration efforts.\n\n=== Music and media ===\nBaku Crystal Hall during the Eurovision Song Contest 2012\n\nThe music scene in Baku can be traced back to ancient times and villages of Baku, generally revered as the fountainhead of meykhana and mugham in the Azerbaijan.\n\nIn recent years, the success of Azerbaijani performers such as AySel, Farid Mammadov, Sabina Babayeva, Safura and Elnur Hüseynov in the Eurovision Song Contest has significantly boosted the profile of Baku's music scene, prompting international attention. Following the victory of Azerbaijan's representative Eldar & Nigar at the Eurovision Song Contest 2011, Baku hosted the Eurovision Song Contest 2012.\n\n2005 was a landmark in the development of Azerbaijani jazz in the city. It has been home to legendary jazz musicians like Vagif Mustafazadeh, Aziza Mustafa Zadeh, Rafig Babayev and Rain Sultanov. Among Baku's prominent annual fairs and festivals is Baku International Jazz Festival, which features some of the world's most identifiable jazz names.\n\nBaku also has a thriving International Center of Mugham, which is located in Baku Boulevard, Gulustan Palace and Buta Palace, one of the principal performing arts centers and music venues in the city.\n\nThe majority of Azerbaijan's media companies (including television, newspaper and radio, such as, Azad Azerbaijan TV, Ictimai TV, Lider TV and Region TV) are headquartered in Baku. The films ''The World Is Not Enough'' and ''The Diamond Arm'' are set in the city, while ''Amphibian Man'' includes several scenes filmed in Old City.\n\nOut of the city's radio stations, ''Ictimai Radio'', ''Radio Antenn'', ''Burc FM'', ''Avto FM'', ''ASAN Radio'' and ''Lider FM Jazz'' are some of the more influential competitors with large national audiences.\n\nSome of the most influential Baku newspapers include the daily ''Azadliq'', ''Zaman'' (The Time), ''Bakinskiy Rabochiy'' (The Baku Worker), ''Echo'' and the English-language ''Baku Today''.\n\nBaku is also featured in the video game ''Battlefield 4''.\n\n=== Nightlife ===\nBaku boasts a vibrant nightlife. Many clubs that are open until dawn can be found throughout the city. Clubs with an eastern flavor provide special treats from the cuisine of Azerbaijan along with local music. Western-style clubs target younger, more energetic crowds. Most of the public houses and bars are located near Fountains Square and are usually open until the early hours of the morning.\n\nBaku is home to restaurants catering to every cuisine and occasion. Restaurants range from luxurious and expensive to ordinary and affordable.\n\nIn the Lonely Planet \"1000 Ultimate Experiences\", Baku placed 8th among the top 10 party cities in the world.\n\n=== Parks and gardens ===\nPhilarmony garden\nBaku has large sections of greenery either preserved by the National Government or designated as green zones. The city, however, continues to lack a green belt development as economic activity pours into the capital, resulting in massive housing projects along the suburbs.\n\nBaku Boulevard is a pedestrian promenade that runs parallel to Baku's seafront. The boulevard contains an amusement park, yacht club, musical fountain, statues and monuments. The park is popular with dog-walkers and joggers, and is convenient for tourists. It is adjacent to the newly built International Center of Mugham and the musical fountain.\n\nOther prominent parks and gardens include Heydar Aliyev Park, Samad Vurgun Park, Narimanov Park, Alley of Honor and the Fountains Square. The Martyrs' Lane, formerly the Kirov Park, is dedicated to the memory of those who lost their lives during the Nagorno-Karabakh War and also to the 137 people killed on Black January.\n\n=== Sports ===\nHeydar Aliyev Sports and Exhibition Complex during the 2009 Rhythmic Gymnastics European Championships Baku hosts a Formula One race on the Baku City Circuit. The first was the 2016 European Grand Prix.\n\nThe city will also host three group games and one quarter-final of the UEFA Euro 2020 European Football Championship.\n\nSince 2002, Baku has hosted 36 major sporting events and selected to host the 2015 European Games. Baku is also to host the fourth edition of the Islamic Solidarity Games in 2017.\n\nBaku is also one of world's leading chess centres, having produced famous grandmasters like Teimour Radjabov, Vugar Gashimov, Garry Kasparov, Shahriyar Mammadyarov and Rauf Mammadov, as well as the arbiter Faik Hasanov. The city also annually hosts the international tournaments such as Baku Chess Grand Prix, President's Cup, Baku Open and currently bidding to host 42nd Chess Olympiad in 2014.\n\nFirst class sporting facilities were built for the indoor games, including the Palace of Hand Games and Heydar Aliyev Sports and Exhibition Complex. It hosted many sporting events, including FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup, Rhythmic Gymnastics European Championships in 2007 and 2009, 2005 World Rhythmic Gymnastics Championships, 2007 FILA Wrestling World Championships and 2010 European Wrestling Championships, 2011 World Amateur Boxing Championships, 2009 Women's Challenge Cup and European Taekwondo Championships in 2007. Since 2011 the city annually hosts WTA tennis event called Baku Cup.\n\nThe Synergy Baku Cycling Project participates in the Tour d'Azerbaïdjan a 2.2 multi-stage bicycle race on the UCI Europe Tour.\n\nBaku made a bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics and 2020 Summer Olympics, but failed to become a Candidate City both times.\n\nThe largest sport hub in the city is Baku Olympic Stadium with 68,700 seating capacity whose construction was completed in 2015. The city's three main football clubs are Neftchi Baku, Inter Baku and FC Baku of whom first has eight Premier League titles making Neftchi the most successful Azerbaijani football club. Baku also has several football clubs in the premier and regional leagues, including AZAL and Ravan in Premier League. The city's second largest stadium, Tofiq Bahramov Stadium hosts a number of domestic and international competitions and was the main sport centre of the city for a long period until the construction of Baku Olympic Stadium.\n\nIn the Azerbaijan Women's Volleyball Super League, Baku is represented by Rabita Baku, Azerrail Baku, Lokomotiv Baku and Azeryol Baku.\n",
"Baku black cab, introduced in 2011\nThe car of the Baku Funicular station\nThroughout history the transport system of Baku used the now-defunct horsecars, trams and narrow gauge railways. , 1,000 black cabs are ordered by Baku Taxi Company, and as part of a programme originally announced by the Transport Ministry of Azerbaijan, there is a plan to introduce London cabs into Baku. The move was part of £16 million agreement between Manganese Bronze and Baku Taxi Company.\n\nLocal rail transport includes the Baku Funicular and the Baku Metro, a rapid-transit system notable for its art, murals, mosaics and ornate chandeliers. Baku Metro was opened in November 1967 and includes 3 lines and 25 stations at present; 170 million people used Baku Metro over the past five years. In 2008, the Chief of the Baku Metro, Taghi Ahmadov, announced plans to construct 41 new stations over the next 17 years. These will serve the new bus complex as well as the international airport.\n\nBakuCard is a single Smart Card for payment on all types of city transport. The intercity buses and metro use this type of card-based fare-payment system.\n\nBaku's Central Railway Station is the terminus for national and international rail links to the city. The Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway, which will directly connect Turkey, Georgia and Azerbaijan, began to be constructed in 2007 and is scheduled for completion in 2015. The completed branch will connect Baku with Tbilisi in Georgia, and from there trains will continue to Akhalkalaki, and Kars in Turkey.\n\nBaku Yacht Club\nSea transport is vital for Baku, as the city is practically surrounded by the Caspian Sea to the east. Shipping services operate regularly from Baku across the Caspian Sea to Turkmenbashi (formerly Krasnovodsk) in Turkmenistan and to Bandar Anzali and Bandar Nowshar in Iran. The commuter ferries, along with the high-speed catamaran ''Seabus'' (''Deniz Avtobusu''), also form the main connection between the city and the Absheron peninsula.\n\nThe Baku Port was founded in 1902 and since then has been the largest Caspian Sea port. It has six facilities: the main cargo terminal, the container terminal, the ferry terminal, the oil terminal, the passenger terminal and the port fleet terminal. The port's throughput capacity reaches 15 million tons of liquid bulk and up to 10 million tons of dry cargoes.\nBeginning in 2010, the Baku International Sea Trade Port is being reconstructed. The construction will take place in three stages and will be completed by 2016. The estimated costs are 400 Million US$. From April to November the Baku Port is accessible to ships loading cargoes for direct voyages from Western European and Mediterranean ports. The State Road M-1 and the European route E60 are the two main motorway connections between Europe and Azerbaijan. The motorway network around Baku is well developed and is constantly being extended.\nThe Heydar Aliyev International Airport is the only commercial airport serving Baku. The new Baku Cargo Terminal was officially opened in March 2005. It was constructed to be a major cargo hub in the CIS countries and is actually now one of the biggest and most technically advanced in the region. There are also several smaller military airbases near Baku, such as Baku Kala Air Base, intended for private aircraft, helicopters and charters.\n",
"\nBaku hosts many universities, junior colleges and vocational schools. Baku State University, the first established university in Azerbaijan was opened in 1919 by the government of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic. In the early years of the Soviet era, Baku already had Azerbaijan State Oil Academy, Azerbaijan Medical University and Azerbaijan State Economic University. In the post-WWII period, a few more universities were established such as Azerbaijan Technical University, Azerbaijan University of Languages and the Azerbaijan Architecture and Construction University. After 1991 when Azerbaijan gained independence from the Soviet Union, the fall of communism led to the development of a number of private institutions, including Qafqaz University and Khazar University which are currently considered the most prestigious academic institutions. Apart from the private universities, the government established the Academy of Public Administration, the Azerbaijan Diplomatic Academy and various military academies. The largest universities according to the student population are Baku State University and Azerbaijan State Economic University. In addition, there are the Baku Music Academy and the Azerbaijan National Conservatoire in Baku established in the early 1920s. Publicly run kindergartens and elementary schools (years 1 through 11) are operated by local wards or municipal offices.\n\nThe Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences, the main state research organization in Azerbaijan is locating in Baku as well. Moreover, Baku has numerous libraries, many of which contain vast collections of historic documents from the Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman and Soviet periods, as well as from other civilisations of the past. The most important libraries in terms of historic document collections include the Nizami Museum of Azerbaijan Literature, the National Library of Azerbaijan, the Mirza Alakbar Central Library, the Samad Vurgun Library and the Baku Presidential Library.\n",
"The city has many public and private hospitals, clinics and laboratories within its bounds and numerous medical research centers. Many of these facilities have high technology equipment, which has contributed to the recent upsurge in \"medical tourism\" to Baku, particularly from post-Soviet countries such as Georgia and Moldova, whose governments send lower-income patients to the city for inexpensive high-tech medical treatments and operations.\n",
"\n\nBecause of its intermittent periods of great prosperity as well as being the largest city in the Caucasus and one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse in the Soviet Union, Baku prides itself on having produced a disproportionate number of notable figures in the sciences, arts and other fields. Some of the houses they resided in display commemorative plaques. Some of the many prestigious residents include: Academy Award winners Rustam Ibrahimbeyov and Vladimir Menshov, one of the founders and head of the Soviet space program Kerim Kerimov, Nobel Prize winner and physicist Lev Landau and famous musicians such as Gara Garayev, Uzeyir Hajibeyov, Muslim Magomayev, Vagif Mustafazadeh and Alim Qasimov. World-famous cellist Mstislav Rostropovich was born and raised in Baku, as was world-famous chess player, Garry Kasparov.\n\nFile:Gusman Yliy.jpg|Yuli Gusman, Film director and actor, founder and CEO of the prestigious Nika Award.\n\nFile:Landau.jpg|Physicist Lev Landau, studied at the Baku State University, won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1962.\nFile:Hokuma Qurbanova.jpg|Hokuma Gurbanova, People’s Artist of the USSR and famous theatre and film actress.\nFile:Mushfig.JPG|Mikayil Mushfig, Bakuvian poet and victim of the Stalinist purges.\nFile:Stamps of Azerbaijan, 2007-813.jpg|Kerim Kerimov, one of the founders of the Soviet space program.\nFile:Tofiq Bahramov.jpg|Tofiq Bahramov as a Soviet footballer and football referee from Azerbaijan.\nFile:Вагит Алекперов.jpg|Vagit Alekperov, President of the leading Russian oil company LUKOIL.\nFile:Stamps of Azerbaijan, 2012-1047.jpg|Muslim Magomayev, one of the most famous singers of USSR.\nFile:RIAN archive 438589 Mstislav Rostropovich.jpg|Mstislav Rostropovich, Grammy Award-winning cellist.\nFile:Kasparov-34.jpg|Garry Kasparov, chess grandmaster, former World Chess Champion.\n\n",
"\n\n=== Twin towns and sister cities ===\nBaku is twinned with:in chronological order\n\n\n\nCountry\nCity\nState / Province / Region / Governorate\nDate\n\n\nSenegal\n25px\n'''Dakar'''\n25px\n''Dakar Region''\n1967\n\n\nItaly\n25px\n'''Naples'''\n23px\n''Campania''\n1972\n\n\nIraq\n\n'''Basra'''\n\n''Basra Governorate''\n1972\n\n\nBosnia and Herzegovina\n25px\n'''Sarajevo'''\n23px\n''Sarajevo Canton''\n1975\n\n\nUnited States\n25px\n'''Christiansted, United States Virgin Islands'''\n\n''Virgin Islands''\n1976\n\n\nUnited States\n25px\n'''Houston'''\n23px\n''Texas''\n1976\n\n\nFrance\n25px\n'''Bordeaux'''\n25px\n''Aquitaine''\n1979\n\n\nIran\n25px\n'''Tabriz'''\n\n''East Azerbaijan Province''\n1980\n\n\nTurkey\n 25px\n'''İzmir'''\n\n''İzmir Province''\n1985\n\n\n\nVietnam\n\n'''Vũng Tàu'''\n\n''Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu Province''\n1985\n\n\nUnited States\n25px\n'''Honolulu County'''\n23px\n''Hawaii''\n1998\n\n\nTurkey\n\n'''Sivas'''\n\n''Sivas Province''\n2000\n\n\nBrazil\n25px\n'''Rio de Janeiro'''\n23px\n''State of Rio de Janeiro''\n2013\n\n\nUkraine\n25px\n'''Kiev'''\n23px\n''Kiev City''\n\n\n\nIsrael \n25px\n'''Haifa''' \n\n\n\n\n\n=== Partner cities ===\n* Aberdeen, Scotland\n* Mainz, Germany\n* Stavanger, Norway\n\nPartnership relations also exist at different levels with: Berlin, Paris, Vienna, Tbilisi, Astana, Minsk, Moscow, Volgograd, Kizlyar, Tashkent and Chengdu.\n",
"\n\n\n\nFile:City of Baku 2011.jpg|Baku Bay\nFile:View of Bakucity, 2012.jpg|Old Baku \"Icheri Sheher\"\nFile:Nizami street baku.JPG|Nizami Street\nFile:Azərbaycan Dövlət Opera və Balet Teatrı.jpg|Baku Opera and Ballet Theatre\nFile:Ismailiyye palace main façade, Baku, 2015.jpg|Ismailiyya building\nFile:Torre de la Doncella, Baku, Azerbaiyán, 2016-09-26, DD 215-217 HDR.jpg|Maiden Tower\nFile:Icheri sheher 01.JPG|Icheri Sheher\nFile:Fuente en Baku, Azerbaiyán, 2016-09-26, DD 227-229 HDR.jpg|Fountain and Azerbaijan State Philharmonic Hall\nFile:Baku Seaside Bulevard.JPG|Baku seaside Boulevard\nFile:Azneft Square, Baku, 2012.jpg|Azerbaijan's Flag\nFile:Saadet sarayi 2.jpg|Palace of Happiness\nFile:Nizami street in Baku, 2010.jpg|Fountains Square\nFile:Rashidbehbudovstr.JPG|Rashid Behbudov Street\nFile:Aerial View of Baku, May 2012.jpg|Aerial view of Baku, May 2012\nFile:Baku, Azerbaijan.jpg|View of Baku taken from the International Space Station\nFile:Evening Baku, Azerbaijan.jpg|Evening Baku, Azerbaijan\nFile:A view of the Baku bay, Azerbaijan.jpg|A view of the Baku bay\n\n",
"\n* Administrative divisions of Azerbaijan\n* Ganja\n* List of cities in Azerbaijan\n* Mingachevir\n* Nakhchivan\n* Sumgait\n* 1920 Baku Congress\n* Ateshgah of Baku\n",
"\n",
"\n\n\n*\n* Baku's profile at the Organization of World Heritage Cities website\n* UNESCO World Heritage Site listing Walled City of Baku\n* Photos of Baku\n* Trip To Azerbaijan\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Etymology ",
" History ",
" Geography ",
" Administrative divisions ",
" Demographics ",
" Economy ",
" Culture ",
" Architecture ",
" Transport ",
" Education ",
" Health care ",
" Notable residents ",
" International relations ",
" Gallery ",
" See also ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Baku | [
"One of the more prominent institutions headquartered in Baku is the International Bank of Azerbaijan, which employs over 1,000 people."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n'''Baku''' ( , ; , ) is the capital and largest city of Azerbaijan, as well as the largest city on the Caspian Sea and of the Caucasus region.",
"Baku is located below sea level, which makes it the lowest lying national capital in the world and also the largest city in the world located below sea level.",
"It is located on the southern shore of the Absheron Peninsula, alongside the Bay of Baku.",
"At the beginning of 2009, Baku's urban population was estimated at just over two million people.",
"Officially, about 25 percent of all inhabitants of the country live in Baku's metropolitan area.",
"Baku is divided into twelve administrative districts (raions) and 48 townships.",
"Among these are the townships on the islands of the Baku Archipelago, and the town of Oil Rocks built on stilts in the Caspian Sea, away from Baku.",
"The Inner City of Baku, along with the Shirvanshah's Palace and Maiden Tower, were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000.",
"According to the Lonely Planet's ranking, Baku is also among the world's top ten destinations for urban nightlife.",
"The city is the scientific, cultural and industrial center of Azerbaijan.",
"Many sizeable Azerbaijani institutions have their headquarters there.",
"The Baku International Sea Trade Port is capable of handling two million tons of general and dry bulk cargoes per year.",
"In recent years, Baku has become an important venue for international events.",
"It hosted the 57th Eurovision Song Contest in 2012, the 2015 European Games, the 2016 European Grand Prix, 4th Islamic Solidarity Games and Azerbaijan Grand Prix in 2017, and will host UEFA Euro 2020.",
"The city is renowned for its harsh winds, which is reflected in its nickname, the \"City of Winds\".",
"Baku is derived from the Persian name of the city باد-کوبه ''Bād-kube'', meaning \"Wind-pounded city\", in which ''bād'' means \"wind\" and ''kube'' is rooted in the verb کوبیدن ''kubidan'', \"to pound\", thus referring to a place where wind is strong and pounding.",
"Indeed, the city is renowned for its fierce winter snow storms and harsh winds.",
"This is also reflected in the city's nickname as the \"City of Winds\".",
"A less probable folk etymology explains the name as deriving from ''Baghkuy'', meaning \"God's town\".",
"''Baga'' (now ''بغ'' ''bagh'') and ''kuy'' are the Old Persian words for \"god\" and \"town\" respectively; the name ''Baghkuy'' may be compared with ''Baghdād'' (\"God-given\") in which ''dād'' is the Old Persian word for \"give\".",
"Arabic sources refer to the city as ''Baku'', ''Bakukh'', ''Bakuya'', and ''Bakuye'', all of which seem to come from a Persian name.",
"During Soviet rule, the city was spelled in Cyrillic as \"Бакы\".",
"Nowadays, when Azerbaijan is using the Latin alphabet, it is spelled as \"Bakı\".",
"\n\n=== Antiquity ===\nGobustan dating back to 84–96 A.D.\nAround 100,000 years ago, the territory of modern Baku and Absheron was savanna with rich flora and fauna.",
"Traces of human settlement go back to the Stone age.",
"From the Bronze age there have been rock carvings discovered near Bayil, and a bronze figure of a small fish discovered in the territory of the Old City.",
"These have led some to suggest the existence of a Bronze Age settlement within the city's territory.",
"Near Nardaran, in a place called Umid Gaya, a prehistoric observatory was discovered, where on the rock the images of sun and various constellations are carved together with a primitive astronomic table.",
"Further archeological excavations revealed various prehistoric settlements, native temples, statues and other artifacts within the territory of the modern city and around it.",
"In the 1st century CE, the Romans organized two Caucasian campaigns and reached Baku.",
"Near the city, in Gobustan, Roman inscriptions dating from 84–96 CE were discovered.",
"This is one of the earliest written evidences for Baku.",
"=== Rise of the Shirvanshahs and the Safavid era ===\n\nminiature painting marking the downfall of the Shirvanshahs at the hands of the Safavids.",
"Baku was the realm of the Shirvanshahs during the 8th century CE.",
"The city frequently came under assault of the Khazars and (starting from the 10th century) the Rus.",
"Shirvanshah Akhsitan I built a navy in Baku and successfully repelled another Rus assault in 1170.",
"After a devastating earthquake struck Shamakhi, the capital of Shirvan, Shirvanshah’s court moved to Baku in 1191.",
"Relics from the sunken Sabayil Castle.",
"The Shirvan era greatly influenced Baku and the remainder of what is present-day Azerbaijan.",
"Between the 12th and 14th centuries, massive fortifications were undertaken in Baku and the surrounding towns.",
"The Maiden Tower, the Ramana Tower, the Nardaran Fortress, the Shagan Castle, the Mardakan Castle, the Round Castle and also the famous Sabayil Castle on the island of the Bay of Baku was built during this period.",
"The city walls of Baku were also rebuilt and strengthened.",
"By the early 16th century Baku's wealth and strategic position attracted the focus of its larger neighbors; in the previous two centuries, it was under the rule of the in Iran-centred Kara Koyunlu and Ak Koyunlu.",
"The fall of the Ak Koyunlu brought the city immediately into the sphere of the newly formed Iranian Safavid dynasty, led by king (''shah'') Ismail I (r. 1501-1524).",
"Ismail I laid siege to Baku in 1501 and captured it; he allowed the Shirvanshahs to remain in power, under Safavid suzerainty.",
"His successor, king Tahmasp I (r. 1524-1576), completely removed the Shirvanshahs from power, and made Baku a part of the Shirvan province.",
"Baku remained as an integral part of his empire and the successive Iranian dynasties to come for the next centuries, until the irrevocable cession in the first half of the 19th century.",
"The House of Shirvan, who ruled Baku since the 9th century, was extinguished in the course of the Safavid rule.",
"At this time the city was enclosed within the lines of strong walls, which were washed by the sea on one side and protected by a wide trench on land.",
"The Ottomans briefly gained control over Baku as a result of the Ottoman-Safavid War of 1578-1590; by 1603, it was again put under Iranian control.",
"In 1604 the Baku fortress was destroyed by Shah Abbas I (r. 1588-1629).",
"=== Downfall of the Safavids and the Khanate of Baku ===\nIn the wake of the demise of the Safavids, the Russians took advantage of the situation and invaded; the Safavids were forced to cede Baku to Russia for a few years.",
"By 1730, the situation had deteriorated for the Russians; the successes of Nader Shah (r. 1736-1747) forced them to make an agreement near Ganja on 10 March 1735, ceding the city and all other conquered territories in the Caucasus back to Iran.",
"The erupation of instability following Nader Shah's death gave rise to the various Caucasian khanates.",
"The semi-autonomous Persian-ruled Baku Khanate was once of these.",
"It was ruled by Mirza Muhammed Khan but soon became a dependency of the much stronger Quba Khanate.",
"During the time, the population of Baku was small (approximately 5,000), and the economy was ruined as a result of constant warfare.",
"=== Russo-Persian Wars and Iran's forced ceding ===\nPainting of Baku's shoreline in 1861 by Alexey Bogolyubov.",
"From the late 18th century, Imperial Russia switched to a more aggressive geo-political stance towards its two neighbors and rivals to the south, namely Iran and the Ottoman Empire.",
"In the spring of 1796, by Catherine II’s order, General Valerian Zubov’s troops started a large campaign against Qajar Persia.",
"Zubov had sent 13,000 men to capture Baku, and it was overrun subsequently without any resistance.",
"On 13 June 1796, a Russian flotilla entered Baku Bay, and a garrison of Russian troops was placed inside the city.",
"Later, however, Pavel I ordered the cessation of the campaign and the withdrawal of Russian forces following his predecessor, Catherine the Great her death.",
"In March 1797, the tsarist troops left Baku and the city became part of Qajar Iran again.",
"In 1813, following the Russo-Persian War of 1804-1813, Qajar Iran was forced to sign the Treaty of Gulistan with Russia, which provided for the irrevocable cession of Baku and most of Iran's territories in the North Caucasus and South Caucasus to Russia.",
"During the next and final bout of hostilities between the two, the Russo-Persian War of 1826-1828, Baku was briefly recaptured by the Iranians.",
"However, militarily superior, the Russians ended this war in a victory as well, and the resulting Treaty of Turkmenchay made its inclusion into the Russian Empire definite.",
"When Baku was occupied by the Russian troops during the war of 1804–13, nearly the entire population of some 8,000 people was ethnic Tat.",
"=== Discovery of oil ===\n\nOil workers digging an oil well by hand at Bibi-Heybat.",
"The first oil well was mechanically drilled in the Bibi-Heybat suburb of Baku in 1846, though a number of hand-dug wells predate it.",
"Large-scale oil exploration started in 1872, when Russian imperial authorities auctioned the parcels of oil-rich land around Baku to private investors.",
"The pioneer of oil extracting from the bottom of the sea was Polish geologist Witold Zglenicki.",
"Soon after that Swiss, British, French, Belgian, German, Swedish and American investors appeared in Baku.",
"Among them were the firms of the Nobel brothers together with the family von Börtzell-Szuch (Carl Knut Börtzell, who also owned the Livadia Palace) and the Rothschild family.",
"An industrial oil belt, better known as Black City, was established near Baku.",
"Professor A. V. Williams Jackson of Columbia University wrote in his work ''From Constantinople to the Home of Omar Khayyam'' (1911):\n\n\nBy the beginning of the 20th century, half of the oil sold in international markets was being extracted in Baku.",
"The oil boom contributed to the massive growth of Baku.",
"Between 1856 and 1910 Baku's population grew at a faster rate than that of London, Paris or New York.",
"=== World War I ===\nSoldiers and officers of the army of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic shortly after the Battle of Baku.",
"Neftchiler Avenue in Baku, circa 1920.",
"In 1917, after the October revolution and amidst the turmoil of World War I and the breakup of the Russian Empire, Baku came under the control of the Baku Commune, which was led by veteran Bolshevik Stepan Shahumyan.",
"Seeking to capitalize on the existing inter-ethnic conflicts, by spring 1918, Bolsheviks inspired and condoned civil warfare in and around Baku.",
"During the infamous March Days, Bolsheviks and Dashnaks seeking to establish control over the Baku streets, were faced with armed Azerbaijani groups.",
"The Azerbaijanis suffered a crushing defeat by the united forces of the Baku Soviet and were massacred by Dashnak teams in what was called March Days.",
"An estimated 3–12,000 Azerbaijanis were killed in their own capital.",
"After the massacre, on 28 May 1918, the Azerbaijani faction of the Transcaucasian Sejm proclaimed the independence of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR) in Ganja, thereby becoming the first Muslim-majority democratic and secular republic.",
"The newly independent Azerbaijani republic, being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, asked the Ottoman Empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries.",
"Shortly after, Azerbaijani forces, with support of the Ottoman Army of Islam led by Nuru Pasha, started their advance into Baku, eventually capturing the city from the loose coalition of Bolsheviks, Esers, Dashnaks, Mensheviks and British forces under the command of General Lionel Dunsterville on 15 September 1918.",
"After the Battle of Baku, the Azerbaijani irregular troops, with the tacit support of the Turkish command, conducted four days of pillaging and killing of 10–30,000 of the Armenian residents of Baku.",
"This pogrom was known as the September Days.",
"Shortly after this Baku was proclaimed the new capital of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.",
"With Turkey having lost the war by October 1918 they conducted the Armistice of Mudros with the British which meant Baku was to be evacuated.",
"Headed by General William Thomson, British troops of 5,000 soldiers, including parts of Dunsterforce, arrived in Baku on 17 November.",
"Thomson declared himself military governor of Baku and implemented Martial law on the capital until \"the civil power would be strong enough to release the forces from the responsibility to maintain the public order\".",
"British forces left before the end of 1919 having felt they had done so.",
"=== Sovietization ===\nThe independence of the Azerbaijani republic was a significant but a short lived chapter.",
"On 28 April 1920, the 11th Red Army invaded Baku and reinstalled the Bolsheviks, making Baku the capital of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic.",
"The city underwent many major changes.",
"As a result, Baku played a great role in many branches of the Soviet life.",
"Since about 1921, the city was headed by the Baku City Executive Committee, commonly known in Russian as ''Bakgorispolkom''.",
"Together with the Baku Party Committee (known as the ''Baksovet''), it developed the economic significance of the Caspian metropolis.",
"From 1922 to 1930, Baku was the venue for one of the major Trade fairs of the Soviet Union, serving as a commercial bridgehead to Iran and the Middle East.",
"=== World War II ===\nBaku's growing importance as a major energy hub remained in sight of the major powers.",
"During World War II and the Nazi German invasion of the southwestern Soviet Union, Baku had become of vital strategic importance.",
"In fact, capturing the oil fields of Baku was one of the ultimate goals of Operation Edelweiss, carried out between May and November 1942.",
"However the German Army's closest approach to Baku was no closer than some northwest of Baku in November 1942, falling far short of the city's capture before being driven back during the Soviet Operation Little Saturn in mid-December 1942.",
"=== Fall of the Soviet Union and later ===\nAfter the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Baku embarked on a process of restructuring on a scale unseen in its history.",
"Thousands of buildings from the Soviet period were demolished to make way for a green belt on its shores; parks and gardens were built on the land reclaimed by filling up the beaches of the Baku Bay.",
"Improvements were made in the general cleaning, maintenance, and garbage collection, and these services are now at Western European standards.",
"The city is growing dynamically and developing at full speed on an east-west axis along the shores of the Caspian Sea.",
"Sustainability has become a key factor in future urban development.",
"Absheron Peninsular satellite image, Landsat 5, 6 September 2010\nBaku is situated on the western coast of Caspian Sea.",
"In the vicinity of the city there are a number of mud volcanoes (Keyraki, Bogkh-bogkha, Lokbatan and others) and salt lakes (Boyukshor, Khodasan and so on).",
"=== Climate ===\nBaku has a temperate semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: ''BSk'') with warm and dry summers, cool and occasionally wet winters, and strong winds all year long.",
"However, unlike many other cities with this climate, Baku does not see extremely hot summers.",
"This is largely because of its northerly latitude and the fact that it is located on a peninsula on the shore of the Caspian Sea.",
"Baku and the Absheron Peninsula on which it is situated, is the most arid part of Azerbaijan (precipitation here is around or less than a year).",
"The majority of the light annual precipitation occurs in seasons other than summer, but none of these seasons are particularly wet.",
"During Soviet times, Baku with its long hours of sunshine and dry healthy climate, was a vacation destination where citizens could enjoy beaches or relax in now-dilapidated spa complexes overlooking the Caspian Sea.",
"The city's past as a Soviet industrial center has left it as one of the most polluted cities in the world.",
"At the same time Baku is noted as a very windy city throughout the year, hence the city's nickname the \"City of Winds\", and gale-force winds, the cold northern wind ''khazri'' and the warm southern wind ''gilavar'' are typical here in all seasons.",
"Indeed, the city is renowned for its fierce winter snow storms and harsh winds.",
"The speed of the ''khazri'' sometimes reaches 144 kph (89 mph), which can cause damage to crops, trees and roof tiles.",
"The daily mean temperature in July and August averages , and there is very little rainfall during that season.",
"During summer the ''khazri'' sweeps through, bringing desired coolness.",
"Winter is cool and occasionally wet, with the daily mean temperature in January and February averaging .",
"During winter the ''khazri'' sweeps through, driven by polar air masses; temperatures on the coast frequently drop below freezing and make it feel bitterly cold.",
"Winter snow storms are occasional; snow usually melts within a few days after each snowfall.",
"Today, Baku is divided into 12 ''rayonlar (sub-rayons)'' (administrative districts) and 5 settlements of city type.",
"The mayor, presently Hajibala Abutalybov, embodies the executive power of the city.",
"* Binagadi raion ()\n* Garadagh raion ()\n* Khatai raion ()\n* Khazar raion ()\n* Narimanov raion ()\n* Nasimi raion ()\n\n* Nizami raion ()\n* Pirallahy raion ()\n* Sabail raion ()\n* Sabunchu raion ()\n* Surakhany raion ()\n* Yasamal raion ()",
"Until 1988 Baku had very large Russian, Armenian, and Jewish populations which contributed to cultural diversity and added in various ways (music, literature, architecture and progressive outlook) to Baku's history.",
"With the onset of the Karabakh War and the pogrom against Armenians starting in January 1990, the city's large Armenian population was expelled.",
"Under Communism, the Soviets took over the majority of Jewish property in Baku and Kuba.",
"After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Azerbaijani President Heydar Aliyev returned several synagogues and a Jewish college, nationalized by the Soviets, to the Jewish community.",
"He encouraged the restoration of these buildings and is well liked by the Jews of Azerbaijan.",
"Renovation has begun on seven of the original 11 synagogues, including the Gilah synagogue, built in 1896, and the large Kruei Synagogue.",
"Year\n Azerbaijanis\n %\n Russians\n %\n Armenians\n %\n Jews\n %\n Others\n %\n Total\n\n1851\nmore than 5000\n\n\n\n405\n5.5%\n\n\n\n\n7,431\n\n1886\n37,530\n43.3\n21,390\n24.7\n24,490\n28.3\n391\n0.5\n2,810\n3.2\n86,611\n\n1897\n40,341\n36\n37,399\n33.4\n19,099\n17.1\n3,369\n3\n11,696\n10.5\n111,904\n\n1903\n44,257\n28,4\n59,955\n38,5\n26,151\n16,8\nn.a.",
"n.a.",
"28,513\n18,3\n155,876\n\n1913\n45,962\n21,4\n76,288\n35,5\n41,680\n19,4\n9,690\n4,5\n41,052\n19,1\n214,672\n\n1926\n118,737\n26.2\n167,373\n36.9\n76,656\n16.9\n19,589\n4.3\n70,978\n15.7\n453,333\n\n1939\n215,482\n27.4\n343,064\n43.6\n118,650\n15.1\n31,050\n3.9\n79,377\n10.1\n787,623\n\n1959\n211,372\n32.9\n223,242\n34.7\n137,111\n21.3\n24,057\n3.7\n56,725\n8.7\n652,507\n\n1970\n586,052\n46.3\n351,090\n27.7\n207,464\n16.4\n29,716\n2.3\n88,193\n6.9\n1,262,515\n\n1979\n530,556\n52.4\n229,873\n22.7\n167,226\n16.5\n22,916\n2.3\n62,865\n6.2\n1,013,436\n\n1999\n1,574,252\n88\n119,371\n6.7\n378\n0.02\n5,164\n0.3\n89,689\n5\n1,788,854\n\n2009\n1,848,107\n90.3\n108,525\n5.3\n104\n0\n6,056\n0.6\n83,023\n4.1\n2,045,815\n\n\n=== Ethnic groups ===\nThe Armenian Saint Gregory the Illuminator's Church, Baku\nToday the vast majority of the population of Baku are ethnic Azerbaijanis (more than 90%).",
"When Baku was occupied by the Russian troops during the war of 1804–13, nearly the entire population of some 8,000 people was ethnic Tat.",
"The intensive growth of the population started in the middle of the 19th century when Baku was a small town with a population of about 7,000 people.",
"The population increased again from about 13,000 in the 1860s to 112,000 in 1897 and 215,000 in 1913, making Baku the largest city in the Caucasus region.",
"Baku has been a cosmopolitan city at certain times during its history, meaning ethnic Azerbaijanis did not constitute the majority of population.",
"In 2003 Baku additionally had 153,400 internally displaced persons and 93,400 refugees.",
"=== Religion ===\nThe 13th century Bibi-Heybat Mosque.",
"The mosque was built over the tomb of a descendant of Muhammad.",
"The urban landscape of Baku is shaped by many communities.",
"The religion with the largest community of followers is Islam.",
"The majority of the Muslims are Shia Muslims, and the Republic of Azerbaijan has the second highest Shia population percentage in the world after Iran.",
"The city's notable mosques include Juma Mosque, Bibi-Heybat Mosque, Muhammad Mosque and Taza Pir Mosque.",
"There are some other faiths practiced among the different ethnic groups within the country.",
"By article 48 of its Constitution, Azerbaijan is a secular state and ensures religious freedom.",
"Religious minorities include Russian Orthodox Christians, Catholic Levantines, Georgian Orthodox Christians, Lutherans, Ashkenazi Jews and Sufi Muslims.",
"Zoroastrianism, although extinct in the city as well as in the rest of the country by the present time, had a long history in Azerbaijan and the Zoroastrian New Year (Nowruz) continues to be the main holiday in the city as well as in the rest of Azerbaijan.",
"\nBaku's largest industry is petroleum, and its petroleum exports make it a large contributor to Azerbaijan's balance of payments.",
"The existence of petroleum has been known since the 8th century.",
"In the 10th century, the Arabian traveler, Marudee, reported that both white and black oil were being extracted naturally from Baku.",
"By the 15th century, oil for lamps was obtained from hand-dug surface wells.",
"Commercial exploitation began in 1872, and by the beginning of the 20th century the Baku oil fields were the largest in the world.",
"Towards the end of the 20th century much of the onshore petroleum had been exhausted, and drilling had extended into the sea offshore.",
"By the end of the 19th century skilled workers and specialists flocked to Baku.",
"By 1900 the city had more than 3,000 oil wells, of which 2,000 were producing oil at industrial levels.",
"Baku ranked as one of the largest centres for the production of oil industry equipment before World War II.",
"The World War II Battle of Stalingrad was fought to determine who would have control of the Baku oil fields.",
"Fifty years before the battle, Baku produced half of the world's oil supply.",
"Currently the oil economy of Baku is undergoing a resurgence, with the development of the massive Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli field (Shallow water Gunashli by SOCAR, deeper areas by a consortium led by BP), development of the Shah Deniz gas field, the expansion of the Sangachal Terminal and the construction of the BTC Pipeline.",
"The Baku Stock Exchange is Azerbaijan's largest stock exchange, and largest in the Caucasian region by market capitalization.",
"A relatively large number of transnational companies are headquartered in Baku.",
"International banks with branches in Baku include HSBC, Société Générale and Credit Suisse.",
"=== Tourism and shopping ===\nBaku is one of the most important tourist destinations in the Caucasus, with hotels in the city earning 7 million euros in 2009.",
"Many sizable world hotel chains have a presence in the city.",
"Baku has many popular tourist and entertainment spots, such as the downtown Fountains Square, the One and Thousand Nights Beach, Shikhov Beach and Oil Rocks.",
"Baku's vicinities feature Yanar Dag, an ever-blazing spot of natural gas.",
"On 2 September 2010, with the inauguration of National Flag Square, Baku became home to the world's tallest flagpole, according to the Guinness Book of Records.",
"However, on 24 May 2011 Baku lost this record by just to the city of Dushanbe in Tajikistan.",
"Baku has several shopping malls; the most famous city center malls are Park Bulvar, Genclik Mall, Metro Park, 28 MALL, Aygun city and AF MALL.",
"The retail areas contain shops from chain stores up to high-end boutiques.",
"The city is listed 48th in the 2011 list of the most expensive cities in the world conducted by the Mercer Human Resource Consulting.",
"Its Nizami Street is one of the most expensive streets in the world.",
"The city has many amenities that offer a wide range of cultural activities, drawing both from a rich local dramatic portfolio and an international repertoire.",
"It also boasts many museums such as Baku Museum of Modern Art and Azerbaijan State Museum of History, most notably featuring historical artifacts and art.",
"Many of the city's cultural sites were celebrated in 2009 when Baku was designated an Islamic Culture Capital.",
"Baku was also chosen to host the Eurovision Dance Contest 2010.",
"=== Theaters ===\n* Azerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre \n* Azerbaijan State Academic Drama Theatre\n* Azerbaijan State Russian Drama Theatre named after Samad Vurgun \n* Baku Puppet Theatre (formally Azerbaijan State Puppet Theatre named after Abdulla Shaig)\n* Azerbaijan State Theatre of Young Spectators\n* Azerbaijan State Theatre of Musical Comedy\n* Baku State Circus\n* \"Oda\" Theatre\n* Icherisheher Marionette Theatre\n* Baku Municipal Theatre\n* Azerbaijan State Pantomime Theatre\n* Mugham Azerbaijan National Music Theatre\n* Azerbaijan State Theatre of Song named after Rashid Behbudov\n* “UNS” Theatre\n* “Yugh” Theatre\n\nAmong Baku's prestigious cultural venues are Azerbaijan State Philharmonic Hall, Azerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre.",
"The main movie theatre is Azerbaijan Cinema.",
"Festivals include the Baku International Film Festival, Baku International Jazz Festival, Novruz Festival, ''Gül Bayramı'' (Flower Festival) and the National Theater Festival.",
"International and local exhibitions are presented at the Baku Expo Center.",
", the city along with Ganja and Lankaran participates in Earth Hour movement.",
"File:National Museum of History of Azerbaijan 10.JPG|National Museum of History\nFile:Nizami Museum of Azerbaijan Literature, Baku, 2015.jpg|Nizami Museum of Literature\nFile:National Art Museum of Azerbaijan (de Burs House) edited.jpg|National Art Museum\nFile:Villa Petrolea front.jpg|Villa Petrolea\nFile:Baku Museum of Modern Art.jpg|Baku Museum of Modern Art",
"\nMaiden Tower in Old Baku, a UNESCO World Heritage Site built in the 11th–12th century, recognised as the symbol of the city.",
"Caravanserai in Baku.",
"Baku has wildly varying architecture, ranging from the Old City core to modern buildings and the spacious layout of the Baku port.",
"Many of the city's most impressive buildings were built during the early 20th century, when architectural elements of the European styles were combined in eclectic style.",
"Baku thus has an original and unique appearance, earning it a reputation as the 'Paris of the East'.",
"=== Hamams ===\nHamam tradition in Baku is one of interesting one.",
"There are a number of ancient hamams in Baku belonging to 12th, 14th and 18th centuries.",
"Hamams also plays a very important role in the architectural appearance of Baku.",
"==== Teze Bey Hamam ====\nTeze Bey is the most popular hamam (traditional bath) in Baku.",
"It was built in 1886 in the center of Baku.",
"In 2003 Teze Bey was fully restored.",
"It meets all modern demands.",
"Teze Bey Hamam include Oriental, Russian and Finnish baths and a swimming pool.",
"==== Gum Hamam ====\nGum hamam was discovered during archaeological excavations.",
"It belongs to the XII-XIV.",
"It was under sand, that`s why it is called Gum hamam (sand bath).",
"==== Bairamali hamam ====\nIn old times Bairamali hamam was called “Bey hamam”.",
"The hamam belongs to the XII-XIV centuries.",
"In 1881 the hamam was reconstructed.",
"==== Agha Mikayil Hamam====\nAgha Mikayil Hamam was constructed in the XVIII century by Haji Agha Mikayil in Kichik Gala Street of Old city (icherisheher).",
"It is still operating keeping its ancient atmosphere.",
"The hamam is open to women on Mondays and Fridays, men the rest of the week.",
"Late modern and postmodern architecture began to appear in the early 2000s.",
"With economic development, old buildings such as Atlant House were razed to make way for new ones.",
"Buildings with all-glass shells have appeared around the city, the most prominent examples being the Azerbaijan Tower, Heydar Aliyev Cultural Center, Flame Towers, Baku Crystal Hall, Baku White City and SOCAR Tower.",
"These projects also caught the attention of international media as notable programmes such as Discovery Channel's Extreme Engineering did pieces focusing in on changes to the city.",
"The Old City of Baku, also known as the Walled City of Baku, refers to the ancient Baku settlement.",
"Most of the walls and towers, strengthened after the Russian conquest in 1806, survived.",
"This section is picturesque, with its maze of narrow alleys and ancient buildings: the cobbled streets past the Palace of the Shirvanshahs, two caravansaries, the baths and the Juma Mosque (which used to house the Azerbaijan National Carpet and Arts Museum but is now a mosque again).",
"The old town core also has dozens of small mosques, often without any particular sign to distinguish them as such.",
"In 2003, UNESCO placed the Inner City on the List of World Heritage in Danger, citing damage from a November 2000 earthquake, poor conservation as well as \"dubious\" restoration efforts.",
"=== Music and media ===\nBaku Crystal Hall during the Eurovision Song Contest 2012\n\nThe music scene in Baku can be traced back to ancient times and villages of Baku, generally revered as the fountainhead of meykhana and mugham in the Azerbaijan.",
"In recent years, the success of Azerbaijani performers such as AySel, Farid Mammadov, Sabina Babayeva, Safura and Elnur Hüseynov in the Eurovision Song Contest has significantly boosted the profile of Baku's music scene, prompting international attention.",
"Following the victory of Azerbaijan's representative Eldar & Nigar at the Eurovision Song Contest 2011, Baku hosted the Eurovision Song Contest 2012.",
"2005 was a landmark in the development of Azerbaijani jazz in the city.",
"It has been home to legendary jazz musicians like Vagif Mustafazadeh, Aziza Mustafa Zadeh, Rafig Babayev and Rain Sultanov.",
"Among Baku's prominent annual fairs and festivals is Baku International Jazz Festival, which features some of the world's most identifiable jazz names.",
"Baku also has a thriving International Center of Mugham, which is located in Baku Boulevard, Gulustan Palace and Buta Palace, one of the principal performing arts centers and music venues in the city.",
"The majority of Azerbaijan's media companies (including television, newspaper and radio, such as, Azad Azerbaijan TV, Ictimai TV, Lider TV and Region TV) are headquartered in Baku.",
"The films ''The World Is Not Enough'' and ''The Diamond Arm'' are set in the city, while ''Amphibian Man'' includes several scenes filmed in Old City.",
"Out of the city's radio stations, ''Ictimai Radio'', ''Radio Antenn'', ''Burc FM'', ''Avto FM'', ''ASAN Radio'' and ''Lider FM Jazz'' are some of the more influential competitors with large national audiences.",
"Some of the most influential Baku newspapers include the daily ''Azadliq'', ''Zaman'' (The Time), ''Bakinskiy Rabochiy'' (The Baku Worker), ''Echo'' and the English-language ''Baku Today''.",
"Baku is also featured in the video game ''Battlefield 4''.",
"=== Nightlife ===\nBaku boasts a vibrant nightlife.",
"Many clubs that are open until dawn can be found throughout the city.",
"Clubs with an eastern flavor provide special treats from the cuisine of Azerbaijan along with local music.",
"Western-style clubs target younger, more energetic crowds.",
"Most of the public houses and bars are located near Fountains Square and are usually open until the early hours of the morning.",
"Baku is home to restaurants catering to every cuisine and occasion.",
"Restaurants range from luxurious and expensive to ordinary and affordable.",
"In the Lonely Planet \"1000 Ultimate Experiences\", Baku placed 8th among the top 10 party cities in the world.",
"=== Parks and gardens ===\nPhilarmony garden\nBaku has large sections of greenery either preserved by the National Government or designated as green zones.",
"The city, however, continues to lack a green belt development as economic activity pours into the capital, resulting in massive housing projects along the suburbs.",
"Baku Boulevard is a pedestrian promenade that runs parallel to Baku's seafront.",
"The boulevard contains an amusement park, yacht club, musical fountain, statues and monuments.",
"The park is popular with dog-walkers and joggers, and is convenient for tourists.",
"It is adjacent to the newly built International Center of Mugham and the musical fountain.",
"Other prominent parks and gardens include Heydar Aliyev Park, Samad Vurgun Park, Narimanov Park, Alley of Honor and the Fountains Square.",
"The Martyrs' Lane, formerly the Kirov Park, is dedicated to the memory of those who lost their lives during the Nagorno-Karabakh War and also to the 137 people killed on Black January.",
"=== Sports ===\nHeydar Aliyev Sports and Exhibition Complex during the 2009 Rhythmic Gymnastics European Championships Baku hosts a Formula One race on the Baku City Circuit.",
"The first was the 2016 European Grand Prix.",
"The city will also host three group games and one quarter-final of the UEFA Euro 2020 European Football Championship.",
"Since 2002, Baku has hosted 36 major sporting events and selected to host the 2015 European Games.",
"Baku is also to host the fourth edition of the Islamic Solidarity Games in 2017.",
"Baku is also one of world's leading chess centres, having produced famous grandmasters like Teimour Radjabov, Vugar Gashimov, Garry Kasparov, Shahriyar Mammadyarov and Rauf Mammadov, as well as the arbiter Faik Hasanov.",
"The city also annually hosts the international tournaments such as Baku Chess Grand Prix, President's Cup, Baku Open and currently bidding to host 42nd Chess Olympiad in 2014.",
"First class sporting facilities were built for the indoor games, including the Palace of Hand Games and Heydar Aliyev Sports and Exhibition Complex.",
"It hosted many sporting events, including FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup, Rhythmic Gymnastics European Championships in 2007 and 2009, 2005 World Rhythmic Gymnastics Championships, 2007 FILA Wrestling World Championships and 2010 European Wrestling Championships, 2011 World Amateur Boxing Championships, 2009 Women's Challenge Cup and European Taekwondo Championships in 2007.",
"Since 2011 the city annually hosts WTA tennis event called Baku Cup.",
"The Synergy Baku Cycling Project participates in the Tour d'Azerbaïdjan a 2.2 multi-stage bicycle race on the UCI Europe Tour.",
"Baku made a bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics and 2020 Summer Olympics, but failed to become a Candidate City both times.",
"The largest sport hub in the city is Baku Olympic Stadium with 68,700 seating capacity whose construction was completed in 2015.",
"The city's three main football clubs are Neftchi Baku, Inter Baku and FC Baku of whom first has eight Premier League titles making Neftchi the most successful Azerbaijani football club.",
"Baku also has several football clubs in the premier and regional leagues, including AZAL and Ravan in Premier League.",
"The city's second largest stadium, Tofiq Bahramov Stadium hosts a number of domestic and international competitions and was the main sport centre of the city for a long period until the construction of Baku Olympic Stadium.",
"In the Azerbaijan Women's Volleyball Super League, Baku is represented by Rabita Baku, Azerrail Baku, Lokomotiv Baku and Azeryol Baku.",
"Baku black cab, introduced in 2011\nThe car of the Baku Funicular station\nThroughout history the transport system of Baku used the now-defunct horsecars, trams and narrow gauge railways.",
", 1,000 black cabs are ordered by Baku Taxi Company, and as part of a programme originally announced by the Transport Ministry of Azerbaijan, there is a plan to introduce London cabs into Baku.",
"The move was part of £16 million agreement between Manganese Bronze and Baku Taxi Company.",
"Local rail transport includes the Baku Funicular and the Baku Metro, a rapid-transit system notable for its art, murals, mosaics and ornate chandeliers.",
"Baku Metro was opened in November 1967 and includes 3 lines and 25 stations at present; 170 million people used Baku Metro over the past five years.",
"In 2008, the Chief of the Baku Metro, Taghi Ahmadov, announced plans to construct 41 new stations over the next 17 years.",
"These will serve the new bus complex as well as the international airport.",
"BakuCard is a single Smart Card for payment on all types of city transport.",
"The intercity buses and metro use this type of card-based fare-payment system.",
"Baku's Central Railway Station is the terminus for national and international rail links to the city.",
"The Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway, which will directly connect Turkey, Georgia and Azerbaijan, began to be constructed in 2007 and is scheduled for completion in 2015.",
"The completed branch will connect Baku with Tbilisi in Georgia, and from there trains will continue to Akhalkalaki, and Kars in Turkey.",
"Baku Yacht Club\nSea transport is vital for Baku, as the city is practically surrounded by the Caspian Sea to the east.",
"Shipping services operate regularly from Baku across the Caspian Sea to Turkmenbashi (formerly Krasnovodsk) in Turkmenistan and to Bandar Anzali and Bandar Nowshar in Iran.",
"The commuter ferries, along with the high-speed catamaran ''Seabus'' (''Deniz Avtobusu''), also form the main connection between the city and the Absheron peninsula.",
"The Baku Port was founded in 1902 and since then has been the largest Caspian Sea port.",
"It has six facilities: the main cargo terminal, the container terminal, the ferry terminal, the oil terminal, the passenger terminal and the port fleet terminal.",
"The port's throughput capacity reaches 15 million tons of liquid bulk and up to 10 million tons of dry cargoes.",
"Beginning in 2010, the Baku International Sea Trade Port is being reconstructed.",
"The construction will take place in three stages and will be completed by 2016.",
"The estimated costs are 400 Million US$.",
"From April to November the Baku Port is accessible to ships loading cargoes for direct voyages from Western European and Mediterranean ports.",
"The State Road M-1 and the European route E60 are the two main motorway connections between Europe and Azerbaijan.",
"The motorway network around Baku is well developed and is constantly being extended.",
"The Heydar Aliyev International Airport is the only commercial airport serving Baku.",
"The new Baku Cargo Terminal was officially opened in March 2005.",
"It was constructed to be a major cargo hub in the CIS countries and is actually now one of the biggest and most technically advanced in the region.",
"There are also several smaller military airbases near Baku, such as Baku Kala Air Base, intended for private aircraft, helicopters and charters.",
"\nBaku hosts many universities, junior colleges and vocational schools.",
"Baku State University, the first established university in Azerbaijan was opened in 1919 by the government of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.",
"In the early years of the Soviet era, Baku already had Azerbaijan State Oil Academy, Azerbaijan Medical University and Azerbaijan State Economic University.",
"In the post-WWII period, a few more universities were established such as Azerbaijan Technical University, Azerbaijan University of Languages and the Azerbaijan Architecture and Construction University.",
"After 1991 when Azerbaijan gained independence from the Soviet Union, the fall of communism led to the development of a number of private institutions, including Qafqaz University and Khazar University which are currently considered the most prestigious academic institutions.",
"Apart from the private universities, the government established the Academy of Public Administration, the Azerbaijan Diplomatic Academy and various military academies.",
"The largest universities according to the student population are Baku State University and Azerbaijan State Economic University.",
"In addition, there are the Baku Music Academy and the Azerbaijan National Conservatoire in Baku established in the early 1920s.",
"Publicly run kindergartens and elementary schools (years 1 through 11) are operated by local wards or municipal offices.",
"The Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences, the main state research organization in Azerbaijan is locating in Baku as well.",
"Moreover, Baku has numerous libraries, many of which contain vast collections of historic documents from the Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman and Soviet periods, as well as from other civilisations of the past.",
"The most important libraries in terms of historic document collections include the Nizami Museum of Azerbaijan Literature, the National Library of Azerbaijan, the Mirza Alakbar Central Library, the Samad Vurgun Library and the Baku Presidential Library.",
"The city has many public and private hospitals, clinics and laboratories within its bounds and numerous medical research centers.",
"Many of these facilities have high technology equipment, which has contributed to the recent upsurge in \"medical tourism\" to Baku, particularly from post-Soviet countries such as Georgia and Moldova, whose governments send lower-income patients to the city for inexpensive high-tech medical treatments and operations.",
"\n\nBecause of its intermittent periods of great prosperity as well as being the largest city in the Caucasus and one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse in the Soviet Union, Baku prides itself on having produced a disproportionate number of notable figures in the sciences, arts and other fields.",
"Some of the houses they resided in display commemorative plaques.",
"Some of the many prestigious residents include: Academy Award winners Rustam Ibrahimbeyov and Vladimir Menshov, one of the founders and head of the Soviet space program Kerim Kerimov, Nobel Prize winner and physicist Lev Landau and famous musicians such as Gara Garayev, Uzeyir Hajibeyov, Muslim Magomayev, Vagif Mustafazadeh and Alim Qasimov.",
"World-famous cellist Mstislav Rostropovich was born and raised in Baku, as was world-famous chess player, Garry Kasparov.",
"File:Gusman Yliy.jpg|Yuli Gusman, Film director and actor, founder and CEO of the prestigious Nika Award.",
"File:Landau.jpg|Physicist Lev Landau, studied at the Baku State University, won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1962.",
"File:Hokuma Qurbanova.jpg|Hokuma Gurbanova, People’s Artist of the USSR and famous theatre and film actress.",
"File:Mushfig.JPG|Mikayil Mushfig, Bakuvian poet and victim of the Stalinist purges.",
"File:Stamps of Azerbaijan, 2007-813.jpg|Kerim Kerimov, one of the founders of the Soviet space program.",
"File:Tofiq Bahramov.jpg|Tofiq Bahramov as a Soviet footballer and football referee from Azerbaijan.",
"File:Вагит Алекперов.jpg|Vagit Alekperov, President of the leading Russian oil company LUKOIL.",
"File:Stamps of Azerbaijan, 2012-1047.jpg|Muslim Magomayev, one of the most famous singers of USSR.",
"File:RIAN archive 438589 Mstislav Rostropovich.jpg|Mstislav Rostropovich, Grammy Award-winning cellist.",
"File:Kasparov-34.jpg|Garry Kasparov, chess grandmaster, former World Chess Champion.",
"\n\n=== Twin towns and sister cities ===\nBaku is twinned with:in chronological order\n\n\n\nCountry\nCity\nState / Province / Region / Governorate\nDate\n\n\nSenegal\n25px\n'''Dakar'''\n25px\n''Dakar Region''\n1967\n\n\nItaly\n25px\n'''Naples'''\n23px\n''Campania''\n1972\n\n\nIraq\n\n'''Basra'''\n\n''Basra Governorate''\n1972\n\n\nBosnia and Herzegovina\n25px\n'''Sarajevo'''\n23px\n''Sarajevo Canton''\n1975\n\n\nUnited States\n25px\n'''Christiansted, United States Virgin Islands'''\n\n''Virgin Islands''\n1976\n\n\nUnited States\n25px\n'''Houston'''\n23px\n''Texas''\n1976\n\n\nFrance\n25px\n'''Bordeaux'''\n25px\n''Aquitaine''\n1979\n\n\nIran\n25px\n'''Tabriz'''\n\n''East Azerbaijan Province''\n1980\n\n\nTurkey\n 25px\n'''İzmir'''\n\n''İzmir Province''\n1985\n\n\n\nVietnam\n\n'''Vũng Tàu'''\n\n''Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu Province''\n1985\n\n\nUnited States\n25px\n'''Honolulu County'''\n23px\n''Hawaii''\n1998\n\n\nTurkey\n\n'''Sivas'''\n\n''Sivas Province''\n2000\n\n\nBrazil\n25px\n'''Rio de Janeiro'''\n23px\n''State of Rio de Janeiro''\n2013\n\n\nUkraine\n25px\n'''Kiev'''\n23px\n''Kiev City''\n\n\n\nIsrael \n25px\n'''Haifa''' \n\n\n\n\n\n=== Partner cities ===\n* Aberdeen, Scotland\n* Mainz, Germany\n* Stavanger, Norway\n\nPartnership relations also exist at different levels with: Berlin, Paris, Vienna, Tbilisi, Astana, Minsk, Moscow, Volgograd, Kizlyar, Tashkent and Chengdu.",
"\n\n\n\nFile:City of Baku 2011.jpg|Baku Bay\nFile:View of Bakucity, 2012.jpg|Old Baku \"Icheri Sheher\"\nFile:Nizami street baku.JPG|Nizami Street\nFile:Azərbaycan Dövlət Opera və Balet Teatrı.jpg|Baku Opera and Ballet Theatre\nFile:Ismailiyye palace main façade, Baku, 2015.jpg|Ismailiyya building\nFile:Torre de la Doncella, Baku, Azerbaiyán, 2016-09-26, DD 215-217 HDR.jpg|Maiden Tower\nFile:Icheri sheher 01.JPG|Icheri Sheher\nFile:Fuente en Baku, Azerbaiyán, 2016-09-26, DD 227-229 HDR.jpg|Fountain and Azerbaijan State Philharmonic Hall\nFile:Baku Seaside Bulevard.JPG|Baku seaside Boulevard\nFile:Azneft Square, Baku, 2012.jpg|Azerbaijan's Flag\nFile:Saadet sarayi 2.jpg|Palace of Happiness\nFile:Nizami street in Baku, 2010.jpg|Fountains Square\nFile:Rashidbehbudovstr.JPG|Rashid Behbudov Street\nFile:Aerial View of Baku, May 2012.jpg|Aerial view of Baku, May 2012\nFile:Baku, Azerbaijan.jpg|View of Baku taken from the International Space Station\nFile:Evening Baku, Azerbaijan.jpg|Evening Baku, Azerbaijan\nFile:A view of the Baku bay, Azerbaijan.jpg|A view of the Baku bay",
"\n* Administrative divisions of Azerbaijan\n* Ganja\n* List of cities in Azerbaijan\n* Mingachevir\n* Nakhchivan\n* Sumgait\n* 1920 Baku Congress\n* Ateshgah of Baku",
"\n\n\n*\n* Baku's profile at the Organization of World Heritage Cities website\n* UNESCO World Heritage Site listing Walled City of Baku\n* Photos of Baku\n* Trip To Azerbaijan"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\nThe '''Bank of China Tower''' (abbreviated '''BOC Tower''') is one of the most recognisable skyscrapers in Central, Hong Kong. It houses the headquarters for the Bank of China (Hong Kong) Limited. The building is located at 1 Garden Road, in Central and Western District on Hong Kong Island.\n\nDesigned by I. M. Pei and L.C Pei of I.M Pei and Partners, the building is high with two masts reaching high.\nIt was the tallest building in Hong Kong and Asia from 1989 to 1992, and it was the first supertall skyscraper outside the United States, the first to break the 305 m (1,000 ft) mark. It is now the fourth tallest skyscraper in Hong Kong, after International Commerce Centre, Two International Finance Centre and Central Plaza.\n",
"The site on which the building is constructed was formerly the location of Murray House. After its brick-by-brick relocation to Stanley, the site was sold by the Government for \"only HK$1 billion\" in August 1982 amidst growing concern over the future of Hong Kong in the run-up to the transfer of sovereignty.\n\nOnce developed, gross floor area was expected to be 100,000 m². The original project was intended for completion on the auspicious date of 8 August 1988. However, owing to project delays, groundbreaking took place in March 1985, almost two years late. It was topped out in 1989, and occupied on 15 June 1990.\n\nThe building was initially built by the Hong Kong Branch of the Bank of China; its Garden Road entrance continues to display the name \"Bank of China\", rather than BOCHK. The top four and the bottom 19 stories are used by the Bank, while the other floors are leased out. Ownership has since been transferred to BOCHK, although the Bank of China has leased back several floors for use by its own operations in Hong Kong.\n\n===Favouritism controversy===\n\nThe Government had apparently given preferential treatment to Chinese companies, and was again criticised for the apparent preferential treatment to the BOCHK.\n\nThe price paid was half the amount of the 6,250 m² Admiralty II plot, for which the MTR Corporation paid HK$1.82 billion in cash. The BOC would make initial payment of $60 million, with the rest payable over 13 years at 6% interest. The announcement of the sale was also poorly handled, and a dive in business confidence ensued. The Hang Seng Index fell 80 points, and the HK$ lost 1.5% of its value the next day.\n",
"\nDesigned by Pritzker Prize-winning architect I. M. Pei, the building is high with two masts reaching high. The 72-story building is located near Central MTR station. This was the tallest building in Hong Kong and Asia from 1990 to 1992, the first building outside the United States to break the 305 m (1,000 ft) mark, and the first composite space frame high-rise building. That also means it was the tallest outside the United States from its completion year, 1990. It is now the fourth tallest skyscraper in Hong Kong, after International Commerce Centre, Two International Finance Centre and Central Plaza.Massing model showing the shape of the Bank of China Tower. The labels correspond to the number of 'X' shapes on each outward facing side.\n\nA small observation deck on the 43rd floor of the building is open to the public.\n\nThe structural expressionism adopted in the design of this building resembles growing bamboo shoots, symbolising livelihood and prosperity. The whole structure is supported by the four steel columns at the corners of the building, with the triangular frameworks transferring the weight of the structure onto these four columns. It is covered with glass curtain walls.\n\nWhile its distinctive look makes it one of Hong Kong's most identifiable landmarks today, it was the source of some controversy at one time, as the bank is the only major building in Hong Kong to have bypassed the convention of consulting with feng shui masters on matters of design prior to construction.\n\nThe building has been criticised by some practitioners of feng shui for its sharp edges and its negative symbolism by the numerous 'X' shapes in its original design, though Pei modified the design to some degree before construction following this feedback. The building's profile from some angles resembles that of a meat cleaver This earned it the nickname “一把刀”(Yaat Baa Dou) in Cantonese, literally meaning 'One Knife'.The Bank Of China Tower can be accessed by the MTR by going through Chater Garden from Central Station Exit J2.\n",
"\"Inside Man\"\n* In the 2012 film ''Battleship'', the building is torn in half by a crashing alien spaceship and its spire falls into the streets of Hong Kong, killing many people.\n* In ''Star Trek: Voyager'', the building is used as the exterior of Starfleet Communications Research Center.\n* The building in seen on the attraction It's a Small World at Hong Kong Disneyland.\n* The building was featured in the film ''Transformers: Age of Extinction'', where Bumblebee and Dinobot Strafe makes their final stand against the Decepticon drone Stinger.\n",
"\nImage:Bank of China Tower GF Lobby.jpg|Bank of China Tower lobby on Ground Floor\nImage:HK Bank of China Tower 2008.jpg|Bank of China Tower in morning\nFile:BOC HSBC Cheung Kong Center Jardine House.jpg|The Bank of China Tower (first building from the left) is located in the central business district on Hong Kong Island, next to the HSBC Building, Cheung Kong Center and Jardine House.\nFile:Bank of China Tower 2010.jpg|Bank of China Tower photographed in the late evening.\n\n",
"* Bank of China Building, the old headquarters of the Bank of China\n* List of buildings and structures in Hong Kong\n* List of skyscrapers\n* List of towers\n* List of tallest freestanding structures in the world\n* List of the world's tallest structures\n",
"\n* \n",
"\n* About BOC Tower on Bank of China (Hong Kong) website\n* Great Buildings Online site on BOC Tower\n* Buildable paper model of the tower\n* Elevator Layout\n* Branch Details for Hong Kong Bank of China Tower\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Plot history",
" Design",
"In popular culture",
" Pictures",
" See also",
" References",
" External links"
] | Bank of China Tower (Hong Kong) | [
"\n\n\nThe '''Bank of China Tower''' (abbreviated '''BOC Tower''') is one of the most recognisable skyscrapers in Central, Hong Kong.",
"It houses the headquarters for the Bank of China (Hong Kong) Limited.",
"The building was initially built by the Hong Kong Branch of the Bank of China; its Garden Road entrance continues to display the name \"Bank of China\", rather than BOCHK.",
"The top four and the bottom 19 stories are used by the Bank, while the other floors are leased out.",
"Ownership has since been transferred to BOCHK, although the Bank of China has leased back several floors for use by its own operations in Hong Kong.",
"It is now the fourth tallest skyscraper in Hong Kong, after International Commerce Centre, Two International Finance Centre and Central Plaza.Massing model showing the shape of the Bank of China Tower.",
"While its distinctive look makes it one of Hong Kong's most identifiable landmarks today, it was the source of some controversy at one time, as the bank is the only major building in Hong Kong to have bypassed the convention of consulting with feng shui masters on matters of design prior to construction.",
"The building's profile from some angles resembles that of a meat cleaver This earned it the nickname “一把刀”(Yaat Baa Dou) in Cantonese, literally meaning 'One Knife'.The Bank Of China Tower can be accessed by the MTR by going through Chater Garden from Central Station Exit J2.",
"\nImage:Bank of China Tower GF Lobby.jpg|Bank of China Tower lobby on Ground Floor\nImage:HK Bank of China Tower 2008.jpg|Bank of China Tower in morning\nFile:BOC HSBC Cheung Kong Center Jardine House.jpg|The Bank of China Tower (first building from the left) is located in the central business district on Hong Kong Island, next to the HSBC Building, Cheung Kong Center and Jardine House.",
"File:Bank of China Tower 2010.jpg|Bank of China Tower photographed in the late evening.",
"* Bank of China Building, the old headquarters of the Bank of China\n* List of buildings and structures in Hong Kong\n* List of skyscrapers\n* List of towers\n* List of tallest freestanding structures in the world\n* List of the world's tallest structures",
"\n* About BOC Tower on Bank of China (Hong Kong) website\n* Great Buildings Online site on BOC Tower\n* Buildable paper model of the tower\n* Elevator Layout\n* Branch Details for Hong Kong Bank of China Tower"
] | [
"The building is located at 1 Garden Road, in Central and Western District on Hong Kong Island.",
"Designed by I. M. Pei and L.C Pei of I.M Pei and Partners, the building is high with two masts reaching high.",
"It was the tallest building in Hong Kong and Asia from 1989 to 1992, and it was the first supertall skyscraper outside the United States, the first to break the 305 m (1,000 ft) mark.",
"It is now the fourth tallest skyscraper in Hong Kong, after International Commerce Centre, Two International Finance Centre and Central Plaza.",
"The site on which the building is constructed was formerly the location of Murray House.",
"After its brick-by-brick relocation to Stanley, the site was sold by the Government for \"only HK$1 billion\" in August 1982 amidst growing concern over the future of Hong Kong in the run-up to the transfer of sovereignty.",
"Once developed, gross floor area was expected to be 100,000 m².",
"The original project was intended for completion on the auspicious date of 8 August 1988.",
"However, owing to project delays, groundbreaking took place in March 1985, almost two years late.",
"It was topped out in 1989, and occupied on 15 June 1990.",
"===Favouritism controversy===\n\nThe Government had apparently given preferential treatment to Chinese companies, and was again criticised for the apparent preferential treatment to the BOCHK.",
"The price paid was half the amount of the 6,250 m² Admiralty II plot, for which the MTR Corporation paid HK$1.82 billion in cash.",
"The BOC would make initial payment of $60 million, with the rest payable over 13 years at 6% interest.",
"The announcement of the sale was also poorly handled, and a dive in business confidence ensued.",
"The Hang Seng Index fell 80 points, and the HK$ lost 1.5% of its value the next day.",
"\nDesigned by Pritzker Prize-winning architect I. M. Pei, the building is high with two masts reaching high.",
"The 72-story building is located near Central MTR station.",
"This was the tallest building in Hong Kong and Asia from 1990 to 1992, the first building outside the United States to break the 305 m (1,000 ft) mark, and the first composite space frame high-rise building.",
"That also means it was the tallest outside the United States from its completion year, 1990.",
"The labels correspond to the number of 'X' shapes on each outward facing side.",
"A small observation deck on the 43rd floor of the building is open to the public.",
"The structural expressionism adopted in the design of this building resembles growing bamboo shoots, symbolising livelihood and prosperity.",
"The whole structure is supported by the four steel columns at the corners of the building, with the triangular frameworks transferring the weight of the structure onto these four columns.",
"It is covered with glass curtain walls.",
"The building has been criticised by some practitioners of feng shui for its sharp edges and its negative symbolism by the numerous 'X' shapes in its original design, though Pei modified the design to some degree before construction following this feedback.",
"\"Inside Man\"\n* In the 2012 film ''Battleship'', the building is torn in half by a crashing alien spaceship and its spire falls into the streets of Hong Kong, killing many people.",
"* In ''Star Trek: Voyager'', the building is used as the exterior of Starfleet Communications Research Center.",
"* The building in seen on the attraction It's a Small World at Hong Kong Disneyland.",
"* The building was featured in the film ''Transformers: Age of Extinction'', where Bumblebee and Dinobot Strafe makes their final stand against the Decepticon drone Stinger.",
"\n*"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n'''Lemon Henry''' \"'''Blind Lemon'''\" '''Jefferson''' (September 24, 1893 – December 19, 1929) was an American blues and gospel singer, songwriter, and musician. He was one of the most popular blues singers of the 1920s and has been called the \"Father of the Texas Blues\".\n\nJefferson's performances were distinctive because of his high-pitched voice and the originality of his guitar playing. His recordings sold well, but he was not a strong influence on younger blues singers of his generation, who could not imitate him as easily as they could other commercially successful artists. Later blues and rock and roll musicians, however, did attempt to imitate both his songs and his musical style.\n",
"\n===Early life===\nJefferson was born blind (or possibly partially blind), near Coutchman, Texas. He was the youngest of seven (or possibly eight) children born to Alex and Clarissa Jefferson, who were sharecroppers. Disputes regarding the date of his birth derive from contradictory census records and draft registration records. By 1900, the family was farming southeast of Streetman, Texas, and his birth date is indicated as September 1893 in the 1900 census. The 1910 census, taken in May, before his birthday, further confirms his year of birth as 1893 and indicated that the family was farming northwest of Wortham, near his birthplace.\n\nIn his 1917 draft registration, Jefferson gave his birth date as October 26, 1894, further stating that he then lived in Dallas, Texas, and had been blind since birth. In the 1920 census, he is recorded as having returned to Freestone County and was living with his half-brother, Kit Banks, on a farm between Wortham and Streetman.\n\nJefferson began playing the guitar in his early teens and soon after he began performing at picnics and parties. He became a street musician, playing in East Texas towns in front of barbershops and on street corners. According to his cousin Alec Jefferson, quoted in the notes for ''Blind Lemon Jefferson, Classic Sides'':\n\n\n\nIn the early 1910s, Jefferson began traveling frequently to Dallas, where he met and played with the blues musician Lead Belly. Jefferson was one of the earliest and most prominent figures in the blues movement developing in the Deep Ellum section of Dallas. It is likely that he moved to Deep Ellum on a more permanent basis by 1917, where he met Aaron Thibeaux Walker, also known as T-Bone Walker. Jefferson taught Walker the basics of playing blues guitar in exchange for Walker's occasional services as a guide. By the early 1920s, Jefferson was earning enough money for his musical performances to support a wife and, possibly, a child. However, firm evidence of his marriage and children has not been found.\n\n===Beginning of recording career===\nPrior to Jefferson, few artists had recorded solo voice and blues guitar, the first of which were the vocalist Sara Martin and the guitarist Sylvester Weaver, who recorded \"Longing for Daddy Blues\", probably on October 24, 1923. The first self-accompanied solo performer of a self-composed blues song was Lee Morse, whose \"Mail Man Blues\" was recorded on October 7, 1924. Jefferson's music is uninhibited and represented the classic sounds of everyday life, from a honky-tonk to a country picnic, to street corner blues, to work in the burgeoning oil fields (a reflection of his interest in mechanical objects and processes).\n\nJefferson did what few had ever done before him – he became a successful solo guitarist and male vocalist in the commercial recording world. Unlike many artists who were \"discovered\" and recorded in their normal venues, Jefferson was taken to Chicago, Illinois, in December 1925 or January 1926 to record his first tracks. Uncharacteristically, his first two recordings from this session were gospel songs (\"I Want to Be Like Jesus in My Heart\" and \"All I Want Is That Pure Religion\"), released under the name '''Deacon L. J. Bates'''. A second recording session was held in March 1926. His first releases under his own name, \"Booster Blues\" and \"Dry Southern Blues\", were hits. Their popularity led to the release of the other two songs from that session, \"Got the Blues\" and \"Long Lonesome Blues\", which became a runaway success, with sales in six figures. He recorded about 100 tracks between 1926 and 1929; 43 records were issued, all but one for Paramount Records. Paramount's studio techniques and quality were poor, and the recordings were released with poor sound quality. In May 1926, Paramount re-recorded Jefferson performing his hits \"Got the Blues\" and \"Long Lonesome Blues\" in the superior facilities at Marsh Laboratories, and subsequent releases used those versions. Both versions appear on compilation albums.\n\n===Success with Paramount Records===\nLabel of one of Jefferson's Paramount records, 1926\nLargely because of the popularity of artists such as Jefferson and his contemporaries Blind Blake and Ma Rainey, Paramount became the leading recording company for the blues in the 1920s. Jefferson's earnings reputedly enabled him to buy a car and employ chauffeurs (this information has been disputed); he was given a Ford car \"worth over $700\" by Mayo Williams, Paramount's connection with the black community. This was a common compensation for recording rights in that market. Jefferson is known to have done an unusual amount of traveling for the time in the American South, which is reflected in the difficulty of placing his music in a single regional category.\n\nJefferson's \"old-fashioned\" sound and confident musicianship made it easy to market him. His skillful guitar playing and impressive vocal range opened the door for a new generation of male solo blues performers, such as Furry Lewis, Charlie Patton, and Barbecue Bob. He stuck to no musical conventions, varying his riffs and rhythm and singing complex and expressive lyrics in a manner exceptional at the time for a \"simple country blues singer.\" According to the North Carolina musician Walter Davis, Jefferson played on the streets in Johnson City, Tennessee, during the early 1920s, at which time Davis and the entertainer Clarence Greene learned the art of blues guitar.\n\nJefferson was reputedly unhappy with his royalties (although Williams said that Jefferson had a bank account containing as much as $1500). In 1927, when Williams moved to Okeh Records, he took Jefferson with him, and Okeh quickly recorded and released Jefferson's \"Matchbox Blues\", backed with \"Black Snake Moan\". It was his only Okeh recording, probably because of contractual obligations with Paramount. Jefferson's two songs released on Okeh have considerably better sound quality than his Paramount records at the time. When he returned to Paramount a few months later, \"Matchbox Blues\" had already become such a hit that Paramount re-recorded and released two new versions, with the producer Arthur Laibly. In 1927, Jefferson recorded another of his classic songs, the haunting \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\" (again using the pseudonym Deacon L. J. Bates), and two other uncharacteristically spiritual songs, \"He Arose from the Dead\" and \"Where Shall I Be\". \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\" was so successful that it was re-recorded and re-released in 1928.\n\n===Death and grave===\nJefferson died in Chicago at 10:00 a.m. on December 19, 1929, of what his death certificate said was \"probably acute myocarditis\". For many years, rumors circulated that a jealous lover had poisoned his coffee, but a more likely explanation is that he died of a heart attack after becoming disoriented during a snowstorm. Some have said that he died of a heart attack after being attacked by a dog in the middle of the night. The book ''Tolbert's Texas'' claimed that he was killed while being robbed of a large royalty payment by a guide escorting him to Union Station to catch a train home to Texas. Paramount Records paid for the return of his body to Texas by train, accompanied by the pianist William Ezell.\n\nJefferson was buried at Wortham Negro Cemetery (later Wortham Black Cemetery). Far from being kept clean, his grave was unmarked until 1967, when a Texas historical marker was erected in the general area of his plot, the precise location of which is unknown. By 1996, the cemetery and marker were in poor condition, and a new granite headstone was erected in 1997. In 2007, the cemetery's name was changed to Blind Lemon Memorial Cemetery, and his gravesite is kept clean by a cemetery committee in Wortham, Texas.\n",
"\nJefferson had an intricate and fast style of guitar playing and a particularly high-pitched voice. He was a founder of the Texas blues sound and an important influence on other blues singers and guitarists, including Lead Belly and Lightnin' Hopkins.\n\nHe was the author of many songs covered by later musicians, including the classic \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\". Another of his songs, \"Matchbox Blues\", was recorded more than 30 years later by the Beatles, in a rockabilly version credited to Carl Perkins, who did not credit Jefferson on his 1955 recording.\n\nThe Rock and Roll Hall of Fame selected Jefferson's 1927 recording of \"Matchbox Blues\" as one of the 500 songs that shaped rock and roll. Jefferson was among the inaugural class of blues musicians inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame in 1980.\n",
"*Bukka White, \"Jack o' Diamonds\", on ''1963 Isn't 1962'', released in the 1990s\n*Bob Dylan, \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\", on ''Bob Dylan''\n*Grateful Dead, \"One Kind Favor\" (a version of \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\"), on ''Birth of the Dead''\n*Merl Saunders, Jerry Garcia, John Kahn, Bil Vitt, \"One Kind Favor\", on ''Keystone Encores Volume I''\n*John Hammond, \"One Kind Favor\", on ''John Hammond Live''\n*B.B. King, \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\", on ''One Kind Favor''\n*Peter, Paul & Mary, \"One Kind Favor\", on ''In Concert''\n*Kelly Joe Phelps, \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\", on ''Roll Away the Stone''\n*Counting Crows, \"Mean Jumper Blues\". Counting Crows lead singer Adam Duritz accidentally claimed credit for \"Mean Jumper Blues\" in the liner notes of the deluxe edition reissue of the album ''August and Everything After''. The cover was featured as part of a selection of early demo tracks. Immediately after the error was brought to his attention, Duritz apologized in his personal blog.\n*Laibach, \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\", on ''SPECTRE''\n*Pat Donohue, \"One Kind Favor\", live on Garrison Keillor's radio program ''A Prairie Home Companion'' and later released on the CD ''Radio Blues''\n*Corey Harris, \"Jack o' Diamonds\", on ''Fish Ain't Bitin''', released 1997\n*Diamanda Galás, \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\", on ''The Singer''\n*Phish, \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\", live at Madison Square Garden, New York, NY, 08/04/2017\n",
"* In 2009, the Grammy-nominated R&B act Yarbrough and Peoples were featured in the off-Broadway play ''Blind Lemon Blues''.\n* A tribute song, \"My Buddy Blind Papa Lemon\", was recorded for Paramount Records in 1932 by King Solomon Hill. The record was long considered lost, but a copy was located by John Tefteller in 2002.\n* Geoff Muldaur refers to Jefferson in the song \"Got to Find Blind Lemon\" on the album ''The Secret Handshake''.\n* Art Evans portrayed Jefferson in the 1976 film ''Leadbelly'', directed by Gordon Parks.\n* Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds recorded the song \"Blind Lemon Jefferson\" on the album ''The Firstborn Is Dead''.\n* The 2010 video game ''Fallout: New Vegas'', in one of its many downloadable add-ons (\"Old World Blues\"), features an AI jukebox named Blind Diode Jefferson. The AI claims to have been a blues musician before his music hard drives were stripped from him. The voicing of the AI can be characterized as a Southern drawl in homage to Jefferson.\n* In the 2003 movie ''Masked and Anonymous'', Bobby Cupid (Luke Wilson) gives his friend Jack Fate (Bob Dylan) Jefferson's guitar, which he claims was used in recording \"Matchbox Blues\".\n* Cheech & Chong parodied Jefferson as \"Blind Melon Chitlin'\" on their self-titled 1971 album ''Cheech and Chong'', on their 1985 album ''Get Out of My Room'', and in a stage routine that can be seen in their 1983 film ''Still Smokin'''.\n* Chet Atkins called Jefferson \"one of my first finger-picking influences\" in the song \"Nine Pound Hammer\", on the album ''The Atkins–Travis Traveling Show''.\n* A practical joke played on ''Down Beat'' magazine editor Gene Lees in the late 1950s took on a life of its own and became a long-running hoax when one of his correspondents included a reference to the blues legend \"Blind Orange Adams\" in an article published in the magazine, an obvious parody of Jefferson's name. References to the nonexistent Adams appeared in subsequent articles in ''Down Beat'' over the next few years.\n* The American dramatic film ''Black Snake Moan'' was named after one of his only songs recorded for Okeh Records.\n* Arthur \"Big Boy\" Crudup took the title of his classic song \"That's All Right,\" which launched the career of Elvis Presley, from a lyric in Jefferson's \"Black Snake Moan\".\n",
"\n*List of nicknames of blues musicians\n",
"\n",
"*Govenar, Alan; Brakefield, Jay F. (1998). ''Deep Ellum and Central Track: Where the Black and White Worlds of Dallas Converged.'' Denton: University of North Texas Press. .\n",
"* Evans, David (2000). \"Musical Innovation in the Blues of Blind Lemon Jefferson\". ''Black Music Research Journal''. Vol. 20, no. 1, Blind Lemon Jefferson (Spring 2000). pp. 83–116.\n* Monge, Luigi (2000). \"The Language of Blind Lemon Jefferson: The Covert Theme of Blindness\". ''Black Music Research Journal''. Vol. 20, no. 1, Blind Lemon Jefferson (Spring 2000). pp. 35–81.\n* Monge, Luigi; Evans, David (2003). \"New Songs of Blind Lemon Jefferson\". ''Journal of Texas Music History''. Vol. 3, no. 2 (Fall 2003).\n* Pisigin, Valeriy (2013). The Coming of the Blues (Пришествие блюза). Vol. 4. Country Blues. Blind Lemon Jefferson. — M.: 2013. — C.320. .\n* Uzzel, Robert L. (2002). ''Blind Lemon Jefferson: His Life, His Death, and His Legacy''. Austin, Texas: Eakin Press. .\n",
"* Blues Foundation Hall of Fame induction\n*\n*\n* Illustrated Blind Lemon Jefferson discography\n* The lyrics of his songs\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Biography",
"Discography and awards",
"Cover versions",
"In popular culture",
"See also",
"References",
"Sources",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Blind Lemon Jefferson | [
"Jefferson was reputedly unhappy with his royalties (although Williams said that Jefferson had a bank account containing as much as $1500)."
] | [
"\n\n'''Lemon Henry''' \"'''Blind Lemon'''\" '''Jefferson''' (September 24, 1893 – December 19, 1929) was an American blues and gospel singer, songwriter, and musician.",
"He was one of the most popular blues singers of the 1920s and has been called the \"Father of the Texas Blues\".",
"Jefferson's performances were distinctive because of his high-pitched voice and the originality of his guitar playing.",
"His recordings sold well, but he was not a strong influence on younger blues singers of his generation, who could not imitate him as easily as they could other commercially successful artists.",
"Later blues and rock and roll musicians, however, did attempt to imitate both his songs and his musical style.",
"\n===Early life===\nJefferson was born blind (or possibly partially blind), near Coutchman, Texas.",
"He was the youngest of seven (or possibly eight) children born to Alex and Clarissa Jefferson, who were sharecroppers.",
"Disputes regarding the date of his birth derive from contradictory census records and draft registration records.",
"By 1900, the family was farming southeast of Streetman, Texas, and his birth date is indicated as September 1893 in the 1900 census.",
"The 1910 census, taken in May, before his birthday, further confirms his year of birth as 1893 and indicated that the family was farming northwest of Wortham, near his birthplace.",
"In his 1917 draft registration, Jefferson gave his birth date as October 26, 1894, further stating that he then lived in Dallas, Texas, and had been blind since birth.",
"In the 1920 census, he is recorded as having returned to Freestone County and was living with his half-brother, Kit Banks, on a farm between Wortham and Streetman.",
"Jefferson began playing the guitar in his early teens and soon after he began performing at picnics and parties.",
"He became a street musician, playing in East Texas towns in front of barbershops and on street corners.",
"According to his cousin Alec Jefferson, quoted in the notes for ''Blind Lemon Jefferson, Classic Sides'':\n\n\n\nIn the early 1910s, Jefferson began traveling frequently to Dallas, where he met and played with the blues musician Lead Belly.",
"Jefferson was one of the earliest and most prominent figures in the blues movement developing in the Deep Ellum section of Dallas.",
"It is likely that he moved to Deep Ellum on a more permanent basis by 1917, where he met Aaron Thibeaux Walker, also known as T-Bone Walker.",
"Jefferson taught Walker the basics of playing blues guitar in exchange for Walker's occasional services as a guide.",
"By the early 1920s, Jefferson was earning enough money for his musical performances to support a wife and, possibly, a child.",
"However, firm evidence of his marriage and children has not been found.",
"===Beginning of recording career===\nPrior to Jefferson, few artists had recorded solo voice and blues guitar, the first of which were the vocalist Sara Martin and the guitarist Sylvester Weaver, who recorded \"Longing for Daddy Blues\", probably on October 24, 1923.",
"The first self-accompanied solo performer of a self-composed blues song was Lee Morse, whose \"Mail Man Blues\" was recorded on October 7, 1924.",
"Jefferson's music is uninhibited and represented the classic sounds of everyday life, from a honky-tonk to a country picnic, to street corner blues, to work in the burgeoning oil fields (a reflection of his interest in mechanical objects and processes).",
"Jefferson did what few had ever done before him – he became a successful solo guitarist and male vocalist in the commercial recording world.",
"Unlike many artists who were \"discovered\" and recorded in their normal venues, Jefferson was taken to Chicago, Illinois, in December 1925 or January 1926 to record his first tracks.",
"Uncharacteristically, his first two recordings from this session were gospel songs (\"I Want to Be Like Jesus in My Heart\" and \"All I Want Is That Pure Religion\"), released under the name '''Deacon L. J. Bates'''.",
"A second recording session was held in March 1926.",
"His first releases under his own name, \"Booster Blues\" and \"Dry Southern Blues\", were hits.",
"Their popularity led to the release of the other two songs from that session, \"Got the Blues\" and \"Long Lonesome Blues\", which became a runaway success, with sales in six figures.",
"He recorded about 100 tracks between 1926 and 1929; 43 records were issued, all but one for Paramount Records.",
"Paramount's studio techniques and quality were poor, and the recordings were released with poor sound quality.",
"In May 1926, Paramount re-recorded Jefferson performing his hits \"Got the Blues\" and \"Long Lonesome Blues\" in the superior facilities at Marsh Laboratories, and subsequent releases used those versions.",
"Both versions appear on compilation albums.",
"===Success with Paramount Records===\nLabel of one of Jefferson's Paramount records, 1926\nLargely because of the popularity of artists such as Jefferson and his contemporaries Blind Blake and Ma Rainey, Paramount became the leading recording company for the blues in the 1920s.",
"Jefferson's earnings reputedly enabled him to buy a car and employ chauffeurs (this information has been disputed); he was given a Ford car \"worth over $700\" by Mayo Williams, Paramount's connection with the black community.",
"This was a common compensation for recording rights in that market.",
"Jefferson is known to have done an unusual amount of traveling for the time in the American South, which is reflected in the difficulty of placing his music in a single regional category.",
"Jefferson's \"old-fashioned\" sound and confident musicianship made it easy to market him.",
"His skillful guitar playing and impressive vocal range opened the door for a new generation of male solo blues performers, such as Furry Lewis, Charlie Patton, and Barbecue Bob.",
"He stuck to no musical conventions, varying his riffs and rhythm and singing complex and expressive lyrics in a manner exceptional at the time for a \"simple country blues singer.\"",
"According to the North Carolina musician Walter Davis, Jefferson played on the streets in Johnson City, Tennessee, during the early 1920s, at which time Davis and the entertainer Clarence Greene learned the art of blues guitar.",
"In 1927, when Williams moved to Okeh Records, he took Jefferson with him, and Okeh quickly recorded and released Jefferson's \"Matchbox Blues\", backed with \"Black Snake Moan\".",
"It was his only Okeh recording, probably because of contractual obligations with Paramount.",
"Jefferson's two songs released on Okeh have considerably better sound quality than his Paramount records at the time.",
"When he returned to Paramount a few months later, \"Matchbox Blues\" had already become such a hit that Paramount re-recorded and released two new versions, with the producer Arthur Laibly.",
"In 1927, Jefferson recorded another of his classic songs, the haunting \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\" (again using the pseudonym Deacon L. J. Bates), and two other uncharacteristically spiritual songs, \"He Arose from the Dead\" and \"Where Shall I Be\".",
"\"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\" was so successful that it was re-recorded and re-released in 1928.",
"===Death and grave===\nJefferson died in Chicago at 10:00 a.m. on December 19, 1929, of what his death certificate said was \"probably acute myocarditis\".",
"For many years, rumors circulated that a jealous lover had poisoned his coffee, but a more likely explanation is that he died of a heart attack after becoming disoriented during a snowstorm.",
"Some have said that he died of a heart attack after being attacked by a dog in the middle of the night.",
"The book ''Tolbert's Texas'' claimed that he was killed while being robbed of a large royalty payment by a guide escorting him to Union Station to catch a train home to Texas.",
"Paramount Records paid for the return of his body to Texas by train, accompanied by the pianist William Ezell.",
"Jefferson was buried at Wortham Negro Cemetery (later Wortham Black Cemetery).",
"Far from being kept clean, his grave was unmarked until 1967, when a Texas historical marker was erected in the general area of his plot, the precise location of which is unknown.",
"By 1996, the cemetery and marker were in poor condition, and a new granite headstone was erected in 1997.",
"In 2007, the cemetery's name was changed to Blind Lemon Memorial Cemetery, and his gravesite is kept clean by a cemetery committee in Wortham, Texas.",
"\nJefferson had an intricate and fast style of guitar playing and a particularly high-pitched voice.",
"He was a founder of the Texas blues sound and an important influence on other blues singers and guitarists, including Lead Belly and Lightnin' Hopkins.",
"He was the author of many songs covered by later musicians, including the classic \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\".",
"Another of his songs, \"Matchbox Blues\", was recorded more than 30 years later by the Beatles, in a rockabilly version credited to Carl Perkins, who did not credit Jefferson on his 1955 recording.",
"The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame selected Jefferson's 1927 recording of \"Matchbox Blues\" as one of the 500 songs that shaped rock and roll.",
"Jefferson was among the inaugural class of blues musicians inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame in 1980.",
"*Bukka White, \"Jack o' Diamonds\", on ''1963 Isn't 1962'', released in the 1990s\n*Bob Dylan, \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\", on ''Bob Dylan''\n*Grateful Dead, \"One Kind Favor\" (a version of \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\"), on ''Birth of the Dead''\n*Merl Saunders, Jerry Garcia, John Kahn, Bil Vitt, \"One Kind Favor\", on ''Keystone Encores Volume I''\n*John Hammond, \"One Kind Favor\", on ''John Hammond Live''\n*B.B.",
"King, \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\", on ''One Kind Favor''\n*Peter, Paul & Mary, \"One Kind Favor\", on ''In Concert''\n*Kelly Joe Phelps, \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\", on ''Roll Away the Stone''\n*Counting Crows, \"Mean Jumper Blues\".",
"Counting Crows lead singer Adam Duritz accidentally claimed credit for \"Mean Jumper Blues\" in the liner notes of the deluxe edition reissue of the album ''August and Everything After''.",
"The cover was featured as part of a selection of early demo tracks.",
"Immediately after the error was brought to his attention, Duritz apologized in his personal blog.",
"*Laibach, \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\", on ''SPECTRE''\n*Pat Donohue, \"One Kind Favor\", live on Garrison Keillor's radio program ''A Prairie Home Companion'' and later released on the CD ''Radio Blues''\n*Corey Harris, \"Jack o' Diamonds\", on ''Fish Ain't Bitin''', released 1997\n*Diamanda Galás, \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\", on ''The Singer''\n*Phish, \"See That My Grave Is Kept Clean\", live at Madison Square Garden, New York, NY, 08/04/2017",
"* In 2009, the Grammy-nominated R&B act Yarbrough and Peoples were featured in the off-Broadway play ''Blind Lemon Blues''.",
"* A tribute song, \"My Buddy Blind Papa Lemon\", was recorded for Paramount Records in 1932 by King Solomon Hill.",
"The record was long considered lost, but a copy was located by John Tefteller in 2002.",
"* Geoff Muldaur refers to Jefferson in the song \"Got to Find Blind Lemon\" on the album ''The Secret Handshake''.",
"* Art Evans portrayed Jefferson in the 1976 film ''Leadbelly'', directed by Gordon Parks.",
"* Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds recorded the song \"Blind Lemon Jefferson\" on the album ''The Firstborn Is Dead''.",
"* The 2010 video game ''Fallout: New Vegas'', in one of its many downloadable add-ons (\"Old World Blues\"), features an AI jukebox named Blind Diode Jefferson.",
"The AI claims to have been a blues musician before his music hard drives were stripped from him.",
"The voicing of the AI can be characterized as a Southern drawl in homage to Jefferson.",
"* In the 2003 movie ''Masked and Anonymous'', Bobby Cupid (Luke Wilson) gives his friend Jack Fate (Bob Dylan) Jefferson's guitar, which he claims was used in recording \"Matchbox Blues\".",
"* Cheech & Chong parodied Jefferson as \"Blind Melon Chitlin'\" on their self-titled 1971 album ''Cheech and Chong'', on their 1985 album ''Get Out of My Room'', and in a stage routine that can be seen in their 1983 film ''Still Smokin'''.",
"* Chet Atkins called Jefferson \"one of my first finger-picking influences\" in the song \"Nine Pound Hammer\", on the album ''The Atkins–Travis Traveling Show''.",
"* A practical joke played on ''Down Beat'' magazine editor Gene Lees in the late 1950s took on a life of its own and became a long-running hoax when one of his correspondents included a reference to the blues legend \"Blind Orange Adams\" in an article published in the magazine, an obvious parody of Jefferson's name.",
"References to the nonexistent Adams appeared in subsequent articles in ''Down Beat'' over the next few years.",
"* The American dramatic film ''Black Snake Moan'' was named after one of his only songs recorded for Okeh Records.",
"* Arthur \"Big Boy\" Crudup took the title of his classic song \"That's All Right,\" which launched the career of Elvis Presley, from a lyric in Jefferson's \"Black Snake Moan\".",
"\n*List of nicknames of blues musicians",
"*Govenar, Alan; Brakefield, Jay F. (1998).",
"''Deep Ellum and Central Track: Where the Black and White Worlds of Dallas Converged.''",
"Denton: University of North Texas Press.",
".",
"* Evans, David (2000).",
"\"Musical Innovation in the Blues of Blind Lemon Jefferson\".",
"''Black Music Research Journal''.",
"Vol.",
"20, no.",
"1, Blind Lemon Jefferson (Spring 2000).",
"pp. 83–116.",
"* Monge, Luigi (2000).",
"\"The Language of Blind Lemon Jefferson: The Covert Theme of Blindness\".",
"''Black Music Research Journal''.",
"Vol.",
"20, no.",
"1, Blind Lemon Jefferson (Spring 2000).",
"pp. 35–81.",
"* Monge, Luigi; Evans, David (2003).",
"\"New Songs of Blind Lemon Jefferson\".",
"''Journal of Texas Music History''.",
"Vol.",
"3, no.",
"2 (Fall 2003).",
"* Pisigin, Valeriy (2013).",
"The Coming of the Blues (Пришествие блюза).",
"Vol.",
"4.",
"Country Blues.",
"Blind Lemon Jefferson.",
"— M.: 2013.",
"— C.320.",
".",
"* Uzzel, Robert L. (2002).",
"''Blind Lemon Jefferson: His Life, His Death, and His Legacy''.",
"Austin, Texas: Eakin Press.",
".",
"* Blues Foundation Hall of Fame induction\n*\n*\n* Illustrated Blind Lemon Jefferson discography\n* The lyrics of his songs\n*"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Broadway''' is a road in the U.S. state of New York. Broadway runs from State Street at Bowling Green for through the borough of Manhattan and through the Bronx, exiting north from the city to run an additional through the municipalities of Yonkers, Hastings-On-Hudson, Dobbs Ferry, Irvington, and Tarrytown, and terminating north of Sleepy Hollow in Westchester County.\n\nIt is the oldest north–south main thoroughfare in New York City, dating to the first New Amsterdam settlement, although most of it did not bear its current name until the late 19th century. The name ''Broadway'' is the English language literal translation of the Dutch name, ''Brede weg'', and is also a very common placename element in most English towns where it is used for the principal market street.\n\nBroadway in Manhattan is known widely as the heart of the American theatre industry, and is used as a metonym for it.\n",
"Broadway in 1860\n''View of Broadway, 1834'', New York Public Library\nMaiden Lane.\n\nBroadway was originally the Wickquasgeck Trail, carved into the brush of Manhattan by its Native American inhabitants. Wickquasgeck means \"birch-bark country\" in the Algonquian language. This trail originally snaked through swamps and rocks along the length of Manhattan Island.\n\nUpon the arrival of the Dutch, the trail soon became the main road through the island from ''Nieuw Amsterdam'' at the southern tip. The Dutch explorer and entrepreneur David Pietersz. de Vries gives the first mention of it in his journal for the year 1642 (\"the Wickquasgeck Road over which the Indians passed daily\"). The Dutch named the road \"''Heerestraat''\". Although current street signs are simply labeled as \"Broadway\", in a 1776 map of New York City, Broadway is explicitly labeled \"Broadway Street\". In the mid-eighteenth century, part of Broadway in what is now lower Manhattan was known as ''Great George Street''. An 1897 City Map shows a segment of Broadway as ''Kingsbridge Road'' in the vicinity of what is now the George Washington Bridge. \n\nIn the 18th century, Broadway ended at the town commons north of Wall Street, where traffic continued up the East Side of the island via Eastern Post Road and the West Side via Bloomingdale Road. The western Bloomingdale Road would be widened and paved during the 19th century, and called \"Western Boulevard\" or \"The Boulevard\" north of the Grand Circle, now called Columbus Circle. On February 14, 1899, the name \"Broadway\" was extended to the entire Broadway/Bloomingdale/Boulevard road.\n\n===Traffic flow===\nBroadway once was a two-way street for its entire length. The present status, in which it runs one-way southbound south of Columbus Circle (59th Street), came about in several stages. On June 6, 1954, Seventh Avenue became southbound and Eighth Avenue became northbound south of Broadway. None of Broadway became one-way, but the increased southbound traffic between Columbus Circle (Eighth Avenue) and Times Square (Seventh Avenue) caused the city to re-stripe that section of Broadway for four southbound and two northbound lanes. Broadway became one-way from Columbus Circle south to Herald Square (34th Street) on March 10, 1957, in conjunction with Sixth Avenue becoming one-way from Herald Square north to 59th Street and Seventh Avenue becoming one-way from 59th Street south to Times Square (where it crosses Broadway). On June 3, 1962, Broadway became one-way south of Canal Street, with Trinity Place and Church Street carrying northbound traffic. Another change was made on November 10, 1963, when Broadway became one-way southbound from Herald Square to Madison Square (23rd Street) and Union Square (14th Street) to Canal Street, and two routes – Sixth Avenue south of Herald Square and Centre Street, Lafayette Street, and Fourth Avenue south of Union Square – became one-way northbound. Finally, at the same time as Madison Avenue became one-way northbound and Fifth Avenue became one-way southbound, Broadway was made one-way southbound between Madison Square (where Fifth Avenue crosses) and Union Square on January 14, 1966, completing its conversion south of Columbus Circle.\n\nIn 2001, a one-block section of Broadway between 72nd Street and 73rd Street at Verdi Square was reconfigured. Its easternmost lanes, which formerly hosted northbound traffic, were turned into a public park when a new subway entrance for the 72nd Street station was built in the exact location of these lanes. Northbound traffic on Broadway is now channeled onto Amsterdam Avenue to 73rd Street, makes a left turn on the three-lane 73rd Street, and then a right turn on Broadway shortly afterward.\n\nIn August 2008, two traffic lanes from 42nd to 35th Streets were taken out of service and converted to public plazas. Additionally, bike lanes were added on Broadway from 42nd Street down to Union Square.\n\nThe segment of Broadway in Times Square\n\nSince May 2009, the portions of Broadway through Duffy Square, Times Square, and Herald Square have been closed entirely to automobile traffic, except for cross traffic on the Streets and Avenues, as part of a traffic and pedestrianization experiment, with the pavement reserved exclusively for walkers, cyclists, and those lounging in temporary seating placed by the city. The city decided that the experiment was successful and decided to make the change permanent in February 2010. Though the anticipated benefits to traffic flow were not as large as hoped, pedestrian injuries dropped dramatically and foot traffic increased in the designated areas; the project was popular with both residents and businesses. The current portions converted into pedestrian plazas are between West 47th Street and West 42nd Street within Times and Duffy Squares, and between West 35th Street and West 33rd Street in the Herald Square area. Additionally, portions of Broadway in the Madison Square and Union Square have been dramatically narrowed, allowing ample pedestrian plazas to exist along the side of the road. \n\nIn May 2013, the NYCDOT decided to redesign Broadway between 35th and 42nd Streets for the second time in five years, owing to poor connections between pedestrian plazas and decreased vehicular traffic. With the new redesign, the bike lane is now on the right side of the street; it was formerly on the left side adjacent to the pedestrian plazas, causing conflicts between pedestrian and bicycle traffic.\n\nIn spring 2017, as part of a capital reconstruction of Worth Square, Broadway between 24th and 25th Street was converted to a \"shared street\" where through vehicles are banned and delivery vehicles are restricted to . Delivery vehicles go northbound from Fifth Avenue to 25th Street for that one block, reversing the direction of traffic and preventing vehicles from going south on Broadway south of 25th Street. The capital project expands on a 2008 initiative where part of the intersection of Broadway and Fifth Avenue was repurposed into a public plaza, simplifying that intersection. As part of the 2017 project, Worth Square was expanded, converting the adjoining block of Broadway into a \"shared street.\"\n",
"\n\n===Route description===\nPlan of 1868 for an \"arcade railway\"\nBroadway runs the length of Manhattan Island, roughly parallel to the North River (the portion of the Hudson River bordering Manhattan), from Bowling Green at the south to Inwood at the northern tip of the island. South of Columbus Circle, it is a one-way southbound street. Since 2009, vehicular traffic has been banned at Times Square between 47th and 42nd Streets, and at Herald Square between 35th and 33rd Streets as part of a pilot program; the right-of-way is intact and reserved for cyclists and pedestrians. From the northern shore of Manhattan, Broadway crosses Spuyten Duyvil Creek via the Broadway Bridge and continues through Marble Hill (a discontinuous portion of the borough of Manhattan) and the Bronx into Westchester County. U.S. 9 continues to be known as Broadway until its junction with NY 117.\n\n====Lower Manhattan====\nA view up Broadway from Bowling Green, with the Chrysler Building visible in the background\nLooking north from Broome Street (circa 1853-55)\n\nThe section of lower Broadway from its origin at Bowling Green to City Hall Park is the historical location for the city's ticker-tape parades, and is sometimes called the \"Canyon of Heroes\" during such events. West of Broadway, as far as Canal Street, was the city's fashionable residential area until circa 1825; landfill has more than tripled the area, and the Hudson River shore now lies far to the west, beyond Tribeca and Battery Park City.\n\nBroadway marks the boundary between Greenwich Village to the west and the East Village to the east, passing Astor Place. It is a short walk from there to New York University near Washington Square Park, which is at the foot of Fifth Avenue. A bend in front of Grace Church allegedly avoids an earlier tavern; from 10th Street it begins its long diagonal course across Manhattan, headed almost due north.\n\n====Midtown Manhattan====\nA view of Broadway in 1909\n\nBecause Broadway preceded the grid that the Commissioners' Plan of 1811 imposed on the island, Broadway crosses midtown Manhattan diagonally, intersecting with both the east-west streets and north-south avenues. Broadway's intersections with avenues, marked by \"squares\" (some merely triangular slivers of open space), have induced some interesting architecture, such as the Flatiron Building.\n\nAt Union Square, Broadway crosses 14th Street, merges with Fourth Avenue, and continues its diagonal uptown course from the Square's northwest corner; Union Square is the only location wherein the physical section of Broadway is discontinuous in Manhattan (other portions of Broadway in Manhattan are pedestrian-only plazas). At Madison Square, the location of the Flatiron Building, Broadway crosses Fifth Avenue at 23rd Street, and is discontinuous to vehicles for a one-block stretch between 24th and 25th Streets. At Greeley Square (West 33rd Street), Broadway crosses Sixth Avenue (Avenue of the Americas), and is discontinuous to vehicles. Macy's Herald Square department store, one block north of the vehicular discontinuity, is located on the northwest corner of Broadway and West 34th Street and southwest corner of Broadway and West 35th Street; it is one of the largest department stores in the world.\n\nOne famous stretch near Times Square, where Broadway crosses Seventh Avenue in midtown Manhattan, is the home of many Broadway theatres, housing an ever-changing array of commercial, large-scale plays, particularly musicals. This area of Manhattan is often called the Theater District or the Great White Way, a nickname originating in the headline \"Found on the Great White Way\" in the edition of February 3, 1902 of the ''New York Evening Telegram''. The journalistic nickname was inspired by the millions of lights on theater marquees and billboard advertisements that illuminate the area. After becoming the city's de facto red-light district in the 1960s and 1970s (as can be seen in the films ''Taxi Driver'' and ''Midnight Cowboy''), since the late 1980s Times Square has emerged as a family tourist center, in effect being Disneyfied following the company's purchase and renovation of the New Amsterdam Theatre on 42nd Street in 1993.\n\nUntil June 2007, ''The New York Times'', from which the Square gets its name, was published at offices at 239 West 43rd Street; the paper stopped printing papers there on June 15, 2007.\n\n====Upper West Side====\n\nX-shaped intersection of Broadway (from lower right to upper left) and Amsterdam Avenue (lower left to upper right), looking north from Sherman Square to West 72nd Street and the treetops of Verdi Square\n\nAt the southwest corner of Central Park, Broadway crosses Eighth Avenue (called Central Park West north of 59th Street) at West 59th Street and Columbus Circle; on the site of the former New York Coliseum convention center is the new shopping center at the foot of the Time Warner Center, headquarters of Time Warner. From Columbus Circle northward, Broadway becomes a wide boulevard to 169th Street; it retains landscaped center islands that separate northbound from southbound traffic. The medians are a vestige of the central mall of \"The Boulevard\" that had become the spine of the Upper West Side, and many of these contain public seating.\n\nBroadway intersects with Columbus Avenue (known as Ninth Avenue south of West 59th Street) at West 65th and 66th Streets where the Juilliard School and Lincoln Center, both well-known performing arts landmarks, as well as the Manhattan New York Temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints are located.\n\nBetween West 70th and 73rd Streets, Broadway intersects with Amsterdam Avenue (known as 10th Avenue south of West 59th Street). The wide intersection of the two thoroughfares has historically been the site of numerous traffic accidents and pedestrian casualties, partly due to the long crosswalks. Two small triangular plots of land were created at points where Broadway slices through Amsterdam Avenue. One is a tiny fenced-in patch of shrubbery and plants at West 70th Street called Sherman Square (although it and the surrounding intersection have also been known collectively as Sherman Square), and the other triangle is a lush tree-filled garden bordering Amsterdam Avenue from just above West 72nd Street to West 73rd Street. Named Verdi Square in 1921 for its monument to Italian composer Giuseppe Verdi, which was erected in 1909, this triangular sliver of public space was designated a Scenic Landmark by the Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1974, one of nine city parks that have received the designation. In the 1960s and 1970s, the area surrounding both Verdi Square and Sherman Square was known by local drug users and dealers as \"Needle Park\", and was featured prominently in the gritty 1971 dramatic film ''The Panic in Needle Park'', directed by Jerry Schatzberg and starring Al Pacino in his second onscreen role.\n\nThe original brick and stone shelter leading to the entrance of the 72nd Street subway station, one of the first 28 subway stations in Manhattan, remains located on one of the wide islands in the center of Broadway, on the south side of West 72nd Street. For many years, all traffic on Broadway flowed on either side of this median and its subway entrance, and its uptown lanes went past it along the western edge of triangular Verdi Square. In 2001 and 2002, renovation of the historic 72nd Street station and the addition of a second subway control house and passenger shelter on an adjacent center median just north of 72nd Street, across from the original building, resulted in the creation of a public plaza with stone pavers and extensive seating, connecting the newer building with Verdi Square, and making it necessary to divert northbound traffic to Amsterdam Avenue for one block. While Broadway's southbound lanes at this intersection were unaffected by the new construction, its northbound lanes are no longer contiguous at this intersection. Drivers can either continue along Amsterdam Avenue to head uptown or turn left on West 73rd Street to resume traveling on Broadway.\n\nSeveral notable apartment buildings are in close proximity to this intersection, including The Ansonia, its ornate architecture dominating the cityscape here. After the Ansonia first opened as a hotel, live seals were kept in indoor fountains inside its lobby. Later, it was home to the infamous Plato's Retreat nightclub. Immediately north of Verdi Square is the formidable Apple Bank for Savings building, formerly the Central Savings Bank, which was built in 1926 and designed to resemble the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. Broadway is also home to the Beacon Theatre at West 74th Street, designated a national landmark in 1979 and still in operation as a concert venue after its establishment in 1929 as a vaudeville and music hall, and \"sister\" venue to Radio City Music Hall.\n\nAt its intersection with West 78th Street, Broadway shifts direction and continues directly uptown and aligned approximately with the Commissioners' grid. Past the bend are the historic Apthorp apartment building, built in 1908, and the First Baptist Church in the City of New York, incorporated in New York in 1762, its current building on Broadway erected in 1891. The road heads north and passes historically important apartment houses such as the Belnord, the Astor Court Building, and the Art Nouveau Cornwall.\n\nAt Broadway and 95th Street is Symphony Space, established in 1978 as home to avant-garde and classical music and dance performances in the former Symphony Theatre, which was originally built in 1918 as a premier \"music and motion-picture house\". At 99th Street, Broadway passes between the controversial skyscrapers of the Ariel East and West.\n\nAt 107th Street, Broadway merges with West End Avenue, with the intersection forming Straus Park with its Titanic Memorial by Augustus Lukeman.\n\n====Northern Manhattan and the Bronx====\nBroadway at Dyckman Street in Inwood\n\nBroadway then passes the campus of Columbia University at 116th Street in Morningside Heights, in part on the tract that housed the Bloomingdale Insane Asylum from 1808 until it moved to Westchester County in 1894. Still in Morningside Heights, Broadway passes the park-like campus of Barnard College. Next, the Gothic quadrangle of Union Theological Seminary and the brick buildings of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America with their landscaped interior courtyards face one another across Broadway. On the next block is the Manhattan School of Music.\n\nBroadway then runs past the proposed uptown campus of Columbia University, and the main campus of CUNY–City College near 135th Street; the Gothic buildings of the original City College campus are out of sight, a block to the east. Also to the east are the brownstones of Hamilton Heights. Hamilton Place is a surviving section of Bloomingdale Road, and originally the address of Alexander Hamilton's house, The Grange, which has been moved.\n\nBroadway achieves a verdant, park-like effect, particularly in the spring, when it runs between the uptown Trinity Church Cemetery and the former Trinity Chapel, now the Church of the Intercession near 155th Street.\n\nNewYork-Presbyterian Hospital lies on Broadway near 166th, 167th, and 168th Streets in Washington Heights. The intersection with Saint Nicholas Avenue at 167th Street forms Mitchell Square Park. At 178th Street, U.S. 9 becomes concurrent with Broadway.\n\nBroadway crosses the Harlem River on the Broadway Bridge to Marble Hill. Afterward, it then enters the Bronx, where it is the eastern border of Riverdale and the western border of Van Cortlandt Park. At 253rd Street, NY 9A joins with U.S. 9 and Broadway. (NY 9A splits off Broadway at Ashburton Avenue in Yonkers.)\n\n====Westchester County====\nThe northwestern corner of the park marks the city limit and Broadway enters Yonkers, where it is now known as South Broadway. It trends ever westward, closer to the Hudson River, remaining a busy urban commercial street. In downtown Yonkers, it drops close to the river, becomes North Broadway and 9A leaves via Ashburton Avenue. Broadway climbs to the nearby ridgetop runs parallel to the river and the railroad, a few blocks east of both as it passes St. John's Riverside Hospital. The neighborhoods become more residential and the road gently undulates along the ridgetop. In Yonkers, Broadway passes historic Philipse Manor house, which dates back to colonial America.\n\nIt remains Broadway as it leaves Yonkers for Hastings-on-Hudson, where it splits into separate north and south routes for . The trees become taller and the houses, many separated from the road by stone fences, become larger. Another National Historic Landmark, the John William Draper House, was the site of the first astrophotograph of the Moon.\n\nIn the next village, Dobbs Ferry, Broadway has various views of the Hudson River while passing through the residential section. Broadway passes by the Old Croton Aqueduct and nearby the shopping district of the village. After intersecting with Ashford Avenue, Broadway passes Mercy College, then turns left again at the center of town just past South Presbyterian Church, headed for equally comfortable Ardsley-on-Hudson and Irvington. Villa Lewaro, the home of Madam C.J. Walker, the first African-American millionaire, is along the highway here. At the north end of the village of Irvington, a memorial to writer Washington Irving, after whom the village was renamed, marks the turnoff to his home at Sunnyside. Entering into the southern portion of Tarrytown, Broadway passes by historic Lyndhurst mansion, a massive mansion built along the Hudson River built in the early 1800s.\n\nNorth of here, at the Kraft Foods technical center, the Tappan Zee Bridge becomes visible. After crossing under the Thruway and I-87 again, here concurrent with I-287, and then intersecting with the four-lane NY 119, where 119 splits off to the east, Broadway becomes the busy main street of Tarrytown. Christ Episcopal Church, where Irving worshiped, is along the street. Many high quality restaurants and shops are along this main road. This downtown ends at the eastern terminus of NY 448, where Broadway slopes off to the left, downhill, and four signs indicate that Broadway turns left, passing the Old Dutch Church of Sleepy Hollow, another NHL. The road then enters Sleepy Hollow (formerly North Tarrytown), passing the visitors' center for Kykuit, the National Historic Landmark that was (and partially still is) the Rockefeller family's estate. Broadway then passes the historic Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, which includes the resting place of Washington Irving and the setting for The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.\n\nBroadway expands to four lanes at the trumpet intersection with NY 117, where it finally ends and U.S. 9 becomes Albany Post Road (and Highland Avenue) at the northern border of Sleepy Hollow, New York.\n\n===Nicknamed sections===\n\n====Canyon of Heroes====\n\nCanyon of Heroes during a ticker-tape parade for the Apollo 11 astronauts on August 13, 1969\n\n''Canyon of Heroes'' is occasionally used to refer to the section of lower Broadway in the Financial District that is the location of the city's ticker-tape parades.\n\nThe traditional route of the parade is northward from Bowling Green to City Hall Park. Most of the route is lined with tall office buildings along both sides, affording a view of the parade for thousands of office workers who create the snowstorm-like jettison of shredded paper products that characterize the parade.\n\nWhile typical sports championship parades have been showered with some 50 tons of confetti and shredded paper, the V-J Day parade on August 14–15, 1945 – marking the end of World War II – was covered with 5,438 tons of paper, based on estimates provided by the New York City Department of Sanitation.\n\nMore than 200 black granite strips embedded in the sidewalks along the Canyon of Heroes list honorees of past ticker-tape parades.\n\nThe most recent parade up the Canyon of Heroes took place on July 10, 2015 for the United States women's national soccer team in honor of their 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup championship.\n\n====Great White Way====\n\n\"The Great White Way\" is a nickname for a section of Broadway in Midtown Manhattan, specifically the portion that encompasses the Theater District, between 42nd and 53rd Streets, and encompassing Times Square.\n\nIn 1880, a stretch of Broadway between Union Square and Madison Square was illuminated by Brush arc lamps, making it among the first electrically lighted streets in the United States. By the 1890s, the portion from 23rd Street to 34th Street was so brightly illuminated by electrical advertising signs, that people began calling it \"The Great White Way\". When the theater district moved uptown, the name was transferred to the Times Square area.\n\nThe phrase \"Great White Way\" has been attributed to Shep Friedman, columnist for the ''New York Morning Telegraph'' in 1901, who lifted the term from the title of a book about the Arctic by Albert Paine. The headline \"Found on the Great White Way\" appeared in the February 3, 1902, edition of the ''New York Evening Telegram''.\n\nA portrait of Broadway in the early part of the 20th century and \"The Great White Way\" late at night appeared in \"Artist In Manhattan\" (1940) written by the artist-historian Jerome Myers:\n\n\n",
"From south to north, Broadway at one point or another runs over or under various New York City Subway lines, including the IRT Lexington Avenue Line, the BMT Broadway Line, IRT Broadway – Seventh Avenue Line, and IND Eighth Avenue Line (the IND Sixth Avenue Line is the only north-south trunk line in Manhattan that does not run along Broadway).\n* The IRT Lexington Avenue Line runs under Broadway from Bowling Green to Fulton Street ().\n* The BMT Broadway Line runs under it from City Hall to Times Square – 42nd Street ().\n* The IRT Broadway – Seventh Avenue Line runs under and over Broadway from Times Square to 168th Street (), and again from 218th Street to its terminal in the Bronx at Van Cortlandt Park – 242nd Street ().\n* The northern portion of the IND Eighth Avenue Line runs under Broadway from Dyckman Street to Inwood – 207th Street ().\n\nBroadway under the IRT Broadway – Seventh Avenue Line's elevated structure in the Bronx\nEarly street railways on Broadway included the Broadway and Seventh Avenue Railroad's Broadway and University Place Line (1864?) between Union Square (14th Street) and Times Square (42nd Street), the Ninth Avenue Railroad's Ninth and Amsterdam Avenues Line (1884) between 65th Street and 71st Street, the Forty-second Street, Manhattanville and St. Nicholas Avenue Railway's Broadway Branch Line (1885?) between Times Square and 125th Street, and the Kingsbridge Railway's Kingsbridge Line north of 169th Street. The Broadway Surface Railroad's Broadway Line, a cable car line, opened on lower Broadway (below Times Square) in 1893, and soon became the core of the Metropolitan Street Railway, with two cable branches: the Broadway and Lexington Avenue Line and Broadway and Columbus Avenue Line.\n\nThese streetcar lines were replaced with bus routes in the 1930s and 1940s. Before Broadway became one-way, the main bus routes along it were the New York City Omnibus Company's (NYCO) 6 (Broadway below Times Square), 7 (Broadway and Columbus Avenue), and 11 (Ninth and Amsterdam Avenues), and the Surface Transportation Corporation's M100 (Kingsbridge) and M104 (Broadway Branch). Additionally, the Fifth Avenue Coach Company's (FACCo) 4 and 5 used Broadway from 135th Street north to Washington Heights, and their 5 and 6 used Broadway between 57th Street and 72nd Street. With the implementation of one-way traffic, the northbound 6 and 7 were moved to Sixth Avenue.\n\n, Broadway is served by the M4 (ex-FACCo 4), M7 (ex-NYCO 7), M55, M100, and M104. Other routes that use part of Broadway include the M5 (ex-FACCo 5), M10, M20, M60 Select Bus Service, Bx7, Bx9, and Bx20.\n\nBee-Line buses also serves Broadway within Riverdale and Westchester County. Routes 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 13, and several others run on a portion of Broadway.\n",
"One Broadway\n\nBroadway is lined with many famous and otherwise noted and historic buildings, such as:\n* 2 Broadway\n* 280 Broadway (also known as the Marble Palace, the A.T. Stewart Company Store, or The Sun Building)\n* Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House (at the southern foot of Broadway, facing Bowling Green Fence and Park)\n* American Surety Building (100 Broadway)\n* Bowling Green Fence and Park (at the southern foot of Broadway, between 25 and 26 Broadway)\n* Bowling Green Building, later the White Star Line Building (11 Broadway)\n* Corbin Building (196 Broadway)\n* Cunard Building (25 Broadway)\n* Equitable Building (120 Broadway)\n* Morgan Stanley Building (1585 Broadway)\n* Paramount Building (1501 Broadway)\n* Standard Oil Building (26 Broadway, on the east side of Broadway, facing the Cunard building)\n* Trinity Church (79 Broadway)\n* United States Lines-Panama Pacific Line Building (1 Broadway)\n* Winter Garden Theatre (1634 Broadway)\n* Woolworth Building (233 Broadway)\n\nHistoric buildings on Broadway that are now demolished include:\n* Appleton Building\n* Alexander Macomb House\n* Barnum's American Museum\n* Equitable Life Building\n* Grand Central Hotel (673 Broadway)\n* Mechanics' Hall\n* Singer Building (Liberty Street and Broadway)\n* St. Nicholas Hotel\n",
"\n* Off-Broadway\n\n",
"'''Notes'''\n\n\n'''Bibliography'''\n* \n",
"\n* Great White Way; historical citations from etymologist Barry Popik\n* New York Songlines: Broadway; a virtual walking tour of the street\n* Green Light for Midtown; New York City Department of Transportation pilot program for Broadway traffic\n* Walking the length of Broadway\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Route",
"Transportation",
"Notable buildings",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Broadway (Manhattan) | [
"Immediately north of Verdi Square is the formidable Apple Bank for Savings building, formerly the Central Savings Bank, which was built in 1926 and designed to resemble the Federal Reserve Bank of New York."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Broadway''' is a road in the U.S. state of New York.",
"Broadway runs from State Street at Bowling Green for through the borough of Manhattan and through the Bronx, exiting north from the city to run an additional through the municipalities of Yonkers, Hastings-On-Hudson, Dobbs Ferry, Irvington, and Tarrytown, and terminating north of Sleepy Hollow in Westchester County.",
"It is the oldest north–south main thoroughfare in New York City, dating to the first New Amsterdam settlement, although most of it did not bear its current name until the late 19th century.",
"The name ''Broadway'' is the English language literal translation of the Dutch name, ''Brede weg'', and is also a very common placename element in most English towns where it is used for the principal market street.",
"Broadway in Manhattan is known widely as the heart of the American theatre industry, and is used as a metonym for it.",
"Broadway in 1860\n''View of Broadway, 1834'', New York Public Library\nMaiden Lane.",
"Broadway was originally the Wickquasgeck Trail, carved into the brush of Manhattan by its Native American inhabitants.",
"Wickquasgeck means \"birch-bark country\" in the Algonquian language.",
"This trail originally snaked through swamps and rocks along the length of Manhattan Island.",
"Upon the arrival of the Dutch, the trail soon became the main road through the island from ''Nieuw Amsterdam'' at the southern tip.",
"The Dutch explorer and entrepreneur David Pietersz.",
"de Vries gives the first mention of it in his journal for the year 1642 (\"the Wickquasgeck Road over which the Indians passed daily\").",
"The Dutch named the road \"''Heerestraat''\".",
"Although current street signs are simply labeled as \"Broadway\", in a 1776 map of New York City, Broadway is explicitly labeled \"Broadway Street\".",
"In the mid-eighteenth century, part of Broadway in what is now lower Manhattan was known as ''Great George Street''.",
"An 1897 City Map shows a segment of Broadway as ''Kingsbridge Road'' in the vicinity of what is now the George Washington Bridge.",
"In the 18th century, Broadway ended at the town commons north of Wall Street, where traffic continued up the East Side of the island via Eastern Post Road and the West Side via Bloomingdale Road.",
"The western Bloomingdale Road would be widened and paved during the 19th century, and called \"Western Boulevard\" or \"The Boulevard\" north of the Grand Circle, now called Columbus Circle.",
"On February 14, 1899, the name \"Broadway\" was extended to the entire Broadway/Bloomingdale/Boulevard road.",
"===Traffic flow===\nBroadway once was a two-way street for its entire length.",
"The present status, in which it runs one-way southbound south of Columbus Circle (59th Street), came about in several stages.",
"On June 6, 1954, Seventh Avenue became southbound and Eighth Avenue became northbound south of Broadway.",
"None of Broadway became one-way, but the increased southbound traffic between Columbus Circle (Eighth Avenue) and Times Square (Seventh Avenue) caused the city to re-stripe that section of Broadway for four southbound and two northbound lanes.",
"Broadway became one-way from Columbus Circle south to Herald Square (34th Street) on March 10, 1957, in conjunction with Sixth Avenue becoming one-way from Herald Square north to 59th Street and Seventh Avenue becoming one-way from 59th Street south to Times Square (where it crosses Broadway).",
"On June 3, 1962, Broadway became one-way south of Canal Street, with Trinity Place and Church Street carrying northbound traffic.",
"Another change was made on November 10, 1963, when Broadway became one-way southbound from Herald Square to Madison Square (23rd Street) and Union Square (14th Street) to Canal Street, and two routes – Sixth Avenue south of Herald Square and Centre Street, Lafayette Street, and Fourth Avenue south of Union Square – became one-way northbound.",
"Finally, at the same time as Madison Avenue became one-way northbound and Fifth Avenue became one-way southbound, Broadway was made one-way southbound between Madison Square (where Fifth Avenue crosses) and Union Square on January 14, 1966, completing its conversion south of Columbus Circle.",
"In 2001, a one-block section of Broadway between 72nd Street and 73rd Street at Verdi Square was reconfigured.",
"Its easternmost lanes, which formerly hosted northbound traffic, were turned into a public park when a new subway entrance for the 72nd Street station was built in the exact location of these lanes.",
"Northbound traffic on Broadway is now channeled onto Amsterdam Avenue to 73rd Street, makes a left turn on the three-lane 73rd Street, and then a right turn on Broadway shortly afterward.",
"In August 2008, two traffic lanes from 42nd to 35th Streets were taken out of service and converted to public plazas.",
"Additionally, bike lanes were added on Broadway from 42nd Street down to Union Square.",
"The segment of Broadway in Times Square\n\nSince May 2009, the portions of Broadway through Duffy Square, Times Square, and Herald Square have been closed entirely to automobile traffic, except for cross traffic on the Streets and Avenues, as part of a traffic and pedestrianization experiment, with the pavement reserved exclusively for walkers, cyclists, and those lounging in temporary seating placed by the city.",
"The city decided that the experiment was successful and decided to make the change permanent in February 2010.",
"Though the anticipated benefits to traffic flow were not as large as hoped, pedestrian injuries dropped dramatically and foot traffic increased in the designated areas; the project was popular with both residents and businesses.",
"The current portions converted into pedestrian plazas are between West 47th Street and West 42nd Street within Times and Duffy Squares, and between West 35th Street and West 33rd Street in the Herald Square area.",
"Additionally, portions of Broadway in the Madison Square and Union Square have been dramatically narrowed, allowing ample pedestrian plazas to exist along the side of the road.",
"In May 2013, the NYCDOT decided to redesign Broadway between 35th and 42nd Streets for the second time in five years, owing to poor connections between pedestrian plazas and decreased vehicular traffic.",
"With the new redesign, the bike lane is now on the right side of the street; it was formerly on the left side adjacent to the pedestrian plazas, causing conflicts between pedestrian and bicycle traffic.",
"In spring 2017, as part of a capital reconstruction of Worth Square, Broadway between 24th and 25th Street was converted to a \"shared street\" where through vehicles are banned and delivery vehicles are restricted to .",
"Delivery vehicles go northbound from Fifth Avenue to 25th Street for that one block, reversing the direction of traffic and preventing vehicles from going south on Broadway south of 25th Street.",
"The capital project expands on a 2008 initiative where part of the intersection of Broadway and Fifth Avenue was repurposed into a public plaza, simplifying that intersection.",
"As part of the 2017 project, Worth Square was expanded, converting the adjoining block of Broadway into a \"shared street.\"",
"\n\n===Route description===\nPlan of 1868 for an \"arcade railway\"\nBroadway runs the length of Manhattan Island, roughly parallel to the North River (the portion of the Hudson River bordering Manhattan), from Bowling Green at the south to Inwood at the northern tip of the island.",
"South of Columbus Circle, it is a one-way southbound street.",
"Since 2009, vehicular traffic has been banned at Times Square between 47th and 42nd Streets, and at Herald Square between 35th and 33rd Streets as part of a pilot program; the right-of-way is intact and reserved for cyclists and pedestrians.",
"From the northern shore of Manhattan, Broadway crosses Spuyten Duyvil Creek via the Broadway Bridge and continues through Marble Hill (a discontinuous portion of the borough of Manhattan) and the Bronx into Westchester County.",
"U.S. 9 continues to be known as Broadway until its junction with NY 117.",
"====Lower Manhattan====\nA view up Broadway from Bowling Green, with the Chrysler Building visible in the background\nLooking north from Broome Street (circa 1853-55)\n\nThe section of lower Broadway from its origin at Bowling Green to City Hall Park is the historical location for the city's ticker-tape parades, and is sometimes called the \"Canyon of Heroes\" during such events.",
"West of Broadway, as far as Canal Street, was the city's fashionable residential area until circa 1825; landfill has more than tripled the area, and the Hudson River shore now lies far to the west, beyond Tribeca and Battery Park City.",
"Broadway marks the boundary between Greenwich Village to the west and the East Village to the east, passing Astor Place.",
"It is a short walk from there to New York University near Washington Square Park, which is at the foot of Fifth Avenue.",
"A bend in front of Grace Church allegedly avoids an earlier tavern; from 10th Street it begins its long diagonal course across Manhattan, headed almost due north.",
"====Midtown Manhattan====\nA view of Broadway in 1909\n\nBecause Broadway preceded the grid that the Commissioners' Plan of 1811 imposed on the island, Broadway crosses midtown Manhattan diagonally, intersecting with both the east-west streets and north-south avenues.",
"Broadway's intersections with avenues, marked by \"squares\" (some merely triangular slivers of open space), have induced some interesting architecture, such as the Flatiron Building.",
"At Union Square, Broadway crosses 14th Street, merges with Fourth Avenue, and continues its diagonal uptown course from the Square's northwest corner; Union Square is the only location wherein the physical section of Broadway is discontinuous in Manhattan (other portions of Broadway in Manhattan are pedestrian-only plazas).",
"At Madison Square, the location of the Flatiron Building, Broadway crosses Fifth Avenue at 23rd Street, and is discontinuous to vehicles for a one-block stretch between 24th and 25th Streets.",
"At Greeley Square (West 33rd Street), Broadway crosses Sixth Avenue (Avenue of the Americas), and is discontinuous to vehicles.",
"Macy's Herald Square department store, one block north of the vehicular discontinuity, is located on the northwest corner of Broadway and West 34th Street and southwest corner of Broadway and West 35th Street; it is one of the largest department stores in the world.",
"One famous stretch near Times Square, where Broadway crosses Seventh Avenue in midtown Manhattan, is the home of many Broadway theatres, housing an ever-changing array of commercial, large-scale plays, particularly musicals.",
"This area of Manhattan is often called the Theater District or the Great White Way, a nickname originating in the headline \"Found on the Great White Way\" in the edition of February 3, 1902 of the ''New York Evening Telegram''.",
"The journalistic nickname was inspired by the millions of lights on theater marquees and billboard advertisements that illuminate the area.",
"After becoming the city's de facto red-light district in the 1960s and 1970s (as can be seen in the films ''Taxi Driver'' and ''Midnight Cowboy''), since the late 1980s Times Square has emerged as a family tourist center, in effect being Disneyfied following the company's purchase and renovation of the New Amsterdam Theatre on 42nd Street in 1993.",
"Until June 2007, ''The New York Times'', from which the Square gets its name, was published at offices at 239 West 43rd Street; the paper stopped printing papers there on June 15, 2007.",
"====Upper West Side====\n\nX-shaped intersection of Broadway (from lower right to upper left) and Amsterdam Avenue (lower left to upper right), looking north from Sherman Square to West 72nd Street and the treetops of Verdi Square\n\nAt the southwest corner of Central Park, Broadway crosses Eighth Avenue (called Central Park West north of 59th Street) at West 59th Street and Columbus Circle; on the site of the former New York Coliseum convention center is the new shopping center at the foot of the Time Warner Center, headquarters of Time Warner.",
"From Columbus Circle northward, Broadway becomes a wide boulevard to 169th Street; it retains landscaped center islands that separate northbound from southbound traffic.",
"The medians are a vestige of the central mall of \"The Boulevard\" that had become the spine of the Upper West Side, and many of these contain public seating.",
"Broadway intersects with Columbus Avenue (known as Ninth Avenue south of West 59th Street) at West 65th and 66th Streets where the Juilliard School and Lincoln Center, both well-known performing arts landmarks, as well as the Manhattan New York Temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints are located.",
"Between West 70th and 73rd Streets, Broadway intersects with Amsterdam Avenue (known as 10th Avenue south of West 59th Street).",
"The wide intersection of the two thoroughfares has historically been the site of numerous traffic accidents and pedestrian casualties, partly due to the long crosswalks.",
"Two small triangular plots of land were created at points where Broadway slices through Amsterdam Avenue.",
"One is a tiny fenced-in patch of shrubbery and plants at West 70th Street called Sherman Square (although it and the surrounding intersection have also been known collectively as Sherman Square), and the other triangle is a lush tree-filled garden bordering Amsterdam Avenue from just above West 72nd Street to West 73rd Street.",
"Named Verdi Square in 1921 for its monument to Italian composer Giuseppe Verdi, which was erected in 1909, this triangular sliver of public space was designated a Scenic Landmark by the Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1974, one of nine city parks that have received the designation.",
"In the 1960s and 1970s, the area surrounding both Verdi Square and Sherman Square was known by local drug users and dealers as \"Needle Park\", and was featured prominently in the gritty 1971 dramatic film ''The Panic in Needle Park'', directed by Jerry Schatzberg and starring Al Pacino in his second onscreen role.",
"The original brick and stone shelter leading to the entrance of the 72nd Street subway station, one of the first 28 subway stations in Manhattan, remains located on one of the wide islands in the center of Broadway, on the south side of West 72nd Street.",
"For many years, all traffic on Broadway flowed on either side of this median and its subway entrance, and its uptown lanes went past it along the western edge of triangular Verdi Square.",
"In 2001 and 2002, renovation of the historic 72nd Street station and the addition of a second subway control house and passenger shelter on an adjacent center median just north of 72nd Street, across from the original building, resulted in the creation of a public plaza with stone pavers and extensive seating, connecting the newer building with Verdi Square, and making it necessary to divert northbound traffic to Amsterdam Avenue for one block.",
"While Broadway's southbound lanes at this intersection were unaffected by the new construction, its northbound lanes are no longer contiguous at this intersection.",
"Drivers can either continue along Amsterdam Avenue to head uptown or turn left on West 73rd Street to resume traveling on Broadway.",
"Several notable apartment buildings are in close proximity to this intersection, including The Ansonia, its ornate architecture dominating the cityscape here.",
"After the Ansonia first opened as a hotel, live seals were kept in indoor fountains inside its lobby.",
"Later, it was home to the infamous Plato's Retreat nightclub.",
"Broadway is also home to the Beacon Theatre at West 74th Street, designated a national landmark in 1979 and still in operation as a concert venue after its establishment in 1929 as a vaudeville and music hall, and \"sister\" venue to Radio City Music Hall.",
"At its intersection with West 78th Street, Broadway shifts direction and continues directly uptown and aligned approximately with the Commissioners' grid.",
"Past the bend are the historic Apthorp apartment building, built in 1908, and the First Baptist Church in the City of New York, incorporated in New York in 1762, its current building on Broadway erected in 1891.",
"The road heads north and passes historically important apartment houses such as the Belnord, the Astor Court Building, and the Art Nouveau Cornwall.",
"At Broadway and 95th Street is Symphony Space, established in 1978 as home to avant-garde and classical music and dance performances in the former Symphony Theatre, which was originally built in 1918 as a premier \"music and motion-picture house\".",
"At 99th Street, Broadway passes between the controversial skyscrapers of the Ariel East and West.",
"At 107th Street, Broadway merges with West End Avenue, with the intersection forming Straus Park with its Titanic Memorial by Augustus Lukeman.",
"====Northern Manhattan and the Bronx====\nBroadway at Dyckman Street in Inwood\n\nBroadway then passes the campus of Columbia University at 116th Street in Morningside Heights, in part on the tract that housed the Bloomingdale Insane Asylum from 1808 until it moved to Westchester County in 1894.",
"Still in Morningside Heights, Broadway passes the park-like campus of Barnard College.",
"Next, the Gothic quadrangle of Union Theological Seminary and the brick buildings of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America with their landscaped interior courtyards face one another across Broadway.",
"On the next block is the Manhattan School of Music.",
"Broadway then runs past the proposed uptown campus of Columbia University, and the main campus of CUNY–City College near 135th Street; the Gothic buildings of the original City College campus are out of sight, a block to the east.",
"Also to the east are the brownstones of Hamilton Heights.",
"Hamilton Place is a surviving section of Bloomingdale Road, and originally the address of Alexander Hamilton's house, The Grange, which has been moved.",
"Broadway achieves a verdant, park-like effect, particularly in the spring, when it runs between the uptown Trinity Church Cemetery and the former Trinity Chapel, now the Church of the Intercession near 155th Street.",
"NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital lies on Broadway near 166th, 167th, and 168th Streets in Washington Heights.",
"The intersection with Saint Nicholas Avenue at 167th Street forms Mitchell Square Park.",
"At 178th Street, U.S. 9 becomes concurrent with Broadway.",
"Broadway crosses the Harlem River on the Broadway Bridge to Marble Hill.",
"Afterward, it then enters the Bronx, where it is the eastern border of Riverdale and the western border of Van Cortlandt Park.",
"At 253rd Street, NY 9A joins with U.S. 9 and Broadway.",
"(NY 9A splits off Broadway at Ashburton Avenue in Yonkers.)",
"====Westchester County====\nThe northwestern corner of the park marks the city limit and Broadway enters Yonkers, where it is now known as South Broadway.",
"It trends ever westward, closer to the Hudson River, remaining a busy urban commercial street.",
"In downtown Yonkers, it drops close to the river, becomes North Broadway and 9A leaves via Ashburton Avenue.",
"Broadway climbs to the nearby ridgetop runs parallel to the river and the railroad, a few blocks east of both as it passes St. John's Riverside Hospital.",
"The neighborhoods become more residential and the road gently undulates along the ridgetop.",
"In Yonkers, Broadway passes historic Philipse Manor house, which dates back to colonial America.",
"It remains Broadway as it leaves Yonkers for Hastings-on-Hudson, where it splits into separate north and south routes for .",
"The trees become taller and the houses, many separated from the road by stone fences, become larger.",
"Another National Historic Landmark, the John William Draper House, was the site of the first astrophotograph of the Moon.",
"In the next village, Dobbs Ferry, Broadway has various views of the Hudson River while passing through the residential section.",
"Broadway passes by the Old Croton Aqueduct and nearby the shopping district of the village.",
"After intersecting with Ashford Avenue, Broadway passes Mercy College, then turns left again at the center of town just past South Presbyterian Church, headed for equally comfortable Ardsley-on-Hudson and Irvington.",
"Villa Lewaro, the home of Madam C.J.",
"Walker, the first African-American millionaire, is along the highway here.",
"At the north end of the village of Irvington, a memorial to writer Washington Irving, after whom the village was renamed, marks the turnoff to his home at Sunnyside.",
"Entering into the southern portion of Tarrytown, Broadway passes by historic Lyndhurst mansion, a massive mansion built along the Hudson River built in the early 1800s.",
"North of here, at the Kraft Foods technical center, the Tappan Zee Bridge becomes visible.",
"After crossing under the Thruway and I-87 again, here concurrent with I-287, and then intersecting with the four-lane NY 119, where 119 splits off to the east, Broadway becomes the busy main street of Tarrytown.",
"Christ Episcopal Church, where Irving worshiped, is along the street.",
"Many high quality restaurants and shops are along this main road.",
"This downtown ends at the eastern terminus of NY 448, where Broadway slopes off to the left, downhill, and four signs indicate that Broadway turns left, passing the Old Dutch Church of Sleepy Hollow, another NHL.",
"The road then enters Sleepy Hollow (formerly North Tarrytown), passing the visitors' center for Kykuit, the National Historic Landmark that was (and partially still is) the Rockefeller family's estate.",
"Broadway then passes the historic Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, which includes the resting place of Washington Irving and the setting for The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.",
"Broadway expands to four lanes at the trumpet intersection with NY 117, where it finally ends and U.S. 9 becomes Albany Post Road (and Highland Avenue) at the northern border of Sleepy Hollow, New York.",
"===Nicknamed sections===\n\n====Canyon of Heroes====\n\nCanyon of Heroes during a ticker-tape parade for the Apollo 11 astronauts on August 13, 1969\n\n''Canyon of Heroes'' is occasionally used to refer to the section of lower Broadway in the Financial District that is the location of the city's ticker-tape parades.",
"The traditional route of the parade is northward from Bowling Green to City Hall Park.",
"Most of the route is lined with tall office buildings along both sides, affording a view of the parade for thousands of office workers who create the snowstorm-like jettison of shredded paper products that characterize the parade.",
"While typical sports championship parades have been showered with some 50 tons of confetti and shredded paper, the V-J Day parade on August 14–15, 1945 – marking the end of World War II – was covered with 5,438 tons of paper, based on estimates provided by the New York City Department of Sanitation.",
"More than 200 black granite strips embedded in the sidewalks along the Canyon of Heroes list honorees of past ticker-tape parades.",
"The most recent parade up the Canyon of Heroes took place on July 10, 2015 for the United States women's national soccer team in honor of their 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup championship.",
"====Great White Way====\n\n\"The Great White Way\" is a nickname for a section of Broadway in Midtown Manhattan, specifically the portion that encompasses the Theater District, between 42nd and 53rd Streets, and encompassing Times Square.",
"In 1880, a stretch of Broadway between Union Square and Madison Square was illuminated by Brush arc lamps, making it among the first electrically lighted streets in the United States.",
"By the 1890s, the portion from 23rd Street to 34th Street was so brightly illuminated by electrical advertising signs, that people began calling it \"The Great White Way\".",
"When the theater district moved uptown, the name was transferred to the Times Square area.",
"The phrase \"Great White Way\" has been attributed to Shep Friedman, columnist for the ''New York Morning Telegraph'' in 1901, who lifted the term from the title of a book about the Arctic by Albert Paine.",
"The headline \"Found on the Great White Way\" appeared in the February 3, 1902, edition of the ''New York Evening Telegram''.",
"A portrait of Broadway in the early part of the 20th century and \"The Great White Way\" late at night appeared in \"Artist In Manhattan\" (1940) written by the artist-historian Jerome Myers:",
"From south to north, Broadway at one point or another runs over or under various New York City Subway lines, including the IRT Lexington Avenue Line, the BMT Broadway Line, IRT Broadway – Seventh Avenue Line, and IND Eighth Avenue Line (the IND Sixth Avenue Line is the only north-south trunk line in Manhattan that does not run along Broadway).",
"* The IRT Lexington Avenue Line runs under Broadway from Bowling Green to Fulton Street ().",
"* The BMT Broadway Line runs under it from City Hall to Times Square – 42nd Street ().",
"* The IRT Broadway – Seventh Avenue Line runs under and over Broadway from Times Square to 168th Street (), and again from 218th Street to its terminal in the Bronx at Van Cortlandt Park – 242nd Street ().",
"* The northern portion of the IND Eighth Avenue Line runs under Broadway from Dyckman Street to Inwood – 207th Street ().",
"Broadway under the IRT Broadway – Seventh Avenue Line's elevated structure in the Bronx\nEarly street railways on Broadway included the Broadway and Seventh Avenue Railroad's Broadway and University Place Line (1864?)",
"between Union Square (14th Street) and Times Square (42nd Street), the Ninth Avenue Railroad's Ninth and Amsterdam Avenues Line (1884) between 65th Street and 71st Street, the Forty-second Street, Manhattanville and St. Nicholas Avenue Railway's Broadway Branch Line (1885?)",
"between Times Square and 125th Street, and the Kingsbridge Railway's Kingsbridge Line north of 169th Street.",
"The Broadway Surface Railroad's Broadway Line, a cable car line, opened on lower Broadway (below Times Square) in 1893, and soon became the core of the Metropolitan Street Railway, with two cable branches: the Broadway and Lexington Avenue Line and Broadway and Columbus Avenue Line.",
"These streetcar lines were replaced with bus routes in the 1930s and 1940s.",
"Before Broadway became one-way, the main bus routes along it were the New York City Omnibus Company's (NYCO) 6 (Broadway below Times Square), 7 (Broadway and Columbus Avenue), and 11 (Ninth and Amsterdam Avenues), and the Surface Transportation Corporation's M100 (Kingsbridge) and M104 (Broadway Branch).",
"Additionally, the Fifth Avenue Coach Company's (FACCo) 4 and 5 used Broadway from 135th Street north to Washington Heights, and their 5 and 6 used Broadway between 57th Street and 72nd Street.",
"With the implementation of one-way traffic, the northbound 6 and 7 were moved to Sixth Avenue.",
", Broadway is served by the M4 (ex-FACCo 4), M7 (ex-NYCO 7), M55, M100, and M104.",
"Other routes that use part of Broadway include the M5 (ex-FACCo 5), M10, M20, M60 Select Bus Service, Bx7, Bx9, and Bx20.",
"Bee-Line buses also serves Broadway within Riverdale and Westchester County.",
"Routes 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 13, and several others run on a portion of Broadway.",
"One Broadway\n\nBroadway is lined with many famous and otherwise noted and historic buildings, such as:\n* 2 Broadway\n* 280 Broadway (also known as the Marble Palace, the A.T. Stewart Company Store, or The Sun Building)\n* Alexander Hamilton U.S.",
"Custom House (at the southern foot of Broadway, facing Bowling Green Fence and Park)\n* American Surety Building (100 Broadway)\n* Bowling Green Fence and Park (at the southern foot of Broadway, between 25 and 26 Broadway)\n* Bowling Green Building, later the White Star Line Building (11 Broadway)\n* Corbin Building (196 Broadway)\n* Cunard Building (25 Broadway)\n* Equitable Building (120 Broadway)\n* Morgan Stanley Building (1585 Broadway)\n* Paramount Building (1501 Broadway)\n* Standard Oil Building (26 Broadway, on the east side of Broadway, facing the Cunard building)\n* Trinity Church (79 Broadway)\n* United States Lines-Panama Pacific Line Building (1 Broadway)\n* Winter Garden Theatre (1634 Broadway)\n* Woolworth Building (233 Broadway)\n\nHistoric buildings on Broadway that are now demolished include:\n* Appleton Building\n* Alexander Macomb House\n* Barnum's American Museum\n* Equitable Life Building\n* Grand Central Hotel (673 Broadway)\n* Mechanics' Hall\n* Singer Building (Liberty Street and Broadway)\n* St. Nicholas Hotel",
"\n* Off-Broadway",
"'''Notes'''\n\n\n'''Bibliography'''\n*",
"\n* Great White Way; historical citations from etymologist Barry Popik\n* New York Songlines: Broadway; a virtual walking tour of the street\n* Green Light for Midtown; New York City Department of Transportation pilot program for Broadway traffic\n* Walking the length of Broadway"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''BT Group plc''' (trading as '''BT''') is a holding company which owns '''British Telecommunications plc''', a British multinational telecommunications company with head offices in London, United Kingdom. It has operations in around 180 countries and is the largest provider of fixed-line, mobile and broadband services in the UK, and also provides subscription television and IT services.\n\nBT's origins date back to the founding of the Electric Telegraph Company in 1846 which developed a nationwide communications network. In 1912, the General Post Office, a government department, became the monopoly telecoms supplier in the United Kingdom. The Post Office Act of 1969 led to the GPO becoming a public corporation. British Telecommunications, trading as ''British Telecom'', was formed in 1980, and became independent of the Post Office in 1981. British Telecommunications was privatised in 1984, becoming ''British Telecommunications plc'', with some 50 percent of its shares sold to investors. The Government sold its remaining stake in further share sales in 1991 and 1993. BT has a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange, a secondary listing on the New York Stock Exchange, and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index.\n\nBT controls a number of large subsidiaries. BT Global Services division supplies telecoms services to corporate and government customers worldwide, and its BT Consumer division supplies telephony, broadband, and subscription television services in Great Britain to around 18 million customers. BT announced in February 2015 that it had agreed to acquire EE for £12.5 billion, and received final regulatory approval from the Competition and Markets Authority on 15 January 2016. The transaction was completed on 29 January 2016.\n",
"BT's origins date back to the establishment of the first telecommunications companies in Britain. Among them was the first commercial telegraph service, the Electric Telegraph Company, established in 1846. As these companies amalgamated and were taken over or collapsed, the remaining companies were transferred to state control under the Post Office in 1912. These companies were merged and rebranded as British Telecom.\n\n===1878 to 1969===\nThe BT Tower, originally the Post Office Tower, constructed between 1961 and 1964\nIn January 1878 Alexander Graham Bell demonstrated his recently developed telephone to Queen Victoria at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. A few days later the first telephone in Britain was installed, under licence from the General Post Office, by engineers from David Moseley and Sons, to connect the Dantzic Street premises of Manchester hardware merchant, Mr. John Hudson, with his other premises in nearby Shudehill. As the number of installed telephones across the country grew it became sensible to consider constructing telephone exchanges to allow all the telephones in each city to be connected together. The first exchange was opened in London in August 1879, closely followed by the Lancashire Telephonic Exchange in Manchester. From 1878, the telephone service in Britain was provided by private sector companies such as the National Telephone Company, and later by the General Post Office. In 1896, the National Telephone Company was taken over by the General Post Office. In 1912 it became the primary supplier of telecommunications services, after the Post Office took over the private sector telephone service in GB, except for a few local authority services. Those services all folded within a few years, the sole exception being Kingston upon Hull, where the telephone department became present day KCOM Group.\n\n===Public corporation===\nConverting the Post Office into a nationalised industry, as opposed to a governmental department, was first discussed in 1932 by Lord Wolmer. In 1932 the Bridgeman Committee produced a report that was rejected. In 1961, more proposals were ignored. The Post Office remained a department of central government, with the Postmaster General sitting in Cabinet as a Secretary of State.\n\nIn March 1965, Tony Benn, the acting Postmaster General, wrote to Harold Wilson, the Prime Minister, proposing that studies be undertaken aimed at converting the Post Office into a nationalised industry. A committee was set up to look into the advantages and disadvantages of the proposal, and its findings were found to be favourable enough for the Government to re-establish a Steering Group on the Organisation of the Post Office. After some initial deliberations that the business should be divided into five divisions; Post, Telecommunications, Savings, Giro and National Data Processing Services, it was decided that there should be two: ''Post'' and ''Telecommunications''. These events finally resulted in the introduction of the Post Office Act, 1969.\n\nOn 1 October 1969, under the Post Office Act of 1969, the Post Office ceased to be a government department and it became established as a public corporation. The Act gave the Post Office the exclusive privilege of operating telecommunications systems with listed powers to authorise others to run such systems. Effectively, the General Post Office retained its telecommunications monopoly.\n\n=== 1969 to 1982 ===\nThe British Telecom \"T\" symbol logo, used from 1980 to 1991\nIn 1977, the Carter Committee Report recommended a further division of the two main services and for their relocation under two individual corporations. The findings contained in the report led to the renaming of Post Office Telecommunications as British Telecommunications (trading as British Telecom) in 1980, although it remained part of the Post Office.\n\nThe British Telecommunications Act 1981 transferred the responsibility for telecommunications services from the Post Office, creating two separate corporations, Post Office Ltd. and British Telecommunications. At this time the first steps were taken to introduce competition into British telecommunications industry. In particular, the Act empowered the Secretary of State for Trade and Industry, as well as British Telecommunications, to license other operators to run public telecommunications systems. Additionally, a framework was established which enabled the Secretary of State to set standards with the British Standards Institution (BSI) for apparatus supplied to the public by third parties, and had the effect of requiring British Telecommunications to connect approved apparatus to its systems. The Secretary of State made use of these new powers and began the process of opening up the apparatus supply market, where a phased programme of liberalisation was started in 1981. In 1982, a licence was granted to Cable & Wireless to run a public telecommunications network through its subsidiary, Mercury Communications Ltd.\n\n===1982 to 1991===\nOn 19 July 1982, the Government formally announced its intention to privatise British Telecommunications with the sale of up to 51% of the company's shares to private investors. This intention was confirmed by the passing of the Telecommunications Act 1984, which received Royal Assent on 12 April that year. The transfer to British Telecommunications plc of the business of British Telecommunications, the statutory corporation, took place on 6 August 1984 and, on 20 November 1984, more than 50 per cent of British Telecommunications shares were sold to the public. At the time, this was the largest share issue in the world.\n\nThe new legislation was intended to enable British Telecommunications to become more responsive to competition in GB and to expand its operations globally. Commercial freedom granted to British Telecommunications allowed it to enter into new joint ventures and, if it so decided, to engage in the manufacture of its own apparatus. The company's transfer into the private sector continued in December 1991 when the Government sold around half its remaining holding of 47.6% of shares, reducing its stake to 21.8%. Substantially all the government's remaining shares were sold in a third flotation in July 1993, raising £5 billion for the Treasury and introducing 750,000 new shareholders to the company.\n\nThe 1984 Act also abolished British Telecommunications's exclusive privilege of running telecommunications systems and established a framework to safeguard the workings of competition. This meant that British Telecommunications finally lost its monopoly in running telecommunications systems, which it had technically retained under the 1981 Act despite the Secretary of State's licensing powers. It now required a licence in the same way as any other telecommunications operator. The principal licence granted to British Telecommunications laid down strict and extensive conditions affecting the range of its activities, including those of manufacture and supply of apparatus.\n\nIn 1985, Cellnet was launched as a subsidiary of Telecom Securicor Cellular Radio Limited, a 60:40 venture between British Telecommunications and Securicor respectively. Securicor originally invested £4 million in Cellnet in 1983. In 1999, BT purchased Securicor's shares in Cellnet for £3.15 billion. The company was later rebranded as BT Cellnet, and became a part of BT Wireless, a group of subsidiary companies owned by BT.\n\nThe next major development for British Telecommunications, and a move towards a more open market in telecommunications, occurred in 1991. On 5 March, the Government's White Paper, \"Competition and Choice: Telecommunications Policy\" for the 1990s, was issued. In effect, it ended the duopoly which had been shared by British Telecommunications and Mercury Communications in the UK since November 1983 and the build-up to privatisation. The new policy enabled customers to acquire telecommunications services from competing providers using a variety of technologies. Independent \"retail\" companies were permitted to bulk-buy telecommunications capacity and sell it in packages to business and domestic users. The White Paper was endorsed by British Telecommunications, the new policy enabling the company to compete freely and more effectively by offering flexible pricing packages to meet the needs of different types of customer.\n\n===1991 to 2001===\nThe BT brand and piper logo were introduced in 1991. The logo remained until 2003.\nOn 2 April 1991, the company started using a new trading name, BT, and branding.\n\nIn June 1994, BT and MCI Communication Corporation, the second largest carrier of long distance telecommunications services in the United States, launched Concert Communications Services, a $1 billion joint venture company. This alliance gave BT and MCI a global network for providing end-to-end connectivity for advanced business services. Concert was the first company to provide a single-source broad portfolio of global communications services for multinational customers. On 3 November 1996, BT and MCI announced they had entered into a merger agreement to create a global telecommunications company called Concert plc, to be incorporated in GB, with headquarters in both London and Washington, D.C. As part of the alliance BT acquired a 20% holding in MCI. Nevertheless, following US carrier WorldCom's rival bid for MCI on 1 October 1997, BT ultimately decided in November, to sell its stake in MCI to WorldCom for $7 billion. The deal with WorldCom resulted in a profit of more than $2 billion on BT's original investment in MCI, with an additional $465 million severance fee for the break-up of the proposed merger.\n\nIn December 2000, following modifications to BT's licence in April 2000, BT offered local loop unbundling (LLU) to other telecommunications operators, enabling them to use BT's copper local loops (the connection between the customer's premises and the exchange) to connect directly with their customers.\n\n===2001 to 2006===\nBT offices in Madrid, Spain\nFollowing the dot com crash, the group undertook a board restructuring and asset sale to address its large debts. In May 2001, BT announced a three-for-ten rights issue to raise £5.9 billion—still GB's largest ever rights issue—and the sale of Yell Group, the international directories and associated e-commerce business, for £2.14 billion. Both activities were completed in June 2001. The group also sold its property portfolio to Telereal, a property company.\n\nBT renamed its BT Wireless division as O2 in September 2001, and confirmed it planned to demerge the unit in November that year. Shareholders approved the demerger at an extraordinary general meeting held in Birmingham in October 2001, with 4.297 billion British Telecommunications shares voted in favour, and 0.67 million voted against. BT Wireless demerged in 2001, and was relaunched on 18 June 2002 as O2. O2 was acquired by Telefónica in 2005.\n\nIn April 2003, BT unveiled its current corporate identity, known as the \"Connected World\", and brand values. Reflecting the aspirations of a technologically innovative future, the connected world is designed to embody BT's five corporate values: trustworthy, helpful, inspiring, straightforward, heart. The globe device part of the logo was originally designed by the Wolff Olins brand consultancy for BT's Concert joint venture with AT&T, and was subsequently used by BT's internet division, Openworld, prior to being adopted by the company as a whole.\n\nThe Communications Act, 2003, which came into force on 25 July 2003, introduced a new industry regulator, the Office of Communications (Ofcom), to replace the Office of Telecommunications (Oftel). It also introduced a new regulatory framework. The licensing regime was replaced by a general authorisation for companies to provide telecommunications services subject to general conditions of entitlement and, in some instances, specific conditions. Under a specific condition BT retained its universal service obligation (USO) for GB, excluding the Hull area. The USO included connecting consumers to the fixed telephone network, schemes for consumers with special social needs, and the provision of call box services.\n\nIn the summer of 2004, BT launched Consult 21, an industry consultation for BT's 21st century network (21CN) programme. 21CN is a next-generation network transformation, that, at one time, was due for completion by the end of 2010. Using internet protocol technology, 21CN will replace the existing networks and communications from any device such as mobile phone, PC, PDA, or home phone, to any other device.\n\nIn 2004, BT was awarded the contract to deliver and manage N3, a secure and fast broadband network for the NHS National Programme for IT (NPfIT) program, on behalf of the English National Health Service (NHS).\n\nIn 2005 BT made a number of important acquisitions. In February 2005, BT acquired Infonet (now re-branded BT Infonet), a large telecoms company based in El Segundo, California, giving BT access to new geographies. It also acquired the second largest telecoms operator in the Italian business market, Albacom. Then in April 2005, it bought Radianz from Reuters (now rebranded as BT Radianz), which expanded BT's coverage and provided BT with more buying power in certain countries.\n\nIn August 2006, BT acquired online electrical retailer Dabs.com for £30.6 million. The BT Home Hub manufactured by Inventel was also launched in June 2006.\n\nIn October 2006, BT confirmed that it would be investing 75% of its total capital spending, put at £10 billion over five years, in its new Internet Protocol (IP) based 21st century network (21CN). Annual savings of £1 billion per annum were expected when the transition to the new network was to have been completed in 2010, with over 50% of its customers to have been transferred by 2008. (For actual progress see BT 21CN). That month the first customers on to 21CN was successfully tested at Adastral Park in Suffolk.\n\n===2007 to 2012===\nIn January 2007, BT acquired Sheffield-based ISP, PlusNet plc, adding 200,000 customers. BT stated that PlusNet will continue to operate separately out of its Sheffield head-office. On 1 February 2007, BT announced agreed terms to acquire International Network Services Inc. (INS), an international provider of IT consultancy and software. This increases BT presence in North America enhancing BT's consulting capabilities.\n\nOn 20 February 2007, Sir Michael Rake, then chairman of accountancy firm KPMG International, succeeded Sir Christopher Bland, who stepped down in September of that year. On 20 April 2007, BT acquired COMSAT International which provides network services to the South American corporate market. On 1 October 2007, BT purchased Chesterfield based Lynx Technology which has been trading since 1973.\n\nBT acquired Wire One Communications in June 2008 and folded the company into \"BT Conferencing\", its existing conferencing unit, as a new video business unit\nIn July 2008, BT acquired the online business directory firm Ufindus for £20 million in order to expand its position in the local information market in GB. On 28 July 2008, BT acquired Ribbit, of Mountain View, California, \"Silicon Valley's First Phone Company\". Ribbit provides Adobe Flash/Flex APIs, allowing web developers to incorporate telephony features into their software as a service (SaaS) applications.\n\nIn the early days of its fibre broadband rollout, BT said it would deliver fibre-to-the-premises (FTTP) to around 25% of the Country, with the rest catered for by the slower fibre-to-the-cabinet (FTTC), which uses copper wiring to deliver the final stretch of the connection. In 2014, with less than 0.7% of the company's fibre network being FTTP, BT dropped the 25% target, saying that it was \"far less relevant today\" because of improvements made to the headline speed of FTTC, which had doubled to 80Mbit/s since its fibre broadband rollout was first announced. To supplement FTTC, BT offered an 'FTTP on Demand' product. In January 2015, BT stopped taking orders for the on-demand product.\n\nOn 1 April 2009, BT Engage IT was created from the merger of two previous BT acquisitions, Lynx Technology and Basilica. Apart from the name change not much else changed in operations for another 12 months. On 14 May 2009, BT said it was cutting up to 15,000 jobs in the coming year after it announced its results for the year to 31 March 2009. Then in July 2009, BT offered workers a long holiday for an up front sum of 25% of their annual wage or a one-off payment of £1000 if they agree to go part-time.\n\nOn 6 April 2011, BT launched the first online not-for-profit fundraising service for UK charities called BT MyDonate as part of its investment to the community. The service will pass on 100% of all donations made through the site to the charity, and unlike other services which take a proportion as commission and charge charities for using their services, BT will only pass on credit/debit card charges for each donation. The service allows people to register to give money to charity or collect fundraising donations. BT developed MyDonate with the support of Cancer Research UK, Changing Faces, KidsOut, NSPCC and Women's Aid.\n\n===2013 to present===\nIn March 2013, BT was allocated 4G spectrum in the UK following an auction and assignment by Ofcom, after paying £201.5m.\n\nOn 1 August 2013, BT launched its first television channels, BT Sport, to compete with rival broadcaster Sky Sports. Plans for the channels' launch came about when it was announced in June 2012 that BT had been awarded a package of broadcast rights for the Premier League from the 2013–14 to 2015–16 season, broadcasting 38 matches from each season. In February 2013, BT acquired ESPN Inc.'s UK and Ireland TV channels, continuing its expansion into sports broadcasting. ESPN America and ESPN Classic were both closed, while ESPN continued to be operated by BT. On 9 November 2013, BT announced it had acquired exclusive rights to the Champions League and Europa League for £897m, from the 2015 season, with some free games remaining including both finals.\n\nOn 1 November 2014, BT created a new central business services (CBS) organisation to provide customer services and improve operational efficiency levels.\n\nOn 24 November 2014, shares in BT rose considerably on the announcement that the company were in talks to buy back O2; while at the same time BT confirmed that it had been approached by EE to also buy that company. BT confirmed on 15 December 2014 that it had entered into exclusive talks to buy EE. BT confirmed on 5 February 2015 that it had agreed to buy EE for £12.5 billion, subject to regulatory approval. The deal will combine BT's 10 million retail customers and EE's 24.5 million direct mobile subscribers. Deutsche Telekom will own 12% of BT, while Orange S.A. will own 4%.\n\nIn March 2015, launched a 4G service as BT Mobile BT Group CEO Gavin Patterson announced that BT plans to migrate all of its customers onto the IP network by 2025, switching off the company's ISDN network.\n\nOn 15 January 2016, BT received final unconditional approval by the Competition and Markets Authority to acquire EE. The deal was officially completed on 29 January 2016 with Deutsche Telekom now owning 12% of BT, while Orange S.A. own 4%.\n\nOn 1 February 2016, BT announced a new organisational structure that will take effect from April 2016 following the successful acquisition of EE. The EE brand, network and high street stores will be retained and will become a second consumer division, operating alongside BT Consumer. It will serve customers with mobile services, broadband and TV and will continue to deliver the Emergency Services Network contract which was awarded to EE in late 2015. There will be a new BT Business and Public Sector division that will have around £5bn of revenues and will serve small and large businesses as well as the public sector in the UK and Ireland. It will comprise the existing BT Business division along with EE's business division and those parts of BT Global Services that are UK focused. There will also be another new division; BT Wholesale and Ventures that will comprise the existing BT Wholesale division along with EE's MVNO business as well as some specialist businesses such as Fleet, Payphones and Directories. Gerry McQuade, currently Chief Sales and Marketing Officer, Business at EE, will be its CEO.\n\nOn 11 February 2016, BT announced they will be launching a new free service later in 2016 to divert nuisance calls within its network before they ring on customers' phones and will use huge computing power to root out 25 million unwanted calls a week. BT customers can currently purchase special phones that will allow them to block nuisance calls or pay to stop calls getting through. However, the new service will identify some of the 5 billion unwanted calls made each year before they arrive, which will then be diverted automatically to a junk voicemail box. BT customers will also be able to add numbers they don't want to hear from to the blacklist, for free.\n\nOn 8 June 2017, BT appointed KPMG as its new auditor to replace PwC in the wake of the fraud scandal in Italy that triggered a major profit warning earlier this year. In last April, KPMG fired six US employees over a scandal that calls into question efforts to ensure that public company accounts are being properly scrutinised.\n\nOn 8 July 2017, The Daily Telegraph reported that BT \"has called in consultants from McKinsey to conduct a review of its businesses in the hope of saving hundreds of millions of pounds per year. The work, dubbed 'Project Novator', is understood to include a potential merger of BT’s struggling global services corporate networking and IT unit with its business and public sector division\". The word Novator is quite widely used so it does not necessarily imply a connection with any company using that name.\n",
"The Adastral Park campus at Martlesham Heath in Suffolk, the principal site of BT Research.\nBT Group is a holding company; the majority of its businesses and assets are held by its wholly owned subsidiary British Telecommunications plc. BT's businesses are operated under special government regulation by the British telecoms regulator Ofcom (formerly Oftel). BT has been found to have significant market power in some markets following market reviews by Ofcom. In these markets, BT is required to comply with additional obligations such as meeting reasonable requests to supply services and not to discriminate.\n\nBT runs the telephone exchanges, trunk network and local loop connections for the vast majority of British fixed-line telephones. Currently BT is responsible for approximately 28 million telephone lines in GB. Apart from KCOM Group, which serves Kingston upon Hull, BT is the only UK telecoms operator to have a ''Universal Service Obligation,'' (USO) which means it must provide a fixed telephone line to any address in the UK. It is also obliged to provide public call boxes.\n\nAs well as continuing to provide service in those traditional areas in which BT has an obligation to provide services or is closely regulated, BT has expanded into more profitable products and services where there is less regulation. These are principally, broadband internet service and bespoke solutions in telecommunications and information technology.\n",
"\n=== Headquarters ===\nThe BT Centre was completed in 1985.\n\nBT Group's world headquarters and registered office is the BT Centre, a 10-storey office building at 81 Newgate Street in the City of London, opposite St. Paul's tube station.\n\n===Divisions===\nBT Group is organised into the following divisions:\n\n*Customer facing:\n**BT Global Services – provides telecoms and IT services to multinationals\n**BT Business – provides retail telecoms and IT services to UK SMEs\n**BT Consumer – provides retail telecoms services to consumers including:\n*** BT Total Broadband\n*** BT Infinity\n*** BT TV\n*** BT Sport\n*** BT Mobile\n*** BT Wi-fi\n**EE - provides mobile and fixed communications services to consumers, businesses, government and the wholesale market\n**BT Wholesale – operates BT's networks\n**Openreach – fenced-off wholesale division, responsible for the \"last mile\" of BT's access network in GB and tasked with ensuring that rival operators have equality of access to BT's local network\n*Internal service unit:\n**BT Technology, Service & Operations – responsible for the innovation, design, test, build and running of BT’s global networks and systems\n*** BT Research – part of the BT Technology, Service & Operations division\n\n====Openreach====\n\nOpenreach was established following the Telecommunications Strategic Review carried out by Ofcom. BT signed legally binding undertakings with Ofcom in September 2005 to help create a new regulatory framework for BT and the British telecoms industry generally. Openreach commenced operations on 11 January 2006, with 25,000 engineers previously employed by BT's Retail and Wholesale divisions. It provides provision and repair in the \"last mile\" of copper wire and is designed to ensure that other communications providers (CPs) have exactly the same operational conditions as parts of the BT Group.\n\n===Financial performance===\nBT's financial results have been as follows:\n\n\n Year ending\n Turnover (£m)\n Profit/(loss) before tax (£m)\n Net profit/(loss) (£m)\n Basic eps (p)\n\n31 March 2016\n18,909\n3,473\n2,588\n33.2\n\n31 March 2015\n17,851\n3,172\n2,135\n26.5\n\n 31 March 2014\n 18,287\n 2,827\n 2,018\n 25.7\n\n 31 March 2013\n 18,017\n 2,501\n 2,091\n 26.7\n\n 31 March 2012\n 19,307\n 2,421\n 2,003\n 23.7\n\n 31 March 2011\n 20,076\n 1,717\n 1,504\n 19.4\n\n 31 March 2010\n 20,911\n 1,007\n 1,029\n 13.3\n\n 31 March 2009\n 21,390\n (134)\n (81)\n 3.2\n\n 31 March 2008\n 20,704\n 1,976\n 1,738\n 21.5\n\n 31 March 2007\n 20,223\n 2,484\n 2,852\n 34.4\n\n 31 March 2006\n 19,514\n 2,633\n 1,644\n 19.5\n\n 31 March 2005\n 18,429\n 2,693\n 1,539\n 18.1\n\n 31 March 2004\n 18,519\n 1,945\n 1,414\n 16.4\n\n 31 March 2003\n 18,727\n 3,157\n 2,702\n 31.4\n\n 31 March 2002\n 18,447\n 1,461\n 1,008\n 12.1\n\n 31 March 2001\n 17,141\n (1,031)\n (1,875)\n (25.8)\n\n 31 March 2000\n 18,715\n 2,942\n 2,055\n 31.7\n\n 31 March 1999\n 16,953\n 4,295\n 2,983\n 46.3\n\n 31 March 1998\n 15,640\n 3,214\n 1,702\n 26.6\n\n 31 March 1997\n 14,935\n 3,203\n 2,077\n 32.8\n\n 31 March 1996\n 14,446\n 3,019\n 1,986\n 31.6\n\n 31 March 1995\n 13,893\n 2,662\n 1,731\n 27.8\n\n 31 March 1994\n 13,675\n 2,756\n 1,767\n 28.5\n\n 31 March 1993\n 13,242\n 1,972\n 1,220\n 19.8\n\n 31 March 1992\n 13,337\n 3,073\n 2,044\n 33.2\n\n\nAs the data above suggests that BT's revenues have been more or less static over a period of last 16 years.\n\n===Pension fund===\nBT has the largest defined benefit pension plan of any UK public company. The trustees valued the scheme at £36.7 billion at the end of 2010; an actuarial valuation valued the deficit of the scheme at £9.043 billion as of 31 December 2008.\nFollowing a change in the regulations governing inflation index linking, the deficit was estimated at £5.2 billion in November 2010.\n\n===Sponsorships===\n\nBT sponsored Scotland's domestic rugby union championship and cup competitions between 1999 and 2006.\n\nOn 31 July 2012, it was announced that BT agreed a three-year sponsorship deal with Ulster Rugby and sees BT become the Official Communications Partner. BT's logo will appear on the Ulster Rugby shirt sleeve for all friendlies, Heineken Cup and RaboDirect Pro12 matches as well as a significant brand presence at their home ground; Ravenhill Stadium.\n\nOn 29 July 2013, it was announced that BT had partnered up with Scottish Rugby Union in a four-year sponsorship deal with its two professional clubs; Edinburgh Rugby and Glasgow Warriors that will commence from August 2013. The deal involves BT Sport becoming the new shirt sponsor for both clubs as well as being promoted with BT Group at their respective home grounds; Scotstoun Stadium and Murrayfield Stadium.\n\nOn 28 May 2014, it was announced that BT agreed a £20 million four-year sponsorship deal with Scottish Rugby Union which includes BT securing the naming rights for Murrayfield Stadium which becomes BT Murrayfield Stadium, become sponsor of the Scotland sevens team, become principal and exclusive sponsor of Scotland's domestic league and cup competitions from next season, taking over the role from The Royal Bank of Scotland Group (RBS), and become sponsor of Scottish Rugby's four new academies that aims to drive forward standards for young players who have aspirations to play professionally.\n\nOn 14 April 2015, it was announced that as part of BT's current £20 million four-year sponsorship deal with Scottish Rugby Union that was announced in May 2014, BT has completed its sponsorship portfolio following an additional investment of £3.6 million for the 3 years remaining of its sponsorship deal, to become the new shirt sponsor for the Scotland national teams.\n\nOn 27 January 2016, it was announced that BT, alongside YouTube will be the new joint headline sponsors in a three-year deal with Edinburgh International Television Festival. The two companies will \"share prominence across all branding of the 41st TV Festival, including the famous MacTaggart Lecture and will work closely with the festival organisers in their bid to reflect new trends in a rapidly transforming industry, from new ways of distributing content to technical innovations such as Virtual Reality\".\n\nBT is the founding and principal partner of the Wayne Rooney Foundation, which was established to improve the lives of children and young people. The Foundation will run events \"to raise vital funds to support the work of key organisations dedicated to supporting disadvantaged and vulnerable children and young people\". These organisations are four chosen charities which are, Manchester United Foundation, NSPCC, Claire House Children's Hospice and Alder Hey Children's Hospital. The first of these events was Wayne’s testimonial match in August 2016 between Manchester United F.C. and Everton F.C. which raised £1.2 million. The match was screened live through BT Sport with BT MyDonate being the official fundraising platform for the testimonial, with both online and text options for donations promoted during the match.\n\nOn 26 May 2017, it was announced that BT is to sponsor the 2017 British Urban Film Festival (BUFF) and sees BT host every event of the film festival, including the Awards at the BT Tower. BT will also broadcast the awards ceremony on BT.com and will have the opportunity to screen films acquired from the festival on its BT TV store platform.\n",
"In 2004 the BT Group signed the world's largest renewable energy deal with npower and British Gas, and now all of their exchanges, satellite networks and offices are powered by renewable energy. BT is a member of the Corporate Leaders Group on Climate Change. They signed a letter urging the government to do more to tackle this problem. Janet Blake, head of global corporate social responsibility at BT, says that she would like to see incentives that find ways of rewarding those companies that focus on climate change by making investments in green business models.\n\nBT has made it clear that it has an ambitious plan to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Its strategy includes steps to reduce the company's carbon footprint as well as those of customers, suppliers and employees. BT has actually pledged to achieve an 80% reduction by the year 2016, which will require further efficiency improvements.\n",
"\n===Abuse of monopoly position and underinvestment in infrastructure===\nBT have been accused of abusing their control of Openreach, underinvesting in the UK's broadband infrastructure, charging high prices and providing poor customer service. Openreach's services receive hundreds of thousands of complaints on an annual basis.\n\n===Undermining of National Security===\n\n\n\nBetween 2010 and 2012 the UK intelligence community initiated an investigation aimed at Huawei, the foreign supplier of BT's new fibre infrastructure with increasing urgency after the USA, Canada and Australia prevented the company from operating in their countries. Although BT had notified the UK government in 2003 of Huawei's interest in their £10b network upgrade contract, they did not raise the security implications as BT failed to explain that the Chinese company would have unfettered access to critical infrastructure. On 16 December 2012 David Cameron was supplied with an in-depth report indicating that the intelligence services had very grave doubts regarding Huawei, and that the UK governmental, military, business community and private citizen's privacy may be under serious threat. Subsequently, BT's Infinity program and other projects are now under urgent review.\n\nOn 7 June 2013, British lawmakers concluded that BT should never have allowed the Chinese company access to the UK's critical communications network without ministerial oversight, saying they were 'deeply shocked' that BT did not inform government that they were allowing Huawei and ZTE, both foreign entities with ties to the Chinese military, unfettered access to critical national systems. Furthermore, ministers discovered that the agency with the responsibility to ensure Chinese equipment and code was threat-free was entirely staffed by Huawei employees. Subsequently, parliamentarians confirmed that in case of an attack on the UK there was nothing at this point that could be done to stop Chinese infiltration attacking critical national infrastructure.\n\nZTE, another Chinese company that supplies extensive network equipment and subscriber hardware to BT Infinity, was also under scrutiny by parliament's intelligence and security committee according to a report in the Guardian on Wednesday 10 October 2012 after the US, Canada, Australia and the European Union declared the company a security risk to its citizens.\n\n=== World Wide Web hyperlink patent ===\nIn 2001, BT discovered it owned a patent () which it believed gave it patent rights on the use of hyperlink technology on the World Wide Web. The corresponding UK patent had already expired, but the US patent was valid until 2006. On 11 February 2002, BT began a court case relating to its claims in a US federal court against the Internet service provider Prodigy Communications Corporation. In the case ''British Telecommunications plc v. Prodigy'', the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York ruled on 22 August 2002 that the BT patent was not applicable to web technology and granted Prodigy's request for summary judgment of non-infringement.\n\n===Behavioural targeting===\nIn early 2008 it was announced that BT had entered into a contract (along with Virgin Media and TalkTalk) with the spyware company Phorm (responsible under their 121Media guise for the Apropos rootkit) to intercept and analyse their users' click-stream data and sell the anonymised aggregate information as part of Phorm's OIX advertising service. The practice, known as \"behavioural targeting\" and condemned by critics as \"data pimping\", came under intense fire from various internet communities and other interested-parties who believe that the interception of data without the consent of users and web site owners is illegal under UK law (RIPA). At a more fundamental level, many have argued that the ISPs and Phorm have no right to sell a commodity (a user's data, and the copyright content of web sites) to which they have no claim of ownership. In response to questions about Phorm and the interception of data by the Webwise system Sir Tim Berners-Lee, credited as the creator of the World Wide Web protocol, indicated his disapproval of the concept and is quoted as saying of his data and web history:\n\n\n\n===Alleged complicity with drone strikes in Yemen and Somalia===\nIn September 2012, BT entered into a $23 million deal with the US military to provide a key communications cable connecting RAF Croughton, a US military base on UK soil, with Camp Lemonnier, a large US base in Djibouti. Camp Lemonnier is used as a base for American drone attacks in Yemen and Somalia, and has been described by ''The Economist'' as \"the most important base for drone operations outside the war zone of Afghanistan.\"\n\nHuman rights groups including Reprieve and Amnesty International have criticised the use of armed drones outside declared war zones. Evidence produced by The Bureau of Investigative Journalism and Stanford University's International Human Rights & Conflict Resolution Clinic suggest that drone strikes have caused substantial civilian casualties, and may be illegal under international law.\n\nIn 2013, BT was the subject of a complaint by Reprieve to the Department of Business, Innovation and Skills under the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, following their refusal to explain whether or not their infrastructure was used to facilitate drone strikes. The subsequent refusal of this complaint was appealed in May 2014, on the basis that the UK National Contact Point's decision did not follow the OECD Guidelines. The issue of bias was also raised, due to the appointment of Lord Ian Livingston as government minister for the department which was processing the complaint: Livingston had occupied a senior position at BT when the cable between RAF Croughton and Camp Lemonnier was originally built.\n",
"\n* SHERIFF\n\n\n",
"\n",
"* Baldwin, F.G.C. ''The History of the Telephone in the United Kingdom'' (1925)\n* Foreman-Peck, J. \"The development and diffusion of telephone technology in Britain, 1900–1940,\" ''Transactions of the Newcomen Society,'' (1991–92). 63, pp165–180.\n* Foreman-Peck, J., & Millward, R. ''Public and private ownership of British industry 1820–1990'' (1994). \n* Hazlewood, A. \"The origins of the state telephone service in Britain\" ''Oxford Economic Papers'' (1953). 5:13–25. in JSTOR\n* \n* Johannessen, Neil. ''Ring up Britain: the Early Years of the Telephone in the United Kingdom'' (British Telecommunications plc, London, 1991) \n* Johnston, S. F. \"The telephone in Scotland.\" in: K. Veitch, ed., ''Transport and Communications. Publications of the European Ethnological Research Centre; Scottish life and society: a compendium of Scottish ethnology'' (2009): pp. 716–727 online \n* Magill, Frank N. ''Great Events from History II: Business and Commerce Series, volume 1:1897-1923'' (1994) pp 218–23; historiography\n* Meyer, Hugo Richard. ''Public Ownership and the Telephone in Great Britain: Restriction of the Industry by the State and the Municipalities'' (1907). online\n* Pitt, D.C. ''The telecommunications function in the British Post Office. A case study of bureaucratic adaption'' (Westmead: Saxon House, 1980). \n* Robertson, John Henry. ''The story of the telephone: A history of the telecommunications industry of Britain'' (1947)\n* \n* \n",
"* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Operations",
"Corporate affairs",
" Environmental record ",
"Controversies",
" See also ",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | BT Group | [
"On 28 May 2014, it was announced that BT agreed a £20 million four-year sponsorship deal with Scottish Rugby Union which includes BT securing the naming rights for Murrayfield Stadium which becomes BT Murrayfield Stadium, become sponsor of the Scotland sevens team, become principal and exclusive sponsor of Scotland's domestic league and cup competitions from next season, taking over the role from The Royal Bank of Scotland Group (RBS), and become sponsor of Scottish Rugby's four new academies that aims to drive forward standards for young players who have aspirations to play professionally."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n'''BT Group plc''' (trading as '''BT''') is a holding company which owns '''British Telecommunications plc''', a British multinational telecommunications company with head offices in London, United Kingdom.",
"It has operations in around 180 countries and is the largest provider of fixed-line, mobile and broadband services in the UK, and also provides subscription television and IT services.",
"BT's origins date back to the founding of the Electric Telegraph Company in 1846 which developed a nationwide communications network.",
"In 1912, the General Post Office, a government department, became the monopoly telecoms supplier in the United Kingdom.",
"The Post Office Act of 1969 led to the GPO becoming a public corporation.",
"British Telecommunications, trading as ''British Telecom'', was formed in 1980, and became independent of the Post Office in 1981.",
"British Telecommunications was privatised in 1984, becoming ''British Telecommunications plc'', with some 50 percent of its shares sold to investors.",
"The Government sold its remaining stake in further share sales in 1991 and 1993.",
"BT has a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange, a secondary listing on the New York Stock Exchange, and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index.",
"BT controls a number of large subsidiaries.",
"BT Global Services division supplies telecoms services to corporate and government customers worldwide, and its BT Consumer division supplies telephony, broadband, and subscription television services in Great Britain to around 18 million customers.",
"BT announced in February 2015 that it had agreed to acquire EE for £12.5 billion, and received final regulatory approval from the Competition and Markets Authority on 15 January 2016.",
"The transaction was completed on 29 January 2016.",
"BT's origins date back to the establishment of the first telecommunications companies in Britain.",
"Among them was the first commercial telegraph service, the Electric Telegraph Company, established in 1846.",
"As these companies amalgamated and were taken over or collapsed, the remaining companies were transferred to state control under the Post Office in 1912.",
"These companies were merged and rebranded as British Telecom.",
"===1878 to 1969===\nThe BT Tower, originally the Post Office Tower, constructed between 1961 and 1964\nIn January 1878 Alexander Graham Bell demonstrated his recently developed telephone to Queen Victoria at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight.",
"A few days later the first telephone in Britain was installed, under licence from the General Post Office, by engineers from David Moseley and Sons, to connect the Dantzic Street premises of Manchester hardware merchant, Mr. John Hudson, with his other premises in nearby Shudehill.",
"As the number of installed telephones across the country grew it became sensible to consider constructing telephone exchanges to allow all the telephones in each city to be connected together.",
"The first exchange was opened in London in August 1879, closely followed by the Lancashire Telephonic Exchange in Manchester.",
"From 1878, the telephone service in Britain was provided by private sector companies such as the National Telephone Company, and later by the General Post Office.",
"In 1896, the National Telephone Company was taken over by the General Post Office.",
"In 1912 it became the primary supplier of telecommunications services, after the Post Office took over the private sector telephone service in GB, except for a few local authority services.",
"Those services all folded within a few years, the sole exception being Kingston upon Hull, where the telephone department became present day KCOM Group.",
"===Public corporation===\nConverting the Post Office into a nationalised industry, as opposed to a governmental department, was first discussed in 1932 by Lord Wolmer.",
"In 1932 the Bridgeman Committee produced a report that was rejected.",
"In 1961, more proposals were ignored.",
"The Post Office remained a department of central government, with the Postmaster General sitting in Cabinet as a Secretary of State.",
"In March 1965, Tony Benn, the acting Postmaster General, wrote to Harold Wilson, the Prime Minister, proposing that studies be undertaken aimed at converting the Post Office into a nationalised industry.",
"A committee was set up to look into the advantages and disadvantages of the proposal, and its findings were found to be favourable enough for the Government to re-establish a Steering Group on the Organisation of the Post Office.",
"After some initial deliberations that the business should be divided into five divisions; Post, Telecommunications, Savings, Giro and National Data Processing Services, it was decided that there should be two: ''Post'' and ''Telecommunications''.",
"These events finally resulted in the introduction of the Post Office Act, 1969.",
"On 1 October 1969, under the Post Office Act of 1969, the Post Office ceased to be a government department and it became established as a public corporation.",
"The Act gave the Post Office the exclusive privilege of operating telecommunications systems with listed powers to authorise others to run such systems.",
"Effectively, the General Post Office retained its telecommunications monopoly.",
"=== 1969 to 1982 ===\nThe British Telecom \"T\" symbol logo, used from 1980 to 1991\nIn 1977, the Carter Committee Report recommended a further division of the two main services and for their relocation under two individual corporations.",
"The findings contained in the report led to the renaming of Post Office Telecommunications as British Telecommunications (trading as British Telecom) in 1980, although it remained part of the Post Office.",
"The British Telecommunications Act 1981 transferred the responsibility for telecommunications services from the Post Office, creating two separate corporations, Post Office Ltd. and British Telecommunications.",
"At this time the first steps were taken to introduce competition into British telecommunications industry.",
"In particular, the Act empowered the Secretary of State for Trade and Industry, as well as British Telecommunications, to license other operators to run public telecommunications systems.",
"Additionally, a framework was established which enabled the Secretary of State to set standards with the British Standards Institution (BSI) for apparatus supplied to the public by third parties, and had the effect of requiring British Telecommunications to connect approved apparatus to its systems.",
"The Secretary of State made use of these new powers and began the process of opening up the apparatus supply market, where a phased programme of liberalisation was started in 1981.",
"In 1982, a licence was granted to Cable & Wireless to run a public telecommunications network through its subsidiary, Mercury Communications Ltd.\n\n===1982 to 1991===\nOn 19 July 1982, the Government formally announced its intention to privatise British Telecommunications with the sale of up to 51% of the company's shares to private investors.",
"This intention was confirmed by the passing of the Telecommunications Act 1984, which received Royal Assent on 12 April that year.",
"The transfer to British Telecommunications plc of the business of British Telecommunications, the statutory corporation, took place on 6 August 1984 and, on 20 November 1984, more than 50 per cent of British Telecommunications shares were sold to the public.",
"At the time, this was the largest share issue in the world.",
"The new legislation was intended to enable British Telecommunications to become more responsive to competition in GB and to expand its operations globally.",
"Commercial freedom granted to British Telecommunications allowed it to enter into new joint ventures and, if it so decided, to engage in the manufacture of its own apparatus.",
"The company's transfer into the private sector continued in December 1991 when the Government sold around half its remaining holding of 47.6% of shares, reducing its stake to 21.8%.",
"Substantially all the government's remaining shares were sold in a third flotation in July 1993, raising £5 billion for the Treasury and introducing 750,000 new shareholders to the company.",
"The 1984 Act also abolished British Telecommunications's exclusive privilege of running telecommunications systems and established a framework to safeguard the workings of competition.",
"This meant that British Telecommunications finally lost its monopoly in running telecommunications systems, which it had technically retained under the 1981 Act despite the Secretary of State's licensing powers.",
"It now required a licence in the same way as any other telecommunications operator.",
"The principal licence granted to British Telecommunications laid down strict and extensive conditions affecting the range of its activities, including those of manufacture and supply of apparatus.",
"In 1985, Cellnet was launched as a subsidiary of Telecom Securicor Cellular Radio Limited, a 60:40 venture between British Telecommunications and Securicor respectively.",
"Securicor originally invested £4 million in Cellnet in 1983.",
"In 1999, BT purchased Securicor's shares in Cellnet for £3.15 billion.",
"The company was later rebranded as BT Cellnet, and became a part of BT Wireless, a group of subsidiary companies owned by BT.",
"The next major development for British Telecommunications, and a move towards a more open market in telecommunications, occurred in 1991.",
"On 5 March, the Government's White Paper, \"Competition and Choice: Telecommunications Policy\" for the 1990s, was issued.",
"In effect, it ended the duopoly which had been shared by British Telecommunications and Mercury Communications in the UK since November 1983 and the build-up to privatisation.",
"The new policy enabled customers to acquire telecommunications services from competing providers using a variety of technologies.",
"Independent \"retail\" companies were permitted to bulk-buy telecommunications capacity and sell it in packages to business and domestic users.",
"The White Paper was endorsed by British Telecommunications, the new policy enabling the company to compete freely and more effectively by offering flexible pricing packages to meet the needs of different types of customer.",
"===1991 to 2001===\nThe BT brand and piper logo were introduced in 1991.",
"The logo remained until 2003.",
"On 2 April 1991, the company started using a new trading name, BT, and branding.",
"In June 1994, BT and MCI Communication Corporation, the second largest carrier of long distance telecommunications services in the United States, launched Concert Communications Services, a $1 billion joint venture company.",
"This alliance gave BT and MCI a global network for providing end-to-end connectivity for advanced business services.",
"Concert was the first company to provide a single-source broad portfolio of global communications services for multinational customers.",
"On 3 November 1996, BT and MCI announced they had entered into a merger agreement to create a global telecommunications company called Concert plc, to be incorporated in GB, with headquarters in both London and Washington, D.C. As part of the alliance BT acquired a 20% holding in MCI.",
"Nevertheless, following US carrier WorldCom's rival bid for MCI on 1 October 1997, BT ultimately decided in November, to sell its stake in MCI to WorldCom for $7 billion.",
"The deal with WorldCom resulted in a profit of more than $2 billion on BT's original investment in MCI, with an additional $465 million severance fee for the break-up of the proposed merger.",
"In December 2000, following modifications to BT's licence in April 2000, BT offered local loop unbundling (LLU) to other telecommunications operators, enabling them to use BT's copper local loops (the connection between the customer's premises and the exchange) to connect directly with their customers.",
"===2001 to 2006===\nBT offices in Madrid, Spain\nFollowing the dot com crash, the group undertook a board restructuring and asset sale to address its large debts.",
"In May 2001, BT announced a three-for-ten rights issue to raise £5.9 billion—still GB's largest ever rights issue—and the sale of Yell Group, the international directories and associated e-commerce business, for £2.14 billion.",
"Both activities were completed in June 2001.",
"The group also sold its property portfolio to Telereal, a property company.",
"BT renamed its BT Wireless division as O2 in September 2001, and confirmed it planned to demerge the unit in November that year.",
"Shareholders approved the demerger at an extraordinary general meeting held in Birmingham in October 2001, with 4.297 billion British Telecommunications shares voted in favour, and 0.67 million voted against.",
"BT Wireless demerged in 2001, and was relaunched on 18 June 2002 as O2.",
"O2 was acquired by Telefónica in 2005.",
"In April 2003, BT unveiled its current corporate identity, known as the \"Connected World\", and brand values.",
"Reflecting the aspirations of a technologically innovative future, the connected world is designed to embody BT's five corporate values: trustworthy, helpful, inspiring, straightforward, heart.",
"The globe device part of the logo was originally designed by the Wolff Olins brand consultancy for BT's Concert joint venture with AT&T, and was subsequently used by BT's internet division, Openworld, prior to being adopted by the company as a whole.",
"The Communications Act, 2003, which came into force on 25 July 2003, introduced a new industry regulator, the Office of Communications (Ofcom), to replace the Office of Telecommunications (Oftel).",
"It also introduced a new regulatory framework.",
"The licensing regime was replaced by a general authorisation for companies to provide telecommunications services subject to general conditions of entitlement and, in some instances, specific conditions.",
"Under a specific condition BT retained its universal service obligation (USO) for GB, excluding the Hull area.",
"The USO included connecting consumers to the fixed telephone network, schemes for consumers with special social needs, and the provision of call box services.",
"In the summer of 2004, BT launched Consult 21, an industry consultation for BT's 21st century network (21CN) programme.",
"21CN is a next-generation network transformation, that, at one time, was due for completion by the end of 2010.",
"Using internet protocol technology, 21CN will replace the existing networks and communications from any device such as mobile phone, PC, PDA, or home phone, to any other device.",
"In 2004, BT was awarded the contract to deliver and manage N3, a secure and fast broadband network for the NHS National Programme for IT (NPfIT) program, on behalf of the English National Health Service (NHS).",
"In 2005 BT made a number of important acquisitions.",
"In February 2005, BT acquired Infonet (now re-branded BT Infonet), a large telecoms company based in El Segundo, California, giving BT access to new geographies.",
"It also acquired the second largest telecoms operator in the Italian business market, Albacom.",
"Then in April 2005, it bought Radianz from Reuters (now rebranded as BT Radianz), which expanded BT's coverage and provided BT with more buying power in certain countries.",
"In August 2006, BT acquired online electrical retailer Dabs.com for £30.6 million.",
"The BT Home Hub manufactured by Inventel was also launched in June 2006.",
"In October 2006, BT confirmed that it would be investing 75% of its total capital spending, put at £10 billion over five years, in its new Internet Protocol (IP) based 21st century network (21CN).",
"Annual savings of £1 billion per annum were expected when the transition to the new network was to have been completed in 2010, with over 50% of its customers to have been transferred by 2008.",
"(For actual progress see BT 21CN).",
"That month the first customers on to 21CN was successfully tested at Adastral Park in Suffolk.",
"===2007 to 2012===\nIn January 2007, BT acquired Sheffield-based ISP, PlusNet plc, adding 200,000 customers.",
"BT stated that PlusNet will continue to operate separately out of its Sheffield head-office.",
"On 1 February 2007, BT announced agreed terms to acquire International Network Services Inc. (INS), an international provider of IT consultancy and software.",
"This increases BT presence in North America enhancing BT's consulting capabilities.",
"On 20 February 2007, Sir Michael Rake, then chairman of accountancy firm KPMG International, succeeded Sir Christopher Bland, who stepped down in September of that year.",
"On 20 April 2007, BT acquired COMSAT International which provides network services to the South American corporate market.",
"On 1 October 2007, BT purchased Chesterfield based Lynx Technology which has been trading since 1973.",
"BT acquired Wire One Communications in June 2008 and folded the company into \"BT Conferencing\", its existing conferencing unit, as a new video business unit\nIn July 2008, BT acquired the online business directory firm Ufindus for £20 million in order to expand its position in the local information market in GB.",
"On 28 July 2008, BT acquired Ribbit, of Mountain View, California, \"Silicon Valley's First Phone Company\".",
"Ribbit provides Adobe Flash/Flex APIs, allowing web developers to incorporate telephony features into their software as a service (SaaS) applications.",
"In the early days of its fibre broadband rollout, BT said it would deliver fibre-to-the-premises (FTTP) to around 25% of the Country, with the rest catered for by the slower fibre-to-the-cabinet (FTTC), which uses copper wiring to deliver the final stretch of the connection.",
"In 2014, with less than 0.7% of the company's fibre network being FTTP, BT dropped the 25% target, saying that it was \"far less relevant today\" because of improvements made to the headline speed of FTTC, which had doubled to 80Mbit/s since its fibre broadband rollout was first announced.",
"To supplement FTTC, BT offered an 'FTTP on Demand' product.",
"In January 2015, BT stopped taking orders for the on-demand product.",
"On 1 April 2009, BT Engage IT was created from the merger of two previous BT acquisitions, Lynx Technology and Basilica.",
"Apart from the name change not much else changed in operations for another 12 months.",
"On 14 May 2009, BT said it was cutting up to 15,000 jobs in the coming year after it announced its results for the year to 31 March 2009.",
"Then in July 2009, BT offered workers a long holiday for an up front sum of 25% of their annual wage or a one-off payment of £1000 if they agree to go part-time.",
"On 6 April 2011, BT launched the first online not-for-profit fundraising service for UK charities called BT MyDonate as part of its investment to the community.",
"The service will pass on 100% of all donations made through the site to the charity, and unlike other services which take a proportion as commission and charge charities for using their services, BT will only pass on credit/debit card charges for each donation.",
"The service allows people to register to give money to charity or collect fundraising donations.",
"BT developed MyDonate with the support of Cancer Research UK, Changing Faces, KidsOut, NSPCC and Women's Aid.",
"===2013 to present===\nIn March 2013, BT was allocated 4G spectrum in the UK following an auction and assignment by Ofcom, after paying £201.5m.",
"On 1 August 2013, BT launched its first television channels, BT Sport, to compete with rival broadcaster Sky Sports.",
"Plans for the channels' launch came about when it was announced in June 2012 that BT had been awarded a package of broadcast rights for the Premier League from the 2013–14 to 2015–16 season, broadcasting 38 matches from each season.",
"In February 2013, BT acquired ESPN Inc.'s UK and Ireland TV channels, continuing its expansion into sports broadcasting.",
"ESPN America and ESPN Classic were both closed, while ESPN continued to be operated by BT.",
"On 9 November 2013, BT announced it had acquired exclusive rights to the Champions League and Europa League for £897m, from the 2015 season, with some free games remaining including both finals.",
"On 1 November 2014, BT created a new central business services (CBS) organisation to provide customer services and improve operational efficiency levels.",
"On 24 November 2014, shares in BT rose considerably on the announcement that the company were in talks to buy back O2; while at the same time BT confirmed that it had been approached by EE to also buy that company.",
"BT confirmed on 15 December 2014 that it had entered into exclusive talks to buy EE.",
"BT confirmed on 5 February 2015 that it had agreed to buy EE for £12.5 billion, subject to regulatory approval.",
"The deal will combine BT's 10 million retail customers and EE's 24.5 million direct mobile subscribers.",
"Deutsche Telekom will own 12% of BT, while Orange S.A. will own 4%.",
"In March 2015, launched a 4G service as BT Mobile BT Group CEO Gavin Patterson announced that BT plans to migrate all of its customers onto the IP network by 2025, switching off the company's ISDN network.",
"On 15 January 2016, BT received final unconditional approval by the Competition and Markets Authority to acquire EE.",
"The deal was officially completed on 29 January 2016 with Deutsche Telekom now owning 12% of BT, while Orange S.A. own 4%.",
"On 1 February 2016, BT announced a new organisational structure that will take effect from April 2016 following the successful acquisition of EE.",
"The EE brand, network and high street stores will be retained and will become a second consumer division, operating alongside BT Consumer.",
"It will serve customers with mobile services, broadband and TV and will continue to deliver the Emergency Services Network contract which was awarded to EE in late 2015.",
"There will be a new BT Business and Public Sector division that will have around £5bn of revenues and will serve small and large businesses as well as the public sector in the UK and Ireland.",
"It will comprise the existing BT Business division along with EE's business division and those parts of BT Global Services that are UK focused.",
"There will also be another new division; BT Wholesale and Ventures that will comprise the existing BT Wholesale division along with EE's MVNO business as well as some specialist businesses such as Fleet, Payphones and Directories.",
"Gerry McQuade, currently Chief Sales and Marketing Officer, Business at EE, will be its CEO.",
"On 11 February 2016, BT announced they will be launching a new free service later in 2016 to divert nuisance calls within its network before they ring on customers' phones and will use huge computing power to root out 25 million unwanted calls a week.",
"BT customers can currently purchase special phones that will allow them to block nuisance calls or pay to stop calls getting through.",
"However, the new service will identify some of the 5 billion unwanted calls made each year before they arrive, which will then be diverted automatically to a junk voicemail box.",
"BT customers will also be able to add numbers they don't want to hear from to the blacklist, for free.",
"On 8 June 2017, BT appointed KPMG as its new auditor to replace PwC in the wake of the fraud scandal in Italy that triggered a major profit warning earlier this year.",
"In last April, KPMG fired six US employees over a scandal that calls into question efforts to ensure that public company accounts are being properly scrutinised.",
"On 8 July 2017, The Daily Telegraph reported that BT \"has called in consultants from McKinsey to conduct a review of its businesses in the hope of saving hundreds of millions of pounds per year.",
"The work, dubbed 'Project Novator', is understood to include a potential merger of BT’s struggling global services corporate networking and IT unit with its business and public sector division\".",
"The word Novator is quite widely used so it does not necessarily imply a connection with any company using that name.",
"The Adastral Park campus at Martlesham Heath in Suffolk, the principal site of BT Research.",
"BT Group is a holding company; the majority of its businesses and assets are held by its wholly owned subsidiary British Telecommunications plc.",
"BT's businesses are operated under special government regulation by the British telecoms regulator Ofcom (formerly Oftel).",
"BT has been found to have significant market power in some markets following market reviews by Ofcom.",
"In these markets, BT is required to comply with additional obligations such as meeting reasonable requests to supply services and not to discriminate.",
"BT runs the telephone exchanges, trunk network and local loop connections for the vast majority of British fixed-line telephones.",
"Currently BT is responsible for approximately 28 million telephone lines in GB.",
"Apart from KCOM Group, which serves Kingston upon Hull, BT is the only UK telecoms operator to have a ''Universal Service Obligation,'' (USO) which means it must provide a fixed telephone line to any address in the UK.",
"It is also obliged to provide public call boxes.",
"As well as continuing to provide service in those traditional areas in which BT has an obligation to provide services or is closely regulated, BT has expanded into more profitable products and services where there is less regulation.",
"These are principally, broadband internet service and bespoke solutions in telecommunications and information technology.",
"\n=== Headquarters ===\nThe BT Centre was completed in 1985.",
"BT Group's world headquarters and registered office is the BT Centre, a 10-storey office building at 81 Newgate Street in the City of London, opposite St. Paul's tube station.",
"===Divisions===\nBT Group is organised into the following divisions:\n\n*Customer facing:\n**BT Global Services – provides telecoms and IT services to multinationals\n**BT Business – provides retail telecoms and IT services to UK SMEs\n**BT Consumer – provides retail telecoms services to consumers including:\n*** BT Total Broadband\n*** BT Infinity\n*** BT TV\n*** BT Sport\n*** BT Mobile\n*** BT Wi-fi\n**EE - provides mobile and fixed communications services to consumers, businesses, government and the wholesale market\n**BT Wholesale – operates BT's networks\n**Openreach – fenced-off wholesale division, responsible for the \"last mile\" of BT's access network in GB and tasked with ensuring that rival operators have equality of access to BT's local network\n*Internal service unit:\n**BT Technology, Service & Operations – responsible for the innovation, design, test, build and running of BT’s global networks and systems\n*** BT Research – part of the BT Technology, Service & Operations division\n\n====Openreach====\n\nOpenreach was established following the Telecommunications Strategic Review carried out by Ofcom.",
"BT signed legally binding undertakings with Ofcom in September 2005 to help create a new regulatory framework for BT and the British telecoms industry generally.",
"Openreach commenced operations on 11 January 2006, with 25,000 engineers previously employed by BT's Retail and Wholesale divisions.",
"It provides provision and repair in the \"last mile\" of copper wire and is designed to ensure that other communications providers (CPs) have exactly the same operational conditions as parts of the BT Group.",
"===Financial performance===\nBT's financial results have been as follows:\n\n\n Year ending\n Turnover (£m)\n Profit/(loss) before tax (£m)\n Net profit/(loss) (£m)\n Basic eps (p)\n\n31 March 2016\n18,909\n3,473\n2,588\n33.2\n\n31 March 2015\n17,851\n3,172\n2,135\n26.5\n\n 31 March 2014\n 18,287\n 2,827\n 2,018\n 25.7\n\n 31 March 2013\n 18,017\n 2,501\n 2,091\n 26.7\n\n 31 March 2012\n 19,307\n 2,421\n 2,003\n 23.7\n\n 31 March 2011\n 20,076\n 1,717\n 1,504\n 19.4\n\n 31 March 2010\n 20,911\n 1,007\n 1,029\n 13.3\n\n 31 March 2009\n 21,390\n (134)\n (81)\n 3.2\n\n 31 March 2008\n 20,704\n 1,976\n 1,738\n 21.5\n\n 31 March 2007\n 20,223\n 2,484\n 2,852\n 34.4\n\n 31 March 2006\n 19,514\n 2,633\n 1,644\n 19.5\n\n 31 March 2005\n 18,429\n 2,693\n 1,539\n 18.1\n\n 31 March 2004\n 18,519\n 1,945\n 1,414\n 16.4\n\n 31 March 2003\n 18,727\n 3,157\n 2,702\n 31.4\n\n 31 March 2002\n 18,447\n 1,461\n 1,008\n 12.1\n\n 31 March 2001\n 17,141\n (1,031)\n (1,875)\n (25.8)\n\n 31 March 2000\n 18,715\n 2,942\n 2,055\n 31.7\n\n 31 March 1999\n 16,953\n 4,295\n 2,983\n 46.3\n\n 31 March 1998\n 15,640\n 3,214\n 1,702\n 26.6\n\n 31 March 1997\n 14,935\n 3,203\n 2,077\n 32.8\n\n 31 March 1996\n 14,446\n 3,019\n 1,986\n 31.6\n\n 31 March 1995\n 13,893\n 2,662\n 1,731\n 27.8\n\n 31 March 1994\n 13,675\n 2,756\n 1,767\n 28.5\n\n 31 March 1993\n 13,242\n 1,972\n 1,220\n 19.8\n\n 31 March 1992\n 13,337\n 3,073\n 2,044\n 33.2\n\n\nAs the data above suggests that BT's revenues have been more or less static over a period of last 16 years.",
"===Pension fund===\nBT has the largest defined benefit pension plan of any UK public company.",
"The trustees valued the scheme at £36.7 billion at the end of 2010; an actuarial valuation valued the deficit of the scheme at £9.043 billion as of 31 December 2008.",
"Following a change in the regulations governing inflation index linking, the deficit was estimated at £5.2 billion in November 2010.",
"===Sponsorships===\n\nBT sponsored Scotland's domestic rugby union championship and cup competitions between 1999 and 2006.",
"On 31 July 2012, it was announced that BT agreed a three-year sponsorship deal with Ulster Rugby and sees BT become the Official Communications Partner.",
"BT's logo will appear on the Ulster Rugby shirt sleeve for all friendlies, Heineken Cup and RaboDirect Pro12 matches as well as a significant brand presence at their home ground; Ravenhill Stadium.",
"On 29 July 2013, it was announced that BT had partnered up with Scottish Rugby Union in a four-year sponsorship deal with its two professional clubs; Edinburgh Rugby and Glasgow Warriors that will commence from August 2013.",
"The deal involves BT Sport becoming the new shirt sponsor for both clubs as well as being promoted with BT Group at their respective home grounds; Scotstoun Stadium and Murrayfield Stadium.",
"On 14 April 2015, it was announced that as part of BT's current £20 million four-year sponsorship deal with Scottish Rugby Union that was announced in May 2014, BT has completed its sponsorship portfolio following an additional investment of £3.6 million for the 3 years remaining of its sponsorship deal, to become the new shirt sponsor for the Scotland national teams.",
"On 27 January 2016, it was announced that BT, alongside YouTube will be the new joint headline sponsors in a three-year deal with Edinburgh International Television Festival.",
"The two companies will \"share prominence across all branding of the 41st TV Festival, including the famous MacTaggart Lecture and will work closely with the festival organisers in their bid to reflect new trends in a rapidly transforming industry, from new ways of distributing content to technical innovations such as Virtual Reality\".",
"BT is the founding and principal partner of the Wayne Rooney Foundation, which was established to improve the lives of children and young people.",
"The Foundation will run events \"to raise vital funds to support the work of key organisations dedicated to supporting disadvantaged and vulnerable children and young people\".",
"These organisations are four chosen charities which are, Manchester United Foundation, NSPCC, Claire House Children's Hospice and Alder Hey Children's Hospital.",
"The first of these events was Wayne’s testimonial match in August 2016 between Manchester United F.C.",
"and Everton F.C.",
"which raised £1.2 million.",
"The match was screened live through BT Sport with BT MyDonate being the official fundraising platform for the testimonial, with both online and text options for donations promoted during the match.",
"On 26 May 2017, it was announced that BT is to sponsor the 2017 British Urban Film Festival (BUFF) and sees BT host every event of the film festival, including the Awards at the BT Tower.",
"BT will also broadcast the awards ceremony on BT.com and will have the opportunity to screen films acquired from the festival on its BT TV store platform.",
"In 2004 the BT Group signed the world's largest renewable energy deal with npower and British Gas, and now all of their exchanges, satellite networks and offices are powered by renewable energy.",
"BT is a member of the Corporate Leaders Group on Climate Change.",
"They signed a letter urging the government to do more to tackle this problem.",
"Janet Blake, head of global corporate social responsibility at BT, says that she would like to see incentives that find ways of rewarding those companies that focus on climate change by making investments in green business models.",
"BT has made it clear that it has an ambitious plan to reduce carbon dioxide emissions.",
"Its strategy includes steps to reduce the company's carbon footprint as well as those of customers, suppliers and employees.",
"BT has actually pledged to achieve an 80% reduction by the year 2016, which will require further efficiency improvements.",
"\n===Abuse of monopoly position and underinvestment in infrastructure===\nBT have been accused of abusing their control of Openreach, underinvesting in the UK's broadband infrastructure, charging high prices and providing poor customer service.",
"Openreach's services receive hundreds of thousands of complaints on an annual basis.",
"===Undermining of National Security===\n\n\n\nBetween 2010 and 2012 the UK intelligence community initiated an investigation aimed at Huawei, the foreign supplier of BT's new fibre infrastructure with increasing urgency after the USA, Canada and Australia prevented the company from operating in their countries.",
"Although BT had notified the UK government in 2003 of Huawei's interest in their £10b network upgrade contract, they did not raise the security implications as BT failed to explain that the Chinese company would have unfettered access to critical infrastructure.",
"On 16 December 2012 David Cameron was supplied with an in-depth report indicating that the intelligence services had very grave doubts regarding Huawei, and that the UK governmental, military, business community and private citizen's privacy may be under serious threat.",
"Subsequently, BT's Infinity program and other projects are now under urgent review.",
"On 7 June 2013, British lawmakers concluded that BT should never have allowed the Chinese company access to the UK's critical communications network without ministerial oversight, saying they were 'deeply shocked' that BT did not inform government that they were allowing Huawei and ZTE, both foreign entities with ties to the Chinese military, unfettered access to critical national systems.",
"Furthermore, ministers discovered that the agency with the responsibility to ensure Chinese equipment and code was threat-free was entirely staffed by Huawei employees.",
"Subsequently, parliamentarians confirmed that in case of an attack on the UK there was nothing at this point that could be done to stop Chinese infiltration attacking critical national infrastructure.",
"ZTE, another Chinese company that supplies extensive network equipment and subscriber hardware to BT Infinity, was also under scrutiny by parliament's intelligence and security committee according to a report in the Guardian on Wednesday 10 October 2012 after the US, Canada, Australia and the European Union declared the company a security risk to its citizens.",
"=== World Wide Web hyperlink patent ===\nIn 2001, BT discovered it owned a patent () which it believed gave it patent rights on the use of hyperlink technology on the World Wide Web.",
"The corresponding UK patent had already expired, but the US patent was valid until 2006.",
"On 11 February 2002, BT began a court case relating to its claims in a US federal court against the Internet service provider Prodigy Communications Corporation.",
"In the case ''British Telecommunications plc v. Prodigy'', the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York ruled on 22 August 2002 that the BT patent was not applicable to web technology and granted Prodigy's request for summary judgment of non-infringement.",
"===Behavioural targeting===\nIn early 2008 it was announced that BT had entered into a contract (along with Virgin Media and TalkTalk) with the spyware company Phorm (responsible under their 121Media guise for the Apropos rootkit) to intercept and analyse their users' click-stream data and sell the anonymised aggregate information as part of Phorm's OIX advertising service.",
"The practice, known as \"behavioural targeting\" and condemned by critics as \"data pimping\", came under intense fire from various internet communities and other interested-parties who believe that the interception of data without the consent of users and web site owners is illegal under UK law (RIPA).",
"At a more fundamental level, many have argued that the ISPs and Phorm have no right to sell a commodity (a user's data, and the copyright content of web sites) to which they have no claim of ownership.",
"In response to questions about Phorm and the interception of data by the Webwise system Sir Tim Berners-Lee, credited as the creator of the World Wide Web protocol, indicated his disapproval of the concept and is quoted as saying of his data and web history:\n\n\n\n===Alleged complicity with drone strikes in Yemen and Somalia===\nIn September 2012, BT entered into a $23 million deal with the US military to provide a key communications cable connecting RAF Croughton, a US military base on UK soil, with Camp Lemonnier, a large US base in Djibouti.",
"Camp Lemonnier is used as a base for American drone attacks in Yemen and Somalia, and has been described by ''The Economist'' as \"the most important base for drone operations outside the war zone of Afghanistan.\"",
"Human rights groups including Reprieve and Amnesty International have criticised the use of armed drones outside declared war zones.",
"Evidence produced by The Bureau of Investigative Journalism and Stanford University's International Human Rights & Conflict Resolution Clinic suggest that drone strikes have caused substantial civilian casualties, and may be illegal under international law.",
"In 2013, BT was the subject of a complaint by Reprieve to the Department of Business, Innovation and Skills under the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, following their refusal to explain whether or not their infrastructure was used to facilitate drone strikes.",
"The subsequent refusal of this complaint was appealed in May 2014, on the basis that the UK National Contact Point's decision did not follow the OECD Guidelines.",
"The issue of bias was also raised, due to the appointment of Lord Ian Livingston as government minister for the department which was processing the complaint: Livingston had occupied a senior position at BT when the cable between RAF Croughton and Camp Lemonnier was originally built.",
"\n* SHERIFF",
"* Baldwin, F.G.C.",
"''The History of the Telephone in the United Kingdom'' (1925)\n* Foreman-Peck, J.",
"\"The development and diffusion of telephone technology in Britain, 1900–1940,\" ''Transactions of the Newcomen Society,'' (1991–92).",
"63, pp165–180.",
"* Foreman-Peck, J., & Millward, R. ''Public and private ownership of British industry 1820–1990'' (1994).",
"* Hazlewood, A.",
"\"The origins of the state telephone service in Britain\" ''Oxford Economic Papers'' (1953).",
"5:13–25.",
"in JSTOR\n* \n* Johannessen, Neil.",
"''Ring up Britain: the Early Years of the Telephone in the United Kingdom'' (British Telecommunications plc, London, 1991) \n* Johnston, S. F. \"The telephone in Scotland.\"",
"in: K. Veitch, ed., ''Transport and Communications.",
"Publications of the European Ethnological Research Centre; Scottish life and society: a compendium of Scottish ethnology'' (2009): pp.",
"716–727 online \n* Magill, Frank N. ''Great Events from History II: Business and Commerce Series, volume 1:1897-1923'' (1994) pp 218–23; historiography\n* Meyer, Hugo Richard.",
"''Public Ownership and the Telephone in Great Britain: Restriction of the Industry by the State and the Municipalities'' (1907).",
"online\n* Pitt, D.C. ''The telecommunications function in the British Post Office.",
"A case study of bureaucratic adaption'' (Westmead: Saxon House, 1980).",
"* Robertson, John Henry.",
"''The story of the telephone: A history of the telecommunications industry of Britain'' (1947)\n* \n*",
"* \n*"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n'''Balmoral Castle''' is a large estate house in Royal Deeside, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, near the village of Crathie, west of Ballater and east of Braemar.\n\nBalmoral has been one of the residences for members of the British Royal Family since 1852, when the estate and its original castle were purchased privately by Prince Albert, consort to Queen Victoria. They remain as the private property of the royal family and are not the property of the Crown.\n\nSoon after the estate was purchased by the royal family, the existing house was found to be too small and the current Balmoral Castle was commissioned. The architect was William Smith of Aberdeen, although his designs were amended by Prince Albert.\n\nThe castle is an example of Scots Baronial architecture, and is classified by Historic Scotland as a category A listed building. The new castle was completed in 1856 and the old castle demolished shortly thereafter.\n\nThe Balmoral Estate has been added to by successive members of the royal family, and now covers an area of approximately . It is a working estate, including grouse moors, forestry, and farmland, as well as managed herds of deer, Highland cattle, and ponies.\n",
"\nAfter 1830, Sir Robert Gordon made major alterations to the original castle - ''lithograph by Josef Kriehuber, 1846''\n\nKing Robert II of Scotland (1316–1390) had a hunting lodge in the area. Historical records also indicate that a house at Balmoral was built by Sir William Drummond in 1390. The estate is recorded in 1451 as \"Bouchmorale\", and later was tenanted by Alexander Gordon, second son of the 1st Earl of Huntly. A tower house was built on the estate by the Gordons. \n\nIn 1662 the estate passed to Charles Farquharson of Inverey, brother of John Farquharson, the \"Black Colonel\". The Farquharsons were Jacobite sympathisers, and James Farquharson of Balmoral was involved in both the 1715 and 1745 rebellions. He was wounded at the Battle of Falkirk in 1746. The Farquharson estates were forfeit, and passed to the Farquharsons of Auchendryne. In 1798, James Duff, 2nd Earl Fife, acquired Balmoral and leased the castle. Sir Robert Gordon, a younger brother of the 4th Earl of Aberdeen, acquired the lease in 1830. He made major alterations to the original castle at Balmoral, including baronial-style extensions that were designed by John Smith of Aberdeen.\n\n===Royal acquisition===\n\nQueen Victoria and Prince Albert first visited Scotland in 1842, five years after her accession to the throne and two years after their marriage. During this first visit they stayed at Edinburgh, and at Taymouth Castle in Perthshire, the home of the Marquess of Breadalbane. They returned in 1844 to stay at Blair Castle and, in 1847, when they rented Ardverikie by Loch Laggan. During the latter trip they encountered weather that was extremely rainy, which led Sir James Clark, the queen's physician, to recommend Deeside instead, for its more healthy climate.\n\nSir Robert Gordon died in 1847 and his lease on Balmoral reverted to Lord Aberdeen. In February 1848 an arrangement was made—that Prince Albert would acquire the remaining part of the lease on Balmoral, together with its furniture and staff—without having seen the property first.\n\nDetail of state portrait of Victoria by George Hayter, 1837\n\nThe royal couple arrived for their first visit on 8 September 1848. Victoria found the house \"small but pretty\", and recorded in her diary that: \"All seemed to breathe freedom and peace, and to make one forget the world and its sad turmoils\". The surrounding hilly landscape reminded them of Thuringia, Albert's homeland in Germany.\n\nQuickly, the house was confirmed to be too small and, in 1848, John and William Smith were commissioned to design new offices, cottages, and other ancillary buildings. Improvements to the woodlands, gardens, and estate buildings also were being made, with the assistance of the landscape gardener, James Beattie, and possibly by the painter, James Giles.\n\nMajor additions to the old house were considered in 1849, but by then negotiations were under way to purchase the estate from the trustees of the deceased Earl Fife. After seeing a corrugated iron cottage at the Great Exhibition of 1851, Prince Albert ordered a pre-fabricated iron building for Balmoral from E. T. Bellhouse & Co., to serve as a temporary ballroom and dining room. It was in use by 1 October 1851, and would serve as a ballroom until 1856.\n\nThe sale was completed in June 1852, the price being £32,000, and Prince Albert formally took possession that autumn. The neighbouring estate of Birkhall was bought at the same time, and the lease on Abergeldie Castle secured as well. To mark the occasion, the ''Purchase Cairn'' was erected in the hills overlooking the castle, the first of many.\n\n===Construction of the new house===\n\n''Balmoral Castle'' - a principal keep similar to that of Craigievar Castle is the central feature of the castle, while a large turreted country house is attached\n\nThe growing family of Victoria and Albert, the need for additional staff, and the quarters required for visiting friends and official visitors such as cabinet members, however, meant that extension of the existing structure would not be sufficient and that a larger house needed to be built. In early 1852, this was commissioned from William Smith. The son of John Smith (who designed the 1830 alterations of the original castle), William Smith was city architect of Aberdeen from 1852. On learning of the commission, William Burn sought an interview with the prince, apparently to complain that Smith previously had plagiarised his work, however, Burn was unsuccessful in depriving Smith of the appointment. William Smith's designs were amended by Prince Albert, who took a close interest in details such as turrets and windows.\n\n''Balmoral Castle'', painted by Queen Victoria in 1854 during its construction\n\nConstruction began during summer 1853, on a site some northwest of the original building that was considered to have a better vista. Another reason for consideration was, that whilst construction was ongoing, the family would still be able to use the old house. Queen Victoria laid the foundation stone on 28 September 1853, during her annual autumn visit. By the autumn of 1855, the royal apartments were ready for occupancy, although the tower was still under construction and the servants had to be lodged in the old house. By coincidence, shortly after their arrival at the estate that autumn, news circulated about the fall of Sevastopol, ending the Crimean War, resulting in wild celebrations by royalty and locals alike. While visiting the estate shortly thereafter, Prince Frederick of Prussia asked for the hand of Princess Victoria.\n\nWith their nine children, 1857 - ''left to right'': Alice, Arthur, Prince Albert, Edward, Leopold, Louise, Queen Victoria holding Beatrice, Alfred, Victoria, and Helena\n\nThe new house was completed in 1856, and the old castle subsequently was demolished. By autumn 1857, a new bridge across the Dee, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel linking Crathie and Balmoral was finished.\n\nBalmoral Castle is built from granite quarried at Invergelder on the estate, It consists of two main blocks, each arranged around a courtyard. The southwestern block contains the main rooms, while the northeastern contains the service wings. At the southeast is an tall clock tower topped with turrets, one of which has a balustrade similar to a feature at Castle Fraser. Being similar in style to the demolished castle of the 1830s, the architecture of the new house is considered to be somewhat dated for its time when contrasted with the richer forms of Scots Baronial being developed by William Burn and others during the 1850s. As an exercise in Scots Baronial, it sometimes is described as being too ordered, pedantic, and even, Germanic—as a consequence of Prince Albert's influence on the design.\n\nThe purchase of a Scottish estate by Victoria and Albert and their adoption of a Scottish architectural style, however, was very influential for the ongoing revival of Highland culture. They decorated Balmoral with tartans and attended highland games at Braemar. Queen Victoria expressed an affinity for Scotland, even professing herself to be a Jacobite. Added to the work of Sir Walter Scott, this became a major factor in promoting the adoption of Highland culture by Lowland Scots. Historian Michael Lynch comments that \"the Scottishness of Balmoral helped to give the monarchy a truly British dimension for the first time\".\n\n===Victoria and Albert at Balmoral===\nBalmoral, c.1890–1900\n\nEven before the completion of the new house, the pattern of the life of the royal couple in the Highlands was soon established. Victoria took long walks of up to four hours daily and Albert spent many days hunting deer and game. In 1849, diarist Charles Greville described their life at Balmoral as resembling that of gentry rather than royalty. Victoria began a policy of commissioning artists to record Balmoral, its surroundings, and its staff. Over the years, numerous painters were employed at Balmoral, including Edwin and Charles Landseer, Carl Haag, William Wyld, and William Henry Fisk. The royal couple took great interest in their staff. They established a lending library.\n\nDuring the 1850s, new plantations were established near the house and exotic conifers were planted on the grounds. Prince Albert had an active role in these improvements, overseeing the design of parterres, the diversion of the main road north of the river via a new bridge, and plans for farm buildings. These buildings included a model dairy that he developed during 1861, the year of his death. The dairy was completed by Victoria. Subsequently, she also built several monuments to her husband on the estate. These include a pyramid-shaped cairn built a year after Albert's death, on top of ''Craig Lurachain''. A large statue of Albert with a dog and a gun by William Theed, was inaugurated on 15 October 1867, the twenty-eighth anniversary of their engagement.\n\nMemorial cairn for Prince Albert, Balmoral Estate\n\nFollowing Albert's death, Victoria spent increasing periods at Balmoral, staying for as long as four months a year during early summer and autumn. Few further changes were made to the grounds, with the exception of some alterations to mountain paths, the erection of various cairns and monuments, and the addition of some cottages (''Karim Cottage'' and ''Baile na Coille'') built for senior staff. It was during this period that Victoria began to depend on her servant, John Brown. He was a local ghillie from Crathie, who became one of her closest companions during her long mourning.\n\nIn 1887, Balmoral Castle was the birthplace of Victoria Eugenie, a granddaughter of Queen Victoria. She was born to Princess Beatrice, the fifth daughter of Victoria and Albert. Victoria Eugenie would become the queen of Spain.\n\nIn September 1896, Victoria welcomed Emperor Nicholas II of Russia and Empress Alexandra to Balmoral. Four years later Victoria made her last visit to the estate, three months before her death on 22 January 1901.\n\n===After Victoria===\n\n''Edward VII relaxing at Balmoral Castle'' - photograph by his wife, Alexandra, c. 1907-1908\n\nAfter Victoria's death, the royal family continued to use Balmoral during annual autumn visits. George V had substantial improvements made during the 1910s and 1920s, including formal gardens to the south of the castle.\n\nDuring the Second World War, royal visits to Balmoral ceased. In addition, due to the enmity with Germany, ''Danzig Shiel'', a lodge built by Victoria in Ballochbuie was renamed ''Garbh Allt Shiel'' and the \"King of Prussia's Fountain\" was removed from the grounds.\n\nSince the 1950s, Prince Philip has added herbaceous borders and a water garden. During the 1980s new staff buildings were built close to the castle.\n",
"The \"battlemented\" porte cochère. Also called a \"carriage porch\", this structure is covered to protect guests from inclement weather.\nThough called a castle, Balmoral's primary function is that of a country house. It is a \"typical and rather ordinary\" country house from the Victorian period. The tower and \"pepper pot turrets\" are characteristic features of the residence's Scottish Baronial style. The seven story tower is an architectural feature borrowed from medieval defensive tower houses. The \"pepper pot turrets\" were influenced by the style of 16th century French châteaus. Other features of the Scottish Baronial style are the crow-stepped gables, dormer windows, and battlemented porte-cochère.\n",
"Balmoral is a private property and, unlike the monarch's official residences, is not the property of the Crown. It originally was purchased personally by Prince Albert, rather than the queen, meaning that no revenues from the estate go to Parliament or to the public purse, as otherwise in accord with the Civil List Act 1760 would be the case for property owned outright by the monarch.\n\nAlong with Sandringham House in Norfolk, ownership of Balmoral was inherited by Edward VIII on his accession in 1936. When he abdicated later the same year, however, he retained ownership of them. A financial settlement was devised, under which Balmoral and Sandringham were purchased by Edward's brother and successor to the Crown, George VI.\n\nCurrently, the estate is still owned outright by the monarch, but, by Trustees under Deeds of Nomination and Appointment, it is managed by a trust.\n",
"\n===Current extent and operation===\n\nBalmoral Estate is within the Cairngorms National Park and is partly within the Deeside and Lochnagar National Scenic Area. The estate contains a wide variety of landscapes, from the Dee river valley to open mountains. There are seven Munros (hills in Scotland over ) within the estate, the highest being Lochnagar at . This mountain was the setting for a children's story, ''The Old Man of Lochnagar'', told originally by Prince Charles to his younger brothers, Andrew and Edward. The story was published in 1980, with royalties accruing to The Prince's Trust. The estate also incorporates the 7,500-acre Delnadamph Lodge estate, bought by Elizabeth II in 1978. \n\nThe estate extends to Loch Muick in the southeast where an old boat house and the Royal Bothy (hunting lodge) now named ''Glas-allt-Shiel'', built by Victoria, are located.\n\nThe working estate includes grouse moors, forestry, and farmland, as well as managed herds of deer, Highland cattle, and ponies. It also offers access to the public for fishing (paid) and hiking during certain seasons.\n\nApproximately 8,000 acres of the estate are covered by trees, with almost 3,000 acres used for forestry that yields nearly 10,000 tonnes of wood per year. ''Ballochbuie Forest'', one of the largest remaining areas of old Caledonian pine growth in Scotland, consists of approximately 3,000 acres. It is managed with only minimal or no intervention. The principal mammal on the estate is the red deer with a population of 2,000 to 2,500 head.\n\nThe areas of Lochnagar and Ballochbuie were designated in 1998 by the Secretary of State for Scotland as Special Protection Areas (SPA) under the European Union (EU) Birds Directive.\nBird species inhabiting the moorlands include red grouse, black grouse, ptarmigan, and the capercaillie. Ballochbuie also is protected as a Special Area of Conservation by the EU Habitats Directive, as \"one of the largest remaining continuous areas of native Caledonian Forest\". In addition, there are four sites of special scientific interest on the estate.\n\nThe royal family employs approximately 50 full-time and 50–100 part-time staff to maintain the working estate. A malt whisky distillery located on the Balmoral Estate produces the Royal Lochnagar Single Malt whisky.\n\nThere are approximately 150 buildings on the estate, including Birkhall, formerly home to Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, and used now by Prince Charles and the Duchess of Cornwall for their summer holidays. Craigowan Lodge is used regularly by the family and friends of the royal family and also has been used while Balmoral Castle was being prepared for a royal visit. Six smaller buildings on the estate are let as holiday cottages.\n\n===Public access to gardens and castle grounds===\n\nNorthwest corner of Balmoral Castle\n\nIn 1931, the castle gardens were opened to the public for the first time and they now are open daily between April and the end of July, after which Queen Elizabeth arrives for her annual stay. The ballroom is the only room in the castle that may be viewed by the public.\n\n===Craigowan Lodge===\nCraigowan Lodge is a seven-bedroom stone house approximately a mile from the main castle in Balmoral. More rustic than the castle, the lodge was often the home of Charles and Diana when they visited. Currently, it is used as quarters for important guests.\n\nIn the obituary of Michael Andreevich Romanoff, the highest-ranking member of the Russian imperial family at the time of his death in 2008, it was noted that his family spent most of World War II at Craigowan Lodge.\n\nThe lodge has been in the news periodically since 2005, because Queen Elizabeth often spends the first few days of her summer holiday there. During each weekend of the summer the castle is a lucrative source of income from visiting tourists. Sometimes, the Queen arrives at Balmoral before the tourist visiting season is over.\n",
"Queen Elizabeth was in residence at Balmoral at the time of the death of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997. Her private discussions with Prime Minister Tony Blair were dramatised in the Stephen Frears film, ''The Queen'' (2006). The 1997 film ''Mrs. Brown'' also was based on events at Balmoral. In both films, however, substitute locations were used: Blairquhan Castle in ''The Queen''; and Duns Castle in ''Mrs Brown''.\n\n===Banknote illustration===\nSince 1987 an illustration of the castle has been featured on the reverse side of £100 notes issued by the Royal Bank of Scotland.\n",
"\n* Crathie Kirk\n* Scottish castles\n",
"\n\n===Bibliography===\n* \n",
"\n*\n* Balmoral Castle - Official site\n* Royal Deeside - Official site\n* Tom Weir visits Balmoral - video from ScotlandonTV\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Architecture",
"Ownership",
"The estate",
"In popular culture",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Balmoral Castle | [
"===Banknote illustration===\nSince 1987 an illustration of the castle has been featured on the reverse side of £100 notes issued by the Royal Bank of Scotland."
] | [
"\n\n'''Balmoral Castle''' is a large estate house in Royal Deeside, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, near the village of Crathie, west of Ballater and east of Braemar.",
"Balmoral has been one of the residences for members of the British Royal Family since 1852, when the estate and its original castle were purchased privately by Prince Albert, consort to Queen Victoria.",
"They remain as the private property of the royal family and are not the property of the Crown.",
"Soon after the estate was purchased by the royal family, the existing house was found to be too small and the current Balmoral Castle was commissioned.",
"The architect was William Smith of Aberdeen, although his designs were amended by Prince Albert.",
"The castle is an example of Scots Baronial architecture, and is classified by Historic Scotland as a category A listed building.",
"The new castle was completed in 1856 and the old castle demolished shortly thereafter.",
"The Balmoral Estate has been added to by successive members of the royal family, and now covers an area of approximately .",
"It is a working estate, including grouse moors, forestry, and farmland, as well as managed herds of deer, Highland cattle, and ponies.",
"\nAfter 1830, Sir Robert Gordon made major alterations to the original castle - ''lithograph by Josef Kriehuber, 1846''\n\nKing Robert II of Scotland (1316–1390) had a hunting lodge in the area.",
"Historical records also indicate that a house at Balmoral was built by Sir William Drummond in 1390.",
"The estate is recorded in 1451 as \"Bouchmorale\", and later was tenanted by Alexander Gordon, second son of the 1st Earl of Huntly.",
"A tower house was built on the estate by the Gordons.",
"In 1662 the estate passed to Charles Farquharson of Inverey, brother of John Farquharson, the \"Black Colonel\".",
"The Farquharsons were Jacobite sympathisers, and James Farquharson of Balmoral was involved in both the 1715 and 1745 rebellions.",
"He was wounded at the Battle of Falkirk in 1746.",
"The Farquharson estates were forfeit, and passed to the Farquharsons of Auchendryne.",
"In 1798, James Duff, 2nd Earl Fife, acquired Balmoral and leased the castle.",
"Sir Robert Gordon, a younger brother of the 4th Earl of Aberdeen, acquired the lease in 1830.",
"He made major alterations to the original castle at Balmoral, including baronial-style extensions that were designed by John Smith of Aberdeen.",
"===Royal acquisition===\n\nQueen Victoria and Prince Albert first visited Scotland in 1842, five years after her accession to the throne and two years after their marriage.",
"During this first visit they stayed at Edinburgh, and at Taymouth Castle in Perthshire, the home of the Marquess of Breadalbane.",
"They returned in 1844 to stay at Blair Castle and, in 1847, when they rented Ardverikie by Loch Laggan.",
"During the latter trip they encountered weather that was extremely rainy, which led Sir James Clark, the queen's physician, to recommend Deeside instead, for its more healthy climate.",
"Sir Robert Gordon died in 1847 and his lease on Balmoral reverted to Lord Aberdeen.",
"In February 1848 an arrangement was made—that Prince Albert would acquire the remaining part of the lease on Balmoral, together with its furniture and staff—without having seen the property first.",
"Detail of state portrait of Victoria by George Hayter, 1837\n\nThe royal couple arrived for their first visit on 8 September 1848.",
"Victoria found the house \"small but pretty\", and recorded in her diary that: \"All seemed to breathe freedom and peace, and to make one forget the world and its sad turmoils\".",
"The surrounding hilly landscape reminded them of Thuringia, Albert's homeland in Germany.",
"Quickly, the house was confirmed to be too small and, in 1848, John and William Smith were commissioned to design new offices, cottages, and other ancillary buildings.",
"Improvements to the woodlands, gardens, and estate buildings also were being made, with the assistance of the landscape gardener, James Beattie, and possibly by the painter, James Giles.",
"Major additions to the old house were considered in 1849, but by then negotiations were under way to purchase the estate from the trustees of the deceased Earl Fife.",
"After seeing a corrugated iron cottage at the Great Exhibition of 1851, Prince Albert ordered a pre-fabricated iron building for Balmoral from E. T. Bellhouse & Co., to serve as a temporary ballroom and dining room.",
"It was in use by 1 October 1851, and would serve as a ballroom until 1856.",
"The sale was completed in June 1852, the price being £32,000, and Prince Albert formally took possession that autumn.",
"The neighbouring estate of Birkhall was bought at the same time, and the lease on Abergeldie Castle secured as well.",
"To mark the occasion, the ''Purchase Cairn'' was erected in the hills overlooking the castle, the first of many.",
"===Construction of the new house===\n\n''Balmoral Castle'' - a principal keep similar to that of Craigievar Castle is the central feature of the castle, while a large turreted country house is attached\n\nThe growing family of Victoria and Albert, the need for additional staff, and the quarters required for visiting friends and official visitors such as cabinet members, however, meant that extension of the existing structure would not be sufficient and that a larger house needed to be built.",
"In early 1852, this was commissioned from William Smith.",
"The son of John Smith (who designed the 1830 alterations of the original castle), William Smith was city architect of Aberdeen from 1852.",
"On learning of the commission, William Burn sought an interview with the prince, apparently to complain that Smith previously had plagiarised his work, however, Burn was unsuccessful in depriving Smith of the appointment.",
"William Smith's designs were amended by Prince Albert, who took a close interest in details such as turrets and windows.",
"''Balmoral Castle'', painted by Queen Victoria in 1854 during its construction\n\nConstruction began during summer 1853, on a site some northwest of the original building that was considered to have a better vista.",
"Another reason for consideration was, that whilst construction was ongoing, the family would still be able to use the old house.",
"Queen Victoria laid the foundation stone on 28 September 1853, during her annual autumn visit.",
"By the autumn of 1855, the royal apartments were ready for occupancy, although the tower was still under construction and the servants had to be lodged in the old house.",
"By coincidence, shortly after their arrival at the estate that autumn, news circulated about the fall of Sevastopol, ending the Crimean War, resulting in wild celebrations by royalty and locals alike.",
"While visiting the estate shortly thereafter, Prince Frederick of Prussia asked for the hand of Princess Victoria.",
"With their nine children, 1857 - ''left to right'': Alice, Arthur, Prince Albert, Edward, Leopold, Louise, Queen Victoria holding Beatrice, Alfred, Victoria, and Helena\n\nThe new house was completed in 1856, and the old castle subsequently was demolished.",
"By autumn 1857, a new bridge across the Dee, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel linking Crathie and Balmoral was finished.",
"Balmoral Castle is built from granite quarried at Invergelder on the estate, It consists of two main blocks, each arranged around a courtyard.",
"The southwestern block contains the main rooms, while the northeastern contains the service wings.",
"At the southeast is an tall clock tower topped with turrets, one of which has a balustrade similar to a feature at Castle Fraser.",
"Being similar in style to the demolished castle of the 1830s, the architecture of the new house is considered to be somewhat dated for its time when contrasted with the richer forms of Scots Baronial being developed by William Burn and others during the 1850s.",
"As an exercise in Scots Baronial, it sometimes is described as being too ordered, pedantic, and even, Germanic—as a consequence of Prince Albert's influence on the design.",
"The purchase of a Scottish estate by Victoria and Albert and their adoption of a Scottish architectural style, however, was very influential for the ongoing revival of Highland culture.",
"They decorated Balmoral with tartans and attended highland games at Braemar.",
"Queen Victoria expressed an affinity for Scotland, even professing herself to be a Jacobite.",
"Added to the work of Sir Walter Scott, this became a major factor in promoting the adoption of Highland culture by Lowland Scots.",
"Historian Michael Lynch comments that \"the Scottishness of Balmoral helped to give the monarchy a truly British dimension for the first time\".",
"===Victoria and Albert at Balmoral===\nBalmoral, c.1890–1900\n\nEven before the completion of the new house, the pattern of the life of the royal couple in the Highlands was soon established.",
"Victoria took long walks of up to four hours daily and Albert spent many days hunting deer and game.",
"In 1849, diarist Charles Greville described their life at Balmoral as resembling that of gentry rather than royalty.",
"Victoria began a policy of commissioning artists to record Balmoral, its surroundings, and its staff.",
"Over the years, numerous painters were employed at Balmoral, including Edwin and Charles Landseer, Carl Haag, William Wyld, and William Henry Fisk.",
"The royal couple took great interest in their staff.",
"They established a lending library.",
"During the 1850s, new plantations were established near the house and exotic conifers were planted on the grounds.",
"Prince Albert had an active role in these improvements, overseeing the design of parterres, the diversion of the main road north of the river via a new bridge, and plans for farm buildings.",
"These buildings included a model dairy that he developed during 1861, the year of his death.",
"The dairy was completed by Victoria.",
"Subsequently, she also built several monuments to her husband on the estate.",
"These include a pyramid-shaped cairn built a year after Albert's death, on top of ''Craig Lurachain''.",
"A large statue of Albert with a dog and a gun by William Theed, was inaugurated on 15 October 1867, the twenty-eighth anniversary of their engagement.",
"Memorial cairn for Prince Albert, Balmoral Estate\n\nFollowing Albert's death, Victoria spent increasing periods at Balmoral, staying for as long as four months a year during early summer and autumn.",
"Few further changes were made to the grounds, with the exception of some alterations to mountain paths, the erection of various cairns and monuments, and the addition of some cottages (''Karim Cottage'' and ''Baile na Coille'') built for senior staff.",
"It was during this period that Victoria began to depend on her servant, John Brown.",
"He was a local ghillie from Crathie, who became one of her closest companions during her long mourning.",
"In 1887, Balmoral Castle was the birthplace of Victoria Eugenie, a granddaughter of Queen Victoria.",
"She was born to Princess Beatrice, the fifth daughter of Victoria and Albert.",
"Victoria Eugenie would become the queen of Spain.",
"In September 1896, Victoria welcomed Emperor Nicholas II of Russia and Empress Alexandra to Balmoral.",
"Four years later Victoria made her last visit to the estate, three months before her death on 22 January 1901.",
"===After Victoria===\n\n''Edward VII relaxing at Balmoral Castle'' - photograph by his wife, Alexandra, c. 1907-1908\n\nAfter Victoria's death, the royal family continued to use Balmoral during annual autumn visits.",
"George V had substantial improvements made during the 1910s and 1920s, including formal gardens to the south of the castle.",
"During the Second World War, royal visits to Balmoral ceased.",
"In addition, due to the enmity with Germany, ''Danzig Shiel'', a lodge built by Victoria in Ballochbuie was renamed ''Garbh Allt Shiel'' and the \"King of Prussia's Fountain\" was removed from the grounds.",
"Since the 1950s, Prince Philip has added herbaceous borders and a water garden.",
"During the 1980s new staff buildings were built close to the castle.",
"The \"battlemented\" porte cochère.",
"Also called a \"carriage porch\", this structure is covered to protect guests from inclement weather.",
"Though called a castle, Balmoral's primary function is that of a country house.",
"It is a \"typical and rather ordinary\" country house from the Victorian period.",
"The tower and \"pepper pot turrets\" are characteristic features of the residence's Scottish Baronial style.",
"The seven story tower is an architectural feature borrowed from medieval defensive tower houses.",
"The \"pepper pot turrets\" were influenced by the style of 16th century French châteaus.",
"Other features of the Scottish Baronial style are the crow-stepped gables, dormer windows, and battlemented porte-cochère.",
"Balmoral is a private property and, unlike the monarch's official residences, is not the property of the Crown.",
"It originally was purchased personally by Prince Albert, rather than the queen, meaning that no revenues from the estate go to Parliament or to the public purse, as otherwise in accord with the Civil List Act 1760 would be the case for property owned outright by the monarch.",
"Along with Sandringham House in Norfolk, ownership of Balmoral was inherited by Edward VIII on his accession in 1936.",
"When he abdicated later the same year, however, he retained ownership of them.",
"A financial settlement was devised, under which Balmoral and Sandringham were purchased by Edward's brother and successor to the Crown, George VI.",
"Currently, the estate is still owned outright by the monarch, but, by Trustees under Deeds of Nomination and Appointment, it is managed by a trust.",
"\n===Current extent and operation===\n\nBalmoral Estate is within the Cairngorms National Park and is partly within the Deeside and Lochnagar National Scenic Area.",
"The estate contains a wide variety of landscapes, from the Dee river valley to open mountains.",
"There are seven Munros (hills in Scotland over ) within the estate, the highest being Lochnagar at .",
"This mountain was the setting for a children's story, ''The Old Man of Lochnagar'', told originally by Prince Charles to his younger brothers, Andrew and Edward.",
"The story was published in 1980, with royalties accruing to The Prince's Trust.",
"The estate also incorporates the 7,500-acre Delnadamph Lodge estate, bought by Elizabeth II in 1978.",
"The estate extends to Loch Muick in the southeast where an old boat house and the Royal Bothy (hunting lodge) now named ''Glas-allt-Shiel'', built by Victoria, are located.",
"The working estate includes grouse moors, forestry, and farmland, as well as managed herds of deer, Highland cattle, and ponies.",
"It also offers access to the public for fishing (paid) and hiking during certain seasons.",
"Approximately 8,000 acres of the estate are covered by trees, with almost 3,000 acres used for forestry that yields nearly 10,000 tonnes of wood per year.",
"''Ballochbuie Forest'', one of the largest remaining areas of old Caledonian pine growth in Scotland, consists of approximately 3,000 acres.",
"It is managed with only minimal or no intervention.",
"The principal mammal on the estate is the red deer with a population of 2,000 to 2,500 head.",
"The areas of Lochnagar and Ballochbuie were designated in 1998 by the Secretary of State for Scotland as Special Protection Areas (SPA) under the European Union (EU) Birds Directive.",
"Bird species inhabiting the moorlands include red grouse, black grouse, ptarmigan, and the capercaillie.",
"Ballochbuie also is protected as a Special Area of Conservation by the EU Habitats Directive, as \"one of the largest remaining continuous areas of native Caledonian Forest\".",
"In addition, there are four sites of special scientific interest on the estate.",
"The royal family employs approximately 50 full-time and 50–100 part-time staff to maintain the working estate.",
"A malt whisky distillery located on the Balmoral Estate produces the Royal Lochnagar Single Malt whisky.",
"There are approximately 150 buildings on the estate, including Birkhall, formerly home to Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, and used now by Prince Charles and the Duchess of Cornwall for their summer holidays.",
"Craigowan Lodge is used regularly by the family and friends of the royal family and also has been used while Balmoral Castle was being prepared for a royal visit.",
"Six smaller buildings on the estate are let as holiday cottages.",
"===Public access to gardens and castle grounds===\n\nNorthwest corner of Balmoral Castle\n\nIn 1931, the castle gardens were opened to the public for the first time and they now are open daily between April and the end of July, after which Queen Elizabeth arrives for her annual stay.",
"The ballroom is the only room in the castle that may be viewed by the public.",
"===Craigowan Lodge===\nCraigowan Lodge is a seven-bedroom stone house approximately a mile from the main castle in Balmoral.",
"More rustic than the castle, the lodge was often the home of Charles and Diana when they visited.",
"Currently, it is used as quarters for important guests.",
"In the obituary of Michael Andreevich Romanoff, the highest-ranking member of the Russian imperial family at the time of his death in 2008, it was noted that his family spent most of World War II at Craigowan Lodge.",
"The lodge has been in the news periodically since 2005, because Queen Elizabeth often spends the first few days of her summer holiday there.",
"During each weekend of the summer the castle is a lucrative source of income from visiting tourists.",
"Sometimes, the Queen arrives at Balmoral before the tourist visiting season is over.",
"Queen Elizabeth was in residence at Balmoral at the time of the death of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997.",
"Her private discussions with Prime Minister Tony Blair were dramatised in the Stephen Frears film, ''The Queen'' (2006).",
"The 1997 film ''Mrs.",
"Brown'' also was based on events at Balmoral.",
"In both films, however, substitute locations were used: Blairquhan Castle in ''The Queen''; and Duns Castle in ''Mrs Brown''.",
"\n* Crathie Kirk\n* Scottish castles",
"\n\n===Bibliography===\n*",
"\n*\n* Balmoral Castle - Official site\n* Royal Deeside - Official site\n* Tom Weir visits Balmoral - video from ScotlandonTV"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n''Portrait of the Italian Luca Pacioli'', painted by Jacopo de' Barbari, 1495, (Museo di Capodimonte). Pacioli is regarded as the Father of Accounting.\n'''Bookkeeping''' is the recording of financial transactions, and is part of the process of accounting in business. Transactions include purchases, sales, receipts, and payments by an individual person or an organization/corporation. There are several standard methods of bookkeeping, such as the single-entry bookkeeping system and the double-entry bookkeeping system, but, while they may be thought of as \"real\" bookkeeping, any process that involves the recording of financial transactions is a bookkeeping process.\n\nBookkeeping is usually performed by a '''bookkeeper'''. A bookkeeper (or book-keeper) is a person who records the day-to-day financial transactions of a business. He or she is usually responsible for writing the ''daybooks'', which contain records of purchases, sales, receipts, and payments. The bookkeeper is responsible for ensuring that all transactions whether it is cash transaction or credit transaction are recorded in the correct daybook, supplier's ledger, customer ledger, and general ledger; an accountant can then create reports from the information concerning the financial transactions recorded by the bookkeeper.\n\nThe bookkeeper brings the books to the trial balance stage: an accountant may prepare the income statement and balance sheet using the trial balance and ledgers prepared by the bookkeeper.\n",
"The origin of book-keeping is lost in obscurity, but recent researches would appear to show that some method of keeping accounts has existed from the remotest times. Babylonian records have been found dating back as far as 2600 B.C., written with a stylus on small slabs of clay. \nThe term \"waste book\" was used in colonial America referring to bookkeeping. The purpose was to document daily transactions including receipts and expenditures. This was recorded in chronological order, and the purpose was for temporary use only. The daily transactions would then be recorded in a daybook or account ledger in order to balance the accounts. The name \"waste book\" comes from the fact that once the waste book's data were transferred to the actual journal, the waste book could be discarded.\n\n=== Process ===\nThe bookkeeping process primarily records the ''financial effects'' of transactions. The difference between a manual and any electronic accounting system results from the former's latency (engineering) between the recording of a financial transaction and its posting in the relevant account. This delay—absent in electronic accounting systems due to nearly instantaneous posting into relevant accounts—is a basic characteristic of manual systems, thus giving rise to primary books of accounts such as Cash Book, Bank Book, Purchase Book, and Sales Book for recording the immediate effect of a financial transaction.\n\nIn the normal course of business, a document is produced each time a transaction occurs. Sales and purchases usually have invoices or receipts. Deposit slips are produced when lodgements (deposits) are made to a bank account. Checks (spelled \"cheques\" in the UK and several other countries) are written to pay money out of the account. Bookkeeping first involves recording the details of all of these ''source documents'' into multi-column ''journals'' (also known as ''books of first entry'' or ''daybooks''). For example, all credit sales are recorded in the sales journal; all cash payments are recorded in the cash payments journal. Each column in a journal normally corresponds to an account. In the single entry system, each transaction is recorded only once. Most individuals who balance their check-book each month are using such a system, and most personal-finance software follows this approach.\n\nAfter a certain period, typically a month, each column in each journal is totalled to give a summary for that period. Using the rules of double-entry, these journal summaries are then transferred to their respective accounts in the ledger, or ''account book''. For example, the entries in the Sales Journal are taken and a debit entry is made in each customer's account (showing that the customer now owes us money), and a credit entry might be made in the account for \"Sale of class 2 widgets\" (showing that this activity has generated revenue for us). This process of transferring summaries or individual transactions to the ledger is called ''posting''. Once the posting process is complete, accounts kept using the \"T\" format undergo ''balancing'', which is simply a process to arrive at the balance of the account.\n\nAs a partial check that the posting process was done correctly, a working document called an ''unadjusted trial balance'' is created. In its simplest form, this is a three-column list. Column One contains the names of those accounts in the ledger which have a non-zero balance. If an account has a ''debit'' balance, the balance amount is copied into Column Two (the ''debit column''); if an account has a ''credit'' balance, the amount is copied into Column Three (the ''credit column''). The debit column is then totalled, and then the credit column is totalled. The two totals must agree—which is not by chance—because under the double-entry rules, whenever there is a posting, the debits of the posting equal the credits of the posting. If the two totals do not agree, an error has been made, either in the journals or during the posting process. The error must be located and rectified, and the totals of the debit column and the credit column recalculated to check for agreement before any further processing can take place.\n\nOnce the accounts balance, the accountant makes a number of adjustments and changes the balance amounts of some of the accounts. These adjustments must still obey the double-entry rule: for example, the ''inventory'' account and asset account might be changed to bring them into line with the actual numbers counted during a stocktake. At the same time, the ''expense'' account associated with usage of inventory is adjusted by an equal and opposite amount. Other adjustments such as posting depreciation and prepayments are also done at this time. This results in a listing called the ''adjusted trial balance''. It is the accounts in this list, and their corresponding debit or credit balances, that are used to prepare the financial statements.\n\nFinally financial statements are drawn from the trial balance, which may include:\n* the income statement, also known as the ''statement of financial results'', ''profit and loss account'', or ''P&L''\n* the balance sheet, also known as the ''statement of financial position''\n* the cash flow statement\n* the Statement of changes in equity, also known as the ''statement of total recognised gains and losses''\n",
"Two common bookkeeping systems used by businesses and other organizations are the single-entry bookkeeping system and the double-entry bookkeeping system. Single-entry bookkeeping uses only income and expense accounts, recorded primarily in a revenue and expense journal. Single-entry bookkeeping is adequate for many small businesses. In the double-entry accounting system, at least two accounting entries are required to record each financial transaction. These entries may occur in asset, liability, equity, expense, or revenue accounts.\n\n===Single-entry system===\n\n\n\nThe primary bookkeeping record in single-entry bookkeeping is the ''cash book'', which is similar to a checking account (UK: cheque account, current account) register, but allocates the income and expenses to various income and expense accounts. Separate account records are maintained for petty cash, accounts payable and receivable, and other relevant transactions such as inventory and travel expenses. These days, single-entry bookkeeping can be done with DIY bookkeeping software to speed up manual calculations.\n\n===Double-entry system===\n\n\n\nA ''double-entry bookkeeping system'' is a set of rules for recording financial information in a financial accounting system in which every transaction or event changes at least two different nominal ledger accounts.\n",
"A ''daybook'' is a descriptive and chronological (diary-like) record of day-to-day financial transactions also called a ''book of original entry''. The daybook's details must be entered formally into journals to enable posting to ledgers. Daybooks include:\n\n*Sales daybook, for recording all the sales invoices.\n*Sales credits daybook, for recording all the sales credit notes.\n*Purchases daybook, for recording all the purchase invoices.\n*Purchases Debits daybook, for recording all the purchase Debit notes.\n*Cash daybook, usually known as the cash book, for recording all money received as well as money paid out. It may be split into two daybooks: receipts daybook for money received in, and payments daybook for money paid out.\n*General Journal daybook, for recording journals.\n",
"A ''petty cash'' book is a record of small-value purchases before they are later transferred to the ledger and final accounts; it is maintained by a petty or junior cashier. This type of cash book usually uses the imprest system: a certain amount of money is provided to the petty cashier by the senior cashier. This money is to cater for minor expenditures (hospitality, minor stationery, casual postage, and so on) and is reimbursed periodically on satisfactory explanation of how it was spent.\n",
"''Journals'' are recorded in the general journal daybook. A journal is a formal and chronological record of financial transactions before their values are accounted for in the general ledger as debits and credits. A company can maintain one journal for all transactions, or keep several journals based on similar activity (e.g., sales, cash receipts, revenue, etc.), making transactions easier to summarize and reference later. For every debit journal entry recorded, there must be an equivalent credit journal entry to maintain a balanced accounting equation.\n",
"A ''ledger'' is a record of accounts.The ledger is a permanent summary of all amounts entered in supporting Journals which list individual transactions by date. These accounts are recorded separately, showing their beginning/ending balance. A journal lists financial transactions in chronological order, without showing their balance but showing how much is going to be charged in each account. A ledger takes each financial transaction from the journal and records it into the corresponding account for every transaction listed. The ledger also sums up the total of every account, which is transferred into the balance sheet and the income statement. There are three different kinds of ledgers that deal with book-keeping:\n*Sales ledger, which deals mostly with the accounts receivable account. This ledger consists of the records of the financial transactions made by customers to the business.\n*Purchase ledger is the record of the purchasing transactions a company does; it goes hand in hand with the Accounts Payable account.\n",
"* A/C – Account\n* Acc – Account\n* A/R – Accounts receivable\n* A/P – Accounts payable\n* B/S – Balance sheet\n* c/d – Carried down\n* b/d – Brought down\n* c/f – Carried forward\n* b/f – Brought forward\n* Dr – Debit side of a ledger. \"Dr\" stands for \"'''D'''ebit '''r'''egister\"\n* Cr – Credit side of a ledger. \"Cr\" stands for \"'''C'''redit '''r'''egister\"\n* G/L – General ledger; (or N/L – nominal ledger)\n* PL – Profit and loss; (or I/S – income statement)\n* P/R - Payroll\n* PP&E – Property, plant and equipment\n* TB – Trial Balance\n* GST – Goods and services tax\n* VAT – Value added tax\n* CST – Central sale tax\n* TDS – Tax deducted at source\n* AMT – Alternate minimum tax\n* EBITDA – Earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortisation\n* EBDTA – Earnings before depreciation, taxes and amortisation\n* EBT – Earnings before tax\n* EAT – Earnings after tax\n* PAT – Profit after tax\n* PBT – Profit before tax\n* Depr – Depreciation\n* Dep – Depreciation\n* CPO – Cash paid out\n* CP - Cash Payment\n*\n",
"A chart of accounts is a list of the accounts codes that can be identified with numeric, alphabetical, or alphanumeric codes allowing the account to be located in the general ledger. The equity section of the chart of accounts is based on the fact that the legal structure of the entity is of a particular legal type. Possibilities include ''sole trader'', ''partnership'', ''trust'', and ''company''.\n",
"Computerized bookkeeping removes many of the paper \"books\" that are used to record the financial transactions of an entity—instead, relational databases take their place, but they still typically enforce the double-entry bookkeeping system and methodology.\n",
"* Accounting\n\n\n",
"\n",
"*\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" History ",
" Entry systems ",
"Daybooks",
"Petty cash book",
"Journals",
"Ledgers",
"Abbreviations used in bookkeeping",
"Chart of accounts",
"Computerized bookkeeping",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Bookkeeping | [
"This delay—absent in electronic accounting systems due to nearly instantaneous posting into relevant accounts—is a basic characteristic of manual systems, thus giving rise to primary books of accounts such as Cash Book, Bank Book, Purchase Book, and Sales Book for recording the immediate effect of a financial transaction.",
"Deposit slips are produced when lodgements (deposits) are made to a bank account."
] | [
"\n\n''Portrait of the Italian Luca Pacioli'', painted by Jacopo de' Barbari, 1495, (Museo di Capodimonte).",
"Pacioli is regarded as the Father of Accounting.",
"'''Bookkeeping''' is the recording of financial transactions, and is part of the process of accounting in business.",
"Transactions include purchases, sales, receipts, and payments by an individual person or an organization/corporation.",
"There are several standard methods of bookkeeping, such as the single-entry bookkeeping system and the double-entry bookkeeping system, but, while they may be thought of as \"real\" bookkeeping, any process that involves the recording of financial transactions is a bookkeeping process.",
"Bookkeeping is usually performed by a '''bookkeeper'''.",
"A bookkeeper (or book-keeper) is a person who records the day-to-day financial transactions of a business.",
"He or she is usually responsible for writing the ''daybooks'', which contain records of purchases, sales, receipts, and payments.",
"The bookkeeper is responsible for ensuring that all transactions whether it is cash transaction or credit transaction are recorded in the correct daybook, supplier's ledger, customer ledger, and general ledger; an accountant can then create reports from the information concerning the financial transactions recorded by the bookkeeper.",
"The bookkeeper brings the books to the trial balance stage: an accountant may prepare the income statement and balance sheet using the trial balance and ledgers prepared by the bookkeeper.",
"The origin of book-keeping is lost in obscurity, but recent researches would appear to show that some method of keeping accounts has existed from the remotest times.",
"Babylonian records have been found dating back as far as 2600 B.C., written with a stylus on small slabs of clay.",
"The term \"waste book\" was used in colonial America referring to bookkeeping.",
"The purpose was to document daily transactions including receipts and expenditures.",
"This was recorded in chronological order, and the purpose was for temporary use only.",
"The daily transactions would then be recorded in a daybook or account ledger in order to balance the accounts.",
"The name \"waste book\" comes from the fact that once the waste book's data were transferred to the actual journal, the waste book could be discarded.",
"=== Process ===\nThe bookkeeping process primarily records the ''financial effects'' of transactions.",
"The difference between a manual and any electronic accounting system results from the former's latency (engineering) between the recording of a financial transaction and its posting in the relevant account.",
"In the normal course of business, a document is produced each time a transaction occurs.",
"Sales and purchases usually have invoices or receipts.",
"Checks (spelled \"cheques\" in the UK and several other countries) are written to pay money out of the account.",
"Bookkeeping first involves recording the details of all of these ''source documents'' into multi-column ''journals'' (also known as ''books of first entry'' or ''daybooks'').",
"For example, all credit sales are recorded in the sales journal; all cash payments are recorded in the cash payments journal.",
"Each column in a journal normally corresponds to an account.",
"In the single entry system, each transaction is recorded only once.",
"Most individuals who balance their check-book each month are using such a system, and most personal-finance software follows this approach.",
"After a certain period, typically a month, each column in each journal is totalled to give a summary for that period.",
"Using the rules of double-entry, these journal summaries are then transferred to their respective accounts in the ledger, or ''account book''.",
"For example, the entries in the Sales Journal are taken and a debit entry is made in each customer's account (showing that the customer now owes us money), and a credit entry might be made in the account for \"Sale of class 2 widgets\" (showing that this activity has generated revenue for us).",
"This process of transferring summaries or individual transactions to the ledger is called ''posting''.",
"Once the posting process is complete, accounts kept using the \"T\" format undergo ''balancing'', which is simply a process to arrive at the balance of the account.",
"As a partial check that the posting process was done correctly, a working document called an ''unadjusted trial balance'' is created.",
"In its simplest form, this is a three-column list.",
"Column One contains the names of those accounts in the ledger which have a non-zero balance.",
"If an account has a ''debit'' balance, the balance amount is copied into Column Two (the ''debit column''); if an account has a ''credit'' balance, the amount is copied into Column Three (the ''credit column'').",
"The debit column is then totalled, and then the credit column is totalled.",
"The two totals must agree—which is not by chance—because under the double-entry rules, whenever there is a posting, the debits of the posting equal the credits of the posting.",
"If the two totals do not agree, an error has been made, either in the journals or during the posting process.",
"The error must be located and rectified, and the totals of the debit column and the credit column recalculated to check for agreement before any further processing can take place.",
"Once the accounts balance, the accountant makes a number of adjustments and changes the balance amounts of some of the accounts.",
"These adjustments must still obey the double-entry rule: for example, the ''inventory'' account and asset account might be changed to bring them into line with the actual numbers counted during a stocktake.",
"At the same time, the ''expense'' account associated with usage of inventory is adjusted by an equal and opposite amount.",
"Other adjustments such as posting depreciation and prepayments are also done at this time.",
"This results in a listing called the ''adjusted trial balance''.",
"It is the accounts in this list, and their corresponding debit or credit balances, that are used to prepare the financial statements.",
"Finally financial statements are drawn from the trial balance, which may include:\n* the income statement, also known as the ''statement of financial results'', ''profit and loss account'', or ''P&L''\n* the balance sheet, also known as the ''statement of financial position''\n* the cash flow statement\n* the Statement of changes in equity, also known as the ''statement of total recognised gains and losses''",
"Two common bookkeeping systems used by businesses and other organizations are the single-entry bookkeeping system and the double-entry bookkeeping system.",
"Single-entry bookkeeping uses only income and expense accounts, recorded primarily in a revenue and expense journal.",
"Single-entry bookkeeping is adequate for many small businesses.",
"In the double-entry accounting system, at least two accounting entries are required to record each financial transaction.",
"These entries may occur in asset, liability, equity, expense, or revenue accounts.",
"===Single-entry system===\n\n\n\nThe primary bookkeeping record in single-entry bookkeeping is the ''cash book'', which is similar to a checking account (UK: cheque account, current account) register, but allocates the income and expenses to various income and expense accounts.",
"Separate account records are maintained for petty cash, accounts payable and receivable, and other relevant transactions such as inventory and travel expenses.",
"These days, single-entry bookkeeping can be done with DIY bookkeeping software to speed up manual calculations.",
"===Double-entry system===\n\n\n\nA ''double-entry bookkeeping system'' is a set of rules for recording financial information in a financial accounting system in which every transaction or event changes at least two different nominal ledger accounts.",
"A ''daybook'' is a descriptive and chronological (diary-like) record of day-to-day financial transactions also called a ''book of original entry''.",
"The daybook's details must be entered formally into journals to enable posting to ledgers.",
"Daybooks include:\n\n*Sales daybook, for recording all the sales invoices.",
"*Sales credits daybook, for recording all the sales credit notes.",
"*Purchases daybook, for recording all the purchase invoices.",
"*Purchases Debits daybook, for recording all the purchase Debit notes.",
"*Cash daybook, usually known as the cash book, for recording all money received as well as money paid out.",
"It may be split into two daybooks: receipts daybook for money received in, and payments daybook for money paid out.",
"*General Journal daybook, for recording journals.",
"A ''petty cash'' book is a record of small-value purchases before they are later transferred to the ledger and final accounts; it is maintained by a petty or junior cashier.",
"This type of cash book usually uses the imprest system: a certain amount of money is provided to the petty cashier by the senior cashier.",
"This money is to cater for minor expenditures (hospitality, minor stationery, casual postage, and so on) and is reimbursed periodically on satisfactory explanation of how it was spent.",
"''Journals'' are recorded in the general journal daybook.",
"A journal is a formal and chronological record of financial transactions before their values are accounted for in the general ledger as debits and credits.",
"A company can maintain one journal for all transactions, or keep several journals based on similar activity (e.g., sales, cash receipts, revenue, etc.",
"), making transactions easier to summarize and reference later.",
"For every debit journal entry recorded, there must be an equivalent credit journal entry to maintain a balanced accounting equation.",
"A ''ledger'' is a record of accounts.The ledger is a permanent summary of all amounts entered in supporting Journals which list individual transactions by date.",
"These accounts are recorded separately, showing their beginning/ending balance.",
"A journal lists financial transactions in chronological order, without showing their balance but showing how much is going to be charged in each account.",
"A ledger takes each financial transaction from the journal and records it into the corresponding account for every transaction listed.",
"The ledger also sums up the total of every account, which is transferred into the balance sheet and the income statement.",
"There are three different kinds of ledgers that deal with book-keeping:\n*Sales ledger, which deals mostly with the accounts receivable account.",
"This ledger consists of the records of the financial transactions made by customers to the business.",
"*Purchase ledger is the record of the purchasing transactions a company does; it goes hand in hand with the Accounts Payable account.",
"* A/C – Account\n* Acc – Account\n* A/R – Accounts receivable\n* A/P – Accounts payable\n* B/S – Balance sheet\n* c/d – Carried down\n* b/d – Brought down\n* c/f – Carried forward\n* b/f – Brought forward\n* Dr – Debit side of a ledger.",
"\"Dr\" stands for \"'''D'''ebit '''r'''egister\"\n* Cr – Credit side of a ledger.",
"\"Cr\" stands for \"'''C'''redit '''r'''egister\"\n* G/L – General ledger; (or N/L – nominal ledger)\n* PL – Profit and loss; (or I/S – income statement)\n* P/R - Payroll\n* PP&E – Property, plant and equipment\n* TB – Trial Balance\n* GST – Goods and services tax\n* VAT – Value added tax\n* CST – Central sale tax\n* TDS – Tax deducted at source\n* AMT – Alternate minimum tax\n* EBITDA – Earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortisation\n* EBDTA – Earnings before depreciation, taxes and amortisation\n* EBT – Earnings before tax\n* EAT – Earnings after tax\n* PAT – Profit after tax\n* PBT – Profit before tax\n* Depr – Depreciation\n* Dep – Depreciation\n* CPO – Cash paid out\n* CP - Cash Payment\n*",
"A chart of accounts is a list of the accounts codes that can be identified with numeric, alphabetical, or alphanumeric codes allowing the account to be located in the general ledger.",
"The equity section of the chart of accounts is based on the fact that the legal structure of the entity is of a particular legal type.",
"Possibilities include ''sole trader'', ''partnership'', ''trust'', and ''company''.",
"Computerized bookkeeping removes many of the paper \"books\" that are used to record the financial transactions of an entity—instead, relational databases take their place, but they still typically enforce the double-entry bookkeeping system and methodology.",
"* Accounting",
"*"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Boxing Day''' is a holiday celebrated the day after Christmas Day. It originated in the United Kingdom, and is celebrated in a number of countries that previously formed part of the British Empire. Boxing Day is on 26 December, although the attached bank holiday or public holiday may take place either on that day or two days later.\n\nIn the liturgical calendar of Western Christianity, Boxing Day is the second day of Christmastide, and also St. Stephen's Day. In some European countries, notably Germany, Poland, Belgium, the Netherlands and the Nordic countries, 26 December is celebrated as a Second Christmas Day.\n",
"There are competing theories for the origins of the term, none of which is definitive. The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' gives the earliest attestations from Britain in the 1830s, defining it as \"the first week-day after Christmas-day, observed as a holiday on which post-men, errand-boys, and servants of various kinds expect to receive a Christmas-box\".\n\nThe term \"Christmas-box\" dates back to the 17th century, and among other things meant:\n\nA present or gratuity given at Christmas: in Great Britain, usually confined to gratuities given to those who are supposed to have a vague claim upon the donor for services rendered to him as one of the general public by whom they are employed and paid, or as a customer of their legal employer; the undefined theory being that as they have done offices for this person, for which he has not directly paid them, some direct acknowledgement is becoming at Christmas.\n\nIn Britain, it was a custom for tradespeople to collect \"Christmas boxes\" of money or presents on the first weekday after Christmas as thanks for good service throughout the year. This is mentioned in Samuel Pepys' diary entry for 19 December 1663. This custom is linked to an older British tradition: since they would have to wait on their masters on Christmas Day, the servants of the wealthy were allowed the next day to visit their families. The employers would give each servant a box to take home containing gifts, bonuses, and sometimes leftover food.\n\nIn South Africa (a former British colony) as recently as the 1980s, milkmen and garbage collectors, who normally had little if any interaction with those they served, were accustomed to knock on their doors asking for a \"Christmas box\", being a small cash donation, in the week or so before and after Christmas.\n\nThe European tradition, which has long included giving money and other gifts to those who were needy and in service positions, has been dated to the Middle Ages, but the exact origin is unknown. It is believed to be in reference to the Alms Box placed in areas of worship to collect donations to the poor. Also, it may come from a custom in the late Roman/early Christian era, wherein metal boxes placed outside churches were used to collect special offerings tied to the Feast of Saint Stephen, which in the Western Church falls on the same day as Boxing Day.\n\n== Date == \nBoxing Day is a secular holiday that is traditionally celebrated on 26 December, the day after Christmas Day. 26 December is also St. Stephen's Day, a religious holiday.\n\nIn the UK, Boxing Day is a bank holiday (in England, Wales and Northern Ireland since 1871). When 26 December falls on a Saturday, the Boxing Day public holiday is moved to the substitute day, which is the following Monday. If 26 December falls on a Sunday, the substitute public holiday is the following Tuesday. As Boxing Day was traditionally the first week day (historically Monday–Saturday) after Christmas, it cannot technically be on a Sunday as that is considered to be the day of worship. However, 26 December is nowadays generally referred to as Boxing Day, even when it falls on the Sunday.\n\nIn Scotland, Boxing Day has been specified as an additional bank holiday since 1974, by Royal Proclamation under the Banking and Financial Dealings Act 1971.\n\nIn Ireland – when the island as a whole was part of the United Kingdom – the Bank Holidays Act 1871 established the feast day of St. Stephen as a non-movable public holiday on 26 December. Following partition in 1920, Northern Ireland reverted to the British name, Boxing Day.\n\nIn Australia, Boxing Day is a federal public holiday. The Australian state of South Australia instead observes a public holiday known as Proclamation Day on the first weekday after Christmas Day or the Christmas Day holiday.\n\nIn New Zealand, Boxing Day is a statutory holiday; penalty rates and lieu time are provided to employees who work on Boxing Day.\n\nIn Canada, Boxing Day is a federal statutory holiday. Government offices, banks and post offices/delivery are closed. In some Canadian provinces, Boxing Day is a statutory holiday that is always celebrated on 26 December. In Canadian provinces where Boxing Day was a statutory holiday, and it falls on a Saturday or Sunday, compensation days are given in the following week.\n\nIn the United States, 26 December is not observed as \"Boxing Day\", per se, by the Federal Government; however, it may be converted to an extension of \"Christmas Day Observed\" when Christmas falls on a Sunday, thus affecting Federal offices and services, as well as banking, regular postal delivery and trading markets. The 26th is given as a holiday to some state employees, mainly in southern states: Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Texas, but it is not known as Boxing Day. On 5 December 1996, Massachusetts Gov. William F. Weld declared 26 December as Boxing Day in Massachusetts, in response to the efforts of a local coalition of British citizens to \"transport the English tradition to the United States\", but not as an employee holiday.\n\nIn Nigeria, 26 December is a public holiday for working people or students. When it falls on Saturday or Sunday, there is always a holiday on Monday.\n",
"Boxing Day crowds shopping at the Toronto Eaton Centre in Canada, 2007\nIn the UK, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, Boxing Day is primarily known as a shopping holiday, much like Black Friday (the day after Thanksgiving) in the United States. Boxing Day sales are common in Canada, Australia and New Zealand. It is a time when shops hold sales, often with dramatic price reductions. For many merchants, Boxing Day has become the day of the year with the greatest revenue. In the UK in 2009 it was estimated that up to 12 million shoppers appeared at the sales (a rise of almost 20% compared to 2008, although this was also affected by the fact that the VAT was about to revert to 17.5% from 1 January, following the temporary reduction to 15%).\n\nMany retailers open very early (typically 5 am or even earlier) and offer doorbuster deals and loss leaders to draw people to their stores. It is not uncommon for long queues to form early in the morning of 26 December, hours before the opening of shops holding the big sales, especially at big-box consumer electronics retailers. Many stores have a limited quantity of big draw or deeply discounted items. Because of the shoulder-to-shoulder crowds, many choose to stay at home and avoid the hectic shopping experience. The local media often cover the event, mentioning how early the shoppers began queuing up, and showing video of shoppers queuing and later leaving with their purchased items. Many retailers have implemented practices aimed at managing large numbers of shoppers. They may limit entrances, restrict the number of patrons in a store at a time, provide tickets to people at the head of the queue to guarantee them a hot ticket item or canvass queued-up shoppers to inform them of inventory limitations.\n\nIn recent years, retailers have expanded deals to \"Boxing Week\". While Boxing Day is 26 December, many retailers will run the sales for several days before or after 26 December, often up to New Year's Eve. Notably, in the recession of late 2008, a record number of retailers were holding early promotions due to a weak economy. Canada's Boxing Day has often been compared with the American Super Saturday (the Saturday before Christmas) and Black Friday. From 2009 onward Black Friday deals become more prominent among Canadian retailers to discourage shoppers from crossing the border to the USA when the Canadian and USA dollars was close to parity, and this has lessened the appeal of Boxing Day in Canada somewhat as it was overtaken by Black Friday in terms of sales in 2013. Boxing Day is not and has never been a shopping holiday in the USA.\n\nIn some areas of Canada, particularly in Atlantic Canada and parts of Northern Ontario, most retailers are prohibited from opening on Boxing Day, either by provincial law or by municipal bylaw, or instead by informal agreement among major retailers to provide a day of relaxation following Christmas Day. In these areas, sales otherwise scheduled for 26 December are moved to the 27th. The city council of Greater Sudbury, Ontario, which was the largest city in Canada to maintain this restriction as of the early 2010s, formally repealed its store hours bylaw on 9 December 2014.\n\nIn 2009, many retailers with both online and High Street stores launched their online sales on Christmas Eve and their High Street sales on Boxing Day.\n",
"Boxing Day Test at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, 2006\nBoxing Day Meet of the Blencathra Foxhounds in Keswick, 1962\n\nIn the United Kingdom, it is traditional for both top-tier football leagues in England, Scotland and Northern Ireland, and the lower ones, as well as the rugby leagues, to hold a full programme of football and rugby union matches on Boxing Day. Originally, matches on Boxing Day were played against local rivals to avoid teams and their fans having to travel a long distance to an away game on the day after Christmas Day. Prior to the formation of leagues, a number of rugby fixtures took place on Boxing Day each year, notably Llanelli v London Welsh and Leicester v The Barbarians.\n\nIn Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, Test cricket matches are played on Boxing Day: for more details see Boxing Day Test.\n\nIn Australia, the first day of the Boxing Day Test in Melbourne and the start of the Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race are on Boxing Day.\n\nIn horse racing, there is the King George VI Chase at Kempton Park Racecourse in Surrey, England. It is the second most prestigious chase in Britain, after the Cheltenham Gold Cup. In addition to the prestigious race at Kempton, in Britain it is usually the day with the highest number of racing meetings of the year, with eight in 2016, in addition to three more in Ireland.\n\nBoxing Day is one of the main days in the hunting calendar for hunts in the UK and US, with most hunts (both mounted foxhound or harrier packs and foot packs of beagles or bassets) holding meets, often in town or village centres.\n\nSeveral ice hockey contests are associated with the day. The IIHF World U20 Championship typically begins on 26 December, while the Spengler Cup also begins on 26 December in Davos, Switzerland; the Spengler Cup competition includes HC Davos, Team Canada, and other top European Hockey teams. The National Hockey League traditionally had close to a full slate of games (10 were played in 2011), following the league-wide days off given for Christmas Eve and Christmas Day. However, the 2013 collective bargaining agreement (which followed a lock-out) extended the league mandate of Christmas Eve and Christmas Day off to include Boxing Day, except when it falls on a Saturday, in which case the league can choose to make 23 December a league-wide off day instead for that year. In some African Commonwealth nations, particularly Ghana, Uganda, Malawi, Zambia and Tanzania, prize fighting contests are held on Boxing Day. This practice has also been followed for decades in Guyana and Italy.\n\nA notable tradition in Sweden is ''Annandagsbandy'', which formerly marked the start of the bandy season and always draws large crowds. Games traditionally begin at 1:15 pm.\n\n",
"\n",
"\n* Snopes: The Origins of Boxing Day\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Etymology ",
" Shopping ",
" Sport ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Boxing Day | [
"Boxing Day is on 26 December, although the attached bank holiday or public holiday may take place either on that day or two days later.",
"In the UK, Boxing Day is a bank holiday (in England, Wales and Northern Ireland since 1871).",
"In Scotland, Boxing Day has been specified as an additional bank holiday since 1974, by Royal Proclamation under the Banking and Financial Dealings Act 1971.",
"In Ireland – when the island as a whole was part of the United Kingdom – the Bank Holidays Act 1871 established the feast day of St. Stephen as a non-movable public holiday on 26 December."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Boxing Day''' is a holiday celebrated the day after Christmas Day.",
"It originated in the United Kingdom, and is celebrated in a number of countries that previously formed part of the British Empire.",
"In the liturgical calendar of Western Christianity, Boxing Day is the second day of Christmastide, and also St. Stephen's Day.",
"In some European countries, notably Germany, Poland, Belgium, the Netherlands and the Nordic countries, 26 December is celebrated as a Second Christmas Day.",
"There are competing theories for the origins of the term, none of which is definitive.",
"The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' gives the earliest attestations from Britain in the 1830s, defining it as \"the first week-day after Christmas-day, observed as a holiday on which post-men, errand-boys, and servants of various kinds expect to receive a Christmas-box\".",
"The term \"Christmas-box\" dates back to the 17th century, and among other things meant:\n\nA present or gratuity given at Christmas: in Great Britain, usually confined to gratuities given to those who are supposed to have a vague claim upon the donor for services rendered to him as one of the general public by whom they are employed and paid, or as a customer of their legal employer; the undefined theory being that as they have done offices for this person, for which he has not directly paid them, some direct acknowledgement is becoming at Christmas.",
"In Britain, it was a custom for tradespeople to collect \"Christmas boxes\" of money or presents on the first weekday after Christmas as thanks for good service throughout the year.",
"This is mentioned in Samuel Pepys' diary entry for 19 December 1663.",
"This custom is linked to an older British tradition: since they would have to wait on their masters on Christmas Day, the servants of the wealthy were allowed the next day to visit their families.",
"The employers would give each servant a box to take home containing gifts, bonuses, and sometimes leftover food.",
"In South Africa (a former British colony) as recently as the 1980s, milkmen and garbage collectors, who normally had little if any interaction with those they served, were accustomed to knock on their doors asking for a \"Christmas box\", being a small cash donation, in the week or so before and after Christmas.",
"The European tradition, which has long included giving money and other gifts to those who were needy and in service positions, has been dated to the Middle Ages, but the exact origin is unknown.",
"It is believed to be in reference to the Alms Box placed in areas of worship to collect donations to the poor.",
"Also, it may come from a custom in the late Roman/early Christian era, wherein metal boxes placed outside churches were used to collect special offerings tied to the Feast of Saint Stephen, which in the Western Church falls on the same day as Boxing Day.",
"== Date == \nBoxing Day is a secular holiday that is traditionally celebrated on 26 December, the day after Christmas Day.",
"26 December is also St. Stephen's Day, a religious holiday.",
"When 26 December falls on a Saturday, the Boxing Day public holiday is moved to the substitute day, which is the following Monday.",
"If 26 December falls on a Sunday, the substitute public holiday is the following Tuesday.",
"As Boxing Day was traditionally the first week day (historically Monday–Saturday) after Christmas, it cannot technically be on a Sunday as that is considered to be the day of worship.",
"However, 26 December is nowadays generally referred to as Boxing Day, even when it falls on the Sunday.",
"Following partition in 1920, Northern Ireland reverted to the British name, Boxing Day.",
"In Australia, Boxing Day is a federal public holiday.",
"The Australian state of South Australia instead observes a public holiday known as Proclamation Day on the first weekday after Christmas Day or the Christmas Day holiday.",
"In New Zealand, Boxing Day is a statutory holiday; penalty rates and lieu time are provided to employees who work on Boxing Day.",
"In Canada, Boxing Day is a federal statutory holiday.",
"Government offices, banks and post offices/delivery are closed.",
"In some Canadian provinces, Boxing Day is a statutory holiday that is always celebrated on 26 December.",
"In Canadian provinces where Boxing Day was a statutory holiday, and it falls on a Saturday or Sunday, compensation days are given in the following week.",
"In the United States, 26 December is not observed as \"Boxing Day\", per se, by the Federal Government; however, it may be converted to an extension of \"Christmas Day Observed\" when Christmas falls on a Sunday, thus affecting Federal offices and services, as well as banking, regular postal delivery and trading markets.",
"The 26th is given as a holiday to some state employees, mainly in southern states: Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Texas, but it is not known as Boxing Day.",
"On 5 December 1996, Massachusetts Gov.",
"William F. Weld declared 26 December as Boxing Day in Massachusetts, in response to the efforts of a local coalition of British citizens to \"transport the English tradition to the United States\", but not as an employee holiday.",
"In Nigeria, 26 December is a public holiday for working people or students.",
"When it falls on Saturday or Sunday, there is always a holiday on Monday.",
"Boxing Day crowds shopping at the Toronto Eaton Centre in Canada, 2007\nIn the UK, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, Boxing Day is primarily known as a shopping holiday, much like Black Friday (the day after Thanksgiving) in the United States.",
"Boxing Day sales are common in Canada, Australia and New Zealand.",
"It is a time when shops hold sales, often with dramatic price reductions.",
"For many merchants, Boxing Day has become the day of the year with the greatest revenue.",
"In the UK in 2009 it was estimated that up to 12 million shoppers appeared at the sales (a rise of almost 20% compared to 2008, although this was also affected by the fact that the VAT was about to revert to 17.5% from 1 January, following the temporary reduction to 15%).",
"Many retailers open very early (typically 5 am or even earlier) and offer doorbuster deals and loss leaders to draw people to their stores.",
"It is not uncommon for long queues to form early in the morning of 26 December, hours before the opening of shops holding the big sales, especially at big-box consumer electronics retailers.",
"Many stores have a limited quantity of big draw or deeply discounted items.",
"Because of the shoulder-to-shoulder crowds, many choose to stay at home and avoid the hectic shopping experience.",
"The local media often cover the event, mentioning how early the shoppers began queuing up, and showing video of shoppers queuing and later leaving with their purchased items.",
"Many retailers have implemented practices aimed at managing large numbers of shoppers.",
"They may limit entrances, restrict the number of patrons in a store at a time, provide tickets to people at the head of the queue to guarantee them a hot ticket item or canvass queued-up shoppers to inform them of inventory limitations.",
"In recent years, retailers have expanded deals to \"Boxing Week\".",
"While Boxing Day is 26 December, many retailers will run the sales for several days before or after 26 December, often up to New Year's Eve.",
"Notably, in the recession of late 2008, a record number of retailers were holding early promotions due to a weak economy.",
"Canada's Boxing Day has often been compared with the American Super Saturday (the Saturday before Christmas) and Black Friday.",
"From 2009 onward Black Friday deals become more prominent among Canadian retailers to discourage shoppers from crossing the border to the USA when the Canadian and USA dollars was close to parity, and this has lessened the appeal of Boxing Day in Canada somewhat as it was overtaken by Black Friday in terms of sales in 2013.",
"Boxing Day is not and has never been a shopping holiday in the USA.",
"In some areas of Canada, particularly in Atlantic Canada and parts of Northern Ontario, most retailers are prohibited from opening on Boxing Day, either by provincial law or by municipal bylaw, or instead by informal agreement among major retailers to provide a day of relaxation following Christmas Day.",
"In these areas, sales otherwise scheduled for 26 December are moved to the 27th.",
"The city council of Greater Sudbury, Ontario, which was the largest city in Canada to maintain this restriction as of the early 2010s, formally repealed its store hours bylaw on 9 December 2014.",
"In 2009, many retailers with both online and High Street stores launched their online sales on Christmas Eve and their High Street sales on Boxing Day.",
"Boxing Day Test at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, 2006\nBoxing Day Meet of the Blencathra Foxhounds in Keswick, 1962\n\nIn the United Kingdom, it is traditional for both top-tier football leagues in England, Scotland and Northern Ireland, and the lower ones, as well as the rugby leagues, to hold a full programme of football and rugby union matches on Boxing Day.",
"Originally, matches on Boxing Day were played against local rivals to avoid teams and their fans having to travel a long distance to an away game on the day after Christmas Day.",
"Prior to the formation of leagues, a number of rugby fixtures took place on Boxing Day each year, notably Llanelli v London Welsh and Leicester v The Barbarians.",
"In Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, Test cricket matches are played on Boxing Day: for more details see Boxing Day Test.",
"In Australia, the first day of the Boxing Day Test in Melbourne and the start of the Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race are on Boxing Day.",
"In horse racing, there is the King George VI Chase at Kempton Park Racecourse in Surrey, England.",
"It is the second most prestigious chase in Britain, after the Cheltenham Gold Cup.",
"In addition to the prestigious race at Kempton, in Britain it is usually the day with the highest number of racing meetings of the year, with eight in 2016, in addition to three more in Ireland.",
"Boxing Day is one of the main days in the hunting calendar for hunts in the UK and US, with most hunts (both mounted foxhound or harrier packs and foot packs of beagles or bassets) holding meets, often in town or village centres.",
"Several ice hockey contests are associated with the day.",
"The IIHF World U20 Championship typically begins on 26 December, while the Spengler Cup also begins on 26 December in Davos, Switzerland; the Spengler Cup competition includes HC Davos, Team Canada, and other top European Hockey teams.",
"The National Hockey League traditionally had close to a full slate of games (10 were played in 2011), following the league-wide days off given for Christmas Eve and Christmas Day.",
"However, the 2013 collective bargaining agreement (which followed a lock-out) extended the league mandate of Christmas Eve and Christmas Day off to include Boxing Day, except when it falls on a Saturday, in which case the league can choose to make 23 December a league-wide off day instead for that year.",
"In some African Commonwealth nations, particularly Ghana, Uganda, Malawi, Zambia and Tanzania, prize fighting contests are held on Boxing Day.",
"This practice has also been followed for decades in Guyana and Italy.",
"A notable tradition in Sweden is ''Annandagsbandy'', which formerly marked the start of the bandy season and always draws large crowds.",
"Games traditionally begin at 1:15 pm.",
"\n* Snopes: The Origins of Boxing Day"
] | river |
[
"\n\n'''William Magear Tweed''' (April 3, 1823 – April 12, 1878)—often erroneously referred to as \"William ''Marcy'' Tweed\" (see below), and widely known as \"'''Boss'''\" '''Tweed'''—was an American politician most notable for being the \"boss\" of Tammany Hall, the Democratic Party political machine that played a major role in the politics of 19th century New York City and State. At the height of his influence, Tweed was the third-largest landowner in New York City and a director of the Erie Railroad, the Tenth National Bank, and the New-York Printing Company, as well as proprietor of the Metropolitan Hotel.\n\nTweed was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1852 and the New York County board of supervisors in 1858, the year he became the head of the Tammany Hall political machine. He was also elected to the New York State Senate in 1867, but Tweed's greatest influence came from being an appointed member of a number of boards and commissions, his control over political patronage in New York City through Tammany, and his ability to ensure the loyalty of voters through jobs he could create and dispense on city-related projects.\n\nTweed was convicted for stealing an amount estimated by an aldermen's committee in 1877 at between $25 million and $45 million from New York City taxpayers through political corruption, although later estimates ranged as high as $200 million. Unable to make bail, he escaped from jail once, but was returned to custody. He died in the Ludlow Street Jail.\n",
"Tweed was born April 3, 1823, at 1 Cherry Street, on the Lower East Side of Manhattan. Son of a third-generation Scots-Irish chair-maker, Tweed grew up on Cherry Street. Tweed's religious affiliation was not widely known in his lifetime, but at the time of his funeral the ''New York Times'', quoting a family friend, reported that his parents had been Quakers and \"members of the old Rose Street Meeting house\". At the age of 11, he left school to learn his father's trade, and then became an apprentice to a saddler. He also studied to be a bookkeeper and worked as a brushmaker for a company he had invested in, before eventually joining in the family business in 1852. On September 29, 1844, he married Mary Jane C. Skaden and lived with her family on Madison Street for two years.\n\nTicket to an 1859 \"soiree\" to benefit Tweed's Americus Engine Co.\n\nTweed became a member of the Odd Fellows and the Masons, and joined a volunteer fire company, Engine No. 12. In 1848, at the invitation of state assemblyman John J. Reilly, he and some friends organized the Americus Fire Company No. 6, also known as the \"Big Six\", as a volunteer fire company, which took as its symbol a snarling red Bengal tiger, a symbol which remained associated with Tweed and Tammany Hall for many years. At the time, volunteer fire companies competed vigorously with each other; some were connected with street gangs and had strong ethnic ties to various immigrant communities. The competition could be so fierce that buildings would sometimes burn down while the fire companies fought each other. Tweed became known for his ax-wielding violence, and was soon elected the Big Six foreman. Pressure from Alfred Carlson, the chief engineer, got him thrown out of the crew, but fire companies were also recruiting grounds for political parties at the time, and Tweed's exploits came to the attention of the Democratic politicians who ran the Seventh Ward, who put him up for Alderman in 1850, when Tweed was 26. He lost that election to the Whig candidate Morgan Morgans, but ran again the next year and won, garnering his first political position.\n\nTweed was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1852, but his two-year term was undistinguished. In an attempt by Republican reformers in Albany, the state capital, to control the Democratic-dominated New York City government, the power of the New York County Board of Supervisors was beefed up. The board had 12 members, six appointed by the mayor and six elected, and in 1858 Tweed was appointed to the board, which became his first vehicle for large-scale graft; Tweed and other supervisors forced vendors to pay a 15% overcharge to their \"ring\" in order to do business with the city. By 1853, Tweed was running the seventh ward for Tammany.\n\nAlthough he was not trained as a lawyer, Tweed's friend, Judge George G. Barnard, certified him as an attorney, and Tweed opened a law office on Duane Street. He ran for sheriff in 1861 and was defeated, but became the chairman of the Democratic General Committee shortly after the election, and was then chosen to be the head of Tammany's general committee in January 1863. Several months later, in April, he became \"Grand Sachem\", and began to be referred to as \"Boss\", especially after he tightened his hold on power by creating a small executive committee to run the club. Tweed then took steps to increase his income: he used his law firm to extort money, which was then disguised as legal services; he had himself appointed deputy street commissioner – a position with considerable access to city contractors and funding; he bought the New-York Printing Company, which became the city's official printer, and the city's stationery supplier, the Manufacturing Stationers' Company, and had both companies begin to overcharge for their goods and services. He also started to form what became known as the \"Tweed Ring\", by having his friends elected to office: George G. Barnard was elected Recorder of New York City; Peter B. Sweeny was elected New York County District Attorney; and Richard B. Connolly was elected City Comptroller.\n\nThomas Nast depicts Tweed in ''Harper's Weekly'' (October 21, 1871)\n\nWith his new position and wealth came a change in style: Tweed began to favor wearing a large diamond in his shirtfront – a habit that Thomas Nast used to great effect in his attacks on Tweed in ''Harper's Weekly'' beginning in 1869 – and he bought a brownstone to live in at 41 West 36th Street, then a very fashionable area. He invested his now considerable illegal income in real estate, so that by the late 1860s he ranked among the biggest landowners in New York City.\n\nTweed was a member of the New York State Senate (4th D.) from 1868 to 1873, sitting in the 91st, 92nd, 93rd and 94th New York State Legislatures, but not taking his seat in the 95th and 96th New York State Legislatures. In the Senate he helped financiers Jay Gould and Big Jim Fisk to take control of the Erie Railroad from Cornelius Vanderbilt by arranging for legislation that legitimized fake Erie stock certificates that Gould and Fisk had issued. In return, Tweed received a large block of stock and was made a director of the company.\n",
"After the election of 1869, Tweed took control of the New York City government. His protégé, John T. Hoffman, the former mayor of the city, won election as governor, and Tweed garnered the support of good government reformers like Peter Cooper and the Union League Club, by proposing a new city charter which returned power to City Hall at the expense of the Republican-inspired state commissions. The new charter passed, thanks in part to $600,000 in bribes Tweed paid to Republicans, and was signed into law by Hoffman in 1870. Mandated new elections allowed Tammany to take over the city's Common Council when they won all fifteen aldermanic contests.\n\nThe new charter put control of the city's finances in the hands of a Board of Audit, which consisted of Tweed, who was Commissioner of Public Works, Mayor A. Oakey Hall and Comptroller Richard \"Slippery Dick\" Connolly, both Tammany men. Hall also appointed other Tweed associates to high offices — such as Peter B. Sweeny, who took over the Department of Public Parks — providing the Tweed Ring with even firmer control of the New York City government and enabling them to defraud the taxpayers of many more millions of dollars. In the words of Albert Bigelow Paine, \"their methods were curiously simple and primitive. There were no skilful manipulations of figures, making detection difficult ... Connolly, as Controller, had charge of the books, and declined to show them. With his fellows, he also 'controlled' the courts and most of the bar.\" Contractors working for the city – \"Ring favorites, most of them – were told to multiply the amount of each bill by five, or ten, or a hundred, after which, with Mayor Hall's 'O. K.' and Connolly's endorsement, it was paid ... through a go-between, who cashed the check, settled the original bill and divided the remainder ... between Tweed, Sweeny, Connolly and Hall\".\n\nFor example, the construction cost of the New York County Courthouse, begun in 1861, grew to nearly $13 million—about $178 million in today's dollars, and nearly twice the cost of the Alaska Purchase in 1867.\n\"A carpenter was paid $360,751 (roughly $4.9 million today) for one month's labor in a building with very little woodwork ... a plasterer got $133,187 ($1.82 million) for two days' work\".\n\nNast depicts the Tweed Ring: \"Who stole the people's money?\" / \"'Twas him.\"\n\nTweed and his friends also garnered huge profits from the development of the Upper East Side, especially Yorkville and Harlem. They would buy up undeveloped property, then use the resources of the city to improve the area—for instance by installing pipes to bring in water from the Croton Aqueduct—thus increasing the value of the land, after which they sold and took their profits. The focus on the east side also slowed down the development of the west side, the topography of which made it more expensive to improve. The ring also took their usual percentage of padded contracts, as well as raking off money from property taxes. Despite the corruption of Tweed and Tammany Hall, they did accomplish the development of upper Manhattan, though at the cost of tripling the city's bond debt to almost $90 million.\n\nDuring the Tweed era, the proposal to build a suspension bridge between New York and Brooklyn, then an independent city, was floated by Brooklyn-boosters, who saw the ferry connections as a bottleneck to Brooklyn's further development. In order to ensure that the Brooklyn Bridge project would go forward, State Senator Henry Cruse Murphy approached Tweed to find out whether New York's aldermen would approve the proposal. Tweed's response was that $60,000 for the aldermen would close the deal, and contractor William C. Kingsley put up the cash, which was delivered in a carpet bag. Tweed and two others from Tammany also received over half the private stock of the Bridge Company, the charter of which specified that only private stockholders had voting rights, so that even though the cities of Brooklyn and Manhattan put up most of the money, they essentially had no control over the project.\n\nTweed bought a mansion on Fifth Avenue and 43rd Street, and stabled his horses, carriages and sleighs on 40th Street. By 1871, he was a member of the board of directors of not only the Erie Railroad and the Brooklyn Bridge Company, but also the Third Avenue Railway Company and the Harlem Gas Light Company. He was president of the Guardian Savings Banks and he and his confederates set up the Tenth National Bank to better control their fortunes.\n",
"Tweed's downfall came in the wake of the Orange riot of 1871, which came after Tammany Hall banned a parade of Irish Protestants celebrating a historical victory against Catholicism, because of a riot the year before in which eight people died when a crowd of Irish Catholic laborers attacked the paraders. Under strong pressure from the newspapers and the Protestant elite of the city, Tammany reversed course, and the march was allowed to proceed, with protection from city policemen and state militia. The result was an even larger riot in which over 60 people were killed and more than 150 injured.\n\nAlthough Tammany's electoral power base was largely centered in the Irish immigrant population, it also needed the city's elite to acquiesce in its rule, and this was conditional on the machine's ability to control the actions of their people, but the July riot showed that this capability was not nearly as strong as had been supposed.\n\nNast shows Tweed's source of power: control of the ballot box. \"As long as I count the Votes, what are you going to do about it?\"\n\nTweed had for months been under attack from ''The New York Times'' and Thomas Nast, the cartoonist from ''Harper's Weekly'' – regarding Nast's cartoons, Tweed reportedly said, \"Stop them damned pictures. I don't care so much what the papers say about me. My constituents don't know how to read, but they can't help seeing them damned pictures!\" – but their campaign had only limited success in gaining traction. They were able to force an examination of the city's books, but the blue-ribbon commission of six businessmen appointed by Mayor A. Oakey Hall, a Tammany man, which included John Jacob Astor III, banker Moses Taylor and others who benefited from Tammany's actions, found that the books had been \"faithfully kept\", letting the air out of the effort to dethrone Tweed.\n\nThe response to the Orange riot changed everything, and only days afterwards the ''Times''/Nast campaign began to garner popular support. More important, the ''Times'' started to receive inside information from County Sheriff James O'Brien, whose support for Tweed had fluctuated during Tammany's reign. O'Brien had tried to blackmail Tammany by threatening to expose the ring's embezzlement to the press, and when this failed he provided the evidence he had collected to the ''Times''. Shortly afterward, county auditor Matthew J. O'Rourke supplied additional details to the ''Times'', which was reportedly offered $5 million to not publish the evidence. The ''Times'' also obtained the accounts of the recently deceased James Watson, who was the Tweed Ring's bookkeeper, and these were published daily, culminating in a special four-page supplement on July 29 headlined \"Gigantic Frauds of the Ring Exposed\". In August, Tweed began to transfer ownership in his real-estate empire and other investments to his family members.\n\nThe exposé provoked an international crisis of confidence in New York City's finances, and, in particular, in its ability to repay its debts. European investors were heavily positioned in the city's bonds and were already nervous about its management – only the reputations of the underwriters were preventing a run on the city's securities. New York's financial and business community knew that if the city's credit was to collapse, it could potentially bring down every bank in the city with it.\n\nThus, the city's elite met at Cooper Union in September to discuss political reform: but for the first time, the conversation included not only the usual reformers, but also Democratic bigwigs such as Samuel J. Tilden, who had been thrust aside by Tammany. The consensus was that the \"wisest and best citizens\" should take over the governance of the city and attempt to restore investor confidence. The result was the formation of the Executive Committee of Citizens and Taxpayers for Financial Reform of the City (also known as \"the Committee of Seventy\"), which attacked Tammany by cutting off the city's funding. Property owners refused to pay their municipal taxes, and a judge—Tweed's old friend George Barnard, no less—enjoined the city Comptroller from issuing bonds or spending money. Unpaid workers turned against Tweed, marching to City Hall demanding to be paid. Tweed doled out some funds from his own purse—$50,000—but it was not sufficient to end the crisis, and Tammany began to lose its essential base.\n\nShortly thereafter, the Comptroller resigned, appointing Andrew Haswell Green, an associate of Tilden's, as his replacement. Green loosened the purse strings again, allowing city departments not under Tammany control to borrow money to operate. Green and Tilden had the city's records closely examined, and discovered money that went directly from city contractors into Tweed's pocket. The following day, they had Tweed arrested.\n",
"\"Stone Walls Do Not a Prison Make\": Editorial cartoon by Thomas Nast predicting Tweed could not be kept behind bars (''Harper's Weekly'', January 6, 1872)\n\nTweed was released on $1 million bail, and Tammany set to work to recover its position through the ballot box. Tweed was re-elected to the state senate in November 1871, due to his personal popularity and largesse in his district, but in general Tammany did not do well, and the members of the Tweed Ring began to flee the jurisdiction, many going overseas. Tweed was re-arrested, forced to resign his city positions, and was replaced as Tammany's leader. Once again, he was released on bail—$8 million this time—but Tweed's supporters, such as Jay Gould, felt the repercussions of his fall from power.\n\nTweed's first trial, in January 1873, ended when the jury was unable to agree on a verdict. His retrial in November resulted in convictions on 204 of 220 counts, a fine of $12,750 (the equivalent of $ today) and a prison sentence of 12 years; a higher court, however, reduced Tweed's sentence to one year. After his release from prison, New York State filed a civil suit against Tweed, attempting to recover $6 million in embezzled funds. Unable to put up the $3 million bail, Tweed was locked up in the Ludlow Street Jail, although he was allowed home visits. On one of these, Tweed escaped and fled to Spain, where he worked as a common seaman on a Spanish ship. The U.S. government discovered his whereabouts and arranged for his arrest once he reached the Spanish border; he was recognized from Nast's political cartoons. He was turned over to an American warship, the USS ''Franklin'', which delivered him to authorities in New York City on November 23, 1876, and he was returned to prison.\n\nDesperate and broken, Tweed now agreed to testify about the inner workings of his corrupt Ring to a special committee set up by the Board of Aldermen, in return for his release, but after he did so, Tilden, now governor of New York, refused to abide by the agreement, and Tweed remained incarcerated. He died in the Ludlow Street Jail on April 12, 1878, from severe pneumonia, and was buried in the Brooklyn Green-Wood Cemetery. Mayor Smith Ely would not allow the flag at City Hall to be flown at half staff.\n",
"According to Tweed biographer Kenneth D. Ackerman:It's hard not to admire the skill behind Tweed's system ... The Tweed ring at its height was an engineering marvel, strong and solid, strategically deployed to control key power points: the courts, the legislature, the treasury and the ballot box. Its frauds had a grandeur of scale and an elegance of structure: money-laundering, profit sharing and organization.\n\nIn depictions of Tweed and the Tammany Hall organization, historians have emphasized the thievery and conspiratorial nature of Boss Tweed, along with lining his own pockets and those of his friends and allies. The theme is that the sins of corruption so violated American standards of political rectitude that they far overshadow Tweed's positive contributions to New York City.\n\nAlthough he held numerous important public offices and was one of a handful of senior leaders of Tammany Hall, as well as the state legislature and the state Democratic Party, Tweed was never the sole \"boss\" of New York City. He shared control of the city with numerous less famous people, such as the villains depicted in the Nast's famous circle of guilt cartoon shown above. Seymour J. Mandelbaum has argued that, apart from the corruption he engaged in, Tweed was a modernizer who prefigured certain elements of the Progressive Era in terms of more efficient city management. Much of the money he siphoned off from the city treasury went to needy constituents who appreciated the free food at Christmas time and remembered it at the next election, and to precinct workers who provided the muscle of his machine. As a legislator he worked to expand and strengthen welfare programs, especially those by private charities, schools, and hospitals. With a base in the Irish Catholic community, he opposed efforts of Protestants to require the reading of the King James Bible in public schools, which was done deliberately to keep out Catholics. He facilitated the founding of the New York Public Library, even though one of its founders, Samuel Tilden, was Tweed's sworn enemy in the Democratic Party.\n\nTweed recognized that the support of his constituency was necessary for him to remain in power, and as a consequence he used the machinery of the city's government to provide numerous social services, including building more orphanages, almshouses and public baths. Tweed also fought for the New York State Legislature to donate to private charities of all religious denominations, and subsidize Catholic schools and hospitals. From 1869 to 1871, under Tweed's influence, the state of New York spent more on charities than for the entire time period from 1852 to 1868 combined. Tweed also pushed through funding for a teachers college and prohibition of corporal punishment in schools, as well as salary increases for school teachers.\n\nDuring Tweed's regime, the main business thoroughfare Broadway was widened between 34th Street and 59th Street, land was secured for the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the Upper East Side and Upper West Side were developed and provided the necessary infrastructure – all to the benefit of the purses of the Tweed Ring, but also, ultimately, to the benefit of the people of the city.\n\nAccording to Leo Hershkowitz in ''Tweed's New York: Another Look'', there is no evidence of any personal financial gain on Tweed's part, despite the implications of Thomas Nast in ''Harper's Weekly'' and the editors of ''The New York Times'', which both had ties to the Republican party. In part, the campaign against Tweed diverted public attention from Republican scandals such as the Whiskey Ring.\n\nTweed himself wanted no particular recognition of his achievements, such as they were. When it was proposed, in March 1871, when he was at the height of his power, that a statue be erected in his honor, he declared: \"Statues are not erected to living men ... I claim to be a live man, and hope (Divine Providence permitting) to survive in all my vigor, politically and physically, some years to come.\" One of Tweed's unwanted legacies is that he has become \"the archetype of the bloated, rapacious, corrupt city boss\".\n\nAn 1869 cigar box label featuring Tweed\n",
"Tweed never signed his name with anything other than a plain \"M.\", and his middle name is often mistakenly listed as \"Marcy\". His actual middle name was \"Magear\", his mother's maiden name; Tweed's son's name was William Magear Tweed, Jr. The confusion derives from a Nast cartoon with a picture of Tweed, supplemented with a quote from William L. Marcy, the former governor of New York.\n",
"\nIn 1945 Boss Tweed was portrayed by Noah Beery, Sr. in the Broadway production of ''Up In Central Park'', a musical comedy with music by Sigmund Romberg. The role was played by Malcolm Lee Beggs for a revival in 1947. In the 1948 film version, Tweed is played by Vincent Price.\n\nOn the 1963–1964 CBS TV series ''The Great Adventure'', which presented one-hour dramatizations of the lives of historical figures, Edward Andrews portrayed Tweed in the episode \"The Man Who Stole New York City\", about the campaign by ''The New York Times'' to bring down Tweed. The episode aired on December 13, 1963.\n\nIn John Varley's 1977 science-fiction novel, ''The Ophiuchi Hotline'', a crooked politician in a 27th-century human settlement on the Moon assumes the name \"Boss Tweed\" in emulation of the 19th-century politician, and names his lunar headquarters \"Tammany Hall\".\n\nTweed was played by Philip Bosco in the 1986 TV movie ''Liberty''. According to a review of the film in ''The New York Times'', it was Tweed who made the suggestion to call the Statue of Liberty by that name, instead of its formal name ''Liberty Enlightening the World'', in order to read better in newspaper headlines.\n\nAndrew O'Hehir of ''The New York Times'' notes that ''Forever'', a 2003 novel by Pete Hamill, and ''Gangs of New York'', a 2002 film, both \"offer a significant supporting role to the legendary Manhattan political godfather Boss Tweed\", among other thematic similarities. In a review of the latter work, Chuck Rudolph praised Jim Broadbent's portrayal of Tweed as \"giving the role a masterfully heartless composure\".\n\nTweed appears as an antagonist in the novel, ''Assassin's Creed Last Descendants'' where he is the Grand Master of the American Templars during the American Civil War.\n",
"* Elbert A. Woodward\n* William J. Sharkey (murderer)\n",
"'''Notes'''\n\n\n'''Bibliography'''\n* Ackerman, K. D. (2005). ''Boss Tweed: The rise and fall of the corrupt pol who conceived the soul of modern New York''. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers. .\n* \n* The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. High Beam Encyclopedia. 22, November 2008, \n* Ellis, Edward R. (2004). ''The Epic of New York City: A Narrative History''. Carroll & Graf Publishers. ,\n* \"Boss Tweed\", ''Gotham Gazette'', New York, 4 July 2005.\n* Mandelbaum, Seymour J. ''Boss Tweed's New York'', 1965. \n*Paine, Albert B. (1974). ''Th. Nast, His Period and His Pictures''. Princeton: Pyne Press. (The original edition, published in 1904, is now in the public domain.)\n* Sante, Luc. ''Low Life: Lures and Snares of Old New York''. Farrar, Straus, & Giroux, 2003.\n\n'''Further reading'''\n* Hershkowitz, Leo. ''Tweed's New York: Another Look'' (1977), a favorable biography that minimizes the negative.\n* Lynch, Denis T. ''Boss Tweed'' The story of a grim generation. Blue Ribbon Books NY first print 1927 copyright Boni & Liveright Inc.\n",
"\n\n\n*\n* Green-Wood Cemetery page for WM Tweed \n* Map Showing the Portions of the City of New York and Westchester County under the Jurisdiction of the Department of Public Parks talks about Tweed's takeover of the New York City parks system, from the World Digital Library\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n \n \n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life and education",
"Corruption",
"Scandal",
"Imprisonment, escape, and death",
"Evaluations ",
"Middle name",
"In popular culture",
" See also ",
"References",
"External links"
] | William M. Tweed | [
"At the height of his influence, Tweed was the third-largest landowner in New York City and a director of the Erie Railroad, the Tenth National Bank, and the New-York Printing Company, as well as proprietor of the Metropolitan Hotel.",
"He was president of the Guardian Savings Banks and he and his confederates set up the Tenth National Bank to better control their fortunes.",
"New York's financial and business community knew that if the city's credit was to collapse, it could potentially bring down every bank in the city with it."
] | [
"\n\n'''William Magear Tweed''' (April 3, 1823 – April 12, 1878)—often erroneously referred to as \"William ''Marcy'' Tweed\" (see below), and widely known as \"'''Boss'''\" '''Tweed'''—was an American politician most notable for being the \"boss\" of Tammany Hall, the Democratic Party political machine that played a major role in the politics of 19th century New York City and State.",
"Tweed was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1852 and the New York County board of supervisors in 1858, the year he became the head of the Tammany Hall political machine.",
"He was also elected to the New York State Senate in 1867, but Tweed's greatest influence came from being an appointed member of a number of boards and commissions, his control over political patronage in New York City through Tammany, and his ability to ensure the loyalty of voters through jobs he could create and dispense on city-related projects.",
"Tweed was convicted for stealing an amount estimated by an aldermen's committee in 1877 at between $25 million and $45 million from New York City taxpayers through political corruption, although later estimates ranged as high as $200 million.",
"Unable to make bail, he escaped from jail once, but was returned to custody.",
"He died in the Ludlow Street Jail.",
"Tweed was born April 3, 1823, at 1 Cherry Street, on the Lower East Side of Manhattan.",
"Son of a third-generation Scots-Irish chair-maker, Tweed grew up on Cherry Street.",
"Tweed's religious affiliation was not widely known in his lifetime, but at the time of his funeral the ''New York Times'', quoting a family friend, reported that his parents had been Quakers and \"members of the old Rose Street Meeting house\".",
"At the age of 11, he left school to learn his father's trade, and then became an apprentice to a saddler.",
"He also studied to be a bookkeeper and worked as a brushmaker for a company he had invested in, before eventually joining in the family business in 1852.",
"On September 29, 1844, he married Mary Jane C. Skaden and lived with her family on Madison Street for two years.",
"Ticket to an 1859 \"soiree\" to benefit Tweed's Americus Engine Co.\n\nTweed became a member of the Odd Fellows and the Masons, and joined a volunteer fire company, Engine No.",
"12.",
"In 1848, at the invitation of state assemblyman John J. Reilly, he and some friends organized the Americus Fire Company No.",
"6, also known as the \"Big Six\", as a volunteer fire company, which took as its symbol a snarling red Bengal tiger, a symbol which remained associated with Tweed and Tammany Hall for many years.",
"At the time, volunteer fire companies competed vigorously with each other; some were connected with street gangs and had strong ethnic ties to various immigrant communities.",
"The competition could be so fierce that buildings would sometimes burn down while the fire companies fought each other.",
"Tweed became known for his ax-wielding violence, and was soon elected the Big Six foreman.",
"Pressure from Alfred Carlson, the chief engineer, got him thrown out of the crew, but fire companies were also recruiting grounds for political parties at the time, and Tweed's exploits came to the attention of the Democratic politicians who ran the Seventh Ward, who put him up for Alderman in 1850, when Tweed was 26.",
"He lost that election to the Whig candidate Morgan Morgans, but ran again the next year and won, garnering his first political position.",
"Tweed was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1852, but his two-year term was undistinguished.",
"In an attempt by Republican reformers in Albany, the state capital, to control the Democratic-dominated New York City government, the power of the New York County Board of Supervisors was beefed up.",
"The board had 12 members, six appointed by the mayor and six elected, and in 1858 Tweed was appointed to the board, which became his first vehicle for large-scale graft; Tweed and other supervisors forced vendors to pay a 15% overcharge to their \"ring\" in order to do business with the city.",
"By 1853, Tweed was running the seventh ward for Tammany.",
"Although he was not trained as a lawyer, Tweed's friend, Judge George G. Barnard, certified him as an attorney, and Tweed opened a law office on Duane Street.",
"He ran for sheriff in 1861 and was defeated, but became the chairman of the Democratic General Committee shortly after the election, and was then chosen to be the head of Tammany's general committee in January 1863.",
"Several months later, in April, he became \"Grand Sachem\", and began to be referred to as \"Boss\", especially after he tightened his hold on power by creating a small executive committee to run the club.",
"Tweed then took steps to increase his income: he used his law firm to extort money, which was then disguised as legal services; he had himself appointed deputy street commissioner – a position with considerable access to city contractors and funding; he bought the New-York Printing Company, which became the city's official printer, and the city's stationery supplier, the Manufacturing Stationers' Company, and had both companies begin to overcharge for their goods and services.",
"He also started to form what became known as the \"Tweed Ring\", by having his friends elected to office: George G. Barnard was elected Recorder of New York City; Peter B. Sweeny was elected New York County District Attorney; and Richard B. Connolly was elected City Comptroller.",
"Thomas Nast depicts Tweed in ''Harper's Weekly'' (October 21, 1871)\n\nWith his new position and wealth came a change in style: Tweed began to favor wearing a large diamond in his shirtfront – a habit that Thomas Nast used to great effect in his attacks on Tweed in ''Harper's Weekly'' beginning in 1869 – and he bought a brownstone to live in at 41 West 36th Street, then a very fashionable area.",
"He invested his now considerable illegal income in real estate, so that by the late 1860s he ranked among the biggest landowners in New York City.",
"Tweed was a member of the New York State Senate (4th D.) from 1868 to 1873, sitting in the 91st, 92nd, 93rd and 94th New York State Legislatures, but not taking his seat in the 95th and 96th New York State Legislatures.",
"In the Senate he helped financiers Jay Gould and Big Jim Fisk to take control of the Erie Railroad from Cornelius Vanderbilt by arranging for legislation that legitimized fake Erie stock certificates that Gould and Fisk had issued.",
"In return, Tweed received a large block of stock and was made a director of the company.",
"After the election of 1869, Tweed took control of the New York City government.",
"His protégé, John T. Hoffman, the former mayor of the city, won election as governor, and Tweed garnered the support of good government reformers like Peter Cooper and the Union League Club, by proposing a new city charter which returned power to City Hall at the expense of the Republican-inspired state commissions.",
"The new charter passed, thanks in part to $600,000 in bribes Tweed paid to Republicans, and was signed into law by Hoffman in 1870.",
"Mandated new elections allowed Tammany to take over the city's Common Council when they won all fifteen aldermanic contests.",
"The new charter put control of the city's finances in the hands of a Board of Audit, which consisted of Tweed, who was Commissioner of Public Works, Mayor A. Oakey Hall and Comptroller Richard \"Slippery Dick\" Connolly, both Tammany men.",
"Hall also appointed other Tweed associates to high offices — such as Peter B. Sweeny, who took over the Department of Public Parks — providing the Tweed Ring with even firmer control of the New York City government and enabling them to defraud the taxpayers of many more millions of dollars.",
"In the words of Albert Bigelow Paine, \"their methods were curiously simple and primitive.",
"There were no skilful manipulations of figures, making detection difficult ... Connolly, as Controller, had charge of the books, and declined to show them.",
"With his fellows, he also 'controlled' the courts and most of the bar.\"",
"Contractors working for the city – \"Ring favorites, most of them – were told to multiply the amount of each bill by five, or ten, or a hundred, after which, with Mayor Hall's 'O.",
"K.' and Connolly's endorsement, it was paid ... through a go-between, who cashed the check, settled the original bill and divided the remainder ... between Tweed, Sweeny, Connolly and Hall\".",
"For example, the construction cost of the New York County Courthouse, begun in 1861, grew to nearly $13 million—about $178 million in today's dollars, and nearly twice the cost of the Alaska Purchase in 1867.",
"\"A carpenter was paid $360,751 (roughly $4.9 million today) for one month's labor in a building with very little woodwork ... a plasterer got $133,187 ($1.82 million) for two days' work\".",
"Nast depicts the Tweed Ring: \"Who stole the people's money?\"",
"/ \"'Twas him.\"",
"Tweed and his friends also garnered huge profits from the development of the Upper East Side, especially Yorkville and Harlem.",
"They would buy up undeveloped property, then use the resources of the city to improve the area—for instance by installing pipes to bring in water from the Croton Aqueduct—thus increasing the value of the land, after which they sold and took their profits.",
"The focus on the east side also slowed down the development of the west side, the topography of which made it more expensive to improve.",
"The ring also took their usual percentage of padded contracts, as well as raking off money from property taxes.",
"Despite the corruption of Tweed and Tammany Hall, they did accomplish the development of upper Manhattan, though at the cost of tripling the city's bond debt to almost $90 million.",
"During the Tweed era, the proposal to build a suspension bridge between New York and Brooklyn, then an independent city, was floated by Brooklyn-boosters, who saw the ferry connections as a bottleneck to Brooklyn's further development.",
"In order to ensure that the Brooklyn Bridge project would go forward, State Senator Henry Cruse Murphy approached Tweed to find out whether New York's aldermen would approve the proposal.",
"Tweed's response was that $60,000 for the aldermen would close the deal, and contractor William C. Kingsley put up the cash, which was delivered in a carpet bag.",
"Tweed and two others from Tammany also received over half the private stock of the Bridge Company, the charter of which specified that only private stockholders had voting rights, so that even though the cities of Brooklyn and Manhattan put up most of the money, they essentially had no control over the project.",
"Tweed bought a mansion on Fifth Avenue and 43rd Street, and stabled his horses, carriages and sleighs on 40th Street.",
"By 1871, he was a member of the board of directors of not only the Erie Railroad and the Brooklyn Bridge Company, but also the Third Avenue Railway Company and the Harlem Gas Light Company.",
"Tweed's downfall came in the wake of the Orange riot of 1871, which came after Tammany Hall banned a parade of Irish Protestants celebrating a historical victory against Catholicism, because of a riot the year before in which eight people died when a crowd of Irish Catholic laborers attacked the paraders.",
"Under strong pressure from the newspapers and the Protestant elite of the city, Tammany reversed course, and the march was allowed to proceed, with protection from city policemen and state militia.",
"The result was an even larger riot in which over 60 people were killed and more than 150 injured.",
"Although Tammany's electoral power base was largely centered in the Irish immigrant population, it also needed the city's elite to acquiesce in its rule, and this was conditional on the machine's ability to control the actions of their people, but the July riot showed that this capability was not nearly as strong as had been supposed.",
"Nast shows Tweed's source of power: control of the ballot box.",
"\"As long as I count the Votes, what are you going to do about it?\"",
"Tweed had for months been under attack from ''The New York Times'' and Thomas Nast, the cartoonist from ''Harper's Weekly'' – regarding Nast's cartoons, Tweed reportedly said, \"Stop them damned pictures.",
"I don't care so much what the papers say about me.",
"My constituents don't know how to read, but they can't help seeing them damned pictures!\"",
"– but their campaign had only limited success in gaining traction.",
"They were able to force an examination of the city's books, but the blue-ribbon commission of six businessmen appointed by Mayor A. Oakey Hall, a Tammany man, which included John Jacob Astor III, banker Moses Taylor and others who benefited from Tammany's actions, found that the books had been \"faithfully kept\", letting the air out of the effort to dethrone Tweed.",
"The response to the Orange riot changed everything, and only days afterwards the ''Times''/Nast campaign began to garner popular support.",
"More important, the ''Times'' started to receive inside information from County Sheriff James O'Brien, whose support for Tweed had fluctuated during Tammany's reign.",
"O'Brien had tried to blackmail Tammany by threatening to expose the ring's embezzlement to the press, and when this failed he provided the evidence he had collected to the ''Times''.",
"Shortly afterward, county auditor Matthew J. O'Rourke supplied additional details to the ''Times'', which was reportedly offered $5 million to not publish the evidence.",
"The ''Times'' also obtained the accounts of the recently deceased James Watson, who was the Tweed Ring's bookkeeper, and these were published daily, culminating in a special four-page supplement on July 29 headlined \"Gigantic Frauds of the Ring Exposed\".",
"In August, Tweed began to transfer ownership in his real-estate empire and other investments to his family members.",
"The exposé provoked an international crisis of confidence in New York City's finances, and, in particular, in its ability to repay its debts.",
"European investors were heavily positioned in the city's bonds and were already nervous about its management – only the reputations of the underwriters were preventing a run on the city's securities.",
"Thus, the city's elite met at Cooper Union in September to discuss political reform: but for the first time, the conversation included not only the usual reformers, but also Democratic bigwigs such as Samuel J. Tilden, who had been thrust aside by Tammany.",
"The consensus was that the \"wisest and best citizens\" should take over the governance of the city and attempt to restore investor confidence.",
"The result was the formation of the Executive Committee of Citizens and Taxpayers for Financial Reform of the City (also known as \"the Committee of Seventy\"), which attacked Tammany by cutting off the city's funding.",
"Property owners refused to pay their municipal taxes, and a judge—Tweed's old friend George Barnard, no less—enjoined the city Comptroller from issuing bonds or spending money.",
"Unpaid workers turned against Tweed, marching to City Hall demanding to be paid.",
"Tweed doled out some funds from his own purse—$50,000—but it was not sufficient to end the crisis, and Tammany began to lose its essential base.",
"Shortly thereafter, the Comptroller resigned, appointing Andrew Haswell Green, an associate of Tilden's, as his replacement.",
"Green loosened the purse strings again, allowing city departments not under Tammany control to borrow money to operate.",
"Green and Tilden had the city's records closely examined, and discovered money that went directly from city contractors into Tweed's pocket.",
"The following day, they had Tweed arrested.",
"\"Stone Walls Do Not a Prison Make\": Editorial cartoon by Thomas Nast predicting Tweed could not be kept behind bars (''Harper's Weekly'', January 6, 1872)\n\nTweed was released on $1 million bail, and Tammany set to work to recover its position through the ballot box.",
"Tweed was re-elected to the state senate in November 1871, due to his personal popularity and largesse in his district, but in general Tammany did not do well, and the members of the Tweed Ring began to flee the jurisdiction, many going overseas.",
"Tweed was re-arrested, forced to resign his city positions, and was replaced as Tammany's leader.",
"Once again, he was released on bail—$8 million this time—but Tweed's supporters, such as Jay Gould, felt the repercussions of his fall from power.",
"Tweed's first trial, in January 1873, ended when the jury was unable to agree on a verdict.",
"His retrial in November resulted in convictions on 204 of 220 counts, a fine of $12,750 (the equivalent of $ today) and a prison sentence of 12 years; a higher court, however, reduced Tweed's sentence to one year.",
"After his release from prison, New York State filed a civil suit against Tweed, attempting to recover $6 million in embezzled funds.",
"Unable to put up the $3 million bail, Tweed was locked up in the Ludlow Street Jail, although he was allowed home visits.",
"On one of these, Tweed escaped and fled to Spain, where he worked as a common seaman on a Spanish ship.",
"The U.S. government discovered his whereabouts and arranged for his arrest once he reached the Spanish border; he was recognized from Nast's political cartoons.",
"He was turned over to an American warship, the USS ''Franklin'', which delivered him to authorities in New York City on November 23, 1876, and he was returned to prison.",
"Desperate and broken, Tweed now agreed to testify about the inner workings of his corrupt Ring to a special committee set up by the Board of Aldermen, in return for his release, but after he did so, Tilden, now governor of New York, refused to abide by the agreement, and Tweed remained incarcerated.",
"He died in the Ludlow Street Jail on April 12, 1878, from severe pneumonia, and was buried in the Brooklyn Green-Wood Cemetery.",
"Mayor Smith Ely would not allow the flag at City Hall to be flown at half staff.",
"According to Tweed biographer Kenneth D. Ackerman:It's hard not to admire the skill behind Tweed's system ...",
"The Tweed ring at its height was an engineering marvel, strong and solid, strategically deployed to control key power points: the courts, the legislature, the treasury and the ballot box.",
"Its frauds had a grandeur of scale and an elegance of structure: money-laundering, profit sharing and organization.",
"In depictions of Tweed and the Tammany Hall organization, historians have emphasized the thievery and conspiratorial nature of Boss Tweed, along with lining his own pockets and those of his friends and allies.",
"The theme is that the sins of corruption so violated American standards of political rectitude that they far overshadow Tweed's positive contributions to New York City.",
"Although he held numerous important public offices and was one of a handful of senior leaders of Tammany Hall, as well as the state legislature and the state Democratic Party, Tweed was never the sole \"boss\" of New York City.",
"He shared control of the city with numerous less famous people, such as the villains depicted in the Nast's famous circle of guilt cartoon shown above.",
"Seymour J. Mandelbaum has argued that, apart from the corruption he engaged in, Tweed was a modernizer who prefigured certain elements of the Progressive Era in terms of more efficient city management.",
"Much of the money he siphoned off from the city treasury went to needy constituents who appreciated the free food at Christmas time and remembered it at the next election, and to precinct workers who provided the muscle of his machine.",
"As a legislator he worked to expand and strengthen welfare programs, especially those by private charities, schools, and hospitals.",
"With a base in the Irish Catholic community, he opposed efforts of Protestants to require the reading of the King James Bible in public schools, which was done deliberately to keep out Catholics.",
"He facilitated the founding of the New York Public Library, even though one of its founders, Samuel Tilden, was Tweed's sworn enemy in the Democratic Party.",
"Tweed recognized that the support of his constituency was necessary for him to remain in power, and as a consequence he used the machinery of the city's government to provide numerous social services, including building more orphanages, almshouses and public baths.",
"Tweed also fought for the New York State Legislature to donate to private charities of all religious denominations, and subsidize Catholic schools and hospitals.",
"From 1869 to 1871, under Tweed's influence, the state of New York spent more on charities than for the entire time period from 1852 to 1868 combined.",
"Tweed also pushed through funding for a teachers college and prohibition of corporal punishment in schools, as well as salary increases for school teachers.",
"During Tweed's regime, the main business thoroughfare Broadway was widened between 34th Street and 59th Street, land was secured for the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the Upper East Side and Upper West Side were developed and provided the necessary infrastructure – all to the benefit of the purses of the Tweed Ring, but also, ultimately, to the benefit of the people of the city.",
"According to Leo Hershkowitz in ''Tweed's New York: Another Look'', there is no evidence of any personal financial gain on Tweed's part, despite the implications of Thomas Nast in ''Harper's Weekly'' and the editors of ''The New York Times'', which both had ties to the Republican party.",
"In part, the campaign against Tweed diverted public attention from Republican scandals such as the Whiskey Ring.",
"Tweed himself wanted no particular recognition of his achievements, such as they were.",
"When it was proposed, in March 1871, when he was at the height of his power, that a statue be erected in his honor, he declared: \"Statues are not erected to living men ...",
"I claim to be a live man, and hope (Divine Providence permitting) to survive in all my vigor, politically and physically, some years to come.\"",
"One of Tweed's unwanted legacies is that he has become \"the archetype of the bloated, rapacious, corrupt city boss\".",
"An 1869 cigar box label featuring Tweed",
"Tweed never signed his name with anything other than a plain \"M.\", and his middle name is often mistakenly listed as \"Marcy\".",
"His actual middle name was \"Magear\", his mother's maiden name; Tweed's son's name was William Magear Tweed, Jr.",
"The confusion derives from a Nast cartoon with a picture of Tweed, supplemented with a quote from William L. Marcy, the former governor of New York.",
"\nIn 1945 Boss Tweed was portrayed by Noah Beery, Sr. in the Broadway production of ''Up In Central Park'', a musical comedy with music by Sigmund Romberg.",
"The role was played by Malcolm Lee Beggs for a revival in 1947.",
"In the 1948 film version, Tweed is played by Vincent Price.",
"On the 1963–1964 CBS TV series ''The Great Adventure'', which presented one-hour dramatizations of the lives of historical figures, Edward Andrews portrayed Tweed in the episode \"The Man Who Stole New York City\", about the campaign by ''The New York Times'' to bring down Tweed.",
"The episode aired on December 13, 1963.",
"In John Varley's 1977 science-fiction novel, ''The Ophiuchi Hotline'', a crooked politician in a 27th-century human settlement on the Moon assumes the name \"Boss Tweed\" in emulation of the 19th-century politician, and names his lunar headquarters \"Tammany Hall\".",
"Tweed was played by Philip Bosco in the 1986 TV movie ''Liberty''.",
"According to a review of the film in ''The New York Times'', it was Tweed who made the suggestion to call the Statue of Liberty by that name, instead of its formal name ''Liberty Enlightening the World'', in order to read better in newspaper headlines.",
"Andrew O'Hehir of ''The New York Times'' notes that ''Forever'', a 2003 novel by Pete Hamill, and ''Gangs of New York'', a 2002 film, both \"offer a significant supporting role to the legendary Manhattan political godfather Boss Tweed\", among other thematic similarities.",
"In a review of the latter work, Chuck Rudolph praised Jim Broadbent's portrayal of Tweed as \"giving the role a masterfully heartless composure\".",
"Tweed appears as an antagonist in the novel, ''Assassin's Creed Last Descendants'' where he is the Grand Master of the American Templars during the American Civil War.",
"* Elbert A. Woodward\n* William J. Sharkey (murderer)",
"'''Notes'''\n\n\n'''Bibliography'''\n* Ackerman, K. D. (2005).",
"''Boss Tweed: The rise and fall of the corrupt pol who conceived the soul of modern New York''.",
"New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers.",
".",
"* \n* The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.",
"High Beam Encyclopedia.",
"22, November 2008, \n* Ellis, Edward R. (2004).",
"''The Epic of New York City: A Narrative History''.",
"Carroll & Graf Publishers.",
",\n* \"Boss Tweed\", ''Gotham Gazette'', New York, 4 July 2005.",
"* Mandelbaum, Seymour J.",
"''Boss Tweed's New York'', 1965.",
"*Paine, Albert B.",
"(1974).",
"''Th.",
"Nast, His Period and His Pictures''.",
"Princeton: Pyne Press.",
"(The original edition, published in 1904, is now in the public domain.)",
"* Sante, Luc.",
"''Low Life: Lures and Snares of Old New York''.",
"Farrar, Straus, & Giroux, 2003.",
"'''Further reading'''\n* Hershkowitz, Leo.",
"''Tweed's New York: Another Look'' (1977), a favorable biography that minimizes the negative.",
"* Lynch, Denis T. ''Boss Tweed'' The story of a grim generation.",
"Blue Ribbon Books NY first print 1927 copyright Boni & Liveright Inc.",
"\n\n\n*\n* Green-Wood Cemetery page for WM Tweed \n* Map Showing the Portions of the City of New York and Westchester County under the Jurisdiction of the Department of Public Parks talks about Tweed's takeover of the New York City parks system, from the World Digital Library\n*"
] | finance |
[
"Bunge & Born's Buenos Aires headquarters (''left'').\n\n'''Bunge y Born''' was a multinational corporation based in Buenos Aires, Argentina, whose diverse interests included food processing and international trade in grains and oilseeds. It is now known as Bunge Limited.\n",
"Bunge & Born was founded in 1884 by Ernesto Bunge, a German Argentine whose uncle, Carl Bunge, had been Consul General in Argentina for both the Netherlands and Prussia, and his brother-in-law, Jorge Born, who had recently arrived from Antwerp. The company superseded the Bunge Company founded in Amsterdam by Johann Bunge, in 1818. Following the purchase of of prime pampas wheat fields, Bunge & Born established ''Centenera'', their first food processing plant, in 1899. They had one of the largest wheat mills in the country built on a Puerto Madero lot in 1902, and with it, established ''Molinos Río de la Plata'' (later a leader in the local retail foods market).\n\nThe company started Argentina's first burlap bag manufacturer, following which they successfully lobbied government policy makers for protective tariffs on the then-critical commercial staple. They established a mortgage bank, the ''Banco Hipotecario Franco Argentino'', and a subsidiary in Brazil in 1905, and by 1910, they reportedly controlled 80% of Argentine cereal exports (Argentina was, by then, the world's third-largest grain exporter). They later established paint manufacturer ''Alba'' (1925), chemical and fertilizer maker ''Compañía Química'', and textile maker ''Grafa'' (1932), among others; by the late 1920s, the company's annual export receipts alone reached US$300 million. The company inaugurated its neo-gothic Buenos Aires headquarters on Leandro Alem Avenue, designed by local architect Pablo Naeff, in 1926.\n\nBunge & Born's near-monopoly on cereal and flour exports ended with populist President Juan Perón's 1946 establishment of the IAPI, a state agricultural purchasing and export agent. The company responded by extending its reach into the country fast-growing retail processed foods market, and though its prominence as the nation's chief exporter was partly restored by Perón's 1955 ousting and the IAPI's liquidation, its focus remained domestic over the next three decades. A privately held company, Bunge & Born did not release periodical financial statements, though it did report US$2bn in gross receipts in 1962; by then it had become a leader in commodity futures trading, operating 110 offices worldwide.\n\nThe Bunge, Born, Hirsch, Engels and De La Tour families remained the company's chief stock-holders, and by extension, leaders in the domestic textile, paint, chemical, fertilizer, and food processing industries. On September 19, 1974, however, the consortium was shaken by the kidnapping of siblings Jorge and Juan Born by the far-left terrorist group, Montoneros. The Born brothers were kept in a known Argentine State Intelligence safehouse for nine months until their June 1975 release, something made possible without public suspicion of outside involvement by the agency's numerous contacts inside the Montoneros (including the leader, Mario Firmenich). Freed for a US$60 million ransom (the largest on record at that time), the ordeal triggered the company headquarters' relocation to São Paulo, Brazil, and contributed to the March 1976 coup.\n\nRetaining their Argentine interests (44 companies, by the 1980s), the families continued to suffer from ongoing disputes, and in 1987, CEO Mario Hirsch died suddenly. The election of Carlos Menem to the Argentine Presidency in May 1989, however, resulted in an agreement between the President-elect and Jorge Born that gave the company partial control over national economic policy. Bunge & Born provided the Menem government with its first two economy ministers, and the combination of large rate increases on public services (around 500%), a simplified exchange rate and a massive, mandatory wage hike led to a sharp economic turnaround between July and November 1989. This foray into government policy making, however, ended in a new currency crisis that December and the failure (compounded by the company's lackluster business performance) resulted in Born's 1991 ouster from the board; he was replaced by Chief Operations Officer Octavio Caraballo.\n\nBeset by the rift between Jorge Born and his brother, Juan, the prior unity between the shareholders disintegrated as Caraballo struggled to modernize the company. Family frictions intensified when Jorge Born formed a business partnership with one of his former kidnappers, erstwhile Montonero strategist Rodolfo Galimberti.\n",
"The company was converted into the Bermuda-registered Bunge International in 1994, retaining the Bunge y Born name only in Argentina. Bunge remained a privately held company of 180 shareholders (including the longtime controlling family interests) and divested itself in 1998 of almost all its retail foods interests in favor of a greater role in international agribusiness and commodity markets; by then the company's gross annual turnover had reached US$13 billion. Bunge ultimately went public on the NYSE in 2001, becoming ''Bunge Limited''.\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Bunge International",
"References"
] | Bunge & Born | [
"They established a mortgage bank, the ''Banco Hipotecario Franco Argentino'', and a subsidiary in Brazil in 1905, and by 1910, they reportedly controlled 80% of Argentine cereal exports (Argentina was, by then, the world's third-largest grain exporter)."
] | [
"Bunge & Born's Buenos Aires headquarters (''left'').",
"'''Bunge y Born''' was a multinational corporation based in Buenos Aires, Argentina, whose diverse interests included food processing and international trade in grains and oilseeds.",
"It is now known as Bunge Limited.",
"Bunge & Born was founded in 1884 by Ernesto Bunge, a German Argentine whose uncle, Carl Bunge, had been Consul General in Argentina for both the Netherlands and Prussia, and his brother-in-law, Jorge Born, who had recently arrived from Antwerp.",
"The company superseded the Bunge Company founded in Amsterdam by Johann Bunge, in 1818.",
"Following the purchase of of prime pampas wheat fields, Bunge & Born established ''Centenera'', their first food processing plant, in 1899.",
"They had one of the largest wheat mills in the country built on a Puerto Madero lot in 1902, and with it, established ''Molinos Río de la Plata'' (later a leader in the local retail foods market).",
"The company started Argentina's first burlap bag manufacturer, following which they successfully lobbied government policy makers for protective tariffs on the then-critical commercial staple.",
"They later established paint manufacturer ''Alba'' (1925), chemical and fertilizer maker ''Compañía Química'', and textile maker ''Grafa'' (1932), among others; by the late 1920s, the company's annual export receipts alone reached US$300 million.",
"The company inaugurated its neo-gothic Buenos Aires headquarters on Leandro Alem Avenue, designed by local architect Pablo Naeff, in 1926.",
"Bunge & Born's near-monopoly on cereal and flour exports ended with populist President Juan Perón's 1946 establishment of the IAPI, a state agricultural purchasing and export agent.",
"The company responded by extending its reach into the country fast-growing retail processed foods market, and though its prominence as the nation's chief exporter was partly restored by Perón's 1955 ousting and the IAPI's liquidation, its focus remained domestic over the next three decades.",
"A privately held company, Bunge & Born did not release periodical financial statements, though it did report US$2bn in gross receipts in 1962; by then it had become a leader in commodity futures trading, operating 110 offices worldwide.",
"The Bunge, Born, Hirsch, Engels and De La Tour families remained the company's chief stock-holders, and by extension, leaders in the domestic textile, paint, chemical, fertilizer, and food processing industries.",
"On September 19, 1974, however, the consortium was shaken by the kidnapping of siblings Jorge and Juan Born by the far-left terrorist group, Montoneros.",
"The Born brothers were kept in a known Argentine State Intelligence safehouse for nine months until their June 1975 release, something made possible without public suspicion of outside involvement by the agency's numerous contacts inside the Montoneros (including the leader, Mario Firmenich).",
"Freed for a US$60 million ransom (the largest on record at that time), the ordeal triggered the company headquarters' relocation to São Paulo, Brazil, and contributed to the March 1976 coup.",
"Retaining their Argentine interests (44 companies, by the 1980s), the families continued to suffer from ongoing disputes, and in 1987, CEO Mario Hirsch died suddenly.",
"The election of Carlos Menem to the Argentine Presidency in May 1989, however, resulted in an agreement between the President-elect and Jorge Born that gave the company partial control over national economic policy.",
"Bunge & Born provided the Menem government with its first two economy ministers, and the combination of large rate increases on public services (around 500%), a simplified exchange rate and a massive, mandatory wage hike led to a sharp economic turnaround between July and November 1989.",
"This foray into government policy making, however, ended in a new currency crisis that December and the failure (compounded by the company's lackluster business performance) resulted in Born's 1991 ouster from the board; he was replaced by Chief Operations Officer Octavio Caraballo.",
"Beset by the rift between Jorge Born and his brother, Juan, the prior unity between the shareholders disintegrated as Caraballo struggled to modernize the company.",
"Family frictions intensified when Jorge Born formed a business partnership with one of his former kidnappers, erstwhile Montonero strategist Rodolfo Galimberti.",
"The company was converted into the Bermuda-registered Bunge International in 1994, retaining the Bunge y Born name only in Argentina.",
"Bunge remained a privately held company of 180 shareholders (including the longtime controlling family interests) and divested itself in 1998 of almost all its retail foods interests in favor of a greater role in international agribusiness and commodity markets; by then the company's gross annual turnover had reached US$13 billion.",
"Bunge ultimately went public on the NYSE in 2001, becoming ''Bunge Limited''."
] | finance |
[
"\n\nNotice of closure attached to the door of a Computer Shop outlet the day after its parent company declared \"bankruptcy\" (strictly, put into administration) in the United Kingdom\n\n'''Bankruptcy''' is a legal status of a person or other entity that cannot repay debts to creditors. In most jurisdictions, bankruptcy is imposed by a court order, often initiated by the debtor.\n\nBankruptcy is not the only legal status that an insolvent person may have, and the term ''bankruptcy'' is therefore not a synonym for insolvency. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, bankruptcy is limited to individuals, and other forms of insolvency proceedings (such as liquidation and administration) are applied to companies. In the United States, ''bankruptcy'' is applied more broadly to formal insolvency proceedings. In France, the cognate French word ''banqueroute'' is used solely for cases of fraudulent bankruptcy, whereas the term ''faillite'' (cognate of \"failure\") is used for bankruptcy in accordance with the law.\n",
"The word ''bankruptcy'' is derived from Italian ''banca rotta'', meaning \"broken bank\", which may stem from a widespread custom in the Republic of Genoa of breaking a moneychanger's bench or counter to signify his insolvency, or which may be only a figure of speech.\n",
"\nJohn Law's Mississippi Company led to French national bankruptcy in 1720.\n\nIn Ancient Greece, bankruptcy did not exist. If a man owed and he could not pay, he and his wife, children or servants were forced into \"debt slavery\", until the creditor recouped losses through their physical labour. Many city-states in ancient Greece limited debt slavery to a period of five years; debt slaves had protection of life and limb, which regular slaves did not enjoy. However, servants of the debtor could be retained beyond that deadline by the creditor and were often forced to serve their new lord for a lifetime, usually under significantly harsher conditions. An exception to this rule was Athens, which by the laws of Solon forbade enslavement for debt; as a consequence, most Athenian slaves were foreigners (Greek or otherwise).\n\nThe Statute of Bankrupts of 1542 was the first statute under English law dealing with bankruptcy or insolvency. Bankruptcy is also documented in East Asia. According to al-Maqrizi, the Yassa of Genghis Khan contained a provision that mandated the death penalty for anyone who became bankrupt three times.\n\nA failure of a nation to meet bond repayments has been seen on many occasions. Philip II of Spain had to declare four state bankruptcies in 1557, 1560, 1575 and 1596. According to Kenneth S. Rogoff, \"Although the development of international capital markets was quite limited prior to 1800, we nevertheless catalog the various defaults of France, Portugal, Prussia, Spain, and the early Italian city-states. At the edge of Europe, Egypt, Russia, and Turkey have histories of chronic default as well.\"\n",
"The principal focus of modern insolvency legislation and business debt restructuring practices no longer rests on the elimination of insolvent entities, but on the remodeling of the financial and organizational structure of debtors experiencing financial distress so as to permit the rehabilitation and continuation of the business.\n\nFor private households, some argue that it is insufficient to merely dismiss debts after a certain period . It is important to assess the underlying problems and to minimize the risk of financial distress to re-occur. It has been stressed that debt advice, a supervised rehabilitation period, financial education and social help to find sources of income and to improve the management of household expenditures must be equally provided during this period of rehabilitation (Refiner ''et al.'', 2003; Gerhardt, 2009; Frade, 2010). In most EU Member States, debt discharge is conditioned by a partial payment obligation and by a number of requirements concerning the debtor's behavior. In the United States (US), discharge is conditioned to a lesser extent. The spectrum is broad in the EU, with the UK coming closest to the US system (Reifner et al., 2003; Gerhardt, 2009; Frade, 2010). The Other Member States do not provide the option of a debt discharge. Spain, for example, passed a bankruptcy law (''ley concurs'') in 2003 which provides for debt settlement plans that can result in a reduction of the debt (maximally half of the amount) or an extension of the payment period of maximally five years (Gerhardt, 2009), but it does not foresee debt discharge.\n\nIn the US, it is almost impossible to discharge student loan debt by filing bankruptcy. Unlike most other debtors, the individual with student debt must give a series of reasons and tests (with steps) to prove that the debtor could not pay the debt. If the person were to file bankruptcy, he or she is normally encouraged to do so under Chapter 13.\n\nA person in financial straits can sometimes avoid bankruptcy by negotiating with the lender for lower monthly payments, or could seek debt consolidation. For student loan, bankruptcy is a last resort—but some borrowers are forced to file bankruptcy if the lender refuses to lower payments or modify interest rates.\n",
"Bankruptcy fraud is a white-collar crime. While difficult to generalize across jurisdictions, common criminal acts under bankruptcy statutes typically involve concealment of assets, concealment or destruction of documents, conflicts of interest, fraudulent claims, false statements or declarations, and fee fixing or redistribution arrangements. Falsifications on bankruptcy forms often constitute perjury. Multiple filings are not in and of themselves criminal, but they may violate provisions of bankruptcy law. In the U.S., bankruptcy fraud statutes are particularly focused on the mental state of particular actions. Bankruptcy fraud is a federal crime in the United States.\n\nBankruptcy fraud should be distinguished from ''strategic bankruptcy'', which is not a criminal act since it creates a real (not a fake) bankruptcy state. However, it may still work against the filer.\n\nAll assets must be disclosed in bankruptcy schedules whether or not the debtor believes the asset has a net value. This is because once a bankruptcy petition is filed, it is for the creditors, not the debtor, to decide whether a particular asset has value. The future ramifications of omitting assets from schedules can be quite serious for the offending debtor. In the United States, a closed bankruptcy may be reopened by motion of a creditor or the U.S. trustee if a debtor attempts to later assert ownership of such an \"unscheduled asset\" after being discharged of all debt in the bankruptcy. The trustee may then seize the asset and liquidate it for the benefit of the (formerly discharged) creditors. Whether or not a concealment of such an asset should also be considered for prosecution as fraud or perjury would then be at the discretion of the judge or U.S. Trustee.\n",
"\n===Argentina===\nIn Argentina the national Act \"24.522 de Concursos y Quiebras\" regulates the Bankruptcy and the Reorganization of the individuals and companies, public entities are not included.\n\n===Australia===\n\n\nIn Australia, bankruptcy is a status which applies to individuals and is governed by the federal ''Bankruptcy Act 1966''. Companies do not go bankrupt but rather go into liquidation or administration, which is governed by the federal ''Corporations Act 2001''.\n\nIf a person commits an act of bankruptcy, then a creditor can apply to the Federal Circuit Court or the Federal Court for a sequestration order. Acts of bankruptcy are defined in the legislation, and include the failure to comply with a bankruptcy notice. A bankruptcy notice can be issued where, among other cases, a person fails to pay a judgment debt. A person can also seek to have himself or herself declared bankrupt by lodging a debtor's petition with the \"Official Receiver\", which is the Australian Financial Security Authority (AFSA).\n\nTo declare bankruptcy or for a creditor to lodge a petition, the debt must be at least $5,000.\n\nAll bankrupts must lodge a Statement of Affairs document with AFSA, which includes important information about their assets and liabilities. A bankruptcy cannot be annulled until this document has been lodged.\n\nOrdinarily, a bankruptcy lasts three years from the filing of the Statement of Affairs with AFSA.\n\nA Bankruptcy Trustee (in most cases, the Official Receiver) is appointed to deal with all matters regarding the administration of the bankrupt estate. The Trustee's job includes notifying creditors of the estate and dealing with creditor inquiries; ensuring that the bankrupt complies with his or her obligations under the Bankruptcy Act; investigating the bankrupt's financial affairs; realising funds to which the estate is entitled under the Bankruptcy Act and distributing dividends to creditors if sufficient funds become available.\n\nFor the duration of their bankruptcy, all bankrupts have certain restrictions placed upon them. For example, a bankrupt must obtain the permission of his or her trustee to travel overseas. Failure to do so may result in the bankrupt being stopped at the airport by the Australian Federal Police. Additionally, a bankrupt is required to provide his or her trustee with details of income and assets. If the bankrupt does not comply with the Trustee's request to provide details of income, the trustee may have grounds to lodge an Objection to Discharge, which has the effect of extending the bankruptcy for a further five years.\n\nThe realisation of funds usually comes from two main sources: the bankrupt's assets and the bankrupt's wages. There are certain assets that are protected, referred to as ''protected assets''. These include household furniture and appliances, tools of the trade and vehicles up to a certain value. All other assets of value are sold. If a house or car is above a certain value, the bankrupt can buy the interest back from the estate in order to keep the asset. If the bankrupt does not do this, the interest vests in the estate and the trustee is able to take possession of the asset and sell it.\n\nThe bankrupt must pay income contributions if their income is above a certain threshold. If the bankrupt fails to pay, the trustee can issue a notice to garnishee the bankrupt's wages. If that is not possible, the Trustee may seek to extend the bankruptcy for a further five years.\n\nBankruptcies can be annulled prior to the expiration of the normal three-year period if all debts are paid out in full. Sometimes a bankrupt may be able to raise enough funds to make an Offer of Composition to creditors, which would have the effect of paying the creditors some of the money they are owed. If the creditors accept the offer, the bankruptcy can be annulled after the funds are received.\n\nAfter the bankruptcy is annulled or the bankrupt has been automatically discharged, the bankrupt's credit report status is shown as \"discharged bankrupt\" for some years. The maximum number of years this information can be held is subject to the retention limits under the Privacy Act. How long such information is on a credit report may be shorter, depending on the issuing company, but the report must cease to record that information based on the criteria in the Privacy Act.\n\n===Brazil===\nIn Brazil, the Bankruptcy Law (11.101/05) governs court-ordered or out-of-court receivership and bankruptcy and only applies to public companies (publicly traded companies) with the exception of financial institutions, credit cooperatives, consortia, supplementary scheme entities, companies administering health care plans, equity companies and a few other legal entities. It does not apply to state-run companies.\n\nCurrent law covers three legal proceedings. The first one is bankruptcy itself (\"Falência\"). Bankruptcy is a court-ordered liquidation procedure for an insolvent business. The final goal of bankruptcy is to liquidate company assets and pay its creditors.\n\nThe second one is Court-ordered Restructuring (''Recuperação Judicial''). The goal is to overcome the business crisis situation of the debtor in order to allow the continuation of the producer, the employment of workers and the interests of creditors, leading, thus, to preserving company, its corporate function and develop economic activity. It's a court procedure required by the debtor which has been in business for more than two years and requires approval by a judge.\n\nThe Extrajudicial Restructuring (''Recuperação Extrajudicial'') is a private negotiation that involves creditors and debtors and, as with court-ordered restructuring, also must be approved by courts.\n\n===Canada===\n\nBankruptcy, also referred to as insolvency in Canada, is governed by the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act and is applicable to businesses and individuals, for example, Target Canada, the Canadian subsidiary of the Target Corporation, the second-largest discount retailer in the United States filed for bankruptcy in January 15, 2015, and closed all of its stores by April 12. The office of the Superintendent of Bankruptcy, a federal agency, is responsible for overseeing that bankruptcies are administered in a fair and orderly manner by all licensed Trustees in Canada.\n\nTrustees in bankruptcy, 1041 individuals licensed to administer insolvencies, bankruptcy and proposal estates and are governed by the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act of Canada.\n\nBankruptcy is filed when a person or a company becomes insolvent and cannot pay their debts as they become due and if they have at least $1,000 in debt.\n\nIn 2011, the Superintendent of bankruptcy reported that trustees in Canada filed 127,774 insolvent estates. Consumer estates were the vast majority, with 122 999 estates. The consumer portion of the 2011 volume is divided into 77,993 bankruptcies and 45,006 consumer proposals. This represented a reduction of 8.9% from 2010. Commercial estates filed by Canadian trustees in 2011 4,775 estates, 3,643 bankruptcies and 1,132 Division 1 proposals. This represents a reduction of 8.6% over 2010.\n\n;Duties of trustees:\nSome of the duties of the trustee in bankruptcy are to:\n* Review the file for any fraudulent preferences or reviewable transactions\n* Chair meetings of creditors\n* Sell any non-exempt assets\n* Object to the bankrupt's discharge\n* Distribute funds to creditors\n\n;Creditors' meetings:\nCreditors become involved by attending creditors' meetings. The trustee calls the first meeting of creditors for the following purposes:\n* To consider the affairs of the bankrupt\n* To affirm the appointment of the trustee or substitute another in place thereof\n* To appoint inspectors\n* To give such directions to the trustee as the creditors may see fit with reference to the administration of the estate.\n\n;Consumer proposals:\n\nIn Canada, a person can file a consumer proposal as an alternative to bankruptcy. A consumer proposal is a negotiated settlement between a debtor and their creditors.\n\nA typical proposal would involve a debtor making monthly payments for a maximum of five years, with the funds distributed to their creditors. Even though most proposals call for payments of less than the full amount of the debt owing, in most cases, the creditors accept the deal—because if they do not, the next alternative may be personal bankruptcy, in which the creditors get even less money. The creditors have 45 days to accept or reject the consumer proposal. Once the proposal is accepted by both the creditors and the Court, the debtor makes the payments to the Proposal Administrator each month (or as otherwise stipulated in their proposal), and the general creditors are prevented from taking any further legal or collection action. If the proposal is rejected, the debtor is returned to his prior insolvent state and may have no alternative but to declare personal bankruptcy.\n\nA consumer proposal can only be made by a debtor with debts to a maximum of $250,000 (not including the mortgage on their principal residence). If debts are greater than $250,000, the proposal must be filed under Division 1 of Part III of the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act. An Administrator is required in the Consumer Proposal, and a Trustee in the Division I Proposal (these are virtually the same although the terms are not interchangeable). A Proposal Administrator is almost always a licensed trustee in bankruptcy, although the Superintendent of Bankruptcy may appoint other people to serve as administrators.\n\nIn 2006, there were 98,450 personal insolvency filings in Canada: 79,218 bankruptcies and 19,232 consumer proposals.\n\n===China===\n\nThe People's Republic of China legalized bankruptcy in 1986, and a revised law that was more expansive and complete was enacted in 2007.\n\n===Ireland===\nBankruptcy in Ireland applies only to natural persons. Other insolvency processes including liquidation and examinership are used to deal with corporate insolvency.\n\nIrish bankruptcy law has been the subject of significant comment, from both government sources and the media, as being in need of reform. Part 7 of the Civil Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 2011 has started this process and the government has committed to further reform.\n\n===India===\n\n\nThe Parliament of India in the first week of May 2016 passed Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code 2016 (New Code). Earlier a clear law on corporate bankruptcy did not exist, even though individual bankruptcy laws have been in existence since 1874. The earlier law in force was enacted in 1920 called the Provincial Insolvency Act.\n\nThe legal definitions of the terms bankruptcy, insolvency, liquidation and dissolution are contested in the Indian legal system. There is no regulation or statute legislated upon bankruptcy which denotes a condition of inability to meet a demand of a creditor as is common in many other jurisdictions.\n\nWinding up of companies was in the jurisdiction of the courts which can take a decade even after the company has actually been declared insolvent. On the other hand, supervisory restructuring at the behest of the Board of Industrial and Financial Reconstruction is generally undertaken using receivership by a public entity.\n\n===The Netherlands===\nDutch bankruptcy law is governed by the Dutch Bankruptcy Code (''Faillissementswet''). The code covers three separate legal proceedings. \n* The first is the bankruptcy (''Faillissement''). The goal of the bankruptcy is the liquidation of the assets of the company. The bankruptcy applies to individuals and companies. \n* The second legal proceeding in the ''Faillissementswet'' is the ''Surseance van betaling''. The ''Surseance van betaling'' only applies to companies. Its goal is to reach an agreement with the creditors of the company. Its is comparable to filing for protection against creditors. \n* The third proceeding is the ''Schuldsanering''. This proceeding is designed for individuals only and is the result of a court ruling. The judge appoints a monitor. The monitor is an independent third party who monitors the individual's ongoing business and decides about financial matters during the period of the \"Schuldsanering\". The individual can travel out of the country freely after the judge's decision on the case.\n\n=== Russia ===\n\nFederal Law No. 127-FZ \"On Insolvency (Bankruptcy)\" dated 26 October 2002 (as amended) (the \"Bankruptcy Act\"), replacing the previous law in 1998, to better address the above problems and a broader failure of the action.\nRussian insolvency law is intended for a wide range of borrowers: individuals and companies of all sizes, with the exception of state-owned enterprises, government agencies, political parties and religious organizations. There are also special rules for insurance companies, professional participants of the securities market, agricultural organizations and other special laws for financial institutions and companies in the natural monopolies in the energy industry.\nFederal Law No. 40-FZ \"On Insolvency (Bankruptcy)\" dated 25 February 1999 (as amended) (the \"Insolvency Law of Credit Institutions\") contains special provisions in relation to the opening of insolvency proceedings in relation to the credit company. Insolvency Provisions Act, credit organizations used in conjunction with the provisions of the Bankruptcy Act.\n\nBankruptcy law provides for the following stages of insolvency proceedings:\n• Monitoring procedure (nablyudeniye);\n• The economic recovery (finansovoe ozdorovleniye);\n• External control (vneshneye upravleniye);\n• Liquidation (konkursnoye proizvodstvo) and\n• Amicable Agreement (mirovoye soglasheniye).\n\nThe main face of the bankruptcy process is the insolvency officer (trustee in bankruptcy, bankruptcy manager). At various stages of bankruptcy, he must be determined: the temporary officer in Monitoring procedure, external manager in External control, the receiver or administrative officer in The economic recovery, the liquidator. During the bankruptcy trustee in bankruptcy (insolvency officer) has a decisive influence on the movement of assets (property) of the debtor - the debtor and has a key influence on the economic and legal aspects of its operations.\n\n===South Africa===\n\n\n===Switzerland===\nBankruptcy according to Salvation Army, Switzerland.\n\nUnder Swiss law, bankruptcy can be a consequence of insolvency. It is a court-ordered form of debt enforcement proceedings that applies, in general, to registered commercial entities only. In a bankruptcy, all assets of the debtor are liquidated under the administration of the creditors, although the law provides for debt restructuring options similar to those under Chapter 11 of the U.S. Bankruptcy code.\n\n===Sweden===\nIn Sweden, bankruptcy (Swedish: konkurs) is a formal process that may involve a company or individual. It is not the same as insolvency, which is inability to pay debts that should have been paid. A creditor or the company itself can apply for bankruptcy. An external bankruptcy manager takes over the company or the assets of the person, and tries to sell as much as possible. A person or a company in bankruptcy can not access its assets (with some exceptions).\n\nThe formal bankruptcy process is rarely carried out for individuals. Creditors can claim money through the Enforcement Administration anyway, and creditors do not usually benefit from the bankruptcy of individuals because there are costs of a bankruptcy manager which has priority. Unpaid debts remain after bankruptcy for individuals. People who are deeply in debt can obtain a debt arrangement procedure (Swedish: skuldsanering). On application, they obtain a payment plan under which they pay as much as they can for five years, and then all remaining debts are cancelled. Debts that derive from a ban on business operations (issued by court, commonly for tax fraud or fraudulent business practices) or owed to a crime victim as compensation for damages, are exempted from this—and, as before this process was introduced in 2006, remain lifelong. Debts that have not been claimed during a 3-10 year period are cancelled. Often crime victims stop their claims after a few years since criminals often do not have job incomes and might be hard to locate, while banks make sure their claims are not cancelled. The most common reasons for personal insolvency in Sweden are illness, unemployment, divorce or company bankruptcy.\n\nFor companies, formal bankruptcy is a normal effect of insolvency, even if there is a reconstruction mechanism where the company can be given time to solve its situation, e.g. by finding an investor. The formal bankruptcy involves contracting a bankruptcy manager, who makes certain that assets are sold and money divided by the priority the law claims, and no other way. Banks have such a priority. After a finished bankruptcy for a company, it is terminated. The activities might continue in a new company which has bought important assets from the bankrupted company.\n\n===United Kingdom===\n\nBankruptcy in the United Kingdom (in a strict legal sense) relates only to individuals (including sole proprietors) and partnerships. Companies and other corporations enter into differently named legal insolvency procedures: liquidation and administration (administration order and administrative receivership). However, the term 'bankruptcy' is often used when referring to companies in the media and in general conversation. Bankruptcy in Scotland is referred to as sequestration. To apply for bankruptcy in Scotland, an individual must have more than £1,500 of debt.\n\nA trustee in bankruptcy must be either an Official Receiver (a civil servant) or a licensed insolvency practitioner. Current law in England and Wales derives in large part from the Insolvency Act 1986. Following the introduction of the Enterprise Act 2002, a UK bankruptcy now normally last no longer than 12 months, and may be less if the Official Receiver files in court a certificate that investigations are complete. It was expected that the UK Government's liberalisation of the UK bankruptcy regime would increase the number of bankruptcy cases; initially, cases increased, as the Insolvency Service statistics appear to bear out. Since 2009, the introduction of the Debt Relief Order has resulted in a dramatic fall in bankruptcies, the latest estimates for year 2014/15 being significantly less than 30,000 cases.\n \n\n+ UK Bankruptcy statistics\n\nYear !!Bankruptcies !!IVAs !!Total\n\n2004 \n35,989 \n10,752 \n46,741\n\n2005 \n47,291 \n20,293 \n67,584\n\n2006 \n62,956 \n44,332 \n107,288\n\n2007 \n64,480 \n42,165 \n106,645\n\n2008 \n67,428 \n39,116 \n106,544\n\n\n;Pensions:\nThe UK bankruptcy law was changed in May 2000, effective May 29, 2000. Debtors may now retain occupational pensions while in bankruptcy, except in rare cases.\n\n;Proposed reform:\nThe Government have updated legislation (2016) to streamline the application process for UK bankruptcy. UK residents now need to apply online for bankruptcy - there is an upront fee of £655. The process for residents of Northern Ireland differs - applicants must follow the older process of applying through the courts.\n\n===United States===\n\nlargest municipal bankruptcy case in U.S. history.\nBankruptcy in the United States is a matter placed under federal jurisdiction by the United States Constitution (in Article 1, Section 8, Clause 4), which empowers Congress to enact \"uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States\". The Congress has enacted statutes governing bankruptcy, primarily in the form of the Bankruptcy Code, located at Title 11 of the United States Code. Federal law is amplified by state law in some places where Federal law fails to speak or expressly defers to state law.\n\nWhile bankruptcy cases are always filed in United States Bankruptcy Court (an adjunct to the U.S. District Courts), bankruptcy cases, particularly with respect to the validity of claims and exemptions, are often dependent upon State law. One example: two states, Maryland and Virginia, which are adjoining states, have different personal exemption amounts that cannot be seized for payment of debts. This amount is the first $6,000 in property or cash in Maryland, but only the first $5,000 in Virginia. State law therefore plays a major role in many bankruptcy cases, and it is often not possible to generalize bankruptcy law across state lines.\n\nGenerally, a debtor declares bankruptcy to obtain relief from debt, and this is accomplished either through a discharge of the debt or through a restructuring of the debt. Generally, when a debtor files a voluntary petition, his or her bankruptcy case commences.\n\n;Chapters:\nThere are six types of bankruptcy under the Bankruptcy Code, located at Title 11 of the United States Code:\n* Chapter 7: basic liquidation for individuals and businesses; also known as straight bankruptcy; it is the simplest and quickest form of bankruptcy available\n* Chapter 9: municipal bankruptcy; a federal mechanism for the resolution of municipal debts\n* Chapter 11: rehabilitation or reorganization, used primarily by business debtors, but sometimes by individuals with substantial debts and assets; known as corporate bankruptcy, it is a form of corporate financial reorganisation which typically allows companies to continue to function while they follow debt repayment plans\n* Chapter 12: rehabilitation for family farmers and fishermen;\n* Chapter 13: rehabilitation with a payment plan for individuals with a regular source of income; enables individuals with regular income to develop a plan to repay all or part of their debts; also known as Wage Earner Bankruptcy\n* Chapter 15: ancillary and other international cases; provides a mechanism for dealing with bankruptcy debtors and helps foreign debtors to clear debts.\n\nThe most common types of personal bankruptcy for individuals are Chapter 7 and Chapter 13. Whether a person qualifies for Chapter 7 or Chapter 13 is in part determined by income. As much as 65% of all U.S. consumer bankruptcy filings are Chapter 7 cases. Corporations and other business forms file under Chapters 7 or 11. Often called \"straight bankruptcy\" or \"simple bankruptcy,\" it allows consumers to eliminate just about all of their debts over a period of three or four months. Typically, the only debts that survive a Chapter 7 are student loans, child support obligations, some tax bills and criminal fines. Credit cards, pay day loans, personal loans, medical bills, and just about all other bills are discharged.\n\nNinety-one percent of U.S. individuals who enter bankruptcy hire an attorney to file their Chapter 7 petitions. The typical cost of an attorney is $1,170.00. Alternatives to filing with an attorney are: filing pro se, hiring a non-lawyer petition preparer, or using online software to generate the petition.\n\nIn Chapter 7, a debtor surrenders non-exempt property to a bankruptcy trustee, who then liquidates the property and distributes the proceeds to the debtor's unsecured creditors. In exchange, the debtor is entitled to a discharge of some debt. However, the debtor is not granted a discharge if guilty of certain types of inappropriate behavior (e.g., concealing records relating to financial condition) and certain debts (e.g., spousal and child support and most student loans). Some taxes are not discharged even though the debtor is generally discharged from debt. Many individuals in financial distress own only exempt property (e.g., clothes, household goods, an older car, or the tools of their trade or profession) and do not have to surrender any property to the trustee. The amount of property that a debtor may exempt varies from state to state (as noted above, Virginia and Maryland have a $1,000 difference.) Chapter 7 relief is available only once in any eight-year period. Generally, the rights of secured creditors to their collateral continues, even though their debt is discharged. For example, absent some arrangement by a debtor to surrender a car or \"reaffirm\" a debt, the creditor with a security interest in the debtor's car may repossess the car even if the debt to the creditor is discharged.\n\nThe 2005 amendments to the Bankruptcy Code introduced the \"means test\" for eligibility for chapter 7. An individual who fails the means test has the chapter 7 case dismissed, or may have to convert to a chapter 13 case.\n\nGenerally, a trustee sells most of the debtor's assets to pay off creditors. However, certain debtor assets are protected to some extent. These include Social Security payments, unemployment compensation, limited equity in a home, car, or truck, household goods and appliances, trade tools, and books. However, these exemptions vary from state to state.\n\nIn Chapter 13, debtors retain ownership and possession of all their assets, but must devote some portion of future income to repaying creditors, generally over three to five years. The amount of payment and period of the repayment plan depend upon a variety of factors, including the value of the debtor's property and the amount of a debtor's income and expenses. Secured creditors may be entitled to greater payment than unsecured creditors.\n\nRelief under Chapter 13 is available only to individuals with regular income whose debts do not exceed prescribed limits. If the debtor is an individual or a sole proprietor, the debtor is allowed to file for a Chapter 13 bankruptcy to repay all or part of the debts. Under this chapter, the debtor can propose a repayment plan in which to pay creditors over three to five years. If the monthly income is less than the state's median income, the plan is for three years, unless the court finds \"just cause\" to extend the plan for a longer period. If the debtor's monthly income is greater than the median income for individuals in the debtor's state, the plan must generally be for five years. A plan cannot exceed the five-year limit.\n\nIn contrast to Chapter 7, the debtor in Chapter 13 may keep all property, whether or not exempt. If the plan appears feasible and if the debtor complies with all the other requirements, the bankruptcy court typically confirms the plan and the debtor and creditors are bound by its terms. Creditors have no say in the formulation of the plan, other than to object to it, if appropriate, on the grounds that it does not comply with one of the Code's statutory requirements. Generally, the debtor makes payments to a trustee who disburses the funds in accordance with the terms of the confirmed plan.\n\nWhen the debtor completes payments pursuant to the terms of the plan, the court formallys grant the debtor a discharge of the debts provided for in the plan. However, if the debtor fails to make the agreed upon payments or fails to seek or gain court approval of a modified plan, a bankruptcy court often dismisses the case on the motion of the trustee. After a dismissal, creditors typically resume pursuit of state law remedies to recover the unpaid debt.\n\nIn Chapter 11, the debtor retains ownership and control of assets and is re-termed a ''debtor in possession'' (DIP). The debtor in possession runs the day-to-day operations of the business while creditors and the debtor work with the Bankruptcy Court in order to negotiate and complete a plan. Upon meeting certain requirements (e.g., fairness among creditors, priority of certain creditors) creditors are permitted to vote on the proposed plan. If a plan is confirmed, the debtor continues to operate and pay debts under the terms of the confirmed plan. If a specified majority of creditors do not vote to confirm a plan, additional requirements may be imposed by the court in order to confirm the plan. Debtors filing for Chapter 11 protection a second time are known informally as \"Chapter 22\" filers.\n\nChapter 7 and Chapter 13 are the efficient bankruptcy chapters often used by most individuals. The chapters which almost always apply to consumer debtors are chapter 7, known as a \"straight bankruptcy\", and chapter 13, which involves an affordable plan of repayment. An important feature applicable to all types of bankruptcy filings is the automatic stay. The automatic stay means that the mere request for bankruptcy protection automatically halts most lawsuits, repossessions, foreclosures, evictions, garnishments, attachments, utility shut-offs, and debt collection activity.\n\n;Exemptions:\nA Bankruptcy Exemption defines the property a debtor may retain and preserve through bankruptcy. Certain real and personal property can be exempted on \"Schedule C\" of a debtor's bankruptcy forms, and effectively be taken outside the debtor's bankruptcy estate. Bankruptcy exemptions are available only to individuals filing bankruptcy. There are two alternative systems that can be used to \"exempt\" property from a bankruptcy estate, federal exemptions (available in some states but not all), and state exemptions (which vary widely between states).\n\nAfter a bankruptcy petition is filed, the court schedules a hearing called a ''341 meeting'' or ''meeting of creditors'', at which the bankruptcy trustee and creditors review the petitioner's petition and supporting schedules, question the petitioner, and can challenge exemptions they believe are improper.\n\n;Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act:\nThe Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act (BAPCPA) of 2005, Pub. L. No. 109-8, 119 Stat. 23 (April 20, 2005) (\"BAPCPA\"), substantially amended the Bankruptcy Code. Many provisions of BAPCPA were forcefully advocated by consumer lenders and were just as forcefully opposed by many consumer advocates, bankruptcy academics, bankruptcy judges, and bankruptcy lawyers. The enactment of BAPCPA followed nearly eight years of debate in Congress. According to the book, ''The Unwinding'', Joe Biden, Chris Dodd, and Hillary Clinton helped pass this bill. Most of the law's provisions became effective on October 17, 2005. Upon signing the bill, President Bush stated:\n\n\n\nAdvocates of BAPCPA claimed that its passage would reduce losses to creditors such as credit card companies, and that those creditors would then pass on the savings to other borrowers in the form of lower interest rates. Critics have argued that these claims turned out to be false. After BAPCPA passed, although credit card company losses decreased, prices charged to customers increased, and credit card company profits soared.\n\nAmong its many changes to consumer bankruptcy law, BAPCPA includes a \"means test\", which was intended to make it more difficult for a significant number of financially distressed individual debtors whose debts are primarily consumer debts to qualify for relief under Chapter 7 of the Bankruptcy Code. The \"means test\" is employed in cases where an individual with primarily consumer debts has more than the average annual income for a household of equivalent size, computed over a 180-day period prior to filing. If the individual must \"take\" the \"means test\", their average monthly income over this 180-day period is reduced by a series of allowances for living expenses and secured debt payments in a very complex calculation that may or may not accurately reflect that individual's actual monthly budget. If the results of the means test show no disposable income (or in some cases a very small amount) then the individual qualifies for Chapter 7 relief. If a debtor does not qualify for relief under Chapter 7 of the Bankruptcy Code, either because of the Means Test or because Chapter 7 does not provide a permanent solution to delinquent payments for secured debts, such as mortgages or vehicle loans, the debtor may still seek relief under Chapter 13 of the Code. A Chapter 13 plan often does not require repayment to general unsecured debts, such as credit cards or medical bills.\n\nBAPCPA also requires individuals seeking bankruptcy relief to undertake credit counselling with approved counseling agencies prior to filing a bankruptcy petition and to undertake education in personal financial management from approved agencies prior to being granted a discharge of debts under either Chapter 7 or Chapter 13. Some studies of the operation of the credit counseling requirement suggest that it provides little benefit to debtors who receive the counseling because the only realistic option for many is to seek relief under the Bankruptcy Code.\n\n===Europe===\n\nIn 2004, the number of insolvencies reached record highs in many European countries. In France, company insolvencies rose by more than 4%, in Austria by more than 10%, and in Greece by more than 20%. The increase in the number of insolvencies, however, does not indicate the total financial impact of insolvencies in each country because there is no indication of the size of each case. An increase in the number of bankruptcy cases does not necessarily entail an increase in bad debt write-off rates for the economy as a whole.\n\nBankruptcy statistics are also a trailing indicator. There is a time delay between financial difficulties and bankruptcy. In most cases, several months or even years pass between the financial problems and the start of bankruptcy proceedings. Legal, tax, and cultural issues may further distort bankruptcy figures, especially when comparing on an international basis. Two examples:\n* In Austria, more than half of all potential bankruptcy proceedings in 2004 were not opened, due to insufficient funding.\n* In Spain, it is not economically profitable to open insolvency/bankruptcy proceedings against certain types of businesses, and therefore the number of insolvencies is quite low. For comparison: In France, more than 40,000 insolvency proceedings were opened in 2004, but under 600 were opened in Spain. At the same time the average bad debt write-off rate in France was 1.3% compared to Spain with 2.6%.\n\nThe insolvency numbers for private individuals also do not show the whole picture. Only a fraction of heavily indebted households file for insolvency. Two of the main reasons for this are the stigma of declaring themselves insolvent and the potential business disadvantage.\n\nFollowing the soar in insolvencies in the last decade, a number of European countries, such as France, Germany, Spain and Italy, began to revamp their bankruptcy laws in 2013. They modelled these new laws after the image of Chapter 11 of the U.S. Bankruptcy Code. Currently, the majority of insolvency cases have ended in liquidation in Europe rather than the businesses surviving the crisis. These new law models are meant to change this; lawmakers are hoping to turn bankruptcy into a chance for restructuring rather than a death sentence for the companies.\n",
"\n* Bankruptcy Act\n* Bankruptcy alternatives\n* Creditor's rights\n* Debt consolidation\n* Debt relief\n* Debt restructuring\n* Debtor in possession\n* Default\n* DIP Financing\n* Distressed securities\n* Financial distress\n* Individual voluntary arrangement\n* Insolvency\n* Judicial estoppel\n* Liquidation\n* Protected trust deed\n* Sole Trader Insolvency (UK)\n* Stalking Horse Agreement\n* Tools of trade\n* Turnaround ADR\n\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n",
"\n\n\n*\n* U.S. Federal Bankruptcy Courts\n* Official U.S. Bankruptcy Statistics\n* US Courts Bankruptcy Law\n* Executive Office for United States Bankruptcy Trustees\n* Cornell Bankruptcy Laws\n* National Association of Consumer Bankruptcy Attorneys\n* Bankruptcy Research Database (WebBRD)\n* Website of the Insolvency Service in the UK\n* Bankruptcy Statistics in Hong Kong\n* Official Means Testing Information\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Etymology",
"History",
"Modern law and debt restructuring",
"Fraud",
"By country",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Bankruptcy | [
"The word ''bankruptcy'' is derived from Italian ''banca rotta'', meaning \"broken bank\", which may stem from a widespread custom in the Republic of Genoa of breaking a moneychanger's bench or counter to signify his insolvency, or which may be only a figure of speech."
] | [
"\n\nNotice of closure attached to the door of a Computer Shop outlet the day after its parent company declared \"bankruptcy\" (strictly, put into administration) in the United Kingdom\n\n'''Bankruptcy''' is a legal status of a person or other entity that cannot repay debts to creditors.",
"In most jurisdictions, bankruptcy is imposed by a court order, often initiated by the debtor.",
"Bankruptcy is not the only legal status that an insolvent person may have, and the term ''bankruptcy'' is therefore not a synonym for insolvency.",
"In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, bankruptcy is limited to individuals, and other forms of insolvency proceedings (such as liquidation and administration) are applied to companies.",
"In the United States, ''bankruptcy'' is applied more broadly to formal insolvency proceedings.",
"In France, the cognate French word ''banqueroute'' is used solely for cases of fraudulent bankruptcy, whereas the term ''faillite'' (cognate of \"failure\") is used for bankruptcy in accordance with the law.",
"\nJohn Law's Mississippi Company led to French national bankruptcy in 1720.",
"In Ancient Greece, bankruptcy did not exist.",
"If a man owed and he could not pay, he and his wife, children or servants were forced into \"debt slavery\", until the creditor recouped losses through their physical labour.",
"Many city-states in ancient Greece limited debt slavery to a period of five years; debt slaves had protection of life and limb, which regular slaves did not enjoy.",
"However, servants of the debtor could be retained beyond that deadline by the creditor and were often forced to serve their new lord for a lifetime, usually under significantly harsher conditions.",
"An exception to this rule was Athens, which by the laws of Solon forbade enslavement for debt; as a consequence, most Athenian slaves were foreigners (Greek or otherwise).",
"The Statute of Bankrupts of 1542 was the first statute under English law dealing with bankruptcy or insolvency.",
"Bankruptcy is also documented in East Asia.",
"According to al-Maqrizi, the Yassa of Genghis Khan contained a provision that mandated the death penalty for anyone who became bankrupt three times.",
"A failure of a nation to meet bond repayments has been seen on many occasions.",
"Philip II of Spain had to declare four state bankruptcies in 1557, 1560, 1575 and 1596.",
"According to Kenneth S. Rogoff, \"Although the development of international capital markets was quite limited prior to 1800, we nevertheless catalog the various defaults of France, Portugal, Prussia, Spain, and the early Italian city-states.",
"At the edge of Europe, Egypt, Russia, and Turkey have histories of chronic default as well.\"",
"The principal focus of modern insolvency legislation and business debt restructuring practices no longer rests on the elimination of insolvent entities, but on the remodeling of the financial and organizational structure of debtors experiencing financial distress so as to permit the rehabilitation and continuation of the business.",
"For private households, some argue that it is insufficient to merely dismiss debts after a certain period .",
"It is important to assess the underlying problems and to minimize the risk of financial distress to re-occur.",
"It has been stressed that debt advice, a supervised rehabilitation period, financial education and social help to find sources of income and to improve the management of household expenditures must be equally provided during this period of rehabilitation (Refiner ''et al.",
"'', 2003; Gerhardt, 2009; Frade, 2010).",
"In most EU Member States, debt discharge is conditioned by a partial payment obligation and by a number of requirements concerning the debtor's behavior.",
"In the United States (US), discharge is conditioned to a lesser extent.",
"The spectrum is broad in the EU, with the UK coming closest to the US system (Reifner et al., 2003; Gerhardt, 2009; Frade, 2010).",
"The Other Member States do not provide the option of a debt discharge.",
"Spain, for example, passed a bankruptcy law (''ley concurs'') in 2003 which provides for debt settlement plans that can result in a reduction of the debt (maximally half of the amount) or an extension of the payment period of maximally five years (Gerhardt, 2009), but it does not foresee debt discharge.",
"In the US, it is almost impossible to discharge student loan debt by filing bankruptcy.",
"Unlike most other debtors, the individual with student debt must give a series of reasons and tests (with steps) to prove that the debtor could not pay the debt.",
"If the person were to file bankruptcy, he or she is normally encouraged to do so under Chapter 13.",
"A person in financial straits can sometimes avoid bankruptcy by negotiating with the lender for lower monthly payments, or could seek debt consolidation.",
"For student loan, bankruptcy is a last resort—but some borrowers are forced to file bankruptcy if the lender refuses to lower payments or modify interest rates.",
"Bankruptcy fraud is a white-collar crime.",
"While difficult to generalize across jurisdictions, common criminal acts under bankruptcy statutes typically involve concealment of assets, concealment or destruction of documents, conflicts of interest, fraudulent claims, false statements or declarations, and fee fixing or redistribution arrangements.",
"Falsifications on bankruptcy forms often constitute perjury.",
"Multiple filings are not in and of themselves criminal, but they may violate provisions of bankruptcy law.",
"In the U.S., bankruptcy fraud statutes are particularly focused on the mental state of particular actions.",
"Bankruptcy fraud is a federal crime in the United States.",
"Bankruptcy fraud should be distinguished from ''strategic bankruptcy'', which is not a criminal act since it creates a real (not a fake) bankruptcy state.",
"However, it may still work against the filer.",
"All assets must be disclosed in bankruptcy schedules whether or not the debtor believes the asset has a net value.",
"This is because once a bankruptcy petition is filed, it is for the creditors, not the debtor, to decide whether a particular asset has value.",
"The future ramifications of omitting assets from schedules can be quite serious for the offending debtor.",
"In the United States, a closed bankruptcy may be reopened by motion of a creditor or the U.S. trustee if a debtor attempts to later assert ownership of such an \"unscheduled asset\" after being discharged of all debt in the bankruptcy.",
"The trustee may then seize the asset and liquidate it for the benefit of the (formerly discharged) creditors.",
"Whether or not a concealment of such an asset should also be considered for prosecution as fraud or perjury would then be at the discretion of the judge or U.S.",
"Trustee.",
"\n===Argentina===\nIn Argentina the national Act \"24.522 de Concursos y Quiebras\" regulates the Bankruptcy and the Reorganization of the individuals and companies, public entities are not included.",
"===Australia===\n\n\nIn Australia, bankruptcy is a status which applies to individuals and is governed by the federal ''Bankruptcy Act 1966''.",
"Companies do not go bankrupt but rather go into liquidation or administration, which is governed by the federal ''Corporations Act 2001''.",
"If a person commits an act of bankruptcy, then a creditor can apply to the Federal Circuit Court or the Federal Court for a sequestration order.",
"Acts of bankruptcy are defined in the legislation, and include the failure to comply with a bankruptcy notice.",
"A bankruptcy notice can be issued where, among other cases, a person fails to pay a judgment debt.",
"A person can also seek to have himself or herself declared bankrupt by lodging a debtor's petition with the \"Official Receiver\", which is the Australian Financial Security Authority (AFSA).",
"To declare bankruptcy or for a creditor to lodge a petition, the debt must be at least $5,000.",
"All bankrupts must lodge a Statement of Affairs document with AFSA, which includes important information about their assets and liabilities.",
"A bankruptcy cannot be annulled until this document has been lodged.",
"Ordinarily, a bankruptcy lasts three years from the filing of the Statement of Affairs with AFSA.",
"A Bankruptcy Trustee (in most cases, the Official Receiver) is appointed to deal with all matters regarding the administration of the bankrupt estate.",
"The Trustee's job includes notifying creditors of the estate and dealing with creditor inquiries; ensuring that the bankrupt complies with his or her obligations under the Bankruptcy Act; investigating the bankrupt's financial affairs; realising funds to which the estate is entitled under the Bankruptcy Act and distributing dividends to creditors if sufficient funds become available.",
"For the duration of their bankruptcy, all bankrupts have certain restrictions placed upon them.",
"For example, a bankrupt must obtain the permission of his or her trustee to travel overseas.",
"Failure to do so may result in the bankrupt being stopped at the airport by the Australian Federal Police.",
"Additionally, a bankrupt is required to provide his or her trustee with details of income and assets.",
"If the bankrupt does not comply with the Trustee's request to provide details of income, the trustee may have grounds to lodge an Objection to Discharge, which has the effect of extending the bankruptcy for a further five years.",
"The realisation of funds usually comes from two main sources: the bankrupt's assets and the bankrupt's wages.",
"There are certain assets that are protected, referred to as ''protected assets''.",
"These include household furniture and appliances, tools of the trade and vehicles up to a certain value.",
"All other assets of value are sold.",
"If a house or car is above a certain value, the bankrupt can buy the interest back from the estate in order to keep the asset.",
"If the bankrupt does not do this, the interest vests in the estate and the trustee is able to take possession of the asset and sell it.",
"The bankrupt must pay income contributions if their income is above a certain threshold.",
"If the bankrupt fails to pay, the trustee can issue a notice to garnishee the bankrupt's wages.",
"If that is not possible, the Trustee may seek to extend the bankruptcy for a further five years.",
"Bankruptcies can be annulled prior to the expiration of the normal three-year period if all debts are paid out in full.",
"Sometimes a bankrupt may be able to raise enough funds to make an Offer of Composition to creditors, which would have the effect of paying the creditors some of the money they are owed.",
"If the creditors accept the offer, the bankruptcy can be annulled after the funds are received.",
"After the bankruptcy is annulled or the bankrupt has been automatically discharged, the bankrupt's credit report status is shown as \"discharged bankrupt\" for some years.",
"The maximum number of years this information can be held is subject to the retention limits under the Privacy Act.",
"How long such information is on a credit report may be shorter, depending on the issuing company, but the report must cease to record that information based on the criteria in the Privacy Act.",
"===Brazil===\nIn Brazil, the Bankruptcy Law (11.101/05) governs court-ordered or out-of-court receivership and bankruptcy and only applies to public companies (publicly traded companies) with the exception of financial institutions, credit cooperatives, consortia, supplementary scheme entities, companies administering health care plans, equity companies and a few other legal entities.",
"It does not apply to state-run companies.",
"Current law covers three legal proceedings.",
"The first one is bankruptcy itself (\"Falência\").",
"Bankruptcy is a court-ordered liquidation procedure for an insolvent business.",
"The final goal of bankruptcy is to liquidate company assets and pay its creditors.",
"The second one is Court-ordered Restructuring (''Recuperação Judicial'').",
"The goal is to overcome the business crisis situation of the debtor in order to allow the continuation of the producer, the employment of workers and the interests of creditors, leading, thus, to preserving company, its corporate function and develop economic activity.",
"It's a court procedure required by the debtor which has been in business for more than two years and requires approval by a judge.",
"The Extrajudicial Restructuring (''Recuperação Extrajudicial'') is a private negotiation that involves creditors and debtors and, as with court-ordered restructuring, also must be approved by courts.",
"===Canada===\n\nBankruptcy, also referred to as insolvency in Canada, is governed by the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act and is applicable to businesses and individuals, for example, Target Canada, the Canadian subsidiary of the Target Corporation, the second-largest discount retailer in the United States filed for bankruptcy in January 15, 2015, and closed all of its stores by April 12.",
"The office of the Superintendent of Bankruptcy, a federal agency, is responsible for overseeing that bankruptcies are administered in a fair and orderly manner by all licensed Trustees in Canada.",
"Trustees in bankruptcy, 1041 individuals licensed to administer insolvencies, bankruptcy and proposal estates and are governed by the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act of Canada.",
"Bankruptcy is filed when a person or a company becomes insolvent and cannot pay their debts as they become due and if they have at least $1,000 in debt.",
"In 2011, the Superintendent of bankruptcy reported that trustees in Canada filed 127,774 insolvent estates.",
"Consumer estates were the vast majority, with 122 999 estates.",
"The consumer portion of the 2011 volume is divided into 77,993 bankruptcies and 45,006 consumer proposals.",
"This represented a reduction of 8.9% from 2010.",
"Commercial estates filed by Canadian trustees in 2011 4,775 estates, 3,643 bankruptcies and 1,132 Division 1 proposals.",
"This represents a reduction of 8.6% over 2010.\n\n;Duties of trustees:\nSome of the duties of the trustee in bankruptcy are to:\n* Review the file for any fraudulent preferences or reviewable transactions\n* Chair meetings of creditors\n* Sell any non-exempt assets\n* Object to the bankrupt's discharge\n* Distribute funds to creditors\n\n;Creditors' meetings:\nCreditors become involved by attending creditors' meetings.",
"The trustee calls the first meeting of creditors for the following purposes:\n* To consider the affairs of the bankrupt\n* To affirm the appointment of the trustee or substitute another in place thereof\n* To appoint inspectors\n* To give such directions to the trustee as the creditors may see fit with reference to the administration of the estate.",
";Consumer proposals:\n\nIn Canada, a person can file a consumer proposal as an alternative to bankruptcy.",
"A consumer proposal is a negotiated settlement between a debtor and their creditors.",
"A typical proposal would involve a debtor making monthly payments for a maximum of five years, with the funds distributed to their creditors.",
"Even though most proposals call for payments of less than the full amount of the debt owing, in most cases, the creditors accept the deal—because if they do not, the next alternative may be personal bankruptcy, in which the creditors get even less money.",
"The creditors have 45 days to accept or reject the consumer proposal.",
"Once the proposal is accepted by both the creditors and the Court, the debtor makes the payments to the Proposal Administrator each month (or as otherwise stipulated in their proposal), and the general creditors are prevented from taking any further legal or collection action.",
"If the proposal is rejected, the debtor is returned to his prior insolvent state and may have no alternative but to declare personal bankruptcy.",
"A consumer proposal can only be made by a debtor with debts to a maximum of $250,000 (not including the mortgage on their principal residence).",
"If debts are greater than $250,000, the proposal must be filed under Division 1 of Part III of the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act.",
"An Administrator is required in the Consumer Proposal, and a Trustee in the Division I Proposal (these are virtually the same although the terms are not interchangeable).",
"A Proposal Administrator is almost always a licensed trustee in bankruptcy, although the Superintendent of Bankruptcy may appoint other people to serve as administrators.",
"In 2006, there were 98,450 personal insolvency filings in Canada: 79,218 bankruptcies and 19,232 consumer proposals.",
"===China===\n\nThe People's Republic of China legalized bankruptcy in 1986, and a revised law that was more expansive and complete was enacted in 2007.",
"===Ireland===\nBankruptcy in Ireland applies only to natural persons.",
"Other insolvency processes including liquidation and examinership are used to deal with corporate insolvency.",
"Irish bankruptcy law has been the subject of significant comment, from both government sources and the media, as being in need of reform.",
"Part 7 of the Civil Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 2011 has started this process and the government has committed to further reform.",
"===India===\n\n\nThe Parliament of India in the first week of May 2016 passed Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code 2016 (New Code).",
"Earlier a clear law on corporate bankruptcy did not exist, even though individual bankruptcy laws have been in existence since 1874.",
"The earlier law in force was enacted in 1920 called the Provincial Insolvency Act.",
"The legal definitions of the terms bankruptcy, insolvency, liquidation and dissolution are contested in the Indian legal system.",
"There is no regulation or statute legislated upon bankruptcy which denotes a condition of inability to meet a demand of a creditor as is common in many other jurisdictions.",
"Winding up of companies was in the jurisdiction of the courts which can take a decade even after the company has actually been declared insolvent.",
"On the other hand, supervisory restructuring at the behest of the Board of Industrial and Financial Reconstruction is generally undertaken using receivership by a public entity.",
"===The Netherlands===\nDutch bankruptcy law is governed by the Dutch Bankruptcy Code (''Faillissementswet'').",
"The code covers three separate legal proceedings.",
"* The first is the bankruptcy (''Faillissement'').",
"The goal of the bankruptcy is the liquidation of the assets of the company.",
"The bankruptcy applies to individuals and companies.",
"* The second legal proceeding in the ''Faillissementswet'' is the ''Surseance van betaling''.",
"The ''Surseance van betaling'' only applies to companies.",
"Its goal is to reach an agreement with the creditors of the company.",
"Its is comparable to filing for protection against creditors.",
"* The third proceeding is the ''Schuldsanering''.",
"This proceeding is designed for individuals only and is the result of a court ruling.",
"The judge appoints a monitor.",
"The monitor is an independent third party who monitors the individual's ongoing business and decides about financial matters during the period of the \"Schuldsanering\".",
"The individual can travel out of the country freely after the judge's decision on the case.",
"=== Russia ===\n\nFederal Law No.",
"127-FZ \"On Insolvency (Bankruptcy)\" dated 26 October 2002 (as amended) (the \"Bankruptcy Act\"), replacing the previous law in 1998, to better address the above problems and a broader failure of the action.",
"Russian insolvency law is intended for a wide range of borrowers: individuals and companies of all sizes, with the exception of state-owned enterprises, government agencies, political parties and religious organizations.",
"There are also special rules for insurance companies, professional participants of the securities market, agricultural organizations and other special laws for financial institutions and companies in the natural monopolies in the energy industry.",
"Federal Law No.",
"40-FZ \"On Insolvency (Bankruptcy)\" dated 25 February 1999 (as amended) (the \"Insolvency Law of Credit Institutions\") contains special provisions in relation to the opening of insolvency proceedings in relation to the credit company.",
"Insolvency Provisions Act, credit organizations used in conjunction with the provisions of the Bankruptcy Act.",
"Bankruptcy law provides for the following stages of insolvency proceedings:\n• Monitoring procedure (nablyudeniye);\n• The economic recovery (finansovoe ozdorovleniye);\n• External control (vneshneye upravleniye);\n• Liquidation (konkursnoye proizvodstvo) and\n• Amicable Agreement (mirovoye soglasheniye).",
"The main face of the bankruptcy process is the insolvency officer (trustee in bankruptcy, bankruptcy manager).",
"At various stages of bankruptcy, he must be determined: the temporary officer in Monitoring procedure, external manager in External control, the receiver or administrative officer in The economic recovery, the liquidator.",
"During the bankruptcy trustee in bankruptcy (insolvency officer) has a decisive influence on the movement of assets (property) of the debtor - the debtor and has a key influence on the economic and legal aspects of its operations.",
"===South Africa===\n\n\n===Switzerland===\nBankruptcy according to Salvation Army, Switzerland.",
"Under Swiss law, bankruptcy can be a consequence of insolvency.",
"It is a court-ordered form of debt enforcement proceedings that applies, in general, to registered commercial entities only.",
"In a bankruptcy, all assets of the debtor are liquidated under the administration of the creditors, although the law provides for debt restructuring options similar to those under Chapter 11 of the U.S. Bankruptcy code.",
"===Sweden===\nIn Sweden, bankruptcy (Swedish: konkurs) is a formal process that may involve a company or individual.",
"It is not the same as insolvency, which is inability to pay debts that should have been paid.",
"A creditor or the company itself can apply for bankruptcy.",
"An external bankruptcy manager takes over the company or the assets of the person, and tries to sell as much as possible.",
"A person or a company in bankruptcy can not access its assets (with some exceptions).",
"The formal bankruptcy process is rarely carried out for individuals.",
"Creditors can claim money through the Enforcement Administration anyway, and creditors do not usually benefit from the bankruptcy of individuals because there are costs of a bankruptcy manager which has priority.",
"Unpaid debts remain after bankruptcy for individuals.",
"People who are deeply in debt can obtain a debt arrangement procedure (Swedish: skuldsanering).",
"On application, they obtain a payment plan under which they pay as much as they can for five years, and then all remaining debts are cancelled.",
"Debts that derive from a ban on business operations (issued by court, commonly for tax fraud or fraudulent business practices) or owed to a crime victim as compensation for damages, are exempted from this—and, as before this process was introduced in 2006, remain lifelong.",
"Debts that have not been claimed during a 3-10 year period are cancelled.",
"Often crime victims stop their claims after a few years since criminals often do not have job incomes and might be hard to locate, while banks make sure their claims are not cancelled.",
"The most common reasons for personal insolvency in Sweden are illness, unemployment, divorce or company bankruptcy.",
"For companies, formal bankruptcy is a normal effect of insolvency, even if there is a reconstruction mechanism where the company can be given time to solve its situation, e.g.",
"by finding an investor.",
"The formal bankruptcy involves contracting a bankruptcy manager, who makes certain that assets are sold and money divided by the priority the law claims, and no other way.",
"Banks have such a priority.",
"After a finished bankruptcy for a company, it is terminated.",
"The activities might continue in a new company which has bought important assets from the bankrupted company.",
"===United Kingdom===\n\nBankruptcy in the United Kingdom (in a strict legal sense) relates only to individuals (including sole proprietors) and partnerships.",
"Companies and other corporations enter into differently named legal insolvency procedures: liquidation and administration (administration order and administrative receivership).",
"However, the term 'bankruptcy' is often used when referring to companies in the media and in general conversation.",
"Bankruptcy in Scotland is referred to as sequestration.",
"To apply for bankruptcy in Scotland, an individual must have more than £1,500 of debt.",
"A trustee in bankruptcy must be either an Official Receiver (a civil servant) or a licensed insolvency practitioner.",
"Current law in England and Wales derives in large part from the Insolvency Act 1986.",
"Following the introduction of the Enterprise Act 2002, a UK bankruptcy now normally last no longer than 12 months, and may be less if the Official Receiver files in court a certificate that investigations are complete.",
"It was expected that the UK Government's liberalisation of the UK bankruptcy regime would increase the number of bankruptcy cases; initially, cases increased, as the Insolvency Service statistics appear to bear out.",
"Since 2009, the introduction of the Debt Relief Order has resulted in a dramatic fall in bankruptcies, the latest estimates for year 2014/15 being significantly less than 30,000 cases.",
"+ UK Bankruptcy statistics\n\nYear !",
"!Bankruptcies !",
"!IVAs !",
"!Total\n\n2004 \n35,989 \n10,752 \n46,741\n\n2005 \n47,291 \n20,293 \n67,584\n\n2006 \n62,956 \n44,332 \n107,288\n\n2007 \n64,480 \n42,165 \n106,645\n\n2008 \n67,428 \n39,116 \n106,544\n\n\n;Pensions:\nThe UK bankruptcy law was changed in May 2000, effective May 29, 2000.",
"Debtors may now retain occupational pensions while in bankruptcy, except in rare cases.",
";Proposed reform:\nThe Government have updated legislation (2016) to streamline the application process for UK bankruptcy.",
"UK residents now need to apply online for bankruptcy - there is an upront fee of £655.",
"The process for residents of Northern Ireland differs - applicants must follow the older process of applying through the courts.",
"===United States===\n\nlargest municipal bankruptcy case in U.S. history.",
"Bankruptcy in the United States is a matter placed under federal jurisdiction by the United States Constitution (in Article 1, Section 8, Clause 4), which empowers Congress to enact \"uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States\".",
"The Congress has enacted statutes governing bankruptcy, primarily in the form of the Bankruptcy Code, located at Title 11 of the United States Code.",
"Federal law is amplified by state law in some places where Federal law fails to speak or expressly defers to state law.",
"While bankruptcy cases are always filed in United States Bankruptcy Court (an adjunct to the U.S. District Courts), bankruptcy cases, particularly with respect to the validity of claims and exemptions, are often dependent upon State law.",
"One example: two states, Maryland and Virginia, which are adjoining states, have different personal exemption amounts that cannot be seized for payment of debts.",
"This amount is the first $6,000 in property or cash in Maryland, but only the first $5,000 in Virginia.",
"State law therefore plays a major role in many bankruptcy cases, and it is often not possible to generalize bankruptcy law across state lines.",
"Generally, a debtor declares bankruptcy to obtain relief from debt, and this is accomplished either through a discharge of the debt or through a restructuring of the debt.",
"Generally, when a debtor files a voluntary petition, his or her bankruptcy case commences.",
";Chapters:\nThere are six types of bankruptcy under the Bankruptcy Code, located at Title 11 of the United States Code:\n* Chapter 7: basic liquidation for individuals and businesses; also known as straight bankruptcy; it is the simplest and quickest form of bankruptcy available\n* Chapter 9: municipal bankruptcy; a federal mechanism for the resolution of municipal debts\n* Chapter 11: rehabilitation or reorganization, used primarily by business debtors, but sometimes by individuals with substantial debts and assets; known as corporate bankruptcy, it is a form of corporate financial reorganisation which typically allows companies to continue to function while they follow debt repayment plans\n* Chapter 12: rehabilitation for family farmers and fishermen;\n* Chapter 13: rehabilitation with a payment plan for individuals with a regular source of income; enables individuals with regular income to develop a plan to repay all or part of their debts; also known as Wage Earner Bankruptcy\n* Chapter 15: ancillary and other international cases; provides a mechanism for dealing with bankruptcy debtors and helps foreign debtors to clear debts.",
"The most common types of personal bankruptcy for individuals are Chapter 7 and Chapter 13.",
"Whether a person qualifies for Chapter 7 or Chapter 13 is in part determined by income.",
"As much as 65% of all U.S. consumer bankruptcy filings are Chapter 7 cases.",
"Corporations and other business forms file under Chapters 7 or 11.",
"Often called \"straight bankruptcy\" or \"simple bankruptcy,\" it allows consumers to eliminate just about all of their debts over a period of three or four months.",
"Typically, the only debts that survive a Chapter 7 are student loans, child support obligations, some tax bills and criminal fines.",
"Credit cards, pay day loans, personal loans, medical bills, and just about all other bills are discharged.",
"Ninety-one percent of U.S. individuals who enter bankruptcy hire an attorney to file their Chapter 7 petitions.",
"The typical cost of an attorney is $1,170.00.",
"Alternatives to filing with an attorney are: filing pro se, hiring a non-lawyer petition preparer, or using online software to generate the petition.",
"In Chapter 7, a debtor surrenders non-exempt property to a bankruptcy trustee, who then liquidates the property and distributes the proceeds to the debtor's unsecured creditors.",
"In exchange, the debtor is entitled to a discharge of some debt.",
"However, the debtor is not granted a discharge if guilty of certain types of inappropriate behavior (e.g., concealing records relating to financial condition) and certain debts (e.g., spousal and child support and most student loans).",
"Some taxes are not discharged even though the debtor is generally discharged from debt.",
"Many individuals in financial distress own only exempt property (e.g., clothes, household goods, an older car, or the tools of their trade or profession) and do not have to surrender any property to the trustee.",
"The amount of property that a debtor may exempt varies from state to state (as noted above, Virginia and Maryland have a $1,000 difference.)",
"Chapter 7 relief is available only once in any eight-year period.",
"Generally, the rights of secured creditors to their collateral continues, even though their debt is discharged.",
"For example, absent some arrangement by a debtor to surrender a car or \"reaffirm\" a debt, the creditor with a security interest in the debtor's car may repossess the car even if the debt to the creditor is discharged.",
"The 2005 amendments to the Bankruptcy Code introduced the \"means test\" for eligibility for chapter 7.",
"An individual who fails the means test has the chapter 7 case dismissed, or may have to convert to a chapter 13 case.",
"Generally, a trustee sells most of the debtor's assets to pay off creditors.",
"However, certain debtor assets are protected to some extent.",
"These include Social Security payments, unemployment compensation, limited equity in a home, car, or truck, household goods and appliances, trade tools, and books.",
"However, these exemptions vary from state to state.",
"In Chapter 13, debtors retain ownership and possession of all their assets, but must devote some portion of future income to repaying creditors, generally over three to five years.",
"The amount of payment and period of the repayment plan depend upon a variety of factors, including the value of the debtor's property and the amount of a debtor's income and expenses.",
"Secured creditors may be entitled to greater payment than unsecured creditors.",
"Relief under Chapter 13 is available only to individuals with regular income whose debts do not exceed prescribed limits.",
"If the debtor is an individual or a sole proprietor, the debtor is allowed to file for a Chapter 13 bankruptcy to repay all or part of the debts.",
"Under this chapter, the debtor can propose a repayment plan in which to pay creditors over three to five years.",
"If the monthly income is less than the state's median income, the plan is for three years, unless the court finds \"just cause\" to extend the plan for a longer period.",
"If the debtor's monthly income is greater than the median income for individuals in the debtor's state, the plan must generally be for five years.",
"A plan cannot exceed the five-year limit.",
"In contrast to Chapter 7, the debtor in Chapter 13 may keep all property, whether or not exempt.",
"If the plan appears feasible and if the debtor complies with all the other requirements, the bankruptcy court typically confirms the plan and the debtor and creditors are bound by its terms.",
"Creditors have no say in the formulation of the plan, other than to object to it, if appropriate, on the grounds that it does not comply with one of the Code's statutory requirements.",
"Generally, the debtor makes payments to a trustee who disburses the funds in accordance with the terms of the confirmed plan.",
"When the debtor completes payments pursuant to the terms of the plan, the court formallys grant the debtor a discharge of the debts provided for in the plan.",
"However, if the debtor fails to make the agreed upon payments or fails to seek or gain court approval of a modified plan, a bankruptcy court often dismisses the case on the motion of the trustee.",
"After a dismissal, creditors typically resume pursuit of state law remedies to recover the unpaid debt.",
"In Chapter 11, the debtor retains ownership and control of assets and is re-termed a ''debtor in possession'' (DIP).",
"The debtor in possession runs the day-to-day operations of the business while creditors and the debtor work with the Bankruptcy Court in order to negotiate and complete a plan.",
"Upon meeting certain requirements (e.g., fairness among creditors, priority of certain creditors) creditors are permitted to vote on the proposed plan.",
"If a plan is confirmed, the debtor continues to operate and pay debts under the terms of the confirmed plan.",
"If a specified majority of creditors do not vote to confirm a plan, additional requirements may be imposed by the court in order to confirm the plan.",
"Debtors filing for Chapter 11 protection a second time are known informally as \"Chapter 22\" filers.",
"Chapter 7 and Chapter 13 are the efficient bankruptcy chapters often used by most individuals.",
"The chapters which almost always apply to consumer debtors are chapter 7, known as a \"straight bankruptcy\", and chapter 13, which involves an affordable plan of repayment.",
"An important feature applicable to all types of bankruptcy filings is the automatic stay.",
"The automatic stay means that the mere request for bankruptcy protection automatically halts most lawsuits, repossessions, foreclosures, evictions, garnishments, attachments, utility shut-offs, and debt collection activity.",
";Exemptions:\nA Bankruptcy Exemption defines the property a debtor may retain and preserve through bankruptcy.",
"Certain real and personal property can be exempted on \"Schedule C\" of a debtor's bankruptcy forms, and effectively be taken outside the debtor's bankruptcy estate.",
"Bankruptcy exemptions are available only to individuals filing bankruptcy.",
"There are two alternative systems that can be used to \"exempt\" property from a bankruptcy estate, federal exemptions (available in some states but not all), and state exemptions (which vary widely between states).",
"After a bankruptcy petition is filed, the court schedules a hearing called a ''341 meeting'' or ''meeting of creditors'', at which the bankruptcy trustee and creditors review the petitioner's petition and supporting schedules, question the petitioner, and can challenge exemptions they believe are improper.",
";Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act:\nThe Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act (BAPCPA) of 2005, Pub.",
"L. No.",
"109-8, 119 Stat.",
"23 (April 20, 2005) (\"BAPCPA\"), substantially amended the Bankruptcy Code.",
"Many provisions of BAPCPA were forcefully advocated by consumer lenders and were just as forcefully opposed by many consumer advocates, bankruptcy academics, bankruptcy judges, and bankruptcy lawyers.",
"The enactment of BAPCPA followed nearly eight years of debate in Congress.",
"According to the book, ''The Unwinding'', Joe Biden, Chris Dodd, and Hillary Clinton helped pass this bill.",
"Most of the law's provisions became effective on October 17, 2005.",
"Upon signing the bill, President Bush stated:\n\n\n\nAdvocates of BAPCPA claimed that its passage would reduce losses to creditors such as credit card companies, and that those creditors would then pass on the savings to other borrowers in the form of lower interest rates.",
"Critics have argued that these claims turned out to be false.",
"After BAPCPA passed, although credit card company losses decreased, prices charged to customers increased, and credit card company profits soared.",
"Among its many changes to consumer bankruptcy law, BAPCPA includes a \"means test\", which was intended to make it more difficult for a significant number of financially distressed individual debtors whose debts are primarily consumer debts to qualify for relief under Chapter 7 of the Bankruptcy Code.",
"The \"means test\" is employed in cases where an individual with primarily consumer debts has more than the average annual income for a household of equivalent size, computed over a 180-day period prior to filing.",
"If the individual must \"take\" the \"means test\", their average monthly income over this 180-day period is reduced by a series of allowances for living expenses and secured debt payments in a very complex calculation that may or may not accurately reflect that individual's actual monthly budget.",
"If the results of the means test show no disposable income (or in some cases a very small amount) then the individual qualifies for Chapter 7 relief.",
"If a debtor does not qualify for relief under Chapter 7 of the Bankruptcy Code, either because of the Means Test or because Chapter 7 does not provide a permanent solution to delinquent payments for secured debts, such as mortgages or vehicle loans, the debtor may still seek relief under Chapter 13 of the Code.",
"A Chapter 13 plan often does not require repayment to general unsecured debts, such as credit cards or medical bills.",
"BAPCPA also requires individuals seeking bankruptcy relief to undertake credit counselling with approved counseling agencies prior to filing a bankruptcy petition and to undertake education in personal financial management from approved agencies prior to being granted a discharge of debts under either Chapter 7 or Chapter 13.",
"Some studies of the operation of the credit counseling requirement suggest that it provides little benefit to debtors who receive the counseling because the only realistic option for many is to seek relief under the Bankruptcy Code.",
"===Europe===\n\nIn 2004, the number of insolvencies reached record highs in many European countries.",
"In France, company insolvencies rose by more than 4%, in Austria by more than 10%, and in Greece by more than 20%.",
"The increase in the number of insolvencies, however, does not indicate the total financial impact of insolvencies in each country because there is no indication of the size of each case.",
"An increase in the number of bankruptcy cases does not necessarily entail an increase in bad debt write-off rates for the economy as a whole.",
"Bankruptcy statistics are also a trailing indicator.",
"There is a time delay between financial difficulties and bankruptcy.",
"In most cases, several months or even years pass between the financial problems and the start of bankruptcy proceedings.",
"Legal, tax, and cultural issues may further distort bankruptcy figures, especially when comparing on an international basis.",
"Two examples:\n* In Austria, more than half of all potential bankruptcy proceedings in 2004 were not opened, due to insufficient funding.",
"* In Spain, it is not economically profitable to open insolvency/bankruptcy proceedings against certain types of businesses, and therefore the number of insolvencies is quite low.",
"For comparison: In France, more than 40,000 insolvency proceedings were opened in 2004, but under 600 were opened in Spain.",
"At the same time the average bad debt write-off rate in France was 1.3% compared to Spain with 2.6%.",
"The insolvency numbers for private individuals also do not show the whole picture.",
"Only a fraction of heavily indebted households file for insolvency.",
"Two of the main reasons for this are the stigma of declaring themselves insolvent and the potential business disadvantage.",
"Following the soar in insolvencies in the last decade, a number of European countries, such as France, Germany, Spain and Italy, began to revamp their bankruptcy laws in 2013.",
"They modelled these new laws after the image of Chapter 11 of the U.S. Bankruptcy Code.",
"Currently, the majority of insolvency cases have ended in liquidation in Europe rather than the businesses surviving the crisis.",
"These new law models are meant to change this; lawmakers are hoping to turn bankruptcy into a chance for restructuring rather than a death sentence for the companies.",
"\n* Bankruptcy Act\n* Bankruptcy alternatives\n* Creditor's rights\n* Debt consolidation\n* Debt relief\n* Debt restructuring\n* Debtor in possession\n* Default\n* DIP Financing\n* Distressed securities\n* Financial distress\n* Individual voluntary arrangement\n* Insolvency\n* Judicial estoppel\n* Liquidation\n* Protected trust deed\n* Sole Trader Insolvency (UK)\n* Stalking Horse Agreement\n* Tools of trade\n* Turnaround ADR",
"* \n* \n* \n*",
"\n\n\n*\n* U.S. Federal Bankruptcy Courts\n* Official U.S. Bankruptcy Statistics\n* US Courts Bankruptcy Law\n* Executive Office for United States Bankruptcy Trustees\n* Cornell Bankruptcy Laws\n* National Association of Consumer Bankruptcy Attorneys\n* Bankruptcy Research Database (WebBRD)\n* Website of the Insolvency Service in the UK\n* Bankruptcy Statistics in Hong Kong\n* Official Means Testing Information"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''''Batman Forever''''' is a 1995 American superhero film directed by Joel Schumacher and produced by Tim Burton, based on the DC Comics character Batman. It is the third installment of the initial ''Batman'' film series, with Val Kilmer replacing Michael Keaton as Bruce Wayne / Batman. The film stars Chris O'Donnell, Nicole Kidman, Tommy Lee Jones and Jim Carrey. The plot focuses on Batman trying to stop Two-Face (Jones) and the Riddler (Carrey) in their villainous scheme to extract confidential information from all the minds in Gotham City and use it to learn Batman's identity and bring the city under their control. He gains allegiance from a love interest—psychiatrist Dr. Chase Meridian (Kidman) and a young, orphaned circus acrobat named Dick Grayson (O'Donnell), who becomes his sidekick Robin.\n\n''Batman Forever''s tone is significantly different from the previous installments, becoming more family-friendly since Warner Bros. believed that the previous ''Batman'' film, ''Batman Returns'' (1992), failed to outgross its predecessor due to parent complaints about the film's violence and dark overtones. Schumacher eschewed the dark, dystopian atmosphere of Burton's films by drawing inspiration from the Batman comic book of the Dick Sprang era, as well as the 1960s television series. Keaton chose not to reprise the role due to Burton stepping down as director. William Baldwin and Ethan Hawke were initially considered for Keaton's replacement before Kilmer joined the cast. Coincidentally, Baldwin later starred as Batman in the DC Animated film, ''Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths''.\n\nThe film was released on June 16, 1995, receiving mixed reviews, but was a financial success. ''Batman Forever'' grossed over $336 million worldwide and became the sixth-highest-grossing film worldwide of 1995.\n",
"\nIn Gotham City, some time after defeating the Penguin, the crime fighter Batman defuses a hostage situation caused by a criminal known as Two-Face, the alter ego of the former district attorney Harvey Dent, but Two-Face escapes and remains at large. Edward Nygma, a researcher at Wayne Enterprises who idolizes Bruce Wayne, has developed a device that can beam television into a person's brain. Bruce offers to let Nygma come up with schematics for the device and set up a meeting with his assistant. However, after Nygma demands an answer from him immediately, Bruce rejects the invention, believing it to be too close to mind manipulation. After killing his supervisor Fred Stickley, Nygma resigns and seeks retaliation against Bruce for rejecting his invention and begins to send him riddles (Nygma rigs the security cameras to record Stickley committing suicide, as well as a suicide note, which everybody believes but Bruce Wayne doubts this is the truth) A news report reveals how Harvey Dent became Two-Face: when he was prosecuting a mob boss named Sal Maroni, Maroni threw acid on Dent's face, disfiguring half of it. Batman tried to save him, but failed. After the incident, Dent seeks to kill Batman for failing to save him. Bruce meets Chase Meridian, a psychiatrist who is obsessed with Batman, and invites her to come with him to a circus event. After a performance from the circus performers, The Flying Graysons, Two-Face arrives and threatens to blow up the circus unless Batman comes forward and surrenders his life to him. The Flying Graysons attempt to stop Two-Face, but most of them get killed as a result. Only Dick Grayson, the youngest member, survives as he climbs to the roof and throws Two-Face's bomb into a river.\n\nBruce invites the orphaned Dick to stay at Wayne Manor. Dick, still troubled by the murder of his family, intends to kill Two-Face and avenge his family. When he discovers that Bruce is Batman, he demands that Bruce help him find Two-Face so that he can kill him, but Bruce refuses. Meanwhile, Nygma turns himself into a criminal called the Riddler and forms an alliance with Two-Face. The two steal capital in order to mass-produce Nygma's brainwave device. At Nygma's business party, Nygma discovers Bruce's alter ego using the brainwave device. Two-Face arrives and crashes the party. He nearly kills Batman, but Dick manages to save him. Meanwhile, Chase has fallen in love with Bruce, which surpasses her obsession with Batman, but she soon discovers that they are one and the same. Bruce decides to stop being Batman in order to have a normal life with Chase and to prevent Dick from murdering Two-Face. Dick angrily runs away while Bruce and Chase have dinner together in the manor. The Riddler and Two-Face arrive and attack Wayne Manor; in the process, the Riddler destroys the Batcave. The criminals kidnap Chase after Two-Face shoots Bruce and the Riddler leaves him an another riddle.\n\nUsing the riddles, Bruce and his butler, Alfred, deduce the Riddler's secret identity. Chase is imprisoned by The Riddler and Two-Face in their hideout. Dick returns and becomes Batman's sidekick, Robin, after realising that the Caped Crusader could use a hand. Batman and Robin head to Riddler and Two-Face's lair, Claw Island, where they are separated. Robin encounters Two-Face and nearly kills him, but realizing that he does not have it in him to murder, Robin spares him. Two-Face gets the upper hand and captures Robin. Batman arrives at the lair, where Robin and Chase are held as hostages. The Riddler gives Batman a chance to save only one hostage, but Batman destroys the Riddler's brainwave collecting device, causing the Riddler to suffer a mental breakdown. Batman then rescues both Robin and Chase. Two-Face corners the trio and determines their fate with the flip of a coin, but Batman throws a handful of identical coins in the air, causing Two-Face to stumble and fall to his death. The Riddler is taken to Arkham Asylum and imprisoned, but he claims he knows who Batman is. Chase is asked to consult on the case, but Nygma says that ''he'' himself is Batman, due to his damaged memories. Chase meets Bruce outside and tells him that his secret is safe before parting ways. Bruce resumes his crusade as Batman with Robin as his partner to protect Gotham from crime.\n",
"* Val Kilmer as Bruce Wayne / Batman After coming across the journal of his father, he starts questioning his act of vengeance. Bruce struggles with his dual identity as a crime fighter, becoming romantically involved with Dr. Chase Meridian. Michael Keaton, the actor that portrayed Batman in the first two films, was originally attached to reprise his role, but he declined after learning that Schumacher would direct the film. Keaton later recalled, \"I knew it was in trouble when Schumacher said, ‘Why does everything have to be so dark?’\" Ramsey Ellis plays a young Bruce Wayne.\n* Chris O'Donnell as Dick Grayson / Robin Once a circus acrobat, Dick is taken in by Bruce after Two-Face murders his parents and brother at a circus event. Bruce is reminded of when his parents were murdered when he sees the same vengeance in Dick, and decides to take him in as his ward. He eventually discovers the Batcave and learns Bruce's secret identity. In his wake, he becomes the crime fighting partner, Robin.\n* Nicole Kidman as Dr. Chase Meridian A psychologist and love interest of Bruce Wayne. Chase is fascinated by the dual nature of Batman. She is held as a damsel in distress in the climax.\n* Tommy Lee Jones as Harvey Dent / Two-Face Formerly the good district attorney of Gotham City, half of Harvey's face is scarred with acid during the conviction of a crime boss. Driven insane, he becomes the criminal Harvey Two-Face obsessed with killing Batman. He flips a two-headed coin to determine if he kills (damaged side) or not (clean side). Billy Dee Williams, the actor that portrayed Dent in the first film, was supposed to reprise the role, but Joel Schumacher gave the role to Jones, as he had worked with him previously in ''The Client''.\n* Jim Carrey as Edward Nygma / The Riddler A former Wayne Enterprises employee, Edward resigns after his newest invention is personally rejected by Bruce Wayne, with whom he is obsessed. He becomes the villainous Riddler, leaving riddles and puzzles at crime scenes. Robin Williams was previously considered for the role, but he declined, although later regretted. Singer Micky Dolenz was also in contention for the role, but he also turned down the offer.\n* Michael Gough as Alfred Pennyworth The Wayne family's faithful butler and Bruce's confidant. Alfred also befriends the young Dick Grayson.\n* Pat Hingle as James Gordon The police commissioner of Gotham City.\n* Drew Barrymore as Sugar Two-Face's \"good\" assistant.\n* Debi Mazar as Spice Two-Face's \"bad\" assistant.\n* Elizabeth Sanders as Gossip Gerty Gotham's top gossip columnist.\n* René Auberjonois as Dr. Burton The head Doctor of Arkham Asylum. His surname is a reference to Tim Burton, the director of the first two installments. He originally filmed a scene in which Dr. Burton discovered that Two-Face had escaped and found his guard tied up and gagged, but the scene was deleted from the film.\n* Joe Grifasi as Hawkins, the Bank Guard Two-Face's hostage during the opening scene.\n* Ed Begley, Jr. as Fred Stickley Edward Nygma's ill-tempered supervisor at Wayne Enterprises. After Stickley discovers the side effect of Edward's invention, Edward kills him and makes it look like suicide. Begley was uncredited for this role.\n* Don \"The Dragon\" Wilson as the leader of the Neon Gang.\n* Kimberly Scott as Margaret, Bruce Wayne's secretary.\n* Ofer Samra as Two-Face's thug\n* Patrick Leahy in an uncredited cameo This is the first of five cameo appearances in Batman films by Leahy, a United States Senator and DC Comics fan.\n* En Vogue as Hookers\n",
"\n===Development===\n\n \"I always hated those titles like ''Batman Forever''. That sounds like a tattoo that somebody would get when they're on drugs or something. Or something some kid would write in the yearbook.\"\n\n — Producer Tim Burton\n\n''Batman Returns'' was released in 1992 with financial success and generally favorable reviews from critics, but Warner Bros. was disappointed with its box office run, having made $150 million less than the first film. Director Tim Burton was asked to restrict himself to the role of producer, with approval of Joel Schumacher as director and the husband and wife screenwriting couple Lee and Janet Scott-Batchler, who agreed with him that \"the key element to Batman is his duality. And it's not just that Batman is Bruce Wayne\". Their original script introduced a psychotic Riddler with a pet rat accompanying him. The story elements and much of the dialogue still remained in the finished film, though Schumacher felt it could be \"lightened down\". Schumacher claims he originally had in mind an adaptation of Frank Miller's ''Batman: Year One''. Warner Bros. rejected the idea as they wanted a sequel, not a prequel, though Schumacher was able to include very brief events in Bruce Wayne's childhood with some events of the comic ''The Dark Knight Returns''. Akiva Goldsman, who worked with Schumacher on ''The Client'', was brought in to rewrite the script. Burton, who was more interested in directing ''Ed Wood'', later reflected he was taken aback by some of the focus group meetings for ''Batman Forever'', a title which he hated. Producer Peter MacGregor-Scott represented the studio's aim in making a film for the MTV Generation with full merchandising appeal.\n\nProduction went on fast track with Rene Russo cast as Dr. Chase Meridian but Michael Keaton decided not to reprise Batman because he did not like the new direction the film series was heading in. Keaton also wanted to pursue \"more interesting roles\", turning down $15 million. A decision was made to go with a younger actor for Bruce Wayne, and an offer was made to Ethan Hawke, who turned it down. Schumacher had seen Val Kilmer in ''Tombstone'', but was also interested in Daniel Day-Lewis, Ralph Fiennes, William Baldwin and Johnny Depp. Kilmer signed on without reading the script or knowing who the new director was.\n\nWith Kilmer's casting, Warner Bros. dropped Rene Russo as Chase Meridian. Robin Wright, Jeanne Tripplehorn and Linda Hamilton were all being considered the role was recast with Nicole Kidman. Billy Dee Williams took on the role of Harvey Dent in ''Batman'' on the possibility of portraying Two-Face in a sequel, but Schumacher cast Tommy Lee Jones in the role, after having worked with him on ''The Client''. Jones was reluctant to accept the role, but did so after his son's insistence. Robin Williams was in discussions to be the Riddler at one point. In a 2003 interview, Schumacher stated Michael Jackson lobbied hard for the role, but was turned down before Jim Carrey was cast. Robin appeared in the shooting script of ''Batman Returns'' but was deleted due to too many characters. Marlon Wayans had been cast in the role, and signed for a potential sequel. It was decided to replace Wayans with a white actor. Leonardo DiCaprio was considered, but decided not to pursue the role after a meeting with Schumacher. Chris O'Donnell was cast and Mitchell Gaylord served as his stunt double. Schumacher attempted to create a cameo role for Bono as his MacPhisto character, but both came to agree it was not suitable for the film.\n\n===Filming===\nFilming started in September 1994. Schumacher hired Barbara Ling for production design, claiming that the film needed a \"force\" and good design. Ling could \"advance on it\". Schumacher wanted a design that was not to be in any way connected to the previous films, and instead was to be inspired by the images from the ''Batman'' comic books seen in the 1940s/early 1950s and taken from that of New York City architecture in the 1930s, with a combination of modern Tokyo. He also wanted a \"city with personality\", with more statues, as well as various amounts of neon.\n\nSchumacher had problems filming with Kilmer, whom he described as \"childish and impossible\", reporting that he fought with various crewmen, and refused to speak to Schumacher during two weeks after the director told him to stop behaving in a rude way. Schumacher also mentioned Tommy Lee Jones as a source of trouble: \"Jim Carrey was a gentleman, and Tommy Lee was threatened by him. I'm tired of defending overpaid, overprivileged actors. I pray I don't work with them again.\" Carrey later acknowledged Jones was not friendly to him, telling him once off-set during the production, \"I hate you. I really don't like you ... I cannot sanction your buffoonery.\"\n\n===Design and effects===\n\nRick Baker designed the prosthetic makeup. John Dykstra, Andrew Adamson and Jim Rygiel served as visual effects supervisors, with Pacific Data Images also contributing to visual effects work. PDI provided a computer-generated Batman for complicated stunts. For the costume design, producer Peter MacGregor-Scott claimed that 146 workers were at one point working together. Batman's costume was redesigned along the lines of a more \"MTV organic, and edgier feel\" to the suit. Sound editing and mixing was supervised by Bruce Stambler and John Levesque, which included trips to caves to record bat sounds. A new Batmobile was designed for ''Batman Forever'', with two cars being constructed, one for stunt purposes and one for close-ups. Swiss surrealist painter H.R. Giger provided his version for the Batmobile but it was considered too sinister for the film.\n\n===Music===\n\nElliot Goldenthal was hired by Schumacher to compose the film score before the screenplay was written. In discussions with Schumacher, the director wanted Goldenthal to avoid taking inspiration from Danny Elfman, and requested an original composition. The film's promotional teaser trailer used the main title theme from Elfman's score of 1989's ''Batman''.\n\nThe soundtrack was commercially successful, selling almost as many copies as Prince's soundtrack to the 1989 ''Batman'' film. Only five of the songs on the soundtrack are actually featured in the movie. Hit singles from the soundtrack include \"Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me\" by U2 and \"Kiss from a Rose\" by Seal, both of which were nominated for MTV Movie Awards. \"Kiss from a Rose\" (whose video was also directed by Joel Schumacher) reached No. 1 in the U.S. charts as well. The soundtrack itself, featuring additional songs by The Flaming Lips, Brandy (both songs also included in the film), Method Man, Nick Cave, Michael Hutchence (of INXS), PJ Harvey, and Massive Attack, was an attempt to (in producer Peter MacGregor-Scott's words) make the film more \"pop\".\n",
"''Batman Forever'' went through a few major edits before its release. Originally darker than the final product, the movie's original length was closer to 2 hours and 40 minutes according to director Joel Schumacher. There was talk of an extended cut being released to DVD for the film's 10th anniversary in 2005. While all four previous ''Batman'' films were given special edition DVD releases on the same day as the ''Batman Begins'' DVD release, none of them were given extended cuts, although some of the following scenes were in a deleted scenes section in the special features.\n\nThere was an undercurrent theme involving Bruce having repressed memories of an aspect of his parents' death that he hadn't faced which was finding his father's diary on the night of his parents' wake and reading that Bruce insisted his parents go to the theater so he could watch one of the shows, meaning the reason he became Batman was out of the guilt that he killed them.\n\nMany scenes were filmed but deleted from the film, other scenes had footage removed. These included:\n\n* The escape of Two-Face from Arkham Asylum. René Auberjonois had another scene filmed here in the role of Doctor Burton, but his role was reduced in the final film. He discovers Two-Face's escape, encountering his psychologist hanged in Two-Face's cell with \"The Bat Must Die\" written in blood on the wall. This was supposed to be the film's opening scene, but producers decided this was far too dark for a family audience.\n* When Two-Face addresses the crowd from the helicopter in the opening action scene, the speech was truncated and several lines that appeared in the Theatrical Trailer were removed, including the line \"If the Bat wants to play, we'll play!\"\n* There was a sequence that contained an extended fight scene between Two-Face and Batman, where they both struggle for control of the helicopter. In this scene, Two-Face accuses Batman of being \"a killer too.\" Two-face then manages to escape by the parachute, after Batman realizes he has locked the steering wheel into position. This sequence is included in rough form on the special edition DVD. \n* A scene right before Edward Nygma arrived at Wayne Manor. It featured Bruce Wayne watching a local Gotham talk show with Chase Meridian as a guest, talking about Batman.\n* One scene right before Riddler and Two-face team up featured a little conversation with Dick and Bruce in the gym of the manor. This would explain why Dick suddenly has martial arts training. This scene appears in a rough edit on the Special Edition DVD.\n* The scene where the Riddler fails to punch a security guard out. The guard is then brutally beaten by the Riddler using his cane. \n* One sequence came directly after the casino robbery, where Batman follows a robbery signal on a tracking device in the Batmobile. He shows up at the crime scene and finds he is at the wrong place (a beauty salon), in which a room full of girls laugh at him. The Riddler had been throwing Batman off the track by messing with the Batmobile's tracking device. This would explain why in the theatrical version Batman seems to give Riddler and Two-Face moments of free rein over the city. This scene appears in a rough edit on the Special Edition DVD.\n* The construction of NygmaTech was after Batman solves the third riddle and was more in-depth. There were scenes shot that appear in publicity stills of Edward Nygma with a hard hat helping with the construction of his headquarters on Claw Island.\n* Sugar and Spice, played by Drew Barrymore and Debi Mazar, try out the Riddler's device during the montage when it goes on sale. They are seated with the Riddler and Two-Face on the couch where Chase is handcuffed later in the film. This scene appears in the comic adaptation but not in the final film.\n* There was originally a scene after the montage of Alfred and Bruce examining the NygmaTech \"Box\".\n* An extended scene established Bruce in the Batcave shortly after having discussed with Dick then that this would have saved his life after the battle with Two-Face in the subway system under construction. In this scene he is appreciated as the GNN news (Bruce watching in the Batcomputer) attacking Batman and Two-Face after the battle in the Subway and after that Bruce talking to Alfred turns into the dilemma of continuing to be Batman and try a normal life with Chase. Like the deleted Helicopter fight sequence, this scene also makes reference to Batman himself being \"a killer\", and in the original production screenplay, this scene was to contain footage from ''Batman Returns'', specifically taken from the rooftop fight scene with Catwoman. This would explain why in the theatrical version Bruce turns off all the systems in the Batcave telling Dick he gives up being Batman. This scene appears in a rough form on the Special Edition DVD. \n* Another scene in the Wayne Manor raid sequence was longer, featuring Bruce and Chase fighting Two-Face and his thugs.\n* The scene involving Chase Meridian on the couch originally included a longer ending where the Riddler injects her with a green sleeping agent so he can easily place her in the small tube with the trap door.\n* Another deleted scene involved Bruce waking up after being shot in the head by Two-Face, temporarily forgetting his origin and life as the Dark Knight. Alfred takes him to the Batcave, which has been destroyed by the Riddler. They stand on the platform where the Batmobile was, and Alfred says, \"Funny they did not know about the cave beneath the cave.\" The platform then rotates downward to another level where the sonar-modification equipment is kept, from the special Batsuit to the hi-tech weaponry. Bruce then discovers the cavern where he first saw the giant bat that inspired him to become Batman. Inside he finds his father's red diary which he had dropped when he first fell into the Batcave after his parents death. He reads the entry about him insisting his parents take him to the theater to see a show the same night they were killed. He realizes he had misread it, and his father had written 'even though Bruce insists, we wanted to see Zorro so his show will have to wait until next week'. Bruce realizes his parents death was not his fault after all. The giant bat then appears and Bruce raises his arms to match the wing anatomy of the bat and the shot shows that they are one. Bruce now remembers who he is and goes with Alfred to solve the riddles left throughout the film. Screenwriter Akiva Goldsman admitted the scene was very theatrical on the special edition DVD and felt it would have made a difference to the final cut. The bat was designed and created by Rick Baker, who was in charge of the make-up of Two-Face. This scene appears in a rough form on the special edition DVD and is briefly mentioned in the comic adaptation.\n* The fight scene between Two-Face and Robin on Claw Island was originally longer.\n* The original ending was similar in style to the previous Batman films, which had involved a scene with Alfred in the limousine, the camera tracking upward through the Gotham cityscape, followed by a rooftop shot involving a silhouetted hero (Batman in the original, Catwoman in ''Batman Returns'') facing the Bat Signal. When Alfred drives Doctor Chase Meridian back to Gotham she asks him \"Does it ever end, Alfred?\" Alfred replies, \"No, Doctor Meridian, not in this lifetime...\" The Bat-Signal shines on the night sky and Batman is standing on a pillar looking ahead. Robin then comes into shot and joins his new partner. They both leap off the pillar, towards the camera. A rough edit of the first half of the scene appears on the special edition DVD, but not in its entirety.\n",
"\n===Box office===\n''Batman Forever'' opened in 2,842 theaters in the United States on June 16, 1995, making $52.8 million in its opening weekend, breaking ''Jurassic Park'''s record for highest opening weekend gross of all-time (it was surpassed two years later by ''The Lost World: Jurassic Park''s $72.1 million). The film went on to gross $184 million in North America, and $152.5 million in other countries, totaling $336.53 million. The film earned more money than its predecessor ''Batman Returns'', and was the second-highest (behind ''Toy Story'') grossing film of 1995, in the U.S.\n\n===Critical reaction ===\nOn Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 40% based on 58 reviews, with an average rating of 5.1/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"Loud, excessively busy, and often boring, ''Batman Forever'' nonetheless has the charisma of Jim Carrey and Tommy Lee Jones to offer mild relief.\" On Metacritic, the film has a score of 51 out of 100, based on 23 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"A–\" on an A+ to F scale.\n\nPeter Travers said \"''Batman Forever'' still gets in its licks. There's no fun machine this summer that packs more surprises.\" However, he criticized the film's excessive commercialism and felt that \"the script misses the pain Tim Burton caught in a man tormented by the long-ago murder of his parents\" seeing the Bruce Wayne of Kilmer as \"inexpressive\". Brian Lowry of ''Variety'' believed \"One does have to question the logic behind adding nipples to the hard-rubber batsuit. Whose idea was that supposed to be anyway, Alfred's? Some of the computer-generated Gotham cityscapes appear too obviously fake. Elliot Goldenthal's score, while serviceable, also isn't as stirring as Danny Elfman's work in the first two films.\"\n\nJames Berardinelli enjoyed the film. \"It's lighter, brighter, funnier, faster-paced, and a whole lot more colorful than before.\" Scott Beatty felt \"Tommy Lee Jones played Harvey Dent as a Joker knock-off rather than a multi-layered rogue.\" Lee Bermejo called ''Batman Forever'' \"unbearable\". Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert both gave the film mixed reviews, but with the former giving it a thumbs up and the latter a thumbs down. In his written review, Ebert wrote: \"Is the movie better entertainment? Well, it's great bubblegum for the eyes. Younger children will be able to process it more easily; some kids were led bawling from ''Batman Returns'' where the PG-13 rating was a joke.\" Mick LaSalle had a mixed reaction, concluding \"a shot of Kilmer's rubber buns at one point is guaranteed to bring squeals from the audience.\"\n\n===Accolades===\nAt the 68th Academy Awards, ''Batman Forever'' was nominated for Cinematography (lost to ''Braveheart''), Sound Mixing (Donald O. Mitchell, Frank A. Montaño, Michael Herbick and Petur Hliddal; lost to ''Apollo 13'') and Sound Editing (John Leveque and Bruce Stambler) (also lost to ''Braveheart''). \"Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me\" by U2 was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song (lost to \"Colors of the Wind\" from ''Pocahontas''), but was also nominated for the Worst Original Song Golden Raspberry Award (lost to \"Walk Into the Wind\" from ''Showgirls''). At the Saturn Awards, the film was nominated for Best Fantasy Film (lost to ''Babe''), Make-up (lost to ''Seven''), Special Effects (lost to ''Jumanji'') and Costume Design (lost to ''12 Monkeys''). Composer Elliot Goldenthal was given a Grammy Award nomination. ''Batman Forever'' received six nominations at the 1996 MTV Movie Awards, four of which were divided between two categories (Carrey and Lee Jones for Best Villain; and Seal's \"Kiss from a Rose\" and U2's \"Hold Me\" in Best Song from a Movie). However, it won in just one category—Best Song from a Movie for Seal's \"Kiss from a Rose\".\n\n===Merchandising===\nIn addition to a large line of toys and action figures from Kenner, the McDonald's food chain released several collectibles and mugs to coincide with the release of the film. Peter David and Alan Grant wrote separate novelizations of the film. Dennis O'Neil authored a comic book adaptation, with art by Michal Dutkiewicz.\n\nSix Flags Great Adventure theme park re-themed their \"Axis Chemical\" arena, home of the Batman stunt show, to resemble \"Batman Forever\", and the new show featured props from the film. Because of the mostly negative critical reaction however, the stunt arena was changed back to its original version after the season. Six Flags Over Texas featured a one-time fireworks show to promote the movie, and replica busts of Batman, Robin, Two-Face, and the Riddler can still be found in the Justice League store in the Looney Tunes U.S.A. section.\n",
"\n* ''Batman Forever'' (video game)\n* ''Batman Forever: The Arcade Game''\n* ''Batman Forever'' (soundtrack)\n\n",
"\n",
"\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Plot",
"Cast",
"Production",
"Deleted scenes",
"Release",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Batman Forever | [
"* Joe Grifasi as Hawkins, the Bank Guard Two-Face's hostage during the opening scene."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n'''''Batman Forever''''' is a 1995 American superhero film directed by Joel Schumacher and produced by Tim Burton, based on the DC Comics character Batman.",
"It is the third installment of the initial ''Batman'' film series, with Val Kilmer replacing Michael Keaton as Bruce Wayne / Batman.",
"The film stars Chris O'Donnell, Nicole Kidman, Tommy Lee Jones and Jim Carrey.",
"The plot focuses on Batman trying to stop Two-Face (Jones) and the Riddler (Carrey) in their villainous scheme to extract confidential information from all the minds in Gotham City and use it to learn Batman's identity and bring the city under their control.",
"He gains allegiance from a love interest—psychiatrist Dr. Chase Meridian (Kidman) and a young, orphaned circus acrobat named Dick Grayson (O'Donnell), who becomes his sidekick Robin.",
"''Batman Forever''s tone is significantly different from the previous installments, becoming more family-friendly since Warner Bros. believed that the previous ''Batman'' film, ''Batman Returns'' (1992), failed to outgross its predecessor due to parent complaints about the film's violence and dark overtones.",
"Schumacher eschewed the dark, dystopian atmosphere of Burton's films by drawing inspiration from the Batman comic book of the Dick Sprang era, as well as the 1960s television series.",
"Keaton chose not to reprise the role due to Burton stepping down as director.",
"William Baldwin and Ethan Hawke were initially considered for Keaton's replacement before Kilmer joined the cast.",
"Coincidentally, Baldwin later starred as Batman in the DC Animated film, ''Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths''.",
"The film was released on June 16, 1995, receiving mixed reviews, but was a financial success.",
"''Batman Forever'' grossed over $336 million worldwide and became the sixth-highest-grossing film worldwide of 1995.",
"\nIn Gotham City, some time after defeating the Penguin, the crime fighter Batman defuses a hostage situation caused by a criminal known as Two-Face, the alter ego of the former district attorney Harvey Dent, but Two-Face escapes and remains at large.",
"Edward Nygma, a researcher at Wayne Enterprises who idolizes Bruce Wayne, has developed a device that can beam television into a person's brain.",
"Bruce offers to let Nygma come up with schematics for the device and set up a meeting with his assistant.",
"However, after Nygma demands an answer from him immediately, Bruce rejects the invention, believing it to be too close to mind manipulation.",
"After killing his supervisor Fred Stickley, Nygma resigns and seeks retaliation against Bruce for rejecting his invention and begins to send him riddles (Nygma rigs the security cameras to record Stickley committing suicide, as well as a suicide note, which everybody believes but Bruce Wayne doubts this is the truth) A news report reveals how Harvey Dent became Two-Face: when he was prosecuting a mob boss named Sal Maroni, Maroni threw acid on Dent's face, disfiguring half of it.",
"Batman tried to save him, but failed.",
"After the incident, Dent seeks to kill Batman for failing to save him.",
"Bruce meets Chase Meridian, a psychiatrist who is obsessed with Batman, and invites her to come with him to a circus event.",
"After a performance from the circus performers, The Flying Graysons, Two-Face arrives and threatens to blow up the circus unless Batman comes forward and surrenders his life to him.",
"The Flying Graysons attempt to stop Two-Face, but most of them get killed as a result.",
"Only Dick Grayson, the youngest member, survives as he climbs to the roof and throws Two-Face's bomb into a river.",
"Bruce invites the orphaned Dick to stay at Wayne Manor.",
"Dick, still troubled by the murder of his family, intends to kill Two-Face and avenge his family.",
"When he discovers that Bruce is Batman, he demands that Bruce help him find Two-Face so that he can kill him, but Bruce refuses.",
"Meanwhile, Nygma turns himself into a criminal called the Riddler and forms an alliance with Two-Face.",
"The two steal capital in order to mass-produce Nygma's brainwave device.",
"At Nygma's business party, Nygma discovers Bruce's alter ego using the brainwave device.",
"Two-Face arrives and crashes the party.",
"He nearly kills Batman, but Dick manages to save him.",
"Meanwhile, Chase has fallen in love with Bruce, which surpasses her obsession with Batman, but she soon discovers that they are one and the same.",
"Bruce decides to stop being Batman in order to have a normal life with Chase and to prevent Dick from murdering Two-Face.",
"Dick angrily runs away while Bruce and Chase have dinner together in the manor.",
"The Riddler and Two-Face arrive and attack Wayne Manor; in the process, the Riddler destroys the Batcave.",
"The criminals kidnap Chase after Two-Face shoots Bruce and the Riddler leaves him an another riddle.",
"Using the riddles, Bruce and his butler, Alfred, deduce the Riddler's secret identity.",
"Chase is imprisoned by The Riddler and Two-Face in their hideout.",
"Dick returns and becomes Batman's sidekick, Robin, after realising that the Caped Crusader could use a hand.",
"Batman and Robin head to Riddler and Two-Face's lair, Claw Island, where they are separated.",
"Robin encounters Two-Face and nearly kills him, but realizing that he does not have it in him to murder, Robin spares him.",
"Two-Face gets the upper hand and captures Robin.",
"Batman arrives at the lair, where Robin and Chase are held as hostages.",
"The Riddler gives Batman a chance to save only one hostage, but Batman destroys the Riddler's brainwave collecting device, causing the Riddler to suffer a mental breakdown.",
"Batman then rescues both Robin and Chase.",
"Two-Face corners the trio and determines their fate with the flip of a coin, but Batman throws a handful of identical coins in the air, causing Two-Face to stumble and fall to his death.",
"The Riddler is taken to Arkham Asylum and imprisoned, but he claims he knows who Batman is.",
"Chase is asked to consult on the case, but Nygma says that ''he'' himself is Batman, due to his damaged memories.",
"Chase meets Bruce outside and tells him that his secret is safe before parting ways.",
"Bruce resumes his crusade as Batman with Robin as his partner to protect Gotham from crime.",
"* Val Kilmer as Bruce Wayne / Batman After coming across the journal of his father, he starts questioning his act of vengeance.",
"Bruce struggles with his dual identity as a crime fighter, becoming romantically involved with Dr. Chase Meridian.",
"Michael Keaton, the actor that portrayed Batman in the first two films, was originally attached to reprise his role, but he declined after learning that Schumacher would direct the film.",
"Keaton later recalled, \"I knew it was in trouble when Schumacher said, ‘Why does everything have to be so dark?’\" Ramsey Ellis plays a young Bruce Wayne.",
"* Chris O'Donnell as Dick Grayson / Robin Once a circus acrobat, Dick is taken in by Bruce after Two-Face murders his parents and brother at a circus event.",
"Bruce is reminded of when his parents were murdered when he sees the same vengeance in Dick, and decides to take him in as his ward.",
"He eventually discovers the Batcave and learns Bruce's secret identity.",
"In his wake, he becomes the crime fighting partner, Robin.",
"* Nicole Kidman as Dr. Chase Meridian A psychologist and love interest of Bruce Wayne.",
"Chase is fascinated by the dual nature of Batman.",
"She is held as a damsel in distress in the climax.",
"* Tommy Lee Jones as Harvey Dent / Two-Face Formerly the good district attorney of Gotham City, half of Harvey's face is scarred with acid during the conviction of a crime boss.",
"Driven insane, he becomes the criminal Harvey Two-Face obsessed with killing Batman.",
"He flips a two-headed coin to determine if he kills (damaged side) or not (clean side).",
"Billy Dee Williams, the actor that portrayed Dent in the first film, was supposed to reprise the role, but Joel Schumacher gave the role to Jones, as he had worked with him previously in ''The Client''.",
"* Jim Carrey as Edward Nygma / The Riddler A former Wayne Enterprises employee, Edward resigns after his newest invention is personally rejected by Bruce Wayne, with whom he is obsessed.",
"He becomes the villainous Riddler, leaving riddles and puzzles at crime scenes.",
"Robin Williams was previously considered for the role, but he declined, although later regretted.",
"Singer Micky Dolenz was also in contention for the role, but he also turned down the offer.",
"* Michael Gough as Alfred Pennyworth The Wayne family's faithful butler and Bruce's confidant.",
"Alfred also befriends the young Dick Grayson.",
"* Pat Hingle as James Gordon The police commissioner of Gotham City.",
"* Drew Barrymore as Sugar Two-Face's \"good\" assistant.",
"* Debi Mazar as Spice Two-Face's \"bad\" assistant.",
"* Elizabeth Sanders as Gossip Gerty Gotham's top gossip columnist.",
"* René Auberjonois as Dr. Burton The head Doctor of Arkham Asylum.",
"His surname is a reference to Tim Burton, the director of the first two installments.",
"He originally filmed a scene in which Dr. Burton discovered that Two-Face had escaped and found his guard tied up and gagged, but the scene was deleted from the film.",
"* Ed Begley, Jr. as Fred Stickley Edward Nygma's ill-tempered supervisor at Wayne Enterprises.",
"After Stickley discovers the side effect of Edward's invention, Edward kills him and makes it look like suicide.",
"Begley was uncredited for this role.",
"* Don \"The Dragon\" Wilson as the leader of the Neon Gang.",
"* Kimberly Scott as Margaret, Bruce Wayne's secretary.",
"* Ofer Samra as Two-Face's thug\n* Patrick Leahy in an uncredited cameo This is the first of five cameo appearances in Batman films by Leahy, a United States Senator and DC Comics fan.",
"* En Vogue as Hookers",
"\n===Development===\n\n \"I always hated those titles like ''Batman Forever''.",
"That sounds like a tattoo that somebody would get when they're on drugs or something.",
"Or something some kid would write in the yearbook.\"",
"— Producer Tim Burton\n\n''Batman Returns'' was released in 1992 with financial success and generally favorable reviews from critics, but Warner Bros. was disappointed with its box office run, having made $150 million less than the first film.",
"Director Tim Burton was asked to restrict himself to the role of producer, with approval of Joel Schumacher as director and the husband and wife screenwriting couple Lee and Janet Scott-Batchler, who agreed with him that \"the key element to Batman is his duality.",
"And it's not just that Batman is Bruce Wayne\".",
"Their original script introduced a psychotic Riddler with a pet rat accompanying him.",
"The story elements and much of the dialogue still remained in the finished film, though Schumacher felt it could be \"lightened down\".",
"Schumacher claims he originally had in mind an adaptation of Frank Miller's ''Batman: Year One''.",
"Warner Bros. rejected the idea as they wanted a sequel, not a prequel, though Schumacher was able to include very brief events in Bruce Wayne's childhood with some events of the comic ''The Dark Knight Returns''.",
"Akiva Goldsman, who worked with Schumacher on ''The Client'', was brought in to rewrite the script.",
"Burton, who was more interested in directing ''Ed Wood'', later reflected he was taken aback by some of the focus group meetings for ''Batman Forever'', a title which he hated.",
"Producer Peter MacGregor-Scott represented the studio's aim in making a film for the MTV Generation with full merchandising appeal.",
"Production went on fast track with Rene Russo cast as Dr. Chase Meridian but Michael Keaton decided not to reprise Batman because he did not like the new direction the film series was heading in.",
"Keaton also wanted to pursue \"more interesting roles\", turning down $15 million.",
"A decision was made to go with a younger actor for Bruce Wayne, and an offer was made to Ethan Hawke, who turned it down.",
"Schumacher had seen Val Kilmer in ''Tombstone'', but was also interested in Daniel Day-Lewis, Ralph Fiennes, William Baldwin and Johnny Depp.",
"Kilmer signed on without reading the script or knowing who the new director was.",
"With Kilmer's casting, Warner Bros. dropped Rene Russo as Chase Meridian.",
"Robin Wright, Jeanne Tripplehorn and Linda Hamilton were all being considered the role was recast with Nicole Kidman.",
"Billy Dee Williams took on the role of Harvey Dent in ''Batman'' on the possibility of portraying Two-Face in a sequel, but Schumacher cast Tommy Lee Jones in the role, after having worked with him on ''The Client''.",
"Jones was reluctant to accept the role, but did so after his son's insistence.",
"Robin Williams was in discussions to be the Riddler at one point.",
"In a 2003 interview, Schumacher stated Michael Jackson lobbied hard for the role, but was turned down before Jim Carrey was cast.",
"Robin appeared in the shooting script of ''Batman Returns'' but was deleted due to too many characters.",
"Marlon Wayans had been cast in the role, and signed for a potential sequel.",
"It was decided to replace Wayans with a white actor.",
"Leonardo DiCaprio was considered, but decided not to pursue the role after a meeting with Schumacher.",
"Chris O'Donnell was cast and Mitchell Gaylord served as his stunt double.",
"Schumacher attempted to create a cameo role for Bono as his MacPhisto character, but both came to agree it was not suitable for the film.",
"===Filming===\nFilming started in September 1994.",
"Schumacher hired Barbara Ling for production design, claiming that the film needed a \"force\" and good design.",
"Ling could \"advance on it\".",
"Schumacher wanted a design that was not to be in any way connected to the previous films, and instead was to be inspired by the images from the ''Batman'' comic books seen in the 1940s/early 1950s and taken from that of New York City architecture in the 1930s, with a combination of modern Tokyo.",
"He also wanted a \"city with personality\", with more statues, as well as various amounts of neon.",
"Schumacher had problems filming with Kilmer, whom he described as \"childish and impossible\", reporting that he fought with various crewmen, and refused to speak to Schumacher during two weeks after the director told him to stop behaving in a rude way.",
"Schumacher also mentioned Tommy Lee Jones as a source of trouble: \"Jim Carrey was a gentleman, and Tommy Lee was threatened by him.",
"I'm tired of defending overpaid, overprivileged actors.",
"I pray I don't work with them again.\"",
"Carrey later acknowledged Jones was not friendly to him, telling him once off-set during the production, \"I hate you.",
"I really don't like you ...",
"I cannot sanction your buffoonery.\"",
"===Design and effects===\n\nRick Baker designed the prosthetic makeup.",
"John Dykstra, Andrew Adamson and Jim Rygiel served as visual effects supervisors, with Pacific Data Images also contributing to visual effects work.",
"PDI provided a computer-generated Batman for complicated stunts.",
"For the costume design, producer Peter MacGregor-Scott claimed that 146 workers were at one point working together.",
"Batman's costume was redesigned along the lines of a more \"MTV organic, and edgier feel\" to the suit.",
"Sound editing and mixing was supervised by Bruce Stambler and John Levesque, which included trips to caves to record bat sounds.",
"A new Batmobile was designed for ''Batman Forever'', with two cars being constructed, one for stunt purposes and one for close-ups.",
"Swiss surrealist painter H.R.",
"Giger provided his version for the Batmobile but it was considered too sinister for the film.",
"===Music===\n\nElliot Goldenthal was hired by Schumacher to compose the film score before the screenplay was written.",
"In discussions with Schumacher, the director wanted Goldenthal to avoid taking inspiration from Danny Elfman, and requested an original composition.",
"The film's promotional teaser trailer used the main title theme from Elfman's score of 1989's ''Batman''.",
"The soundtrack was commercially successful, selling almost as many copies as Prince's soundtrack to the 1989 ''Batman'' film.",
"Only five of the songs on the soundtrack are actually featured in the movie.",
"Hit singles from the soundtrack include \"Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me\" by U2 and \"Kiss from a Rose\" by Seal, both of which were nominated for MTV Movie Awards.",
"\"Kiss from a Rose\" (whose video was also directed by Joel Schumacher) reached No.",
"1 in the U.S. charts as well.",
"The soundtrack itself, featuring additional songs by The Flaming Lips, Brandy (both songs also included in the film), Method Man, Nick Cave, Michael Hutchence (of INXS), PJ Harvey, and Massive Attack, was an attempt to (in producer Peter MacGregor-Scott's words) make the film more \"pop\".",
"''Batman Forever'' went through a few major edits before its release.",
"Originally darker than the final product, the movie's original length was closer to 2 hours and 40 minutes according to director Joel Schumacher.",
"There was talk of an extended cut being released to DVD for the film's 10th anniversary in 2005.",
"While all four previous ''Batman'' films were given special edition DVD releases on the same day as the ''Batman Begins'' DVD release, none of them were given extended cuts, although some of the following scenes were in a deleted scenes section in the special features.",
"There was an undercurrent theme involving Bruce having repressed memories of an aspect of his parents' death that he hadn't faced which was finding his father's diary on the night of his parents' wake and reading that Bruce insisted his parents go to the theater so he could watch one of the shows, meaning the reason he became Batman was out of the guilt that he killed them.",
"Many scenes were filmed but deleted from the film, other scenes had footage removed.",
"These included:\n\n* The escape of Two-Face from Arkham Asylum.",
"René Auberjonois had another scene filmed here in the role of Doctor Burton, but his role was reduced in the final film.",
"He discovers Two-Face's escape, encountering his psychologist hanged in Two-Face's cell with \"The Bat Must Die\" written in blood on the wall.",
"This was supposed to be the film's opening scene, but producers decided this was far too dark for a family audience.",
"* When Two-Face addresses the crowd from the helicopter in the opening action scene, the speech was truncated and several lines that appeared in the Theatrical Trailer were removed, including the line \"If the Bat wants to play, we'll play!\"",
"* There was a sequence that contained an extended fight scene between Two-Face and Batman, where they both struggle for control of the helicopter.",
"In this scene, Two-Face accuses Batman of being \"a killer too.\"",
"Two-face then manages to escape by the parachute, after Batman realizes he has locked the steering wheel into position.",
"This sequence is included in rough form on the special edition DVD.",
"* A scene right before Edward Nygma arrived at Wayne Manor.",
"It featured Bruce Wayne watching a local Gotham talk show with Chase Meridian as a guest, talking about Batman.",
"* One scene right before Riddler and Two-face team up featured a little conversation with Dick and Bruce in the gym of the manor.",
"This would explain why Dick suddenly has martial arts training.",
"This scene appears in a rough edit on the Special Edition DVD.",
"* The scene where the Riddler fails to punch a security guard out.",
"The guard is then brutally beaten by the Riddler using his cane.",
"* One sequence came directly after the casino robbery, where Batman follows a robbery signal on a tracking device in the Batmobile.",
"He shows up at the crime scene and finds he is at the wrong place (a beauty salon), in which a room full of girls laugh at him.",
"The Riddler had been throwing Batman off the track by messing with the Batmobile's tracking device.",
"This would explain why in the theatrical version Batman seems to give Riddler and Two-Face moments of free rein over the city.",
"This scene appears in a rough edit on the Special Edition DVD.",
"* The construction of NygmaTech was after Batman solves the third riddle and was more in-depth.",
"There were scenes shot that appear in publicity stills of Edward Nygma with a hard hat helping with the construction of his headquarters on Claw Island.",
"* Sugar and Spice, played by Drew Barrymore and Debi Mazar, try out the Riddler's device during the montage when it goes on sale.",
"They are seated with the Riddler and Two-Face on the couch where Chase is handcuffed later in the film.",
"This scene appears in the comic adaptation but not in the final film.",
"* There was originally a scene after the montage of Alfred and Bruce examining the NygmaTech \"Box\".",
"* An extended scene established Bruce in the Batcave shortly after having discussed with Dick then that this would have saved his life after the battle with Two-Face in the subway system under construction.",
"In this scene he is appreciated as the GNN news (Bruce watching in the Batcomputer) attacking Batman and Two-Face after the battle in the Subway and after that Bruce talking to Alfred turns into the dilemma of continuing to be Batman and try a normal life with Chase.",
"Like the deleted Helicopter fight sequence, this scene also makes reference to Batman himself being \"a killer\", and in the original production screenplay, this scene was to contain footage from ''Batman Returns'', specifically taken from the rooftop fight scene with Catwoman.",
"This would explain why in the theatrical version Bruce turns off all the systems in the Batcave telling Dick he gives up being Batman.",
"This scene appears in a rough form on the Special Edition DVD.",
"* Another scene in the Wayne Manor raid sequence was longer, featuring Bruce and Chase fighting Two-Face and his thugs.",
"* The scene involving Chase Meridian on the couch originally included a longer ending where the Riddler injects her with a green sleeping agent so he can easily place her in the small tube with the trap door.",
"* Another deleted scene involved Bruce waking up after being shot in the head by Two-Face, temporarily forgetting his origin and life as the Dark Knight.",
"Alfred takes him to the Batcave, which has been destroyed by the Riddler.",
"They stand on the platform where the Batmobile was, and Alfred says, \"Funny they did not know about the cave beneath the cave.\"",
"The platform then rotates downward to another level where the sonar-modification equipment is kept, from the special Batsuit to the hi-tech weaponry.",
"Bruce then discovers the cavern where he first saw the giant bat that inspired him to become Batman.",
"Inside he finds his father's red diary which he had dropped when he first fell into the Batcave after his parents death.",
"He reads the entry about him insisting his parents take him to the theater to see a show the same night they were killed.",
"He realizes he had misread it, and his father had written 'even though Bruce insists, we wanted to see Zorro so his show will have to wait until next week'.",
"Bruce realizes his parents death was not his fault after all.",
"The giant bat then appears and Bruce raises his arms to match the wing anatomy of the bat and the shot shows that they are one.",
"Bruce now remembers who he is and goes with Alfred to solve the riddles left throughout the film.",
"Screenwriter Akiva Goldsman admitted the scene was very theatrical on the special edition DVD and felt it would have made a difference to the final cut.",
"The bat was designed and created by Rick Baker, who was in charge of the make-up of Two-Face.",
"This scene appears in a rough form on the special edition DVD and is briefly mentioned in the comic adaptation.",
"* The fight scene between Two-Face and Robin on Claw Island was originally longer.",
"* The original ending was similar in style to the previous Batman films, which had involved a scene with Alfred in the limousine, the camera tracking upward through the Gotham cityscape, followed by a rooftop shot involving a silhouetted hero (Batman in the original, Catwoman in ''Batman Returns'') facing the Bat Signal.",
"When Alfred drives Doctor Chase Meridian back to Gotham she asks him \"Does it ever end, Alfred?\"",
"Alfred replies, \"No, Doctor Meridian, not in this lifetime...\" The Bat-Signal shines on the night sky and Batman is standing on a pillar looking ahead.",
"Robin then comes into shot and joins his new partner.",
"They both leap off the pillar, towards the camera.",
"A rough edit of the first half of the scene appears on the special edition DVD, but not in its entirety.",
"\n===Box office===\n''Batman Forever'' opened in 2,842 theaters in the United States on June 16, 1995, making $52.8 million in its opening weekend, breaking ''Jurassic Park'''s record for highest opening weekend gross of all-time (it was surpassed two years later by ''The Lost World: Jurassic Park''s $72.1 million).",
"The film went on to gross $184 million in North America, and $152.5 million in other countries, totaling $336.53 million.",
"The film earned more money than its predecessor ''Batman Returns'', and was the second-highest (behind ''Toy Story'') grossing film of 1995, in the U.S.\n\n===Critical reaction ===\nOn Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 40% based on 58 reviews, with an average rating of 5.1/10.",
"The site's critical consensus reads, \"Loud, excessively busy, and often boring, ''Batman Forever'' nonetheless has the charisma of Jim Carrey and Tommy Lee Jones to offer mild relief.\"",
"On Metacritic, the film has a score of 51 out of 100, based on 23 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\".",
"Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"A–\" on an A+ to F scale.",
"Peter Travers said \"''Batman Forever'' still gets in its licks.",
"There's no fun machine this summer that packs more surprises.\"",
"However, he criticized the film's excessive commercialism and felt that \"the script misses the pain Tim Burton caught in a man tormented by the long-ago murder of his parents\" seeing the Bruce Wayne of Kilmer as \"inexpressive\".",
"Brian Lowry of ''Variety'' believed \"One does have to question the logic behind adding nipples to the hard-rubber batsuit.",
"Whose idea was that supposed to be anyway, Alfred's?",
"Some of the computer-generated Gotham cityscapes appear too obviously fake.",
"Elliot Goldenthal's score, while serviceable, also isn't as stirring as Danny Elfman's work in the first two films.\"",
"James Berardinelli enjoyed the film.",
"\"It's lighter, brighter, funnier, faster-paced, and a whole lot more colorful than before.\"",
"Scott Beatty felt \"Tommy Lee Jones played Harvey Dent as a Joker knock-off rather than a multi-layered rogue.\"",
"Lee Bermejo called ''Batman Forever'' \"unbearable\".",
"Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert both gave the film mixed reviews, but with the former giving it a thumbs up and the latter a thumbs down.",
"In his written review, Ebert wrote: \"Is the movie better entertainment?",
"Well, it's great bubblegum for the eyes.",
"Younger children will be able to process it more easily; some kids were led bawling from ''Batman Returns'' where the PG-13 rating was a joke.\"",
"Mick LaSalle had a mixed reaction, concluding \"a shot of Kilmer's rubber buns at one point is guaranteed to bring squeals from the audience.\"",
"===Accolades===\nAt the 68th Academy Awards, ''Batman Forever'' was nominated for Cinematography (lost to ''Braveheart''), Sound Mixing (Donald O. Mitchell, Frank A. Montaño, Michael Herbick and Petur Hliddal; lost to ''Apollo 13'') and Sound Editing (John Leveque and Bruce Stambler) (also lost to ''Braveheart'').",
"\"Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me\" by U2 was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song (lost to \"Colors of the Wind\" from ''Pocahontas''), but was also nominated for the Worst Original Song Golden Raspberry Award (lost to \"Walk Into the Wind\" from ''Showgirls'').",
"At the Saturn Awards, the film was nominated for Best Fantasy Film (lost to ''Babe''), Make-up (lost to ''Seven''), Special Effects (lost to ''Jumanji'') and Costume Design (lost to ''12 Monkeys'').",
"Composer Elliot Goldenthal was given a Grammy Award nomination.",
"''Batman Forever'' received six nominations at the 1996 MTV Movie Awards, four of which were divided between two categories (Carrey and Lee Jones for Best Villain; and Seal's \"Kiss from a Rose\" and U2's \"Hold Me\" in Best Song from a Movie).",
"However, it won in just one category—Best Song from a Movie for Seal's \"Kiss from a Rose\".",
"===Merchandising===\nIn addition to a large line of toys and action figures from Kenner, the McDonald's food chain released several collectibles and mugs to coincide with the release of the film.",
"Peter David and Alan Grant wrote separate novelizations of the film.",
"Dennis O'Neil authored a comic book adaptation, with art by Michal Dutkiewicz.",
"Six Flags Great Adventure theme park re-themed their \"Axis Chemical\" arena, home of the Batman stunt show, to resemble \"Batman Forever\", and the new show featured props from the film.",
"Because of the mostly negative critical reaction however, the stunt arena was changed back to its original version after the season.",
"Six Flags Over Texas featured a one-time fireworks show to promote the movie, and replica busts of Batman, Robin, Two-Face, and the Riddler can still be found in the Justice League store in the Looney Tunes U.S.A. section.",
"\n* ''Batman Forever'' (video game)\n* ''Batman Forever: The Arcade Game''\n* ''Batman Forever'' (soundtrack)",
"\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Bayonne''' (; Gascon: ''Baiona'' ; ; ) is a city and commune and one of the two sub-prefectures of the department of Pyrénées-Atlantiques, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region of south-western France. It is located at the confluence of the Nive and Adour rivers in the northern part of the cultural region of the Basque Country, as well as the southern part of Gascony where the Aquitaine basin joins the beginning of the Pre-Pyrenees.\n\nTogether with nearby Anglet, Biarritz, Saint-Jean-de-Luz, and several smaller communes, Bayonne forms an urban area with 288,359 inhabitants at the 2012 census, 45,855 of whom lived in the city of Bayonne proper.\n\nThe site on the left bank of the Nive and the Adour was probably occupied before ancient times as a fortified enclosure was attested in the 1st century at the time when the Tarbelli occupied the territory. Archaeological studies have confirmed the presence of a Roman castrum, a stronghold in Novempopulania at the end of the 4th century before the city was populated by the Vascones.\n\nIn 1023 Bayonne was the capital of Labourd and, in the 12th century, extended to and beyond the Nive. At that time the first bridge was built over the Adour. The city came under the domination of the English in 1152 through the marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine: it became militarily and, above all, commercially important thanks to maritime trade. It was separated from the Viscount of Labourd in 1177 by Richard the Lion Heart. In 1451 the city was taken by the Crown of France after the Hundred Years' War. The loss of trade with the English and the silting up of the river as well as the movement of the city towards the north weakened it. The district of Saint-Esprit developed anyway thanks to the arrival of a Jewish population fleeing the Spanish Inquisition. From this community Bayonne gained its reputation for chocolate. The course of the Adour was changed in 1578 under the direction of Louis de Foix and the river returned to its former mouth, returning business lost to Bayonne for over a hundred years. In the 17th century the city was fortified by Vauban. In 1814 Bayonne and its surroundings were the scene of fighting between the Napoleonic troops and the Spanish-Anglo-Portuguese coalition led by the Duke of Wellington: the city then underwent its final siege.\n\nIn 1951 the Lacq gas field was discovered whose extracted sulphur and associated oil are shipped from the port of Bayonne. During the second half of the 20th century many housing estates were built forming new districts on the periphery and the city was extended to form a conurbation with Anglet and Biarritz: this agglomeration became the heart of a vast Basque-Landes urban area.\n\nBayonne was, in 2014, a commune with over 45,000 inhabitants, the heart of the urban area of Bayonne and of the ''Agglomeration Côte Basque-Adour'' which includes Anglet and Biarritz. It is an important part of the Basque ''Bayonne-San Sebastián Eurocity'' and it plays the role of economic capital of the Adour basin. Modern industry—metallurgy and chemicals—are established to take advantage of procurement opportunities and sea shipments through the harbour. It is now mostly business services which today represent the largest source of employment. Bayonne is also a cultural capital, a city with strong Basque and Gascon influences and a rich historical past. Its heritage lies in its architecture, the diversity of collections in museums, its gastronomic specialties, and traditional events such as the famous Fêtes de Bayonne.\n\nThe inhabitants of the commune are known as ''Bayonnais'' or ''Bayonnaises''.\n",
"Bayonne is located in the south-west of France on the western border between Basque Country and Gascony. It developed at the confluence of the Adour and its tributary on the left bank, the Nive, 6 km from the Atlantic coast. The commune was part of the Basque province of Labourd.\n\n\n\n===Geology and relief===\nBayonne occupies a territory characterized by a flat relief to the west and to the north towards the Landes forest, tending to slightly raise towards the south and east. The city has developed at the confluence of the Adour and Nive from the ocean. The meeting point of the two rivers coincides with a narrowing of the Adour valley. Above this the alluvial plain extends for nearly towards both Tercis-les-Bains and Peyrehorade, and is characterized by swampy meadows called ''barthes'' which are influenced by floods and high tides. Downstream from this point the river has shaped a large bed in the sand dunes creating a significant bottleneck at the confluence.\n\nThe occupation of the hill that dominates this narrowing of the valley developed through a gradual spread across the lowlands by building embankments and the aggradation from flood soil.\n\nThe Nive has played a leading role in the development of the Bayonne river system in recent geological time by the formation of alluvial terraces that form the sub-soil of Bayonne beneath the surface accumulations of silt and aeolian sands. The drainage network of the western Pre-Pyrenees evolved mostly from the Quaternary from south-east to northwest oriented east-west. The Adour was then captured by the gaves and this system, together with the Nive, led to the emergence of a new alignment of the lower Adour and the Adour-Nive confluence. This capture has been dated to the early Quaternary (80,000 years ago).\n\nBefore this capture the Nive had deposited pebbles from the Mindel glaciation of medium to large sizes that slowed erosion of the hills causing the bottleneck at Bayonne. After the deposit of the lowest alluvial terrace ( high at Grand Bayonne), the course of the Adour became fixed in its lower reaches.\n\nSubsequent to these deposits there was a rise in sea level in the Holocene period (from 15,000 to 5000 years ago) which explains the invasion of the lower valleys with fine sand, peat, and mud with a thickness of more than below the current bed of the Adour and the Nive in Bayonne. These same deposits are spread across the barthes.\n\nIn the late Quaternary the topographic physiognomy we know today was formed—i.e. a set of hills overlooking a swampy lowland. The promontory of Bassussarry–Marracq ultimately extended to the labourdin foothills, dying out at the Grand Bayonne hill is an example. Similarly, on the right bank of the Nive, the heights of Château-Neuf (Mocoron Hill) met the latest advance of the plateau of Saint-Pierre-d'Irube (height ). On the right bank of the Adour the heights of Castelnau (today the citadel) with an altitude of , and Fort (today Saint-Esprit) with an altitude of rise above the Barthes of the Adour, the Nive, Bourgneuf, Saint-Frédéric, Sainte-Croix, Aritxague, and Pontots.\n\nThe area of the commune is and its altitude varies between .\n\n===Hydrography===\nThe confluence of the Adour and the Nive from the right bank of the Adour.\n\nThe city is traversed by the Adour. The river is part of the Natura 2000 network from its source at Bagnères-de-Bigorre to its exit to the Atlantic Ocean after Bayonne, between Tarnos (Landes) for the right bank and Anglet (Pyrénées-Atlantiques) for the left bank.\n\nApart from the Nive, which converges on the left bank of the Adour after of a sometimes tumultuous course, two tributaries join the Adour in Bayonne commune: the ''Ruisseau de Portou'' and the ''Ruisseau du Moulin Esbouc''. Tributaries of the Nive are the ''Ruisseau de Hillans'' and the ''Ruisseau d'Urdaintz'' which both rise in the commune.\n\n===Climate===\nThe nearest weather station is that of Biarritz-Anglet.\n\nThe climate of Bayonne is relatively similar to that of its neighbour Biarritz, described below, with fairly heavy rainfall; The oceanic climate is due to the proximity of the Atlantic Ocean. The average winter temperature is around 8 °C and is around 20 °C in summer. The lowest temperature recorded was −12.7 °C on 16 January 1985 and the highest 40.6 °C on 4 August 2003. Rains on the Basque coast are rarely persistent except during winter storms. They often take the form of intense thunderstorms of short duration.\n\n\n\n\n",
"Public transport around Bayonne: railway lines are black, the intercity bus lines Pyrénées-Atlantiques are green and those of Landes purple. The PTU (perimeter of urban transport, which operates the Chronoplus network is uncharted here) is bounded by a red line.\nMeans of transport (water, roads, bridges, and railways).\n\n===Road communications===\nBayonne is located at the intersection of the A63 autoroute (Bordeaux-Spain) and the D1 extension of the A64 autoroute (towards Toulouse). The city is served by three interchanges—two of them on the A63: exit (Bayonne Nord) serves the northern districts of Bayonne but also allows quick access to the centre while exit (Bayonne Sud) provides access to the south and also serves Anglet. The third exit is the D1 / A64 via the Mousserolles interchange (exit Bayonne Mousserolles) which links the district of the same name and also serves the neighbouring communes of Mouguerre and Saint-Pierre-d'Irube.\n\nBayonne was traversed by Route nationale 10 connecting Paris to Hendaye but this is now downgraded to a departmental road D810. Route nationale 117, linking Bayonne to Toulouse has been downgraded to departmental road D817.\n\n===Bridges===\nThe Saint-Esprit bridge over the Adour.\n\nThere are several bridges over both the Nive and the Adour linking the various districts.\n\nComing from upstream on the Adour there is the A63 bridge, then the Saint-Frédéric bridge which carries the D 810, then the railway bridge that replaced the old Eiffel iron bridge, the Saint-Esprit bridge, and finally the Grenet bridge. The Saint-Esprit bridge connects the Saint-Esprit district to the Amiral-Bergeret dock just upstream of the confluence with the river Nive. In 1845 the old bridge, originally made ??of wood, was rebuilt in masonry with seven arches supporting a deck wide. It was then called the Nemours Bridge in honour of Louis of Orleans, sixth Duke of Nemours, who laid the first stone. The bridge was finally called Saint-Esprit. Until 1868 the bridge had a moving span near the left bank. It was expanded in 1912 to facilitate the movement of horse-drawn carriages and motor vehicles.\n\nOn the Nive coming from upstream to downstream there is the A63 bridge then the ''Pont Blanc'' (White bridge) railway bridge, and then D810 bridge, the Génie bridge (or ''Pont Millitaire''), the Pannecau bridge, the Marengo bridge leading to the covered markets, and the Mayou Bridge The Pannecau bridge was long named ''Bertaco bridge'' and was rebuilt in masonry under Napoleon III. According to François Lafitte Houssat, \"... a municipal ordinance of 1327 provided for the imprisonment of any quarrellsome woman of bad character in an iron cage dropped into the waters of the Nive River from the bridge. The practice lasted until 1780 ...\" This punishment bore the evocative name of ''cubainhade''.\n\n===Cycling network===\nThe commune is traversed by the ''Vélodyssée''. Bicycle paths are located along the left bank of the Adour, a large part of the left bank of the Nive, and along various axes of the city where there are some bicycle lanes. The city offers free bicycles on loan.\n\n===Public transport===\n\n====Urban network====\nMost of the lines of the ''Chronoplus'' bus network operated by the ''Transdev agglomeration of Bayonne'' link Bayonne to other communes in the urban transport perimeter: Anglet, Biarritz, Bidart, Boucau, Saint-Pierre-d'Irube and Tarnos The Bayonne free shuttle Bayonne serves the city centre (Grand and Petit Bayonne) by connecting several parking stations; other free shuttles perform other short trips within the commune.\n\n====Interurban networks====\nBayonne is connected to many cities in the western half of the department such as Saint-Jean-de-Luz and Saint-Palais by the Pyrenees-Atlantiques long distance coach network of ''Transport 64'' managed by the General Council. Since the network restructuring in the summer of 2013, the lines converge on Bayonne. Bayonne is also served by services from the Landes departmental network, ''XL'R''.\n\n====Rail transport====\nThe Gare de Bayonne is located in the Saint-Esprit district and is an important station on the Bordeaux-Irun railway. It is also the terminus of lines leading from Toulouse to Bayonne and from Bayonne to Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port. It is served by TGV, Intercités, Lunéa, and TER Aquitaine trains (to Hendaye, Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port, Dax, Bordeaux, Pau, and Tarbes).\n\n====Air transport====\nBayonne is served by the Biarritz – Anglet – Bayonne Airport (IATA code: BIQ • ICAO code: LFBZ), located on the communal territories of Anglet and Biarritz. The airport was returned to service in 1954 after repair of damage from bombing during the Second World War.\n\nAirport management is carried out by the joint association for the development and operation of the airport of Biarritz-Anglet-Bayonne, which includes the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Bayonne Basque Country, the agglomeration of Côte Basque-Adour, the departments of Pyrénées-Atlantiques and Landes, and the commune of Saint-Jean-de-Luz. The airport of Biarritz-Anglet-Bayonne had nearly 1.1 million passengers in 2013. It has regular connections to Paris-Orly, Paris-CDG, Lyon, Nice, Geneva, and London Stansted and from March to October 2014 had connections with: Marseille, Strasbourg, Lille, Brussels South Charleroi Airport, Dublin, Stockholm-Skavsta, Stockholm-Arlanda, London-Gatwick, Copenhagen, Oslo, and Helsinki. Airline companies serving the airport at 1 November 2014 were: Air France, Etihad Regional, EasyJet, Finnair, Hop!, Ryanair, SAS, Twin Jet, and Volotea.\n",
"\n===Etymology===\nWhile the modern Basque spelling is ''Baiona'' and the same in Gascon Occitan, \"the name ''Bayonne'' poses a number of problems both historical and linguistic which have still not been clarified\". There are different interpretations of its meaning.\n\nThe termination ''-onne'' in ''Bayonne'' can come from many in hydronyms ''-onne'' or toponyms derived from that. In certain cases the element ''-onne'' follows an Indo-European theme: ''*ud-r/n'' (Greek ''húdōr'' giving hydro, Gothic ''watt'' meaning \"water\") hence ''*udnā'' meaning \"water\" giving ''unna'' then ''onno'' in the glossary of Vienne. ''Unna'' therefore would refer to the Adour. This toponymic type evoking a river traversing a locality is common. The appellative ''unna'' seems to be found in the name of the Garonne (''Garunna'' 1st century; ''Garonna'' 4th century). However it is possible to see a pre-Celtic suffix ''-ona'' in the name of the Charente (''Karantona'' in 875) or the Charentonne (''Carentona'' in 1050).\n\nIt could also be an augmentative Gascon from the original Latin radical ''Baia-'' with the suffix ''-ona' in the sense of \"vast expanse of water\" or a name derived from the Basque ''bai'' meaning \"river\" and ''ona'' meaning \"good\", hence \"good river\".\n\nThe proposal by Eugene Goyheneche repeated by Manex Goyhenetche and supported by Jean-Baptiste Orpustan is ''bai una'', \"the place of the river\" or ''bai ona'' \"hill by the river\"—''Ibai'' means \"river\" in Basque and ''muinoa'' means \"hill\".\n\n\"It has perhaps been lost from sight that many urban place names in France, from north to south, came from the element ''Bay-'' or ''Bayon-'' such as: Bayons, Bayonville, Bayonvillers and pose the unusual problem of whether they are Basque or Gascon\"\n\nadds Pierre Hourmat. However, the most ancient form of Bayonne: ''Baiona'', clearly indicates a feminine or a theme of ''-a'' whereas this is not the case for Béon or Bayon. In addition, the ''Bayon-'' in Bayonville or Bayonvillers in northern France is clearly the personal Germanic name ''Baio''.\n\n===Old attestations===\nThe names of the Basque province of Labourd and the locality of Bayonne have been attested from an early period with the place name ''Bayonne'' appearing in the Latin form ''Lapurdum'' after a period during which the two names could in turn designate a Viscounty or Bishopric.\n\n''Labourd'' and ''Bayonne'' were synonymous and used interchangeably until the 12th century before being differentiated: Labord for the province and Bayonne for the city. The attribution of Bayonne as ''Civitas Boatium'', a place mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary and by Paul Raymond in his 1863 dictionary, has been abandoned. The city of the ''Boïates'' may possibly be La Teste-de-Buch but is certainly not Bayonne.\n\nThe following table details the origins of Labord, Bayonne, and other names in the commune.\n\n\n\n Name !! Spelling !! Date !! Source !! Page !! Origin !! Description\n\n '''Bayonne''' \n Tribunus cohortis Novempopulanoe: Lapurdo \n \n Raymond \n24\n Notary of Provinces \n City\n\n \n In provincia Novempopulana tribunus cohortis Novempopulanæ in Lapurdo \n 5th century \n Goyheneche \n85-92\n \n \n\n \n Lapurdum \n 6th century \n Raymond \n24\n Gregory of Tours \n\n\n \n Episcopatus Lasburdensis \n 983 \n Raymond \n88\n Chapter \n\n\n \n Sancta Maria Lasburdensis \n 983 \n Raymond \n24\n Chapter \n\n\n \n Sancta Maria Baionensis \n 1105 \n Raymond \n24\n Cartulary \n\n\n \n civitas de Baiona \n 1140 \n Raymond \n24\n Cartulary \n\n\n \n Baione \n 13th century \n Raymond \n24\n Duchesne \n\n\n \n Bayona \n 1248 \n Raymond \n24\n Camara \n\n\n \n Bayone \n 1253 \n Raymond \n24\n Camara \n\n\n \n Baionne \n 14th century \n Guiart \n\n \n\n\n \n Bayonne \n 1750 \n Cassini 1750 \n\n \n\n\n \n Bayonne \n 1790 \n Cassini 1790 \n\n \n\n\n \n Baiona \n 19th century \n Lhande \n\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Balichon''' \n Molendinum de la Mufala, Balaisson \n 1198 \n Raymond \n24\n Cartulary \n Old mill\n\n \n Balaichon \n 1259 \n Raymond \n24\n Cartulary \n\n\n \n Molin de le Muhale \n 1259 \n Raymond \n24\n Cartulary \n\n\n \n Molin de la Muffale \n 1259 \n Raymond \n24\n Cartulary \n\n\n \n lo pont de Belaischon \n 1259 \n Raymond \n24\n Cartulary \n\n\n \n Baleyson \n 1331 \n Raymond \n20\n Gascon roles \n\n\n \n Baleychoun \n 1334 \n Raymond \n20\n Gascon roles \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Bénac''' \n Bénac \n 1863 \n Raymond \n27\n \n Farm\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Bouroutchourry''' \n Bouroutchourry \n 1863 \n Raymond \n35\n \n Farm\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Glain''' \n Fons de Coquoanhea \n 1387 \n Raymond \n72\n Chapter \n Farm\n\n \n Camps \n 17th century \n Raymond \n72\n Archives of Bayonne \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Jean-d'Amou''' \n Jean-d'Amou \n 1863 \n Raymond \n85\n \n Hamlet\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Lachepaillet''' \n Lo portau de Lachepailhet \n 1516 \n Raymond \n88\n Chapter \n District; it was once the name of one of the city gates which was previously called the ''Portail de Tarride''.\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Largenté''' \n Largenté \n 1863 \n Raymond \n94\n \n Farm\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Les Lauriers''' \n Les Lauriers \n 1863 \n Raymond \n97\n \n Hamlet\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Lesperon''' \n L'Esperon \n 1246 \n Raymond \n100\n Cartulary \n Farm at Saint-Esprit\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Les Murailles''' \n Les Murailles \n 1863 \n Raymond \n120\n \n Farm\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Panecau''' \n Port de Bertaco \n 13th century \n Raymond \n131\n Cartulary \n Bridge\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Pé-de-Navarre''' \n Pé-de-Navarre \n 1863 \n Raymond \n133\n \n Farm\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Château Weymann''' \n Château Weymann \n 1863 \n Raymond \n175\n \n Château\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n'''Sources:'''\n*'''Raymond:''' ''Topographic Dictionary of the Department of Basses-Pyrenees'', 1863, on the page numbers indicated in the table. \n*'''Goyheneche''': according to the ''Notitia Dignitatum Imperii'' dating from 340 to 420\n*'''Guiart''': Guillaume Guiart, around 1864\n*'''Lhande''': Basque-French Dictionary by Pierre Lhande, 1926.\n*'''Cassini 1750:''' 1750 Cassini Map\n*'''Cassini 1790:''' 1790 Cassini Map\n\n'''Origins:'''\n*'''Chapter:''' Titles of the Chapter of Bayonne\n*'''Cartulary:''' Cartulary of Bayonne or ''Livre d'Or'' (Book of Gold)\n*'''Camara:''' Chapters of the Camara de Comptos.\n",
"\n===Prehistory===\nIn the absence of accurate objective data there is some credence to the probable existence of a fishing village on the site in a period prior to ancient times. Numerous traces of human occupation have been found in the Bayonne region from the Middle Paleolithic especially in the discoveries at Saint-Pierre-d'Irube, a neighbouring locality. On the other hand, the presence of a mound about high has been detected in the current Cathedral Quarter overlooking the Nive which formed a natural protection and a usable port on the left bank of the Nive. At the time the mound was surrounded north and west by the Adour swamps. At its foot lies the famous \"Bayonne Sea\"—the junction of the two rivers—which may have been about wide between Saint-Esprit and the Grand Bayonne and totally covered the current location of Bourg-Neuf (in the district of Petit Bayonne). To the south the last bend of the Nive widens near the Saint-Léon hills. Despite this, the narrowing of the Adour valley allows easier crossing than anywhere else along the entire length of the estuary.\n\nIn conclusion, the strategic importance of this height was so obvious it must be presumed that it has always been inhabited.\n\n===Ancient times===\nMap of Novempopulania indicating the position of the Tarbelli territory north-west of the Pyrenees.\n\nThe oldest documented human occupation site is located on a hill overlooking the Nive and its confluence with the Adour.\n\nIn the 1st century AD, during the Roman occupation, Bayonne already seems to have been of some importance since the Romans surrounded the city with a wall to keep out the Tarbelli, Aquitani, or the proto-Basque who then occupied a territory that extended south of modern-day Landes, to the modern French Basque country, the Chalosse, the valleys of the Adour, the mountain streams of Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, and to the Gave d'Oloron.\n\nThe archaeological discoveries of October and November 1995 provided a shred of evidence to support this projection. In the four layers of sub-soil along the foundation of the Gothic cathedral (in the \"apse of the cathedral\" area) a 2-metre depth was found of old objects from the end of the 1st century—in particular sigillated Gallic ceramics from Montans imitating Italian styles, thin-walled bowls, and fragments of amphorae. In the \"southern sector\" near the cloister door there were objects from the second half of the 1st century as well as coins from the first half of the 3rd century.\n\nA very high probability of human presence, not solely military, seems to provisionally confirm the occupation of the site at least around the 3rd century.\n\nA Roman castrum dating to the end of the 4th century has been proven as a fortified place of Novempopulania. Named ''Lapurdum'', the name became the name of the province of ''Labourd''. According to Eugene Goyheneche the name ''Baiona'' designated the city, the port, and the cathedral while that of ''Lapurdum'' was only a territorial designation. This Roman settlement was strategic as it allowed the monitoring of the trans-Pyrenean roads and of local people rebellious to the Roman power. The construction covered 6 to 10 hectares according to several authors. \n\n===Middle Ages===\nThe geographical location of the locality at the crossroads of a river system oriented from east to west and the road network connecting Europe to the Iberian Peninsula from north to south predisposed the site to the double role of fortress and port. The city, after being Roman, alternated between the Vascones and the English for three centuries from the 12th to the 15th century.\n\nThe Romans left the city in the 4th century and the Basques, who had always been present, dominated the former Novempopulania province between the Garonne, the Ocean, and the Pyrénées. Novempopulania was renamed Vasconia and then Gascony after a Germanic deformation (resulting from the Visigoth and Frankish invasions). Basquisation of the plains region was too weak against the advance of romanization. From the mixture between the Basque and Latin language Gascon was created.\n\nDocumentation on Bayonne for the period from the High Middle Ages are virtually nonexistent. with the exception of two Norman intrusions: one questionable in 844 and a second attested in 892.\n\nWhen Labourd was created in 1023 Bayonne was the capital and the Viscount resided there. The history of Bayonne proper started in 1056 when Raymond II the Younger, Bishop of Bazas, had the mission to build the Church of Bayonne\n\nThe construction was under the authority of Raymond III of Martres, Bishop of Bayonne from 1122 to 1125, combined with Viscount Bertrand for the Romanesque cathedral, the rear of which can still be seen today, and the first wooden bridge across the Adour extending the Mayou bridge over the Nive, which inaugurated the heyday of Bayonne. From 1120 new districts were created under population pressure. The development of areas between the old Roman city of Grand Bayonne and the Nive also developed during this period, then between the Nive and the Adour at the place that became Petit Bayonne. A Jacobin Convent was located there in 1225 then that of the Cordeliers in 1247. Construction of and modifications to the defences of the city also developed to protect the new districts.\n\nIn 1130 the King of Aragon Alfonso the Battler besieged the city without success. Bayonne came under English rule when Eleanor of Aquitaine married Henry II of England in 1152. This alliance gave Bayonne many commercial privileges. The Bayonnaises became carriers of Bordeaux wines and other south-western products like resin, ham, and woad to England. Bayonne was then an important military base. In 1177 King Richard separated the Viscounty of Labourd whose capital then became Ustaritz. Like many cities at the time, in 1215 Bayonne obtained the award of a municipal charter and was emancipated from feudal powers.\n\nThe official publication in 1273 of a Coutume unique to the city, remained in force for five centuries until the separation of Bayonne from Labourd. \n\nBayonnaise industry at that time was dominated by shipbuilding: wood (oak, beech, chestnut from the Pyrenees, and pine from Landes) being overabundant. There was also maritime activity in providing crews for whaling, commercial marine or, and it was often so at a time when it was easy to turn any merchant ship into a warship, the English Royal Navy. \n\n===Renaissance and modern times===\nView of the ramparts overlooking the river.\nThe Bartizan on the Redoubt, restored in 2005.\nThe Ramparts of Bayonne.\n\nJean de Dunois - a former companion at arms of Joan of Arc—captured the city on 20 August 1451 and annexed it to the Crown \"without making too many victims\", but at the cost of a war indemnity of 40,000 gold Écus payable in a year,—thanks to the opportunism of the bishop who claimed to have seen \"a large white cross surmounted by a crown which turns into a fleur-de-lis in the sky\" to dissuade Bayonne from fighting against the royal troops. \n\nThe city continued to be fortified by the kings of France to protect it from danger from the Spanish border. In 1454 Charles VII created a separate judicial district: the ''Seneschal of Lannes'' a \"single subdivision of Guyenne during the English period\" which had jurisdiction over a wide area including Bayonne, Dax and Saint-Sever and which exercised civil justice, criminal jurisdiction within the competence of the district councilors. Over time, the \"Seneschal of the Sword\" which was at Dax lost any role other than protocol and Bayonne, along with Dax and Saint-Sever, became the de facto seat of a separate Seneschal under the authority of a \"lieutenant-general of the Seneschal\".\n\nIn May 1462 King Louis XI authorized the holding of two annual fairs by letters patent after signing the Treaty of Bayonne after which it was confirmed by the coutoumes of the inhabitants in July 1472 following the death of Charles de Valois, Duke de Berry, the king's brother.\n\nAt the time the Spanish Inquisition raged in the Iberian Peninsula Jews left Spain, and especially Portugal, then settled in Saint-Esprit. They brought with them chocolate and the recipe for its preparation. The golden age of the city ended in the 15th century with the loss of trade with England and the silting of the port of Bayonne created by the movement of the course of the Adour to the north.\n\nAt the beginning of the 16th century Labourd saw the emergence of the plague. Its path can be tracked by reading the ''Registers''. In July 1515 the city of Bayonne was \"prohibited to welcome people from plague-stricken places\" and on 21 October, \"we inhibit and prohibit all peasants and residents of this city ... to go Parish Bidart ... because of the contagion of the plague\". On 11 April 1518 the plague raged in Saint-Jean-de-Luz and the city of Bayonne \"inhibited and prohibited for all peasants and city inhabitants and other foreigners to maintain relationships at the location and Parish of Saint-Jean-de-Luz where people have died of the plague\". On 11 November 1518 plague was present in Bayonne to the point that in 1519 the city council moved to the district of Brindos (Berindos at the time) in Anglet.\n\nIn 1523 Marshal Odet of Foix, Viscount of Lautrec resisted the Spaniards under Philibert of Chalon in the service of Charles V and lifted the siege of Bayonne. It was at Château-Vieux that the ransom demand for the release of Francis I, taken prisoner after his defeat at the Battle of Pavia, was gathered. \n\nThe meeting in 1565 between Catherine de Medici and the envoy of Philip II: the Duke of Alba, is known as the ''Interview of Bayonne''. At the time that Catholics and Protestants tore each other apart in parts of the kingdom of France, Bayonne seemed relatively untouched by these troubles. An iron fist from the city leaders did not appear to be unknown. In fact they never hesitated to use violence and criminal sanctions for keeping order in the name of the \"public good\". Two brothers, Saubat and Johannes Sorhaindo who were both lieutenants of the mayor of Bayonne in the second half of the 16th century, perfectly embody this period. They often wavered between Catholicism and Protestantism but always wanted to ensure the unity and prestige of the city.\n\nIn the 16th century the king's engineers, under the direction of Louis de Foix, were dispatched to rearrange the course of the Adour by creating an estuary to maintain the river bed. The river discharged in the right place to the Ocean on 28 October 1578.} The port of Bayonne then attained a greater level of activity. Fishing for cod and whale ensured the wealth of fishermen and shipowners.\n\nFrom 1611 to 1612 the college Principal of Bayonne was a man of 26 years old with a future: Cornelius Jansen known as ''Jansénius'', the future Bishop of Ypres. Bayonne became the birthplace of Jansenism, an austere science which strongly disrupted the monarchy of Louis XIV.\n\nDuring the sporadic conflicts that troubled the French countryside from the mid 17th century, Bayonne peasants were short of powder and projectiles. They attached the long hunting knives in the barrels of their muskets and that way they fashioned makeshift spears later called ''bayonets''. In that same century, Vauban was charged by Louis XIV to fortify the city. He added a citadel built on a hill overlooking the district of ''San Espirit Cap deou do Punt''.\n\nThe Redoubt, a system of fortifications destroyed at the beginning of the 20th century, seen from the Quaie de l'Amiral-Lesseps.\n\n===French Revolution and Empire===\nActivity in Bayonne peaked in the 18th century. The Chamber of Commerce was founded in 1726. Trade with Spain, the Netherlands, the Antilles, the cod fishery off the shores of Newfoundland, and construction sites maintained a high level of activity in the port.\n\nIn 1792 the district of Saint-Esprit (that revolutionaries renamed ''Port-de-la-Montagne'') located on the right bank of the Adour, was separated from the city and renamed ''Jean-Jacques Rousseau''. It was reunited with Bayonne on 1 June 1857. For 65 years the autonomous commune was part of the department of Landes.\n\nIn 1808 at the Château of Marracq the act of abdication of the Spanish king Charles IV in favour of Napoleon was signed under the \"friendly pressure\" of the Emperor. In the process the Bayonne Statute was initialed as the first Spanish constitution.\n\nAlso in 1808 the French Empire imposed on the Duchy of Warsaw the Convention of Bayonne to buy from France the debts owed to it by Prussia. The debt, amounting to more than 43 million francs in gold, was bought at a discounted rate of 21 million francs. However, although the duchy made its payments in installments to France over a four-year period, Prussia was unable to pay it (due to a very large indemnity it owed to France resulting from Treaties of Tilsit), causing the Polish economy to suffer heavily.\n\nTrade was the wealth of the city in the 18th century but suffered greatly in the 19th century, severely sanctioned by conflict with Spain, its historic trading partner in the region. The Siege of Bayonne marked the end of the period with the surrender of the Napoleonic troops of Marshal Jean-de-Dieu Soult who were defeated by the coalition led by Wellington on 5 May 1814.\n\n===Contemporary period===\nThe second Gare de Bayonne, photographed here in the 1930s.\n\nIn 1854 the railway arrived from Paris bringing many tourists eager to enjoy the beaches of Biarritz. Bayonne turned instead to the steel industry with the forges of the Adour. The Port took on an industrial look but its slow decline seemed inexorable in the 19th century. The discovery of the Lacq gas field restored a certain dynamism.\n\nThe Treaty of Bayonne was concluded on 2 December 1856. It overcame the disputes in fixing the Franco-Spanish border in the area extending from the mouth of the Bidassoa to the border between Navarre and Aragon.\n\nThe city built three light railway lines to connect to Biarritz at the beginning of the 20th century. The most direct line, that of the ''Tramway Bayonne-Lycée–Biarritz'' was operated from 1888 to 1948. In addition a line further north served Anglet, operated by the ''Chemin de fer Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz'' company from 1877 to 1953. Finally a line following the Adour to its mouth and to the Atlantic Ocean by the bar in Anglet, was operated by ''VFDM réseau basque'' from 1919 to 1948.\n\nOn the morning of 23 December 1933, sub-prefect Anthelme received Gustave Tissier, the director of the ''Crédit Municipal de Bayonne''. He responded well, with some astonishment, to his persistent interview. It did not surprise him to see the man unpacking what became the scam of the century.\n\n\"Tissier, director of the ''Crédit Municipal'', was arrested and imprisoned under suspicion of forgery and misappropriation of public funds. He had issued thousands of false bonds in the name of ''Crédit Municipal'' ...\"\n\nThis was the beginning of the Stavisky Affair which, together with other scandals and political crises, led to the Paris riots of 6 February 1934.\n\n===The World Wars===\nThe 249th Infantry Regiment, created from the 49th Infantry Regiment, was engaged in operations in the First World War, including action at Chemin des Dames, especially on the plateau of Craonne. 700 Bayonnaises perished in the conflict. A centre for engagement of foreign volunteers was established in August 1914 in Bayonne. Many nationalities were represented, particularly the Spanish, the Portuguese, the Czechs, and the Poles \n\nDuring the Second World War Bayonne was occupied by the 3rd SS Panzer Division Totenkopf from 27 June 1940 to 23 August 1944.\n\nOn 5 April 1942 the Allies made a landing attempt in Bayonne but after a barge penetrated the Adour with great difficulty, the operation was canceled.\n\nOn 21 August 1944, after blowing up twenty ships in port, German troops withdrew. On the 22nd a final convoy of five vehicles passed through the city. It transported Gestapo Customs agents and some elements of the ''Feldgendarmerie''. One or more Germans opened fire with machine guns killing three people. On the 23rd there was an informal and immediate installation of a \"special municipal delegation\" by the young deputy prefect Guy Lamassoure representing the Provisional Government of the French Republic which had been established in Algiers since 27 June.\n\n===Heraldry===\n\n",
"\n===List of mayors under the Ancien Régime===\nThe Gramont family provided captains and governors in Bayonne from 1472 to 1789 as well as mayors, a post which became hereditary from 28 January 1590 by concession of Henry IV to Antoine II of Gramont. From the 15th century they resided in the Château Neuf then in the Château-Vieux from the end of the 16th century: \n\n*'''Roger de Gramont''', (1444–1519), Lord of Gramont, Baron of Haux, Seneschal of Guyenne, hereditary mayor of Bayonne. He was an advisor and chamberlain of Louis XI in 1472 and then Charles VIII in 1483. He was Ambassador for Louis XII in Rome in 1502. He became governor of Bayonne and its castles on 26 February 1487. He died of the plague in 1519.\n*'''Jean II de Gramont''', Lord of Gramont, mayor and captain of Bayonne from 18 March 1523. On 15 September 1523, as a lieutenant in the company of Marshal Lautrec, he rescued Bayonne from the siege by the forces of Charles V under the command of the Prince of Orange. He died during the wars in Italy;\n*'''Antoine I of Gramont''', born in 1526, he was appointed at the age of nine years (1535) as mayor and captain of Bayonne. In 1571 he charged Louis de Foix with the changes to the mouth of the Adour along the fortifications of the city;\n*'''Antoine II de Gramont''' (1572–1644), Count of Gramont, Guiche and Toulonjon, Viscount then Count of Louvigny, ruler of Bidache, Viscount of Aster, lord then baron of Lescun. He was a ''Duke de Brevet'' in 1643, but unverified by Parliament. On 28 January 1590 Henry IV granted him and his descendants the perpetual office of Mayor of Bayonne. He then became the Viceroy of Navarre. In 1595, Antoine II de Gramont charged Jean Errard (1599) then Louis de Millet (1612) to strengthen the defenses of the city;\n*'''Antoine III of Gramont-Touloujon''' (1604–1678), Count and then, in 1648, Duke of Gramont, Prince of Bidache, Count of Guiche, Toulonjon, and Louvigny, Viscount of Astern, Baron of Andouins and Hagetmau, and lord of Lesparre, peer of France in 1648, Marshal of France in 1641. As Ambassador of Louis XIV, in 1660 he sought the hand of the Infanta Maria Theresa. The king gave him power of attorney to represent him in the marriage which was celebrated in Madrid. It was he who welcomed Louis XIV, Anne of Austria, Mazarin, and the rest of the Court to Bayonne. He died on 12 July 1678 at the Château-Vieux;\n*'''Antoine Charles IV of Gramont''' (1641–1720), Duke of Gramont, Prince of Bidache, Count of Guiche and Louvigny, Viscount of Aster, Baron of Andouins and Hagetmau, Lord of Lesparre, peer of France, Viceroy of Navarre. In 1689, he continued the fortification works undertaken by Vauban in Bayonne, where he remained from 1706 to 1712. He supported Philip V during the War of the Spanish Succession, using Bayonne to supply his troops, weapons, reinforcements and subsidies. In retaliation, the opponents of Philip V organized two attacks in 1707: one at Château-Vieux leaving Antoine IV unharmed.\n\n===Modern times===\n\n'''List of Successive Mayors'''\n\n\n\n\n From !! To !! Name\n\n 1725 \n \n Matthieu de Bruix\n\n 1726 \n \n Jean de Moracin \n\n 1728 \n \n François de Poheyt \n\n 1730 \n \n Léon Dubrocq \n\n 1732 \n \n Pierre Commarieu \n\n 1736 \n \n Jean Desbiey\n\n 1738 \n \n Jean-Louis Rol Montpellier \n\n 1740 \n \n Joseph Dulivier \n\n 1745 \n \n Léon Brethous\n\n 1749 \n \n Joseph Dantes \n\n 1750 \n \n Dominique Behic\n\n 1752 \n \n François Casaubon Maisonneuve \n\n 1754 \n \n Jean Baptiste Picot \n\n 1756 \n \n Martin Bretous \n\n 1758 \n \n Jean Desbiey \n\n 1760 \n \n Jean François Dubrocq \n\n 1762 \n \n Jean Rol de Montpellier \n\n 1764 \n \n Martin Antoine Bretous \n\n 1766 \n \n Jacques Pastoureau \n\n 1768 \n \n Joseph de Sorhainde \n\n 1770 \n \n Martin Castera\n\n 1772 \n \n Pierre Larue \n\n 1774 \n \n Dominique Duhagon \n\n 1775 \n \n Jean-Pierre de Nogué \n\n 1776 \n \n Lasserre \n\n 1778 \n \n Pierre Anselme Monho\n\n 1780 \n \n Joachim Dubrocq \n\n 1782 \n \n Etienne Lalanne \n\n 1785 \n \n Joseph Verdier \n\n 1788 \n \n Jacques Poydenot \n\n 1790 \n \n Dominique Dubrocq\n\n 1791 \n \n Charles Lasserre \n\n 1791 \n \n Paul Faurie \n\n 1792 \n \n Jean-Pierre Joseph de Basterrèche \n\n 1793 \n \n Leclerc \n\n 1794 \n \n Johaneau\n\n 1795 \n \n Dufourcq \n\n 1798 \n \n Barthélémy Poydenot \n\n 1798 \n \n Sauvine \n\n 1800 \n \n Paum Lacroix Ravignan \n\n 1803 \n 1806 \n Joseph Laborde Noguez\n\n 1806 \n \n Chrysostome Dechegaray \n\n 1815 \n \n Martin Charles Chégaray \n\n 1816 \n \n Arnaud Fourcade \n\n 1818 \n \n Alexandre Betbeder \n\n 1824 \n \n Antoine Robert d'Hirairt\n\n 1829 \n \n Joachim Alexandre Dubrocq \n\n 1830 \n 1832 \n Bernard Lanne \n\n 1832 \n 1833 \n Joseph Arnaud Eugène de Basterreche \n\n 1833 \n 1848 \n François Balasque\n\n 1848 \n 1849 \n Eugène Boutouey\n\n 1849 \n 1850 \n Joachim Alexandre Dubrocq \n\n 1852 \n 1869 \n Jules Labat \n\n 1871 \n 1876 \n Jules Séraphin Chateauneuf \n\n 1876 \n 1881 \n Jacques Théodore Plantié \n\n 1881 \n 1884 \n Edouard Séraphin Haulon\n\n 1884 \n 1885 \n Jacques Léon Portes \n\n 1885 \n 1888 \n Joseph Edouard Viard \n\n 1888 \n 1908 \n Gabriel Léo Pouzac\n\n 1908 \n 1919 \n Joseph Garat \n\n 1919 \n 1925 \n Jules Prosper Castagnet\n\n 1925 \n 1934 \n Joseph Garat \n\n 1934 \n 1935 \n Jules Lafourcade \n\n 1935 \n 1941 \n Pierre Simonet \n\n\n\n;Mayors from 1941\n\n\n\n From !! To !! Name !! Party !! Position\n\n 1941 \n 1944 \n Marcel Ribeton \n \n \n\n 1944 \n 1945 \n Jean Labourdique \n \n \n\n 1945 \n 1947 \n Jean Pierre Brana \n \n \n\n 1947 \n 1958 \n Maurice Delay \n \n Surgeon\n\n 1958 \n 1959 \n Georges Forsans \n \n \n\n 1959 \n 1995 \n Henri Grenet \n UDF \n Surgeon\n\n 1995 \n 2014 \n Jean Grenet \n UDI \n MP, Chairman of the Adour-Basque Coast agglomeration 2008–2014\n\n 2014 \n 2020 \n Jean René Etchegaray \n UDI \n President of the Adour-Basque Coast agglomeration\n\n(Not all data is known)\n\n===Cantons of Bayonne===\nAs per the Decree of 22 December 1789 Bayonne was part of two cantons: Bayonne-North-east, which includes part of Bayonne commune plus Boucau, Saint-Pierre-d'Irube, Lahonce, Mouguerre, and Urcuit; and Bayonne Northwest which consisted of the rest of Bayonne commune plus Anglet, Arcangues, and Bassussarry.\n\nIn a first revision of cantons in 1973 three cantons were created from the same total; geographic area: Bayonne North, Bayonne East, and Bayonne West. A further reconfiguration in 1982 focused primarily on Bayonne and, apart from Bayonne North Canton, which also includes Boucau, the cantons of Bayonne East and Bayonne West did not change.\n\nStarting from the French departmental elections, 2015 which took place on 22 and 29 March, a new division took effect following the decree of 25 February 2014 Once again three cantons centred on Bayonne are defined: Bayonne-1—with part of Anglet; Bayonne-2—which includes Boucau; and Bayonne-3 now define the cantonal territorial division of the area.\n\n===Judicial and administrative proceedings===\nBayonne is the seat of many courts for the region. It falls under the jurisdiction of the ''Tribunal d'instance'' (District court) of Bayonne, the ''Tribunal de grande instance'' (High Court) of Bayonne, the ''Cour d'appel'' (Court of Appeal) of Pau, the ''Tribunal pour enfants'' (Juvenile court) of Bayonne, the ''Conseil de prud'hommes'' (Labour Court) of Bayonne, the ''Tribunal de commerce'' (Commercial Court) of Bayonne, the ''Tribunal administratif'' (Administrative tribunal) of Pau, and the ''Cour administrative d'appel'' (Administrative Court of Appeal) of Bordeaux.\n\nThe commune has a police station, a Departmental Gendarmerie, an Autonomous Territorial Brigade of the district gendarmerie, squadron 24/2 of Mobile Gendarmerie and a Tax collection office.\n\n===Intercommunality===\n\nThe commune is part of twelve inter-communal structures of which eleven are based in the commune:\n\n* the Côte basque-Adour Agglomeration;\n* the transport association of Côte basque-Adour Agglomeration (STACBA);\n* the intercommunal association for the management of the Txakurrak centre;\n* the intercommunal association for the support of Basque culture;\n* the Bil Ta Garbi joint association;\n* the joint association for maritime Nive;\n* the joint association for the Basque Museum and the History of Bayonne;\n* the joint association for the development and monitoring of SCOT in the agglomeration of Bayonne and south Landes;\n* the Kosta Garbia joint association;\n* the joint association for the development of the European freight centre of Bayonne-Mouguerre-Lahonce;\n* the joint association for operating the regional Maurice Ravel Conservatory.\n* the Energy association of Pyrénées-Atlantiques;\n\nThe city of Bayonne is part of the ''Agglomeration Côte Basque-Adour'' which also includes Anglet, Biarritz, Bidart and Boucau. The statutory powers of the structure extend to economic development—including higher education and research—housing and urban planning, public transport—through Transdev—alternative and the collection and recovery waste collection and management of rain and coastal waters, the sustainable development, interregional cooperation and finally 106.\n\nIn addition Bayonne is part of the Basque Bayonne-San Sebastián Eurocity which is a European economic interest grouping (EEIG) established in 1993 based in San Sebastián.\n\n===Twin towns – Sister cities===\n\n\nBayonne has twinning associations with:\n\n\n\n* Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria since 2004\n* Satu Mare, Roumania since 2008\n* Pamplona, Spain since 1970\n* Nyíregyháza, Hungary since 2008\n* L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, since 2008\n* Kajaani, Finland since 2008\n\n\n* Hydra, Greece since 2008\n* Faro, Portugal since 2008\n* Daytona Beach, Florida, United States since 1970\n* Bayonne, New Jersey, United States since 1970\n* Ascoli Piceno, Italy since 2008\n\n",
"In 2012 the commune had 45,855 inhabitants. The evolution of the number of inhabitants is known from the population censuses conducted in the commune since 1793. From the 21st century, a census of communes with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants is held every five years, unlike larger communes that have a sample survey every year.\n\n\n\n'''Population of Bayonne'''\n\n===Education===\nBayonne commune is attached to the Academy of Bordeaux. It has an information and guidance center (CIO).\n\nOn 14 December 2015 Bayonne had 10 kindergartens, 22 elementary or primary schools (12 public and 10 private primary schools including two ikastolas). 2 public colleges (Albert Camus and Marracq colleges), 5 private colleges (La Salle Saint-Bernard, Saint Joseph, Saint-Amand, Notre-Dame and Largenté) which meet the criteria of the first cycle of second degree studies. For the second cycle Bayonne has 3 public high schools (René-Cassin school (general education), the Louis de Foix school (general, technological and vocational education), and the Paul Bert vocational school), 4 private high schools (Saint-Louis Villa Pia (general education), Largenté, Bernat Etxepare (general and technological), and Le Guichot vocational school).\n\nThere are also the Maurice Ravel Conservatory of Music, Dance, and Dramatic Art and the art school of the urban community of Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz.\n\n===Cultural festivities and events===\nFêtes de Bayonne 2004, King Léon.\nThe Bayonne Bullfighting ring\n\nFor 550 years every holy Thursday, Friday and Saturday the ''Foire au Jambon'' (Ham festival) is held to mark the beginning of the season. \n\nAn annual summer festival has been held in the commune since 1932 for five days organized around parades, bulls races, fireworks, and music in the Basque and Gascon tradition. These festivals have become the most important festive events in France in terms of attendance.\n\n\n\nBayonne has the oldest French bullfighting tradition. A bylaw regulating the ''encierro'' is dated 1283: cows, oxen and bulls are released each year in the streets of Petit Bayonne during the summer festivals. The current arena, opened in 1893, is the largest in South-west France with more than 10,000 seats. A dozen bullfights are held each year, attracting the biggest names in bullfighting. Throughout summer several ''novilladas'' also take place. The city is a member of the ''Union of French bullfighting cities''.\n\n===Health===\nBayonne is the focus of much of the hospital services for the agglomeration of Bayonne and the southern Landes. In this area all inhabitants are less than 35 km from a hospital offering medical, obstetrical, surgical, or psychiatric care. The hospitals for all the Basque Coast are mainly established in Bayonne (the main site of Saint-Léon and Cam-de-Prats) and also in Saint-Jean-de-Luz which has several clinics.\n\n===Sports and sports facilities===\nBayonne Rowing Boat shed\n* '''Rowing''', a popular sport for a long time on the Nive and the Adour near Bayonne. There are two clubs: the Nautical Society of Bayonne (SNB) (established in 1875) and ''Aviron Bayonnais''—established in 1904 by former members of the SNB and which later became a sports club.\n*'''Basketball'''. ''Denek Bat Bayonne Urcuit'' is a basketball club with a male section competing in NM1 (3rd national level of the French league). The club is based in the city of Urcuit but plays in the Lauga Sports Palace in Bayonne.\n*'''Football'''. Aviron Bayonnais FC played from their home base at Didier Deschamps stadium in CFA 2 (the 5th French division) during the 2013–2014 season after a year in CFA and three consecutive years in the Championnat National. Didier Deschamps started his career at Aviron Bayonnais FC. The stadium, formerly called the ''Grand Basque'', is now named after him. There are also three other football clubs in Bayonne: the ''Crusaders of Saint Andrew'' playing in the higher regional division, the ''Portuguese stars of Bayonne'' (first district division), and the Bayonne association on the right bank of the river (3rd district division).\n*'''Omnisports'''. Aviron Bayonnais, created in 1904, includes many sports sections and a large number of members. The pro rugby and football club are the most famous sections of the club. The ''Bayonne Olympic Club'', created in 1972, is located in the district of Hauts de Sainte-Croix. The club offers a wide range of sports including pelote, gymnastics, combat sports, and a pool section. The club had nearly 400 members in 2007.\n*'''Basque Pelota''' Bayonne is an important place for Basque pelota. The ''French Federation of Basque Pelota'' is headquartered at ''Trinquet moderne'' near the Bullring. Many titles were won by pelota players from the city. The World Championships took place in Bayonne in 1978 in association with Biarritz.\n*'''Rugby''' appeared in Basque Country at the end of the 19th century with the arrival in 1897 at Bayonne High School of a 20 year old person from Landes who converts his comrades to football-rugby which he had discovered in Bordeaux. Practicing in the fields near the Spanish Gate, they communicated their enthusiasm to other colleges in Bayonne and Biarritz leading to the creation of the Biarritz Sporting Club and Biarritz Stadium which merged in 1913 to become Biarritz Olympique. Bayonne has two rugby clubs: The Bayonne Athletic Association (ASB) plays in Fédérale 3 while the Aviron Bayonnais rugby pro in the 2014–2015 season played in Top 14, where they have played without interruption since the 2004–2005 season. Aviron Bayonnais has won three league titles in France (1913, 1934 and 1943). It was the first club from a small town to become champion of France. Its stadium is the Stade Jean Dauger. There is also a women's team in the ASB, playing in the National Division 1B. This team won the 2014 Armelle Auclair challenge.\n\n===Worship===\n\n====Catholic worship====\nBayonne is in the Diocese of Bayonne, Lescar and Oloron, with a Suffragan bishop since 2002 under the Archdiocese of Bordeaux. Monseigneur Marc Aillet has been the bishop of this diocese since 15 October 2008. The diocese is located in Bayonne in the Place Monseigneur-Vansteenberghe.\n\nBesides Bayonne Cathedral in Grand Bayonne, Bayonne has Saint-Esprit, Saint Andrew (Rue des Lisses), Arènes (Avenue of the Czech Legion), Saint-Étienne, and Saint-Amand (Avenue Marechal Soult) churches.\n\nThe ''Carmel of Bayonne'', located in the Marracq district, has had a community of Carmelite nuns since 1858.\n\nThe ''Way of Baztan'' (also ''ruta del Baztan'' or ''camino Baztanés'') is a way on the pilgrimage of Camino de Santiago which crosses the Pyrenees further west by the lowest pass (by the ''Col de Belate'', 847 m). It is the ancient road used by pilgrims descending to Bayonne then either along the coast on the ''Way of Soulac'' or because they landed there from England, for example, to join the French Way as soon as possible in Pamplona. The ''Way of Bayonne'' joins the French Way further downstream at Burgos.\n\n====Jewish worship====\nThe synagogue was built in 1837 in the Saint-Esprit district north of the town. The Jewish community of Bayonne is old—it consists of different groups of fugitives from Navarre and Portugal who established at SAint-Esprit-lès-Bayonne after the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492 and Portugal in 1496. In 1846 the Central Consistory moved to Saint-Esprit which was integrated with Bayonne in 1857.\n\n====Muslim worship====\nThe mosque is located in Rue Joseph-Latxague. It is the seat of the cultural association of Muslims in the Basque Coast.\n\n====Protestant worship====\nThe Protestant church is located at the corner of Rue Albert-I st and Rue du Temple A gospel church is located in the Saint-Esprit districtit where there is also a church belonging to the Gypsy Evangelical Church of the Protestant Federation of France.\n",
"Rue Poissonnerie, a shopping street in Grand-Bayonne.\nBayonne ham.\nDark Chocolate with Espelette pepper.\n\n===Population and income tax===\nIn 2011, the median household income tax was €22,605, placing Bayonne 28,406th place among the 31,886 communes with more than 49 households in metropolitan France.\n\nIn 2011 47.8% of households were not taxable.\n\n===Jobs===\nIn 2011 the population aged from 15 to 64 years was 29,007 persons of which 70.8% were employable, 60.3% in employment and 10.5% unemployed. While there were 30,012 jobs in the employment area, against 29,220 in 2006, and the number of employed workers residing in the employment area was 17,667, the indicator of job concentration is 169.9% which means that the employment area offers nearly two jobs to for every available worker.\n\n===Businesses and shops===\nBayonne is the economic capital of the agglomeration of Bayonne and southern Landes. The table below details the number of companies located in Bayonne according to their industry:\n\n\n |+ Structure of the Economy in Bayonne as at 1 January 2013.\n |-\n ! scope=\"col\" style=\"background: #DDFFDD; color:black;\" |\n ! scope=\"col\" style=\"background: #DDFFDD; color:black;\" | No. of Establishments\n\n TOTAL\n ''''''\n\n Industry\n 270\n\n Construction\n 375\n\n Trade, transport and services\n \n\n Public Administration, education, health, and social services\n 874\n\nScope: Commercial activities excluding Agriculture.\n\n\nThe table below shows employees by business establishments in terms of numbers:\n\n\n |+ Active establishments by sector of activity on 31 December 2011.\n |-\n ! scope=\"col\" style=\"background: #DDFFDD; color:black;\" |\n ! scope=\"col\" style=\"background: #DDFFDD; color:black;\" | Total\n ! scope=\"col\" style=\"background: #DDFFDD; color:black;\" | %\n ! scope=\"col\" style=\"background: #DDFFDD; color:black;\" | 0 Staff\n ! scope=\"col\" style=\"background: #DDFFDD; color:black;\" | 1 to 9 Staff\n ! scope=\"col\" style=\"background: #DDFFDD; color:black;\" | 10 to 19 Staff\n ! scope=\"col\" style=\"background: #DDFFDD; color:black;\" | 20 to 49 Staff\n ! scope=\"col\" style=\"background: #DDFFDD; color:black;\" | 50 Staff or more\n\n Ensemble\n ''''''\n '''100.0'''\n ''''''\n ''''''\n '''213'''\n '''155'''\n '''73'''\n\n Agriculture, sylviculture and fishing\n46\n0.8\n38\n6\n0\n2\n0\n\n Industry\n292\n4.9\n150\n101\n23\n15\n3\n\n Construction\n428\n7.2\n299\n84\n26\n15\n4\n\n Trade, transport, services\n\n66.5\n\n\n117\n73\n27\n\n ''including trade and car repair''\n''''\n''18,8''\n''579''\n''457''\n''38''\n''32''\n>''9''\n\n Public Administration, education, health, social services\n\n20.6\n920\n171\n47\n50\n39\n\nScope: All activities.\n\n\nThe following comments apply to the two previous tables:\n*the bulk of economic activity is provided by companies in the tertiary sector;\n*Agriculture is almost non-existent Note 54;\n*less than 5% of the activity is from the industrial sector which remains focused on establishments of less than 50 employees, as also are construction-related activities;\n*public administration, education, health and social services are activities of over 20% of establishments, confirming the importance of Bayonne as an administrative centre.\n\nIn 2013 549 new establishments were created in Bayonne including 406 Sole proprietorships. \n\n===Workshops and Industry===\nBayonne has few such industries, as indicated in the previous tables. There is ''Plastitube'' specializing in plastic packaging (190 employees). The Izarra liqueur company set up a distillery in 1912 at Quai Amiral-Bergeret and has long symbolized the economic wealth of Bayonne. Industrial activities are concentrated in the neighbouring communes of Boucau, Tarnos (Turbomeca), Mouguerre, and Anglet.\n\nBayonne is known for its fine chocolates, produced in the town for 500 years, and Bayonne ham, a cured ham seasoned with peppers from nearby Espelette. Izarra, the liqueur made in bright green or yellow colours, is distilled locally. It is said by some that Bayonne is the birthplace of mayonnaise, supposedly a corruption of ''Bayonnaise'', the French adjective describing the city's people and produce. Now bayonnaise can refer to a particular mayonnaise flavoured with the Espelette chillis.\n\nBayonne is now the centre of certain craft industries that were once widespread, including the manufacture of ''makilas'', traditional Basque walking-sticks. The Fabrique Alza just outside the city is known for its ''palas'', bats used in ''pelota'', the traditional Basque sport.\n\n===Service activities===\nThe active tertiary sector includes some large retail chains such as those detailed by geographer Roger Brunet: BUT (240 staff), Carrefour (150 staff), E.Leclerc (150 staff), Leroy Merlin (130 staff), and Galeries Lafayette (120 employees). Banks, cleaning companies (Onet, 170 employees), and security (Brink's, 100 employees) are also major employers in the commune, as is urban transport which employs nearly 200 staff. Five health clinics, providing a total of more than 500 beds, each employ 120 to 170 staff.\n\n===The port of Bayonne===\nThe cargo ship ''BBC-Magellan'' in the port of Bayonne in 2014.\n\nThe port of Bayonne is located at the mouth of the Adour, downstream of the city. It also occupies part of communes of Anglet and Boucau in Pyrenees-Atlantiques and Tarnos in Landes. It benefits greatly from the natural gas field of Lacq to which it is connected by pipeline. This is the 9th largest French port for trade with an annual traffic of about 4.2 million tonnes of which 2.8 is export. It is also the largest French port for export of maize. It is the property of the Aquitaine region who manage and control the site. Metallurgical products movement are more than one million tons per year and maize exports to Spain vary between 800,000 and 1 million tons. The port also receives refined oil products from the Total oil refinery at Donges (800,000 tons per year). Fertilizers are a traffic of 500,000 tons per year and sulphur from Lacq, albeit in sharp decline, is 400,000 tons.\n\nThe port also receives Ford and General Motors vehicles from Spain and Portugal and wood both tropical and from Landes.\n\n===Tourism services===\n\nDue to its proximity to the ocean and the foothills of the Pyrenees as well as its historic heritage, Bayonne has developed important activities related to tourism.\n\nOn 31 December 2012 there were 15 hotels in the city offering more than 800 rooms to visitors, but there were no camp sites. The tourist infrastructure in the surrounding urban area of Bayonne complements the local supply with around 5800 rooms spread over nearly 200 hotels and 86 campsites offering over 14,000 beds.\n",
"The Château Vieux\nThe Nive divides Bayonne into Grand Bayonne and Petit Bayonne with five bridges between the two, both quarters still being backed by Vauban's walls. The houses lining the Nive are examples of Basque architecture, with half-timbering and shutters in the national colours of red and green. The much wider Adour is to the north. The Pont Saint-Esprit connects Petit Bayonne with the Quartier Saint-Esprit across the Adour, where the massive Citadelle and the railway station are located. Grand Bayonne is the commercial and civic hub, with small pedestrianised streets packed with shops, plus the cathedral and Hôtel de Ville.\n\nThe Cathédrale Sainte-Marie is an imposing, elegant Gothic building, rising over the houses, glimpsed along the narrow streets. It was constructed in the 12th and 13th centuries. The south tower was completed in the 16th century but the cathedral was only completed in the 19th century with the north tower. The cathedral is noted for its charming cloisters. There are other details and sculptures of note, although much was destroyed in the Revolution.\n\nNearby is the Château Vieux, some of which dates back to the 12th century, where the governors of the city were based, including the English Black Prince.\nSainte-Marie Cathedral\n\nThe Musée Basque is the finest ethnographic museum of the entire Basque Country. It opened in 1922 but has been closed for a decade recently for refurbishment. It now has special exhibitions on Basque agriculture, seafaring and ''pelota'', handicrafts and Basque history and way of life.\n\nThe Musée Bonnat began with a large collection bequeathed by the local-born painter Léon Bonnat. The museum is one of the best galleries in south west France and has paintings by Edgar Degas, El Greco, Sandro Botticelli, and Francisco Goya, among others.\n\nAt the back of Petit Bayonne is the Château Neuf, among the ramparts. Now an exhibition space, it was started by the newly arrived French in 1460 to control the city. The walls nearby have been opened to visitors. They are important for plant life now and Bayonne's botanic gardens adjoin the walls on both sides of the Nive.\n\nThe area across the Adour is largely residential and industrial, with much demolished to make way for the railway. The Saint-Esprit church was part of a bigger complex built by Louis XI to care for pilgrims to Santiago de Compostela. It is home to a wooden ''Flight into Egypt'' sculpture.\n\nOverlooking the quarter is Vauban's 1680 Citadelle. The soldiers of Wellington's army who died besieging the citadelle in 1813 are buried in the nearby English Cemetery, visited by Queen Victoria and other British dignitaries when staying in Biarritz.\n\nThe distillery of the famous local liqueur Izarra is located on the northern bank of the Adour and is open to visitors.\n\nCitadel\n",
"* Edmund Crouchback or Edmond Plantagenet, Earl of Lancaster, born in 1245 at London and died in 1296 at Bayonne, was an English prince. Second surviving son of King Henri III and Eleanor of Provence, he was the 1st Earl of Lancaster and the founder of the House of Lancaster;\n* Jean du Vergier de Hauranne, (1581–1643), theologian, who introduced Jansenism into France\n* Guillaume du Tillot (1711–1774), politician\n* Marguerite Brunet, called Mademoiselle Montansier, born in 1730 at Bayonne and died in 1820 at Paris, was an actress and director of theatre. The house where she was born still exists in Rue des Faures, at Bayonne;\n* Dominique Joseph Garat (1749–1833), writer and politician\n* François Cabarrus (1752–1810), French adventurer and Spanish financier\n* Armand Joseph Dubernad (1741–1799), financial trader, consul general of the Holy Roman Empire\n* Bertrand Pelletier (1761–1797), chemist and pharmacologist\n* Jacques Laffitte (1767–1844), banker and politician\n* Frédéric Bastiat (1801–1850), classical-liberal author and political economist\n* Charles Lavigerie born at Bayonne in 1825 and died in 1892 at Algiers (Algérie), was a 19th-century Cardinal. He was the founder of the ''Society of Missionaries of Africa'' which is better known under the name White Fathers;\n* Léon Bonnat (1833–1922), painter\n* Ramón Altarriba y Villanueva (1841–1906), Spanish Carlist politician\n* René Cassin (1887–1976), lawyer and judge; recipient of the 1968 Nobel Peace Prize\n* François Duhourcau (1883–1851), writer and historian\n* Michel Camdessus (born 1933), managing director of the International Monetary Fund from 1997 to 2000\n* Didier Deschamps (born 1968), World-Cup-winning footballer\n* Imanol Harinordoquy (born 1980), French international rugby union player \n* Anthony Dupuis (born 1973), professional tennis player\n* Sylvain Luc (born 1965), jazz guitarist\n* Xavier de le Rue (born 1979), a snowboarder\n* Joe Duplantier, vocalist and guitarist of technical death metal band, Gojira (band)\n* Mario Duplantier, drummer of Gojira, brother of Joe Duplantier\n* Eva Bisseni, judoka\n* Achille Zo (1826–1901), painter\n* Stéphane Ruffier (born 1986) a French national football team goalkeeper.\n* Aymeric Laporte, footballer. Raised in the city.\n",
"* In Wyndham Lewis's novel ''The Wild Body'' (1927) the protagonist, Ker-Orr, in the first story, \"A Soldier of Humour\", takes the train from Paris and stays in Bayonne before going to Spain.\n* In Ernest Hemingway's novel ''The Sun Also Rises'', three of the characters visit Bayonne en route to Pamplona, Spain.\n* In Kim Stanley Robinson's novel ''The Years of Rice and Salt'' (2002), Bayonne is the first city recolonized by the Muslims after the total depopulation of Europe by the Black Death. Named \"Baraka\", its earliest colonizers were later driven out by rivals from Al-Andalus and flee to the Loire Valley, where they found the city of Nsara.\n* In Trevanian's novel Shibumi, Hannah has been called as \"a whore from Bayonne\" by elderly Basque women in a village of the Northern Basque Country.\n* The seventh track of Joe Bonamassa's album Dust Bowl is entitled ''The Last Matador of Bayonne''.\n* In the summer of 2008, Manu Chao's live album ''Baionarena'' was recorded in the Arena of Bayonne.\n* The album Life is Elsewhere, by English band Little Comets, features a song titled Bayonne.,\n* The eighth track of La Nef's album ''La Traverse Miraculeuse'' is entitled ''Le Navire de Bayonne''.\n",
"\n===Notes===\n\n\n===References===\n\n\n==== Insee ====\n* Dossier 2013 relative to the commune, \n\n* National Database\n\n\n==== Bibliographic sources ====\n* Leon H. ''Histoire des Juifs de Bayonne'', Paris, Armand Durlacher, 1893. in-4 : xvj, 436 pp. ; illustré de 4 planches hors-texte.\n*Pierre Dubourg-Noves ''Bayonne'', Ouest-France, 1986, . Noted \"DN\" in the text.\n\n*Eugène Goyheneche, ''Basque Country: Soule, Labourd, Lower-Navarre'', Société nouvelle d’éditions régionales et de diffusion, Pau, 1979, BnF FRBNF34647711 . Noted \"EG\" in the text.\n\n*Pierre Hourmat, ''History of Bayonne from its origins to the French Revolution of 1789'', Société des Sciences Lettres & Arts de Bayonne, 1986 . Noted \"PH\"\" in the text.\n\n*Pierre Hourmat ''Visiting Bayonne'', Sud Ouest, 1989 . Noted PiH\" in the text.\n\n*''Bayonne of the Nive and Adour'', François Lafitte Houssat, Alan Sutton, Joué-lès-Tours, 2001, . Noted as \"FL\" in the text.\n\n* The Bayonne Official website. Noted as \"M\" in the text.\n\n\n===External links===\n\n* City council website \n* Webpage about the citadel and fortifications of the town\n* BAIONA in the Bernardo Estornés Lasa – Auñamendi Encyclopedia (Euskomedia Fundazioa) \n* INSEE commune file \n* Jewish Encyclopedia 1906\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Geography",
"Communication and transport",
"Toponymy",
"History",
"Policy and Administration",
"Demography",
"Economy",
"Sights",
"Personalities",
"In popular culture",
"Notes and references"
] | Bayonne | [
"The site on the left bank of the Nive and the Adour was probably occupied before ancient times as a fortified enclosure was attested in the 1st century at the time when the Tarbelli occupied the territory.",
"It developed at the confluence of the Adour and its tributary on the left bank, the Nive, 6 km from the Atlantic coast.",
"Similarly, on the right bank of the Nive, the heights of Château-Neuf (Mocoron Hill) met the latest advance of the plateau of Saint-Pierre-d'Irube (height ).",
"On the right bank of the Adour the heights of Castelnau (today the citadel) with an altitude of , and Fort (today Saint-Esprit) with an altitude of rise above the Barthes of the Adour, the Nive, Bourgneuf, Saint-Frédéric, Sainte-Croix, Aritxague, and Pontots.",
"===Hydrography===\nThe confluence of the Adour and the Nive from the right bank of the Adour.",
"The river is part of the Natura 2000 network from its source at Bagnères-de-Bigorre to its exit to the Atlantic Ocean after Bayonne, between Tarnos (Landes) for the right bank and Anglet (Pyrénées-Atlantiques) for the left bank.",
"Apart from the Nive, which converges on the left bank of the Adour after of a sometimes tumultuous course, two tributaries join the Adour in Bayonne commune: the ''Ruisseau de Portou'' and the ''Ruisseau du Moulin Esbouc''.",
"Until 1868 the bridge had a moving span near the left bank.",
"Bicycle paths are located along the left bank of the Adour, a large part of the left bank of the Nive, and along various axes of the city where there are some bicycle lanes.",
"On the other hand, the presence of a mound about high has been detected in the current Cathedral Quarter overlooking the Nive which formed a natural protection and a usable port on the left bank of the Nive.",
"In 1792 the district of Saint-Esprit (that revolutionaries renamed ''Port-de-la-Montagne'') located on the right bank of the Adour, was separated from the city and renamed ''Jean-Jacques Rousseau''.",
"There are also three other football clubs in Bayonne: the ''Crusaders of Saint Andrew'' playing in the higher regional division, the ''Portuguese stars of Bayonne'' (first district division), and the Bayonne association on the right bank of the river (3rd district division).",
"The distillery of the famous local liqueur Izarra is located on the northern bank of the Adour and is open to visitors."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n'''Bayonne''' (; Gascon: ''Baiona'' ; ; ) is a city and commune and one of the two sub-prefectures of the department of Pyrénées-Atlantiques, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region of south-western France.",
"It is located at the confluence of the Nive and Adour rivers in the northern part of the cultural region of the Basque Country, as well as the southern part of Gascony where the Aquitaine basin joins the beginning of the Pre-Pyrenees.",
"Together with nearby Anglet, Biarritz, Saint-Jean-de-Luz, and several smaller communes, Bayonne forms an urban area with 288,359 inhabitants at the 2012 census, 45,855 of whom lived in the city of Bayonne proper.",
"Archaeological studies have confirmed the presence of a Roman castrum, a stronghold in Novempopulania at the end of the 4th century before the city was populated by the Vascones.",
"In 1023 Bayonne was the capital of Labourd and, in the 12th century, extended to and beyond the Nive.",
"At that time the first bridge was built over the Adour.",
"The city came under the domination of the English in 1152 through the marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine: it became militarily and, above all, commercially important thanks to maritime trade.",
"It was separated from the Viscount of Labourd in 1177 by Richard the Lion Heart.",
"In 1451 the city was taken by the Crown of France after the Hundred Years' War.",
"The loss of trade with the English and the silting up of the river as well as the movement of the city towards the north weakened it.",
"The district of Saint-Esprit developed anyway thanks to the arrival of a Jewish population fleeing the Spanish Inquisition.",
"From this community Bayonne gained its reputation for chocolate.",
"The course of the Adour was changed in 1578 under the direction of Louis de Foix and the river returned to its former mouth, returning business lost to Bayonne for over a hundred years.",
"In the 17th century the city was fortified by Vauban.",
"In 1814 Bayonne and its surroundings were the scene of fighting between the Napoleonic troops and the Spanish-Anglo-Portuguese coalition led by the Duke of Wellington: the city then underwent its final siege.",
"In 1951 the Lacq gas field was discovered whose extracted sulphur and associated oil are shipped from the port of Bayonne.",
"During the second half of the 20th century many housing estates were built forming new districts on the periphery and the city was extended to form a conurbation with Anglet and Biarritz: this agglomeration became the heart of a vast Basque-Landes urban area.",
"Bayonne was, in 2014, a commune with over 45,000 inhabitants, the heart of the urban area of Bayonne and of the ''Agglomeration Côte Basque-Adour'' which includes Anglet and Biarritz.",
"It is an important part of the Basque ''Bayonne-San Sebastián Eurocity'' and it plays the role of economic capital of the Adour basin.",
"Modern industry—metallurgy and chemicals—are established to take advantage of procurement opportunities and sea shipments through the harbour.",
"It is now mostly business services which today represent the largest source of employment.",
"Bayonne is also a cultural capital, a city with strong Basque and Gascon influences and a rich historical past.",
"Its heritage lies in its architecture, the diversity of collections in museums, its gastronomic specialties, and traditional events such as the famous Fêtes de Bayonne.",
"The inhabitants of the commune are known as ''Bayonnais'' or ''Bayonnaises''.",
"Bayonne is located in the south-west of France on the western border between Basque Country and Gascony.",
"The commune was part of the Basque province of Labourd.",
"===Geology and relief===\nBayonne occupies a territory characterized by a flat relief to the west and to the north towards the Landes forest, tending to slightly raise towards the south and east.",
"The city has developed at the confluence of the Adour and Nive from the ocean.",
"The meeting point of the two rivers coincides with a narrowing of the Adour valley.",
"Above this the alluvial plain extends for nearly towards both Tercis-les-Bains and Peyrehorade, and is characterized by swampy meadows called ''barthes'' which are influenced by floods and high tides.",
"Downstream from this point the river has shaped a large bed in the sand dunes creating a significant bottleneck at the confluence.",
"The occupation of the hill that dominates this narrowing of the valley developed through a gradual spread across the lowlands by building embankments and the aggradation from flood soil.",
"The Nive has played a leading role in the development of the Bayonne river system in recent geological time by the formation of alluvial terraces that form the sub-soil of Bayonne beneath the surface accumulations of silt and aeolian sands.",
"The drainage network of the western Pre-Pyrenees evolved mostly from the Quaternary from south-east to northwest oriented east-west.",
"The Adour was then captured by the gaves and this system, together with the Nive, led to the emergence of a new alignment of the lower Adour and the Adour-Nive confluence.",
"This capture has been dated to the early Quaternary (80,000 years ago).",
"Before this capture the Nive had deposited pebbles from the Mindel glaciation of medium to large sizes that slowed erosion of the hills causing the bottleneck at Bayonne.",
"After the deposit of the lowest alluvial terrace ( high at Grand Bayonne), the course of the Adour became fixed in its lower reaches.",
"Subsequent to these deposits there was a rise in sea level in the Holocene period (from 15,000 to 5000 years ago) which explains the invasion of the lower valleys with fine sand, peat, and mud with a thickness of more than below the current bed of the Adour and the Nive in Bayonne.",
"These same deposits are spread across the barthes.",
"In the late Quaternary the topographic physiognomy we know today was formed—i.e.",
"a set of hills overlooking a swampy lowland.",
"The promontory of Bassussarry–Marracq ultimately extended to the labourdin foothills, dying out at the Grand Bayonne hill is an example.",
"The area of the commune is and its altitude varies between .",
"The city is traversed by the Adour.",
"Tributaries of the Nive are the ''Ruisseau de Hillans'' and the ''Ruisseau d'Urdaintz'' which both rise in the commune.",
"===Climate===\nThe nearest weather station is that of Biarritz-Anglet.",
"The climate of Bayonne is relatively similar to that of its neighbour Biarritz, described below, with fairly heavy rainfall; The oceanic climate is due to the proximity of the Atlantic Ocean.",
"The average winter temperature is around 8 °C and is around 20 °C in summer.",
"The lowest temperature recorded was −12.7 °C on 16 January 1985 and the highest 40.6 °C on 4 August 2003.",
"Rains on the Basque coast are rarely persistent except during winter storms.",
"They often take the form of intense thunderstorms of short duration.",
"Public transport around Bayonne: railway lines are black, the intercity bus lines Pyrénées-Atlantiques are green and those of Landes purple.",
"The PTU (perimeter of urban transport, which operates the Chronoplus network is uncharted here) is bounded by a red line.",
"Means of transport (water, roads, bridges, and railways).",
"===Road communications===\nBayonne is located at the intersection of the A63 autoroute (Bordeaux-Spain) and the D1 extension of the A64 autoroute (towards Toulouse).",
"The city is served by three interchanges—two of them on the A63: exit (Bayonne Nord) serves the northern districts of Bayonne but also allows quick access to the centre while exit (Bayonne Sud) provides access to the south and also serves Anglet.",
"The third exit is the D1 / A64 via the Mousserolles interchange (exit Bayonne Mousserolles) which links the district of the same name and also serves the neighbouring communes of Mouguerre and Saint-Pierre-d'Irube.",
"Bayonne was traversed by Route nationale 10 connecting Paris to Hendaye but this is now downgraded to a departmental road D810.",
"Route nationale 117, linking Bayonne to Toulouse has been downgraded to departmental road D817.",
"===Bridges===\nThe Saint-Esprit bridge over the Adour.",
"There are several bridges over both the Nive and the Adour linking the various districts.",
"Coming from upstream on the Adour there is the A63 bridge, then the Saint-Frédéric bridge which carries the D 810, then the railway bridge that replaced the old Eiffel iron bridge, the Saint-Esprit bridge, and finally the Grenet bridge.",
"The Saint-Esprit bridge connects the Saint-Esprit district to the Amiral-Bergeret dock just upstream of the confluence with the river Nive.",
"In 1845 the old bridge, originally made ?",
"?of wood, was rebuilt in masonry with seven arches supporting a deck wide.",
"It was then called the Nemours Bridge in honour of Louis of Orleans, sixth Duke of Nemours, who laid the first stone.",
"The bridge was finally called Saint-Esprit.",
"It was expanded in 1912 to facilitate the movement of horse-drawn carriages and motor vehicles.",
"On the Nive coming from upstream to downstream there is the A63 bridge then the ''Pont Blanc'' (White bridge) railway bridge, and then D810 bridge, the Génie bridge (or ''Pont Millitaire''), the Pannecau bridge, the Marengo bridge leading to the covered markets, and the Mayou Bridge The Pannecau bridge was long named ''Bertaco bridge'' and was rebuilt in masonry under Napoleon III.",
"According to François Lafitte Houssat, \"... a municipal ordinance of 1327 provided for the imprisonment of any quarrellsome woman of bad character in an iron cage dropped into the waters of the Nive River from the bridge.",
"The practice lasted until 1780 ...\" This punishment bore the evocative name of ''cubainhade''.",
"===Cycling network===\nThe commune is traversed by the ''Vélodyssée''.",
"The city offers free bicycles on loan.",
"===Public transport===\n\n====Urban network====\nMost of the lines of the ''Chronoplus'' bus network operated by the ''Transdev agglomeration of Bayonne'' link Bayonne to other communes in the urban transport perimeter: Anglet, Biarritz, Bidart, Boucau, Saint-Pierre-d'Irube and Tarnos The Bayonne free shuttle Bayonne serves the city centre (Grand and Petit Bayonne) by connecting several parking stations; other free shuttles perform other short trips within the commune.",
"====Interurban networks====\nBayonne is connected to many cities in the western half of the department such as Saint-Jean-de-Luz and Saint-Palais by the Pyrenees-Atlantiques long distance coach network of ''Transport 64'' managed by the General Council.",
"Since the network restructuring in the summer of 2013, the lines converge on Bayonne.",
"Bayonne is also served by services from the Landes departmental network, ''XL'R''.",
"====Rail transport====\nThe Gare de Bayonne is located in the Saint-Esprit district and is an important station on the Bordeaux-Irun railway.",
"It is also the terminus of lines leading from Toulouse to Bayonne and from Bayonne to Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port.",
"It is served by TGV, Intercités, Lunéa, and TER Aquitaine trains (to Hendaye, Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port, Dax, Bordeaux, Pau, and Tarbes).",
"====Air transport====\nBayonne is served by the Biarritz – Anglet – Bayonne Airport (IATA code: BIQ • ICAO code: LFBZ), located on the communal territories of Anglet and Biarritz.",
"The airport was returned to service in 1954 after repair of damage from bombing during the Second World War.",
"Airport management is carried out by the joint association for the development and operation of the airport of Biarritz-Anglet-Bayonne, which includes the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Bayonne Basque Country, the agglomeration of Côte Basque-Adour, the departments of Pyrénées-Atlantiques and Landes, and the commune of Saint-Jean-de-Luz.",
"The airport of Biarritz-Anglet-Bayonne had nearly 1.1 million passengers in 2013.",
"It has regular connections to Paris-Orly, Paris-CDG, Lyon, Nice, Geneva, and London Stansted and from March to October 2014 had connections with: Marseille, Strasbourg, Lille, Brussels South Charleroi Airport, Dublin, Stockholm-Skavsta, Stockholm-Arlanda, London-Gatwick, Copenhagen, Oslo, and Helsinki.",
"Airline companies serving the airport at 1 November 2014 were: Air France, Etihad Regional, EasyJet, Finnair, Hop!, Ryanair, SAS, Twin Jet, and Volotea.",
"\n===Etymology===\nWhile the modern Basque spelling is ''Baiona'' and the same in Gascon Occitan, \"the name ''Bayonne'' poses a number of problems both historical and linguistic which have still not been clarified\".",
"There are different interpretations of its meaning.",
"The termination ''-onne'' in ''Bayonne'' can come from many in hydronyms ''-onne'' or toponyms derived from that.",
"In certain cases the element ''-onne'' follows an Indo-European theme: ''*ud-r/n'' (Greek ''húdōr'' giving hydro, Gothic ''watt'' meaning \"water\") hence ''*udnā'' meaning \"water\" giving ''unna'' then ''onno'' in the glossary of Vienne.",
"''Unna'' therefore would refer to the Adour.",
"This toponymic type evoking a river traversing a locality is common.",
"The appellative ''unna'' seems to be found in the name of the Garonne (''Garunna'' 1st century; ''Garonna'' 4th century).",
"However it is possible to see a pre-Celtic suffix ''-ona'' in the name of the Charente (''Karantona'' in 875) or the Charentonne (''Carentona'' in 1050).",
"It could also be an augmentative Gascon from the original Latin radical ''Baia-'' with the suffix ''-ona' in the sense of \"vast expanse of water\" or a name derived from the Basque ''bai'' meaning \"river\" and ''ona'' meaning \"good\", hence \"good river\".",
"The proposal by Eugene Goyheneche repeated by Manex Goyhenetche and supported by Jean-Baptiste Orpustan is ''bai una'', \"the place of the river\" or ''bai ona'' \"hill by the river\"—''Ibai'' means \"river\" in Basque and ''muinoa'' means \"hill\".",
"\"It has perhaps been lost from sight that many urban place names in France, from north to south, came from the element ''Bay-'' or ''Bayon-'' such as: Bayons, Bayonville, Bayonvillers and pose the unusual problem of whether they are Basque or Gascon\"\n\nadds Pierre Hourmat.",
"However, the most ancient form of Bayonne: ''Baiona'', clearly indicates a feminine or a theme of ''-a'' whereas this is not the case for Béon or Bayon.",
"In addition, the ''Bayon-'' in Bayonville or Bayonvillers in northern France is clearly the personal Germanic name ''Baio''.",
"===Old attestations===\nThe names of the Basque province of Labourd and the locality of Bayonne have been attested from an early period with the place name ''Bayonne'' appearing in the Latin form ''Lapurdum'' after a period during which the two names could in turn designate a Viscounty or Bishopric.",
"''Labourd'' and ''Bayonne'' were synonymous and used interchangeably until the 12th century before being differentiated: Labord for the province and Bayonne for the city.",
"The attribution of Bayonne as ''Civitas Boatium'', a place mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary and by Paul Raymond in his 1863 dictionary, has been abandoned.",
"The city of the ''Boïates'' may possibly be La Teste-de-Buch but is certainly not Bayonne.",
"The following table details the origins of Labord, Bayonne, and other names in the commune.",
"Name !",
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"Description\n\n '''Bayonne''' \n Tribunus cohortis Novempopulanoe: Lapurdo \n \n Raymond \n24\n Notary of Provinces \n City\n\n \n In provincia Novempopulana tribunus cohortis Novempopulanæ in Lapurdo \n 5th century \n Goyheneche \n85-92\n \n \n\n \n Lapurdum \n 6th century \n Raymond \n24\n Gregory of Tours \n\n\n \n Episcopatus Lasburdensis \n 983 \n Raymond \n88\n Chapter \n\n\n \n Sancta Maria Lasburdensis \n 983 \n Raymond \n24\n Chapter \n\n\n \n Sancta Maria Baionensis \n 1105 \n Raymond \n24\n Cartulary \n\n\n \n civitas de Baiona \n 1140 \n Raymond \n24\n Cartulary \n\n\n \n Baione \n 13th century \n Raymond \n24\n Duchesne \n\n\n \n Bayona \n 1248 \n Raymond \n24\n Camara \n\n\n \n Bayone \n 1253 \n Raymond \n24\n Camara \n\n\n \n Baionne \n 14th century \n Guiart \n\n \n\n\n \n Bayonne \n 1750 \n Cassini 1750 \n\n \n\n\n \n Bayonne \n 1790 \n Cassini 1790 \n\n \n\n\n \n Baiona \n 19th century \n Lhande \n\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Balichon''' \n Molendinum de la Mufala, Balaisson \n 1198 \n Raymond \n24\n Cartulary \n Old mill\n\n \n Balaichon \n 1259 \n Raymond \n24\n Cartulary \n\n\n \n Molin de le Muhale \n 1259 \n Raymond \n24\n Cartulary \n\n\n \n Molin de la Muffale \n 1259 \n Raymond \n24\n Cartulary \n\n\n \n lo pont de Belaischon \n 1259 \n Raymond \n24\n Cartulary \n\n\n \n Baleyson \n 1331 \n Raymond \n20\n Gascon roles \n\n\n \n Baleychoun \n 1334 \n Raymond \n20\n Gascon roles \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Bénac''' \n Bénac \n 1863 \n Raymond \n27\n \n Farm\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Bouroutchourry''' \n Bouroutchourry \n 1863 \n Raymond \n35\n \n Farm\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Glain''' \n Fons de Coquoanhea \n 1387 \n Raymond \n72\n Chapter \n Farm\n\n \n Camps \n 17th century \n Raymond \n72\n Archives of Bayonne \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Jean-d'Amou''' \n Jean-d'Amou \n 1863 \n Raymond \n85\n \n Hamlet\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Lachepaillet''' \n Lo portau de Lachepailhet \n 1516 \n Raymond \n88\n Chapter \n District; it was once the name of one of the city gates which was previously called the ''Portail de Tarride''.",
"'''Largenté''' \n Largenté \n 1863 \n Raymond \n94\n \n Farm\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Les Lauriers''' \n Les Lauriers \n 1863 \n Raymond \n97\n \n Hamlet\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Lesperon''' \n L'Esperon \n 1246 \n Raymond \n100\n Cartulary \n Farm at Saint-Esprit\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Les Murailles''' \n Les Murailles \n 1863 \n Raymond \n120\n \n Farm\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Panecau''' \n Port de Bertaco \n 13th century \n Raymond \n131\n Cartulary \n Bridge\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Pé-de-Navarre''' \n Pé-de-Navarre \n 1863 \n Raymond \n133\n \n Farm\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n '''Château Weymann''' \n Château Weymann \n 1863 \n Raymond \n175\n \n Château\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n'''Sources:'''\n*'''Raymond:''' ''Topographic Dictionary of the Department of Basses-Pyrenees'', 1863, on the page numbers indicated in the table.",
"*'''Goyheneche''': according to the ''Notitia Dignitatum Imperii'' dating from 340 to 420\n*'''Guiart''': Guillaume Guiart, around 1864\n*'''Lhande''': Basque-French Dictionary by Pierre Lhande, 1926.",
"*'''Cassini 1750:''' 1750 Cassini Map\n*'''Cassini 1790:''' 1790 Cassini Map\n\n'''Origins:'''\n*'''Chapter:''' Titles of the Chapter of Bayonne\n*'''Cartulary:''' Cartulary of Bayonne or ''Livre d'Or'' (Book of Gold)\n*'''Camara:''' Chapters of the Camara de Comptos.",
"\n===Prehistory===\nIn the absence of accurate objective data there is some credence to the probable existence of a fishing village on the site in a period prior to ancient times.",
"Numerous traces of human occupation have been found in the Bayonne region from the Middle Paleolithic especially in the discoveries at Saint-Pierre-d'Irube, a neighbouring locality.",
"At the time the mound was surrounded north and west by the Adour swamps.",
"At its foot lies the famous \"Bayonne Sea\"—the junction of the two rivers—which may have been about wide between Saint-Esprit and the Grand Bayonne and totally covered the current location of Bourg-Neuf (in the district of Petit Bayonne).",
"To the south the last bend of the Nive widens near the Saint-Léon hills.",
"Despite this, the narrowing of the Adour valley allows easier crossing than anywhere else along the entire length of the estuary.",
"In conclusion, the strategic importance of this height was so obvious it must be presumed that it has always been inhabited.",
"===Ancient times===\nMap of Novempopulania indicating the position of the Tarbelli territory north-west of the Pyrenees.",
"The oldest documented human occupation site is located on a hill overlooking the Nive and its confluence with the Adour.",
"In the 1st century AD, during the Roman occupation, Bayonne already seems to have been of some importance since the Romans surrounded the city with a wall to keep out the Tarbelli, Aquitani, or the proto-Basque who then occupied a territory that extended south of modern-day Landes, to the modern French Basque country, the Chalosse, the valleys of the Adour, the mountain streams of Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, and to the Gave d'Oloron.",
"The archaeological discoveries of October and November 1995 provided a shred of evidence to support this projection.",
"In the four layers of sub-soil along the foundation of the Gothic cathedral (in the \"apse of the cathedral\" area) a 2-metre depth was found of old objects from the end of the 1st century—in particular sigillated Gallic ceramics from Montans imitating Italian styles, thin-walled bowls, and fragments of amphorae.",
"In the \"southern sector\" near the cloister door there were objects from the second half of the 1st century as well as coins from the first half of the 3rd century.",
"A very high probability of human presence, not solely military, seems to provisionally confirm the occupation of the site at least around the 3rd century.",
"A Roman castrum dating to the end of the 4th century has been proven as a fortified place of Novempopulania.",
"Named ''Lapurdum'', the name became the name of the province of ''Labourd''.",
"According to Eugene Goyheneche the name ''Baiona'' designated the city, the port, and the cathedral while that of ''Lapurdum'' was only a territorial designation.",
"This Roman settlement was strategic as it allowed the monitoring of the trans-Pyrenean roads and of local people rebellious to the Roman power.",
"The construction covered 6 to 10 hectares according to several authors.",
"===Middle Ages===\nThe geographical location of the locality at the crossroads of a river system oriented from east to west and the road network connecting Europe to the Iberian Peninsula from north to south predisposed the site to the double role of fortress and port.",
"The city, after being Roman, alternated between the Vascones and the English for three centuries from the 12th to the 15th century.",
"The Romans left the city in the 4th century and the Basques, who had always been present, dominated the former Novempopulania province between the Garonne, the Ocean, and the Pyrénées.",
"Novempopulania was renamed Vasconia and then Gascony after a Germanic deformation (resulting from the Visigoth and Frankish invasions).",
"Basquisation of the plains region was too weak against the advance of romanization.",
"From the mixture between the Basque and Latin language Gascon was created.",
"Documentation on Bayonne for the period from the High Middle Ages are virtually nonexistent.",
"with the exception of two Norman intrusions: one questionable in 844 and a second attested in 892.",
"When Labourd was created in 1023 Bayonne was the capital and the Viscount resided there.",
"The history of Bayonne proper started in 1056 when Raymond II the Younger, Bishop of Bazas, had the mission to build the Church of Bayonne\n\nThe construction was under the authority of Raymond III of Martres, Bishop of Bayonne from 1122 to 1125, combined with Viscount Bertrand for the Romanesque cathedral, the rear of which can still be seen today, and the first wooden bridge across the Adour extending the Mayou bridge over the Nive, which inaugurated the heyday of Bayonne.",
"From 1120 new districts were created under population pressure.",
"The development of areas between the old Roman city of Grand Bayonne and the Nive also developed during this period, then between the Nive and the Adour at the place that became Petit Bayonne.",
"A Jacobin Convent was located there in 1225 then that of the Cordeliers in 1247.",
"Construction of and modifications to the defences of the city also developed to protect the new districts.",
"In 1130 the King of Aragon Alfonso the Battler besieged the city without success.",
"Bayonne came under English rule when Eleanor of Aquitaine married Henry II of England in 1152.",
"This alliance gave Bayonne many commercial privileges.",
"The Bayonnaises became carriers of Bordeaux wines and other south-western products like resin, ham, and woad to England.",
"Bayonne was then an important military base.",
"In 1177 King Richard separated the Viscounty of Labourd whose capital then became Ustaritz.",
"Like many cities at the time, in 1215 Bayonne obtained the award of a municipal charter and was emancipated from feudal powers.",
"The official publication in 1273 of a Coutume unique to the city, remained in force for five centuries until the separation of Bayonne from Labourd.",
"Bayonnaise industry at that time was dominated by shipbuilding: wood (oak, beech, chestnut from the Pyrenees, and pine from Landes) being overabundant.",
"There was also maritime activity in providing crews for whaling, commercial marine or, and it was often so at a time when it was easy to turn any merchant ship into a warship, the English Royal Navy.",
"===Renaissance and modern times===\nView of the ramparts overlooking the river.",
"The Bartizan on the Redoubt, restored in 2005.",
"The Ramparts of Bayonne.",
"Jean de Dunois - a former companion at arms of Joan of Arc—captured the city on 20 August 1451 and annexed it to the Crown \"without making too many victims\", but at the cost of a war indemnity of 40,000 gold Écus payable in a year,—thanks to the opportunism of the bishop who claimed to have seen \"a large white cross surmounted by a crown which turns into a fleur-de-lis in the sky\" to dissuade Bayonne from fighting against the royal troops.",
"The city continued to be fortified by the kings of France to protect it from danger from the Spanish border.",
"In 1454 Charles VII created a separate judicial district: the ''Seneschal of Lannes'' a \"single subdivision of Guyenne during the English period\" which had jurisdiction over a wide area including Bayonne, Dax and Saint-Sever and which exercised civil justice, criminal jurisdiction within the competence of the district councilors.",
"Over time, the \"Seneschal of the Sword\" which was at Dax lost any role other than protocol and Bayonne, along with Dax and Saint-Sever, became the de facto seat of a separate Seneschal under the authority of a \"lieutenant-general of the Seneschal\".",
"In May 1462 King Louis XI authorized the holding of two annual fairs by letters patent after signing the Treaty of Bayonne after which it was confirmed by the coutoumes of the inhabitants in July 1472 following the death of Charles de Valois, Duke de Berry, the king's brother.",
"At the time the Spanish Inquisition raged in the Iberian Peninsula Jews left Spain, and especially Portugal, then settled in Saint-Esprit.",
"They brought with them chocolate and the recipe for its preparation.",
"The golden age of the city ended in the 15th century with the loss of trade with England and the silting of the port of Bayonne created by the movement of the course of the Adour to the north.",
"At the beginning of the 16th century Labourd saw the emergence of the plague.",
"Its path can be tracked by reading the ''Registers''.",
"In July 1515 the city of Bayonne was \"prohibited to welcome people from plague-stricken places\" and on 21 October, \"we inhibit and prohibit all peasants and residents of this city ... to go Parish Bidart ... because of the contagion of the plague\".",
"On 11 April 1518 the plague raged in Saint-Jean-de-Luz and the city of Bayonne \"inhibited and prohibited for all peasants and city inhabitants and other foreigners to maintain relationships at the location and Parish of Saint-Jean-de-Luz where people have died of the plague\".",
"On 11 November 1518 plague was present in Bayonne to the point that in 1519 the city council moved to the district of Brindos (Berindos at the time) in Anglet.",
"In 1523 Marshal Odet of Foix, Viscount of Lautrec resisted the Spaniards under Philibert of Chalon in the service of Charles V and lifted the siege of Bayonne.",
"It was at Château-Vieux that the ransom demand for the release of Francis I, taken prisoner after his defeat at the Battle of Pavia, was gathered.",
"The meeting in 1565 between Catherine de Medici and the envoy of Philip II: the Duke of Alba, is known as the ''Interview of Bayonne''.",
"At the time that Catholics and Protestants tore each other apart in parts of the kingdom of France, Bayonne seemed relatively untouched by these troubles.",
"An iron fist from the city leaders did not appear to be unknown.",
"In fact they never hesitated to use violence and criminal sanctions for keeping order in the name of the \"public good\".",
"Two brothers, Saubat and Johannes Sorhaindo who were both lieutenants of the mayor of Bayonne in the second half of the 16th century, perfectly embody this period.",
"They often wavered between Catholicism and Protestantism but always wanted to ensure the unity and prestige of the city.",
"In the 16th century the king's engineers, under the direction of Louis de Foix, were dispatched to rearrange the course of the Adour by creating an estuary to maintain the river bed.",
"The river discharged in the right place to the Ocean on 28 October 1578.}",
"The port of Bayonne then attained a greater level of activity.",
"Fishing for cod and whale ensured the wealth of fishermen and shipowners.",
"From 1611 to 1612 the college Principal of Bayonne was a man of 26 years old with a future: Cornelius Jansen known as ''Jansénius'', the future Bishop of Ypres.",
"Bayonne became the birthplace of Jansenism, an austere science which strongly disrupted the monarchy of Louis XIV.",
"During the sporadic conflicts that troubled the French countryside from the mid 17th century, Bayonne peasants were short of powder and projectiles.",
"They attached the long hunting knives in the barrels of their muskets and that way they fashioned makeshift spears later called ''bayonets''.",
"In that same century, Vauban was charged by Louis XIV to fortify the city.",
"He added a citadel built on a hill overlooking the district of ''San Espirit Cap deou do Punt''.",
"The Redoubt, a system of fortifications destroyed at the beginning of the 20th century, seen from the Quaie de l'Amiral-Lesseps.",
"===French Revolution and Empire===\nActivity in Bayonne peaked in the 18th century.",
"The Chamber of Commerce was founded in 1726.",
"Trade with Spain, the Netherlands, the Antilles, the cod fishery off the shores of Newfoundland, and construction sites maintained a high level of activity in the port.",
"It was reunited with Bayonne on 1 June 1857.",
"For 65 years the autonomous commune was part of the department of Landes.",
"In 1808 at the Château of Marracq the act of abdication of the Spanish king Charles IV in favour of Napoleon was signed under the \"friendly pressure\" of the Emperor.",
"In the process the Bayonne Statute was initialed as the first Spanish constitution.",
"Also in 1808 the French Empire imposed on the Duchy of Warsaw the Convention of Bayonne to buy from France the debts owed to it by Prussia.",
"The debt, amounting to more than 43 million francs in gold, was bought at a discounted rate of 21 million francs.",
"However, although the duchy made its payments in installments to France over a four-year period, Prussia was unable to pay it (due to a very large indemnity it owed to France resulting from Treaties of Tilsit), causing the Polish economy to suffer heavily.",
"Trade was the wealth of the city in the 18th century but suffered greatly in the 19th century, severely sanctioned by conflict with Spain, its historic trading partner in the region.",
"The Siege of Bayonne marked the end of the period with the surrender of the Napoleonic troops of Marshal Jean-de-Dieu Soult who were defeated by the coalition led by Wellington on 5 May 1814.",
"===Contemporary period===\nThe second Gare de Bayonne, photographed here in the 1930s.",
"In 1854 the railway arrived from Paris bringing many tourists eager to enjoy the beaches of Biarritz.",
"Bayonne turned instead to the steel industry with the forges of the Adour.",
"The Port took on an industrial look but its slow decline seemed inexorable in the 19th century.",
"The discovery of the Lacq gas field restored a certain dynamism.",
"The Treaty of Bayonne was concluded on 2 December 1856.",
"It overcame the disputes in fixing the Franco-Spanish border in the area extending from the mouth of the Bidassoa to the border between Navarre and Aragon.",
"The city built three light railway lines to connect to Biarritz at the beginning of the 20th century.",
"The most direct line, that of the ''Tramway Bayonne-Lycée–Biarritz'' was operated from 1888 to 1948.",
"In addition a line further north served Anglet, operated by the ''Chemin de fer Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz'' company from 1877 to 1953.",
"Finally a line following the Adour to its mouth and to the Atlantic Ocean by the bar in Anglet, was operated by ''VFDM réseau basque'' from 1919 to 1948.",
"On the morning of 23 December 1933, sub-prefect Anthelme received Gustave Tissier, the director of the ''Crédit Municipal de Bayonne''.",
"He responded well, with some astonishment, to his persistent interview.",
"It did not surprise him to see the man unpacking what became the scam of the century.",
"\"Tissier, director of the ''Crédit Municipal'', was arrested and imprisoned under suspicion of forgery and misappropriation of public funds.",
"He had issued thousands of false bonds in the name of ''Crédit Municipal'' ...\"\n\nThis was the beginning of the Stavisky Affair which, together with other scandals and political crises, led to the Paris riots of 6 February 1934.",
"===The World Wars===\nThe 249th Infantry Regiment, created from the 49th Infantry Regiment, was engaged in operations in the First World War, including action at Chemin des Dames, especially on the plateau of Craonne.",
"700 Bayonnaises perished in the conflict.",
"A centre for engagement of foreign volunteers was established in August 1914 in Bayonne.",
"Many nationalities were represented, particularly the Spanish, the Portuguese, the Czechs, and the Poles \n\nDuring the Second World War Bayonne was occupied by the 3rd SS Panzer Division Totenkopf from 27 June 1940 to 23 August 1944.",
"On 5 April 1942 the Allies made a landing attempt in Bayonne but after a barge penetrated the Adour with great difficulty, the operation was canceled.",
"On 21 August 1944, after blowing up twenty ships in port, German troops withdrew.",
"On the 22nd a final convoy of five vehicles passed through the city.",
"It transported Gestapo Customs agents and some elements of the ''Feldgendarmerie''.",
"One or more Germans opened fire with machine guns killing three people.",
"On the 23rd there was an informal and immediate installation of a \"special municipal delegation\" by the young deputy prefect Guy Lamassoure representing the Provisional Government of the French Republic which had been established in Algiers since 27 June.",
"===Heraldry===",
"\n===List of mayors under the Ancien Régime===\nThe Gramont family provided captains and governors in Bayonne from 1472 to 1789 as well as mayors, a post which became hereditary from 28 January 1590 by concession of Henry IV to Antoine II of Gramont.",
"From the 15th century they resided in the Château Neuf then in the Château-Vieux from the end of the 16th century: \n\n*'''Roger de Gramont''', (1444–1519), Lord of Gramont, Baron of Haux, Seneschal of Guyenne, hereditary mayor of Bayonne.",
"He was an advisor and chamberlain of Louis XI in 1472 and then Charles VIII in 1483.",
"He was Ambassador for Louis XII in Rome in 1502.",
"He became governor of Bayonne and its castles on 26 February 1487.",
"He died of the plague in 1519.",
"*'''Jean II de Gramont''', Lord of Gramont, mayor and captain of Bayonne from 18 March 1523.",
"On 15 September 1523, as a lieutenant in the company of Marshal Lautrec, he rescued Bayonne from the siege by the forces of Charles V under the command of the Prince of Orange.",
"He died during the wars in Italy;\n*'''Antoine I of Gramont''', born in 1526, he was appointed at the age of nine years (1535) as mayor and captain of Bayonne.",
"In 1571 he charged Louis de Foix with the changes to the mouth of the Adour along the fortifications of the city;\n*'''Antoine II de Gramont''' (1572–1644), Count of Gramont, Guiche and Toulonjon, Viscount then Count of Louvigny, ruler of Bidache, Viscount of Aster, lord then baron of Lescun.",
"He was a ''Duke de Brevet'' in 1643, but unverified by Parliament.",
"On 28 January 1590 Henry IV granted him and his descendants the perpetual office of Mayor of Bayonne.",
"He then became the Viceroy of Navarre.",
"In 1595, Antoine II de Gramont charged Jean Errard (1599) then Louis de Millet (1612) to strengthen the defenses of the city;\n*'''Antoine III of Gramont-Touloujon''' (1604–1678), Count and then, in 1648, Duke of Gramont, Prince of Bidache, Count of Guiche, Toulonjon, and Louvigny, Viscount of Astern, Baron of Andouins and Hagetmau, and lord of Lesparre, peer of France in 1648, Marshal of France in 1641.",
"As Ambassador of Louis XIV, in 1660 he sought the hand of the Infanta Maria Theresa.",
"The king gave him power of attorney to represent him in the marriage which was celebrated in Madrid.",
"It was he who welcomed Louis XIV, Anne of Austria, Mazarin, and the rest of the Court to Bayonne.",
"He died on 12 July 1678 at the Château-Vieux;\n*'''Antoine Charles IV of Gramont''' (1641–1720), Duke of Gramont, Prince of Bidache, Count of Guiche and Louvigny, Viscount of Aster, Baron of Andouins and Hagetmau, Lord of Lesparre, peer of France, Viceroy of Navarre.",
"In 1689, he continued the fortification works undertaken by Vauban in Bayonne, where he remained from 1706 to 1712.",
"He supported Philip V during the War of the Spanish Succession, using Bayonne to supply his troops, weapons, reinforcements and subsidies.",
"In retaliation, the opponents of Philip V organized two attacks in 1707: one at Château-Vieux leaving Antoine IV unharmed.",
"===Modern times===\n\n'''List of Successive Mayors'''\n\n\n\n\n From !",
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"To !",
"!",
"Name\n\n 1725 \n \n Matthieu de Bruix\n\n 1726 \n \n Jean de Moracin \n\n 1728 \n \n François de Poheyt \n\n 1730 \n \n Léon Dubrocq \n\n 1732 \n \n Pierre Commarieu \n\n 1736 \n \n Jean Desbiey\n\n 1738 \n \n Jean-Louis Rol Montpellier \n\n 1740 \n \n Joseph Dulivier \n\n 1745 \n \n Léon Brethous\n\n 1749 \n \n Joseph Dantes \n\n 1750 \n \n Dominique Behic\n\n 1752 \n \n François Casaubon Maisonneuve \n\n 1754 \n \n Jean Baptiste Picot \n\n 1756 \n \n Martin Bretous \n\n 1758 \n \n Jean Desbiey \n\n 1760 \n \n Jean François Dubrocq \n\n 1762 \n \n Jean Rol de Montpellier \n\n 1764 \n \n Martin Antoine Bretous \n\n 1766 \n \n Jacques Pastoureau \n\n 1768 \n \n Joseph de Sorhainde \n\n 1770 \n \n Martin Castera\n\n 1772 \n \n Pierre Larue \n\n 1774 \n \n Dominique Duhagon \n\n 1775 \n \n Jean-Pierre de Nogué \n\n 1776 \n \n Lasserre \n\n 1778 \n \n Pierre Anselme Monho\n\n 1780 \n \n Joachim Dubrocq \n\n 1782 \n \n Etienne Lalanne \n\n 1785 \n \n Joseph Verdier \n\n 1788 \n \n Jacques Poydenot \n\n 1790 \n \n Dominique Dubrocq\n\n 1791 \n \n Charles Lasserre \n\n 1791 \n \n Paul Faurie \n\n 1792 \n \n Jean-Pierre Joseph de Basterrèche \n\n 1793 \n \n Leclerc \n\n 1794 \n \n Johaneau\n\n 1795 \n \n Dufourcq \n\n 1798 \n \n Barthélémy Poydenot \n\n 1798 \n \n Sauvine \n\n 1800 \n \n Paum Lacroix Ravignan \n\n 1803 \n 1806 \n Joseph Laborde Noguez\n\n 1806 \n \n Chrysostome Dechegaray \n\n 1815 \n \n Martin Charles Chégaray \n\n 1816 \n \n Arnaud Fourcade \n\n 1818 \n \n Alexandre Betbeder \n\n 1824 \n \n Antoine Robert d'Hirairt\n\n 1829 \n \n Joachim Alexandre Dubrocq \n\n 1830 \n 1832 \n Bernard Lanne \n\n 1832 \n 1833 \n Joseph Arnaud Eugène de Basterreche \n\n 1833 \n 1848 \n François Balasque\n\n 1848 \n 1849 \n Eugène Boutouey\n\n 1849 \n 1850 \n Joachim Alexandre Dubrocq \n\n 1852 \n 1869 \n Jules Labat \n\n 1871 \n 1876 \n Jules Séraphin Chateauneuf \n\n 1876 \n 1881 \n Jacques Théodore Plantié \n\n 1881 \n 1884 \n Edouard Séraphin Haulon\n\n 1884 \n 1885 \n Jacques Léon Portes \n\n 1885 \n 1888 \n Joseph Edouard Viard \n\n 1888 \n 1908 \n Gabriel Léo Pouzac\n\n 1908 \n 1919 \n Joseph Garat \n\n 1919 \n 1925 \n Jules Prosper Castagnet\n\n 1925 \n 1934 \n Joseph Garat \n\n 1934 \n 1935 \n Jules Lafourcade \n\n 1935 \n 1941 \n Pierre Simonet \n\n\n\n;Mayors from 1941\n\n\n\n From !",
"!",
"To !",
"!",
"Name !",
"!",
"Party !",
"!",
"Position\n\n 1941 \n 1944 \n Marcel Ribeton \n \n \n\n 1944 \n 1945 \n Jean Labourdique \n \n \n\n 1945 \n 1947 \n Jean Pierre Brana \n \n \n\n 1947 \n 1958 \n Maurice Delay \n \n Surgeon\n\n 1958 \n 1959 \n Georges Forsans \n \n \n\n 1959 \n 1995 \n Henri Grenet \n UDF \n Surgeon\n\n 1995 \n 2014 \n Jean Grenet \n UDI \n MP, Chairman of the Adour-Basque Coast agglomeration 2008–2014\n\n 2014 \n 2020 \n Jean René Etchegaray \n UDI \n President of the Adour-Basque Coast agglomeration\n\n(Not all data is known)\n\n===Cantons of Bayonne===\nAs per the Decree of 22 December 1789 Bayonne was part of two cantons: Bayonne-North-east, which includes part of Bayonne commune plus Boucau, Saint-Pierre-d'Irube, Lahonce, Mouguerre, and Urcuit; and Bayonne Northwest which consisted of the rest of Bayonne commune plus Anglet, Arcangues, and Bassussarry.",
"In a first revision of cantons in 1973 three cantons were created from the same total; geographic area: Bayonne North, Bayonne East, and Bayonne West.",
"A further reconfiguration in 1982 focused primarily on Bayonne and, apart from Bayonne North Canton, which also includes Boucau, the cantons of Bayonne East and Bayonne West did not change.",
"Starting from the French departmental elections, 2015 which took place on 22 and 29 March, a new division took effect following the decree of 25 February 2014 Once again three cantons centred on Bayonne are defined: Bayonne-1—with part of Anglet; Bayonne-2—which includes Boucau; and Bayonne-3 now define the cantonal territorial division of the area.",
"===Judicial and administrative proceedings===\nBayonne is the seat of many courts for the region.",
"It falls under the jurisdiction of the ''Tribunal d'instance'' (District court) of Bayonne, the ''Tribunal de grande instance'' (High Court) of Bayonne, the ''Cour d'appel'' (Court of Appeal) of Pau, the ''Tribunal pour enfants'' (Juvenile court) of Bayonne, the ''Conseil de prud'hommes'' (Labour Court) of Bayonne, the ''Tribunal de commerce'' (Commercial Court) of Bayonne, the ''Tribunal administratif'' (Administrative tribunal) of Pau, and the ''Cour administrative d'appel'' (Administrative Court of Appeal) of Bordeaux.",
"The commune has a police station, a Departmental Gendarmerie, an Autonomous Territorial Brigade of the district gendarmerie, squadron 24/2 of Mobile Gendarmerie and a Tax collection office.",
"===Intercommunality===\n\nThe commune is part of twelve inter-communal structures of which eleven are based in the commune:\n\n* the Côte basque-Adour Agglomeration;\n* the transport association of Côte basque-Adour Agglomeration (STACBA);\n* the intercommunal association for the management of the Txakurrak centre;\n* the intercommunal association for the support of Basque culture;\n* the Bil Ta Garbi joint association;\n* the joint association for maritime Nive;\n* the joint association for the Basque Museum and the History of Bayonne;\n* the joint association for the development and monitoring of SCOT in the agglomeration of Bayonne and south Landes;\n* the Kosta Garbia joint association;\n* the joint association for the development of the European freight centre of Bayonne-Mouguerre-Lahonce;\n* the joint association for operating the regional Maurice Ravel Conservatory.",
"* the Energy association of Pyrénées-Atlantiques;\n\nThe city of Bayonne is part of the ''Agglomeration Côte Basque-Adour'' which also includes Anglet, Biarritz, Bidart and Boucau.",
"The statutory powers of the structure extend to economic development—including higher education and research—housing and urban planning, public transport—through Transdev—alternative and the collection and recovery waste collection and management of rain and coastal waters, the sustainable development, interregional cooperation and finally 106.",
"In addition Bayonne is part of the Basque Bayonne-San Sebastián Eurocity which is a European economic interest grouping (EEIG) established in 1993 based in San Sebastián.",
"===Twin towns – Sister cities===\n\n\nBayonne has twinning associations with:\n\n\n\n* Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria since 2004\n* Satu Mare, Roumania since 2008\n* Pamplona, Spain since 1970\n* Nyíregyháza, Hungary since 2008\n* L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, since 2008\n* Kajaani, Finland since 2008\n\n\n* Hydra, Greece since 2008\n* Faro, Portugal since 2008\n* Daytona Beach, Florida, United States since 1970\n* Bayonne, New Jersey, United States since 1970\n* Ascoli Piceno, Italy since 2008",
"In 2012 the commune had 45,855 inhabitants.",
"The evolution of the number of inhabitants is known from the population censuses conducted in the commune since 1793.",
"From the 21st century, a census of communes with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants is held every five years, unlike larger communes that have a sample survey every year.",
"'''Population of Bayonne'''\n\n===Education===\nBayonne commune is attached to the Academy of Bordeaux.",
"It has an information and guidance center (CIO).",
"On 14 December 2015 Bayonne had 10 kindergartens, 22 elementary or primary schools (12 public and 10 private primary schools including two ikastolas).",
"2 public colleges (Albert Camus and Marracq colleges), 5 private colleges (La Salle Saint-Bernard, Saint Joseph, Saint-Amand, Notre-Dame and Largenté) which meet the criteria of the first cycle of second degree studies.",
"For the second cycle Bayonne has 3 public high schools (René-Cassin school (general education), the Louis de Foix school (general, technological and vocational education), and the Paul Bert vocational school), 4 private high schools (Saint-Louis Villa Pia (general education), Largenté, Bernat Etxepare (general and technological), and Le Guichot vocational school).",
"There are also the Maurice Ravel Conservatory of Music, Dance, and Dramatic Art and the art school of the urban community of Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz.",
"===Cultural festivities and events===\nFêtes de Bayonne 2004, King Léon.",
"The Bayonne Bullfighting ring\n\nFor 550 years every holy Thursday, Friday and Saturday the ''Foire au Jambon'' (Ham festival) is held to mark the beginning of the season.",
"An annual summer festival has been held in the commune since 1932 for five days organized around parades, bulls races, fireworks, and music in the Basque and Gascon tradition.",
"These festivals have become the most important festive events in France in terms of attendance.",
"Bayonne has the oldest French bullfighting tradition.",
"A bylaw regulating the ''encierro'' is dated 1283: cows, oxen and bulls are released each year in the streets of Petit Bayonne during the summer festivals.",
"The current arena, opened in 1893, is the largest in South-west France with more than 10,000 seats.",
"A dozen bullfights are held each year, attracting the biggest names in bullfighting.",
"Throughout summer several ''novilladas'' also take place.",
"The city is a member of the ''Union of French bullfighting cities''.",
"===Health===\nBayonne is the focus of much of the hospital services for the agglomeration of Bayonne and the southern Landes.",
"In this area all inhabitants are less than 35 km from a hospital offering medical, obstetrical, surgical, or psychiatric care.",
"The hospitals for all the Basque Coast are mainly established in Bayonne (the main site of Saint-Léon and Cam-de-Prats) and also in Saint-Jean-de-Luz which has several clinics.",
"===Sports and sports facilities===\nBayonne Rowing Boat shed\n* '''Rowing''', a popular sport for a long time on the Nive and the Adour near Bayonne.",
"There are two clubs: the Nautical Society of Bayonne (SNB) (established in 1875) and ''Aviron Bayonnais''—established in 1904 by former members of the SNB and which later became a sports club.",
"*'''Basketball'''.",
"''Denek Bat Bayonne Urcuit'' is a basketball club with a male section competing in NM1 (3rd national level of the French league).",
"The club is based in the city of Urcuit but plays in the Lauga Sports Palace in Bayonne.",
"*'''Football'''.",
"Aviron Bayonnais FC played from their home base at Didier Deschamps stadium in CFA 2 (the 5th French division) during the 2013–2014 season after a year in CFA and three consecutive years in the Championnat National.",
"Didier Deschamps started his career at Aviron Bayonnais FC.",
"The stadium, formerly called the ''Grand Basque'', is now named after him.",
"*'''Omnisports'''.",
"Aviron Bayonnais, created in 1904, includes many sports sections and a large number of members.",
"The pro rugby and football club are the most famous sections of the club.",
"The ''Bayonne Olympic Club'', created in 1972, is located in the district of Hauts de Sainte-Croix.",
"The club offers a wide range of sports including pelote, gymnastics, combat sports, and a pool section.",
"The club had nearly 400 members in 2007.",
"*'''Basque Pelota''' Bayonne is an important place for Basque pelota.",
"The ''French Federation of Basque Pelota'' is headquartered at ''Trinquet moderne'' near the Bullring.",
"Many titles were won by pelota players from the city.",
"The World Championships took place in Bayonne in 1978 in association with Biarritz.",
"*'''Rugby''' appeared in Basque Country at the end of the 19th century with the arrival in 1897 at Bayonne High School of a 20 year old person from Landes who converts his comrades to football-rugby which he had discovered in Bordeaux.",
"Practicing in the fields near the Spanish Gate, they communicated their enthusiasm to other colleges in Bayonne and Biarritz leading to the creation of the Biarritz Sporting Club and Biarritz Stadium which merged in 1913 to become Biarritz Olympique.",
"Bayonne has two rugby clubs: The Bayonne Athletic Association (ASB) plays in Fédérale 3 while the Aviron Bayonnais rugby pro in the 2014–2015 season played in Top 14, where they have played without interruption since the 2004–2005 season.",
"Aviron Bayonnais has won three league titles in France (1913, 1934 and 1943).",
"It was the first club from a small town to become champion of France.",
"Its stadium is the Stade Jean Dauger.",
"There is also a women's team in the ASB, playing in the National Division 1B.",
"This team won the 2014 Armelle Auclair challenge.",
"===Worship===\n\n====Catholic worship====\nBayonne is in the Diocese of Bayonne, Lescar and Oloron, with a Suffragan bishop since 2002 under the Archdiocese of Bordeaux.",
"Monseigneur Marc Aillet has been the bishop of this diocese since 15 October 2008.",
"The diocese is located in Bayonne in the Place Monseigneur-Vansteenberghe.",
"Besides Bayonne Cathedral in Grand Bayonne, Bayonne has Saint-Esprit, Saint Andrew (Rue des Lisses), Arènes (Avenue of the Czech Legion), Saint-Étienne, and Saint-Amand (Avenue Marechal Soult) churches.",
"The ''Carmel of Bayonne'', located in the Marracq district, has had a community of Carmelite nuns since 1858.",
"The ''Way of Baztan'' (also ''ruta del Baztan'' or ''camino Baztanés'') is a way on the pilgrimage of Camino de Santiago which crosses the Pyrenees further west by the lowest pass (by the ''Col de Belate'', 847 m).",
"It is the ancient road used by pilgrims descending to Bayonne then either along the coast on the ''Way of Soulac'' or because they landed there from England, for example, to join the French Way as soon as possible in Pamplona.",
"The ''Way of Bayonne'' joins the French Way further downstream at Burgos.",
"====Jewish worship====\nThe synagogue was built in 1837 in the Saint-Esprit district north of the town.",
"The Jewish community of Bayonne is old—it consists of different groups of fugitives from Navarre and Portugal who established at SAint-Esprit-lès-Bayonne after the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492 and Portugal in 1496.",
"In 1846 the Central Consistory moved to Saint-Esprit which was integrated with Bayonne in 1857.",
"====Muslim worship====\nThe mosque is located in Rue Joseph-Latxague.",
"It is the seat of the cultural association of Muslims in the Basque Coast.",
"====Protestant worship====\nThe Protestant church is located at the corner of Rue Albert-I st and Rue du Temple A gospel church is located in the Saint-Esprit districtit where there is also a church belonging to the Gypsy Evangelical Church of the Protestant Federation of France.",
"Rue Poissonnerie, a shopping street in Grand-Bayonne.",
"Bayonne ham.",
"Dark Chocolate with Espelette pepper.",
"===Population and income tax===\nIn 2011, the median household income tax was €22,605, placing Bayonne 28,406th place among the 31,886 communes with more than 49 households in metropolitan France.",
"In 2011 47.8% of households were not taxable.",
"===Jobs===\nIn 2011 the population aged from 15 to 64 years was 29,007 persons of which 70.8% were employable, 60.3% in employment and 10.5% unemployed.",
"While there were 30,012 jobs in the employment area, against 29,220 in 2006, and the number of employed workers residing in the employment area was 17,667, the indicator of job concentration is 169.9% which means that the employment area offers nearly two jobs to for every available worker.",
"===Businesses and shops===\nBayonne is the economic capital of the agglomeration of Bayonne and southern Landes.",
"The table below details the number of companies located in Bayonne according to their industry:\n\n\n |+ Structure of the Economy in Bayonne as at 1 January 2013.",
"|-\n !",
"scope=\"col\" style=\"background: #DDFFDD; color:black;\" |\n !",
"scope=\"col\" style=\"background: #DDFFDD; color:black;\" | No.",
"of Establishments\n\n TOTAL\n ''''''\n\n Industry\n 270\n\n Construction\n 375\n\n Trade, transport and services\n \n\n Public Administration, education, health, and social services\n 874\n\nScope: Commercial activities excluding Agriculture.",
"The table below shows employees by business establishments in terms of numbers:\n\n\n |+ Active establishments by sector of activity on 31 December 2011.",
"|-\n !",
"scope=\"col\" style=\"background: #DDFFDD; color:black;\" |\n !",
"scope=\"col\" style=\"background: #DDFFDD; color:black;\" | Total\n !",
"scope=\"col\" style=\"background: #DDFFDD; color:black;\" | %\n !",
"scope=\"col\" style=\"background: #DDFFDD; color:black;\" | 0 Staff\n !",
"scope=\"col\" style=\"background: #DDFFDD; color:black;\" | 1 to 9 Staff\n !",
"scope=\"col\" style=\"background: #DDFFDD; color:black;\" | 10 to 19 Staff\n !",
"scope=\"col\" style=\"background: #DDFFDD; color:black;\" | 20 to 49 Staff\n !",
"scope=\"col\" style=\"background: #DDFFDD; color:black;\" | 50 Staff or more\n\n Ensemble\n ''''''\n '''100.0'''\n ''''''\n ''''''\n '''213'''\n '''155'''\n '''73'''\n\n Agriculture, sylviculture and fishing\n46\n0.8\n38\n6\n0\n2\n0\n\n Industry\n292\n4.9\n150\n101\n23\n15\n3\n\n Construction\n428\n7.2\n299\n84\n26\n15\n4\n\n Trade, transport, services\n\n66.5\n\n\n117\n73\n27\n\n ''including trade and car repair''\n''''\n''18,8''\n''579''\n''457''\n''38''\n''32''\n>''9''\n\n Public Administration, education, health, social services\n\n20.6\n920\n171\n47\n50\n39\n\nScope: All activities.",
"The following comments apply to the two previous tables:\n*the bulk of economic activity is provided by companies in the tertiary sector;\n*Agriculture is almost non-existent Note 54;\n*less than 5% of the activity is from the industrial sector which remains focused on establishments of less than 50 employees, as also are construction-related activities;\n*public administration, education, health and social services are activities of over 20% of establishments, confirming the importance of Bayonne as an administrative centre.",
"In 2013 549 new establishments were created in Bayonne including 406 Sole proprietorships.",
"===Workshops and Industry===\nBayonne has few such industries, as indicated in the previous tables.",
"There is ''Plastitube'' specializing in plastic packaging (190 employees).",
"The Izarra liqueur company set up a distillery in 1912 at Quai Amiral-Bergeret and has long symbolized the economic wealth of Bayonne.",
"Industrial activities are concentrated in the neighbouring communes of Boucau, Tarnos (Turbomeca), Mouguerre, and Anglet.",
"Bayonne is known for its fine chocolates, produced in the town for 500 years, and Bayonne ham, a cured ham seasoned with peppers from nearby Espelette.",
"Izarra, the liqueur made in bright green or yellow colours, is distilled locally.",
"It is said by some that Bayonne is the birthplace of mayonnaise, supposedly a corruption of ''Bayonnaise'', the French adjective describing the city's people and produce.",
"Now bayonnaise can refer to a particular mayonnaise flavoured with the Espelette chillis.",
"Bayonne is now the centre of certain craft industries that were once widespread, including the manufacture of ''makilas'', traditional Basque walking-sticks.",
"The Fabrique Alza just outside the city is known for its ''palas'', bats used in ''pelota'', the traditional Basque sport.",
"===Service activities===\nThe active tertiary sector includes some large retail chains such as those detailed by geographer Roger Brunet: BUT (240 staff), Carrefour (150 staff), E.Leclerc (150 staff), Leroy Merlin (130 staff), and Galeries Lafayette (120 employees).",
"Banks, cleaning companies (Onet, 170 employees), and security (Brink's, 100 employees) are also major employers in the commune, as is urban transport which employs nearly 200 staff.",
"Five health clinics, providing a total of more than 500 beds, each employ 120 to 170 staff.",
"===The port of Bayonne===\nThe cargo ship ''BBC-Magellan'' in the port of Bayonne in 2014.",
"The port of Bayonne is located at the mouth of the Adour, downstream of the city.",
"It also occupies part of communes of Anglet and Boucau in Pyrenees-Atlantiques and Tarnos in Landes.",
"It benefits greatly from the natural gas field of Lacq to which it is connected by pipeline.",
"This is the 9th largest French port for trade with an annual traffic of about 4.2 million tonnes of which 2.8 is export.",
"It is also the largest French port for export of maize.",
"It is the property of the Aquitaine region who manage and control the site.",
"Metallurgical products movement are more than one million tons per year and maize exports to Spain vary between 800,000 and 1 million tons.",
"The port also receives refined oil products from the Total oil refinery at Donges (800,000 tons per year).",
"Fertilizers are a traffic of 500,000 tons per year and sulphur from Lacq, albeit in sharp decline, is 400,000 tons.",
"The port also receives Ford and General Motors vehicles from Spain and Portugal and wood both tropical and from Landes.",
"===Tourism services===\n\nDue to its proximity to the ocean and the foothills of the Pyrenees as well as its historic heritage, Bayonne has developed important activities related to tourism.",
"On 31 December 2012 there were 15 hotels in the city offering more than 800 rooms to visitors, but there were no camp sites.",
"The tourist infrastructure in the surrounding urban area of Bayonne complements the local supply with around 5800 rooms spread over nearly 200 hotels and 86 campsites offering over 14,000 beds.",
"The Château Vieux\nThe Nive divides Bayonne into Grand Bayonne and Petit Bayonne with five bridges between the two, both quarters still being backed by Vauban's walls.",
"The houses lining the Nive are examples of Basque architecture, with half-timbering and shutters in the national colours of red and green.",
"The much wider Adour is to the north.",
"The Pont Saint-Esprit connects Petit Bayonne with the Quartier Saint-Esprit across the Adour, where the massive Citadelle and the railway station are located.",
"Grand Bayonne is the commercial and civic hub, with small pedestrianised streets packed with shops, plus the cathedral and Hôtel de Ville.",
"The Cathédrale Sainte-Marie is an imposing, elegant Gothic building, rising over the houses, glimpsed along the narrow streets.",
"It was constructed in the 12th and 13th centuries.",
"The south tower was completed in the 16th century but the cathedral was only completed in the 19th century with the north tower.",
"The cathedral is noted for its charming cloisters.",
"There are other details and sculptures of note, although much was destroyed in the Revolution.",
"Nearby is the Château Vieux, some of which dates back to the 12th century, where the governors of the city were based, including the English Black Prince.",
"Sainte-Marie Cathedral\n\nThe Musée Basque is the finest ethnographic museum of the entire Basque Country.",
"It opened in 1922 but has been closed for a decade recently for refurbishment.",
"It now has special exhibitions on Basque agriculture, seafaring and ''pelota'', handicrafts and Basque history and way of life.",
"The Musée Bonnat began with a large collection bequeathed by the local-born painter Léon Bonnat.",
"The museum is one of the best galleries in south west France and has paintings by Edgar Degas, El Greco, Sandro Botticelli, and Francisco Goya, among others.",
"At the back of Petit Bayonne is the Château Neuf, among the ramparts.",
"Now an exhibition space, it was started by the newly arrived French in 1460 to control the city.",
"The walls nearby have been opened to visitors.",
"They are important for plant life now and Bayonne's botanic gardens adjoin the walls on both sides of the Nive.",
"The area across the Adour is largely residential and industrial, with much demolished to make way for the railway.",
"The Saint-Esprit church was part of a bigger complex built by Louis XI to care for pilgrims to Santiago de Compostela.",
"It is home to a wooden ''Flight into Egypt'' sculpture.",
"Overlooking the quarter is Vauban's 1680 Citadelle.",
"The soldiers of Wellington's army who died besieging the citadelle in 1813 are buried in the nearby English Cemetery, visited by Queen Victoria and other British dignitaries when staying in Biarritz.",
"Citadel",
"* Edmund Crouchback or Edmond Plantagenet, Earl of Lancaster, born in 1245 at London and died in 1296 at Bayonne, was an English prince.",
"Second surviving son of King Henri III and Eleanor of Provence, he was the 1st Earl of Lancaster and the founder of the House of Lancaster;\n* Jean du Vergier de Hauranne, (1581–1643), theologian, who introduced Jansenism into France\n* Guillaume du Tillot (1711–1774), politician\n* Marguerite Brunet, called Mademoiselle Montansier, born in 1730 at Bayonne and died in 1820 at Paris, was an actress and director of theatre.",
"The house where she was born still exists in Rue des Faures, at Bayonne;\n* Dominique Joseph Garat (1749–1833), writer and politician\n* François Cabarrus (1752–1810), French adventurer and Spanish financier\n* Armand Joseph Dubernad (1741–1799), financial trader, consul general of the Holy Roman Empire\n* Bertrand Pelletier (1761–1797), chemist and pharmacologist\n* Jacques Laffitte (1767–1844), banker and politician\n* Frédéric Bastiat (1801–1850), classical-liberal author and political economist\n* Charles Lavigerie born at Bayonne in 1825 and died in 1892 at Algiers (Algérie), was a 19th-century Cardinal.",
"He was the founder of the ''Society of Missionaries of Africa'' which is better known under the name White Fathers;\n* Léon Bonnat (1833–1922), painter\n* Ramón Altarriba y Villanueva (1841–1906), Spanish Carlist politician\n* René Cassin (1887–1976), lawyer and judge; recipient of the 1968 Nobel Peace Prize\n* François Duhourcau (1883–1851), writer and historian\n* Michel Camdessus (born 1933), managing director of the International Monetary Fund from 1997 to 2000\n* Didier Deschamps (born 1968), World-Cup-winning footballer\n* Imanol Harinordoquy (born 1980), French international rugby union player \n* Anthony Dupuis (born 1973), professional tennis player\n* Sylvain Luc (born 1965), jazz guitarist\n* Xavier de le Rue (born 1979), a snowboarder\n* Joe Duplantier, vocalist and guitarist of technical death metal band, Gojira (band)\n* Mario Duplantier, drummer of Gojira, brother of Joe Duplantier\n* Eva Bisseni, judoka\n* Achille Zo (1826–1901), painter\n* Stéphane Ruffier (born 1986) a French national football team goalkeeper.",
"* Aymeric Laporte, footballer.",
"Raised in the city.",
"* In Wyndham Lewis's novel ''The Wild Body'' (1927) the protagonist, Ker-Orr, in the first story, \"A Soldier of Humour\", takes the train from Paris and stays in Bayonne before going to Spain.",
"* In Ernest Hemingway's novel ''The Sun Also Rises'', three of the characters visit Bayonne en route to Pamplona, Spain.",
"* In Kim Stanley Robinson's novel ''The Years of Rice and Salt'' (2002), Bayonne is the first city recolonized by the Muslims after the total depopulation of Europe by the Black Death.",
"Named \"Baraka\", its earliest colonizers were later driven out by rivals from Al-Andalus and flee to the Loire Valley, where they found the city of Nsara.",
"* In Trevanian's novel Shibumi, Hannah has been called as \"a whore from Bayonne\" by elderly Basque women in a village of the Northern Basque Country.",
"* The seventh track of Joe Bonamassa's album Dust Bowl is entitled ''The Last Matador of Bayonne''.",
"* In the summer of 2008, Manu Chao's live album ''Baionarena'' was recorded in the Arena of Bayonne.",
"* The album Life is Elsewhere, by English band Little Comets, features a song titled Bayonne.,\n* The eighth track of La Nef's album ''La Traverse Miraculeuse'' is entitled ''Le Navire de Bayonne''.",
"\n===Notes===\n\n\n===References===\n\n\n==== Insee ====\n* Dossier 2013 relative to the commune, \n\n* National Database\n\n\n==== Bibliographic sources ====\n* Leon H. ''Histoire des Juifs de Bayonne'', Paris, Armand Durlacher, 1893. in-4 : xvj, 436 pp.",
"; illustré de 4 planches hors-texte.",
"*Pierre Dubourg-Noves ''Bayonne'', Ouest-France, 1986, .",
"Noted \"DN\" in the text.",
"*Eugène Goyheneche, ''Basque Country: Soule, Labourd, Lower-Navarre'', Société nouvelle d’éditions régionales et de diffusion, Pau, 1979, BnF FRBNF34647711 .",
"Noted \"EG\" in the text.",
"*Pierre Hourmat, ''History of Bayonne from its origins to the French Revolution of 1789'', Société des Sciences Lettres & Arts de Bayonne, 1986 .",
"Noted \"PH\"\" in the text.",
"*Pierre Hourmat ''Visiting Bayonne'', Sud Ouest, 1989 .",
"Noted PiH\" in the text.",
"*''Bayonne of the Nive and Adour'', François Lafitte Houssat, Alan Sutton, Joué-lès-Tours, 2001, .",
"Noted as \"FL\" in the text.",
"* The Bayonne Official website.",
"Noted as \"M\" in the text.",
"===External links===\n\n* City council website \n* Webpage about the citadel and fortifications of the town\n* BAIONA in the Bernardo Estornés Lasa – Auñamendi Encyclopedia (Euskomedia Fundazioa) \n* INSEE commune file \n* Jewish Encyclopedia 1906"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n'''Brasília''' () is the federal capital of Brazil and seat of government of the Federal District. The city is located atop the Brazilian highlands in the country's center-western region. It was founded on April 21, 1960, to serve as the new national capital. Brasília and its metro area were estimated to be Brazil's 4th most populous city. Among major Latin American cities, Brasília has the highest GDP per capita at ().\n\nBrasília was planned and developed by Lúcio Costa and Oscar Niemeyer in 1956 to move the capital from Rio de Janeiro to a more central location. The landscape architect was Roberto Burle Marx. The city's design divides it into numbered blocks as well as sectors for specified activities, such as the Hotel Sector, the Banking Sector and the Embassy Sector. Brasília was chosen as a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to its modernist architecture and uniquely artistic urban planning.\n\nThe centers of all three branches of the federal government of Brazil are in Brasília, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. The city also hosts 124 foreign embassies. Brasília International Airport connects the capital to all major Brazilian cities and many international destinations, and is the third busiest airport in Brazil. It is the second most populous Portuguese-speaking capital city after Luanda. The city was one of the main host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup and hosted some of the football matches during the 2016 Summer Olympic Games. Brasília also hosted the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup.\n\nThe city has a unique status in Brazil, as it is an administrative division rather than a legal municipality like other cities in Brazil. Although Brasília is used as a synonym for the Federal District through synecdoche, the Federal District is composed of 31 administrative regions, only one of which is the area of the originally planned city, also called Plano Piloto. The rest of the Federal District is considered by IBGE to make up Brasília's metro area.\n",
"\nThe Pilot Plan\nMinistries Esplanade in 1959\nBrasília in 1964\nBrasilia in 1975\n=== Background ===\nFrom 1763 until 1960, Rio de Janeiro was Brazil's capital. At this time, resources tended to be centered in Brazil's southeast region near Rio de Janeiro and most of its population was concentrated near to the Atlantic Coast. Brasília's geographically central location fostered a more regionally neutral federal capital. An article of the country's first republican constitution dating back to 1891 stated the capital should be moved from Rio de Janeiro to a place close to the country's center.\n\nThe plan was conceived in 1827 by José Bonifácio, an advisor to Emperor Pedro I. He presented a plan to the General Assembly of Brazil for a new city called Brasília, with the idea of moving the capital westward from the heavily populated southeastern corridor. The bill was not enacted because Pedro I dissolved the Assembly.\n\nAccording to legend, Italian saint Don Bosco in 1883 had a dream in which he described a futuristic city that roughly fitted Brasília's location. In Brasília today, many references of Bosco, who founded the Salesian order, are found throughout the city and one church parish in the city bears his name.\n\n=== The Plan of Lúcio Costa ===\n\nIn 1957 an international jury selected Lúcio Costa's plan to guide the construction of Brazil’s new capital, Brasilia. Costa's plan was not as detailed as some of the plans presented by other architects and city planners, it did not include land use schedules, models, population charts or mechanical drawings, however, it was chosen by five out of six jurors because it had the features required to align the growth of a capital city Even though the initial plan was transformed over time, his plan oriented much of the construction and most of its features survived.\n\nBrasilia's possession as the new capital and its representation of the conquest of an extensive region in Brazil inspired the symbolism of the plan; Costa, uses a cross-axial design indicating the possession and conquest of this new place with a cross often described by some as a dragonfly, an airplane or a bird. Costa's plan included two principal components, the Monumental Axis (east to west) and the Residential Axis (north to south).\n\nThe Monumental Axis designated for political and administrative activities is considered the body of the city with the style and simplicity of its buildings, its oversized scales, broad vistas and heights, producing the idea of Monumentality. This axis includes ministries, the national congress, and the television and radio tower.\n\nThe Residential Axis was intended to contain areas with intimate character and is considered the most important achievement of the plan; it was designed for housing and associated functions such as local commerce, schooling, recreations and churches, constituted of 96 superblocks (''s'') limited to six stories buildings and 12 additional superblocks limited to three stories buildings; Costa's intention with superblocks was to have small self-contained and self-sufficient neighborhoods and uniform buildings with apartments of two or three different categories, where he envisioned the integration of upper and middle classes sharing the same residential area.\n\nThe urban design of the communal apartment blocks was based on Le Corbusier’s Ville Radieuse of 1935 and the superblocks on the North American Radburn layout from 1929. Visually, the blocks were intended to appear absorbed by the landscape because they were isolated by a belt of tall trees and lower vegetation. Costa attempted to introduce a Brazil that was more equitable, he also designed housing for the working classes that was separated from the upper and middle-class housing and was visually different, with the intention of avoiding slums (''fabelas'') in the urban periphery. The superquadra has been accused of being a space where individuals are oppressed and alienated to a form of spatial segregation.\n\nOne of the main objectives of the plan was to allow the free flow of automobile traffic, the plan included lanes of traffic in a north-south direction (seven for each direction) for the Monumental Axis and three arterials (the W3, the Eixo and the L2) for the residential Axis; the cul-de-sac access roads of the superblocks were planned to be the end of the main flow of traffic. This emphasis of the plan on automobiles caused the lengthening of distances between centers and it attended only the necessities of a small segment of the population who owned cars.\n\nAt the intersection of the Monumental and Residential Axis Costa planned the city center with the transportation center (Rodoviaria), the banking sector and the hotel sector, near to the city center, he proposed an amusement center with theatres, cinemas and restaurants. Costa's Plan is seen as a plan with a sectoral tendency, segregating all the banks, the office buildings, and the amusement center.\n\nOne of the main features of Costa's Plan was that he presented a new city with its future shape and patterns evident from the beginning. This means that the original plan included paving streets that were not immediately put into use; the advantage of this is that the original plan is hard to undo because he provided for an entire street network, but on the other hand, is difficult to adapt and mold to other circumstances in the future. In addition, there has been controversy with the monumental aspect of Lucio Costal's Plan, because it appeared to some as city planning of the 19th century and not that of a modern urbanism of the 20th century in Brazil.\n\nAn interesting analysis can be made of Brasilia within the context of Cold War politics and the association of Lucio Costa’s plan to the symbolism of aviation. From an architectural perspective, the airplane-shaped plan was certainly an homage to Le Corbusier and his enchantment with the aircraft as an architectural masterpiece. However, it is important to also note that Brasilia was constructed soon after the end of World War II. Despite Brazil’s minor participation in the conflict, the airplane shape of the city was key in envisioning the country as part of the newly globalized world, together with the victorious Allies.\n\n=== Construction ===\nJuscelino Kubitschek, President of Brazil from 1956 to 1961, ordered Brasília's construction, fulfilling the promise of the Constitution and his own political campaign promise. Building Brasília was part of Juscelino's \"fifty years of prosperity in five\" plan. Already in 1892, the astronomer Louis Cruls, in the service of the Brazilian government, had investigated the site for the future capital. Lúcio Costa won a contest and was the main urban planner in 1957, with 5550 people competing. Oscar Niemeyer, a close friend, was the chief architect of most public buildings and Roberto Burle Marx was the landscape designer. Brasília was built in 41 months, from 1956 to April 21, 1960, when it was officially inaugurated.\n",
"Brasília from ISS\n\n===Paranoá Lake===\nParanoá Lake is a large artificial lake that was built to increase the amount of water available and the region's humidity. It has Brazil's second largest marina, and hosts wakeboarders and windsurfers. Diving can also be practiced and one of the main attractions is Vila Amaury, an old village submerged in the lake. This is where the first construction workers of Brasília used to live.\n\n===Climate===\n\nBrasília has a tropical savanna climate (Aw) according to the Köppen system, with two distinct seasons: the rainy season, from October to April, and a dry season, from May to September. The average temperature is . September, at the end of the dry season, has the highest average maximum temperature, , has major and minor lower maximum average temperature, of and , respectively. Average temperatures from September through March are a consistent . With , January is the month with the highest rainfall of the year, while June is the lowest, with only .\n\nAccording to Brazilian National Institute of Meteorology (INMET), the record low temperature was on July 18, 1975, and the record high was on October 28, 2008. The highest accumulated rainfall in 24 hours was on November 15, 1963.\n\n",
"\nThe Monumental Axis\n\nAccording to the 2010 IBGE Census, there were 2,469,489 people residing in Brasília and its metropolitan area, of which 1,239,882 were Pardo (multiracial) (48.2%), 1,084,418, White (42.2%), 198,072, Black (7.7%), 41,522, Asian (1.6%), and 6,128 Amerindian (0.2%).\n\nIn 2010, Brasília was ranked the fourth most-populous city in Brazil after São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Salvador. In 2010, the city had 474,871 opposite-sex couples and 1,241 same-sex couples. The population of Brasília was 52.2% female and 47.8% male.\n\nIn the 1960 census there were almost 140 thousand residents in the new Federal District. By 1970 this figure had grown to 537 thousand. By 2000 the population of the Federal District had surpassed 2 million. The city of Brasília proper was planned for only about 500 thousand inhabitants, but its metropolitan area has grown past this figure.\nISS\n\nFrom the beginning, the growth of Brasília was greater than original estimates. According to the original plans, Brasília would be a city for government authorities and staff. However, during the construction period, Brazilians from all over the country migrated to Brasília, seeking public and private jobs.\n\nAt the close of the 20th century, Brasília held the distinction of being the largest city in the world which had not existed at the beginning of the century. Brasília has one of the highest population growth rates in Brazil, with annual growth of 2.82%, mostly due to internal migration.\n\nBrasília's inhabitants include a foreign population of mostly embassy workers as well as large numbers of Brazilian internal migrants. Today, the city has important communities of immigrants and refugees. The city's Human Development Index was 0.936 in 2000 (developed level), and the city's literacy rate was around 95.65%.\n\n===Religion===\nView of the Cathedral of Brasília\nOrthodox church\nThe Cathedral of Brasília in the capital of the Federative Republic of Brazil, is an expression of the atheist architect Oscar Niemeyer. This concrete-framed hyperboloid structure, seems with its glass roof reaching up, open, to the heavens. On 31 May 1970, the Cathedral's structure was finished, and only the diameter of the circular area were visible. Niemeyer's project of Cathedral of Brasília is based in the hyperboloid of revolution which sections are asymmetric. The hyperboloid structure itself is a result of 16 identical assembled concrete columns. These columns, having hyperbolic section and weighing 90 t, represent two hands moving upwards to heaven. The Cathedral was dedicated on 31 May 1970.\n\n\n\n\n Religion\n Percentage\n Number\n\nCatholic\n56.62%\n1,455,134\n\nProtestant\n26.88%\n690,982\n\nNo religion\n9.20%\n236,528\n\nSpiritist\n3.50%\n89,836\n\nJewish\n0.04%\n1,103\n\nMuslim\n0.04%\n972\n\n''Source: IBGE 2010. ''\n",
"Buriti Palace, Seat of Government of the Federal District\nLegislative Chamber of the Federal District building\n\nThe seats of the three branches of the Brazilian state are located in Brasilia. Until the 1980s, the Federal Government appointed the governor of the Federal District, and the laws of Brasília were issued by the Brazilian Federal Senate. With the Constitution of 1988, Brasília gained the right to elect its Governor, and a District Assembly (Câmara Legislativa) was elected to exercise legislative power. The Federal District does not have a Judicial Power. The Judicial Power which serves the Federal District also serves federal territories. Brazil does not have any territories, therefore, for now the courts only serve cases from the Federal District.\n\n=== International relations ===\n\n\n;Twin towns and sister cities\nBrasília is twinned with:\n\n\n* '''Abuja''', Nigeria\n* '''Asunción''', Paraguay\n* '''Brussels''', Belgium\n* '''Buenos Aires''', Argentina ''(since 2002)''\n* '''Gaza City''', Palestine\n* '''Havana''', Cuba\n* '''Khartoum''', Sudan\n* '''Lisbon''', Portugal\n* '''Luxor''', Egypt\n* '''Montevideo''', Uruguay\n* '''Pretoria''', South Africa\n* '''Santiago''', Chile\n* '''Tehran''', Iran\n* '''Vienna''', Austria\n* '''Washington, D.C.''', United States ''(since 2013)''\n* '''Xi'an''', China ''(since 1997)''\n\n\nOf these, Abuja, Canberra, and Washington were likewise cities planned specifically to be their respective countries' seats of government.\n",
"\n\nAt the northwestern end of the Monumental Axis are federal district and municipal buildings, while at the southeastern end, near the middle shore of Lake Paranoá, stand the executive, judicial, and legislative buildings around the Square of Three Powers, the conceptual heart of the city.\nBrazilian Flag and the National Congress in spring\n\nThese and other major structures were designed by Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer in the style of modern Brazilian architecture. In the Square of Three Powers, he created as a focal point the dramatic Congressional Palace, which is composed of five parts: twin administrative towers flanked by a large, white concrete dome (the meeting place of the Senate) and by an equally massive concrete bowl (the Chamber of Deputies), which is joined to the dome by an underlying, flat-roofed building. The Congress also occupies various other surrounding buildings, some connected by tunnels. A series of low-lying annexes (largely hidden) flank both ends.\n\n A modern-day statue seen at the Cathedral of Brasília\n\nThe National Congress building is located in the middle of the Eixo Monumental, the city's main avenue. In front lies a large lawn and reflecting pool. The building faces the Praça dos Três Poderes where the Palácio do Planalto and the Supreme Federal Court are located.\n\nAlso in the square are the glass-faced Planalto Palace housing the presidential offices, and the Palace of the Supreme Court. Farther east, on a triangle of land jutting into the lake, is the Palace of the Dawn (Palácio da Alvorada; the presidential residence). Between the federal and civic buildings on the Monumental Axis is the city's cathedral, considered by many to be Niemeyer's finest achievement (see photographs of the interior). The parabolically shaped structure is characterized by its 16 gracefully curving supports, which join in a circle 115 feet (35 meters) above the floor of the nave; stretched between the supports are translucent walls of tinted glass. The nave is entered via a subterranean passage rather than conventional doorways. Other notable buildings are Buriti Palace, Itamaraty Palace, the National Theater, and several foreign embassies that creatively embody features of their national architecture. The Brazilian landscape architect Roberto Burle Marx designed landmark modernist gardens for some of the principal buildings.\n\nBoth low-cost and luxury housing were built by the government in the Brasília. The residential zones of the inner city are arranged into ''superquadras'' (\"superblocks\"): groups of apartment buildings along with a prescribed number and type of schools, retail stores, and open spaces. At the northern end of Lake Paranoá, separated from the inner city, is a peninsula with many fashionable homes, and a similar city exists on the southern lakeshore. Originally the city planners envisioned extensive public areas along the shores of the artificial lake, but during early development private clubs, hotels, and upscale residences and restaurants gained footholds around the water. Set well apart from the city are satellite cities, including Gama, Ceilândia, Taguatinga, Núcleo Bandeirante, Sobradinho, and Planaltina. These cities, with the exception of Gama and Sobradinho were not planned.\n\n===Monumental civic scale===\nAerial view of South Wing (''Asa Sul'') district\nMonumental Axis and Brasilia TV Tower\nThe city has been both acclaimed and criticized for its use of modernist architecture on a grand scale and for its somewhat utopian city plan.\n\nAfter a visit to Brasília, the French writer Simone de Beauvoir complained that all of its ''superquadras'' exuded \"the same air of elegant monotony,\" and other observers have equated the city's large open lawns, plazas, and fields to wastelands. As the city has matured, some of these have gained adornments, and many have been improved by landscaping, giving some observers a sense of \"humanized\" spaciousness. Although not fully accomplished, the \"Brasília utopia\" has produced a city of relatively high quality of life, in which the citizens live in forested areas with sporting and leisure structure (the ''superquadras'') flanked by small commercial areas, bookstores and cafés; the city is famous for its cuisine and efficiency of transit.\n\nEven these positive features have sparked controversy, expressed in the nickname \"ilha da fantasia\" (\"fantasy island\"), indicating the sharp contrast between the city and surrounding regions, marked by poverty and disorganization in the cities of the states of Goiás and Minas Gerais, around Brasília.\n\nCritics of Brasília's grand scale have characterized it as a modernist platonic fantasy about the future:\n\n\n",
"\nSouth Banking Sector\n\nThe major roles of construction and of services (government, communications, banking and finance, food production, entertainment, and legal services) in Brasília's economy reflect the city's status as a governmental rather than an industrial center. Industries connected with construction, food processing, and furnishings are important, as are those associated with publishing, printing, and computer software. GDP is divided in Public Administration 54.8%, Services 28.7%, Industry 10.2%, Commerce 6.1%, Agribusiness 0.2%.\n\nBesides being the political center, Brasília is an important economic center. Brasília has the highest city gross domestic product (GDP) of 99.5 billion reais representing 3.76% of the total Brazilian GDP.\nThe main economic activity of the federal capital results from its administrative function. Its industrial planning is studied carefully by the Government of the Federal District. Being a city registered by UNESCO, the government in Brasília has opted to encourage the development of non-polluting industries such as software, film, video, and gemology among others, with emphasis on environmental preservation and maintaining ecological balance, preserving the city property.\n\nAccording to Mercer's city rankings of cost of living for expatriate employees, Brasília ranks 45th among the most expensive cities in the world in 2012, up from the 70th position in 2010, ranking behind São Paulo (12th) and Rio de Janeiro (13th).\n\n===Services===\nShopping center in the city\n(91% of local GDP, according to the IBGE):\n* Government – the public sector is by far the largest employer, accounting for around 40% of the city jobs. Government jobs include all levels, from the federal police to diplomacy, from the transportation bureau to the armed forces;\n* Communications – the telephony used to be a state monopoly, and Brasília held the HQ of Telebrás, the central state company; one of the enterprises that resulted from the privatization of the system in the 90's, Brasil Telecom, keeps it HQ in the city; the official Postal Service (Correios) HQ is located in the city as well; as it is the main place of Federal Government news, it is also notable the activities of TV stations, including the main offices of four public networks (TV Brasil/Agência Brasil, TV Câmara, TV Senado and TV Justiça), the regional offices of four major private television networks (Rede Globo, SBT, Rede Bandeirantes and Rede Record) and a main affiliate of RedeTV!;\n* Banking and finance – headquarters of the Banco do Brasil and the Caixa Econômica Federal, both controlled by the Federal Government, and the Banco de Brasília, controlled by the city local government; it is also the site of the headquarters of the Central Bank, the main government regulatory agency of the financial sector;\n* Entertainment – the shopping malls Conjunto Nacional, ParkShopping, Pátio Brasil Shopping, Brasília Shopping, Boulevard Shopping, Taguatinga Shopping, Terraço Shopping, Gilberto Salomão and Iguatemi Brasília.\n* Information technology (Politec, Poliedro, CTIS, among others), and legal services.\n\n===Industries===\nSouth Hotel Sector\n\nIn the city include: Construction (Paulo Octavio, Via Construções, and Irmãos Gravia among others); Food processing (Perdigão, Sadia); Furniture Making; Recycling (Novo Rio, Rexam, Latasa and others); Pharmaceuticals (União Química); Graphic industries. The main agricultural products produced in the city are coffee, guavas, strawberries, oranges, lemons, papayas, soy beans, and mangoes. It has over 110,000 cows and it exports wood products worldwide.\n\nThe Federal District, where Brasília is located, has a GDP of R$133,4 billion (about US$64.1 billion), about the same as Belarus according to The Economist. Its share of the total Brazilian GDP is about 3.8%. The Federal District has the largest GDP per capita income of Brazil US$25,062, slightly higher than Belarus.\n\nThe city's planned design included specific areas for almost everything, including accommodation, Hotels Sectors North and South. New hotel facilities are being developed elsewhere, such as the hotels and tourism Sector North, located on the shores of Lake Paranoá. Brasília has a range of tourist accommodation from inns, pensions and hostels to larger international chain hotels. The city's restaurants cater to a wide range of foods from local and regional Brazilian dishes to international cuisine.\n",
"\nCultural Complex of the Republic\n\nAs a venue for political events, music performances and movie festivals, Brasília is a cosmopolitan city, with around 124 embassies, a wide range of restaurants and complete infrastructure ready to host any kind of event. Not surprisingly, the city stands out as an important business tourism destination, which is an important part of the local economy, with dozens of hotels spread around the federal capital. Traditional parties take place throughout the year.\n\nIn June, large festivals known as \"festas juninas\" are held celebrating Catholic saints such as Saint Anthony of Padua, Saint John the Baptist, and Saint Peter. On September 7, the traditional Independence Day parade is held on the Ministries Esplanade. Throughout the year, local, national, and international events are held throughout the city. Christmas is widely celebrated, and New Year's Eve usually hosts major events.\n\nThe city also hosts a varied assortment of art works from artists like Bruno Giorgi, Alfredo Ceschiatti, Athos Bulcão, Marianne Peretti, Alfredo Volpi, Di Cavalcanti, Dyllan Taxman, Victor Brecheret and Burle Marx, whose works have been integrated into the city's architecture, making it a unique landscape. The cuisine in the city is very diverse. Many of the best restaurants in the city can be found in the Asa Sul district.\n\nThe city is also the birthplace of Brazilian rock and place of origin of many bands like: Legião Urbana, Capital Inicial, Aborto Elétrico, Plebe Rude and Raimundos. Currently Brasília has the Rock Basement Festival who attempts to bring new bands to the national scene. The festival is held in the parking Brasilia National Stadium Mané Garrincha.\n\nCláudio Santoro National Theater\n\nSince 1965, the annual Brasilia Festival of Brazilian Cinema is one of the most traditional cinema festivals in Brazil, being compared only to the Brazilian Cinema Festival of Gramado, in Rio Grande do Sul. The difference between both is that the festival in Brasilia still preserves the tradition to only submit and reward Brazilian movies.\n\nBrasília has also been the focus of modern-day literature. Published in 2008, ''The World In Grey: Dom Bosco's Prophecy'', by author Ryan J. Lucero, tells an apocalypticle story based on the famous prophecy from the late 19th century by the Italian saint Don Bosco. According to Don Bosco's prophecy: \"Between parallels 15 and 20, around a lake which shall be formed; A great civilization will thrive, and that will be the Promised Land.\" Brasília lies between the parallels 15° S and 20° S, where an artificial lake (Paranoá Lake) was formed. Don Bosco is Brasília's patron saint.\n\n''American Flagg!'', the First Comics comic book series created by Howard Chaykin, portrays Brasília as a cosmopolitan world capital of culture and exotic romance. In the series, it is a top vacation and party destination. The 2015 Rede Globo series ''Felizes para Sempre?'' was set in Brasília.\n\n===Historic sites and museums===\n\n;Monumental Axis and Square of the Three Powers\nPraça dos Três Poderes (Three Powers Plaza)\n\nAt the end of the ''Eixo Monumental'' (\"Monumental Axis\") lies the ''Esplanada dos Ministérios'' (\"Ministries Esplanade\"), an open area in downtown Brasília. The rectangular lawn is surrounded by two eight-lane avenues where many government buildings, monuments and memorials are located. On Sundays and holidays, the Eixo Monumental is closed to cars so that locals may use it as a place to walk, bike, and have picnics under the trees.\n\n''Praça dos Três Poderes'' (Portuguese for ''Square of the Three Powers'') is a plaza in Brasília. The name is derived from the encounter of the three federal branches around the plaza: the Executive, represented by the Palácio do Planalto (presidential office); the Legislative, represented by the National Congress (Congresso Nacional); and the Judicial branch, represented by the Supreme Federal Court (Supremo Tribunal Federal). It is a tourist attraction in Brasília, designed by Lúcio Costa and Oscar Niemeyer as a place where the three branches would meet harmoniously.\n\n\n\n;Palaces \nThe Palácio da Alvorada\nThe Palácio do Planalto\n\nThe Palácio da Alvorada is the official residence of the president of Brazil. The palace was designed, along with the rest of the city of Brasília, by Oscar Niemeyer and inaugurated in 1958. One of the first structures built in the republic's new capital city, the \"Alvorada\" lies on a peninsula at the margins of Lake Paranoá. The principles of simplicity and modernity, that in the past characterized the great works of architecture, motivated Niemeyer. The viewer has an impression of looking at a glass box, softly landed on the ground with the support of thin external columns. The building has an area of 7,000 m2 with three floors consisting of the basement, landing, and second floor. The auditorium, kitchen, laundry, medical center, and administration offices are at basement level. The rooms used by the presidency for official receptions are on the landing. The second floor has four suites, two apartments, and various private rooms which make up the residential part of the palace. The building also has a library, a heated Olympic-sized swimming pool, a music room, two dining rooms and various meeting rooms. A chapel and heliport are in adjacent buildings.\n\nThe Palácio do Planalto is the official workplace of the president of Brazil. It is located at the Praça dos Três Poderes in Brasília. As the seat of government, the term \"Planalto\" is often used as a metonym for the executive branch of government. The main working office of the President of the Republic is in the Palácio do Planalto. The President and his or her family do not live in it, rather in the official residence, the Palácio da Alvorada. Besides the President, senior advisors also have offices in the \"Planalto,\" including the Vice-President of Brazil and the Chief of Staff. The other Ministries are along the Esplanada dos Ministérios. The architect of the Palácio do Planalto was Oscar Niemeyer, creator of most of the important buildings in Brasília. The idea was to project an image of simplicity and modernity using fine lines and waves to compose the columns and exterior structures. The Palace is four stories high, and has an area of 36,000 m2. Four other adjacent buildings are also part of the complex.\n",
"Institute of Biological Sciences (IB) of the University of Brasília\n\n\nThe Portuguese language is the official national language and the primary language taught in schools. English and Spanish are also part of the official curriculum. The city has six international schools: American School of Brasília, Brasília International School (BIS), Escola das Nações, Swiss International School (SIS), Lycée français François-Mitterrand (LfFM) and Maple Bear Canadian School. August 2016 will see the opening of a new international school – The British School of Brasilia. Brasília has two universities, three university centers, and many private colleges.\n\nThe main tertiary educational institutions are: Universidade de Brasília – University of Brasília (UnB) (public); Universidade Católica de Brasília – Catholic University of Brasília (UCB); Centro Universitário de Brasília (UniCEUB); Centro Universitário Euroamaricano (Unieuro); Centro Universitário do Distrito Federal (UDF); Universidade Paulista (UNIP); and Instituto de Educação Superior de Brasília (IESB).\n",
"\n===Airport===\n\n\nBrasília International Airport (BSB)\nAerial view of the airport\nBrasília–Presidente Juscelino Kubitschek International Airport serves the metropolitan area with major domestic and international flights. It is the third busiest Brazilian airport based on passengers and aircraft movements. Because of its strategic location it is a civil aviation hub for the rest of the country.\n\nThis makes for a large number of takeoffs and landings and it is not unusual for flights to be delayed in the holding pattern before landing. Following the airport's master plan, Infraero built a second runway, which was finished in 2006. In 2007, the airport handled 11,119,872 passengers. The main building's third floor, with 12 thousand square meters, has a panoramic deck, a food court, shops, four movie theatres with total capacity of 500 people, and space for exhibitions. Brasília Airport has 136 vendor spaces. The airport is located about from the central area of Brasília, outside the metro system. The area outside the airport's main gate is lined with taxis as well as several bus line services that connect the airport to Brasília's central district. The parking lot accommodates 1,200 cars. The airport is serviced by domestic and regional airlines (TAM, GOL, Azul, WebJET, Trip and Avianca), in addition to a number of international carriers. In 2012, Brasília's International Airport was won by the InfrAmerica consortium, formed by the Brazilian engineering company ENGEVIX and the Argentine Corporacion America holding company, with a 50% stake each. During the 25-year concession, the airport may be expanded to up to 40 million passengers a year.\n\nIn 2014 the airport received 15 new boarding bridges, totaling 28 in all. This was the main requirement made by the federal government, which transferred the operation of the terminal to the Inframerica Group after an auction. The group invested R$750 million in the project. In the same year, the number of parking spaces doubled, reaching three thousand. The airport's entrance have a new rooftop cover and a new access road. Furthermore, a VIP room was created on Terminal 1's third floor. The investments resulted an increase the capacity of Brasília's airport from approximately 15 million passengers per year to 21 million by 2014. Brasília has direct flights to all states of Brazil and direct international flights to Atlanta, Buenos Aires, Lisbon, Miami, Panama City, and Paris.\n\n===Road transport===\nJuscelino Kubitschek Bridge\nTraffic crawls at the Ministries Esplanade\nLike most Brazilian cities, Brasilia has a good network of taxi companies. Taxis from the airport are available immediately outside the terminal, but at times there can be quite a queue of people. Although the airport is not far from the downtown area, taxi prices do seem to be higher than in other Brazilian cities. Booking in advance can be advantageous, particularly if time is limited, and local companies should be able to assist airport transfer or transport requirements.\n\nThe Juscelino Kubitschek bridge, also known as the 'President JK Bridge' or the 'JK Bridge', crosses Lake Paranoá in Brasília. It is named after Juscelino Kubitschek de Oliveira, former president of Brazil. It was designed by architect Alexandre Chan and structural engineer Mário Vila Verde. Chan won the Gustav Lindenthal Medal for this project at the 2003 International Bridge Conference in Pittsburgh due to \"...outstanding achievement demonstrating harmony with the environment, aesthetic merit and successful community participation\".\n\nIt consists of three tall asymmetrical steel arches that crisscross diagonally. With a length of 1,200 m (0.75 miles), it was completed in 2002 at a cost of US$56.8 million. The bridge has a pedestrian walkway and is accessible to bicyclists and skaters.\n\n===Metro===\nBrasília Metro\nThe Brasília Metro is Brasília's underground metro system. The system has 24 stations on two lines, the Orange and Green lines, along a total network of , covering some of the metropolitan area. Both lines begin at the Central Station and run parallel until the Águas Claras Station. The Brasília metro is not comprehensive so buses may provide better access to the center.\n\nThe metro leaves the Rodoviária (bus station) and goes south, avoiding most of the political and tourist areas. The main purpose of the metro is to serve cities, such as Samambaia, Taguatinga and Ceilândia, as well as Guará and Águas Claras. The satellite cities served are more populated in total than the Plano Piloto itself (the census of 2000 indicated that Ceilândia had 344,039 inhabitants, Taguatinga had 243,575, and the Plano Piloto had approximately 400,000 inhabitants), and most residents of the satellite cities depend on public transportation.\n\nA high-speed railway was planned between Brasília and Goiânia, the capital of the state of Goias, but it will probably be turned into a regional service linking the capital cities and cities in between, like Anápolis and Alexânia.\n\n===Buses===\nCentral Bus Station\n\nThe main bus hub in Brasília is the Central Bus Station, located in the crossing of the Eixo Monumental and the Eixão, about from the Three Powers Plaza. The original plan was to have a bus station as near as possible to every corner of Brasília. Today, the bus station is the hub of urban buses only, some running within Brasília and others connecting Brasília to the satellite cities.\n\nIn the original city plan, the interstate buses should also stop at the Central Station. Because of the growth of Brasília (and corresponding growth in the bus fleet), today the interstate buses leave from the older interstate station (called Rodoferroviária), located at the western end of the Eixo Monumental. The Central Bus Station also contains a main metro station. A new bus station was opened in July 2010. It is on Saída Sul (South Exit) near Parkshopping Mall and with its metro station, and it's also an inter-state bus station, used only to leave the Federal District.\n\n===Brasília Public Transportation Statistics===\nThe average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Brasília, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 96 min. 31% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 28 min, while 61% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 15.1 km, while 50% travel for over 12 km in a single direction. \n",
"\n===Football===\nEstádio Nacional de Brasília\n\nThe main stadiums are the Brasilia National Stadium Mané Garrincha (which was reinaugurated on May 18, 2013), the Serejão Stadium (home for Brasiliense) and the Bezerrão Stadium (home for Gama).\n\nBrasília was one of the host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup and 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, for which Brazil is the host nation. Brasília hosted the opening of the Confederations Cup and hosted 7 World Cup games. Brasília also hosted the football tournaments during the 2016 Summer Olympics held in Rio de Janeiro.\n\n===Other sports===\nNilson Nelson Gymnasium\nBrasília is known as a departing point for the practice of unpowered air sports, sports that may be practiced with hang gliding or paragliding wings. Practitioners of such sports reveal that, because of the city's dry weather, the city offers strong thermal winds and great \"cloud-streets\", which is also the name for a manoeuvre quite appreciated by practitioners. In 2003, Brasília hosted the 14th Hang Gliding World Championship, one of the categories of free flying. In August 2005, the city hosted the 2nd stage of the Brazilian Hang Gliding Championship.\n\nBrasília is the site of the Autódromo Internacional Nelson Piquet which hosted a non-championship round of the 1974 Formula One Grand Prix season. An IndyCar race was cancelled at the last minute in 2015.\n\nThe city is also home to Uniceub BRB, one of Brazil's best basketball clubs. Currently, NBB champion (2010, 2011 and 2012). The club hosts some of its games at the 16,000 all-seat Nilson Nelson Gymnasium.\n",
"\n;Planned capital cities\n* The Brazilian state capitals of Palmas, Goiânia, Belo Horizonte, Aracaju, Teresina and Boa Vista\n* Australia's capital Canberra, also a purpose-built city\n* India's capital New Delhi\n* The capital of Burma, Naypyidaw\n* The capital of Kazakhstan, Astana\n* Malaysia's Putrajaya, the federal administrative center of the country, also a purpose-built city\n* Pakistan's capital Islamabad, also purpose-built in the 1960s\n* The United States capital Washington, D.C.\n* The capital of Nigeria, Abuja\n",
"\n\n",
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"\n* Page of the Regional Administration of Brasília\n* Page of the Government of the Federal District\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Geography",
"Demographics",
" Politics ",
"Cityscape",
"Economy",
"Culture",
" Education ",
"Transportation",
"Sports",
" See also ",
" Notes ",
"References",
"External links"
] | Brasília | [
";\n* Banking and finance – headquarters of the Banco do Brasil and the Caixa Econômica Federal, both controlled by the Federal Government, and the Banco de Brasília, controlled by the city local government; it is also the site of the headquarters of the Central Bank, the main government regulatory agency of the financial sector;\n* Entertainment – the shopping malls Conjunto Nacional, ParkShopping, Pátio Brasil Shopping, Brasília Shopping, Boulevard Shopping, Taguatinga Shopping, Terraço Shopping, Gilberto Salomão and Iguatemi Brasília."
] | [
"\n\n\n'''Brasília''' () is the federal capital of Brazil and seat of government of the Federal District.",
"The city is located atop the Brazilian highlands in the country's center-western region.",
"It was founded on April 21, 1960, to serve as the new national capital.",
"Brasília and its metro area were estimated to be Brazil's 4th most populous city.",
"Among major Latin American cities, Brasília has the highest GDP per capita at ().",
"Brasília was planned and developed by Lúcio Costa and Oscar Niemeyer in 1956 to move the capital from Rio de Janeiro to a more central location.",
"The landscape architect was Roberto Burle Marx.",
"The city's design divides it into numbered blocks as well as sectors for specified activities, such as the Hotel Sector, the Banking Sector and the Embassy Sector.",
"Brasília was chosen as a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to its modernist architecture and uniquely artistic urban planning.",
"The centers of all three branches of the federal government of Brazil are in Brasília, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court.",
"The city also hosts 124 foreign embassies.",
"Brasília International Airport connects the capital to all major Brazilian cities and many international destinations, and is the third busiest airport in Brazil.",
"It is the second most populous Portuguese-speaking capital city after Luanda.",
"The city was one of the main host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup and hosted some of the football matches during the 2016 Summer Olympic Games.",
"Brasília also hosted the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup.",
"The city has a unique status in Brazil, as it is an administrative division rather than a legal municipality like other cities in Brazil.",
"Although Brasília is used as a synonym for the Federal District through synecdoche, the Federal District is composed of 31 administrative regions, only one of which is the area of the originally planned city, also called Plano Piloto.",
"The rest of the Federal District is considered by IBGE to make up Brasília's metro area.",
"\nThe Pilot Plan\nMinistries Esplanade in 1959\nBrasília in 1964\nBrasilia in 1975\n=== Background ===\nFrom 1763 until 1960, Rio de Janeiro was Brazil's capital.",
"At this time, resources tended to be centered in Brazil's southeast region near Rio de Janeiro and most of its population was concentrated near to the Atlantic Coast.",
"Brasília's geographically central location fostered a more regionally neutral federal capital.",
"An article of the country's first republican constitution dating back to 1891 stated the capital should be moved from Rio de Janeiro to a place close to the country's center.",
"The plan was conceived in 1827 by José Bonifácio, an advisor to Emperor Pedro I.",
"He presented a plan to the General Assembly of Brazil for a new city called Brasília, with the idea of moving the capital westward from the heavily populated southeastern corridor.",
"The bill was not enacted because Pedro I dissolved the Assembly.",
"According to legend, Italian saint Don Bosco in 1883 had a dream in which he described a futuristic city that roughly fitted Brasília's location.",
"In Brasília today, many references of Bosco, who founded the Salesian order, are found throughout the city and one church parish in the city bears his name.",
"=== The Plan of Lúcio Costa ===\n\nIn 1957 an international jury selected Lúcio Costa's plan to guide the construction of Brazil’s new capital, Brasilia.",
"Costa's plan was not as detailed as some of the plans presented by other architects and city planners, it did not include land use schedules, models, population charts or mechanical drawings, however, it was chosen by five out of six jurors because it had the features required to align the growth of a capital city Even though the initial plan was transformed over time, his plan oriented much of the construction and most of its features survived.",
"Brasilia's possession as the new capital and its representation of the conquest of an extensive region in Brazil inspired the symbolism of the plan; Costa, uses a cross-axial design indicating the possession and conquest of this new place with a cross often described by some as a dragonfly, an airplane or a bird.",
"Costa's plan included two principal components, the Monumental Axis (east to west) and the Residential Axis (north to south).",
"The Monumental Axis designated for political and administrative activities is considered the body of the city with the style and simplicity of its buildings, its oversized scales, broad vistas and heights, producing the idea of Monumentality.",
"This axis includes ministries, the national congress, and the television and radio tower.",
"The Residential Axis was intended to contain areas with intimate character and is considered the most important achievement of the plan; it was designed for housing and associated functions such as local commerce, schooling, recreations and churches, constituted of 96 superblocks (''s'') limited to six stories buildings and 12 additional superblocks limited to three stories buildings; Costa's intention with superblocks was to have small self-contained and self-sufficient neighborhoods and uniform buildings with apartments of two or three different categories, where he envisioned the integration of upper and middle classes sharing the same residential area.",
"The urban design of the communal apartment blocks was based on Le Corbusier’s Ville Radieuse of 1935 and the superblocks on the North American Radburn layout from 1929.",
"Visually, the blocks were intended to appear absorbed by the landscape because they were isolated by a belt of tall trees and lower vegetation.",
"Costa attempted to introduce a Brazil that was more equitable, he also designed housing for the working classes that was separated from the upper and middle-class housing and was visually different, with the intention of avoiding slums (''fabelas'') in the urban periphery.",
"The superquadra has been accused of being a space where individuals are oppressed and alienated to a form of spatial segregation.",
"One of the main objectives of the plan was to allow the free flow of automobile traffic, the plan included lanes of traffic in a north-south direction (seven for each direction) for the Monumental Axis and three arterials (the W3, the Eixo and the L2) for the residential Axis; the cul-de-sac access roads of the superblocks were planned to be the end of the main flow of traffic.",
"This emphasis of the plan on automobiles caused the lengthening of distances between centers and it attended only the necessities of a small segment of the population who owned cars.",
"At the intersection of the Monumental and Residential Axis Costa planned the city center with the transportation center (Rodoviaria), the banking sector and the hotel sector, near to the city center, he proposed an amusement center with theatres, cinemas and restaurants.",
"Costa's Plan is seen as a plan with a sectoral tendency, segregating all the banks, the office buildings, and the amusement center.",
"One of the main features of Costa's Plan was that he presented a new city with its future shape and patterns evident from the beginning.",
"This means that the original plan included paving streets that were not immediately put into use; the advantage of this is that the original plan is hard to undo because he provided for an entire street network, but on the other hand, is difficult to adapt and mold to other circumstances in the future.",
"In addition, there has been controversy with the monumental aspect of Lucio Costal's Plan, because it appeared to some as city planning of the 19th century and not that of a modern urbanism of the 20th century in Brazil.",
"An interesting analysis can be made of Brasilia within the context of Cold War politics and the association of Lucio Costa’s plan to the symbolism of aviation.",
"From an architectural perspective, the airplane-shaped plan was certainly an homage to Le Corbusier and his enchantment with the aircraft as an architectural masterpiece.",
"However, it is important to also note that Brasilia was constructed soon after the end of World War II.",
"Despite Brazil’s minor participation in the conflict, the airplane shape of the city was key in envisioning the country as part of the newly globalized world, together with the victorious Allies.",
"=== Construction ===\nJuscelino Kubitschek, President of Brazil from 1956 to 1961, ordered Brasília's construction, fulfilling the promise of the Constitution and his own political campaign promise.",
"Building Brasília was part of Juscelino's \"fifty years of prosperity in five\" plan.",
"Already in 1892, the astronomer Louis Cruls, in the service of the Brazilian government, had investigated the site for the future capital.",
"Lúcio Costa won a contest and was the main urban planner in 1957, with 5550 people competing.",
"Oscar Niemeyer, a close friend, was the chief architect of most public buildings and Roberto Burle Marx was the landscape designer.",
"Brasília was built in 41 months, from 1956 to April 21, 1960, when it was officially inaugurated.",
"Brasília from ISS\n\n===Paranoá Lake===\nParanoá Lake is a large artificial lake that was built to increase the amount of water available and the region's humidity.",
"It has Brazil's second largest marina, and hosts wakeboarders and windsurfers.",
"Diving can also be practiced and one of the main attractions is Vila Amaury, an old village submerged in the lake.",
"This is where the first construction workers of Brasília used to live.",
"===Climate===\n\nBrasília has a tropical savanna climate (Aw) according to the Köppen system, with two distinct seasons: the rainy season, from October to April, and a dry season, from May to September.",
"The average temperature is .",
"September, at the end of the dry season, has the highest average maximum temperature, , has major and minor lower maximum average temperature, of and , respectively.",
"Average temperatures from September through March are a consistent .",
"With , January is the month with the highest rainfall of the year, while June is the lowest, with only .",
"According to Brazilian National Institute of Meteorology (INMET), the record low temperature was on July 18, 1975, and the record high was on October 28, 2008.",
"The highest accumulated rainfall in 24 hours was on November 15, 1963.",
"\nThe Monumental Axis\n\nAccording to the 2010 IBGE Census, there were 2,469,489 people residing in Brasília and its metropolitan area, of which 1,239,882 were Pardo (multiracial) (48.2%), 1,084,418, White (42.2%), 198,072, Black (7.7%), 41,522, Asian (1.6%), and 6,128 Amerindian (0.2%).",
"In 2010, Brasília was ranked the fourth most-populous city in Brazil after São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Salvador.",
"In 2010, the city had 474,871 opposite-sex couples and 1,241 same-sex couples.",
"The population of Brasília was 52.2% female and 47.8% male.",
"In the 1960 census there were almost 140 thousand residents in the new Federal District.",
"By 1970 this figure had grown to 537 thousand.",
"By 2000 the population of the Federal District had surpassed 2 million.",
"The city of Brasília proper was planned for only about 500 thousand inhabitants, but its metropolitan area has grown past this figure.",
"ISS\n\nFrom the beginning, the growth of Brasília was greater than original estimates.",
"According to the original plans, Brasília would be a city for government authorities and staff.",
"However, during the construction period, Brazilians from all over the country migrated to Brasília, seeking public and private jobs.",
"At the close of the 20th century, Brasília held the distinction of being the largest city in the world which had not existed at the beginning of the century.",
"Brasília has one of the highest population growth rates in Brazil, with annual growth of 2.82%, mostly due to internal migration.",
"Brasília's inhabitants include a foreign population of mostly embassy workers as well as large numbers of Brazilian internal migrants.",
"Today, the city has important communities of immigrants and refugees.",
"The city's Human Development Index was 0.936 in 2000 (developed level), and the city's literacy rate was around 95.65%.",
"===Religion===\nView of the Cathedral of Brasília\nOrthodox church\nThe Cathedral of Brasília in the capital of the Federative Republic of Brazil, is an expression of the atheist architect Oscar Niemeyer.",
"This concrete-framed hyperboloid structure, seems with its glass roof reaching up, open, to the heavens.",
"On 31 May 1970, the Cathedral's structure was finished, and only the diameter of the circular area were visible.",
"Niemeyer's project of Cathedral of Brasília is based in the hyperboloid of revolution which sections are asymmetric.",
"The hyperboloid structure itself is a result of 16 identical assembled concrete columns.",
"These columns, having hyperbolic section and weighing 90 t, represent two hands moving upwards to heaven.",
"The Cathedral was dedicated on 31 May 1970.",
"Religion\n Percentage\n Number\n\nCatholic\n56.62%\n1,455,134\n\nProtestant\n26.88%\n690,982\n\nNo religion\n9.20%\n236,528\n\nSpiritist\n3.50%\n89,836\n\nJewish\n0.04%\n1,103\n\nMuslim\n0.04%\n972\n\n''Source: IBGE 2010. ''",
"Buriti Palace, Seat of Government of the Federal District\nLegislative Chamber of the Federal District building\n\nThe seats of the three branches of the Brazilian state are located in Brasilia.",
"Until the 1980s, the Federal Government appointed the governor of the Federal District, and the laws of Brasília were issued by the Brazilian Federal Senate.",
"With the Constitution of 1988, Brasília gained the right to elect its Governor, and a District Assembly (Câmara Legislativa) was elected to exercise legislative power.",
"The Federal District does not have a Judicial Power.",
"The Judicial Power which serves the Federal District also serves federal territories.",
"Brazil does not have any territories, therefore, for now the courts only serve cases from the Federal District.",
"=== International relations ===\n\n\n;Twin towns and sister cities\nBrasília is twinned with:\n\n\n* '''Abuja''', Nigeria\n* '''Asunción''', Paraguay\n* '''Brussels''', Belgium\n* '''Buenos Aires''', Argentina ''(since 2002)''\n* '''Gaza City''', Palestine\n* '''Havana''', Cuba\n* '''Khartoum''', Sudan\n* '''Lisbon''', Portugal\n* '''Luxor''', Egypt\n* '''Montevideo''', Uruguay\n* '''Pretoria''', South Africa\n* '''Santiago''', Chile\n* '''Tehran''', Iran\n* '''Vienna''', Austria\n* '''Washington, D.C.''', United States ''(since 2013)''\n* '''Xi'an''', China ''(since 1997)''\n\n\nOf these, Abuja, Canberra, and Washington were likewise cities planned specifically to be their respective countries' seats of government.",
"\n\nAt the northwestern end of the Monumental Axis are federal district and municipal buildings, while at the southeastern end, near the middle shore of Lake Paranoá, stand the executive, judicial, and legislative buildings around the Square of Three Powers, the conceptual heart of the city.",
"Brazilian Flag and the National Congress in spring\n\nThese and other major structures were designed by Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer in the style of modern Brazilian architecture.",
"In the Square of Three Powers, he created as a focal point the dramatic Congressional Palace, which is composed of five parts: twin administrative towers flanked by a large, white concrete dome (the meeting place of the Senate) and by an equally massive concrete bowl (the Chamber of Deputies), which is joined to the dome by an underlying, flat-roofed building.",
"The Congress also occupies various other surrounding buildings, some connected by tunnels.",
"A series of low-lying annexes (largely hidden) flank both ends.",
"A modern-day statue seen at the Cathedral of Brasília\n\nThe National Congress building is located in the middle of the Eixo Monumental, the city's main avenue.",
"In front lies a large lawn and reflecting pool.",
"The building faces the Praça dos Três Poderes where the Palácio do Planalto and the Supreme Federal Court are located.",
"Also in the square are the glass-faced Planalto Palace housing the presidential offices, and the Palace of the Supreme Court.",
"Farther east, on a triangle of land jutting into the lake, is the Palace of the Dawn (Palácio da Alvorada; the presidential residence).",
"Between the federal and civic buildings on the Monumental Axis is the city's cathedral, considered by many to be Niemeyer's finest achievement (see photographs of the interior).",
"The parabolically shaped structure is characterized by its 16 gracefully curving supports, which join in a circle 115 feet (35 meters) above the floor of the nave; stretched between the supports are translucent walls of tinted glass.",
"The nave is entered via a subterranean passage rather than conventional doorways.",
"Other notable buildings are Buriti Palace, Itamaraty Palace, the National Theater, and several foreign embassies that creatively embody features of their national architecture.",
"The Brazilian landscape architect Roberto Burle Marx designed landmark modernist gardens for some of the principal buildings.",
"Both low-cost and luxury housing were built by the government in the Brasília.",
"The residential zones of the inner city are arranged into ''superquadras'' (\"superblocks\"): groups of apartment buildings along with a prescribed number and type of schools, retail stores, and open spaces.",
"At the northern end of Lake Paranoá, separated from the inner city, is a peninsula with many fashionable homes, and a similar city exists on the southern lakeshore.",
"Originally the city planners envisioned extensive public areas along the shores of the artificial lake, but during early development private clubs, hotels, and upscale residences and restaurants gained footholds around the water.",
"Set well apart from the city are satellite cities, including Gama, Ceilândia, Taguatinga, Núcleo Bandeirante, Sobradinho, and Planaltina.",
"These cities, with the exception of Gama and Sobradinho were not planned.",
"===Monumental civic scale===\nAerial view of South Wing (''Asa Sul'') district\nMonumental Axis and Brasilia TV Tower\nThe city has been both acclaimed and criticized for its use of modernist architecture on a grand scale and for its somewhat utopian city plan.",
"After a visit to Brasília, the French writer Simone de Beauvoir complained that all of its ''superquadras'' exuded \"the same air of elegant monotony,\" and other observers have equated the city's large open lawns, plazas, and fields to wastelands.",
"As the city has matured, some of these have gained adornments, and many have been improved by landscaping, giving some observers a sense of \"humanized\" spaciousness.",
"Although not fully accomplished, the \"Brasília utopia\" has produced a city of relatively high quality of life, in which the citizens live in forested areas with sporting and leisure structure (the ''superquadras'') flanked by small commercial areas, bookstores and cafés; the city is famous for its cuisine and efficiency of transit.",
"Even these positive features have sparked controversy, expressed in the nickname \"ilha da fantasia\" (\"fantasy island\"), indicating the sharp contrast between the city and surrounding regions, marked by poverty and disorganization in the cities of the states of Goiás and Minas Gerais, around Brasília.",
"Critics of Brasília's grand scale have characterized it as a modernist platonic fantasy about the future:",
"\nSouth Banking Sector\n\nThe major roles of construction and of services (government, communications, banking and finance, food production, entertainment, and legal services) in Brasília's economy reflect the city's status as a governmental rather than an industrial center.",
"Industries connected with construction, food processing, and furnishings are important, as are those associated with publishing, printing, and computer software.",
"GDP is divided in Public Administration 54.8%, Services 28.7%, Industry 10.2%, Commerce 6.1%, Agribusiness 0.2%.",
"Besides being the political center, Brasília is an important economic center.",
"Brasília has the highest city gross domestic product (GDP) of 99.5 billion reais representing 3.76% of the total Brazilian GDP.",
"The main economic activity of the federal capital results from its administrative function.",
"Its industrial planning is studied carefully by the Government of the Federal District.",
"Being a city registered by UNESCO, the government in Brasília has opted to encourage the development of non-polluting industries such as software, film, video, and gemology among others, with emphasis on environmental preservation and maintaining ecological balance, preserving the city property.",
"According to Mercer's city rankings of cost of living for expatriate employees, Brasília ranks 45th among the most expensive cities in the world in 2012, up from the 70th position in 2010, ranking behind São Paulo (12th) and Rio de Janeiro (13th).",
"===Services===\nShopping center in the city\n(91% of local GDP, according to the IBGE):\n* Government – the public sector is by far the largest employer, accounting for around 40% of the city jobs.",
"Government jobs include all levels, from the federal police to diplomacy, from the transportation bureau to the armed forces;\n* Communications – the telephony used to be a state monopoly, and Brasília held the HQ of Telebrás, the central state company; one of the enterprises that resulted from the privatization of the system in the 90's, Brasil Telecom, keeps it HQ in the city; the official Postal Service (Correios) HQ is located in the city as well; as it is the main place of Federal Government news, it is also notable the activities of TV stations, including the main offices of four public networks (TV Brasil/Agência Brasil, TV Câmara, TV Senado and TV Justiça), the regional offices of four major private television networks (Rede Globo, SBT, Rede Bandeirantes and Rede Record) and a main affiliate of RedeTV!",
"* Information technology (Politec, Poliedro, CTIS, among others), and legal services.",
"===Industries===\nSouth Hotel Sector\n\nIn the city include: Construction (Paulo Octavio, Via Construções, and Irmãos Gravia among others); Food processing (Perdigão, Sadia); Furniture Making; Recycling (Novo Rio, Rexam, Latasa and others); Pharmaceuticals (União Química); Graphic industries.",
"The main agricultural products produced in the city are coffee, guavas, strawberries, oranges, lemons, papayas, soy beans, and mangoes.",
"It has over 110,000 cows and it exports wood products worldwide.",
"The Federal District, where Brasília is located, has a GDP of R$133,4 billion (about US$64.1 billion), about the same as Belarus according to The Economist.",
"Its share of the total Brazilian GDP is about 3.8%.",
"The Federal District has the largest GDP per capita income of Brazil US$25,062, slightly higher than Belarus.",
"The city's planned design included specific areas for almost everything, including accommodation, Hotels Sectors North and South.",
"New hotel facilities are being developed elsewhere, such as the hotels and tourism Sector North, located on the shores of Lake Paranoá.",
"Brasília has a range of tourist accommodation from inns, pensions and hostels to larger international chain hotels.",
"The city's restaurants cater to a wide range of foods from local and regional Brazilian dishes to international cuisine.",
"\nCultural Complex of the Republic\n\nAs a venue for political events, music performances and movie festivals, Brasília is a cosmopolitan city, with around 124 embassies, a wide range of restaurants and complete infrastructure ready to host any kind of event.",
"Not surprisingly, the city stands out as an important business tourism destination, which is an important part of the local economy, with dozens of hotels spread around the federal capital.",
"Traditional parties take place throughout the year.",
"In June, large festivals known as \"festas juninas\" are held celebrating Catholic saints such as Saint Anthony of Padua, Saint John the Baptist, and Saint Peter.",
"On September 7, the traditional Independence Day parade is held on the Ministries Esplanade.",
"Throughout the year, local, national, and international events are held throughout the city.",
"Christmas is widely celebrated, and New Year's Eve usually hosts major events.",
"The city also hosts a varied assortment of art works from artists like Bruno Giorgi, Alfredo Ceschiatti, Athos Bulcão, Marianne Peretti, Alfredo Volpi, Di Cavalcanti, Dyllan Taxman, Victor Brecheret and Burle Marx, whose works have been integrated into the city's architecture, making it a unique landscape.",
"The cuisine in the city is very diverse.",
"Many of the best restaurants in the city can be found in the Asa Sul district.",
"The city is also the birthplace of Brazilian rock and place of origin of many bands like: Legião Urbana, Capital Inicial, Aborto Elétrico, Plebe Rude and Raimundos.",
"Currently Brasília has the Rock Basement Festival who attempts to bring new bands to the national scene.",
"The festival is held in the parking Brasilia National Stadium Mané Garrincha.",
"Cláudio Santoro National Theater\n\nSince 1965, the annual Brasilia Festival of Brazilian Cinema is one of the most traditional cinema festivals in Brazil, being compared only to the Brazilian Cinema Festival of Gramado, in Rio Grande do Sul.",
"The difference between both is that the festival in Brasilia still preserves the tradition to only submit and reward Brazilian movies.",
"Brasília has also been the focus of modern-day literature.",
"Published in 2008, ''The World In Grey: Dom Bosco's Prophecy'', by author Ryan J. Lucero, tells an apocalypticle story based on the famous prophecy from the late 19th century by the Italian saint Don Bosco.",
"According to Don Bosco's prophecy: \"Between parallels 15 and 20, around a lake which shall be formed; A great civilization will thrive, and that will be the Promised Land.\"",
"Brasília lies between the parallels 15° S and 20° S, where an artificial lake (Paranoá Lake) was formed.",
"Don Bosco is Brasília's patron saint.",
"''American Flagg!",
"'', the First Comics comic book series created by Howard Chaykin, portrays Brasília as a cosmopolitan world capital of culture and exotic romance.",
"In the series, it is a top vacation and party destination.",
"The 2015 Rede Globo series ''Felizes para Sempre?''",
"was set in Brasília.",
"===Historic sites and museums===\n\n;Monumental Axis and Square of the Three Powers\nPraça dos Três Poderes (Three Powers Plaza)\n\nAt the end of the ''Eixo Monumental'' (\"Monumental Axis\") lies the ''Esplanada dos Ministérios'' (\"Ministries Esplanade\"), an open area in downtown Brasília.",
"The rectangular lawn is surrounded by two eight-lane avenues where many government buildings, monuments and memorials are located.",
"On Sundays and holidays, the Eixo Monumental is closed to cars so that locals may use it as a place to walk, bike, and have picnics under the trees.",
"''Praça dos Três Poderes'' (Portuguese for ''Square of the Three Powers'') is a plaza in Brasília.",
"The name is derived from the encounter of the three federal branches around the plaza: the Executive, represented by the Palácio do Planalto (presidential office); the Legislative, represented by the National Congress (Congresso Nacional); and the Judicial branch, represented by the Supreme Federal Court (Supremo Tribunal Federal).",
"It is a tourist attraction in Brasília, designed by Lúcio Costa and Oscar Niemeyer as a place where the three branches would meet harmoniously.",
";Palaces \nThe Palácio da Alvorada\nThe Palácio do Planalto\n\nThe Palácio da Alvorada is the official residence of the president of Brazil.",
"The palace was designed, along with the rest of the city of Brasília, by Oscar Niemeyer and inaugurated in 1958.",
"One of the first structures built in the republic's new capital city, the \"Alvorada\" lies on a peninsula at the margins of Lake Paranoá.",
"The principles of simplicity and modernity, that in the past characterized the great works of architecture, motivated Niemeyer.",
"The viewer has an impression of looking at a glass box, softly landed on the ground with the support of thin external columns.",
"The building has an area of 7,000 m2 with three floors consisting of the basement, landing, and second floor.",
"The auditorium, kitchen, laundry, medical center, and administration offices are at basement level.",
"The rooms used by the presidency for official receptions are on the landing.",
"The second floor has four suites, two apartments, and various private rooms which make up the residential part of the palace.",
"The building also has a library, a heated Olympic-sized swimming pool, a music room, two dining rooms and various meeting rooms.",
"A chapel and heliport are in adjacent buildings.",
"The Palácio do Planalto is the official workplace of the president of Brazil.",
"It is located at the Praça dos Três Poderes in Brasília.",
"As the seat of government, the term \"Planalto\" is often used as a metonym for the executive branch of government.",
"The main working office of the President of the Republic is in the Palácio do Planalto.",
"The President and his or her family do not live in it, rather in the official residence, the Palácio da Alvorada.",
"Besides the President, senior advisors also have offices in the \"Planalto,\" including the Vice-President of Brazil and the Chief of Staff.",
"The other Ministries are along the Esplanada dos Ministérios.",
"The architect of the Palácio do Planalto was Oscar Niemeyer, creator of most of the important buildings in Brasília.",
"The idea was to project an image of simplicity and modernity using fine lines and waves to compose the columns and exterior structures.",
"The Palace is four stories high, and has an area of 36,000 m2.",
"Four other adjacent buildings are also part of the complex.",
"Institute of Biological Sciences (IB) of the University of Brasília\n\n\nThe Portuguese language is the official national language and the primary language taught in schools.",
"English and Spanish are also part of the official curriculum.",
"The city has six international schools: American School of Brasília, Brasília International School (BIS), Escola das Nações, Swiss International School (SIS), Lycée français François-Mitterrand (LfFM) and Maple Bear Canadian School.",
"August 2016 will see the opening of a new international school – The British School of Brasilia.",
"Brasília has two universities, three university centers, and many private colleges.",
"The main tertiary educational institutions are: Universidade de Brasília – University of Brasília (UnB) (public); Universidade Católica de Brasília – Catholic University of Brasília (UCB); Centro Universitário de Brasília (UniCEUB); Centro Universitário Euroamaricano (Unieuro); Centro Universitário do Distrito Federal (UDF); Universidade Paulista (UNIP); and Instituto de Educação Superior de Brasília (IESB).",
"\n===Airport===\n\n\nBrasília International Airport (BSB)\nAerial view of the airport\nBrasília–Presidente Juscelino Kubitschek International Airport serves the metropolitan area with major domestic and international flights.",
"It is the third busiest Brazilian airport based on passengers and aircraft movements.",
"Because of its strategic location it is a civil aviation hub for the rest of the country.",
"This makes for a large number of takeoffs and landings and it is not unusual for flights to be delayed in the holding pattern before landing.",
"Following the airport's master plan, Infraero built a second runway, which was finished in 2006.",
"In 2007, the airport handled 11,119,872 passengers.",
"The main building's third floor, with 12 thousand square meters, has a panoramic deck, a food court, shops, four movie theatres with total capacity of 500 people, and space for exhibitions.",
"Brasília Airport has 136 vendor spaces.",
"The airport is located about from the central area of Brasília, outside the metro system.",
"The area outside the airport's main gate is lined with taxis as well as several bus line services that connect the airport to Brasília's central district.",
"The parking lot accommodates 1,200 cars.",
"The airport is serviced by domestic and regional airlines (TAM, GOL, Azul, WebJET, Trip and Avianca), in addition to a number of international carriers.",
"In 2012, Brasília's International Airport was won by the InfrAmerica consortium, formed by the Brazilian engineering company ENGEVIX and the Argentine Corporacion America holding company, with a 50% stake each.",
"During the 25-year concession, the airport may be expanded to up to 40 million passengers a year.",
"In 2014 the airport received 15 new boarding bridges, totaling 28 in all.",
"This was the main requirement made by the federal government, which transferred the operation of the terminal to the Inframerica Group after an auction.",
"The group invested R$750 million in the project.",
"In the same year, the number of parking spaces doubled, reaching three thousand.",
"The airport's entrance have a new rooftop cover and a new access road.",
"Furthermore, a VIP room was created on Terminal 1's third floor.",
"The investments resulted an increase the capacity of Brasília's airport from approximately 15 million passengers per year to 21 million by 2014.",
"Brasília has direct flights to all states of Brazil and direct international flights to Atlanta, Buenos Aires, Lisbon, Miami, Panama City, and Paris.",
"===Road transport===\nJuscelino Kubitschek Bridge\nTraffic crawls at the Ministries Esplanade\nLike most Brazilian cities, Brasilia has a good network of taxi companies.",
"Taxis from the airport are available immediately outside the terminal, but at times there can be quite a queue of people.",
"Although the airport is not far from the downtown area, taxi prices do seem to be higher than in other Brazilian cities.",
"Booking in advance can be advantageous, particularly if time is limited, and local companies should be able to assist airport transfer or transport requirements.",
"The Juscelino Kubitschek bridge, also known as the 'President JK Bridge' or the 'JK Bridge', crosses Lake Paranoá in Brasília.",
"It is named after Juscelino Kubitschek de Oliveira, former president of Brazil.",
"It was designed by architect Alexandre Chan and structural engineer Mário Vila Verde.",
"Chan won the Gustav Lindenthal Medal for this project at the 2003 International Bridge Conference in Pittsburgh due to \"...outstanding achievement demonstrating harmony with the environment, aesthetic merit and successful community participation\".",
"It consists of three tall asymmetrical steel arches that crisscross diagonally.",
"With a length of 1,200 m (0.75 miles), it was completed in 2002 at a cost of US$56.8 million.",
"The bridge has a pedestrian walkway and is accessible to bicyclists and skaters.",
"===Metro===\nBrasília Metro\nThe Brasília Metro is Brasília's underground metro system.",
"The system has 24 stations on two lines, the Orange and Green lines, along a total network of , covering some of the metropolitan area.",
"Both lines begin at the Central Station and run parallel until the Águas Claras Station.",
"The Brasília metro is not comprehensive so buses may provide better access to the center.",
"The metro leaves the Rodoviária (bus station) and goes south, avoiding most of the political and tourist areas.",
"The main purpose of the metro is to serve cities, such as Samambaia, Taguatinga and Ceilândia, as well as Guará and Águas Claras.",
"The satellite cities served are more populated in total than the Plano Piloto itself (the census of 2000 indicated that Ceilândia had 344,039 inhabitants, Taguatinga had 243,575, and the Plano Piloto had approximately 400,000 inhabitants), and most residents of the satellite cities depend on public transportation.",
"A high-speed railway was planned between Brasília and Goiânia, the capital of the state of Goias, but it will probably be turned into a regional service linking the capital cities and cities in between, like Anápolis and Alexânia.",
"===Buses===\nCentral Bus Station\n\nThe main bus hub in Brasília is the Central Bus Station, located in the crossing of the Eixo Monumental and the Eixão, about from the Three Powers Plaza.",
"The original plan was to have a bus station as near as possible to every corner of Brasília.",
"Today, the bus station is the hub of urban buses only, some running within Brasília and others connecting Brasília to the satellite cities.",
"In the original city plan, the interstate buses should also stop at the Central Station.",
"Because of the growth of Brasília (and corresponding growth in the bus fleet), today the interstate buses leave from the older interstate station (called Rodoferroviária), located at the western end of the Eixo Monumental.",
"The Central Bus Station also contains a main metro station.",
"A new bus station was opened in July 2010.",
"It is on Saída Sul (South Exit) near Parkshopping Mall and with its metro station, and it's also an inter-state bus station, used only to leave the Federal District.",
"===Brasília Public Transportation Statistics===\nThe average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Brasília, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 96 min.",
"31% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day.",
"The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 28 min, while 61% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day.",
"The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 15.1 km, while 50% travel for over 12 km in a single direction.",
"\n===Football===\nEstádio Nacional de Brasília\n\nThe main stadiums are the Brasilia National Stadium Mané Garrincha (which was reinaugurated on May 18, 2013), the Serejão Stadium (home for Brasiliense) and the Bezerrão Stadium (home for Gama).",
"Brasília was one of the host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup and 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, for which Brazil is the host nation.",
"Brasília hosted the opening of the Confederations Cup and hosted 7 World Cup games.",
"Brasília also hosted the football tournaments during the 2016 Summer Olympics held in Rio de Janeiro.",
"===Other sports===\nNilson Nelson Gymnasium\nBrasília is known as a departing point for the practice of unpowered air sports, sports that may be practiced with hang gliding or paragliding wings.",
"Practitioners of such sports reveal that, because of the city's dry weather, the city offers strong thermal winds and great \"cloud-streets\", which is also the name for a manoeuvre quite appreciated by practitioners.",
"In 2003, Brasília hosted the 14th Hang Gliding World Championship, one of the categories of free flying.",
"In August 2005, the city hosted the 2nd stage of the Brazilian Hang Gliding Championship.",
"Brasília is the site of the Autódromo Internacional Nelson Piquet which hosted a non-championship round of the 1974 Formula One Grand Prix season.",
"An IndyCar race was cancelled at the last minute in 2015.",
"The city is also home to Uniceub BRB, one of Brazil's best basketball clubs.",
"Currently, NBB champion (2010, 2011 and 2012).",
"The club hosts some of its games at the 16,000 all-seat Nilson Nelson Gymnasium.",
"\n;Planned capital cities\n* The Brazilian state capitals of Palmas, Goiânia, Belo Horizonte, Aracaju, Teresina and Boa Vista\n* Australia's capital Canberra, also a purpose-built city\n* India's capital New Delhi\n* The capital of Burma, Naypyidaw\n* The capital of Kazakhstan, Astana\n* Malaysia's Putrajaya, the federal administrative center of the country, also a purpose-built city\n* Pakistan's capital Islamabad, also purpose-built in the 1960s\n* The United States capital Washington, D.C.\n* The capital of Nigeria, Abuja",
"\n* Page of the Regional Administration of Brasília\n* Page of the Government of the Federal District\n*"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n'''BBS''' may refer to:\n\n",
"* Bulletin board system, a computer that allows users to dial into the system over a phone line or telnet connection\n* BIOS Boot Specification, a system firmware specification related initial program load (IPL; AKA booting)\n* Blum Blum Shub, a pseudorandom number generator\n",
"* Bahrain Bayan School, a school in Bahrain\n* Birmingham Business School, a business school in the UK\n* Bologna Business School, a business school in Italy\n* Budapest Business School, a business school in Hungary\n* BBS Kraftfahrzeugtechnik AG, an automobile wheel manufacturer\n* Bankenes Betalingssentral, a Norwegian bank clearing company\n* Bodu Bala Sena, a Sri Lankan political organization\n* British Blind Sport, a sporting charity for people who are visually impaired\n* Badger Boys State, a youth government camp held in Wisconsin\n",
"* Bardet-Biedl syndrome, a genetic disorder\n* Behavioral and Brain Sciences, a peer-reviewed journal\n* Berg Balance Scale, a test of a person's static and dynamic balance abilities\n* Bogart-Bacall Syndrome, a vocal misuse disorder named after Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall\n* Borate buffered saline\n* Breeding Bird Survey, which monitors the status and trends of bird populations\n",
"* Baton Broadcast System, a system of Canadian television stations\n* Bhutan Broadcasting Service, a radio and television service in Bhutan\n* BBS Productions, a film production company of early 1970s New Hollywood\n* ''Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep'', a video game for the PlayStation Portable\n",
"* Behavior-based safety, a process to reduce risks by focusing on the behaviors that lead to increased hazards\n* Bachelor of Business Studies, an academic degree\n* BBs, another name for airsoft gun pellets\n* Bronze Bauhinia Star, in the Hong Kong honours system\n* Big BullShit, following the Internet slang\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Technologies",
"Organisations",
"Science",
"Culture",
"Other"
] | BBS | [
"* Bahrain Bayan School, a school in Bahrain\n* Birmingham Business School, a business school in the UK\n* Bologna Business School, a business school in Italy\n* Budapest Business School, a business school in Hungary\n* BBS Kraftfahrzeugtechnik AG, an automobile wheel manufacturer\n* Bankenes Betalingssentral, a Norwegian bank clearing company\n* Bodu Bala Sena, a Sri Lankan political organization\n* British Blind Sport, a sporting charity for people who are visually impaired\n* Badger Boys State, a youth government camp held in Wisconsin"
] | [
"\n\n'''BBS''' may refer to:",
"* Bulletin board system, a computer that allows users to dial into the system over a phone line or telnet connection\n* BIOS Boot Specification, a system firmware specification related initial program load (IPL; AKA booting)\n* Blum Blum Shub, a pseudorandom number generator",
"* Bardet-Biedl syndrome, a genetic disorder\n* Behavioral and Brain Sciences, a peer-reviewed journal\n* Berg Balance Scale, a test of a person's static and dynamic balance abilities\n* Bogart-Bacall Syndrome, a vocal misuse disorder named after Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall\n* Borate buffered saline\n* Breeding Bird Survey, which monitors the status and trends of bird populations",
"* Baton Broadcast System, a system of Canadian television stations\n* Bhutan Broadcasting Service, a radio and television service in Bhutan\n* BBS Productions, a film production company of early 1970s New Hollywood\n* ''Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep'', a video game for the PlayStation Portable",
"* Behavior-based safety, a process to reduce risks by focusing on the behaviors that lead to increased hazards\n* Bachelor of Business Studies, an academic degree\n* BBs, another name for airsoft gun pellets\n* Bronze Bauhinia Star, in the Hong Kong honours system\n* Big BullShit, following the Internet slang"
] | river |
[
"\n\nA '''building society''' is a financial institution owned by its members as a mutual organization. Building societies offer banking and related financial services, especially savings and mortgage lending. Building societies exist in the United Kingdom (UK), and used to exist in Ireland and several Commonwealth countries. They are similar to credit unions in organisation, though few enforce a common bond. However, rather than promoting thrift and offering unsecured and business loans, the purpose of a building society is to provide home mortgages to members. Borrowers and depositors are society members, setting policy and appointing directors on a one-member, one-vote basis. Building societies often provide other retail banking services, such as current accounts, credit cards and personal loans. The term \"building society\" first arose in the 18th century in Great Britain from cooperative savings groups.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, building societies actively compete with banks for most consumer banking services, especially mortgage lending and savings accounts, and regulations permit up to half of their lending to be funded by debt to non-members, allowing societies to access wholesale bond and money markets to fund mortgages. The world's largest building society is Britain's Nationwide Building Society.\n",
"Building societies as an institution began in late-18th century Birmingham - a town which was undergoing rapid economic and physical expansion driven by a multiplicity of small metalworking firms, whose many highly skilled and prosperous owners readily invested in property. Many of the early building societies were based in taverns or coffeehouses, which had become the focus for a network of clubs and societies for co-operation and the exchange of ideas among Birmingham's highly active citizenry as part of the movement known as the Midlands Enlightenment. The first building society to be established was Ketley's Building Society, founded by Richard Ketley, the landlord of the ''Golden Cross'' inn, in 1775. Members of Ketley's society paid a monthly subscription to a central pool of funds which was used to finance the building of houses for members, which in turn acted as collateral to attract further funding to the society, enabling further construction. By 1781 three more societies had been established in Birmingham, with a fourth in the nearby town of Dudley; and 19 more formed in Birmingham between 1782 and 1795. The first outside the English Midlands was established in Leeds in 1785.\n\nMost of the original societies were fully ''terminating'', where they would be dissolved when all members had a house: the last of them, First Salisbury and District Perfect Thrift Building Society, was wound up in March 1980. In the 1830s and 1840s a new development took place with the ''permanent building society'', where the society continued on a rolling basis, continually taking in new members as earlier ones completed purchases, such as Leek United Building Society. The main legislative framework for the building society was the Building Societies Act 1874, with subsequent amending legislation in 1894, 1939 (see Coney Hall), and 1960.\n\nIn their heyday, there were hundreds of building societies: just about every town in the country had a building society named after that town. Over succeeding decades the number of societies has decreased, as various societies merged to form larger ones, often renaming in the process, and other societies opted for demutualisation followed by – in the great majority of cases – eventual takeover by a listed bank. Most of the existing larger building societies are the end result of the mergers of many smaller societies.\n\nAll building societies in the UK are members of the Building Societies Association. At the start of 2008, there were 59 building societies in the UK, with total assets exceeding £360 billion. The number of societies in the UK fell by four during 2008 due to a series of mergers brought about, to a large extent, by the consequences of the financial crisis of 2007–2008. With three further mergers in each of 2009 and 2010, and a demutualisation and a merger in 2011, there are now 44 building societies.\n\n===1980s and 1990s===\n\nIn the 1980s, changes to British banking laws allowed building societies to offer banking services equivalent to normal banks. The management of a number of societies still felt that they were unable to compete with the banks, and a new Building Societies Act was passed in 1986 in response to their concerns. This permitted societies to 'demutualise'. If more than 75% of members voted in favour, the building society would then become a limited company like any other. Members' mutual rights were exchanged for shares in this new company. A number of the larger societies made such proposals to their members and all were accepted. Some listed on the London Stock Exchange, while others were acquired by larger financial groups.\n\nThe process began with the demutualisation of the Abbey National Building Society in 1989. Then, from 1995 to late-1999, eight societies demutualised accounting for two-thirds of building societies assets as at 1994. Five of these societies became joint stock banks (plc), one merged with another and the other four were taken over by plcs (in two cases after the mutual had previously converted to a plc).\n\nAs Tayler (2003) mentions, demutualisation moves succeeded immediately because neither Conservative nor Labour party UK governments created a framework which put obstacles in the way of demutualisation. Political acquiescence in demutualisation was clearest in the case of the position on 'carpet baggers', that is those who joined societies by lodging minimum amounts of £100 or so in the hope of profiting from a distribution of surplus after demutualisation. The deregulating Building Societies Act 1986 contained an anti-carpet bagger provision in the form of a two-year rule. This prescribed a qualifying period of two years before savers could participate in a residual claim. But, before the 1989 Abbey National Building Society demutualisation, the courts found against the two-year rule after legal action brought by Abbey National itself to circumvent the intent of the legislators. After this the legislation did prevent a cash distribution to members of less than two years standing, but the same result was obtained by permitting the issue of 'free' shares in the acquiring plc, saleable for cash. The Thatcher Conservative government declined to introduce amending legislation to make good the defect in the 'two-year rule'.\n\nBuilding societies, like mutual life insurers, arose as people clubbed together to address a common need interest; in the case of the building societies, this was housing and members were originally both savers and borrowers. But it very quickly became clear that 'outsider' savers were needed whose motive was profit through interest on deposits. Thus permanent building societies quickly became mortgage banks and in such institutions there always existed a conflict of interest between borrowers and savers. It was the task of the movement to reconcile that conflict of interest so as to enable savers to conclude that their interests and those of borrowers were to some extent complementary rather than conflictive. Conflict of interest between savers and borrowers was never fully reconciled in the building societies but upon deregulation that reconciliation became something of a lost cause. The management of building societies apparently could expend considerable time and resources (which belonged the organisation) planning their effective capture—of as much of the assets as they could. If so, this is arguably insider dealing on a grand scale with the benefit of inside specialist knowledge of the business and resources of the firm not shared with outsiders like politicians and members (and, perhaps, regulators). Once the opportunity to claim was presented by management the savers in particular could be relied upon to seize it. There were sufficient hard up borrowers to take the inducement offered them by management (in spite of few simple sums sufficing to demonstrate that they were probably going to end up effectively paying back the inducement). (Tayler 2003)\n\nManagements promoting demutualisation also thereby met managerial objectives because the end of mutuality brought joint stock company (plc) style remuneration committee pay standards and share options. Share options for management of converting societies appear to be a powerful factor in management calculation. Rasmusen (1988) refers to this in the following terms:\n\" ... perks do not rise in proportion to mutual bank size. If a mutual is large, or is expected to grow if it can raise capital by a conversion, its managers derive more value from a conversion but do not suffer much loss of perks than if the bank were small. Their benefit is in the right to purchase the new stock, which are valuable because the new issues are consistently underpriced referring to USA mutual bank conversions. Moreover, by no means are all mutual managers incompetent, and conversions allows the bank to expand more easily and to grant executive stock options that are valuable to skilled managers\".\n\nInstead of deploying their margin advantage as a defence of mutuality, around 1980 building societies began setting mortgage rates with reference to market clearing levels. In sum they began behaving more like banks, seeking to maximise profit instead of the advantages of a mutual organisation. Thus, according to the Bank of England's Boxall and Gallagher (1997), \"... there was virtually no difference between banks and building society 'listed' interest rates for home finance mortgage lending between 1984 and 1997. This behaviour resulted in a return on assets for building societies which was at least as high as Plc banks and, in the absence of distribution, led to rapid accumulation of reserves\". As Boxall and Gallagher (1997) also observe; \"... accumulation of reserves in the early-1990s, beyond regulatory and future growth requirements, is difficult to reconcile with conventional theories of mutual behaviour\".\n\nLlewellyn (1996) draws a rather more direct and cynical conclusion:\n\n\n\nSome of these managements ended up in dispute with their own members. Of the first major conversion of the Abbey in 1989, Kay (1991) observed:\n\n\n\nIn the end, after a number of large demutualisations, and pressure from carpetbaggers moving from one building society to another to cream off the windfalls, most of the societies whose management wished to keep them mutual modified their rules of membership in the late 1990s. The method usually adopted were membership rules to ensure that anyone newly joining a society would, for the first few years, be unable to get any profit out of a demutualisation. With the chance of a quick profit removed, the wave of demutualisations came to an end in 2000.\n\nOne academic study (Heffernan, 2003) found that demutualised societies' pricing behaviour on deposits and mortgages was more favourable to shareholders than to customers, with the remaining mutual building societies offering consistently better rates.\n\n===2000s and 2010s===\nThe Building Societies (Funding) and Mutual Societies (Transfers) Act 2007, known as the Butterfill Act, was passed in 2007 giving building societies greater powers to merge with other companies. These powers have been used by the Britannia in 2009 and Kent Reliance in 2011 leading to their demutualisation.\n\nPrior to 31 December 2010, deposits with building societies of up to £50,000 per individual, per institution, were normally protected by the Financial Services Compensation Scheme (FSCS), but Nationwide and Yorkshire Building Societies negotiated a temporary change to the terms of the FSCS to protect members of the societies they acquired in late 2008/early 2009. The amended terms allowed former members of multiple societies which merge into one to maintain multiple entitlements to FSCS protection until 30 September 2009 (later extended to 30 December 2010), so (for example) a member with £50,000 in each of Nationwide, Cheshire and Derbyshire at the time of the respective mergers would retain £150,000 of FSCS protection for their funds in the merged Nationwide. On 31 December 2010 the general FSCS limit for retail deposits was increased to £85,000 for banks and building societies and the transitional arrangements in respect of building society mergers came to an end.\n",
"\n===United Kingdom===\n\n====Current====\nThe remaining building societies are:\n\n(Total group assets of building societies) ''(data from last available annual reports as of Dec 2016)''\n\nSource: Building Societies Association updated for subsequent mergers\n\n\n\n\n Name\n Group assets \nOther building society trading names\nNumber of branches & agencies\nNo. of full time staff\nNo. of part time staff \nProvides current account\n\n 1 \n Nationwide Building Society\n £208,939m \n \n 650 branches\n c.14,400 \n c.4000 \n \n\n 2 \n Yorkshire Building Society\n £39,600m \n Uses the former Norwich & Peterborough and Chelsea building societies as trading names.\n 230 branches & 96 agencies \n 3599\n 96\n \n\n 3 \n Coventry Building Society\n £38,300m \n\n 70 branches & 19 agencies\n 1592\n 642\n (Basic bank account with cash card available instead)\n\n 4 \n Skipton Building Society\n £19,000m \n \n 95 branches & 3 agencies (87 by 30/09/17)\n 1398\n 374\n \n\n 5 \n Leeds Building Society\n £15,900m \n Formerly Leeds and Holbeck Building Society. Adopted current name after the un-connected Leeds Permanent Building Society merged with the Halifax Building Society in 1995\n 57 branches \n 1027 \n 214\n \n\n 6 \n Principality Building Society\n £8,202m \n \n 53 branches & 18 agencies\n 887 \n 232\n \n\n 7 \n West Bromwich Building Society\n £5,737m \n \n 37 branches\n 615 \n 138\n \n\n 8 \n Newcastle Building Society\n £3,622m \n \n 27 branches (25 by Dec 17) & 1 agency\n 672 \n 279\n \n\n 9 \n Nottingham Building Society\n £3,600m \n \n 56 branches\n 477 \n 201\n \n\n 10 \n Cumberland Building Society \n £2,130m \n \n 34 branches\n 311 \n 191\n (If customer resides within their branch operating area)\n\n 11 \n Progressive Building Society\n £1,794m \n \n 12 branches & 39 agencies\n 120 \n 58\n \n\n 12 \n National Counties Building Society \n £1,569m \n Uses the Family Building Society as a trading name.\n 1 branch\n 130 \n 13\n \n\n 13 \n Cambridge Building Society \n £1,194m \n \n 13 branches\n 143\n 49\n \n\n 14 \n Saffron Building Society \n £1,115m \n \n 11 branches & 7 agencies\n 146 \n 35\n \n\n 15 \n Monmouthshire Building Society \n £1,073m \n \n 11 branches & 18 agencies\n 85 \n 60 \n \n\n 16 \n Leek United Building Society \n £891m \n \n 12 branches & 2 agencies\n 120 \n 44\n \n\n 17 \n Furness Building Society \n £883m \n \n 9 branches & 14 agencies \n 96 \n 81\n \n\n 18 \n Newbury Building Society \n £869m \n \n 11 branches\n 107 \n 40\n \n\n 19 \n Hinckley & Rugby Building Society \n £636m \n \n 8 branches & 4 agencies\n 87 \n 29\n \n\n 20 \n Ipswich Building Society \n £584m \n \n 9 branches & 4 agencies\n 71\n 52\n \n\n 21 \n Darlington Building Society \n £532m \n \n 10 branches\n 86 \n 27\n \n\n 22 \n Market Harborough Building Society \n £427m \n \n 6 branches & 1 agency\n 68 \n 50\n \n\n 23 \n Melton Mowbray Building Society \n£419m \n \n 3 branches\n 58 \n 30\n \n\n 24 \n Marsden Building Society \n £416m \n \n 8 branches\n 63 \n 16\n \n\n 25 \n Scottish Building Society \n £389m \n \n 6 branches & 62 agencies\n 52 \n 19\n \n\n 26 \n Manchester Building Society \n £382m \n \n 1 branch & 4 agencies\n 43 \n 7\n \n\n 27 \n Hanley Economic Building Society \n £378m \n \n 6 branches & 1 agency\n 51 \n 22\n \n\n 28 \n Tipton & Coseley Building Society \n £372m \n \n 4 branches\n 53 \n 30\n \n\n 29 \n Dudley Building Society \n £354m \n \n 6 branches\n 52 \n 39\n \n\n 30 \n Mansfield Building Society \n £329m \n \n 4 branches\n 53 \n 20\n \n\n 31 \n Harpenden Building Society \n £317m \n \n 6 branches\n 41 \n 23\n \n\n 32 \n Loughborough Building Society \n £303m \n\n 3 branches & 2 agencies\n 42 \n 13\n \n\n 33 \n Vernon Building Society \n £300m \n \n 6 branches\n 43 \n 25\n \n\n 34 \n Bath Building Society \n £299m \n \n 2 branches & 6 agencies\n 53 \n 14\n \n\n 35 \n Stafford Railway Building Society \n £271m \n \n 1 branch\n 12 \n 19\n \n\n 36 \n Swansea Building Society \n £268m \n \n 3 branches\n 22 \n 14\n \n\n 37 \n Teachers Building Society \n £253m \n \n 1 branch\n 29 \n 10\n \n\n 38 \n Buckinghamshire Building Society \n £225m \n \n 1 branch\n 25 \n 14\n \n\n 39 \n Chorley & District Building Society \n £220m \n \n 3 branches\n 36 \n 14\n \n\n 40 \n Beverley Building Society \n £191m \n \n 1 branch\n 15 \n 7\n \n\n 41 \n Holmesdale Building Society \n £190m \n \n 1 branch\n 21 \n 3\n \n\n 42 \n Ecology Building Society \n £146m \n \n 1 branch\n 23 \n 2\n \n\n 43 \n Earl Shilton Building Society \n £124m \n \n 2 branches\n 17 \n 10\n \n\n 44 \n Penrith Building Society \n £106m \n \n 1 branch\n 14 \n 7\n \n\n\n\n\n====Demutualised====\nTen building societies of the United Kingdom demutualised between 1989 and 2000, either becoming a bank or being acquired by a larger bank. By 2008, every building society that floated on the stock market in the wave of demutualisations of the 1980s and 1990s had either been sold to a conventional bank, or been nationalised.\n\n\n\n\nName\nFate\nSuccessor\nYear\nCurrent position\n\n Abbey National \n\n converted to plc \n\nSantander \n\n 1989 \n\n The new bank, also known as \"Abbey\", was acquired by Banco Santander and now rebranded as Santander.\n\n Cheltenham and Gloucester \n was taken over by \n Lloyds Bank plc \n 1994 \n Became part of Lloyds TSB, although C&G still had a branch network which became part of TSB Bank plc in summer 2013.\n\n National & Provincial Building Society\n\n was taken over by\n\n Abbey National plc\n\n 1995\n\n Business merged into Abbey National (now Santander), name no longer used.\n\n Alliance & Leicester\n\n converted to plc\n\n Santander\n\n 1997\n\n Acquired by Banco Santander, which also owns Abbey, in October 2008, and merged into Santander in 2010.\n\n Bristol and West \n was taken over by \n the Bank of Ireland \n 1997 \n Became a division of Bank of Ireland but its savings balances and branch network transferred to the Britannia Building Society in 2005 (which in turn merged with Co-operative Financial Services in 2009). Bristol & West mortgages ceased trading on 10 January 2009.\n\n Halifax \n converted to plc \n \n 1997 \n Became part of HBOS in 2001, which itself became part of Lloyds Banking Group in 2009. Trading name still in use.\n\n Northern Rock\n\n converted to plc\n\n Virgin Money\n\n 1997\n\n Nationalised following near bankruptcy in February 2008, due to the 2007 financial crisis. Bought by Virgin Money in January 2012.\n\n The Woolwich\n\n converted to plc\n\n Barclays\n\n 1997\n\n Now part of Barclays plc. Woolwich brand name now only used for mortgages from Barclays with the Woolwich branch network merging with that of Barclays in 2007.\n\n Birmingham Midshires\n\n was taken over by\n\n Halifax plc\n\n 1999\n\n Now owned by Lloyds Banking Group. The brand name is still retained, but running entirely by post and internet.\n\n Bradford & Bingley\n\n converted to plc\n\n\n\n 2000\n\n Nationalisation with sale of savings book to Abbey (now Santander).\n\n\n====No longer exist====\nThe following is an incomplete list of building societies in the United Kingdom that no longer exist independently, since they either merged with or were taken over by other organisations. They may still have an active presence on the high street (or online) as a trading name or as a distinct brand. This is typically because brands will often build up specific reputations and attract certain clientele, and this can continue to be marketed successfully.\n\n\n\n Name !!Fate !! Successor !!Year\n\nAbbey Road Building Society and National Building Society \n merged to form the \n Abbey National Building Society \n in 1944\n\nBingley Permanent Building Society and Bradford Equitable Building Society \n merged to form the \n Bradford & Bingley Building Society \n in 1964\n\nCo-operative Permanent Building Society \n changed its name to \n Nationwide Building Society \n in 1970\n\nLeicester Permanent Building Society and Leicester Temperance Building Society \n merged to form the \n Leicester Building Society \n in 1974\n\nBedfordshire Building Society and Temperance Permanent \n merged to form \n Gateway Building Society \n in 1974\n\nLeek & Westbourne Building Society and Oldbury Britannia Building Society \n merged to form \n Britannia Building Society \n in 1975\n\nHuddersfield & Bradford Building Society and West Yorkshire Building Society \n merged to form \n Yorkshire Building Society \n in 1982\n\nCoventry Economic Building Society and Coventry Provident Building Society \n merged to form the \n Coventry Building Society \n in 1983\n\nBurnley Building Society and Provincial Building Society \n merged to form the \n National & Provincial Building Society \n in 1984\n\nLondon Permanent Building Society (est 1914) \n merged into \n Cheltenham and Gloucester \n in 1984\n\nAlliance Building Society and Leicester Building Society \n merged to form the \n Alliance & Leicester Building Society \n in 1985\n\nWaltham Abbey Building Society (1847) \n merged with the \n Cheltenham and Gloucester Building Society \n in 1985\n\nBirmingham & Bridgwater Building Society and Midshires Building Society \n merged to form the \n Birmingham Midshires Building Society \n in 1986\n\nNorwich Building Society and Peterborough Building Society \n merged to form the \n Norwich & Peterborough Building Society \n in 1986\n\nAnglia Building Society and Nationwide Building Society \n merged to form which changed name to the \n Nationwide Anglia Building Society Nationwide Building Society \n in 1987 in 1991\n\nGateway Building Society and Woolwich Equitable Building Society \n merged to form the \n Woolwich Building Society \n in 1988\n\nWessex Building Society and Portman Building Society \n merged to form the \n Portman Wessex Building Society \n in 1989\n\nRegency & West of England Building Society and Portman Wessex Building Society \n merged to form \n Portman Building Society \n in 1990\n\nHendon Building Society \n was taken over by \n Bradford & Bingley Building Society \n in 1991\n\nHaywards Heath Building Society \n merged with the \n Yorkshire Building Society \n in 1992\n\nCheshunt Building Society \n merged with the \n Bristol and West Building Society \n in 1992\n\nHeart of England Building Society \n merged with the \n Cheltenham & Gloucester Building Society \n in 1993\n\nSt. Pancras Building Society \n merged with the \n Portman Building Society \n in 1993\n\nLeeds Permanent Building Society \n merged with the \n Halifax Building Society \n in 1995\n\nCity & Metropolitan Building Society \n merged with the \n Stroud & Swindon Building Society \n in 1996\n\nNottingham Imperial Building Society \n merged with the \n Newcastle Building Society \n in 2000\n\nGainsborough Building Society \n merged with the \n Yorkshire Building Society \n in 2001\n\nIlkeston Permanent Building Society \n merged with the \n Derbyshire Building Society \n in 2001\n\nClay Cross Building Society \n merged with the \n Derbyshire Building Society \n in 2003\n\nStaffordshire Building Society \n merged with the \n Portman Building Society \n in 2003\n\nLambeth Building Society \n merged with the \n Portman Building Society \n in 2006\n\nMercantile Building Society \n merged with the \n Leeds Building Society \n in 2006\n\nUniversal Building Society \n merged with the \n Newcastle Building Society \n in 2006\n\nPortman Building Society \n merged with the \n Nationwide Building Society \n in 2007\n\nCheshire Building Society \n merged with the \n Nationwide Building Society \n in 2008\n\nDerbyshire Building Society \n merged with the \n Nationwide Building Society \n in 2008\n\nBarnsley Building Society \n merged with the \n Yorkshire Building Society \n in 2008\n\nCatholic Building Society \n merged with the \n Chelsea Building Society \n in 2008\n\nScarborough Building Society \n merged with the \n Skipton Building Society \n in 2009\n\nDunfermline Building Society \n most assets and liabilities transferred to \n Nationwide Building Society \n in 2009\n\n Britannia Building Society\n acquired by \n The Co-operative Bank \nin 2009\n\nChelsea Building Society \n merged with the \n Yorkshire Building Society \n in 2010\n\nChesham Building Society \n merged with the \n Skipton Building Society \n in 2010\n\nStroud & Swindon Building Society \n merged with the \n Coventry Building Society \n in 2010\n\nKent Reliance Building Society \n acquired by \n OneSavings Plc to form OneSavings Bank \n in 2011\n\nNorwich and Peterborough Building Society \n merged with the \n Yorkshire Building Society \n in 2011\n\n Century Building Society \n merged with the \n Scottish Building Society \n in 2013\n\n Shepshed Building Society \n merged with the \n Nottingham Building Society \n in 2013\n\n City of Derry Building Society\n merged with the \n Progressive Building Society \n in 2014\n\n\n=== Australia ===\nIn Australia, building societies evolved along British lines. Following end of World War II, the terminating model was revived to fund returning serviceman's need for new houses. Hundreds were created with government seed capital whereby the capital was returned to the government and the terminating societies retained the interest accumulated. Once all the seed funds were loaned each terminating society could reapply for more seed capital to the point where they could re-lend their own funds and thus became a permanent society. Terminating loans were still available and used inside the permanent businesses by staff up until the 1980s because their existence was not widely known after the early 1960s. Because of strict regulations on banks, building societies flourished until the deregulation of the Australian financial industry in the 1980s. Eventually many of the smaller building societies disappeared, while some of the largest (such as St. George) officially attained the status of banks. Recent conversions have included Heritage Bank which converted from building society to bank in 2011, Hume in 2014, while Wide Bay Building Society became Auswide Bank and IMB followed suit in 2015 Greater Building Society became Greater Bank in 2016. Building societies converting to banks are no longer required to demutualise.\n\nA particular difference between Australian building societies and those elsewhere, is that Australian building societies are required to incorporate as limited companies.\n\nCurrent building societies are\n*Bass & Equitable Building Society (Tasmania)\n*Big Sky Building Society\n*Maitland Mutual Building Society (Maitland)\n*Newcastle Permanent Building Society (Newcastle)\n\n=== Ireland ===\nThe Republic of Ireland had around 40 building societies at the mid-20th century peak. Many of these were very small and, as the Irish commercial banks began to originate residential mortgages, the small building societies ceased to be competitive. Most merged or dissolved or, in the case of First Active plc, converted into conventional banks. The last remaining building societies, EBS Building Society and Irish Nationwide Building Society, demutualised and were transferred or acquired into Bank subsidiaries in 2011 following the effects of the Irish financial crisis.\n\nLeeds Building Society Ireland and Nationwide UK (Ireland) are Irish branches of building societies based in the United Kingdom.\n\n\n\n Name !! Demutualised !! Successor\n\nIrish Industrial Benefit Building Society (1873–1969)\nIrish Industrial Building Society (1969–1975)\n'''Irish Nationwide Building Society''' (1975 – Feb 2011)\n:''acquired'' Irish Mutual Building Society, 1989\n::''formerly'' Allied Irish Building Society(−1976)\n:''acquired'' Garda Building Society, 1983\n:''acquired'' Metropolitan Building Society, 1991\nFebruary 2011\n''deposit book'' Irish Life & Permanent plc / permanent tsb (February 2011 – June 2011)\n''loan book'' Anglo Irish Bank (February 2011 – June 2011)\nIrish Bank Resolution Corporation (Jul 2011 - February 2013)\n\nEducational Building Society (1935−1991)\n:''acquired'' The Family Building Society, 1975\n'''EBS Building Society''' (1991–2011)\n:''acquired'' Midland and Western Building Society, 1994\n:''acquired'' Norwich Irish Building Society, 1998\nJuly 2011\nEBS d.a.c., subsidiary of Allied Irish Banks\n\nIrish Temperance Permanent Building Society (−1888)\nIrish Permanent Benefit Building Society (1888–1940)\n'''Irish Permanent Building Society''' (1940–1994)\n:''acquired'' Provident Building Society, 1974\n:''acquired'' Cork Mutual Building Society, 1975\n:''acquired'' Munster & Leinster Building Society, 1978\n:''acquired'' Guinness & Mahon, 1994\n1994\nIrish Permanent plc (1994–1999)\nIrish Life & Permanent plc (1999–)\n''merged with'' TSB Bank, 2001\nIrish Life & Permanent plc / permanent tsb\n\nIrish Civil Services and General Building Society (1864–1867)\nIrish Civil Service and General (Permanent Benefit) Building Society (1867–1874)\nIrish Civil Service (Permanent) Building Society (1874–1969)\n:''acquired'' City and County Permanent Benefit Building Society, 1932\n'''Irish Civil Service Building Society''' (1969–1984)\n:''acquired'' O'Connell Benefit Building Society, 1983\n1984\nsubsidiary of Bank of Ireland\n:''renamed'' '''ICS Building Society''' (1986)\n\nWorkingman's Benefit Building Society (−1960)\n'''First National Building Society''' (1960–1998)\n:''acquired'' Grafton Savings and Building Society, 1974\n:''acquired'' The Guinness Permanent Building Society, 1984\n:''acquired'' Ireland Benefit Building Society, 1984\n:''acquired'' Postal Service Permanent Building Society, 1985\n:''acquired'' Irish Life Building Society, 1993\n1998\nFirst Active plc (1998–2004)\nacquired by RBS 2004 and merged into Ulster Bank 2009\n\n\n====Society closures====\n* Ballygall Building Society, 1977\n* City and Provincial Building Society, 1978\n* Dublin Model Building Society, 1984\n* Dublin Savings Building Society, 1977\n* Four Provinces Building Society, 1978\n* Independent Building Society, 1977\n* Irish Savings Building Society, 1984\n* National Provincial Building Society, 1977\n* Progressive Building Society, 1977\n* West of Ireland Building Society, 1977\n\n=== Jamaica ===\nIn Jamaica, three building societies compete with commercial banks and credit unions for most consumer financial services:\n\n*Jamaica National Building Society\n*Victoria Mutual Building Society\n*Scotia Jamaica Building Society\n\n=== New Zealand ===\n\n====Regulation====\nIn New Zealand, building societies are registered with the Registrar of Building Societies under the Building Societies Act 1965. Registration as a building society is merely a process of establishing the entity as a corporation. It is largely a formality, and easily achieved, as the capital requirement is minimal (20 members must be issued shares of not less than NZ$1,000 each, for a total minimum foundation share capital of NZ$200,000),.\n\nAs regards prudential supervision, a divide exists between building societies that operate in New Zealand, on the one hand, and those that (although formally registered in New Zealand) operate offshore:\n* Building societies that accept deposits from members of the public in New Zealand are regulated as \"non-bank deposit takers\" under the Non-bank Deposit Takers Act 2013. Such building societies must (unless they qualify for a particular exemption) comply with the prudential regulations. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand monitors compliance with the prudential regulations, but does not prudentially supervise individual building societies for financial soundness. Most such building societies are supervised for compliance with the terms of their debt securities by trustees appointed under securities legislation, and those trustees have various reporting requirements to the Reserve Bank.\n* Building societies that accept deposits only from offshore customers are not regulated under the Non-bank Deposit Takers Act 2013 or New Zealand's financial markets legislation. Consequently, they are not prudentially monitored by the Reserve Bank or by the Financial Markets Authority. The Reserve Bank cautions on its website that it does not monitor transactions undertaken by New Zealand registered building societies operating in overseas markets. The Department of Internal Affairs is ultimately responsible for all entities that do not expressly fall into other categories for anti money laundering purposes.\n\nBuilding societies' registration details and filed documents are available in the Register of Building Societies held at the New Zealand Companies Office.\n\n====Individual building societies====\nOver the years, a number of building societies were established.\n\nSome, including Countrywide Building Society and United Building Society, became banks in the 1980s and 1990s. Heartland Building Society (created in 2011 through a merger of Canterbury Building Society, Southern Cross Building Society, and two other financial institutions) became Heartland Bank on 17 December 2012.\n\nRemaining building societies include:\n* General Equity Building Society \n* Heretaunga Building Society \n* Kiwi Deposit Building Society (currently in the process of dissolution)\n* Manawatu Permanent Building Society \n* Nelson Building Society\n* Southland Building Society, which in October 2008 became a registered bank known as SBS Bank. However, it remains a building society and retains its mutual structure. Hastings Building Society merged with SBS Bank in October 2010, but with the Hastings Building Society brand continuing to operate as a building society under the name of HBS Bank. In November 2015, HBS Bank brand was discontinued.\n* The Napier Building Society (Permanent)\n* Wairarapa Building Society.\n\n=== Zimbabwe ===\nIn Zimbabwe, ''Central Africa Building Society'' (CABS) is the leading building society offering a diverse range of financial products and services that include transaction and savings accounts, mobile banking, mortgage loans, money market investments, term deposits and pay-roll loans.\n",
"In other countries there are mutual organisations similar to building societies:\n*'''Austria''': In Austria there are four co-operative banks: Allgemeine Bausparkasse (ABV), Raiffeisen-Bausparkasse, Bausparkasse Wüstenrot AG and Bausparkasse der Sparkassen (savings bank).\n*'''Finland:''' In Finland the Mortgage Society of Finland, a permanent building society, was founded in 1860. Since 2002 mortgage loans are handled by Suomen AsuntoHypoPankki, the licensed bank owned by the society.\n*'''Germany:''' In Germany there are 8 Bausparkassen der Sparkassen (savings bank) named ''Landesbausparkassen'' (LBS) and 12 private Bausparkassen, for example Schwäbisch Hall, Wüstenrot, Deutsche Bank Bauspar AG and so on.\n*'''United States:''' In the United States, savings and loan associations, as well as credit unions, have a similar organisation and purpose.\n*'''Other''': See Cooperative banking.\n",
"=== Roll numbers ===\n\nBecause most building societies were not direct members of the UK clearing system, it was common for them to use a '''roll number''' to identify accounts rather than to allocate a six-digit sort-code and eight-digit account number to the BACS standards.\n\nMore recently, building societies have tended to obtain sort-code and account number allocations within the clearing system, and hence the use of roll numbers has diminished. When using BACS, one needs to enter roll numbers for the reference field and the building society's generic sort code and account number would be entered in the standard BACS fields.\n",
"\n*Banking in the United Kingdom\n*Mutual organisation\n*Mutualism\n",
"\n",
"\n* Llewellyn, D. and Holmes, M. (1991) \"In Defence of Mutuality: A Redress to an Emerging Conventional Wisdom\", ''Annals of Public and Co-operative Economics'', Vol.62(3): pp. 319–354 (p. 327).\n* Rasmusen, E. (1988) \"Mutual banks and stock banks\", ''Journal of Law and Economics'', October, Vol.31: pp. 395–421 (p. 412).\n* Kay, J. (1991) \"The Economics of Mutuality\", ''Annals of Public and Co-operative Economics'', Vol.62(3): pp. 309–317 (p. 317).\n* Boxall, A. and Gallagher, N. (1997) \"Mutuality at the Cross Roads\", ''Financial Stability Review'', Issue 3: pp. 105–117 (p. 112).\n* Llewellyn, D. (1996) \"Some Reflections on the Mutuality v. Conversion Debate\", ''Journal of Co-operative Studies'', September, Vol.29(2): pp. 57–71 (p. 61).\n* Tayler, G. (2003) \"UK Building Society Demutualisation Motives\", ''Business Ethics: A European Review'',Vol.12(4): pp. 394–402.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History in the United Kingdom ",
"List of building societies",
"Similar organisations in other countries",
"Operational differences from banks",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading"
] | Building society | [
"Over succeeding decades the number of societies has decreased, as various societies merged to form larger ones, often renaming in the process, and other societies opted for demutualisation followed by – in the great majority of cases – eventual takeover by a listed bank.",
"Rasmusen (1988) refers to this in the following terms:\n\" ... perks do not rise in proportion to mutual bank size.",
"If a mutual is large, or is expected to grow if it can raise capital by a conversion, its managers derive more value from a conversion but do not suffer much loss of perks than if the bank were small.",
"Their benefit is in the right to purchase the new stock, which are valuable because the new issues are consistently underpriced referring to USA mutual bank conversions.",
"Moreover, by no means are all mutual managers incompetent, and conversions allows the bank to expand more easily and to grant executive stock options that are valuable to skilled managers\".",
"Thus, according to the Bank of England's Boxall and Gallagher (1997), \"... there was virtually no difference between banks and building society 'listed' interest rates for home finance mortgage lending between 1984 and 1997.",
"230 branches & 96 agencies \n 3599\n 96\n \n\n 3 \n Coventry Building Society\n £38,300m \n\n 70 branches & 19 agencies\n 1592\n 642\n (Basic bank account with cash card available instead)\n\n 4 \n Skipton Building Society\n £19,000m \n \n 95 branches & 3 agencies (87 by 30/09/17)\n 1398\n 374\n \n\n 5 \n Leeds Building Society\n £15,900m \n Formerly Leeds and Holbeck Building Society.",
"1 branch\n 130 \n 13\n \n\n 13 \n Cambridge Building Society \n £1,194m \n \n 13 branches\n 143\n 49\n \n\n 14 \n Saffron Building Society \n £1,115m \n \n 11 branches & 7 agencies\n 146 \n 35\n \n\n 15 \n Monmouthshire Building Society \n £1,073m \n \n 11 branches & 18 agencies\n 85 \n 60 \n \n\n 16 \n Leek United Building Society \n £891m \n \n 12 branches & 2 agencies\n 120 \n 44\n \n\n 17 \n Furness Building Society \n £883m \n \n 9 branches & 14 agencies \n 96 \n 81\n \n\n 18 \n Newbury Building Society \n £869m \n \n 11 branches\n 107 \n 40\n \n\n 19 \n Hinckley & Rugby Building Society \n £636m \n \n 8 branches & 4 agencies\n 87 \n 29\n \n\n 20 \n Ipswich Building Society \n £584m \n \n 9 branches & 4 agencies\n 71\n 52\n \n\n 21 \n Darlington Building Society \n £532m \n \n 10 branches\n 86 \n 27\n \n\n 22 \n Market Harborough Building Society \n £427m \n \n 6 branches & 1 agency\n 68 \n 50\n \n\n 23 \n Melton Mowbray Building Society \n£419m \n \n 3 branches\n 58 \n 30\n \n\n 24 \n Marsden Building Society \n £416m \n \n 8 branches\n 63 \n 16\n \n\n 25 \n Scottish Building Society \n £389m \n \n 6 branches & 62 agencies\n 52 \n 19\n \n\n 26 \n Manchester Building Society \n £382m \n \n 1 branch & 4 agencies\n 43 \n 7\n \n\n 27 \n Hanley Economic Building Society \n £378m \n \n 6 branches & 1 agency\n 51 \n 22\n \n\n 28 \n Tipton & Coseley Building Society \n £372m \n \n 4 branches\n 53 \n 30\n \n\n 29 \n Dudley Building Society \n £354m \n \n 6 branches\n 52 \n 39\n \n\n 30 \n Mansfield Building Society \n £329m \n \n 4 branches\n 53 \n 20\n \n\n 31 \n Harpenden Building Society \n £317m \n \n 6 branches\n 41 \n 23\n \n\n 32 \n Loughborough Building Society \n £303m \n\n 3 branches & 2 agencies\n 42 \n 13\n \n\n 33 \n Vernon Building Society \n £300m \n \n 6 branches\n 43 \n 25\n \n\n 34 \n Bath Building Society \n £299m \n \n 2 branches & 6 agencies\n 53 \n 14\n \n\n 35 \n Stafford Railway Building Society \n £271m \n \n 1 branch\n 12 \n 19\n \n\n 36 \n Swansea Building Society \n £268m \n \n 3 branches\n 22 \n 14\n \n\n 37 \n Teachers Building Society \n £253m \n \n 1 branch\n 29 \n 10\n \n\n 38 \n Buckinghamshire Building Society \n £225m \n \n 1 branch\n 25 \n 14\n \n\n 39 \n Chorley & District Building Society \n £220m \n \n 3 branches\n 36 \n 14\n \n\n 40 \n Beverley Building Society \n £191m \n \n 1 branch\n 15 \n 7\n \n\n 41 \n Holmesdale Building Society \n £190m \n \n 1 branch\n 21 \n 3\n \n\n 42 \n Ecology Building Society \n £146m \n \n 1 branch\n 23 \n 2\n \n\n 43 \n Earl Shilton Building Society \n £124m \n \n 2 branches\n 17 \n 10\n \n\n 44 \n Penrith Building Society \n £106m \n \n 1 branch\n 14 \n 7\n \n\n\n\n\n====Demutualised====\nTen building societies of the United Kingdom demutualised between 1989 and 2000, either becoming a bank or being acquired by a larger bank.",
"By 2008, every building society that floated on the stock market in the wave of demutualisations of the 1980s and 1990s had either been sold to a conventional bank, or been nationalised.",
"Name\nFate\nSuccessor\nYear\nCurrent position\n\n Abbey National \n\n converted to plc \n\nSantander \n\n 1989 \n\n The new bank, also known as \"Abbey\", was acquired by Banco Santander and now rebranded as Santander.",
"Cheltenham and Gloucester \n was taken over by \n Lloyds Bank plc \n 1994 \n Became part of Lloyds TSB, although C&G still had a branch network which became part of TSB Bank plc in summer 2013.",
"Bristol and West \n was taken over by \n the Bank of Ireland \n 1997 \n Became a division of Bank of Ireland but its savings balances and branch network transferred to the Britannia Building Society in 2005 (which in turn merged with Co-operative Financial Services in 2009).",
"!Year\n\nAbbey Road Building Society and National Building Society \n merged to form the \n Abbey National Building Society \n in 1944\n\nBingley Permanent Building Society and Bradford Equitable Building Society \n merged to form the \n Bradford & Bingley Building Society \n in 1964\n\nCo-operative Permanent Building Society \n changed its name to \n Nationwide Building Society \n in 1970\n\nLeicester Permanent Building Society and Leicester Temperance Building Society \n merged to form the \n Leicester Building Society \n in 1974\n\nBedfordshire Building Society and Temperance Permanent \n merged to form \n Gateway Building Society \n in 1974\n\nLeek & Westbourne Building Society and Oldbury Britannia Building Society \n merged to form \n Britannia Building Society \n in 1975\n\nHuddersfield & Bradford Building Society and West Yorkshire Building Society \n merged to form \n Yorkshire Building Society \n in 1982\n\nCoventry Economic Building Society and Coventry Provident Building Society \n merged to form the \n Coventry Building Society \n in 1983\n\nBurnley Building Society and Provincial Building Society \n merged to form the \n National & Provincial Building Society \n in 1984\n\nLondon Permanent Building Society (est 1914) \n merged into \n Cheltenham and Gloucester \n in 1984\n\nAlliance Building Society and Leicester Building Society \n merged to form the \n Alliance & Leicester Building Society \n in 1985\n\nWaltham Abbey Building Society (1847) \n merged with the \n Cheltenham and Gloucester Building Society \n in 1985\n\nBirmingham & Bridgwater Building Society and Midshires Building Society \n merged to form the \n Birmingham Midshires Building Society \n in 1986\n\nNorwich Building Society and Peterborough Building Society \n merged to form the \n Norwich & Peterborough Building Society \n in 1986\n\nAnglia Building Society and Nationwide Building Society \n merged to form which changed name to the \n Nationwide Anglia Building Society Nationwide Building Society \n in 1987 in 1991\n\nGateway Building Society and Woolwich Equitable Building Society \n merged to form the \n Woolwich Building Society \n in 1988\n\nWessex Building Society and Portman Building Society \n merged to form the \n Portman Wessex Building Society \n in 1989\n\nRegency & West of England Building Society and Portman Wessex Building Society \n merged to form \n Portman Building Society \n in 1990\n\nHendon Building Society \n was taken over by \n Bradford & Bingley Building Society \n in 1991\n\nHaywards Heath Building Society \n merged with the \n Yorkshire Building Society \n in 1992\n\nCheshunt Building Society \n merged with the \n Bristol and West Building Society \n in 1992\n\nHeart of England Building Society \n merged with the \n Cheltenham & Gloucester Building Society \n in 1993\n\nSt. Pancras Building Society \n merged with the \n Portman Building Society \n in 1993\n\nLeeds Permanent Building Society \n merged with the \n Halifax Building Society \n in 1995\n\nCity & Metropolitan Building Society \n merged with the \n Stroud & Swindon Building Society \n in 1996\n\nNottingham Imperial Building Society \n merged with the \n Newcastle Building Society \n in 2000\n\nGainsborough Building Society \n merged with the \n Yorkshire Building Society \n in 2001\n\nIlkeston Permanent Building Society \n merged with the \n Derbyshire Building Society \n in 2001\n\nClay Cross Building Society \n merged with the \n Derbyshire Building Society \n in 2003\n\nStaffordshire Building Society \n merged with the \n Portman Building Society \n in 2003\n\nLambeth Building Society \n merged with the \n Portman Building Society \n in 2006\n\nMercantile Building Society \n merged with the \n Leeds Building Society \n in 2006\n\nUniversal Building Society \n merged with the \n Newcastle Building Society \n in 2006\n\nPortman Building Society \n merged with the \n Nationwide Building Society \n in 2007\n\nCheshire Building Society \n merged with the \n Nationwide Building Society \n in 2008\n\nDerbyshire Building Society \n merged with the \n Nationwide Building Society \n in 2008\n\nBarnsley Building Society \n merged with the \n Yorkshire Building Society \n in 2008\n\nCatholic Building Society \n merged with the \n Chelsea Building Society \n in 2008\n\nScarborough Building Society \n merged with the \n Skipton Building Society \n in 2009\n\nDunfermline Building Society \n most assets and liabilities transferred to \n Nationwide Building Society \n in 2009\n\n Britannia Building Society\n acquired by \n The Co-operative Bank \nin 2009\n\nChelsea Building Society \n merged with the \n Yorkshire Building Society \n in 2010\n\nChesham Building Society \n merged with the \n Skipton Building Society \n in 2010\n\nStroud & Swindon Building Society \n merged with the \n Coventry Building Society \n in 2010\n\nKent Reliance Building Society \n acquired by \n OneSavings Plc to form OneSavings Bank \n in 2011\n\nNorwich and Peterborough Building Society \n merged with the \n Yorkshire Building Society \n in 2011\n\n Century Building Society \n merged with the \n Scottish Building Society \n in 2013\n\n Shepshed Building Society \n merged with the \n Nottingham Building Society \n in 2013\n\n City of Derry Building Society\n merged with the \n Progressive Building Society \n in 2014\n\n\n=== Australia ===\nIn Australia, building societies evolved along British lines.",
"Recent conversions have included Heritage Bank which converted from building society to bank in 2011, Hume in 2014, while Wide Bay Building Society became Auswide Bank and IMB followed suit in 2015 Greater Building Society became Greater Bank in 2016.",
"The last remaining building societies, EBS Building Society and Irish Nationwide Building Society, demutualised and were transferred or acquired into Bank subsidiaries in 2011 following the effects of the Irish financial crisis.",
"Successor\n\nIrish Industrial Benefit Building Society (1873–1969)\nIrish Industrial Building Society (1969–1975)\n'''Irish Nationwide Building Society''' (1975 – Feb 2011)\n:''acquired'' Irish Mutual Building Society, 1989\n::''formerly'' Allied Irish Building Society(−1976)\n:''acquired'' Garda Building Society, 1983\n:''acquired'' Metropolitan Building Society, 1991\nFebruary 2011\n''deposit book'' Irish Life & Permanent plc / permanent tsb (February 2011 – June 2011)\n''loan book'' Anglo Irish Bank (February 2011 – June 2011)\nIrish Bank Resolution Corporation (Jul 2011 - February 2013)\n\nEducational Building Society (1935−1991)\n:''acquired'' The Family Building Society, 1975\n'''EBS Building Society''' (1991–2011)\n:''acquired'' Midland and Western Building Society, 1994\n:''acquired'' Norwich Irish Building Society, 1998\nJuly 2011\nEBS d.a.c., subsidiary of Allied Irish Banks\n\nIrish Temperance Permanent Building Society (−1888)\nIrish Permanent Benefit Building Society (1888–1940)\n'''Irish Permanent Building Society''' (1940–1994)\n:''acquired'' Provident Building Society, 1974\n:''acquired'' Cork Mutual Building Society, 1975\n:''acquired'' Munster & Leinster Building Society, 1978\n:''acquired'' Guinness & Mahon, 1994\n1994\nIrish Permanent plc (1994–1999)\nIrish Life & Permanent plc (1999–)\n''merged with'' TSB Bank, 2001\nIrish Life & Permanent plc / permanent tsb\n\nIrish Civil Services and General Building Society (1864–1867)\nIrish Civil Service and General (Permanent Benefit) Building Society (1867–1874)\nIrish Civil Service (Permanent) Building Society (1874–1969)\n:''acquired'' City and County Permanent Benefit Building Society, 1932\n'''Irish Civil Service Building Society''' (1969–1984)\n:''acquired'' O'Connell Benefit Building Society, 1983\n1984\nsubsidiary of Bank of Ireland\n:''renamed'' '''ICS Building Society''' (1986)\n\nWorkingman's Benefit Building Society (−1960)\n'''First National Building Society''' (1960–1998)\n:''acquired'' Grafton Savings and Building Society, 1974\n:''acquired'' The Guinness Permanent Building Society, 1984\n:''acquired'' Ireland Benefit Building Society, 1984\n:''acquired'' Postal Service Permanent Building Society, 1985\n:''acquired'' Irish Life Building Society, 1993\n1998\nFirst Active plc (1998–2004)\nacquired by RBS 2004 and merged into Ulster Bank 2009\n\n\n====Society closures====\n* Ballygall Building Society, 1977\n* City and Provincial Building Society, 1978\n* Dublin Model Building Society, 1984\n* Dublin Savings Building Society, 1977\n* Four Provinces Building Society, 1978\n* Independent Building Society, 1977\n* Irish Savings Building Society, 1984\n* National Provincial Building Society, 1977\n* Progressive Building Society, 1977\n* West of Ireland Building Society, 1977\n\n=== Jamaica ===\nIn Jamaica, three building societies compete with commercial banks and credit unions for most consumer financial services:\n\n*Jamaica National Building Society\n*Victoria Mutual Building Society\n*Scotia Jamaica Building Society\n\n=== New Zealand ===\n\n====Regulation====\nIn New Zealand, building societies are registered with the Registrar of Building Societies under the Building Societies Act 1965.",
"As regards prudential supervision, a divide exists between building societies that operate in New Zealand, on the one hand, and those that (although formally registered in New Zealand) operate offshore:\n* Building societies that accept deposits from members of the public in New Zealand are regulated as \"non-bank deposit takers\" under the Non-bank Deposit Takers Act 2013.",
"The Reserve Bank of New Zealand monitors compliance with the prudential regulations, but does not prudentially supervise individual building societies for financial soundness.",
"Most such building societies are supervised for compliance with the terms of their debt securities by trustees appointed under securities legislation, and those trustees have various reporting requirements to the Reserve Bank.",
"* Building societies that accept deposits only from offshore customers are not regulated under the Non-bank Deposit Takers Act 2013 or New Zealand's financial markets legislation.",
"Consequently, they are not prudentially monitored by the Reserve Bank or by the Financial Markets Authority.",
"The Reserve Bank cautions on its website that it does not monitor transactions undertaken by New Zealand registered building societies operating in overseas markets.",
"Heartland Building Society (created in 2011 through a merger of Canterbury Building Society, Southern Cross Building Society, and two other financial institutions) became Heartland Bank on 17 December 2012.",
"Remaining building societies include:\n* General Equity Building Society \n* Heretaunga Building Society \n* Kiwi Deposit Building Society (currently in the process of dissolution)\n* Manawatu Permanent Building Society \n* Nelson Building Society\n* Southland Building Society, which in October 2008 became a registered bank known as SBS Bank.",
"Hastings Building Society merged with SBS Bank in October 2010, but with the Hastings Building Society brand continuing to operate as a building society under the name of HBS Bank.",
"In November 2015, HBS Bank brand was discontinued.",
"In other countries there are mutual organisations similar to building societies:\n*'''Austria''': In Austria there are four co-operative banks: Allgemeine Bausparkasse (ABV), Raiffeisen-Bausparkasse, Bausparkasse Wüstenrot AG and Bausparkasse der Sparkassen (savings bank).",
"Since 2002 mortgage loans are handled by Suomen AsuntoHypoPankki, the licensed bank owned by the society.",
"*'''Germany:''' In Germany there are 8 Bausparkassen der Sparkassen (savings bank) named ''Landesbausparkassen'' (LBS) and 12 private Bausparkassen, for example Schwäbisch Hall, Wüstenrot, Deutsche Bank Bauspar AG and so on."
] | [
"\n\nA '''building society''' is a financial institution owned by its members as a mutual organization.",
"Building societies offer banking and related financial services, especially savings and mortgage lending.",
"Building societies exist in the United Kingdom (UK), and used to exist in Ireland and several Commonwealth countries.",
"They are similar to credit unions in organisation, though few enforce a common bond.",
"However, rather than promoting thrift and offering unsecured and business loans, the purpose of a building society is to provide home mortgages to members.",
"Borrowers and depositors are society members, setting policy and appointing directors on a one-member, one-vote basis.",
"Building societies often provide other retail banking services, such as current accounts, credit cards and personal loans.",
"The term \"building society\" first arose in the 18th century in Great Britain from cooperative savings groups.",
"In the United Kingdom, building societies actively compete with banks for most consumer banking services, especially mortgage lending and savings accounts, and regulations permit up to half of their lending to be funded by debt to non-members, allowing societies to access wholesale bond and money markets to fund mortgages.",
"The world's largest building society is Britain's Nationwide Building Society.",
"Building societies as an institution began in late-18th century Birmingham - a town which was undergoing rapid economic and physical expansion driven by a multiplicity of small metalworking firms, whose many highly skilled and prosperous owners readily invested in property.",
"Many of the early building societies were based in taverns or coffeehouses, which had become the focus for a network of clubs and societies for co-operation and the exchange of ideas among Birmingham's highly active citizenry as part of the movement known as the Midlands Enlightenment.",
"The first building society to be established was Ketley's Building Society, founded by Richard Ketley, the landlord of the ''Golden Cross'' inn, in 1775.",
"Members of Ketley's society paid a monthly subscription to a central pool of funds which was used to finance the building of houses for members, which in turn acted as collateral to attract further funding to the society, enabling further construction.",
"By 1781 three more societies had been established in Birmingham, with a fourth in the nearby town of Dudley; and 19 more formed in Birmingham between 1782 and 1795.",
"The first outside the English Midlands was established in Leeds in 1785.",
"Most of the original societies were fully ''terminating'', where they would be dissolved when all members had a house: the last of them, First Salisbury and District Perfect Thrift Building Society, was wound up in March 1980.",
"In the 1830s and 1840s a new development took place with the ''permanent building society'', where the society continued on a rolling basis, continually taking in new members as earlier ones completed purchases, such as Leek United Building Society.",
"The main legislative framework for the building society was the Building Societies Act 1874, with subsequent amending legislation in 1894, 1939 (see Coney Hall), and 1960.",
"In their heyday, there were hundreds of building societies: just about every town in the country had a building society named after that town.",
"Most of the existing larger building societies are the end result of the mergers of many smaller societies.",
"All building societies in the UK are members of the Building Societies Association.",
"At the start of 2008, there were 59 building societies in the UK, with total assets exceeding £360 billion.",
"The number of societies in the UK fell by four during 2008 due to a series of mergers brought about, to a large extent, by the consequences of the financial crisis of 2007–2008.",
"With three further mergers in each of 2009 and 2010, and a demutualisation and a merger in 2011, there are now 44 building societies.",
"===1980s and 1990s===\n\nIn the 1980s, changes to British banking laws allowed building societies to offer banking services equivalent to normal banks.",
"The management of a number of societies still felt that they were unable to compete with the banks, and a new Building Societies Act was passed in 1986 in response to their concerns.",
"This permitted societies to 'demutualise'.",
"If more than 75% of members voted in favour, the building society would then become a limited company like any other.",
"Members' mutual rights were exchanged for shares in this new company.",
"A number of the larger societies made such proposals to their members and all were accepted.",
"Some listed on the London Stock Exchange, while others were acquired by larger financial groups.",
"The process began with the demutualisation of the Abbey National Building Society in 1989.",
"Then, from 1995 to late-1999, eight societies demutualised accounting for two-thirds of building societies assets as at 1994.",
"Five of these societies became joint stock banks (plc), one merged with another and the other four were taken over by plcs (in two cases after the mutual had previously converted to a plc).",
"As Tayler (2003) mentions, demutualisation moves succeeded immediately because neither Conservative nor Labour party UK governments created a framework which put obstacles in the way of demutualisation.",
"Political acquiescence in demutualisation was clearest in the case of the position on 'carpet baggers', that is those who joined societies by lodging minimum amounts of £100 or so in the hope of profiting from a distribution of surplus after demutualisation.",
"The deregulating Building Societies Act 1986 contained an anti-carpet bagger provision in the form of a two-year rule.",
"This prescribed a qualifying period of two years before savers could participate in a residual claim.",
"But, before the 1989 Abbey National Building Society demutualisation, the courts found against the two-year rule after legal action brought by Abbey National itself to circumvent the intent of the legislators.",
"After this the legislation did prevent a cash distribution to members of less than two years standing, but the same result was obtained by permitting the issue of 'free' shares in the acquiring plc, saleable for cash.",
"The Thatcher Conservative government declined to introduce amending legislation to make good the defect in the 'two-year rule'.",
"Building societies, like mutual life insurers, arose as people clubbed together to address a common need interest; in the case of the building societies, this was housing and members were originally both savers and borrowers.",
"But it very quickly became clear that 'outsider' savers were needed whose motive was profit through interest on deposits.",
"Thus permanent building societies quickly became mortgage banks and in such institutions there always existed a conflict of interest between borrowers and savers.",
"It was the task of the movement to reconcile that conflict of interest so as to enable savers to conclude that their interests and those of borrowers were to some extent complementary rather than conflictive.",
"Conflict of interest between savers and borrowers was never fully reconciled in the building societies but upon deregulation that reconciliation became something of a lost cause.",
"The management of building societies apparently could expend considerable time and resources (which belonged the organisation) planning their effective capture—of as much of the assets as they could.",
"If so, this is arguably insider dealing on a grand scale with the benefit of inside specialist knowledge of the business and resources of the firm not shared with outsiders like politicians and members (and, perhaps, regulators).",
"Once the opportunity to claim was presented by management the savers in particular could be relied upon to seize it.",
"There were sufficient hard up borrowers to take the inducement offered them by management (in spite of few simple sums sufficing to demonstrate that they were probably going to end up effectively paying back the inducement).",
"(Tayler 2003)\n\nManagements promoting demutualisation also thereby met managerial objectives because the end of mutuality brought joint stock company (plc) style remuneration committee pay standards and share options.",
"Share options for management of converting societies appear to be a powerful factor in management calculation.",
"Instead of deploying their margin advantage as a defence of mutuality, around 1980 building societies began setting mortgage rates with reference to market clearing levels.",
"In sum they began behaving more like banks, seeking to maximise profit instead of the advantages of a mutual organisation.",
"This behaviour resulted in a return on assets for building societies which was at least as high as Plc banks and, in the absence of distribution, led to rapid accumulation of reserves\".",
"As Boxall and Gallagher (1997) also observe; \"... accumulation of reserves in the early-1990s, beyond regulatory and future growth requirements, is difficult to reconcile with conventional theories of mutual behaviour\".",
"Llewellyn (1996) draws a rather more direct and cynical conclusion:\n\n\n\nSome of these managements ended up in dispute with their own members.",
"Of the first major conversion of the Abbey in 1989, Kay (1991) observed:\n\n\n\nIn the end, after a number of large demutualisations, and pressure from carpetbaggers moving from one building society to another to cream off the windfalls, most of the societies whose management wished to keep them mutual modified their rules of membership in the late 1990s.",
"The method usually adopted were membership rules to ensure that anyone newly joining a society would, for the first few years, be unable to get any profit out of a demutualisation.",
"With the chance of a quick profit removed, the wave of demutualisations came to an end in 2000.",
"One academic study (Heffernan, 2003) found that demutualised societies' pricing behaviour on deposits and mortgages was more favourable to shareholders than to customers, with the remaining mutual building societies offering consistently better rates.",
"===2000s and 2010s===\nThe Building Societies (Funding) and Mutual Societies (Transfers) Act 2007, known as the Butterfill Act, was passed in 2007 giving building societies greater powers to merge with other companies.",
"These powers have been used by the Britannia in 2009 and Kent Reliance in 2011 leading to their demutualisation.",
"Prior to 31 December 2010, deposits with building societies of up to £50,000 per individual, per institution, were normally protected by the Financial Services Compensation Scheme (FSCS), but Nationwide and Yorkshire Building Societies negotiated a temporary change to the terms of the FSCS to protect members of the societies they acquired in late 2008/early 2009.",
"The amended terms allowed former members of multiple societies which merge into one to maintain multiple entitlements to FSCS protection until 30 September 2009 (later extended to 30 December 2010), so (for example) a member with £50,000 in each of Nationwide, Cheshire and Derbyshire at the time of the respective mergers would retain £150,000 of FSCS protection for their funds in the merged Nationwide.",
"On 31 December 2010 the general FSCS limit for retail deposits was increased to £85,000 for banks and building societies and the transitional arrangements in respect of building society mergers came to an end.",
"\n===United Kingdom===\n\n====Current====\nThe remaining building societies are:\n\n(Total group assets of building societies) ''(data from last available annual reports as of Dec 2016)''\n\nSource: Building Societies Association updated for subsequent mergers\n\n\n\n\n Name\n Group assets \nOther building society trading names\nNumber of branches & agencies\nNo.",
"of full time staff\nNo.",
"of part time staff \nProvides current account\n\n 1 \n Nationwide Building Society\n £208,939m \n \n 650 branches\n c.14,400 \n c.4000 \n \n\n 2 \n Yorkshire Building Society\n £39,600m \n Uses the former Norwich & Peterborough and Chelsea building societies as trading names.",
"Adopted current name after the un-connected Leeds Permanent Building Society merged with the Halifax Building Society in 1995\n 57 branches \n 1027 \n 214\n \n\n 6 \n Principality Building Society\n £8,202m \n \n 53 branches & 18 agencies\n 887 \n 232\n \n\n 7 \n West Bromwich Building Society\n £5,737m \n \n 37 branches\n 615 \n 138\n \n\n 8 \n Newcastle Building Society\n £3,622m \n \n 27 branches (25 by Dec 17) & 1 agency\n 672 \n 279\n \n\n 9 \n Nottingham Building Society\n £3,600m \n \n 56 branches\n 477 \n 201\n \n\n 10 \n Cumberland Building Society \n £2,130m \n \n 34 branches\n 311 \n 191\n (If customer resides within their branch operating area)\n\n 11 \n Progressive Building Society\n £1,794m \n \n 12 branches & 39 agencies\n 120 \n 58\n \n\n 12 \n National Counties Building Society \n £1,569m \n Uses the Family Building Society as a trading name.",
"National & Provincial Building Society\n\n was taken over by\n\n Abbey National plc\n\n 1995\n\n Business merged into Abbey National (now Santander), name no longer used.",
"Alliance & Leicester\n\n converted to plc\n\n Santander\n\n 1997\n\n Acquired by Banco Santander, which also owns Abbey, in October 2008, and merged into Santander in 2010.",
"Bristol & West mortgages ceased trading on 10 January 2009.",
"Halifax \n converted to plc \n \n 1997 \n Became part of HBOS in 2001, which itself became part of Lloyds Banking Group in 2009.",
"Trading name still in use.",
"Northern Rock\n\n converted to plc\n\n Virgin Money\n\n 1997\n\n Nationalised following near bankruptcy in February 2008, due to the 2007 financial crisis.",
"Bought by Virgin Money in January 2012.",
"The Woolwich\n\n converted to plc\n\n Barclays\n\n 1997\n\n Now part of Barclays plc.",
"Woolwich brand name now only used for mortgages from Barclays with the Woolwich branch network merging with that of Barclays in 2007.",
"Birmingham Midshires\n\n was taken over by\n\n Halifax plc\n\n 1999\n\n Now owned by Lloyds Banking Group.",
"The brand name is still retained, but running entirely by post and internet.",
"Bradford & Bingley\n\n converted to plc\n\n\n\n 2000\n\n Nationalisation with sale of savings book to Abbey (now Santander).",
"====No longer exist====\nThe following is an incomplete list of building societies in the United Kingdom that no longer exist independently, since they either merged with or were taken over by other organisations.",
"They may still have an active presence on the high street (or online) as a trading name or as a distinct brand.",
"This is typically because brands will often build up specific reputations and attract certain clientele, and this can continue to be marketed successfully.",
"Name !",
"!Fate !",
"!",
"Successor !",
"Following end of World War II, the terminating model was revived to fund returning serviceman's need for new houses.",
"Hundreds were created with government seed capital whereby the capital was returned to the government and the terminating societies retained the interest accumulated.",
"Once all the seed funds were loaned each terminating society could reapply for more seed capital to the point where they could re-lend their own funds and thus became a permanent society.",
"Terminating loans were still available and used inside the permanent businesses by staff up until the 1980s because their existence was not widely known after the early 1960s.",
"Because of strict regulations on banks, building societies flourished until the deregulation of the Australian financial industry in the 1980s.",
"Eventually many of the smaller building societies disappeared, while some of the largest (such as St. George) officially attained the status of banks.",
"Building societies converting to banks are no longer required to demutualise.",
"A particular difference between Australian building societies and those elsewhere, is that Australian building societies are required to incorporate as limited companies.",
"Current building societies are\n*Bass & Equitable Building Society (Tasmania)\n*Big Sky Building Society\n*Maitland Mutual Building Society (Maitland)\n*Newcastle Permanent Building Society (Newcastle)\n\n=== Ireland ===\nThe Republic of Ireland had around 40 building societies at the mid-20th century peak.",
"Many of these were very small and, as the Irish commercial banks began to originate residential mortgages, the small building societies ceased to be competitive.",
"Most merged or dissolved or, in the case of First Active plc, converted into conventional banks.",
"Leeds Building Society Ireland and Nationwide UK (Ireland) are Irish branches of building societies based in the United Kingdom.",
"Name !",
"!",
"Demutualised !",
"!",
"Registration as a building society is merely a process of establishing the entity as a corporation.",
"It is largely a formality, and easily achieved, as the capital requirement is minimal (20 members must be issued shares of not less than NZ$1,000 each, for a total minimum foundation share capital of NZ$200,000),.",
"Such building societies must (unless they qualify for a particular exemption) comply with the prudential regulations.",
"The Department of Internal Affairs is ultimately responsible for all entities that do not expressly fall into other categories for anti money laundering purposes.",
"Building societies' registration details and filed documents are available in the Register of Building Societies held at the New Zealand Companies Office.",
"====Individual building societies====\nOver the years, a number of building societies were established.",
"Some, including Countrywide Building Society and United Building Society, became banks in the 1980s and 1990s.",
"However, it remains a building society and retains its mutual structure.",
"* The Napier Building Society (Permanent)\n* Wairarapa Building Society.",
"=== Zimbabwe ===\nIn Zimbabwe, ''Central Africa Building Society'' (CABS) is the leading building society offering a diverse range of financial products and services that include transaction and savings accounts, mobile banking, mortgage loans, money market investments, term deposits and pay-roll loans.",
"*'''Finland:''' In Finland the Mortgage Society of Finland, a permanent building society, was founded in 1860.",
"*'''United States:''' In the United States, savings and loan associations, as well as credit unions, have a similar organisation and purpose.",
"*'''Other''': See Cooperative banking.",
"=== Roll numbers ===\n\nBecause most building societies were not direct members of the UK clearing system, it was common for them to use a '''roll number''' to identify accounts rather than to allocate a six-digit sort-code and eight-digit account number to the BACS standards.",
"More recently, building societies have tended to obtain sort-code and account number allocations within the clearing system, and hence the use of roll numbers has diminished.",
"When using BACS, one needs to enter roll numbers for the reference field and the building society's generic sort code and account number would be entered in the standard BACS fields.",
"\n*Banking in the United Kingdom\n*Mutual organisation\n*Mutualism",
"\n* Llewellyn, D. and Holmes, M. (1991) \"In Defence of Mutuality: A Redress to an Emerging Conventional Wisdom\", ''Annals of Public and Co-operative Economics'', Vol.62(3): pp.",
"319–354 (p. 327).",
"* Rasmusen, E. (1988) \"Mutual banks and stock banks\", ''Journal of Law and Economics'', October, Vol.31: pp.",
"395–421 (p. 412).",
"* Kay, J.",
"(1991) \"The Economics of Mutuality\", ''Annals of Public and Co-operative Economics'', Vol.62(3): pp.",
"309–317 (p. 317).",
"* Boxall, A. and Gallagher, N. (1997) \"Mutuality at the Cross Roads\", ''Financial Stability Review'', Issue 3: pp.",
"105–117 (p. 112).",
"* Llewellyn, D. (1996) \"Some Reflections on the Mutuality v. Conversion Debate\", ''Journal of Co-operative Studies'', September, Vol.29(2): pp.",
"57–71 (p. 61).",
"* Tayler, G. (2003) \"UK Building Society Demutualisation Motives\", ''Business Ethics: A European Review'',Vol.12(4): pp.",
"394–402."
] | finance |
[
"\nCumulative current account balance 1980–2008 based on International Monetary Fund data.\nCumulative current account balance '''per capita''' 1980–2008 based on International Monetary Fund data.\n\nThe '''balance of trade''', '''commercial balance''', or '''net exports''' (sometimes symbolized as '''NX'''), is the difference between the monetary value of a nation's exports and imports over a certain period. Sometimes a distinction is made between a balance of trade for goods versus one for services.\n\nIf a country exports a greater value than it imports, it is called a '''trade surplus''', '''positive balance''', or a \"favourable balance\", and conversely, if a country imports a greater value than it exports, it is called a '''trade deficit''', '''negative balance''', \"unfavorable balance\", or, informally, a \"trade gap\".\n",
"Balance of trade in goods and services (Eurozone countries)\nUS Trade Balance 1980 2010\nU.S. Trade Balance (1895–2015)\nU.K. balance of trade in goods (since 1870)\nThe balance of trade forms part of the current account, which includes other transactions such as income from the net international investment position as well as international aid. If the current account is in surplus, the country's net international asset position increases correspondingly. Equally, a deficit decreases the net international asset position.\n\nThe trade balance is identical to the difference between a country's output and its domestic demand (the difference between what goods a country produces and how many goods it buys from abroad; this does not include money re-spent on foreign stock, nor does it factor in the concept of importing goods to produce for the domestic market).\n\nMeasuring the balance of trade can be problematic because of problems with recording and collecting data. As an illustration of this problem, when official data for all the world's countries are added up, exports exceed imports by almost 1%; it appears the world is running a positive balance of trade with itself. This cannot be true, because all transactions involve an equal credit or debit in the account of each nation. The discrepancy is widely believed to be explained by transactions intended to launder money or evade taxes, smuggling and other visibility problems. Especially for developing countries, the transaction statistics are likely to be inaccurate.\n\nFactors that can affect the balance of trade include:\n* The cost of production (land, labor, capital, taxes, incentives, etc.) in the exporting economy ''vis-à-vis'' those in the importing economy;\n* The cost and availability of raw materials, intermediate goods and other inputs;\n* Exchange rate movements;\n* Multilateral, bilateral and unilateral taxes or restrictions on trade;\n* Non-tariff barriers such as environmental, health or safety standards;\n* The availability of adequate foreign exchange with which to pay for imports; and\n* Prices of goods manufactured at home (influenced by the responsiveness of supply)\n\nIn addition, the trade balance is likely to differ across the business cycle. In export-led growth (such as oil and early industrial goods), the balance of trade will shift towards exports during an economic expansion. However, with domestic demand led growth (as in the United States and Australia) the trade balance will shift towards imports at the same stage in the business cycle.\n\nMonetary balance of trade is different from physical balance of trade (which is expressed in amount of raw materials, known also as Total Material Consumption). Developed countries usually import a lot of raw materials from developing countries. Typically, these imported materials are transformed into finished products, and might be exported after adding value. Financial trade balance statistics conceal material flow. Most developed countries have a large physical trade deficit, because they consume more raw materials than they produce. Many civil society organisations claim this imbalance is predatory and campaign for ecological debt repayment.\n",
"\nMany countries in early modern Europe adopted a policy of mercantilism, which theorized that a trade surplus was beneficial to a country, among other elements such as colonialism and trade barriers with other countries and their colonies. (Bullionism was an early philosophy supporting mercantilism.)\nMerchandise exports (1870-1992)\nTrade policy, exports and growth in selected European countries\n\nThe practices and abuses of mercantilism led the natural resources and cash crops of British North America to be exported in exchange for finished goods from Great Britain, a factor leading to the American Revolution. An early statement appeared in ''Discourse of the Common Wealth of this Realm of England'', 1549: \"We must always take heed that we buy no more from strangers than we sell them, for so should we impoverish ourselves and enrich them.\" Similarly a systematic and coherent explanation of balance of trade was made public through Thomas Mun's 1630 \"England's treasure by foreign trade, or, The balance of our foreign trade is the rule of our treasure\"\n\nSince the mid-1980s, the United States has had a growing deficit in tradeable goods, especially with Asian nations (China and Japan) which now hold large sums of U.S debt that has in part funded the consumption. The U.S. has a trade surplus with nations such as Australia. The issue of trade deficits can be complex. Trade deficits generated in tradeable goods such as manufactured goods or software may impact domestic employment to different degrees than do trade deficits in raw materials.\n\nEconomies such as Japan and Germany which have savings surpluses, typically run trade surpluses. China, a high-growth economy, has tended to run trade surpluses. A higher savings rate generally corresponds to a trade surplus. Correspondingly, the U.S. with its lower savings rate has tended to run high trade deficits, especially with Asian nations.\n",
"\n===Classical theory===\n\n====Adam Smith on the balance of trade====\n\n\"In the foregoing part of this chapter I have endeavoured to show, even upon the principles of the commercial system, how unnecessary it is to lay extraordinary restraints upon the importation of goods from those countries with which the balance of trade is supposed to be disadvantageous.\nNothing, however, can be more absurd than this whole doctrine of the balance of trade, upon which, not only these restraints, but almost all the other regulations of commerce are founded. When two places trade with one another, this absurd doctrine supposes that, if the balance be even, neither of them either loses or gains; but if it leans in any degree to one side, that one of them loses and the other gains in proportion to its declension from the exact equilibrium.\" (Smith, 1776, book IV, ch. iii, part ii)\n\n\n===Keynesian theory===\n\nIn the last few years of his life, John Maynard Keynes was much preoccupied with the question of balance in international trade. He was the leader of the British delegation to the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference in 1944 that established the Bretton Woods system of international currency management.\nHe was the principal author of a proposal – the so-called Keynes Plan – for an International Clearing Union. The two governing principles of the plan were that the problem of settling outstanding balances should be solved by 'creating' additional 'international money', and that debtor and creditor should be treated almost alike as disturbers of equilibrium. In the event, though, the plans were rejected, in part because \"American opinion was naturally reluctant to accept the principle of equality of treatment so novel in debtor-creditor relationships\".\n\nThe new system is not founded on free-trade (liberalisation of foreign trade) but rather on the regulation of international trade, in order to eliminate trade imbalances: the nations with a surplus would have a powerful incentive to get rid of it, and in doing so they would automatically clear other nations deficits. He proposed a global bank that would issue its own currency - the bancor - which was exchangeable with national currencies at fixed rates of exchange and would become the unit of account between nations, which means it would be used to measure a country's trade deficit or trade surplus. Every country would have an overdraft facility in its bancor account at the International Clearing Union. He pointed out that surpluses lead to weak global aggregate demand – countries running surpluses exert a \"negative externality\" on trading partners, and posed far more than those in deficit, a threat to global prosperity.\nIn ''\"National Self-Sufficiency\" The Yale Review, Vol. 22, no. 4 (June 1933)'', he already highlighted the problems created by free trade .\n\nHis view, supported by many economists and commentators at the time, was that creditor nations may be just as responsible as debtor nations for disequilibrium in exchanges and that both should be under an obligation to bring trade back into a state of balance. Failure for them to do so could have serious consequences. In the words of Geoffrey Crowther, then editor of The Economist, \"If the economic relationships between nations are not, by one means or another, brought fairly close to balance, then there is no set of financial arrangements that can rescue the world from the impoverishing results of chaos.\"\n\nThese ideas were informed by events prior to the Great Depression when – in the opinion of Keynes and others – international lending, primarily by the U.S., exceeded the capacity of sound investment and so got diverted into non-productive and speculative uses, which in turn invited default and a sudden stop to the process of lending.\n\nInfluenced by Keynes, economics texts in the immediate post-war period put a significant emphasis on balance in trade. For example, the second edition of the popular introductory textbook, ''An Outline of Money'', devoted the last three of its ten chapters to questions of foreign exchange management and in particular the 'problem of balance'. However, in more recent years, since the end of the Bretton Woods system in 1971, with the increasing influence of Monetarist schools of thought in the 1980s, and particularly in the face of large sustained trade imbalances, these concerns – and particularly concerns about the destabilising effects of large trade surpluses – have largely disappeared from mainstream economics discourse and Keynes' insights have slipped from view. They are receiving some attention again in the wake of the financial crisis of 2007–08.\n\n===Monetarist theory===\nPrior to 20th century Monetarist theory, the 19th century economist and philosopher Frédéric Bastiat expressed the idea that trade deficits actually were a manifestation of profit, rather than a loss. He proposed as an example to suppose that he, a Frenchman, exported French wine and imported British coal, turning a profit. He supposed he was in France, and sent a cask of wine which was worth 50 francs to England. The customhouse would record an export of 50 francs. If, in England, the wine sold for 70 francs (or the pound equivalent), which he then used to buy coal, which he imported into France, and was found to be worth 90 francs in France, he would have made a profit of 40 francs. But the customhouse would say that the value of imports exceeded that of exports and was trade deficit against the ledger of France.\n\nBy ''reductio ad absurdum'', Bastiat argued that the national trade deficit was an indicator of a successful economy, rather than a failing one. Bastiat predicted that a successful, growing economy would result in greater trade deficits, and an unsuccessful, shrinking economy would result in lower trade deficits. This was later, in the 20th century, echoed by economist Milton Friedman.\n\nIn the 1980s, Milton Friedman, a Nobel Prize-winning economist and a proponent of Monetarism, contended that some of the concerns of trade deficits are unfair criticisms in an attempt to push macroeconomic policies favorable to exporting industries.\n\nFriedman argued that trade deficits are not necessarily as important as high exports raise the value of the currency, reducing aforementioned exports, and vice versa for imports, thus naturally removing trade deficits '''not due to investment'''. Since 1971, when the Nixon administration decided to abolish fixed exchange rates, America's Current Account accumulated trade deficits have totaled $7.75 Trillion as of 2010. This deficit exists as it is matched by investment coming into the United States- purely by the definition of the balance of payments, any current account deficit that exists is matched by an inflow of foreign investment.\n\nIn the late 1970s and early 1980s, the U.S. had experienced high inflation and Friedman's policy positions tended to defend the stronger dollar at that time. He stated his belief that these trade deficits were not necessarily harmful to the economy at the time since the currency comes back to the country (country A sells to country B, country B sells to country C who buys from country A, but the trade deficit only includes A and B). However, it may be in one form or another including the possible tradeoff of foreign control of assets. In his view, the \"worst-case scenario\" of the currency never returning to the country of origin was actually the best possible outcome: the country actually purchased its goods by exchanging them for pieces of cheaply made paper. As Friedman put it, this would be the same result as if the exporting country burned the dollars it earned, never returning it to market circulation.\n\nThis position is a more refined version of the theorem first discovered by David Hume. Hume argued that England could not permanently gain from exports, because hoarding gold (i.e., currency) would make gold more plentiful in England; therefore, the prices of English goods would rise, making them less attractive exports and making foreign goods more attractive imports. In this way, countries' trade balances would balance out.\n\nFriedman presented his analysis of the balance of trade in ''Free to Choose'', widely considered his most significant popular work.\n\n===Trade balances effects upon their nation's GDPs===\nExports directly contribute and imports directly reduce their nation's balance of trade (i.e. net exports). A trade surplus is positive net balance of trade, and a trade deficit is a negative net balance of trade. Due to balance of trade being explicitly added to the calculation of their nation's gross domestic product using the expenditure method of calculating gross domestic production (i.e. GDP), trade surpluses are contributions and trade deficits are \"drags\" upon their nation's GDP.\n",
"\n\n\n\n Balance of trade !! Balance of payments\n\n The balance of trade includes only visible imports and exports, i.e. imports and exports of merchandise, the difference of imports and exports is called balance of trade. If imports are more than exports, it is unfavourable balance of trade. If exports exceeds imports, it is favourable balance of trade. \n The balance of payments includes all those visible and invisible items exported from and imported into the country in addition to exports and imports of merchandise.\n\n The balance of trade includes revenues received or paid on account of imports and exports of merchandise. It shows only revenue items. \n The balance of payments includes all revenue and capital items whether visible or non-visible. The balance of trade thus form a part of the balance of payments.\n\n The balance of trade can be favourable or unfavourable. If imports are more than exports, it is unfavourable balance of trade. If exports exceeds imports, it is favourable balance of trade. \n The balance of payments is always balanced just like trading and profit and loss a/c of a business.\n\n In case of the balance of trade, there is no deficit or surplus balance. The balance shows favourable or non-favourable. So, external assistance is not required. \n In case of the balance of payments, any balance, deficit or surplus is to be financed by external source or assistance or be utilised.\n\n",
"*Comparison of imports vs exports of the United States\n",
"\n",
"\n* Are Trade Deficits a Drag on U.S. Economic Growth?\n* Where Do U.S. Dollars Go When the United States Runs a Trade Deficit? from Dollars & Sense magazine\n* OECD Trade balance statistics\n* U.S. Government Export Assistance\n* U.S Trade Deficit Depicted in an Infographic\n* The Trade Deficit: The Biggest Obstacle to Full Employment, paper by Dean Baker of the Center for Economic and Policy Research, April 2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Explanation",
"Historical examples",
"Views on economic impact",
"Balance of trade vs. balance of payments",
"See also",
"Notes",
"External links"
] | Balance of trade | [
"He proposed a global bank that would issue its own currency - the bancor - which was exchangeable with national currencies at fixed rates of exchange and would become the unit of account between nations, which means it would be used to measure a country's trade deficit or trade surplus."
] | [
"\nCumulative current account balance 1980–2008 based on International Monetary Fund data.",
"Cumulative current account balance '''per capita''' 1980–2008 based on International Monetary Fund data.",
"The '''balance of trade''', '''commercial balance''', or '''net exports''' (sometimes symbolized as '''NX'''), is the difference between the monetary value of a nation's exports and imports over a certain period.",
"Sometimes a distinction is made between a balance of trade for goods versus one for services.",
"If a country exports a greater value than it imports, it is called a '''trade surplus''', '''positive balance''', or a \"favourable balance\", and conversely, if a country imports a greater value than it exports, it is called a '''trade deficit''', '''negative balance''', \"unfavorable balance\", or, informally, a \"trade gap\".",
"Balance of trade in goods and services (Eurozone countries)\nUS Trade Balance 1980 2010\nU.S. Trade Balance (1895–2015)\nU.K. balance of trade in goods (since 1870)\nThe balance of trade forms part of the current account, which includes other transactions such as income from the net international investment position as well as international aid.",
"If the current account is in surplus, the country's net international asset position increases correspondingly.",
"Equally, a deficit decreases the net international asset position.",
"The trade balance is identical to the difference between a country's output and its domestic demand (the difference between what goods a country produces and how many goods it buys from abroad; this does not include money re-spent on foreign stock, nor does it factor in the concept of importing goods to produce for the domestic market).",
"Measuring the balance of trade can be problematic because of problems with recording and collecting data.",
"As an illustration of this problem, when official data for all the world's countries are added up, exports exceed imports by almost 1%; it appears the world is running a positive balance of trade with itself.",
"This cannot be true, because all transactions involve an equal credit or debit in the account of each nation.",
"The discrepancy is widely believed to be explained by transactions intended to launder money or evade taxes, smuggling and other visibility problems.",
"Especially for developing countries, the transaction statistics are likely to be inaccurate.",
"Factors that can affect the balance of trade include:\n* The cost of production (land, labor, capital, taxes, incentives, etc.)",
"in the exporting economy ''vis-à-vis'' those in the importing economy;\n* The cost and availability of raw materials, intermediate goods and other inputs;\n* Exchange rate movements;\n* Multilateral, bilateral and unilateral taxes or restrictions on trade;\n* Non-tariff barriers such as environmental, health or safety standards;\n* The availability of adequate foreign exchange with which to pay for imports; and\n* Prices of goods manufactured at home (influenced by the responsiveness of supply)\n\nIn addition, the trade balance is likely to differ across the business cycle.",
"In export-led growth (such as oil and early industrial goods), the balance of trade will shift towards exports during an economic expansion.",
"However, with domestic demand led growth (as in the United States and Australia) the trade balance will shift towards imports at the same stage in the business cycle.",
"Monetary balance of trade is different from physical balance of trade (which is expressed in amount of raw materials, known also as Total Material Consumption).",
"Developed countries usually import a lot of raw materials from developing countries.",
"Typically, these imported materials are transformed into finished products, and might be exported after adding value.",
"Financial trade balance statistics conceal material flow.",
"Most developed countries have a large physical trade deficit, because they consume more raw materials than they produce.",
"Many civil society organisations claim this imbalance is predatory and campaign for ecological debt repayment.",
"\nMany countries in early modern Europe adopted a policy of mercantilism, which theorized that a trade surplus was beneficial to a country, among other elements such as colonialism and trade barriers with other countries and their colonies.",
"(Bullionism was an early philosophy supporting mercantilism.)",
"Merchandise exports (1870-1992)\nTrade policy, exports and growth in selected European countries\n\nThe practices and abuses of mercantilism led the natural resources and cash crops of British North America to be exported in exchange for finished goods from Great Britain, a factor leading to the American Revolution.",
"An early statement appeared in ''Discourse of the Common Wealth of this Realm of England'', 1549: \"We must always take heed that we buy no more from strangers than we sell them, for so should we impoverish ourselves and enrich them.\"",
"Similarly a systematic and coherent explanation of balance of trade was made public through Thomas Mun's 1630 \"England's treasure by foreign trade, or, The balance of our foreign trade is the rule of our treasure\"\n\nSince the mid-1980s, the United States has had a growing deficit in tradeable goods, especially with Asian nations (China and Japan) which now hold large sums of U.S debt that has in part funded the consumption.",
"The U.S. has a trade surplus with nations such as Australia.",
"The issue of trade deficits can be complex.",
"Trade deficits generated in tradeable goods such as manufactured goods or software may impact domestic employment to different degrees than do trade deficits in raw materials.",
"Economies such as Japan and Germany which have savings surpluses, typically run trade surpluses.",
"China, a high-growth economy, has tended to run trade surpluses.",
"A higher savings rate generally corresponds to a trade surplus.",
"Correspondingly, the U.S. with its lower savings rate has tended to run high trade deficits, especially with Asian nations.",
"\n===Classical theory===\n\n====Adam Smith on the balance of trade====\n\n\"In the foregoing part of this chapter I have endeavoured to show, even upon the principles of the commercial system, how unnecessary it is to lay extraordinary restraints upon the importation of goods from those countries with which the balance of trade is supposed to be disadvantageous.",
"Nothing, however, can be more absurd than this whole doctrine of the balance of trade, upon which, not only these restraints, but almost all the other regulations of commerce are founded.",
"When two places trade with one another, this absurd doctrine supposes that, if the balance be even, neither of them either loses or gains; but if it leans in any degree to one side, that one of them loses and the other gains in proportion to its declension from the exact equilibrium.\"",
"(Smith, 1776, book IV, ch.",
"iii, part ii)\n\n\n===Keynesian theory===\n\nIn the last few years of his life, John Maynard Keynes was much preoccupied with the question of balance in international trade.",
"He was the leader of the British delegation to the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference in 1944 that established the Bretton Woods system of international currency management.",
"He was the principal author of a proposal – the so-called Keynes Plan – for an International Clearing Union.",
"The two governing principles of the plan were that the problem of settling outstanding balances should be solved by 'creating' additional 'international money', and that debtor and creditor should be treated almost alike as disturbers of equilibrium.",
"In the event, though, the plans were rejected, in part because \"American opinion was naturally reluctant to accept the principle of equality of treatment so novel in debtor-creditor relationships\".",
"The new system is not founded on free-trade (liberalisation of foreign trade) but rather on the regulation of international trade, in order to eliminate trade imbalances: the nations with a surplus would have a powerful incentive to get rid of it, and in doing so they would automatically clear other nations deficits.",
"Every country would have an overdraft facility in its bancor account at the International Clearing Union.",
"He pointed out that surpluses lead to weak global aggregate demand – countries running surpluses exert a \"negative externality\" on trading partners, and posed far more than those in deficit, a threat to global prosperity.",
"In ''\"National Self-Sufficiency\" The Yale Review, Vol.",
"22, no.",
"4 (June 1933)'', he already highlighted the problems created by free trade .",
"His view, supported by many economists and commentators at the time, was that creditor nations may be just as responsible as debtor nations for disequilibrium in exchanges and that both should be under an obligation to bring trade back into a state of balance.",
"Failure for them to do so could have serious consequences.",
"In the words of Geoffrey Crowther, then editor of The Economist, \"If the economic relationships between nations are not, by one means or another, brought fairly close to balance, then there is no set of financial arrangements that can rescue the world from the impoverishing results of chaos.\"",
"These ideas were informed by events prior to the Great Depression when – in the opinion of Keynes and others – international lending, primarily by the U.S., exceeded the capacity of sound investment and so got diverted into non-productive and speculative uses, which in turn invited default and a sudden stop to the process of lending.",
"Influenced by Keynes, economics texts in the immediate post-war period put a significant emphasis on balance in trade.",
"For example, the second edition of the popular introductory textbook, ''An Outline of Money'', devoted the last three of its ten chapters to questions of foreign exchange management and in particular the 'problem of balance'.",
"However, in more recent years, since the end of the Bretton Woods system in 1971, with the increasing influence of Monetarist schools of thought in the 1980s, and particularly in the face of large sustained trade imbalances, these concerns – and particularly concerns about the destabilising effects of large trade surpluses – have largely disappeared from mainstream economics discourse and Keynes' insights have slipped from view.",
"They are receiving some attention again in the wake of the financial crisis of 2007–08.",
"===Monetarist theory===\nPrior to 20th century Monetarist theory, the 19th century economist and philosopher Frédéric Bastiat expressed the idea that trade deficits actually were a manifestation of profit, rather than a loss.",
"He proposed as an example to suppose that he, a Frenchman, exported French wine and imported British coal, turning a profit.",
"He supposed he was in France, and sent a cask of wine which was worth 50 francs to England.",
"The customhouse would record an export of 50 francs.",
"If, in England, the wine sold for 70 francs (or the pound equivalent), which he then used to buy coal, which he imported into France, and was found to be worth 90 francs in France, he would have made a profit of 40 francs.",
"But the customhouse would say that the value of imports exceeded that of exports and was trade deficit against the ledger of France.",
"By ''reductio ad absurdum'', Bastiat argued that the national trade deficit was an indicator of a successful economy, rather than a failing one.",
"Bastiat predicted that a successful, growing economy would result in greater trade deficits, and an unsuccessful, shrinking economy would result in lower trade deficits.",
"This was later, in the 20th century, echoed by economist Milton Friedman.",
"In the 1980s, Milton Friedman, a Nobel Prize-winning economist and a proponent of Monetarism, contended that some of the concerns of trade deficits are unfair criticisms in an attempt to push macroeconomic policies favorable to exporting industries.",
"Friedman argued that trade deficits are not necessarily as important as high exports raise the value of the currency, reducing aforementioned exports, and vice versa for imports, thus naturally removing trade deficits '''not due to investment'''.",
"Since 1971, when the Nixon administration decided to abolish fixed exchange rates, America's Current Account accumulated trade deficits have totaled $7.75 Trillion as of 2010.",
"This deficit exists as it is matched by investment coming into the United States- purely by the definition of the balance of payments, any current account deficit that exists is matched by an inflow of foreign investment.",
"In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the U.S. had experienced high inflation and Friedman's policy positions tended to defend the stronger dollar at that time.",
"He stated his belief that these trade deficits were not necessarily harmful to the economy at the time since the currency comes back to the country (country A sells to country B, country B sells to country C who buys from country A, but the trade deficit only includes A and B).",
"However, it may be in one form or another including the possible tradeoff of foreign control of assets.",
"In his view, the \"worst-case scenario\" of the currency never returning to the country of origin was actually the best possible outcome: the country actually purchased its goods by exchanging them for pieces of cheaply made paper.",
"As Friedman put it, this would be the same result as if the exporting country burned the dollars it earned, never returning it to market circulation.",
"This position is a more refined version of the theorem first discovered by David Hume.",
"Hume argued that England could not permanently gain from exports, because hoarding gold (i.e., currency) would make gold more plentiful in England; therefore, the prices of English goods would rise, making them less attractive exports and making foreign goods more attractive imports.",
"In this way, countries' trade balances would balance out.",
"Friedman presented his analysis of the balance of trade in ''Free to Choose'', widely considered his most significant popular work.",
"===Trade balances effects upon their nation's GDPs===\nExports directly contribute and imports directly reduce their nation's balance of trade (i.e.",
"net exports).",
"A trade surplus is positive net balance of trade, and a trade deficit is a negative net balance of trade.",
"Due to balance of trade being explicitly added to the calculation of their nation's gross domestic product using the expenditure method of calculating gross domestic production (i.e.",
"GDP), trade surpluses are contributions and trade deficits are \"drags\" upon their nation's GDP.",
"\n\n\n\n Balance of trade !",
"!",
"Balance of payments\n\n The balance of trade includes only visible imports and exports, i.e.",
"imports and exports of merchandise, the difference of imports and exports is called balance of trade.",
"If imports are more than exports, it is unfavourable balance of trade.",
"If exports exceeds imports, it is favourable balance of trade.",
"The balance of payments includes all those visible and invisible items exported from and imported into the country in addition to exports and imports of merchandise.",
"The balance of trade includes revenues received or paid on account of imports and exports of merchandise.",
"It shows only revenue items.",
"The balance of payments includes all revenue and capital items whether visible or non-visible.",
"The balance of trade thus form a part of the balance of payments.",
"The balance of trade can be favourable or unfavourable.",
"If imports are more than exports, it is unfavourable balance of trade.",
"If exports exceeds imports, it is favourable balance of trade.",
"The balance of payments is always balanced just like trading and profit and loss a/c of a business.",
"In case of the balance of trade, there is no deficit or surplus balance.",
"The balance shows favourable or non-favourable.",
"So, external assistance is not required.",
"In case of the balance of payments, any balance, deficit or surplus is to be financed by external source or assistance or be utilised.",
"*Comparison of imports vs exports of the United States",
"\n* Are Trade Deficits a Drag on U.S. Economic Growth?",
"* Where Do U.S.",
"Dollars Go When the United States Runs a Trade Deficit?",
"from Dollars & Sense magazine\n* OECD Trade balance statistics\n* U.S. Government Export Assistance\n* U.S Trade Deficit Depicted in an Infographic\n* The Trade Deficit: The Biggest Obstacle to Full Employment, paper by Dean Baker of the Center for Economic and Policy Research, April 2014"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\nNorthern Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania (1861-1865)\nGettysburg Campaign, (1863)\nBattlefield of Gettysburg, (1863)\n\nThe '''Battle of Gettysburg''' (, with an sound) was fought July 1–3, 1863, in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, by Union and Confederate forces during the American Civil War. The battle involved the largest number of casualties of the entire war and is often described as the war's turning point. Union Maj. Gen. George Meade's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, halting Lee's invasion of the North.\n\nAfter his success at Chancellorsville in Virginia in May 1863, Lee led his army through the Shenandoah Valley to begin his second invasion of the North—the Gettysburg Campaign. With his army in high spirits, Lee intended to shift the focus of the summer campaign from war-ravaged northern Virginia and hoped to influence Northern politicians to give up their prosecution of the war by penetrating as far as Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, or even Philadelphia. Prodded by President Abraham Lincoln, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker moved his army in pursuit, but was relieved of command just three days before the battle and replaced by Meade.\n\nElements of the two armies initially collided at Gettysburg on July 1, 1863, as Lee urgently concentrated his forces there, his objective being to engage the Union army and destroy it. Low ridges to the northwest of town were defended initially by a Union cavalry division under Brig. Gen. John Buford, and soon reinforced with two corps of Union infantry. However, two large Confederate corps assaulted them from the northwest and north, collapsing the hastily developed Union lines, sending the defenders retreating through the streets of the town to the hills just to the south.\n\nOn the second day of battle, most of both armies had assembled. The Union line was laid out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook. In the late afternoon of July 2, Lee launched a heavy assault on the Union left flank, and fierce fighting raged at Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devil's Den, and the Peach Orchard. On the Union right, Confederate demonstrations escalated into full-scale assaults on Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill. All across the battlefield, despite significant losses, the Union defenders held their lines.\n\nOn the third day of battle, fighting resumed on Culp's Hill, and cavalry battles raged to the east and south, but the main event was a dramatic infantry assault by 12,500 Confederates against the center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge, known as Pickett's Charge. The charge was repulsed by Union rifle and artillery fire, at great loss to the Confederate army.\n\nLee led his army on a torturous retreat back to Virginia. Between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the three-day battle, the most costly in US history.\n\nOn November 19, President Lincoln used the dedication ceremony for the Gettysburg National Cemetery to honor the fallen Union soldiers and redefine the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address.\n",
"===Military situation===\n\n\n\nGettysburg Campaign (through July 3); cavalry movements shown with dashed lines \n\n\n\nhachures, drainage, roads, railroads, and houses with the names of residents at the time of the Battle of Gettysburg.\n\nA ''Harper's Weekly'' illustration showing Confederate troops escorting captured African American civilians south into slavery. En route to Gettysburg, the Army of Northern Virginia kidnapped approximately 40 black civilians and sent them south into slavery.\n\nShortly after the Army of Northern Virginia won a major victory over the Army of the Potomac at the Battle of Chancellorsville (April 30 – May 6, 1863), Robert E. Lee decided upon a second invasion of the North (the first was the unsuccessful Maryland Campaign of September 1862, which ended in the bloody Battle of Antietam). Such a move would upset U.S. plans for the summer campaigning season and possibly reduce the pressure on the besieged Confederate garrison at Vicksburg. The invasion would allow the Confederates to live off the bounty of the rich Northern farms while giving war-ravaged Virginia a much-needed rest. In addition, Lee's 72,000-man army could threaten Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and possibly strengthen the growing peace movement in the North.\n\n===Initial movements to battle===\nThus, on June 3, Lee's army began to shift northward from Fredericksburg, Virginia. Following the death of Thomas J. \"Stonewall\" Jackson, Lee reorganized his two large corps into three new corps, commanded by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet (First Corps), Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell (Second), and Lt. Gen. A.P. Hill (Third); both Ewell and Hill, who had formerly reported to Jackson as division commanders, were new to this level of responsibility. The Cavalry Division remained under the command of Maj. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart.\n\nThe Union Army of the Potomac, under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, consisted of seven infantry corps, a cavalry corps, and an Artillery Reserve, for a combined strength of more than 100,000 men.\n\nThe first major action of the campaign took place on June 9 between cavalry forces at Brandy Station, near Culpeper, Virginia. The 9,500 Confederate cavalrymen under Stuart were surprised by Maj. Gen. Alfred Pleasonton's combined arms force of two cavalry divisions (8,000 troopers) and 3,000 infantry, but Stuart eventually repulsed the Union attack. The inconclusive battle, the largest predominantly cavalry engagement of the war, proved for the first time that the Union horse soldier was equal to his Southern counterpart.\n\nBy mid-June, the Army of Northern Virginia was poised to cross the Potomac River and enter Maryland. After defeating the U.S. garrisons at Winchester and Martinsburg, Ewell's Second Corps began crossing the river on June 15. Hill's and Longstreet's corps followed on June 24 and 25. Hooker's army pursued, keeping between the U.S. capital and Lee's army. The U.S. crossed the Potomac from June 25 to 27.\n\nLee gave strict orders for his army to minimize any negative impacts on the civilian population. Food, horses, and other supplies were generally not seized outright, although quartermasters reimbursing Northern farmers and merchants with Confederate money were not well received. Various towns, most notably York, Pennsylvania, were required to pay indemnities in lieu of supplies, under threat of destruction. During the invasion, the Confederates seized some 40 northern African Americans. A few of them were escaped fugitive slaves, but most were freemen; all were sent south into slavery under guard.\n\nOn June 26, elements of Maj. Gen. Jubal Early's division of Ewell's Corps occupied the town of Gettysburg after chasing off newly raised Pennsylvania militia in a series of minor skirmishes. Early laid the borough under tribute but did not collect any significant supplies. Soldiers burned several railroad cars and a covered bridge, and destroyed nearby rails and telegraph lines. The following morning, Early departed for adjacent York County.\n\nMeanwhile, in a controversial move, Lee allowed J.E.B. Stuart to take a portion of the army's cavalry and ride around the east flank of the Union army. Lee's orders gave Stuart much latitude, and both generals share the blame for the long absence of Stuart's cavalry, as well as for the failure to assign a more active role to the cavalry left with the army. Stuart and his three best brigades were absent from the army during the crucial phase of the approach to Gettysburg and the first two days of battle. By June 29, Lee's army was strung out in an arc from Chambersburg ( northwest of Gettysburg) to Carlisle ( north of Gettysburg) to near Harrisburg and Wrightsville on the Susquehanna River.\n\nIn a dispute over the use of the forces defending the Harpers Ferry garrison, Hooker offered his resignation, and Abraham Lincoln and General-in-Chief Henry W. Halleck, who were looking for an excuse to get rid of him, immediately accepted. They replaced Hooker early on the morning of June 28 with Maj. Gen. George Gordon Meade, then commander of the V Corps.\n\nOn June 29, when Lee learned that the Army of the Potomac had crossed the Potomac River, he ordered a concentration of his forces around Cashtown, located at the eastern base of South Mountain and west of Gettysburg. On June 30, while part of Hill's Corps was in Cashtown, one of Hill's brigades, North Carolinians under Brig. Gen. J. Johnston Pettigrew, ventured toward Gettysburg. In his memoirs, Maj. Gen. Henry Heth, Pettigrew's division commander, claimed that he sent Pettigrew to search for supplies in town—especially shoes.\n\nWhen Pettigrew's troops approached Gettysburg on June 30, they noticed Union cavalry under Brig. Gen. John Buford arriving south of town, and Pettigrew returned to Cashtown without engaging them. When Pettigrew told Hill and Heth what he had seen, neither general believed that there was a substantial U.S. force in or near the town, suspecting that it had been only Pennsylvania militia. Despite General Lee's order to avoid a general engagement until his entire army was concentrated, Hill decided to mount a significant reconnaissance in force the following morning to determine the size and strength of the enemy force in his front. Around 5 a.m. on Wednesday, July 1, two brigades of Heth's division advanced to Gettysburg.\n",
"===Union===\n\n\nKey commanders ('''Army of the Potomac''')\n\n\nFile:George G. Meade Standing.jpg|Maj. Gen.George Meade, ('''Commanding''') USA\n\nFile:GenJFRenyolds.jpg|Maj. Gen.John F. Reynolds, USA\nFile:WinfieldSHancock.png|Maj. Gen.Winfield Scott Hancock, USA\nFile:Daniel Edgar Sickles.jpg|Maj. Gen.Daniel Sickles, USA\nFile:GenGS.jpg|Maj. Gen.George Sykes, USA\nFile:John Sedgwick.png|Maj. Gen.John Sedgwick, USA\nFile:Oliver Otis Howard.jpg|Maj. Gen.Oliver Otis Howard, USA\nFile:Henry Warner Slocum.jpg|Maj. Gen.Henry Warner Slocum, USA\nFile:Alfred Pleasonton.jpg|Maj. Gen.Alfred Pleasonton, USA\n\n\n\nThe '''Army of the Potomac''', initially under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker (Maj. Gen. George Meade replaced Hooker in command on June 28), consisted of more than 100,000 men in the following organization:\n* I Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. John F. Reynolds, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gen. James S. Wadsworth, Brig. Gen. John C. Robinson, and Maj. Gen. Abner Doubleday.\n* II Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gens. John C. Caldwell, John Gibbon, and Alexander Hays.\n* III Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Daniel Sickles, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gen. David B. Birney and Maj. Gen. Andrew A. Humphreys.\n* V Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. George Sykes (George G. Meade until June 28), with divisions commanded by Brig. Gens. James Barnes, Romeyn B. Ayres, and Samuel W. Crawford.\n* VI Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. John Sedgwick, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gen. Horatio G. Wright, Brig. Gen. Albion P. Howe, and Maj. Gen. John Newton.\n* XI Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Oliver Otis Howard, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gen. Francis C. Barlow, Brig. Gen. Adolph von Steinwehr, and Maj. Gen. Carl Schurz.\n* XII Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Henry W. Slocum, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gens. Alpheus S. Williams and John W. Geary.\n* Cavalry Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Alfred Pleasonton, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gens. John Buford, David McM. Gregg, and H. Judson Kilpatrick.\n* Artillery Reserve, commanded by Brig. Gen. Robert O. Tyler. (The preeminent artillery officer at Gettysburg was Brig. Gen. Henry J. Hunt, chief of artillery on Meade's staff.)\n\nDuring the advance on Gettysburg, Maj. Gen. Reynolds was in operational command of the left, or advanced, wing of the Army, consisting of the I, III, and XI Corps. Note that many other Union units (not part of the Army of the Potomac) were actively involved in the Gettysburg Campaign, but not directly involved in the Battle of Gettysburg. These included portions of the Union IV Corps, the militia and state troops of the Department of the Susquehanna, and various garrisons, including that at Harpers Ferry.\n\n\n===Confederate===\n\n\nKey commanders ('''Army of Northern Virginia''')\n\n\nFile:Robert Edward Lee.jpg|Gen.Robert E. Lee, ('''Commanding''') CSA\nFile:James Longstreet.jpg|Lt. Gen.James Longstreet, CSA\nFile:Richard S Ewell.png|Lt.. Gen.Richard S. Ewell, CSA\nFile:Image of Lieutenant General A.P. Hill.jpg|Lt. Gen.A. P. Hill, CSA\nFile:Jeb stuart.jpg|Maj. Gen.J.E.B. Stuart, CSA\n\n\n\nIn reaction to the death of Lt. Gen. Thomas J. \"Stonewall\" Jackson after Chancellorsville, Lee reorganized his '''Army of Northern Virginia''' (75,000 men) from two infantry corps into three.\n* First Corps, commanded by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gens. Lafayette McLaws, George Pickett, and John Bell Hood.\n* Second Corps, commanded by Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gens. Jubal A. Early, Edward \"Allegheny\" Johnson, and Robert E. Rodes.\n* Third Corps, commanded by Lt. Gen. A.P. Hill, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gens. Richard H. Anderson, Henry Heth, and W. Dorsey Pender.\n* Cavalry division, commanded by Maj. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart, with brigades commanded by Brig. Gens. Wade Hampton, Fitzhugh Lee, Beverly H. Robertson, Albert G. Jenkins, William E. \"Grumble\" Jones, and John D. Imboden, and Col. John R. Chambliss.\n",
"\nOverview map of the first day of the Battle of Gettysburg, July 1, 1863\n\n===Herr Ridge, McPherson Ridge and Seminary Ridge===\nAnticipating that the Confederates would march on Gettysburg from the west on the morning of July 1, Buford laid out his defenses on three ridges west of the town: '''Herr Ridge''', '''McPherson Ridge''' and '''Seminary Ridge'''. These were appropriate terrain for a delaying action by his small cavalry division against superior Confederate infantry forces, meant to buy time awaiting the arrival of Union infantrymen who could occupy the strong defensive positions south of town at Cemetery Hill, Cemetery Ridge, and Culp's Hill. Buford understood that if the Confederates could gain control of these heights, Meade's army would have difficulty dislodging them.\n\nFirst shot monument\nHeth's division advanced with two brigades forward, commanded by Brig. Gens. James J. Archer and Joseph R. Davis. They proceeded easterly in columns along the Chambersburg Pike. west of town, about 7:30 a.m. on July 1, the two brigades met light resistance from vedettes of Union cavalry, and deployed into line. According to lore, the Union soldier to fire the first shot of the battle was Lt. Marcellus Jones. In 1886 Lt. Jones returned to Gettysburg to mark the spot where he fired the first shot with a monument. Eventually, Heth's men reached dismounted troopers of Col. William Gamble's cavalry brigade, who raised determined resistance and delaying tactics from behind fence posts with fire from their breechloading carbines. Still, by 10:20 a.m., the Confederates had pushed the Union cavalrymen east to McPherson Ridge, when the vanguard of the I Corps (Maj. Gen. John F. Reynolds) finally arrived.\n\nNorth of the pike, Davis gained a temporary success against Brig. Gen. Lysander Cutler's brigade but was repulsed with heavy losses in an action around an unfinished railroad bed cut in the ridge. South of the pike, Archer's brigade assaulted through Herbst (also known as McPherson's) Woods. The U.S. Iron Brigade under Brig. Gen. Solomon Meredith enjoyed initial success against Archer, capturing several hundred men, including Archer himself.\n\nGeneral Reynolds was shot and killed early in the fighting while directing troop and artillery placements just to the east of the woods. Shelby Foote wrote that the Union cause lost a man considered by many to be \"the best general in the army.\" Maj. Gen. Abner Doubleday assumed command. Fighting in the Chambersburg Pike area lasted until about 12:30 p.m. It resumed around 2:30 p.m., when Heth's entire division engaged, adding the brigades of Pettigrew and Col. John M. Brockenbrough.\n\nAs Pettigrew's North Carolina Brigade came on line, they flanked the 19th Indiana and drove the Iron Brigade back. The 26th North Carolina (the largest regiment in the army with 839 men) lost heavily, leaving the first day's fight with around 212 men. By the end of the three-day battle, they had about 152 men standing, the highest casualty percentage for one battle of any regiment, North or South. Slowly the Iron Brigade was pushed out of the woods toward Seminary Ridge. Hill added Maj. Gen. William Dorsey Pender's division to the assault, and the I Corps was driven back through the grounds of the Lutheran Seminary and Gettysburg streets.\n\nAs the fighting to the west proceeded, two divisions of Ewell's Second Corps, marching west toward Cashtown in accordance with Lee's order for the army to concentrate in that vicinity, turned south on the Carlisle and Harrisburg roads toward Gettysburg, while the Union XI Corps (Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard) raced north on the Baltimore Pike and Taneytown Road. By early afternoon, the U.S. line ran in a semicircle west, north, and northeast of Gettysburg.\n\nHowever, the U.S. did not have enough troops; Cutler, whose brigade was deployed north of the Chambersburg Pike, had his right flank in the air. The leftmost division of the XI Corps was unable to deploy in time to strengthen the line, so Doubleday was forced to throw in reserve brigades to salvage his line.\n\nAround 2 p.m., the Confederate Second Corps divisions of Maj. Gens. Robert E. Rodes and Jubal Early assaulted and out-flanked the Union I and XI Corps positions north and northwest of town. The Confederate brigades of Col. Edward A. O'Neal and Brig. Gen. Alfred Iverson suffered severe losses assaulting the I Corps division of Brig. Gen. John C. Robinson south of Oak Hill. Early's division profited from a blunder by Brig. Gen. Francis C. Barlow, when he advanced his XI Corps division to Blocher's Knoll (directly north of town and now known as Barlow's Knoll); this represented a salient in the corps line, susceptible to attack from multiple sides, and Early's troops overran Barlow's division, which constituted the right flank of the Union Army's position. Barlow was wounded and captured in the attack.\n\nAs U.S. positions collapsed both north and west of town, Gen. Howard ordered a retreat to the high ground south of town at Cemetery Hill, where he had left the division of Brig. Gen. Adolph von Steinwehr in reserve. Maj. Gen. Winfield S. Hancock assumed command of the battlefield, sent by Meade when he heard that Reynolds had been killed. Hancock, commander of the II Corps and Meade's most trusted subordinate, was ordered to take command of the field and to determine whether Gettysburg was an appropriate place for a major battle. Hancock told Howard, \"I think this the strongest position by nature upon which to fight a battle that I ever saw.\" When Howard agreed, Hancock concluded the discussion: \"Very well, sir, I select this as the battle-field.\" Hancock's determination had a morale-boosting effect on the retreating Union soldiers, but he played no direct tactical role on the first day.\n\nGeneral Lee understood the defensive potential to the Union if they held this high ground. He sent orders to Ewell that Cemetery Hill be taken \"if practicable.\" Ewell, who had previously served under Stonewall Jackson, a general well known for issuing peremptory orders, determined such an assault was not practicable and, thus, did not attempt it; this decision is considered by historians to be a great missed opportunity.\n\nThe first day at Gettysburg, more significant than simply a prelude to the bloody second and third days, ranks as the 23rd biggest battle of the war by number of troops engaged. About one quarter of Meade's army (22,000 men) and one third of Lee's army (27,000) were engaged.\n",
"Robert E. Lee's plan for July 2, 1863\n\n\n===Plans and movement to battle===\nThroughout the evening of July 1 and morning of July 2, most of the remaining infantry of both armies arrived on the field, including the Union II, III, V, VI, and XII Corps. Two of Longstreet's brigades were on the road: Brig. Gen. George Pickett, had begun the 22 mile (35 km) march from Chambersburg, while Brig. Gen. E. M. Law had begun the march from Guilford. Both arrived late in the morning. Law completed his 28-mile (45 km) march in eleven hours.\n\nThe Union line ran from Culp's Hill southeast of the town, northwest to Cemetery Hill just south of town, then south for nearly along Cemetery Ridge, terminating just north of Little Round Top. Most of the XII Corps was on Culp's Hill; the remnants of I and XI Corps defended Cemetery Hill; II Corps covered most of the northern half of Cemetery Ridge; and III Corps was ordered to take up a position to its flank. The shape of the Union line is popularly described as a \"fishhook\" formation.\n\nThe Confederate line paralleled the Union line about a mile (1,600 m) to the west on Seminary Ridge, ran east through the town, then curved southeast to a point opposite Culp's Hill. Thus, the Union army had interior lines, while the Confederate line was nearly long.\n\nLee's battle plan for July 2 called for a general assault of Meade's positions. On the right, Longstreet's First Corps was to position itself to attack the Union left flank, facing northeast astraddle the Emmitsburg Road, and to roll up the U.S.line. The attack sequence was to begin with Maj. Gens. John Bell Hood's and Lafayette McLaws's divisions, followed by Maj. Gen. Richard H. Anderson's division of Hill's Third Corps.\n\nOn the left, Lee instructed Ewell to position his Second Corps to attack Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill when he heard the gunfire from Longstreet's assault, preventing Meade from shifting troops to bolster his left. Though it does not appear in either his or Lee's Official Report, Ewell claimed years later that Lee had changed the order to simultaneously attack, calling for only a \"diversion\", to be turned into a full-scale attack if a favorable opportunity presented itself.\n\nLee's plan, however, was based on faulty intelligence, exacerbated by Stuart's continued absence from the battlefield. Though Lee personally reconnoitered his left during the morning, he did not visit Longstreet's position on the Confederate right. Even so, Lee rejected suggestions that Longstreet move beyond Meade's left and attack the Union flank, capturing the supply trains and effectively blocking Meade's escape route.\n\nLee did not issue orders for the attack until 11:00 a.m. About noon, General Anderson's advancing troops were discovered by General Sickles' outpost guard and the Third Corps–upon which Longstreet's First Corps was to form–did not get into position until 1:00 p.m.\n\nHood and McLaws, after their long march, were not yet in position and did not launch their attacks until just after 4 p.m. and 5 p.m., respectively.\n\n===Attacks on the Union left flank===\nOverview map of the second day of the Battle of Gettysburg, July 2, 1863\nAs Longstreet's left division, under Maj. Gen. Lafayette McLaws, advanced, they unexpectedly found Maj. Gen. Daniel Sickles's III Corps directly in their path. Sickles had been dissatisfied with the position assigned him on the southern end of Cemetery Ridge. Seeing ground better suited for artillery positions a half mile (800 m) to the west, he advanced his corps—without orders—to the slightly higher ground along the Emmitsburg Road. The new line ran from Devil's Den, northwest to the Sherfy farm's peach orchard, then northeast along the Emmitsburg Road to south of the Codori farm. This created an untenable salient at the Peach Orchard; Brig. Gen. Andrew A. Humphreys's division (in position along the Emmitsburg Road) and Maj. Gen. David B. Birney's division (to the south) were subject to attacks from two sides and were spread out over a longer front than their small corps could defend effectively. The Confederate artillery was ordered to open fire at 3:00 p.m. Meade was with Sickles at the time, urging Sickles to return to his assigned position.\n\nMeade was forced to send 20,000 reinforcements: the entire V Corps, Brig. Gen. John C. Caldwell's division of the II Corps, most of the XII Corps, and portions of the newly arrived VI Corps. Hood's division moved more to the east than intended, losing its alignment with the Emmitsburg Road, attacking Devil's Den and Little Round Top. McLaws, coming in on Hood's left, drove multiple attacks into the thinly stretched III Corps in the Wheatfield and overwhelmed them in Sherfy's Peach Orchard. McLaws's attack eventually reached Plum Run Valley (the \"Valley of Death\") before being beaten back by the Pennsylvania Reserves division of the V Corps, moving down from Little Round Top. The III Corps was virtually destroyed as a combat unit in this battle, and Sickles's leg was amputated after it was shattered by a cannonball. Caldwell's division was destroyed piecemeal in the Wheatfield. Anderson's division, coming from McLaws's left and starting forward around 6 p.m., reached the crest of Cemetery Ridge, but could not hold the position in the face of counterattacks from the II Corps, including an almost suicidal bayonet charge by the 1st Minnesota regiment against a Confederate brigade, ordered in desperation by Hancock to buy time for reinforcements to arrive.\n\nAs fighting raged in the Wheatfield and Devil's Den, Col. Strong Vincent of V Corps had a precarious hold on Little Round Top, an important hill at the extreme left of the Union line. His brigade of four relatively small regiments was able to resist repeated assaults by Brig. Gen. Evander M. Law's brigade of Hood's division. Meade's chief engineer, Brig. Gen. Gouverneur K. Warren, had realized the importance of this position, and dispatched Vincent's brigade, an artillery battery, and the 140th New York to occupy Little Round Top mere minutes before Hood's troops arrived. The defense of Little Round Top with a bayonet charge by the 20th Maine, ordered by Col. Joshua L. Chamberlain but possibly led by Lt. Holman S. Melcher, was one of the most fabled episodes in the Civil War and propelled Col. Chamberlain into prominence after the war.\n\n===Attacks on the Union right flank===\nUnion breastworks on Culp's Hill\nEwell interpreted his orders as calling only for a cannonade. His 32 guns, along with A. P. Hill's 55 guns, engaged in a two-hour artillery barrage at extreme range that had little effect. Finally, about six o'clock, Ewell sent orders to each of his division commanders to attack the Union lines in his front.\n\nMaj. Gen. Edward \"Allegheny\" Johnson's Division \"had not been pushed close to Culp's Hill in preparation for an assault, although one had been contemplated all day. It now had a full mile (1,600 m) to advance and Rock Creek had to be crossed. This could only be done at few places and involved much delay. Only three of Johnson's four brigades moved to the attack.\" Most of the hill's defenders, the Union XII Corps, had been sent to the left to defend against Longstreet's attacks, leaving only a brigade of New Yorkers under Brig. Gen. George S. Greene behind strong, newly constructed defensive works. With reinforcements from the I and XI Corps, Greene's men held off the Confederate attackers, though giving up some of the lower earthworks on the lower part of Culp's Hill.\n\nEarly was similarly unprepared when he ordered Harry T. Hays' and Isaac E. Avery's Brigades to attack the Union XI Corps positions on East Cemetery Hill. Once started, fighting was fierce: Col. Andrew L. Harris of the Union 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, came under a withering attack, losing half his men. Avery was wounded early on, but the Confederates reached the crest of the hill and entered the Union breastworks, capturing one or two batteries. Seeing he was not supported on his right, Hays withdrew. His right was to be supported by Robert E. Rodes' Division, but Rodes—like Early and Johnson—had not been ordered up in preparation for the attack. He had twice as far to travel as Early; by the time he came in contact with the Union skirmish line, Early's troops had already begun to withdraw.\n\nJeb Stuart and his three cavalry brigades arrived in Gettysburg around noon but had no role in the second day's battle. Brig. Gen. Wade Hampton's brigade fought a minor engagement with newly promoted 23-year-old Brig. Gen. George Armstrong Custer's Michigan cavalry near Hunterstown to the northeast of Gettysburg.\n",
"\nOverview map of the third day of the Battle of Gettysburg, July 3, 1863\n\n===Lee's plan===\nGeneral Lee wished to renew the attack on Friday, July 3, using the same basic plan as the previous day: Longstreet would attack the U.S. left, while Ewell attacked Culp's Hill. However, before Longstreet was ready, Union XII Corps troops started a dawn artillery bombardment against the Confederates on Culp's Hill in an effort to regain a portion of their lost works. The Confederates attacked, and the second fight for Culp's Hill ended around 11 a.m. Harry Pfanz judged that, after some seven hours of bitter combat, \"the Union line was intact and held more strongly than before.\"\n\nLee was forced to change his plans. Longstreet would command Pickett's Virginia division of his own First Corps, plus six brigades from Hill's Corps, in an attack on the U.S. II Corps position at the right center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge. Prior to the attack, all the artillery the Confederacy could bring to bear on the U.S. positions would bombard and weaken the enemy's line.\n\nMuch has been made over the years of General Longstreet's objections to General Lee's plan. In his memoirs, Longstreet described their discussion as follows:\n\n\n\nThe \"High Water Mark\" on Cemetery Ridge as it appears today. The monument to the 72nd Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry Regiment (\"Baxter's Philadelphia Fire Zouaves\") appears at right, the Copse of Trees to the left.\n\n===The largest artillery bombardment of the war===\nAround 1 p.m., from 150 to 170 Confederate guns began an artillery bombardment that was probably the largest of the war. In order to save valuable ammunition for the infantry attack that they knew would follow, the Army of the Potomac's artillery, under the command of Brig. Gen. Henry Jackson Hunt, at first did not return the enemy's fire. After waiting about 15 minutes, about 80 U.S. cannons added to the din. The Army of Northern Virginia was critically low on artillery ammunition, and the cannonade did not significantly affect the Union position.\n\n===Pickett's Charge===\nAround 3 p.m., the cannon fire subsided, and 12,500 Southern soldiers stepped from the ridgeline and advanced the three-quarters of a mile (1,200 m) to Cemetery Ridge in what is known to history as \"Pickett's Charge\". As the Confederates approached, there was fierce flanking artillery fire from Union positions on Cemetery Hill and north of Little Round Top, and musket and canister fire from Hancock's II Corps. In the Union center, the commander of artillery had held fire during the Confederate bombardment (in order to save it for the infantry assault, which Meade had correctly predicted the day before), leading Southern commanders to believe the Northern cannon batteries had been knocked out. However, they opened fire on the Confederate infantry during their approach with devastating results. Nearly one half of the attackers did not return to their own lines.\n\nAlthough the U.S. line wavered and broke temporarily at a jog called the \"Angle\" in a low stone fence, just north of a patch of vegetation called the Copse of Trees, reinforcements rushed into the breach, and the Confederate attack was repulsed. The farthest advance of Brig. Gen. Lewis A. Armistead's brigade of Maj. Gen. George Pickett's division at the Angle is referred to as the \"High-water mark of the Confederacy\", arguably representing the closest the South ever came to its goal of achieving independence from the Union via military victory. Union and Confederate soldiers locked in hand-to-hand combat, attacking with their rifles, bayonets, rocks and even their bare hands. Armistead ordered his Confederates to turn two captured cannons against Union troops, but discovered that there was no ammunition left, the last double canister shots having been used against the charging Confederates. Armistead was wounded shortly afterward three times.\n\n===Cavalry battles===\nThere were two significant cavalry engagements on July 3. Stuart was sent to guard the Confederate left flank and was to be prepared to exploit any success the infantry might achieve on Cemetery Hill by flanking the U.S. right and hitting their trains and lines of communications. east of Gettysburg, in what is now called \"East Cavalry Field\" (not shown on the accompanying map, but between the York and Hanover Roads), Stuart's forces collided with U.S. cavalry: Brig. Gen. David McMurtrie Gregg's division and Brig. Gen. Custer's brigade. A lengthy mounted battle, including hand-to-hand sabre combat, ensued. Custer's charge, leading the 1st Michigan Cavalry, blunted the attack by Wade Hampton's brigade, blocking Stuart from achieving his objectives in the U.S. rear.\n\nMeanwhile, after hearing news of the day's victory, Brig. Gen. Judson Kilpatrick launched a cavalry attack against the infantry positions of Longstreet's Corps southwest of Big Round Top. Brig. Gen. Elon J. Farnsworth protested against the futility of such a move, but obeyed orders. Farnsworth was killed in the attack, and his brigade suffered significant losses.\n",
"===Casualties===\n\"The Harvest of Death\": Union dead on the battlefield at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, photographed July 5 or July 6, 1863, by Timothy H. O'Sullivan\nThe two armies suffered between 46,000 and 51,000 casualties. Union casualties were 23,055 (3,155 killed, 14,531 wounded, 5,369 captured or missing), while Confederate casualties are more difficult to estimate. Many authors have referred to as many as ''28,000 Confederate casualties'', and Busey and Martin's more recent 2005 work, ''Regimental Strengths and Losses at Gettysburg'', documents 23,231 (4,708 killed, 12,693 wounded, 5,830 captured or missing). Nearly a third of Lee's general officers were killed, wounded, or captured. The casualties for both sides during the entire campaign were 57,225.\n\nIn addition to being the deadliest battle of the war in terms of total casualties, Gettysburg also had the highest number of Generals killed in action of any battle in the war. The Confederacy lost generals Paul Jones Semmes, William Barksdale, Richard Garnett, and Lewis Armistead, as well as J. Johnston Pettigrew during the retreat after the battle. The Union lost Generals John Reynolds, Samuel K. Zook, Stephen H. Weed, and Elon J. Farnsworth, as well as Strong Vincent, who after being mortally wounded was given a deathbed promotion to brigadier general. Additional senior officer casualties included the wounding of Union Generals Dan Sickles (lost a leg), Francis C. Barlow, and Winfield Scott Hancock. For the Confederacy, Major General John Bell Hood lost the use of his left arm, while Major General Henry Heth received a shot to the head on the first day of battle (though incapacitated for the rest of the battle, he remarkably survived without long term injuries, credited in part due to his hat stuffed full of paper dispatches). Confederate Generals James Kemper and Isaac R. Trimble were severely wounded during Pickett's charge and captured during the Confederate retreat. General James J. Archer, in command of a brigade that most likely was responsible for killing Reynolds, was taken prisoner shortly after Reynolds' death.\n\nThe following tables summarize casualties by corps for the Union and Confederate forces during the three-day battle.\n\n\n\n Union Corps !! Casualties (k/w/m)\n\n I Corps \n 6059 (666/3231/2162)\n\n II Corps \n 4369 (797/3194/378)\n\n III Corps \n 4211 (593/3029/589)\n\n V Corps \n 2187 (365/1611/211)\n\n VI Corps \n 242 (27/185/30)\n\n XI Corps \n 3807 (369/1924/1514)\n\n XII Corps \n 1082 (204/812/66)\n\n Cavalry Corps \n 852 (91/354/407)\n\n Artillery Reserve \n 242 (43/187/12)\n\n\n\n Confederate Corps !! Casualties (k/w/m)\n\n First Corps \n 7665 (1617/4205/1843)\n\n Second Corps \n 6686 (1301/3629/1756)\n\n Third Corps \n 8495 (1724/4683/2088)\n\n Cavalry Corps \n 380 (66/174/140)\n\n\nBruce Catton wrote, \"The town of Gettysburg looked as if some universal moving day had been interrupted by catastrophe.\" But there was only one documented civilian death during the battle: Ginnie Wade (also widely known as Jennie), 20 years old, was hit by a stray bullet that passed through her kitchen in town while she was making bread. Another notable civilian casualty was John L. Burns, a 69-year old veteran of the War of 1812 who walked to the front lines on the first day of battle and participated in heavy combat as a volunteer, receiving numerous wounds in the process. Despite his age and injuries, Burns survived the battle and lived until 1872. Nearly 8,000 had been killed outright; these bodies, lying in the hot summer sun, needed to be buried quickly. Over 3,000 horse carcasses were burned in a series of piles south of town; townsfolk became violently ill from the stench. Meanwhile, the town of Gettysburg, with its population of just 2,400, found itself tasked with taking care of 14,000 wounded Union troops and an additional 8,000 Confederate prisoners.\n\n===Confederate retreat===\n\nGettysburg Campaign (July 5 – July 14, 1863)\nThe armies stared at one another in a heavy rain across the bloody fields on July 4, the same day that the Vicksburg garrison surrendered to Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant. Lee had reformed his lines into a defensive position on Seminary Ridge the night of July 3, evacuating the town of Gettysburg. The Confederates remained on the battlefield, hoping that Meade would attack, but the cautious Union commander decided against the risk, a decision for which he would later be criticized. Both armies began to collect their remaining wounded and bury some of the dead. A proposal by Lee for a prisoner exchange was rejected by Meade.\n\nLee started his Army of Northern Virginia in motion late the evening of July 4 towards Fairfield and Chambersburg. Cavalry under Brig. Gen. John D. Imboden was entrusted to escort the miles-long wagon train of supplies and wounded men that Lee wanted to take back to Virginia with him, using the route through Cashtown and Hagerstown to Williamsport, Maryland. Meade's army followed, although the pursuit was half-spirited. The recently rain-swollen Potomac trapped Lee's army on the north bank of the river for a time, but when the Union troops finally caught up, the Confederates had forded the river. The rear-guard action at Falling Waters on July 14 added some more names to the long casualty lists, including General Pettigrew, who was mortally wounded. General James Kemper, severely wounded during Pickett's charge, was captured during Lee's retreat.\n\nIn a brief letter to Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck written on July 7, Lincoln remarked on the two major Union victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg. He continued:\n\n\n\nHalleck then relayed the contents of Lincoln's letter to Meade in a telegram. Despite repeated pleas from Lincoln and Halleck, which continued over the next week, Meade did not pursue Lee's army aggressively enough to destroy it before it crossed back over the Potomac River to safety in the South. The campaign continued into Virginia with light engagements until July 23, in the minor Battle of Manassas Gap, after which Meade abandoned any attempts at pursuit and the two armies took up positions across from each other on the Rappahannock River.\n\n===Union reaction to the news of the victory===\nThe news of the Union victory electrified the North. A headline in ''The Philadelphia Inquirer'' proclaimed \"VICTORY! WATERLOO ECLIPSED!\" New York diarist George Templeton Strong wrote:\n\n\n\nHowever, the Union enthusiasm soon dissipated as the public realized that Lee's army had escaped destruction and the war would continue. Lincoln complained to Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles that \"Our army held the war in the hollow of their hand and they would not close it!\" Brig. Gen. Alexander S. Webb wrote to his father on July 17, stating that such Washington politicians as \"Chase, Seward and others,\" disgusted with Meade, \"write to me that Lee really won that Battle!\"\n\n===Effect on the Confederacy===\nIn fact, the Confederates had lost militarily and also politically. During the final hours of the battle, Confederate Vice President Alexander Stephens was approaching the Union lines at Norfolk, Virginia, under a flag of truce. Although his formal instructions from Confederate President Jefferson Davis had limited his powers to negotiate on prisoner exchanges and other procedural matters, historian James M. McPherson speculates that he had informal goals of presenting peace overtures. Davis had hoped that Stephens would reach Washington from the south while Lee's victorious army was marching toward it from the north. President Lincoln, upon hearing of the Gettysburg results, refused Stephens's request to pass through the lines. Furthermore, when the news reached London, any lingering hopes of European recognition of the Confederacy were finally abandoned. Henry Adams wrote, \"The disasters of the rebels are unredeemed by even any hope of success. It is now conceded that all idea of intervention is at an end.\"\n\nCompounding the effects of the defeat would be end of the Siege of Vicksburg, which surrendered to Grant's Federal armies in the West on July 4, the day after the Gettysburg battle.\n\nThe immediate reaction of the Southern military and public sectors was that Gettysburg was a setback, not a disaster. The sentiment was that Lee had been successful on July 1 and had fought a valiant battle on July 2–3, but could not dislodge the Union Army from the strong defensive position to which it fled. The Confederates successfully stood their ground on July 4 and withdrew only after they realized Meade would not attack them. The withdrawal to the Potomac that could have been a disaster was handled masterfully. Furthermore, the Army of the Potomac had been kept away from Virginia farmlands for the summer and all predicted that Meade would be too timid to threaten them for the rest of the year. Lee himself had a positive view of the campaign, writing to his wife that the army had returned \"rather sooner than I had originally contemplated, but having accomplished what I proposed on leaving the Rappahannock, viz., relieving the Valley of the presence of the enemy and drawing his Army north of the Potomac.\" He was quoted as saying to Maj. John Seddon, brother of the Confederate secretary of war, \"Sir, we did whip them at Gettysburg, and it will be seen for the next six months that ''that army'' will be as quiet as a sucking dove.\" Some Southern publications, such as the ''Charleston Mercury'', criticized Lee's actions in the campaign and on August 8, he offered his resignation to President Davis, who quickly rejected it.\n\nGettysburg became a postbellum focus of the \"Lost Cause\", a movement by writers such as Edward A. Pollard and Jubal Early to explain the reasons for the Confederate defeat in the war. A fundamental premise of their argument was that the South was doomed because of the overwhelming advantage in manpower and industrial might possessed by the North. However, they claim it also suffered because Robert E. Lee, who up until this time had been almost invincible, was betrayed by the failures of some of his key subordinates at Gettysburg: Ewell, for failing to seize Cemetery Hill on July 1; Stuart, for depriving the army of cavalry intelligence for a key part of the campaign; and especially Longstreet, for failing to attack on July 2 as early and as forcefully as Lee had originally intended. In this view, Gettysburg was seen as a great lost opportunity, in which a decisive victory by Lee could have meant the end of the war in the Confederacy's favor.\n\nAfter the war, General Pickett was asked why Confederates lost at Gettysburg. He replied \"I always thought the Yankees had something to do with it.\"\n\n===Gettysburg Address===\n\nGettysburg, November 19, 1863. Crowd of citizens, soldiers, and etc., with a red arrow indicating Abraham Lincoln\nGettysburg National Cemetery\nThe ravages of war were still evident in Gettysburg more than four months later when, on November 19, the Soldiers' National Cemetery was dedicated. During this ceremony, President Abraham Lincoln honored the fallen and redefined the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address.\n",
"===Decisive victory controversies ===\n\nThe nature of the result of the Battle of Gettysburg has been the subject of controversy for years. Although not seen as overwhelmingly significant at the time, particularly since the war continued for almost two years, in retrospect it has often been cited as the \"turning point\", usually in combination with the fall of Vicksburg the following day. This is based on the observation that after Gettysburg Lee's army conducted no more strategic offensives—his army merely reacted to the initiative of Ulysses S. Grant in 1864 and 1865—and by the speculative viewpoint of the Lost Cause writers that a Confederate victory at Gettysburg might have resulted in the end of the war.\n\n\nIt is currently a widely held view that Gettysburg was a decisive victory for the Union, but the term is considered imprecise. It is inarguable that Lee's offensive on July 3 was turned back decisively and his campaign in Pennsylvania was terminated prematurely (although the Confederates at the time argued that this was a temporary setback and that the goals of the campaign were largely met). However, when the more common definition of \"decisive victory\" is intended—an indisputable military victory of a battle that determines or significantly influences the ultimate result of a conflict—historians are divided. For example, David J. Eicher called Gettysburg a \"strategic loss for the Confederacy\" and James M. McPherson wrote that \"Lee and his men would go on to earn further laurels. But they never again possessed the power and reputation they carried into Pennsylvania those palmy summer days of 1863.\"\n\nHowever, Herman Hattaway and Archer Jones wrote that the \"strategic impact of the Battle of Gettysburg was ... fairly limited.\" Steven E. Woodworth wrote that \"Gettysburg proved only the near impossibility of decisive action in the Eastern theater.\" Edwin Coddington pointed out the heavy toll on the Army of the Potomac and that \"after the battle Meade no longer possessed a truly effective instrument for the accomplishments of his task. The army needed a thorough reorganization with new commanders and fresh troops, but these changes were not made until Grant appeared on the scene in March 1864.\" Joseph T. Glatthaar wrote that \"Lost opportunities and near successes plagued the Army of Northern Virginia during its Northern invasion,\" yet after Gettysburg, \"without the distractions of duty as an invading force, without the breakdown of discipline, the Army of Northern Virginia remained an extremely formidable force.\" Ed Bearss wrote, \"Lee's invasion of the North had been a costly failure. Nevertheless, at best the Army of the Potomac had simply preserved the strategic stalemate in the Eastern Theater ...\" Furthermore, the Confederacy soon proved it was still capable of winning significant victories over the Northern forces in both the East (Battle of Cold Harbor) and West (Battle of Chickamauga).\n\nPeter Carmichael refers to the military context for the armies, the \"horrendous losses at Chancellorsville and Gettysburg, which effectively destroyed Lee's offensive capacity,\" implying that these cumulative losses were not the result of a single battle. Thomas Goss, writing in the U.S. Army's ''Military Review'' journal on the definition of \"decisive\" and the application of that description to Gettysburg, concludes: \"For all that was decided and accomplished, the Battle of Gettysburg fails to earn the label 'decisive battle'.\" The military historian John Keegan agrees. Gettysburg was a landmark battle, the largest of the war and it would not be surpassed. The Union had restored to it the belief in certain victory, and the loss dispirited the Confederacy. If \"not exactly a decisive battle\", Gettysburg was the end of Confederate use of Northern Virginia as a military buffer zone, the setting for Grant's Overland Campaign.\n\n===Lee vs. Meade===\nGeorge G. Meade\nPrior to Gettysburg, Robert E. Lee had established a reputation as an almost invincible general, achieving stunning victories against superior numbers—although usually at the cost of high casualties to his army—during the Seven Days, the Northern Virginia Campaign (including the Second Battle of Bull Run), Fredericksburg, and Chancellorsville. Only the Maryland Campaign, with its tactically inconclusive Battle of Antietam, had been less than successful. Therefore, historians have attempted to explain how Lee's winning streak was interrupted so dramatically at Gettysburg. Although the issue is tainted by attempts to portray history and Lee's reputation in a manner supporting different partisan goals, the major factors in Lee's loss arguably can be attributed to: (1) his overconfidence in the invincibility of his men; (2) the performance of his subordinates, and his management thereof; (3) his failing health, and (4) the performance of his opponent, George G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac.\n\nRobert E. Lee\nThroughout the campaign, Lee was influenced by the belief that his men were invincible; most of Lee's experiences with the Army of Northern Virginia had convinced him of this, including the great victory at Chancellorsville in early May and the rout of the Union troops at Gettysburg on July 1. Since morale plays an important role in military victory when other factors are equal, Lee did not want to dampen his army's desire to fight and resisted suggestions, principally by Longstreet, to withdraw from the recently captured Gettysburg to select a ground more favorable to his army. War correspondent Peter W. Alexander wrote that Lee \"acted, probably, under the impression that his troops were able to carry any position however formidable. If such was the case, he committed an error, such however as the ablest commanders will sometimes fall into.\" Lee himself concurred with this judgment, writing to President Davis, \"No blame can be attached to the army for its failure to accomplish what was projected by me, nor should it be censured for the unreasonable expectations of the public—I am alone to blame, in perhaps expecting too much of its prowess and valor.\"\n\nThe most controversial assessments of the battle involve the performance of Lee's subordinates. The dominant theme of the Lost Cause writers and many other historians is that Lee's senior generals failed him in crucial ways, directly causing the loss of the battle; the alternative viewpoint is that Lee did not manage his subordinates adequately, and did not thereby compensate for their shortcomings. Two of his corps commanders—Richard S. Ewell and A.P. Hill—had only recently been promoted and were not fully accustomed to Lee's style of command, in which he provided only general objectives and guidance to their former commander, Stonewall Jackson; Jackson translated these into detailed, specific orders to his division commanders. All four of Lee's principal commanders received criticism during the campaign and battle:\n* James Longstreet suffered most severely from the wrath of the Lost Cause authors, not the least because he directly criticized Lee in postbellum writings and became a Republican after the war. His critics accuse him of attacking much later than Lee intended on July 2, squandering a chance to hit the Union Army before its defensive positions had firmed up. They also question his lack of motivation to attack strongly on July 2 and 3 because he had argued that the army should have maneuvered to a place where it would force Meade to attack them. The alternative view is that Lee was in close contact with Longstreet during the battle, agreed to delays on the morning of July 2, and never criticized Longstreet's performance. (There is also considerable speculation about what an attack might have looked like before Dan Sickles moved the III Corps toward the Peach Orchard.)\n* J.E.B. Stuart deprived Lee of cavalry intelligence during a good part of the campaign by taking his three best brigades on a path away from the army's. This arguably led to Lee's surprise at Hooker's vigorous pursuit; the meeting engagement on July 1 that escalated into the full battle prematurely; and it also prevented Lee from understanding the full disposition of the enemy on July 2. The disagreements regarding Stuart's culpability for the situation originate in the relatively vague orders issued by Lee, but most modern historians agree that both generals were responsible to some extent for the failure of the cavalry's mission early in the campaign.\n* Richard S. Ewell has been universally criticized for failing to seize the high ground on the afternoon of July 1. Once again the disagreement centers on Lee's orders, which provided general guidance for Ewell to act \"if practicable.\" Many historians speculate that Stonewall Jackson, if he had survived Chancellorsville, would have aggressively seized Culp's Hill, rendering Cemetery Hill indefensible, and changing the entire complexion of the battle. A differently worded order from Lee might have made the difference with this subordinate.\n* A.P. Hill has received some criticism for his ineffective performance. His actions caused the battle to begin and then escalate on July 1, despite Lee's orders not to bring on a general engagement (although historians point out that Hill kept Lee well informed of his actions during the day). However, Hill's illness minimized his personal involvement in the remainder of the battle, and Lee took the explicit step of temporarily removing troops from Hill's corps and giving them to Longstreet for Pickett's Charge.\n\nWinfield S. Hancock\nIn addition to Hill's illness, Lee's performance was affected by heart troubles, which would eventually lead to his death in 1870; he had been diagnosed with pericarditis by his staff physicians in March 1863, though modern doctors believe he had in fact suffered a heart attack. He wrote to Jefferson Davis that his physical condition prevented him from offering full supervision in the field, and said, \"I am so dull that in making use of the eyes of others I am frequently misled.\"\n\nAs a final factor, Lee faced a new and formidable opponent in George G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac fought well on its home territory. Although new to his army command, Meade deployed his forces relatively effectively; relied on strong subordinates such as Winfield S. Hancock to make decisions where and when they were needed; took great advantage of defensive positions; nimbly shifted defensive resources on interior lines to parry strong threats; and, unlike some of his predecessors, stood his ground throughout the battle in the face of fierce Confederate attacks.\n\nLee was quoted before the battle as saying Meade \"would commit no blunders on my front and if I make one ... will make haste to take advantage of it.\" That prediction proved to be correct at Gettysburg. Stephen Sears wrote, \"The fact of the matter is that George G. Meade, unexpectedly and against all odds, thoroughly outgeneraled Robert E. Lee at Gettysburg.\" Edwin B. Coddington wrote that the soldiers of the Army of the Potomac received a \"sense of triumph which grew into an imperishable faith in themselves. The men knew what they could do under an extremely competent general; one of lesser ability and courage could well have lost the battle.\"\n\nMeade had his own detractors as well. Similar to the situation with Lee, Meade suffered partisan attacks about his performance at Gettysburg, but he had the misfortune of experiencing them in person. Supporters of his predecessor, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, lambasted Meade before the U.S. Congress's Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, where Radical Republicans suspected that Meade was a Copperhead and tried in vain to relieve him from command. Daniel E. Sickles and Daniel Butterfield accused Meade of planning to retreat from Gettysburg during the battle. Most politicians, including Lincoln, criticized Meade for what they considered to be his half-hearted pursuit of Lee after the battle. A number of Meade's most competent subordinates—Winfield S. Hancock, John Gibbon, Gouverneur K. Warren, and Henry J. Hunt, all heroes of the battle—defended Meade in print, but Meade was embittered by the overall experience.\n",
"\n\nToday, the Gettysburg National Cemetery and Gettysburg National Military Park are maintained by the U.S. National Park Service as two of the nation's most revered historical landmarks. Although Gettysburg is one of the best known of all Civil War battlefields, it too faces threats to its preservation and interpretation. Many historically significant locations on the battlefield lie outside the boundaries of Gettysburg National Military Park and are vulnerable to residential or commercial development.\n\nOn July 20, 2009, a Comfort Inn and Suites opened on Cemetery Hill, adjacent to Evergreen Cemetery, just one of many modern edifices infringing on the historic field. The Baltimore Pike corridor attracts development that concerns preservationists.\n\nSome preservation successes have emerged in recent years. Two proposals to open a casino at Gettysburg were defeated in 2006 and most recently in 2011, when public pressure forced the Pennsylvania Gaming Control Board to reject the proposed gambling hub at the intersection of Routes 15 and 30, near East Cavalry Field. The Civil War Trust also successfully purchased and transferred 95 acres at the former site of the Gettysburg Country Club to the control of the U.S. Department of the Interior in 2011.\n\nLess than half of the over 11,500 acres on the old Gettysburg Battlefield have been preserved for posterity thus far. The Civil War Trust has preserved 815 acres around the site, some of which is now part of the 4,998 acres of Gettysburg National Military Park.\n",
"Gettysburg Centennial Commemorative issue of 1963\nGettysburg National Military Park Quarter, issued 2011\n\nDuring the Civil War Centennial, the U.S. Post Office issued five postage stamps commemorating the 100th anniversaries of famous battles, as they occurred over a four-year period, beginning with the Battle of Fort Sumter Centennial issue of 1961. The Battle of Shiloh commemorative stamp was issued in 1962, the Battle of Gettysburg in 1963, the Battle of the Wilderness in 1964, and the Appomattox Centennial commemorative stamp in 1965.\n\nA commemorative half dollar for the battle was produced in 1936. As was typical for the period, mintage for the coin was very low, just 26,928. On January 24, 2011, the America the Beautiful quarters released a 25-cent coin commemorating Gettysburg National Military Park and the Battle of Gettysburg. The reverse side of the coin depicts the monument on Cemetery Ridge to the 72nd Pennsylvania Infantry.\n\n",
"Film records survive of two Gettysburg reunions, held on the battlefield. At the 50th anniversary (1913), veterans re-enacted Pickett's Charge in a spirit of reconciliation, a meeting that carried great emotional force for both sides. At the 75th anniversary (1938), 2500 veterans attended, and there was a ceremonial mass hand-shake across a stone wall. This was recorded on sound film, and some Confederates can be heard giving the Rebel Yell.\n\nIced Earth's three-part song cycle ''Gettysburg (1863)'', published in 2004, dramatizes the battle.\n\nThe Battle of Gettysburg was depicted in the 1993 film ''Gettysburg'', based on Michael Shaara's 1974 novel ''The Killer Angels''. The film and novel focused primarily on the actions of Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain, John Buford, Robert E. Lee, and James Longstreet during the battle. The first day focused on Buford's cavalry defense, the second day on Chamberlain's defense at Little Round Top, and the third day on Pickett's Charge.\n\nThe south winning the Battle of Gettysburg is a popular premise for a point of divergence in American Civil War alternate histories. Here are some examples which either depict or make significant reference to an alternate Battle of Gettysburg (sometimes simply inserting fantasy or sci-fi elements in an account of the battle):\n*Novels: ''Bring the Jubilee'' by Ward Moore; ''If the South Had Won the Civil War'' by Mackinlay Kantor; Civil War Trilogy (''Gettysburg, Grant Comes East, Never Call Retreat'') by Newt Gingrich, William R. Forstchen, and Albert S. Hanser; ''Stonewall Jackson at Gettysburg'' by Douglas Lee Gibboney; ''By Force of Arms'' by Billy Bennett. Also: Harry Turtledove's Southern Victory series has an analogous battle taking place at Camp Hill, another southeast Pennsylvania town.\n*Short fiction: \"If Lee Had NOT Won the Battle of Gettysburg\" by Winston Churchill in ''If It Had Happened Otherwise'' and ''If, or History Rewritten'', \"Sidewise in Time\" by Murray Leinster in various collections, \"A Hard Day for Mother\" by William R. Forstchen in ''Alternate Generals'' 1, \"An Old Man's Summer\" by Esther Friesner also in AG 1, \"If the Lost Order Hadn't Been Lost\" by James M. McPherson in ''What If?'' and ''What Ifs? of American History'', \"East of Appomattox\" by Lee Allred in ''Alternate Generals'' 3. Also: In \"Maureen Birnbaum on the Art of War\" (tribute to Horseclans) within George Alec Effinger's sword and sorcery spoof ''Maureen Birnbaum, Barbarian Swordsperson'', two armies in a post-apocalyptic world fight a battle at the Gettysburg site sometime in our distant future.\n*Film and television: ''The Time Tunnel'' episode 25 \"The Death Merchant,\" ''Twin Peaks'' Season 2 (as a play within a play acted out by characters in the 1990s), ''C.S.A.: The Confederate States of America'', ''Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter''\n*''X-Men:Origins Wolverine''\n*''Ultimate General: Gettysburg'' is a tactical battle simulator video game first released in June 2014 that allows the player to lead soldiers of either side in the Battle of Gettysburg. An expanded version of the game, ''Ultimate General: Civil War'', covering the entire 4-year conflict, was pre-released in November 2016.\n",
"\n* Bibliography of the American Civil War\n* Troop engagements of the American Civil War, 1863\n* List of costliest American Civil War land battles\n* Gettysburg Cyclorama, a painting by the French artist Paul Philippoteaux depicting Pickett's Charge\n* Armies in the American Civil War\n* Battles of the American Civil War\n* Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant\n",
"\n",
"* Bearss, Edwin C. ''Fields of Honor: Pivotal Battles of the Civil War''. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2006. .\n* Busey, John W., and David G. Martin. ''Regimental Strengths and Losses at Gettysburg'', 4th ed. Hightstown, NJ: Longstreet House, 2005. .\n* Carmichael, Peter S., ed. ''Audacity Personified: The Generalship of Robert E. Lee''. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2004. .\n* Catton, Bruce. ''Glory Road''. Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, 1952. .\n* Clark, Champ, and the Editors of Time-Life Books. ''Gettysburg: The Confederate High Tide''. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1985. .\n* Coddington, Edwin B. ''The Gettysburg Campaign; a study in command''. New York: Scribner's, 1968. .\n* Donald, David Herbert. ''Lincoln''. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995. .\n* Eicher, David J. ''The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War''. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. .\n* Esposito, Vincent J. ''West Point Atlas of American Wars''. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1959. . The collection of maps (without explanatory text) is available online at the West Point website.\n* Foote, Shelby. ''The Civil War: A Narrative''. Vol. 2, ''Fredericksburg to Meridian''. New York: Random House, 1958. .\n* Fuller, Maj. Gen. J. F. C. ''Grant and Lee: A Study in Personality and Generalship''. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1957. .\n* Gallagher, Gary W. ''Lee and His Army in Confederate History''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. .\n* Gallagher, Gary W. ''Lee and His Generals in War and Memory''. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1998. .\n* Glatthaar, Joseph T. ''General Lee's Army: From Victory to Collapse''. New York: Free Press, 2008. .\n* Harman, Troy D. ''Lee's Real Plan at Gettysburg''. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2003. .\n* Hattaway, Herman, and Archer Jones. ''How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War''. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983. .\n* Keegan, John. ''The American Civil War: A Military History''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2009. .\n* Longacre, Edward G. ''The Cavalry at Gettysburg''. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986. .\n* McPherson, James M. ''Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era''. Oxford History of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. .\n* Martin, David G. ''Gettysburg July 1''. rev. ed. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Publishing, 1996. .\n* Murray, Williamson and Wayne Wei-siang Hsieh. \"A Savage War:A Military History of the Civil War\". Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2016. .\n* Nye, Wilbur S. ''Here Come the Rebels!'' Dayton, OH: Morningside House, 1984. . First published in 1965 by Louisiana State University Press.\n* Pfanz, Harry W. ''Gettysburg – The First Day''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. .\n* Pfanz, Harry W. ''Gettysburg – The Second Day''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987. .\n* Pfanz, Harry W. ''Gettysburg: Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993. .\n*\n* Sauers, Richard A. \"Battle of Gettysburg.\" In ''Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History'', edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2000. .\n* Sears, Stephen W. ''Gettysburg''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003. .\n* Symonds, Craig L. ''American Heritage History of the Battle of Gettysburg''. New York: HarperCollins, 2001. .\n* Tagg, Larry. ''The Generals of Gettysburg''. Campbell, CA: Savas Publishing, 1998. .\n* Trudeau, Noah Andre. ''Gettysburg: A Testing of Courage''. New York: HarperCollins, 2002. .\n* Tucker, Glenn. ''High Tide at Gettysburg''. Dayton, OH: Morningside House, 1983. . First published 1958 by Bobbs-Merrill Co.\n* Wert, Jeffry D. ''Gettysburg: Day Three''. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. .\n* White, Ronald C., Jr. ''The Eloquent President: A Portrait of Lincoln Through His Words''. New York: Random House, 2005. .\n* Wittenberg, Eric J., J. David Petruzzi, and Michael F. Nugent. ''One Continuous Fight: The Retreat from Gettysburg and the Pursuit of Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, July 4–14, 1863''. New York: Savas Beatie, 2008. .\n* Woodworth, Steven E. ''Beneath a Northern Sky: A Short History of the Gettysburg Campaign''. Wilmington, DE: SR Books (scholarly Resources, Inc.), 2003. .\n\n===Memoirs and primary sources===\n* Paris, Louis-Philippe-Albert d'Orléans. ''The Battle of Gettysburg: A History of the Civil War in America''. Digital Scanning, Inc., 1999. . First published 1869 by Germer Baillière.\n* New York (State), William F. Fox, and Daniel Edgar Sickles. ''New York at Gettysburg: Final Report on the Battlefield of Gettysburg''. Albany, NY: J.B. Lyon Company, Printers, 1900. .\n* U.S. War Department, ''The War of the Rebellion'': ''a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies''. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901.\n",
"* Adkin, Mark. ''The Gettysburg Companion: The Complete Guide to America's Most Famous Battle''. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2008. .\n* Bachelder, John B. ''The Bachelder Papers: Gettysburg in Their Own Words''. Edited by David L. Ladd and Audrey J. Ladd. 3 vols. Dayton, OH: Morningside Press, 1994. .\n* Bachelder, John B. ''Gettysburg: What to See, and How to See It: Embodying Full Information for Visiting the Field''. Boston: Bachelder, 1873. .\n* Ballard, Ted, and Billy Arthur. ''Gettysburg Staff Ride Briefing Book''. Carlisle, PA: United States Army Center of Military History, 1999. .\n* Bearss, Edwin C. ''Receding Tide: Vicksburg and Gettysburg: The Campaigns That Changed the Civil War''. Washington DC: National Geographic Society, 2010. .\n* Boritt, Gabor S., ed. ''The Gettysburg Nobody Knows''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. .\n* Desjardin, Thomas A. ''These Honored Dead: How the Story of Gettysburg Shaped American Memory''. New York: Da Capo Press, 2003. .\n* Frassanito, William A. ''Early Photography at Gettysburg''. Gettysburg, PA: Thomas Publications, 1995. .\n* Lyon Fremantle, Arthur J. ''The Fremantle Diary: A Journal of the Confederacy''. Edited by Walter Lord. Short Hills, NJ: Burford Books, 2002. . First published 1954 by Capicorn Books.\n* Gallagher, Gary W., ed. ''Three Days at Gettysburg: Essays on Confederate and Union Leadership''. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1999. .\n* Gottfried, Bradley M. ''Brigades of Gettysburg''. New York: Da Capo Press, 2002. .\n* Gottfried, Bradley M. ''The Maps of Gettysburg: An Atlas of the Gettysburg Campaign, June 3 – 13, 1863''. New York: Savas Beatie, 2007. .\n* Grimsley, Mark, and Brooks D. Simpson. ''Gettysburg: A Battlefield Guide''. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999. .\n* Guelzo, Allen C. ''Gettysburg: The Last Invasion''. New York: Vintage Books, 2013. . First published in 2013 by Alfred A. Knopf.\n* Hall, Jeffrey C. ''The Stand of the U.S. Army at Gettysburg''. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003. .\n* Haskell, Frank Aretas. ''The Battle of Gettysburg''. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2006. .\n* Hawthorne, Frederick W. ''Gettysburg: Stories of Men and Monuments''. Gettysburg, PA: Association of Licensed Battlefield Guides, 1988. .\n* Hoptak, John David. ''Confrontation at Gettysburg: A Nation Saved, a Cause Lost''. Charleston, SC: The History Press, 2012. .\n* Huntington, Tom. ''Pennsylvania Civil War Trails: The Guide to Battle Sites, Monuments, Museums and Towns''. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2007. .\n* Laino, Philip, ''Gettysburg Campaign Atlas'', 2nd ed. Dayton, OH: Gatehouse Press 2009. .\n* McMurry, Richard M. \"The Pennsylvania Gambit and the Gettysburg Splash.\" In ''The Gettysburg Nobody Knows'', edited by Gabor Boritt. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. .\n* McPherson, James M. ''Hallowed Ground: A Walk at Gettysburg''. New York: Crown Publishers, 2003. .\n* Petruzzi, J. David, and Steven Stanley. ''The Complete Gettysburg Guide''. New York: Savas Beatie, 2009. .\n* Shaara, Michael. ''The Killer Angels: A Novel''. New York: Ballantine Books, 2001. . First published 1974 by David McKay Co.\n* Stackpole, Gen. Edward J. ''They Met at Gettysburg''. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1956, .\n",
"\n\n\n* Battle of Gettysburg: '''Battle Maps''', histories, photos, and preservation news (Civil War Trust)\n* '''Animated map''' of the Battle of Gettysburg (Civil War Trust)\n* Gettysburg National Military Park (National Park Service)\n* Papers of the Gettysburg National Military Park seminars\n* U.S. Army's Interactive Battle of Gettysburg with Narratives\n* Military History Online: The Battle of Gettysburg\n* Official Records: The Battle of Gettysburg\n* The Brothers War: The Battle of Gettysburg\n* Gettysburg Discussion Group archives\n* List of 53 Confederate generals at Gettysburg\n* Encyclopædia Britannica: Battle of Gettysburg\n* National Park Service battle description\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Background",
"Opposing forces",
"First day of battle",
"Second day of battle",
"Third day of battle",
"Aftermath",
"Historical assessment",
"Battlefield preservation",
"Commemoration in U.S. postage and coinage",
"In popular culture",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Battle of Gettysburg | [
"The recently rain-swollen Potomac trapped Lee's army on the north bank of the river for a time, but when the Union troops finally caught up, the Confederates had forded the river."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n\nNorthern Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania (1861-1865)\nGettysburg Campaign, (1863)\nBattlefield of Gettysburg, (1863)\n\nThe '''Battle of Gettysburg''' (, with an sound) was fought July 1–3, 1863, in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, by Union and Confederate forces during the American Civil War.",
"The battle involved the largest number of casualties of the entire war and is often described as the war's turning point.",
"Union Maj. Gen. George Meade's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, halting Lee's invasion of the North.",
"After his success at Chancellorsville in Virginia in May 1863, Lee led his army through the Shenandoah Valley to begin his second invasion of the North—the Gettysburg Campaign.",
"With his army in high spirits, Lee intended to shift the focus of the summer campaign from war-ravaged northern Virginia and hoped to influence Northern politicians to give up their prosecution of the war by penetrating as far as Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, or even Philadelphia.",
"Prodded by President Abraham Lincoln, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker moved his army in pursuit, but was relieved of command just three days before the battle and replaced by Meade.",
"Elements of the two armies initially collided at Gettysburg on July 1, 1863, as Lee urgently concentrated his forces there, his objective being to engage the Union army and destroy it.",
"Low ridges to the northwest of town were defended initially by a Union cavalry division under Brig.",
"Gen. John Buford, and soon reinforced with two corps of Union infantry.",
"However, two large Confederate corps assaulted them from the northwest and north, collapsing the hastily developed Union lines, sending the defenders retreating through the streets of the town to the hills just to the south.",
"On the second day of battle, most of both armies had assembled.",
"The Union line was laid out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook.",
"In the late afternoon of July 2, Lee launched a heavy assault on the Union left flank, and fierce fighting raged at Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devil's Den, and the Peach Orchard.",
"On the Union right, Confederate demonstrations escalated into full-scale assaults on Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill.",
"All across the battlefield, despite significant losses, the Union defenders held their lines.",
"On the third day of battle, fighting resumed on Culp's Hill, and cavalry battles raged to the east and south, but the main event was a dramatic infantry assault by 12,500 Confederates against the center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge, known as Pickett's Charge.",
"The charge was repulsed by Union rifle and artillery fire, at great loss to the Confederate army.",
"Lee led his army on a torturous retreat back to Virginia.",
"Between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the three-day battle, the most costly in US history.",
"On November 19, President Lincoln used the dedication ceremony for the Gettysburg National Cemetery to honor the fallen Union soldiers and redefine the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address.",
"===Military situation===\n\n\n\nGettysburg Campaign (through July 3); cavalry movements shown with dashed lines \n\n\n\nhachures, drainage, roads, railroads, and houses with the names of residents at the time of the Battle of Gettysburg.",
"A ''Harper's Weekly'' illustration showing Confederate troops escorting captured African American civilians south into slavery.",
"En route to Gettysburg, the Army of Northern Virginia kidnapped approximately 40 black civilians and sent them south into slavery.",
"Shortly after the Army of Northern Virginia won a major victory over the Army of the Potomac at the Battle of Chancellorsville (April 30 – May 6, 1863), Robert E. Lee decided upon a second invasion of the North (the first was the unsuccessful Maryland Campaign of September 1862, which ended in the bloody Battle of Antietam).",
"Such a move would upset U.S. plans for the summer campaigning season and possibly reduce the pressure on the besieged Confederate garrison at Vicksburg.",
"The invasion would allow the Confederates to live off the bounty of the rich Northern farms while giving war-ravaged Virginia a much-needed rest.",
"In addition, Lee's 72,000-man army could threaten Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and possibly strengthen the growing peace movement in the North.",
"===Initial movements to battle===\nThus, on June 3, Lee's army began to shift northward from Fredericksburg, Virginia.",
"Following the death of Thomas J.",
"\"Stonewall\" Jackson, Lee reorganized his two large corps into three new corps, commanded by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet (First Corps), Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell (Second), and Lt. Gen. A.P.",
"Hill (Third); both Ewell and Hill, who had formerly reported to Jackson as division commanders, were new to this level of responsibility.",
"The Cavalry Division remained under the command of Maj. Gen. J.E.B.",
"Stuart.",
"The Union Army of the Potomac, under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, consisted of seven infantry corps, a cavalry corps, and an Artillery Reserve, for a combined strength of more than 100,000 men.",
"The first major action of the campaign took place on June 9 between cavalry forces at Brandy Station, near Culpeper, Virginia.",
"The 9,500 Confederate cavalrymen under Stuart were surprised by Maj. Gen. Alfred Pleasonton's combined arms force of two cavalry divisions (8,000 troopers) and 3,000 infantry, but Stuart eventually repulsed the Union attack.",
"The inconclusive battle, the largest predominantly cavalry engagement of the war, proved for the first time that the Union horse soldier was equal to his Southern counterpart.",
"By mid-June, the Army of Northern Virginia was poised to cross the Potomac River and enter Maryland.",
"After defeating the U.S. garrisons at Winchester and Martinsburg, Ewell's Second Corps began crossing the river on June 15.",
"Hill's and Longstreet's corps followed on June 24 and 25.",
"Hooker's army pursued, keeping between the U.S. capital and Lee's army.",
"The U.S. crossed the Potomac from June 25 to 27.",
"Lee gave strict orders for his army to minimize any negative impacts on the civilian population.",
"Food, horses, and other supplies were generally not seized outright, although quartermasters reimbursing Northern farmers and merchants with Confederate money were not well received.",
"Various towns, most notably York, Pennsylvania, were required to pay indemnities in lieu of supplies, under threat of destruction.",
"During the invasion, the Confederates seized some 40 northern African Americans.",
"A few of them were escaped fugitive slaves, but most were freemen; all were sent south into slavery under guard.",
"On June 26, elements of Maj. Gen. Jubal Early's division of Ewell's Corps occupied the town of Gettysburg after chasing off newly raised Pennsylvania militia in a series of minor skirmishes.",
"Early laid the borough under tribute but did not collect any significant supplies.",
"Soldiers burned several railroad cars and a covered bridge, and destroyed nearby rails and telegraph lines.",
"The following morning, Early departed for adjacent York County.",
"Meanwhile, in a controversial move, Lee allowed J.E.B.",
"Stuart to take a portion of the army's cavalry and ride around the east flank of the Union army.",
"Lee's orders gave Stuart much latitude, and both generals share the blame for the long absence of Stuart's cavalry, as well as for the failure to assign a more active role to the cavalry left with the army.",
"Stuart and his three best brigades were absent from the army during the crucial phase of the approach to Gettysburg and the first two days of battle.",
"By June 29, Lee's army was strung out in an arc from Chambersburg ( northwest of Gettysburg) to Carlisle ( north of Gettysburg) to near Harrisburg and Wrightsville on the Susquehanna River.",
"In a dispute over the use of the forces defending the Harpers Ferry garrison, Hooker offered his resignation, and Abraham Lincoln and General-in-Chief Henry W. Halleck, who were looking for an excuse to get rid of him, immediately accepted.",
"They replaced Hooker early on the morning of June 28 with Maj. Gen. George Gordon Meade, then commander of the V Corps.",
"On June 29, when Lee learned that the Army of the Potomac had crossed the Potomac River, he ordered a concentration of his forces around Cashtown, located at the eastern base of South Mountain and west of Gettysburg.",
"On June 30, while part of Hill's Corps was in Cashtown, one of Hill's brigades, North Carolinians under Brig.",
"Gen. J. Johnston Pettigrew, ventured toward Gettysburg.",
"In his memoirs, Maj. Gen. Henry Heth, Pettigrew's division commander, claimed that he sent Pettigrew to search for supplies in town—especially shoes.",
"When Pettigrew's troops approached Gettysburg on June 30, they noticed Union cavalry under Brig.",
"Gen. John Buford arriving south of town, and Pettigrew returned to Cashtown without engaging them.",
"When Pettigrew told Hill and Heth what he had seen, neither general believed that there was a substantial U.S. force in or near the town, suspecting that it had been only Pennsylvania militia.",
"Despite General Lee's order to avoid a general engagement until his entire army was concentrated, Hill decided to mount a significant reconnaissance in force the following morning to determine the size and strength of the enemy force in his front.",
"Around 5 a.m. on Wednesday, July 1, two brigades of Heth's division advanced to Gettysburg.",
"===Union===\n\n\nKey commanders ('''Army of the Potomac''')\n\n\nFile:George G. Meade Standing.jpg|Maj.",
"Gen.George Meade, ('''Commanding''') USA\n\nFile:GenJFRenyolds.jpg|Maj.",
"Gen.John F. Reynolds, USA\nFile:WinfieldSHancock.png|Maj.",
"Gen.Winfield Scott Hancock, USA\nFile:Daniel Edgar Sickles.jpg|Maj.",
"Gen.Daniel Sickles, USA\nFile:GenGS.jpg|Maj.",
"Gen.George Sykes, USA\nFile:John Sedgwick.png|Maj.",
"Gen.John Sedgwick, USA\nFile:Oliver Otis Howard.jpg|Maj.",
"Gen.Oliver Otis Howard, USA\nFile:Henry Warner Slocum.jpg|Maj.",
"Gen.Henry Warner Slocum, USA\nFile:Alfred Pleasonton.jpg|Maj.",
"Gen.Alfred Pleasonton, USA\n\n\n\nThe '''Army of the Potomac''', initially under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker (Maj. Gen. George Meade replaced Hooker in command on June 28), consisted of more than 100,000 men in the following organization:\n* I Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. John F. Reynolds, with divisions commanded by Brig.",
"Gen. James S. Wadsworth, Brig.",
"Gen. John C. Robinson, and Maj. Gen. Abner Doubleday.",
"* II Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock, with divisions commanded by Brig.",
"Gens.",
"John C. Caldwell, John Gibbon, and Alexander Hays.",
"* III Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Daniel Sickles, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gen. David B. Birney and Maj. Gen. Andrew A. Humphreys.",
"* V Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. George Sykes (George G. Meade until June 28), with divisions commanded by Brig.",
"Gens.",
"James Barnes, Romeyn B. Ayres, and Samuel W. Crawford.",
"* VI Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. John Sedgwick, with divisions commanded by Brig.",
"Gen. Horatio G. Wright, Brig.",
"Gen. Albion P. Howe, and Maj. Gen. John Newton.",
"* XI Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Oliver Otis Howard, with divisions commanded by Brig.",
"Gen. Francis C. Barlow, Brig.",
"Gen. Adolph von Steinwehr, and Maj. Gen. Carl Schurz.",
"* XII Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Henry W. Slocum, with divisions commanded by Brig.",
"Gens.",
"Alpheus S. Williams and John W. Geary.",
"* Cavalry Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Alfred Pleasonton, with divisions commanded by Brig.",
"Gens.",
"John Buford, David McM.",
"Gregg, and H. Judson Kilpatrick.",
"* Artillery Reserve, commanded by Brig.",
"Gen. Robert O. Tyler.",
"(The preeminent artillery officer at Gettysburg was Brig.",
"Gen. Henry J.",
"Hunt, chief of artillery on Meade's staff.)",
"During the advance on Gettysburg, Maj. Gen. Reynolds was in operational command of the left, or advanced, wing of the Army, consisting of the I, III, and XI Corps.",
"Note that many other Union units (not part of the Army of the Potomac) were actively involved in the Gettysburg Campaign, but not directly involved in the Battle of Gettysburg.",
"These included portions of the Union IV Corps, the militia and state troops of the Department of the Susquehanna, and various garrisons, including that at Harpers Ferry.",
"===Confederate===\n\n\nKey commanders ('''Army of Northern Virginia''')\n\n\nFile:Robert Edward Lee.jpg|Gen.Robert E. Lee, ('''Commanding''') CSA\nFile:James Longstreet.jpg|Lt.",
"Gen.James Longstreet, CSA\nFile:Richard S Ewell.png|Lt.. Gen.Richard S. Ewell, CSA\nFile:Image of Lieutenant General A.P.",
"Hill.jpg|Lt.",
"Gen.A.",
"P. Hill, CSA\nFile:Jeb stuart.jpg|Maj.",
"Gen.J.E.B.",
"Stuart, CSA\n\n\n\nIn reaction to the death of Lt. Gen. Thomas J.",
"\"Stonewall\" Jackson after Chancellorsville, Lee reorganized his '''Army of Northern Virginia''' (75,000 men) from two infantry corps into three.",
"* First Corps, commanded by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gens.",
"Lafayette McLaws, George Pickett, and John Bell Hood.",
"* Second Corps, commanded by Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gens.",
"Jubal A.",
"Early, Edward \"Allegheny\" Johnson, and Robert E. Rodes.",
"* Third Corps, commanded by Lt. Gen. A.P.",
"Hill, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gens.",
"Richard H. Anderson, Henry Heth, and W. Dorsey Pender.",
"* Cavalry division, commanded by Maj. Gen. J.E.B.",
"Stuart, with brigades commanded by Brig.",
"Gens.",
"Wade Hampton, Fitzhugh Lee, Beverly H. Robertson, Albert G. Jenkins, William E. \"Grumble\" Jones, and John D. Imboden, and Col. John R. Chambliss.",
"\nOverview map of the first day of the Battle of Gettysburg, July 1, 1863\n\n===Herr Ridge, McPherson Ridge and Seminary Ridge===\nAnticipating that the Confederates would march on Gettysburg from the west on the morning of July 1, Buford laid out his defenses on three ridges west of the town: '''Herr Ridge''', '''McPherson Ridge''' and '''Seminary Ridge'''.",
"These were appropriate terrain for a delaying action by his small cavalry division against superior Confederate infantry forces, meant to buy time awaiting the arrival of Union infantrymen who could occupy the strong defensive positions south of town at Cemetery Hill, Cemetery Ridge, and Culp's Hill.",
"Buford understood that if the Confederates could gain control of these heights, Meade's army would have difficulty dislodging them.",
"First shot monument\nHeth's division advanced with two brigades forward, commanded by Brig.",
"Gens.",
"James J. Archer and Joseph R. Davis.",
"They proceeded easterly in columns along the Chambersburg Pike.",
"west of town, about 7:30 a.m. on July 1, the two brigades met light resistance from vedettes of Union cavalry, and deployed into line.",
"According to lore, the Union soldier to fire the first shot of the battle was Lt. Marcellus Jones.",
"In 1886 Lt. Jones returned to Gettysburg to mark the spot where he fired the first shot with a monument.",
"Eventually, Heth's men reached dismounted troopers of Col. William Gamble's cavalry brigade, who raised determined resistance and delaying tactics from behind fence posts with fire from their breechloading carbines.",
"Still, by 10:20 a.m., the Confederates had pushed the Union cavalrymen east to McPherson Ridge, when the vanguard of the I Corps (Maj. Gen. John F. Reynolds) finally arrived.",
"North of the pike, Davis gained a temporary success against Brig.",
"Gen. Lysander Cutler's brigade but was repulsed with heavy losses in an action around an unfinished railroad bed cut in the ridge.",
"South of the pike, Archer's brigade assaulted through Herbst (also known as McPherson's) Woods.",
"The U.S. Iron Brigade under Brig.",
"Gen. Solomon Meredith enjoyed initial success against Archer, capturing several hundred men, including Archer himself.",
"General Reynolds was shot and killed early in the fighting while directing troop and artillery placements just to the east of the woods.",
"Shelby Foote wrote that the Union cause lost a man considered by many to be \"the best general in the army.\"",
"Maj. Gen. Abner Doubleday assumed command.",
"Fighting in the Chambersburg Pike area lasted until about 12:30 p.m.",
"It resumed around 2:30 p.m., when Heth's entire division engaged, adding the brigades of Pettigrew and Col. John M. Brockenbrough.",
"As Pettigrew's North Carolina Brigade came on line, they flanked the 19th Indiana and drove the Iron Brigade back.",
"The 26th North Carolina (the largest regiment in the army with 839 men) lost heavily, leaving the first day's fight with around 212 men.",
"By the end of the three-day battle, they had about 152 men standing, the highest casualty percentage for one battle of any regiment, North or South.",
"Slowly the Iron Brigade was pushed out of the woods toward Seminary Ridge.",
"Hill added Maj. Gen. William Dorsey Pender's division to the assault, and the I Corps was driven back through the grounds of the Lutheran Seminary and Gettysburg streets.",
"As the fighting to the west proceeded, two divisions of Ewell's Second Corps, marching west toward Cashtown in accordance with Lee's order for the army to concentrate in that vicinity, turned south on the Carlisle and Harrisburg roads toward Gettysburg, while the Union XI Corps (Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard) raced north on the Baltimore Pike and Taneytown Road.",
"By early afternoon, the U.S. line ran in a semicircle west, north, and northeast of Gettysburg.",
"However, the U.S. did not have enough troops; Cutler, whose brigade was deployed north of the Chambersburg Pike, had his right flank in the air.",
"The leftmost division of the XI Corps was unable to deploy in time to strengthen the line, so Doubleday was forced to throw in reserve brigades to salvage his line.",
"Around 2 p.m., the Confederate Second Corps divisions of Maj. Gens.",
"Robert E. Rodes and Jubal Early assaulted and out-flanked the Union I and XI Corps positions north and northwest of town.",
"The Confederate brigades of Col. Edward A. O'Neal and Brig.",
"Gen. Alfred Iverson suffered severe losses assaulting the I Corps division of Brig.",
"Gen. John C. Robinson south of Oak Hill.",
"Early's division profited from a blunder by Brig.",
"Gen. Francis C. Barlow, when he advanced his XI Corps division to Blocher's Knoll (directly north of town and now known as Barlow's Knoll); this represented a salient in the corps line, susceptible to attack from multiple sides, and Early's troops overran Barlow's division, which constituted the right flank of the Union Army's position.",
"Barlow was wounded and captured in the attack.",
"As U.S. positions collapsed both north and west of town, Gen. Howard ordered a retreat to the high ground south of town at Cemetery Hill, where he had left the division of Brig.",
"Gen. Adolph von Steinwehr in reserve.",
"Maj. Gen. Winfield S. Hancock assumed command of the battlefield, sent by Meade when he heard that Reynolds had been killed.",
"Hancock, commander of the II Corps and Meade's most trusted subordinate, was ordered to take command of the field and to determine whether Gettysburg was an appropriate place for a major battle.",
"Hancock told Howard, \"I think this the strongest position by nature upon which to fight a battle that I ever saw.\"",
"When Howard agreed, Hancock concluded the discussion: \"Very well, sir, I select this as the battle-field.\"",
"Hancock's determination had a morale-boosting effect on the retreating Union soldiers, but he played no direct tactical role on the first day.",
"General Lee understood the defensive potential to the Union if they held this high ground.",
"He sent orders to Ewell that Cemetery Hill be taken \"if practicable.\"",
"Ewell, who had previously served under Stonewall Jackson, a general well known for issuing peremptory orders, determined such an assault was not practicable and, thus, did not attempt it; this decision is considered by historians to be a great missed opportunity.",
"The first day at Gettysburg, more significant than simply a prelude to the bloody second and third days, ranks as the 23rd biggest battle of the war by number of troops engaged.",
"About one quarter of Meade's army (22,000 men) and one third of Lee's army (27,000) were engaged.",
"Robert E. Lee's plan for July 2, 1863\n\n\n===Plans and movement to battle===\nThroughout the evening of July 1 and morning of July 2, most of the remaining infantry of both armies arrived on the field, including the Union II, III, V, VI, and XII Corps.",
"Two of Longstreet's brigades were on the road: Brig.",
"Gen. George Pickett, had begun the 22 mile (35 km) march from Chambersburg, while Brig.",
"Gen. E. M. Law had begun the march from Guilford.",
"Both arrived late in the morning.",
"Law completed his 28-mile (45 km) march in eleven hours.",
"The Union line ran from Culp's Hill southeast of the town, northwest to Cemetery Hill just south of town, then south for nearly along Cemetery Ridge, terminating just north of Little Round Top.",
"Most of the XII Corps was on Culp's Hill; the remnants of I and XI Corps defended Cemetery Hill; II Corps covered most of the northern half of Cemetery Ridge; and III Corps was ordered to take up a position to its flank.",
"The shape of the Union line is popularly described as a \"fishhook\" formation.",
"The Confederate line paralleled the Union line about a mile (1,600 m) to the west on Seminary Ridge, ran east through the town, then curved southeast to a point opposite Culp's Hill.",
"Thus, the Union army had interior lines, while the Confederate line was nearly long.",
"Lee's battle plan for July 2 called for a general assault of Meade's positions.",
"On the right, Longstreet's First Corps was to position itself to attack the Union left flank, facing northeast astraddle the Emmitsburg Road, and to roll up the U.S.line.",
"The attack sequence was to begin with Maj. Gens.",
"John Bell Hood's and Lafayette McLaws's divisions, followed by Maj. Gen. Richard H. Anderson's division of Hill's Third Corps.",
"On the left, Lee instructed Ewell to position his Second Corps to attack Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill when he heard the gunfire from Longstreet's assault, preventing Meade from shifting troops to bolster his left.",
"Though it does not appear in either his or Lee's Official Report, Ewell claimed years later that Lee had changed the order to simultaneously attack, calling for only a \"diversion\", to be turned into a full-scale attack if a favorable opportunity presented itself.",
"Lee's plan, however, was based on faulty intelligence, exacerbated by Stuart's continued absence from the battlefield.",
"Though Lee personally reconnoitered his left during the morning, he did not visit Longstreet's position on the Confederate right.",
"Even so, Lee rejected suggestions that Longstreet move beyond Meade's left and attack the Union flank, capturing the supply trains and effectively blocking Meade's escape route.",
"Lee did not issue orders for the attack until 11:00 a.m. About noon, General Anderson's advancing troops were discovered by General Sickles' outpost guard and the Third Corps–upon which Longstreet's First Corps was to form–did not get into position until 1:00 p.m.",
"Hood and McLaws, after their long march, were not yet in position and did not launch their attacks until just after 4 p.m. and 5 p.m., respectively.",
"===Attacks on the Union left flank===\nOverview map of the second day of the Battle of Gettysburg, July 2, 1863\nAs Longstreet's left division, under Maj. Gen. Lafayette McLaws, advanced, they unexpectedly found Maj. Gen. Daniel Sickles's III Corps directly in their path.",
"Sickles had been dissatisfied with the position assigned him on the southern end of Cemetery Ridge.",
"Seeing ground better suited for artillery positions a half mile (800 m) to the west, he advanced his corps—without orders—to the slightly higher ground along the Emmitsburg Road.",
"The new line ran from Devil's Den, northwest to the Sherfy farm's peach orchard, then northeast along the Emmitsburg Road to south of the Codori farm.",
"This created an untenable salient at the Peach Orchard; Brig.",
"Gen. Andrew A. Humphreys's division (in position along the Emmitsburg Road) and Maj. Gen. David B. Birney's division (to the south) were subject to attacks from two sides and were spread out over a longer front than their small corps could defend effectively.",
"The Confederate artillery was ordered to open fire at 3:00 p.m. Meade was with Sickles at the time, urging Sickles to return to his assigned position.",
"Meade was forced to send 20,000 reinforcements: the entire V Corps, Brig.",
"Gen. John C. Caldwell's division of the II Corps, most of the XII Corps, and portions of the newly arrived VI Corps.",
"Hood's division moved more to the east than intended, losing its alignment with the Emmitsburg Road, attacking Devil's Den and Little Round Top.",
"McLaws, coming in on Hood's left, drove multiple attacks into the thinly stretched III Corps in the Wheatfield and overwhelmed them in Sherfy's Peach Orchard.",
"McLaws's attack eventually reached Plum Run Valley (the \"Valley of Death\") before being beaten back by the Pennsylvania Reserves division of the V Corps, moving down from Little Round Top.",
"The III Corps was virtually destroyed as a combat unit in this battle, and Sickles's leg was amputated after it was shattered by a cannonball.",
"Caldwell's division was destroyed piecemeal in the Wheatfield.",
"Anderson's division, coming from McLaws's left and starting forward around 6 p.m., reached the crest of Cemetery Ridge, but could not hold the position in the face of counterattacks from the II Corps, including an almost suicidal bayonet charge by the 1st Minnesota regiment against a Confederate brigade, ordered in desperation by Hancock to buy time for reinforcements to arrive.",
"As fighting raged in the Wheatfield and Devil's Den, Col. Strong Vincent of V Corps had a precarious hold on Little Round Top, an important hill at the extreme left of the Union line.",
"His brigade of four relatively small regiments was able to resist repeated assaults by Brig.",
"Gen. Evander M. Law's brigade of Hood's division.",
"Meade's chief engineer, Brig.",
"Gen. Gouverneur K. Warren, had realized the importance of this position, and dispatched Vincent's brigade, an artillery battery, and the 140th New York to occupy Little Round Top mere minutes before Hood's troops arrived.",
"The defense of Little Round Top with a bayonet charge by the 20th Maine, ordered by Col. Joshua L. Chamberlain but possibly led by Lt. Holman S. Melcher, was one of the most fabled episodes in the Civil War and propelled Col. Chamberlain into prominence after the war.",
"===Attacks on the Union right flank===\nUnion breastworks on Culp's Hill\nEwell interpreted his orders as calling only for a cannonade.",
"His 32 guns, along with A. P. Hill's 55 guns, engaged in a two-hour artillery barrage at extreme range that had little effect.",
"Finally, about six o'clock, Ewell sent orders to each of his division commanders to attack the Union lines in his front.",
"Maj. Gen. Edward \"Allegheny\" Johnson's Division \"had not been pushed close to Culp's Hill in preparation for an assault, although one had been contemplated all day.",
"It now had a full mile (1,600 m) to advance and Rock Creek had to be crossed.",
"This could only be done at few places and involved much delay.",
"Only three of Johnson's four brigades moved to the attack.\"",
"Most of the hill's defenders, the Union XII Corps, had been sent to the left to defend against Longstreet's attacks, leaving only a brigade of New Yorkers under Brig.",
"Gen. George S. Greene behind strong, newly constructed defensive works.",
"With reinforcements from the I and XI Corps, Greene's men held off the Confederate attackers, though giving up some of the lower earthworks on the lower part of Culp's Hill.",
"Early was similarly unprepared when he ordered Harry T. Hays' and Isaac E. Avery's Brigades to attack the Union XI Corps positions on East Cemetery Hill.",
"Once started, fighting was fierce: Col. Andrew L. Harris of the Union 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, came under a withering attack, losing half his men.",
"Avery was wounded early on, but the Confederates reached the crest of the hill and entered the Union breastworks, capturing one or two batteries.",
"Seeing he was not supported on his right, Hays withdrew.",
"His right was to be supported by Robert E. Rodes' Division, but Rodes—like Early and Johnson—had not been ordered up in preparation for the attack.",
"He had twice as far to travel as Early; by the time he came in contact with the Union skirmish line, Early's troops had already begun to withdraw.",
"Jeb Stuart and his three cavalry brigades arrived in Gettysburg around noon but had no role in the second day's battle.",
"Brig.",
"Gen. Wade Hampton's brigade fought a minor engagement with newly promoted 23-year-old Brig.",
"Gen. George Armstrong Custer's Michigan cavalry near Hunterstown to the northeast of Gettysburg.",
"\nOverview map of the third day of the Battle of Gettysburg, July 3, 1863\n\n===Lee's plan===\nGeneral Lee wished to renew the attack on Friday, July 3, using the same basic plan as the previous day: Longstreet would attack the U.S. left, while Ewell attacked Culp's Hill.",
"However, before Longstreet was ready, Union XII Corps troops started a dawn artillery bombardment against the Confederates on Culp's Hill in an effort to regain a portion of their lost works.",
"The Confederates attacked, and the second fight for Culp's Hill ended around 11 a.m. Harry Pfanz judged that, after some seven hours of bitter combat, \"the Union line was intact and held more strongly than before.\"",
"Lee was forced to change his plans.",
"Longstreet would command Pickett's Virginia division of his own First Corps, plus six brigades from Hill's Corps, in an attack on the U.S. II Corps position at the right center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge.",
"Prior to the attack, all the artillery the Confederacy could bring to bear on the U.S. positions would bombard and weaken the enemy's line.",
"Much has been made over the years of General Longstreet's objections to General Lee's plan.",
"In his memoirs, Longstreet described their discussion as follows:\n\n\n\nThe \"High Water Mark\" on Cemetery Ridge as it appears today.",
"The monument to the 72nd Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry Regiment (\"Baxter's Philadelphia Fire Zouaves\") appears at right, the Copse of Trees to the left.",
"===The largest artillery bombardment of the war===\nAround 1 p.m., from 150 to 170 Confederate guns began an artillery bombardment that was probably the largest of the war.",
"In order to save valuable ammunition for the infantry attack that they knew would follow, the Army of the Potomac's artillery, under the command of Brig.",
"Gen. Henry Jackson Hunt, at first did not return the enemy's fire.",
"After waiting about 15 minutes, about 80 U.S. cannons added to the din.",
"The Army of Northern Virginia was critically low on artillery ammunition, and the cannonade did not significantly affect the Union position.",
"===Pickett's Charge===\nAround 3 p.m., the cannon fire subsided, and 12,500 Southern soldiers stepped from the ridgeline and advanced the three-quarters of a mile (1,200 m) to Cemetery Ridge in what is known to history as \"Pickett's Charge\".",
"As the Confederates approached, there was fierce flanking artillery fire from Union positions on Cemetery Hill and north of Little Round Top, and musket and canister fire from Hancock's II Corps.",
"In the Union center, the commander of artillery had held fire during the Confederate bombardment (in order to save it for the infantry assault, which Meade had correctly predicted the day before), leading Southern commanders to believe the Northern cannon batteries had been knocked out.",
"However, they opened fire on the Confederate infantry during their approach with devastating results.",
"Nearly one half of the attackers did not return to their own lines.",
"Although the U.S. line wavered and broke temporarily at a jog called the \"Angle\" in a low stone fence, just north of a patch of vegetation called the Copse of Trees, reinforcements rushed into the breach, and the Confederate attack was repulsed.",
"The farthest advance of Brig.",
"Gen. Lewis A. Armistead's brigade of Maj. Gen. George Pickett's division at the Angle is referred to as the \"High-water mark of the Confederacy\", arguably representing the closest the South ever came to its goal of achieving independence from the Union via military victory.",
"Union and Confederate soldiers locked in hand-to-hand combat, attacking with their rifles, bayonets, rocks and even their bare hands.",
"Armistead ordered his Confederates to turn two captured cannons against Union troops, but discovered that there was no ammunition left, the last double canister shots having been used against the charging Confederates.",
"Armistead was wounded shortly afterward three times.",
"===Cavalry battles===\nThere were two significant cavalry engagements on July 3.",
"Stuart was sent to guard the Confederate left flank and was to be prepared to exploit any success the infantry might achieve on Cemetery Hill by flanking the U.S. right and hitting their trains and lines of communications.",
"east of Gettysburg, in what is now called \"East Cavalry Field\" (not shown on the accompanying map, but between the York and Hanover Roads), Stuart's forces collided with U.S. cavalry: Brig.",
"Gen. David McMurtrie Gregg's division and Brig.",
"Gen. Custer's brigade.",
"A lengthy mounted battle, including hand-to-hand sabre combat, ensued.",
"Custer's charge, leading the 1st Michigan Cavalry, blunted the attack by Wade Hampton's brigade, blocking Stuart from achieving his objectives in the U.S. rear.",
"Meanwhile, after hearing news of the day's victory, Brig.",
"Gen. Judson Kilpatrick launched a cavalry attack against the infantry positions of Longstreet's Corps southwest of Big Round Top.",
"Brig.",
"Gen. Elon J. Farnsworth protested against the futility of such a move, but obeyed orders.",
"Farnsworth was killed in the attack, and his brigade suffered significant losses.",
"===Casualties===\n\"The Harvest of Death\": Union dead on the battlefield at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, photographed July 5 or July 6, 1863, by Timothy H. O'Sullivan\nThe two armies suffered between 46,000 and 51,000 casualties.",
"Union casualties were 23,055 (3,155 killed, 14,531 wounded, 5,369 captured or missing), while Confederate casualties are more difficult to estimate.",
"Many authors have referred to as many as ''28,000 Confederate casualties'', and Busey and Martin's more recent 2005 work, ''Regimental Strengths and Losses at Gettysburg'', documents 23,231 (4,708 killed, 12,693 wounded, 5,830 captured or missing).",
"Nearly a third of Lee's general officers were killed, wounded, or captured.",
"The casualties for both sides during the entire campaign were 57,225.",
"In addition to being the deadliest battle of the war in terms of total casualties, Gettysburg also had the highest number of Generals killed in action of any battle in the war.",
"The Confederacy lost generals Paul Jones Semmes, William Barksdale, Richard Garnett, and Lewis Armistead, as well as J. Johnston Pettigrew during the retreat after the battle.",
"The Union lost Generals John Reynolds, Samuel K. Zook, Stephen H. Weed, and Elon J. Farnsworth, as well as Strong Vincent, who after being mortally wounded was given a deathbed promotion to brigadier general.",
"Additional senior officer casualties included the wounding of Union Generals Dan Sickles (lost a leg), Francis C. Barlow, and Winfield Scott Hancock.",
"For the Confederacy, Major General John Bell Hood lost the use of his left arm, while Major General Henry Heth received a shot to the head on the first day of battle (though incapacitated for the rest of the battle, he remarkably survived without long term injuries, credited in part due to his hat stuffed full of paper dispatches).",
"Confederate Generals James Kemper and Isaac R. Trimble were severely wounded during Pickett's charge and captured during the Confederate retreat.",
"General James J. Archer, in command of a brigade that most likely was responsible for killing Reynolds, was taken prisoner shortly after Reynolds' death.",
"The following tables summarize casualties by corps for the Union and Confederate forces during the three-day battle.",
"Union Corps !",
"!",
"Casualties (k/w/m)\n\n I Corps \n 6059 (666/3231/2162)\n\n II Corps \n 4369 (797/3194/378)\n\n III Corps \n 4211 (593/3029/589)\n\n V Corps \n 2187 (365/1611/211)\n\n VI Corps \n 242 (27/185/30)\n\n XI Corps \n 3807 (369/1924/1514)\n\n XII Corps \n 1082 (204/812/66)\n\n Cavalry Corps \n 852 (91/354/407)\n\n Artillery Reserve \n 242 (43/187/12)\n\n\n\n Confederate Corps !",
"!",
"Casualties (k/w/m)\n\n First Corps \n 7665 (1617/4205/1843)\n\n Second Corps \n 6686 (1301/3629/1756)\n\n Third Corps \n 8495 (1724/4683/2088)\n\n Cavalry Corps \n 380 (66/174/140)\n\n\nBruce Catton wrote, \"The town of Gettysburg looked as if some universal moving day had been interrupted by catastrophe.\"",
"But there was only one documented civilian death during the battle: Ginnie Wade (also widely known as Jennie), 20 years old, was hit by a stray bullet that passed through her kitchen in town while she was making bread.",
"Another notable civilian casualty was John L. Burns, a 69-year old veteran of the War of 1812 who walked to the front lines on the first day of battle and participated in heavy combat as a volunteer, receiving numerous wounds in the process.",
"Despite his age and injuries, Burns survived the battle and lived until 1872.",
"Nearly 8,000 had been killed outright; these bodies, lying in the hot summer sun, needed to be buried quickly.",
"Over 3,000 horse carcasses were burned in a series of piles south of town; townsfolk became violently ill from the stench.",
"Meanwhile, the town of Gettysburg, with its population of just 2,400, found itself tasked with taking care of 14,000 wounded Union troops and an additional 8,000 Confederate prisoners.",
"===Confederate retreat===\n\nGettysburg Campaign (July 5 – July 14, 1863)\nThe armies stared at one another in a heavy rain across the bloody fields on July 4, the same day that the Vicksburg garrison surrendered to Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant.",
"Lee had reformed his lines into a defensive position on Seminary Ridge the night of July 3, evacuating the town of Gettysburg.",
"The Confederates remained on the battlefield, hoping that Meade would attack, but the cautious Union commander decided against the risk, a decision for which he would later be criticized.",
"Both armies began to collect their remaining wounded and bury some of the dead.",
"A proposal by Lee for a prisoner exchange was rejected by Meade.",
"Lee started his Army of Northern Virginia in motion late the evening of July 4 towards Fairfield and Chambersburg.",
"Cavalry under Brig.",
"Gen. John D. Imboden was entrusted to escort the miles-long wagon train of supplies and wounded men that Lee wanted to take back to Virginia with him, using the route through Cashtown and Hagerstown to Williamsport, Maryland.",
"Meade's army followed, although the pursuit was half-spirited.",
"The rear-guard action at Falling Waters on July 14 added some more names to the long casualty lists, including General Pettigrew, who was mortally wounded.",
"General James Kemper, severely wounded during Pickett's charge, was captured during Lee's retreat.",
"In a brief letter to Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck written on July 7, Lincoln remarked on the two major Union victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg.",
"He continued:\n\n\n\nHalleck then relayed the contents of Lincoln's letter to Meade in a telegram.",
"Despite repeated pleas from Lincoln and Halleck, which continued over the next week, Meade did not pursue Lee's army aggressively enough to destroy it before it crossed back over the Potomac River to safety in the South.",
"The campaign continued into Virginia with light engagements until July 23, in the minor Battle of Manassas Gap, after which Meade abandoned any attempts at pursuit and the two armies took up positions across from each other on the Rappahannock River.",
"===Union reaction to the news of the victory===\nThe news of the Union victory electrified the North.",
"A headline in ''The Philadelphia Inquirer'' proclaimed \"VICTORY!",
"WATERLOO ECLIPSED!\"",
"New York diarist George Templeton Strong wrote:\n\n\n\nHowever, the Union enthusiasm soon dissipated as the public realized that Lee's army had escaped destruction and the war would continue.",
"Lincoln complained to Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles that \"Our army held the war in the hollow of their hand and they would not close it!\"",
"Brig.",
"Gen. Alexander S. Webb wrote to his father on July 17, stating that such Washington politicians as \"Chase, Seward and others,\" disgusted with Meade, \"write to me that Lee really won that Battle!\"",
"===Effect on the Confederacy===\nIn fact, the Confederates had lost militarily and also politically.",
"During the final hours of the battle, Confederate Vice President Alexander Stephens was approaching the Union lines at Norfolk, Virginia, under a flag of truce.",
"Although his formal instructions from Confederate President Jefferson Davis had limited his powers to negotiate on prisoner exchanges and other procedural matters, historian James M. McPherson speculates that he had informal goals of presenting peace overtures.",
"Davis had hoped that Stephens would reach Washington from the south while Lee's victorious army was marching toward it from the north.",
"President Lincoln, upon hearing of the Gettysburg results, refused Stephens's request to pass through the lines.",
"Furthermore, when the news reached London, any lingering hopes of European recognition of the Confederacy were finally abandoned.",
"Henry Adams wrote, \"The disasters of the rebels are unredeemed by even any hope of success.",
"It is now conceded that all idea of intervention is at an end.\"",
"Compounding the effects of the defeat would be end of the Siege of Vicksburg, which surrendered to Grant's Federal armies in the West on July 4, the day after the Gettysburg battle.",
"The immediate reaction of the Southern military and public sectors was that Gettysburg was a setback, not a disaster.",
"The sentiment was that Lee had been successful on July 1 and had fought a valiant battle on July 2–3, but could not dislodge the Union Army from the strong defensive position to which it fled.",
"The Confederates successfully stood their ground on July 4 and withdrew only after they realized Meade would not attack them.",
"The withdrawal to the Potomac that could have been a disaster was handled masterfully.",
"Furthermore, the Army of the Potomac had been kept away from Virginia farmlands for the summer and all predicted that Meade would be too timid to threaten them for the rest of the year.",
"Lee himself had a positive view of the campaign, writing to his wife that the army had returned \"rather sooner than I had originally contemplated, but having accomplished what I proposed on leaving the Rappahannock, viz., relieving the Valley of the presence of the enemy and drawing his Army north of the Potomac.\"",
"He was quoted as saying to Maj. John Seddon, brother of the Confederate secretary of war, \"Sir, we did whip them at Gettysburg, and it will be seen for the next six months that ''that army'' will be as quiet as a sucking dove.\"",
"Some Southern publications, such as the ''Charleston Mercury'', criticized Lee's actions in the campaign and on August 8, he offered his resignation to President Davis, who quickly rejected it.",
"Gettysburg became a postbellum focus of the \"Lost Cause\", a movement by writers such as Edward A. Pollard and Jubal Early to explain the reasons for the Confederate defeat in the war.",
"A fundamental premise of their argument was that the South was doomed because of the overwhelming advantage in manpower and industrial might possessed by the North.",
"However, they claim it also suffered because Robert E. Lee, who up until this time had been almost invincible, was betrayed by the failures of some of his key subordinates at Gettysburg: Ewell, for failing to seize Cemetery Hill on July 1; Stuart, for depriving the army of cavalry intelligence for a key part of the campaign; and especially Longstreet, for failing to attack on July 2 as early and as forcefully as Lee had originally intended.",
"In this view, Gettysburg was seen as a great lost opportunity, in which a decisive victory by Lee could have meant the end of the war in the Confederacy's favor.",
"After the war, General Pickett was asked why Confederates lost at Gettysburg.",
"He replied \"I always thought the Yankees had something to do with it.\"",
"===Gettysburg Address===\n\nGettysburg, November 19, 1863.",
"Crowd of citizens, soldiers, and etc., with a red arrow indicating Abraham Lincoln\nGettysburg National Cemetery\nThe ravages of war were still evident in Gettysburg more than four months later when, on November 19, the Soldiers' National Cemetery was dedicated.",
"During this ceremony, President Abraham Lincoln honored the fallen and redefined the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address.",
"===Decisive victory controversies ===\n\nThe nature of the result of the Battle of Gettysburg has been the subject of controversy for years.",
"Although not seen as overwhelmingly significant at the time, particularly since the war continued for almost two years, in retrospect it has often been cited as the \"turning point\", usually in combination with the fall of Vicksburg the following day.",
"This is based on the observation that after Gettysburg Lee's army conducted no more strategic offensives—his army merely reacted to the initiative of Ulysses S. Grant in 1864 and 1865—and by the speculative viewpoint of the Lost Cause writers that a Confederate victory at Gettysburg might have resulted in the end of the war.",
"It is currently a widely held view that Gettysburg was a decisive victory for the Union, but the term is considered imprecise.",
"It is inarguable that Lee's offensive on July 3 was turned back decisively and his campaign in Pennsylvania was terminated prematurely (although the Confederates at the time argued that this was a temporary setback and that the goals of the campaign were largely met).",
"However, when the more common definition of \"decisive victory\" is intended—an indisputable military victory of a battle that determines or significantly influences the ultimate result of a conflict—historians are divided.",
"For example, David J. Eicher called Gettysburg a \"strategic loss for the Confederacy\" and James M. McPherson wrote that \"Lee and his men would go on to earn further laurels.",
"But they never again possessed the power and reputation they carried into Pennsylvania those palmy summer days of 1863.\"",
"However, Herman Hattaway and Archer Jones wrote that the \"strategic impact of the Battle of Gettysburg was ... fairly limited.\"",
"Steven E. Woodworth wrote that \"Gettysburg proved only the near impossibility of decisive action in the Eastern theater.\"",
"Edwin Coddington pointed out the heavy toll on the Army of the Potomac and that \"after the battle Meade no longer possessed a truly effective instrument for the accomplishments of his task.",
"The army needed a thorough reorganization with new commanders and fresh troops, but these changes were not made until Grant appeared on the scene in March 1864.\"",
"Joseph T. Glatthaar wrote that \"Lost opportunities and near successes plagued the Army of Northern Virginia during its Northern invasion,\" yet after Gettysburg, \"without the distractions of duty as an invading force, without the breakdown of discipline, the Army of Northern Virginia remained an extremely formidable force.\"",
"Ed Bearss wrote, \"Lee's invasion of the North had been a costly failure.",
"Nevertheless, at best the Army of the Potomac had simply preserved the strategic stalemate in the Eastern Theater ...\" Furthermore, the Confederacy soon proved it was still capable of winning significant victories over the Northern forces in both the East (Battle of Cold Harbor) and West (Battle of Chickamauga).",
"Peter Carmichael refers to the military context for the armies, the \"horrendous losses at Chancellorsville and Gettysburg, which effectively destroyed Lee's offensive capacity,\" implying that these cumulative losses were not the result of a single battle.",
"Thomas Goss, writing in the U.S. Army's ''Military Review'' journal on the definition of \"decisive\" and the application of that description to Gettysburg, concludes: \"For all that was decided and accomplished, the Battle of Gettysburg fails to earn the label 'decisive battle'.\"",
"The military historian John Keegan agrees.",
"Gettysburg was a landmark battle, the largest of the war and it would not be surpassed.",
"The Union had restored to it the belief in certain victory, and the loss dispirited the Confederacy.",
"If \"not exactly a decisive battle\", Gettysburg was the end of Confederate use of Northern Virginia as a military buffer zone, the setting for Grant's Overland Campaign.",
"===Lee vs. Meade===\nGeorge G. Meade\nPrior to Gettysburg, Robert E. Lee had established a reputation as an almost invincible general, achieving stunning victories against superior numbers—although usually at the cost of high casualties to his army—during the Seven Days, the Northern Virginia Campaign (including the Second Battle of Bull Run), Fredericksburg, and Chancellorsville.",
"Only the Maryland Campaign, with its tactically inconclusive Battle of Antietam, had been less than successful.",
"Therefore, historians have attempted to explain how Lee's winning streak was interrupted so dramatically at Gettysburg.",
"Although the issue is tainted by attempts to portray history and Lee's reputation in a manner supporting different partisan goals, the major factors in Lee's loss arguably can be attributed to: (1) his overconfidence in the invincibility of his men; (2) the performance of his subordinates, and his management thereof; (3) his failing health, and (4) the performance of his opponent, George G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac.",
"Robert E. Lee\nThroughout the campaign, Lee was influenced by the belief that his men were invincible; most of Lee's experiences with the Army of Northern Virginia had convinced him of this, including the great victory at Chancellorsville in early May and the rout of the Union troops at Gettysburg on July 1.",
"Since morale plays an important role in military victory when other factors are equal, Lee did not want to dampen his army's desire to fight and resisted suggestions, principally by Longstreet, to withdraw from the recently captured Gettysburg to select a ground more favorable to his army.",
"War correspondent Peter W. Alexander wrote that Lee \"acted, probably, under the impression that his troops were able to carry any position however formidable.",
"If such was the case, he committed an error, such however as the ablest commanders will sometimes fall into.\"",
"Lee himself concurred with this judgment, writing to President Davis, \"No blame can be attached to the army for its failure to accomplish what was projected by me, nor should it be censured for the unreasonable expectations of the public—I am alone to blame, in perhaps expecting too much of its prowess and valor.\"",
"The most controversial assessments of the battle involve the performance of Lee's subordinates.",
"The dominant theme of the Lost Cause writers and many other historians is that Lee's senior generals failed him in crucial ways, directly causing the loss of the battle; the alternative viewpoint is that Lee did not manage his subordinates adequately, and did not thereby compensate for their shortcomings.",
"Two of his corps commanders—Richard S. Ewell and A.P.",
"Hill—had only recently been promoted and were not fully accustomed to Lee's style of command, in which he provided only general objectives and guidance to their former commander, Stonewall Jackson; Jackson translated these into detailed, specific orders to his division commanders.",
"All four of Lee's principal commanders received criticism during the campaign and battle:\n* James Longstreet suffered most severely from the wrath of the Lost Cause authors, not the least because he directly criticized Lee in postbellum writings and became a Republican after the war.",
"His critics accuse him of attacking much later than Lee intended on July 2, squandering a chance to hit the Union Army before its defensive positions had firmed up.",
"They also question his lack of motivation to attack strongly on July 2 and 3 because he had argued that the army should have maneuvered to a place where it would force Meade to attack them.",
"The alternative view is that Lee was in close contact with Longstreet during the battle, agreed to delays on the morning of July 2, and never criticized Longstreet's performance.",
"(There is also considerable speculation about what an attack might have looked like before Dan Sickles moved the III Corps toward the Peach Orchard.)",
"* J.E.B.",
"Stuart deprived Lee of cavalry intelligence during a good part of the campaign by taking his three best brigades on a path away from the army's.",
"This arguably led to Lee's surprise at Hooker's vigorous pursuit; the meeting engagement on July 1 that escalated into the full battle prematurely; and it also prevented Lee from understanding the full disposition of the enemy on July 2.",
"The disagreements regarding Stuart's culpability for the situation originate in the relatively vague orders issued by Lee, but most modern historians agree that both generals were responsible to some extent for the failure of the cavalry's mission early in the campaign.",
"* Richard S. Ewell has been universally criticized for failing to seize the high ground on the afternoon of July 1.",
"Once again the disagreement centers on Lee's orders, which provided general guidance for Ewell to act \"if practicable.\"",
"Many historians speculate that Stonewall Jackson, if he had survived Chancellorsville, would have aggressively seized Culp's Hill, rendering Cemetery Hill indefensible, and changing the entire complexion of the battle.",
"A differently worded order from Lee might have made the difference with this subordinate.",
"* A.P.",
"Hill has received some criticism for his ineffective performance.",
"His actions caused the battle to begin and then escalate on July 1, despite Lee's orders not to bring on a general engagement (although historians point out that Hill kept Lee well informed of his actions during the day).",
"However, Hill's illness minimized his personal involvement in the remainder of the battle, and Lee took the explicit step of temporarily removing troops from Hill's corps and giving them to Longstreet for Pickett's Charge.",
"Winfield S. Hancock\nIn addition to Hill's illness, Lee's performance was affected by heart troubles, which would eventually lead to his death in 1870; he had been diagnosed with pericarditis by his staff physicians in March 1863, though modern doctors believe he had in fact suffered a heart attack.",
"He wrote to Jefferson Davis that his physical condition prevented him from offering full supervision in the field, and said, \"I am so dull that in making use of the eyes of others I am frequently misled.\"",
"As a final factor, Lee faced a new and formidable opponent in George G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac fought well on its home territory.",
"Although new to his army command, Meade deployed his forces relatively effectively; relied on strong subordinates such as Winfield S. Hancock to make decisions where and when they were needed; took great advantage of defensive positions; nimbly shifted defensive resources on interior lines to parry strong threats; and, unlike some of his predecessors, stood his ground throughout the battle in the face of fierce Confederate attacks.",
"Lee was quoted before the battle as saying Meade \"would commit no blunders on my front and if I make one ... will make haste to take advantage of it.\"",
"That prediction proved to be correct at Gettysburg.",
"Stephen Sears wrote, \"The fact of the matter is that George G. Meade, unexpectedly and against all odds, thoroughly outgeneraled Robert E. Lee at Gettysburg.\"",
"Edwin B. Coddington wrote that the soldiers of the Army of the Potomac received a \"sense of triumph which grew into an imperishable faith in themselves.",
"The men knew what they could do under an extremely competent general; one of lesser ability and courage could well have lost the battle.\"",
"Meade had his own detractors as well.",
"Similar to the situation with Lee, Meade suffered partisan attacks about his performance at Gettysburg, but he had the misfortune of experiencing them in person.",
"Supporters of his predecessor, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, lambasted Meade before the U.S. Congress's Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, where Radical Republicans suspected that Meade was a Copperhead and tried in vain to relieve him from command.",
"Daniel E. Sickles and Daniel Butterfield accused Meade of planning to retreat from Gettysburg during the battle.",
"Most politicians, including Lincoln, criticized Meade for what they considered to be his half-hearted pursuit of Lee after the battle.",
"A number of Meade's most competent subordinates—Winfield S. Hancock, John Gibbon, Gouverneur K. Warren, and Henry J.",
"Hunt, all heroes of the battle—defended Meade in print, but Meade was embittered by the overall experience.",
"\n\nToday, the Gettysburg National Cemetery and Gettysburg National Military Park are maintained by the U.S. National Park Service as two of the nation's most revered historical landmarks.",
"Although Gettysburg is one of the best known of all Civil War battlefields, it too faces threats to its preservation and interpretation.",
"Many historically significant locations on the battlefield lie outside the boundaries of Gettysburg National Military Park and are vulnerable to residential or commercial development.",
"On July 20, 2009, a Comfort Inn and Suites opened on Cemetery Hill, adjacent to Evergreen Cemetery, just one of many modern edifices infringing on the historic field.",
"The Baltimore Pike corridor attracts development that concerns preservationists.",
"Some preservation successes have emerged in recent years.",
"Two proposals to open a casino at Gettysburg were defeated in 2006 and most recently in 2011, when public pressure forced the Pennsylvania Gaming Control Board to reject the proposed gambling hub at the intersection of Routes 15 and 30, near East Cavalry Field.",
"The Civil War Trust also successfully purchased and transferred 95 acres at the former site of the Gettysburg Country Club to the control of the U.S. Department of the Interior in 2011.",
"Less than half of the over 11,500 acres on the old Gettysburg Battlefield have been preserved for posterity thus far.",
"The Civil War Trust has preserved 815 acres around the site, some of which is now part of the 4,998 acres of Gettysburg National Military Park.",
"Gettysburg Centennial Commemorative issue of 1963\nGettysburg National Military Park Quarter, issued 2011\n\nDuring the Civil War Centennial, the U.S. Post Office issued five postage stamps commemorating the 100th anniversaries of famous battles, as they occurred over a four-year period, beginning with the Battle of Fort Sumter Centennial issue of 1961.",
"The Battle of Shiloh commemorative stamp was issued in 1962, the Battle of Gettysburg in 1963, the Battle of the Wilderness in 1964, and the Appomattox Centennial commemorative stamp in 1965.",
"A commemorative half dollar for the battle was produced in 1936.",
"As was typical for the period, mintage for the coin was very low, just 26,928.",
"On January 24, 2011, the America the Beautiful quarters released a 25-cent coin commemorating Gettysburg National Military Park and the Battle of Gettysburg.",
"The reverse side of the coin depicts the monument on Cemetery Ridge to the 72nd Pennsylvania Infantry.",
"Film records survive of two Gettysburg reunions, held on the battlefield.",
"At the 50th anniversary (1913), veterans re-enacted Pickett's Charge in a spirit of reconciliation, a meeting that carried great emotional force for both sides.",
"At the 75th anniversary (1938), 2500 veterans attended, and there was a ceremonial mass hand-shake across a stone wall.",
"This was recorded on sound film, and some Confederates can be heard giving the Rebel Yell.",
"Iced Earth's three-part song cycle ''Gettysburg (1863)'', published in 2004, dramatizes the battle.",
"The Battle of Gettysburg was depicted in the 1993 film ''Gettysburg'', based on Michael Shaara's 1974 novel ''The Killer Angels''.",
"The film and novel focused primarily on the actions of Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain, John Buford, Robert E. Lee, and James Longstreet during the battle.",
"The first day focused on Buford's cavalry defense, the second day on Chamberlain's defense at Little Round Top, and the third day on Pickett's Charge.",
"The south winning the Battle of Gettysburg is a popular premise for a point of divergence in American Civil War alternate histories.",
"Here are some examples which either depict or make significant reference to an alternate Battle of Gettysburg (sometimes simply inserting fantasy or sci-fi elements in an account of the battle):\n*Novels: ''Bring the Jubilee'' by Ward Moore; ''If the South Had Won the Civil War'' by Mackinlay Kantor; Civil War Trilogy (''Gettysburg, Grant Comes East, Never Call Retreat'') by Newt Gingrich, William R. Forstchen, and Albert S. Hanser; ''Stonewall Jackson at Gettysburg'' by Douglas Lee Gibboney; ''By Force of Arms'' by Billy Bennett.",
"Also: Harry Turtledove's Southern Victory series has an analogous battle taking place at Camp Hill, another southeast Pennsylvania town.",
"*Short fiction: \"If Lee Had NOT Won the Battle of Gettysburg\" by Winston Churchill in ''If It Had Happened Otherwise'' and ''If, or History Rewritten'', \"Sidewise in Time\" by Murray Leinster in various collections, \"A Hard Day for Mother\" by William R. Forstchen in ''Alternate Generals'' 1, \"An Old Man's Summer\" by Esther Friesner also in AG 1, \"If the Lost Order Hadn't Been Lost\" by James M. McPherson in ''What If?''",
"and ''What Ifs?",
"of American History'', \"East of Appomattox\" by Lee Allred in ''Alternate Generals'' 3.",
"Also: In \"Maureen Birnbaum on the Art of War\" (tribute to Horseclans) within George Alec Effinger's sword and sorcery spoof ''Maureen Birnbaum, Barbarian Swordsperson'', two armies in a post-apocalyptic world fight a battle at the Gettysburg site sometime in our distant future.",
"*Film and television: ''The Time Tunnel'' episode 25 \"The Death Merchant,\" ''Twin Peaks'' Season 2 (as a play within a play acted out by characters in the 1990s), ''C.S.A.",
": The Confederate States of America'', ''Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter''\n*''X-Men:Origins Wolverine''\n*''Ultimate General: Gettysburg'' is a tactical battle simulator video game first released in June 2014 that allows the player to lead soldiers of either side in the Battle of Gettysburg.",
"An expanded version of the game, ''Ultimate General: Civil War'', covering the entire 4-year conflict, was pre-released in November 2016.",
"\n* Bibliography of the American Civil War\n* Troop engagements of the American Civil War, 1863\n* List of costliest American Civil War land battles\n* Gettysburg Cyclorama, a painting by the French artist Paul Philippoteaux depicting Pickett's Charge\n* Armies in the American Civil War\n* Battles of the American Civil War\n* Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant",
"* Bearss, Edwin C. ''Fields of Honor: Pivotal Battles of the Civil War''.",
"Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2006. .",
"* Busey, John W., and David G. Martin.",
"''Regimental Strengths and Losses at Gettysburg'', 4th ed.",
"Hightstown, NJ: Longstreet House, 2005. .",
"* Carmichael, Peter S., ed.",
"''Audacity Personified: The Generalship of Robert E. Lee''.",
"Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2004. .",
"* Catton, Bruce.",
"''Glory Road''.",
"Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, 1952. .",
"* Clark, Champ, and the Editors of Time-Life Books.",
"''Gettysburg: The Confederate High Tide''.",
"Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1985. .",
"* Coddington, Edwin B.",
"''The Gettysburg Campaign; a study in command''.",
"New York: Scribner's, 1968. .",
"* Donald, David Herbert.",
"''Lincoln''.",
"New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995. .",
"* Eicher, David J.",
"''The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War''.",
"New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. .",
"* Esposito, Vincent J.",
"''West Point Atlas of American Wars''.",
"New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1959. .",
"The collection of maps (without explanatory text) is available online at the West Point website.",
"* Foote, Shelby.",
"''The Civil War: A Narrative''.",
"Vol.",
"2, ''Fredericksburg to Meridian''.",
"New York: Random House, 1958. .",
"* Fuller, Maj. Gen. J. F. C. ''Grant and Lee: A Study in Personality and Generalship''.",
"Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1957. .",
"* Gallagher, Gary W. ''Lee and His Army in Confederate History''.",
"Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. .",
"* Gallagher, Gary W. ''Lee and His Generals in War and Memory''.",
"Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1998. .",
"* Glatthaar, Joseph T. ''General Lee's Army: From Victory to Collapse''.",
"New York: Free Press, 2008. .",
"* Harman, Troy D. ''Lee's Real Plan at Gettysburg''.",
"Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2003. .",
"* Hattaway, Herman, and Archer Jones.",
"''How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War''.",
"Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983. .",
"* Keegan, John.",
"''The American Civil War: A Military History''.",
"New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2009. .",
"* Longacre, Edward G. ''The Cavalry at Gettysburg''.",
"Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986. .",
"* McPherson, James M. ''Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era''.",
"Oxford History of the United States.",
"New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. .",
"* Martin, David G. ''Gettysburg July 1''.",
"rev.",
"ed.",
"Conshohocken, PA: Combined Publishing, 1996. .",
"* Murray, Williamson and Wayne Wei-siang Hsieh.",
"\"A Savage War:A Military History of the Civil War\".",
"Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2016. .",
"* Nye, Wilbur S. ''Here Come the Rebels!''",
"Dayton, OH: Morningside House, 1984. .",
"First published in 1965 by Louisiana State University Press.",
"* Pfanz, Harry W. ''Gettysburg – The First Day''.",
"Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. .",
"* Pfanz, Harry W. ''Gettysburg – The Second Day''.",
"Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987. .",
"* Pfanz, Harry W. ''Gettysburg: Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill''.",
"Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993. .",
"*\n* Sauers, Richard A.",
"\"Battle of Gettysburg.\"",
"In ''Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History'', edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler.",
"New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2000. .",
"* Sears, Stephen W. ''Gettysburg''.",
"Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003. .",
"* Symonds, Craig L. ''American Heritage History of the Battle of Gettysburg''.",
"New York: HarperCollins, 2001. .",
"* Tagg, Larry.",
"''The Generals of Gettysburg''.",
"Campbell, CA: Savas Publishing, 1998. .",
"* Trudeau, Noah Andre.",
"''Gettysburg: A Testing of Courage''.",
"New York: HarperCollins, 2002. .",
"* Tucker, Glenn.",
"''High Tide at Gettysburg''.",
"Dayton, OH: Morningside House, 1983. .",
"First published 1958 by Bobbs-Merrill Co.\n* Wert, Jeffry D. ''Gettysburg: Day Three''.",
"New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. .",
"* White, Ronald C., Jr. ''The Eloquent President: A Portrait of Lincoln Through His Words''.",
"New York: Random House, 2005. .",
"* Wittenberg, Eric J., J. David Petruzzi, and Michael F. Nugent.",
"''One Continuous Fight: The Retreat from Gettysburg and the Pursuit of Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, July 4–14, 1863''.",
"New York: Savas Beatie, 2008. .",
"* Woodworth, Steven E. ''Beneath a Northern Sky: A Short History of the Gettysburg Campaign''.",
"Wilmington, DE: SR Books (scholarly Resources, Inc.), 2003. .",
"===Memoirs and primary sources===\n* Paris, Louis-Philippe-Albert d'Orléans.",
"''The Battle of Gettysburg: A History of the Civil War in America''.",
"Digital Scanning, Inc., 1999. .",
"First published 1869 by Germer Baillière.",
"* New York (State), William F. Fox, and Daniel Edgar Sickles.",
"''New York at Gettysburg: Final Report on the Battlefield of Gettysburg''.",
"Albany, NY: J.B. Lyon Company, Printers, 1900. .",
"* U.S. War Department, ''The War of the Rebellion'': ''a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies''.",
"Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901.",
"* Adkin, Mark.",
"''The Gettysburg Companion: The Complete Guide to America's Most Famous Battle''.",
"Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2008. .",
"* Bachelder, John B.",
"''The Bachelder Papers: Gettysburg in Their Own Words''.",
"Edited by David L. Ladd and Audrey J. Ladd.",
"3 vols.",
"Dayton, OH: Morningside Press, 1994. .",
"* Bachelder, John B.",
"''Gettysburg: What to See, and How to See It: Embodying Full Information for Visiting the Field''.",
"Boston: Bachelder, 1873. .",
"* Ballard, Ted, and Billy Arthur.",
"''Gettysburg Staff Ride Briefing Book''.",
"Carlisle, PA: United States Army Center of Military History, 1999. .",
"* Bearss, Edwin C. ''Receding Tide: Vicksburg and Gettysburg: The Campaigns That Changed the Civil War''.",
"Washington DC: National Geographic Society, 2010. .",
"* Boritt, Gabor S., ed.",
"''The Gettysburg Nobody Knows''.",
"New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. .",
"* Desjardin, Thomas A.",
"''These Honored Dead: How the Story of Gettysburg Shaped American Memory''.",
"New York: Da Capo Press, 2003. .",
"* Frassanito, William A.",
"''Early Photography at Gettysburg''.",
"Gettysburg, PA: Thomas Publications, 1995. .",
"* Lyon Fremantle, Arthur J.",
"''The Fremantle Diary: A Journal of the Confederacy''.",
"Edited by Walter Lord.",
"Short Hills, NJ: Burford Books, 2002. .",
"First published 1954 by Capicorn Books.",
"* Gallagher, Gary W., ed.",
"''Three Days at Gettysburg: Essays on Confederate and Union Leadership''.",
"Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1999. .",
"* Gottfried, Bradley M. ''Brigades of Gettysburg''.",
"New York: Da Capo Press, 2002. .",
"* Gottfried, Bradley M. ''The Maps of Gettysburg: An Atlas of the Gettysburg Campaign, June 3 – 13, 1863''.",
"New York: Savas Beatie, 2007. .",
"* Grimsley, Mark, and Brooks D. Simpson.",
"''Gettysburg: A Battlefield Guide''.",
"Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999. .",
"* Guelzo, Allen C. ''Gettysburg: The Last Invasion''.",
"New York: Vintage Books, 2013. .",
"First published in 2013 by Alfred A. Knopf.",
"* Hall, Jeffrey C. ''The Stand of the U.S. Army at Gettysburg''.",
"Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003. .",
"* Haskell, Frank Aretas.",
"''The Battle of Gettysburg''.",
"Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2006. .",
"* Hawthorne, Frederick W. ''Gettysburg: Stories of Men and Monuments''.",
"Gettysburg, PA: Association of Licensed Battlefield Guides, 1988. .",
"* Hoptak, John David.",
"''Confrontation at Gettysburg: A Nation Saved, a Cause Lost''.",
"Charleston, SC: The History Press, 2012. .",
"* Huntington, Tom.",
"''Pennsylvania Civil War Trails: The Guide to Battle Sites, Monuments, Museums and Towns''.",
"Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2007. .",
"* Laino, Philip, ''Gettysburg Campaign Atlas'', 2nd ed.",
"Dayton, OH: Gatehouse Press 2009. .",
"* McMurry, Richard M. \"The Pennsylvania Gambit and the Gettysburg Splash.\"",
"In ''The Gettysburg Nobody Knows'', edited by Gabor Boritt.",
"New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. .",
"* McPherson, James M. ''Hallowed Ground: A Walk at Gettysburg''.",
"New York: Crown Publishers, 2003. .",
"* Petruzzi, J. David, and Steven Stanley.",
"''The Complete Gettysburg Guide''.",
"New York: Savas Beatie, 2009. .",
"* Shaara, Michael.",
"''The Killer Angels: A Novel''.",
"New York: Ballantine Books, 2001. .",
"First published 1974 by David McKay Co.\n* Stackpole, Gen. Edward J.",
"''They Met at Gettysburg''.",
"Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1956, .",
"\n\n\n* Battle of Gettysburg: '''Battle Maps''', histories, photos, and preservation news (Civil War Trust)\n* '''Animated map''' of the Battle of Gettysburg (Civil War Trust)\n* Gettysburg National Military Park (National Park Service)\n* Papers of the Gettysburg National Military Park seminars\n* U.S. Army's Interactive Battle of Gettysburg with Narratives\n* Military History Online: The Battle of Gettysburg\n* Official Records: The Battle of Gettysburg\n* The Brothers War: The Battle of Gettysburg\n* Gettysburg Discussion Group archives\n* List of 53 Confederate generals at Gettysburg\n* Encyclopædia Britannica: Battle of Gettysburg\n* National Park Service battle description\n*"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Bengal''' (; ) is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in Asia, which is located in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Geographically, it is made up by the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta system, the largest such formation in the world; along with mountains in its north bordering the Himalayan states of Nepal and Bhutan and east bordering Burma.\n\nPolitically, Bengal is divided between the sovereign Republic of Bangladesh, which covers two-thirds of the region, and West Bengal which is now part of India. In 2011, the population of Bengal was estimated to be 250 million, making it one of the most densely populated regions in the world. An estimated 160 million people live in Bangladesh, while 91.3 million people live in West Bengal. The predominant ethno-linguistic group is the Bengali people, who speak the Indo-Aryan Bengali language. Bengali Muslims are the majority in Bangladesh. Bengali Hindus are the majority in West Bengal. Outside Bengal proper, the Indian territories of Tripura, Assam, Jharkhand, Bihar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, are also home to significant communities with Bengali heritage.\n\nDense woodlands, including hilly rainforests, cover Bengal's northern and eastern areas; while an elevated forested plateau covers its central area. In the littoral southwest are the Sundarbans, the world's largest mangrove forest and home of the Bengal tiger. In the coastal southeast lies Cox's Bazaar, the longest beach in the world at . The region has a monsoon climate, which the Bengali calendar divides into six seasons.\n\nBengal has played a major role in history. At times an independent regional empire, the historical region was a leading power in Southeast Asia and later the Islamic East, with extensive trade networks. In antiquity, its kingdoms were known as seafaring nations. Bengal was known to the Greeks as Gangaridai, notable for mighty military power. It was described by the Greek's historian that Alexander the Great withdrew from the South east Asia, anticipating a counterattack from an alliance of Gangaridai. Later writers noted merchant shipping links between Bengal and Roman Egypt.\n\nThe Bengali Pala Empire was the last major Buddhist imperial power in the subcontinent, founded in 750 and becoming the dominant power in the northern Indian subcontinent by the 9th century, before being replaced by the Hindu Sena dynasty in the 12th century. Islam was introduced during the Pala Empire, through trade with the Abbasid Caliphate. The Islamic Bengal Sultanate, founded in 1352, was absorbed into the Mughal Empire in 1576. The Mughal Bengal Subah province became a major global exporter, a center of worldwide industries such as muslin, silk, pearl, cotton textiles, and shipbuilding. It was conquered by the British East India Company in 1757 and became the Bengal Presidency, which experienced deindustrialization under British rule. Upon independence, the partition of Bengal (1947) split the region into West Bengal in India and East Pakistan, the latter becoming the independent nation of Bangladesh in 1971.\n\nBengali culture has been particularly influential in the fields of literature, music, shipbuilding, art, architecture, sports, currency, commerce, politics and cuisine.\n",
"\nThe name of ''Bengal'' is derived from the ancient kingdom of Banga, the earliest records of which date back to the ''Mahabharata'' epic in the first millennium BCE. Theories on the origin of the term Banga point to the Proto-Dravidian ''Bong'' tribe that settled in the area circa 1000 BCE and the Austric word ''Bong'' (Sun-god). The term ''Bangaladesa'' is used to describe the region in 11th century South Indian records. The modern term ''Bangla'' is prominent from the 14th century, which saw the establishment of the Sultanate of Bengal, whose first ruler Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah was known as the ''Shah of Bangala''. The Portuguese referred to the region as ''Bengala'' in the Age of Discovery.\n",
"\nThe Ganges-Brahmaputra delta\nMost of the Bengal region lies in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, but there are highlands in its north, northeast and southeast. The Ganges Delta arises from the confluence of the rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers and their respective tributaries. The total area of Bengal is 232,752 km2—West Bengal is and Bangladesh .\n\nThe flat and fertile Bangladesh Plain dominates the geography of Bangladesh. The Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet regions are home to most of the mountains in Bangladesh. Most parts of Bangladesh are within above the sea level, and it is believed that about 10% of the land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by . Because of this low elevation, much of this region is exceptionally vulnerable to seasonal flooding due to monsoons.\nThe highest point in Bangladesh is in Mowdok range at . A major part of the coastline comprises a marshy jungle, the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world and home to diverse flora and fauna, including the royal Bengal tiger. In 1997, this region was declared endangered.\n\nWest Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south. The state has a total area of . The Darjeeling Himalayan hill region in the northern extreme of the state belongs to the eastern Himalaya. This region contains Sandakfu ()—the highest peak of the state. The narrow Terai region separates this region from the plains, which in turn transitions into the Ganges delta towards the south. The Rarh region intervenes between the Ganges delta in the east and the western plateau and high lands. A small coastal region is on the extreme south, while the Sundarbans mangrove forests form a remarkable geographical landmark at the Ganges delta.\n\nAt least nine districts in West Bengal and 42 districts in Bangladesh have arsenic levels in groundwater above the World Health Organization maximum permissible limit of 50 µg/L or 50 parts per billion and the untreated water is unfit for human consumption. The water causes arsenicosis, skin cancer and various other complications in the body.\n\nFile:Burishwar River in Barguna, Bangladesh (2).jpg|A river in Bangladesh\nFile:A Canvas- Mustard field and Date Trees (11923934543).jpg|A mustard and date palm farm in West Bengal\nFile:Tea Garden near Srimangal, Sylhet, Bangladesh.jpg|A tea garden in Bangladesh\n\n\n===Geographic distinctions===\nBengal in relation to historical regions in Asia\n\n====North Bengal====\nOn a clear day, the snowy peaks of the Himalayas in Nepal and Sikkim can be seen from northern Bangladesh and Darjeeling district, West Bengal\nNorth Bengal is a term used for the north-western part of Bangladesh and northern part of West Bengal. The Bangladeshi part comprises Rajshahi Division and Rangpur Division. Generally, it is the area lying west of Jamuna River and north of Padma River, and includes the Barind Tract. Politically, West Bengal's part comprises Jalpaiguri Division (Alipurduar, Cooch Behar, Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, North Dinajpur, South Dinajpur and Malda) together and Bihar's parts include Kishanganj district. Darjeeling Hills are also part of North Bengal. Though only people of Jaipaiguri, Alipurduar and Cooch Behar identifies themselves as North Bengali. North Bengal is divided into Terai and Dooars regions. North Bengal is also noted for its rich cultural heritage, including two UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Aside from the Bengali majority, North Bengal is home to many other communities including Nepalis, Santhal people, Lepchas and Rajbongshis.\n\n====Northeast Bengal====\nWaterfalls are a common sight in the highlands of eastern Bangladesh\nNortheast Bengal refers to the Sylhet Division of Bangladesh and the Barak Valley in the Indian state of Assam. The region is noted for its distinctive fertile highland terrain, extensive tea plantations, rainforests and wetlands. The Surma and Barak rivers are the geographic markers of the area. The city of Sylhet is its largest urban center, and the most spoken vernacular language in the region is the Sylheti dialect of Bengali. The endonym of the region is Srihatta. The region was ruled by the Kamarupa and Harikela kingdoms. It later became a district of the Mughal Empire. Alongside the predominant Bengali population resides a small Bishnupriya Manipuri minority.\n\nThe region is the crossroads of Bengal and northeast India.\n\n====Central Bengal====\nCentral Bengal refers to the Dhaka Division of Bangladesh. It includes the elevated Madhupur tract with a large Sal tree forest. The Padma River cuts through the southern part of the region, separating the greater Faridpur region. In the north lies the greater Mymensingh and Tangail regions.\n\n====South Bengal====\nSouth Bengal covers the southern part of the Indian state of West Bengal and southwestern Bangladesh. The Indian part of South Bengal includes 12 districts: Kolkata, Howrah, Hooghly, Burdwan, East Midnapur, West Midnapur, Purulia, Bankura, Birbhum, Nadia, South 24 Parganas, North 24 Parganas. The Bangladeshi part includes the proposed Faridpur Division, Khulna Division and Barisal Division.\n\nThe Sundarbans, a major biodiversity hotspot, is located in South Bengal. Bangladesh hosts 60% of the forest, with the remainder in India.\n\n====Southeast Bengal====\nCox's Bazaar has one of the longest beaches in the world\nSoutheast Bengal refers to the hilly and coastal Bengali-speaking areas of Chittagong Division in southeastern Bangladesh and the Indian state of Tripura. Southeast Bengal is noted for its thalassocratic and seafaring heritage. The area was dominated by the Bengali Harikela and Samatata kingdoms in antiquity. It was known to Arab traders as ''Harkand'' in the 9th century. During the medieval period, the region was ruled by the Sultanate of Bengal, the Kingdom of Tripura, the Kingdom of Mrauk U, the Portuguese Empire and the Mughal Empire, prior to the advent of British rule. The Chittagonian dialect of Bengali is prevalent in coastal areas of southeast Bengal. Along with its Bengali population, it is also home to Tibeto-Burman ethnic groups, including the Chakma, Marma, Tanchangya, Tripuri and Bawm peoples.\n\nSoutheast Bengal is considered a bridge to Southeast Asia.\n\n===Places of interest===\nThere are four World Heritage Sites in the region, including the Sundarbans, the Somapura Mahavihara, the Mosque City of Bagerhat and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway. Other prominent places include the Bishnupur, Bankura temple city, the Adina Mosque, the Caravanserai Mosque, numerous zamindar palaces (like Ahsan Manzil and Cooch Behar Palace), the Lalbagh Fort, the Great Caravanserai ruins, the Shaista Khan Caravanserai ruins, the Kolkata Victoria Memorial, the Dhaka Parliament Building, archaeologically excavated ancient fort cities in Mahasthangarh, Mainamati, Chandraketugarh and Wari-Bateshwar, the Jaldapara National Park, the Lawachara National Park, the Teknaf Game Reserve and the Chittagong Hill Tracts.\n\nCox's Bazaar in southeastern Bangladesh is home to the longest natural beach in the world and a growing surfing destination. St. Martin's Island, off the coast of Chittagong Division, is home to the sole coral reef in Bengal.\n",
"A 2015 census of Sundarbans Bengal tigers found 106 in Bangladesh and 76 in West Bengal.\nThe flat Bengal Plain, which covers most of Bangladesh and West Bengal, is one of the most fertile areas on Earth, with lush vegetation and farmland dominating its landscape. Bengali villages are buried among groves of mango, jack fruit, betel nut and date palm. Rice, jute, mustard and sugarcane plantations are a common sight. Water bodies and wetlands provide a habitat for many aquatic plants in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta. The northern part of the region features Himalayan foothills (''Dooars'') with densely wooded Sal and other tropical evergreen trees. Above an elevation of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft), the forest becomes predominantly subtropical, with a predominance of temperate-forest trees such as oaks, conifers and rhododendrons. Sal woodland is also found across central Bangladesh, particularly in the Bhawal National Park. The Lawachara National Park is a rainforest in northeastern Bangladesh. The Chittagong Hill Tracts in southeastern Bangladesh is noted for its high degree of biodiversity.\n\nThe littoral Sundarbans in the southwestern part of Bengal is the largest mangrove forest in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The region has over 89 species of mammals, 628 species of birds and numerous species of fish. For Bangladesh, the water lily, the oriental magpie-robin, the hilsa and mango tree are national symbols. For West Bengal, the white-throated kingfisher, the chatim tree and the night-flowering jasmine are state symbols. The Bengal tiger is the national animal of Bangladesh and India. The fishing cat is the state animal of West Bengal.\n",
"\n\n\n===Prehistory===\nHuman settlement in Bengal can be traced back 20,000 years. Remnants of Copper Age settlements date back 4,300 years. Archaeological evidence confirms that by the second millennium BCE, rice-cultivating communities inhabited the region. By the 11th century BCE, the people of the area lived in systemically-aligned housing, used human cemeteries and manufactured copper ornaments and fine black and red pottery. The Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers were natural arteries for communication and transportation. Estuaries on the Bay of Bengal allowed for maritime trade. The early Iron Age saw the development of metal weaponry, coinage, permanent field agriculture and irrigation. From 600 BCE, the second wave of urbanization engulfed the north Indian subcontinent, as part of the Northern Black Polished Ware culture.\n\n===Antiquity===\nHindu sculpture, 11th century\nAncient Bengal was divided between the regions of Varendra, Suhma, Anga, Vanga, Samatata and Harikela. Early Indian literature described the region as a thalassocracy, with colonies in Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean. For example, the first recorded king of Sri Lanka was a Bengali prince called Vijaya. The region was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Gangaridai. The Greek ambassador Megasthenes chronicled its military strength and dominance of the Ganges delta. The invasion army of Alexander the Great was deterred by the accounts of Gangaridai's power in 325 BCE. Later Roman accounts noted maritime trade routes with Bengal.Another prominent kingdom in Ancient Bengal was Pundravardhana which was located in Northern Bengal with its capital being located in modern-day Bogra, the kingdom was prominently buddhist leaving behind historic Viharas such as Mahasthangarh. In vedic mythology the royal families of Magadha, Anga, Vanga, Suhma and Kalinga were all related and descended from one King.\n\nAncient Bengal was considered a part of Magadha region, which was the cradle of Indian arts and sciences. Currently the Maghada region is divided into several states that are Bihar, Jharkhand, Tripura, Southern and Northwestern Assam and Bengal (West Bengal and East Bengal) The legacy of Magadha includes the concept of zero, the invention of Chess and the theory of solar and lunar eclipses and the Earth orbiting the Sun. Secular Sanskrit, or standard Old Indo-Aryan, was spoken across Bengal. The Bengali language evolved from Old Indo-Aryan Sanskrit dialects. The region was ruled by Hindu, Buddhist and Jain dynasties, including the Mauryans, Guptas, Varmans, Khadgas, Palas, Chandras and Senas among others. In the 9th century, Arab Muslim traders frequented Bengali seaports and found the region to be a thriving seafaring kingdom with well-developed coinage and banking.\n\n===Medieval era===\n\nInscriptions on the Adina Mosque proclaim the builder Sikandar Shah as \"the wisest, the most just, the most perfect and most liberal of the Sultans of Arabia, Persia and India.\"\n\nThe Pala Empire was an imperial power in the Indian subcontinent, which originated in the region of Bengal. They were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism. The empire was founded with the election of Gopala as the emperor of Gauda in 750. At its height in the early 9th century, the Pala Empire was the dominant power in the northern subcontinent, with its territory stretching across parts of modern-day eastern Pakistan, northern and northeastern India, Nepal and Bangladesh. The empire enjoyed relations with the Srivijaya Empire, the Tibetan Empire, and the Arab Abbasid Caliphate. Islam first appeared in Bengal during Pala rule, as a result of increased trade between Bengal and the Middle East. The resurgent Hindu Sena dynasty dethroned the Pala Empire in the 12th century, ending the reign of the last major Buddhist imperial power in the subcontinent.\n\nMuslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent absorbed Bengal in 1204. The region was annexed by the Delhi Sultanate. Muslim rule introduced agrarian reform, a new calendar and Sufism. The region saw the rise of important city states in Sonargaon, Satgaon and Lakhnauti. By 1352, Ilyas Shah achieved the unification of an independent Bengal. In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Bengal Sultanate was a major diplomatic, economic and military power in the subcontinent. It developed the subcontinent's relations with China, Egypt, the Timurid Empire and East Africa. In 1540, Sher Shah Suri was crowned Emperor of the northern subcontinent in the Bengali capital Gaur.\n\n===Mughal era (1576–1757)===\nA woman in Dhaka clad in fine Bengali muslin, 18th century.\n\n\n\nThe Mughal Empire conquered Bengal in the 16th century. The Bengal Subah province in the Mughal Empire was the wealthiest state in the subcontinent. Bengal's trade and wealth impressed the Mughals so much that it was described as the ''Paradise of the Nations'' by the Mughal Emperors. The region was also notable for its powerful semi-independent aristocracy, including the Twelve Bhuiyans and the Nawabs of Bengal. It was visited by several world explorers, including Ibn Battuta, Niccolo De Conti and Admiral Zheng He.\n\nUnder Mughal rule, Bengal was a center of the worldwide muslin, silk and pearl trades. During the Mughal era, the most important center of cotton production was Bengal, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka, leading to muslin being called \"daka\" in distant markets such as Central Asia. Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks. From Bengal, saltpeter was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan, cotton cloth was exported to the Americas and the Indian Ocean. Bengal also had a large shipbuilding industry. In terms of shipbuilding tonnage during the 16th–18th centuries, the annual output of Bengal alone totaled around 2,232,500 tons, larger than the combined output of the Dutch (450,000–550,000 tons), the British (340,000 tons), and North America (23,061 tons).\n\nSince the 16th century, European traders traversed the sea routes to Bengal, following the Portuguese conquests of Malacca and Goa. The Portuguese established a settlement in Chittagong with permission from the Bengal Sultanate in 1528, but were later expelled by the Mughals in 1666. In the 18th-century, the Mughal Court rapidly disintegrated due to Nader Shah's invasion and internal rebellions, allowing European colonial powers to set up trading posts across the territory. The British East India Company eventually emerged as the foremost military power in the region; and defeated the last independent Nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757.\n\n===Colonial era (1757–1947)===\n\nThe Battle of Plassey in 1757 ushered British rule\nIn Bengal effective political and military power was transferred from the old regime to the British East India Company around 1757–65.\nCompany rule in India began under the Bengal Presidency. Calcutta was named the capital of British India in 1772. The presidency was run by a military-civil administration, including the Bengal Army, and had the world's sixth earliest railway network. Great Bengal famines struck several times during colonial rule (notably the Great Bengal famine of 1770 and Bengal famine of 1943). The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was initiated on the outskirts of Calcutta, and spread to Dhaka, Chittagong, Jalpaiguri, Sylhet and Agartala, in solidarity with revolts in North India. The failure of the rebellion led to the abolishment of the Mughal Court and direct rule by the British Raj. The late 19th and early 20th century Bengal Renaissance had a great impact on the cultural and economic life of Bengal. Between 1905 and 1912, an abortive attempt was made to divide the province of Bengal into two zones, that included the short-lived province of Eastern Bengal and Assam based in Dacca and Shillong. Under British rule, Bengal experienced deindustrialization.\n\nIn 1876, 200,000 people were killed in Bengal by the Great Bangladesh cyclone.\n\nBengal played a major role in the Indian independence movement, in which revolutionary groups were dominant. Armed attempts to overthrow the British Raj began with the rebellion of Titumir, and reached a climax when Subhas Chandra Bose led the Indian National Army against the British. Bengal was also central in the rising political awareness of the Muslim population—the All-India Muslim League was established in Dhaka in 1906. The Muslim homeland movement pushed for a sovereign state in eastern British India with the Lahore Resolution in 1943. Hindu nationalism was also strong in Bengal, which was home to groups like the Hindu Mahasabha. In spite of a last-ditch effort to form a United Bengal, when India gained independence in 1947, Bengal was partitioned along religious lines. The western part went to India (and was named West Bengal) while the eastern part joined Pakistan as a province called East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan, giving rise to Bangladesh in 1971). The circumstances of partition were bloody, with widespread religious riots in Bengal.\n\nThe 1970 Bhola cyclone which took the lives of 500,000 people in Bengal, made it one of the most deadliest recorded cyclones.\n\n===Post-partition (1947–present)===\n\n====India====\n\n;West Bengal\nWest Bengal became one of India's most populous states. Calcutta, the former capital of the British Raj, became the state capital of West Bengal and continued to be India's largest city until the late 20th century, when severe power shortages, strikes and a violent Marxist-Naxalite movement damaged much of the state's infrastructure in the 1960s and 70s, leading to a period of economic stagnation. West Bengal politics underwent a major change when the Left Front won the 1977 assembly election, defeating the incumbent Indian National Congress. The Left Front, led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)) governed the state for over three decades, which was the world's longest elected Communist administration in history. Since the 2000s, West Bengal has experienced an economic rejuvenation, particularly in its IT industry.\n\n;Tripura\nThe former royal palace of Hill Tippera in Agartala\nThe princely state of Hill Tippera, that was under the suzerainty of British India, was ruled by a Bengali-speaking monarchy. Following the death of Maharaja Bir Bikram Kishore Debbarman, the princely state acceded to the Union of India on 15 October 1949 under the Tripura Merger Agreement signed by Maharani Regent Kanchan Prava Devi. By the 1950s, the region had a Bengali majority population due to the influx of Hindus from East Pakistan after partition. It became a Union Territory of India in November 1953. It was granted full statehood with an elected legislature in July 1963. An insurgency by indigenous people affected the state for several years. The Left Front ruled the state between 1978 and 1988, followed by a stint of Indian National Congress rule until 1993, and then a return to the Communists.\n\n;Barak Valley\nThe Barak Valley joined the union of India after its partition from Sylhet in 1947 and has been a part of the state of Assam. One of the most significant events in the region's history was the language movement in 1961, in which the killing of agitators by state police led to Bengali being recognized as one of the official languages of Assam. The issue of Bengali settlement in the state has been a contentious part of the Assam conflict.\n\n====Bangladesh====\nNational Monument of Bangladesh\nThe Jamuna Bridge, opened in 1998, is currently the longest bridge in the region. It includes a road and a section of the Bangladesh Railway\n\n;East Pakistan\n\nEast Bengal, which was later renamed to East Pakistan in 1955, was home to Pakistan's demographic majority and played an instrumental role in the founding of the new state. Strategically, Pakistan joined the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization under the Bengali prime minister Mohammad Ali of Bogra as a bulwark against communism. However, tensions between East and West Pakistan grew rapidly over political exclusion, economic neglect and ethnic and linguistic discrimination. The State of Pakistan was subjected to years of military rule due to fears of Bengali political supremacy under democracy. Elected Bengali-led governments at the federal and provincial levels, which were led by statesmen such as A. K. Fazlul Huq and H. S. Suhrawardy, were deposed.\n\nEast Pakistan witnessed the rise of Bengali self determination calls led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and Maulana Bhashani in the 1960s. Rahman launched the Six point movement for autonomy in 1966. After the 1970 national election, Rahman's party, the Awami League, had emerged as the largest party in Pakistan's parliament. The erstwhile Pakistani military junta refused to accept election results which triggered civil disobedience across East Pakistan. The Pakistani military responded by launching a genocide that caused the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. The first Government of Bangladesh and the Mukti Bahini waged a guerrilla campaign with support from neighboring India, which hosted millions of war refugees. Global support for the independence of East Pakistan increased due to the conflict's humanitarian crisis, with the Indian Armed Forces intervening in support of the Bangladesh Forces in the final two weeks of the war and ensuring Pakistan's surrender.\n\n;Bangladesh\n\nAfter independence, Bangladesh adopted a secular democracy under its new constitution in 1972. Awami League premier Sheikh Mujibur Rahman became the country's strongman and implemented many socialist policies. A one party state was enacted in 1975. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was assassinated later that year during a military coup that ushered in sixteen years of military dictatorships and presidential governments. The liberation war commander Ziaur Rahman emerged as Bangladesh's leader in the late 1970s. He reoriented the country's foreign policy towards the West and restored free markets and the multiparty polity. President Zia was assassinated in 1981 during a failed military coup. He was eventually succeeded by his army chief Hussain Muhammad Ershad. Lasting for nine years, Ershad's rule witnessed continued pro-free market reforms and the devolution of some authority to local government. The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was founded in Dhaka in 1985. The Jatiya Party government made Islam the state religion in 1988.\n\nA popular uprising restored parliamentary democracy in 1991. Since then, Bangladesh has largely alternated between the premierships of Sheikh Hasina of the Awami League and Khaleda Zia of the Bangladesh Nationalist Party, as well as technocratic caretaker governments. Emergency rule was imposed by the military in 2007 and 2008 after widespread street violence between the League and BNP. The restoration of democratic government in 2009 was followed by the initiation of the International Crimes Tribunal to prosecute surviving colloborators of the 1971 genocide. Today, the country is an emerging economy, listed as one of the Next Eleven and experiencing growing industrial development, but continues to face political, economic and social challenges.\n",
"Bengal has been an independent territory during several periods in history, while at other times, it has been part of larger empires. Bengal has also been a regional empire, ruling over neighboring regions like Bihar, Orissa, Arakan, and parts of North India, Assam and Nepal.\n===Maps===\n\nFile:Ptolemy Asia detail.jpg|Gangaridai in Ptolemy's map, 1st century\nFile:Asia 800ad.jpg|The Pala Empire, 9th century\nFile:Bengal Sultanate.png|The Bengal Sultanate, 16th century\nFile:1776 Rennell - Dury Wall Map of Bihar and Bengal, India - Geographicus - BaharBengal-dury-1776.jpg|Bengal & Bihar in 1776 by James Rennell\nFile:Bengalpresidency 1858.jpg|Colonial Bengal, 19th century\nFile:Bengal gazetteer 1907-9.jpg|Colonial Eastern Bengal and Assam, early 20th century\nFile:Districts of West Bengla.jpg|Map of West Bengal\nFile:BD Map admin.svg|Map of Bangladesh\n\n\n===Flags===\n\nFile:Bengal Sultanate Flag.gif|Flag of Sultanate of Bengal\nFile:Flag of the Mughal Empire (triangular).svg|Flag of Bengal Subah\nFile:Flag of India 1906 (Calcutta Flag).svg|Calcutta Flag of 1906\nFile:Bd banga.png|Flag of Bangabhumi, flag of a extremest Bengali group\nFile:Flag of Bangladesh.svg|Flag of Bangladesh\n\n",
"Politically, the region is divided between the People's Republic of Bangladesh, an independent state, and the eastern provinces of the Republic of India, including West Bengal, Assam and Tripura. Politically both Bangladesh and Indian Bengal are socialist, with left wing parties dominating the region's politics.\n\n===Bangladeshi Republic===\n\nBangabhaban (the ''House of Bengal'') is the official residence of the President of Bangladesh\nThe state of Bangladesh is a parliamentary republic based on the Westminster system, with a written constitution and a President elected by parliament for mostly ceremonial purposes. The government is headed by a Prime Minister, who is appointed by the President from among the popularly elected 300 Members of Parliament in the Jatiyo Sangshad, the national parliament. The Prime Minister is traditionally the leader of the single largest party in the Jatiyo Sangshad. Under the constitution, Islam is recognized as the state religion; while Hindus, Buddhists, Christians and people of all other denomiations are stated to enjoy equal rights.\n\nBetween 1975 and 1990, Bangladesh had a presidential system of government. Since the 1990s, it was administered by non-political technocratic caretaker governments on four occasions, the last being under military-backed emergency rule in 2007 and 2008. The Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) are the two largest political parties in Bangladesh.\n\nBangladesh is a prominent member of the United Nations, being the largest contributor of peacekeeping forces in the world and a key promoter of multilateral diplomacy. It is also a member of SAARC, the Developing 8 Countries, BIMSTEC, the World Trade Organization, NAM, the OIC and the Commonwealth of Nations. A developing country with high levels of poverty, Bangladesh has achieved significant strides in human development compared to its neighbors.\n\n===Indian Bengal===\n\nWriters' Building, the official seat of the Government of West Bengal\nWest Bengal, Tripura and Assam (home to the Barak Valley) are provincial states of the Republic of India, with local executives and assemblies- features shared with other states in the Indian federal system. The President of India appoints a Governor as the ceremonial representative of the union government. The Governor appoints the Chief Minister on the nomination of the legislative assembly. The Chief Minister is the traditionally the leader of the party or coalition with most seats in the assembly. President's rule is often imposed in Indian states as a direct intervention of the union government led by the Prime Minister of India.\n\nEach state has popularly elected members in the Indian lower house of parliament, the Lok Sabha. Each state nominates members to the Indian upper house of parliament, the Rajya Sabha.\n\nThe state legislative assemblies also play a key role in electing the ceremonial President of India. The former President of India, Pranab Mukherjee, was a native of West Bengal and a leader of the Indian National Congress.\n\nThe two major political forces in the Bengali-speaking zone of India are the Left Front and the Trinamool Congress, with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Indian National Congress being minor players.\n\n===Crossborder relations===\n\n\nIndia and Bangladesh are the world's second and eighth most populous countries respectively. Bangladesh-India relations began on a high note in 1971 when India played a major role in the liberation of Bangladesh, with the Indian Bengali populace and media providing overwhelming support to the independence movement in the former East Pakistan. The two countries had a twenty five year friendship treaty between 1972 and 1996. However, differences over river sharing, border security and access to trade have long plagued the relationship. In more recent years, a consensus has evolved in both countries on the importance of developing good relations, as well as a strategic partnership in South Asia and beyond. Commercial, cultural and defense cooperation have expanded since 2010, when Prime Ministers Sheikh Hasina and Manmohan Singh pledged to reinvigorate ties.\n\nThe Bangladesh High Commission in New Delhi operates a Deputy High Commission in Kolkata and a consular office in Agartala. India has a High Commission in Dhaka with consulates in Chittagong and Rajshahi. Frequent international air, bus and rail services connect major cities in Bangladesh and Indian Bengal, particularly the three largest cities- Dhaka, Kolkata and Chittagong. Undocumented immigration of Bangladeshi workers is a controversial issue championed by right-wing nationalist parties in India but finds little sympathy in West Bengal. India has since fenced the border which has been criticized by Bangladesh.\n",
"\n\nBengali Hindu priests performing Durga Puja rituals\nThe Bengal region is also one of most densely populated areas in the world. With a population of 300 million, Bengalis are the third largest ethnic group in the world after the Han Chinese and Arabs.\nAccording to provisional results of 2011 Bangladesh census, the population of Bangladesh was 142,319,000; however, CIA's ''The World Factbook'' gives 163,654,860 as its population in a July 2013 estimate. According to the provisional results of the 2011 Indian national census, West Bengal has a population of 91,347,736. So, the Bengal region, as of 2011, has at least 233 million people. This figures give a population density of 1003.9/km2; making it among the most densely populated areas in the world.\nBuddhist Chakma people\nBengali is the main language spoken in Bengal. Many phonological, lexical, and structural differences from the standard variety occur in peripheral varieties of Bengali; these include Sylheti, Chittagonian, Chakma, Rangpuri/Rajbangshi, Hajong, Rohingya, and Tangchangya.\n\nEnglish is often used for official work alongside Bengali.Other major Indo-Aryan languages such as Hindi, Urdu, Assamese, and Nepali are familiar to Bengalis as well.\n\nIn addition, there are several minority ethnolinguistic groups native to the region. These include speakers of other Indo-Aryan languages (e.g. Bishnupriya Manipuri, Oraon Sadri, various Bihari languages), Tibeto-Burman languages (e.g. A'Tong, Chak, Koch, Garo, Megam, Meitei Manipuri, Mizo, Mru, Pangkhua, Rakhine/Marma, Kok Borok, Riang, Tippera, Usoi, various Chin languages), Austroasiatic languages (e.g. Khasi, Koda, Mundari, Pnar, Santali, War), and Dravidian languages (e.g. Kurukh, Sauria Paharia).\n\nLife expectancy is around 70.36 years for Bangladesh and 70.2 for West Bengal.\n\nIn terms of literacy, West Bengal leads with 77% literacy rate, in Bangladesh the rate is approximately 71%. The level of poverty in West Bengal is at 19.98%, while in Bangladesh it stands at 12.9%\n\nWest Bengal's has one of the lowest total fertility rates in India. West Bengal's TFR of 1.6 roughly equals that of Canada.\n\nAbout 20,000 people live on ''chars''. Chars are temporary islands formed by the deposition of sediments eroded off the banks of the Ganges in West Bengal which often disappear in the monsoon season. They are made of very fertile soil. The inhabitants of the chars are not recognised by the Government of West Bengal on the grounds that it is not known whether they are Bengalis or Bangladeshi refugees. Consequently, no identification documents are issued to char-dwellers who cannot benefit from health care, barely survive because of very poor sanitation and are prevented from emigrating to the mainland to find jobs when they have turned 14. On a particular char it was reported that 13% of women died at childbirth.\n",
"\n\nBiman is the largest airline based in the Bengal region\nHistorically, Bengal has been the industrial leader of the subcontinent.\n\nThe region is one of the largest rice producing areas in the world, with West Bengal being India's largest rice producer and Bangladesh being the world's fourth largest rice producer. Other key crops include jute, tea, sugarcane and wheat. There are significant reserves of limestone, natural gas and coal. Major industries include textiles, leather goods, pharmaceuticals, shipbuilding, banking and information and communication technology.\n\nThree stock exchanges are located in the region, including the Dhaka Stock Exchange, the Chittagong Stock Exchange and the Calcutta Stock Exchange.\n\nBelow is a comparison of economies in the region of Bengal\n\n\n '''Bangladesh'''\n '''West Bengal (India)'''\n\n US$248.853 billion\n US$141 billion\n\n US$1,524 per person\n US$1,600 per person\n\n\n===Inter-Bengal Trade===\nBangladesh and India are the largest trading partners in South Asia, with two-way trade valued at an estimated US$6.9 billion. Much of this trade relationship is centered on some of the world's busiest land ports on the Bangladesh-India border, particularly the West Bengal section.\n\nThe partition of India severed the once strong economic links which integrated the region. Decades later, frequent air, rail and bus services are increasingly connecting cities in Bangladesh and West Bengal, as well as the wider region, including Northeast India, Nepal and Bhutan. However the overall economic relationship remains well-below potential.\n",
"===Metropolises===\nThe following are the largest cities in Bengal (in terms of population):\nNational Parliament House in Dhaka, Bangladesh\nVictoria Memorial in Kolkata, India\n\n+ List of major cities in Bengal\n\n Rank\n City\n Country\n Population (2011)\n Image\n\n 1 \n '''Dhaka''' \n \n 14,543,124 (Statistical Metropolitan Area)\n National Parliament House, Bangladesh\n\n 2 \n '''Kolkata''' \n \n 14,035,959 (Urban Agglomeration)\n Kolkata Victoria Memorial\n\n 3 \n '''Chittagong''' \n \n 4,009,423 (Statistical Metropolitan Area)\n World Trade Center Chittagong\n\n 4 \n '''Gazipur''' \n \n 1,820,374\n Islamic University of Technology, Gazipur\n\n 5 \n '''Narayanganj''' \n \n 1,636,441\n Kanchpur Industrial Area, Narayanganj\n\n 6 \n '''Khulna''' \n \n 1,046,341\n Gollamari War Memorial, Khulna\n\n 7 \n '''Rajshahi''' \n \n 763,952\n Rajshahi Skyview\n\n 8 \n '''Rangpur''' \n \n 650,000\n Bangladesh Bank building in Rangpur\n\n 9 \n '''Durgapur''' \n \n 566,517\n Durgapur Express Way\n\n 10 \n '''Asansol''' \n \n 563,917\n Modernised ISP, Asansol\n\n 11 \n '''Sylhet''' \n \n 526,412\n Rose View Hotel, Sylhet\n\n 12 \n '''Siliguri''' \n \n 513,264\n Siliguri City Center\n\n 13 \n '''Bogra''' \n \n 412,537\n Bangladesh Bank regional office, Sherpur Road, Bogra\n\n 14 \n '''Comilla''' \n \n 407,901\n Street view of Chawk Bazar Road, Comilla\n\n 15 \n '''Agartala''' \n \n 400,004\n Ujjayanta Palace, Agartala\n\n\n===Major Ports===\nNew Mooring Terminal, Port of Chittagong\n\n\n+ List of The Major Ports in Bengal\n Port Name\n Type\n Status\n Location\n Country\n\n Port of Chittagong\n Sea Port\n Active\n Chittagong, Chittagong\n \n\n Port of Haldia\n Sea PortRiver Port\n Active\n Haldia, East Midnapur\n \n\n Port of Mongla\n Sea Port\n Active\n Mongla, Bagerhat, Khulna\n \n\n Port of Payra\n Sea Port\n Active\n Kalapara, Patuakhali, Barisal\n \n\n Port of Kolkata\n River Port\n Active\n Kolkata, Kolkata\n \n\n Port of Narayanganj\n River Port\n Active\n Narayanganj, Dhaka\n \n\n Port of Benapole-Petrapole\n Landport\n Active\n Sharsha, Jessore-Bangaon, North 24 Parganas\n Jessore-Bangaon\n\n\n===Tourist Attractions===\n\n\n+ List of The Tourist Attraction of Bengal\n Name\n Type\n City/Area\n Sample Image\n\n Sundarbans\n world largest natural mangrove\n Khulna, Satkhira, Bagerhat, South 24 Parganas\n A Bengal tiger (''Panthera tigris tigris'') from Sundarbans\n\n Cox's Bazar\n world's longest sea beach\n Cox's Bazar, Chittagong Division\n Cox's Bazar sea beach\n\n Digha\n sea beach\n East Midnapur\n Digha sea beach\n\n Chittagong Hill Tracts\n hilly areas with habitant different indigenous tribes\n Rangamati, Khagrachhari, Bandarban\n A view of Sajek, Rangamati\n\n Ratargul\n only swamp forest in Bengal region\n Sylhet\n A View of Ratargul\n\n Satchhari\n reserve forest\n Habiganj, Sylhet\n A top view of Satchari national park\n\n Siliguri\n hilly area of foothills of Himalayas\n Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri\n A view of Siliguri Metropolis\n\n",
"The strategically important city of Chittagong is home to the busiest port on the Bay of Bengal\nThe Bengal region is located at the crossroads of two huge economic blocs, the SAARC and ASEAN. It gives access to the sea for the landlocked countries of Nepal and Bhutan, as well as the Seven Sister States of North East India. It is also located near China's southern landlocked region, including Yunnan and Tibet.\n\nBoth India and Bangladesh plan to expand onshore and offshore oil and gas operations. Bangladesh is Asia's seventh-largest natural gas producer. Its maritime exclusive economic zone potentially holds many of the largest gas reserves in the Asia-Pacific.\n\nThe Bay of Bengal is strategically important for its vital shipping lanes and its central location between the Middle East and the Pacific. The Bay of Bengal Initiative, based in Dhaka, brings together Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Thailand, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka to promote economic integration in the subregion. Other regional groupings include the Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar Forum for Regional Cooperation (BCIM) and the Bangladesh Bhutan India Nepal (BBIN) Initiative.\n\nCulturally, Bengal is significant for its huge Hindu and Muslim populations. Bengali Hindus make up the second largest linguistic community in India. Bengali Muslims are the world's second largest Muslim ethnicity (after Arab Muslims), and Bangladesh is the world's third largest Muslim-majority country (after Indonesia and Pakistan).\n",
"\n\n\n===Language===\n\nBengali Letters\nThe Bengali language developed between the 7th and 10th centuries from Apabhraṃśa and Magadhi Prakrit. It is written using the indigenous Bengali alphabet, a descendant of the ancient Brahmi script. Bengali is the 10th most spoken language in the world. It is an eastern Indo-Aryan language and one of the easternmost branches of the Indo-European language family. It is part of the Bengali-Assamese languages. Bengali has greatly influenced other languages in the region, including Odia, Assamese, Chakma, Nepali and Rohingya. It is the sole state language of Bangladesh and the third most spoken language in India.\n\nBengali binds together a culturally diverse region and is an important contributor to regional identity. The 1952 Bengali Language Movement in East Pakistan is commemorated by UNESCO as International Mother Language Day, as part of global efforts to preserve linguistic identity.\n\n===Currency===\n\nA silver coin with Proto-Bengali script, 9th century \nIn both Bangladesh and West Bengal, currency is commonly denominated as taka. The Bangladesh taka is an official standard bearer of this tradition, while the Indian rupee is also written as taka in Bengali script on all of its banknotes. The history of the taka dates back centuries. Bengal was home one of the world's earliest coin currencies in the first millennium BCE. Under the Delhi Sultanate, the taka was introduced by Muhammad bin Tughluq in 1329. Bengal became the stronghold of the taka. The silver currency was the most important symbol of sovereignty of the Sultanate of Bengal. It was traded on the Silk Road and replicated in Nepal and China's Tibetan protectorate. The Pakistani rupee was scripted in Bengali as taka on its banknotes until Bangladesh's creation in 1971.\n\n===Literature===\n\n\nRabindranath Tagore, known as the Bengali Shakespeare, being hosted at the Parliament of Iran in the 1930s\nBengali literature has a rich heritage. It has a history stretching back to the 3rd century BCE, when the main language was Sanskrit written in the brahmi script. The Bengali language and script evolved circa 1000 CE from Magadhi Prakrit. Bengal has a long tradition in folk literature, evidenced by the ''Chôrjapôdô'', ''Mangalkavya'', ''Shreekrishna Kirtana'', ''Maimansingha Gitika'' or ''Thakurmar Jhuli''. Bengali literature in the medieval age was often either religious (e.g. Chandidas), or adaptations from other languages (e.g. Alaol). During the Bengal Renaissance of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Bengali literature was modernised through the works of authors such as Michael Madhusudan Dutta, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Rabindranath Tagore, Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay, Kazi Nazrul Islam, Satyendranath Dutta and Jibanananda Das. In the 20th century, prominent modern Bengali writers included Syed Mujtaba Ali, Jasimuddin, Manik Bandopadhyay, Tarasankar Bandyopadhyay, Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay, Buddhadeb Bose, Sunil Gangopadhyay and Humayun Ahmed.\n\nProminent contemporary Bengali writers in English include Amitav Ghosh, Tahmima Anam, Jhumpa Lahiri and Zia Haider Rahman among others.\n\n===Personification===\n\nThe Mother Bengal is a female personification of Bengal which was created during the Bengali renaissance and later adopted by the Bengali nationalists. The Mother Bengal represents not only biological motherness but its attributed characteristics as well – protection, never ending love, consolation, care, the beginning and the end of life. In Amar Sonar Bangla, the national anthem of Bangladesh, Rabindranath Tagore has used the word \"Maa\" (Mother) numerous times to refer to the motherland i.e. Bengal. Despite her popularity in patriotic songs and poems, her physical representations and images are rare.\n\n===Art===\n\nBangladeshi paintings on sale at an art gallery in Dhaka\nThe Pala-Sena School of Art developed in Bengal between the 8th and 12th centuries and is considered a high point of classical Asian art. It included sculptures and paintings.\n\nIslamic Bengal was noted for its production of the finest cotton fabrics and saris, notably the Jamdani, which received warrants from the Mughal court. The Bengal School of painting flourished in Kolkata and Shantiniketan in the British Raj during the early 20th century. Its practitioners were among the harbingers of modern painting in India. Zainul Abedin was the pioneer of modern Bangladeshi art. The country has a thriving and internationally acclaimed contemporary art scene.\n\n===Architecture===\n\nBungalows originated from Bengali architecture\nClassical Bengali architecture features terracotta buildings. Ancient Bengali kingdoms laid the foundations of the region's architectural heritage through the construction of monasteries and temples (for example, the Somapura Mahavihara). During the sultanate period, a distinct and glorious Islamic style of architecture developed the region. Most Islamic buildings were small and highly artistic terracotta mosques with multiple domes and no minarets. Bengal was also home to the largest mosque in South Asia at \nAdina. Bengali vernacular architecture is credited for inspiring the popularity of the bungalow.\n\nThe Bengal region also has a rich heritage of Indo-Saracenic architecture, including numerous zamindar palaces and mansions. The most prominent example of this style is the Victoria Memorial, Kolkata.\n\nIn the 1950s, Muzharul Islam pioneered the modernist terracotta style of architecture in South Asia. This was followed by the design of the Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban by the renowned American architect Louis Kahn in the 1960s, which was based on the aesthetic heritage of Bengali architecture and geography.\n\n===Sciences===\nA sculpture on Fazlur Rahman Khan at the Sears Tower in the United States\n\nThe Gupta dynasty, which is believed to have originated in North Bengal, pioneered the invention of chess, the concept of zero, the theory of Earth orbiting the Sun, the study of solar and lunar eclipses and the flourishing of Sanskrit literature and drama. Bengal was the leader of scientific endeavors in the subcontinent during the British Raj. The educational reforms during this period gave birth to many distinguished scientists in the region. Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose pioneered the investigation of radio and microwave optics, made very significant contributions to plant science, and laid the foundations of experimental science in the Indian subcontinent. IEEE named him one of the fathers of radio science. He was the first person from the Indian subcontinent to receive a US patent, in 1904. In 1924–25, while researching at the University of Dhaka, Prof Satyendra Nath Bose well known for his works in quantum mechanics, provided the foundation for Bose–Einstein statistics and the theory of the Bose–Einstein condensate. In the United States, the Bengali American engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan emerged as the \"father of tubular designs\" in skyscraper construction.\n\n===Music===\n\nA Baul musician. The Baul ballads of Bengal are classified by UNESCO as humanity's intangible cultural heritage\nThe Baul tradition is a unique heritage of Bengali folk music. The 19th century mystic poet Lalon Shah is the most celebrated practitioner of the tradition. Other folk music forms include Gombhira, Bhatiali and Bhawaiya. Hason Raja is a renowned folk poet of the Sylhet region. Folk music in Bengal is often accompanied by the ektara, a one-stringed instrument. Other instruments include the dotara, dhol, flute, and tabla. The region also has a rich heritage in North Indian classical music.\n\n===Cuisine===\n\nBengali cuisine is the only traditionally developed multi-course tradition from the Indian subcontinent. Rice and fish are traditional favourite foods, leading to a saying that \"fish and rice make a Bengali\". Bengal's vast repertoire of fish-based dishes includes Hilsa preparations, a favourite among Bengalis. Bengalis make distinctive sweetmeats from milk products, including ''Rôshogolla'', ''Chômchôm'', and several kinds of ''Pithe''. The old city of Dhaka is noted for its distinct Indo-Islamic cuisine, including biryani, bakarkhani and kebab dishes.\n\n===Boats===\n\n18th century painting of a budgerow\nThere are 150 types of Bengali country boats plying the 700 rivers of the Bengal delta, the vast floodplain and many oxbow lakes. They vary in design and size. The boats include the dinghy and sampan among others. Country boats are a central element of Bengali culture and have inspired generations of artists and poets, including the ivory artisans of the Mughal era. The country has a long shipbuilding tradition, dating back many centuries. Wooden boats are made of timber such as ''Jarul'' (dipterocarpus turbinatus),'' sal'' (shorea robusta), ''sundari'' (heritiera fomes), and ''Burma teak'' (tectons grandis). Medieval Bengal was shipbuilding hub for the Mughal and Ottoman navies. The British Royal Navy later utilized Bengali shipyards in the 19th-century, including for the Battle of Trafalgar.\n\n===Attire===\nBengali women commonly wear the ''shaŗi'' and the salwar kameez, often distinctly designed according to local cultural customs. In urban areas, many women and men wear Western-style attire. Among men, European dressing has greater acceptance. Men also wear traditional costumes such as the ''kurta'' with ''dhoti'' or ''pyjama'', often on religious occasions. The lungi, a kind of long skirt, is widely worn by Bangladeshi men.\n\n===Festivals===\n\n\nA parade float among male revelers during the Mangal Shobhajatra\nDurga Puja is the most important festival of the Hindus in Bengal as well as the most significant festival of the region in general. \nThe two Eids (Eid ul-Fitr and Eid ul-Adha) are the two important festivals for Muslims. Christmas (called Borodin (Great day) in Bengali) and Buddha Purnima are other major religious festivals.\nOther major festivities include the Bengali New Year, the Bengali Spring Festival, Nobanno and Poush Parbon.\n\n===Media===\nBangladesh has a diverse, outspoken and privately owned press, with the largest circulated Bengali language newspapers in the world. English-language titles are popular in the urban readership. West Bengal had 559 published newspapers in 2005, of which 430 were in Bengali. Bengali cinema is divided between the media hubs of Kolkata and Dhaka.\n\n===Sports===\nCricket and football are popular sports in the Bengal region.\n\nLocal games include sports such as Kho Kho and Kabaddi, the latter being the national sport of Bangladesh.\n\nAn Indo-Bangladesh ''Bengali Games'' has been organised among the athletes of the Bengali speaking areas of the two countries.\n",
"==See also==\n* Bengal Renaissance\n* Bengalis\n* List of Bengalis\n* Northeast India\n* East India\n* Punjab\n* Hindi Belt\n",
"\n\n\n",
"\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Etymology",
"Geography",
"Flora and fauna",
"History",
"Historical maps & flags of states",
"Politics",
"Demographics",
"Economy",
"Major Cities",
"Strategic importance",
"Culture",
"Gallery",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Bengal | [
"===Metropolises===\nThe following are the largest cities in Bengal (in terms of population):\nNational Parliament House in Dhaka, Bangladesh\nVictoria Memorial in Kolkata, India\n\n+ List of major cities in Bengal\n\n Rank\n City\n Country\n Population (2011)\n Image\n\n 1 \n '''Dhaka''' \n \n 14,543,124 (Statistical Metropolitan Area)\n National Parliament House, Bangladesh\n\n 2 \n '''Kolkata''' \n \n 14,035,959 (Urban Agglomeration)\n Kolkata Victoria Memorial\n\n 3 \n '''Chittagong''' \n \n 4,009,423 (Statistical Metropolitan Area)\n World Trade Center Chittagong\n\n 4 \n '''Gazipur''' \n \n 1,820,374\n Islamic University of Technology, Gazipur\n\n 5 \n '''Narayanganj''' \n \n 1,636,441\n Kanchpur Industrial Area, Narayanganj\n\n 6 \n '''Khulna''' \n \n 1,046,341\n Gollamari War Memorial, Khulna\n\n 7 \n '''Rajshahi''' \n \n 763,952\n Rajshahi Skyview\n\n 8 \n '''Rangpur''' \n \n 650,000\n Bangladesh Bank building in Rangpur\n\n 9 \n '''Durgapur''' \n \n 566,517\n Durgapur Express Way\n\n 10 \n '''Asansol''' \n \n 563,917\n Modernised ISP, Asansol\n\n 11 \n '''Sylhet''' \n \n 526,412\n Rose View Hotel, Sylhet\n\n 12 \n '''Siliguri''' \n \n 513,264\n Siliguri City Center\n\n 13 \n '''Bogra''' \n \n 412,537\n Bangladesh Bank regional office, Sherpur Road, Bogra\n\n 14 \n '''Comilla''' \n \n 407,901\n Street view of Chawk Bazar Road, Comilla\n\n 15 \n '''Agartala''' \n \n 400,004\n Ujjayanta Palace, Agartala\n\n\n===Major Ports===\nNew Mooring Terminal, Port of Chittagong\n\n\n+ List of The Major Ports in Bengal\n Port Name\n Type\n Status\n Location\n Country\n\n Port of Chittagong\n Sea Port\n Active\n Chittagong, Chittagong\n \n\n Port of Haldia\n Sea PortRiver Port\n Active\n Haldia, East Midnapur\n \n\n Port of Mongla\n Sea Port\n Active\n Mongla, Bagerhat, Khulna\n \n\n Port of Payra\n Sea Port\n Active\n Kalapara, Patuakhali, Barisal\n \n\n Port of Kolkata\n River Port\n Active\n Kolkata, Kolkata\n \n\n Port of Narayanganj\n River Port\n Active\n Narayanganj, Dhaka\n \n\n Port of Benapole-Petrapole\n Landport\n Active\n Sharsha, Jessore-Bangaon, North 24 Parganas\n Jessore-Bangaon\n\n\n===Tourist Attractions===\n\n\n+ List of The Tourist Attraction of Bengal\n Name\n Type\n City/Area\n Sample Image\n\n Sundarbans\n world largest natural mangrove\n Khulna, Satkhira, Bagerhat, South 24 Parganas\n A Bengal tiger (''Panthera tigris tigris'') from Sundarbans\n\n Cox's Bazar\n world's longest sea beach\n Cox's Bazar, Chittagong Division\n Cox's Bazar sea beach\n\n Digha\n sea beach\n East Midnapur\n Digha sea beach\n\n Chittagong Hill Tracts\n hilly areas with habitant different indigenous tribes\n Rangamati, Khagrachhari, Bandarban\n A view of Sajek, Rangamati\n\n Ratargul\n only swamp forest in Bengal region\n Sylhet\n A View of Ratargul\n\n Satchhari\n reserve forest\n Habiganj, Sylhet\n A top view of Satchari national park\n\n Siliguri\n hilly area of foothills of Himalayas\n Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri\n A view of Siliguri Metropolis"
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Bengal''' (; ) is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in Asia, which is located in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal.",
"Geographically, it is made up by the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta system, the largest such formation in the world; along with mountains in its north bordering the Himalayan states of Nepal and Bhutan and east bordering Burma.",
"Politically, Bengal is divided between the sovereign Republic of Bangladesh, which covers two-thirds of the region, and West Bengal which is now part of India.",
"In 2011, the population of Bengal was estimated to be 250 million, making it one of the most densely populated regions in the world.",
"An estimated 160 million people live in Bangladesh, while 91.3 million people live in West Bengal.",
"The predominant ethno-linguistic group is the Bengali people, who speak the Indo-Aryan Bengali language.",
"Bengali Muslims are the majority in Bangladesh.",
"Bengali Hindus are the majority in West Bengal.",
"Outside Bengal proper, the Indian territories of Tripura, Assam, Jharkhand, Bihar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, are also home to significant communities with Bengali heritage.",
"Dense woodlands, including hilly rainforests, cover Bengal's northern and eastern areas; while an elevated forested plateau covers its central area.",
"In the littoral southwest are the Sundarbans, the world's largest mangrove forest and home of the Bengal tiger.",
"In the coastal southeast lies Cox's Bazaar, the longest beach in the world at .",
"The region has a monsoon climate, which the Bengali calendar divides into six seasons.",
"Bengal has played a major role in history.",
"At times an independent regional empire, the historical region was a leading power in Southeast Asia and later the Islamic East, with extensive trade networks.",
"In antiquity, its kingdoms were known as seafaring nations.",
"Bengal was known to the Greeks as Gangaridai, notable for mighty military power.",
"It was described by the Greek's historian that Alexander the Great withdrew from the South east Asia, anticipating a counterattack from an alliance of Gangaridai.",
"Later writers noted merchant shipping links between Bengal and Roman Egypt.",
"The Bengali Pala Empire was the last major Buddhist imperial power in the subcontinent, founded in 750 and becoming the dominant power in the northern Indian subcontinent by the 9th century, before being replaced by the Hindu Sena dynasty in the 12th century.",
"Islam was introduced during the Pala Empire, through trade with the Abbasid Caliphate.",
"The Islamic Bengal Sultanate, founded in 1352, was absorbed into the Mughal Empire in 1576.",
"The Mughal Bengal Subah province became a major global exporter, a center of worldwide industries such as muslin, silk, pearl, cotton textiles, and shipbuilding.",
"It was conquered by the British East India Company in 1757 and became the Bengal Presidency, which experienced deindustrialization under British rule.",
"Upon independence, the partition of Bengal (1947) split the region into West Bengal in India and East Pakistan, the latter becoming the independent nation of Bangladesh in 1971.",
"Bengali culture has been particularly influential in the fields of literature, music, shipbuilding, art, architecture, sports, currency, commerce, politics and cuisine.",
"\nThe name of ''Bengal'' is derived from the ancient kingdom of Banga, the earliest records of which date back to the ''Mahabharata'' epic in the first millennium BCE.",
"Theories on the origin of the term Banga point to the Proto-Dravidian ''Bong'' tribe that settled in the area circa 1000 BCE and the Austric word ''Bong'' (Sun-god).",
"The term ''Bangaladesa'' is used to describe the region in 11th century South Indian records.",
"The modern term ''Bangla'' is prominent from the 14th century, which saw the establishment of the Sultanate of Bengal, whose first ruler Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah was known as the ''Shah of Bangala''.",
"The Portuguese referred to the region as ''Bengala'' in the Age of Discovery.",
"\nThe Ganges-Brahmaputra delta\nMost of the Bengal region lies in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, but there are highlands in its north, northeast and southeast.",
"The Ganges Delta arises from the confluence of the rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers and their respective tributaries.",
"The total area of Bengal is 232,752 km2—West Bengal is and Bangladesh .",
"The flat and fertile Bangladesh Plain dominates the geography of Bangladesh.",
"The Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet regions are home to most of the mountains in Bangladesh.",
"Most parts of Bangladesh are within above the sea level, and it is believed that about 10% of the land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by .",
"Because of this low elevation, much of this region is exceptionally vulnerable to seasonal flooding due to monsoons.",
"The highest point in Bangladesh is in Mowdok range at .",
"A major part of the coastline comprises a marshy jungle, the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world and home to diverse flora and fauna, including the royal Bengal tiger.",
"In 1997, this region was declared endangered.",
"West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south.",
"The state has a total area of .",
"The Darjeeling Himalayan hill region in the northern extreme of the state belongs to the eastern Himalaya.",
"This region contains Sandakfu ()—the highest peak of the state.",
"The narrow Terai region separates this region from the plains, which in turn transitions into the Ganges delta towards the south.",
"The Rarh region intervenes between the Ganges delta in the east and the western plateau and high lands.",
"A small coastal region is on the extreme south, while the Sundarbans mangrove forests form a remarkable geographical landmark at the Ganges delta.",
"At least nine districts in West Bengal and 42 districts in Bangladesh have arsenic levels in groundwater above the World Health Organization maximum permissible limit of 50 µg/L or 50 parts per billion and the untreated water is unfit for human consumption.",
"The water causes arsenicosis, skin cancer and various other complications in the body.",
"File:Burishwar River in Barguna, Bangladesh (2).jpg|A river in Bangladesh\nFile:A Canvas- Mustard field and Date Trees (11923934543).jpg|A mustard and date palm farm in West Bengal\nFile:Tea Garden near Srimangal, Sylhet, Bangladesh.jpg|A tea garden in Bangladesh\n\n\n===Geographic distinctions===\nBengal in relation to historical regions in Asia\n\n====North Bengal====\nOn a clear day, the snowy peaks of the Himalayas in Nepal and Sikkim can be seen from northern Bangladesh and Darjeeling district, West Bengal\nNorth Bengal is a term used for the north-western part of Bangladesh and northern part of West Bengal.",
"The Bangladeshi part comprises Rajshahi Division and Rangpur Division.",
"Generally, it is the area lying west of Jamuna River and north of Padma River, and includes the Barind Tract.",
"Politically, West Bengal's part comprises Jalpaiguri Division (Alipurduar, Cooch Behar, Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, North Dinajpur, South Dinajpur and Malda) together and Bihar's parts include Kishanganj district.",
"Darjeeling Hills are also part of North Bengal.",
"Though only people of Jaipaiguri, Alipurduar and Cooch Behar identifies themselves as North Bengali.",
"North Bengal is divided into Terai and Dooars regions.",
"North Bengal is also noted for its rich cultural heritage, including two UNESCO World Heritage Sites.",
"Aside from the Bengali majority, North Bengal is home to many other communities including Nepalis, Santhal people, Lepchas and Rajbongshis.",
"====Northeast Bengal====\nWaterfalls are a common sight in the highlands of eastern Bangladesh\nNortheast Bengal refers to the Sylhet Division of Bangladesh and the Barak Valley in the Indian state of Assam.",
"The region is noted for its distinctive fertile highland terrain, extensive tea plantations, rainforests and wetlands.",
"The Surma and Barak rivers are the geographic markers of the area.",
"The city of Sylhet is its largest urban center, and the most spoken vernacular language in the region is the Sylheti dialect of Bengali.",
"The endonym of the region is Srihatta.",
"The region was ruled by the Kamarupa and Harikela kingdoms.",
"It later became a district of the Mughal Empire.",
"Alongside the predominant Bengali population resides a small Bishnupriya Manipuri minority.",
"The region is the crossroads of Bengal and northeast India.",
"====Central Bengal====\nCentral Bengal refers to the Dhaka Division of Bangladesh.",
"It includes the elevated Madhupur tract with a large Sal tree forest.",
"The Padma River cuts through the southern part of the region, separating the greater Faridpur region.",
"In the north lies the greater Mymensingh and Tangail regions.",
"====South Bengal====\nSouth Bengal covers the southern part of the Indian state of West Bengal and southwestern Bangladesh.",
"The Indian part of South Bengal includes 12 districts: Kolkata, Howrah, Hooghly, Burdwan, East Midnapur, West Midnapur, Purulia, Bankura, Birbhum, Nadia, South 24 Parganas, North 24 Parganas.",
"The Bangladeshi part includes the proposed Faridpur Division, Khulna Division and Barisal Division.",
"The Sundarbans, a major biodiversity hotspot, is located in South Bengal.",
"Bangladesh hosts 60% of the forest, with the remainder in India.",
"====Southeast Bengal====\nCox's Bazaar has one of the longest beaches in the world\nSoutheast Bengal refers to the hilly and coastal Bengali-speaking areas of Chittagong Division in southeastern Bangladesh and the Indian state of Tripura.",
"Southeast Bengal is noted for its thalassocratic and seafaring heritage.",
"The area was dominated by the Bengali Harikela and Samatata kingdoms in antiquity.",
"It was known to Arab traders as ''Harkand'' in the 9th century.",
"During the medieval period, the region was ruled by the Sultanate of Bengal, the Kingdom of Tripura, the Kingdom of Mrauk U, the Portuguese Empire and the Mughal Empire, prior to the advent of British rule.",
"The Chittagonian dialect of Bengali is prevalent in coastal areas of southeast Bengal.",
"Along with its Bengali population, it is also home to Tibeto-Burman ethnic groups, including the Chakma, Marma, Tanchangya, Tripuri and Bawm peoples.",
"Southeast Bengal is considered a bridge to Southeast Asia.",
"===Places of interest===\nThere are four World Heritage Sites in the region, including the Sundarbans, the Somapura Mahavihara, the Mosque City of Bagerhat and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway.",
"Other prominent places include the Bishnupur, Bankura temple city, the Adina Mosque, the Caravanserai Mosque, numerous zamindar palaces (like Ahsan Manzil and Cooch Behar Palace), the Lalbagh Fort, the Great Caravanserai ruins, the Shaista Khan Caravanserai ruins, the Kolkata Victoria Memorial, the Dhaka Parliament Building, archaeologically excavated ancient fort cities in Mahasthangarh, Mainamati, Chandraketugarh and Wari-Bateshwar, the Jaldapara National Park, the Lawachara National Park, the Teknaf Game Reserve and the Chittagong Hill Tracts.",
"Cox's Bazaar in southeastern Bangladesh is home to the longest natural beach in the world and a growing surfing destination.",
"St. Martin's Island, off the coast of Chittagong Division, is home to the sole coral reef in Bengal.",
"A 2015 census of Sundarbans Bengal tigers found 106 in Bangladesh and 76 in West Bengal.",
"The flat Bengal Plain, which covers most of Bangladesh and West Bengal, is one of the most fertile areas on Earth, with lush vegetation and farmland dominating its landscape.",
"Bengali villages are buried among groves of mango, jack fruit, betel nut and date palm.",
"Rice, jute, mustard and sugarcane plantations are a common sight.",
"Water bodies and wetlands provide a habitat for many aquatic plants in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta.",
"The northern part of the region features Himalayan foothills (''Dooars'') with densely wooded Sal and other tropical evergreen trees.",
"Above an elevation of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft), the forest becomes predominantly subtropical, with a predominance of temperate-forest trees such as oaks, conifers and rhododendrons.",
"Sal woodland is also found across central Bangladesh, particularly in the Bhawal National Park.",
"The Lawachara National Park is a rainforest in northeastern Bangladesh.",
"The Chittagong Hill Tracts in southeastern Bangladesh is noted for its high degree of biodiversity.",
"The littoral Sundarbans in the southwestern part of Bengal is the largest mangrove forest in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.",
"The region has over 89 species of mammals, 628 species of birds and numerous species of fish.",
"For Bangladesh, the water lily, the oriental magpie-robin, the hilsa and mango tree are national symbols.",
"For West Bengal, the white-throated kingfisher, the chatim tree and the night-flowering jasmine are state symbols.",
"The Bengal tiger is the national animal of Bangladesh and India.",
"The fishing cat is the state animal of West Bengal.",
"\n\n\n===Prehistory===\nHuman settlement in Bengal can be traced back 20,000 years.",
"Remnants of Copper Age settlements date back 4,300 years.",
"Archaeological evidence confirms that by the second millennium BCE, rice-cultivating communities inhabited the region.",
"By the 11th century BCE, the people of the area lived in systemically-aligned housing, used human cemeteries and manufactured copper ornaments and fine black and red pottery.",
"The Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers were natural arteries for communication and transportation.",
"Estuaries on the Bay of Bengal allowed for maritime trade.",
"The early Iron Age saw the development of metal weaponry, coinage, permanent field agriculture and irrigation.",
"From 600 BCE, the second wave of urbanization engulfed the north Indian subcontinent, as part of the Northern Black Polished Ware culture.",
"===Antiquity===\nHindu sculpture, 11th century\nAncient Bengal was divided between the regions of Varendra, Suhma, Anga, Vanga, Samatata and Harikela.",
"Early Indian literature described the region as a thalassocracy, with colonies in Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean.",
"For example, the first recorded king of Sri Lanka was a Bengali prince called Vijaya.",
"The region was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Gangaridai.",
"The Greek ambassador Megasthenes chronicled its military strength and dominance of the Ganges delta.",
"The invasion army of Alexander the Great was deterred by the accounts of Gangaridai's power in 325 BCE.",
"Later Roman accounts noted maritime trade routes with Bengal.Another prominent kingdom in Ancient Bengal was Pundravardhana which was located in Northern Bengal with its capital being located in modern-day Bogra, the kingdom was prominently buddhist leaving behind historic Viharas such as Mahasthangarh.",
"In vedic mythology the royal families of Magadha, Anga, Vanga, Suhma and Kalinga were all related and descended from one King.",
"Ancient Bengal was considered a part of Magadha region, which was the cradle of Indian arts and sciences.",
"Currently the Maghada region is divided into several states that are Bihar, Jharkhand, Tripura, Southern and Northwestern Assam and Bengal (West Bengal and East Bengal) The legacy of Magadha includes the concept of zero, the invention of Chess and the theory of solar and lunar eclipses and the Earth orbiting the Sun.",
"Secular Sanskrit, or standard Old Indo-Aryan, was spoken across Bengal.",
"The Bengali language evolved from Old Indo-Aryan Sanskrit dialects.",
"The region was ruled by Hindu, Buddhist and Jain dynasties, including the Mauryans, Guptas, Varmans, Khadgas, Palas, Chandras and Senas among others.",
"In the 9th century, Arab Muslim traders frequented Bengali seaports and found the region to be a thriving seafaring kingdom with well-developed coinage and banking.",
"===Medieval era===\n\nInscriptions on the Adina Mosque proclaim the builder Sikandar Shah as \"the wisest, the most just, the most perfect and most liberal of the Sultans of Arabia, Persia and India.\"",
"The Pala Empire was an imperial power in the Indian subcontinent, which originated in the region of Bengal.",
"They were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism.",
"The empire was founded with the election of Gopala as the emperor of Gauda in 750.",
"At its height in the early 9th century, the Pala Empire was the dominant power in the northern subcontinent, with its territory stretching across parts of modern-day eastern Pakistan, northern and northeastern India, Nepal and Bangladesh.",
"The empire enjoyed relations with the Srivijaya Empire, the Tibetan Empire, and the Arab Abbasid Caliphate.",
"Islam first appeared in Bengal during Pala rule, as a result of increased trade between Bengal and the Middle East.",
"The resurgent Hindu Sena dynasty dethroned the Pala Empire in the 12th century, ending the reign of the last major Buddhist imperial power in the subcontinent.",
"Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent absorbed Bengal in 1204.",
"The region was annexed by the Delhi Sultanate.",
"Muslim rule introduced agrarian reform, a new calendar and Sufism.",
"The region saw the rise of important city states in Sonargaon, Satgaon and Lakhnauti.",
"By 1352, Ilyas Shah achieved the unification of an independent Bengal.",
"In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Bengal Sultanate was a major diplomatic, economic and military power in the subcontinent.",
"It developed the subcontinent's relations with China, Egypt, the Timurid Empire and East Africa.",
"In 1540, Sher Shah Suri was crowned Emperor of the northern subcontinent in the Bengali capital Gaur.",
"===Mughal era (1576–1757)===\nA woman in Dhaka clad in fine Bengali muslin, 18th century.",
"The Mughal Empire conquered Bengal in the 16th century.",
"The Bengal Subah province in the Mughal Empire was the wealthiest state in the subcontinent.",
"Bengal's trade and wealth impressed the Mughals so much that it was described as the ''Paradise of the Nations'' by the Mughal Emperors.",
"The region was also notable for its powerful semi-independent aristocracy, including the Twelve Bhuiyans and the Nawabs of Bengal.",
"It was visited by several world explorers, including Ibn Battuta, Niccolo De Conti and Admiral Zheng He.",
"Under Mughal rule, Bengal was a center of the worldwide muslin, silk and pearl trades.",
"During the Mughal era, the most important center of cotton production was Bengal, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka, leading to muslin being called \"daka\" in distant markets such as Central Asia.",
"Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles.",
"Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks.",
"From Bengal, saltpeter was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan, cotton cloth was exported to the Americas and the Indian Ocean.",
"Bengal also had a large shipbuilding industry.",
"In terms of shipbuilding tonnage during the 16th–18th centuries, the annual output of Bengal alone totaled around 2,232,500 tons, larger than the combined output of the Dutch (450,000–550,000 tons), the British (340,000 tons), and North America (23,061 tons).",
"Since the 16th century, European traders traversed the sea routes to Bengal, following the Portuguese conquests of Malacca and Goa.",
"The Portuguese established a settlement in Chittagong with permission from the Bengal Sultanate in 1528, but were later expelled by the Mughals in 1666.",
"In the 18th-century, the Mughal Court rapidly disintegrated due to Nader Shah's invasion and internal rebellions, allowing European colonial powers to set up trading posts across the territory.",
"The British East India Company eventually emerged as the foremost military power in the region; and defeated the last independent Nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757.",
"===Colonial era (1757–1947)===\n\nThe Battle of Plassey in 1757 ushered British rule\nIn Bengal effective political and military power was transferred from the old regime to the British East India Company around 1757–65.",
"Company rule in India began under the Bengal Presidency.",
"Calcutta was named the capital of British India in 1772.",
"The presidency was run by a military-civil administration, including the Bengal Army, and had the world's sixth earliest railway network.",
"Great Bengal famines struck several times during colonial rule (notably the Great Bengal famine of 1770 and Bengal famine of 1943).",
"The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was initiated on the outskirts of Calcutta, and spread to Dhaka, Chittagong, Jalpaiguri, Sylhet and Agartala, in solidarity with revolts in North India.",
"The failure of the rebellion led to the abolishment of the Mughal Court and direct rule by the British Raj.",
"The late 19th and early 20th century Bengal Renaissance had a great impact on the cultural and economic life of Bengal.",
"Between 1905 and 1912, an abortive attempt was made to divide the province of Bengal into two zones, that included the short-lived province of Eastern Bengal and Assam based in Dacca and Shillong.",
"Under British rule, Bengal experienced deindustrialization.",
"In 1876, 200,000 people were killed in Bengal by the Great Bangladesh cyclone.",
"Bengal played a major role in the Indian independence movement, in which revolutionary groups were dominant.",
"Armed attempts to overthrow the British Raj began with the rebellion of Titumir, and reached a climax when Subhas Chandra Bose led the Indian National Army against the British.",
"Bengal was also central in the rising political awareness of the Muslim population—the All-India Muslim League was established in Dhaka in 1906.",
"The Muslim homeland movement pushed for a sovereign state in eastern British India with the Lahore Resolution in 1943.",
"Hindu nationalism was also strong in Bengal, which was home to groups like the Hindu Mahasabha.",
"In spite of a last-ditch effort to form a United Bengal, when India gained independence in 1947, Bengal was partitioned along religious lines.",
"The western part went to India (and was named West Bengal) while the eastern part joined Pakistan as a province called East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan, giving rise to Bangladesh in 1971).",
"The circumstances of partition were bloody, with widespread religious riots in Bengal.",
"The 1970 Bhola cyclone which took the lives of 500,000 people in Bengal, made it one of the most deadliest recorded cyclones.",
"===Post-partition (1947–present)===\n\n====India====\n\n;West Bengal\nWest Bengal became one of India's most populous states.",
"Calcutta, the former capital of the British Raj, became the state capital of West Bengal and continued to be India's largest city until the late 20th century, when severe power shortages, strikes and a violent Marxist-Naxalite movement damaged much of the state's infrastructure in the 1960s and 70s, leading to a period of economic stagnation.",
"West Bengal politics underwent a major change when the Left Front won the 1977 assembly election, defeating the incumbent Indian National Congress.",
"The Left Front, led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)) governed the state for over three decades, which was the world's longest elected Communist administration in history.",
"Since the 2000s, West Bengal has experienced an economic rejuvenation, particularly in its IT industry.",
";Tripura\nThe former royal palace of Hill Tippera in Agartala\nThe princely state of Hill Tippera, that was under the suzerainty of British India, was ruled by a Bengali-speaking monarchy.",
"Following the death of Maharaja Bir Bikram Kishore Debbarman, the princely state acceded to the Union of India on 15 October 1949 under the Tripura Merger Agreement signed by Maharani Regent Kanchan Prava Devi.",
"By the 1950s, the region had a Bengali majority population due to the influx of Hindus from East Pakistan after partition.",
"It became a Union Territory of India in November 1953.",
"It was granted full statehood with an elected legislature in July 1963.",
"An insurgency by indigenous people affected the state for several years.",
"The Left Front ruled the state between 1978 and 1988, followed by a stint of Indian National Congress rule until 1993, and then a return to the Communists.",
";Barak Valley\nThe Barak Valley joined the union of India after its partition from Sylhet in 1947 and has been a part of the state of Assam.",
"One of the most significant events in the region's history was the language movement in 1961, in which the killing of agitators by state police led to Bengali being recognized as one of the official languages of Assam.",
"The issue of Bengali settlement in the state has been a contentious part of the Assam conflict.",
"====Bangladesh====\nNational Monument of Bangladesh\nThe Jamuna Bridge, opened in 1998, is currently the longest bridge in the region.",
"It includes a road and a section of the Bangladesh Railway\n\n;East Pakistan\n\nEast Bengal, which was later renamed to East Pakistan in 1955, was home to Pakistan's demographic majority and played an instrumental role in the founding of the new state.",
"Strategically, Pakistan joined the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization under the Bengali prime minister Mohammad Ali of Bogra as a bulwark against communism.",
"However, tensions between East and West Pakistan grew rapidly over political exclusion, economic neglect and ethnic and linguistic discrimination.",
"The State of Pakistan was subjected to years of military rule due to fears of Bengali political supremacy under democracy.",
"Elected Bengali-led governments at the federal and provincial levels, which were led by statesmen such as A. K. Fazlul Huq and H. S. Suhrawardy, were deposed.",
"East Pakistan witnessed the rise of Bengali self determination calls led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and Maulana Bhashani in the 1960s.",
"Rahman launched the Six point movement for autonomy in 1966.",
"After the 1970 national election, Rahman's party, the Awami League, had emerged as the largest party in Pakistan's parliament.",
"The erstwhile Pakistani military junta refused to accept election results which triggered civil disobedience across East Pakistan.",
"The Pakistani military responded by launching a genocide that caused the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971.",
"The first Government of Bangladesh and the Mukti Bahini waged a guerrilla campaign with support from neighboring India, which hosted millions of war refugees.",
"Global support for the independence of East Pakistan increased due to the conflict's humanitarian crisis, with the Indian Armed Forces intervening in support of the Bangladesh Forces in the final two weeks of the war and ensuring Pakistan's surrender.",
";Bangladesh\n\nAfter independence, Bangladesh adopted a secular democracy under its new constitution in 1972.",
"Awami League premier Sheikh Mujibur Rahman became the country's strongman and implemented many socialist policies.",
"A one party state was enacted in 1975.",
"Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was assassinated later that year during a military coup that ushered in sixteen years of military dictatorships and presidential governments.",
"The liberation war commander Ziaur Rahman emerged as Bangladesh's leader in the late 1970s.",
"He reoriented the country's foreign policy towards the West and restored free markets and the multiparty polity.",
"President Zia was assassinated in 1981 during a failed military coup.",
"He was eventually succeeded by his army chief Hussain Muhammad Ershad.",
"Lasting for nine years, Ershad's rule witnessed continued pro-free market reforms and the devolution of some authority to local government.",
"The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was founded in Dhaka in 1985.",
"The Jatiya Party government made Islam the state religion in 1988.",
"A popular uprising restored parliamentary democracy in 1991.",
"Since then, Bangladesh has largely alternated between the premierships of Sheikh Hasina of the Awami League and Khaleda Zia of the Bangladesh Nationalist Party, as well as technocratic caretaker governments.",
"Emergency rule was imposed by the military in 2007 and 2008 after widespread street violence between the League and BNP.",
"The restoration of democratic government in 2009 was followed by the initiation of the International Crimes Tribunal to prosecute surviving colloborators of the 1971 genocide.",
"Today, the country is an emerging economy, listed as one of the Next Eleven and experiencing growing industrial development, but continues to face political, economic and social challenges.",
"Bengal has been an independent territory during several periods in history, while at other times, it has been part of larger empires.",
"Bengal has also been a regional empire, ruling over neighboring regions like Bihar, Orissa, Arakan, and parts of North India, Assam and Nepal.",
"===Maps===\n\nFile:Ptolemy Asia detail.jpg|Gangaridai in Ptolemy's map, 1st century\nFile:Asia 800ad.jpg|The Pala Empire, 9th century\nFile:Bengal Sultanate.png|The Bengal Sultanate, 16th century\nFile:1776 Rennell - Dury Wall Map of Bihar and Bengal, India - Geographicus - BaharBengal-dury-1776.jpg|Bengal & Bihar in 1776 by James Rennell\nFile:Bengalpresidency 1858.jpg|Colonial Bengal, 19th century\nFile:Bengal gazetteer 1907-9.jpg|Colonial Eastern Bengal and Assam, early 20th century\nFile:Districts of West Bengla.jpg|Map of West Bengal\nFile:BD Map admin.svg|Map of Bangladesh\n\n\n===Flags===\n\nFile:Bengal Sultanate Flag.gif|Flag of Sultanate of Bengal\nFile:Flag of the Mughal Empire (triangular).svg|Flag of Bengal Subah\nFile:Flag of India 1906 (Calcutta Flag).svg|Calcutta Flag of 1906\nFile:Bd banga.png|Flag of Bangabhumi, flag of a extremest Bengali group\nFile:Flag of Bangladesh.svg|Flag of Bangladesh",
"Politically, the region is divided between the People's Republic of Bangladesh, an independent state, and the eastern provinces of the Republic of India, including West Bengal, Assam and Tripura.",
"Politically both Bangladesh and Indian Bengal are socialist, with left wing parties dominating the region's politics.",
"===Bangladeshi Republic===\n\nBangabhaban (the ''House of Bengal'') is the official residence of the President of Bangladesh\nThe state of Bangladesh is a parliamentary republic based on the Westminster system, with a written constitution and a President elected by parliament for mostly ceremonial purposes.",
"The government is headed by a Prime Minister, who is appointed by the President from among the popularly elected 300 Members of Parliament in the Jatiyo Sangshad, the national parliament.",
"The Prime Minister is traditionally the leader of the single largest party in the Jatiyo Sangshad.",
"Under the constitution, Islam is recognized as the state religion; while Hindus, Buddhists, Christians and people of all other denomiations are stated to enjoy equal rights.",
"Between 1975 and 1990, Bangladesh had a presidential system of government.",
"Since the 1990s, it was administered by non-political technocratic caretaker governments on four occasions, the last being under military-backed emergency rule in 2007 and 2008.",
"The Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) are the two largest political parties in Bangladesh.",
"Bangladesh is a prominent member of the United Nations, being the largest contributor of peacekeeping forces in the world and a key promoter of multilateral diplomacy.",
"It is also a member of SAARC, the Developing 8 Countries, BIMSTEC, the World Trade Organization, NAM, the OIC and the Commonwealth of Nations.",
"A developing country with high levels of poverty, Bangladesh has achieved significant strides in human development compared to its neighbors.",
"===Indian Bengal===\n\nWriters' Building, the official seat of the Government of West Bengal\nWest Bengal, Tripura and Assam (home to the Barak Valley) are provincial states of the Republic of India, with local executives and assemblies- features shared with other states in the Indian federal system.",
"The President of India appoints a Governor as the ceremonial representative of the union government.",
"The Governor appoints the Chief Minister on the nomination of the legislative assembly.",
"The Chief Minister is the traditionally the leader of the party or coalition with most seats in the assembly.",
"President's rule is often imposed in Indian states as a direct intervention of the union government led by the Prime Minister of India.",
"Each state has popularly elected members in the Indian lower house of parliament, the Lok Sabha.",
"Each state nominates members to the Indian upper house of parliament, the Rajya Sabha.",
"The state legislative assemblies also play a key role in electing the ceremonial President of India.",
"The former President of India, Pranab Mukherjee, was a native of West Bengal and a leader of the Indian National Congress.",
"The two major political forces in the Bengali-speaking zone of India are the Left Front and the Trinamool Congress, with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Indian National Congress being minor players.",
"===Crossborder relations===\n\n\nIndia and Bangladesh are the world's second and eighth most populous countries respectively.",
"Bangladesh-India relations began on a high note in 1971 when India played a major role in the liberation of Bangladesh, with the Indian Bengali populace and media providing overwhelming support to the independence movement in the former East Pakistan.",
"The two countries had a twenty five year friendship treaty between 1972 and 1996.",
"However, differences over river sharing, border security and access to trade have long plagued the relationship.",
"In more recent years, a consensus has evolved in both countries on the importance of developing good relations, as well as a strategic partnership in South Asia and beyond.",
"Commercial, cultural and defense cooperation have expanded since 2010, when Prime Ministers Sheikh Hasina and Manmohan Singh pledged to reinvigorate ties.",
"The Bangladesh High Commission in New Delhi operates a Deputy High Commission in Kolkata and a consular office in Agartala.",
"India has a High Commission in Dhaka with consulates in Chittagong and Rajshahi.",
"Frequent international air, bus and rail services connect major cities in Bangladesh and Indian Bengal, particularly the three largest cities- Dhaka, Kolkata and Chittagong.",
"Undocumented immigration of Bangladeshi workers is a controversial issue championed by right-wing nationalist parties in India but finds little sympathy in West Bengal.",
"India has since fenced the border which has been criticized by Bangladesh.",
"\n\nBengali Hindu priests performing Durga Puja rituals\nThe Bengal region is also one of most densely populated areas in the world.",
"With a population of 300 million, Bengalis are the third largest ethnic group in the world after the Han Chinese and Arabs.",
"According to provisional results of 2011 Bangladesh census, the population of Bangladesh was 142,319,000; however, CIA's ''The World Factbook'' gives 163,654,860 as its population in a July 2013 estimate.",
"According to the provisional results of the 2011 Indian national census, West Bengal has a population of 91,347,736.",
"So, the Bengal region, as of 2011, has at least 233 million people.",
"This figures give a population density of 1003.9/km2; making it among the most densely populated areas in the world.",
"Buddhist Chakma people\nBengali is the main language spoken in Bengal.",
"Many phonological, lexical, and structural differences from the standard variety occur in peripheral varieties of Bengali; these include Sylheti, Chittagonian, Chakma, Rangpuri/Rajbangshi, Hajong, Rohingya, and Tangchangya.",
"English is often used for official work alongside Bengali.Other major Indo-Aryan languages such as Hindi, Urdu, Assamese, and Nepali are familiar to Bengalis as well.",
"In addition, there are several minority ethnolinguistic groups native to the region.",
"These include speakers of other Indo-Aryan languages (e.g.",
"Bishnupriya Manipuri, Oraon Sadri, various Bihari languages), Tibeto-Burman languages (e.g.",
"A'Tong, Chak, Koch, Garo, Megam, Meitei Manipuri, Mizo, Mru, Pangkhua, Rakhine/Marma, Kok Borok, Riang, Tippera, Usoi, various Chin languages), Austroasiatic languages (e.g.",
"Khasi, Koda, Mundari, Pnar, Santali, War), and Dravidian languages (e.g.",
"Kurukh, Sauria Paharia).",
"Life expectancy is around 70.36 years for Bangladesh and 70.2 for West Bengal.",
"In terms of literacy, West Bengal leads with 77% literacy rate, in Bangladesh the rate is approximately 71%.",
"The level of poverty in West Bengal is at 19.98%, while in Bangladesh it stands at 12.9%\n\nWest Bengal's has one of the lowest total fertility rates in India.",
"West Bengal's TFR of 1.6 roughly equals that of Canada.",
"About 20,000 people live on ''chars''.",
"Chars are temporary islands formed by the deposition of sediments eroded off the banks of the Ganges in West Bengal which often disappear in the monsoon season.",
"They are made of very fertile soil.",
"The inhabitants of the chars are not recognised by the Government of West Bengal on the grounds that it is not known whether they are Bengalis or Bangladeshi refugees.",
"Consequently, no identification documents are issued to char-dwellers who cannot benefit from health care, barely survive because of very poor sanitation and are prevented from emigrating to the mainland to find jobs when they have turned 14.",
"On a particular char it was reported that 13% of women died at childbirth.",
"\n\nBiman is the largest airline based in the Bengal region\nHistorically, Bengal has been the industrial leader of the subcontinent.",
"The region is one of the largest rice producing areas in the world, with West Bengal being India's largest rice producer and Bangladesh being the world's fourth largest rice producer.",
"Other key crops include jute, tea, sugarcane and wheat.",
"There are significant reserves of limestone, natural gas and coal.",
"Major industries include textiles, leather goods, pharmaceuticals, shipbuilding, banking and information and communication technology.",
"Three stock exchanges are located in the region, including the Dhaka Stock Exchange, the Chittagong Stock Exchange and the Calcutta Stock Exchange.",
"Below is a comparison of economies in the region of Bengal\n\n\n '''Bangladesh'''\n '''West Bengal (India)'''\n\n US$248.853 billion\n US$141 billion\n\n US$1,524 per person\n US$1,600 per person\n\n\n===Inter-Bengal Trade===\nBangladesh and India are the largest trading partners in South Asia, with two-way trade valued at an estimated US$6.9 billion.",
"Much of this trade relationship is centered on some of the world's busiest land ports on the Bangladesh-India border, particularly the West Bengal section.",
"The partition of India severed the once strong economic links which integrated the region.",
"Decades later, frequent air, rail and bus services are increasingly connecting cities in Bangladesh and West Bengal, as well as the wider region, including Northeast India, Nepal and Bhutan.",
"However the overall economic relationship remains well-below potential.",
"The strategically important city of Chittagong is home to the busiest port on the Bay of Bengal\nThe Bengal region is located at the crossroads of two huge economic blocs, the SAARC and ASEAN.",
"It gives access to the sea for the landlocked countries of Nepal and Bhutan, as well as the Seven Sister States of North East India.",
"It is also located near China's southern landlocked region, including Yunnan and Tibet.",
"Both India and Bangladesh plan to expand onshore and offshore oil and gas operations.",
"Bangladesh is Asia's seventh-largest natural gas producer.",
"Its maritime exclusive economic zone potentially holds many of the largest gas reserves in the Asia-Pacific.",
"The Bay of Bengal is strategically important for its vital shipping lanes and its central location between the Middle East and the Pacific.",
"The Bay of Bengal Initiative, based in Dhaka, brings together Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Thailand, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka to promote economic integration in the subregion.",
"Other regional groupings include the Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar Forum for Regional Cooperation (BCIM) and the Bangladesh Bhutan India Nepal (BBIN) Initiative.",
"Culturally, Bengal is significant for its huge Hindu and Muslim populations.",
"Bengali Hindus make up the second largest linguistic community in India.",
"Bengali Muslims are the world's second largest Muslim ethnicity (after Arab Muslims), and Bangladesh is the world's third largest Muslim-majority country (after Indonesia and Pakistan).",
"\n\n\n===Language===\n\nBengali Letters\nThe Bengali language developed between the 7th and 10th centuries from Apabhraṃśa and Magadhi Prakrit.",
"It is written using the indigenous Bengali alphabet, a descendant of the ancient Brahmi script.",
"Bengali is the 10th most spoken language in the world.",
"It is an eastern Indo-Aryan language and one of the easternmost branches of the Indo-European language family.",
"It is part of the Bengali-Assamese languages.",
"Bengali has greatly influenced other languages in the region, including Odia, Assamese, Chakma, Nepali and Rohingya.",
"It is the sole state language of Bangladesh and the third most spoken language in India.",
"Bengali binds together a culturally diverse region and is an important contributor to regional identity.",
"The 1952 Bengali Language Movement in East Pakistan is commemorated by UNESCO as International Mother Language Day, as part of global efforts to preserve linguistic identity.",
"===Currency===\n\nA silver coin with Proto-Bengali script, 9th century \nIn both Bangladesh and West Bengal, currency is commonly denominated as taka.",
"The Bangladesh taka is an official standard bearer of this tradition, while the Indian rupee is also written as taka in Bengali script on all of its banknotes.",
"The history of the taka dates back centuries.",
"Bengal was home one of the world's earliest coin currencies in the first millennium BCE.",
"Under the Delhi Sultanate, the taka was introduced by Muhammad bin Tughluq in 1329.",
"Bengal became the stronghold of the taka.",
"The silver currency was the most important symbol of sovereignty of the Sultanate of Bengal.",
"It was traded on the Silk Road and replicated in Nepal and China's Tibetan protectorate.",
"The Pakistani rupee was scripted in Bengali as taka on its banknotes until Bangladesh's creation in 1971.",
"===Literature===\n\n\nRabindranath Tagore, known as the Bengali Shakespeare, being hosted at the Parliament of Iran in the 1930s\nBengali literature has a rich heritage.",
"It has a history stretching back to the 3rd century BCE, when the main language was Sanskrit written in the brahmi script.",
"The Bengali language and script evolved circa 1000 CE from Magadhi Prakrit.",
"Bengal has a long tradition in folk literature, evidenced by the ''Chôrjapôdô'', ''Mangalkavya'', ''Shreekrishna Kirtana'', ''Maimansingha Gitika'' or ''Thakurmar Jhuli''.",
"Bengali literature in the medieval age was often either religious (e.g.",
"Chandidas), or adaptations from other languages (e.g.",
"Alaol).",
"During the Bengal Renaissance of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Bengali literature was modernised through the works of authors such as Michael Madhusudan Dutta, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Rabindranath Tagore, Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay, Kazi Nazrul Islam, Satyendranath Dutta and Jibanananda Das.",
"In the 20th century, prominent modern Bengali writers included Syed Mujtaba Ali, Jasimuddin, Manik Bandopadhyay, Tarasankar Bandyopadhyay, Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay, Buddhadeb Bose, Sunil Gangopadhyay and Humayun Ahmed.",
"Prominent contemporary Bengali writers in English include Amitav Ghosh, Tahmima Anam, Jhumpa Lahiri and Zia Haider Rahman among others.",
"===Personification===\n\nThe Mother Bengal is a female personification of Bengal which was created during the Bengali renaissance and later adopted by the Bengali nationalists.",
"The Mother Bengal represents not only biological motherness but its attributed characteristics as well – protection, never ending love, consolation, care, the beginning and the end of life.",
"In Amar Sonar Bangla, the national anthem of Bangladesh, Rabindranath Tagore has used the word \"Maa\" (Mother) numerous times to refer to the motherland i.e.",
"Bengal.",
"Despite her popularity in patriotic songs and poems, her physical representations and images are rare.",
"===Art===\n\nBangladeshi paintings on sale at an art gallery in Dhaka\nThe Pala-Sena School of Art developed in Bengal between the 8th and 12th centuries and is considered a high point of classical Asian art.",
"It included sculptures and paintings.",
"Islamic Bengal was noted for its production of the finest cotton fabrics and saris, notably the Jamdani, which received warrants from the Mughal court.",
"The Bengal School of painting flourished in Kolkata and Shantiniketan in the British Raj during the early 20th century.",
"Its practitioners were among the harbingers of modern painting in India.",
"Zainul Abedin was the pioneer of modern Bangladeshi art.",
"The country has a thriving and internationally acclaimed contemporary art scene.",
"===Architecture===\n\nBungalows originated from Bengali architecture\nClassical Bengali architecture features terracotta buildings.",
"Ancient Bengali kingdoms laid the foundations of the region's architectural heritage through the construction of monasteries and temples (for example, the Somapura Mahavihara).",
"During the sultanate period, a distinct and glorious Islamic style of architecture developed the region.",
"Most Islamic buildings were small and highly artistic terracotta mosques with multiple domes and no minarets.",
"Bengal was also home to the largest mosque in South Asia at \nAdina.",
"Bengali vernacular architecture is credited for inspiring the popularity of the bungalow.",
"The Bengal region also has a rich heritage of Indo-Saracenic architecture, including numerous zamindar palaces and mansions.",
"The most prominent example of this style is the Victoria Memorial, Kolkata.",
"In the 1950s, Muzharul Islam pioneered the modernist terracotta style of architecture in South Asia.",
"This was followed by the design of the Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban by the renowned American architect Louis Kahn in the 1960s, which was based on the aesthetic heritage of Bengali architecture and geography.",
"===Sciences===\nA sculpture on Fazlur Rahman Khan at the Sears Tower in the United States\n\nThe Gupta dynasty, which is believed to have originated in North Bengal, pioneered the invention of chess, the concept of zero, the theory of Earth orbiting the Sun, the study of solar and lunar eclipses and the flourishing of Sanskrit literature and drama.",
"Bengal was the leader of scientific endeavors in the subcontinent during the British Raj.",
"The educational reforms during this period gave birth to many distinguished scientists in the region.",
"Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose pioneered the investigation of radio and microwave optics, made very significant contributions to plant science, and laid the foundations of experimental science in the Indian subcontinent.",
"IEEE named him one of the fathers of radio science.",
"He was the first person from the Indian subcontinent to receive a US patent, in 1904.",
"In 1924–25, while researching at the University of Dhaka, Prof Satyendra Nath Bose well known for his works in quantum mechanics, provided the foundation for Bose–Einstein statistics and the theory of the Bose–Einstein condensate.",
"In the United States, the Bengali American engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan emerged as the \"father of tubular designs\" in skyscraper construction.",
"===Music===\n\nA Baul musician.",
"The Baul ballads of Bengal are classified by UNESCO as humanity's intangible cultural heritage\nThe Baul tradition is a unique heritage of Bengali folk music.",
"The 19th century mystic poet Lalon Shah is the most celebrated practitioner of the tradition.",
"Other folk music forms include Gombhira, Bhatiali and Bhawaiya.",
"Hason Raja is a renowned folk poet of the Sylhet region.",
"Folk music in Bengal is often accompanied by the ektara, a one-stringed instrument.",
"Other instruments include the dotara, dhol, flute, and tabla.",
"The region also has a rich heritage in North Indian classical music.",
"===Cuisine===\n\nBengali cuisine is the only traditionally developed multi-course tradition from the Indian subcontinent.",
"Rice and fish are traditional favourite foods, leading to a saying that \"fish and rice make a Bengali\".",
"Bengal's vast repertoire of fish-based dishes includes Hilsa preparations, a favourite among Bengalis.",
"Bengalis make distinctive sweetmeats from milk products, including ''Rôshogolla'', ''Chômchôm'', and several kinds of ''Pithe''.",
"The old city of Dhaka is noted for its distinct Indo-Islamic cuisine, including biryani, bakarkhani and kebab dishes.",
"===Boats===\n\n18th century painting of a budgerow\nThere are 150 types of Bengali country boats plying the 700 rivers of the Bengal delta, the vast floodplain and many oxbow lakes.",
"They vary in design and size.",
"The boats include the dinghy and sampan among others.",
"Country boats are a central element of Bengali culture and have inspired generations of artists and poets, including the ivory artisans of the Mughal era.",
"The country has a long shipbuilding tradition, dating back many centuries.",
"Wooden boats are made of timber such as ''Jarul'' (dipterocarpus turbinatus),'' sal'' (shorea robusta), ''sundari'' (heritiera fomes), and ''Burma teak'' (tectons grandis).",
"Medieval Bengal was shipbuilding hub for the Mughal and Ottoman navies.",
"The British Royal Navy later utilized Bengali shipyards in the 19th-century, including for the Battle of Trafalgar.",
"===Attire===\nBengali women commonly wear the ''shaŗi'' and the salwar kameez, often distinctly designed according to local cultural customs.",
"In urban areas, many women and men wear Western-style attire.",
"Among men, European dressing has greater acceptance.",
"Men also wear traditional costumes such as the ''kurta'' with ''dhoti'' or ''pyjama'', often on religious occasions.",
"The lungi, a kind of long skirt, is widely worn by Bangladeshi men.",
"===Festivals===\n\n\nA parade float among male revelers during the Mangal Shobhajatra\nDurga Puja is the most important festival of the Hindus in Bengal as well as the most significant festival of the region in general.",
"The two Eids (Eid ul-Fitr and Eid ul-Adha) are the two important festivals for Muslims.",
"Christmas (called Borodin (Great day) in Bengali) and Buddha Purnima are other major religious festivals.",
"Other major festivities include the Bengali New Year, the Bengali Spring Festival, Nobanno and Poush Parbon.",
"===Media===\nBangladesh has a diverse, outspoken and privately owned press, with the largest circulated Bengali language newspapers in the world.",
"English-language titles are popular in the urban readership.",
"West Bengal had 559 published newspapers in 2005, of which 430 were in Bengali.",
"Bengali cinema is divided between the media hubs of Kolkata and Dhaka.",
"===Sports===\nCricket and football are popular sports in the Bengal region.",
"Local games include sports such as Kho Kho and Kabaddi, the latter being the national sport of Bangladesh.",
"An Indo-Bangladesh ''Bengali Games'' has been organised among the athletes of the Bengali speaking areas of the two countries.",
"==See also==\n* Bengal Renaissance\n* Bengalis\n* List of Bengalis\n* Northeast India\n* East India\n* Punjab\n* Hindi Belt"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Bamberg''' () is a town in Upper Franconia, Germany, on the river Regnitz close to its confluence with the river Main. A large part of the town has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1993.\n",
"\n17th century 3D-map of Bamberg. Matthias Merian in Danckerts, ''Historis'', 1632.\nDuring the post-Roman centuries of Germanic migration and settlement, the region afterwards included in the Diocese of Bamberg was inhabited for the most part by Slavs. The town, first mentioned in 902, grew up by the castle '''' which gave its name to the Babenberg family. On their extinction it passed to the Saxon house. The area was Christianized chiefly by the monks of the Benedictine Fulda Abbey, and the land was under the spiritual authority of the Diocese of Würzburg.\n\nIn 1007, Holy Roman Emperor Henry II or ''Heinrich II'' made Bamberg a family inheritance, the seat of a separate diocese. The emperor's purpose in this was to make the Diocese of Würzburg less unwieldy in size and to give Christianity a firmer footing in the districts of Franconia, east of Bamberg. In 1008, after long negotiations with the Bishops of Würzburg and Eichstätt, who were to cede portions of their dioceses, the boundaries of the new diocese were defined, and Pope John XVIII granted the papal confirmation in the same year. Henry II ordered the building of a new cathedral, which was consecrated 6 May 1012. The church was enriched with gifts from the pope, and Henry had it dedicated in honor of him. In 1017 Henry also founded Michaelsberg Abbey on the '''' (\"Mount St. Michael\"), near Bamberg, a Benedictine abbey for the training of the clergy. The emperor and his wife Kunigunde gave large temporal possessions to the new diocese, and it received many privileges out of which grew the secular power of the bishop. Pope Benedict VIII visited Bamberg in 1020 to meet Henry II for discussions concerning the Holy Roman Empire. While he was here he placed the diocese in direct dependence on the Holy See. He also personally consecrated some of Bamberg's churches. For a short time Bamberg was the centre of the Holy Roman Empire. Henry and Kunigunde were both buried in the cathedral.\n\nWoodcut of Bamberg from the ''Nuremberg Chronicle'', 1493\nBamberg Cathedral\nThe Schlenkerla, one of Bamberg's breweries and taverns.\nThe old palace ()\nFrom the middle of the 13th century onward the bishops were princes of the Empire and ruled Bamberg, overseeing the construction of monumental buildings. In 1248 and 1260 the see obtained large portions of the estates of the Counts of Meran, partly through purchase and partly through the appropriation of extinguished fiefs. The old Bishopric of Bamberg was composed of an unbroken territory extending from Schlüsselfeld in a northeasterly direction to the Franconian Forest, and possessed in addition estates in the Duchies of Carinthia and Salzburg, in the Nordgau (the present Upper Palatinate), in Thuringia, and on the Danube. By the changes resulting from the Reformation, the territory of this see was reduced nearly one half in extent. Since 1279 the coat of arms of the city of Bamberg is known in form of a seal.\n\nThe witch trials of the 17th century claimed about one thousand victims in Bamberg, reaching a climax between 1626 and 1631, under the rule of Prince-Bishop Johann Georg II Fuchs von Dornheim. The famous ''Drudenhaus'' (witch prison), built in 1627, is no longer standing today; however, detailed accounts of some cases, such as that of Johannes Junius, remain.\n\nIn 1647, the University of Bamberg was founded as ''''.\n\nBambrzy ('''') are German Poles who are descended from settlers from the Bamberg area who settled in villages around Poznań in the years 1719–1753.\n\nIn 1759, the possessions and jurisdictions of the diocese situated in Austria were sold to that state. When the secularization of church lands took place (1802) the diocese covered and had a population of 207,000. Bamberg thus lost its independence in 1802, becoming part of Bavaria in 1803.\n\nBamberg was first connected to the German rail system in 1844, which has been an important part of its infrastructure ever since. After a communist uprising took control over Bavaria in the years following World War I, the state government fled to Bamberg and stayed there for almost two years before the Bavarian capital of Munich was retaken by ''Freikorps'' units (see Bavarian Soviet Republic). The first republican constitution of Bavaria was passed in Bamberg, becoming known as the ''Bamberger Verfassung'' (Bamberg Constitution).\n\nIn February 1926 Bamberg served as the venue for the Bamberg Conference, convened by Adolf Hitler in his attempt to foster unity and to stifle dissent within the then-young Nazi party. Bamberg was chosen for its location in Upper Franconia, reasonably close to the residences of the members of the dissident northern Nazi faction but still within Bavaria.\n\nIn 1973, the town celebrated the 1,000th anniversary of its founding.\n\n=== Historic population ===\n\n\nYear\nPopulation\n\n1818\n17,000\n\n1885\n31,521\n\n1905\n45,308\n\n\n\n'''Largest groups of foreign residents'''\n\nNationality \n Population (2013)\n\n \n 1,076\n\n \n 359\n\n \n 232\n\n \n 119\n\n \n 115\n\n\n",
"Bamberg is located in Franconia, north of Nuremberg by railway and east of Würzburg, also by rail. It is situated on the Regnitz river, before it flows into the Main river.\n\nIts geography is shaped by the Regnitz and by the foothills of the Steigerwald, part of the German uplands. From northeast to southwest, the town is divided into first the Regnitz plain, then one large and several small islands formed by two arms of the Regnitz (''''), and finally the part of town on the hills, the \"Hill Town\" ('''').\n\n===The seven hills of Bamberg===\nBamberg extends over seven hills, each crowned by a beautiful church. This has led to Bamberg being called the \"Franconian Rome\" — although a running joke among Bamberg's tour guides is to refer to Rome instead as the \"Italian Bamberg\". The hills are Cathedral Hill, Michaelsberg, Kaulberg/Obere Pfarre, Stefansberg, Jakobsberg, Altenburger Hill and Abtsberg.\n\n===Climate===\nClimate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year-round. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is \"Cfb\" (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate), with a certain continental influence as indicated by average winter nighttime temperatures well below zero.\n\n",
"In 2013 (latest data available) the GDP per inhabitant was €56,723. This places the district 10th out of 96 districts (rural and urban) in Bavaria(overall average: €39,691).\n",
"The Bamberg Horseman, a local symbol.\nMichaelsberg Abbey\nTown hall (''''), details\n\nThe old town of Bamberg is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, primarily because of its authentic medieval appearance. The town established a documentation centre in 2005 to support World Heritage activities.\nSome of the main sights are:\n\n* Bamberg Cathedral (1237), with the tombs of Emperor Henry II and Pope Clement II\n* '''', residence of the bishops in the 16th and 17th centuries\n* '''', residence of the bishops after the 17th century\n* Bamberg State Library in the New Residence\n* Old town hall (1386), built in the middle of the Regnitz river, accessible by two bridges\n* '''' (\"Little Venice\"), a colony of fishermen's houses from the 19th century along one bank of the river Regnitz\n* Michaelsberg Abbey, built in the 12th century on one of Bamberg's \"Seven Hills\"\n* , castle, former residence of the bishops\n\n; Cathedral:\nBamberg Cathedral is a late Romanesque building with four towers. It was founded in 1004 by Emperor Henry II, finished in 1012 and consecrated on 6 May 1012. It was later partially destroyed by fire in 1081. The new cathedral, built by Saint Otto of Bamberg, was consecrated in 1111 and in the 13th century received its present late-Romanesque form.\n\nThe cathedral is long, wide, high, and the four towers are each about high. It contains many historic works of art, such as the marble tomb of the founder and his wife, considered one of the greatest works of the sculptor Tilman Riemenschneider, and carved between 1499 and 1513. Another treasure of the cathedral is an equestrian statue known as the Bamberg Horseman (''''). This statue, possibly depicting the emperor Conrad III, most likely dates to the second quarter of the 13th century. The statue also serves as a symbol of the town of Bamberg.\n\n; :\nThe '''' (New Residence) (1698–1704) was initially occupied by the prince-bishops, and from 1864 to 1867 by the deposed King Otto of Greece. Its '''' (Rose Garden) overlooks the town. It has over 4500 roses.\n\n; :\nAltenburg\n\nThe is located on the highest of Bamberg's seven hills. It was mentioned for the first time in 1109. Between 1251 and 1553 it was the residence of Bamberg's bishops. Destroyed in 1553 by Albert Alcibiades, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach, it was used, after scanty repairs, only as a prison, and increasingly decayed.\n\nIn 1801, A. F. Marcus bought the castle and completely repaired it. His friend, the famous German writer E.T.A. Hoffmann, who was very impressed by the building, lived there for a while. The next owner, Anton von Greifenstein, in 1818 founded an association to save the castle. This society still maintains the whole property today. The Altenburg today houses a restaurant.\n\n; Other sights:\nOther churches are the '''', an 11th century Romanesque basilica; the ''''; the '''' or '''' (1320–1387), which has now been restored to its original pure Gothic style. The '''', 12th century Romanesque (restored), on the Michaelsberg, was formerly the church of the Benedictine Michaelsberg Abbey secularized in 1803 and now contains the '''', or almshouse, and the museum and municipal art collections.\n\nOf the bridges connecting the sections of the lower town the '''' was completed in 1455. Halfway across this, on an island, is the '''' or town hall (rebuilt 1744-1756). The lyceum, formerly a Jesuit college, contains a natural history museum. The old palace ('''') was built in 1591 on the site of an old residence of the counts of Babenberg. Monuments include the Maximilian fountain (1880), with statues of King Maximilian I of Bavaria, the emperor Henry II and his wife, Conrad III and Saint Otto, bishop of Bamberg.\n\nThere are also underground tunnels beneath the town. These were originally constructed as mines which supplied sandstone which could be used for construction or as an abrasive cleaner. Mining came to an end in 1920 but a tunnel network remained. The tunnels were used as an air raid shelter during World War II. A part of the network can be visited on a guided tour.\n\n=== Beer ===\nBamberg is known for its smoked Rauchbier and is home to nine breweries, Brauerei Fässla, Brauerei Greifenklau, Brauerei Heller-Trum (Schlenkerla), Brauerei Kaiserdom, Keesmann Bräu, Klosterbräu, Mahrs Bräu and Brauerei Spezial, and one brewpub, Ambräusianum. Every August there is a five-day '''', a kirmess celebrated with beers.\n",
"The University of Bamberg, named Otto-Friedrich University, offers higher education in the areas of social science, business studies and the humanities, and is attended by more than 13,000 students. The University of Applied Sciences Bamberg offers higher education in the areas of public health. Bamberg is also home to eight secondary schools (gymnasiums):\n* Clavius-Gymnasium\n* Dientzenhofer-Gymnasium\n* Eichendorff-Gymnasium\n* E.T.A. Hoffmann-Gymnasium\n* Franz-Ludwig-Gymnasium\n* Kaiser-Heinrich-Gymnasium\n* Maria-Ward-Gymnasium\n* Theresianum\nThere are also numerous other institutes for primary, secondary, technical, vocational and adult education.\n",
"\n===Transport===\n\n==== Railway ====\nThe InterCityExpress main line #28 (Munich - Nuremberg - Leipzig - Berlin / Hamburg) runs through Bamberg station on the Nuremberg–Bamberg and the Bamberg–Hof lines. It takes less than two hours to Munich on the train and about four hours to reach Berlin. But the Nuremberg–Erfurt high-speed railway is currently being constructed through the Thuringian mountains and should shorten the journey time considerably.\n\nEast-west connections are poorer. Bamberg is connected to other towns in eastern Upper Franconia such as Bayreuth, Coburg, and Kronach via the Bamberg–Hof line with trains usually running at least every hour. Connections on the Würzburg–Bamberg line to the west are hourly regional trains to Würzburg, which is fully connected to the ICE network. Tourists arriving at Frankfurt International Airport can take advantage of the new direct connection from Frankfurt main station.\n\n==== Motorways ====\nBamberg is not near any of the major (i.e. single-digit) autobahns. But it is nevertheless well connected to the network in all directions: the A70 from Schweinfurt (connecting to the A7 there) to Bayreuth (connecting to the A9) runs along the northern edge of the town. The A73 on the eastern side of town connects Bamberg to Nuremberg (connecting to the A9) and Thuringia, ending at Suhl.\n\n==== Air transport ====\nBamberg is served by Bamberg-Breitenau Airfield. Mostly public aircraft operate there. It used to be a military airport. (IATA-Code: ZCD, ICAO-Code: EDQA) It is also possible to charter public flights to and from this airport.\n\nMost international tourists who travel by plane arrive at Frankfurt International Airport or Munich Airport. The nearest major airport is Nuremberg Airport which can be reached within half an hour by car or one hour by train and subway.\n\n==== Water transport ====\nCranes in Bamberg harbor\nBoth the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal and its predecessor, the Ludwig Canal, begin near Bamberg. The Ludwig Canal was opened in 1846 but closed in 1950 after damage during the second world war. With the completion of the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal in 1992, uninterrupted water transport was again made possible between the North Sea and the Black Sea.\n\n==== Local public transport ====\nLocal public transport within Bamberg relies exclusively on buses. More than 20 routes connect the outlying quarters and some villages in the vicinity to the central bus station. In addition, there are several \"Night Lines\" (the last of these, though, tend to run around midnight) and some park-and-ride lines from parking lots on the periphery to the town centre. A short-lived tram system existed in the 1920s.\n\n=== Military bases ===\nBamberg was an important base for the Bavarian, German and then American military stationed at Warner Barracks. Warner Barracks was closed in the fall of 2014, with the last battalion leaving being the 54th Engineer Battalion and returned to the German government. In 2016, a large part of the facility was taken over by the German Federal Police for training purposes.\nMuna Kasserne was a small base occupied by the 504th Maintenance Company, 71st Maintenance Bn. It was part of Warner Barracks although located separately.\n",
"Bamberg is an urban district, or ''kreisfreie Stadt''. Its town council (''Stadtrat'') and its Mayor (''Oberbürgermeister'') are elected every six years, though not in the same year. Thus, the last municipal election for the town council was in 2014, for the Mayor in 2012. As an exception to the six-year term, the term starting in 2012 will take eight years to synchronize the elections with those in the rest of Bavaria.\n\nAs of the elections of 16 March 2014, the 44 member strong town council comprises 12 CSU councillors, 10 SPD councillors, 8 Green councillors, 4 councillors of the ''Bamberger Bürger-Block'' and 4 of the ''Freie Wähler'' (Free Voters), both local political movements. These five parties achieved the number of councillors necessary to form a parliamentary group. In addition, there are 3 councillors of the ''Bamberger Unabhängige Bürger'' and the 1 councillor each of the ''Bamberger Realisten'', the FDP and the ''Bamberger Linke Liste''.\n\nThe previous council, elected on 2 March 2008, was composed of 15 CSU councillors, 10 SPD councillors, 7 Green councillors, 5 councillors of the Bamberger Bürger-Block and 3 of the Freie Wähler (Free Voters), both local political movements. These five parties achieved the number of councillors necessary to form a parliamentary group. In addition, there were 2 councillors of the ''Bamberger Realisten'' and one of the FDP and the Republikaner, making them ineligible for caucus status.\n\n=== Mayors since 1945 ===\n\n\nYears\nMayor\nParty\n\n1945–1958\nLuitpold Weegmann\nCSU\n\n1958–1982\nTheodor Mathieu\nCSU\n\n1982–1994\nPaul Röhner\nCSU\n\n1994–2006\nHerbert Lauer\nIndependent\n\n2006–Present\nAndreas Starke\nSPD\n\n\n=== Town twinning===\n\nBamberg is twinned with:\n* Bedford, United Kingdom\n* Esztergom, Hungary\n* Feldkirchen, Austria\n* Prague, Czech Republic\n* Rodez, France\n* Villach, Austria\n* Fredonia, New York, United States\n* Nagaoka, Niigata, Japan\n",
"\nLouis-Alexandre Berthier 1808\n\n=== A-K ===\n* Annette von Aretin (1920–2006), first television announcer of the Bayerischer Rundfunk\n* , (1789 in Bamberg; † 1870 in Berlin), tenor\n* Dorothee Bär (born 1978), Member of Parliament (CSU), State Secretary of the Federal Minister of Transport and Digital Infrastructure\n* Wilhelm Batz, (1916–1988), Luftwaffe, ace\n* Louis-Alexandre Berthier, (1753–1815), Chief of Staff to Napoleon Bonaparte\n* Joachim Camerarius (1500–1574), humanist, polymath and poet\n* Claudia Ciesla, (born 1987), Polish-German actress\n* Pope Clement II, (died 1047), bishop of Bamberg from 1040–46\n* Christopher Clavius, (1538–1612), mathematician, astronomer and Jesuit\n* Conrad III of Germany, (1093-1152), king of Germany\n* Cunigunde of Luxembourg, (c. 975-1040), empress consort, regent of the Holy Roman Empire and wife of Henry II\n* Stefan Dassler (born 1962), non-fiction author\n* Günther Denzler (born 1948), former district administrator of Bamberg (CSU)\n* Karlheinz Deschner (1924–2014), writer and critic of religion and the church\n* (1907–1987), philologist and Goethe researcher\n* Ignaz Dollinger (1770–1841), physician\n* Ignaz von Dollinger (1799–1890), important Catholic theologian and church historian\n* Curt Echtermeyer, also known as Curt Bruckner (1896–1971), painter\n* Erich Ebermayer (1900–1970), writer\n* Hans Ehard (1887–1980), lawyer and politician\n* Günter Faltin (born 1944), university teacher\n* Heinrich Finck (1444–1527), conductor and composer\n* Klaus-Dieter Fritsche (born 1953), jurist and politician (CSU), \n* Karl von Gareis (1844–1923), a lawyer and author, member of the Reichstag\n* Nora-Eugenie Gomringer, (born 1980), poet and writer\n* Thomas Gottschalk (born 1950), moderator, TV-presenter, actor\n* Lukas Görtler (born 1994), football player\n* Hans Grassmann (born 1960), physicist and author\n* (1798–1849), collector, today Helleriana in Bamberg State Library\n* Karl Höller (1907–1987), composer\n* Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, (1770–1831), German philosopher\n* Henry II, (973-1024), Holy Roman Emperor\n* E. T. A. Hoffmann, (1776-1822), German author and composer\n* (born 1951), artist\n* Harry Koch (born 1969), football player\n* (1882–1947), lawyer, poet and politician (BVP, CSU)\n* Dieter Kunzelmann (born 1939), communard and left-wing activiste\n* Paul Lautensack (1478–1558), painter and organist\n\n=== L-Z ===\nEmil Marschalk von Ostheim 1903\n\n* Paul Maar, (born 1937), German writer and illustrator\n* Duke Maximilian Joseph in Bavaria, actually '' Duke Maximilian Joseph in Bavaria '' (1808–1888), promoter of Bavarian folk music in the 19th century\n* Emil Marschalk von Ostheim (1841–1903), historian and collector\n* Duke Maximilian Joseph in Bavaria, actually '' Duke Maximilian Joseph in Bavaria '' (1808–1888), promoter of Bavarian folk music in the 19th century\n* Willy Messerschmitt (1898–1978), German aircraft designer, Flugzeugbau Messerschmitt GmbH\n* Martin Münz (1785–1848), anatomist and professor\n* Ida Noddack-Tacke, (1896-1978), chemist and physicist; she discovered element 75, rhenium\n* (born 1987), pianist\n* Bernd Redmann (born 1965), composer and musicologist\n* Mike Rose, (1932-2006), painter, set designer and writer\n* Gerd Schaller (born 1965), conductor\n* Rainer Schaller (born 1969), entrepreneur and founder of McFit Fitness GmbH\n* Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg (1907–1944), German officer who attempted to assassinate German dictator Adolf Hitler in the July 20 Plot\n* Berthold Maria Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg (born 1934), former General of the Bundeswehr\n* Josh Shipp, (1986–Present), Professional basketball player for Brose Baskets Bamberg\n* Tom Schütz (born 1988), football player\n* Sven Schultze (born 1978), basketball player\n* Karsten Tadda (born 1988), basketball player\n* Andrew Wooten (born 1989), German-American soccer player\n* Karl Friedrich Gottlob Wetzel, (1779-1819), writer and illustrator \n",
"\nImage:BambergAltesRathaus.jpg|Old town hall\nImage:Bamberg-altes-rathaus.jpg|Old town hall with both bridges\nImage:Bamberg Klein-Venedig I.jpg|Close-up of \"Little Venice\"\nImage:Bamberg Klein Venedig.jpg|\"Little Venice\"\nImage:Pfarrkirche St. Martin.jpg|St Martin and Green Market\nImage:Bamberg Neue Residenz.jpg|''Neue Residenz'' (the \"New Residence\" of the prince-bishops)\nImage:Rose Garden 2.JPG|The Rose Garden at the ''Neue Residenz''\nImage:Bamberg-NeueResidenz1-Asio.JPG|Rose Garden detail\nImage:Bamberg-Jakobskirche.JPG|Church of St Jacob\nImage:Bamberg Rooftops.JPG|Bamberg roof tops from the Rose Garden\nFile:Musikpavillon Hain Bamberg.JPG|Music pavilion in park Hain, Bamberg \n\n",
"* Bamberg (potato) (named after the town)\n* Bamberg Symphony Orchestra\n* Rintfleisch-Pogrom\n",
"\n* \n* JewishEncyclopedia\n",
"\n\n* Official municipal website\n* Official tourist website\n* Schlenkerla Brewery website\n* Bamberg beer, official website\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" History ",
" Geography ",
"Economy",
" Attractions",
" Education ",
" Infrastructure ",
"Governance",
" Notable people",
" Gallery ",
" See also ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Bamberg | [
"Some of the main sights are:\n\n* Bamberg Cathedral (1237), with the tombs of Emperor Henry II and Pope Clement II\n* '''', residence of the bishops in the 16th and 17th centuries\n* '''', residence of the bishops after the 17th century\n* Bamberg State Library in the New Residence\n* Old town hall (1386), built in the middle of the Regnitz river, accessible by two bridges\n* '''' (\"Little Venice\"), a colony of fishermen's houses from the 19th century along one bank of the river Regnitz\n* Michaelsberg Abbey, built in the 12th century on one of Bamberg's \"Seven Hills\"\n* , castle, former residence of the bishops\n\n; Cathedral:\nBamberg Cathedral is a late Romanesque building with four towers."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n'''Bamberg''' () is a town in Upper Franconia, Germany, on the river Regnitz close to its confluence with the river Main.",
"A large part of the town has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1993.",
"\n17th century 3D-map of Bamberg.",
"Matthias Merian in Danckerts, ''Historis'', 1632.",
"During the post-Roman centuries of Germanic migration and settlement, the region afterwards included in the Diocese of Bamberg was inhabited for the most part by Slavs.",
"The town, first mentioned in 902, grew up by the castle '''' which gave its name to the Babenberg family.",
"On their extinction it passed to the Saxon house.",
"The area was Christianized chiefly by the monks of the Benedictine Fulda Abbey, and the land was under the spiritual authority of the Diocese of Würzburg.",
"In 1007, Holy Roman Emperor Henry II or ''Heinrich II'' made Bamberg a family inheritance, the seat of a separate diocese.",
"The emperor's purpose in this was to make the Diocese of Würzburg less unwieldy in size and to give Christianity a firmer footing in the districts of Franconia, east of Bamberg.",
"In 1008, after long negotiations with the Bishops of Würzburg and Eichstätt, who were to cede portions of their dioceses, the boundaries of the new diocese were defined, and Pope John XVIII granted the papal confirmation in the same year.",
"Henry II ordered the building of a new cathedral, which was consecrated 6 May 1012.",
"The church was enriched with gifts from the pope, and Henry had it dedicated in honor of him.",
"In 1017 Henry also founded Michaelsberg Abbey on the '''' (\"Mount St. Michael\"), near Bamberg, a Benedictine abbey for the training of the clergy.",
"The emperor and his wife Kunigunde gave large temporal possessions to the new diocese, and it received many privileges out of which grew the secular power of the bishop.",
"Pope Benedict VIII visited Bamberg in 1020 to meet Henry II for discussions concerning the Holy Roman Empire.",
"While he was here he placed the diocese in direct dependence on the Holy See.",
"He also personally consecrated some of Bamberg's churches.",
"For a short time Bamberg was the centre of the Holy Roman Empire.",
"Henry and Kunigunde were both buried in the cathedral.",
"Woodcut of Bamberg from the ''Nuremberg Chronicle'', 1493\nBamberg Cathedral\nThe Schlenkerla, one of Bamberg's breweries and taverns.",
"The old palace ()\nFrom the middle of the 13th century onward the bishops were princes of the Empire and ruled Bamberg, overseeing the construction of monumental buildings.",
"In 1248 and 1260 the see obtained large portions of the estates of the Counts of Meran, partly through purchase and partly through the appropriation of extinguished fiefs.",
"The old Bishopric of Bamberg was composed of an unbroken territory extending from Schlüsselfeld in a northeasterly direction to the Franconian Forest, and possessed in addition estates in the Duchies of Carinthia and Salzburg, in the Nordgau (the present Upper Palatinate), in Thuringia, and on the Danube.",
"By the changes resulting from the Reformation, the territory of this see was reduced nearly one half in extent.",
"Since 1279 the coat of arms of the city of Bamberg is known in form of a seal.",
"The witch trials of the 17th century claimed about one thousand victims in Bamberg, reaching a climax between 1626 and 1631, under the rule of Prince-Bishop Johann Georg II Fuchs von Dornheim.",
"The famous ''Drudenhaus'' (witch prison), built in 1627, is no longer standing today; however, detailed accounts of some cases, such as that of Johannes Junius, remain.",
"In 1647, the University of Bamberg was founded as ''''.",
"Bambrzy ('''') are German Poles who are descended from settlers from the Bamberg area who settled in villages around Poznań in the years 1719–1753.",
"In 1759, the possessions and jurisdictions of the diocese situated in Austria were sold to that state.",
"When the secularization of church lands took place (1802) the diocese covered and had a population of 207,000.",
"Bamberg thus lost its independence in 1802, becoming part of Bavaria in 1803.",
"Bamberg was first connected to the German rail system in 1844, which has been an important part of its infrastructure ever since.",
"After a communist uprising took control over Bavaria in the years following World War I, the state government fled to Bamberg and stayed there for almost two years before the Bavarian capital of Munich was retaken by ''Freikorps'' units (see Bavarian Soviet Republic).",
"The first republican constitution of Bavaria was passed in Bamberg, becoming known as the ''Bamberger Verfassung'' (Bamberg Constitution).",
"In February 1926 Bamberg served as the venue for the Bamberg Conference, convened by Adolf Hitler in his attempt to foster unity and to stifle dissent within the then-young Nazi party.",
"Bamberg was chosen for its location in Upper Franconia, reasonably close to the residences of the members of the dissident northern Nazi faction but still within Bavaria.",
"In 1973, the town celebrated the 1,000th anniversary of its founding.",
"=== Historic population ===\n\n\nYear\nPopulation\n\n1818\n17,000\n\n1885\n31,521\n\n1905\n45,308\n\n\n\n'''Largest groups of foreign residents'''\n\nNationality \n Population (2013)\n\n \n 1,076\n\n \n 359\n\n \n 232\n\n \n 119\n\n \n 115",
"Bamberg is located in Franconia, north of Nuremberg by railway and east of Würzburg, also by rail.",
"It is situated on the Regnitz river, before it flows into the Main river.",
"Its geography is shaped by the Regnitz and by the foothills of the Steigerwald, part of the German uplands.",
"From northeast to southwest, the town is divided into first the Regnitz plain, then one large and several small islands formed by two arms of the Regnitz (''''), and finally the part of town on the hills, the \"Hill Town\" ('''').",
"===The seven hills of Bamberg===\nBamberg extends over seven hills, each crowned by a beautiful church.",
"This has led to Bamberg being called the \"Franconian Rome\" — although a running joke among Bamberg's tour guides is to refer to Rome instead as the \"Italian Bamberg\".",
"The hills are Cathedral Hill, Michaelsberg, Kaulberg/Obere Pfarre, Stefansberg, Jakobsberg, Altenburger Hill and Abtsberg.",
"===Climate===\nClimate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year-round.",
"The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is \"Cfb\" (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate), with a certain continental influence as indicated by average winter nighttime temperatures well below zero.",
"In 2013 (latest data available) the GDP per inhabitant was €56,723.",
"This places the district 10th out of 96 districts (rural and urban) in Bavaria(overall average: €39,691).",
"The Bamberg Horseman, a local symbol.",
"Michaelsberg Abbey\nTown hall (''''), details\n\nThe old town of Bamberg is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, primarily because of its authentic medieval appearance.",
"The town established a documentation centre in 2005 to support World Heritage activities.",
"It was founded in 1004 by Emperor Henry II, finished in 1012 and consecrated on 6 May 1012.",
"It was later partially destroyed by fire in 1081.",
"The new cathedral, built by Saint Otto of Bamberg, was consecrated in 1111 and in the 13th century received its present late-Romanesque form.",
"The cathedral is long, wide, high, and the four towers are each about high.",
"It contains many historic works of art, such as the marble tomb of the founder and his wife, considered one of the greatest works of the sculptor Tilman Riemenschneider, and carved between 1499 and 1513.",
"Another treasure of the cathedral is an equestrian statue known as the Bamberg Horseman ('''').",
"This statue, possibly depicting the emperor Conrad III, most likely dates to the second quarter of the 13th century.",
"The statue also serves as a symbol of the town of Bamberg.",
"; :\nThe '''' (New Residence) (1698–1704) was initially occupied by the prince-bishops, and from 1864 to 1867 by the deposed King Otto of Greece.",
"Its '''' (Rose Garden) overlooks the town.",
"It has over 4500 roses.",
"; :\nAltenburg\n\nThe is located on the highest of Bamberg's seven hills.",
"It was mentioned for the first time in 1109.",
"Between 1251 and 1553 it was the residence of Bamberg's bishops.",
"Destroyed in 1553 by Albert Alcibiades, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach, it was used, after scanty repairs, only as a prison, and increasingly decayed.",
"In 1801, A. F. Marcus bought the castle and completely repaired it.",
"His friend, the famous German writer E.T.A.",
"Hoffmann, who was very impressed by the building, lived there for a while.",
"The next owner, Anton von Greifenstein, in 1818 founded an association to save the castle.",
"This society still maintains the whole property today.",
"The Altenburg today houses a restaurant.",
"; Other sights:\nOther churches are the '''', an 11th century Romanesque basilica; the ''''; the '''' or '''' (1320–1387), which has now been restored to its original pure Gothic style.",
"The '''', 12th century Romanesque (restored), on the Michaelsberg, was formerly the church of the Benedictine Michaelsberg Abbey secularized in 1803 and now contains the '''', or almshouse, and the museum and municipal art collections.",
"Of the bridges connecting the sections of the lower town the '''' was completed in 1455.",
"Halfway across this, on an island, is the '''' or town hall (rebuilt 1744-1756).",
"The lyceum, formerly a Jesuit college, contains a natural history museum.",
"The old palace ('''') was built in 1591 on the site of an old residence of the counts of Babenberg.",
"Monuments include the Maximilian fountain (1880), with statues of King Maximilian I of Bavaria, the emperor Henry II and his wife, Conrad III and Saint Otto, bishop of Bamberg.",
"There are also underground tunnels beneath the town.",
"These were originally constructed as mines which supplied sandstone which could be used for construction or as an abrasive cleaner.",
"Mining came to an end in 1920 but a tunnel network remained.",
"The tunnels were used as an air raid shelter during World War II.",
"A part of the network can be visited on a guided tour.",
"=== Beer ===\nBamberg is known for its smoked Rauchbier and is home to nine breweries, Brauerei Fässla, Brauerei Greifenklau, Brauerei Heller-Trum (Schlenkerla), Brauerei Kaiserdom, Keesmann Bräu, Klosterbräu, Mahrs Bräu and Brauerei Spezial, and one brewpub, Ambräusianum.",
"Every August there is a five-day '''', a kirmess celebrated with beers.",
"The University of Bamberg, named Otto-Friedrich University, offers higher education in the areas of social science, business studies and the humanities, and is attended by more than 13,000 students.",
"The University of Applied Sciences Bamberg offers higher education in the areas of public health.",
"Bamberg is also home to eight secondary schools (gymnasiums):\n* Clavius-Gymnasium\n* Dientzenhofer-Gymnasium\n* Eichendorff-Gymnasium\n* E.T.A.",
"Hoffmann-Gymnasium\n* Franz-Ludwig-Gymnasium\n* Kaiser-Heinrich-Gymnasium\n* Maria-Ward-Gymnasium\n* Theresianum\nThere are also numerous other institutes for primary, secondary, technical, vocational and adult education.",
"\n===Transport===\n\n==== Railway ====\nThe InterCityExpress main line #28 (Munich - Nuremberg - Leipzig - Berlin / Hamburg) runs through Bamberg station on the Nuremberg–Bamberg and the Bamberg–Hof lines.",
"It takes less than two hours to Munich on the train and about four hours to reach Berlin.",
"But the Nuremberg–Erfurt high-speed railway is currently being constructed through the Thuringian mountains and should shorten the journey time considerably.",
"East-west connections are poorer.",
"Bamberg is connected to other towns in eastern Upper Franconia such as Bayreuth, Coburg, and Kronach via the Bamberg–Hof line with trains usually running at least every hour.",
"Connections on the Würzburg–Bamberg line to the west are hourly regional trains to Würzburg, which is fully connected to the ICE network.",
"Tourists arriving at Frankfurt International Airport can take advantage of the new direct connection from Frankfurt main station.",
"==== Motorways ====\nBamberg is not near any of the major (i.e.",
"single-digit) autobahns.",
"But it is nevertheless well connected to the network in all directions: the A70 from Schweinfurt (connecting to the A7 there) to Bayreuth (connecting to the A9) runs along the northern edge of the town.",
"The A73 on the eastern side of town connects Bamberg to Nuremberg (connecting to the A9) and Thuringia, ending at Suhl.",
"==== Air transport ====\nBamberg is served by Bamberg-Breitenau Airfield.",
"Mostly public aircraft operate there.",
"It used to be a military airport.",
"(IATA-Code: ZCD, ICAO-Code: EDQA) It is also possible to charter public flights to and from this airport.",
"Most international tourists who travel by plane arrive at Frankfurt International Airport or Munich Airport.",
"The nearest major airport is Nuremberg Airport which can be reached within half an hour by car or one hour by train and subway.",
"==== Water transport ====\nCranes in Bamberg harbor\nBoth the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal and its predecessor, the Ludwig Canal, begin near Bamberg.",
"The Ludwig Canal was opened in 1846 but closed in 1950 after damage during the second world war.",
"With the completion of the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal in 1992, uninterrupted water transport was again made possible between the North Sea and the Black Sea.",
"==== Local public transport ====\nLocal public transport within Bamberg relies exclusively on buses.",
"More than 20 routes connect the outlying quarters and some villages in the vicinity to the central bus station.",
"In addition, there are several \"Night Lines\" (the last of these, though, tend to run around midnight) and some park-and-ride lines from parking lots on the periphery to the town centre.",
"A short-lived tram system existed in the 1920s.",
"=== Military bases ===\nBamberg was an important base for the Bavarian, German and then American military stationed at Warner Barracks.",
"Warner Barracks was closed in the fall of 2014, with the last battalion leaving being the 54th Engineer Battalion and returned to the German government.",
"In 2016, a large part of the facility was taken over by the German Federal Police for training purposes.",
"Muna Kasserne was a small base occupied by the 504th Maintenance Company, 71st Maintenance Bn.",
"It was part of Warner Barracks although located separately.",
"Bamberg is an urban district, or ''kreisfreie Stadt''.",
"Its town council (''Stadtrat'') and its Mayor (''Oberbürgermeister'') are elected every six years, though not in the same year.",
"Thus, the last municipal election for the town council was in 2014, for the Mayor in 2012.",
"As an exception to the six-year term, the term starting in 2012 will take eight years to synchronize the elections with those in the rest of Bavaria.",
"As of the elections of 16 March 2014, the 44 member strong town council comprises 12 CSU councillors, 10 SPD councillors, 8 Green councillors, 4 councillors of the ''Bamberger Bürger-Block'' and 4 of the ''Freie Wähler'' (Free Voters), both local political movements.",
"These five parties achieved the number of councillors necessary to form a parliamentary group.",
"In addition, there are 3 councillors of the ''Bamberger Unabhängige Bürger'' and the 1 councillor each of the ''Bamberger Realisten'', the FDP and the ''Bamberger Linke Liste''.",
"The previous council, elected on 2 March 2008, was composed of 15 CSU councillors, 10 SPD councillors, 7 Green councillors, 5 councillors of the Bamberger Bürger-Block and 3 of the Freie Wähler (Free Voters), both local political movements.",
"These five parties achieved the number of councillors necessary to form a parliamentary group.",
"In addition, there were 2 councillors of the ''Bamberger Realisten'' and one of the FDP and the Republikaner, making them ineligible for caucus status.",
"=== Mayors since 1945 ===\n\n\nYears\nMayor\nParty\n\n1945–1958\nLuitpold Weegmann\nCSU\n\n1958–1982\nTheodor Mathieu\nCSU\n\n1982–1994\nPaul Röhner\nCSU\n\n1994–2006\nHerbert Lauer\nIndependent\n\n2006–Present\nAndreas Starke\nSPD\n\n\n=== Town twinning===\n\nBamberg is twinned with:\n* Bedford, United Kingdom\n* Esztergom, Hungary\n* Feldkirchen, Austria\n* Prague, Czech Republic\n* Rodez, France\n* Villach, Austria\n* Fredonia, New York, United States\n* Nagaoka, Niigata, Japan",
"\nLouis-Alexandre Berthier 1808\n\n=== A-K ===\n* Annette von Aretin (1920–2006), first television announcer of the Bayerischer Rundfunk\n* , (1789 in Bamberg; † 1870 in Berlin), tenor\n* Dorothee Bär (born 1978), Member of Parliament (CSU), State Secretary of the Federal Minister of Transport and Digital Infrastructure\n* Wilhelm Batz, (1916–1988), Luftwaffe, ace\n* Louis-Alexandre Berthier, (1753–1815), Chief of Staff to Napoleon Bonaparte\n* Joachim Camerarius (1500–1574), humanist, polymath and poet\n* Claudia Ciesla, (born 1987), Polish-German actress\n* Pope Clement II, (died 1047), bishop of Bamberg from 1040–46\n* Christopher Clavius, (1538–1612), mathematician, astronomer and Jesuit\n* Conrad III of Germany, (1093-1152), king of Germany\n* Cunigunde of Luxembourg, (c. 975-1040), empress consort, regent of the Holy Roman Empire and wife of Henry II\n* Stefan Dassler (born 1962), non-fiction author\n* Günther Denzler (born 1948), former district administrator of Bamberg (CSU)\n* Karlheinz Deschner (1924–2014), writer and critic of religion and the church\n* (1907–1987), philologist and Goethe researcher\n* Ignaz Dollinger (1770–1841), physician\n* Ignaz von Dollinger (1799–1890), important Catholic theologian and church historian\n* Curt Echtermeyer, also known as Curt Bruckner (1896–1971), painter\n* Erich Ebermayer (1900–1970), writer\n* Hans Ehard (1887–1980), lawyer and politician\n* Günter Faltin (born 1944), university teacher\n* Heinrich Finck (1444–1527), conductor and composer\n* Klaus-Dieter Fritsche (born 1953), jurist and politician (CSU), \n* Karl von Gareis (1844–1923), a lawyer and author, member of the Reichstag\n* Nora-Eugenie Gomringer, (born 1980), poet and writer\n* Thomas Gottschalk (born 1950), moderator, TV-presenter, actor\n* Lukas Görtler (born 1994), football player\n* Hans Grassmann (born 1960), physicist and author\n* (1798–1849), collector, today Helleriana in Bamberg State Library\n* Karl Höller (1907–1987), composer\n* Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, (1770–1831), German philosopher\n* Henry II, (973-1024), Holy Roman Emperor\n* E. T. A. Hoffmann, (1776-1822), German author and composer\n* (born 1951), artist\n* Harry Koch (born 1969), football player\n* (1882–1947), lawyer, poet and politician (BVP, CSU)\n* Dieter Kunzelmann (born 1939), communard and left-wing activiste\n* Paul Lautensack (1478–1558), painter and organist\n\n=== L-Z ===\nEmil Marschalk von Ostheim 1903\n\n* Paul Maar, (born 1937), German writer and illustrator\n* Duke Maximilian Joseph in Bavaria, actually '' Duke Maximilian Joseph in Bavaria '' (1808–1888), promoter of Bavarian folk music in the 19th century\n* Emil Marschalk von Ostheim (1841–1903), historian and collector\n* Duke Maximilian Joseph in Bavaria, actually '' Duke Maximilian Joseph in Bavaria '' (1808–1888), promoter of Bavarian folk music in the 19th century\n* Willy Messerschmitt (1898–1978), German aircraft designer, Flugzeugbau Messerschmitt GmbH\n* Martin Münz (1785–1848), anatomist and professor\n* Ida Noddack-Tacke, (1896-1978), chemist and physicist; she discovered element 75, rhenium\n* (born 1987), pianist\n* Bernd Redmann (born 1965), composer and musicologist\n* Mike Rose, (1932-2006), painter, set designer and writer\n* Gerd Schaller (born 1965), conductor\n* Rainer Schaller (born 1969), entrepreneur and founder of McFit Fitness GmbH\n* Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg (1907–1944), German officer who attempted to assassinate German dictator Adolf Hitler in the July 20 Plot\n* Berthold Maria Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg (born 1934), former General of the Bundeswehr\n* Josh Shipp, (1986–Present), Professional basketball player for Brose Baskets Bamberg\n* Tom Schütz (born 1988), football player\n* Sven Schultze (born 1978), basketball player\n* Karsten Tadda (born 1988), basketball player\n* Andrew Wooten (born 1989), German-American soccer player\n* Karl Friedrich Gottlob Wetzel, (1779-1819), writer and illustrator",
"\nImage:BambergAltesRathaus.jpg|Old town hall\nImage:Bamberg-altes-rathaus.jpg|Old town hall with both bridges\nImage:Bamberg Klein-Venedig I.jpg|Close-up of \"Little Venice\"\nImage:Bamberg Klein Venedig.jpg|\"Little Venice\"\nImage:Pfarrkirche St. Martin.jpg|St Martin and Green Market\nImage:Bamberg Neue Residenz.jpg|''Neue Residenz'' (the \"New Residence\" of the prince-bishops)\nImage:Rose Garden 2.JPG|The Rose Garden at the ''Neue Residenz''\nImage:Bamberg-NeueResidenz1-Asio.JPG|Rose Garden detail\nImage:Bamberg-Jakobskirche.JPG|Church of St Jacob\nImage:Bamberg Rooftops.JPG|Bamberg roof tops from the Rose Garden\nFile:Musikpavillon Hain Bamberg.JPG|Music pavilion in park Hain, Bamberg",
"* Bamberg (potato) (named after the town)\n* Bamberg Symphony Orchestra\n* Rintfleisch-Pogrom",
"\n* \n* JewishEncyclopedia",
"\n\n* Official municipal website\n* Official tourist website\n* Schlenkerla Brewery website\n* Bamberg beer, official website"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\nThe '''House of Bonaparte''' is an imperial and royal European dynasty founded in 1804 by Napoleon I, a French military leader who had risen to notability out of the French Revolution and who in 1804 transformed the First French Republic into the First French Empire, five years after his ''coup d'état'' of November 1799. Napoleon turned the ''Grande Armée'' against every major European power and dominated continental Europe through a series of military victories during the Napoleonic Wars. He installed members of his family on the thrones of client states, extending the power of the dynasty.\n\nThe House of Bonaparte formed the Imperial House of France during the French Empire, together with some non-Bonaparte family members. In addition to holding the title of Emperor of the French, the Bonaparte dynasty held various other titles and territories during the Napoleonic Wars, including their ancestral Kingdom of Italy, the Kingdom of Spain, the Kingdom of Westphalia, the Kingdom of Holland, and the Kingdom of Naples. The dynasty held power for around a decade until the Napoleonic Wars began to take their toll. Making very powerful enemies, such as Austria, Britain, Russia, and Prussia, as well as royalist (particularly Bourbon) restorational movements in France, Spain, the Two Sicilies, and Sardinia, the dynasty eventually collapsed due to the final defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo and the restoration of former dynasties by the Congress of Vienna.\n\nDuring the reign of Napoleon I, the Imperial Family consisted of the Emperor's immediate relations – his wife, son, siblings, and some other close relatives, namely Joachim Murat, Joseph Fesch, and Eugène de Beauharnais.\n\nBetween the years 1852 and 1870 there was a Second French Empire, when a member of the Bonaparte dynasty again ruled France: Napoleon III, the son of Louis Bonaparte. However, during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 the dynasty was again ousted from the Imperial Throne. Since that time there has been a series of pretenders. Supporters of the Bonaparte family's claim to the throne of France are known as Bonapartists. Current head Jean-Christophe, Prince Napoléon, has a Bourbon mother.\n",
"The Bonaparte (originally ''Buonaparte'') family were patricians in the Italian towns of Sarzana, San Miniato and Florence. The name derives from Italian, ''buona'', \"good\" and ''parte'', \"part\" or \"side\".\n \nGianfaldo Buonaparte was the first known Buonaparte at Sarzana around 1200. His descendant \nGiovanni Buonaparte in 1397 married Isabella Calandrini, a cousin of later cardinal Filippo Calandrini. Giovanni became mayor of Sarzana and was named commissioner of the Lunigiana by Giovanni Maria Visconti in 1408. Their great-grandson Francesco Buonaparte was an equestrian mercenary at the service of the Genoese Bank of Saint George. In 1490 he went to the island of Corsica which was controlled by the bank. In 1493 he married the daughter of Guido da Castelletto, representative of the Bank of Saint George in Ajaccio, Corsica. Most of their descendants during subsequent generations were members of the Ajaccio town council. Napoleons father Carlo Buonaparte received a patent of nobility by the King of France in 1771.\n\nThere also existed a Buonaparte family in Florence, however its eventual relation with the Sarzana and San Miniato families is unknown. Jacopo Buonaparte of San Miniato was a friend and advisor to Medici Pope Clement VII. Jacopo was also a witness to and wrote an account of the sack of Rome, which is one of the most important historical documents recounting that event. Two of Jacopo's nephews, Pier Antonio Buonaparte and Giovanni Buonaparte, however, took part in the 1527 Medici rebellion, after which they were banished from Florence and later were restored by Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence. Jacopo's brother Benedetto Buonaparte maintained political neutrality. The San Miniato branch extinguished with Jacopo in 1550. The last member of the Florence family was a canon named Gregorio Bonaparte, who died in 1803, leaving Napoleon as heir.\n\nA Buonaparte tomb lies in the Church of San Francesco in San Miniato, another in Ajaccio, the ''Chapelle Impériale'', built by Napoleon III. in 1857.\n\n\nBlason fam fr Bonaparte ornamented.svg|Coat of arms of the Buonaparte of Sarzana\nCoat of arms of th Bonaparte family in San Miniato.svg|Coat of arms of the Buonaparte of San Miniato\nBlason fam it Firenze Santa Maria Novella.svg|Coat of arms of the Buonaparte of Florence\n\n",
"''Napoleon Crossing the Alps'' (1801), by Jacques-Louis David.\nImperial coat of arms\nThe Four Napoleons\nNapoleon is the most prominent name associated with the Bonaparte family because he conquered much of the Western world during the early part of the 19th century. He was elected as First Consul of France on 10 November 1799 with the help of his brother, Lucien Bonaparte, and president of the Council of Five Hundred at Saint-Cloud. He was crowned Emperor of the French and ruled from 1804–1814, 1815.\n\nFollowing his conquest of most of Western Europe, Napoleon I made his elder brother Joseph (1768–1844) king first of Naples (1806–1808) and then of Spain (1808–1813), his younger brother Louis (1778–1846) King of Holland (1806–1810) (subsequently forcing his abdication after his failure to subordinate Dutch interests to those of France) and his youngest brother Jérôme Bonaparte (1784–1860) King of Westphalia, the short-lived realm created from some of the states of northwestern Germany (1807–1813).\n\nNapoleon's son Napoléon François Charles Joseph (1811–1832) was created King of Rome (1811–1814) and was later styled Napoléon II by loyalists of the dynasty, though he only ruled for two weeks after his father's abdication. Louis-Napoléon (1808–1873), son of Louis, was President of France in 1848–1852 and Emperor in 1852–1870, reigning as Napoleon III; his son, Napoléon, Prince Imperial (1856–1879) died fighting the Zulus in Natal, today the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal. With his death, the family lost much of its remaining political appeal, though claimants continue to assert their right to the imperial title. A political movement for Corsican independence surfaced in the 1990s which included a Bonapartist restoration in its programme.\n",
"\n===Emperors of the French===\n*Napoleon I (1804–1814, 1815), also King of Italy (1805–1814) and Emperor in Elba (1814–1815)\n*Napoleon II (1815), styled King of Rome from birth, but never reigned\n*Napoleon III (1852–1870)\n\n===Kings of Holland===\n*Louis I (1806–1810)\n*Louis II (1810), also Grand Duke of Berg (1809–1813)\n\n===King of Naples===\n*Joseph I (1806–1808)\n\n===King of Westphalia===\n*Jérôme I (1807–1813)\n\n===King of Spain===\n*Joseph I (1808–1813)\n\n===Grand Duchess of Tuscany===\n* Elisa Bonaparte (1809–1814)\n",
"*Napoléon III (1852–1873)\n*Napoléon IV Eugéne (1873–1879), (Son of Napoléon III)\n*Napoléon V Victor (1879–1926), (Grandson of Napoléon I's youngest brother, Jérôme Bonaparte)\n*Napoléon VI Louis (1926–1997), (Son of Napoléon V Victor)\nDisputed since 1997:\n*Napoléon VII Charles (1997 – present), (Son of Napoléon VI Louis)\n*Napoléon VII Jean-Christophe (1997 – present), (Grandson of Napoléon VI Louis)\n",
"\n'''Carlo'''-Maria (Ajaccio, 1746–Montpellier, 1785) married Maria Letizia Ramolino (Ajaccio, 1750–Rome, 1836) in 1764. He was a minor official in the local courts. They had eight children:\n\n#Joseph Bonaparte (Corte, 1768–Florence, 1844), King of Naples, then King of Spain, married Julie Clary, sister of Napoleon's childhood sweetheart, Désirée, who was to become the wife of General Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte (later Charles XIV, King of Sweden)\n#*Julie Joséphine Bonaparte (1796–1796)\n#*Zénaïde Laetitia Julie Bonaparte (1801–1854)\n#*Charlotte Napoléone Bonaparte (1802–1839)\n#Napoléon (I) Bonaparte (1769–1821) Emperor of the French\n#*Napoléon (II) François Joseph Charles Bonaparte (1811–1832), Prince Imperial, King of Rome, Prince of Parma, son of Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria (of the Habsburg dynasty), Empress consort, then Duchess of Parma\n# Lucien Bonaparte (1775–1840) Roman Prince of Canino and Musignano\n#*3 daughters with first wife, Christine Boyer:\n#**Charlotte Christine Bonaparte (1795–1865), married Prince Mario Gabrielli\n#**Victoire Gertrude Bonaparte (1797–1797)\n#**Christine Charlotte Alexandrine Egypta Bonaparte (1798–1847), married Count Arvid Posse, then married Lord Dudley Stuart\n#*10 children with second wife, Alexandrine de Bleschamp:\n#**'''Charles Lucien''' Jules Laurent Bonaparte (1803–1857), ornithologist and politician married Princess Zénaïde Bonaparte (1801–1854)\n#***'''Joseph Lucien''' Charles Napoléon Bonaparte (1824–1865)\n#***Alexandrine Gertrude Zénaïde Bonaparte (1826–1828)\n#***Lucien Louis Joseph Napoléon (Cardinal) Bonaparte (1828–1895)\n#***Julie Charlotte Pauline Zénaïde Laetitia Désirée Bartholomée Bonaparte (1830–1900)\n#***Charlotte Honorine Joséphine Pauline Bonaparte (1832–1901)\n#***Léonie Stéphanie Elise Bonaparte (1833–1839)\n#***Marie Désirée Eugénie Joséphine Philomène Bonaparte (1835–1890)\n#***Augusta Amélie Maximilienne Jacqueline Bonaparte (1836–1900)\n#***'''Napoléon Charles''' Grégoire Jacques Philippe Bonaparte (1839–1899)\n#****Zénaïde Victoire Eugénie Bonaparte (1860–1862)\n#****Marie Léonie Eugénie Mathilde Jeanne Julie Zénaïde Bonaparte (1870–1947)\n#****Eugénie Laetitia Barbe Caroline Lucienne Marie Jeanne Bonaparte (1872–1949)\n#***Bathilde Aloïse Léonie Bonaparte (1840–1861)\n#***Albertine Marie Thérèse Bonaparte (1842–1842)\n#***Charles Albert Edmond Bonaparte (1843–1847)\n#**Laetitia Christine Bonaparte (1804–1871)\n#**Joseph Lucien Bonaparte (1806–1807)\n#**Jeanne Adélaïde Bonaparte (1807–1829)\n#**Paul Marie Bonaparte (1808–1827)\n#**Louis Lucien Bonaparte (1813–1891)\n#**Pierre Napoléon Bonaparte (1815–1881)\n#***Roland Bonaparte (1858–1924) married Marie Blanc\n#****Princess Marie Bonaparte (1882–1962) married Prince George of Greece\n#***Princess Jeanne Bonaparte (1861–1910)\n#**Antoine Lucien Bonaparte (1816–1877)\n#**Alexandrine Marie Bonaparte (1818–1874)\n#**Constance Marie Bonaparte (1823–1876)\n# Maria-Anna '''Elisa''' Bonaparte (1777–1820), Grand-Duchess of Tuscany, married Félix Baciocchi Levoy, Prince of Lucca\n#* Marie-Laetitia Bonaparte Baciocchi Levoy\n#Louis Bonaparte (1778–1846), King of Holland, married Hortense de Beauharnais, Napoleon's stepdaughter\n#*Napoléon Charles Bonaparte (1802–1807)\n#*Napoléon Louis Bonaparte (1804–1831)\n#*Charles Louis Napoléon (III) Bonaparte (1808–1873) Emperor of the French, married Maria '''Eugenia''' Ignacia Augustina Palafox de Guzmán Portocarrero y Kirkpatrick\n#**Napoléon Eugène Louis John Joseph Bonaparte, Prince Imperial (1856–1879)\n#Maria Paola or Marie '''Pauline''' Bonaparte (1780–1825) Princess and Duchess of Guastalla, married in 1797 to French General Charles Leclerc and later married Camillo Borghese, 6th Prince of Sulmona.\n# Maria Annunziata '''Caroline''' Bonaparte (1782–1839) married Joachim Murat, Marshal of France, Grand Duke of Berg, then King of Naples\n#*Prince Achille Murat (1801–1847), married Catherine Willis Gray (1803–1867), great-grandniece of George Washington.\n#*Prince Napoléon '''Lucien''' Charles Murat (1803–1878), married Caroline Georgina Fraser (1810–1879).\n#**5 Children, including:\n#** ''Joachim'' Joseph Napoléon Murat, 4th Prince Murat (1834–1901), Major-General of the French Army, married firstly Malcy Louise Caroline Berthier de Wagram (1832–1884) and had issue, and secondly Lydia Hervey, without issue.\n#**Prince Louis Napoléon Murat (1851–1912), married in Odessa, Eudoxia Mikhailovna Somova (1850–1924), had issue now extinct in male line.\n#Jérôme Bonaparte (1784–1860), King of Westphalia\n#*1 child from first marriage, to Betsy Patterson of Baltimore:\n#**Jérôme Napoléon Bonaparte (1805–1870), married Susan May Williams and had 2 sons :\n#***Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte II (1830–1893), married Caroline Le Roy Appleton Edgar\n#****Louise-Eugénie Bonaparte (1873–1923), married in 1896 Count Adam Carl von Moltke-Huitfeld (1864–1944)\n#****Jerome Napoléon Charles Bonaparte II (1878–1945), married Blanche Pierce Stenbeigh, no posterity\n#***'''Charles''' Joseph Bonaparte (1851–1921), U.S. Attorney General married Ellen Channing Day, no issue\n#*3 children from second marriage, to Princess Catharina of Württemberg:\n#**Jérôme Napoléon Charles Bonaparte I (1814–1847), unmarried and childless\n#**Mathilde Laetitia Wilhelmine Bonaparte (1820–1904), married Anatoly Nikolaievich Demidov, 1st Prince of San Donato: no posterity\n#**Napoléon Joseph Charles Paul Bonaparte, Prince Napoléon (1822–1891), called ''Plon-Plon'' married Princess Marie Clothilde of Savoy daughter of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy\n#***Napoléon '''Victor''' Jérôme Frédéric Bonaparte, Prince Napoléon (1862–1926) married Princess Clémentine of Belgium\n#****Marie Clotilde Eugénie Alberte Laetitia Geneviève Bonaparte (1912–1996) married Count Serge de Witt\n#****Louis Jérôme Victor Emmanuel Léopold Marie Bonaparte, Prince Napoléon (1914–1997), married Alix de Foresta\n#*****Charles Marie Jérôme Victor Bonaparte, Prince Napoléon (born 1950)\n#******Two children from first marriage, to Princess Béatrice of Bourbon-Two Sicilies of the Bourbon family:\n#*******Caroline Marie Constance Bonaparte (Princess Caroline Napoléon) (born 1980)\n#*******Jean-Christophe Louis Ferdinand Albéric Bonaparte, Prince Napoléon (born 1986)\n#******1 child and 1 adopted child from second marriage, to Jeanne-Françoise Valliccioni (born 1958):\n#*******Sophie Catherine Bonaparte (born 1992)\n#*******Anh Laëtitia Bonaparte (born 1998, adopted)\n#*****Catherine Elisabeth Albérique Marie Bonaparte (born 1950)\n#*****Laure Clémentine Geneviève Bonaparte (born 1952)\n#*****Jérôme Xavier Marie Joseph Victor Bonaparte (Prince Jérôme Napoléon) (born 1957), married in 2013 with Licia Innocenti \n#***Napoléon Louis Joseph Jérôme Bonaparte (1864–1932) Russian General, unmarried and childless\n#***'''Marie Laetitia''' Eugénie Catherine Adélaïde Bonaparte (1866–1926) married Prince Amedeo of Savoy, Duke of Aosta\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n",
"The arms of the Bonaparte family were: ''Gules two bends sinister between two mullets or''. In 1804 Napoleon I changed the arms to ''Azure an imperial eagle or''. The change applied to all members of his family except for his brother Lucien and his nephew, the son from Jerome's first marriage.\n\n\nFile:Blason fam fr Bonaparte ornamented.svg|Arms of '''Charles-Maria Buonaparte'''. \nFile:Grandes Armes Impériales (1804-1815)2.svg|Arms of '''Napoleon I''' and '''Napoleon II''', as Emperor of the French.\nFile:Grand Coat of Arms of Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain2.svg|Arms of '''Joseph Bonaparte''', King of Spain.\nFile:Coat of Arms of Lucien Bonaparte, Roman Prince of Canino.svg|Arms of '''Lucien Bonaparte''', Prince of Canino and Musignano.\nFile:Coat of Arms of the Kingdom of Holland (1808).svg|Arms of '''Louis Bonaparte''', King of Holland.\nFile:Grandes Armes Jérôme Bonaparte (1784-1860) 2.svg|Arms of '''Jérôme Bonaparte''', King of Westphalia.\n\n",
"According to a studies by G.Lucotte and his coauthors based on DNA research since 2011, Napoleon Bonaparte belonged to Y-DNA (direct male ancestry) haplogroup E1b1b1c1* (E-M34*). This haplogroup, rare in Europe, has its highest concentration in Ethiopia and in the Near East (Jordan, Yemen). According to the authors of the study, \"Probably Napoléon also knew his remote oriental patrilineal origins, because Francesco Buonaparte (the Giovanni son), who was a mercenary under the orders of the Genoa Republic in Ajaccio in 1490, was nicknamed ''The Maure of Sarzane'' \" The latest study identifies the common Bonaparte DNA markers from Carlo (Charles) Bonaparte to 3 living descendants.\n\nLucotte et al. published in October 2013 the extended Y-STR of Napoleon I based on descendant testing, and the descendants were E-M34, just like the emperor's beard hair tested a year before. The persons tested were the patrilineal descendants of Jérome Bonaparte, one of Napoleon's brothers, and of Alexandre Colonna-Walewski, Napoleon's illegitimate son with Marie Walewska. These three tests all yielded the same Y-STR haplotype (109 markers) confirming with 100% certainty that the first Emperor of the French belonged to the M34 branch of haplogroup E1b1b.\n",
"Jérôme Bonaparte, founder of the legitimate line\nThe headship of the family is in dispute between Charles, Prince Napoléon, born 1950, great-great-grandson of Jérôme Bonaparte by his second marriage; and his son Jean-Christophe, Prince Napoléon (born 1986) who was appointed heir in the will of his grandfather Louis, Prince Napoléon. The only other male member of the family is Charles's recently married brother, Prince Jérôme Napoléon (born 1957). There are no other legitimate descendants in the male line from Napoleon I or his brothers. There are, however, numerous descendants of Napoleon's illegitimate, but recognized son Alexandre Colonna-Walewski from his union with Marie, Countess Walewski. A descendant of Napoleon's sister Caroline Bonaparte is the actor René Auberjonois. Recent DNA matches with living descendants of Jerome and Count Walewski have confirmed the existence of descendants of Lucien Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, namely the Clovis family.\n",
"* History of France\n* History of Spain\n* History of Italy\n* History of the Netherlands\n* Line of succession to the French throne (Napoleonic)\n* Napoleon (disambiguation)\n* Timeline of the Napoleonic era\n",
"\n",
"* Paul Theroff, Bonaparte descendants (includes female-line and illegitimate descendants)\n* The coat of arms of the Tuscan branch of Bonaparte family in State Archives of Florence\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Italian origins",
"Imperial House of France",
"Crowns held by the family",
"List of Heads of the House of Bonaparte (since 1852)",
"The family tree",
"Bonaparte arms",
" DNA research",
"Living members",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | House of Bonaparte | [
"Their great-grandson Francesco Buonaparte was an equestrian mercenary at the service of the Genoese Bank of Saint George.",
"In 1490 he went to the island of Corsica which was controlled by the bank.",
"In 1493 he married the daughter of Guido da Castelletto, representative of the Bank of Saint George in Ajaccio, Corsica."
] | [
"\n\n\n\nThe '''House of Bonaparte''' is an imperial and royal European dynasty founded in 1804 by Napoleon I, a French military leader who had risen to notability out of the French Revolution and who in 1804 transformed the First French Republic into the First French Empire, five years after his ''coup d'état'' of November 1799.",
"Napoleon turned the ''Grande Armée'' against every major European power and dominated continental Europe through a series of military victories during the Napoleonic Wars.",
"He installed members of his family on the thrones of client states, extending the power of the dynasty.",
"The House of Bonaparte formed the Imperial House of France during the French Empire, together with some non-Bonaparte family members.",
"In addition to holding the title of Emperor of the French, the Bonaparte dynasty held various other titles and territories during the Napoleonic Wars, including their ancestral Kingdom of Italy, the Kingdom of Spain, the Kingdom of Westphalia, the Kingdom of Holland, and the Kingdom of Naples.",
"The dynasty held power for around a decade until the Napoleonic Wars began to take their toll.",
"Making very powerful enemies, such as Austria, Britain, Russia, and Prussia, as well as royalist (particularly Bourbon) restorational movements in France, Spain, the Two Sicilies, and Sardinia, the dynasty eventually collapsed due to the final defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo and the restoration of former dynasties by the Congress of Vienna.",
"During the reign of Napoleon I, the Imperial Family consisted of the Emperor's immediate relations – his wife, son, siblings, and some other close relatives, namely Joachim Murat, Joseph Fesch, and Eugène de Beauharnais.",
"Between the years 1852 and 1870 there was a Second French Empire, when a member of the Bonaparte dynasty again ruled France: Napoleon III, the son of Louis Bonaparte.",
"However, during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 the dynasty was again ousted from the Imperial Throne.",
"Since that time there has been a series of pretenders.",
"Supporters of the Bonaparte family's claim to the throne of France are known as Bonapartists.",
"Current head Jean-Christophe, Prince Napoléon, has a Bourbon mother.",
"The Bonaparte (originally ''Buonaparte'') family were patricians in the Italian towns of Sarzana, San Miniato and Florence.",
"The name derives from Italian, ''buona'', \"good\" and ''parte'', \"part\" or \"side\".",
"Gianfaldo Buonaparte was the first known Buonaparte at Sarzana around 1200.",
"His descendant \nGiovanni Buonaparte in 1397 married Isabella Calandrini, a cousin of later cardinal Filippo Calandrini.",
"Giovanni became mayor of Sarzana and was named commissioner of the Lunigiana by Giovanni Maria Visconti in 1408.",
"Most of their descendants during subsequent generations were members of the Ajaccio town council.",
"Napoleons father Carlo Buonaparte received a patent of nobility by the King of France in 1771.",
"There also existed a Buonaparte family in Florence, however its eventual relation with the Sarzana and San Miniato families is unknown.",
"Jacopo Buonaparte of San Miniato was a friend and advisor to Medici Pope Clement VII.",
"Jacopo was also a witness to and wrote an account of the sack of Rome, which is one of the most important historical documents recounting that event.",
"Two of Jacopo's nephews, Pier Antonio Buonaparte and Giovanni Buonaparte, however, took part in the 1527 Medici rebellion, after which they were banished from Florence and later were restored by Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence.",
"Jacopo's brother Benedetto Buonaparte maintained political neutrality.",
"The San Miniato branch extinguished with Jacopo in 1550.",
"The last member of the Florence family was a canon named Gregorio Bonaparte, who died in 1803, leaving Napoleon as heir.",
"A Buonaparte tomb lies in the Church of San Francesco in San Miniato, another in Ajaccio, the ''Chapelle Impériale'', built by Napoleon III.",
"in 1857.",
"Blason fam fr Bonaparte ornamented.svg|Coat of arms of the Buonaparte of Sarzana\nCoat of arms of th Bonaparte family in San Miniato.svg|Coat of arms of the Buonaparte of San Miniato\nBlason fam it Firenze Santa Maria Novella.svg|Coat of arms of the Buonaparte of Florence",
"''Napoleon Crossing the Alps'' (1801), by Jacques-Louis David.",
"Imperial coat of arms\nThe Four Napoleons\nNapoleon is the most prominent name associated with the Bonaparte family because he conquered much of the Western world during the early part of the 19th century.",
"He was elected as First Consul of France on 10 November 1799 with the help of his brother, Lucien Bonaparte, and president of the Council of Five Hundred at Saint-Cloud.",
"He was crowned Emperor of the French and ruled from 1804–1814, 1815.",
"Following his conquest of most of Western Europe, Napoleon I made his elder brother Joseph (1768–1844) king first of Naples (1806–1808) and then of Spain (1808–1813), his younger brother Louis (1778–1846) King of Holland (1806–1810) (subsequently forcing his abdication after his failure to subordinate Dutch interests to those of France) and his youngest brother Jérôme Bonaparte (1784–1860) King of Westphalia, the short-lived realm created from some of the states of northwestern Germany (1807–1813).",
"Napoleon's son Napoléon François Charles Joseph (1811–1832) was created King of Rome (1811–1814) and was later styled Napoléon II by loyalists of the dynasty, though he only ruled for two weeks after his father's abdication.",
"Louis-Napoléon (1808–1873), son of Louis, was President of France in 1848–1852 and Emperor in 1852–1870, reigning as Napoleon III; his son, Napoléon, Prince Imperial (1856–1879) died fighting the Zulus in Natal, today the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal.",
"With his death, the family lost much of its remaining political appeal, though claimants continue to assert their right to the imperial title.",
"A political movement for Corsican independence surfaced in the 1990s which included a Bonapartist restoration in its programme.",
"\n===Emperors of the French===\n*Napoleon I (1804–1814, 1815), also King of Italy (1805–1814) and Emperor in Elba (1814–1815)\n*Napoleon II (1815), styled King of Rome from birth, but never reigned\n*Napoleon III (1852–1870)\n\n===Kings of Holland===\n*Louis I (1806–1810)\n*Louis II (1810), also Grand Duke of Berg (1809–1813)\n\n===King of Naples===\n*Joseph I (1806–1808)\n\n===King of Westphalia===\n*Jérôme I (1807–1813)\n\n===King of Spain===\n*Joseph I (1808–1813)\n\n===Grand Duchess of Tuscany===\n* Elisa Bonaparte (1809–1814)",
"*Napoléon III (1852–1873)\n*Napoléon IV Eugéne (1873–1879), (Son of Napoléon III)\n*Napoléon V Victor (1879–1926), (Grandson of Napoléon I's youngest brother, Jérôme Bonaparte)\n*Napoléon VI Louis (1926–1997), (Son of Napoléon V Victor)\nDisputed since 1997:\n*Napoléon VII Charles (1997 – present), (Son of Napoléon VI Louis)\n*Napoléon VII Jean-Christophe (1997 – present), (Grandson of Napoléon VI Louis)",
"\n'''Carlo'''-Maria (Ajaccio, 1746–Montpellier, 1785) married Maria Letizia Ramolino (Ajaccio, 1750–Rome, 1836) in 1764.",
"He was a minor official in the local courts.",
"They had eight children:\n\n#Joseph Bonaparte (Corte, 1768–Florence, 1844), King of Naples, then King of Spain, married Julie Clary, sister of Napoleon's childhood sweetheart, Désirée, who was to become the wife of General Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte (later Charles XIV, King of Sweden)\n#*Julie Joséphine Bonaparte (1796–1796)\n#*Zénaïde Laetitia Julie Bonaparte (1801–1854)\n#*Charlotte Napoléone Bonaparte (1802–1839)\n#Napoléon (I) Bonaparte (1769–1821) Emperor of the French\n#*Napoléon (II) François Joseph Charles Bonaparte (1811–1832), Prince Imperial, King of Rome, Prince of Parma, son of Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria (of the Habsburg dynasty), Empress consort, then Duchess of Parma\n# Lucien Bonaparte (1775–1840) Roman Prince of Canino and Musignano\n#*3 daughters with first wife, Christine Boyer:\n#**Charlotte Christine Bonaparte (1795–1865), married Prince Mario Gabrielli\n#**Victoire Gertrude Bonaparte (1797–1797)\n#**Christine Charlotte Alexandrine Egypta Bonaparte (1798–1847), married Count Arvid Posse, then married Lord Dudley Stuart\n#*10 children with second wife, Alexandrine de Bleschamp:\n#**'''Charles Lucien''' Jules Laurent Bonaparte (1803–1857), ornithologist and politician married Princess Zénaïde Bonaparte (1801–1854)\n#***'''Joseph Lucien''' Charles Napoléon Bonaparte (1824–1865)\n#***Alexandrine Gertrude Zénaïde Bonaparte (1826–1828)\n#***Lucien Louis Joseph Napoléon (Cardinal) Bonaparte (1828–1895)\n#***Julie Charlotte Pauline Zénaïde Laetitia Désirée Bartholomée Bonaparte (1830–1900)\n#***Charlotte Honorine Joséphine Pauline Bonaparte (1832–1901)\n#***Léonie Stéphanie Elise Bonaparte (1833–1839)\n#***Marie Désirée Eugénie Joséphine Philomène Bonaparte (1835–1890)\n#***Augusta Amélie Maximilienne Jacqueline Bonaparte (1836–1900)\n#***'''Napoléon Charles''' Grégoire Jacques Philippe Bonaparte (1839–1899)\n#****Zénaïde Victoire Eugénie Bonaparte (1860–1862)\n#****Marie Léonie Eugénie Mathilde Jeanne Julie Zénaïde Bonaparte (1870–1947)\n#****Eugénie Laetitia Barbe Caroline Lucienne Marie Jeanne Bonaparte (1872–1949)\n#***Bathilde Aloïse Léonie Bonaparte (1840–1861)\n#***Albertine Marie Thérèse Bonaparte (1842–1842)\n#***Charles Albert Edmond Bonaparte (1843–1847)\n#**Laetitia Christine Bonaparte (1804–1871)\n#**Joseph Lucien Bonaparte (1806–1807)\n#**Jeanne Adélaïde Bonaparte (1807–1829)\n#**Paul Marie Bonaparte (1808–1827)\n#**Louis Lucien Bonaparte (1813–1891)\n#**Pierre Napoléon Bonaparte (1815–1881)\n#***Roland Bonaparte (1858–1924) married Marie Blanc\n#****Princess Marie Bonaparte (1882–1962) married Prince George of Greece\n#***Princess Jeanne Bonaparte (1861–1910)\n#**Antoine Lucien Bonaparte (1816–1877)\n#**Alexandrine Marie Bonaparte (1818–1874)\n#**Constance Marie Bonaparte (1823–1876)\n# Maria-Anna '''Elisa''' Bonaparte (1777–1820), Grand-Duchess of Tuscany, married Félix Baciocchi Levoy, Prince of Lucca\n#* Marie-Laetitia Bonaparte Baciocchi Levoy\n#Louis Bonaparte (1778–1846), King of Holland, married Hortense de Beauharnais, Napoleon's stepdaughter\n#*Napoléon Charles Bonaparte (1802–1807)\n#*Napoléon Louis Bonaparte (1804–1831)\n#*Charles Louis Napoléon (III) Bonaparte (1808–1873) Emperor of the French, married Maria '''Eugenia''' Ignacia Augustina Palafox de Guzmán Portocarrero y Kirkpatrick\n#**Napoléon Eugène Louis John Joseph Bonaparte, Prince Imperial (1856–1879)\n#Maria Paola or Marie '''Pauline''' Bonaparte (1780–1825) Princess and Duchess of Guastalla, married in 1797 to French General Charles Leclerc and later married Camillo Borghese, 6th Prince of Sulmona.",
"# Maria Annunziata '''Caroline''' Bonaparte (1782–1839) married Joachim Murat, Marshal of France, Grand Duke of Berg, then King of Naples\n#*Prince Achille Murat (1801–1847), married Catherine Willis Gray (1803–1867), great-grandniece of George Washington.",
"#*Prince Napoléon '''Lucien''' Charles Murat (1803–1878), married Caroline Georgina Fraser (1810–1879).",
"#**5 Children, including:\n#** ''Joachim'' Joseph Napoléon Murat, 4th Prince Murat (1834–1901), Major-General of the French Army, married firstly Malcy Louise Caroline Berthier de Wagram (1832–1884) and had issue, and secondly Lydia Hervey, without issue.",
"#**Prince Louis Napoléon Murat (1851–1912), married in Odessa, Eudoxia Mikhailovna Somova (1850–1924), had issue now extinct in male line.",
"#Jérôme Bonaparte (1784–1860), King of Westphalia\n#*1 child from first marriage, to Betsy Patterson of Baltimore:\n#**Jérôme Napoléon Bonaparte (1805–1870), married Susan May Williams and had 2 sons :\n#***Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte II (1830–1893), married Caroline Le Roy Appleton Edgar\n#****Louise-Eugénie Bonaparte (1873–1923), married in 1896 Count Adam Carl von Moltke-Huitfeld (1864–1944)\n#****Jerome Napoléon Charles Bonaparte II (1878–1945), married Blanche Pierce Stenbeigh, no posterity\n#***'''Charles''' Joseph Bonaparte (1851–1921), U.S. Attorney General married Ellen Channing Day, no issue\n#*3 children from second marriage, to Princess Catharina of Württemberg:\n#**Jérôme Napoléon Charles Bonaparte I (1814–1847), unmarried and childless\n#**Mathilde Laetitia Wilhelmine Bonaparte (1820–1904), married Anatoly Nikolaievich Demidov, 1st Prince of San Donato: no posterity\n#**Napoléon Joseph Charles Paul Bonaparte, Prince Napoléon (1822–1891), called ''Plon-Plon'' married Princess Marie Clothilde of Savoy daughter of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy\n#***Napoléon '''Victor''' Jérôme Frédéric Bonaparte, Prince Napoléon (1862–1926) married Princess Clémentine of Belgium\n#****Marie Clotilde Eugénie Alberte Laetitia Geneviève Bonaparte (1912–1996) married Count Serge de Witt\n#****Louis Jérôme Victor Emmanuel Léopold Marie Bonaparte, Prince Napoléon (1914–1997), married Alix de Foresta\n#*****Charles Marie Jérôme Victor Bonaparte, Prince Napoléon (born 1950)\n#******Two children from first marriage, to Princess Béatrice of Bourbon-Two Sicilies of the Bourbon family:\n#*******Caroline Marie Constance Bonaparte (Princess Caroline Napoléon) (born 1980)\n#*******Jean-Christophe Louis Ferdinand Albéric Bonaparte, Prince Napoléon (born 1986)\n#******1 child and 1 adopted child from second marriage, to Jeanne-Françoise Valliccioni (born 1958):\n#*******Sophie Catherine Bonaparte (born 1992)\n#*******Anh Laëtitia Bonaparte (born 1998, adopted)\n#*****Catherine Elisabeth Albérique Marie Bonaparte (born 1950)\n#*****Laure Clémentine Geneviève Bonaparte (born 1952)\n#*****Jérôme Xavier Marie Joseph Victor Bonaparte (Prince Jérôme Napoléon) (born 1957), married in 2013 with Licia Innocenti \n#***Napoléon Louis Joseph Jérôme Bonaparte (1864–1932) Russian General, unmarried and childless\n#***'''Marie Laetitia''' Eugénie Catherine Adélaïde Bonaparte (1866–1926) married Prince Amedeo of Savoy, Duke of Aosta",
"The arms of the Bonaparte family were: ''Gules two bends sinister between two mullets or''.",
"In 1804 Napoleon I changed the arms to ''Azure an imperial eagle or''.",
"The change applied to all members of his family except for his brother Lucien and his nephew, the son from Jerome's first marriage.",
"File:Blason fam fr Bonaparte ornamented.svg|Arms of '''Charles-Maria Buonaparte'''.",
"File:Grandes Armes Impériales (1804-1815)2.svg|Arms of '''Napoleon I''' and '''Napoleon II''', as Emperor of the French.",
"File:Grand Coat of Arms of Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain2.svg|Arms of '''Joseph Bonaparte''', King of Spain.",
"File:Coat of Arms of Lucien Bonaparte, Roman Prince of Canino.svg|Arms of '''Lucien Bonaparte''', Prince of Canino and Musignano.",
"File:Coat of Arms of the Kingdom of Holland (1808).svg|Arms of '''Louis Bonaparte''', King of Holland.",
"File:Grandes Armes Jérôme Bonaparte (1784-1860) 2.svg|Arms of '''Jérôme Bonaparte''', King of Westphalia.",
"According to a studies by G.Lucotte and his coauthors based on DNA research since 2011, Napoleon Bonaparte belonged to Y-DNA (direct male ancestry) haplogroup E1b1b1c1* (E-M34*).",
"This haplogroup, rare in Europe, has its highest concentration in Ethiopia and in the Near East (Jordan, Yemen).",
"According to the authors of the study, \"Probably Napoléon also knew his remote oriental patrilineal origins, because Francesco Buonaparte (the Giovanni son), who was a mercenary under the orders of the Genoa Republic in Ajaccio in 1490, was nicknamed ''The Maure of Sarzane'' \" The latest study identifies the common Bonaparte DNA markers from Carlo (Charles) Bonaparte to 3 living descendants.",
"Lucotte et al.",
"published in October 2013 the extended Y-STR of Napoleon I based on descendant testing, and the descendants were E-M34, just like the emperor's beard hair tested a year before.",
"The persons tested were the patrilineal descendants of Jérome Bonaparte, one of Napoleon's brothers, and of Alexandre Colonna-Walewski, Napoleon's illegitimate son with Marie Walewska.",
"These three tests all yielded the same Y-STR haplotype (109 markers) confirming with 100% certainty that the first Emperor of the French belonged to the M34 branch of haplogroup E1b1b.",
"Jérôme Bonaparte, founder of the legitimate line\nThe headship of the family is in dispute between Charles, Prince Napoléon, born 1950, great-great-grandson of Jérôme Bonaparte by his second marriage; and his son Jean-Christophe, Prince Napoléon (born 1986) who was appointed heir in the will of his grandfather Louis, Prince Napoléon.",
"The only other male member of the family is Charles's recently married brother, Prince Jérôme Napoléon (born 1957).",
"There are no other legitimate descendants in the male line from Napoleon I or his brothers.",
"There are, however, numerous descendants of Napoleon's illegitimate, but recognized son Alexandre Colonna-Walewski from his union with Marie, Countess Walewski.",
"A descendant of Napoleon's sister Caroline Bonaparte is the actor René Auberjonois.",
"Recent DNA matches with living descendants of Jerome and Count Walewski have confirmed the existence of descendants of Lucien Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, namely the Clovis family.",
"* History of France\n* History of Spain\n* History of Italy\n* History of the Netherlands\n* Line of succession to the French throne (Napoleonic)\n* Napoleon (disambiguation)\n* Timeline of the Napoleonic era",
"* Paul Theroff, Bonaparte descendants (includes female-line and illegitimate descendants)\n* The coat of arms of the Tuscan branch of Bonaparte family in State Archives of Florence\n*"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Basel''' (also '''Basle''' or ; ; ; ) is a city in northwestern Switzerland on the river Rhine. Basel is Switzerland's third-most-populous city (after Zürich and Geneva) with about 175,000 inhabitants.\n\nLocated where the Swiss, French and German borders meet, Basel also has suburbs in France and Germany. In 2014, the Basel agglomeration was the third largest in Switzerland with a population of 537,100 in 74 municipalities in Switzerland and an additional 53 in neighboring countries (municipal count as of 2000). The official language of Basel is (the Swiss variety of Standard) German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect. \n\nThe city is known for its many internationally renowned museums, ranging from the Kunstmuseum, the first collection of art accessible to the public in Europe (1661) and the largest museum of art in the whole of Switzerland, to the Fondation Beyeler (located in Riehen). \nThe University of Basel, founded in 1460, Switzerland's oldest university and the city's centuries long commitment to humanism, have made Basel a ''safe haven'' during times of political unrest in other parts of Europe to the likes of Erasmus of Rotterdam, the Holbein family, and more recently also to Hermann Hesse and Karl Jaspers. \n\nBasel has been the seat of a Prince-Bishopric since the 11th century, and joined the Swiss Confederacy in 1501. \nThe city has been a commercial hub and important cultural centre since the Renaissance, and has emerged as a centre for the chemical and pharmaceutical industry in the 20th century. In 1897 the city was chosen as the location for the first World Zionist Congress by Theodor Herzl, and all together the congress has taken place in Basel for ten times over a time span of fifty years, more than in any other city in the world. The city is also home to the worldwide seat of the Bank for International Settlements. \n\nToday the city of Basel, together with Zürich and Geneva, is counted among the cities with the highest standards of living in the entire world.\n",
"\n\n=== Early history ===\nRoman foundation and medieval wall, at the site of Basel oppidum\nThere are settlement traces on the Rhine knee from the early La Tène period (5th century BC). In the 2nd century BC, there was a village of the Raurici at the site of ''Basel-Gasfabrik'', to the northwest of the Old City, likely identical with the town of ''Arialbinnum'' mentioned on the ''Tabula Peutingeriana''. The unfortified settlement was abandoned in the 1st century BC in favour of an oppidum on the site of Basel Minster, probably in reaction to the Roman invasion of Gaul.\n\nIn Roman Gaul, Augusta Raurica was established some 20 km from Basel as the regional administrative centre, while a castra (castle) was built on the site of the Celtic oppidum. The city of Basel eventually grew around the castle. In AD 83, Basel was incorporated into the Roman province of Germania Superior. Roman control over the area deteriorated in the 3rd century, and Basel became an outpost of the ''Provincia Maxima Sequanorum'' formed by Diocletian.\n\nThe Germanic confederation of the Alemanni attempted to cross the Rhine several times in the 4th century, but were repelled, one such event being the Battle of Solicinium (368). However, in the great invasion of AD 406, the Alemanni appear to have crossed the Rhine river a final time, conquering and then settling what is today Alsace and a large part of the Swiss Plateau. From this time, Basel has been an Alemannic settlement.\n\nThe Duchy of Alemannia fell under Frankish rule in the 6th century, and by the 7th century, the former bishopric of Augusta Raurica was re-established as the Bishopric of Basel. Based on the evidence of a third solidus with the inscription ''Basilia fit'', Basel seems to have minted its own coins in the 7th century. Under bishop Haito, the first cathedral was built on the site of the Roman castle, later replaced by a Romanesque structure consecrated in 1019. At the partition of the Carolingian Empire, Basel was first given to West Francia, but passed to East Francia with the treaty of Meerssen of 870.\n\nThe city was plundered and destroyed by a Magyar invasion of 917. The rebuilt city became part of Upper Burgundy, and as such was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire in 1032.\n\n===Prince-Bishopric of Basel===\n\nBasel Minster, built between 1019 and 1500\n\nSince the donation by Rudolph III of Burgundy of the Moutier-Grandval Abbey and all its possessions to Bishop Adalbero II in 999 till the Reformation, Basel was ruled by prince-bishops (see Bishop of Basel, whose memory is preserved in the crosier shown on the Basel coat-of-arms – see above).\n\nIn 1019, the construction of the cathedral of Basel (known locally as the ''Münster'') began under Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor.\nIn 1225–1226, the bridge over the Rhine was constructed by Bishop Heinrich von Thun and Lesser Basel (Kleinbasel) founded as a bridgehead to protect the bridge. The bridge was largely funded by Basel's Jewish community which had settled there a century earlier. For many centuries to come Basel possessed the only permanent bridge over the river \"between Lake Constance and the sea\".\n\nThe Bishop also allowed the furriers to establish a guild in 1226. Eventually about 15 guilds were established in the 13th century. They increased the town's, and hence the bishop's, reputation, influence, and income from the taxes and duties on goods in Basel's expanding market.\n\nIn 1347, the plague came to Europe but did not reach Basel until June 1349. The guilds, asserting that the Jews were responsible—several had been tortured and confessed—demanded they be executed, which the Council did in January 1349, except for a few who escaped to Alsace. During the Basel massacre, 600 Jews were murdered. They were shackled inside a wooden barn on an island in the Rhine, which was set afire. The few survivors - young orphans - were forcibly converted to Christianity. The council then forbade Jews in Basel for 200 years, except that their money was helpful in rebuilding after the Basel earthquake of 1356 which destroyed much of the city along with a number of castles in the vicinity. The city offered courts to nobles as an alternative to rebuilding their castles, in exchange for the nobles' military protection of the city.\n\n1493 woodcut of Basle, from the Nuremberg Chronicle\nIn 1412 (or earlier), the well-known guesthouse ''Zum Goldenen Sternen'' was established. Basel became the focal point of western Christendom during the 15th century Council of Basel (1431–1449), including the 1439 election of antipope Felix V. In 1459, Pope Pius II endowed the University of Basel where such notables as Erasmus of Rotterdam and Paracelsus later taught. At the same time the new craft of printing was introduced to Basel by apprentices of Johann Gutenberg.\n\nThe Schwabe publishing house was founded in 1488 by Johannes Petri and is the oldest publishing house still in business. Johann Froben also operated his printing house in Basel and was notable for publishing works by Erasmus. In 1495, Basel was incorporated in the Upper Rhenish Imperial Circle; the Bishop of Basel was added to the Bench of the Ecclesiastical Princes. In 1500 the construction of the Basel Münster was finished. In 1521 so was the bishop. The Council, under the supremacy of the guilds, explained that henceforth they would only give allegiance to the Swiss Confederation, to whom the bishop appealed but in vain.\n\n===As a member state in the Swiss Confederacy===\n\nMap of Basel in 1642, engraved by Matthäus Merian, oriented with SW at the top and NE at the bottom.\nThe city had remained neutral through the Swabian War of 1499 despite being plundered by soldiers on both sides. The Treaty of Basel ended the war and granted the Swiss confederates exemptions from the emperor Maximillian's taxes and jurisdictions, separating Switzerland de facto from the Holy Roman Empire.\n\nOn 9 June 1501, Basel joined the Swiss Confederation as its eleventh canton. It was the only canton that had been asked to join, not the other way round. Basel had a strategic location, good relations with Strasbourg and Mulhouse, and control of the corn imports from Alsace, whereas the Swiss lands were becoming overpopulated and had few resources. A provision of the Charter accepting Basel required that in conflicts among the other cantons it was to stay neutral and offer its services for mediation.\n\nIn 1503, the new bishop Christoph von Utenheim refused to give Basel a new constitution whereupon, to show its power, the city began the construction of a new city hall.\n\nIn 1529, the city became Protestant under Oecolampadius and the bishop's seat was moved to Porrentruy. The bishop's crook was however retained as the city's coat of arms. For the centuries to come, a handful of wealthy families collectively referred to as the \"Daig\" played a pivotal role in city affairs as they gradually established themselves as a ''de facto'' city aristocracy.\n\nThe first edition of ''Christianae religionis institutio'' (''Institutes of the Christian Religion'' – John Calvin's great exposition of Calvinist doctrine) was published at Basel in March 1536.\n\nIn 1544, Johann von Brugge, a rich Dutch Protestant refugee, was given citizenship and lived respectfully until his death in 1556 then buried with honors. His body was exhumed and burnt at the stake in 1559 after it was discovered that he was the Anabaptist David Joris.\n\nIn 1543, ''De humani corporis fabrica'', the first book on human anatomy, was published and printed in Basel by Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564).\n\nThere are indications Joachim Meyer, author of the influential 16th-century martial arts text ''Kunst des Fechten'' (\"The Art of Fencing\"), came from Basel. In 1662 the ''Amerbaschsches Kabinett'' was established in Basel as the first public museum of art. Its collection became the core of the later Basel Museum of Art.\n\nThe Bernoulli family, which included important 17th- and 18th-century mathematicians such as Jakob Bernoulli, Johann Bernoulli and Daniel Bernoulli, were from Basel. The 18th-century mathematician Leonhard Euler was born in Basel and studied under Johann Bernoulli.\n\n===Modern history===\nIn 1792, the Republic of Rauracia, a revolutionary French client republic, was created. It lasted until 1793. After three years of political agitation and a short civil war in 1833 the disadvantaged countryside seceded from the Canton of Basel, forming the half canton of Basel-Landschaft.\n\nOn 3 July 1874, Switzerland's first zoo (the Zoo Basel) opened its doors in the south of the city towards Binningen.\nSecond World Zionist Congress in Basel, 1898 (Stadtcasino)\nIn 1897 the first World Zionist Congress was held in Basel. Altogether the World Zionist Congress took place in Basel for ten times, more than in any other city in the world.\n\nOn 16 November 1938, the psychedelic drug LSD was first synthesized by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann at Sandoz Laboratories in Basel.\n\n===Basel as an historical, international meeting place===\nBasel has often been the site of peace negotiations and other international meetings. The Treaty of Basel (1499) ended the Swabian War. Two years later Basel joined the Swiss Confederation. The Peace of Basel in 1795 between the French Republic and Prussia and Spain ended the First Coalition against France during the French Revolutionary Wars. In more recent times, the World Zionist Organization held its first congress in Basel from August 29 through August 31, 1897. Because of the Balkan Wars, the Second International held an extraordinary congress at Basel in 1912. In 1989, the Basel Convention was opened for signature with the aim of preventing the export of hazardous waste from wealthy to developing nations for disposal.\n",
"\nThe name of Basel is derived from the Roman-era toponym ''Basilia'', first recorded in the 3rd century.\nIt is presumably derived from the personal Greek name Basilius. The Old French form ''Basle'' was adopted into English, and developed into the modern French ''Bâle''. The Icelandic name ''Buslaraborg'' goes back to the 12th century ''Leiðarvísir og borgarskipan'' chronicle.\n\n",
"\n===Topography===\nBasel (in the upper left corner) as seen from Bettingen (television tower St. Chrischona) facing France\nBasel has an area, , of . Of this area, or 4.0% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 3.7% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 86.4% is settled (buildings or roads), or 6.1% is either rivers or lakes.\n\nOf the built up area, industrial buildings made up 10.2% of the total area while housing and buildings made up 40.7% and transportation infrastructure made up 24.0%. Power and water infrastructure as well as other special developed areas made up 2.7% of the area while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 8.9%. Out of the forested land, all of the forested land area is covered with heavy forests. Of the agricultural land, 2.5% is used for growing crops and 1.3% is pastures. All the water in the municipality is flowing water.\n\n===Climate===\nUnder the Köppen climate classification, Basel features a continental climate. The city averages 120.4 days of rain or snow annually and on average receives of precipitation. The wettest month is May during which time Basel receives an average of of rain. The month with the most days of precipitation is also May, with an average of 12.4 days. The driest month of the year is February with an average of of precipitation over 8.4 days.\n\n\n",
"The city of Basel functions as the capital of the Swiss half-canton of Basel-Stadt, though several of its suburbs are located in the half-canton of Basel-Landschaft or the canton of Aargau. Others are even located in France and Germany.\n\n===Canton===\nThe canton Basel-Stadt consists of three municipalities: Riehen, Bettingen, and the city Basel itself. The political structure and agencies of the city and the canton are identical.\n\n===City===\n\n====Quarters====\nSchöneck (German, \"Beautiful Corner\") Fountain from 1770 (rebuilt) on St. Alban-Vorstadt\nThe city itself has 19 quarters:\n\n*''Grossbasel'' (Greater Basel):\n\n\n:1 Altstadt Grossbasel\n:2 Vorstädte\n:3 Am Ring\n:4 Breite\n:5 St. Alban\n:6 Gundeldingen\n:7 Bruderholz\n:8 Bachletten\n:9 Gotthelf\n:10 Iselin\n:11 St. Johann\n\n\n*''Kleinbasel'' (Lesser Basel):\n\n\n:12 Altstadt Kleinbasel\n:13 Clara\n:14 Wettstein\n:15 Hirzbrunnen\n:16 Rosental\n:17 Matthäus\n:18 Klybeck\n:19 Kleinhüningen\n\n\n===Coat of arms===\nThe blazon of the municipal coat of arms is ''In Silber ein schwarzer Baselstab.''\n\n===Government===\nThe canton's executive, the Executive Council ('''Regierungsrat'''), consists of seven members for a mandate period of 4 years. They are elected by any inhabitant valid to vote on the same day as the parliament and operates as a collegiate authority. The president () is elected as such by a public election while the heads of the other departments are assigned by the collegiate. Current president is Dr. Guy Morin. The executive body holds its meetings in the red Town Hall (''Rathaus'') on the central ''Marktplatz''. The building was built in 1504–1514.\n\n, Basel's Executive Council is made up of three representatives of the SP (Social Democratic Party), and one member each of Green Alliance of Basel (GB) (who is the president), FDP (Free Democratic Party), LDP (Liberal-Demokratische Partei of Basel), and CVP (Christian Democratic Party), giving the left parties a combined four out of seven seats. The last election was held on 23 October and 27 November 2016.\n\n\n+ The ''Regierungsrat'' of Basel for the mandate period 2017–2021\n Councilor (''Regierungsrat/ -rätin'') !! Party !! Head of Office (''Departement'', since) of !! \nelected since\n\n '''Elisabeth Ackermann''' \n GPS \n President's Office (''Präsidialdepartement (PD)'', 2017) \n 2016\n\n Dr. Eva Herzog \n SP \n Finance (''Finanzdepartement (FD)'', 2005) \n 2004\n\n Baschi Dürr \n FDP \n Justice and Security (''Justiz- und Sicherheitsdepartement (JSD)'', 2013) \n 2012\n\n Christoph Brutschin \n SP \n Economics, Social Services, and Environment (''Departement für Wirtschaft, Soziales und Umwelt (WSD)'', 2009) \n 2008\n\n Conradin Cramer \n LDP \n Education (''Erziehungsdepartement (ED)'', 2017) \n 2016\n\n Dr. Hans-Peter Wessels \n SP \n Construction and Transportation (''Bau- und Verkehrsdepartement (BVD)'', 2009) \n 2008\n\n Dr. Lukas Engelberger \n CVP \n Health (''Gesundheitsdepartement (GD)'', June 2014) \n June 2014\n\n\n\nBarbara Schüpbach-Guggenbühlis is State Chronicler (''Staatsschreiberin'') since 2009, and Marco Greiner is Head of Communication (''Regierungssprecher'') and Vice State Chronicler (''Vizestaatsschreiber'') since 2007 for the Executive Council.\n\n===Parliament===\n\nThe parliament, the Grand Council of Basel-Stadt ('''Grosser Rat'''), consists of 100 seats, with members (called in German: ''Grossrat/Grossrätin'') elected every 4 years. The sessions of the Grand Council are public. Unlike the member of the Executive Council, the members of the Grand Council are not politicians by profession, but they are paid a fee based on their attendance. Any resident of Basel allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the parliament. The legislative body holds its meetings in the red Town Hall (''Rathaus'').\n\nThe last election was held on 23 October 2016 for the mandate period (''Legislatur'') of 2017–2021. Currently, the Grand Council consist of 34 members of the Social Democratic Party (SP), 15 members of the Swiss People's Party (SVP), 14 ''Grünes Bündnis (GB)'' (a collaboration of the Green Party (GPS), its junior party, and Basels starke Alternative (BastA!)), 10 The Liberals (FDP) and its junior party, the representative of the ''Aktive Bettingen (AB)'' is associated to the parliamentary group (''Fraktion'') of the FDP, 14 Liberal-Demokratische Partei (LDP) and its junior party, 8 (7/1) Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP)/Evangelical People's Party (EVP), and 4 Green Liberal Party (GLP).\n\nThe left parties misses an absolute majority by two seats.\n\n===Federal elections===\n\n====National Council====\nOn 18 October 2015, in the federal election the most popular party was the Social Democratic Party (SP) which received two seats with 33.5% of the votes. The next three most popular parties were the FDP (21.4%), the SVP (17.6%), and the Green Party (GPS) (11.2%), each with one seat. In the federal election, a total of 57,304 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 50.4%.\n\n\n+ National Councilors (''Nationalrat/ -rätin'') of Basle-Town\n Councilor !! Party !! part of the National Council since \n no. of votes\n\n Beat Jans \n SP \n 2010 \n 23,149\n\n Silvia Schenker \n SP \n 2003 \n 20,779\n\n Sebastian Frehner \n SVP \n 2010 \n 11,404\n\n Christoph Eymann \n LDP \n 2015 (1991 – 2001) \n 11,216\n\n Sibel Arslan \n GPS \n 2015 \n 7,233\n\n\n====Council of States====\nOn 18 October 2015, in the federal election State Councilor () Anita Fetz, member of the Social Democratic Party (SP), was re-elected in the first round as single representative of the canton of Basel-Stadt in the national Council of States (German: ''Ständerat'') with an absolute majority of 35'842 votes. She has been a member of it since 2003.\n\n===International relations===\n\n====Twin towns and sister cities====\nBasel has two sister cities and a twinning among two states:\n\n* Shanghai, China, since 2007\n* US State Massachusetts, since 2002\n* Miami Beach, US, since 2011\n",
"\n===Population===\n\n'''Largest groups of foreign residents 2013'''\n\nNationality \n Amount \n % total(foreigners)\n\n\n\n 15,403 \n 7.9 (22.8)\n\n\n\n 8,112 \n 4.2 (12.0)\n\n\n\n 6,594 \n 3.4 (9.8)\n\n\n(incl. Monten. and Kosovo)\n 4,554 \n 2.3 (6.7)\n\n\n\n 3,365 \n 1.7 (5.0)\n\n\n\n 3,197 \n 1.6 (4.7)\n\n\n\n 2,252 \n 1.2 (3.3)\n\n\n\n 2,153 \n 1.1 (3.2)\n\n\n\n 1,817 \n 0.9 (2.7)\n\n\n\n 1,649 \n 0.8 (2.4)\n\n\n\n 1,443 \n 0.7 (2.1)\n\n\n\n 1,179 \n 0.6 (1.7)\n\n\n\nBasel has a population () of . , 35.5% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1999–2009 ) the population has changed at a rate of -0.3%. It has changed at a rate of 3.2% due to migration and at a rate of -3% due to births and deaths.\n\nOf the population in the municipality 58,560 or about 35.2% were born in Basel and lived there in 2000. There were 1,396 or 0.8% who were born in the same canton, while 44,874 or 26.9% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 53,774 or 32.3% were born outside of Switzerland.\n\nIn there were 898 live births to Swiss citizens and 621 births to non-Swiss citizens, and in same time span there were 1,732 deaths of Swiss citizens and 175 non-Swiss citizen deaths. Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens decreased by 834 while the foreign population increased by 446. There were 207 Swiss men and 271 Swiss women who emigrated from Switzerland. At the same time, there were 1756 non-Swiss men and 1655 non-Swiss women who immigrated from another country to Switzerland. The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was an increase of 278 and the non-Swiss population increased by 1138 people. This represents a population growth rate of 0.9%.\n\n, there were 70,502 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 70,517 married individuals, 12,435 widows or widowers and 13,104 individuals who are divorced.\n\n the average number of residents per living room was 0.59 which is about equal to the cantonal average of 0.58 per room. In this case, a room is defined as space of a housing unit of at least as normal bedrooms, dining rooms, living rooms, kitchens and habitable cellars and attics. About 10.5% of the total households were owner occupied, or in other words did not pay rent (though they may have a mortgage or a rent-to-own agreement).\n, there were 86,371 private households in the municipality, and an average of 1.8 persons per household. There were 44,469 households that consist of only one person and 2,842 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 88,646 households that answered this question, 50.2% were households made up of just one person and there were 451 adults who lived with their parents. Of the rest of the households, there are 20,472 married couples without children, 14,554 married couples with children There were 4,318 single parents with a child or children. There were 2,107 households that were made up of unrelated people and 2,275 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.\n\n there were 5,747 single family homes (or 30.8% of the total) out of a total of 18,631 inhabited buildings. There were 7,642 multi-family buildings (41.0%), along with 4,093 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (22.0%) and 1,149 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (6.2%). Of the single family homes 1090 were built before 1919, while 65 were built between 1990 and 2000. The greatest number of single family homes (3,474) were built between 1919 and 1945.\n\n there were 96,640 apartments in the municipality. The most common apartment size was 3 rooms of which there were 35,958. There were 11,957 single room apartments and 9,702 apartments with five or more rooms. Of these apartments, a total of 84,675 apartments (87.6% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 7,916 apartments (8.2%) were seasonally occupied and 4,049 apartments (4.2%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 2.6 new units per 1000 residents.\n\n the average price to rent an average apartment in Basel was 1118.60 Swiss francs (CHF) per month (US$890, £500, €720 approx. exchange rate from 2003). The average rate for a one-room apartment was 602.27 CHF (US$480, £270, €390), a two-room apartment was about 846.52 CHF (US$680, £380, €540), a three-room apartment was about 1054.14 CHF (US$840, £470, €670) and a six or more room apartment cost an average of 2185.24 CHF (US$1750, £980, €1400). The average apartment price in Basel was 100.2% of the national average of 1116 CHF. The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0.74%.\n\n====Historical population====\n\n\n===Language===\nMost of the population () speaks German (129,592 or 77.8%), with Italian being second most common (9,049 or 5.4%) and French being third (4,280 or 2.6%). There are 202 persons who speak Romansh.\n\n===Religion===\nThe main synagogue of Basel\nFrom the , 41,916 or 25.2% were Roman Catholic, while 39,180 or 23.5% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 4,567 members of an Orthodox church (or about 2.74% of the population), there were 459 individuals (or about 0.28% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 3,464 individuals (or about 2.08% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 12,368 individuals (or about 7.43% of the population) who were Islamic. There were 1,325 individuals (or about 0.80% of the population) who were Jewish, however only members of religious institutions are counted as such by the municipality, which makes the actual number of people of Jewish descent living in Basel considerably higher. There were 746 individuals who were Buddhist, 947 individuals who were Hindu and 485 individuals who belonged to another church. 52,321 (or about 31.41% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 8,780 individuals (or about 5.27% of the population) did not answer the question.\n",
"\n===Quarters===\nBasel is subdivided into 19 quarters (''Quartiere''). The municipalities of Riehen and Bettingen, outside the city limits of Basel, are included in the canton of Basel-Stadt as rural quarters (''Landquartiere'').\n\n\n\n Quartier\n Area\n Population March 2012\n Population Density people/km2\n\n Altstadt Grossbasel (historic city) \n 37.63 \n 2,044 \n \n\n Vorstädte (historical suburbs) \n 89.66 \n 4,638\n \n\n Am Ring \n 90.98 \n 10,512\n \n\n Breite \n68.39 \n 8,655\n \n\n St. Alban \n 294.46 \n 10,681\n\n\n Gundeldingen \n123.19 \n 18,621\n\n\n Bruderholz \n259.61 \n 9,006\n\n\n Bachletten \n151.39 \n 13,330\n\n\n Gotthelf \n46.62 \n 6,784\n\n\n Iselin \n109.82 \n 16,181\n\n\n St. Johann \n223.90 \n 18,560\n\n\n Altstadt Kleinbasel (historic city) \n 24.21 \n 2,276\n \n\n Clara \n 23.66 \n 4,043\n\n\n Wettstein \n 75.44 \n 5,386\n\n\n Hirzbrunnen \n 305.32 \n 8,676\n\n\n Rosental \n 64.33 \n 5,180\n\n\n Mattäus \n 59.14 \n 16,056\n\n\n Klybeck \n 91.19 \n 7,234\n\n\n Kleinhüningen \n 136.11 \n 2,772\n\n\n '''City of Basel''' \n '''2275.05''' \n \n\n\n Bettingen \n 222.69 \n \n\n\n Riehen \n 1086.10 \n \n\n\n'''Canton of Basel-Stadt''' \n '''3583.84''' \n \n\n\n\n===Transport===\nBasel's airport is set up for airfreight; heavy goods reach the city and the heart of continental Europe from the North Sea by ship along the Rhine. The main European routes for the highway and railway transport of freight cross in Basel. The outstanding location benefits logistics corporations, which operate globally from Basel. Trading firms are traditionally well represented in the Basel Region.\n\n====Port====\nThe Rhine in Basel\nBasel has Switzerland's only cargo port, through which goods pass along the navigable stretches of the Rhine and connect to ocean-going ships at the port of Rotterdam.\n\n====Air transport====\nEuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg is operated jointly by two countries, France and Switzerland, although the airport is located completely on French soil. The airport itself is split into two architecturally independent sectors, one half serving the French side and the other half serving the Swiss side; prior to Schengen there was an immigration inspection point at the middle of the airport so that people could \"emigrate\" to the other side of the airport.\n\n====Railways====\nBasel Bahnhof SBB, self-proclaimed \"world's first international railway station.\"\nBasel has long held an important place as a rail hub. Three railway stations — those of the German, French and Swiss networks — lie within the city (although the Swiss (Basel SBB) and French (Bâle SNCF) stations are actually in the same complex, separated by Customs and Immigration facilities). Basel Badischer Bahnhof is on the opposite side of the city. Basel's local rail services are supplied by the Basel Regional S-Bahn. The largest goods railway complex of the country is located just outside the city, spanning the municipalities of Muttenz and Pratteln. The new highspeed ICE railway line from Karlsruhe to Basel was completed in 2008 while phase I of the TGV Rhin-Rhône line, opened in December 2011, has reduced travel time from Basel to Paris to about 3 hours.\n\n====Roads====\nBasel is located on the A3 motorway.\n\nWithin the city limits, five bridges connect Greater and Lesser Basel (downstream):\n\n* Schwarzwaldbrücke (built 1972)\n* Wettsteinbrücke (current structure built 1998, original bridge built 1879)\n* Mittlere Rheinbrücke (current structure built 1905, original bridge built 1225 as the first bridge to cross the Rhine River)\n* Johanniterbrücke (built 1967)\n* Dreirosenbrücke (built 2004, original bridge built 1935)\n\n====Ferries====\nA somewhat anachronistic yet still widely used system of reaction ferry boats links the two shores. There are four ferries, each situated approximately midway between two bridges. Each is attached by a cable to a block that rides along another cable spanning the river at a height of 20 or 30 metres. To cross the river, the ferryman orients the boat around 45° from the current so that the current pushes the boat across the river. This form of transportation is therefore completely hydraulically driven, requiring no outside energy source.\n\nCable ferry across the Rhine in Basel\n\n====Public transport====\nBasel tram network\nBasel has an extensive public transportation network serving the city and connecting to surrounding suburbs, including a large tram network. The green-colored local trams and buses are operated by the Basler Verkehrs-Betriebe (BVB). The yellow-colored buses and trams are operated by the Baselland Transport (BLT), and connect areas in the nearby half-canton of Baselland to central Basel. The BVB also shares commuter bus lines in cooperation with transit authorities in the neighboring Alsace region in France and Baden region in Germany. The Basel Regional S-Bahn, the commuter rail network connecting to suburbs surrounding the city, is jointly operated by SBB, SNCF and DB.\n\n====Border crossings====\nBasel is located at the meeting point of France, Germany and Switzerland; because it is so near other countries and is beyond the Jura Mountains, many within the Swiss military reportedly believe that the city is indefensible during wartime. It has numerous road and rail crossings between Switzerland and the other two countries. With Switzerland joining the Schengen Area on 12 December 2008, immigration checks were no longer carried out at the crossings. However, Switzerland did not join the European Union Customs Union (though it did join the EU Single Market) and customs checks are still conducted at or near the crossings.\nBasel tram\n\n'''France-Switzerland''' (from east to west) \n*'''Road crossings''' (with French road name continuation)\n**Kohlenstrasse (Avenue de Bâle, Huningue). This crossing replaces the former crossing Hüningerstrasse further east.\n**Elsässerstrasse (Avenue de Bâle, Saint-Louis)\n**Autobahn A3 (A35 autoroute, Saint-Louis)\n**EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg – pedestrian walkway between the French and Swiss sections on Level 3 (departures) of airport.\n**Burgfelderstrasse (Rue du 1er Mars, Saint Louis)\n*'''Railway crossing'''\n**Basel SBB railway station\n\n'''Germany-Switzerland''' (clockwise, from north to south)\n*'''Road crossings''' (with German road name continuation)\n**Hiltalingerstrasse (Zollstraße, Weil am Rhein). Tram 8 goes along this road to Weil am Rhein. The extension opened in 2014; it used to end before the border.\n**Autobahn A2 (Autobahn A5, Weil am Rhein)\n**Freiburgerstrasse (Baslerstraße, Weil am Rhein)\n**Weilstrasse, Riehen (Haupstraße, Weil am Rhein)\n**Lörracherstrasse, Riehen (Baslerstraße, Stetten, Lörrach)\n**Inzlingerstrasse, Riehen (Riehenstraße, Inzlingen)\n**Grenzacherstrasse (Hörnle, Grenzach-Wyhlen)\n*'''Railway crossing'''\n**Between Basel SBB and Basel Badischer Bahnhof – Basel Badischer Bahnhof, and all other railway property and stations on the right bank of the Rhine belong to DB and are classed as German customs territory. Immigration and customs checks are conducted at the platform exit tunnel for passengers leaving trains here.\n\nAdditionally there are many footpaths and cycle tracks crossing the border between Basel and Germany.\n\n===Health===\nUniversity Children's hospital Basel\nAs the biggest town in the Northwest of Switzerland numerous public and private health centres are located in Basel. Among others the Universitätsspital Basel as well as the Universitätskinderspital Basel. The anthroposophical health institute Klinik-Arlesheim (formerly known as Lukas-Klinik and Ita-Wegman-Klinik) are both located in the Basel area as well. Private health centres include the Bethesda Spital and the Merian Iselin Klinik. Additionally the Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute is located in Basel too. \n\n===Energy===\nBasel is at the forefront of a national vision to more than halve energy use in Switzerland by 2050. In order to research, develop and commercialise the technologies and techniques required for the country to become a '2000 Watt society', a number of projects have been set up since 2001 in the Basel metropolitan area. These including demonstration buildings constructed to ''MINERGIE'' or ''Passivhaus'' standards, electricity generation from renewable energy sources, and vehicles using natural gas, hydrogen and biogas.\n\nA hot dry rock geothermal energy project was cancelled in 2009 since it caused induced seismicity in Basel.\n",
"Novartis Campus Basel\nThe city of Basel, located in the heart of the tri-border region (called ''Dreiländereck'') is one of the most dynamic economic regions of Switzerland.\n\n, Basel had an unemployment rate of 3.7%. , there were 18 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 9 businesses involved in this sector. 34,645 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 1,176 businesses in this sector. 120,130 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 8,908 businesses in this sector. There were 82,449 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 46.2% of the workforce.\n\n the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 130,988. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 13, of which 10 were in agriculture and 4 were in forestry or lumber production. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 33,171 of which 24,848 or (74.9%) were in manufacturing, 10 were in mining and 7,313 (22.0%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 97,804. In the tertiary sector; 12,880 or 13.2% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 11,959 or 12.2% were in the movement and storage of goods, 6,120 or 6.3% were in a hotel or restaurant, 4,186 or 4.3% were in the information industry, 10,752 or 11.0% were the insurance or financial industry, 13,695 or 14.0% were technical professionals or scientists, 6,983 or 7.1% were in education and 16,060 or 16.4% were in health care.\n\n, there were 121,842 workers who commuted into the municipality and 19,263 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 6.3 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving. About 23.9% of the workforce coming into Basel are coming from outside Switzerland, while 1.0% of the locals commute out of Switzerland for work. Of the working population, 49.2% used public transportation to get to work, and 18.7% used a private car.\nRoche Tower Basel (highest building in Switzerland)\n\nThe Roche Tower, designed by Herzog & de Meuron is 41 floors and high, upon its opening in 2015 it has become the tallest building in Switzerland. Basel has also Switzerland's third tallest building (Basler Messeturm, ) and Switzerland's tallest tower (St. Chrischona TV tower, .\n\n===Chemical industry===\nThe Swiss chemical industry operates largely from Basel, and Basel also has a large pharmaceutical industry. Novartis, Syngenta, Ciba Specialty Chemicals, Clariant, Hoffmann-La Roche, Basilea Pharmaceutica and Actelion are headquartered there. Pharmaceuticals and specialty chemicals have become the modern focus of the city's industrial production.\n\n===Banking===\nBanking is extremely important to Basel:\n* UBS AG maintains central offices in Basel,\n* The Bank for International Settlements is located within the city and is the central banker's bank. The bank is controlled by a board of directors, which is composed of the elite central bankers of 11 different countries (US, UK, Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Sweden).\n:According to the BIS, \"The choice of Switzerland for the seat of the BIS was a compromise by those countries that established the BIS: Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States. When consensus could not be reached on locating the Bank in London, Brussels or Amsterdam, the choice fell on Switzerland. An independent, neutral country, Switzerland offered the BIS less exposure to undue influence from any of the major powers. Within Switzerland, Basel was chosen largely because of its location, with excellent railway connections in all directions, especially important at a time when most international travel was by train.\"\n:Created in May 1930, the BIS is owned by its member central banks, which are private entities. No agent of the Swiss public authorities may enter the premises without the express consent of the bank. The bank exercises supervision and police power over its premises. The bank enjoys immunity from criminal and administrative jurisdiction, as well as setting recommendations which become standard for the world's commercial banking system.\n* Basel is also the location of the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, which is distinct from the BIS. It usually meets at the BIS premises in Basel. Responsible for the Basel Accords (''Basel I'', ''Basel II'' and ''Basel III''), this organization fundamentally changed Risk Management within its industry.\n* Basel also hosts the headquarters of the Global Infrastructure Basel Foundation, which is active in the field of sustainable infrastructure (financing).\n\n===Air===\nSwiss International Air Lines, the national airline of Switzerland, is headquartered on the grounds of EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg in Saint-Louis, Haut-Rhin, France, near Basel. Prior to the formation of Swiss International Air Lines, the regional airline Crossair was headquartered near Basel.\nArt Basel (2009)\n\n===Media===\n''Basler Zeitung'' (\"BaZ\"), ''TagesWoche'' and ''bz Basel'' are the local newspapers. The local TV Station is called ''telebasel''. The German-speaking Swiss Radio and Television SRF company, part of the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation SRG SSR, holds offices in Basel as well.\n\n===Trade fairs===\nAn annual Federal Swiss trade fair (Mustermesse) takes place in Kleinbasel on the right bank of the Rhine since 1917. Other important trade shows include \"Baselworld\" (watches and jewelry), Art Basel in Basel, Swissbau and Igeho.\n",
"Besides Humanism the city of Basel has also always been very famous for its achievement in the field of mathematics. Among others the mathematician Leonhard Euler and the Bernoulli family have done research and been teaching at the local institutions for centuries. In 1910 the Swiss Mathematical Society was founded in the city and in the mid-twentieth century the Russian mathematician Alexander Ostrowski taught at the local university. \nIn 2000 about 57,864 or (34.7%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 27,603 or (16.6%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a ''Fachhochschule''). Of the 27,603 who completed tertiary schooling, 44.4% were Swiss men, 31.1% were Swiss women, 13.9% were non-Swiss men and 10.6% were non-Swiss women.\n\nIn 2010 11,912 students attended the University of Basel (55% female). 25% were foreign nationals, 16% were from canton of Basel-Stadt. In 2006 6162 students studied at one of the nine academies of the FHNW (51% female).\n\n, there were 5,820 students in Basel who came from another municipality, while 1,116 residents attended schools outside the municipality.\n\n===Universities===\nInauguration ceremony of the University of Basel, 1460\nBasel hosts Switzerland's oldest university, the University of Basel, dating from 1460. Erasmus, Paracelsus, Daniel Bernoulli, Leonhard Euler, Jacob Burckhardt, Friedrich Nietzsche, Tadeusz Reichstein, Karl Jaspers, Carl Gustav Jung and Karl Barth worked here. The University of Basel is currently counted among the 90 best educational institutions worldwide.\n\nIn 2007, the ETH (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zürich) established the Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering (D-BSSE) in Basel. The creation of the D-BSSE was driven by a Swiss-wide research initiative SystemsX, and was jointly supported by funding from the ETH Zürich, the Swiss Government, the Swiss University Conference (SUC) and private industry.\n\nBasel also hosts several academies of the ''Fachhochschule Nordwestschweiz|Fachhochschule NW (FHNW)'': the FHNW Academy of Art and Design, FHNW Academy of Music, and the FHNW School of Business.\n\nBasel is renowned for various scientific societies, such as the Entomological Society of Basel (Entomologische Gesellschaft Basel, EGB), which celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2005.\n\n===Volksschule===\nIn 2005 16,939 pupils and students visited the ''Volksschule'' (the obligatory school time, including ''Kindergarten'' (127), primary schools (''Primarschule'', 25), and lower secondary schools (''Sekundarschule'', 10), of which 94% visited public schools and 39.5% were foreign nationals. In 2010 already 51.1% of all pupils spoke another language than German as their first language. In 2009 3.1% of the pupils visited special classes for pupils with particular needs. The average amount of study in primary school in Basel is 816 teaching hours per year.\n\n===Upper secondary school===\nIn 2010 65% of the youth finished their upper secondary education with a vocational training and education, 18% finished their upper secondary education with a Federal Matura at one of the five gymnasiums, 5% completed a ''Fachmaturität'' at the ''FMS'', 5% completed a ''Berufsmaturität'' synchronosly to their vocational training, and 7% other kind of upper secondary maturity. 14.1% of all students at public gymnasiums were foreign nationals. The Maturity quota in 2010 was on a record high at 28.8% (32.8 female, 24.9% male).\nThe Gymnasium Leonhard\n\nBasel has five public gymnasiums ('''', '''', '''', '''', ''''), each with its own profiles (different focus on major subjects, such as visual design, biology and chemistry, Italian, Spanish, or Latin languages, music, physics and applied mathematics, philosophy/education/psychology, and economics and law) that entitles students with a successful Matura graduation to attend universities. And one ''Fachmaturitätsschule'', the ''FMS'', with six different major subjects (health/natural sciences, education, social work, design/art, music/theatre/dance, and communication/media) that entitles students with a successful Fachmatura graduation to attend ''Fachhochschulen''. Four different ''höhere Fachschulen'' (higher vocational schools such as ''Bildungszentrum Gesundheit Basel-Stadt'' (health), ''Allgemeine Gewerbeschule Basel'' (trade), ''Berufsfachschule Basel'', ''Schule für Gestaltung Basel'' (design)) allows vocational students to improve their knowledge and know-how.\n\n===International schools===\nAs a city with a percentage of foreigners of more than thirty-five percent and as one of the most important centres in the chemical and pharmaceutical field in the world, Basel counts several International Schools including: ''Academia International School'', ''École Française de Bâle'', ''Freies Gymnasium Basel'' (private), ''Gymnasium am Münsterplatz'' (public), ''Schweizerisch-italienische Primarschule Sandro Pertini'', and ''Swiss International School (Basel)''.\n\n===Libraries===\nBasel is home to at least 65 libraries. Some of the largest include; the Universitätsbibliothek Basel (main university library), the special libraries of the University of Basel, the ''Allgemein Bibliotheken der Gesellschaft für Gutes und Gemeinnütziges (GGG) Basel'', the Library of the ''Pädagogische Hochschule'', the Library of the ''Hochschule für Soziale Arbeit'' and the Library of the ''Hochschule für Wirtschaft''. There was a combined total () of 8,443,643 books or other media in the libraries, and in the same year a total of 1,722,802 items were loaned out.\n",
"\n===Main sights===\nThe red sandstone Münster, one of the foremost late-Romanesque/early Gothic buildings in the Upper Rhine, was badly damaged in the great earthquake of 1356, rebuilt in the 14th and 15th century, extensively reconstructed in the mid-19th century and further restored in the late 20th century. A memorial to Erasmus lies inside the Münster. The City Hall from the 16th century is located on the Market Square and is decorated with fine murals on the outer walls and on the walls of the inner court.\nTinguely's Carnival Fountain (''Fasnachtsbrunnen'')\n\nBasel is also host to an array of buildings by internationally renowned architects. These include the Beyeler Foundation by Renzo Piano, or the Vitra complex in nearby Weil am Rhein, composed of buildings by architects such as Zaha Hadid (fire station), Frank Gehry (Design Museum), Álvaro Siza Vieira (factory building) and Tadao Ando (conference centre). Basel also features buildings by Mario Botta (Jean Tinguely Museum and Bank of International settlements) and Herzog & de Meuron (whose architectural practice is in Basel, and who are best known as the architects of Tate Modern in London and the Bird's Nest in Beijing, the Olympia stadium, which was designed for use throughout the 2008 Summer Olympics and Paralympics). The city received the Wakker Prize in 1996.\n\n====Heritage sites====\nBasel features a great number of heritage sites of national significance.\n\nThese include the entire Old Town of Basel as well as the following buildings and collections: \nElisabethenkirche (inside)\n\n;Churches and monasteries :Old Catholic ''Prediger Kirche'' (church), ''Bischofshof'' with Collegiate church at Rittergasse 1, ''Domhof'' at Münsterplatz 10–12, former Carthusian House of St Margarethental, Catholic Church of St Antonius, ''Lohnhof'' (former Augustinians Collegiate Church), Mission 21, Archive of the ''Evangelisches Missionswerk Basel'', Münster of Basle (cathedral), Reformed ''Elisabethenkirche'' (church), Reformed ''Johanneskirche'' (church), Reformed ''Leonhardskirche'' (church, former Augustinians Abbey), Reformed ''Martinskirche'' (church), Reformed ''Pauluskirche'' (church), Reformed ''Peterskirche'' (church), Reformed ''St. Albankirche'' (church) with cloister and cemetery, Reformed ''Theodorskirche'' (church), Synagoge at Eulerstrasse 2\n''Wildt'sches Haus'', Petersplatz\n\n;Secular buildings:''Badischer Bahnhof'' (Geman Baden's railway station) with fountain, Bank for International Settlements, ''Blaues Haus (Reichensteinerhof)'' at Rheinsprung 16, ''Bruderholzschule'' (school house) at Fritz-Hauser-Strasse 20, ''Brunschwiler Haus'' at Hebelstrasse 15, ''Bahnhof Basel SBB'' (Swiss railway station), ''Bürgerspital'' (hospital), ''Café Spitz (Merianflügel)'', ''Coop Schweiz'' company's central archive, Depot of the ''Archäologischen Bodenforschung des Kanton Basel-Stadt'', former Gallizian Paper Mill and Swiss Museum of Paper, former ''Klingental-Kaserne'' (casern) with ''Klingentaler Kirche'' (church), ''Fasnachtsbrunnen'' (fountain), ''Feuerschützenhaus'' (guild house of the riflemen) at Schützenmattstrasse 56, ''Fischmarktbrunnen'' (fountain), ''Geltenzunft'' at Marktplatz 13, ''Gymnasium am Kohlenberg (St Leonhard)'' (school), ''Hauptpost'' (main post office), ''Haus zum Raben'' at Aeschenvorstadt 15, ''Hohenfirstenhof'' at Rittergasse 19, ''Holsteinerhof'' at Hebelstrasse 30, Markgräflerhof a former palace of the margraves of Baden-Durlach,''Mittlere Rhein Brücke'' (Central Rhine Bridge), ''Stadtcasino'' (music hall) at Steinenberg 14, ''Ramsteinerhof'' at Rittergasse 7 and 9, Rathaus (town hall), ''Rundhof'' building of the ''Schweizerischen Mustermesse'', ''Safranzunft'' at Gerbergasse 11, ''Sandgrube'' at Riehenstrasse 154, ''Schlösschen'' (Manor house) Gundeldingen, ''Schönes Haus'' and ''Schöner Hof'' at Nadelberg 6, ''Wasgenring'' school house, ''Seidenhof'' with painting of Rudolf von Habsburg, ''Spalenhof'' at Spalenberg 12, ''Spiesshof'' at Heuberg 7, city walls, Townhouse (former post office) at Stadthausgasse 13 / Totengässlein 6, ''Weisses Haus'' at Martinsgasse 3, ''Wildt'sches Haus'' at Petersplatz 13, ''Haus zum Neuen Singer'' at Speiserstrasse 98, ''Wolfgottesacker'' at Münchensteinerstrasse 99, ''Zerkindenhof'' at Nadelberg 10.\n\n;Archaeological sites: The Celtic Settlement at ''Gasfabrik'', ''Münsterhügel'' and ''Altstadt'' (historical city, late La Tène and medieval settlement).\n\n;Museums, archives and collections: Basel calls itself the ''Cultural Capital of Switzerland''.\n\nAmong others, there is the Anatomical Museum of the University Basel, Berri-Villen and Museum of Ancient Art Basel and Ludwig Collection, Former Franciscan ''Barefoot'' Order Church and Basel Historical Museum, Company Archive of Novartis, ''Haus zum Kirschgarten'' which is part of the Basel Historical Museum, \nHistoric Archive Roche and Industrial Complex Hoffmann-La Roche, \nJewish Museum of Switzerland, Caricature & Cartoon Museum Basel, Karl Barth-Archive, ''Kleines Klingental'' (Lower Klingen Valley) with Museum Klingental, \nArt Museum of Basel, hosting the world's oldest art collection accessible to the public, \nNatural History Museum of Basel and the Museum of Cultures Basel, Museum of Modern Art Basel with the E. Hoffmann collection, Museum Jean Tinguely Basel, Music Museum, Pharmacy Historical Museum of the University of Basel, Poster Collection of the School for Design (''Schule für Gestaltung''), Swiss Business Archives, Sculpture Hall, Sports Museum of Switzerland, Archives of the Canton of Basel-Stadt, UBS AG Corporate Archives, University Library with manuscripts and music collection, Zoological Garden (''Zoologischer Garten'').\nThe Academy of Music of Basel - (Vorderer Rosengarten)\n\n===Theatre and music===\nBasel is the home of the Schola Cantorum Basiliensis, founded in 1933, a worldwide centre for research on and performance of music from the Medieval through the Baroque eras. Theater Basel, chosen in 1999 as the best stage for German-language performances and in 2009 and 2010 as \"Opera of the Year\" by German Opera Magazine \"Opernwelt\", presents a busy schedule of plays in addition to being home to the city's opera and ballet companies. Basel is home to the largest orchestra in Switzerland, the Sinfonieorchester Basel. It is also the home of the Kammerorchester Basel, which is recording the complete symphonies of Ludwig van Beethoven for the Sony label led by its music director Giovanni Antonini. The Schola Cantorum and the Basler Kammerorchester were both founded by the conductor Paul Sacher who went on to commission works by many leading composers. The Paul Sacher Foundation, opened in 1986, houses a major collection of manuscripts, including the entire Igor Stravinsky archive.\nThe baroque orchestras La Cetra and Capriccio Basel are also based in Basel. In May 2004, the fifth European Festival of Youth Choirs (Europäisches Jugendchorfestival, or EJCF) choir festival opened: this Basel tradition started in 1992. Host of this festival is the local Basel Boys Choir.\n\nIn 1997, Basel contended to become the \"European Capital of Culture\", though the honor went instead to Thessaloniki.\n\n===Museums===\nThe Basel museums cover a broad and diverse spectrum of collections with a marked concentration in the fine arts. They house numerous holdings of international significance. The over three dozen institutions yield an extraordinarily high density of museums compared to other cities of similar size and draw over one million visitors annually.\n\nConstituting an essential component of Basel culture and cultural policy, the museums are the result of closely interwoven private and public collecting activities and promotion of arts and culture going back to the 16th century. The public museum collection was first created back in 1661 and represents the oldest public collection in continuous existence. Since the late 1980s, various private collections have been made accessible to the public in new purpose-built structures that have been recognized as acclaimed examples of avant-garde museum architecture.\nThe Beyeler Foundation by Renzo Piano, located in Riehen\n\n*Antikenmuseum Basel und Sammlung Ludwig Ancient cultures of the mediterranean museum\n*Augusta Raurica Roman open-air museum\n*Basel Paper Mill ()\n*Beyeler Foundation (Foundation Beyeler) Beyeler Museum (Fondation Beyeler)\n*Botanical Garden Basel One of the oldest botanical gardens in the world\n*Caricature & Cartoon Museum Basel ()\n*Dollhouse Museum () a museum houring the largest teddy bear collection in Europe.\n*Foundation Fernet Branca () in Saint-Louis, Haut-Rhin near Basel. Modern art collection.\n*Historical Museum Basel ()\n*Kunsthalle Basel Modern and contemporary art museum\n*Kunstmuseum Basel Upper Rhenish and Flemish paintings, drawings from 1400 to 1600 and 19th- to 21st-century art\n*Monteverdi Automuseum\n*Museum of Cultures Basel () Large collections on European and non-Europeancultural life\n*Museum of Contemporary Art Art from the 1960s up to the present\n*Music Museum () of the Basel Historic Museum\n*Natural History Museum of Basel ()\n*Pharmazie-Historisches Museum der Universität Basel\n*Schaulager Modern and contemporary art museum\n*Swiss Architecture Museum ()\n*Tinguely Museum Life and work of the major Swiss iron sculptor Jean Tinguely\n*Vitra Design Museum Museum in Weil am Rhein near Basel\n*Jewish Museum of Switzerland\n\n===Events===\nThe city of Basel is a centre for numerous fairs and events all year round. One of the most important fairs for contemporary art worldwide is the Art Basel which was founded in 1970 by Ernst Beyeler and takes place in June each year. Baselworld, the watch and jewellery show (''Uhren- und Schmuckmesse'') one of the biggest fairs of its kind in Europe is held every year as well, and attracts a great number of tourists and dealers to the city. The carnival of the city of Basel (''Basler Fasnacht'') is a major cultural event in the year. The carnival is the biggest in Switzerland and attracts large crowds every year, despite the fact that it starts at exactly four in the morning (''Morgestraich'') on a winter Monday. The Fasnacht asserts Basel's Protestant history by commencing the revelry five days after Ash Wednesday and continuing day and night for exactly 72 hours. Almost all study and work in the old city cease. Dozens of fife and drum clubs parade in medieval guild tradition with fantastical masks and illuminated lanterns.\n\n===Cuisine===\nThere are a number of culinary specialties originating in Basel, including ''Basler Läckerli'' cookies and ''Mässmogge'' candies. Being located in the meeting place between Switzerland, France and Germany the culinary landscape as a whole is very varied and diverse, making it a city with a great number of restaurants of all sorts.\n\n===Zoo===\nThe Antelope House at Zoo Basel\n''Zoo Basel'' is, with over 1.7 million visitors per year, the most visited tourist attraction in Basel and the second most visited tourist attraction in Switzerland.\n\nEstablished in 1874, Zoo Basel is the oldest zoo in Switzerland and, by number of animals, the largest. Through its history, Zoo Basel has had several breeding successes, such as the first worldwide Indian rhinoceros birth and Greater flamingo hatch in a zoo. These and other achievements led Forbes Travel to rank Zoo Basel as one of the fifteen best zoos in the world in 2008.\n\nDespite its international fame, Basel's population remains attached to Zoo Basel, which is entirely surrounded by the city of Basel. Evidence of this is the millions of donations money each year, as well as Zoo Basel's unofficial name: locals lovingly call \"their\" zoo \"''Zolli''\" by which is it known throughout Basel and most of Switzerland.\n\n===Sport===\nBasel has a reputation in Switzerland as a successful sporting city. The football club FC Basel continues to be successful and in recognition of this the city was one of the Swiss venues for the 2008 European Championships, as well as Geneva, Zürich and Bern. The championships were jointly hosted by Switzerland and Austria. BSC Old Boys and Concordia Basel are the other football teams in Basel.\n\nAmong the most popular sports in Switzerland is Ice hockey. Basel is home to the EHC Basel which plays in the MySports League, the third tier of the Swiss ice hockey league system. They play their home games in the 6,700-seat St. Jakob Arena. The team previously played in the National League and the Swiss League, but they had to fill a bankruptcy case after the 2013-14 Swiss League season.\n\nBasel features a large football stadium that has been awarded four stars by UEFA, a modern ice hockey hall, and an admitted sports hall.\n\nA large indoor tennis event takes place in Basel every October. Some of the best ATP-Professionals play every year at the Swiss Indoors, including Switzerland's biggest sporting hero and frequent participant Roger Federer, a Basel native who describes the city as \"one of the most beautiful cities in the world\".\n\nThe annual Basel Rhine Swim draws several thousand visitors to the city to swim in or float on the Rhine river.\n\nWhile football and ice hockey are by far the most popular sports, basketball has a very small but faithful fan base. The top division, called NLA, is a semi-professional league and has one team from the Basel region, the \"Birstal Starwings\".\nTwo players from Switzerland are currently active in the NBA, Thabo Sefolosha and Clint Capela. \nAs in most European countries, and contrary to the U.S., Switzerland has a club-based rather than a school-based competition system. The Starwings Basel are the only first division basketball team in German-speaking Switzerland.\n\n===Picture gallery===\n\nFile:Museum der Kulturen 2008-03-30.jpg|Museum of Cultures\nFile:Mittlere Brücke.jpg|''Mittlere Rheinbrücke'' (Central Rhine Bridge)\nFile:Basler Kunstmuseum.jpg|''Kunstmuseum Basel'' (Art Museum Basel)\nFile:Haus zum Kirschgarten 2008-03-30.jpg|''Haus zum Kirschgarten''\nFile:Basel Barfüsserkirche Inneres 11-05-2008.jpg| Former Franciscan ''Barefoot'' Order Church\nFile:Antikenmuseum Basel 2008-03-30.jpg|Berri-Villen and Antikenmuseum Basel\nFile:Basel - Bank für internationalen Zahlungsausgleich3.jpg|Bank for International Settlements\nFile:Basel, straatzicht Steinenberg-Sankt Alban Graben foto3 2013-07-27 09.48.jpg|Steinenberg-Sankt Alban Graben\nFile:Basel, straatzicht Barfüssenplatz foto4 2013-07-27 10.01.jpg|Barfüsserplatz\nFile:Basler - Basler Münster Westfassade.jpg|Basler Münster\nFile:Munsterplatz, Basel, Switzerland.jpg|Münsterplatz\nFile:Rathaus-004.jpg|Rathaus, Basel's Town Hall\nFile:Basel, Wettsteinbrücke met kathedraal op de achtergrond foto10 2013-07-21 09.08.jpg|Wettsteinbrücke\n\n\n\n",
"\n===Notes===\n\n\n===References===\n\n\n===Bibliography===\n:''See also: Bibliography of the history of Basel''\n\n*\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n",
"\n\n\n* Official Website\n* Official tourism site\n* Basel Cityguide\n* Rhine Online: an English language guide to Basel, the Alsace and Baden Wuerrtemberg\n* EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg, Basel-Mulhouse Airport\n* Overview of museums in Basel or basel museums\n* Portrait of Basel's tramways\n* Basel Tourism & Hotels\n* Interview with Theodora Vischer, director of the Schaulager in Basel, Switzerland\n* Website for expats moving to or living in Basel\n* Website of the regional television of Basel - Enjoy daily news and stories about Baselcity, Baselland and the green Fricktal and Laufental, together with its citizens\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Name",
"Geography and climate",
"Politics",
"Demographics",
"Infrastructure",
"Economy",
"Education",
"Culture",
"Notes and references",
"External links"
] | Basel | [
"The city is also home to the worldwide seat of the Bank for International Settlements.",
"**Autobahn A2 (Autobahn A5, Weil am Rhein)\n**Freiburgerstrasse (Baslerstraße, Weil am Rhein)\n**Weilstrasse, Riehen (Haupstraße, Weil am Rhein)\n**Lörracherstrasse, Riehen (Baslerstraße, Stetten, Lörrach)\n**Inzlingerstrasse, Riehen (Riehenstraße, Inzlingen)\n**Grenzacherstrasse (Hörnle, Grenzach-Wyhlen)\n*'''Railway crossing'''\n**Between Basel SBB and Basel Badischer Bahnhof – Basel Badischer Bahnhof, and all other railway property and stations on the right bank of the Rhine belong to DB and are classed as German customs territory.",
"===Banking===\nBanking is extremely important to Basel:\n* UBS AG maintains central offices in Basel,\n* The Bank for International Settlements is located within the city and is the central banker's bank.",
"The bank is controlled by a board of directors, which is composed of the elite central bankers of 11 different countries (US, UK, Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Sweden).",
"When consensus could not be reached on locating the Bank in London, Brussels or Amsterdam, the choice fell on Switzerland.",
"No agent of the Swiss public authorities may enter the premises without the express consent of the bank.",
"The bank exercises supervision and police power over its premises.",
"The bank enjoys immunity from criminal and administrative jurisdiction, as well as setting recommendations which become standard for the world's commercial banking system.",
"===Trade fairs===\nAn annual Federal Swiss trade fair (Mustermesse) takes place in Kleinbasel on the right bank of the Rhine since 1917.",
"Basel also features buildings by Mario Botta (Jean Tinguely Museum and Bank of International settlements) and Herzog & de Meuron (whose architectural practice is in Basel, and who are best known as the architects of Tate Modern in London and the Bird's Nest in Beijing, the Olympia stadium, which was designed for use throughout the 2008 Summer Olympics and Paralympics).",
"Albankirche'' (church) with cloister and cemetery, Reformed ''Theodorskirche'' (church), Synagoge at Eulerstrasse 2\n''Wildt'sches Haus'', Petersplatz\n\n;Secular buildings:''Badischer Bahnhof'' (Geman Baden's railway station) with fountain, Bank for International Settlements, ''Blaues Haus (Reichensteinerhof)'' at Rheinsprung 16, ''Bruderholzschule'' (school house) at Fritz-Hauser-Strasse 20, ''Brunschwiler Haus'' at Hebelstrasse 15, ''Bahnhof Basel SBB'' (Swiss railway station), ''Bürgerspital'' (hospital), ''Café Spitz (Merianflügel)'', ''Coop Schweiz'' company's central archive, Depot of the ''Archäologischen Bodenforschung des Kanton Basel-Stadt'', former Gallizian Paper Mill and Swiss Museum of Paper, former ''Klingental-Kaserne'' (casern) with ''Klingentaler Kirche'' (church), ''Fasnachtsbrunnen'' (fountain), ''Feuerschützenhaus'' (guild house of the riflemen) at Schützenmattstrasse 56, ''Fischmarktbrunnen'' (fountain), ''Geltenzunft'' at Marktplatz 13, ''Gymnasium am Kohlenberg (St Leonhard)'' (school), ''Hauptpost'' (main post office), ''Haus zum Raben'' at Aeschenvorstadt 15, ''Hohenfirstenhof'' at Rittergasse 19, ''Holsteinerhof'' at Hebelstrasse 30, Markgräflerhof a former palace of the margraves of Baden-Durlach,''Mittlere Rhein Brücke'' (Central Rhine Bridge), ''Stadtcasino'' (music hall) at Steinenberg 14, ''Ramsteinerhof'' at Rittergasse 7 and 9, Rathaus (town hall), ''Rundhof'' building of the ''Schweizerischen Mustermesse'', ''Safranzunft'' at Gerbergasse 11, ''Sandgrube'' at Riehenstrasse 154, ''Schlösschen'' (Manor house) Gundeldingen, ''Schönes Haus'' and ''Schöner Hof'' at Nadelberg 6, ''Wasgenring'' school house, ''Seidenhof'' with painting of Rudolf von Habsburg, ''Spalenhof'' at Spalenberg 12, ''Spiesshof'' at Heuberg 7, city walls, Townhouse (former post office) at Stadthausgasse 13 / Totengässlein 6, ''Weisses Haus'' at Martinsgasse 3, ''Wildt'sches Haus'' at Petersplatz 13, ''Haus zum Neuen Singer'' at Speiserstrasse 98, ''Wolfgottesacker'' at Münchensteinerstrasse 99, ''Zerkindenhof'' at Nadelberg 10.\n\n;Archaeological sites: The Celtic Settlement at ''Gasfabrik'', ''Münsterhügel'' and ''Altstadt'' (historical city, late La Tène and medieval settlement).",
"===Picture gallery===\n\nFile:Museum der Kulturen 2008-03-30.jpg|Museum of Cultures\nFile:Mittlere Brücke.jpg|''Mittlere Rheinbrücke'' (Central Rhine Bridge)\nFile:Basler Kunstmuseum.jpg|''Kunstmuseum Basel'' (Art Museum Basel)\nFile:Haus zum Kirschgarten 2008-03-30.jpg|''Haus zum Kirschgarten''\nFile:Basel Barfüsserkirche Inneres 11-05-2008.jpg| Former Franciscan ''Barefoot'' Order Church\nFile:Antikenmuseum Basel 2008-03-30.jpg|Berri-Villen and Antikenmuseum Basel\nFile:Basel - Bank für internationalen Zahlungsausgleich3.jpg|Bank for International Settlements\nFile:Basel, straatzicht Steinenberg-Sankt Alban Graben foto3 2013-07-27 09.48.jpg|Steinenberg-Sankt Alban Graben\nFile:Basel, straatzicht Barfüssenplatz foto4 2013-07-27 10.01.jpg|Barfüsserplatz\nFile:Basler - Basler Münster Westfassade.jpg|Basler Münster\nFile:Munsterplatz, Basel, Switzerland.jpg|Münsterplatz\nFile:Rathaus-004.jpg|Rathaus, Basel's Town Hall\nFile:Basel, Wettsteinbrücke met kathedraal op de achtergrond foto10 2013-07-21 09.08.jpg|Wettsteinbrücke"
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Basel''' (also '''Basle''' or ; ; ; ) is a city in northwestern Switzerland on the river Rhine.",
"Basel is Switzerland's third-most-populous city (after Zürich and Geneva) with about 175,000 inhabitants.",
"Located where the Swiss, French and German borders meet, Basel also has suburbs in France and Germany.",
"In 2014, the Basel agglomeration was the third largest in Switzerland with a population of 537,100 in 74 municipalities in Switzerland and an additional 53 in neighboring countries (municipal count as of 2000).",
"The official language of Basel is (the Swiss variety of Standard) German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect.",
"The city is known for its many internationally renowned museums, ranging from the Kunstmuseum, the first collection of art accessible to the public in Europe (1661) and the largest museum of art in the whole of Switzerland, to the Fondation Beyeler (located in Riehen).",
"The University of Basel, founded in 1460, Switzerland's oldest university and the city's centuries long commitment to humanism, have made Basel a ''safe haven'' during times of political unrest in other parts of Europe to the likes of Erasmus of Rotterdam, the Holbein family, and more recently also to Hermann Hesse and Karl Jaspers.",
"Basel has been the seat of a Prince-Bishopric since the 11th century, and joined the Swiss Confederacy in 1501.",
"The city has been a commercial hub and important cultural centre since the Renaissance, and has emerged as a centre for the chemical and pharmaceutical industry in the 20th century.",
"In 1897 the city was chosen as the location for the first World Zionist Congress by Theodor Herzl, and all together the congress has taken place in Basel for ten times over a time span of fifty years, more than in any other city in the world.",
"Today the city of Basel, together with Zürich and Geneva, is counted among the cities with the highest standards of living in the entire world.",
"\n\n=== Early history ===\nRoman foundation and medieval wall, at the site of Basel oppidum\nThere are settlement traces on the Rhine knee from the early La Tène period (5th century BC).",
"In the 2nd century BC, there was a village of the Raurici at the site of ''Basel-Gasfabrik'', to the northwest of the Old City, likely identical with the town of ''Arialbinnum'' mentioned on the ''Tabula Peutingeriana''.",
"The unfortified settlement was abandoned in the 1st century BC in favour of an oppidum on the site of Basel Minster, probably in reaction to the Roman invasion of Gaul.",
"In Roman Gaul, Augusta Raurica was established some 20 km from Basel as the regional administrative centre, while a castra (castle) was built on the site of the Celtic oppidum.",
"The city of Basel eventually grew around the castle.",
"In AD 83, Basel was incorporated into the Roman province of Germania Superior.",
"Roman control over the area deteriorated in the 3rd century, and Basel became an outpost of the ''Provincia Maxima Sequanorum'' formed by Diocletian.",
"The Germanic confederation of the Alemanni attempted to cross the Rhine several times in the 4th century, but were repelled, one such event being the Battle of Solicinium (368).",
"However, in the great invasion of AD 406, the Alemanni appear to have crossed the Rhine river a final time, conquering and then settling what is today Alsace and a large part of the Swiss Plateau.",
"From this time, Basel has been an Alemannic settlement.",
"The Duchy of Alemannia fell under Frankish rule in the 6th century, and by the 7th century, the former bishopric of Augusta Raurica was re-established as the Bishopric of Basel.",
"Based on the evidence of a third solidus with the inscription ''Basilia fit'', Basel seems to have minted its own coins in the 7th century.",
"Under bishop Haito, the first cathedral was built on the site of the Roman castle, later replaced by a Romanesque structure consecrated in 1019.",
"At the partition of the Carolingian Empire, Basel was first given to West Francia, but passed to East Francia with the treaty of Meerssen of 870.",
"The city was plundered and destroyed by a Magyar invasion of 917.",
"The rebuilt city became part of Upper Burgundy, and as such was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire in 1032.",
"===Prince-Bishopric of Basel===\n\nBasel Minster, built between 1019 and 1500\n\nSince the donation by Rudolph III of Burgundy of the Moutier-Grandval Abbey and all its possessions to Bishop Adalbero II in 999 till the Reformation, Basel was ruled by prince-bishops (see Bishop of Basel, whose memory is preserved in the crosier shown on the Basel coat-of-arms – see above).",
"In 1019, the construction of the cathedral of Basel (known locally as the ''Münster'') began under Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor.",
"In 1225–1226, the bridge over the Rhine was constructed by Bishop Heinrich von Thun and Lesser Basel (Kleinbasel) founded as a bridgehead to protect the bridge.",
"The bridge was largely funded by Basel's Jewish community which had settled there a century earlier.",
"For many centuries to come Basel possessed the only permanent bridge over the river \"between Lake Constance and the sea\".",
"The Bishop also allowed the furriers to establish a guild in 1226.",
"Eventually about 15 guilds were established in the 13th century.",
"They increased the town's, and hence the bishop's, reputation, influence, and income from the taxes and duties on goods in Basel's expanding market.",
"In 1347, the plague came to Europe but did not reach Basel until June 1349.",
"The guilds, asserting that the Jews were responsible—several had been tortured and confessed—demanded they be executed, which the Council did in January 1349, except for a few who escaped to Alsace.",
"During the Basel massacre, 600 Jews were murdered.",
"They were shackled inside a wooden barn on an island in the Rhine, which was set afire.",
"The few survivors - young orphans - were forcibly converted to Christianity.",
"The council then forbade Jews in Basel for 200 years, except that their money was helpful in rebuilding after the Basel earthquake of 1356 which destroyed much of the city along with a number of castles in the vicinity.",
"The city offered courts to nobles as an alternative to rebuilding their castles, in exchange for the nobles' military protection of the city.",
"1493 woodcut of Basle, from the Nuremberg Chronicle\nIn 1412 (or earlier), the well-known guesthouse ''Zum Goldenen Sternen'' was established.",
"Basel became the focal point of western Christendom during the 15th century Council of Basel (1431–1449), including the 1439 election of antipope Felix V. In 1459, Pope Pius II endowed the University of Basel where such notables as Erasmus of Rotterdam and Paracelsus later taught.",
"At the same time the new craft of printing was introduced to Basel by apprentices of Johann Gutenberg.",
"The Schwabe publishing house was founded in 1488 by Johannes Petri and is the oldest publishing house still in business.",
"Johann Froben also operated his printing house in Basel and was notable for publishing works by Erasmus.",
"In 1495, Basel was incorporated in the Upper Rhenish Imperial Circle; the Bishop of Basel was added to the Bench of the Ecclesiastical Princes.",
"In 1500 the construction of the Basel Münster was finished.",
"In 1521 so was the bishop.",
"The Council, under the supremacy of the guilds, explained that henceforth they would only give allegiance to the Swiss Confederation, to whom the bishop appealed but in vain.",
"===As a member state in the Swiss Confederacy===\n\nMap of Basel in 1642, engraved by Matthäus Merian, oriented with SW at the top and NE at the bottom.",
"The city had remained neutral through the Swabian War of 1499 despite being plundered by soldiers on both sides.",
"The Treaty of Basel ended the war and granted the Swiss confederates exemptions from the emperor Maximillian's taxes and jurisdictions, separating Switzerland de facto from the Holy Roman Empire.",
"On 9 June 1501, Basel joined the Swiss Confederation as its eleventh canton.",
"It was the only canton that had been asked to join, not the other way round.",
"Basel had a strategic location, good relations with Strasbourg and Mulhouse, and control of the corn imports from Alsace, whereas the Swiss lands were becoming overpopulated and had few resources.",
"A provision of the Charter accepting Basel required that in conflicts among the other cantons it was to stay neutral and offer its services for mediation.",
"In 1503, the new bishop Christoph von Utenheim refused to give Basel a new constitution whereupon, to show its power, the city began the construction of a new city hall.",
"In 1529, the city became Protestant under Oecolampadius and the bishop's seat was moved to Porrentruy.",
"The bishop's crook was however retained as the city's coat of arms.",
"For the centuries to come, a handful of wealthy families collectively referred to as the \"Daig\" played a pivotal role in city affairs as they gradually established themselves as a ''de facto'' city aristocracy.",
"The first edition of ''Christianae religionis institutio'' (''Institutes of the Christian Religion'' – John Calvin's great exposition of Calvinist doctrine) was published at Basel in March 1536.",
"In 1544, Johann von Brugge, a rich Dutch Protestant refugee, was given citizenship and lived respectfully until his death in 1556 then buried with honors.",
"His body was exhumed and burnt at the stake in 1559 after it was discovered that he was the Anabaptist David Joris.",
"In 1543, ''De humani corporis fabrica'', the first book on human anatomy, was published and printed in Basel by Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564).",
"There are indications Joachim Meyer, author of the influential 16th-century martial arts text ''Kunst des Fechten'' (\"The Art of Fencing\"), came from Basel.",
"In 1662 the ''Amerbaschsches Kabinett'' was established in Basel as the first public museum of art.",
"Its collection became the core of the later Basel Museum of Art.",
"The Bernoulli family, which included important 17th- and 18th-century mathematicians such as Jakob Bernoulli, Johann Bernoulli and Daniel Bernoulli, were from Basel.",
"The 18th-century mathematician Leonhard Euler was born in Basel and studied under Johann Bernoulli.",
"===Modern history===\nIn 1792, the Republic of Rauracia, a revolutionary French client republic, was created.",
"It lasted until 1793.",
"After three years of political agitation and a short civil war in 1833 the disadvantaged countryside seceded from the Canton of Basel, forming the half canton of Basel-Landschaft.",
"On 3 July 1874, Switzerland's first zoo (the Zoo Basel) opened its doors in the south of the city towards Binningen.",
"Second World Zionist Congress in Basel, 1898 (Stadtcasino)\nIn 1897 the first World Zionist Congress was held in Basel.",
"Altogether the World Zionist Congress took place in Basel for ten times, more than in any other city in the world.",
"On 16 November 1938, the psychedelic drug LSD was first synthesized by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann at Sandoz Laboratories in Basel.",
"===Basel as an historical, international meeting place===\nBasel has often been the site of peace negotiations and other international meetings.",
"The Treaty of Basel (1499) ended the Swabian War.",
"Two years later Basel joined the Swiss Confederation.",
"The Peace of Basel in 1795 between the French Republic and Prussia and Spain ended the First Coalition against France during the French Revolutionary Wars.",
"In more recent times, the World Zionist Organization held its first congress in Basel from August 29 through August 31, 1897.",
"Because of the Balkan Wars, the Second International held an extraordinary congress at Basel in 1912.",
"In 1989, the Basel Convention was opened for signature with the aim of preventing the export of hazardous waste from wealthy to developing nations for disposal.",
"\nThe name of Basel is derived from the Roman-era toponym ''Basilia'', first recorded in the 3rd century.",
"It is presumably derived from the personal Greek name Basilius.",
"The Old French form ''Basle'' was adopted into English, and developed into the modern French ''Bâle''.",
"The Icelandic name ''Buslaraborg'' goes back to the 12th century ''Leiðarvísir og borgarskipan'' chronicle.",
"\n===Topography===\nBasel (in the upper left corner) as seen from Bettingen (television tower St. Chrischona) facing France\nBasel has an area, , of .",
"Of this area, or 4.0% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 3.7% is forested.",
"Of the rest of the land, or 86.4% is settled (buildings or roads), or 6.1% is either rivers or lakes.",
"Of the built up area, industrial buildings made up 10.2% of the total area while housing and buildings made up 40.7% and transportation infrastructure made up 24.0%.",
"Power and water infrastructure as well as other special developed areas made up 2.7% of the area while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 8.9%.",
"Out of the forested land, all of the forested land area is covered with heavy forests.",
"Of the agricultural land, 2.5% is used for growing crops and 1.3% is pastures.",
"All the water in the municipality is flowing water.",
"===Climate===\nUnder the Köppen climate classification, Basel features a continental climate.",
"The city averages 120.4 days of rain or snow annually and on average receives of precipitation.",
"The wettest month is May during which time Basel receives an average of of rain.",
"The month with the most days of precipitation is also May, with an average of 12.4 days.",
"The driest month of the year is February with an average of of precipitation over 8.4 days.",
"The city of Basel functions as the capital of the Swiss half-canton of Basel-Stadt, though several of its suburbs are located in the half-canton of Basel-Landschaft or the canton of Aargau.",
"Others are even located in France and Germany.",
"===Canton===\nThe canton Basel-Stadt consists of three municipalities: Riehen, Bettingen, and the city Basel itself.",
"The political structure and agencies of the city and the canton are identical.",
"===City===\n\n====Quarters====\nSchöneck (German, \"Beautiful Corner\") Fountain from 1770 (rebuilt) on St. Alban-Vorstadt\nThe city itself has 19 quarters:\n\n*''Grossbasel'' (Greater Basel):\n\n\n:1 Altstadt Grossbasel\n:2 Vorstädte\n:3 Am Ring\n:4 Breite\n:5 St. Alban\n:6 Gundeldingen\n:7 Bruderholz\n:8 Bachletten\n:9 Gotthelf\n:10 Iselin\n:11 St. Johann\n\n\n*''Kleinbasel'' (Lesser Basel):\n\n\n:12 Altstadt Kleinbasel\n:13 Clara\n:14 Wettstein\n:15 Hirzbrunnen\n:16 Rosental\n:17 Matthäus\n:18 Klybeck\n:19 Kleinhüningen\n\n\n===Coat of arms===\nThe blazon of the municipal coat of arms is ''In Silber ein schwarzer Baselstab.''",
"===Government===\nThe canton's executive, the Executive Council ('''Regierungsrat'''), consists of seven members for a mandate period of 4 years.",
"They are elected by any inhabitant valid to vote on the same day as the parliament and operates as a collegiate authority.",
"The president () is elected as such by a public election while the heads of the other departments are assigned by the collegiate.",
"Current president is Dr.",
"Guy Morin.",
"The executive body holds its meetings in the red Town Hall (''Rathaus'') on the central ''Marktplatz''.",
"The building was built in 1504–1514.",
", Basel's Executive Council is made up of three representatives of the SP (Social Democratic Party), and one member each of Green Alliance of Basel (GB) (who is the president), FDP (Free Democratic Party), LDP (Liberal-Demokratische Partei of Basel), and CVP (Christian Democratic Party), giving the left parties a combined four out of seven seats.",
"The last election was held on 23 October and 27 November 2016.",
"+ The ''Regierungsrat'' of Basel for the mandate period 2017–2021\n Councilor (''Regierungsrat/ -rätin'') !",
"!",
"Party !",
"!",
"Head of Office (''Departement'', since) of !",
"!",
"elected since\n\n '''Elisabeth Ackermann''' \n GPS \n President's Office (''Präsidialdepartement (PD)'', 2017) \n 2016\n\n Dr. Eva Herzog \n SP \n Finance (''Finanzdepartement (FD)'', 2005) \n 2004\n\n Baschi Dürr \n FDP \n Justice and Security (''Justiz- und Sicherheitsdepartement (JSD)'', 2013) \n 2012\n\n Christoph Brutschin \n SP \n Economics, Social Services, and Environment (''Departement für Wirtschaft, Soziales und Umwelt (WSD)'', 2009) \n 2008\n\n Conradin Cramer \n LDP \n Education (''Erziehungsdepartement (ED)'', 2017) \n 2016\n\n Dr. Hans-Peter Wessels \n SP \n Construction and Transportation (''Bau- und Verkehrsdepartement (BVD)'', 2009) \n 2008\n\n Dr. Lukas Engelberger \n CVP \n Health (''Gesundheitsdepartement (GD)'', June 2014) \n June 2014\n\n\n\nBarbara Schüpbach-Guggenbühlis is State Chronicler (''Staatsschreiberin'') since 2009, and Marco Greiner is Head of Communication (''Regierungssprecher'') and Vice State Chronicler (''Vizestaatsschreiber'') since 2007 for the Executive Council.",
"===Parliament===\n\nThe parliament, the Grand Council of Basel-Stadt ('''Grosser Rat'''), consists of 100 seats, with members (called in German: ''Grossrat/Grossrätin'') elected every 4 years.",
"The sessions of the Grand Council are public.",
"Unlike the member of the Executive Council, the members of the Grand Council are not politicians by profession, but they are paid a fee based on their attendance.",
"Any resident of Basel allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the parliament.",
"The legislative body holds its meetings in the red Town Hall (''Rathaus'').",
"The last election was held on 23 October 2016 for the mandate period (''Legislatur'') of 2017–2021.",
"Currently, the Grand Council consist of 34 members of the Social Democratic Party (SP), 15 members of the Swiss People's Party (SVP), 14 ''Grünes Bündnis (GB)'' (a collaboration of the Green Party (GPS), its junior party, and Basels starke Alternative (BastA!",
")), 10 The Liberals (FDP) and its junior party, the representative of the ''Aktive Bettingen (AB)'' is associated to the parliamentary group (''Fraktion'') of the FDP, 14 Liberal-Demokratische Partei (LDP) and its junior party, 8 (7/1) Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP)/Evangelical People's Party (EVP), and 4 Green Liberal Party (GLP).",
"The left parties misses an absolute majority by two seats.",
"===Federal elections===\n\n====National Council====\nOn 18 October 2015, in the federal election the most popular party was the Social Democratic Party (SP) which received two seats with 33.5% of the votes.",
"The next three most popular parties were the FDP (21.4%), the SVP (17.6%), and the Green Party (GPS) (11.2%), each with one seat.",
"In the federal election, a total of 57,304 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 50.4%.",
"+ National Councilors (''Nationalrat/ -rätin'') of Basle-Town\n Councilor !",
"!",
"Party !",
"!",
"part of the National Council since \n no.",
"of votes\n\n Beat Jans \n SP \n 2010 \n 23,149\n\n Silvia Schenker \n SP \n 2003 \n 20,779\n\n Sebastian Frehner \n SVP \n 2010 \n 11,404\n\n Christoph Eymann \n LDP \n 2015 (1991 – 2001) \n 11,216\n\n Sibel Arslan \n GPS \n 2015 \n 7,233\n\n\n====Council of States====\nOn 18 October 2015, in the federal election State Councilor () Anita Fetz, member of the Social Democratic Party (SP), was re-elected in the first round as single representative of the canton of Basel-Stadt in the national Council of States (German: ''Ständerat'') with an absolute majority of 35'842 votes.",
"She has been a member of it since 2003.",
"===International relations===\n\n====Twin towns and sister cities====\nBasel has two sister cities and a twinning among two states:\n\n* Shanghai, China, since 2007\n* US State Massachusetts, since 2002\n* Miami Beach, US, since 2011",
"\n===Population===\n\n'''Largest groups of foreign residents 2013'''\n\nNationality \n Amount \n % total(foreigners)\n\n\n\n 15,403 \n 7.9 (22.8)\n\n\n\n 8,112 \n 4.2 (12.0)\n\n\n\n 6,594 \n 3.4 (9.8)\n\n\n(incl.",
"Monten.",
"and Kosovo)\n 4,554 \n 2.3 (6.7)\n\n\n\n 3,365 \n 1.7 (5.0)\n\n\n\n 3,197 \n 1.6 (4.7)\n\n\n\n 2,252 \n 1.2 (3.3)\n\n\n\n 2,153 \n 1.1 (3.2)\n\n\n\n 1,817 \n 0.9 (2.7)\n\n\n\n 1,649 \n 0.8 (2.4)\n\n\n\n 1,443 \n 0.7 (2.1)\n\n\n\n 1,179 \n 0.6 (1.7)\n\n\n\nBasel has a population () of .",
", 35.5% of the population are resident foreign nationals.",
"Over the last 10 years (1999–2009 ) the population has changed at a rate of -0.3%.",
"It has changed at a rate of 3.2% due to migration and at a rate of -3% due to births and deaths.",
"Of the population in the municipality 58,560 or about 35.2% were born in Basel and lived there in 2000.",
"There were 1,396 or 0.8% who were born in the same canton, while 44,874 or 26.9% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 53,774 or 32.3% were born outside of Switzerland.",
"In there were 898 live births to Swiss citizens and 621 births to non-Swiss citizens, and in same time span there were 1,732 deaths of Swiss citizens and 175 non-Swiss citizen deaths.",
"Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens decreased by 834 while the foreign population increased by 446.",
"There were 207 Swiss men and 271 Swiss women who emigrated from Switzerland.",
"At the same time, there were 1756 non-Swiss men and 1655 non-Swiss women who immigrated from another country to Switzerland.",
"The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was an increase of 278 and the non-Swiss population increased by 1138 people.",
"This represents a population growth rate of 0.9%.",
", there were 70,502 people who were single and never married in the municipality.",
"There were 70,517 married individuals, 12,435 widows or widowers and 13,104 individuals who are divorced.",
"the average number of residents per living room was 0.59 which is about equal to the cantonal average of 0.58 per room.",
"In this case, a room is defined as space of a housing unit of at least as normal bedrooms, dining rooms, living rooms, kitchens and habitable cellars and attics.",
"About 10.5% of the total households were owner occupied, or in other words did not pay rent (though they may have a mortgage or a rent-to-own agreement).",
", there were 86,371 private households in the municipality, and an average of 1.8 persons per household.",
"There were 44,469 households that consist of only one person and 2,842 households with five or more people.",
"Out of a total of 88,646 households that answered this question, 50.2% were households made up of just one person and there were 451 adults who lived with their parents.",
"Of the rest of the households, there are 20,472 married couples without children, 14,554 married couples with children There were 4,318 single parents with a child or children.",
"There were 2,107 households that were made up of unrelated people and 2,275 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.",
"there were 5,747 single family homes (or 30.8% of the total) out of a total of 18,631 inhabited buildings.",
"There were 7,642 multi-family buildings (41.0%), along with 4,093 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (22.0%) and 1,149 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (6.2%).",
"Of the single family homes 1090 were built before 1919, while 65 were built between 1990 and 2000.",
"The greatest number of single family homes (3,474) were built between 1919 and 1945.\n\n there were 96,640 apartments in the municipality.",
"The most common apartment size was 3 rooms of which there were 35,958.",
"There were 11,957 single room apartments and 9,702 apartments with five or more rooms.",
"Of these apartments, a total of 84,675 apartments (87.6% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 7,916 apartments (8.2%) were seasonally occupied and 4,049 apartments (4.2%) were empty.",
", the construction rate of new housing units was 2.6 new units per 1000 residents.",
"the average price to rent an average apartment in Basel was 1118.60 Swiss francs (CHF) per month (US$890, £500, €720 approx.",
"exchange rate from 2003).",
"The average rate for a one-room apartment was 602.27 CHF (US$480, £270, €390), a two-room apartment was about 846.52 CHF (US$680, £380, €540), a three-room apartment was about 1054.14 CHF (US$840, £470, €670) and a six or more room apartment cost an average of 2185.24 CHF (US$1750, £980, €1400).",
"The average apartment price in Basel was 100.2% of the national average of 1116 CHF.",
"The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0.74%.",
"====Historical population====\n\n\n===Language===\nMost of the population () speaks German (129,592 or 77.8%), with Italian being second most common (9,049 or 5.4%) and French being third (4,280 or 2.6%).",
"There are 202 persons who speak Romansh.",
"===Religion===\nThe main synagogue of Basel\nFrom the , 41,916 or 25.2% were Roman Catholic, while 39,180 or 23.5% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church.",
"Of the rest of the population, there were 4,567 members of an Orthodox church (or about 2.74% of the population), there were 459 individuals (or about 0.28% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 3,464 individuals (or about 2.08% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church.",
"There were 12,368 individuals (or about 7.43% of the population) who were Islamic.",
"There were 1,325 individuals (or about 0.80% of the population) who were Jewish, however only members of religious institutions are counted as such by the municipality, which makes the actual number of people of Jewish descent living in Basel considerably higher.",
"There were 746 individuals who were Buddhist, 947 individuals who were Hindu and 485 individuals who belonged to another church.",
"52,321 (or about 31.41% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 8,780 individuals (or about 5.27% of the population) did not answer the question.",
"\n===Quarters===\nBasel is subdivided into 19 quarters (''Quartiere'').",
"The municipalities of Riehen and Bettingen, outside the city limits of Basel, are included in the canton of Basel-Stadt as rural quarters (''Landquartiere'').",
"Quartier\n Area\n Population March 2012\n Population Density people/km2\n\n Altstadt Grossbasel (historic city) \n 37.63 \n 2,044 \n \n\n Vorstädte (historical suburbs) \n 89.66 \n 4,638\n \n\n Am Ring \n 90.98 \n 10,512\n \n\n Breite \n68.39 \n 8,655\n \n\n St. Alban \n 294.46 \n 10,681\n\n\n Gundeldingen \n123.19 \n 18,621\n\n\n Bruderholz \n259.61 \n 9,006\n\n\n Bachletten \n151.39 \n 13,330\n\n\n Gotthelf \n46.62 \n 6,784\n\n\n Iselin \n109.82 \n 16,181\n\n\n St. Johann \n223.90 \n 18,560\n\n\n Altstadt Kleinbasel (historic city) \n 24.21 \n 2,276\n \n\n Clara \n 23.66 \n 4,043\n\n\n Wettstein \n 75.44 \n 5,386\n\n\n Hirzbrunnen \n 305.32 \n 8,676\n\n\n Rosental \n 64.33 \n 5,180\n\n\n Mattäus \n 59.14 \n 16,056\n\n\n Klybeck \n 91.19 \n 7,234\n\n\n Kleinhüningen \n 136.11 \n 2,772\n\n\n '''City of Basel''' \n '''2275.05''' \n \n\n\n Bettingen \n 222.69 \n \n\n\n Riehen \n 1086.10 \n \n\n\n'''Canton of Basel-Stadt''' \n '''3583.84''' \n \n\n\n\n===Transport===\nBasel's airport is set up for airfreight; heavy goods reach the city and the heart of continental Europe from the North Sea by ship along the Rhine.",
"The main European routes for the highway and railway transport of freight cross in Basel.",
"The outstanding location benefits logistics corporations, which operate globally from Basel.",
"Trading firms are traditionally well represented in the Basel Region.",
"====Port====\nThe Rhine in Basel\nBasel has Switzerland's only cargo port, through which goods pass along the navigable stretches of the Rhine and connect to ocean-going ships at the port of Rotterdam.",
"====Air transport====\nEuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg is operated jointly by two countries, France and Switzerland, although the airport is located completely on French soil.",
"The airport itself is split into two architecturally independent sectors, one half serving the French side and the other half serving the Swiss side; prior to Schengen there was an immigration inspection point at the middle of the airport so that people could \"emigrate\" to the other side of the airport.",
"====Railways====\nBasel Bahnhof SBB, self-proclaimed \"world's first international railway station.\"",
"Basel has long held an important place as a rail hub.",
"Three railway stations — those of the German, French and Swiss networks — lie within the city (although the Swiss (Basel SBB) and French (Bâle SNCF) stations are actually in the same complex, separated by Customs and Immigration facilities).",
"Basel Badischer Bahnhof is on the opposite side of the city.",
"Basel's local rail services are supplied by the Basel Regional S-Bahn.",
"The largest goods railway complex of the country is located just outside the city, spanning the municipalities of Muttenz and Pratteln.",
"The new highspeed ICE railway line from Karlsruhe to Basel was completed in 2008 while phase I of the TGV Rhin-Rhône line, opened in December 2011, has reduced travel time from Basel to Paris to about 3 hours.",
"====Roads====\nBasel is located on the A3 motorway.",
"Within the city limits, five bridges connect Greater and Lesser Basel (downstream):\n\n* Schwarzwaldbrücke (built 1972)\n* Wettsteinbrücke (current structure built 1998, original bridge built 1879)\n* Mittlere Rheinbrücke (current structure built 1905, original bridge built 1225 as the first bridge to cross the Rhine River)\n* Johanniterbrücke (built 1967)\n* Dreirosenbrücke (built 2004, original bridge built 1935)\n\n====Ferries====\nA somewhat anachronistic yet still widely used system of reaction ferry boats links the two shores.",
"There are four ferries, each situated approximately midway between two bridges.",
"Each is attached by a cable to a block that rides along another cable spanning the river at a height of 20 or 30 metres.",
"To cross the river, the ferryman orients the boat around 45° from the current so that the current pushes the boat across the river.",
"This form of transportation is therefore completely hydraulically driven, requiring no outside energy source.",
"Cable ferry across the Rhine in Basel\n\n====Public transport====\nBasel tram network\nBasel has an extensive public transportation network serving the city and connecting to surrounding suburbs, including a large tram network.",
"The green-colored local trams and buses are operated by the Basler Verkehrs-Betriebe (BVB).",
"The yellow-colored buses and trams are operated by the Baselland Transport (BLT), and connect areas in the nearby half-canton of Baselland to central Basel.",
"The BVB also shares commuter bus lines in cooperation with transit authorities in the neighboring Alsace region in France and Baden region in Germany.",
"The Basel Regional S-Bahn, the commuter rail network connecting to suburbs surrounding the city, is jointly operated by SBB, SNCF and DB.",
"====Border crossings====\nBasel is located at the meeting point of France, Germany and Switzerland; because it is so near other countries and is beyond the Jura Mountains, many within the Swiss military reportedly believe that the city is indefensible during wartime.",
"It has numerous road and rail crossings between Switzerland and the other two countries.",
"With Switzerland joining the Schengen Area on 12 December 2008, immigration checks were no longer carried out at the crossings.",
"However, Switzerland did not join the European Union Customs Union (though it did join the EU Single Market) and customs checks are still conducted at or near the crossings.",
"Basel tram\n\n'''France-Switzerland''' (from east to west) \n*'''Road crossings''' (with French road name continuation)\n**Kohlenstrasse (Avenue de Bâle, Huningue).",
"This crossing replaces the former crossing Hüningerstrasse further east.",
"**Elsässerstrasse (Avenue de Bâle, Saint-Louis)\n**Autobahn A3 (A35 autoroute, Saint-Louis)\n**EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg – pedestrian walkway between the French and Swiss sections on Level 3 (departures) of airport.",
"**Burgfelderstrasse (Rue du 1er Mars, Saint Louis)\n*'''Railway crossing'''\n**Basel SBB railway station\n\n'''Germany-Switzerland''' (clockwise, from north to south)\n*'''Road crossings''' (with German road name continuation)\n**Hiltalingerstrasse (Zollstraße, Weil am Rhein).",
"Tram 8 goes along this road to Weil am Rhein.",
"The extension opened in 2014; it used to end before the border.",
"Immigration and customs checks are conducted at the platform exit tunnel for passengers leaving trains here.",
"Additionally there are many footpaths and cycle tracks crossing the border between Basel and Germany.",
"===Health===\nUniversity Children's hospital Basel\nAs the biggest town in the Northwest of Switzerland numerous public and private health centres are located in Basel.",
"Among others the Universitätsspital Basel as well as the Universitätskinderspital Basel.",
"The anthroposophical health institute Klinik-Arlesheim (formerly known as Lukas-Klinik and Ita-Wegman-Klinik) are both located in the Basel area as well.",
"Private health centres include the Bethesda Spital and the Merian Iselin Klinik.",
"Additionally the Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute is located in Basel too.",
"===Energy===\nBasel is at the forefront of a national vision to more than halve energy use in Switzerland by 2050.",
"In order to research, develop and commercialise the technologies and techniques required for the country to become a '2000 Watt society', a number of projects have been set up since 2001 in the Basel metropolitan area.",
"These including demonstration buildings constructed to ''MINERGIE'' or ''Passivhaus'' standards, electricity generation from renewable energy sources, and vehicles using natural gas, hydrogen and biogas.",
"A hot dry rock geothermal energy project was cancelled in 2009 since it caused induced seismicity in Basel.",
"Novartis Campus Basel\nThe city of Basel, located in the heart of the tri-border region (called ''Dreiländereck'') is one of the most dynamic economic regions of Switzerland.",
", Basel had an unemployment rate of 3.7%.",
", there were 18 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 9 businesses involved in this sector.",
"34,645 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 1,176 businesses in this sector.",
"120,130 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 8,908 businesses in this sector.",
"There were 82,449 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 46.2% of the workforce.",
"the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 130,988.",
"The number of jobs in the primary sector was 13, of which 10 were in agriculture and 4 were in forestry or lumber production.",
"The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 33,171 of which 24,848 or (74.9%) were in manufacturing, 10 were in mining and 7,313 (22.0%) were in construction.",
"The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 97,804.",
"In the tertiary sector; 12,880 or 13.2% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 11,959 or 12.2% were in the movement and storage of goods, 6,120 or 6.3% were in a hotel or restaurant, 4,186 or 4.3% were in the information industry, 10,752 or 11.0% were the insurance or financial industry, 13,695 or 14.0% were technical professionals or scientists, 6,983 or 7.1% were in education and 16,060 or 16.4% were in health care.",
", there were 121,842 workers who commuted into the municipality and 19,263 workers who commuted away.",
"The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 6.3 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving.",
"About 23.9% of the workforce coming into Basel are coming from outside Switzerland, while 1.0% of the locals commute out of Switzerland for work.",
"Of the working population, 49.2% used public transportation to get to work, and 18.7% used a private car.",
"Roche Tower Basel (highest building in Switzerland)\n\nThe Roche Tower, designed by Herzog & de Meuron is 41 floors and high, upon its opening in 2015 it has become the tallest building in Switzerland.",
"Basel has also Switzerland's third tallest building (Basler Messeturm, ) and Switzerland's tallest tower (St. Chrischona TV tower, .",
"===Chemical industry===\nThe Swiss chemical industry operates largely from Basel, and Basel also has a large pharmaceutical industry.",
"Novartis, Syngenta, Ciba Specialty Chemicals, Clariant, Hoffmann-La Roche, Basilea Pharmaceutica and Actelion are headquartered there.",
"Pharmaceuticals and specialty chemicals have become the modern focus of the city's industrial production.",
":According to the BIS, \"The choice of Switzerland for the seat of the BIS was a compromise by those countries that established the BIS: Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States.",
"An independent, neutral country, Switzerland offered the BIS less exposure to undue influence from any of the major powers.",
"Within Switzerland, Basel was chosen largely because of its location, with excellent railway connections in all directions, especially important at a time when most international travel was by train.\"",
":Created in May 1930, the BIS is owned by its member central banks, which are private entities.",
"* Basel is also the location of the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, which is distinct from the BIS.",
"It usually meets at the BIS premises in Basel.",
"Responsible for the Basel Accords (''Basel I'', ''Basel II'' and ''Basel III''), this organization fundamentally changed Risk Management within its industry.",
"* Basel also hosts the headquarters of the Global Infrastructure Basel Foundation, which is active in the field of sustainable infrastructure (financing).",
"===Air===\nSwiss International Air Lines, the national airline of Switzerland, is headquartered on the grounds of EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg in Saint-Louis, Haut-Rhin, France, near Basel.",
"Prior to the formation of Swiss International Air Lines, the regional airline Crossair was headquartered near Basel.",
"Art Basel (2009)\n\n===Media===\n''Basler Zeitung'' (\"BaZ\"), ''TagesWoche'' and ''bz Basel'' are the local newspapers.",
"The local TV Station is called ''telebasel''.",
"The German-speaking Swiss Radio and Television SRF company, part of the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation SRG SSR, holds offices in Basel as well.",
"Other important trade shows include \"Baselworld\" (watches and jewelry), Art Basel in Basel, Swissbau and Igeho.",
"Besides Humanism the city of Basel has also always been very famous for its achievement in the field of mathematics.",
"Among others the mathematician Leonhard Euler and the Bernoulli family have done research and been teaching at the local institutions for centuries.",
"In 1910 the Swiss Mathematical Society was founded in the city and in the mid-twentieth century the Russian mathematician Alexander Ostrowski taught at the local university.",
"In 2000 about 57,864 or (34.7%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 27,603 or (16.6%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a ''Fachhochschule'').",
"Of the 27,603 who completed tertiary schooling, 44.4% were Swiss men, 31.1% were Swiss women, 13.9% were non-Swiss men and 10.6% were non-Swiss women.",
"In 2010 11,912 students attended the University of Basel (55% female).",
"25% were foreign nationals, 16% were from canton of Basel-Stadt.",
"In 2006 6162 students studied at one of the nine academies of the FHNW (51% female).",
", there were 5,820 students in Basel who came from another municipality, while 1,116 residents attended schools outside the municipality.",
"===Universities===\nInauguration ceremony of the University of Basel, 1460\nBasel hosts Switzerland's oldest university, the University of Basel, dating from 1460.",
"Erasmus, Paracelsus, Daniel Bernoulli, Leonhard Euler, Jacob Burckhardt, Friedrich Nietzsche, Tadeusz Reichstein, Karl Jaspers, Carl Gustav Jung and Karl Barth worked here.",
"The University of Basel is currently counted among the 90 best educational institutions worldwide.",
"In 2007, the ETH (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zürich) established the Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering (D-BSSE) in Basel.",
"The creation of the D-BSSE was driven by a Swiss-wide research initiative SystemsX, and was jointly supported by funding from the ETH Zürich, the Swiss Government, the Swiss University Conference (SUC) and private industry.",
"Basel also hosts several academies of the ''Fachhochschule Nordwestschweiz|Fachhochschule NW (FHNW)'': the FHNW Academy of Art and Design, FHNW Academy of Music, and the FHNW School of Business.",
"Basel is renowned for various scientific societies, such as the Entomological Society of Basel (Entomologische Gesellschaft Basel, EGB), which celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2005.",
"===Volksschule===\nIn 2005 16,939 pupils and students visited the ''Volksschule'' (the obligatory school time, including ''Kindergarten'' (127), primary schools (''Primarschule'', 25), and lower secondary schools (''Sekundarschule'', 10), of which 94% visited public schools and 39.5% were foreign nationals.",
"In 2010 already 51.1% of all pupils spoke another language than German as their first language.",
"In 2009 3.1% of the pupils visited special classes for pupils with particular needs.",
"The average amount of study in primary school in Basel is 816 teaching hours per year.",
"===Upper secondary school===\nIn 2010 65% of the youth finished their upper secondary education with a vocational training and education, 18% finished their upper secondary education with a Federal Matura at one of the five gymnasiums, 5% completed a ''Fachmaturität'' at the ''FMS'', 5% completed a ''Berufsmaturität'' synchronosly to their vocational training, and 7% other kind of upper secondary maturity.",
"14.1% of all students at public gymnasiums were foreign nationals.",
"The Maturity quota in 2010 was on a record high at 28.8% (32.8 female, 24.9% male).",
"The Gymnasium Leonhard\n\nBasel has five public gymnasiums ('''', '''', '''', '''', ''''), each with its own profiles (different focus on major subjects, such as visual design, biology and chemistry, Italian, Spanish, or Latin languages, music, physics and applied mathematics, philosophy/education/psychology, and economics and law) that entitles students with a successful Matura graduation to attend universities.",
"And one ''Fachmaturitätsschule'', the ''FMS'', with six different major subjects (health/natural sciences, education, social work, design/art, music/theatre/dance, and communication/media) that entitles students with a successful Fachmatura graduation to attend ''Fachhochschulen''.",
"Four different ''höhere Fachschulen'' (higher vocational schools such as ''Bildungszentrum Gesundheit Basel-Stadt'' (health), ''Allgemeine Gewerbeschule Basel'' (trade), ''Berufsfachschule Basel'', ''Schule für Gestaltung Basel'' (design)) allows vocational students to improve their knowledge and know-how.",
"===International schools===\nAs a city with a percentage of foreigners of more than thirty-five percent and as one of the most important centres in the chemical and pharmaceutical field in the world, Basel counts several International Schools including: ''Academia International School'', ''École Française de Bâle'', ''Freies Gymnasium Basel'' (private), ''Gymnasium am Münsterplatz'' (public), ''Schweizerisch-italienische Primarschule Sandro Pertini'', and ''Swiss International School (Basel)''.",
"===Libraries===\nBasel is home to at least 65 libraries.",
"Some of the largest include; the Universitätsbibliothek Basel (main university library), the special libraries of the University of Basel, the ''Allgemein Bibliotheken der Gesellschaft für Gutes und Gemeinnütziges (GGG) Basel'', the Library of the ''Pädagogische Hochschule'', the Library of the ''Hochschule für Soziale Arbeit'' and the Library of the ''Hochschule für Wirtschaft''.",
"There was a combined total () of 8,443,643 books or other media in the libraries, and in the same year a total of 1,722,802 items were loaned out.",
"\n===Main sights===\nThe red sandstone Münster, one of the foremost late-Romanesque/early Gothic buildings in the Upper Rhine, was badly damaged in the great earthquake of 1356, rebuilt in the 14th and 15th century, extensively reconstructed in the mid-19th century and further restored in the late 20th century.",
"A memorial to Erasmus lies inside the Münster.",
"The City Hall from the 16th century is located on the Market Square and is decorated with fine murals on the outer walls and on the walls of the inner court.",
"Tinguely's Carnival Fountain (''Fasnachtsbrunnen'')\n\nBasel is also host to an array of buildings by internationally renowned architects.",
"These include the Beyeler Foundation by Renzo Piano, or the Vitra complex in nearby Weil am Rhein, composed of buildings by architects such as Zaha Hadid (fire station), Frank Gehry (Design Museum), Álvaro Siza Vieira (factory building) and Tadao Ando (conference centre).",
"The city received the Wakker Prize in 1996.",
"====Heritage sites====\nBasel features a great number of heritage sites of national significance.",
"These include the entire Old Town of Basel as well as the following buildings and collections: \nElisabethenkirche (inside)\n\n;Churches and monasteries :Old Catholic ''Prediger Kirche'' (church), ''Bischofshof'' with Collegiate church at Rittergasse 1, ''Domhof'' at Münsterplatz 10–12, former Carthusian House of St Margarethental, Catholic Church of St Antonius, ''Lohnhof'' (former Augustinians Collegiate Church), Mission 21, Archive of the ''Evangelisches Missionswerk Basel'', Münster of Basle (cathedral), Reformed ''Elisabethenkirche'' (church), Reformed ''Johanneskirche'' (church), Reformed ''Leonhardskirche'' (church, former Augustinians Abbey), Reformed ''Martinskirche'' (church), Reformed ''Pauluskirche'' (church), Reformed ''Peterskirche'' (church), Reformed ''St.",
";Museums, archives and collections: Basel calls itself the ''Cultural Capital of Switzerland''.",
"Among others, there is the Anatomical Museum of the University Basel, Berri-Villen and Museum of Ancient Art Basel and Ludwig Collection, Former Franciscan ''Barefoot'' Order Church and Basel Historical Museum, Company Archive of Novartis, ''Haus zum Kirschgarten'' which is part of the Basel Historical Museum, \nHistoric Archive Roche and Industrial Complex Hoffmann-La Roche, \nJewish Museum of Switzerland, Caricature & Cartoon Museum Basel, Karl Barth-Archive, ''Kleines Klingental'' (Lower Klingen Valley) with Museum Klingental, \nArt Museum of Basel, hosting the world's oldest art collection accessible to the public, \nNatural History Museum of Basel and the Museum of Cultures Basel, Museum of Modern Art Basel with the E. Hoffmann collection, Museum Jean Tinguely Basel, Music Museum, Pharmacy Historical Museum of the University of Basel, Poster Collection of the School for Design (''Schule für Gestaltung''), Swiss Business Archives, Sculpture Hall, Sports Museum of Switzerland, Archives of the Canton of Basel-Stadt, UBS AG Corporate Archives, University Library with manuscripts and music collection, Zoological Garden (''Zoologischer Garten'').",
"The Academy of Music of Basel - (Vorderer Rosengarten)\n\n===Theatre and music===\nBasel is the home of the Schola Cantorum Basiliensis, founded in 1933, a worldwide centre for research on and performance of music from the Medieval through the Baroque eras.",
"Theater Basel, chosen in 1999 as the best stage for German-language performances and in 2009 and 2010 as \"Opera of the Year\" by German Opera Magazine \"Opernwelt\", presents a busy schedule of plays in addition to being home to the city's opera and ballet companies.",
"Basel is home to the largest orchestra in Switzerland, the Sinfonieorchester Basel.",
"It is also the home of the Kammerorchester Basel, which is recording the complete symphonies of Ludwig van Beethoven for the Sony label led by its music director Giovanni Antonini.",
"The Schola Cantorum and the Basler Kammerorchester were both founded by the conductor Paul Sacher who went on to commission works by many leading composers.",
"The Paul Sacher Foundation, opened in 1986, houses a major collection of manuscripts, including the entire Igor Stravinsky archive.",
"The baroque orchestras La Cetra and Capriccio Basel are also based in Basel.",
"In May 2004, the fifth European Festival of Youth Choirs (Europäisches Jugendchorfestival, or EJCF) choir festival opened: this Basel tradition started in 1992.",
"Host of this festival is the local Basel Boys Choir.",
"In 1997, Basel contended to become the \"European Capital of Culture\", though the honor went instead to Thessaloniki.",
"===Museums===\nThe Basel museums cover a broad and diverse spectrum of collections with a marked concentration in the fine arts.",
"They house numerous holdings of international significance.",
"The over three dozen institutions yield an extraordinarily high density of museums compared to other cities of similar size and draw over one million visitors annually.",
"Constituting an essential component of Basel culture and cultural policy, the museums are the result of closely interwoven private and public collecting activities and promotion of arts and culture going back to the 16th century.",
"The public museum collection was first created back in 1661 and represents the oldest public collection in continuous existence.",
"Since the late 1980s, various private collections have been made accessible to the public in new purpose-built structures that have been recognized as acclaimed examples of avant-garde museum architecture.",
"The Beyeler Foundation by Renzo Piano, located in Riehen\n\n*Antikenmuseum Basel und Sammlung Ludwig Ancient cultures of the mediterranean museum\n*Augusta Raurica Roman open-air museum\n*Basel Paper Mill ()\n*Beyeler Foundation (Foundation Beyeler) Beyeler Museum (Fondation Beyeler)\n*Botanical Garden Basel One of the oldest botanical gardens in the world\n*Caricature & Cartoon Museum Basel ()\n*Dollhouse Museum () a museum houring the largest teddy bear collection in Europe.",
"*Foundation Fernet Branca () in Saint-Louis, Haut-Rhin near Basel.",
"Modern art collection.",
"*Historical Museum Basel ()\n*Kunsthalle Basel Modern and contemporary art museum\n*Kunstmuseum Basel Upper Rhenish and Flemish paintings, drawings from 1400 to 1600 and 19th- to 21st-century art\n*Monteverdi Automuseum\n*Museum of Cultures Basel () Large collections on European and non-Europeancultural life\n*Museum of Contemporary Art Art from the 1960s up to the present\n*Music Museum () of the Basel Historic Museum\n*Natural History Museum of Basel ()\n*Pharmazie-Historisches Museum der Universität Basel\n*Schaulager Modern and contemporary art museum\n*Swiss Architecture Museum ()\n*Tinguely Museum Life and work of the major Swiss iron sculptor Jean Tinguely\n*Vitra Design Museum Museum in Weil am Rhein near Basel\n*Jewish Museum of Switzerland\n\n===Events===\nThe city of Basel is a centre for numerous fairs and events all year round.",
"One of the most important fairs for contemporary art worldwide is the Art Basel which was founded in 1970 by Ernst Beyeler and takes place in June each year.",
"Baselworld, the watch and jewellery show (''Uhren- und Schmuckmesse'') one of the biggest fairs of its kind in Europe is held every year as well, and attracts a great number of tourists and dealers to the city.",
"The carnival of the city of Basel (''Basler Fasnacht'') is a major cultural event in the year.",
"The carnival is the biggest in Switzerland and attracts large crowds every year, despite the fact that it starts at exactly four in the morning (''Morgestraich'') on a winter Monday.",
"The Fasnacht asserts Basel's Protestant history by commencing the revelry five days after Ash Wednesday and continuing day and night for exactly 72 hours.",
"Almost all study and work in the old city cease.",
"Dozens of fife and drum clubs parade in medieval guild tradition with fantastical masks and illuminated lanterns.",
"===Cuisine===\nThere are a number of culinary specialties originating in Basel, including ''Basler Läckerli'' cookies and ''Mässmogge'' candies.",
"Being located in the meeting place between Switzerland, France and Germany the culinary landscape as a whole is very varied and diverse, making it a city with a great number of restaurants of all sorts.",
"===Zoo===\nThe Antelope House at Zoo Basel\n''Zoo Basel'' is, with over 1.7 million visitors per year, the most visited tourist attraction in Basel and the second most visited tourist attraction in Switzerland.",
"Established in 1874, Zoo Basel is the oldest zoo in Switzerland and, by number of animals, the largest.",
"Through its history, Zoo Basel has had several breeding successes, such as the first worldwide Indian rhinoceros birth and Greater flamingo hatch in a zoo.",
"These and other achievements led Forbes Travel to rank Zoo Basel as one of the fifteen best zoos in the world in 2008.",
"Despite its international fame, Basel's population remains attached to Zoo Basel, which is entirely surrounded by the city of Basel.",
"Evidence of this is the millions of donations money each year, as well as Zoo Basel's unofficial name: locals lovingly call \"their\" zoo \"''Zolli''\" by which is it known throughout Basel and most of Switzerland.",
"===Sport===\nBasel has a reputation in Switzerland as a successful sporting city.",
"The football club FC Basel continues to be successful and in recognition of this the city was one of the Swiss venues for the 2008 European Championships, as well as Geneva, Zürich and Bern.",
"The championships were jointly hosted by Switzerland and Austria.",
"BSC Old Boys and Concordia Basel are the other football teams in Basel.",
"Among the most popular sports in Switzerland is Ice hockey.",
"Basel is home to the EHC Basel which plays in the MySports League, the third tier of the Swiss ice hockey league system.",
"They play their home games in the 6,700-seat St. Jakob Arena.",
"The team previously played in the National League and the Swiss League, but they had to fill a bankruptcy case after the 2013-14 Swiss League season.",
"Basel features a large football stadium that has been awarded four stars by UEFA, a modern ice hockey hall, and an admitted sports hall.",
"A large indoor tennis event takes place in Basel every October.",
"Some of the best ATP-Professionals play every year at the Swiss Indoors, including Switzerland's biggest sporting hero and frequent participant Roger Federer, a Basel native who describes the city as \"one of the most beautiful cities in the world\".",
"The annual Basel Rhine Swim draws several thousand visitors to the city to swim in or float on the Rhine river.",
"While football and ice hockey are by far the most popular sports, basketball has a very small but faithful fan base.",
"The top division, called NLA, is a semi-professional league and has one team from the Basel region, the \"Birstal Starwings\".",
"Two players from Switzerland are currently active in the NBA, Thabo Sefolosha and Clint Capela.",
"As in most European countries, and contrary to the U.S., Switzerland has a club-based rather than a school-based competition system.",
"The Starwings Basel are the only first division basketball team in German-speaking Switzerland.",
"\n===Notes===\n\n\n===References===\n\n\n===Bibliography===\n:''See also: Bibliography of the history of Basel''\n\n*\n* \n* \n* \n* \n*",
"\n\n\n* Official Website\n* Official tourism site\n* Basel Cityguide\n* Rhine Online: an English language guide to Basel, the Alsace and Baden Wuerrtemberg\n* EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg, Basel-Mulhouse Airport\n* Overview of museums in Basel or basel museums\n* Portrait of Basel's tramways\n* Basel Tourism & Hotels\n* Interview with Theodora Vischer, director of the Schaulager in Basel, Switzerland\n* Website for expats moving to or living in Basel\n* Website of the regional television of Basel - Enjoy daily news and stories about Baselcity, Baselland and the green Fricktal and Laufental, together with its citizens"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Bacardi Limited''' (English: ; ; ) is the largest privately held, family-owned spirits company in the world. Originally known for its eponymous Bacardi white rum, it now has a portfolio of more than 200 brands and labels. Founded in 1862, and family-owned for seven generations, Bacardi employs 6,000 people, manufactures at 29 facilities in 16 markets on four continents, with sales in more than 150 countries. Bacardi Limited refers to the Bacardi group of companies, including Bacardi International Limited. The company sells in excess of 200 million bottles per year. The company's sales in 2007 were US$5.5 billion, up from $4.9 billion in 2006. In recent years sales have stagnated, with the company recording US$4.6 billion in 2014. It laid off 10% of its North American workforce in 2015.\n\nBacardi Limited is headquartered in Hamilton, Bermuda, and has a 16-member board of directors led by the original founder's great-great grandson, Facundo L. Bacardí. Along with other leading alcohol producers, Bacardi is part of a producers' commitments organization which aims to reduce harmful drinking.\n",
"Bacardi Building in Havana, Cuba\n\n===Early history===\nFacundo Bacardí Massó, a Catalan wine merchant, was born in Sitges, Catalonia, in 1814, and emigrated to Cuba in 1830. During this period, rum was cheaply made and not considered a refined drink, and rarely sold in upmarket taverns. Facundo began attempting to \"tame\" rum by isolating a proprietary strain of yeast still used in Bacardi production. This yeast gives Bacardi rum its flavour profile. After experimenting with several techniques he hit upon filtering the rum through charcoal, which removed impurities. In addition to this, Facundo aged the rum in white oak barrels, which had the effect of mellowing the drink. The final product was the first clear, or \"white\" rum in the world.\n\nMoving from the experimental stage to a more commercial endeavour, he and his brother José set up a Santiago de Cuba distillery they bought in 1862, which housed a still made of copper and cast iron. In the rafters of this building lived fruit bats – the inspiration for the Bacardi bat logo. This logo was pragmatic considering with high illiteracy rate in the 19th century, it enabled customers to easily identify the product.\n\nThe 1880s and 90s were turbulent times for Cuba and the company. Emilio Bacardi, Don Facundo's eldest son, was repeatedly imprisoned and was exiled from Cuba for having fought in the rebel army against Spain in the Cuban War of Independence.\n\nEmilio's brothers, Facundo and José, and his brother-in-law Henri (Don Enrique) Schueg, remained in Cuba with the difficult task of sustaining the company during a period of war. The women in the family were exiled in Kingston, Jamaica. After the Cuban War of Independence and the US occupation of Cuba, \"The Original Cuba Libre\" and the Daiquiri were both created, using Bacardi rum. In 1899 US General Leonard Wood appointed Emilio Bacardi Mayor of Santiago de Cuba.\n\nIn 1912, Emilio Bacardi travelled to Egypt, where he purchased a mummy (still on display) for the future Emilio Bacardi Moreau Municipal Museum in Santiago de Cuba. In Santiago, his brother Facundo M. Bacardí continued to manage the company along with Schueg, who began the company's international expansion by opening bottling plants in Barcelona (1910) and New York City (1915). The New York plant was soon shut down due to Prohibition, yet during this time Cuba became a hotspot for US tourists.\n\nIn 1922 Emilio opened a new distillery in Santiago. In 1930 Schueg opened the Art Deco Bacardi building in Havana and the third generation of the Bacardí family entered the business. Facundito Bacardí was known to have invited Americans (still subject to Prohibition) to \"Come to Cuba and bathe in Bacardi rum.\" A new product was introduced: Hatuey beer.\nCataño, Puerto Rico, near San Juan|235x235px\n\nBacardi's transition into an international brand was due mostly to Schueg's \"business genius\"; Schueg \"branded Cuba as the home of rum, and Bacardi as the king of rums\" and expanded overseas, first to Mexico (1931), then to Puerto Rico (1936), under the brand name Ron Bacardi. (Ron is the Spanish word for rum). Post-Prohibition production in Puerto Rico enabled rum to be sold tariff-free in the US. He then expanded to the United States (1944).\n\nDuring World War II, the company was led by Schueg's son-in-law, José \"Pepin\" Bosch. Pepin founded Bacardi Imports in New York City, and became Cuba's Minister of the Treasury in 1949.\n\n===Cuban Revolution===\nPortuondo and other Bacardí family members initially supported the Cuban revolutionaries, including Fidel Castro and the broader M-26-7 movement: Bosch personally donated tens of thousands of dollars to the movement, and acted as an intermediary between the revolutionaries and the CIA to assuage the latter's concerns. Family members, employees, and facilities were put to use by the movement and the company supported the revolution publicly with advertisements and parties. But their support turned to opposition as the pro-Soviet Che Guevara wing of the movement began to dominate and as Castro turned against their interests.\n\nThe Bacardí family (and hence the company) maintained a fierce opposition to Fidel Castro's revolution in Cuba in the 1960s. In his book ''Bacardi, The Hidden War'', Hernando Calvo Ospina outlines the political element to the family's money. Ospina describes how the Bacardi family and the company left Cuba after the Castro regime confiscated the company’s Cuban assets on 15 October 1960, particularly nationalizing and banning all private property on the island as well as all bank accounts. However, due to concerns over the previous Cuban leader, Fulgencio Batista, the company had started foreign branches a few years before the revolution; the company moved the ownership of its trademarks, assets and proprietary formulas out of the country to the Bahamas prior to the revolution and also built plants in Puerto Rico and Mexico after Prohibition to save import taxes on rum being imported to the U.S. This helped the company survive after the communist government confiscated all Bacardí assets in the country without any compensation.\n\nOspina also explains the close ties Bacardí family members had to the U.S. political elite as well as to organizations of state such as the CIA. The family funded various Cuban exile organizations, such as CANF.\n\nMore recently, Bacardi lawyers were influential in the drafting of the 1996 Helms-Burton Act, which sought to extend the scope of the United States embargo against Cuba. In 1999, Otto Reich, a lobbyist in Washington on behalf of Bacardi, drafted section 211 of the Omnibus Consolidated and Emergency Appropriations Act, FY1999 (), a bill that became known as the Bacardi Act. Section 211 denied trademark protection to products of Cuban businesses expropriated after the Cuban revolution, a provision keenly sought by Bacardi. The act was aimed primarily at the Havana Club brand in the U.S. The brand was created by the José Arechabala S.A. and nationalised without compensation in the Cuban revolution, the Arechabala family left Cuba and stopped producing rum. They therefore allowed the US trademark registration for \"Havana Club\" to lapse in 1973. Taking advantage of the lapse, the Cuban government registered the mark in the US in 1976. This new law was drafted to invalidate the lawful trademark registration. Section 211 has been challenged unsuccessfully by the Cuban government and the European Union in U.S. courts. It was also ruled illegal by the WTO in 2001 and 2002. The U.S. Congress has yet to re-examine the matter. The brand was assigned by the Cuban government to Pernod Ricard in 1993.\n\n===Bacardi and Cuba today===\nBacardi drinks are not found in Cuba today. The main brand of rum in Cuba is Havana Club, produced by a company that was confiscated and nationalized by the government during the revolution. Bacardi later bought the brand from the original owners, the Arechabala family. The Cuban government, in partnership with the French company Pernod Ricard, sells its Havana Club products internationally, except in the United States and its territories. Bacardi created its own line of Havana Club rum based on the original recipe from the Arechabala family, manufactures it in Puerto Rico, and sells it in Florida. Bacardi continues to fight in the courts, attempting to legalize their own Havana Club trademark outside the United States. Drinks now made in the former Cuban Bacardi distillery are sold in Cuba under the name Caney.\n\nDespite having no production facilities in Cuba today, Bacardi in the UK has recently decided to re-emphasize its Cuban heritage, primarily for commercial reasons. Facing increased competition in the rum market from the now international brand Havana Club, the company concluded that it was important for sales to associate its rum with Cuba. TV advertisements with slogans of \"Welcome to the Latin Quarter\" are but one example of this. In 1998, under the distinctive bat logo, the phrase \"company founded in Santiago de Cuba in 1862\" was added.\n\nBacardi has faced criticism and legal problems for supposedly attempting to encourage consumers to believe that they were purchasing rum made in Cuba, rather than just marking its heritage. Bacardi adverts in Spain, since 1966, had described a popular combination of rum and Coke as \"rum and coke\". However, after 1998, it began to describe the drink as Cuba Libre – literally translated as \"Free Cuba\", which is the original name of the drink and what it is mostly called in Latin America. In this instance, Bacardi faced a legal ruling from the Spanish Association of Advertising Users which forced the company to stop the advert. They concluded that it could \"mislead the viewer as to the true nature of the product\", as the advert contained so much Caribbean imagery, one might conclude it came from Cuba.\n\nThe Bacardi Building in Havana is regarded as one of the finest Art Deco buildings in Latin America.\n\n===2012 OSHA investigation===\nIn August 2012, a temporary worker at the company's Jacksonville, Florida, bottling subsidiary, Bacardi Bottling, was fatally injured while servicing a palletizer machine. After conducting an investigation, the U.S. Department of Labor's Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) determined that Bacardi was in violation of several safety regulations, including two willful violations. Bacardi Bottling was fined $192,000 by OSHA.\n",
"Bacardi Limited has made numerous acquisitions to diversify away from the eponymous Bacardi rum brand. In 1993, Bacardi merged with Martini & Rossi, the Italian producer of Martini vermouth and sparkling wines, creating the Bacardi-Martini group.\n\nIn 1998, the company acquired Dewar's scotch, including Royal Brackla and Bombay Sapphire gin from Diageo for $2 billion. Bacardi acquired the Cazadores tequila brand in 2002 and in 2004 purchased Grey Goose, a French-made vodka, from Sidney Frank for $2 billion. In 2006 Bacardi Limited purchased New Zealand vodka brand 42 Below.\n\nOther associated brands include the US version of Havana Club, Drambuie Scotch whisky liqueur, DiSaronno Amaretto, Eristoff vodka, B&B and Bénédictine liqueurs.\n",
"In its 150-year history, Bacardi rum has won more than 550 awards for quality and product profile, making it the world’s most awarded rum. Emblems of gold medals and the Spanish Coat of Arms awarded during the formative years of the business appear on the bottle.\n\nBacardi rums have been entered for a number of international spirit ratings awards. Several Bacardi spirits have performed notably well. Bacardi 8, for example, received two gold medals and a silver medal from the San Francisco World Spirits Competition between 2008 and 2010. In addition, it received the International High Quality Trophy at Monde Selection's World Quality Selections in 2010, and a Grand Gold Medal in 2011. Bacardi Gold, Bacardi 8, and Bacardi Reserva Limitada were also awarded International High Quality Trophy awards at the 2010 Monde Selection’s World Quality Selections. However, it should be noted that these awards are non-competitive, and only products that pay to enter are assessed.\n\nProof66, a website that aggregates professional ratings from the Beverage Testing Institute and other professional rating organizations, places Bacardi Reserva Limitada, Bacardi 1873 Solera, and Bacardi 8 in the First Tier or Top 10th percentile of all rated spirits.\n",
"Ernest Hemingway lived in Cuba from 1939 until shortly after the Cuban Revolution. He lived at Finca Vigía, in the small town of San Francisco de Paula, located very close to Bacardi’s Modelo Brewery for Hatuey Beer in Cotorro, Havana.\n\nIn 1954, Compañía Ron Bacardi S.A. threw Hemingway a party when he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature – soon after the publication of his novel ''The Old Man and the Sea'' (1952) – in which he honored the company by mentioning its Hatuey beer. Hemingway also mentioned Bacardi and Hatuey in his novels ''To Have and Have Not'' (1937) and ''For Whom the Bell Tolls'' (1940). Guillermo Cabrera Infante wrote an account of the festivities for the periodical ''Ciclón'', titled \"El Viejo y la marca\" (\"The Old Man and the Brand\"). In his account he described how \"on one side there was a wooden stage with two streamers – Hatuey beer and Bacardi rum – on each end and a Cuban flag in the middle. Next to the stage was a bar, at which people crowded, ordering daiquiris and beer, all free.” A sign at the event read \"Bacardi rum welcomes the author of ''The Old Man and the Sea''\".\n\nIn his article \"The Old Man and the Daiquiri\", Wayne Curtis writes about how Hemingway’s \"home bar also held a bottle of Bacardi rum\". Hemingway wrote in ''Islands in the Stream'', \"...this frozen daiquirí, so well beaten as it is, looks like the sea where the wave falls away from the bow of a ship when she is doing thirty knots.\"\n",
"\n235x235px\n\nIn 1964 Bacardi opened its new US headquarters in Miami, Florida. Exiled Cuban architect Enrique Gutierrez created a building that was hurricane-proof, using a system of steel cables and pulleys which allow the building to move slightly in the event of a strong shock. The steel cables are anchored into the bedrock and extend through marble-covered shafts up to the top floor, where they are led over large pulleys. Outside, on both sides of the eight-story building, more than 28,000 tiles painted and fired by Brazilian artist Francisco Brennard, depicting abstract blue flowers, were placed on the walls according to the artist's exact specifications.\n\nIn 1972, the Company commissioned the square building in the plaza. Architect Ignacio Carrera-Justiz used cantilevered construction, a style invented by Frank Lloyd Wright. Wright observed how well trees with taproots withstood hurricane-force winds. The building, raised 47 feet off the ground around a central core, features four massive walls, made of sections of inch-thick hammered glass mural tapestries, designed and manufactured in France. The design came from a painting by German artist Johannes M. Dietz.\n\nIn 2006, Bacardi USA leased a 15-story headquarters complex in Coral Gables, Florida. Bacardi had employees in seven buildings across Miami-Dade County at the time.\n\nBacardi vacated its former headquarters buildings on Biscayne Boulevard in Midtown Miami. The building currently serves as the headquarters of the National YoungArts Foundation. Miami citizens began a campaign to label the buildings as \"historic\". University of Miami professor of architecture Allan Schulman said \"Miami's brand is its identity as a tropical city. The Bacardi buildings are exactly the sort that resonate with our consciousness of what Miami is about\". In 2007 Chad Oppenheim, the head of Oppenheim Architecture + Design, described the Bacardi buildings as \"elegant, with a Modernist look combined with a local flavour.\"\n\nThe current American headquarters is at 2701 LeJeune Road in Coral Gables. The 300 employees occupy of leased office space.\n",
"Bacardi had architects Ludwig Mies Van Der Rohe and Felix Candela design office buildings and a bottling plant for them in Mexico City during the 1950s. The building complex was added to the tentative list of UNESCO's World Heritage Site list on 20 November 2001.\n",
"\n",
"* – official company site\n* Map of Distillery in Puerto Rico from Google Maps\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Brands",
"Awards",
"Hemingway connection",
"United States headquarters",
"Mexico City buildings",
"References",
"External links"
] | Bacardi | [
"Ospina describes how the Bacardi family and the company left Cuba after the Castro regime confiscated the company’s Cuban assets on 15 October 1960, particularly nationalizing and banning all private property on the island as well as all bank accounts."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n'''Bacardi Limited''' (English: ; ; ) is the largest privately held, family-owned spirits company in the world.",
"Originally known for its eponymous Bacardi white rum, it now has a portfolio of more than 200 brands and labels.",
"Founded in 1862, and family-owned for seven generations, Bacardi employs 6,000 people, manufactures at 29 facilities in 16 markets on four continents, with sales in more than 150 countries.",
"Bacardi Limited refers to the Bacardi group of companies, including Bacardi International Limited.",
"The company sells in excess of 200 million bottles per year.",
"The company's sales in 2007 were US$5.5 billion, up from $4.9 billion in 2006.",
"In recent years sales have stagnated, with the company recording US$4.6 billion in 2014.",
"It laid off 10% of its North American workforce in 2015.",
"Bacardi Limited is headquartered in Hamilton, Bermuda, and has a 16-member board of directors led by the original founder's great-great grandson, Facundo L. Bacardí.",
"Along with other leading alcohol producers, Bacardi is part of a producers' commitments organization which aims to reduce harmful drinking.",
"Bacardi Building in Havana, Cuba\n\n===Early history===\nFacundo Bacardí Massó, a Catalan wine merchant, was born in Sitges, Catalonia, in 1814, and emigrated to Cuba in 1830.",
"During this period, rum was cheaply made and not considered a refined drink, and rarely sold in upmarket taverns.",
"Facundo began attempting to \"tame\" rum by isolating a proprietary strain of yeast still used in Bacardi production.",
"This yeast gives Bacardi rum its flavour profile.",
"After experimenting with several techniques he hit upon filtering the rum through charcoal, which removed impurities.",
"In addition to this, Facundo aged the rum in white oak barrels, which had the effect of mellowing the drink.",
"The final product was the first clear, or \"white\" rum in the world.",
"Moving from the experimental stage to a more commercial endeavour, he and his brother José set up a Santiago de Cuba distillery they bought in 1862, which housed a still made of copper and cast iron.",
"In the rafters of this building lived fruit bats – the inspiration for the Bacardi bat logo.",
"This logo was pragmatic considering with high illiteracy rate in the 19th century, it enabled customers to easily identify the product.",
"The 1880s and 90s were turbulent times for Cuba and the company.",
"Emilio Bacardi, Don Facundo's eldest son, was repeatedly imprisoned and was exiled from Cuba for having fought in the rebel army against Spain in the Cuban War of Independence.",
"Emilio's brothers, Facundo and José, and his brother-in-law Henri (Don Enrique) Schueg, remained in Cuba with the difficult task of sustaining the company during a period of war.",
"The women in the family were exiled in Kingston, Jamaica.",
"After the Cuban War of Independence and the US occupation of Cuba, \"The Original Cuba Libre\" and the Daiquiri were both created, using Bacardi rum.",
"In 1899 US General Leonard Wood appointed Emilio Bacardi Mayor of Santiago de Cuba.",
"In 1912, Emilio Bacardi travelled to Egypt, where he purchased a mummy (still on display) for the future Emilio Bacardi Moreau Municipal Museum in Santiago de Cuba.",
"In Santiago, his brother Facundo M. Bacardí continued to manage the company along with Schueg, who began the company's international expansion by opening bottling plants in Barcelona (1910) and New York City (1915).",
"The New York plant was soon shut down due to Prohibition, yet during this time Cuba became a hotspot for US tourists.",
"In 1922 Emilio opened a new distillery in Santiago.",
"In 1930 Schueg opened the Art Deco Bacardi building in Havana and the third generation of the Bacardí family entered the business.",
"Facundito Bacardí was known to have invited Americans (still subject to Prohibition) to \"Come to Cuba and bathe in Bacardi rum.\"",
"A new product was introduced: Hatuey beer.",
"Cataño, Puerto Rico, near San Juan|235x235px\n\nBacardi's transition into an international brand was due mostly to Schueg's \"business genius\"; Schueg \"branded Cuba as the home of rum, and Bacardi as the king of rums\" and expanded overseas, first to Mexico (1931), then to Puerto Rico (1936), under the brand name Ron Bacardi.",
"(Ron is the Spanish word for rum).",
"Post-Prohibition production in Puerto Rico enabled rum to be sold tariff-free in the US.",
"He then expanded to the United States (1944).",
"During World War II, the company was led by Schueg's son-in-law, José \"Pepin\" Bosch.",
"Pepin founded Bacardi Imports in New York City, and became Cuba's Minister of the Treasury in 1949.",
"===Cuban Revolution===\nPortuondo and other Bacardí family members initially supported the Cuban revolutionaries, including Fidel Castro and the broader M-26-7 movement: Bosch personally donated tens of thousands of dollars to the movement, and acted as an intermediary between the revolutionaries and the CIA to assuage the latter's concerns.",
"Family members, employees, and facilities were put to use by the movement and the company supported the revolution publicly with advertisements and parties.",
"But their support turned to opposition as the pro-Soviet Che Guevara wing of the movement began to dominate and as Castro turned against their interests.",
"The Bacardí family (and hence the company) maintained a fierce opposition to Fidel Castro's revolution in Cuba in the 1960s.",
"In his book ''Bacardi, The Hidden War'', Hernando Calvo Ospina outlines the political element to the family's money.",
"However, due to concerns over the previous Cuban leader, Fulgencio Batista, the company had started foreign branches a few years before the revolution; the company moved the ownership of its trademarks, assets and proprietary formulas out of the country to the Bahamas prior to the revolution and also built plants in Puerto Rico and Mexico after Prohibition to save import taxes on rum being imported to the U.S.",
"This helped the company survive after the communist government confiscated all Bacardí assets in the country without any compensation.",
"Ospina also explains the close ties Bacardí family members had to the U.S. political elite as well as to organizations of state such as the CIA.",
"The family funded various Cuban exile organizations, such as CANF.",
"More recently, Bacardi lawyers were influential in the drafting of the 1996 Helms-Burton Act, which sought to extend the scope of the United States embargo against Cuba.",
"In 1999, Otto Reich, a lobbyist in Washington on behalf of Bacardi, drafted section 211 of the Omnibus Consolidated and Emergency Appropriations Act, FY1999 (), a bill that became known as the Bacardi Act.",
"Section 211 denied trademark protection to products of Cuban businesses expropriated after the Cuban revolution, a provision keenly sought by Bacardi.",
"The act was aimed primarily at the Havana Club brand in the U.S.",
"The brand was created by the José Arechabala S.A. and nationalised without compensation in the Cuban revolution, the Arechabala family left Cuba and stopped producing rum.",
"They therefore allowed the US trademark registration for \"Havana Club\" to lapse in 1973.",
"Taking advantage of the lapse, the Cuban government registered the mark in the US in 1976.",
"This new law was drafted to invalidate the lawful trademark registration.",
"Section 211 has been challenged unsuccessfully by the Cuban government and the European Union in U.S. courts.",
"It was also ruled illegal by the WTO in 2001 and 2002.",
"The U.S. Congress has yet to re-examine the matter.",
"The brand was assigned by the Cuban government to Pernod Ricard in 1993.",
"===Bacardi and Cuba today===\nBacardi drinks are not found in Cuba today.",
"The main brand of rum in Cuba is Havana Club, produced by a company that was confiscated and nationalized by the government during the revolution.",
"Bacardi later bought the brand from the original owners, the Arechabala family.",
"The Cuban government, in partnership with the French company Pernod Ricard, sells its Havana Club products internationally, except in the United States and its territories.",
"Bacardi created its own line of Havana Club rum based on the original recipe from the Arechabala family, manufactures it in Puerto Rico, and sells it in Florida.",
"Bacardi continues to fight in the courts, attempting to legalize their own Havana Club trademark outside the United States.",
"Drinks now made in the former Cuban Bacardi distillery are sold in Cuba under the name Caney.",
"Despite having no production facilities in Cuba today, Bacardi in the UK has recently decided to re-emphasize its Cuban heritage, primarily for commercial reasons.",
"Facing increased competition in the rum market from the now international brand Havana Club, the company concluded that it was important for sales to associate its rum with Cuba.",
"TV advertisements with slogans of \"Welcome to the Latin Quarter\" are but one example of this.",
"In 1998, under the distinctive bat logo, the phrase \"company founded in Santiago de Cuba in 1862\" was added.",
"Bacardi has faced criticism and legal problems for supposedly attempting to encourage consumers to believe that they were purchasing rum made in Cuba, rather than just marking its heritage.",
"Bacardi adverts in Spain, since 1966, had described a popular combination of rum and Coke as \"rum and coke\".",
"However, after 1998, it began to describe the drink as Cuba Libre – literally translated as \"Free Cuba\", which is the original name of the drink and what it is mostly called in Latin America.",
"In this instance, Bacardi faced a legal ruling from the Spanish Association of Advertising Users which forced the company to stop the advert.",
"They concluded that it could \"mislead the viewer as to the true nature of the product\", as the advert contained so much Caribbean imagery, one might conclude it came from Cuba.",
"The Bacardi Building in Havana is regarded as one of the finest Art Deco buildings in Latin America.",
"===2012 OSHA investigation===\nIn August 2012, a temporary worker at the company's Jacksonville, Florida, bottling subsidiary, Bacardi Bottling, was fatally injured while servicing a palletizer machine.",
"After conducting an investigation, the U.S. Department of Labor's Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) determined that Bacardi was in violation of several safety regulations, including two willful violations.",
"Bacardi Bottling was fined $192,000 by OSHA.",
"Bacardi Limited has made numerous acquisitions to diversify away from the eponymous Bacardi rum brand.",
"In 1993, Bacardi merged with Martini & Rossi, the Italian producer of Martini vermouth and sparkling wines, creating the Bacardi-Martini group.",
"In 1998, the company acquired Dewar's scotch, including Royal Brackla and Bombay Sapphire gin from Diageo for $2 billion.",
"Bacardi acquired the Cazadores tequila brand in 2002 and in 2004 purchased Grey Goose, a French-made vodka, from Sidney Frank for $2 billion.",
"In 2006 Bacardi Limited purchased New Zealand vodka brand 42 Below.",
"Other associated brands include the US version of Havana Club, Drambuie Scotch whisky liqueur, DiSaronno Amaretto, Eristoff vodka, B&B and Bénédictine liqueurs.",
"In its 150-year history, Bacardi rum has won more than 550 awards for quality and product profile, making it the world’s most awarded rum.",
"Emblems of gold medals and the Spanish Coat of Arms awarded during the formative years of the business appear on the bottle.",
"Bacardi rums have been entered for a number of international spirit ratings awards.",
"Several Bacardi spirits have performed notably well.",
"Bacardi 8, for example, received two gold medals and a silver medal from the San Francisco World Spirits Competition between 2008 and 2010.",
"In addition, it received the International High Quality Trophy at Monde Selection's World Quality Selections in 2010, and a Grand Gold Medal in 2011.",
"Bacardi Gold, Bacardi 8, and Bacardi Reserva Limitada were also awarded International High Quality Trophy awards at the 2010 Monde Selection’s World Quality Selections.",
"However, it should be noted that these awards are non-competitive, and only products that pay to enter are assessed.",
"Proof66, a website that aggregates professional ratings from the Beverage Testing Institute and other professional rating organizations, places Bacardi Reserva Limitada, Bacardi 1873 Solera, and Bacardi 8 in the First Tier or Top 10th percentile of all rated spirits.",
"Ernest Hemingway lived in Cuba from 1939 until shortly after the Cuban Revolution.",
"He lived at Finca Vigía, in the small town of San Francisco de Paula, located very close to Bacardi’s Modelo Brewery for Hatuey Beer in Cotorro, Havana.",
"In 1954, Compañía Ron Bacardi S.A. threw Hemingway a party when he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature – soon after the publication of his novel ''The Old Man and the Sea'' (1952) – in which he honored the company by mentioning its Hatuey beer.",
"Hemingway also mentioned Bacardi and Hatuey in his novels ''To Have and Have Not'' (1937) and ''For Whom the Bell Tolls'' (1940).",
"Guillermo Cabrera Infante wrote an account of the festivities for the periodical ''Ciclón'', titled \"El Viejo y la marca\" (\"The Old Man and the Brand\").",
"In his account he described how \"on one side there was a wooden stage with two streamers – Hatuey beer and Bacardi rum – on each end and a Cuban flag in the middle.",
"Next to the stage was a bar, at which people crowded, ordering daiquiris and beer, all free.” A sign at the event read \"Bacardi rum welcomes the author of ''The Old Man and the Sea''\".",
"In his article \"The Old Man and the Daiquiri\", Wayne Curtis writes about how Hemingway’s \"home bar also held a bottle of Bacardi rum\".",
"Hemingway wrote in ''Islands in the Stream'', \"...this frozen daiquirí, so well beaten as it is, looks like the sea where the wave falls away from the bow of a ship when she is doing thirty knots.\"",
"\n235x235px\n\nIn 1964 Bacardi opened its new US headquarters in Miami, Florida.",
"Exiled Cuban architect Enrique Gutierrez created a building that was hurricane-proof, using a system of steel cables and pulleys which allow the building to move slightly in the event of a strong shock.",
"The steel cables are anchored into the bedrock and extend through marble-covered shafts up to the top floor, where they are led over large pulleys.",
"Outside, on both sides of the eight-story building, more than 28,000 tiles painted and fired by Brazilian artist Francisco Brennard, depicting abstract blue flowers, were placed on the walls according to the artist's exact specifications.",
"In 1972, the Company commissioned the square building in the plaza.",
"Architect Ignacio Carrera-Justiz used cantilevered construction, a style invented by Frank Lloyd Wright.",
"Wright observed how well trees with taproots withstood hurricane-force winds.",
"The building, raised 47 feet off the ground around a central core, features four massive walls, made of sections of inch-thick hammered glass mural tapestries, designed and manufactured in France.",
"The design came from a painting by German artist Johannes M. Dietz.",
"In 2006, Bacardi USA leased a 15-story headquarters complex in Coral Gables, Florida.",
"Bacardi had employees in seven buildings across Miami-Dade County at the time.",
"Bacardi vacated its former headquarters buildings on Biscayne Boulevard in Midtown Miami.",
"The building currently serves as the headquarters of the National YoungArts Foundation.",
"Miami citizens began a campaign to label the buildings as \"historic\".",
"University of Miami professor of architecture Allan Schulman said \"Miami's brand is its identity as a tropical city.",
"The Bacardi buildings are exactly the sort that resonate with our consciousness of what Miami is about\".",
"In 2007 Chad Oppenheim, the head of Oppenheim Architecture + Design, described the Bacardi buildings as \"elegant, with a Modernist look combined with a local flavour.\"",
"The current American headquarters is at 2701 LeJeune Road in Coral Gables.",
"The 300 employees occupy of leased office space.",
"Bacardi had architects Ludwig Mies Van Der Rohe and Felix Candela design office buildings and a bottling plant for them in Mexico City during the 1950s.",
"The building complex was added to the tentative list of UNESCO's World Heritage Site list on 20 November 2001.",
"* – official company site\n* Map of Distillery in Puerto Rico from Google Maps"
] | finance |
[
"\n\nEnukidze, Kalinin, Bukharin, Tomsky, Lashevich, Kamenev, Preobrazhensky, Serebryakov, Lenin and Rykov.\n\nThe '''Bolsheviks''', originally also '''Bolshevists''' or '''Bolsheviki''' (; derived from большинство ''bol'shinstvo'', \"majority\", literally meaning \"one of the majority\") were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903. The RSDLP was a revolutionary socialist political party formed in 1898 in Minsk in Belarus to unite the various revolutionary organisations of the Russian Empire into one party.\n\nIn the Second Party Congress vote, the Bolsheviks won on the majority of important issues, hence their name. They ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks or Reds came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). With the Reds defeating the Whites, and others during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union in December 1922.\n\nThe Bolsheviks, founded by Vladimir Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov, were by 1905 a major organization consisting primarily of workers under a democratic internal hierarchy governed by the principle of democratic centralism, who considered themselves the leaders of the revolutionary working class of Russia. Their beliefs and practices were often referred to as '''Bolshevism'''.\n",
"\nBoris Kustodiev's 1920 painting \"''Bolshevik''\"\nIn the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, held in Brussels and London during August 1903, Lenin and Julius Martov disagreed over the membership rules. Lenin wanted members \"who recognise the Party Programme and support it by material means and by personal participation in one of the party's organisations.\" Julius Martov suggested \"by regular personal assistance under the direction of one of the party's organisations.\" Lenin advocated limiting party membership to a smaller core of active members, as opposed to \"card carriers\" who might only be active in party branches from time to time or not at all. This active base would develop the cadre, a core of \"professional revolutionaries\", consisting of loyal communists who would spend most of their time organising the party toward a mass revolutionary party capable of leading a workers' revolution against the Tsarist autocracy.\n\nA main source of the factions could be directly attributed to Lenin's steadfast opinion and unwillingness to \"bear opinions which were contrary to his own\". It was obvious at early stages in Lenin's revolutionary practices that he would not be willing to concede on any party policy that conflicted with his own predetermined ideas. It was the loyalty that he had to his own self-envisioned utopia that caused the party split. He was seen even by fellow party members as being so narrow minded that he believed that there were only two types of people: \"Friend and enemy—those who followed him, and all the rest.\" Leon Trotsky, one of Lenin's fellow revolutionaries (though they had differing views as to how the revolution and party should be handled), compared Lenin in 1904 to the French revolutionary Robespierre. Lenin's view of politics as verbal and ideological warfare and his inability to accept criticism even if it came from his own dedicated followers was the reason behind this accusation.\n\nThe root of the split was a book titled ''What is to be Done?'' that Lenin wrote while serving a sentence of exile. In Germany, the book was published in 1902; in Russia, strict censorship outlawed its publication and distribution. One of the main points of Lenin's writing was that a revolution can only be achieved by the strong leadership of one person (or of a very select few people) over the masses. After the proposed revolution had successfully overthrown the government, this individual leader must release power, to allow socialism to fully encompass the nation. Lenin also wrote that revolutionary leaders must dedicate their entire lives to the cause in order for it to be successful. Lenin said that if professional revolutionaries did not maintain control over the workers then they would lose sight of the party's objective and adopt opposing beliefs, and even abandon the revolution entirely. Lenin's view of a socialist intelligentsia showed that he was not a complete supporter of Marxist theory, which also created some party unrest. For example, Lenin agreed with the Marxist idea of eliminating social classes, but in his utopian society there would still be visible distinctions between those in politics and the common worker. Most party members considered unequal treatment of workers immoral, and were loyal to the idea of a completely classless society, so Lenin's variations caused the party internal dissonance. Although the party split of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks would not become official until 1903, the differences originally began to surface with the publication of ''What is to be Done?''. Through the influence of the book, Lenin also undermined another group of reformers known as \"Economists\", who were pushing for economic reform while wanting to leave the government relatively unchanged, and who failed to recognize the importance of uniting the working population behind the party's cause.\n\nOther than the debate between Lenin and Julius Martov; Lenin felt membership should require support of the Party program, financial contributions, and finally involvement in a Party organization whereas Martov didn't see the need for joining Party organizations, internal unrest also rose over the structure that was best suited for Soviet power. As discussed in ''What is to be Done?'', Lenin firmly believed that a rigid political structure was needed to effectively initiate a formal revolution. This idea was met with opposition from his once close followers including Julius Martov, Georgy Plekhanov, Leon Trotsky, and Pavel Axelrod.> Georgy Plekhanov and Lenin's major dispute arose addressing the topic of nationalizing land or leaving it for private use. Lenin wanted to nationalize to aid in collectivization. Plekhanov thought worker motivation would remain higher if individuals were able to maintain their own property. Those who opposed Lenin and wanted to continue on the Marxist path towards complete socialism and disagreed with his strict party membership guidelines became known as \"softs\" while Lenin supporters became known as \"hards.\"\n\nThe base of active and experienced members would be the recruiting ground for this professional core. Sympathizers would be left outside and the party would be organised based on the concept of democratic centralism. Martov, until then a close friend of Lenin, agreed with him that the core of the party should consist of professional revolutionaries, but argued that party membership should be open to sympathizers, revolutionary workers and other fellow travelers.\n\nThe two had disagreed on the issue as early as March–May 1903, but it was not until the Congress that their differences became irreconcilable and split the party. At first the disagreement appeared to be minor and inspired by personal conflicts. For example, Lenin's insistence on dropping less active editorial board members from ''Iskra'' or Martov's support for the Organizing Committee of the Congress which Lenin opposed, The differences quickly grew and the split became irreparable.\n\n===Origins of the name===\nThe two factions were originally known as \"hard\" (Lenin's supporters) and \"soft\" (Martov's supporters). Soon, however, the terminology changed to \"Bolsheviks\" and \"Mensheviks\", from the Russian \"bolshinstvo\" (majority) and \"menshinstvo\" (minority). On the other hand, Martov's supporters won the vote concerning the question of party membership. Neither Lenin nor Martov had a firm majority throughout the Congress as delegates left or switched sides. At the end, the Congress was evenly split between the two factions.\n\nFrom 1907 on, English language articles sometimes used the term \"Maximalist\" for \"Bolshevik\" and \"Minimalist\" for \"Menshevik\", which proved confusing since there was also a \"Maximalist\" faction within the Russian Socialist-Revolutionary Party in 1904–06 (which after 1906 formed a separate Union of Socialists-Revolutionaries Maximalists) and then again after 1917.\n\n===Composition of the party===\nThe average party member was very young. In 1907, 22% of Bolsheviks were under 20, 37% were 20–24 and 16% were 25–29. By 1905, 62% of the members were industrial workers (3% of the population in 1897). 22% of Bolsheviks were gentry (1.7% of the total population), 38% were uprooted peasants, compared with 19% and 26% for the Mensheviks. In 1907, 78.3% of the Bolsheviks were Russian and 10% were Jewish (34% and 20% for the Mensheviks). Total membership was 8,400 in 1905, 13,000 in 1906 and 46,100 by 1907 (8,400, 18,000, 38,200 respectively for the Mensheviks). By 1910, both factions together had fewer than 10,000 members.\n\n===Beginning of the 1905 Revolution (1903–1905)===\nThe two factions were in a state of flux in 1903–04 with many members changing sides. The founder of Russian Marxism, Georgy Plekhanov, who was at first allied with Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks, parted ways with them by 1904. Leon Trotsky at first supported the Mensheviks, but left them in September 1904 over their insistence on an alliance with Russian liberals and their opposition to a reconciliation with Lenin and the Bolsheviks. He remained a self-described \"non-factional social democrat\" until August 1917 when he joined Lenin and the Bolsheviks as their positions assembled and he came to believe that Lenin was right on the issue of the party.\n\nAll but one member of the Central Committee were arrested in Moscow in early 1905. The remaining member, with the power of appointing a new one, was won over by the Bolsheviks.\n\nThe lines between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks hardened in April 1905 when the Bolsheviks held a Bolsheviks-only meeting in London, which they called the Third Party Congress. The Mensheviks organised a rival conference and the split was thus formalised.\n\nThe Bolsheviks played a relatively minor role in the 1905 Revolution, and were a minority in the Saint Petersburg Soviet of Workers' Deputies led by Trotsky. The less significant Moscow Soviet, however, was dominated by the Bolsheviks. These soviets became the model for those formed in 1917.\n\n===The Mensheviks (\"The minority\") (1906–1907)===\n\nAs the Russian Revolution of 1905 progressed, Bolsheviks, Mensheviks and smaller non-Russian social democratic parties operating within the Russian Empire attempted to reunify at the Fourth (Unification) Congress of the RSDLP held at Folkets hus, Norra Bantorget in Stockholm, April 1906. When the Mensheviks struck an alliance with the Jewish Bund, the Bolsheviks found themselves in a minority.\n\nHowever, all factions retained their respective factional structure and the Bolsheviks formed the Bolshevik Centre, the de facto governing body of the Bolshevik faction within the RSDLP. At the Fifth Congress held in London in May 1907, the Bolsheviks were in the majority, but the two factions continued functioning mostly independently of each other.\n\n===Split between Lenin and Bogdanov (1908–10)===\nTensions had existed between Lenin and Bogdanov as early as 1904: Lenin had fallen out with Nikolai Valentinov, after the latter had introduced him to Ernst Mach's Empiriocriticism, a viewpoint that Bogdanov had been exploring and developing as Empiriomonism. Having worked as co-editor with Plekhanov on ''Zayra'' he had come to agree with the latter's rejection of Bogdanov's Empiriomonism. With the defeat of the revolution in mid-1907 and the adoption of a new, highly restrictive election law, the Bolsheviks began debating whether to boycott the new parliament known as the Third Duma. Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev and others argued for participating in the Duma while Alexander Bogdanov, Anatoly Lunacharsky, Mikhail Pokrovsky and others argued that the social democratic faction in the Duma should be recalled. The latter became known as recallists (\"otzovists\" in Russian). A smaller group within the Bolshevik faction demanded that the RSDLP central committee should give its sometimes unruly Duma faction an ultimatum, demanding complete subordination to all party decisions. This group became known as \"ultimatists\" and was generally allied with the recallists.\n\nWith most Bolshevik leaders either supporting Bogdanov or undecided by mid-1908 when the differences became irreconcilable, Lenin concentrated on undermining Bogdanov's reputation as a philosopher. In 1909, he published a scathing book of criticism entitled ''Materialism and Empirio-criticism'' (1909), assaulting Bogdanov's position and accusing him of philosophical idealism. In June 1909, Bogdanov proposed the formation of Party Schools as \"Proletarian Universities\" at a Bolshevik mini-conference in Paris organised by the editorial board of the Bolshevik magazine ''Proletary'' in June 1909. However, this was not accepted and Lenin tried to expel him from the Bolshevik faction. Bogdanov was then involved with setting up Vpered, which ran the Capri Party School from August to December 1909.\n\n===Final attempt at party unity (1910)===\nWith both Bolsheviks and Mensheviks weakened by splits within their ranks and by Tsarist repression, they were tempted to try to re-unite the party. In January 1910, Leninists, recallists and various Menshevik factions held a meeting of the party's Central Committee in Paris. Kamenev and Zinoviev were dubious about the idea, but were willing to give it a try under pressure from \"conciliator\" Bolsheviks like Victor Nogin.\n\nOne of the more underlying reasons that aided in preventing any reunification of the party was the Russian police. The police were able to infiltrate both parties' inner circles by sending in spies who then reported on the opposing party's intentions and hostilities. This allowed the tensions to remain high between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks. In turn it prevented them from uniting under common ground which could have possibly sped up the entire revolution.\n\nLenin was firmly opposed to any re-unification, but was outvoted within the Bolshevik leadership. The meeting reached a tentative agreement and one of its provisions made Trotsky's Vienna-based ''Pravda'' a party-financed 'central organ'. Kamenev, Trotsky's brother-in-law, was added to the editorial board from the Bolsheviks, but the unification attempts failed in August 1910 when Kamenev resigned from the board amid mutual recriminations.\n\n===Forming a separate party (1912)===\nThe factions permanently broke off relations in January 1912 after the Bolsheviks organised a Bolsheviks-only Prague Party Conference and formally expelled Mensheviks and recallists from the party. As a result, they ceased to be a faction in the RSDLP and instead declared themselves an independent party, called '''Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (bolsheviks)''' – or RSDLP(b). Unofficially the Party has been referred to as the \"Bolshevik Party\". Throughout the century, the Party adopted a number of different names. In 1918, RSDLP(b) became '''(All-)Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks)''' and remained so until 1925. From 1925–52 the name was '''All-Union Communist Party (bolsheviks)''', and from 1952–1991 '''Communist Party of the Soviet Union'''.\n\nAs the party split became permanent and politically recognized in 1912 due to an all Bolshevik meeting of Congress further divisions became evident. One of the most notable differences was how each faction decided to fund its revolution. The Mensheviks decided to fund their revolution through membership dues while Lenin often resorted to much more drastic measures since he required a higher budget. One of the common methods the Bolsheviks used was committing bank robberies, one of which in 1907 resulted in the party gaining over 250,000 rubles which is the equivalent of about $125,000. Bolsheviks were in constant need of money because Lenin practiced his beliefs exercised in his writings that revolutions must be led by individuals who devote their entire life to the cause. To compensate he awarded them with salaries for their sacrifice and dedication. This measure was taken to help ensure that the revolutionists stayed focused on their duties and motivated them to perform their jobs. Lenin also used the party money to print and copy pamphlets which were distributed in cities and at political rallies in attempts to expand their operations. This was an obvious difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks party beliefs. Both factions also managed to gain funds simply by receiving donations from wealthy supporters.\n\nFurther differences in party agendas became evident as the beginning of World War I loomed near. Stalin was especially eager for the start of the war, hoping that it would turn into a war between classes or essentially a Russian Civil War. This desire for war was fueled by Lenin's vision that the workers and peasants would resist joining the war effort, and therefore be more compelled to join the socialist movement. Through the increase in support Russia would then be forced to withdraw from the Allied Powers in order to resolve her internal conflict. Unfortunately for the Bolsheviks, Lenin's assumptions were incorrect and despite his and the party's attempts to push for a civil war through involvement in two conferences in 1915 and 1916 in Switzerland the party remained in the minority in calling for the ceasefire by the Russian Army in World War I.\n\t\nAlthough the Bolshevik leadership decided to form a separate party, convincing pro-Bolshevik workers within Russia to follow suit proved difficult. When the first meeting of the Fourth Duma was convened in late 1912, only one out of six Bolshevik deputies, Matvei Muranov, (another one, Roman Malinovsky, was later exposed as an Okhrana Tsarist secret police agent) voted to break away from the Menshevik faction within the Duma on 15 December 1912. The Bolshevik leadership eventually prevailed and the Bolsheviks formed their own Duma faction in September 1913.\n\nOne final difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks was simply how ferocious and tenacious the party was willing to be in order to achieve its goals. Lenin was open minded to retreating on political ideas if he saw the guarantee of long term gains benefiting the party. This practice was commonly seen trying to recruit peasants and uneducated workers by promising them how glorious life would be after the revolution. His approach was \"land seizure for the peasants and national self-determination for the minorities – as nothing more than temporary concessions.\"\n\nIn 1918, at Lenin's suggestion, the party renamed itself the ''Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)''. In 1925, this was changed to ''All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)''. In 1952, at the 19th Party Congress, according to Stalin's suggestion, the Bolshevik party was renamed the ''Communist Party of Soviet Union''.\n",
"''\"Down with Bolshevism. Bolshevism brings war and destruction, hunger and death\"'', anti-Bolshevik propaganda, Germany, 1919.\n\n\"Bolo\" was a derogatory expression for Bolsheviks used by British service personnel in the North Russian Expeditionary Force which intervened against the Red Army during the Russian Civil War. Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels, and other Nazi leaders used it in reference to the worldwide political movement coordinated by the Comintern. During the days of the Cold War in the United Kingdom, labour union leaders and other leftists were sometimes derisively described as \"Bolshies\". The usage is roughly equivalent to the term \"Commie\", \"Red\", or \"pinko\" in the United States during the same period. The term \"Bolshie\" later became a slang term for anyone who was rebellious, aggressive, or truculent.\n\n===Non-Russian/Soviet groups having used the name \"Bolshevik\"===\n*Bangladesh: Maoist Bolshevik Reorganisation Movement of the Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party\n*Burkina Faso: Burkinabé Bolshevik Party\n*India: Bolshevik Party of India\n*India/Sri Lanka: Bolshevik-Leninist Party of India, Ceylon and Burma\n*India: Revolutionary Socialist Party (Bolshevik)\n*Mexico: Bolshevik Communist Party\n*Senegal: Bolshevik Nuclei\n*Sri Lanka: Bolshevik Samasamaja Party\n*Turkey: Bolshevik Party (North Kurdistan – Turkey)\n",
"*Democratic centralism\n*Left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks\n*Leninism\n*October Revolution\n*Old Bolshevik\n*Soviet Revolutionary Communists (Bolsheviks)\n*Vladimir Lenin\n*Marxism–Leninism\n*Trotskyism\n",
"\n",
"\n\n===Sources===\n* .\n* .\n* .\n",
"\n\n*.\n*.\n*.\n by Bertrand Russell, November 1920\n*.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History of the split",
"Derogatory usage of \"Bolshevik\"",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Bolsheviks | [
"One of the common methods the Bolsheviks used was committing bank robberies, one of which in 1907 resulted in the party gaining over 250,000 rubles which is the equivalent of about $125,000."
] | [
"\n\nEnukidze, Kalinin, Bukharin, Tomsky, Lashevich, Kamenev, Preobrazhensky, Serebryakov, Lenin and Rykov.",
"The '''Bolsheviks''', originally also '''Bolshevists''' or '''Bolsheviki''' (; derived from большинство ''bol'shinstvo'', \"majority\", literally meaning \"one of the majority\") were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903.",
"The RSDLP was a revolutionary socialist political party formed in 1898 in Minsk in Belarus to unite the various revolutionary organisations of the Russian Empire into one party.",
"In the Second Party Congress vote, the Bolsheviks won on the majority of important issues, hence their name.",
"They ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.",
"The Bolsheviks or Reds came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR).",
"With the Reds defeating the Whites, and others during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union in December 1922.",
"The Bolsheviks, founded by Vladimir Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov, were by 1905 a major organization consisting primarily of workers under a democratic internal hierarchy governed by the principle of democratic centralism, who considered themselves the leaders of the revolutionary working class of Russia.",
"Their beliefs and practices were often referred to as '''Bolshevism'''.",
"\nBoris Kustodiev's 1920 painting \"''Bolshevik''\"\nIn the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, held in Brussels and London during August 1903, Lenin and Julius Martov disagreed over the membership rules.",
"Lenin wanted members \"who recognise the Party Programme and support it by material means and by personal participation in one of the party's organisations.\"",
"Julius Martov suggested \"by regular personal assistance under the direction of one of the party's organisations.\"",
"Lenin advocated limiting party membership to a smaller core of active members, as opposed to \"card carriers\" who might only be active in party branches from time to time or not at all.",
"This active base would develop the cadre, a core of \"professional revolutionaries\", consisting of loyal communists who would spend most of their time organising the party toward a mass revolutionary party capable of leading a workers' revolution against the Tsarist autocracy.",
"A main source of the factions could be directly attributed to Lenin's steadfast opinion and unwillingness to \"bear opinions which were contrary to his own\".",
"It was obvious at early stages in Lenin's revolutionary practices that he would not be willing to concede on any party policy that conflicted with his own predetermined ideas.",
"It was the loyalty that he had to his own self-envisioned utopia that caused the party split.",
"He was seen even by fellow party members as being so narrow minded that he believed that there were only two types of people: \"Friend and enemy—those who followed him, and all the rest.\"",
"Leon Trotsky, one of Lenin's fellow revolutionaries (though they had differing views as to how the revolution and party should be handled), compared Lenin in 1904 to the French revolutionary Robespierre.",
"Lenin's view of politics as verbal and ideological warfare and his inability to accept criticism even if it came from his own dedicated followers was the reason behind this accusation.",
"The root of the split was a book titled ''What is to be Done?''",
"that Lenin wrote while serving a sentence of exile.",
"In Germany, the book was published in 1902; in Russia, strict censorship outlawed its publication and distribution.",
"One of the main points of Lenin's writing was that a revolution can only be achieved by the strong leadership of one person (or of a very select few people) over the masses.",
"After the proposed revolution had successfully overthrown the government, this individual leader must release power, to allow socialism to fully encompass the nation.",
"Lenin also wrote that revolutionary leaders must dedicate their entire lives to the cause in order for it to be successful.",
"Lenin said that if professional revolutionaries did not maintain control over the workers then they would lose sight of the party's objective and adopt opposing beliefs, and even abandon the revolution entirely.",
"Lenin's view of a socialist intelligentsia showed that he was not a complete supporter of Marxist theory, which also created some party unrest.",
"For example, Lenin agreed with the Marxist idea of eliminating social classes, but in his utopian society there would still be visible distinctions between those in politics and the common worker.",
"Most party members considered unequal treatment of workers immoral, and were loyal to the idea of a completely classless society, so Lenin's variations caused the party internal dissonance.",
"Although the party split of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks would not become official until 1903, the differences originally began to surface with the publication of ''What is to be Done?''.",
"Through the influence of the book, Lenin also undermined another group of reformers known as \"Economists\", who were pushing for economic reform while wanting to leave the government relatively unchanged, and who failed to recognize the importance of uniting the working population behind the party's cause.",
"Other than the debate between Lenin and Julius Martov; Lenin felt membership should require support of the Party program, financial contributions, and finally involvement in a Party organization whereas Martov didn't see the need for joining Party organizations, internal unrest also rose over the structure that was best suited for Soviet power.",
"As discussed in ''What is to be Done?",
"'', Lenin firmly believed that a rigid political structure was needed to effectively initiate a formal revolution.",
"This idea was met with opposition from his once close followers including Julius Martov, Georgy Plekhanov, Leon Trotsky, and Pavel Axelrod.> Georgy Plekhanov and Lenin's major dispute arose addressing the topic of nationalizing land or leaving it for private use.",
"Lenin wanted to nationalize to aid in collectivization.",
"Plekhanov thought worker motivation would remain higher if individuals were able to maintain their own property.",
"Those who opposed Lenin and wanted to continue on the Marxist path towards complete socialism and disagreed with his strict party membership guidelines became known as \"softs\" while Lenin supporters became known as \"hards.\"",
"The base of active and experienced members would be the recruiting ground for this professional core.",
"Sympathizers would be left outside and the party would be organised based on the concept of democratic centralism.",
"Martov, until then a close friend of Lenin, agreed with him that the core of the party should consist of professional revolutionaries, but argued that party membership should be open to sympathizers, revolutionary workers and other fellow travelers.",
"The two had disagreed on the issue as early as March–May 1903, but it was not until the Congress that their differences became irreconcilable and split the party.",
"At first the disagreement appeared to be minor and inspired by personal conflicts.",
"For example, Lenin's insistence on dropping less active editorial board members from ''Iskra'' or Martov's support for the Organizing Committee of the Congress which Lenin opposed, The differences quickly grew and the split became irreparable.",
"===Origins of the name===\nThe two factions were originally known as \"hard\" (Lenin's supporters) and \"soft\" (Martov's supporters).",
"Soon, however, the terminology changed to \"Bolsheviks\" and \"Mensheviks\", from the Russian \"bolshinstvo\" (majority) and \"menshinstvo\" (minority).",
"On the other hand, Martov's supporters won the vote concerning the question of party membership.",
"Neither Lenin nor Martov had a firm majority throughout the Congress as delegates left or switched sides.",
"At the end, the Congress was evenly split between the two factions.",
"From 1907 on, English language articles sometimes used the term \"Maximalist\" for \"Bolshevik\" and \"Minimalist\" for \"Menshevik\", which proved confusing since there was also a \"Maximalist\" faction within the Russian Socialist-Revolutionary Party in 1904–06 (which after 1906 formed a separate Union of Socialists-Revolutionaries Maximalists) and then again after 1917.",
"===Composition of the party===\nThe average party member was very young.",
"In 1907, 22% of Bolsheviks were under 20, 37% were 20–24 and 16% were 25–29.",
"By 1905, 62% of the members were industrial workers (3% of the population in 1897).",
"22% of Bolsheviks were gentry (1.7% of the total population), 38% were uprooted peasants, compared with 19% and 26% for the Mensheviks.",
"In 1907, 78.3% of the Bolsheviks were Russian and 10% were Jewish (34% and 20% for the Mensheviks).",
"Total membership was 8,400 in 1905, 13,000 in 1906 and 46,100 by 1907 (8,400, 18,000, 38,200 respectively for the Mensheviks).",
"By 1910, both factions together had fewer than 10,000 members.",
"===Beginning of the 1905 Revolution (1903–1905)===\nThe two factions were in a state of flux in 1903–04 with many members changing sides.",
"The founder of Russian Marxism, Georgy Plekhanov, who was at first allied with Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks, parted ways with them by 1904.",
"Leon Trotsky at first supported the Mensheviks, but left them in September 1904 over their insistence on an alliance with Russian liberals and their opposition to a reconciliation with Lenin and the Bolsheviks.",
"He remained a self-described \"non-factional social democrat\" until August 1917 when he joined Lenin and the Bolsheviks as their positions assembled and he came to believe that Lenin was right on the issue of the party.",
"All but one member of the Central Committee were arrested in Moscow in early 1905.",
"The remaining member, with the power of appointing a new one, was won over by the Bolsheviks.",
"The lines between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks hardened in April 1905 when the Bolsheviks held a Bolsheviks-only meeting in London, which they called the Third Party Congress.",
"The Mensheviks organised a rival conference and the split was thus formalised.",
"The Bolsheviks played a relatively minor role in the 1905 Revolution, and were a minority in the Saint Petersburg Soviet of Workers' Deputies led by Trotsky.",
"The less significant Moscow Soviet, however, was dominated by the Bolsheviks.",
"These soviets became the model for those formed in 1917.",
"===The Mensheviks (\"The minority\") (1906–1907)===\n\nAs the Russian Revolution of 1905 progressed, Bolsheviks, Mensheviks and smaller non-Russian social democratic parties operating within the Russian Empire attempted to reunify at the Fourth (Unification) Congress of the RSDLP held at Folkets hus, Norra Bantorget in Stockholm, April 1906.",
"When the Mensheviks struck an alliance with the Jewish Bund, the Bolsheviks found themselves in a minority.",
"However, all factions retained their respective factional structure and the Bolsheviks formed the Bolshevik Centre, the de facto governing body of the Bolshevik faction within the RSDLP.",
"At the Fifth Congress held in London in May 1907, the Bolsheviks were in the majority, but the two factions continued functioning mostly independently of each other.",
"===Split between Lenin and Bogdanov (1908–10)===\nTensions had existed between Lenin and Bogdanov as early as 1904: Lenin had fallen out with Nikolai Valentinov, after the latter had introduced him to Ernst Mach's Empiriocriticism, a viewpoint that Bogdanov had been exploring and developing as Empiriomonism.",
"Having worked as co-editor with Plekhanov on ''Zayra'' he had come to agree with the latter's rejection of Bogdanov's Empiriomonism.",
"With the defeat of the revolution in mid-1907 and the adoption of a new, highly restrictive election law, the Bolsheviks began debating whether to boycott the new parliament known as the Third Duma.",
"Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev and others argued for participating in the Duma while Alexander Bogdanov, Anatoly Lunacharsky, Mikhail Pokrovsky and others argued that the social democratic faction in the Duma should be recalled.",
"The latter became known as recallists (\"otzovists\" in Russian).",
"A smaller group within the Bolshevik faction demanded that the RSDLP central committee should give its sometimes unruly Duma faction an ultimatum, demanding complete subordination to all party decisions.",
"This group became known as \"ultimatists\" and was generally allied with the recallists.",
"With most Bolshevik leaders either supporting Bogdanov or undecided by mid-1908 when the differences became irreconcilable, Lenin concentrated on undermining Bogdanov's reputation as a philosopher.",
"In 1909, he published a scathing book of criticism entitled ''Materialism and Empirio-criticism'' (1909), assaulting Bogdanov's position and accusing him of philosophical idealism.",
"In June 1909, Bogdanov proposed the formation of Party Schools as \"Proletarian Universities\" at a Bolshevik mini-conference in Paris organised by the editorial board of the Bolshevik magazine ''Proletary'' in June 1909.",
"However, this was not accepted and Lenin tried to expel him from the Bolshevik faction.",
"Bogdanov was then involved with setting up Vpered, which ran the Capri Party School from August to December 1909.",
"===Final attempt at party unity (1910)===\nWith both Bolsheviks and Mensheviks weakened by splits within their ranks and by Tsarist repression, they were tempted to try to re-unite the party.",
"In January 1910, Leninists, recallists and various Menshevik factions held a meeting of the party's Central Committee in Paris.",
"Kamenev and Zinoviev were dubious about the idea, but were willing to give it a try under pressure from \"conciliator\" Bolsheviks like Victor Nogin.",
"One of the more underlying reasons that aided in preventing any reunification of the party was the Russian police.",
"The police were able to infiltrate both parties' inner circles by sending in spies who then reported on the opposing party's intentions and hostilities.",
"This allowed the tensions to remain high between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.",
"In turn it prevented them from uniting under common ground which could have possibly sped up the entire revolution.",
"Lenin was firmly opposed to any re-unification, but was outvoted within the Bolshevik leadership.",
"The meeting reached a tentative agreement and one of its provisions made Trotsky's Vienna-based ''Pravda'' a party-financed 'central organ'.",
"Kamenev, Trotsky's brother-in-law, was added to the editorial board from the Bolsheviks, but the unification attempts failed in August 1910 when Kamenev resigned from the board amid mutual recriminations.",
"===Forming a separate party (1912)===\nThe factions permanently broke off relations in January 1912 after the Bolsheviks organised a Bolsheviks-only Prague Party Conference and formally expelled Mensheviks and recallists from the party.",
"As a result, they ceased to be a faction in the RSDLP and instead declared themselves an independent party, called '''Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (bolsheviks)''' – or RSDLP(b).",
"Unofficially the Party has been referred to as the \"Bolshevik Party\".",
"Throughout the century, the Party adopted a number of different names.",
"In 1918, RSDLP(b) became '''(All-)Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks)''' and remained so until 1925.",
"From 1925–52 the name was '''All-Union Communist Party (bolsheviks)''', and from 1952–1991 '''Communist Party of the Soviet Union'''.",
"As the party split became permanent and politically recognized in 1912 due to an all Bolshevik meeting of Congress further divisions became evident.",
"One of the most notable differences was how each faction decided to fund its revolution.",
"The Mensheviks decided to fund their revolution through membership dues while Lenin often resorted to much more drastic measures since he required a higher budget.",
"Bolsheviks were in constant need of money because Lenin practiced his beliefs exercised in his writings that revolutions must be led by individuals who devote their entire life to the cause.",
"To compensate he awarded them with salaries for their sacrifice and dedication.",
"This measure was taken to help ensure that the revolutionists stayed focused on their duties and motivated them to perform their jobs.",
"Lenin also used the party money to print and copy pamphlets which were distributed in cities and at political rallies in attempts to expand their operations.",
"This was an obvious difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks party beliefs.",
"Both factions also managed to gain funds simply by receiving donations from wealthy supporters.",
"Further differences in party agendas became evident as the beginning of World War I loomed near.",
"Stalin was especially eager for the start of the war, hoping that it would turn into a war between classes or essentially a Russian Civil War.",
"This desire for war was fueled by Lenin's vision that the workers and peasants would resist joining the war effort, and therefore be more compelled to join the socialist movement.",
"Through the increase in support Russia would then be forced to withdraw from the Allied Powers in order to resolve her internal conflict.",
"Unfortunately for the Bolsheviks, Lenin's assumptions were incorrect and despite his and the party's attempts to push for a civil war through involvement in two conferences in 1915 and 1916 in Switzerland the party remained in the minority in calling for the ceasefire by the Russian Army in World War I.",
"Although the Bolshevik leadership decided to form a separate party, convincing pro-Bolshevik workers within Russia to follow suit proved difficult.",
"When the first meeting of the Fourth Duma was convened in late 1912, only one out of six Bolshevik deputies, Matvei Muranov, (another one, Roman Malinovsky, was later exposed as an Okhrana Tsarist secret police agent) voted to break away from the Menshevik faction within the Duma on 15 December 1912.",
"The Bolshevik leadership eventually prevailed and the Bolsheviks formed their own Duma faction in September 1913.",
"One final difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks was simply how ferocious and tenacious the party was willing to be in order to achieve its goals.",
"Lenin was open minded to retreating on political ideas if he saw the guarantee of long term gains benefiting the party.",
"This practice was commonly seen trying to recruit peasants and uneducated workers by promising them how glorious life would be after the revolution.",
"His approach was \"land seizure for the peasants and national self-determination for the minorities – as nothing more than temporary concessions.\"",
"In 1918, at Lenin's suggestion, the party renamed itself the ''Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)''.",
"In 1925, this was changed to ''All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)''.",
"In 1952, at the 19th Party Congress, according to Stalin's suggestion, the Bolshevik party was renamed the ''Communist Party of Soviet Union''.",
"''\"Down with Bolshevism.",
"Bolshevism brings war and destruction, hunger and death\"'', anti-Bolshevik propaganda, Germany, 1919.",
"\"Bolo\" was a derogatory expression for Bolsheviks used by British service personnel in the North Russian Expeditionary Force which intervened against the Red Army during the Russian Civil War.",
"Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels, and other Nazi leaders used it in reference to the worldwide political movement coordinated by the Comintern.",
"During the days of the Cold War in the United Kingdom, labour union leaders and other leftists were sometimes derisively described as \"Bolshies\".",
"The usage is roughly equivalent to the term \"Commie\", \"Red\", or \"pinko\" in the United States during the same period.",
"The term \"Bolshie\" later became a slang term for anyone who was rebellious, aggressive, or truculent.",
"===Non-Russian/Soviet groups having used the name \"Bolshevik\"===\n*Bangladesh: Maoist Bolshevik Reorganisation Movement of the Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party\n*Burkina Faso: Burkinabé Bolshevik Party\n*India: Bolshevik Party of India\n*India/Sri Lanka: Bolshevik-Leninist Party of India, Ceylon and Burma\n*India: Revolutionary Socialist Party (Bolshevik)\n*Mexico: Bolshevik Communist Party\n*Senegal: Bolshevik Nuclei\n*Sri Lanka: Bolshevik Samasamaja Party\n*Turkey: Bolshevik Party (North Kurdistan – Turkey)",
"*Democratic centralism\n*Left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks\n*Leninism\n*October Revolution\n*Old Bolshevik\n*Soviet Revolutionary Communists (Bolsheviks)\n*Vladimir Lenin\n*Marxism–Leninism\n*Trotskyism",
"\n\n===Sources===\n* .",
"* .",
"* .",
"\n\n*.",
"*.",
"*.",
"by Bertrand Russell, November 1920\n*."
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\nPolish Knights 1447-1492\n\nThe '''Battle of Świecino''' (named for the village of Świecino, near Żarnowiec Lake, northern Poland) also called the '''Battle of Żarnowiec''' or in German '''Battle of Schwetz''', took place on September 17, 1462 during the Thirteen Years' War. The Poles commanded by Piotr Dunin, consisting of some 2000 mercenares and Poles, decisively defeated the 2700 man army of the Teutonic Knights commanded by Fritz Raweneck and Kaspar Nostyc. Auxiliary forces sent by duke Eric II of Pomerania, an ally of the Polish king, did not enter the battle.\n",
"The Polish forces consisted mostly of the mercenaries hired by the Polish king, Casimir IV the Jagiellon and the city of Danzig (Gdańsk). This army included 1000 cavalry, of which 112 were heavy cavalry, and another 1000 of infantry. 1000 cavalry and 400 infantry were mercenaries hired by Polish king, while the rest were units from Danzig (Gdańsk).\n",
"Most of the Teutonic army, under the command of Fritz Raweneck and Kaspar Nostyc, were troops gathered from the nearby castles Mewe (Gniew), Stargard (Starogard Gdański), Nowe, Skarszewy and Kiszewy. This army totalled 1000 cavalry and 400 infantry. Raweneck also had the supply chain (tabors), cannons and up to 1300 auxiliary infantry of Pomeranian peasants, used mainly for fortification works.\n",
"The battle started in the evening. Adopting a relatively new tactic, Polish units built a fortified camp on the Hussite model consisting of wagons linked by a chain surrounded by a deep ditch (tabor). The units of Raveneck and his subordinate, Kaspar Nostyc (commander from Conitz (Chojnice) also created a tabor. Piotr Dunin decided not to wait for the enemy and attacked first, setting infantry with crossbows on the left, defended by cavalry between the tabor and the coast of the nearby lake of Rogoźnica. Raveneck placed cavalry in front of his tabor, and infantry behind it, without any strategic plan. The first phase of the battle was started by a charge of Polish heavy cavalry under Paweł Jasieński. Fierce fighting continued for three hours and ended without a clear winner. After a short pause at midday, Teutonic units were able to push the Poles back; however, they found themselves under very heavy fire from crossbows of the Polish infantry, which caused huge losses and a withdrawal. During this fight Raveneck was wounded. He stopped his soldiers and tried to attack again, but this charge ended with a total defeat - Raveneck died and the rest of the cavalry surrendered or escaped. The Teutonic infantry tried to defend themselves at the tabor but its resistance was broken by a quick attack of Polish cavalry.\n",
"The Teutonic Order's army lost around 1000 soldiers, including some 300 cavalrymen. Fifty soldiers were captured. The Teutonic commander was also killed in battle and was buried in the Żarnowiec chapter church.\n\nThe Poles lost just 100 soldiers, although 150 later died from their wounds. Among the dead on the Polish side was Maciej Hagen from Gdańsk. Piotr Dunin was wounded twice.\n",
"The direct result of the battle of Świecino was that the city of Danzig and Pomerania were freed from the danger of an attack by the Teutonic Order. As a result, the royal and municipal armed forces could be used elsewhere in the war, mainly to protect the Vistula waterway and to capture the Teutonic held strongholds. This way that Teutonic forces in Prussia on the right bank of Vistula were cut off from supplies from Western Europe.\n\nThe psychological significance of the battle was that this was the first open field battle won by the royal forces, so it increased the morale of the Polish forces and lowered the morale of the Teutonic Knights. Many military historians say that the battle of Świecino was the turning point of the Thirteen Years' War, leading to the final Polish victory in 1466.\n",
"* Świecino near Żarnowiec Lake\n* Malbork Castle - Battle of Świecino\n",
"* Janusz Sikorski, ''Zarys historii wojskowości powszechnej do końca wieku XIX. Universal history of military operations till 1900'', Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny, Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 1972. - description of the battle of Świecino: pp. 287–288, map of the battle of Świecino: p. 288\n* Janusz Sikorski (ed.), Wiesław Majewski, Tadeusz Marian Nowak, Jerzy Teodorczyk, ''Polskie tradycje wojskowe. Tradycje walk obronnych z najazdami Niemców, Krzyżaków, Szwedów, Turków i Tatarów X-XVII w. Polish military traditions. Tradition of defence struggles with the invasions of the Germans, Teutonic Knights, Swedes, Turks and Tartars in 10th-17th centuries''. Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny, Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 1990. - description of the battle of Świecino: p. 127, map of the battle of Świecino: p. 114\n* Stanisław Herbst, ''Wojna Trzynastoletnia - O bitwie pod Świecinem. The Thirteen Years' War - About the Battle of Świecino'', Przegląd Historyczno-Wojskowy, vol. 7: 1934/1935, issue 2, pp. 309–311, reprinted in: Stanisław Herbst, ''Potrzeba historii czyli o polskim stylu życia. Wybór pism.'' Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, Warszawa 1978\n* K. Górski, ''Pomorze w dobie wojny trzynastoletniej. Pomerania during the Thirteen Years' War'', Poznań 1932 - description and 3 maps of the battle of Świecino: p. 308\n* Marian Biskup, ''Druga faza wojny trzynastoletniej (1462-1466). Second phase of the Thirteen Years' War 1462-1466'', in: Gerard Labuda (ed.), ''Historia Pomorza. History of Pomerania'', Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, Poznań 1972, - description of the battle of Świecino: p. 738\n* ''Świecino'', in: Róża Ostrowska, Izabela Trojanowska, ''Bedeker Kaszubski'', Wydawcnictwo Morskie, Gdańsk 1974\n* ''Świecino'', in: Tadeusz Bolduan, ''Nowy bedeker kaszubski'', Gdańsk 1997\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Polish forces",
"Teutonic forces",
"Battle",
"Casualties",
"Aftermath",
"External links",
"References"
] | Battle of Świecino | [
"This way that Teutonic forces in Prussia on the right bank of Vistula were cut off from supplies from Western Europe."
] | [
"\n\n\nPolish Knights 1447-1492\n\nThe '''Battle of Świecino''' (named for the village of Świecino, near Żarnowiec Lake, northern Poland) also called the '''Battle of Żarnowiec''' or in German '''Battle of Schwetz''', took place on September 17, 1462 during the Thirteen Years' War.",
"The Poles commanded by Piotr Dunin, consisting of some 2000 mercenares and Poles, decisively defeated the 2700 man army of the Teutonic Knights commanded by Fritz Raweneck and Kaspar Nostyc.",
"Auxiliary forces sent by duke Eric II of Pomerania, an ally of the Polish king, did not enter the battle.",
"The Polish forces consisted mostly of the mercenaries hired by the Polish king, Casimir IV the Jagiellon and the city of Danzig (Gdańsk).",
"This army included 1000 cavalry, of which 112 were heavy cavalry, and another 1000 of infantry.",
"1000 cavalry and 400 infantry were mercenaries hired by Polish king, while the rest were units from Danzig (Gdańsk).",
"Most of the Teutonic army, under the command of Fritz Raweneck and Kaspar Nostyc, were troops gathered from the nearby castles Mewe (Gniew), Stargard (Starogard Gdański), Nowe, Skarszewy and Kiszewy.",
"This army totalled 1000 cavalry and 400 infantry.",
"Raweneck also had the supply chain (tabors), cannons and up to 1300 auxiliary infantry of Pomeranian peasants, used mainly for fortification works.",
"The battle started in the evening.",
"Adopting a relatively new tactic, Polish units built a fortified camp on the Hussite model consisting of wagons linked by a chain surrounded by a deep ditch (tabor).",
"The units of Raveneck and his subordinate, Kaspar Nostyc (commander from Conitz (Chojnice) also created a tabor.",
"Piotr Dunin decided not to wait for the enemy and attacked first, setting infantry with crossbows on the left, defended by cavalry between the tabor and the coast of the nearby lake of Rogoźnica.",
"Raveneck placed cavalry in front of his tabor, and infantry behind it, without any strategic plan.",
"The first phase of the battle was started by a charge of Polish heavy cavalry under Paweł Jasieński.",
"Fierce fighting continued for three hours and ended without a clear winner.",
"After a short pause at midday, Teutonic units were able to push the Poles back; however, they found themselves under very heavy fire from crossbows of the Polish infantry, which caused huge losses and a withdrawal.",
"During this fight Raveneck was wounded.",
"He stopped his soldiers and tried to attack again, but this charge ended with a total defeat - Raveneck died and the rest of the cavalry surrendered or escaped.",
"The Teutonic infantry tried to defend themselves at the tabor but its resistance was broken by a quick attack of Polish cavalry.",
"The Teutonic Order's army lost around 1000 soldiers, including some 300 cavalrymen.",
"Fifty soldiers were captured.",
"The Teutonic commander was also killed in battle and was buried in the Żarnowiec chapter church.",
"The Poles lost just 100 soldiers, although 150 later died from their wounds.",
"Among the dead on the Polish side was Maciej Hagen from Gdańsk.",
"Piotr Dunin was wounded twice.",
"The direct result of the battle of Świecino was that the city of Danzig and Pomerania were freed from the danger of an attack by the Teutonic Order.",
"As a result, the royal and municipal armed forces could be used elsewhere in the war, mainly to protect the Vistula waterway and to capture the Teutonic held strongholds.",
"The psychological significance of the battle was that this was the first open field battle won by the royal forces, so it increased the morale of the Polish forces and lowered the morale of the Teutonic Knights.",
"Many military historians say that the battle of Świecino was the turning point of the Thirteen Years' War, leading to the final Polish victory in 1466.",
"* Świecino near Żarnowiec Lake\n* Malbork Castle - Battle of Świecino",
"* Janusz Sikorski, ''Zarys historii wojskowości powszechnej do końca wieku XIX.",
"Universal history of military operations till 1900'', Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny, Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 1972.",
"- description of the battle of Świecino: pp.",
"287–288, map of the battle of Świecino: p. 288\n* Janusz Sikorski (ed.",
"), Wiesław Majewski, Tadeusz Marian Nowak, Jerzy Teodorczyk, ''Polskie tradycje wojskowe.",
"Tradycje walk obronnych z najazdami Niemców, Krzyżaków, Szwedów, Turków i Tatarów X-XVII w. Polish military traditions.",
"Tradition of defence struggles with the invasions of the Germans, Teutonic Knights, Swedes, Turks and Tartars in 10th-17th centuries''.",
"Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny, Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 1990.",
"- description of the battle of Świecino: p. 127, map of the battle of Świecino: p. 114\n* Stanisław Herbst, ''Wojna Trzynastoletnia - O bitwie pod Świecinem.",
"The Thirteen Years' War - About the Battle of Świecino'', Przegląd Historyczno-Wojskowy, vol.",
"7: 1934/1935, issue 2, pp.",
"309–311, reprinted in: Stanisław Herbst, ''Potrzeba historii czyli o polskim stylu życia.",
"Wybór pism.''",
"Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, Warszawa 1978\n* K. Górski, ''Pomorze w dobie wojny trzynastoletniej.",
"Pomerania during the Thirteen Years' War'', Poznań 1932 - description and 3 maps of the battle of Świecino: p. 308\n* Marian Biskup, ''Druga faza wojny trzynastoletniej (1462-1466).",
"Second phase of the Thirteen Years' War 1462-1466'', in: Gerard Labuda (ed.",
"), ''Historia Pomorza.",
"History of Pomerania'', Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, Poznań 1972, - description of the battle of Świecino: p. 738\n* ''Świecino'', in: Róża Ostrowska, Izabela Trojanowska, ''Bedeker Kaszubski'', Wydawcnictwo Morskie, Gdańsk 1974\n* ''Świecino'', in: Tadeusz Bolduan, ''Nowy bedeker kaszubski'', Gdańsk 1997"
] | river |
[
"\n'''BND''' may refer to:\n",
"* Federal Intelligence Service (Germany) (''''), the foreign intelligence agency of Germany\n* Bank of North Dakota, a state-owned and -run financial institution, based in Bismarck, North Dakota, US\n* Bulgarian New Democracy (), a Bulgarian centre-right political party\n* VID (company) (), a Russian TV company\n",
"* Buy Nothing Day, an international day of protest against consumerism\n* Brunei dollar (ISO 4217 currency code BND), the currency of the Sultanate of Brunei since 1967\n* BTEC National Diploma, a further-education qualification in most of the United Kingdom\n* Brandon railway station (National Rail station code BND), Suffolk, England\n* \"BND\", a song on the album ''No Doubt'' by No Doubt\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Organisations",
"Other uses"
] | BND | [
"* Federal Intelligence Service (Germany) (''''), the foreign intelligence agency of Germany\n* Bank of North Dakota, a state-owned and -run financial institution, based in Bismarck, North Dakota, US\n* Bulgarian New Democracy (), a Bulgarian centre-right political party\n* VID (company) (), a Russian TV company"
] | [
"\n'''BND''' may refer to:",
"* Buy Nothing Day, an international day of protest against consumerism\n* Brunei dollar (ISO 4217 currency code BND), the currency of the Sultanate of Brunei since 1967\n* BTEC National Diploma, a further-education qualification in most of the United Kingdom\n* Brandon railway station (National Rail station code BND), Suffolk, England\n* \"BND\", a song on the album ''No Doubt'' by No Doubt"
] | finance |
[
"'''BMI''' may refer to:\n* Body mass index, to categorize a person by weight\n\n",
"* Central Illinois Regional Airport, IATA code\n* BMI Healthcare, UK\n* British Midland International, a UK airline incorporated into BA\n** Bmibaby.com, former airline, BMI subsidiary\n** BMI Regional airline, formerly a BMI subsidiary\n* BMI Research, a research firm\n* Baltimore Museum of Industry\n* Bank Melli Iran\n* Birmingham and Midland Institute, England\n* Bundesministerium des Innern, the German Federal Ministry of the Interior\n* Bureau of Military Information, US Civil War agency\n",
"* BMI Gaming or BMI Worldwide, an amusement products firm\n* ''Best Motoring International'', a Japanese magazine\n* Broadcast Music, Inc., a collecting society for composers' copyrights\n** BMI Foundation, founded by Broadcast Music Incorporated\n",
"* Bit Manipulation Instruction Sets for x86 microprocessors.\n* Brain Machine Interface\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Companies and organizations ",
" Art, media, and entertainment ",
" Other uses "
] | BMI | [
"* Central Illinois Regional Airport, IATA code\n* BMI Healthcare, UK\n* British Midland International, a UK airline incorporated into BA\n** Bmibaby.com, former airline, BMI subsidiary\n** BMI Regional airline, formerly a BMI subsidiary\n* BMI Research, a research firm\n* Baltimore Museum of Industry\n* Bank Melli Iran\n* Birmingham and Midland Institute, England\n* Bundesministerium des Innern, the German Federal Ministry of the Interior\n* Bureau of Military Information, US Civil War agency"
] | [
"'''BMI''' may refer to:\n* Body mass index, to categorize a person by weight",
"* BMI Gaming or BMI Worldwide, an amusement products firm\n* ''Best Motoring International'', a Japanese magazine\n* Broadcast Music, Inc., a collecting society for composers' copyrights\n** BMI Foundation, founded by Broadcast Music Incorporated",
"* Bit Manipulation Instruction Sets for x86 microprocessors.",
"* Brain Machine Interface"
] | river |
[
"'''BSA''' may refer to:\n\n",
"\n* Bearing Specialists Association\n* Belarusian Socialist Assembly\n* Bhutan Scouts Association\n* Bibliographical Society of America\n* Birmingham Small Arms Company (also known as BSA), a British manufacturer of military and civilian firearms and vehicles including motorcycles\n* Boston Society of Architects, Boston Chapter of the American Institute of Architects (AIA)\n* Botanical Society of America\n* The Botswana Scouts Association\n* Boy Scouts of America\n* British Social Attitudes Survey, annual statistical survey conducted in Britain by NatCen Social Research since 1983\n* British Sandwich Association\n* British Science Association, a trading name for the British Association for the Advancement of Science\n* British Social Attitudes\n* British Sociological Association\n* British South Africa Company\n* British Speleological Association\n* British Stammering Association\n* Broadcasting Service Association, Australian radio affiliation which became the Macquarie Broadcasting Network\n* BSA Company, motorcycle manufacturer\n* Building Societies Association\n* Business Services Association, the body representing UK outsourced service providers\n* Business Software Alliance\n* Business Systems Analyst, specializing in the analysis of various business technology and protocol.\n",
"* Base Station Almanac - a cellular providers list of base station locations used in location-based services\n* Bethesda Softworks Archive, a common extension used by this company for the data needed by its games\n",
"* Bank Secrecy Act\n* Brazilian Space Agency\n* Broadcasting Standards Authority\n",
"* Bosnian Serb Army – Army of the Republika Srpska\n* Bronze service arrowhead, properly known as the arrowhead device, an insignia of the United States Army\n",
"* Baltimore School for the Arts\n* Birmingham School of Acting\n* British School at Athens\n* British School of Alexandria\n",
"\n* Behavioral systems analysis\n* Bis(trimethylsilyl)acetamide\n* Body surface area\n* Bovine serum albumin, used as a standard for protein assay curves\n",
"\n* Bachelor of Science in Agriculture, B.S.A.\n",
"\n\n* BSA Bantam\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Businesses and organizations ",
"Computing and technology",
"Government and laws",
"Military",
"Schools",
" Science and medicine ",
" Other uses ",
" See also "
] | BSA | [
"* Bank Secrecy Act\n* Brazilian Space Agency\n* Broadcasting Standards Authority"
] | [
"'''BSA''' may refer to:",
"\n* Bearing Specialists Association\n* Belarusian Socialist Assembly\n* Bhutan Scouts Association\n* Bibliographical Society of America\n* Birmingham Small Arms Company (also known as BSA), a British manufacturer of military and civilian firearms and vehicles including motorcycles\n* Boston Society of Architects, Boston Chapter of the American Institute of Architects (AIA)\n* Botanical Society of America\n* The Botswana Scouts Association\n* Boy Scouts of America\n* British Social Attitudes Survey, annual statistical survey conducted in Britain by NatCen Social Research since 1983\n* British Sandwich Association\n* British Science Association, a trading name for the British Association for the Advancement of Science\n* British Social Attitudes\n* British Sociological Association\n* British South Africa Company\n* British Speleological Association\n* British Stammering Association\n* Broadcasting Service Association, Australian radio affiliation which became the Macquarie Broadcasting Network\n* BSA Company, motorcycle manufacturer\n* Building Societies Association\n* Business Services Association, the body representing UK outsourced service providers\n* Business Software Alliance\n* Business Systems Analyst, specializing in the analysis of various business technology and protocol.",
"* Base Station Almanac - a cellular providers list of base station locations used in location-based services\n* Bethesda Softworks Archive, a common extension used by this company for the data needed by its games",
"* Bosnian Serb Army – Army of the Republika Srpska\n* Bronze service arrowhead, properly known as the arrowhead device, an insignia of the United States Army",
"* Baltimore School for the Arts\n* Birmingham School of Acting\n* British School at Athens\n* British School of Alexandria",
"\n* Behavioral systems analysis\n* Bis(trimethylsilyl)acetamide\n* Body surface area\n* Bovine serum albumin, used as a standard for protein assay curves",
"\n* Bachelor of Science in Agriculture, B.S.A.",
"\n\n* BSA Bantam"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n'''The Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited''' ('''BSA''') was a major British industrial combine, a group of businesses manufacturing military and sporting firearms; bicycles; motorcycles; cars; buses and bodies; steel; iron castings; hand, power, and machine tools; coal cleaning and handling plants; sintered metals; and hard chrome process.\n\nAt its peak, BSA (who also owned Triumph) was the largest motorcycle producer in the world. In the late 1950s and early 1960s poor management and failure to develop new products in the motorcycle division led to a dramatic decline of sales to its major USA market. The management had failed to appreciate the importance of the resurgent Japanese motorcycle industry, leading to problems for the entire BSA group.\n\nA government-organised rescue operation in 1973 led to the takeover of remaining operations by what is now Manganese Bronze Holdings, then owners of Norton-Villiers, and over the following decade further closures and dispersals. The original company, The Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited, remains a subsidiary of Manganese Bronze but its name was changed in 1987.\n\nManganese Bronze continues to operate former BSA subsidiary Carbodies, now known as The London Taxi Company, previously LTI Limited, manufacturers of London taxicabs and formerly the largest wholly British-owned car manufacturer. (Manganese Bronze is now owned by the Chinese company Geely).\n",
"BSA began in June 1861 in the Gun Quarter, Birmingham, England, founded specifically to manufacture guns by machinery. It was formed by a group of fourteen gunsmith members of the Birmingham Small Arms Trade Association. The market had moved against British gunsmiths following the outbreak of the Crimean War in 1854 because the Board of Ordnance's Royal Small Arms Factory at Enfield had introduced machinery made in the USA and Enfield's greatly increased output had been achieved with reduced reliance on skilled craftsmen. The War Office provided this new grouping of gunsmiths free access to technical drawings and their facilities at their Enfield factory.\n\nThe newly formed company purchased of land at Small Heath, Birmingham, built a factory there and made a road on the site calling it Armoury Road.\n\nThis machinery brought to Birmingham manifested the principle of the inter-changeability of parts.\n\n===Firearms===\nBSA's resort to the use of machinery was rewarded in 1863 with an order for 20,000 Turkish infantry rifles. The management of the BSA Company was changed at an Extraordinary Meeting called on 30 September 1863 when the company was changed from being run by a committee to that of an elected Board of Directors, Joseph Wilson, Samuel Buckley, Isaac Hollis, Charles Playfair, Charles Pryse, Sir John Ratcliffe, Edward Gem, and J.F. Swinburn under the chairmanship of John Dent Goodman.\n\nThe first War Office contract was not agreed until 1868. In 1879, the factory, without work, was shut for a year; the military arms trade was precarious.\n\n===New ventures===\n\n====Bicycles====\n\nThe next year BSA branched out into bicycle manufacture. The gun factory proved remarkably adaptable to the manufacture of cycle parts. What cycles needed was large quantities of standard parts accurately machined at low prices. In 1880 BSA manufactured the Otto Dicycle, In the 1880s the company began to manufacture safety bicycles on their own account and not until 1905 was the company's first experimental motorcycle constructed. Bicycle production ceased in 1887 as the company concentrated on producing the Lee–Metford magazine-loading rifle for the War Office which was re-equipping the British Army with it. The order was for 1,200 rifles per week. BSA recommenced manufacturing bicycles on their own behalf from 1908. BSA Cycles Ltd was set up in 1919 for the manufacture of both bicycles and motorcycles. BSA sold the bicycle business to Raleigh in 1957 after separating the bicycle and motorcycle business in 1953.\n\n====Bicycle components====\nIn 1893, BSA commenced making bicycle hubs and continued to supply the cycle trade with bicycle parts up to 1936. BSA bought The Eadie Manufacturing Company of Redditch in 1907 and so began to manufacture the Eadie two speed hub gear and the Eadie coaster brake hub. BSA also signed an agreement with the Three Speed Gear Syndicate in 1907 to manufacture a 3 speed hub under licence. This was later classified as the Sturmey Archer Type X. BSA introduced a 'Duo' hub in the late 1930s which was capable of one fixed gear and one gear with a freewheel. All BSA hub gear production temporarily ceased in 1939, until they recommenced making their 3 speed hub around 1945. The Eadie coaster hub made a brief return in 1953 on two BSA bicycle models. BSA forever ceased production of their hub gears in 1955.\n\n====Ammunition====\nBSA sold its ammunition business in 1897 to Birmingham Metal and Munitions Company Limited part of the Nobel-Dynamite Trust, through Kynoch a forerunner of ICI.\n\n====Sparkbrook====\nIn 1906 Frank Dudley Docker was appointed a director of the company. By the autumn of that year BSA was in some difficulty. They had purchased the Sparkbrook Royal Small Arms Factory from the War Office, and in return, the War Office undertook to give BSA a quarter of all orders for Lee–Enfield rifles. But, the War Office did not honour their undertaking. The ensuing financial crisis did not prevent BSA from signing an agreement to amalgamate with another bicycle component manufacturer, the Eadie Manufacturing Company of Redditch, on 11 February 1907. That decision was ratified by the shareholders of both companies at separate Extraordinary General Meetings held in the Grand Hotel, Birmingham on 27 February 1907. Albert Eadie became a BSA director, a post he held until his death in 1931.\n\n====Motorcycles====\nMotor bicycles were added to bicycle products in 1910. The BSA 3½ hp was exhibited at the 1910 Olympia Show, London for the 1911 season. The entire BSA production sold out in 1911, 1912 and 1913.\n\n====Motor cars====\n\n=====BSA cars=====\n\n\n\nIn an effort to make use of the Sparkbrook factory BSA established a motorcar department there. An independent part of it was occupied by Lanchester Motor Company. The first prototype automobile was produced in 1907. The following year, marketed under BSA Cycles Ltd, the company sold 150 automobiles and again began producing complete bicycles on its own account. By 1909 it was clear the new motorcar department was unsuccessful; an investigation committee reported to the BSA Board on the many failures of its management and their poor organisation of production.\n\n=====Daimler vehicles=====\n\n\nDudley Docker had joined the board in 1906 and was appointed deputy chairman of BSA in 1909. He had made a spectacular financial success of a merger of five large rolling-stock companies in 1902 and become the leader of the period's merger movement. Believing he could buy the missing management skills that could not be found within BSA he started merger talks with The Daimler Company Limited of Coventry. Daimler and Rover were then the largest British car producers. Daimler was immensely profitable. After its capital reconstruction in 1904 Daimler's profits were 57 per cent and 150 per cent returns on invested capital in 1905 and 1906. The attraction for Daimler shareholders was the apparent stability of BSA.\n\nSo in 1910 BSA purchased Daimler with BSA shares but Docker who negotiated the arrangements either ignored or failed in his assessment of their consequences for the new combine. The combine was never adequately balanced or co-ordinated. One of the financial provisions obliged Daimler to pay BSA an annual dividend of £100,000 representing approximately 40 per cent of the actual cash BSA had put into Daimler. This financial burden deprived Daimler of badly needed cash to fund development, forcing the Daimler company to borrow money from the Midland Bank.\n\nBSA had still not recovered financially from the earlier purchase of Royal Small Arms factory at Sparkbrook and BSA were not in a position to finance Daimler, nor had either company ample liquid resources. BSA went ahead with motorcycle production in 1910, their first model available for the 1911 season. In 1913 the BSA group were compelled through pressure from the Midland Bank to make a capital issue of 300,000 preference shares. In the short term this was to solve the liquidity issue but further diluted the group's capitalisation.\n\nDudley Docker retired as a BSA director in 1912 and installed Lincoln Chandler on the BSA board as his replacement. Dudley Docker liked to draw a comparison between the BSA~Daimler merger he engineered and that of his 1902 merger of Metropolitan Carriage Wagon & Finance Company and Patent Shaft. However, there was not the integration of facilities in the BSA~Daimler case, nor was there a reorganisation of either BSA or Daimler and in view of the earlier criticism contained in the 1909 report of the investigation committee, BSA continued to produce cars of their own using Daimler engines. In 1913 Daimler employed 5,000 workers to manufacture 1,000 vehicles, an indication that things were not well.\n\n=====Steel bodies=====\nIn 1912, BSA would be one of two automobile manufacturers pioneering the use of all-steel bodies, joining Hupmobile in the US.\n\n===First World War===\nDuring the First World War, the company returned to arms manufacture and greatly expanded its operations. BSA produced rifles, Lewis guns, shells, motorcycles and other vehicles for the war effort.\n\n===Inter-war years===\n1935 magazine advert for the BSA range of motorcycles and 3-wheeler cars\n\n====Motorcycles====\n\n\nIn November 1919 BSA launched their first 50 degree vee-twin, Model E, 770cc side valve (6-7 hp) motorcycle for the 1920 season. The machine had interchangeable valves, total loss oil system with mechanical pump and an emergency hand one. Retail price was £130. Other features were Amac carburettor, chain drive, choice of magneto or Magdyno, 7-plate clutch, 3 speed gear box with kickstarter and new type of cantilever fork\n\n====Aviation====\n\nDuring the war Daimler had built enormous numbers of aero engines and aircraft and by the end was building 80 Airco de Havilland bombers a month. In February 1920 BSA amalgamated with what was the world's largest aircraft manufacturer, Aircraft Manufacturing Company (Airco), Airco's main plant at Hendon had employed between 7,000 and 8,000 people. The Airco group of companies had turned out a new aircraft every 45 minutes.\n\nWithin days BSA discovered Airco was in a far more serious financial state than George Holt Thomas had revealed. Holt Thomas was immediately dropped from his new seat on the BSA board and all BSA's new acquisitions were placed in the hands of a liquidator. Some of the businesses were allowed to continue for some years, Aircraft Transport and Travel's assets being eventually rolled into Daimler Air Hire to make Daimler Airway Limited. BSA failed to pay a dividend for the following four years while it tried to recover from its losses. Some relief was achieved when in March 1924 Daimler Airway and its management became the major constituent of Imperial Airways.\n\nAs well as the Daimler car range, BSA Cycles Ltd re-entered the car market under the BSA name in 1921 with a V-twin engined light car followed by four-cylinder models up to 1926, when the name was temporarily dropped. In 1929 a new range of 3- and 4-wheel cars appeared and production of these continued until 1936.\n\nBy 1930 the BSA Group's primary activities were BSA motorcycles and Daimler vehicles.\n\nCar production under the BSA name ceased in the 1930s.\n\n====Lanchester====\n\n\nIn 1931 the Lanchester Motor Company at Sparkbrook was acquired and production of their cars transferred to Daimler's Coventry works. The first new product was a version of the Daimler Light Twenty or 16/20 and called Lanchester 15/18.\n\nLanchester Type 1518 - 1932 5905514590.jpg|Lanchester 15/18October 19312504 cc6\nLanchester Ten 6-light saloon 1936 5917710821 3a71f2bf4b o.jpg|Lanchester TenSeptember 19321203 cc4\nDaimler 15 HP 1934 4860323967 .jpg|Daimler FifteenSeptember 19321805 cc6\nBSA 10 1185cc October 1933.JPG|BSA TenOctober 19321185 cc4\n\n\n====Armaments====\nIn the 1930s, the board of directors authorised expenditure on bringing their arms-making equipment back to use – it had been stored at company expense since the end of the Great War in the belief that BSA might again be called upon to perform its patriotic duty. In 1939, BSA acquired the blueprints for a submachine gun designed by Hungarian arms designer Pál Király as well as the rights to manufacture it. Examples were produced in 9mm Mauser Export calibre according to Kiraly's design. It was estimated that these arms would only cost 5 pounds each to manufacture. However, at the time, submachine guns were viewed as \"gangster weapons\" and plans to manufacture it were shelved.\n\n===Second World War===\nBy the outbreak of the Second World War, BSA Guns Ltd at Small Heath, was the only factory producing rifles in the UK. The Royal Ordnance Factories did not begin production until 1941. BSA Guns Ltd was also producing .303 Browning machine guns for the Air Ministry at the rate of 600 guns per week in March 1939 and Browning production was to peak at 16,390 per month by March 1942. The armed forces had chosen the 500 cc side-valve BSA M20 motorcycle as their preferred machine. On the outbreak of war the Government requisitioned the 690 machines BSA had in stock as well as placing an order for another 8,000 machines. South Africa, Ireland, India, Sweden and the Netherlands also wanted machines.\n\nThe Government passed the Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1939 on 24 August allowing the drafting of defence regulations affecting food, travel, requisitioning of land and supplies, manpower and agricultural production. A second Emergency Powers (Defence) Act was passed on 22 May 1940 allowing the conscription of labour. The fall of France had not been anticipated in Government planning and the encirclement of a large part of the British Expeditionary Force into the Dunkirk pocket resulted in a hasty evacuation of that part of the B.E.F following the abandonment of their equipment. The parlous state of affairs \"no arms, no transport, no equipment\" in the face of the threat of imminent invasion of Britain by Nazi forces was recorded by the Chief of the Imperial General Staff Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke in his diary entries of the 1/2 July 1940.\n\nThe creation of the Home Guard (initially as the Local Defence Volunteers) following Anthony Eden's broadcast appeal to the Nation on Tuesday 14 May 1940 also created further demand for arms production to equip this new force. BSA, as the only rifle producer in Britain, had to step up to the mark and the workforce voluntarily went onto a seven-day week. Motorcycle production was also stepped up from 500 to 1,000 machines per week which meant a finished machine coming off the production line every 5 minutes. The motorcycle department had been left intact in 1939 due to demand which was doubled following Dunkirk. At the same time BSA staff were providing lectures and demonstrations on motorcycle riding and maintenance to 250,000 officers and men in all parts of the UK.\n\nThe BSA factory at Small Heath was bombed by the Luftwaffe on 26 August 1940 resulting in one high explosive bomb and a shower of incendiaries hitting the main barrel mill which was the only one operating on service rifles in the country, causing the unaffordable loss of 750 machine tools but fortunately no loss of life. Two further air raids took place on 19 and 22 November 1940. The air raid of 19 November did the most damage, causing loss of production and trapping hundreds of workers. Two BSA night-shift electricians, Alf Stevens and Alf Goodwin, helped rescue their fellow workers. Alf Stevens was awarded the George Medal for his selfless acts of bravery in the rescue and Alf Goodwin was awarded the British Empire Medal. Workers involved in the works Civil Defence were brought in to help search for and clear bodies to get the plant back into production. The net effect of the November raids was to destroy machine shops in the four-storey 1915 building, the original 1863 gunsmiths' building and nearby buildings, 1,600 machine tools, kill 53 employees, injure 89, 30 of them seriously and halt rifle production for three months.\n\nThe Government Ministry of Supply and BSA immediately began a process of production dispersal throughout Britain, through the shadow factory scheme. Factories were set up at Tipton, Dudley, Smethwick, Blackheath, Lye, Kidderminster, Stourport, Tyseley, and Bromsgrove to manufacture Browning machine guns, Stoke, Corsham, and Newcastle-under-Lyme produced the Hispano cannon, Leicester and Studley Road produced the Besa machine gun, Ruislip produced the Oerlikon 20mm cannon, Stafford produced rocket projectiles, Tamworth produced two-pounder gun carriages, Mansfield produced the Boys Anti-tank gun and Shirley produced rifles. These were dispersal factories which were in addition to Small Heath and the other BSA factories opened in the two years following the 1940 blitz. At its peak Small Heath was running 67 factories engaged in war production. BSA operations were also dispersed to other companies under licence.\n\nIn 1941 BSA was approached to produce a new pedal cycle with a maximum weight allowance of only 22 lb especially for airborne use. This required a new concept in frame design which BSA found, producing a machine which weighed 21 lb, one pound less than the design specification and which also exceeded the design requirement for an effective life of 50 miles many times over. Over 60,000 folding bicycles were produced, a figure equal to half the total production of military bicycles during World War II. BSA also produced folding motorcycles for the Airborne Division. In late 1942 BSA examined the Special Operations Executive designed Welgun with a view to manufacture. BSA were willing to manufacture the gun in the quantities required starting April 1943 but the cheaper and less accurate Sten Mk IV was adopted for production by the Ministry of Supply. BSA bought the Sunbeam motorcycles and bicycle business from Associated Motor Cycles Ltd in 1943 and then Ariel Motors Ltd in 1944. During the course of the conflict BSA produced 1,250,000 Lee–Enfield .303 service rifles, 404,383 Sten sub-machine guns, 468,098 Browning machine guns plus spares equivalent to another 100,000, 42,532 Hispano cannon, 32,971 Oerlikon cannon, 59,322 7.9 mm Besa machine guns, 3,218 15 mm Besa machine guns, 68,882 Boys Anti-tank guns, 126,334 motorcycles, 128,000 military bicycles (over 60,000 of which were folding paratrooper bicycles), 10,000,000 shell fuse cases, 3,485,335 magazines and 750,000 anti-aircraft rockets were supplied to the armed forces.\n\nAt the same time other parts of the Group were having similar problems. Before World War II Daimler had been linked with other Coventry motor manufacturers in a government-backed scheme for aero engine manufacture and had been allocated two shadow factories. Apart from this, BSA-owned Daimler was producing Scout Cars and Daimler Mk I Armoured Cars which had been designed by BSA at Small Heath not Coventry as well as gun turrets, gun parts, tank transmissions, rocket projectiles and other munitions. This activity had not gone unnoticed by the enemy, which made Radford Works a target in the Coventry air raids. Radford Works received direct hits in four separate air raids during 1940. None of these attacks were to seriously disrupt production, however two more serious air raids were carried out in April 1941 which destroyed half the factory. In all it is estimated that 170 bombs containing 52,000 lbs of explosive were dropped on Radford Works as well as the thousands of incendiaries. Like BSA, Daimler had to find dispersal units. A back-handed compliment was paid by Field Marshal Rommel to the workers at Radford Works when he used a captured Daimler Scout to escape following his defeat at El Alamein.\n\n===Post-war===\nAs the result of increased post war demand the Small Heath, Birmingham factory was turned over entirely to motorcycle production.\n\nBSA produced the first Sunbeam bicycle catalogue in 1949 and produced its own '4 Star' derailleur gear with an associated splined cassette hub and 4 sprocket cassette. This design was different from the 1930s Bayliss Wiley cassette hub which had a threaded sprocket carrier. BSA bought New Hudson motorcycle and bicycle business in 1950 and followed this up in 1951 with the purchase of Triumph Motorcycles which brought Jack Sangster onto the BSA board. The effect of this acquisition was to make BSA into the largest producer of motorcycles in the world at that time.\n\n1952 saw BSA establish a Professional Cycling Team. Bob Maitland a successful amateur cyclist and the highest placed British finisher in the 1948 Olympic Games road race and now an independent rider in the BSA team was a BSA employee working in the design office as a draughtsman. It was Bob Maitland who was responsible for the design of post war BSA range of lightweight sports bicycles based on his knowledge of cycling. Bob Maitland also made some of the components used on the bicycles of the professional team which were not standard production machines. In the 1952 Tour of Britain Road Race run between Friday 22 August and Saturday 6 September, involving 14 individual stages and covering a total race distance of 1,470 miles, the BSA team of Bob Maitland, “Tiny” Thomas, Pete Proctor, Alf Newman and Stan Jones won the overall team race and Pete Proctor “King of the Mountains” classification. The riders also enjoyed success on the individual stages of the race. The team competed in four further events, 14 September Tour of the Chilterns, 1st “Tiny” Thomas and Team Prize, 21 September Weston-Super-Mare Grand Prix, Team Prize, 28 September Staffordshire Grand Prix, 1st Bob Maitland and Team Prize, 5 October Tour Revenge Race, Dublin, 1st “Tiny” Thomas and Team prize.\n\nIn 1953 BSA withdrew motorcycle production from BSA Cycles Ltd, the company it has established in 1919, by creating BSA Motorcycles Ltd. BSA also produced its 100,000th BSA Bantam motorcycle, a fact celebrated at the 1953 motorcycle show with a visit by Sir Anthony Eden to the BSA stand. In 1953 the BSA Professional Cycling Team was managed by Syd Cozens. Successes were 5/6 April Bournemouth Two Day Road Race, 1st Bob Maitland, 12 April Dover to London 63 Miles Road Race, 1st Stan Jones, 31 May Langsett 90 Miles Road Race, 1st Bob Maitland and “King of the Mountains”, 7 June Tour of the Wrekin, 1st Bob Maitland, 12 July Severn Valley 100 Miles Road Race, 1st “Tiny” Thomas, 19 July Jackson Trophy, Newcastle, Team Prize, 9 August Les Adams Memorial 80 Miles Road Race, 1st Alf Newman, Team Prize, “King of the Mountains” Arthur Ilsley, 30 August Weston-Super-Mare 100 Miles Grand Prix, 1st Bob Maitland, Team Prize. The team also competed in the 1,624 mile, 12 stage, 1953 Tour of Britain Road Race. The 1953 line up had changed as Arthur Ilsley replaced Pete Proctor in the team. “Tiny” Thomas won the overall individual classification, the Team were runners-up in the team competition and Arthur Ilsley was 3rd in the “King of the Mountains” competition. Bob Maitland also had notable success by winning the Independent National Championship.\n\n1954 saw the introduction of the BSA Quick Release 3 Speed hub gear. It was a split axle three speed gear intended for use with bicycles equipped with oil bath chainguards. The original BSA 3 speed hub gear had been made under licence from the Three-Speed Gear Syndicate since 1907. The design was later to be classified as the Sturmey-Archer 'Type X', but all BSA hub gear production ceased in 1955\n\nSir Bernard Docker remained chairman of BSA until 1956 when the BSA removed him. In an acrimonious dispute conducted in the media the matter was brought to the BSA shareholders at the Annual General Meeting where the decision of the Board was upheld. Another significant departure for the fortune of the BSA Group but less controversial was the retirement on ill health grounds of James Leek CBE, Managing Director from 1939 until his retirement. Sir Bernard Docker was replaced as Chairman of the BSA Board by Jack Sangster.\n\nThe BSA bicycle division, BSA Cycles Ltd., including the BSA cycle dealer network was sold to Raleigh in 1957. Raleigh initially continued bicycle production in Birmingham at Coventry Road, Sheldon, Birmingham 26 into the early 1960s using up BSA parts but as time went on more stock Raleigh parts and fittings were used, some continuing to bear the 'piled arms' stamp. TI Group owners of the British Cycle Corporation bought Raleigh in 1960 thus gaining access to the BSA brand. Bicycles bearing the BSA name are currently manufactured and distributed within India by TI Cycles of India but have no direct connection to the original Birmingham BSA company.\n\nIn 1960, Daimler was sold off to Jaguar.\n\n1961 was the centenary year of the BSA Group and in recognition of this milestone the company magazine produced an anniversary issue of ''BSA Group News'' in June ''BSA Centenary 1861–1961'' in which many of the achievements of the Group were celebrated. This year also saw the end of military rifle production, however BSA still continued to make sporting guns. In 1986 BSA Guns was liquidated, the assets bought and renamed '''BSA Guns (UK) Ltd'''. The company continues to make air rifles and shotguns, and is still based in Small Heath in Birmingham.\n\n====Norton-Villiers-Triumph====\n\n\nThe Group continued to expand and acquire throughout the 1950s, but by 1965 competition from Japan (in the shape of companies like Honda, Yamaha and Suzuki) and Europe from Jawa / CZ, Bultaco and Husqvarna was eroding BSA's market share. The BSA (and Triumph range) were no longer aligned with the markets; mopeds were displacing scooter sales and the trials and scrambles areas were now the preserve of European two-strokes. Some poor marketing decisions and expensive projects contributed to substantial losses. For example, the development and production investment of the Ariel 3, an ultra stable 3-wheel moped, was not recouped by sales; the loss has been estimated at £2 million. Furthermore, BSA failed to take seriously the threat that key-start Japanese motor cycles might completely destroy the market for kick-started BSA motor cycles.\n\nIn 1968, BSA announced many changes to its product line of singles, twins and the new three-cylinder machine named the \"Rocket three\" for the 1969 model year. It now concentrated on the more promising USA, and to a lesser extent, Canadian, markets. However, despite the adding of modern accessories, for example, turn signals and even differing versions of the A65 twins for home and export sale, the damage had been done and the end was near.\n\nReorganisation in 1971 concentrated motorcycle production at Meriden, Triumph's site, with production of components and engines at BSA's Small Heath. At the same time there were redundancies and the selling of assets. Barclays Bank arranged financial backing to the tune of £10 million.\n\nUpgrades and service bulletins continued until 1972, but the less service-intensive Japanese bikes had by then flooded the market on both sides of the Atlantic. The merger with Norton Villers was started in late 1972, and for a brief time a Norton 500 single was built with the B50-based unit-single engine, but few if any were sold publicly. The BSA unit single B50's 500 cc enjoyed much improvement in the hands of the CCM motorcycle company allowing the basic BSA design to continue until the mid to late 1970s in a competitive form all over Europe.\n\nThe final BSA range was just four models: Gold Star 500, 650 Thunderbolt/Lightning and the 750 cc Rocket Three. By 1972, BSA was so moribund that, with bankruptcy imminent, its motorcycle businesses were merged (as part of a government-initiated rescue plan) with the Manganese Bronze company, Norton-Villiers, to become NVT, headed by Dennis Poore. The intention was to produce and market Norton and Triumph motorcycles at home and abroad; but Poore's rationalisation led to redundancies of two-thirds of the workforce. In response, the Triumph workers at Meriden set up their own cooperative. This left Poore with neither BSA nor Triumph, and the sole NVT model was the Norton Commando. Although this machine won the ''Motor Cycle News'' \"Bike of the Year\" award for several years running, nothing could hide the fact that the Commando was an old design, being a pre-unit pushrod parallel-twin.\n\nIn exchange for its motorcycle businesses, Manganese Bronze received BSA Group's non-motorcycle-related divisions—namely, Carbodies. Although the BSA name was left out of the new company's name, a few products continued to be made carrying it until 1973. However, the plan involved the axing of some brands, large redundancies and consolidation of production at two sites. This scheme to rescue and combine Norton, BSA and Triumph failed in the face of worker resistance. Norton's and BSA's factories were eventually shut down, while Triumph staggered on to fail four years later.\nBSA logo\n",
"\n===Motorcycles===\nRights went to Norton Villiers Triumph and on its liquidation were purchased by a new company formed by management and named BSA Company Limited.\n\n===Guns===\nRights were acquired by Gamo for its new subsidiary '''BSA Guns (UK) Limited'''\n",
"\n===Bicycles===\nAccording to Charles Spencer, BSA was manufacturing the \"Delta\" bicycle circa 1869. In 1880 the company was approached to manufacture the \"Otto Dicycle\". An initial contract was signed to produce 210 and a further contract followed for a further 200. In all it is believed that a total of 953 Otto machines were made. BSA then went into bicycle production on their own account, the first machines to their own specification being exhibited at the 1881 Stanley Show. BSA went on to design and manufacture a \"safety\" bicycle (patent:15,342 of 1884). BSA was also producing tricycles and a licence was obtained in 1885 to manufacture ball bearings. BSA ceased bicycle manufacture in 1887 because of the demand for arms. Bicycle component manufacture commenced in 1894 and BSA continued to supply the bicycle trade up to 1936. The company recommenced bicycle manufacture on their own account again in 1908 and these were exhibited at the Stanley Show in 1909. Bicycle manufacture was what led BSA into motorcycles. BSA produced bicycles for both the police and military and notably a folding bicycle for the British Army during World War I and the more well known folding Paratroopers bicycle during World War II. BSA supplied the Irish Army with bicycles after 1922.\n\nBSA manufactured a range of bicycles from utility roadsters through to racing bicycles. The BSA range of Sports bicycles expanded in the 1930s following the granting of a patent for a new lighter design of seat lug in 1929 and tandems were introduced into the BSA bicycle range as well. BSA had a reputation for quality and durability and their components were more expensive that either Chater-Lea or Brampton. BSA launched a high end club cyclists machine in the early 1930s initially branded as the \"Super-eeze\". Never slow to avail of publicity BSA sponsored the great Australian cyclist Hubert Opperman and re-branded the top of the range machine the \"Opperman\" model. A less expensive range of clubman lightweight machines was introduced from 1936 with the \"Cyclo\" 3 speed derailleur equipped \"Clubman\". Subtle changes were made to the range, most models being equipped with \"Russ\" patent forks and some models were made for only two seasons. This all stopped around September 1939 with the outbreak of war. A revised catalogue with a much reduced range was issued in March 1940 which also saw the launch of the BSA \"Streamlight\" model. A novel all white bicycle was produced for the blackout but had disappeared from a severely reduced bicycle range the details of which were circulated to dealers from December 1941. BSA had ceased production of their 3 speed hub gear in 1939 and production appears to have started again by 1945 although with a black finish instead of chromium plating. BSA bought '''Sunbeam''' in 1943 and produced Sunbeam bicycles using up existing frames and parts and using BSA components for the missing bits. The first BSA produced Sunbeam catalogue was published in 1949\n\nPost war BSA expanded their bicycle range but faced problems of shortages of raw materials such as steel and was required to export a lot of their manufactured output in order to get a Government licence to purchase the necessary raw materials. The company moved bicycle production to the new Waverley Works after World War II. BSA continued to innovate introducing the 4 Star derailleur gear in 1949 along with an associated 4-speed 'unit' or cassette hub. The derailleur design was altered from 1950 and was certainly available up to 1953 but was not a great success. BSA bought New Hudson in 1950 and started to manufacture and sell New Hudson branded machines as well as Sunbeam. It appears that the top of the range BSA lightweight club cyclist machine was the \"Gold Column\" and this appears to have been changed into the BSA \"Tour of Britain\" model following the success of the BSA Professional Cycling Team in the 1952 Tour of Britain race. The \"Tour of Britain\" model was heavily promoted in the BSA 1953 sales literature. The factory made \"Tour of Britain\" model was not the same as those ridden by the professional team. Only eight machines were crafted for the professional team and none of the components appear to have been standard BSA parts. 1953 saw BSA separate the bicycle / motorcar and motorcycle business into different holdings.\n\nThe good times were coming to an end and demand for bicycles fell with the end of rationing in 1954. James Leek, managing director of BSA Cycles Ltd was suffering ill health and he retired in 1956, the same year the BSA Chairman, Sir Bernard Docker, was removed from the BSA Board. Jack Sangster who had joined the BSA Board in 1951 following the purchase of his company Triumph Motorcycles became Chairman. The bicycle manufacturing business BSA Cycles Ltd was sold to Raleigh Industries in 1957.\n\n===Motorcycles from 1910===\n\n\nBSA Motorcycles were made by BSA Cycles Ltd, under the BSA parent, up until 1953 when the motorcycle business was moved into holding ''BSA Motorcycles Ltd''. The first instance of intention to produce motorcycles was reported in The Motor Cycle, a British motorcycling journal, in July 1906. The first wholly BSA motorcycle, the 3½ H.P. was built in 1910 and displayed at the first Olympia Show, London on 21 November in that year. Sir Hallewell Rogers, BSA Chairman, had informed the shareholders at the Company's 1910 AGM in Birmingham \"We have decided to put a motor-bicycle on the market for the coming season .... These machines will be on exhibit at the Cycle and Motor Show on November 21st, after which date we look forward to commencing delivery\". The machines were available for the 1911 season and entire production sold out. BSA had previously acquired a commercially available engine in 1905 and fitted it to one of their bicycle frames and discovered at first hand the problems that needed to be overcome. BSA Cycles Ltd was set up as a subsidiary company in 1919 under Managing Director Charles Hyde to manufacture both bicycles and motorcycles.\n\nBSA produced their only two-stroke motorcycle design for the 1928 season, the 1.74 H.P. Model A28 with two speed gearbox. It was produced as the A29 and A30 the following two years and became the A31 with a three-speed gearbox in 1931, the last year of production. The post-war 'Bantam' was a German DKW design, part of war reparation, and not a true BSA design.\n\nBSA motorcycles were sold as affordable motorcycles with reasonable performance for the average user. BSA stressed the reliability of their machines, the availability of spares and dealer support. The motorcycles were a mixture of sidevalve and OHV engines offering different performance for different roles, e.g. hauling a sidecar. The bulk of use would be for commuting. BSA motorcycles were also popular with \"fleet buyers\" in Britain, who (for example) used the Bantams for telegram delivery for the Post Office or motorcycle/sidecar combinations for AA patrols The Automobile Association (AA) breakdown help services. This mass market appeal meant they could claim \"one in four is a BSA\" on advertising.\n\nMachines with better specifications were available for those who wanted more performance or for competition work.\n\nInitially, after the Second World War, BSA motorcycles were not generally seen as racing machines, compared to the likes of Norton. In the immediate post-war period few were entered in races such as the TT races, though this changed dramatically in the Junior Clubman event (smaller engine motorcycles racing over some 3 or 4 laps around one of the Isle of Man courses). In 1947 there were but a couple of BSA mounted riders, but by 1952 BSA were in the majority and in 1956 the makeup was 53 BSA, 1 Norton and 1 Velocette.\n\nTo improve US sales, in 1954, for example, BSA entered a team of riders in the 200 mile Daytona beach race with a mixture of single cylinder Gold Stars and twin cylinder Shooting Stars assembled by Roland Pike. The BSA team riders took first, second, third, fourth, and fifth places with two more riders finishing at 8th and 16th. This was the first case of a one brand sweep.\n\nThe BSA factory experienced success in the sport of motocross with Jeff Smith riding a B40 to capture the 1964 and 1965 FIM 500 cc Motocross World Championships. It would be the last year the title would be won by a four-stroke machine until the mid-1990s. A BSA motocross machine was often colloquially known as a \"Beezer.\"\n\nBirmingham rocker Steve Gibbons released a song \"BSA\" on his 1980 album \"Saints & Sinners\" as a tribute to the Gold Star. He still plays this song with his band and often performs on the Isle of Man at the TT races.\n\n===Motorcycle models===\n\n\n====Pre World War II====\n1935 BSA Blue Star\n*3½ hp\n*Model E\n*Model A28\n*C10 sidevalve 250 cc 1938 on design by Val Page\n*G14 1000 cc V-twin\n*Blue Star\n*Empire Star\n*Silver Star\n*Gold Star\n*Sloper\n*M20 (500cc):as the WD (War Department) M20 the motorcycle of the British Army in World War II\n*M21 (600cc): the big brother of the M20, also used by the British Army in World War II\n\n====Post World War II====\nBSA Golden Flash 650\n1969 BSA Royal Star\n*'''A series Twins''' (four-stroke, pushrod parallel twins)\n**A7\n***A7 Shooting Star - 500cc pre-unit construction\n**A10 - 650cc pre-unit construction\n***A10 Golden Flash\n***A10 Super Flash\n***A10 Road Rocket\n***A10 Super Rocket\n***A10 Rocket Gold Star\n**A50 - 500cc unit construction\n***A50R Royal Star\n***A50C Cyclone\n***A50W Wasp\n**A65 - 650cc unit construction\n***A65 Star Twin\n***A65R Rocket\n***A65T Thunderbolt\n***A65L Lightning\n***A65S Spitfire\n***A65H Hornet\n***A65F Firebird Scrambler\n**A70L Lightning 750\n*'''Triples''' (four-stroke, pushrod, three-cylinder engines) - The BSA Rocket 3/Triumph Trident were developed together. The Rocket 3 shares a majority of engine components and other parts with the Trident T150, but has forward-inclined cylinder barrels and a BSA frame.\n**A75R Rocket3 750\n**A75RV Rocket3 750 - 5 speed\n**A75V Rocket3 750 - 5 speed\n*'''Singles''' (Four-stroke single cylinder)\n**C25 Barracuda\n**B25 Starfire - 250cc unit construction\n**B25FS Fleetstar\n**B25 SS Gold Star\n**BSA B31 single\n**B32 Gold Star\n**B33\n**B34 Gold Star\n**B40 350 Star - 350cc unit construction\n**B40 SS90\n**B44 Victor\n**B44\n***B44SS Shooting Star\n***B44VS Victor Special\n**B50\n***B50SS Gold Star 500\n***B50T Victor Trials\n***B50MX Motocross\n*C series (Four-stroke 250 cc single-cylinder).\n**C10\n**C11/C11G: - - 85mpg - weight .\nThe C11 used a C10 motor fitted with an overhead valve cylinder head. The C11 frame was almost unchanged until 1951 when BSA added plunger rear suspension. Early gearboxes were weak and unreliable. The C11G was available with a three ratio gearbox and rigid frame or a four ratio gearbox and a plunger frame. Both models had better front brakes than earlier models. This model was a common commuter motorcycle, and many survive today.\n\n**C12\n: (1956–1958). 249 cc OHV\nUsed the C11G engine, fitted with an alternator and swinging fork (known as swinging arm) rear suspension.\n\n1959 BSA C15 Star\n**C15 Star - 250cc unit construction\n**C15T Trials\n**C15S Scrambler\n**C15SS80 Sports Star 80\n**C15 Sportsman\n*D series (Two-stroke single cylinder. See BSA Bantam for details)\n**D1 Bantam - 125cc unit-construction\n**D3 Bantam Major\n**D5 Bantam Super\n**D7 Bantam Super\n**D10 Silver Bantam, Bantam Supreme, Bantam Sports, Bushman\n**D13\n**D14/4 Bantam Supreme, Bantam Sports, Bushman - 175cc\n**B175 Bantam Sports, Bushman\n*Others (may include some export versions of models listed above)\n**B31 Twin (350 cc). B31 frame fitted with a Triumph 3T motor to produce this BSA B31 Twin. Very few units were produced, probably prototypes.\n**BSA Barracuda\n**BSA Beagle\n**BSA Boxer - 1979 - c.1981 the sports version of the 50cc range (Beaver, Boxer, Brigand, GT50). The engine was by Moto Morini.\n**BSA GT50 (renamed from the Boxer)\n**BSA Beaver (the standard road version)\n**BSA Tracker 125/175 - late 70s moto-cross style product by NVT with Yamaha two stroke engine.\n**BSA Dandy 70\n**BSA Sunbeam ''(Scooters, also produced as Triumph TS1, TW2 Tigress)''\n***175B1\n***250B2\n**BSA Starfire\n**BSA Rocket Scrambler\n**BSA Rocket Gold Star\n**BSA Fury\n**BSA Hornet\n**Winged Wheel (auxiliary power unit for bicycles)\n**T65 Thunderbolt (essentially a Triumph TR6P with BSA Badges)\n\n===Military vehicles===\n* BSA Scout armoured car.\n* \"Type G Apparatus\", Folding paratrooper bicycle, with parachute.\n\n===Military firearms===\n* Snider–Enfield rifle\n* Martini–Henry rifle\n* Lee–Metford rifle\n* Lewis gun\n* Lee–Enfield rifle\n* Thompson submachine gun\n* BSA Thompson Autorifle\n* .303 RAF Browning\n* Hispano-Suiza cannon\n* Oerlikon 20mm cannon\n* Sten submachine gun\n* Boys anti-tank rifle\n* Besa machine gun\n* BSA experimental model 1949 pump-action machine carbine\n* ADEN cannon\n* L1A1 SLR\n\n===Civilian firearms===\n* The 1906 war office pattern rifle\n* The Sportsman series of .22 Long Rifle bolt-action rifles\n* Various Martini action target .22lr rifles\n* The Ralock and Armatic semi automatic .22lr rifles\n* Various bolt action hunting rifles\n",
"* Clews Competition Motorcycles (CCM) - the remnants of BSA's off-road arm\n* List of BSA motorcycles\n* List of modern armament manufacturers\n* Tribsa custom built café racer or off-road using a Triumph engine in a BSA frame\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"\n* BSA History from the Days of the Crimea (1918)\n* \n* Catalogue of the BSA archives, held at the Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History of the BSA industrial group",
"Trademarks",
"Products",
" See also ",
" Notes ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Birmingham Small Arms Company | [
"This financial burden deprived Daimler of badly needed cash to fund development, forcing the Daimler company to borrow money from the Midland Bank.",
"In 1913 the BSA group were compelled through pressure from the Midland Bank to make a capital issue of 300,000 preference shares.",
"Barclays Bank arranged financial backing to the tune of £10 million."
] | [
"\n\n\n'''The Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited''' ('''BSA''') was a major British industrial combine, a group of businesses manufacturing military and sporting firearms; bicycles; motorcycles; cars; buses and bodies; steel; iron castings; hand, power, and machine tools; coal cleaning and handling plants; sintered metals; and hard chrome process.",
"At its peak, BSA (who also owned Triumph) was the largest motorcycle producer in the world.",
"In the late 1950s and early 1960s poor management and failure to develop new products in the motorcycle division led to a dramatic decline of sales to its major USA market.",
"The management had failed to appreciate the importance of the resurgent Japanese motorcycle industry, leading to problems for the entire BSA group.",
"A government-organised rescue operation in 1973 led to the takeover of remaining operations by what is now Manganese Bronze Holdings, then owners of Norton-Villiers, and over the following decade further closures and dispersals.",
"The original company, The Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited, remains a subsidiary of Manganese Bronze but its name was changed in 1987.",
"Manganese Bronze continues to operate former BSA subsidiary Carbodies, now known as The London Taxi Company, previously LTI Limited, manufacturers of London taxicabs and formerly the largest wholly British-owned car manufacturer.",
"(Manganese Bronze is now owned by the Chinese company Geely).",
"BSA began in June 1861 in the Gun Quarter, Birmingham, England, founded specifically to manufacture guns by machinery.",
"It was formed by a group of fourteen gunsmith members of the Birmingham Small Arms Trade Association.",
"The market had moved against British gunsmiths following the outbreak of the Crimean War in 1854 because the Board of Ordnance's Royal Small Arms Factory at Enfield had introduced machinery made in the USA and Enfield's greatly increased output had been achieved with reduced reliance on skilled craftsmen.",
"The War Office provided this new grouping of gunsmiths free access to technical drawings and their facilities at their Enfield factory.",
"The newly formed company purchased of land at Small Heath, Birmingham, built a factory there and made a road on the site calling it Armoury Road.",
"This machinery brought to Birmingham manifested the principle of the inter-changeability of parts.",
"===Firearms===\nBSA's resort to the use of machinery was rewarded in 1863 with an order for 20,000 Turkish infantry rifles.",
"The management of the BSA Company was changed at an Extraordinary Meeting called on 30 September 1863 when the company was changed from being run by a committee to that of an elected Board of Directors, Joseph Wilson, Samuel Buckley, Isaac Hollis, Charles Playfair, Charles Pryse, Sir John Ratcliffe, Edward Gem, and J.F.",
"Swinburn under the chairmanship of John Dent Goodman.",
"The first War Office contract was not agreed until 1868.",
"In 1879, the factory, without work, was shut for a year; the military arms trade was precarious.",
"===New ventures===\n\n====Bicycles====\n\nThe next year BSA branched out into bicycle manufacture.",
"The gun factory proved remarkably adaptable to the manufacture of cycle parts.",
"What cycles needed was large quantities of standard parts accurately machined at low prices.",
"In 1880 BSA manufactured the Otto Dicycle, In the 1880s the company began to manufacture safety bicycles on their own account and not until 1905 was the company's first experimental motorcycle constructed.",
"Bicycle production ceased in 1887 as the company concentrated on producing the Lee–Metford magazine-loading rifle for the War Office which was re-equipping the British Army with it.",
"The order was for 1,200 rifles per week.",
"BSA recommenced manufacturing bicycles on their own behalf from 1908.",
"BSA Cycles Ltd was set up in 1919 for the manufacture of both bicycles and motorcycles.",
"BSA sold the bicycle business to Raleigh in 1957 after separating the bicycle and motorcycle business in 1953.",
"====Bicycle components====\nIn 1893, BSA commenced making bicycle hubs and continued to supply the cycle trade with bicycle parts up to 1936.",
"BSA bought The Eadie Manufacturing Company of Redditch in 1907 and so began to manufacture the Eadie two speed hub gear and the Eadie coaster brake hub.",
"BSA also signed an agreement with the Three Speed Gear Syndicate in 1907 to manufacture a 3 speed hub under licence.",
"This was later classified as the Sturmey Archer Type X. BSA introduced a 'Duo' hub in the late 1930s which was capable of one fixed gear and one gear with a freewheel.",
"All BSA hub gear production temporarily ceased in 1939, until they recommenced making their 3 speed hub around 1945.",
"The Eadie coaster hub made a brief return in 1953 on two BSA bicycle models.",
"BSA forever ceased production of their hub gears in 1955.",
"====Ammunition====\nBSA sold its ammunition business in 1897 to Birmingham Metal and Munitions Company Limited part of the Nobel-Dynamite Trust, through Kynoch a forerunner of ICI.",
"====Sparkbrook====\nIn 1906 Frank Dudley Docker was appointed a director of the company.",
"By the autumn of that year BSA was in some difficulty.",
"They had purchased the Sparkbrook Royal Small Arms Factory from the War Office, and in return, the War Office undertook to give BSA a quarter of all orders for Lee–Enfield rifles.",
"But, the War Office did not honour their undertaking.",
"The ensuing financial crisis did not prevent BSA from signing an agreement to amalgamate with another bicycle component manufacturer, the Eadie Manufacturing Company of Redditch, on 11 February 1907.",
"That decision was ratified by the shareholders of both companies at separate Extraordinary General Meetings held in the Grand Hotel, Birmingham on 27 February 1907.",
"Albert Eadie became a BSA director, a post he held until his death in 1931.",
"====Motorcycles====\nMotor bicycles were added to bicycle products in 1910.",
"The BSA 3½ hp was exhibited at the 1910 Olympia Show, London for the 1911 season.",
"The entire BSA production sold out in 1911, 1912 and 1913.",
"====Motor cars====\n\n=====BSA cars=====\n\n\n\nIn an effort to make use of the Sparkbrook factory BSA established a motorcar department there.",
"An independent part of it was occupied by Lanchester Motor Company.",
"The first prototype automobile was produced in 1907.",
"The following year, marketed under BSA Cycles Ltd, the company sold 150 automobiles and again began producing complete bicycles on its own account.",
"By 1909 it was clear the new motorcar department was unsuccessful; an investigation committee reported to the BSA Board on the many failures of its management and their poor organisation of production.",
"=====Daimler vehicles=====\n\n\nDudley Docker had joined the board in 1906 and was appointed deputy chairman of BSA in 1909.",
"He had made a spectacular financial success of a merger of five large rolling-stock companies in 1902 and become the leader of the period's merger movement.",
"Believing he could buy the missing management skills that could not be found within BSA he started merger talks with The Daimler Company Limited of Coventry.",
"Daimler and Rover were then the largest British car producers.",
"Daimler was immensely profitable.",
"After its capital reconstruction in 1904 Daimler's profits were 57 per cent and 150 per cent returns on invested capital in 1905 and 1906.",
"The attraction for Daimler shareholders was the apparent stability of BSA.",
"So in 1910 BSA purchased Daimler with BSA shares but Docker who negotiated the arrangements either ignored or failed in his assessment of their consequences for the new combine.",
"The combine was never adequately balanced or co-ordinated.",
"One of the financial provisions obliged Daimler to pay BSA an annual dividend of £100,000 representing approximately 40 per cent of the actual cash BSA had put into Daimler.",
"BSA had still not recovered financially from the earlier purchase of Royal Small Arms factory at Sparkbrook and BSA were not in a position to finance Daimler, nor had either company ample liquid resources.",
"BSA went ahead with motorcycle production in 1910, their first model available for the 1911 season.",
"In the short term this was to solve the liquidity issue but further diluted the group's capitalisation.",
"Dudley Docker retired as a BSA director in 1912 and installed Lincoln Chandler on the BSA board as his replacement.",
"Dudley Docker liked to draw a comparison between the BSA~Daimler merger he engineered and that of his 1902 merger of Metropolitan Carriage Wagon & Finance Company and Patent Shaft.",
"However, there was not the integration of facilities in the BSA~Daimler case, nor was there a reorganisation of either BSA or Daimler and in view of the earlier criticism contained in the 1909 report of the investigation committee, BSA continued to produce cars of their own using Daimler engines.",
"In 1913 Daimler employed 5,000 workers to manufacture 1,000 vehicles, an indication that things were not well.",
"=====Steel bodies=====\nIn 1912, BSA would be one of two automobile manufacturers pioneering the use of all-steel bodies, joining Hupmobile in the US.",
"===First World War===\nDuring the First World War, the company returned to arms manufacture and greatly expanded its operations.",
"BSA produced rifles, Lewis guns, shells, motorcycles and other vehicles for the war effort.",
"===Inter-war years===\n1935 magazine advert for the BSA range of motorcycles and 3-wheeler cars\n\n====Motorcycles====\n\n\nIn November 1919 BSA launched their first 50 degree vee-twin, Model E, 770cc side valve (6-7 hp) motorcycle for the 1920 season.",
"The machine had interchangeable valves, total loss oil system with mechanical pump and an emergency hand one.",
"Retail price was £130.",
"Other features were Amac carburettor, chain drive, choice of magneto or Magdyno, 7-plate clutch, 3 speed gear box with kickstarter and new type of cantilever fork\n\n====Aviation====\n\nDuring the war Daimler had built enormous numbers of aero engines and aircraft and by the end was building 80 Airco de Havilland bombers a month.",
"In February 1920 BSA amalgamated with what was the world's largest aircraft manufacturer, Aircraft Manufacturing Company (Airco), Airco's main plant at Hendon had employed between 7,000 and 8,000 people.",
"The Airco group of companies had turned out a new aircraft every 45 minutes.",
"Within days BSA discovered Airco was in a far more serious financial state than George Holt Thomas had revealed.",
"Holt Thomas was immediately dropped from his new seat on the BSA board and all BSA's new acquisitions were placed in the hands of a liquidator.",
"Some of the businesses were allowed to continue for some years, Aircraft Transport and Travel's assets being eventually rolled into Daimler Air Hire to make Daimler Airway Limited.",
"BSA failed to pay a dividend for the following four years while it tried to recover from its losses.",
"Some relief was achieved when in March 1924 Daimler Airway and its management became the major constituent of Imperial Airways.",
"As well as the Daimler car range, BSA Cycles Ltd re-entered the car market under the BSA name in 1921 with a V-twin engined light car followed by four-cylinder models up to 1926, when the name was temporarily dropped.",
"In 1929 a new range of 3- and 4-wheel cars appeared and production of these continued until 1936.",
"By 1930 the BSA Group's primary activities were BSA motorcycles and Daimler vehicles.",
"Car production under the BSA name ceased in the 1930s.",
"====Lanchester====\n\n\nIn 1931 the Lanchester Motor Company at Sparkbrook was acquired and production of their cars transferred to Daimler's Coventry works.",
"The first new product was a version of the Daimler Light Twenty or 16/20 and called Lanchester 15/18.",
"Lanchester Type 1518 - 1932 5905514590.jpg|Lanchester 15/18October 19312504 cc6\nLanchester Ten 6-light saloon 1936 5917710821 3a71f2bf4b o.jpg|Lanchester TenSeptember 19321203 cc4\nDaimler 15 HP 1934 4860323967 .jpg|Daimler FifteenSeptember 19321805 cc6\nBSA 10 1185cc October 1933.JPG|BSA TenOctober 19321185 cc4\n\n\n====Armaments====\nIn the 1930s, the board of directors authorised expenditure on bringing their arms-making equipment back to use – it had been stored at company expense since the end of the Great War in the belief that BSA might again be called upon to perform its patriotic duty.",
"In 1939, BSA acquired the blueprints for a submachine gun designed by Hungarian arms designer Pál Király as well as the rights to manufacture it.",
"Examples were produced in 9mm Mauser Export calibre according to Kiraly's design.",
"It was estimated that these arms would only cost 5 pounds each to manufacture.",
"However, at the time, submachine guns were viewed as \"gangster weapons\" and plans to manufacture it were shelved.",
"===Second World War===\nBy the outbreak of the Second World War, BSA Guns Ltd at Small Heath, was the only factory producing rifles in the UK.",
"The Royal Ordnance Factories did not begin production until 1941.",
"BSA Guns Ltd was also producing .303 Browning machine guns for the Air Ministry at the rate of 600 guns per week in March 1939 and Browning production was to peak at 16,390 per month by March 1942.",
"The armed forces had chosen the 500 cc side-valve BSA M20 motorcycle as their preferred machine.",
"On the outbreak of war the Government requisitioned the 690 machines BSA had in stock as well as placing an order for another 8,000 machines.",
"South Africa, Ireland, India, Sweden and the Netherlands also wanted machines.",
"The Government passed the Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1939 on 24 August allowing the drafting of defence regulations affecting food, travel, requisitioning of land and supplies, manpower and agricultural production.",
"A second Emergency Powers (Defence) Act was passed on 22 May 1940 allowing the conscription of labour.",
"The fall of France had not been anticipated in Government planning and the encirclement of a large part of the British Expeditionary Force into the Dunkirk pocket resulted in a hasty evacuation of that part of the B.E.F following the abandonment of their equipment.",
"The parlous state of affairs \"no arms, no transport, no equipment\" in the face of the threat of imminent invasion of Britain by Nazi forces was recorded by the Chief of the Imperial General Staff Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke in his diary entries of the 1/2 July 1940.",
"The creation of the Home Guard (initially as the Local Defence Volunteers) following Anthony Eden's broadcast appeal to the Nation on Tuesday 14 May 1940 also created further demand for arms production to equip this new force.",
"BSA, as the only rifle producer in Britain, had to step up to the mark and the workforce voluntarily went onto a seven-day week.",
"Motorcycle production was also stepped up from 500 to 1,000 machines per week which meant a finished machine coming off the production line every 5 minutes.",
"The motorcycle department had been left intact in 1939 due to demand which was doubled following Dunkirk.",
"At the same time BSA staff were providing lectures and demonstrations on motorcycle riding and maintenance to 250,000 officers and men in all parts of the UK.",
"The BSA factory at Small Heath was bombed by the Luftwaffe on 26 August 1940 resulting in one high explosive bomb and a shower of incendiaries hitting the main barrel mill which was the only one operating on service rifles in the country, causing the unaffordable loss of 750 machine tools but fortunately no loss of life.",
"Two further air raids took place on 19 and 22 November 1940.",
"The air raid of 19 November did the most damage, causing loss of production and trapping hundreds of workers.",
"Two BSA night-shift electricians, Alf Stevens and Alf Goodwin, helped rescue their fellow workers.",
"Alf Stevens was awarded the George Medal for his selfless acts of bravery in the rescue and Alf Goodwin was awarded the British Empire Medal.",
"Workers involved in the works Civil Defence were brought in to help search for and clear bodies to get the plant back into production.",
"The net effect of the November raids was to destroy machine shops in the four-storey 1915 building, the original 1863 gunsmiths' building and nearby buildings, 1,600 machine tools, kill 53 employees, injure 89, 30 of them seriously and halt rifle production for three months.",
"The Government Ministry of Supply and BSA immediately began a process of production dispersal throughout Britain, through the shadow factory scheme.",
"Factories were set up at Tipton, Dudley, Smethwick, Blackheath, Lye, Kidderminster, Stourport, Tyseley, and Bromsgrove to manufacture Browning machine guns, Stoke, Corsham, and Newcastle-under-Lyme produced the Hispano cannon, Leicester and Studley Road produced the Besa machine gun, Ruislip produced the Oerlikon 20mm cannon, Stafford produced rocket projectiles, Tamworth produced two-pounder gun carriages, Mansfield produced the Boys Anti-tank gun and Shirley produced rifles.",
"These were dispersal factories which were in addition to Small Heath and the other BSA factories opened in the two years following the 1940 blitz.",
"At its peak Small Heath was running 67 factories engaged in war production.",
"BSA operations were also dispersed to other companies under licence.",
"In 1941 BSA was approached to produce a new pedal cycle with a maximum weight allowance of only 22 lb especially for airborne use.",
"This required a new concept in frame design which BSA found, producing a machine which weighed 21 lb, one pound less than the design specification and which also exceeded the design requirement for an effective life of 50 miles many times over.",
"Over 60,000 folding bicycles were produced, a figure equal to half the total production of military bicycles during World War II.",
"BSA also produced folding motorcycles for the Airborne Division.",
"In late 1942 BSA examined the Special Operations Executive designed Welgun with a view to manufacture.",
"BSA were willing to manufacture the gun in the quantities required starting April 1943 but the cheaper and less accurate Sten Mk IV was adopted for production by the Ministry of Supply.",
"BSA bought the Sunbeam motorcycles and bicycle business from Associated Motor Cycles Ltd in 1943 and then Ariel Motors Ltd in 1944.",
"During the course of the conflict BSA produced 1,250,000 Lee–Enfield .303 service rifles, 404,383 Sten sub-machine guns, 468,098 Browning machine guns plus spares equivalent to another 100,000, 42,532 Hispano cannon, 32,971 Oerlikon cannon, 59,322 7.9 mm Besa machine guns, 3,218 15 mm Besa machine guns, 68,882 Boys Anti-tank guns, 126,334 motorcycles, 128,000 military bicycles (over 60,000 of which were folding paratrooper bicycles), 10,000,000 shell fuse cases, 3,485,335 magazines and 750,000 anti-aircraft rockets were supplied to the armed forces.",
"At the same time other parts of the Group were having similar problems.",
"Before World War II Daimler had been linked with other Coventry motor manufacturers in a government-backed scheme for aero engine manufacture and had been allocated two shadow factories.",
"Apart from this, BSA-owned Daimler was producing Scout Cars and Daimler Mk I Armoured Cars which had been designed by BSA at Small Heath not Coventry as well as gun turrets, gun parts, tank transmissions, rocket projectiles and other munitions.",
"This activity had not gone unnoticed by the enemy, which made Radford Works a target in the Coventry air raids.",
"Radford Works received direct hits in four separate air raids during 1940.",
"None of these attacks were to seriously disrupt production, however two more serious air raids were carried out in April 1941 which destroyed half the factory.",
"In all it is estimated that 170 bombs containing 52,000 lbs of explosive were dropped on Radford Works as well as the thousands of incendiaries.",
"Like BSA, Daimler had to find dispersal units.",
"A back-handed compliment was paid by Field Marshal Rommel to the workers at Radford Works when he used a captured Daimler Scout to escape following his defeat at El Alamein.",
"===Post-war===\nAs the result of increased post war demand the Small Heath, Birmingham factory was turned over entirely to motorcycle production.",
"BSA produced the first Sunbeam bicycle catalogue in 1949 and produced its own '4 Star' derailleur gear with an associated splined cassette hub and 4 sprocket cassette.",
"This design was different from the 1930s Bayliss Wiley cassette hub which had a threaded sprocket carrier.",
"BSA bought New Hudson motorcycle and bicycle business in 1950 and followed this up in 1951 with the purchase of Triumph Motorcycles which brought Jack Sangster onto the BSA board.",
"The effect of this acquisition was to make BSA into the largest producer of motorcycles in the world at that time.",
"1952 saw BSA establish a Professional Cycling Team.",
"Bob Maitland a successful amateur cyclist and the highest placed British finisher in the 1948 Olympic Games road race and now an independent rider in the BSA team was a BSA employee working in the design office as a draughtsman.",
"It was Bob Maitland who was responsible for the design of post war BSA range of lightweight sports bicycles based on his knowledge of cycling.",
"Bob Maitland also made some of the components used on the bicycles of the professional team which were not standard production machines.",
"In the 1952 Tour of Britain Road Race run between Friday 22 August and Saturday 6 September, involving 14 individual stages and covering a total race distance of 1,470 miles, the BSA team of Bob Maitland, “Tiny” Thomas, Pete Proctor, Alf Newman and Stan Jones won the overall team race and Pete Proctor “King of the Mountains” classification.",
"The riders also enjoyed success on the individual stages of the race.",
"The team competed in four further events, 14 September Tour of the Chilterns, 1st “Tiny” Thomas and Team Prize, 21 September Weston-Super-Mare Grand Prix, Team Prize, 28 September Staffordshire Grand Prix, 1st Bob Maitland and Team Prize, 5 October Tour Revenge Race, Dublin, 1st “Tiny” Thomas and Team prize.",
"In 1953 BSA withdrew motorcycle production from BSA Cycles Ltd, the company it has established in 1919, by creating BSA Motorcycles Ltd. BSA also produced its 100,000th BSA Bantam motorcycle, a fact celebrated at the 1953 motorcycle show with a visit by Sir Anthony Eden to the BSA stand.",
"In 1953 the BSA Professional Cycling Team was managed by Syd Cozens.",
"Successes were 5/6 April Bournemouth Two Day Road Race, 1st Bob Maitland, 12 April Dover to London 63 Miles Road Race, 1st Stan Jones, 31 May Langsett 90 Miles Road Race, 1st Bob Maitland and “King of the Mountains”, 7 June Tour of the Wrekin, 1st Bob Maitland, 12 July Severn Valley 100 Miles Road Race, 1st “Tiny” Thomas, 19 July Jackson Trophy, Newcastle, Team Prize, 9 August Les Adams Memorial 80 Miles Road Race, 1st Alf Newman, Team Prize, “King of the Mountains” Arthur Ilsley, 30 August Weston-Super-Mare 100 Miles Grand Prix, 1st Bob Maitland, Team Prize.",
"The team also competed in the 1,624 mile, 12 stage, 1953 Tour of Britain Road Race.",
"The 1953 line up had changed as Arthur Ilsley replaced Pete Proctor in the team.",
"“Tiny” Thomas won the overall individual classification, the Team were runners-up in the team competition and Arthur Ilsley was 3rd in the “King of the Mountains” competition.",
"Bob Maitland also had notable success by winning the Independent National Championship.",
"1954 saw the introduction of the BSA Quick Release 3 Speed hub gear.",
"It was a split axle three speed gear intended for use with bicycles equipped with oil bath chainguards.",
"The original BSA 3 speed hub gear had been made under licence from the Three-Speed Gear Syndicate since 1907.",
"The design was later to be classified as the Sturmey-Archer 'Type X', but all BSA hub gear production ceased in 1955\n\nSir Bernard Docker remained chairman of BSA until 1956 when the BSA removed him.",
"In an acrimonious dispute conducted in the media the matter was brought to the BSA shareholders at the Annual General Meeting where the decision of the Board was upheld.",
"Another significant departure for the fortune of the BSA Group but less controversial was the retirement on ill health grounds of James Leek CBE, Managing Director from 1939 until his retirement.",
"Sir Bernard Docker was replaced as Chairman of the BSA Board by Jack Sangster.",
"The BSA bicycle division, BSA Cycles Ltd., including the BSA cycle dealer network was sold to Raleigh in 1957.",
"Raleigh initially continued bicycle production in Birmingham at Coventry Road, Sheldon, Birmingham 26 into the early 1960s using up BSA parts but as time went on more stock Raleigh parts and fittings were used, some continuing to bear the 'piled arms' stamp.",
"TI Group owners of the British Cycle Corporation bought Raleigh in 1960 thus gaining access to the BSA brand.",
"Bicycles bearing the BSA name are currently manufactured and distributed within India by TI Cycles of India but have no direct connection to the original Birmingham BSA company.",
"In 1960, Daimler was sold off to Jaguar.",
"1961 was the centenary year of the BSA Group and in recognition of this milestone the company magazine produced an anniversary issue of ''BSA Group News'' in June ''BSA Centenary 1861–1961'' in which many of the achievements of the Group were celebrated.",
"This year also saw the end of military rifle production, however BSA still continued to make sporting guns.",
"In 1986 BSA Guns was liquidated, the assets bought and renamed '''BSA Guns (UK) Ltd'''.",
"The company continues to make air rifles and shotguns, and is still based in Small Heath in Birmingham.",
"====Norton-Villiers-Triumph====\n\n\nThe Group continued to expand and acquire throughout the 1950s, but by 1965 competition from Japan (in the shape of companies like Honda, Yamaha and Suzuki) and Europe from Jawa / CZ, Bultaco and Husqvarna was eroding BSA's market share.",
"The BSA (and Triumph range) were no longer aligned with the markets; mopeds were displacing scooter sales and the trials and scrambles areas were now the preserve of European two-strokes.",
"Some poor marketing decisions and expensive projects contributed to substantial losses.",
"For example, the development and production investment of the Ariel 3, an ultra stable 3-wheel moped, was not recouped by sales; the loss has been estimated at £2 million.",
"Furthermore, BSA failed to take seriously the threat that key-start Japanese motor cycles might completely destroy the market for kick-started BSA motor cycles.",
"In 1968, BSA announced many changes to its product line of singles, twins and the new three-cylinder machine named the \"Rocket three\" for the 1969 model year.",
"It now concentrated on the more promising USA, and to a lesser extent, Canadian, markets.",
"However, despite the adding of modern accessories, for example, turn signals and even differing versions of the A65 twins for home and export sale, the damage had been done and the end was near.",
"Reorganisation in 1971 concentrated motorcycle production at Meriden, Triumph's site, with production of components and engines at BSA's Small Heath.",
"At the same time there were redundancies and the selling of assets.",
"Upgrades and service bulletins continued until 1972, but the less service-intensive Japanese bikes had by then flooded the market on both sides of the Atlantic.",
"The merger with Norton Villers was started in late 1972, and for a brief time a Norton 500 single was built with the B50-based unit-single engine, but few if any were sold publicly.",
"The BSA unit single B50's 500 cc enjoyed much improvement in the hands of the CCM motorcycle company allowing the basic BSA design to continue until the mid to late 1970s in a competitive form all over Europe.",
"The final BSA range was just four models: Gold Star 500, 650 Thunderbolt/Lightning and the 750 cc Rocket Three.",
"By 1972, BSA was so moribund that, with bankruptcy imminent, its motorcycle businesses were merged (as part of a government-initiated rescue plan) with the Manganese Bronze company, Norton-Villiers, to become NVT, headed by Dennis Poore.",
"The intention was to produce and market Norton and Triumph motorcycles at home and abroad; but Poore's rationalisation led to redundancies of two-thirds of the workforce.",
"In response, the Triumph workers at Meriden set up their own cooperative.",
"This left Poore with neither BSA nor Triumph, and the sole NVT model was the Norton Commando.",
"Although this machine won the ''Motor Cycle News'' \"Bike of the Year\" award for several years running, nothing could hide the fact that the Commando was an old design, being a pre-unit pushrod parallel-twin.",
"In exchange for its motorcycle businesses, Manganese Bronze received BSA Group's non-motorcycle-related divisions—namely, Carbodies.",
"Although the BSA name was left out of the new company's name, a few products continued to be made carrying it until 1973.",
"However, the plan involved the axing of some brands, large redundancies and consolidation of production at two sites.",
"This scheme to rescue and combine Norton, BSA and Triumph failed in the face of worker resistance.",
"Norton's and BSA's factories were eventually shut down, while Triumph staggered on to fail four years later.",
"BSA logo",
"\n===Motorcycles===\nRights went to Norton Villiers Triumph and on its liquidation were purchased by a new company formed by management and named BSA Company Limited.",
"===Guns===\nRights were acquired by Gamo for its new subsidiary '''BSA Guns (UK) Limited'''",
"\n===Bicycles===\nAccording to Charles Spencer, BSA was manufacturing the \"Delta\" bicycle circa 1869.",
"In 1880 the company was approached to manufacture the \"Otto Dicycle\".",
"An initial contract was signed to produce 210 and a further contract followed for a further 200.",
"In all it is believed that a total of 953 Otto machines were made.",
"BSA then went into bicycle production on their own account, the first machines to their own specification being exhibited at the 1881 Stanley Show.",
"BSA went on to design and manufacture a \"safety\" bicycle (patent:15,342 of 1884).",
"BSA was also producing tricycles and a licence was obtained in 1885 to manufacture ball bearings.",
"BSA ceased bicycle manufacture in 1887 because of the demand for arms.",
"Bicycle component manufacture commenced in 1894 and BSA continued to supply the bicycle trade up to 1936.",
"The company recommenced bicycle manufacture on their own account again in 1908 and these were exhibited at the Stanley Show in 1909.",
"Bicycle manufacture was what led BSA into motorcycles.",
"BSA produced bicycles for both the police and military and notably a folding bicycle for the British Army during World War I and the more well known folding Paratroopers bicycle during World War II.",
"BSA supplied the Irish Army with bicycles after 1922.",
"BSA manufactured a range of bicycles from utility roadsters through to racing bicycles.",
"The BSA range of Sports bicycles expanded in the 1930s following the granting of a patent for a new lighter design of seat lug in 1929 and tandems were introduced into the BSA bicycle range as well.",
"BSA had a reputation for quality and durability and their components were more expensive that either Chater-Lea or Brampton.",
"BSA launched a high end club cyclists machine in the early 1930s initially branded as the \"Super-eeze\".",
"Never slow to avail of publicity BSA sponsored the great Australian cyclist Hubert Opperman and re-branded the top of the range machine the \"Opperman\" model.",
"A less expensive range of clubman lightweight machines was introduced from 1936 with the \"Cyclo\" 3 speed derailleur equipped \"Clubman\".",
"Subtle changes were made to the range, most models being equipped with \"Russ\" patent forks and some models were made for only two seasons.",
"This all stopped around September 1939 with the outbreak of war.",
"A revised catalogue with a much reduced range was issued in March 1940 which also saw the launch of the BSA \"Streamlight\" model.",
"A novel all white bicycle was produced for the blackout but had disappeared from a severely reduced bicycle range the details of which were circulated to dealers from December 1941.",
"BSA had ceased production of their 3 speed hub gear in 1939 and production appears to have started again by 1945 although with a black finish instead of chromium plating.",
"BSA bought '''Sunbeam''' in 1943 and produced Sunbeam bicycles using up existing frames and parts and using BSA components for the missing bits.",
"The first BSA produced Sunbeam catalogue was published in 1949\n\nPost war BSA expanded their bicycle range but faced problems of shortages of raw materials such as steel and was required to export a lot of their manufactured output in order to get a Government licence to purchase the necessary raw materials.",
"The company moved bicycle production to the new Waverley Works after World War II.",
"BSA continued to innovate introducing the 4 Star derailleur gear in 1949 along with an associated 4-speed 'unit' or cassette hub.",
"The derailleur design was altered from 1950 and was certainly available up to 1953 but was not a great success.",
"BSA bought New Hudson in 1950 and started to manufacture and sell New Hudson branded machines as well as Sunbeam.",
"It appears that the top of the range BSA lightweight club cyclist machine was the \"Gold Column\" and this appears to have been changed into the BSA \"Tour of Britain\" model following the success of the BSA Professional Cycling Team in the 1952 Tour of Britain race.",
"The \"Tour of Britain\" model was heavily promoted in the BSA 1953 sales literature.",
"The factory made \"Tour of Britain\" model was not the same as those ridden by the professional team.",
"Only eight machines were crafted for the professional team and none of the components appear to have been standard BSA parts.",
"1953 saw BSA separate the bicycle / motorcar and motorcycle business into different holdings.",
"The good times were coming to an end and demand for bicycles fell with the end of rationing in 1954.",
"James Leek, managing director of BSA Cycles Ltd was suffering ill health and he retired in 1956, the same year the BSA Chairman, Sir Bernard Docker, was removed from the BSA Board.",
"Jack Sangster who had joined the BSA Board in 1951 following the purchase of his company Triumph Motorcycles became Chairman.",
"The bicycle manufacturing business BSA Cycles Ltd was sold to Raleigh Industries in 1957.",
"===Motorcycles from 1910===\n\n\nBSA Motorcycles were made by BSA Cycles Ltd, under the BSA parent, up until 1953 when the motorcycle business was moved into holding ''BSA Motorcycles Ltd''.",
"The first instance of intention to produce motorcycles was reported in The Motor Cycle, a British motorcycling journal, in July 1906.",
"The first wholly BSA motorcycle, the 3½ H.P.",
"was built in 1910 and displayed at the first Olympia Show, London on 21 November in that year.",
"Sir Hallewell Rogers, BSA Chairman, had informed the shareholders at the Company's 1910 AGM in Birmingham \"We have decided to put a motor-bicycle on the market for the coming season ....",
"These machines will be on exhibit at the Cycle and Motor Show on November 21st, after which date we look forward to commencing delivery\".",
"The machines were available for the 1911 season and entire production sold out.",
"BSA had previously acquired a commercially available engine in 1905 and fitted it to one of their bicycle frames and discovered at first hand the problems that needed to be overcome.",
"BSA Cycles Ltd was set up as a subsidiary company in 1919 under Managing Director Charles Hyde to manufacture both bicycles and motorcycles.",
"BSA produced their only two-stroke motorcycle design for the 1928 season, the 1.74 H.P.",
"Model A28 with two speed gearbox.",
"It was produced as the A29 and A30 the following two years and became the A31 with a three-speed gearbox in 1931, the last year of production.",
"The post-war 'Bantam' was a German DKW design, part of war reparation, and not a true BSA design.",
"BSA motorcycles were sold as affordable motorcycles with reasonable performance for the average user.",
"BSA stressed the reliability of their machines, the availability of spares and dealer support.",
"The motorcycles were a mixture of sidevalve and OHV engines offering different performance for different roles, e.g.",
"hauling a sidecar.",
"The bulk of use would be for commuting.",
"BSA motorcycles were also popular with \"fleet buyers\" in Britain, who (for example) used the Bantams for telegram delivery for the Post Office or motorcycle/sidecar combinations for AA patrols The Automobile Association (AA) breakdown help services.",
"This mass market appeal meant they could claim \"one in four is a BSA\" on advertising.",
"Machines with better specifications were available for those who wanted more performance or for competition work.",
"Initially, after the Second World War, BSA motorcycles were not generally seen as racing machines, compared to the likes of Norton.",
"In the immediate post-war period few were entered in races such as the TT races, though this changed dramatically in the Junior Clubman event (smaller engine motorcycles racing over some 3 or 4 laps around one of the Isle of Man courses).",
"In 1947 there were but a couple of BSA mounted riders, but by 1952 BSA were in the majority and in 1956 the makeup was 53 BSA, 1 Norton and 1 Velocette.",
"To improve US sales, in 1954, for example, BSA entered a team of riders in the 200 mile Daytona beach race with a mixture of single cylinder Gold Stars and twin cylinder Shooting Stars assembled by Roland Pike.",
"The BSA team riders took first, second, third, fourth, and fifth places with two more riders finishing at 8th and 16th.",
"This was the first case of a one brand sweep.",
"The BSA factory experienced success in the sport of motocross with Jeff Smith riding a B40 to capture the 1964 and 1965 FIM 500 cc Motocross World Championships.",
"It would be the last year the title would be won by a four-stroke machine until the mid-1990s.",
"A BSA motocross machine was often colloquially known as a \"Beezer.\"",
"Birmingham rocker Steve Gibbons released a song \"BSA\" on his 1980 album \"Saints & Sinners\" as a tribute to the Gold Star.",
"He still plays this song with his band and often performs on the Isle of Man at the TT races.",
"===Motorcycle models===\n\n\n====Pre World War II====\n1935 BSA Blue Star\n*3½ hp\n*Model E\n*Model A28\n*C10 sidevalve 250 cc 1938 on design by Val Page\n*G14 1000 cc V-twin\n*Blue Star\n*Empire Star\n*Silver Star\n*Gold Star\n*Sloper\n*M20 (500cc):as the WD (War Department) M20 the motorcycle of the British Army in World War II\n*M21 (600cc): the big brother of the M20, also used by the British Army in World War II\n\n====Post World War II====\nBSA Golden Flash 650\n1969 BSA Royal Star\n*'''A series Twins''' (four-stroke, pushrod parallel twins)\n**A7\n***A7 Shooting Star - 500cc pre-unit construction\n**A10 - 650cc pre-unit construction\n***A10 Golden Flash\n***A10 Super Flash\n***A10 Road Rocket\n***A10 Super Rocket\n***A10 Rocket Gold Star\n**A50 - 500cc unit construction\n***A50R Royal Star\n***A50C Cyclone\n***A50W Wasp\n**A65 - 650cc unit construction\n***A65 Star Twin\n***A65R Rocket\n***A65T Thunderbolt\n***A65L Lightning\n***A65S Spitfire\n***A65H Hornet\n***A65F Firebird Scrambler\n**A70L Lightning 750\n*'''Triples''' (four-stroke, pushrod, three-cylinder engines) - The BSA Rocket 3/Triumph Trident were developed together.",
"The Rocket 3 shares a majority of engine components and other parts with the Trident T150, but has forward-inclined cylinder barrels and a BSA frame.",
"**A75R Rocket3 750\n**A75RV Rocket3 750 - 5 speed\n**A75V Rocket3 750 - 5 speed\n*'''Singles''' (Four-stroke single cylinder)\n**C25 Barracuda\n**B25 Starfire - 250cc unit construction\n**B25FS Fleetstar\n**B25 SS Gold Star\n**BSA B31 single\n**B32 Gold Star\n**B33\n**B34 Gold Star\n**B40 350 Star - 350cc unit construction\n**B40 SS90\n**B44 Victor\n**B44\n***B44SS Shooting Star\n***B44VS Victor Special\n**B50\n***B50SS Gold Star 500\n***B50T Victor Trials\n***B50MX Motocross\n*C series (Four-stroke 250 cc single-cylinder).",
"**C10\n**C11/C11G: - - 85mpg - weight .",
"The C11 used a C10 motor fitted with an overhead valve cylinder head.",
"The C11 frame was almost unchanged until 1951 when BSA added plunger rear suspension.",
"Early gearboxes were weak and unreliable.",
"The C11G was available with a three ratio gearbox and rigid frame or a four ratio gearbox and a plunger frame.",
"Both models had better front brakes than earlier models.",
"This model was a common commuter motorcycle, and many survive today.",
"**C12\n: (1956–1958).",
"249 cc OHV\nUsed the C11G engine, fitted with an alternator and swinging fork (known as swinging arm) rear suspension.",
"1959 BSA C15 Star\n**C15 Star - 250cc unit construction\n**C15T Trials\n**C15S Scrambler\n**C15SS80 Sports Star 80\n**C15 Sportsman\n*D series (Two-stroke single cylinder.",
"See BSA Bantam for details)\n**D1 Bantam - 125cc unit-construction\n**D3 Bantam Major\n**D5 Bantam Super\n**D7 Bantam Super\n**D10 Silver Bantam, Bantam Supreme, Bantam Sports, Bushman\n**D13\n**D14/4 Bantam Supreme, Bantam Sports, Bushman - 175cc\n**B175 Bantam Sports, Bushman\n*Others (may include some export versions of models listed above)\n**B31 Twin (350 cc).",
"B31 frame fitted with a Triumph 3T motor to produce this BSA B31 Twin.",
"Very few units were produced, probably prototypes.",
"**BSA Barracuda\n**BSA Beagle\n**BSA Boxer - 1979 - c.1981 the sports version of the 50cc range (Beaver, Boxer, Brigand, GT50).",
"The engine was by Moto Morini.",
"**BSA GT50 (renamed from the Boxer)\n**BSA Beaver (the standard road version)\n**BSA Tracker 125/175 - late 70s moto-cross style product by NVT with Yamaha two stroke engine.",
"**BSA Dandy 70\n**BSA Sunbeam ''(Scooters, also produced as Triumph TS1, TW2 Tigress)''\n***175B1\n***250B2\n**BSA Starfire\n**BSA Rocket Scrambler\n**BSA Rocket Gold Star\n**BSA Fury\n**BSA Hornet\n**Winged Wheel (auxiliary power unit for bicycles)\n**T65 Thunderbolt (essentially a Triumph TR6P with BSA Badges)\n\n===Military vehicles===\n* BSA Scout armoured car.",
"* \"Type G Apparatus\", Folding paratrooper bicycle, with parachute.",
"===Military firearms===\n* Snider–Enfield rifle\n* Martini–Henry rifle\n* Lee–Metford rifle\n* Lewis gun\n* Lee–Enfield rifle\n* Thompson submachine gun\n* BSA Thompson Autorifle\n* .303 RAF Browning\n* Hispano-Suiza cannon\n* Oerlikon 20mm cannon\n* Sten submachine gun\n* Boys anti-tank rifle\n* Besa machine gun\n* BSA experimental model 1949 pump-action machine carbine\n* ADEN cannon\n* L1A1 SLR\n\n===Civilian firearms===\n* The 1906 war office pattern rifle\n* The Sportsman series of .22 Long Rifle bolt-action rifles\n* Various Martini action target .22lr rifles\n* The Ralock and Armatic semi automatic .22lr rifles\n* Various bolt action hunting rifles",
"* Clews Competition Motorcycles (CCM) - the remnants of BSA's off-road arm\n* List of BSA motorcycles\n* List of modern armament manufacturers\n* Tribsa custom built café racer or off-road using a Triumph engine in a BSA frame",
"\n* BSA History from the Days of the Crimea (1918)\n* \n* Catalogue of the BSA archives, held at the Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Ballarat''' is a city located on the Yarrowee River in the Central Highlands of Victoria, Australia. The city is approximately west-north-west of the state capital, Melbourne, with a population of some 101,686. It is the third largest population for an inland city in Australia. Locals are known as 'Ballaratians'.\n\nBallarat is arguably the most significant Victorian era gold rush boomtown in Australia. Just months after Victoria was granted separation from the state of New South Wales, the Victorian gold rush transformed Ballarat from a small sheep station to a major settlement. Gold was discovered at Poverty Point on 18 August 1851, and news quickly spread of rich alluvial fields where gold could easily be extracted. Within months, migrants from across the world had rushed to the district in search of gold. Unlike many other gold boom towns, the Ballarat fields experienced sustained high gold yields for many decades, which can be evidenced to this day in the city's rich architecture.\n\nThe Eureka Rebellion began in Ballarat, and the only armed rebellion in Australian history, the Battle of Eureka Stockade, took place on 3 December 1854. In response to the event the first male suffrage in Australia was instituted and as such Eureka is interpreted by some as the origin of democracy in Australia. The gold rush and boom gave birth to many other significant cultural legacies. The rebellion's symbol, the Eureka Flag, has become a national symbol and is held at the Museum of Australian Democracy at Eureka in Ballarat. Other nationally significant heritage structures include the Ballarat Botanical Gardens (established 1857), with the greatest concentration of public statuary, the official Prime Ministers Avenue, the longest running lyric theatre building (Her Majesty's Theatre, established 1875), the first municipal observatory, established 1886, and the earliest and longest war memorial avenue (the Avenue of Honour, established between 1917 and 1919).\n\nProclaimed a city in 1871, its prosperity continued until late in the 19th century, after which its importance relative to both Melbourne and Geelong rapidly faded with the slowing of gold extraction. It has endured as a major regional centre hosting the rowing and kayaking events from the 1956 Summer Olympics. It is the commercial capital of the Central Highlands and the largest city in the Goldfields region of Victoria, as well a significant tourist destination. Ballarat is known for its history, culture and its well-preserved Victorian era heritage, with much of the city subject to heritage overlays. After a narrow popular vote the city merged with the town of Ballarat East in 1921, ending a long standing rivalry.\n\n\n",
"\n=== Prehistory and European settlement ===\nPrior to the European settlement of Australia, the Ballarat region was populated by the Wathaurong people, an Indigenous Australian people. The Boro gundidj tribe's territory was based along the Yarrowee River.\n\nThe first Europeans to sight the area were an 1837 party of six mostly Scottish squatters from Geelong, led by Somerville Learmonth, who were in search of land less affected by the severe drought for their sheep to graze. The party scaled Mount Buninyong; among them were Somerville's brother Thomas Livingstone Learmonth, William Cross Yuille and Henry Anderson, all three of whom later claimed land in what is now Ballarat.\n\nThe Yuille family, Scottish settlers Archibald Buchanan Yuille and his brother William Cross Yuille, arrived in 1837 and squatted a sheep run. The first houses were built near Woolshed Creek by William Yuille and Anderson (Sebastopol), while Yuille erected a hut at Black Swamp (Lake Wendouree) in 1838. Outsiders originally knew of the settlement as Yuille's Station and Yuille's Swamp. Archibald Yuille named the area \"Ballaarat\" Some claim the name is derived from a local Wathaurong Aboriginal word for the area, ''balla arat''. The meaning of this word is not certain; however several translations have been made and it is generally thought to mean \"resting place\". In some dialects, ''balla'' means \"bent elbow\", which is translated to mean reclining or resting and ''arat'' meaning \"place\". Another claim is that the name derives from Yuille's native Gaelic Baile Ararat (Town of Ararat), alluding to the resting place of Noah's ark. The present spelling was officially adopted by the City of Ballarat in 1996.\n\n=== 1850s: Gold rush ===\nBallarat's tent city in the summer of 1853–1854 oil painting from an original sketch by Eugene von Guerard.\n\nThe first publicised discovery of gold in the region was by Thomas Hiscock on 2 August 1851 in the Buninyong region to the south. The find brought other prospectors to the area and on 19 August 1851 John Dunlop and James Regan struck gold at Poverty Point with a few ounces. Within days of the announcement of Dunlop and Regan's find a gold rush began, bringing thousands of prospectors to the Yarrowee valley which became known as the Ballarat diggings. Yields were particularly high, with the first prospectors in the area extracting between half an ounce (which was more than the average wage of the time) and up to five ounces of alluvial gold per day. As news of the Australian gold rushes reached the world, Ballarat gained an international reputation as a particularly rich goldfield. As a result, a huge influx of immigrants occurred, including many from Ireland and China, gathering in a collection of prospecting shanty towns around the creeks and hills. In just a few months numerous alluvial runs were established, several deep mining leads began, and the population had swelled to over 1,000 people. Pencil drawing of goldfields camp at Ballarat\n\nThe first post office opened on 1 November 1851. It was the first Victorian post office to open in a gold-mining settlement. Parts of the district were first surveyed by William Urquhart as early as October 1851. By 1852 his grid plan and wide streets for land sales in the new township of West Ballarat, built upon a plateau of basalt, contrasted markedly with the existing narrow unplanned streets, tents, and gullies of the original East Ballarat settlement. The new town's main streets of the time were named in honour of police commissioners and gold commissioners of the time, with the main street, Sturt Street, named after Evelyn Pitfield Shirley Sturt; Dana Street named after Henry Dana; Lydiard Street after his assistant; Doveton Street after Francis Crossman Doveton, Ballarat's first gold commissioner; Armstrong after David Armstrong; and Mair Street after William Mair. These officials were based at the government encampment (after which nearby Camp Street was named), which was strategically positioned on an escarpment with an optimal view over the district's diggings.\n\nThe first newspaper, ''The Banner'', published on 11 September 1853, was one of many to be distributed during the gold-rush period. Print media played a large role in the early history of the settlement. Ballarat attracted a sizable number of miners from the Californian 1848 gold rush, and some were known as Ballafornians.\n\nBattle of the Eureka Stockade. J. B. Henderson (1854) Watercolour\nCivil disobedience in Ballarat led to Australia's only armed civil uprising, the Eureka Rebellion (colloquially referred to as the \"Eureka Stockade\") which took place in Ballarat on 3 December 1854. The event, in which 22 miners were killed, is considered to be a defining moment in Australian history.\n\nThe city earned the nickname \"The Golden City\" in the 1850s. The gold rush population peaked at almost 60,000, mostly male diggers, by 1858. However the early population was largely itinerant. As quickly as the alluvial deposits drew prospectors to Ballarat, the rate of gold extraction fluctuated and, as they were rapidly worked dry, many quickly moved to rush other fields as new findings were announced, particularly Mount Alexander in 1852, Fiery Creek in 1855, and Ararat in 1857. By 1859, a smaller number of permanent settlers numbering around 23,000, many of whom had built personal wealth in gold, established a prosperous economy based around a shift to deep underground gold mining.\n\nConfidence of the city's early citizens in the enduring future of their city is evident in the sheer scale of many of the early public buildings, generous public recreational spaces, and opulence of many of its commercial establishments and private housing. A local steam locomotive industry developed from 1854 with the Phoenix Foundry operating until 1906. The railway came to the town with the opening of the Geelong–Ballarat line in 1862 and Ballarat developed as a major railway town. As the city grew the region's original indigenous inhabitants were quickly expelled to the fringe and by 1867 few remained.\n\n=== Victorian city ===\nThe intersection of Lydiard and Sturt Street in about 1905 was the heart of a bustling city of trams, horses and pedestrians.\nFrom the late 1860s to the early 20th century, Ballarat made a successful transition from a gold rush town to an industrial-age city. The ramshackle tents and timber buildings gradually made way for permanent buildings, many impressive structures of solid stone and brick mainly built from wealth generated by early mining.\n\nPrince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh visited between 9 and 13 December 1867 and as the first royal visit, the occasion was met with great fanfare. The Prince Room was prepared at Craigs Royal Hotel for his stay. The city's first civic centre—Prince Alfred Hall—erected over the Yarrowee between the two municipalities, was named in his honour during his visit. The later attempt of the Prince's assassination by Ballaratian Henry James O'Farrell was met with shock and great horror from locals.\n\nBallarat was proclaimed a city in 1871. Gong Gong reservoir was built in 1877 to alleviate flooding and to provide a permanent water supply. A direct railway to Melbourne was completed in December 1889. Many industries and workshops had been established as a result of manufacturing and servicing for the deep lead mining industry.\n\nLocal boosterists at the start of the 20th century adopted the nickname \"Athens of Australia\", first used to describe the city by the prestigious Irish-Australian jurist and politician of the early 20th century Sir John Madden.\n\nOn 13 May 1901, the Duke of York (later George V) and his wife, Mary the Duchess of York, travelled by train from Melbourne to Ballarat.\n\nThe first electricity supply was completed in 1901 by the Electric Supply Company of Victoria. A bluestone power station was built at the corner of Ripon Street and Wendouree Parade in 1901 with the main aim of providing the power required for electrification of the city's tramway network.\n\n=== Declining fortunes ===\nDevelopment of the Ballarat North Workshops was a major initiative to capitalise on the city's burgeoning role as a railway town and transition from a declining gold mining industry\nFollowing the start of the 20th century, however, mining activity slowed and Ballarat's growth all but stopped—the city went into a period of decline and saw a reversal of the fortunes acquired in the previous century.\n\nThe Sunshine rail disaster in 1908 resulted in the death of dozens of Ballarat residents. On 19 August 1909, a great storm lashed the city, resulting in the death of one person and injury of seven others. During the storm, a tornado swept across the city's northern and eastern suburbs destroying numerous homes in Ballarat North, Soldiers Hill, Black Hill and Ballarat East, lifting and then again touching down at Eureka where it destroyed more homes before dissipating.\n\nOne bright spot in this period was the establishment of Osrey Pottery in 1922 by the artist Gladys Reynell, one of Australia's first potters, and her husband, George Samuel Osborne. The pottery closed in 1926 when Osborne developed lead poisoning.\n\nBallarat's significant representation during WWI resulted in heavy human loss. The city eventually lost first provincial status to Geelong. In response, local lobbyists continually pushed the Victorian government for decentralisation, the greatest success being the Victorian Railways opening the Ballarat North Workshops in April 1917. The Great Depression proved a further setback for Ballarat, with the closure of many institutions and causing the worst unemployment in the city's history, with over a thousand people in the dole queue.\n\nThe city's two municipalities, Ballarat East and West Town Councils, finally amalgamated in 1921 to form the City of Ballarat.\n\n=== Since the 20th century ===\nView of central Ballarat from St Peter's Anglican Church\nWhile deep, the depression was also brief. The interwar period proved a period of recovery for Ballarat with a number of major infrastructure projects well underway including a new sewerage system. In 1930, Ballarat Airport was established. By 1931, Ballarat's economy and population was recovering strongly with further diversification of industry, although in 1936 Geelong displaced it as the state's second largest city. During World War II an expanded Ballarat airport was the base of the RAAF Wireless Air Gunners' School as well as the base for USAAF Liberator bomber squadrons. In 1942, Ballarat became connected to the state electricity grid by a 66,000 kV line. Prior to this, power supply was generated locally.\n\nIn the post-war era, Ballarat's growth continued. In response to an acute housing shortage, significant suburban expansion occurred. An extensive Housing Commission of Victoria estate was built on the former Ballarat Common (today known as Wendouree West). The estate was originally planned to contain over 750 prefabricated houses. While planning for the estate began in 1949, main construction occurred between 1951 and 1962.\n\nThe 1950s brought a new optimism to the city. On 17 April 1952 it was announced that Lake Wendouree was to be the venue for rowing events of the 1956 Summer Olympics, and work soon began on an Olympic village in Gillies Street. A new prefabricted power terminal substation at Norman Street Ballarat North was constructed between 1951 and 1953 by the State Electricity Commission. The first Begonia Festival, a highly successful community celebration, was held in 1953. Elizabeth II visited on 8 March 1954. The Civic Centre, Prince Alfred Hall had burned down suspiciously that year; however a new Civic Hall was constructed and opened in March 1955. On 23 November 1956, the Olympic torch was carried through the city, and the following day the rowing events were held at the lake. On 2 March 1958 the Queen Mother visited Ballarat.\n\nDuring the following decades, the city saw increased threats to its heritage. In 1964, the Ballarat City Council passed laws banning pillar-supported verandahs in the CBD, which threatened the removal of historic cast iron verandahs in the city. The by-law was met by staunch opposition from the National Trust, which had begun campaigning to protect some of the city's most historic buildings. By the 1970s, Ballarat began to officially recognise its substantial heritage, and the first heritage controls were recommended to ensure its preservation. With the opening of Sovereign Hill, the city made a rapid shift to become a major cultural tourist destination, visited by thousands each year.\n\nDuring the 1970s, a further 300 houses were constructed at Wendouree West. Private housing in the adjacent suburb of Wendouree closely matched and eventually eclipsed this by the mid-1960s. The suburb of greater Wendouree and Wendouree West had evolved as the suburban middle-class heart of the city. Charles, Prince of Wales visited Ballarat on 28 October 1974 during which he toured Sovereign Hill, the Ballarat College of Advanced Education's new Mt Helen Campus and the White Swan Reservoir and spoke at Civic Hall.\n\nThe city continued to grow at the national average throughout the late 20th century and early 21st century. In 2008 the City of Ballarat released a plan directing that growth of the city over the next 30 years is to be concentrated to the west of the city centre. The Ballarat West Growth Area Plan was approved by the city and state government in 2010, planning an extensive fringe development consisting of 14,000 new homes and up to 40,000 new residents including new activity centres and employment zones.\n\n=== Military history ===\n\nDuring World War 2, Ballarat was the location of RAAF No.1 Inland Aircraft Fuel Depot (IAFD), completed in 1942 in the defence of Australia against a Japanese invasion and de-commissioned on 29 August 1944. Usually consisting of 4 tanks, 31 fuel depots were built across Australia for the storage and supply of aircraft fuel for the RAAF and the US Army Air Forces at a total cost of £900,000 ($1,800,000).\n",
"Ballarat's skyline hidden from this view of the city looking east across Lake Wendouree to Mount Warrenheip.\nBallarat lies at the foothills of the Great Dividing Range in Central Western Victoria. Also known as the Central Highlands, it is named so because of its gentle hills and lack of any significant mountains that are more common in the eastern sections of the Great Dividing Range. The city lies within a mostly gently undulating section of the midland plains which stretch from Creswick in the north, to Rokewood in the south, and from Lal Lal in the south-east to Pittong in the west.\n\nGeologically, the area consists of alluvial sediment and volcanic flows originating from now-extinct volcanoes such as nearby Buninyong and Warrenheip, which are the area's tallest peaks. As a result, the basin contains large areas of fertile agricultural soil. Ballarat itself is situated on an alluvial basin of the Yarrowee catchment and its tributary creeks, penetrated by sub-ranges of schists composed of granites and quartz. Along with the visible river and creeks, the catchment basin has numerous active and inactive aquifers and natural wetlands, which are used for urban water supply, agriculture and recreation.\n\nThere are numerous densely forested areas around Ballarat; however due to historic wood milling and land clearing there remain no old-growth forests. The major natural bodies of water are in the west and include the former shallow swamps of Lake Wendouree which is central to the city's western suburbs and beyond Winter's Swamp and the large Lake Burrumbeet wetland complex. Almost all of the other numerous bodies of water have been created artificially and include several reservoirs, the largest being the White Swan Reservoir and smaller suburban lakes such as Lake Esmond.\n\nThe contiguous urban area of Ballarat covers approximately of the local government area's . Approximately 90% of the urban area's land use is residential and suburban. From the city centre this area extends approximately north to the hills around Invermay, approximately east to Leigh Creek in the foothills of Mount Warrenheip, approximately west along the plains to Lucas and approximately south along the Yarrowee River and Canadian Creek valley to the fringe of Buninyong. The central city is situated low in the valley of the Yarrowee River and surrounded by hills such that the city skyline is visible only from the hills and the lower lying inner eastern suburbs. The reach of the Yarrowee River toward Ballarat Central becomes a stormwater drain and is completely covered over as it flows under the CBD.\n\n===City and suburbs===\nMap of the urban area (grey) and the extent of the municipal area\nView of Ballarat Central and surrounding areas from the Black Hill lookout.\nLooking south over Sturt Street and the CBD toward Bridge Mall from the Town Hall clock tower\n\nBallarat is a primarily low-rise city though apart from the area around Ballarat Airport there are few established height limits for buildings. The City of Ballarat defines two Major Activity Centres within the urban area – the Central Business District (CBD) and Wendouree with a high concentration of business, retail and community function based primarily on the Melbourne 2030 planning model and a further 11 neighbourhood activity centres. The tallest building in urban Ballarat is the seven-storey Henry Bolte wing of the Ballarat Base Hospital (1994). Beyond the central area, urban Ballarat extends into several suburban areas with a mixture of housing styles. Predominant styles are 19th-century villas, Victorian terraces, Federation homes and Georgian red brick homes. Settlement patterns around Ballarat consist of small villages and country towns, some with less than a few thousand people.\n\nThe Central Business District (located in Ballarat Central) is a large mixed-use office and retail district bounded to the north by railway lines, to the west by Drummond Street, to the south to Grant street and to the east by Princes Street and spanning the floodplain of the Yarrowee River. Lydiard, Sturt Streets, Armstrong, Doveton, Dana Street and Bridge Street (known as Bridge Mall) along with the historic centre of East Ballarat—Main Street and Bakery Hill have retained stands of commercial and civic buildings of state and national heritage significance.\n\nThe inner established suburbs were initially laid out around the key mining areas and include Ballarat East, Bakery Hill, Golden Point, Soldiers Hill, Black Hill, Brown Hill, Eureka, Canadian, Mount Pleasant, Redan, Sebastopol and Newington.\n\nThe post gold rush era has seen a boom in expansion, extending the conurbation north, south and west. To the west, Ballarat has expanded West to Lucas, Alfredton, Delacombe To The North West Wendouree , Wendouree West and Miners Rest To the north it has expanded to Ballarat North, Invermay Park, Invermay, Victoria Invermay and Nerrina; to the east to Warrenheip and south to Sebastopol, Mount Clear and Mount Helen with the urban area encroaching the large town of Buninyong.\n\nWendouree is currently the only major suburban activity centre with a large indoor shopping mall—Stockland Shopping Centre (expanded in 2007) and also has a number of surrounding retail parks including a strip shopping centre along Howitt Street including the large retail chain Harvey Norman. Elsewhere are small suburban hubs with supermarkets such as IGA (supermarkets) and small stretches of shopfronts.\n\nUnlike Melbourne, Ballarat does not have a defined urban growth boundary. This has put continuing pressure on the city council to approve development applications for subdivisions outside of the city fringe. In response to lobbying by landholders, the Ballarat West Growth Area Plan, a major greenfield land development plan, was prepared and has approved by the city and state government to allow for planned fringe communities consisting of 14,000 new homes and up to 40,000 new residents, effectively doubling the city's urban area by extending the urban sprawl from Sebastopol, Delacombe and Alfredton west toward Bonshaw, Smythes Creek and Cardigan with a new suburb to be known as Lucas to be created. New activity centres are to be developed at Delacombe and Alfredton.\n\n===Climate===\nSnow scene in Sturt Gardens in 1905\nBallarat has a moderate oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification ''Cfb'') with four seasons. Its elevation, at above sea level, causes its mean monthly temperatures to tend to be on average below those of Melbourne. The mean daily maximum temperature for January is , while the mean minimum is . In July, the mean maximum is ; average July minimum is . Ballarat has 55.2 clear days annually.\n\nThe mean annual rainfall is , with August being the wettest month (). There are an average of 198 rain-free days per year. Like much of Australia, Ballarat experiences cyclical drought and heavy rainfall. Flooding of the Yarrowee catchment occurs occasionally. In 1869 a serious flood of the Yarrowee River put most of the lower section of business district including Bridge and Grenville streets under water and caused the loss of two lives. Prolonged drought (an average annual rainfall with falls averaging as low as per year since 2001) caused Lake Wendouree to dry up completely for the first time in its history between 2006 and 2007. More recently higher rainfall levels have been recorded including in the 24 hours to 9 am on 14 January 2011, ending a four-day period of flooding rains across much of Victoria and Tasmania, and contributing to the wettest January on record, with a total of of rain for the month.\n\nLight snowfall typically falls on nearby Mount Buninyong and Mount Warrenheip at least once a year but in the urban area only during heavy winters. Widespread frosts and fog are more common during the cooler months. Snow has been known to fall heavily. Heavy snow seasons occurred in 1900–1902 and 1905–1907 (with record falls in 1906), and moderate snow seasons were recorded during the 1940s and 1980s. Recent snowfalls to have occurred within the urban area were in 2006, 2008, 2014 and 2016, with falls in November 2006 (light, also the latest snowfall on record), July 2007 (heavy), June 2008 (light), August 2008 (light), August 2014 (moderate) and June 2016 (light).\n\nBallarat's highest maximum recorded temperature was on 7 February 2009 during the 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave. This was above the previous record of , set on 25 January 2003. The lowest-ever recorded minimum was at sunrise on 19 July 2015.\n\n\n",
"A view from Lake Wendouree toward Mount Buninyong Reserve\nBallarat has a healthy environment in comparison to Melbourne; however, as a growing regional city there are issues including pollution, waterway health and invasive species. Air quality is generally good, however dust is sometimes an issue in the summer months and woodsmoke from fireplaces is an issue in the winter months. Ballarat's waterways have historically been affected by heavy pollution from both mining and industry.\n\nThe Ballarat Environment Network formed in 1993 to provide a voice for environmental and nature conservation issues in Ballarat and its surroundings. Another large lobby group for sustainability in the city is the Ballarat Renewable Energy And Zero Emissions (BREAZE) formed in 2006. The City of Ballarat released an Environment Sustainability Strategy for the city in 2007.\n\nWhile there are no national parks in Ballarat's proximity, Ballarat is bordered by extensive bushland to the north, south and south west and sensitive wetlands to the east. There are a number of nearby state parks and large reserves including the Enfield State Park, Creswick Regional Park, Mount Warrenheip Flora Reserve, Mount Buninyong Reserve and Lake Burrumbeet park. The region is home to a large koala population with protected areas established in the city's outer southern and eastern settlements.\n\nMany parts of urban Ballarat have been affected by the introduction of exotic species, particularly introduced flora. Common gorse is one such problem which has prompted the formation of an official Ballarat Region Gorse Task Force in 1999 to control. European rabbits and red foxes cause significant environmental damage in the region's agriculture areas.\n",
"The economy of Ballarat is driven by all three economic sectors, though contemporary Ballarat has emerged as a primarily service economy with its main industry being the service industry and its key areas of business including tourism, hospitality, retail, professional services, government administration and education. Secondary industry including manufacturing, which had grown in the 20th century remains an important sector. The city's historic primary industry roots including mining and agriculture continue to play a role, though one that has declined since the 20th century. Industries emerging this century include information technology service sector and renewable energy.\n\n===Service industries===\nAs a major service centre for the populous goldfields region, Ballarat has large sectors of employment in business including retail, professional services and trades as well as state and federal government branch offices for public services and health care and non-government service organisations. Collectively these industries employ more than half of the city's workforce and generate the bulk of the city's economic activity.\n\nBallarat is the main retail economy in the region. The city has several key retail districts including a pedestrian mall known as Bridge Mall comprising over 100 traders. There are also indoor shopping malls including Central Square Shopping Centre and Stockland Wendouree. better known as Wendouree Village, with a large number of specialty stores. Major department stores include Myer, Target, Big W, Kmart, Harvey Norman and Harris Scarfe. Additionally each of the major supermarkets (Coles, Woolworths, IGA and Aldi) are represented. Servicing the financial sector are branches of the big four Australian retail banks (National Australia Bank, Australia and New Zealand Banking Group, Commonwealth Bank and Westpac) along with Bendigo Bank and St.George Bank and a number of smaller independent financial services firms.\n\nFederation University Australia exports education through a large international students program and throughout Australia through distance education programs.\n\nIn recent years, a large technology park, the Ballarat Technology Park with communications centre has been established, with tenants including IBM and employing over 1,400 people.\n\n====Tourism and hospitality====\nMain Street in Sovereign Hill, a large open-air gold mining museum, is Ballarat's most famous attraction.\nBallarat attracts 2.2 million visitors a year and the tourism and hospitality industry is a A$480 million a year sector which accounts for around 15% of Ballarat's economy and employs around 2,870 people. Tourism in Ballarat is promoted by Ballarat Regional Tourism.\n\nA significant heritage tourism industry has not grown substantially in Ballarat since the 1960s. Ballarat is most notable for the award-winning open-air museum known as Sovereign Hill, a recreated 1850s gold mining settlement opened in 1970. Sovereign Hill is Ballarat's biggest tourism drawcard and is consistently rated among one of the best outdoor museums in the world and continues to expand. Sovereign Hill accounts for over half a million of Ballarat's visitors and $40 million in tourism revenue.\n\nSeveral businesses and attractions have capitalised on Ballarat's gold mining history. They include Kryal Castle (1972), \"Gold Rush Mini Golf\" (2002) featuring the \"Big Miner\" (2006) one of Australia's big things (although the original proposal appeared larger and for the miner to hold the Eureka Flag) at Ballarat's eastern entrance.\n\nOther tourist attractions include the Eureka Centre; The Gold Museum, Ballarat; Ballarat Botanic gardens and Lake Wendouree; the Museum of Australian Democracy; the Ballarat Tramway Museum and Ballarat Ghost Tours and Ballarat Wildlife Park. A large number of Ballarat hotels, motels and restaurants service the tourism industry. The Ballarat Tourist Association is an industry based non-profit, membership organisation representing the city's tourism industry.\n\n===Manufacturing===\nAccording to the 2006 Australian Census, manufacturing is Ballarat's third largest employment sector, accounting for 14.8% of all workers.\n\nBallarat attracts investment from several international manufacturers. The Australian headquarters of Mars, Incorporated was established in Ballarat in 1979 with the main Ballarat factory producing popular confectionery including Mars bars, Snickers and M&M's for the Australian market as well as expanding in 2013 to produce Maltesers. McCain Foods Limited Australian headquarters was established in Ballarat in 1970 and the company continues to expand its operations. The Ballarat North Workshops is a major manufacturer of public transportation products with current investment from Alstom.\n\nBallarat also has a large number of home-grown companies producing textiles, general industrial engineering, food products, brick and tiles, building components, prefabricated housing components and automotive components. Brewing was once a large-scale operation, with many large businesses including the public company Phoenix Brewery, and although large-scale brewing has ceased, the city retains a substantial microbrewery industry.\n\n===Primary industry===\nReplica of the \"Welcome Nugget\", found at Ballarat, the second largest gold nugget discovered in recorded history\nThough historically an important sector, the production of Ballarat's primary industry declined for many decades, recovering only marginally since 2006. Where historically the mining industry supported tens of thousands of workers or the majority of the population, today agriculture dominates the sector, though collectively both industries employ less than thousand people or just over 2% of the City of Ballarat's total workforce.\n\nBallarat rose to prominence as a goldrush boomtown, though gold no longer plays a pivotal role in the economy of the city. Nevertheless, deep underground mining continues to the present date with a single main mine operating. There are still thought to be large, undiscovered gold reserves in the Ballarat region, with investigations being made by local and national companies. Lihir Gold invested in Ballarat Goldfields in 2006, however it downscaled its operations in 2009 due to the expense of extraction before selling its stake in 2010 to Castlemaine Goldfields. Along with gold, lignite (coal), kaolin (clay) and iron ore have also been mined in the Ballarat region and nearby Lal Lal however many of the resource deposits have since been exhausted. An active quarrying industry with large enterprises including Boral Limited extracts and manufactures building materials from the Ballarat region, including clays, aggregates, cements, asphalts.\n\nApproximately half () of the municipality's area is rural with optimal conditions for agriculture including rich volcanic soils and climate. This area is used primarily for agriculture and animal husbandry and generates more than $37 million in commodities. The region supports an active potato growing industry that has supplied local food manufacturers including McCain, though more recently has been threatened by cheaper imports. Other large crops include grains, vegetables, grapes and berries. Cattle and poultry stocks, including sheep, cows and pigs, support an active local meat and dairy industry. The Ballarat Livestock Selling Centre is the largest cattle exchange in regional Victoria. The Ballarat Agricultural and Pastoral Society formed in 1856 and has run the Ballarat Show annually since 1859.\n\nA $7.5 million forestry industry is active in nearby state forests as well as on a small scale in the urban area along the Canadian Valley around the suburbs of Mt Clear and Mt Helen areas with pine plantations and sawmill operations.\n\n====Renewable energy====\nPart of the Waubra Wind Farm\nThe Ballarat region has a rapidly growing renewable energy industry, in particular due to its abundant wind energy, attracting significant investment and generating revenue for local landholders and local councils. The region is also a source of bountiful geothermal energy, solar power and biomass although to date, only its wind, solar and hydroelectricity has been harvested commercially. All local commercially produced electricity is sent to the National Electricity Market.\n\nWind energy is generated by local wind farms. The largest, Waubra Wind Farm, completed in 2009, ( W – 192 MW, 128 turbines) is capable of producing enough electricity to power a city 3 to 4 times the size of Ballarat. Other significant nearby wind farms include Mount Mercer, completed 2014, ( S – 131 MW, 64 turbines) which produces enough energy to power 100,000 homes, equivalent to Ballarat's population and Chepstowe, completed March 2015, ( W – 6 MW, 3 turbines) which produces enough power for 3,400 homes. The first community-owned wind farm in Australia, the Hepburn Wind Project at Leonards Hill, completed in 2011, ( NE – 4 MW, 2 turbines) produces the equivalent amount of electricity used by the town of Daylesford. Several large projects have planning approval, including Stockyard Hill Wind Farm ( W – 41 MW, 157 turbines), Moorabool Wind Project at Mount Egerton and Ballan ( E – 330 MW, 107 turbines). and the Lal Lal Wind Farm ( SE – 150 MW, 64 turbines).\n\nHydroelectricity is generated at White Swan reservoir micro hydro plant established in 2008 and producing the equivalent electricity needs of around 370 homes. Ballarat Solar Park, opened in 2009 at the Airport site in Mitchell Park, is Victoria's first ground-mounted, flat-plate and grid-connected photovoltaic farm. Built by Sharp Corporation for Origin Energy, it is and generates the equivalent electricity needs of around 150 homes.\n",
"The 2006 Australian national census indicated that the permanent population of the urban area was 78,221 out of the City of Ballarat's population of 85,196 and a total of 31,960 households.\n\nBallarat has witnessed a significant growth surge since 2006 and the population of the City of Ballarat is becoming increasingly urban such that statistically, the LGA is now used as the ABS statistical division. Recent rapid growth has been attributed by demographers to increased commuter activity arising from surging house and land prices in Melbourne coupled with transport upgrades between Ballarat and Melbourne. Since 2006 Ballarat has averaged an annual population growth of 1700 and in June 2008 the estimated resident population of the City of Ballarat was 91,787. In August 2009 this population had grown to 94,000.\n\nWhile most of the city's population can trace their ethnic roots to Anglo-Celtic descent, 8.2% of the population are born overseas. Of them, the majority (4.2%) come from North East Europe. 3.4% speak a language other than English. 14.4% of the population is over the age of 65. The median age in Ballarat is 35.8 years.\n\nThe average income of Ballarat, while lower than Melbourne, is higher than average for regional Victoria. Ballaratians in the 2007/08 financial year earned on average A$38,850 a year. The highest earners living in the city's inner suburbs with a mean of $53,174 a year, while the lower earners are centred on the city's southern suburbs. According to the 2006 Census, Ballarat's working population is largely white collar 52.1% consisting of Management, Professionals, Clerical and Administrative Workers and Sales Workers, while 32.9% are blue collar working in Technicians and Trades, Labouring or Machinery Operation. 56.5% of households had access to the Internet in 2006. The unemployment rate as of June 2011 was 7.8%.\nSt Peters Anglican Church, which represents the second most common religious affiliation in Ballarat.\n50.3% of the population have completed further education after high school.\n\n===Religion===\nChristianity remains the dominant religion in Ballarat, with over 65% of residents claiming Christian affiliation, slightly above the national average of 64%. According to the 2006 Census, Catholics (27.1%), Anglicans (15.0%), Uniting Church (11.2%) and Presbyterians (4.0%) remain the largest Christian denominations in Ballarat.\n\nOver 21.6% of Ballarat residents claim no religious affiliation. Minority religious groups include Buddhism, Judaism, Baha'i and Islam and total less than 5% of the population.\n",
"Ballarat Town Hall\nCouncil Chamber in Ballarat Town Hall, Sturt Street, is the seat of local government for the City of Ballarat. The council was created in 1994 as an amalgamation of a number of other municipalities in the region. The City is made up of 3 wards, each represented by three councillors elected once every four years by postal voting. The Mayor of Ballarat is elected from these councillors by their colleagues for a one-year term. The Town Hall and annexe contains some council offices, however the council's administrative headquarters are located at the council owned Phoenix Building and the leased Gordon Buildings on the opposite side of Bath Lane.\n\nIn state politics, Ballarat is located in the Legislative Assembly districts of Buninyong and Wendouree, with both of these seats currently held by the Australian Labor Party. In federal politics, Ballarat is located in a single House of Representatives division—the Division of Ballarat. The Division of Ballarat has been a safe Australian Labor Party seat since 2001, and was the seat of the second Prime Minister of Australia, Alfred Deakin.\n\nLaw enforcement is overseen from regional police headquarters at the law complex in Dana Street with a single local police station operating in Buninyong. Due to an increase in crime rates and population, two additional local police stations were proposed in 2011 one each for the suburbs of North Ballarat and Sebastopol. Justice is conducted locally overseen through branches of the Supreme, County, Magistrates and Children's Court of Victoria which operate out of the Ballarat courts Complex adjacent police headquarters in Dana Street. Corrections, at least in the longer term are no longer handled locally since the closure of the Ballarat Gaol in 1965. Offenders can be detained in 25 available cells at the police complex though are commonly transferred to nearby Corrections Victoria facilities such as the Hopkins Correctional Centre in Ararat.\n\nPublic safety and emergency services are provided by several state funded organisations including local volunteer based organisations. Storms and flooding are handled by the State Emergency Service (SES) Mid West Region Headquarters at Wendouree. Bushfires are handled by the Country Fire Authority District 15 Headquarters and Grampians Region Headquarters at Wendouree and urban structure fires are handled by multiple urban fire brigades operating at fire stations including the Ballarat Fire Brigade at Barkly Street Ballarat East, Ballarat City Fire Brigade at Sturt Street Ballarat Central and suburban stations including Wendouree and Sebastopol. Medical emergency and paramedic services are provided through Ambulance Victoria and include the Rural Ambulance Victoria, St. John Ambulance and Ballarat Base Hospital ambulance services. City of Ballarat is responsible for coordinating the Municipal Emergency Management Planning Committee (MEMPC) which prepares the Municipal Emergency Management Plan which is actioned in conjunction with local police.\n",
"\n===Newspapers===\nBallarat has two local newspapers, both owned by Fairfax. ''The Courier'' is a daily and ''The Miner'' is a free weekly. The latter is distributed across most of the city on Wednesdays and contains news of community events, advertisements for local businesses, real estate and a classifieds sections.\n\n===Radio stations===\nRadio House, Lydiard Street North. Home to 3BA and Power FM\nLocal radio stations include 3BA, Power FM and several community radio stations. There is also a Ballarat branch of ABC Local Radio's national network.\n\n* 102.3 FM – 3BA (local \"classic hits\" commercial radio station)\n* 103.1 FM – Power FM 103.1 FM (local \"top-40\" commercial radio station)\n* 99.9 FM – Voice FM 99.9 – formerly known as 3BBB (local community radio station)\n* 107.9 FM – ABC Local Radio (government-funded local news, current affairs, light entertainment and talkback)\n* 103.9 FM – Good News Radio 103.9 (Christian community-based radio station)\n\n===Television===\nTelevision station BTV Channel 6 Ballarat commenced transmission of test patterns on 17 March 1962. Among the many local programs BTV6 produced, the 90 minute live variety program ''Six Tonight'' (1971–1983), hosted by local Ballarat identity Fred Fargher, was one of the few live Australian programs of this type being presented in Australia.\n\nIn his 1999 book ''And Now Here's...'' (Four Decades of Behind the Scenes Fun in Australian Television), Mike McColl Jones fondly remembers local live television variety:\n\n\"...and in Ballarat, Victoria, a Tonight show (\"Six Tonight\") was carving its name into Australian television history. The show, hosted by Fred Fargher, ran for 13 years, and managed to attract many of the top name entertainers in the world, simply by offering them a limo ride to this beautiful country centre, a no-pressure spot on the show, and then a great dinner afterwards at one of the city's excellent restaurants. The sheer bravado of the offer enticed some of show business' biggest names\".\n\nToday Ballarat is serviced by numerous \"free to air\" High Definition and Standard Definition Digital television services. Two television broadcasting stations are located in the city, including WIN, GEM HD and GO! (sub-licensees of Nine Network) and Prime7, 7Two, 7mate (a sub-licensee of Seven Network). These two stations broadcast relayed services throughout regional Victoria. The city also receives Southern Cross Ten, One HD and Eleven (sub-licensee's of Network Ten) which is based in Bendigo but operates a local office.\n\nBallarat television maintains a similar schedule to the national television network but maintains local commercials and regional news programmingWIN produces a 30-minute local news bulletin each weeknight from its studios in the city, where bulletins for Albury, Bendigo, Gippsland, Shepparton and Mildura also originate. Southern Cross Ten provides short local news updates from its Canberra studios throughout the day. In addition to commercial television services, Ballarat receives Government ABC (ABC1, ABC2, ABC3, ABC News 24) and SBS (SBS One and Two) television services.\n\nOn 5 May 2011, analog television transmissions ceased in most areas of regional Victoria and some border regions including Ballarat and surrounding areas. All local free-to-air television services are now broadcasting in digital transmission only. This was done as part of the federal government's plan for digital terrestrial television in Australia, where all analogue transmission systems are gradually turned off and replaced with modern DVB-T transmission systems.\n\nSubscription television services are provided by Neighbourhood Cable, Foxtel and SelecTV.\n",
"\nFederation University Australia's SMB campus is set among the heritage buildings of Lydiard Street Sth including the former School of Mines and Industry (left), former Supreme Court and former Ballarat Gaol (rear)\nSchool of Mines Building\nBallarat has two universities, Federation University and a campus of the Australian Catholic University.\n\nFormerly the University of Ballarat, Federation University Australia was opened in 2014. It originated as the Ballarat School of Mines, founded in 1870, and was once affiliated with the University of Melbourne. The main campus is located in Mount Helen, approximately southeast of the city. The university also has campuses in the Ballarat CBD, Horsham, Churchill, Ararat and Stawell.\n\nThe Australian Catholic University's Ballarat campus is located on Mair Street. It was formerly the Aquinas Training College, run by the Ballarat East Sisters of Mercy in 1909. It is ACU's only campus located outside of a capital city.\n\nBallarat has four State Government-operated secondary schools of which Ballarat High School (established in 1907) is the oldest. Ballarat High School and Mount Clear College are the only state school members of the Ballarat Associated Schools. The two remaining schools are Phoenix College and Ballarat Secondary College. Ballarat Secondary College was formed in 1994 by the amalgamation of Ballarat East Secondary College, Wendouree Secondary College and Midlands Secondary College. Phoenix College was formed in 2012 as an amalgamation of Sebastopol College and Redan Primary School.\n\nThe city is well serviced by Catholic schools, with eight primary schools and three secondary colleges which include the all-boys St Patrick's College, the all-girls Loreto College and the co-educational Damascus College, which was formed by the amalgamation of St Martin's in the Pines, St Paul's College and Sacred Heart College in 1995.\n\nBallarat has three other non-government secondary schools: Ballarat Christian College, Ballarat Clarendon College and Ballarat Grammar School.\nThe later two schools are day and boarding schools who provide education from Preschool to Year 12. Both of these co-educational schools are classified as academically excellent as the only Ballarat schools to be ranked on the tables of the top 100 Victorian schools based on median VCE scores and percentage of scores of 40 and above. In 2015, Clarendon was placed at 9th best VCE results in the State, above Melbourne Grammar, Geelong College, Scotch College, Trinity Grammar School (Victoria), Xavier College, and Haileybury College. Ballarat Grammar was placed at 82nd, above Wesley College, Geelong Grammar and Tintern.\n\nThe City of Ballarat has three public libraries, the largest and most extensive of which is the City of Ballarat Library, run by the Central Highlands Regional Library Corporation and located on Doveton Street North. Another library service is provided by the Ballarat Mechanics' Institute in Sturt Street, which is the oldest library in the city and a significant heritage site; it contains a collection of historic, archival and rare reference material as well as more general books.\n\n\nFile:BallaratMechanicsInstitute1909.jpg|The newspaper reading room of the Ballarat Mechanics' Institute in 1909\nFile:BallaratMechanicsInstitute1942.jpg|American and Australian soldiers in the reading room of the Ballarat Mechanics' Institute in 1942\nFile:Ballarat mechanics institute.jpg|Ballarat mechanics institute\n\n",
"\n=== Heritage ===\nThe Ballarat railway station is notable for being one of only three surviving nineteenth-century station buildings in Australia to retain a train hall\n\nBallarat is renowned for its cultural heritage and decorative arts, especially applied to the built environment, combined with the gold rush, this has created a picturesque urban landscape.\nIn 2003 Ballarat was the first of two Australian cities to be registered as a member of the International League of Historical Cities and in 2006 hosted the 10th World League of Historical Cities Congress.\n\nRestoration of historic buildings is encouraged including a low interest council Heritage Loans Scheme. and the prevention of demolition by neglect discouraged by council policies. Since the 1970s, the local council has become increasingly aware of the economic and social value of heritage preservation. This is in stark contrast to the 1950s and 60s when Ballarat followed Melbourne in encouraging the removal of Victorian buildings, verandahs in particular. Recent restoration projects funded by the Ballarat include the reconstruction of significant cast iron lace verandahs including the Mining Exchange, Art Gallery (2007), Mechanics institute (2005–) on Lydiard Street and in 2010 the restoration of the Town Hall and the long neglected Unicorn Hotel façade on Sturt Street.\n\nBallarat Citizens for Thoughtful Development formed in 1998 and was incorporated as Ballarat Heritage Watch in 2005 to ensure that the city's architectural heritage is given due consideration in the planning process.\n\nThe Ballarat Botanical Gardens (established in 1858) are recognised as the finest example of a regional botanical gardens in Australia and are home to many heritage listed exotic tree species and feature a modern glasshouse and horticultural centre and the Prime Ministers Avenue which features bronze busts of every past Australian Prime Minister.\n\nAustralian Ex-Prisoners of War Memorial\nBallarat is notable for its very wide boulevards. The main street is Sturt Street and is considered among one of the finest main avenues in Australia with over of central gardens known as the Sturt Street Gardens featuring bandstands, fountains, statues, monuments, memorials and lampposts. Ballarat is home to the largest of a collection of several Avenues of Honour in Victoria. The Ballarat Avenue of Honour consists of a total of approximately 4,000 trees, mostly deciduous which in many parts arch completely over the road. Each tree has a bronze plaque dedicated to a soldier from the Ballarat region who enlisted during World War I. The Avenue of Honour and the Arch of Victory are on the Victorian Heritage Register and are seen by approximately 20,000 visitors each year.\n\nThe city also has the greatest concentration of public statuary in any Australian city with many parks and streets featuring sculptures and statues dating from the 1860s to the present. Some of the other notable memorials located in the Sturt Street Gardens in the middle of Ballarat's main boulevard include a bandstand situated in the heart of the city that was funded and built by the City of Ballarat Band in 1913 as a tribute to the bandsmen of the , a fountain dedicated to the early explorers Burke and Wills, and those dedicated to monarchs and those who have played pivotal roles in the development of the city and its rich social fabric.\n\nBallarat has an extensive array of significant war memorials, the most recent of which is the Australian Ex Prisoner of War Memorial. The most prominent memorial in the city is the Ballarat Victory Arch that spans the old Western Highway on the Western approaches of the city. The archway serves as the focal point for the Avenue of Honour. Other significant individual monuments located along Sturt Street include those dedicated to the Boer War (1899–1901), the World War II (1939–1945) cenotaph, and Vietnam (1962–1972) (located adjacent to the Arch of Victory).\n\n====Commercial and civic buildings====\nBallarat Fine Art Gallery, Lydiard Street North\nThe legacy of the wealth generated during Ballarat's gold boom is still visible in a large number of fine stone buildings in and around the city, especially in the Lydiard Street area. This precinct contains some of Victoria's finest examples of Victorian era buildings, many of which are on the Victorian Heritage Register or classified by the National Trust of Australia.\n\nNotable civic buildings include the Town Hall (1870–72), the former Post Office (1864), the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery (1887), the Mechanics' Institute (1860, 1869), the Queen Victoria Wards of the Ballarat Base Hospital (1890s) and the Ballarat railway station (1862, 1877, 1888).\n\nOther historic buildings include the Provincial Hotel (1909), Reid's Coffee Palace (1886), Craig's Royal Hotel (1862–1890) and Her Majesty's Theatre (1875), the oldest intact and operating lyric theatre in Australia and Ballarat Fire Station (1864, 1911) one of Victoria's oldest fire fighting structures and the Jewish synagogue (1861) the oldest surviving synagogue on the Australian mainland.\n\n====Galleries====\nThe Ballarat Fine Art Gallery houses one of Australia's oldest and most extensive collections of early Australian works. It is considered to have the best Australian collection outside any capital city in Australia.\n\nFederation University Australia operates the Post Office Gallery in the Wardell designed former Post Office on the corner of Sturt and Lydiard Streets.\n\n===Events and festivals===\nBallarat is home to many annual festivals and events that attract thousands of visitors. The oldest large annual event is the Ballarat Agricultural Show (since 1859), currently held at the Ballarat Showgrounds and has attracted attendances of up to 30,000 and is an official public holiday for residents of the city.\n\nLake Wendouree is featured in many including the biggest and most prominent is the Begonia Festival (held annually since 1953). SpringFest (held annually since 2001) attracts more than 15,000 people from around Victoria and features market stalls and activities around the lake.\n\nAnnual Agricultural Society Show at Ballarat Showgrounds, Wendouree\nThe controversial Ballarat Swap Meet (formerly the Super Southern Swap Meet and held annually since 1989) attracts 30,000 visitors a year. Ballarat Heritage Weekend (held annually since 2006) celebrates the city's heritage with activities such as historic vehicles and displays in and around the CBD and has attracted as many as 14,500 visitors a year from around Victoria. The Ballarat Beer Festival at the City Oval (since 2012) has attracted more than 4,000 visitors. The Ballarat Airport Open Day (Ballarat's unofficial air show, held annually since 2009) also attracts thousands.\n\nOther minor cultural festivals include the Ballarat Writers Festival, Ballarat International Foto Biennialle and the Goldfields Music Festival.\n\n===Entertainment===\nHer Majesty's Theatre façade (1875), Lydiard Street Sth.\nBallarat has a lively and well established theatrical community with several local ensembles as well as a number of large performing arts venues. Major performing arts venues include:\n* Her Majesty's Theatre – Seating 940\n* Post Office Box Theatre (Federation University Australia Arts Academy, Camp Street Campus) – Flexible Seating up to 100\n* Helen Macpherson Smith Performing Arts Theatre (Federation University Australia, Arts Academy Camp Street Campus) – Seating 200\n* The 1870 Founders Theatre (Federation University Australia, Mount Helen Campus) – Seating 600\n* The Courthouse Theatre (Federation University Australia, SMB Campus) – Seating 140\n* The Victoria Theatre (Sovereign Hill) – Seating 300\n* Wendouree Centre for Performing Arts (Ballarat Grammar School) – Seating 900\n* Gay E. Gough Theatre (Mount Clear Secondary College) – Seating 350\n* Mechanics Institute hall (seating 700) is used from time to time for travelling performances and cinema shows.\n\nThe Ballarat Civic Hall is a large public building constructed in 1958 as a general purpose venue. Its stripped classical design was heavily criticised during its planning, however it has gained some cultural significance to the city with its cavernous spaces holding many significant events over the years. Civic Hall was closed in 2002 and there have been moves to redevelop it for many years with some calls to retain the building as a venue.\n\nBallarat has its own symphony orchestra, the Ballarat Symphony Orchestra which was formed in 1987. Some notable theatre organisations in Ballarat include BLOC (Ballarat Light Opera Company) founded in 1959. Ballarat is also the home to Australia's oldest and largest annual performing arts eisteddfod. The Royal South Street Eisteddfod is an all-encompassing performing arts festival and competition event that is conducted over twelve weeks annually.\n\nThe modest 1853 Bath's Hotel grew to become the grand Craig's Royal Hotel in anticipation of the royal visit of Prince Alfred. The current buildings date to 1890.\nIn the 1970s the Ballarat urban area contained no less than 60 hotels. The introduction of gaming machines in the early 1990s has brought about significant change in the city entertainment precincts. By 2006 at least 20 hotels had closed and some of those that remain have been redeveloped as dining and/or gaming venues. Gaming machines have brought significant revenue to the remaining hotels, sports and social clubs which has enabled many to expand and modernise. The city has several dance clubs as well as a highly active live music and jazz scene. Hotels are popular meeting places for young people. The city has many fine restaurants, wine bars and eateries as well as themed restaurants. A large cinema complex consisting of several theatres is located behind the façade of the old Regent cinemas in the heart of the city. Dance parties are popular within the Ballarat area; BTR is an organisation founded in 2006 that has begun hosting dance events in Ballarat.\n\n==== Music and live entertainment ====\nBallarat has a significant music scene and a number of established music venues. Ballarat has produced several note worthy bands and musicians. Notable musicians from Ballarat include composer and violinist Warren Ellis, and alternative bands The Mavis's, Epicure and The Dead Salesmen.\n\n===Sport and recreation===\nAFL pre-season match. Western Bulldogs vs Melbourne. Eureka Stadium, Wendouree.\nBallarat has a number of large parks, sport fields, organised sporting clubs and associations. Australian rules football and cricket are the most popular spectator and participation sports in Ballarat, while soccer, basketball, netball, horse racing and rowing have large followings. There are stadiums, both indoor and outdoor as well as training facilities for most sports.\n\nAustralian rules football is played at semi-professional and amateur levels with a large number of players at numerous venues, both dedicated such as Eureka Stadium and shared with cricket. The North Ballarat Roosters based out of Eureka Stadium compete in the Victorian Football League. The Western Bulldogs AFL Club will commence playing periodic home games at the redevloped Eureka Stadium from 2017. The Ballarat Football League (founded 1893) is a strong regional league of which there are 6 local teams (Ballarat, EastPoint, Redan, Sebastopol, Lake Wendouree and North Ballarat City). The Ballarat Football Club (founded 1860) remains one of the oldest football clubs in the world. Other city teams from Buninyong and North Ballarat compete in the regional Central Highlands Football League.\n\nCricket is also played extensively with three international standard cricket ovals. Ballarat's Eastern Oval hosted a game in the 1992 Cricket World Cup. Horse racing and greyhound racing are popular, with dedicated facilities. The Harness Racing centre is considered to be among the best in Australia. The Ballarat Turf Club schedules around 28 race meetings a year including the Ballarat Cup meeting in mid-November. Ballarat Harness Racing Club conducts regular meetings at its racetrack in the city.\n\nThe Ballarat Greyhound Racing Club holds regular meetings at Sebastopol.\n\nBasketball is played at various levels with the Ballarat Miners and Ballarat Rush competing in the South East Australian Basketball League and playing out of the MARS Minerdome. Netball is similarly popular, with many netball clubs affiliated with local Australian rules clubs including Wendouree, East Point, Eureka, North Ballarat, Redan, Brown Hill and the Ballarat Netball Association. Rowing and kayaking is centred on Lake Wendouree and the sport is particularly popular with the high schools. The lake hosts the Victorian Schools Rowing Championships as well as the annual \"Head of the Lake\" rowing regatta—contested by Ballarat High School, Ballarat and Clarendon College, Ballarat Grammar School, St Patrick's College and Loreto College. The city hosted rowing events for the 1956 Olympic Games.\n\nAssociation Football (known locally as soccer) is mostly played at an amateur level. The local competition is known as the Ballarat & District Soccer Association, which consists of 13 teams. The Ballarat Red Devils are the biggest soccer club in Ballarat and play in the FFV National Premier League Victoria 1 West. Their home ground is Morshead Park Stadium, located in central Ballarat, which was recently significantly redeveloped.\n\nAthletics facilities include an international standard athletics track at Llanberris Reserve on York Street Golden Point which is an Athletics Victoria venue and home to local athletics and little athletics clubs. Swimming and water sport is facilitated at two Olympic-sized pools as well as an indoor competition short course pool. The main facility is the Ballarat Aquatic Centre located at Gillies Street Lake Gardens in the city's west. Baseball was first organised in Australia at Ballarat in 1857. The Alfredton Eagles, Ballarat City Brewers and Mounties YC field teams in the Geelong Baseball Association Winter Division.\n\nGolf is played at four main venues which include the Ballarat Golf Course on Sturt Street in the Easter suburb of Alfredton, home to the Ballarat Golf Club; the Midlands Golf Course on Heinz Lane in the northern suburb of Invermay Park which is home to the Midlands Golf Club; the Eureka Golf Course at Elford Street in the eastern suburb of Ballarat East and in the southern suburb of Buninyong at the Buninyong Golf Course.\n\nThe Ballarat Roller Derby League was formed in 2008, and held their first match in 2009. They have two teams who compete in local events, and a combined travelling team, the Rat Pack, who compete in interleague roller derby competitions. Lake Wendouree is a large recreational lake that was created out of former wetlands and hosted the rowing events for the 1956 Summer Olympics. Victoria Park is an expansive reserve with tree-lined avenues and sporting fields in suburban Newington. The suburbs feature some privately run wildlife parks including Ballarat Wildlife Park in Ballarat East and Ballarat Bird World in Buninyong.\n\n===Popular culture===\nBallarat has inspired many visual artists. Eugene von Guerard documented the city's establishment as a gold digging settlement, while Albert Henry Fullwood and Knut Bull depicted the city's boom era streetscapes. Ballarat features prominently in literature and fiction, including \"The Boscombe Valley Mystery\", a short story from Arthur Conan Doyle's ''The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes'' (1891); ''King Billy of Ballarat and Other Stories'' (1892) by Morley Roberts; ''The Fortunes of Richard Mahony'' (1917) by Henry Handel Richardson; ''Murder on the Ballarat Train'' (1993) by Kerry Greenwood; and ''Illywhacker'' (1985) by Peter Carey.\n\nBallarat is also a popular filming location. Australia's second oldest feature film, ''Eureka Stockade'' (1907), is the first in a line of films about the historic Ballarat event. The city makes cameos in ''Dogs in Space'' (1986), ''My Brother Jack'' (2001), ''Ned Kelly'' (2003) and ''The Writer'' (2005). The television series ''The Doctor Blake Mysteries'' (2012–) is set in Ballarat and also mostly shot there.\n\nTwo ships of the Royal Australian Navy have been named HMAS Ballarat after the city, HMAS Ballarat (J184) and HMAS Ballarat (FFH 155).\n\n=== Notable persons ===\n\n\nBust of Alfred Deakin, first federal member for Ballaarat at the Prime Ministers Avenue.\nA great many notable people's origins are in the Ballarat region, with the most prominent being high-ranking politicians and sportspeople.\n\nSeveral former prime ministers of Australia were either born in or lived in Ballarat, and this was recognised by the city's Prime Minister's Avenue. Alfred Deakin, the second prime minister, was the first federal parliament MP for Ballarat. Sir Robert Menzies, and James Scullin were both educated in Ballarat. John Curtin was born in nearby Creswick and his wife Elsie was born in Ballarat. Several premiers of the Australian states were born in Ballarat, including Ballarat born Sir Henry Bolte, Steve Bracks, Thomas Hollway, and Henry Daglish. Additionally Duncan Gillies lived in and represented Ballarat in the Victorian Legislative Assembly before becoming state premier.\n\nAn additional political activist included Francis William Hyet is trade unionist and born in Ballarat. He was heavily inclined towards socialism which became a calling for his way of life. He became involved with the Social Democratic Party in 1905 and following the Victorian Socialist Party in 1906. Hyett was a very prominent in the anti-conscription campaign. He was able to harness the union's newspaper which became a medium for the anti-conscriptionists.\n\nOutside politics other prominent public figures include Peter Lalor, a notable historical figure in Australia as the leader of the Eureka Rebellion (1854) and a parliamentarian; the inventor George Alfred Julius, who spent part of his childhood there when his father was a local Anglican cleric; the inventor Henry Sutton was born and worked in Ballarat; and Cardinal George Pell, the former Catholic Archbishop of Melbourne and Sydney was born in Ballarat and worked in the area for some time.\n\nBallarat has also produced many notable athletes including the Olympic long distance runner Steve Moneghetti and four time Olympic basketball player Ray Borner. A large number of notable Australian rules football identities have come from Ballarat, including Australian Football Hall of Fame members Tony Lockett and Bob Davis.\n\nIn addition, Henry Sutton was an inventor from Ballarat. Sutton designed an electric continuous current dynamo with a practical ring armature. This design could be used as an electric motor and the rapid incline of the electrical industry followed. Sutton was involved in devising and constructing different telephone designs. Sutton interacted closely with Bell (the inventor of the telephone), Bell came to visit Sutton in order to see a complete telephone system that was set up in Sutton's family warehouse.\n",
"\n===Health===\nBallarat Base Hospital's Henry Bolte wing (completed in 1994) Drummond St Nth\nBallarat has two major hospitals. The public health services are managed by Ballarat Health Services including the Ballarat Base which services the entire region and the Queen Elizabeth Centre for aged care on Ascot Street Sth. The St John of God Health Care centre also on Drummond Street Nth, established in 1915 is currently the largest private hospital in regional Victoria.\n\nThe Ballarat Regional Integrated Cancer Centre (BRICC) on the corner of Drummond and Sturt Street includes a number of facilities focused on cancer treatment.\n\nThe Heart Foundation did a study in 2014 that Ballarat had the highest level of physical inactivity (85.3 per cent) in Australia and that 32.9 per cent of residents were deemed obese.\n\n===Utilities===\nBallarat's residents are serviced by a wide range of public utilities including water, gas and electricity, telephony and data communications supplied, overseen and regulated by state based authorities and private enterprise and local council.\n\nWater supply as well as sewage collection and disposal are provided by Central Highlands Water. Drinking water is sourced from a network reservoirs all located in the highlands to the east, however the majority is sourced from two main reservoirs—Lal Lal and White Swan. The Lal Lal Reservoir (built in 1970 with a capacity of ) is Ballarat's largest water catchment accounting for approximately two thirds of the city's water usage. The White Swan reservoir (built in 1952 with a capacity) supplies most of the remainder. Since May 2008, the White Swan has been topped up by water from Bendigo's Sandhurst Reservoir through the Goldfields Superpipe with water originally sourced from the Goulburn River system. Kirks Reservoir (built between 1860 and 1862 with a capacity of ) and Gong Gong Reservoir (built in 1877 at Gong Gong, Victoria with a capacity of ) are historic main water supplies now maintained for emergency use. Other reservoirs supplying Ballarat include Moorabool reservoir (located in Bolwarrah, Victoria with a capacity of ), Wilson's Reservoir (located in the Wombat State Forest with a capacity of ), Beales reservoir (built 1863 located at Wallace with a capacity of ) and Pincotts reservoir (built 1867 located at Leigh Creek, Victoria with a capacity of ). Sewage is managed by two plants—the Ballarat North Wastewater Treatment Plant and the Ballarat South Waste Water Treatment Plant.\n\nResidential electricity is supplied by Victorian electricity distributor Powercor, while residential natural gas is supplied by AGL Energy.\n\nTelephone services are provided via the Doveton Street (BRAT) telephone exchange which was originally built by the Australian Telecommunications Commission (now known as Telstra) who remains its owner, though Optus now also operates services from this facility. The city's cellular network currently uses Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS). Telstra has provided mobile telecommunications to Ballarat since 2003 (initially as CDMA). Optus provided competition with its entrance to the market in 2003 along with significant service upgrades in 2004 followed by Vodafone in mid-2009.\n\nData communications are provided by several companies. Telstra was the first company to provide dial-up Internet access via the Ballarat exchange, however the first network for broadband Internet access available in the city was a hybrid optical fiber cable and coaxial cable built by Neighbourhood Cable in 2001. Since then, Telstra and Optus have entered the Ballarat market, providing Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) services for residential Internet access from four main exchanges—Ballarat, Wendouree (Howitt Street), Sebastopol (Skipton Street) and Alfredton (Cuthberts Road). These companies also provide mobile data access Evolved HSPA and since late 2011 3GPP Long Term Evolution (4G). Ballarat's rollout of the National Broadband Network (NBN) is seen as vital for the city's growing IT industry. During Ballarat's first stage NBN rollout in 2012, 17,800 homes will be directly connected to the network via optical fibre cable.\n\n===Transport===\n\n====Road====\nA view of the Western Freeway (M8) at Nerrina looking west toward Doodts Road, Ballarat North and Invermay from the Nerrina pedestrian overpass.\nRoad transport and the motor vehicle is the main form of transport. A network of state highways radiate from Ballarat and the Western Freeway (A8) is dual carriageway bypasses the central city to the north of the urban area, providing a direct road connection to Melbourne (approximately 90 minutes), westward to Ararat (approximately 75 minutes) and Horsham. Five freeway interchanges service the urban area, East Ballarat (half diamond) interchange at Victoria Street (C805); Brown Hill interchange (full diamond) at Daylesford-Ballarat Road (C292), Creswick Road interchange (full diamond) at Wendouree (A300); the Mount Rowan interchange (half diamond) at Gillies Road, Wendouree (C307) and the Mitchell Park interchange (full diamond) at Howe Street (C287). The Midland Highway is a dual carriageway which runs north along Creswick Road to the Western Freeway interchange but becomes a single carriageway north of Ballarat to Creswick (approximately 25 minutes) and runs south as the dual carriageway of Skipton Road to Magpie before becoming a single carriageway to Geelong (approximately 87 minutes). The Glenelg Highway connects directly to Mount Gambier and the Sunraysia Highway west of Ballarat which connects directly to Mildura.\n\nSturt Street and Victoria Street, both dual carriageways carry the bulk of the east-west CBD traffic, while Mair Street is planned to become a four lane dual carriageway to relieve pressure on these main streets. Other dual carriageway main roads in the west include Howitt Street and Gillies Street. The busiest roads by far are located in the west and south at Albert Street in Redan, Sturt Street in Newington and Gillies Street in Lake Gardens which carry 22,400, 22,000 and 21,500 vehicles per day respectively and all have 4 traffic lanes.\n\n====Bus, coach and taxi====\n\nBallarat is also served by an extensive public bus service operated by CDC Ballarat. They operate 15 routes across the city, routes 10-15, 20-26, 30 & 31, and school bus services..\n* Route 10 - Ballarat Station - Alfredton via Wendouree\n* Route 11 - Ballarat Station - Wendouree Station via Howitt St \n* Route 12 - Ballarat Station - Wendouree Station via Forest St \n* Route 13 - Ballarat Station - Invermay Park \n* Route 14 - Ballarat Station - Black Hill \n* Route 15 - Ballarat Station - Brown Hill \n* Route 20 - Ballarat Station - Canadian \n* Route 21 - Ballarat Station - Buninyong via Federation University \n* Route 22 - Ballarat Station - Federation University via Sebastopol \n* Route 23 - Ballarat Station - Mount Pleasant \n* Route 24 - Ballarat Station - Sebastopol \n* Route 25 - Ballarat Station - Delacombe \n* Route 26 - Ballarat Station - Alfredton \n* Route 30 - Ballarat Station - Creswick \n* Route 31 - Wendouree Station - Miners Rest\n\nNumerous private companies service suburban, intercity and interstate routes with coach services. Gold Bus provides additional suburban services as well as the Ballarat School Bus Network. Ballarat railway station is a major regional terminal for coach services. V/Line operates direct services to regional Victorian locations including Melbourne, Geelong, Bendigo, Warrnambool, Mildura, Nhill, Ouyen, Halls Gap, Daylesford, Maryborough as well as the South Australian cities of Adelaide and Mount Gambier. Gold Bus operates direct regional services to links to both Avoca and Maryborough, while Sandlants operates a direct service to Stawell. There is also a direct bus service to Melbourne's Tullamarine Airport with the Ballarat Airport Shuttlebus. Interstate coaches from Greyhound Australia and Firefly Express coaches stop at Ballarat on route between Melbourne and Adelaide. The local taxi fleet consists of over 57 vehicles services in all suburbs and is currently operated by Ballarat Taxis Co-op Ltd. Taxis and bus are the only late night public transport option in the city.VLocity railcars inside the train shed at Ballarat railway station\nA tourist tram on Wendouree Parade\n'''Rail'''\n\nBallarat has historically been a major rail transport hub in Victoria, situated at the junction of the Ballarat line, Ararat line and Mildura lines it currently has several connections for both passenger rail services and freight rail.\n\nThe city has two passenger railway stations, the hub of Ballarat railway station and suburban Wendouree railway station. From Ballarat station, V/Line operates VLocity trains running at up to east to Melbourne, west to Ararat and north to Maryborough. Since the controversial removal of \"flagship\" express services in 2011, successive timetable changes have slowed peak hour services to Southern Cross Station, with the current journey taking a minimum of 73 minutes. Patronage however has continued to grow. The Regional Rail Link project is aimed at separating Ballarat trains from Melbourne's suburban rail network. Interurban services (Ballarat-Melbourne) now run half-hourly during weekday peak and hourly during weekday non-peak and on weekends from Ballarat station. A twice daily (thrice daily on weekdays) (57 minute) service connects Ballarat to Ararat (stopping at Beaufort) while there is a (53 minute) service to and from Maryborough (stopping at Creswick, Clunes, and Talbot) once a day (twice a day on weekdays) each way. Victoria's electronic ticketing system, Myki, was implemented on rail services between Wendouree and Melbourne on 24 July 2013.\n\nBallarat is connected to Geelong by rail via the Geelong-Ballarat railway line, which currently operates only for freight (passenger services were withdrawn in 1978) although in 2011, a planning study began for returning of passenger services along the line to investigate connecting both cities to Bendigo via Maryborough and Castlemaine. There are also several disused railway corridors and stations along the Skipton railway, Buninyong railway. A former branch line built in 1886 to Redan was sold off by VicTrack and finally dismantled in 2010. The freight line forked off the Singleton line at Lake Gardens running south through Alfredton and then east parallel to Latrobe Street, past the Cattle yards and on to Redan (now Delacombe).\n\nThe once extensive Ballarat tramway network operated between 1887 and 1971 with a small section of remaining track being utilised as a tourist and museum tramway. There have been proposals to extend the network, particularly as a major tourist facility but also to connect it to the railways and return it as a viable component of the Ballarat public transport system, including a strong lobby in 2001–2002, 2010–11 and 2014, however Ballarat City Council and federal member of parliament have dismissed recent proposals.\n\n====Air====\nBallarat Aerodrome from above\nBallarat Airport located north-west of the CBD consists of two sealed runways (each approximately long and wide) as well as extensive sealed aprons, night lighting and NDB navaid. A Master Plan for the Aerodrome was completed in 2005 followed by an Airport Master Plan in 2013. The report made a series of recommendations and forecasts that included eventual lengthening, widening and strengthening of the existing main runway up to , consideration for expansion of the passenger terminal and recommendations for future use of aprons and development of future structures supporting larger aircraft and increased frequent usage. It was forecast that by 2012–2015 regular domestic passenger services using 40–50 seat commuter aircraft could feasibly commence.\n\n====Cycling====\nBallarat has a long history of cycling as a form of transport and recreation. The current cycling network continues to grow and consists of several marked on-road routes and of segregated bicycle facilities including several main routes:Ballarat–Skipton Rail Trail, Yarrowee River Trail with connections to the Gong Gong Reservoir. Buningyong Trail, Sebastopol Trail, and the Lake Wendouree shared path. The Ballarat Bicycle Users Group provides advocacy for the growing number of cyclists in the city. The popularity of cycling in Ballarat is also demonstrated by the large number of spectators and participants drawn to cycling sporting events held in the city.\n",
"Ballarat is home to three bikie chapters, most notably the Finks Motorcycle Club, who, in 2010, were planning to build a club house and training centre in the city. Other bikie chapters in the city are the Vikings and the Bandidos Motorcycle Club. The city was the subject of an ABC ''Four Corners'' report on the use of methamphetamine in Australia, along with Devonport, Burnie, Castlemaine and St Arnaud. Ballarat also has 3 police stations: Ballarat, Ballarat North and Ballarat West.\n",
"\n",
"'''History books'''\n* Bate, Weston. ''Lucky City: The First Generation of Ballarat 1851–1901'' (1978)\n* Bate, Weston. ''Life After Gold: Twentieth-Century Ballarat'' Melbourne University Press (1993)\n* Carboni, Raffaello. ''The Eureka Stockade'' (1980) first published (1855)\n* Goodman, David. ''Gold Seeking: Victorian and California in the 1850s'' (1994)\n* Jacobs, Wendy. ''Ballarat: A Guide to Buildings and Areas 1851–1940'' Jacob Lewis Vines Conservation Architects and Planners (1981)\n* Lynch, John. ''The Story of the Eureka Stockade: Epic Days in the early fifties at Ballarat'', (1947?)\n* Flett, James. ''The History of Gold Discovery in Victoria''\n* Molony, John. ''Eureka'', (1984)\n* Molony, John. ''By Wendouree'', (2010)\n* Serle, Geoffrey. ''The Golden Age: A History of the Colony of Victoria, 1851–1860'', (1963)\n* Freund, Peter, with Val Sarah. ''Her Maj: A History of Her Majesty's Theatre, Ballarat'' (2007)\n* Ballarat City Council\n* Victorian Heritage Register, Heritage Victoria\n",
"\n\n\n* Ballarat City Council\n* Visit Ballarat – Ballarats Official Tourism website\n* Ballarat – Tourism Victoria – Government tourism site.\n* Ballarat and District Industrial Heritage Project\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" History ",
"Geography",
"Environment",
"Economy",
"Demographics",
"Governance",
"Media",
"Education",
"Arts and culture",
"Infrastructure",
" Crime ",
"References",
"Bibliography",
"External links"
] | Ballarat | [
"Servicing the financial sector are branches of the big four Australian retail banks (National Australia Bank, Australia and New Zealand Banking Group, Commonwealth Bank and Westpac) along with Bendigo Bank and St.George Bank and a number of smaller independent financial services firms."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Ballarat''' is a city located on the Yarrowee River in the Central Highlands of Victoria, Australia.",
"The city is approximately west-north-west of the state capital, Melbourne, with a population of some 101,686.",
"It is the third largest population for an inland city in Australia.",
"Locals are known as 'Ballaratians'.",
"Ballarat is arguably the most significant Victorian era gold rush boomtown in Australia.",
"Just months after Victoria was granted separation from the state of New South Wales, the Victorian gold rush transformed Ballarat from a small sheep station to a major settlement.",
"Gold was discovered at Poverty Point on 18 August 1851, and news quickly spread of rich alluvial fields where gold could easily be extracted.",
"Within months, migrants from across the world had rushed to the district in search of gold.",
"Unlike many other gold boom towns, the Ballarat fields experienced sustained high gold yields for many decades, which can be evidenced to this day in the city's rich architecture.",
"The Eureka Rebellion began in Ballarat, and the only armed rebellion in Australian history, the Battle of Eureka Stockade, took place on 3 December 1854.",
"In response to the event the first male suffrage in Australia was instituted and as such Eureka is interpreted by some as the origin of democracy in Australia.",
"The gold rush and boom gave birth to many other significant cultural legacies.",
"The rebellion's symbol, the Eureka Flag, has become a national symbol and is held at the Museum of Australian Democracy at Eureka in Ballarat.",
"Other nationally significant heritage structures include the Ballarat Botanical Gardens (established 1857), with the greatest concentration of public statuary, the official Prime Ministers Avenue, the longest running lyric theatre building (Her Majesty's Theatre, established 1875), the first municipal observatory, established 1886, and the earliest and longest war memorial avenue (the Avenue of Honour, established between 1917 and 1919).",
"Proclaimed a city in 1871, its prosperity continued until late in the 19th century, after which its importance relative to both Melbourne and Geelong rapidly faded with the slowing of gold extraction.",
"It has endured as a major regional centre hosting the rowing and kayaking events from the 1956 Summer Olympics.",
"It is the commercial capital of the Central Highlands and the largest city in the Goldfields region of Victoria, as well a significant tourist destination.",
"Ballarat is known for its history, culture and its well-preserved Victorian era heritage, with much of the city subject to heritage overlays.",
"After a narrow popular vote the city merged with the town of Ballarat East in 1921, ending a long standing rivalry.",
"\n=== Prehistory and European settlement ===\nPrior to the European settlement of Australia, the Ballarat region was populated by the Wathaurong people, an Indigenous Australian people.",
"The Boro gundidj tribe's territory was based along the Yarrowee River.",
"The first Europeans to sight the area were an 1837 party of six mostly Scottish squatters from Geelong, led by Somerville Learmonth, who were in search of land less affected by the severe drought for their sheep to graze.",
"The party scaled Mount Buninyong; among them were Somerville's brother Thomas Livingstone Learmonth, William Cross Yuille and Henry Anderson, all three of whom later claimed land in what is now Ballarat.",
"The Yuille family, Scottish settlers Archibald Buchanan Yuille and his brother William Cross Yuille, arrived in 1837 and squatted a sheep run.",
"The first houses were built near Woolshed Creek by William Yuille and Anderson (Sebastopol), while Yuille erected a hut at Black Swamp (Lake Wendouree) in 1838.",
"Outsiders originally knew of the settlement as Yuille's Station and Yuille's Swamp.",
"Archibald Yuille named the area \"Ballaarat\" Some claim the name is derived from a local Wathaurong Aboriginal word for the area, ''balla arat''.",
"The meaning of this word is not certain; however several translations have been made and it is generally thought to mean \"resting place\".",
"In some dialects, ''balla'' means \"bent elbow\", which is translated to mean reclining or resting and ''arat'' meaning \"place\".",
"Another claim is that the name derives from Yuille's native Gaelic Baile Ararat (Town of Ararat), alluding to the resting place of Noah's ark.",
"The present spelling was officially adopted by the City of Ballarat in 1996.",
"=== 1850s: Gold rush ===\nBallarat's tent city in the summer of 1853–1854 oil painting from an original sketch by Eugene von Guerard.",
"The first publicised discovery of gold in the region was by Thomas Hiscock on 2 August 1851 in the Buninyong region to the south.",
"The find brought other prospectors to the area and on 19 August 1851 John Dunlop and James Regan struck gold at Poverty Point with a few ounces.",
"Within days of the announcement of Dunlop and Regan's find a gold rush began, bringing thousands of prospectors to the Yarrowee valley which became known as the Ballarat diggings.",
"Yields were particularly high, with the first prospectors in the area extracting between half an ounce (which was more than the average wage of the time) and up to five ounces of alluvial gold per day.",
"As news of the Australian gold rushes reached the world, Ballarat gained an international reputation as a particularly rich goldfield.",
"As a result, a huge influx of immigrants occurred, including many from Ireland and China, gathering in a collection of prospecting shanty towns around the creeks and hills.",
"In just a few months numerous alluvial runs were established, several deep mining leads began, and the population had swelled to over 1,000 people.",
"Pencil drawing of goldfields camp at Ballarat\n\nThe first post office opened on 1 November 1851.",
"It was the first Victorian post office to open in a gold-mining settlement.",
"Parts of the district were first surveyed by William Urquhart as early as October 1851.",
"By 1852 his grid plan and wide streets for land sales in the new township of West Ballarat, built upon a plateau of basalt, contrasted markedly with the existing narrow unplanned streets, tents, and gullies of the original East Ballarat settlement.",
"The new town's main streets of the time were named in honour of police commissioners and gold commissioners of the time, with the main street, Sturt Street, named after Evelyn Pitfield Shirley Sturt; Dana Street named after Henry Dana; Lydiard Street after his assistant; Doveton Street after Francis Crossman Doveton, Ballarat's first gold commissioner; Armstrong after David Armstrong; and Mair Street after William Mair.",
"These officials were based at the government encampment (after which nearby Camp Street was named), which was strategically positioned on an escarpment with an optimal view over the district's diggings.",
"The first newspaper, ''The Banner'', published on 11 September 1853, was one of many to be distributed during the gold-rush period.",
"Print media played a large role in the early history of the settlement.",
"Ballarat attracted a sizable number of miners from the Californian 1848 gold rush, and some were known as Ballafornians.",
"Battle of the Eureka Stockade.",
"J.",
"B. Henderson (1854) Watercolour\nCivil disobedience in Ballarat led to Australia's only armed civil uprising, the Eureka Rebellion (colloquially referred to as the \"Eureka Stockade\") which took place in Ballarat on 3 December 1854.",
"The event, in which 22 miners were killed, is considered to be a defining moment in Australian history.",
"The city earned the nickname \"The Golden City\" in the 1850s.",
"The gold rush population peaked at almost 60,000, mostly male diggers, by 1858.",
"However the early population was largely itinerant.",
"As quickly as the alluvial deposits drew prospectors to Ballarat, the rate of gold extraction fluctuated and, as they were rapidly worked dry, many quickly moved to rush other fields as new findings were announced, particularly Mount Alexander in 1852, Fiery Creek in 1855, and Ararat in 1857.",
"By 1859, a smaller number of permanent settlers numbering around 23,000, many of whom had built personal wealth in gold, established a prosperous economy based around a shift to deep underground gold mining.",
"Confidence of the city's early citizens in the enduring future of their city is evident in the sheer scale of many of the early public buildings, generous public recreational spaces, and opulence of many of its commercial establishments and private housing.",
"A local steam locomotive industry developed from 1854 with the Phoenix Foundry operating until 1906.",
"The railway came to the town with the opening of the Geelong–Ballarat line in 1862 and Ballarat developed as a major railway town.",
"As the city grew the region's original indigenous inhabitants were quickly expelled to the fringe and by 1867 few remained.",
"=== Victorian city ===\nThe intersection of Lydiard and Sturt Street in about 1905 was the heart of a bustling city of trams, horses and pedestrians.",
"From the late 1860s to the early 20th century, Ballarat made a successful transition from a gold rush town to an industrial-age city.",
"The ramshackle tents and timber buildings gradually made way for permanent buildings, many impressive structures of solid stone and brick mainly built from wealth generated by early mining.",
"Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh visited between 9 and 13 December 1867 and as the first royal visit, the occasion was met with great fanfare.",
"The Prince Room was prepared at Craigs Royal Hotel for his stay.",
"The city's first civic centre—Prince Alfred Hall—erected over the Yarrowee between the two municipalities, was named in his honour during his visit.",
"The later attempt of the Prince's assassination by Ballaratian Henry James O'Farrell was met with shock and great horror from locals.",
"Ballarat was proclaimed a city in 1871.",
"Gong Gong reservoir was built in 1877 to alleviate flooding and to provide a permanent water supply.",
"A direct railway to Melbourne was completed in December 1889.",
"Many industries and workshops had been established as a result of manufacturing and servicing for the deep lead mining industry.",
"Local boosterists at the start of the 20th century adopted the nickname \"Athens of Australia\", first used to describe the city by the prestigious Irish-Australian jurist and politician of the early 20th century Sir John Madden.",
"On 13 May 1901, the Duke of York (later George V) and his wife, Mary the Duchess of York, travelled by train from Melbourne to Ballarat.",
"The first electricity supply was completed in 1901 by the Electric Supply Company of Victoria.",
"A bluestone power station was built at the corner of Ripon Street and Wendouree Parade in 1901 with the main aim of providing the power required for electrification of the city's tramway network.",
"=== Declining fortunes ===\nDevelopment of the Ballarat North Workshops was a major initiative to capitalise on the city's burgeoning role as a railway town and transition from a declining gold mining industry\nFollowing the start of the 20th century, however, mining activity slowed and Ballarat's growth all but stopped—the city went into a period of decline and saw a reversal of the fortunes acquired in the previous century.",
"The Sunshine rail disaster in 1908 resulted in the death of dozens of Ballarat residents.",
"On 19 August 1909, a great storm lashed the city, resulting in the death of one person and injury of seven others.",
"During the storm, a tornado swept across the city's northern and eastern suburbs destroying numerous homes in Ballarat North, Soldiers Hill, Black Hill and Ballarat East, lifting and then again touching down at Eureka where it destroyed more homes before dissipating.",
"One bright spot in this period was the establishment of Osrey Pottery in 1922 by the artist Gladys Reynell, one of Australia's first potters, and her husband, George Samuel Osborne.",
"The pottery closed in 1926 when Osborne developed lead poisoning.",
"Ballarat's significant representation during WWI resulted in heavy human loss.",
"The city eventually lost first provincial status to Geelong.",
"In response, local lobbyists continually pushed the Victorian government for decentralisation, the greatest success being the Victorian Railways opening the Ballarat North Workshops in April 1917.",
"The Great Depression proved a further setback for Ballarat, with the closure of many institutions and causing the worst unemployment in the city's history, with over a thousand people in the dole queue.",
"The city's two municipalities, Ballarat East and West Town Councils, finally amalgamated in 1921 to form the City of Ballarat.",
"=== Since the 20th century ===\nView of central Ballarat from St Peter's Anglican Church\nWhile deep, the depression was also brief.",
"The interwar period proved a period of recovery for Ballarat with a number of major infrastructure projects well underway including a new sewerage system.",
"In 1930, Ballarat Airport was established.",
"By 1931, Ballarat's economy and population was recovering strongly with further diversification of industry, although in 1936 Geelong displaced it as the state's second largest city.",
"During World War II an expanded Ballarat airport was the base of the RAAF Wireless Air Gunners' School as well as the base for USAAF Liberator bomber squadrons.",
"In 1942, Ballarat became connected to the state electricity grid by a 66,000 kV line.",
"Prior to this, power supply was generated locally.",
"In the post-war era, Ballarat's growth continued.",
"In response to an acute housing shortage, significant suburban expansion occurred.",
"An extensive Housing Commission of Victoria estate was built on the former Ballarat Common (today known as Wendouree West).",
"The estate was originally planned to contain over 750 prefabricated houses.",
"While planning for the estate began in 1949, main construction occurred between 1951 and 1962.",
"The 1950s brought a new optimism to the city.",
"On 17 April 1952 it was announced that Lake Wendouree was to be the venue for rowing events of the 1956 Summer Olympics, and work soon began on an Olympic village in Gillies Street.",
"A new prefabricted power terminal substation at Norman Street Ballarat North was constructed between 1951 and 1953 by the State Electricity Commission.",
"The first Begonia Festival, a highly successful community celebration, was held in 1953.",
"Elizabeth II visited on 8 March 1954.",
"The Civic Centre, Prince Alfred Hall had burned down suspiciously that year; however a new Civic Hall was constructed and opened in March 1955.",
"On 23 November 1956, the Olympic torch was carried through the city, and the following day the rowing events were held at the lake.",
"On 2 March 1958 the Queen Mother visited Ballarat.",
"During the following decades, the city saw increased threats to its heritage.",
"In 1964, the Ballarat City Council passed laws banning pillar-supported verandahs in the CBD, which threatened the removal of historic cast iron verandahs in the city.",
"The by-law was met by staunch opposition from the National Trust, which had begun campaigning to protect some of the city's most historic buildings.",
"By the 1970s, Ballarat began to officially recognise its substantial heritage, and the first heritage controls were recommended to ensure its preservation.",
"With the opening of Sovereign Hill, the city made a rapid shift to become a major cultural tourist destination, visited by thousands each year.",
"During the 1970s, a further 300 houses were constructed at Wendouree West.",
"Private housing in the adjacent suburb of Wendouree closely matched and eventually eclipsed this by the mid-1960s.",
"The suburb of greater Wendouree and Wendouree West had evolved as the suburban middle-class heart of the city.",
"Charles, Prince of Wales visited Ballarat on 28 October 1974 during which he toured Sovereign Hill, the Ballarat College of Advanced Education's new Mt Helen Campus and the White Swan Reservoir and spoke at Civic Hall.",
"The city continued to grow at the national average throughout the late 20th century and early 21st century.",
"In 2008 the City of Ballarat released a plan directing that growth of the city over the next 30 years is to be concentrated to the west of the city centre.",
"The Ballarat West Growth Area Plan was approved by the city and state government in 2010, planning an extensive fringe development consisting of 14,000 new homes and up to 40,000 new residents including new activity centres and employment zones.",
"=== Military history ===\n\nDuring World War 2, Ballarat was the location of RAAF No.1 Inland Aircraft Fuel Depot (IAFD), completed in 1942 in the defence of Australia against a Japanese invasion and de-commissioned on 29 August 1944.",
"Usually consisting of 4 tanks, 31 fuel depots were built across Australia for the storage and supply of aircraft fuel for the RAAF and the US Army Air Forces at a total cost of £900,000 ($1,800,000).",
"Ballarat's skyline hidden from this view of the city looking east across Lake Wendouree to Mount Warrenheip.",
"Ballarat lies at the foothills of the Great Dividing Range in Central Western Victoria.",
"Also known as the Central Highlands, it is named so because of its gentle hills and lack of any significant mountains that are more common in the eastern sections of the Great Dividing Range.",
"The city lies within a mostly gently undulating section of the midland plains which stretch from Creswick in the north, to Rokewood in the south, and from Lal Lal in the south-east to Pittong in the west.",
"Geologically, the area consists of alluvial sediment and volcanic flows originating from now-extinct volcanoes such as nearby Buninyong and Warrenheip, which are the area's tallest peaks.",
"As a result, the basin contains large areas of fertile agricultural soil.",
"Ballarat itself is situated on an alluvial basin of the Yarrowee catchment and its tributary creeks, penetrated by sub-ranges of schists composed of granites and quartz.",
"Along with the visible river and creeks, the catchment basin has numerous active and inactive aquifers and natural wetlands, which are used for urban water supply, agriculture and recreation.",
"There are numerous densely forested areas around Ballarat; however due to historic wood milling and land clearing there remain no old-growth forests.",
"The major natural bodies of water are in the west and include the former shallow swamps of Lake Wendouree which is central to the city's western suburbs and beyond Winter's Swamp and the large Lake Burrumbeet wetland complex.",
"Almost all of the other numerous bodies of water have been created artificially and include several reservoirs, the largest being the White Swan Reservoir and smaller suburban lakes such as Lake Esmond.",
"The contiguous urban area of Ballarat covers approximately of the local government area's .",
"Approximately 90% of the urban area's land use is residential and suburban.",
"From the city centre this area extends approximately north to the hills around Invermay, approximately east to Leigh Creek in the foothills of Mount Warrenheip, approximately west along the plains to Lucas and approximately south along the Yarrowee River and Canadian Creek valley to the fringe of Buninyong.",
"The central city is situated low in the valley of the Yarrowee River and surrounded by hills such that the city skyline is visible only from the hills and the lower lying inner eastern suburbs.",
"The reach of the Yarrowee River toward Ballarat Central becomes a stormwater drain and is completely covered over as it flows under the CBD.",
"===City and suburbs===\nMap of the urban area (grey) and the extent of the municipal area\nView of Ballarat Central and surrounding areas from the Black Hill lookout.",
"Looking south over Sturt Street and the CBD toward Bridge Mall from the Town Hall clock tower\n\nBallarat is a primarily low-rise city though apart from the area around Ballarat Airport there are few established height limits for buildings.",
"The City of Ballarat defines two Major Activity Centres within the urban area – the Central Business District (CBD) and Wendouree with a high concentration of business, retail and community function based primarily on the Melbourne 2030 planning model and a further 11 neighbourhood activity centres.",
"The tallest building in urban Ballarat is the seven-storey Henry Bolte wing of the Ballarat Base Hospital (1994).",
"Beyond the central area, urban Ballarat extends into several suburban areas with a mixture of housing styles.",
"Predominant styles are 19th-century villas, Victorian terraces, Federation homes and Georgian red brick homes.",
"Settlement patterns around Ballarat consist of small villages and country towns, some with less than a few thousand people.",
"The Central Business District (located in Ballarat Central) is a large mixed-use office and retail district bounded to the north by railway lines, to the west by Drummond Street, to the south to Grant street and to the east by Princes Street and spanning the floodplain of the Yarrowee River.",
"Lydiard, Sturt Streets, Armstrong, Doveton, Dana Street and Bridge Street (known as Bridge Mall) along with the historic centre of East Ballarat—Main Street and Bakery Hill have retained stands of commercial and civic buildings of state and national heritage significance.",
"The inner established suburbs were initially laid out around the key mining areas and include Ballarat East, Bakery Hill, Golden Point, Soldiers Hill, Black Hill, Brown Hill, Eureka, Canadian, Mount Pleasant, Redan, Sebastopol and Newington.",
"The post gold rush era has seen a boom in expansion, extending the conurbation north, south and west.",
"To the west, Ballarat has expanded West to Lucas, Alfredton, Delacombe To The North West Wendouree , Wendouree West and Miners Rest To the north it has expanded to Ballarat North, Invermay Park, Invermay, Victoria Invermay and Nerrina; to the east to Warrenheip and south to Sebastopol, Mount Clear and Mount Helen with the urban area encroaching the large town of Buninyong.",
"Wendouree is currently the only major suburban activity centre with a large indoor shopping mall—Stockland Shopping Centre (expanded in 2007) and also has a number of surrounding retail parks including a strip shopping centre along Howitt Street including the large retail chain Harvey Norman.",
"Elsewhere are small suburban hubs with supermarkets such as IGA (supermarkets) and small stretches of shopfronts.",
"Unlike Melbourne, Ballarat does not have a defined urban growth boundary.",
"This has put continuing pressure on the city council to approve development applications for subdivisions outside of the city fringe.",
"In response to lobbying by landholders, the Ballarat West Growth Area Plan, a major greenfield land development plan, was prepared and has approved by the city and state government to allow for planned fringe communities consisting of 14,000 new homes and up to 40,000 new residents, effectively doubling the city's urban area by extending the urban sprawl from Sebastopol, Delacombe and Alfredton west toward Bonshaw, Smythes Creek and Cardigan with a new suburb to be known as Lucas to be created.",
"New activity centres are to be developed at Delacombe and Alfredton.",
"===Climate===\nSnow scene in Sturt Gardens in 1905\nBallarat has a moderate oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification ''Cfb'') with four seasons.",
"Its elevation, at above sea level, causes its mean monthly temperatures to tend to be on average below those of Melbourne.",
"The mean daily maximum temperature for January is , while the mean minimum is .",
"In July, the mean maximum is ; average July minimum is .",
"Ballarat has 55.2 clear days annually.",
"The mean annual rainfall is , with August being the wettest month ().",
"There are an average of 198 rain-free days per year.",
"Like much of Australia, Ballarat experiences cyclical drought and heavy rainfall.",
"Flooding of the Yarrowee catchment occurs occasionally.",
"In 1869 a serious flood of the Yarrowee River put most of the lower section of business district including Bridge and Grenville streets under water and caused the loss of two lives.",
"Prolonged drought (an average annual rainfall with falls averaging as low as per year since 2001) caused Lake Wendouree to dry up completely for the first time in its history between 2006 and 2007.",
"More recently higher rainfall levels have been recorded including in the 24 hours to 9 am on 14 January 2011, ending a four-day period of flooding rains across much of Victoria and Tasmania, and contributing to the wettest January on record, with a total of of rain for the month.",
"Light snowfall typically falls on nearby Mount Buninyong and Mount Warrenheip at least once a year but in the urban area only during heavy winters.",
"Widespread frosts and fog are more common during the cooler months.",
"Snow has been known to fall heavily.",
"Heavy snow seasons occurred in 1900–1902 and 1905–1907 (with record falls in 1906), and moderate snow seasons were recorded during the 1940s and 1980s.",
"Recent snowfalls to have occurred within the urban area were in 2006, 2008, 2014 and 2016, with falls in November 2006 (light, also the latest snowfall on record), July 2007 (heavy), June 2008 (light), August 2008 (light), August 2014 (moderate) and June 2016 (light).",
"Ballarat's highest maximum recorded temperature was on 7 February 2009 during the 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave.",
"This was above the previous record of , set on 25 January 2003.",
"The lowest-ever recorded minimum was at sunrise on 19 July 2015.",
"A view from Lake Wendouree toward Mount Buninyong Reserve\nBallarat has a healthy environment in comparison to Melbourne; however, as a growing regional city there are issues including pollution, waterway health and invasive species.",
"Air quality is generally good, however dust is sometimes an issue in the summer months and woodsmoke from fireplaces is an issue in the winter months.",
"Ballarat's waterways have historically been affected by heavy pollution from both mining and industry.",
"The Ballarat Environment Network formed in 1993 to provide a voice for environmental and nature conservation issues in Ballarat and its surroundings.",
"Another large lobby group for sustainability in the city is the Ballarat Renewable Energy And Zero Emissions (BREAZE) formed in 2006.",
"The City of Ballarat released an Environment Sustainability Strategy for the city in 2007.",
"While there are no national parks in Ballarat's proximity, Ballarat is bordered by extensive bushland to the north, south and south west and sensitive wetlands to the east.",
"There are a number of nearby state parks and large reserves including the Enfield State Park, Creswick Regional Park, Mount Warrenheip Flora Reserve, Mount Buninyong Reserve and Lake Burrumbeet park.",
"The region is home to a large koala population with protected areas established in the city's outer southern and eastern settlements.",
"Many parts of urban Ballarat have been affected by the introduction of exotic species, particularly introduced flora.",
"Common gorse is one such problem which has prompted the formation of an official Ballarat Region Gorse Task Force in 1999 to control.",
"European rabbits and red foxes cause significant environmental damage in the region's agriculture areas.",
"The economy of Ballarat is driven by all three economic sectors, though contemporary Ballarat has emerged as a primarily service economy with its main industry being the service industry and its key areas of business including tourism, hospitality, retail, professional services, government administration and education.",
"Secondary industry including manufacturing, which had grown in the 20th century remains an important sector.",
"The city's historic primary industry roots including mining and agriculture continue to play a role, though one that has declined since the 20th century.",
"Industries emerging this century include information technology service sector and renewable energy.",
"===Service industries===\nAs a major service centre for the populous goldfields region, Ballarat has large sectors of employment in business including retail, professional services and trades as well as state and federal government branch offices for public services and health care and non-government service organisations.",
"Collectively these industries employ more than half of the city's workforce and generate the bulk of the city's economic activity.",
"Ballarat is the main retail economy in the region.",
"The city has several key retail districts including a pedestrian mall known as Bridge Mall comprising over 100 traders.",
"There are also indoor shopping malls including Central Square Shopping Centre and Stockland Wendouree.",
"better known as Wendouree Village, with a large number of specialty stores.",
"Major department stores include Myer, Target, Big W, Kmart, Harvey Norman and Harris Scarfe.",
"Additionally each of the major supermarkets (Coles, Woolworths, IGA and Aldi) are represented.",
"Federation University Australia exports education through a large international students program and throughout Australia through distance education programs.",
"In recent years, a large technology park, the Ballarat Technology Park with communications centre has been established, with tenants including IBM and employing over 1,400 people.",
"====Tourism and hospitality====\nMain Street in Sovereign Hill, a large open-air gold mining museum, is Ballarat's most famous attraction.",
"Ballarat attracts 2.2 million visitors a year and the tourism and hospitality industry is a A$480 million a year sector which accounts for around 15% of Ballarat's economy and employs around 2,870 people.",
"Tourism in Ballarat is promoted by Ballarat Regional Tourism.",
"A significant heritage tourism industry has not grown substantially in Ballarat since the 1960s.",
"Ballarat is most notable for the award-winning open-air museum known as Sovereign Hill, a recreated 1850s gold mining settlement opened in 1970.",
"Sovereign Hill is Ballarat's biggest tourism drawcard and is consistently rated among one of the best outdoor museums in the world and continues to expand.",
"Sovereign Hill accounts for over half a million of Ballarat's visitors and $40 million in tourism revenue.",
"Several businesses and attractions have capitalised on Ballarat's gold mining history.",
"They include Kryal Castle (1972), \"Gold Rush Mini Golf\" (2002) featuring the \"Big Miner\" (2006) one of Australia's big things (although the original proposal appeared larger and for the miner to hold the Eureka Flag) at Ballarat's eastern entrance.",
"Other tourist attractions include the Eureka Centre; The Gold Museum, Ballarat; Ballarat Botanic gardens and Lake Wendouree; the Museum of Australian Democracy; the Ballarat Tramway Museum and Ballarat Ghost Tours and Ballarat Wildlife Park.",
"A large number of Ballarat hotels, motels and restaurants service the tourism industry.",
"The Ballarat Tourist Association is an industry based non-profit, membership organisation representing the city's tourism industry.",
"===Manufacturing===\nAccording to the 2006 Australian Census, manufacturing is Ballarat's third largest employment sector, accounting for 14.8% of all workers.",
"Ballarat attracts investment from several international manufacturers.",
"The Australian headquarters of Mars, Incorporated was established in Ballarat in 1979 with the main Ballarat factory producing popular confectionery including Mars bars, Snickers and M&M's for the Australian market as well as expanding in 2013 to produce Maltesers.",
"McCain Foods Limited Australian headquarters was established in Ballarat in 1970 and the company continues to expand its operations.",
"The Ballarat North Workshops is a major manufacturer of public transportation products with current investment from Alstom.",
"Ballarat also has a large number of home-grown companies producing textiles, general industrial engineering, food products, brick and tiles, building components, prefabricated housing components and automotive components.",
"Brewing was once a large-scale operation, with many large businesses including the public company Phoenix Brewery, and although large-scale brewing has ceased, the city retains a substantial microbrewery industry.",
"===Primary industry===\nReplica of the \"Welcome Nugget\", found at Ballarat, the second largest gold nugget discovered in recorded history\nThough historically an important sector, the production of Ballarat's primary industry declined for many decades, recovering only marginally since 2006.",
"Where historically the mining industry supported tens of thousands of workers or the majority of the population, today agriculture dominates the sector, though collectively both industries employ less than thousand people or just over 2% of the City of Ballarat's total workforce.",
"Ballarat rose to prominence as a goldrush boomtown, though gold no longer plays a pivotal role in the economy of the city.",
"Nevertheless, deep underground mining continues to the present date with a single main mine operating.",
"There are still thought to be large, undiscovered gold reserves in the Ballarat region, with investigations being made by local and national companies.",
"Lihir Gold invested in Ballarat Goldfields in 2006, however it downscaled its operations in 2009 due to the expense of extraction before selling its stake in 2010 to Castlemaine Goldfields.",
"Along with gold, lignite (coal), kaolin (clay) and iron ore have also been mined in the Ballarat region and nearby Lal Lal however many of the resource deposits have since been exhausted.",
"An active quarrying industry with large enterprises including Boral Limited extracts and manufactures building materials from the Ballarat region, including clays, aggregates, cements, asphalts.",
"Approximately half () of the municipality's area is rural with optimal conditions for agriculture including rich volcanic soils and climate.",
"This area is used primarily for agriculture and animal husbandry and generates more than $37 million in commodities.",
"The region supports an active potato growing industry that has supplied local food manufacturers including McCain, though more recently has been threatened by cheaper imports.",
"Other large crops include grains, vegetables, grapes and berries.",
"Cattle and poultry stocks, including sheep, cows and pigs, support an active local meat and dairy industry.",
"The Ballarat Livestock Selling Centre is the largest cattle exchange in regional Victoria.",
"The Ballarat Agricultural and Pastoral Society formed in 1856 and has run the Ballarat Show annually since 1859.",
"A $7.5 million forestry industry is active in nearby state forests as well as on a small scale in the urban area along the Canadian Valley around the suburbs of Mt Clear and Mt Helen areas with pine plantations and sawmill operations.",
"====Renewable energy====\nPart of the Waubra Wind Farm\nThe Ballarat region has a rapidly growing renewable energy industry, in particular due to its abundant wind energy, attracting significant investment and generating revenue for local landholders and local councils.",
"The region is also a source of bountiful geothermal energy, solar power and biomass although to date, only its wind, solar and hydroelectricity has been harvested commercially.",
"All local commercially produced electricity is sent to the National Electricity Market.",
"Wind energy is generated by local wind farms.",
"The largest, Waubra Wind Farm, completed in 2009, ( W – 192 MW, 128 turbines) is capable of producing enough electricity to power a city 3 to 4 times the size of Ballarat.",
"Other significant nearby wind farms include Mount Mercer, completed 2014, ( S – 131 MW, 64 turbines) which produces enough energy to power 100,000 homes, equivalent to Ballarat's population and Chepstowe, completed March 2015, ( W – 6 MW, 3 turbines) which produces enough power for 3,400 homes.",
"The first community-owned wind farm in Australia, the Hepburn Wind Project at Leonards Hill, completed in 2011, ( NE – 4 MW, 2 turbines) produces the equivalent amount of electricity used by the town of Daylesford.",
"Several large projects have planning approval, including Stockyard Hill Wind Farm ( W – 41 MW, 157 turbines), Moorabool Wind Project at Mount Egerton and Ballan ( E – 330 MW, 107 turbines).",
"and the Lal Lal Wind Farm ( SE – 150 MW, 64 turbines).",
"Hydroelectricity is generated at White Swan reservoir micro hydro plant established in 2008 and producing the equivalent electricity needs of around 370 homes.",
"Ballarat Solar Park, opened in 2009 at the Airport site in Mitchell Park, is Victoria's first ground-mounted, flat-plate and grid-connected photovoltaic farm.",
"Built by Sharp Corporation for Origin Energy, it is and generates the equivalent electricity needs of around 150 homes.",
"The 2006 Australian national census indicated that the permanent population of the urban area was 78,221 out of the City of Ballarat's population of 85,196 and a total of 31,960 households.",
"Ballarat has witnessed a significant growth surge since 2006 and the population of the City of Ballarat is becoming increasingly urban such that statistically, the LGA is now used as the ABS statistical division.",
"Recent rapid growth has been attributed by demographers to increased commuter activity arising from surging house and land prices in Melbourne coupled with transport upgrades between Ballarat and Melbourne.",
"Since 2006 Ballarat has averaged an annual population growth of 1700 and in June 2008 the estimated resident population of the City of Ballarat was 91,787.",
"In August 2009 this population had grown to 94,000.",
"While most of the city's population can trace their ethnic roots to Anglo-Celtic descent, 8.2% of the population are born overseas.",
"Of them, the majority (4.2%) come from North East Europe.",
"3.4% speak a language other than English.",
"14.4% of the population is over the age of 65.",
"The median age in Ballarat is 35.8 years.",
"The average income of Ballarat, while lower than Melbourne, is higher than average for regional Victoria.",
"Ballaratians in the 2007/08 financial year earned on average A$38,850 a year.",
"The highest earners living in the city's inner suburbs with a mean of $53,174 a year, while the lower earners are centred on the city's southern suburbs.",
"According to the 2006 Census, Ballarat's working population is largely white collar 52.1% consisting of Management, Professionals, Clerical and Administrative Workers and Sales Workers, while 32.9% are blue collar working in Technicians and Trades, Labouring or Machinery Operation.",
"56.5% of households had access to the Internet in 2006.",
"The unemployment rate as of June 2011 was 7.8%.",
"St Peters Anglican Church, which represents the second most common religious affiliation in Ballarat.",
"50.3% of the population have completed further education after high school.",
"===Religion===\nChristianity remains the dominant religion in Ballarat, with over 65% of residents claiming Christian affiliation, slightly above the national average of 64%.",
"According to the 2006 Census, Catholics (27.1%), Anglicans (15.0%), Uniting Church (11.2%) and Presbyterians (4.0%) remain the largest Christian denominations in Ballarat.",
"Over 21.6% of Ballarat residents claim no religious affiliation.",
"Minority religious groups include Buddhism, Judaism, Baha'i and Islam and total less than 5% of the population.",
"Ballarat Town Hall\nCouncil Chamber in Ballarat Town Hall, Sturt Street, is the seat of local government for the City of Ballarat.",
"The council was created in 1994 as an amalgamation of a number of other municipalities in the region.",
"The City is made up of 3 wards, each represented by three councillors elected once every four years by postal voting.",
"The Mayor of Ballarat is elected from these councillors by their colleagues for a one-year term.",
"The Town Hall and annexe contains some council offices, however the council's administrative headquarters are located at the council owned Phoenix Building and the leased Gordon Buildings on the opposite side of Bath Lane.",
"In state politics, Ballarat is located in the Legislative Assembly districts of Buninyong and Wendouree, with both of these seats currently held by the Australian Labor Party.",
"In federal politics, Ballarat is located in a single House of Representatives division—the Division of Ballarat.",
"The Division of Ballarat has been a safe Australian Labor Party seat since 2001, and was the seat of the second Prime Minister of Australia, Alfred Deakin.",
"Law enforcement is overseen from regional police headquarters at the law complex in Dana Street with a single local police station operating in Buninyong.",
"Due to an increase in crime rates and population, two additional local police stations were proposed in 2011 one each for the suburbs of North Ballarat and Sebastopol.",
"Justice is conducted locally overseen through branches of the Supreme, County, Magistrates and Children's Court of Victoria which operate out of the Ballarat courts Complex adjacent police headquarters in Dana Street.",
"Corrections, at least in the longer term are no longer handled locally since the closure of the Ballarat Gaol in 1965.",
"Offenders can be detained in 25 available cells at the police complex though are commonly transferred to nearby Corrections Victoria facilities such as the Hopkins Correctional Centre in Ararat.",
"Public safety and emergency services are provided by several state funded organisations including local volunteer based organisations.",
"Storms and flooding are handled by the State Emergency Service (SES) Mid West Region Headquarters at Wendouree.",
"Bushfires are handled by the Country Fire Authority District 15 Headquarters and Grampians Region Headquarters at Wendouree and urban structure fires are handled by multiple urban fire brigades operating at fire stations including the Ballarat Fire Brigade at Barkly Street Ballarat East, Ballarat City Fire Brigade at Sturt Street Ballarat Central and suburban stations including Wendouree and Sebastopol.",
"Medical emergency and paramedic services are provided through Ambulance Victoria and include the Rural Ambulance Victoria, St. John Ambulance and Ballarat Base Hospital ambulance services.",
"City of Ballarat is responsible for coordinating the Municipal Emergency Management Planning Committee (MEMPC) which prepares the Municipal Emergency Management Plan which is actioned in conjunction with local police.",
"\n===Newspapers===\nBallarat has two local newspapers, both owned by Fairfax.",
"''The Courier'' is a daily and ''The Miner'' is a free weekly.",
"The latter is distributed across most of the city on Wednesdays and contains news of community events, advertisements for local businesses, real estate and a classifieds sections.",
"===Radio stations===\nRadio House, Lydiard Street North.",
"Home to 3BA and Power FM\nLocal radio stations include 3BA, Power FM and several community radio stations.",
"There is also a Ballarat branch of ABC Local Radio's national network.",
"* 102.3 FM – 3BA (local \"classic hits\" commercial radio station)\n* 103.1 FM – Power FM 103.1 FM (local \"top-40\" commercial radio station)\n* 99.9 FM – Voice FM 99.9 – formerly known as 3BBB (local community radio station)\n* 107.9 FM – ABC Local Radio (government-funded local news, current affairs, light entertainment and talkback)\n* 103.9 FM – Good News Radio 103.9 (Christian community-based radio station)\n\n===Television===\nTelevision station BTV Channel 6 Ballarat commenced transmission of test patterns on 17 March 1962.",
"Among the many local programs BTV6 produced, the 90 minute live variety program ''Six Tonight'' (1971–1983), hosted by local Ballarat identity Fred Fargher, was one of the few live Australian programs of this type being presented in Australia.",
"In his 1999 book ''And Now Here's...'' (Four Decades of Behind the Scenes Fun in Australian Television), Mike McColl Jones fondly remembers local live television variety:\n\n\"...and in Ballarat, Victoria, a Tonight show (\"Six Tonight\") was carving its name into Australian television history.",
"The show, hosted by Fred Fargher, ran for 13 years, and managed to attract many of the top name entertainers in the world, simply by offering them a limo ride to this beautiful country centre, a no-pressure spot on the show, and then a great dinner afterwards at one of the city's excellent restaurants.",
"The sheer bravado of the offer enticed some of show business' biggest names\".",
"Today Ballarat is serviced by numerous \"free to air\" High Definition and Standard Definition Digital television services.",
"Two television broadcasting stations are located in the city, including WIN, GEM HD and GO!",
"(sub-licensees of Nine Network) and Prime7, 7Two, 7mate (a sub-licensee of Seven Network).",
"These two stations broadcast relayed services throughout regional Victoria.",
"The city also receives Southern Cross Ten, One HD and Eleven (sub-licensee's of Network Ten) which is based in Bendigo but operates a local office.",
"Ballarat television maintains a similar schedule to the national television network but maintains local commercials and regional news programmingWIN produces a 30-minute local news bulletin each weeknight from its studios in the city, where bulletins for Albury, Bendigo, Gippsland, Shepparton and Mildura also originate.",
"Southern Cross Ten provides short local news updates from its Canberra studios throughout the day.",
"In addition to commercial television services, Ballarat receives Government ABC (ABC1, ABC2, ABC3, ABC News 24) and SBS (SBS One and Two) television services.",
"On 5 May 2011, analog television transmissions ceased in most areas of regional Victoria and some border regions including Ballarat and surrounding areas.",
"All local free-to-air television services are now broadcasting in digital transmission only.",
"This was done as part of the federal government's plan for digital terrestrial television in Australia, where all analogue transmission systems are gradually turned off and replaced with modern DVB-T transmission systems.",
"Subscription television services are provided by Neighbourhood Cable, Foxtel and SelecTV.",
"\nFederation University Australia's SMB campus is set among the heritage buildings of Lydiard Street Sth including the former School of Mines and Industry (left), former Supreme Court and former Ballarat Gaol (rear)\nSchool of Mines Building\nBallarat has two universities, Federation University and a campus of the Australian Catholic University.",
"Formerly the University of Ballarat, Federation University Australia was opened in 2014.",
"It originated as the Ballarat School of Mines, founded in 1870, and was once affiliated with the University of Melbourne.",
"The main campus is located in Mount Helen, approximately southeast of the city.",
"The university also has campuses in the Ballarat CBD, Horsham, Churchill, Ararat and Stawell.",
"The Australian Catholic University's Ballarat campus is located on Mair Street.",
"It was formerly the Aquinas Training College, run by the Ballarat East Sisters of Mercy in 1909.",
"It is ACU's only campus located outside of a capital city.",
"Ballarat has four State Government-operated secondary schools of which Ballarat High School (established in 1907) is the oldest.",
"Ballarat High School and Mount Clear College are the only state school members of the Ballarat Associated Schools.",
"The two remaining schools are Phoenix College and Ballarat Secondary College.",
"Ballarat Secondary College was formed in 1994 by the amalgamation of Ballarat East Secondary College, Wendouree Secondary College and Midlands Secondary College.",
"Phoenix College was formed in 2012 as an amalgamation of Sebastopol College and Redan Primary School.",
"The city is well serviced by Catholic schools, with eight primary schools and three secondary colleges which include the all-boys St Patrick's College, the all-girls Loreto College and the co-educational Damascus College, which was formed by the amalgamation of St Martin's in the Pines, St Paul's College and Sacred Heart College in 1995.",
"Ballarat has three other non-government secondary schools: Ballarat Christian College, Ballarat Clarendon College and Ballarat Grammar School.",
"The later two schools are day and boarding schools who provide education from Preschool to Year 12.",
"Both of these co-educational schools are classified as academically excellent as the only Ballarat schools to be ranked on the tables of the top 100 Victorian schools based on median VCE scores and percentage of scores of 40 and above.",
"In 2015, Clarendon was placed at 9th best VCE results in the State, above Melbourne Grammar, Geelong College, Scotch College, Trinity Grammar School (Victoria), Xavier College, and Haileybury College.",
"Ballarat Grammar was placed at 82nd, above Wesley College, Geelong Grammar and Tintern.",
"The City of Ballarat has three public libraries, the largest and most extensive of which is the City of Ballarat Library, run by the Central Highlands Regional Library Corporation and located on Doveton Street North.",
"Another library service is provided by the Ballarat Mechanics' Institute in Sturt Street, which is the oldest library in the city and a significant heritage site; it contains a collection of historic, archival and rare reference material as well as more general books.",
"File:BallaratMechanicsInstitute1909.jpg|The newspaper reading room of the Ballarat Mechanics' Institute in 1909\nFile:BallaratMechanicsInstitute1942.jpg|American and Australian soldiers in the reading room of the Ballarat Mechanics' Institute in 1942\nFile:Ballarat mechanics institute.jpg|Ballarat mechanics institute",
"\n=== Heritage ===\nThe Ballarat railway station is notable for being one of only three surviving nineteenth-century station buildings in Australia to retain a train hall\n\nBallarat is renowned for its cultural heritage and decorative arts, especially applied to the built environment, combined with the gold rush, this has created a picturesque urban landscape.",
"In 2003 Ballarat was the first of two Australian cities to be registered as a member of the International League of Historical Cities and in 2006 hosted the 10th World League of Historical Cities Congress.",
"Restoration of historic buildings is encouraged including a low interest council Heritage Loans Scheme.",
"and the prevention of demolition by neglect discouraged by council policies.",
"Since the 1970s, the local council has become increasingly aware of the economic and social value of heritage preservation.",
"This is in stark contrast to the 1950s and 60s when Ballarat followed Melbourne in encouraging the removal of Victorian buildings, verandahs in particular.",
"Recent restoration projects funded by the Ballarat include the reconstruction of significant cast iron lace verandahs including the Mining Exchange, Art Gallery (2007), Mechanics institute (2005–) on Lydiard Street and in 2010 the restoration of the Town Hall and the long neglected Unicorn Hotel façade on Sturt Street.",
"Ballarat Citizens for Thoughtful Development formed in 1998 and was incorporated as Ballarat Heritage Watch in 2005 to ensure that the city's architectural heritage is given due consideration in the planning process.",
"The Ballarat Botanical Gardens (established in 1858) are recognised as the finest example of a regional botanical gardens in Australia and are home to many heritage listed exotic tree species and feature a modern glasshouse and horticultural centre and the Prime Ministers Avenue which features bronze busts of every past Australian Prime Minister.",
"Australian Ex-Prisoners of War Memorial\nBallarat is notable for its very wide boulevards.",
"The main street is Sturt Street and is considered among one of the finest main avenues in Australia with over of central gardens known as the Sturt Street Gardens featuring bandstands, fountains, statues, monuments, memorials and lampposts.",
"Ballarat is home to the largest of a collection of several Avenues of Honour in Victoria.",
"The Ballarat Avenue of Honour consists of a total of approximately 4,000 trees, mostly deciduous which in many parts arch completely over the road.",
"Each tree has a bronze plaque dedicated to a soldier from the Ballarat region who enlisted during World War I.",
"The Avenue of Honour and the Arch of Victory are on the Victorian Heritage Register and are seen by approximately 20,000 visitors each year.",
"The city also has the greatest concentration of public statuary in any Australian city with many parks and streets featuring sculptures and statues dating from the 1860s to the present.",
"Some of the other notable memorials located in the Sturt Street Gardens in the middle of Ballarat's main boulevard include a bandstand situated in the heart of the city that was funded and built by the City of Ballarat Band in 1913 as a tribute to the bandsmen of the , a fountain dedicated to the early explorers Burke and Wills, and those dedicated to monarchs and those who have played pivotal roles in the development of the city and its rich social fabric.",
"Ballarat has an extensive array of significant war memorials, the most recent of which is the Australian Ex Prisoner of War Memorial.",
"The most prominent memorial in the city is the Ballarat Victory Arch that spans the old Western Highway on the Western approaches of the city.",
"The archway serves as the focal point for the Avenue of Honour.",
"Other significant individual monuments located along Sturt Street include those dedicated to the Boer War (1899–1901), the World War II (1939–1945) cenotaph, and Vietnam (1962–1972) (located adjacent to the Arch of Victory).",
"====Commercial and civic buildings====\nBallarat Fine Art Gallery, Lydiard Street North\nThe legacy of the wealth generated during Ballarat's gold boom is still visible in a large number of fine stone buildings in and around the city, especially in the Lydiard Street area.",
"This precinct contains some of Victoria's finest examples of Victorian era buildings, many of which are on the Victorian Heritage Register or classified by the National Trust of Australia.",
"Notable civic buildings include the Town Hall (1870–72), the former Post Office (1864), the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery (1887), the Mechanics' Institute (1860, 1869), the Queen Victoria Wards of the Ballarat Base Hospital (1890s) and the Ballarat railway station (1862, 1877, 1888).",
"Other historic buildings include the Provincial Hotel (1909), Reid's Coffee Palace (1886), Craig's Royal Hotel (1862–1890) and Her Majesty's Theatre (1875), the oldest intact and operating lyric theatre in Australia and Ballarat Fire Station (1864, 1911) one of Victoria's oldest fire fighting structures and the Jewish synagogue (1861) the oldest surviving synagogue on the Australian mainland.",
"====Galleries====\nThe Ballarat Fine Art Gallery houses one of Australia's oldest and most extensive collections of early Australian works.",
"It is considered to have the best Australian collection outside any capital city in Australia.",
"Federation University Australia operates the Post Office Gallery in the Wardell designed former Post Office on the corner of Sturt and Lydiard Streets.",
"===Events and festivals===\nBallarat is home to many annual festivals and events that attract thousands of visitors.",
"The oldest large annual event is the Ballarat Agricultural Show (since 1859), currently held at the Ballarat Showgrounds and has attracted attendances of up to 30,000 and is an official public holiday for residents of the city.",
"Lake Wendouree is featured in many including the biggest and most prominent is the Begonia Festival (held annually since 1953).",
"SpringFest (held annually since 2001) attracts more than 15,000 people from around Victoria and features market stalls and activities around the lake.",
"Annual Agricultural Society Show at Ballarat Showgrounds, Wendouree\nThe controversial Ballarat Swap Meet (formerly the Super Southern Swap Meet and held annually since 1989) attracts 30,000 visitors a year.",
"Ballarat Heritage Weekend (held annually since 2006) celebrates the city's heritage with activities such as historic vehicles and displays in and around the CBD and has attracted as many as 14,500 visitors a year from around Victoria.",
"The Ballarat Beer Festival at the City Oval (since 2012) has attracted more than 4,000 visitors.",
"The Ballarat Airport Open Day (Ballarat's unofficial air show, held annually since 2009) also attracts thousands.",
"Other minor cultural festivals include the Ballarat Writers Festival, Ballarat International Foto Biennialle and the Goldfields Music Festival.",
"===Entertainment===\nHer Majesty's Theatre façade (1875), Lydiard Street Sth.",
"Ballarat has a lively and well established theatrical community with several local ensembles as well as a number of large performing arts venues.",
"Major performing arts venues include:\n* Her Majesty's Theatre – Seating 940\n* Post Office Box Theatre (Federation University Australia Arts Academy, Camp Street Campus) – Flexible Seating up to 100\n* Helen Macpherson Smith Performing Arts Theatre (Federation University Australia, Arts Academy Camp Street Campus) – Seating 200\n* The 1870 Founders Theatre (Federation University Australia, Mount Helen Campus) – Seating 600\n* The Courthouse Theatre (Federation University Australia, SMB Campus) – Seating 140\n* The Victoria Theatre (Sovereign Hill) – Seating 300\n* Wendouree Centre for Performing Arts (Ballarat Grammar School) – Seating 900\n* Gay E. Gough Theatre (Mount Clear Secondary College) – Seating 350\n* Mechanics Institute hall (seating 700) is used from time to time for travelling performances and cinema shows.",
"The Ballarat Civic Hall is a large public building constructed in 1958 as a general purpose venue.",
"Its stripped classical design was heavily criticised during its planning, however it has gained some cultural significance to the city with its cavernous spaces holding many significant events over the years.",
"Civic Hall was closed in 2002 and there have been moves to redevelop it for many years with some calls to retain the building as a venue.",
"Ballarat has its own symphony orchestra, the Ballarat Symphony Orchestra which was formed in 1987.",
"Some notable theatre organisations in Ballarat include BLOC (Ballarat Light Opera Company) founded in 1959.",
"Ballarat is also the home to Australia's oldest and largest annual performing arts eisteddfod.",
"The Royal South Street Eisteddfod is an all-encompassing performing arts festival and competition event that is conducted over twelve weeks annually.",
"The modest 1853 Bath's Hotel grew to become the grand Craig's Royal Hotel in anticipation of the royal visit of Prince Alfred.",
"The current buildings date to 1890.",
"In the 1970s the Ballarat urban area contained no less than 60 hotels.",
"The introduction of gaming machines in the early 1990s has brought about significant change in the city entertainment precincts.",
"By 2006 at least 20 hotels had closed and some of those that remain have been redeveloped as dining and/or gaming venues.",
"Gaming machines have brought significant revenue to the remaining hotels, sports and social clubs which has enabled many to expand and modernise.",
"The city has several dance clubs as well as a highly active live music and jazz scene.",
"Hotels are popular meeting places for young people.",
"The city has many fine restaurants, wine bars and eateries as well as themed restaurants.",
"A large cinema complex consisting of several theatres is located behind the façade of the old Regent cinemas in the heart of the city.",
"Dance parties are popular within the Ballarat area; BTR is an organisation founded in 2006 that has begun hosting dance events in Ballarat.",
"==== Music and live entertainment ====\nBallarat has a significant music scene and a number of established music venues.",
"Ballarat has produced several note worthy bands and musicians.",
"Notable musicians from Ballarat include composer and violinist Warren Ellis, and alternative bands The Mavis's, Epicure and The Dead Salesmen.",
"===Sport and recreation===\nAFL pre-season match.",
"Western Bulldogs vs Melbourne.",
"Eureka Stadium, Wendouree.",
"Ballarat has a number of large parks, sport fields, organised sporting clubs and associations.",
"Australian rules football and cricket are the most popular spectator and participation sports in Ballarat, while soccer, basketball, netball, horse racing and rowing have large followings.",
"There are stadiums, both indoor and outdoor as well as training facilities for most sports.",
"Australian rules football is played at semi-professional and amateur levels with a large number of players at numerous venues, both dedicated such as Eureka Stadium and shared with cricket.",
"The North Ballarat Roosters based out of Eureka Stadium compete in the Victorian Football League.",
"The Western Bulldogs AFL Club will commence playing periodic home games at the redevloped Eureka Stadium from 2017.",
"The Ballarat Football League (founded 1893) is a strong regional league of which there are 6 local teams (Ballarat, EastPoint, Redan, Sebastopol, Lake Wendouree and North Ballarat City).",
"The Ballarat Football Club (founded 1860) remains one of the oldest football clubs in the world.",
"Other city teams from Buninyong and North Ballarat compete in the regional Central Highlands Football League.",
"Cricket is also played extensively with three international standard cricket ovals.",
"Ballarat's Eastern Oval hosted a game in the 1992 Cricket World Cup.",
"Horse racing and greyhound racing are popular, with dedicated facilities.",
"The Harness Racing centre is considered to be among the best in Australia.",
"The Ballarat Turf Club schedules around 28 race meetings a year including the Ballarat Cup meeting in mid-November.",
"Ballarat Harness Racing Club conducts regular meetings at its racetrack in the city.",
"The Ballarat Greyhound Racing Club holds regular meetings at Sebastopol.",
"Basketball is played at various levels with the Ballarat Miners and Ballarat Rush competing in the South East Australian Basketball League and playing out of the MARS Minerdome.",
"Netball is similarly popular, with many netball clubs affiliated with local Australian rules clubs including Wendouree, East Point, Eureka, North Ballarat, Redan, Brown Hill and the Ballarat Netball Association.",
"Rowing and kayaking is centred on Lake Wendouree and the sport is particularly popular with the high schools.",
"The lake hosts the Victorian Schools Rowing Championships as well as the annual \"Head of the Lake\" rowing regatta—contested by Ballarat High School, Ballarat and Clarendon College, Ballarat Grammar School, St Patrick's College and Loreto College.",
"The city hosted rowing events for the 1956 Olympic Games.",
"Association Football (known locally as soccer) is mostly played at an amateur level.",
"The local competition is known as the Ballarat & District Soccer Association, which consists of 13 teams.",
"The Ballarat Red Devils are the biggest soccer club in Ballarat and play in the FFV National Premier League Victoria 1 West.",
"Their home ground is Morshead Park Stadium, located in central Ballarat, which was recently significantly redeveloped.",
"Athletics facilities include an international standard athletics track at Llanberris Reserve on York Street Golden Point which is an Athletics Victoria venue and home to local athletics and little athletics clubs.",
"Swimming and water sport is facilitated at two Olympic-sized pools as well as an indoor competition short course pool.",
"The main facility is the Ballarat Aquatic Centre located at Gillies Street Lake Gardens in the city's west.",
"Baseball was first organised in Australia at Ballarat in 1857.",
"The Alfredton Eagles, Ballarat City Brewers and Mounties YC field teams in the Geelong Baseball Association Winter Division.",
"Golf is played at four main venues which include the Ballarat Golf Course on Sturt Street in the Easter suburb of Alfredton, home to the Ballarat Golf Club; the Midlands Golf Course on Heinz Lane in the northern suburb of Invermay Park which is home to the Midlands Golf Club; the Eureka Golf Course at Elford Street in the eastern suburb of Ballarat East and in the southern suburb of Buninyong at the Buninyong Golf Course.",
"The Ballarat Roller Derby League was formed in 2008, and held their first match in 2009.",
"They have two teams who compete in local events, and a combined travelling team, the Rat Pack, who compete in interleague roller derby competitions.",
"Lake Wendouree is a large recreational lake that was created out of former wetlands and hosted the rowing events for the 1956 Summer Olympics.",
"Victoria Park is an expansive reserve with tree-lined avenues and sporting fields in suburban Newington.",
"The suburbs feature some privately run wildlife parks including Ballarat Wildlife Park in Ballarat East and Ballarat Bird World in Buninyong.",
"===Popular culture===\nBallarat has inspired many visual artists.",
"Eugene von Guerard documented the city's establishment as a gold digging settlement, while Albert Henry Fullwood and Knut Bull depicted the city's boom era streetscapes.",
"Ballarat features prominently in literature and fiction, including \"The Boscombe Valley Mystery\", a short story from Arthur Conan Doyle's ''The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes'' (1891); ''King Billy of Ballarat and Other Stories'' (1892) by Morley Roberts; ''The Fortunes of Richard Mahony'' (1917) by Henry Handel Richardson; ''Murder on the Ballarat Train'' (1993) by Kerry Greenwood; and ''Illywhacker'' (1985) by Peter Carey.",
"Ballarat is also a popular filming location.",
"Australia's second oldest feature film, ''Eureka Stockade'' (1907), is the first in a line of films about the historic Ballarat event.",
"The city makes cameos in ''Dogs in Space'' (1986), ''My Brother Jack'' (2001), ''Ned Kelly'' (2003) and ''The Writer'' (2005).",
"The television series ''The Doctor Blake Mysteries'' (2012–) is set in Ballarat and also mostly shot there.",
"Two ships of the Royal Australian Navy have been named HMAS Ballarat after the city, HMAS Ballarat (J184) and HMAS Ballarat (FFH 155).",
"=== Notable persons ===\n\n\nBust of Alfred Deakin, first federal member for Ballaarat at the Prime Ministers Avenue.",
"A great many notable people's origins are in the Ballarat region, with the most prominent being high-ranking politicians and sportspeople.",
"Several former prime ministers of Australia were either born in or lived in Ballarat, and this was recognised by the city's Prime Minister's Avenue.",
"Alfred Deakin, the second prime minister, was the first federal parliament MP for Ballarat.",
"Sir Robert Menzies, and James Scullin were both educated in Ballarat.",
"John Curtin was born in nearby Creswick and his wife Elsie was born in Ballarat.",
"Several premiers of the Australian states were born in Ballarat, including Ballarat born Sir Henry Bolte, Steve Bracks, Thomas Hollway, and Henry Daglish.",
"Additionally Duncan Gillies lived in and represented Ballarat in the Victorian Legislative Assembly before becoming state premier.",
"An additional political activist included Francis William Hyet is trade unionist and born in Ballarat.",
"He was heavily inclined towards socialism which became a calling for his way of life.",
"He became involved with the Social Democratic Party in 1905 and following the Victorian Socialist Party in 1906.",
"Hyett was a very prominent in the anti-conscription campaign.",
"He was able to harness the union's newspaper which became a medium for the anti-conscriptionists.",
"Outside politics other prominent public figures include Peter Lalor, a notable historical figure in Australia as the leader of the Eureka Rebellion (1854) and a parliamentarian; the inventor George Alfred Julius, who spent part of his childhood there when his father was a local Anglican cleric; the inventor Henry Sutton was born and worked in Ballarat; and Cardinal George Pell, the former Catholic Archbishop of Melbourne and Sydney was born in Ballarat and worked in the area for some time.",
"Ballarat has also produced many notable athletes including the Olympic long distance runner Steve Moneghetti and four time Olympic basketball player Ray Borner.",
"A large number of notable Australian rules football identities have come from Ballarat, including Australian Football Hall of Fame members Tony Lockett and Bob Davis.",
"In addition, Henry Sutton was an inventor from Ballarat.",
"Sutton designed an electric continuous current dynamo with a practical ring armature.",
"This design could be used as an electric motor and the rapid incline of the electrical industry followed.",
"Sutton was involved in devising and constructing different telephone designs.",
"Sutton interacted closely with Bell (the inventor of the telephone), Bell came to visit Sutton in order to see a complete telephone system that was set up in Sutton's family warehouse.",
"\n===Health===\nBallarat Base Hospital's Henry Bolte wing (completed in 1994) Drummond St Nth\nBallarat has two major hospitals.",
"The public health services are managed by Ballarat Health Services including the Ballarat Base which services the entire region and the Queen Elizabeth Centre for aged care on Ascot Street Sth.",
"The St John of God Health Care centre also on Drummond Street Nth, established in 1915 is currently the largest private hospital in regional Victoria.",
"The Ballarat Regional Integrated Cancer Centre (BRICC) on the corner of Drummond and Sturt Street includes a number of facilities focused on cancer treatment.",
"The Heart Foundation did a study in 2014 that Ballarat had the highest level of physical inactivity (85.3 per cent) in Australia and that 32.9 per cent of residents were deemed obese.",
"===Utilities===\nBallarat's residents are serviced by a wide range of public utilities including water, gas and electricity, telephony and data communications supplied, overseen and regulated by state based authorities and private enterprise and local council.",
"Water supply as well as sewage collection and disposal are provided by Central Highlands Water.",
"Drinking water is sourced from a network reservoirs all located in the highlands to the east, however the majority is sourced from two main reservoirs—Lal Lal and White Swan.",
"The Lal Lal Reservoir (built in 1970 with a capacity of ) is Ballarat's largest water catchment accounting for approximately two thirds of the city's water usage.",
"The White Swan reservoir (built in 1952 with a capacity) supplies most of the remainder.",
"Since May 2008, the White Swan has been topped up by water from Bendigo's Sandhurst Reservoir through the Goldfields Superpipe with water originally sourced from the Goulburn River system.",
"Kirks Reservoir (built between 1860 and 1862 with a capacity of ) and Gong Gong Reservoir (built in 1877 at Gong Gong, Victoria with a capacity of ) are historic main water supplies now maintained for emergency use.",
"Other reservoirs supplying Ballarat include Moorabool reservoir (located in Bolwarrah, Victoria with a capacity of ), Wilson's Reservoir (located in the Wombat State Forest with a capacity of ), Beales reservoir (built 1863 located at Wallace with a capacity of ) and Pincotts reservoir (built 1867 located at Leigh Creek, Victoria with a capacity of ).",
"Sewage is managed by two plants—the Ballarat North Wastewater Treatment Plant and the Ballarat South Waste Water Treatment Plant.",
"Residential electricity is supplied by Victorian electricity distributor Powercor, while residential natural gas is supplied by AGL Energy.",
"Telephone services are provided via the Doveton Street (BRAT) telephone exchange which was originally built by the Australian Telecommunications Commission (now known as Telstra) who remains its owner, though Optus now also operates services from this facility.",
"The city's cellular network currently uses Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS).",
"Telstra has provided mobile telecommunications to Ballarat since 2003 (initially as CDMA).",
"Optus provided competition with its entrance to the market in 2003 along with significant service upgrades in 2004 followed by Vodafone in mid-2009.",
"Data communications are provided by several companies.",
"Telstra was the first company to provide dial-up Internet access via the Ballarat exchange, however the first network for broadband Internet access available in the city was a hybrid optical fiber cable and coaxial cable built by Neighbourhood Cable in 2001.",
"Since then, Telstra and Optus have entered the Ballarat market, providing Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) services for residential Internet access from four main exchanges—Ballarat, Wendouree (Howitt Street), Sebastopol (Skipton Street) and Alfredton (Cuthberts Road).",
"These companies also provide mobile data access Evolved HSPA and since late 2011 3GPP Long Term Evolution (4G).",
"Ballarat's rollout of the National Broadband Network (NBN) is seen as vital for the city's growing IT industry.",
"During Ballarat's first stage NBN rollout in 2012, 17,800 homes will be directly connected to the network via optical fibre cable.",
"===Transport===\n\n====Road====\nA view of the Western Freeway (M8) at Nerrina looking west toward Doodts Road, Ballarat North and Invermay from the Nerrina pedestrian overpass.",
"Road transport and the motor vehicle is the main form of transport.",
"A network of state highways radiate from Ballarat and the Western Freeway (A8) is dual carriageway bypasses the central city to the north of the urban area, providing a direct road connection to Melbourne (approximately 90 minutes), westward to Ararat (approximately 75 minutes) and Horsham.",
"Five freeway interchanges service the urban area, East Ballarat (half diamond) interchange at Victoria Street (C805); Brown Hill interchange (full diamond) at Daylesford-Ballarat Road (C292), Creswick Road interchange (full diamond) at Wendouree (A300); the Mount Rowan interchange (half diamond) at Gillies Road, Wendouree (C307) and the Mitchell Park interchange (full diamond) at Howe Street (C287).",
"The Midland Highway is a dual carriageway which runs north along Creswick Road to the Western Freeway interchange but becomes a single carriageway north of Ballarat to Creswick (approximately 25 minutes) and runs south as the dual carriageway of Skipton Road to Magpie before becoming a single carriageway to Geelong (approximately 87 minutes).",
"The Glenelg Highway connects directly to Mount Gambier and the Sunraysia Highway west of Ballarat which connects directly to Mildura.",
"Sturt Street and Victoria Street, both dual carriageways carry the bulk of the east-west CBD traffic, while Mair Street is planned to become a four lane dual carriageway to relieve pressure on these main streets.",
"Other dual carriageway main roads in the west include Howitt Street and Gillies Street.",
"The busiest roads by far are located in the west and south at Albert Street in Redan, Sturt Street in Newington and Gillies Street in Lake Gardens which carry 22,400, 22,000 and 21,500 vehicles per day respectively and all have 4 traffic lanes.",
"====Bus, coach and taxi====\n\nBallarat is also served by an extensive public bus service operated by CDC Ballarat.",
"They operate 15 routes across the city, routes 10-15, 20-26, 30 & 31, and school bus services..\n* Route 10 - Ballarat Station - Alfredton via Wendouree\n* Route 11 - Ballarat Station - Wendouree Station via Howitt St \n* Route 12 - Ballarat Station - Wendouree Station via Forest St \n* Route 13 - Ballarat Station - Invermay Park \n* Route 14 - Ballarat Station - Black Hill \n* Route 15 - Ballarat Station - Brown Hill \n* Route 20 - Ballarat Station - Canadian \n* Route 21 - Ballarat Station - Buninyong via Federation University \n* Route 22 - Ballarat Station - Federation University via Sebastopol \n* Route 23 - Ballarat Station - Mount Pleasant \n* Route 24 - Ballarat Station - Sebastopol \n* Route 25 - Ballarat Station - Delacombe \n* Route 26 - Ballarat Station - Alfredton \n* Route 30 - Ballarat Station - Creswick \n* Route 31 - Wendouree Station - Miners Rest\n\nNumerous private companies service suburban, intercity and interstate routes with coach services.",
"Gold Bus provides additional suburban services as well as the Ballarat School Bus Network.",
"Ballarat railway station is a major regional terminal for coach services.",
"V/Line operates direct services to regional Victorian locations including Melbourne, Geelong, Bendigo, Warrnambool, Mildura, Nhill, Ouyen, Halls Gap, Daylesford, Maryborough as well as the South Australian cities of Adelaide and Mount Gambier.",
"Gold Bus operates direct regional services to links to both Avoca and Maryborough, while Sandlants operates a direct service to Stawell.",
"There is also a direct bus service to Melbourne's Tullamarine Airport with the Ballarat Airport Shuttlebus.",
"Interstate coaches from Greyhound Australia and Firefly Express coaches stop at Ballarat on route between Melbourne and Adelaide.",
"The local taxi fleet consists of over 57 vehicles services in all suburbs and is currently operated by Ballarat Taxis Co-op Ltd. Taxis and bus are the only late night public transport option in the city.VLocity railcars inside the train shed at Ballarat railway station\nA tourist tram on Wendouree Parade\n'''Rail'''\n\nBallarat has historically been a major rail transport hub in Victoria, situated at the junction of the Ballarat line, Ararat line and Mildura lines it currently has several connections for both passenger rail services and freight rail.",
"The city has two passenger railway stations, the hub of Ballarat railway station and suburban Wendouree railway station.",
"From Ballarat station, V/Line operates VLocity trains running at up to east to Melbourne, west to Ararat and north to Maryborough.",
"Since the controversial removal of \"flagship\" express services in 2011, successive timetable changes have slowed peak hour services to Southern Cross Station, with the current journey taking a minimum of 73 minutes.",
"Patronage however has continued to grow.",
"The Regional Rail Link project is aimed at separating Ballarat trains from Melbourne's suburban rail network.",
"Interurban services (Ballarat-Melbourne) now run half-hourly during weekday peak and hourly during weekday non-peak and on weekends from Ballarat station.",
"A twice daily (thrice daily on weekdays) (57 minute) service connects Ballarat to Ararat (stopping at Beaufort) while there is a (53 minute) service to and from Maryborough (stopping at Creswick, Clunes, and Talbot) once a day (twice a day on weekdays) each way.",
"Victoria's electronic ticketing system, Myki, was implemented on rail services between Wendouree and Melbourne on 24 July 2013.",
"Ballarat is connected to Geelong by rail via the Geelong-Ballarat railway line, which currently operates only for freight (passenger services were withdrawn in 1978) although in 2011, a planning study began for returning of passenger services along the line to investigate connecting both cities to Bendigo via Maryborough and Castlemaine.",
"There are also several disused railway corridors and stations along the Skipton railway, Buninyong railway.",
"A former branch line built in 1886 to Redan was sold off by VicTrack and finally dismantled in 2010.",
"The freight line forked off the Singleton line at Lake Gardens running south through Alfredton and then east parallel to Latrobe Street, past the Cattle yards and on to Redan (now Delacombe).",
"The once extensive Ballarat tramway network operated between 1887 and 1971 with a small section of remaining track being utilised as a tourist and museum tramway.",
"There have been proposals to extend the network, particularly as a major tourist facility but also to connect it to the railways and return it as a viable component of the Ballarat public transport system, including a strong lobby in 2001–2002, 2010–11 and 2014, however Ballarat City Council and federal member of parliament have dismissed recent proposals.",
"====Air====\nBallarat Aerodrome from above\nBallarat Airport located north-west of the CBD consists of two sealed runways (each approximately long and wide) as well as extensive sealed aprons, night lighting and NDB navaid.",
"A Master Plan for the Aerodrome was completed in 2005 followed by an Airport Master Plan in 2013.",
"The report made a series of recommendations and forecasts that included eventual lengthening, widening and strengthening of the existing main runway up to , consideration for expansion of the passenger terminal and recommendations for future use of aprons and development of future structures supporting larger aircraft and increased frequent usage.",
"It was forecast that by 2012–2015 regular domestic passenger services using 40–50 seat commuter aircraft could feasibly commence.",
"====Cycling====\nBallarat has a long history of cycling as a form of transport and recreation.",
"The current cycling network continues to grow and consists of several marked on-road routes and of segregated bicycle facilities including several main routes:Ballarat–Skipton Rail Trail, Yarrowee River Trail with connections to the Gong Gong Reservoir.",
"Buningyong Trail, Sebastopol Trail, and the Lake Wendouree shared path.",
"The Ballarat Bicycle Users Group provides advocacy for the growing number of cyclists in the city.",
"The popularity of cycling in Ballarat is also demonstrated by the large number of spectators and participants drawn to cycling sporting events held in the city.",
"Ballarat is home to three bikie chapters, most notably the Finks Motorcycle Club, who, in 2010, were planning to build a club house and training centre in the city.",
"Other bikie chapters in the city are the Vikings and the Bandidos Motorcycle Club.",
"The city was the subject of an ABC ''Four Corners'' report on the use of methamphetamine in Australia, along with Devonport, Burnie, Castlemaine and St Arnaud.",
"Ballarat also has 3 police stations: Ballarat, Ballarat North and Ballarat West.",
"'''History books'''\n* Bate, Weston.",
"''Lucky City: The First Generation of Ballarat 1851–1901'' (1978)\n* Bate, Weston.",
"''Life After Gold: Twentieth-Century Ballarat'' Melbourne University Press (1993)\n* Carboni, Raffaello.",
"''The Eureka Stockade'' (1980) first published (1855)\n* Goodman, David.",
"''Gold Seeking: Victorian and California in the 1850s'' (1994)\n* Jacobs, Wendy.",
"''Ballarat: A Guide to Buildings and Areas 1851–1940'' Jacob Lewis Vines Conservation Architects and Planners (1981)\n* Lynch, John.",
"''The Story of the Eureka Stockade: Epic Days in the early fifties at Ballarat'', (1947?)",
"* Flett, James.",
"''The History of Gold Discovery in Victoria''\n* Molony, John.",
"''Eureka'', (1984)\n* Molony, John.",
"''By Wendouree'', (2010)\n* Serle, Geoffrey.",
"''The Golden Age: A History of the Colony of Victoria, 1851–1860'', (1963)\n* Freund, Peter, with Val Sarah.",
"''Her Maj: A History of Her Majesty's Theatre, Ballarat'' (2007)\n* Ballarat City Council\n* Victorian Heritage Register, Heritage Victoria",
"\n\n\n* Ballarat City Council\n* Visit Ballarat – Ballarats Official Tourism website\n* Ballarat – Tourism Victoria – Government tourism site.",
"* Ballarat and District Industrial Heritage Project"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Brisbane Lions''' is a professional Australian rules football club which plays in the Australian Football League (AFL). The club is based in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. The club was formed in 1996 from the merger of the Fitzroy Lions and the Brisbane Bears. The Lions are one of the most successful AFL clubs of the 21st century, having appeared in four consecutive AFL Grand Finals from 2001 to 2004 and winning three premierships (2001, 2002, 2003).\n\nThe club is based at the Gabba. The team is captained by Dayne Beams and coached by Chris Fagan.\n",
"\nThe Brisbane Lions were officially launched on 1 November 1996, joining the national competition in 1997.\n\n===Beginnings: 1997–2000===\nBrisbane Lions logo from 2001 to 2009\nIn their first year as a combined club the Lions made the finals, finishing in eighth position after being defeated by the St Kilda Football Club in a qualifying final. The following year, however, they finished in last position, despite boasting a talented playing list.\n\n===Triple premiership success: 2001–2003===\nAs the Brisbane Lions, the club won its first AFL premiership in the 2001 AFL Grand Final, defeating Essendon 15.18 (108) to 12.10 (82). Lions utility player Shaun Hart won the Norm Smith Medal as best on ground in the Grand Final.\n\nIn 2002, the Lions won back-to-back premierships when they again defeated Collingwood 9.12 (66) to 10.15 (75) in the 2002 AFL Grand Final in cold and wet conditions at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. Early in the contest the Lions lost both ruckman Beau McDonald and utility player Martin Pike (who had already had nine possessions in the first quarter) to injury and had to complete the match with a limited bench.\n\nWith a number of players under an injury cloud – and having lost to Collingwood in a qualifying final at the Melbourne Cricket Ground three weeks previously – the Lions went into the game as underdogs. However, they sealed their place in history as an AFL dynasty by thrashing the Magpies in cool but sunny conditions. At one stage in the final quarter the Lions led by almost 80 points before relaxing when the match was well and truly won, allowing Collingwood to score the last four goals. The final score of 20.14 (134) to 12.12 (84) saw the club become only the fourth in VFL/AFL history to win three consecutive premierships and the first since the creation of the AFL. Simon Black claimed the Norm Smith Medal with a dominant 39 possession match, the most possessions ever gathered by a player in a grand final.\n\nThe 2004 season saw Brisbane remain in the top portion of the ladder for most of the season. Reaching the finals in second position, Brisbane controversially had to travel to Melbourne to play against Geelong in the preliminary final, due to a contract between the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) and the Australian Football League (AFL) that required one preliminary final to be played each year at the MCG. Port Adelaide had finished on top of the ladder and hosted the other preliminary final in Adelaide. Despite this setback, Brisbane beat Geelong and reached the AFL Grand Final for the fourth consecutive year. Their opponents, Port Adelaide, playing in their first ever grand final, were too good on the day and recorded a 40-point win.\n\n===Rebuild of the Lions' second generation: 2005–2008===\nThe Lions in the training camp, May 2007.\nThe Lions began the 2006 season optimistically, but injuries again plagued the club, whose players recorded an AFL record total of 200 matches lost to injury for the season.\n\nThe Brisbane Lions finished runner up in the 2007 NAB Cup and then went on to create history by being the first team in the history of the AFL to have five co-captains. That year, the Lions failed to make the finals for a third successive year in 2007.\n\nThe Lions began the 2008 NAB Cup shakily, losing to Essendon by 27 points. The team struggled for the season and missed out on the finals with a 10–12 record, losing 3 games despite having at least 5 more scoring shots in each of those games. Coach Leigh Matthews resigned at the end of the season after 10 seasons and 3 premierships with the club.\n\n===Michael Voss: 2009–2013===\n\n\nThe Lions made a good start in the 2009 NAB Cup under new senior coach Michael Voss by registering a 9-point win over St Kilda. However this was followed by a series of losses in the pre-season to Essendon, Melbourne and Richmond. Their season ended with a 51-point loss to the Western Bulldogs.\n\nThe 2009/2010 off-season was dominated by the arrival of Brendan Fevola from Carlton, and the hype was focused on Fevola and Jonathan Brown in the sense that the Lions could capitalise on their strong 2009 season. Indeed, the Lions won their first four matches of the 2010 season to be top of the ladder after four rounds, but they would only win three more games after that to crash to a lowly finish by season's end. One of those wins however, was against eventual premiers .\n\nThe Lions' 2010/2011 off-season was disrupted by the sacking of Fevola after just one season at the Lions, following repeated off-field indiscretions which included getting drunk in the Brisbane streets during New Year's Eve celebrations. On the field, the Lions won only four games for the year, but only one against any Victorian team, and that was , in Round 9. Despite their worst season since 1998, coach Michael Voss was granted a contract extension after the board recommended that Voss was the best man to take the club forward into the future. Leading into season 2012, only two players from the triple-premiership winning team of 2001–2003 remained: Simon Black and Jonathan Brown.\n\nThe 2013 season started well for Brisbane, defeating Carlton in the final of the NAB Cup, with Daniel Rich winning the Michael Tuck Medal for best on ground and Aaron Cornelius showing some good form. However, things began to decline from then, with losses to the Western Bulldogs and Adelaide. However, in the 5th QClash match against Gold Coast, the Lions won by two points, with Jonathan Brown winning the Marcus Ashcroft Medal. Injuries were beginning to take a toll, with young players Claye Beams and Jared Polec suffering severe injuries. In Round 13, Brisbane defeated second-placed Geelong, coming from 52 points down late in the third quarter to win by 5 points due to an Ash McGrath goal after the siren in his 200th match.\n\nOn 13 August 2013, coach Michael Voss was told that his contract would not be renewed.\n\n=== Playing under Justin Leppitsch: 2014–2016 ===\nOn 25 August 2013, former premiership player of the Lions, Justin Leppitsch, was confirmed to be the senior coach of the Lions for the next 3 seasons starting in 2014\n\nOn 18 October 2013, Brisbane Lions legend Simon Black announced his retirement.\n\nDuring round 13, 2014 Lions captain Jonathan Brown was the victim of a facial injury in a clash between the Lions and the Greater Western Sydney Giants. He collided with Tomas Bugg's knee and was taken off the ground. He suffered a concussion, which caused his retirement from football. Along with the retirement of Ashley McGrath in August 2014, no active players remain from any of the club's triple-premiership winning sides.\n\nOn 29 August 2016, Leppitsch was sacked as coach of the Lions.\n\n===Chris Fagan era: 2017–===\nOn 4 October 2016, Chris Fagan was announced as the Lions' coach from the 2017 season onwards.\n\nBrendan Fevola became the 1st Coleman Medallist to win the medal at a club and be traded to another the following year. He originally came from Carlton.\n",
"\n===Membership base and sponsorship===\nCrowds and memberships for the Brisbane Lions grew dramatically during the four seasons in which they made the AFL Grand Final. Since then, with the team being less successful, attendances have declined, but have remained stable over the past three seasons. In 2009 the Lions found it so difficult to sell corporate boxes that they resorted to doing so on a game-by-game basis. 2011 saw the Brisbane Lions suffer their worst ever drop in support, as memberships decreased by 28%. 2017 memberships are the lowest the club has had since 2012.\n\n\n\n Profit (loss) \nKit sponsor!! Major sponsor/s\n\n1997\n19,550\n N/A \n Qualifying Finalist (8th) \n 24,468 \n \nPuma\n Carlton & United Breweries\n\n1998\n''16,674''\n 2,876 \n''Wooden spoon (16th)''\n 19,913\n\n1999\n16,931\n 257 \n Preliminary Finalist (3rd) \n 21,890 \n AAPT\n\n2000\n20,295\n 3,364 \n Semi-finalist (6th) \n 27,406\n\n2001\n18,330\n 1,965 \n'''Premiers''' ('''2nd''') \n 27,637 \n ($845,000)\nRussell Athletic\n\n2002\n22,288\n 3,958 \n'''Premiers''' ('''2nd''') \n 26,894 \n\n2003\n25,578\n 3,290 \n'''Premiers''' ('''3rd''') \n 31,717 \n '''$2,200,000'''\n\n2004\n'''30,941'''\n '''5,363''' \n Grand Finalist (2nd) \n'''33,619'''\n\n\n2005\n30,027\n 914 \n 11th \n 33,266\n\n2006\n26,459\n 3,568 \n 13th \n 28,629\n\n2007\n23,072\n 3,387 \n 10th \n 28,847 \n $1,058,000 \nPuma\n Vodafone\n\n2008\n23,079 \n 7 \n 10th \n 28,127 \n ($2,200,030)\n\n2009\n26,324 \n 3,245\n Semi-finalist (6th) \n 29,172 \n ($603,207)\n\n2010\n29,014\n 2,690 \n 13th \n 29,933 \n ($2,713,848)\n Bank of Queensland, Conergy\n\n2011\n20,792\n'' 8,222'' \n 15th \n 20,461 \n ($1,855,926)\nBLK\n\n2012\n20,762\n 30 \n13th\n20,343 \n ($2,513,262)\n\n2013\n24,130\n 3,368 \n 12th \n 21,083 \n ($1,574,762) \n National Storage, Vero Insurance\n\n2014\n23,930\n 200 \n 15th \n 19,735 \n ''($3,543,138)''\n\n2015\n25,408\n 1,478 \n 17th \n 18,810 \n ($681,053)\n\n2016\n 23,286 \n 2,122 \n 17th \n ''17,074'' \n ($1,780,000) \n Camperdown Dairy International, Vero Insurance\n\n2017\n 21,203* \n \n 18th \n \n \n Majestic Athletic\n\nStatistics highlighted in '''bold''' denote the best season for Brisbane in that category\nStatistics highlighted in ''italic'' denote the worst season for Brisbane in that category\n1 following finals matches\n\n===Non-playing/coaching staff===\n\n\n\n'''Name'''\n'''Position'''\n\n Greg Swann\n Chief Executive Officer\n\n Bob Sharpless\n Chairman\n\n Andrew Wellington\n Deputy Chairman\n\n Cyril Jinks\n Directors\n\n Sarah Kelly\n\n Leigh Matthews\n\n Peter McGregor\n\n Mick Power\n\n Cathie Reid\n\n Ross Thornton\n\n David Noble\n General Manager of Football\n\n Dom Abrogio\n List manager\n\n Craig Lambert\n Strategy and Retention Manager\n\n Melissa Lambert\n Player Welfare Manager\n\n Andrew Crowell\n Head of Welfare and Wellbeing\n\n Matthew Francis\n Football Manager\n\n Damien Austin\n High Performance Manager\n\n Stephen Conole\n Senior Recruiting Manager\n\n Leon Harris\n Recruitment Consultant\n\n Andrew Farrell\n Victoria and South Australia Recruiting Manager\n\n",
"\n===Emblem===\nIn 1997 the club unveiled its new merger emblem it would consist of the iconic golden Fitzroy Lion on a badge (which was the style in the AFL at the time) of Maroon and Blue. The club used this from 1997 to the end of 2001 after their first premiership. In 2002 the club would unveil a new emblem in the shape of a football with the words \"Brisbane Lions\" in the middle with the golden Lion placed inside the O of Lion. The club continued the use of this emblem until the 2010 season when they changed the entire emblem dropping the golden Lion and replaced it with a cartoonish style Lions head. The club also removed the golden Lion from the team guernseys and introduced the new emblem on the body of the original Lion. The change was met with much backlash as many supporters dubbed the new emblem the \"Paddle Pop Lion\" after the popular ice cream of the same name. In 2014 after overwhelming response from the supporters the club dropped the new emblem from their guernseys and reintroduced the classic golden Lion which they wore from 1997 until 2010. Though the club has kept the current emblem for all club related advertising and marketing.\n\n===Guernseys===\n\nThe three types of guernsey are:\n\n*Home guernsey (worn since 2015): Maroon and blue based guernsey with original Fitzroy lion, coloured gold and maroon. Vero Insurance is the sponsor on the front and Camperdown Dairy International is the sponsor on the back (home shorts worn in home games and away shorts worn in away games not played in Victoria). The Lions also wore this jumper from 1997-2009 before switching to a more 'modern' lion.\n*Away guernsey (Worn since 2015): Red and blue based guernsey with original Fitzroy lion, coloured gold and red. Camperdown Dairy International is the sponsor on the front and Vero Insurance is the sponsor on the back (away shorts worn). The Lions also wore this jumper from 2008-2009 before switching to a more 'modern' lion.\n*Clash guernsey (Worn since 2017): Reminiscent of the Bears’ final guernsey, this guernsey features maroon, yellow and white with original Fitzroy lion, coloured maroon and gold. Camperdown Dairy International is the sponsor on the front and Vero Insurance is the sponsor on the back (away shorts worn).\n\n===Mascot===\nBernie \"Gabba\" Vegas\nAs of 2016 the lions new mascot 'Roy' was introduced.\nThe Lion's Mascot Manor representative and club mascot is Bernie \"Gabba\" Vegas, a caricature of a lion dressed in Brisbane Lions jumper, sunglasses, wide lapels, and flares, designed to resemble Elvis Presley.\n\n===Song===\nThe club's team song, \"The Pride of Brisbane Town\", is based on the Fitzroy club song, and is sung to the music of \"La Marseillaise\", the French national anthem:\n\nWe are the pride of Brisbane town,\nwe wear maroon, blue and gold,\nwe will always fight for victory,\nlike Fitzroy and Bears of old,\nall for one, and one for all,\nwe will answer to the call,\ngo Lions, Brisbane Lions,\nwe'll kick the winning score,\nyou'll hear our mighty roar!\n",
"\nThe Brisbane Lions have three main rivals, Collingwood, Port Adelaide and Gold Coast.\n\n===Collingwood===\nThe biggest rival for the Lions is Collingwood, having built up plenty of history in the relatively short existence as a merged club. Pre-merger Fitzroy was a neighbouring suburb to Collingwood, with the boundary being based on Smith Street, along with the fact that Fitzroy and Collingwood topped the VFL/AFL premiership tally during the early decades of the VFL competition. The Brisbane Bears also had a bit of history with the Magpies as Nathan Buckley famously deflected to Collingwood after one season on the Bears list, citing that he wanted to win premierships, ironically retiring at the end of the 2007 season without a premiership as a player in the AFL. The Bears also lost their final regular season match in their final season to the Magpies, costing the Bears the minor premiership that season. However the rivalry between the Lions and the Magpies has been properly ignited post-merger, starting in late 1999 when Collingwood played their last ever VFL/AFL game at their spiritual home ground, Victoria Park with the Lions emerging 42 point victors that day and consigning the Magpies to their second wooden spoon, to the dissatisfaction of the Collingwood supporters. The rivalry between the two clubs went to the next level as the clubs played off in two consecutive Grand Finals in 2002 and 2003, with the Lions emerging victors on both occasions. These grand final results further fueled the bitterness that Collingwood supporters and their president Eddie McGuire still have towards the Brisbane Lions to this day, despite the Lions having a poor decade on the field after their golden era. Due to many Collingwood supporters migrating up to Queensland and many Brisbane Lions supporters residing in Victoria (many of which were ex-Fitzroy supporters), along with the on-field history between the two clubs, many Lions supporters consider a Brisbane Lions v Collingwood match-up to be their derby, despite the clubs being over 1700 km apart and the fact that there are many clubs in the competition that are geographically closer to each other.\n\n===Port Adelaide===\nThe third biggest rival of the Lions is Port Adelaide, with the Brisbane Bears and Fitzroy merging to become the Brisbane Lions in order to allow Port Adelaide to enter the AFL competition. This created some dissatisfaction between old Bears and Fitzroy supporters who have felt that they have lost their clubs. In their first season in the AFL, the Lions narrowly made the finals at the expense of Port Adelaide, with the Power narrowly missing out on percentage. However the rivalry was properly ignited during the early 2000s, as both clubs fielded strong teams during that period. In 2001 the Lions defeated the Power in the Qualifying final en route to their first of three consecutive premierships, with Port bowing out in straight sets that year. In 2002 Port defeated Brisbane by 6 points in the final regular season game to narrowly claim the minor premiership, however Brisbane would eliminate Port in the Preliminary Final that year to claim their second premiership out of their hat-trick of premierships. In 2003 Port would claim their second consecutive minor premiership, however they would go on to lose their qualifying and preliminary finals again, as the Lions would claim their hat-trick of premierships that season. However, in 2004 Port Adelaide would finally break through and win their first AFL premiership, defeating the Brisbane Lions in the Grand Final and preventing them from what would have been a historic four premierships in a row. In adding further insult to injury for Lions fans, it meant that their biggest rivals, Collingwood, would remain the only team in the VFL/AFL to win four-in-a-row. The rivalry between the two clubs has cooled down since the early 2000s, however, there are a few Lions supporters that still consider Port Adelaide to be a bigger rival than Collingwood.\n\n===Gold Coast===\nThe introduction of the Gold Coast Suns into the competition in 2011 saw a rivalry within Queensland Football for the first time ever. The Lions and Suns play each other two times a year. The best player on the ground is awarded the '''Marcus Ashcroft Medal'''. Gold Coast won the first Q Clash by 8 points in Round 7, 2011.\n",
"\n===Club===\n* '''Australian Football League'''\n** '''Premierships (3)''': 2001, 2002, 2003\n** ''Runners-up (1)'': 2004\n** '''Wooden Spoons (2)''': 1998, 2017\n* '''Pre-Season Grand Final Appearances'''\n** '''Premierships (1)''': 2013\n** ''Runners-up (2)'': 2001, 2007\n\n====Reserves====\n* '''North East Australian Football League (3)''': 2001, 2012, 2013\n\n===Individual===\n\n",
"\n'''Premierships'''\n*2001\n*2002\n*2003\n\n'''Runners Up'''\n*2004\n\n'''Wooden Spoons'''\n*1998\n*2017\n\n'''Coaches'''\n* John Northey: 1997–1998\n* Roger Merrett: 1998 (caretaker)\n* Leigh Matthews: 1999–2008\n* John Blakey: 2005 (caretaker)\n* Michael Voss: 2009–2013\n* Mark Harvey: 2013 (caretaker)\n* Justin Leppitsch: 2014–2016\n* Chris Fagan: 2017–present\n\n'''Captains'''\n* Michael Voss (co-captain: 1997–2000; captain: 2000–2006)\n* Alastair Lynch (co-captain: 1997–2000)\n* Chris Johnson (co-captain: 2007)\n* Nigel Lappin (co-captain: 2007–2008)\n* Simon Black (co-captain: 2007–2008)\n* Luke Power (co-captain: 2007–2008)\n* Jonathan Brown (co-captain: 2007–2008, 2013; captain: 2009–2012)\n* Jed Adcock (co-captain: 2013; captain: 2014)\n* Tom Rockliff (captain: 2015–2016)\n* Dayne Beams (captain: 2017–present)\n\n'''Biggest home crowds'''\n\n\n Rank !! Crowd !! Round, Season !! Result !! Opponent !! Brisbane Lions !! Opposition !! Margin !! Venue !! Day/Night/Twilight\n\n1\n 37,224 \n 15, 2005 \n Win \n \n 19.19 (133) \n 7.13 (55) \n +78 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n2\n 37,032 \n PF2, 2001 \n Win \n \n 20.16 (136) \n 10.8 (68) \n +68 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n3\n 36,803 \n 4, 2003 \n Win \n Collingwood \n 14.11 (95) \n 11.15 (81) \n +14 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n4\n 36,780 \n 2, 2010 \n Win \n Carlton \n 16.11 (107) \n 12.16 (88) \n +19 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n5\n 36,467 \n 3, 2004 \n Win \n Collingwood \n 21.11 (137) \n 12.5 (77) \n +60 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n6\n 36,197 \n 1, 2003 \n Win \n \n 14.20 (104) \n 8.13 (61) \n +43 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n7\n 36,149 \n 10, 2001 \n Win \n Essendon \n 15.12 (102) \n 10.14 (74) \n +28 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n8\n 36,077 \n 17, 2005 \n Win \n Essendon \n 17.12 (114) \n 14.17 (101) \n +13 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n9\n 35,898 \n 3, 2002 \n Win \n Essendon \n 17.15 (117) \n 9.13 (67) \n +50 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n10\n 35,823 \n 21, 2004 \n Win \n \n 20.10 (130) \n 13.7 (85) \n +45 \n The Gabba \n Day\n\n",
"\n===Current squad===\n\n",
"\nThe Brisbane Lions have entered a reserves team in the North East Australian Football League (NEAFL) competition since 2011. The club had previously entered a reserves team in the local Queensland Australian Football League in 1998, known as the Lion Cubs but became the Suncoast Lions Football Club in 2004 and were based on the Sunshine Coast. They would win their first premiership in 2001 when they defeated the Southport Sharks in the QAFL Grand Final. A stand-alone Brisbane Lions reserves team was created in 2011 and began playing in the Northern Conference of the North East Australian Football League. In 2012, the Lions won the Northern Conference and overall NEAFL premierships, a feat which was repeated in 2013. The Lions reserves play home games at the South Pine Sports Complex in Brendale, a facility opened in 2016.\n\n===Premierships===\n\n'''Premierships (4)'''\n\nYear\nCompetition\nOpponent\nScore\nVenue\n\n 2001 \n QAFL\n Southport Sharks \n '''13.20 (98) – 13.8 (86)''' \n Giffin Park\n\n 2012 \n NEAFL\n Queanbeyan Tigers \n '''22.12 (144) – 11.9 (75)''' \n Manuka Oval\n\n 2013 \n NEAFL\n Sydney Swans \n '''12.9 (81) – 10.13 (73)''' \n Graham Rd Oval\n\n 2017 \n NEAFL\n Sydney Swans \n '''10.22 (82) – 12.13 (85)''' \n Sydney Cricket Ground\n\n\n===Season summaries===\n\n\n Season !! Competition !! W–L—D !! Ladder position !! Finals result \n\n 2010 \n QAFL \n 6–12–0 \n 8th \n DNQ\n\n 2011\n NEAFL(Northern Conference)\n 4–13–1 \n 10th (Wooden spoon)\n\n 2012\n NEAFL(Northern Conference)\n 14–4–0 \n 2nd \n '''Premiers'''\n\n 2013\n NEAFL(Northern Conference)\n 16–2–0 \n 1st (Minor premiership) \n\n 2014 \n NEAFL \n 6–12–0 \n 9th \n DNQ\n\n 2015 \n NEAFL \n 2–16–0 \n 10th\n\n 2016 \n NEAFL \n 3–15–0 \n 10th (Wooden spoon)\n\n 2017 \n NEAFL \n 15–3–0 \n 2nd \n '''Premiers''' \n\n\n===Coaches===\n\n* 1998: Roger Merrett\n* 1999–2000: Justin Leppitsch\n* 2001–2005: Craig Brittain\n* 2006: John Blakey/Daryn Cresswell\n* 2007: Craig Brittain\n* 2007: Justin Leppitsch (caretaker)\n* 2008: Paul Hudson\n* 2008: Justin Leppitsch (caretaker)\n* 2009: Craig Brittain\n* 2010: Craig McRae\n* 2011–2012: Nathan Clarke\n* 2013–2014: Leigh Harding\n* 2015–2016: Shane Woewodin\n* 2017–: Mitch Hahn\n",
"In May 2016, the club launched a bid to enter a team in the inaugural AFL Women's season in 2017. \nThe Brisbane Lions were granted a license on 15 June 2016, becoming one of eight teams to compete in the league's first season. Former AFL Queensland employee Breeanna Brock was appointed to the position of Women’s CEO the following day.\n\nTayla Harris and Sabrina Frederick-Traub were the club's first signings, unveiled along with the league's other 14 marquee players on 27 July 2016. A further 23 senior players and two rookie players were added to the club's inaugural list in the league's drafting and signing period. Emma Zielke will captain the team for their inaugural season.\n\nFormer Collingwood and Brisbane Bears player and AFL Queensland coach Craig Starcevich was appointed the team's inaugural head coach in June 2016. The rest of the coaching team was announced on 8 November 2016 as David Lake as the midfield coach, Daniel Merrett as the backline coach and Brent Staker as the forward coach.\n\nExisting club sponsor Hyundai, along with Epic Pharmacy, will sponsor the team in 2017.\n\nThe team plays its home games at the South Pine Sports Complex in Brendale.\n\n===Current squad===\n\n\n\n===Best and fairest winners===\n\nSeason\nRecipient\nRef.\n\n 2017\n Emily Bates\n\n\n",
"\n* Wikipedia listing of Brisbane Lions players\n* Merrett–Murray Medal\n* Australian rules football in Queensland\n* Sport in Queensland\n* Sport in Australia\n* Brisbane Broncos\n",
"\n",
"\n* Official website of the Brisbane Lions Football Club\n* The Brisbane Lions – an Overview – Official AFL website of the Brisbane Lions Football Club\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History: Start of a new era",
"Corporate",
"Club symbols",
"Rivalries",
"Honours",
"Club facts",
"Players",
"Reserves team",
"AFL Women's team",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Brisbane Lions | [
"Major sponsor/s\n\n1997\n19,550\n N/A \n Qualifying Finalist (8th) \n 24,468 \n \nPuma\n Carlton & United Breweries\n\n1998\n''16,674''\n 2,876 \n''Wooden spoon (16th)''\n 19,913\n\n1999\n16,931\n 257 \n Preliminary Finalist (3rd) \n 21,890 \n AAPT\n\n2000\n20,295\n 3,364 \n Semi-finalist (6th) \n 27,406\n\n2001\n18,330\n 1,965 \n'''Premiers''' ('''2nd''') \n 27,637 \n ($845,000)\nRussell Athletic\n\n2002\n22,288\n 3,958 \n'''Premiers''' ('''2nd''') \n 26,894 \n\n2003\n25,578\n 3,290 \n'''Premiers''' ('''3rd''') \n 31,717 \n '''$2,200,000'''\n\n2004\n'''30,941'''\n '''5,363''' \n Grand Finalist (2nd) \n'''33,619'''\n\n\n2005\n30,027\n 914 \n 11th \n 33,266\n\n2006\n26,459\n 3,568 \n 13th \n 28,629\n\n2007\n23,072\n 3,387 \n 10th \n 28,847 \n $1,058,000 \nPuma\n Vodafone\n\n2008\n23,079 \n 7 \n 10th \n 28,127 \n ($2,200,030)\n\n2009\n26,324 \n 3,245\n Semi-finalist (6th) \n 29,172 \n ($603,207)\n\n2010\n29,014\n 2,690 \n 13th \n 29,933 \n ($2,713,848)\n Bank of Queensland, Conergy\n\n2011\n20,792\n'' 8,222'' \n 15th \n 20,461 \n ($1,855,926)\nBLK\n\n2012\n20,762\n 30 \n13th\n20,343 \n ($2,513,262)\n\n2013\n24,130\n 3,368 \n 12th \n 21,083 \n ($1,574,762) \n National Storage, Vero Insurance\n\n2014\n23,930\n 200 \n 15th \n 19,735 \n ''($3,543,138)''\n\n2015\n25,408\n 1,478 \n 17th \n 18,810 \n ($681,053)\n\n2016\n 23,286 \n 2,122 \n 17th \n ''17,074'' \n ($1,780,000) \n Camperdown Dairy International, Vero Insurance\n\n2017\n 21,203* \n \n 18th \n \n \n Majestic Athletic\n\nStatistics highlighted in '''bold''' denote the best season for Brisbane in that category\nStatistics highlighted in ''italic'' denote the worst season for Brisbane in that category\n1 following finals matches\n\n===Non-playing/coaching staff===\n\n\n\n'''Name'''\n'''Position'''\n\n Greg Swann\n Chief Executive Officer\n\n Bob Sharpless\n Chairman\n\n Andrew Wellington\n Deputy Chairman\n\n Cyril Jinks\n Directors\n\n Sarah Kelly\n\n Leigh Matthews\n\n Peter McGregor\n\n Mick Power\n\n Cathie Reid\n\n Ross Thornton\n\n David Noble\n General Manager of Football\n\n Dom Abrogio\n List manager\n\n Craig Lambert\n Strategy and Retention Manager\n\n Melissa Lambert\n Player Welfare Manager\n\n Andrew Crowell\n Head of Welfare and Wellbeing\n\n Matthew Francis\n Football Manager\n\n Damien Austin\n High Performance Manager\n\n Stephen Conole\n Senior Recruiting Manager\n\n Leon Harris\n Recruitment Consultant\n\n Andrew Farrell\n Victoria and South Australia Recruiting Manager"
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Brisbane Lions''' is a professional Australian rules football club which plays in the Australian Football League (AFL).",
"The club is based in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.",
"The club was formed in 1996 from the merger of the Fitzroy Lions and the Brisbane Bears.",
"The Lions are one of the most successful AFL clubs of the 21st century, having appeared in four consecutive AFL Grand Finals from 2001 to 2004 and winning three premierships (2001, 2002, 2003).",
"The club is based at the Gabba.",
"The team is captained by Dayne Beams and coached by Chris Fagan.",
"\nThe Brisbane Lions were officially launched on 1 November 1996, joining the national competition in 1997.",
"===Beginnings: 1997–2000===\nBrisbane Lions logo from 2001 to 2009\nIn their first year as a combined club the Lions made the finals, finishing in eighth position after being defeated by the St Kilda Football Club in a qualifying final.",
"The following year, however, they finished in last position, despite boasting a talented playing list.",
"===Triple premiership success: 2001–2003===\nAs the Brisbane Lions, the club won its first AFL premiership in the 2001 AFL Grand Final, defeating Essendon 15.18 (108) to 12.10 (82).",
"Lions utility player Shaun Hart won the Norm Smith Medal as best on ground in the Grand Final.",
"In 2002, the Lions won back-to-back premierships when they again defeated Collingwood 9.12 (66) to 10.15 (75) in the 2002 AFL Grand Final in cold and wet conditions at the Melbourne Cricket Ground.",
"Early in the contest the Lions lost both ruckman Beau McDonald and utility player Martin Pike (who had already had nine possessions in the first quarter) to injury and had to complete the match with a limited bench.",
"With a number of players under an injury cloud – and having lost to Collingwood in a qualifying final at the Melbourne Cricket Ground three weeks previously – the Lions went into the game as underdogs.",
"However, they sealed their place in history as an AFL dynasty by thrashing the Magpies in cool but sunny conditions.",
"At one stage in the final quarter the Lions led by almost 80 points before relaxing when the match was well and truly won, allowing Collingwood to score the last four goals.",
"The final score of 20.14 (134) to 12.12 (84) saw the club become only the fourth in VFL/AFL history to win three consecutive premierships and the first since the creation of the AFL.",
"Simon Black claimed the Norm Smith Medal with a dominant 39 possession match, the most possessions ever gathered by a player in a grand final.",
"The 2004 season saw Brisbane remain in the top portion of the ladder for most of the season.",
"Reaching the finals in second position, Brisbane controversially had to travel to Melbourne to play against Geelong in the preliminary final, due to a contract between the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) and the Australian Football League (AFL) that required one preliminary final to be played each year at the MCG.",
"Port Adelaide had finished on top of the ladder and hosted the other preliminary final in Adelaide.",
"Despite this setback, Brisbane beat Geelong and reached the AFL Grand Final for the fourth consecutive year.",
"Their opponents, Port Adelaide, playing in their first ever grand final, were too good on the day and recorded a 40-point win.",
"===Rebuild of the Lions' second generation: 2005–2008===\nThe Lions in the training camp, May 2007.",
"The Lions began the 2006 season optimistically, but injuries again plagued the club, whose players recorded an AFL record total of 200 matches lost to injury for the season.",
"The Brisbane Lions finished runner up in the 2007 NAB Cup and then went on to create history by being the first team in the history of the AFL to have five co-captains.",
"That year, the Lions failed to make the finals for a third successive year in 2007.",
"The Lions began the 2008 NAB Cup shakily, losing to Essendon by 27 points.",
"The team struggled for the season and missed out on the finals with a 10–12 record, losing 3 games despite having at least 5 more scoring shots in each of those games.",
"Coach Leigh Matthews resigned at the end of the season after 10 seasons and 3 premierships with the club.",
"===Michael Voss: 2009–2013===\n\n\nThe Lions made a good start in the 2009 NAB Cup under new senior coach Michael Voss by registering a 9-point win over St Kilda.",
"However this was followed by a series of losses in the pre-season to Essendon, Melbourne and Richmond.",
"Their season ended with a 51-point loss to the Western Bulldogs.",
"The 2009/2010 off-season was dominated by the arrival of Brendan Fevola from Carlton, and the hype was focused on Fevola and Jonathan Brown in the sense that the Lions could capitalise on their strong 2009 season.",
"Indeed, the Lions won their first four matches of the 2010 season to be top of the ladder after four rounds, but they would only win three more games after that to crash to a lowly finish by season's end.",
"One of those wins however, was against eventual premiers .",
"The Lions' 2010/2011 off-season was disrupted by the sacking of Fevola after just one season at the Lions, following repeated off-field indiscretions which included getting drunk in the Brisbane streets during New Year's Eve celebrations.",
"On the field, the Lions won only four games for the year, but only one against any Victorian team, and that was , in Round 9.",
"Despite their worst season since 1998, coach Michael Voss was granted a contract extension after the board recommended that Voss was the best man to take the club forward into the future.",
"Leading into season 2012, only two players from the triple-premiership winning team of 2001–2003 remained: Simon Black and Jonathan Brown.",
"The 2013 season started well for Brisbane, defeating Carlton in the final of the NAB Cup, with Daniel Rich winning the Michael Tuck Medal for best on ground and Aaron Cornelius showing some good form.",
"However, things began to decline from then, with losses to the Western Bulldogs and Adelaide.",
"However, in the 5th QClash match against Gold Coast, the Lions won by two points, with Jonathan Brown winning the Marcus Ashcroft Medal.",
"Injuries were beginning to take a toll, with young players Claye Beams and Jared Polec suffering severe injuries.",
"In Round 13, Brisbane defeated second-placed Geelong, coming from 52 points down late in the third quarter to win by 5 points due to an Ash McGrath goal after the siren in his 200th match.",
"On 13 August 2013, coach Michael Voss was told that his contract would not be renewed.",
"=== Playing under Justin Leppitsch: 2014–2016 ===\nOn 25 August 2013, former premiership player of the Lions, Justin Leppitsch, was confirmed to be the senior coach of the Lions for the next 3 seasons starting in 2014\n\nOn 18 October 2013, Brisbane Lions legend Simon Black announced his retirement.",
"During round 13, 2014 Lions captain Jonathan Brown was the victim of a facial injury in a clash between the Lions and the Greater Western Sydney Giants.",
"He collided with Tomas Bugg's knee and was taken off the ground.",
"He suffered a concussion, which caused his retirement from football.",
"Along with the retirement of Ashley McGrath in August 2014, no active players remain from any of the club's triple-premiership winning sides.",
"On 29 August 2016, Leppitsch was sacked as coach of the Lions.",
"===Chris Fagan era: 2017–===\nOn 4 October 2016, Chris Fagan was announced as the Lions' coach from the 2017 season onwards.",
"Brendan Fevola became the 1st Coleman Medallist to win the medal at a club and be traded to another the following year.",
"He originally came from Carlton.",
"\n===Membership base and sponsorship===\nCrowds and memberships for the Brisbane Lions grew dramatically during the four seasons in which they made the AFL Grand Final.",
"Since then, with the team being less successful, attendances have declined, but have remained stable over the past three seasons.",
"In 2009 the Lions found it so difficult to sell corporate boxes that they resorted to doing so on a game-by-game basis.",
"2011 saw the Brisbane Lions suffer their worst ever drop in support, as memberships decreased by 28%.",
"2017 memberships are the lowest the club has had since 2012.",
"Profit (loss) \nKit sponsor!!",
"\n===Emblem===\nIn 1997 the club unveiled its new merger emblem it would consist of the iconic golden Fitzroy Lion on a badge (which was the style in the AFL at the time) of Maroon and Blue.",
"The club used this from 1997 to the end of 2001 after their first premiership.",
"In 2002 the club would unveil a new emblem in the shape of a football with the words \"Brisbane Lions\" in the middle with the golden Lion placed inside the O of Lion.",
"The club continued the use of this emblem until the 2010 season when they changed the entire emblem dropping the golden Lion and replaced it with a cartoonish style Lions head.",
"The club also removed the golden Lion from the team guernseys and introduced the new emblem on the body of the original Lion.",
"The change was met with much backlash as many supporters dubbed the new emblem the \"Paddle Pop Lion\" after the popular ice cream of the same name.",
"In 2014 after overwhelming response from the supporters the club dropped the new emblem from their guernseys and reintroduced the classic golden Lion which they wore from 1997 until 2010.",
"Though the club has kept the current emblem for all club related advertising and marketing.",
"===Guernseys===\n\nThe three types of guernsey are:\n\n*Home guernsey (worn since 2015): Maroon and blue based guernsey with original Fitzroy lion, coloured gold and maroon.",
"Vero Insurance is the sponsor on the front and Camperdown Dairy International is the sponsor on the back (home shorts worn in home games and away shorts worn in away games not played in Victoria).",
"The Lions also wore this jumper from 1997-2009 before switching to a more 'modern' lion.",
"*Away guernsey (Worn since 2015): Red and blue based guernsey with original Fitzroy lion, coloured gold and red.",
"Camperdown Dairy International is the sponsor on the front and Vero Insurance is the sponsor on the back (away shorts worn).",
"The Lions also wore this jumper from 2008-2009 before switching to a more 'modern' lion.",
"*Clash guernsey (Worn since 2017): Reminiscent of the Bears’ final guernsey, this guernsey features maroon, yellow and white with original Fitzroy lion, coloured maroon and gold.",
"Camperdown Dairy International is the sponsor on the front and Vero Insurance is the sponsor on the back (away shorts worn).",
"===Mascot===\nBernie \"Gabba\" Vegas\nAs of 2016 the lions new mascot 'Roy' was introduced.",
"The Lion's Mascot Manor representative and club mascot is Bernie \"Gabba\" Vegas, a caricature of a lion dressed in Brisbane Lions jumper, sunglasses, wide lapels, and flares, designed to resemble Elvis Presley.",
"===Song===\nThe club's team song, \"The Pride of Brisbane Town\", is based on the Fitzroy club song, and is sung to the music of \"La Marseillaise\", the French national anthem:\n\nWe are the pride of Brisbane town,\nwe wear maroon, blue and gold,\nwe will always fight for victory,\nlike Fitzroy and Bears of old,\nall for one, and one for all,\nwe will answer to the call,\ngo Lions, Brisbane Lions,\nwe'll kick the winning score,\nyou'll hear our mighty roar!",
"\nThe Brisbane Lions have three main rivals, Collingwood, Port Adelaide and Gold Coast.",
"===Collingwood===\nThe biggest rival for the Lions is Collingwood, having built up plenty of history in the relatively short existence as a merged club.",
"Pre-merger Fitzroy was a neighbouring suburb to Collingwood, with the boundary being based on Smith Street, along with the fact that Fitzroy and Collingwood topped the VFL/AFL premiership tally during the early decades of the VFL competition.",
"The Brisbane Bears also had a bit of history with the Magpies as Nathan Buckley famously deflected to Collingwood after one season on the Bears list, citing that he wanted to win premierships, ironically retiring at the end of the 2007 season without a premiership as a player in the AFL.",
"The Bears also lost their final regular season match in their final season to the Magpies, costing the Bears the minor premiership that season.",
"However the rivalry between the Lions and the Magpies has been properly ignited post-merger, starting in late 1999 when Collingwood played their last ever VFL/AFL game at their spiritual home ground, Victoria Park with the Lions emerging 42 point victors that day and consigning the Magpies to their second wooden spoon, to the dissatisfaction of the Collingwood supporters.",
"The rivalry between the two clubs went to the next level as the clubs played off in two consecutive Grand Finals in 2002 and 2003, with the Lions emerging victors on both occasions.",
"These grand final results further fueled the bitterness that Collingwood supporters and their president Eddie McGuire still have towards the Brisbane Lions to this day, despite the Lions having a poor decade on the field after their golden era.",
"Due to many Collingwood supporters migrating up to Queensland and many Brisbane Lions supporters residing in Victoria (many of which were ex-Fitzroy supporters), along with the on-field history between the two clubs, many Lions supporters consider a Brisbane Lions v Collingwood match-up to be their derby, despite the clubs being over 1700 km apart and the fact that there are many clubs in the competition that are geographically closer to each other.",
"===Port Adelaide===\nThe third biggest rival of the Lions is Port Adelaide, with the Brisbane Bears and Fitzroy merging to become the Brisbane Lions in order to allow Port Adelaide to enter the AFL competition.",
"This created some dissatisfaction between old Bears and Fitzroy supporters who have felt that they have lost their clubs.",
"In their first season in the AFL, the Lions narrowly made the finals at the expense of Port Adelaide, with the Power narrowly missing out on percentage.",
"However the rivalry was properly ignited during the early 2000s, as both clubs fielded strong teams during that period.",
"In 2001 the Lions defeated the Power in the Qualifying final en route to their first of three consecutive premierships, with Port bowing out in straight sets that year.",
"In 2002 Port defeated Brisbane by 6 points in the final regular season game to narrowly claim the minor premiership, however Brisbane would eliminate Port in the Preliminary Final that year to claim their second premiership out of their hat-trick of premierships.",
"In 2003 Port would claim their second consecutive minor premiership, however they would go on to lose their qualifying and preliminary finals again, as the Lions would claim their hat-trick of premierships that season.",
"However, in 2004 Port Adelaide would finally break through and win their first AFL premiership, defeating the Brisbane Lions in the Grand Final and preventing them from what would have been a historic four premierships in a row.",
"In adding further insult to injury for Lions fans, it meant that their biggest rivals, Collingwood, would remain the only team in the VFL/AFL to win four-in-a-row.",
"The rivalry between the two clubs has cooled down since the early 2000s, however, there are a few Lions supporters that still consider Port Adelaide to be a bigger rival than Collingwood.",
"===Gold Coast===\nThe introduction of the Gold Coast Suns into the competition in 2011 saw a rivalry within Queensland Football for the first time ever.",
"The Lions and Suns play each other two times a year.",
"The best player on the ground is awarded the '''Marcus Ashcroft Medal'''.",
"Gold Coast won the first Q Clash by 8 points in Round 7, 2011.",
"\n===Club===\n* '''Australian Football League'''\n** '''Premierships (3)''': 2001, 2002, 2003\n** ''Runners-up (1)'': 2004\n** '''Wooden Spoons (2)''': 1998, 2017\n* '''Pre-Season Grand Final Appearances'''\n** '''Premierships (1)''': 2013\n** ''Runners-up (2)'': 2001, 2007\n\n====Reserves====\n* '''North East Australian Football League (3)''': 2001, 2012, 2013\n\n===Individual===",
"\n'''Premierships'''\n*2001\n*2002\n*2003\n\n'''Runners Up'''\n*2004\n\n'''Wooden Spoons'''\n*1998\n*2017\n\n'''Coaches'''\n* John Northey: 1997–1998\n* Roger Merrett: 1998 (caretaker)\n* Leigh Matthews: 1999–2008\n* John Blakey: 2005 (caretaker)\n* Michael Voss: 2009–2013\n* Mark Harvey: 2013 (caretaker)\n* Justin Leppitsch: 2014–2016\n* Chris Fagan: 2017–present\n\n'''Captains'''\n* Michael Voss (co-captain: 1997–2000; captain: 2000–2006)\n* Alastair Lynch (co-captain: 1997–2000)\n* Chris Johnson (co-captain: 2007)\n* Nigel Lappin (co-captain: 2007–2008)\n* Simon Black (co-captain: 2007–2008)\n* Luke Power (co-captain: 2007–2008)\n* Jonathan Brown (co-captain: 2007–2008, 2013; captain: 2009–2012)\n* Jed Adcock (co-captain: 2013; captain: 2014)\n* Tom Rockliff (captain: 2015–2016)\n* Dayne Beams (captain: 2017–present)\n\n'''Biggest home crowds'''\n\n\n Rank !",
"!",
"Crowd !",
"!",
"Round, Season !",
"!",
"Result !",
"!",
"Opponent !",
"!",
"Brisbane Lions !",
"!",
"Opposition !",
"!",
"Margin !",
"!",
"Venue !",
"!",
"Day/Night/Twilight\n\n1\n 37,224 \n 15, 2005 \n Win \n \n 19.19 (133) \n 7.13 (55) \n +78 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n2\n 37,032 \n PF2, 2001 \n Win \n \n 20.16 (136) \n 10.8 (68) \n +68 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n3\n 36,803 \n 4, 2003 \n Win \n Collingwood \n 14.11 (95) \n 11.15 (81) \n +14 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n4\n 36,780 \n 2, 2010 \n Win \n Carlton \n 16.11 (107) \n 12.16 (88) \n +19 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n5\n 36,467 \n 3, 2004 \n Win \n Collingwood \n 21.11 (137) \n 12.5 (77) \n +60 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n6\n 36,197 \n 1, 2003 \n Win \n \n 14.20 (104) \n 8.13 (61) \n +43 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n7\n 36,149 \n 10, 2001 \n Win \n Essendon \n 15.12 (102) \n 10.14 (74) \n +28 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n8\n 36,077 \n 17, 2005 \n Win \n Essendon \n 17.12 (114) \n 14.17 (101) \n +13 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n9\n 35,898 \n 3, 2002 \n Win \n Essendon \n 17.15 (117) \n 9.13 (67) \n +50 \n The Gabba \n Night\n\n10\n 35,823 \n 21, 2004 \n Win \n \n 20.10 (130) \n 13.7 (85) \n +45 \n The Gabba \n Day",
"\n===Current squad===",
"\nThe Brisbane Lions have entered a reserves team in the North East Australian Football League (NEAFL) competition since 2011.",
"The club had previously entered a reserves team in the local Queensland Australian Football League in 1998, known as the Lion Cubs but became the Suncoast Lions Football Club in 2004 and were based on the Sunshine Coast.",
"They would win their first premiership in 2001 when they defeated the Southport Sharks in the QAFL Grand Final.",
"A stand-alone Brisbane Lions reserves team was created in 2011 and began playing in the Northern Conference of the North East Australian Football League.",
"In 2012, the Lions won the Northern Conference and overall NEAFL premierships, a feat which was repeated in 2013.",
"The Lions reserves play home games at the South Pine Sports Complex in Brendale, a facility opened in 2016.",
"===Premierships===\n\n'''Premierships (4)'''\n\nYear\nCompetition\nOpponent\nScore\nVenue\n\n 2001 \n QAFL\n Southport Sharks \n '''13.20 (98) – 13.8 (86)''' \n Giffin Park\n\n 2012 \n NEAFL\n Queanbeyan Tigers \n '''22.12 (144) – 11.9 (75)''' \n Manuka Oval\n\n 2013 \n NEAFL\n Sydney Swans \n '''12.9 (81) – 10.13 (73)''' \n Graham Rd Oval\n\n 2017 \n NEAFL\n Sydney Swans \n '''10.22 (82) – 12.13 (85)''' \n Sydney Cricket Ground\n\n\n===Season summaries===\n\n\n Season !",
"!",
"Competition !",
"!",
"W–L—D !",
"!",
"Ladder position !",
"!",
"Finals result \n\n 2010 \n QAFL \n 6–12–0 \n 8th \n DNQ\n\n 2011\n NEAFL(Northern Conference)\n 4–13–1 \n 10th (Wooden spoon)\n\n 2012\n NEAFL(Northern Conference)\n 14–4–0 \n 2nd \n '''Premiers'''\n\n 2013\n NEAFL(Northern Conference)\n 16–2–0 \n 1st (Minor premiership) \n\n 2014 \n NEAFL \n 6–12–0 \n 9th \n DNQ\n\n 2015 \n NEAFL \n 2–16–0 \n 10th\n\n 2016 \n NEAFL \n 3–15–0 \n 10th (Wooden spoon)\n\n 2017 \n NEAFL \n 15–3–0 \n 2nd \n '''Premiers''' \n\n\n===Coaches===\n\n* 1998: Roger Merrett\n* 1999–2000: Justin Leppitsch\n* 2001–2005: Craig Brittain\n* 2006: John Blakey/Daryn Cresswell\n* 2007: Craig Brittain\n* 2007: Justin Leppitsch (caretaker)\n* 2008: Paul Hudson\n* 2008: Justin Leppitsch (caretaker)\n* 2009: Craig Brittain\n* 2010: Craig McRae\n* 2011–2012: Nathan Clarke\n* 2013–2014: Leigh Harding\n* 2015–2016: Shane Woewodin\n* 2017–: Mitch Hahn",
"In May 2016, the club launched a bid to enter a team in the inaugural AFL Women's season in 2017.",
"The Brisbane Lions were granted a license on 15 June 2016, becoming one of eight teams to compete in the league's first season.",
"Former AFL Queensland employee Breeanna Brock was appointed to the position of Women’s CEO the following day.",
"Tayla Harris and Sabrina Frederick-Traub were the club's first signings, unveiled along with the league's other 14 marquee players on 27 July 2016.",
"A further 23 senior players and two rookie players were added to the club's inaugural list in the league's drafting and signing period.",
"Emma Zielke will captain the team for their inaugural season.",
"Former Collingwood and Brisbane Bears player and AFL Queensland coach Craig Starcevich was appointed the team's inaugural head coach in June 2016.",
"The rest of the coaching team was announced on 8 November 2016 as David Lake as the midfield coach, Daniel Merrett as the backline coach and Brent Staker as the forward coach.",
"Existing club sponsor Hyundai, along with Epic Pharmacy, will sponsor the team in 2017.",
"The team plays its home games at the South Pine Sports Complex in Brendale.",
"===Current squad===\n\n\n\n===Best and fairest winners===\n\nSeason\nRecipient\nRef.",
"2017\n Emily Bates",
"\n* Wikipedia listing of Brisbane Lions players\n* Merrett–Murray Medal\n* Australian rules football in Queensland\n* Sport in Queensland\n* Sport in Australia\n* Brisbane Broncos",
"\n* Official website of the Brisbane Lions Football Club\n* The Brisbane Lions – an Overview – Official AFL website of the Brisbane Lions Football Club"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Bloody Sunday''' – sometimes called the '''Bogside Massacre''' – was an incident on 30 January 1972 in the Bogside area of Derry, Northern Ireland, when British soldiers shot 28 unarmed civilians during a peaceful protest march against internment. Fourteen people died: thirteen were killed outright, while the death of another man four months later was attributed to his injuries. Many of the victims were shot while fleeing from the soldiers and some were shot while trying to help the wounded. Other protesters were injured by rubber bullets or batons, and two were run down by army vehicles. The march had been organised by the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA). The soldiers involved were members of the 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment, also known as \"1 Para\".\n\nTwo investigations have been held by the British government. The Widgery Tribunal, held in the immediate aftermath of the incident, largely cleared the soldiers and British authorities of blame. It described the soldiers' shooting as \"bordering on the reckless\", but accepted their claims that they shot at gunmen and bomb-throwers. The report was widely criticised as a \"whitewash\". The Saville Inquiry, chaired by Lord Saville of Newdigate, was established in 1998 to reinvestigate the incident. Following a 12-year inquiry, Saville's report was made public in 2010 and concluded that the killings were both \"unjustified\" and \"unjustifiable\". It found that all of those shot were unarmed, that none were posing a serious threat, that no bombs were thrown, and that soldiers \"knowingly put forward false accounts\" to justify their firing. On the publication of the report, British prime minister David Cameron made a formal apology on behalf of the United Kingdom. Following this, police began a murder investigation into the killings.\n\nBloody Sunday was one of the most significant events of \"the Troubles\" because a large number of civilian citizens were killed, by forces of the state, in full view of the public and the press. It was the highest number of people killed in a single shooting incident during the conflict. Bloody Sunday increased Catholic and Irish nationalist hostility towards the British Army and exacerbated the conflict. Support for the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) rose and there was a surge of recruitment into the organisation, especially locally.\n",
"\nThe City of Londonderry was perceived by many Catholics and Irish nationalists in Northern Ireland to be the epitome of what was described as \"fifty years of Unionist misrule\": despite having a nationalist majority, gerrymandering ensured elections to the City Corporation always returned a unionist majority. At the same time the city was perceived to be deprived of public investment – rail routes to the city were closed, motorways were not extended to it, a university was opened in the relatively small (Protestant-majority) town of Coleraine rather than Derry and, above all, the city's housing stock was in an appalling state. The city therefore became a significant focus of the civil rights campaign led by organisations such as Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) in the late 1960s and it was in Derry that the so-called Battle of the Bogside – the event that more than any other pushed the Northern Ireland administration to ask for military support for civil policing – took place in August 1969.\n\nWhile many Catholics initially welcomed the British Army as a neutral force, in contrast to what was regarded as a sectarian police force, relations between them soon deteriorated.\n\nIn response to escalating levels of violence across Northern Ireland, internment without trial was introduced on 9 August 1971. There was disorder across Northern Ireland following the introduction of internment, with 21 people being killed in three days of rioting. In Belfast, soldiers of the Parachute Regiment shot dead 11 Catholic civilians in what became known as the Ballymurphy Massacre. On 10 August, Bombardier Paul Challenor became the first soldier to be killed by the Provisional IRA in Derry, when he was shot by a sniper on the Creggan estate. A further six soldiers had been killed in Derry by mid-December 1971. At least 1,332 rounds were fired at the British Army, who also faced 211 explosions and 180 nail bombs, and who fired 364 rounds in return.\n\nIRA activity also increased across Northern Ireland with thirty British soldiers being killed in the remaining months of 1971, in contrast to the ten soldiers killed during the pre-internment period of the year. Both the Official IRA and Provisional IRA had established no-go areas for the British Army and Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) in Derry through the use of barricades. By the end of 1971, 29 barricades were in place to prevent access to what was known as Free Derry, 16 of them impassable even to the British Army's one-ton armoured vehicles. IRA members openly mounted roadblocks in front of the media, and daily clashes took place between nationalist youths and the British Army at a spot known as \"aggro corner\". Due to rioting and damage to shops caused by incendiary devices, an estimated total of worth of damage had been done to local businesses.\n\nOn 18 January 1972 Brian Faulkner, Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, banned all parades and marches in Northern Ireland until the end of the year.\n\nOn 22 January 1972, a week before Bloody Sunday, an anti-internment march was held at Magilligan strand, near Derry. The protesters marched to a new internment camp there, but were stopped by soldiers of the Parachute Regiment. When some protesters threw stones and tried to go around the barbed wire, paratroopers drove them back by firing rubber bullets at close range and making baton charges. The paratroopers badly beat a number of protesters and had to be physically restrained by their own officers. These allegations of brutality by paratroopers were reported widely on television and in the press. Some in the Army also thought there had been undue violence by the paratroopers.\n\nNICRA intended, despite the ban, to hold another anti-internment march in Derry on Sunday 30 January. The authorities decided to allow it to proceed in the Catholic areas of the city, but to stop it from reaching Guildhall Square, as planned by the organisers. The authorities expected that this would lead to rioting. Major General Robert Ford, then Commander of Land Forces in Northern Ireland, ordered that the 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment (1 Para), should travel to Derry to be used to arrest possible rioters. The arrest operation was codenamed 'Operation Forecast'. The Saville Report criticised General Ford for choosing the Parachute Regiment for the operation, as it had \"a reputation for using excessive physical violence\". The paratroopers arrived in Derry on the morning of the march and took up positions in the city. Brigadier Pat MacLellan was the operational commander and issued orders from Ebrington Barracks. He gave orders to Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford, commander of 1 Para. He in turn gave orders to Major Ted Loden, who commanded the company who launched the arrest operation.\n",
"\nThe Bogside in 1981, overlooking the area where many of the victims were shot. On the right of the picture is the south side of Rossville Flats, and in the middle distance is Glenfada Park.\n\nThe protesters planned on marching from Bishop's Field, in the Creggan housing estate, to the Guildhall, in the city centre, where they would hold a rally. The march set off at about 2:45pm. There were 10–15,000 people on the march, with many joining along its route. Lord Widgery, in his now discredited tribunal, said that there were only 3,000 to 5,000.\n\nThe march made its way along William Street but, as it neared the city centre, its path was blocked by British Army barriers. The organisers redirected the march down Rossville Street, intending to hold the rally at Free Derry Corner instead. However, some broke off from the march and began throwing stones at soldiers manning the barriers. The soldiers fired rubber bullets, CS gas and water cannon to try to disperse the rioters. Such clashes between soldiers and youths were common, and observers reported that the rioting was not intense.\n\nSome of the crowd spotted paratroopers hiding in a derelict three-storey building overlooking William Street, and began throwing stones at the windows. At about 3:55pm, these paratroopers opened fire. Civilians Damien Donaghy and John Johnston were shot and wounded while standing on waste ground opposite the building. These were the first shots fired. The soldiers claimed Donaghy was holding a black cylindrical object, but the Saville Inquiry concluded that all of those shot were unarmed.\n\nAt 4:07pm, the paratroopers were ordered to go through the barriers and arrest rioters. The paratroopers, on foot and in armoured vehicles, chased people down Rossville Street and into the Bogside. Two people were knocked down by the vehicles. Brigadier MacLellan had ordered that only one company of paratroopers be sent through the barriers, on foot, and that they should not chase people down Rossville Street. Colonel Wilford disobeyed this order, which meant there was no separation between rioters and peaceful marchers.\n\nThe paratroopers disembarked and began seizing people. There were many claims of paratroopers beating people, clubbing them with rifle butts, firing rubber bullets at them from close range, making threats to kill, and hurling abuse. The Saville Report agreed that soldiers \"used excessive force when arresting people … as well as seriously assaulting them for no good reason while in their custody\".\n\nOne group of paratroopers took up position at a low wall about in front of a rubble barricade that stretched across Rossville Street. There were people at the barricade and some were throwing stones at the soldiers, but none were near enough to hit them. The soldiers fired on the people at the barricade, killing six and wounding a seventh.\n\nA large group of people fled or were chased into the car park of Rossville Flats. This area was like a courtyard, surrounded on three sides by high-rise flats. The soldiers opened fire, killing one civilian and wounding six others. This fatality, Jackie Duddy, was running alongside a priest, Father Edward Daly, when he was shot in the back.\n\nAnother group of people fled into the car park of Glenfada Park, which was also a courtyard-like area surrounded by flats. Here, the soldiers shot at people across the car park, about 40–50 yards away. Two civilians were killed and at least four others wounded. The Saville Report says it is \"probable\" that at least one soldier fired from the hip towards the crowd, without aiming.\n\nThe soldiers went through the car park and out the other side. Some soldiers went out the southwest corner, where they shot dead two civilians. The other soldiers went out the southeast corner and shot four more civilians, killing two.\n\nAbout ten minutes had elapsed between the time soldiers drove into the Bogside and the time the last of the civilians was shot. More than 100 rounds were fired by the soldiers.\n\nSome of those shot were given first aid by civilian volunteers, either on the scene or after being carried into nearby homes. They were then driven to hospital, either in civilian cars or in ambulances. The first ambulances arrived at 4:28pm. The three boys killed at the rubble barricade were driven to hospital by the paratroopers. Witnesses said paratroopers lifted the bodies by the hands and feet and dumped them in the back of their APC, as if they were \"pieces of meat\". The Saville Report agreed that this is an \"accurate description of what happened\". It says the paratroopers \"might well have felt themselves at risk, but in our view this does not excuse them\".\n\n===Casualties===\nMural by the Bogside Artists depicting all who were killed by the British Army on the day\nBelt worn by Patrick Doherty. The notch was made by the bullet that killed him.\nIn all, 26 people were shot by the paratroopers; 13 died on the day and another died four months later. Most of them were killed in four main areas: the rubble barricade across Rossville Street, the courtyard car park of Rossville Flats (on the north side of the flats), the courtyard car park of Glenfada Park, and the forecourt of Rossville Flats (on the south side of the flats).\n\nAll of the soldiers responsible insisted that they had shot at, and hit, gunmen or bomb-throwers. The Saville Report concluded that all of those shot were unarmed and that none were posing a serious threat. It also concluded that none of the soldiers fired in response to attacks, or threatened attacks, by gunmen or bomb-throwers.\n\nThe casualties are listed in the order in which they were killed.\n\n* '''John 'Jackie' Duddy''', age 17. Shot as he ran away from soldiers in the car park of Rossville Flats. The bullet struck him in the shoulder and entered his chest. Three witnesses said they saw a soldier take deliberate aim at the youth as he ran. He was the first fatality on Bloody Sunday. Like Saville, Widgery also concluded that Duddy was unarmed. His nephew is boxer John Duddy.\n* '''Michael Kelly''', age 17. Shot in the stomach while standing at the rubble barricade on Rossville Street. Both Saville and Widgery concluded that Kelly was unarmed.\n* '''Hugh Gilmour''', age 17. Shot as he ran away from soldiers near the rubble barricade. The bullet went through his left elbow and entered his chest. Widgery acknowledged that a photograph taken seconds after Gilmour was hit corroborated witness reports that he was unarmed, and that tests for gunshot residue were negative.\n* '''William Nash''', age 19. Shot in the chest at the rubble barricade. Witnesses stated Nash was unarmed. Three people were shot while apparently going to his aid, including his father Alexander Nash.\n* '''John Young''', age 17. Shot in the face at the rubble barricade, apparently while crouching and going to the aid of William Nash. Two witnesses stated Young was unarmed.\n* '''Michael McDaid''', age 20. Shot in the face at the rubble barricade, apparently while crouching and going to the aid of William Nash.\n* '''Kevin McElhinney''', age 17. Shot from behind, near the rubble barricade, while attempting to crawl to safety. Two witnesses stated McElhinney was unarmed.\n* '''James 'Jim' Wray''', age 22. Shot in the back while running away from soldiers in Glenfada Park courtyard. He was then shot again in the back as he lay mortally wounded on the ground. Witnesses, who were not called to the Widgery Tribunal, stated that Wray was calling out that he could not move his legs before he was shot the second time.\n* '''William McKinney''', age 27. Shot in the back as he attempted to flee through Glenfada Park courtyard.\n* '''Gerard McKinney''', age 35. Shot in the chest at Abbey Park. A soldier ran through an alleyway from Glenfada Park and shot him from a few yards away. Witnesses said that when he saw the soldier, McKinney stopped and held up his arms, shouting \"Don't shoot! Don't shoot!\", before being shot. The bullet apparently went through his body and struck Gerard Donaghy behind him.\n* '''Gerard Donaghy''', age 17. Shot in the stomach at Abbey Park while standing behind Gerard McKinney. Both were apparently struck by the same bullet. Bystanders brought Donaghy to a nearby house, where he was examined by a doctor. The doctor opened Donaghy's clothes to examine him, and his pockets were also searched for identification. Two bystanders then attempted to drive Donaghy to hospital, but the car was stopped at an Army checkpoint. They were ordered to leave the car and a soldier drove it to a Regimental Aid Post, where an Army medical officer pronounced Donaghy dead. Shortly after, soldiers found four nail bombs in his pockets. The civilians who searched him, the soldier who drove him to the Army post, and the Army medical officer, all said that they did not see any bombs. This led to claims that soldiers planted the bombs on Donaghy to justify the killings. Donaghy was a member of Fianna Éireann, an IRA-linked republican youth movement. Paddy Ward, a police informer who gave evidence at the Saville Inquiry, claimed he gave two nail bombs to Donaghy several hours before he was shot. The Saville Report concluded that the bombs were probably in Donaghy's pockets when he was shot. However, it concluded that he was not about to throw a bomb when he was shot; and that he was not shot because he had bombs. \"He was shot while trying to escape from the soldiers\".\n* '''Patrick Doherty''', age 31. Shot from behind while attempting to crawl to safety in the forecourt of Rossville Flats. He was shot by soldiers who came out of Glenfada Park. Doherty was photographed, moments before and after he died, by French journalist Gilles Peress. Despite testimony from \"Soldier F\" that he had shot a man holding a pistol, Widgery acknowledged that the photographs show Doherty was unarmed, and that forensic tests on his hands for gunshot residue proved negative.\n* '''Bernard 'Barney' McGuigan''', age 41. Shot in the head when he walked out from cover to help Patrick Doherty. He had been waving a white handkerchief to indicate his peaceful intentions.\n* '''John Johnston''', age 59. Shot in the leg and left shoulder on William Street 15 minutes before the rest of the shooting started. Johnston was not on the march, but on his way to visit a friend in Glenfada Park. He died on 16 June 1972; his death has been attributed to the injuries he received on the day. He was the only one not to die immediately or soon after being shot.\n\n\n\n",
"Thirteen people were shot and killed, with another man later dying of his wounds. The official army position, backed by the British Home Secretary the next day in the House of Commons, was that the paratroopers had reacted to gun and nail bomb attacks from suspected IRA members. All eyewitnesses (apart from the soldiers), including marchers, local residents, and British and Irish journalists present, maintain that soldiers fired into an unarmed crowd, or were aiming at fleeing people and those tending the wounded, whereas the soldiers themselves were not fired upon. No British soldier was wounded by gunfire or reported any injuries, nor were any bullets or nail bombs recovered to back up their claims.\n\nOn 2 February, the day that 12 of those killed were buried, there was a general strike in the Republic, described as the biggest general strike in Europe since the Second World War relative to population. Memorial services were held in Catholic and Protestant churches, as well as synagogues, throughout the Republic. The same day, irate crowds burned down the British embassy on Merrion Square in Dublin. Anglo-Irish relations hit one of their lowest ebbs with the Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs, Patrick Hillery, going to the United Nations Security Council in New York to demand the involvement of a UN peacekeeping force in the Northern Ireland \"Troubles\".\n\nAlthough there were many IRA men—both Official and Provisional—at the protest, it is claimed they were all unarmed, apparently because it was anticipated that the paratroopers would attempt to \"draw them out.\" March organiser and MP Ivan Cooper had been promised beforehand that no armed IRA men would be near the march. One paratrooper who gave evidence at the tribunal testified that they were told by an officer to expect a gunfight and \"We want some kills.\" In the event, one man was witnessed by Father Edward Daly and others haphazardly firing a revolver in the direction of the paratroopers. Later identified as a member of the Official IRA, this man was also photographed in the act of drawing his weapon, but was apparently not seen or targeted by the soldiers. Various other claims have been made to the Saville Inquiry about gunmen on the day.\n\nThe city's coroner, Hubert O'Neill, a retired British Army major, issued a statement on 21 August 1973 at the completion of the inquest into the deaths of those killed. He declared:\n\n\nTwo days after Bloody Sunday, the Westminster Parliament adopted a resolution for a tribunal into the events of the day, resulting in Prime Minister Edward Heath commissioning the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Widgery, to undertake it. Many witnesses intended to boycott the tribunal as they lacked faith in Widgery's impartiality, but were eventually persuaded to take part. Widgery's quickly-produced report—completed within 10 weeks (10 April) and published within 11 (19 April)—supported the Army's account of the events of the day. Among the evidence presented to the tribunal were the results of paraffin tests, used to identify lead residues from firing weapons, and that nail bombs had been found on the body of one of those killed. Tests for traces of explosives on the clothes of eleven of the dead proved negative, while those of the remaining man could not be tested as they had already been washed. Most witnesses to the event disputed the report's conclusions and regarded it as a whitewash. It has been argued that firearms residue on some deceased may have come from contact with the soldiers who themselves moved some of the bodies, or that the presence of lead on the hands of one (James Wray) was easily explained by the fact that his occupation involved the use of lead-based solder. In 1992, John Major, writing to John Hume stated:\n\n\nThe 35th Bloody Sunday memorial march in Derry, 28 January 2007\nFollowing the events of Bloody Sunday Bernadette Devlin, an Independent Socialist nationalist MP from Northern Ireland, expressed anger at what she perceived as government attempts to stifle accounts being reported about the day. Having witnessed the events firsthand, she was later infuriated that Speaker Selwyn Lloyd consistently denied her the chance to speak in Parliament about the day, although parliamentary convention decreed that any MP witnessing an incident under discussion would be granted an opportunity to speak about it in the House.\nDevlin punched Reginald Maudling, the Secretary of State for the Home Department in the Conservative government, when he made a statement to Parliament on the events of Bloody Sunday stating that the British Army had fired only in self-defence.\nShe was temporarily suspended from Parliament as a result of the incident. Nonetheless, six months after Bloody Sunday, Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford who was directly in charge of 1 Para, the soldiers who went into the Bogside, was awarded the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II.\n\nIn January 1997, the UK television broadcaster Channel 4 carried a news report suggesting that members of the Royal Anglian Regiment had also opened fire on the protesters, and could have been responsible for three of the 14 deaths.\n\nOn 29 May 2007, General (then Captain) Sir Mike Jackson, adjutant of 1 Para on Bloody Sunday, said: \"I have no doubt that innocent people were shot.\" This was in sharp contrast to his insistence, for more than 30 years, that those killed on the day had not been innocent. In 2008 a former aide to British Prime Minister Tony Blair, Jonathan Powell, described Widgery as a \"complete and utter whitewash.\"\nIn 1998 Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford expressed his anger at Tony Blair's intention of setting up the Saville inquiry, stating that he was proud of his actions on Bloody Sunday. Two years later in 2000 during an interview with the BBC, Wilford said: \"There might have been things wrong in the sense that some innocent people, people who were not carrying a weapon, were wounded or even killed. But that was not done as a deliberate malicious act. It was done as an act of war.\"\n\nOn 10 November 2015, a 66-year-old former member of the Parachute Regiment was arrested for questioning over the deaths of William Nash, Michael McDaid and John Young.\n",
"\nGuildhall, home to the Inquiry\n\nAlthough British Prime Minister John Major rejected John Hume's requests for a public inquiry into the killings, his successor, Tony Blair, decided to start one. A second commission of inquiry, chaired by Lord Saville, was established in January 1998 to re-examine Bloody Sunday. The other judges were John Toohey QC, a former Justice of the High Court of Australia who had worked on Aboriginal issues (he replaced New Zealander Sir Edward Somers QC, who retired from the Inquiry in 2000 for personal reasons), and Mr Justice William Hoyt QC, former Chief Justice of New Brunswick and a member of the Canadian Judicial Council. The hearings were concluded in November 2004, and the report was published 15 June 2010. The Saville Inquiry was a more comprehensive study than the Widgery Tribunal, interviewing a wide range of witnesses, including local residents, soldiers, journalists and politicians. Lord Saville declined to comment on the Widgery report and made the point that the Saville Inquiry was a judicial inquiry into Bloody Sunday, not the Widgery Tribunal.\n\nEvidence given by Martin McGuinness, a senior member of Sinn Féin and later the deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland, to the inquiry stated that he was second-in-command of the Derry City brigade of the Provisional IRA and was present at the march. A claim was made at the Saville Inquiry that McGuinness was responsible for supplying detonators for nail bombs on Bloody Sunday. Paddy Ward claimed he was the leader of the Fianna Éireann, the youth wing of the IRA in January 1972. He claimed that McGuinness, the second-in-command of the IRA in the city at the time, and another anonymous IRA member gave him bomb parts on the morning of 30 January, the date planned for the civil rights march. He said his organisation intended to attack city-centre premises in Derry on the day when civilians were shot dead by British soldiers. In response McGuinness rejected the claims as \"fantasy\", while Gerry O'Hara, a Sinn Féin councillor in Derry stated that he and not Ward was the Fianna leader at the time.\n\nMany observers allege that the Ministry of Defence acted in a way to impede the inquiry. Over 1,000 army photographs and original army helicopter video footage were never made available. Additionally, guns used on the day by the soldiers that could have been evidence in the inquiry were lost by the MoD. The MoD claimed that all the guns had been destroyed, but some were subsequently recovered in various locations (such as Sierra Leone and Beirut) despite the obstruction.\n\nBy the time the inquiry had retired to write up its findings, it had interviewed over 900 witnesses, over seven years, making it the biggest investigation in British legal history. The cost of this process has drawn criticism; as of the publication of the Saville Report being .\n\nBanner and crosses carried by the families of the victims on the annual commemoration march\nThe inquiry was expected to report in late 2009 but was delayed until after the general election on 6 May 2010.\n\nThe report of the inquiry was published on 15 June 2010. The report concluded, \"The firing by soldiers of 1 PARA on Bloody Sunday caused the deaths of 13 people and injury to a similar number, none of whom was posing a threat of causing death or serious injury.\" Saville stated that British paratroopers \"lost control\", fatally shooting fleeing civilians and those who tried to aid civilians who had been shot by the British soldiers. The report stated that British soldiers had concocted lies in their attempt to hide their acts. Saville stated that the civilians had not been warned by the British soldiers that they intended to shoot. The report states, contrary to the previously established belief, that no stones and no petrol bombs were thrown by civilians before British soldiers shot at them, and that the civilians were not posing any threat.\n\nThe report concluded that an Official IRA sniper fired on British soldiers, albeit that on the balance of evidence his shot was fired ''after'' the Army shots that wounded Damien Donaghey and John Johnston. The Inquiry rejected the sniper's account that this shot had been made in reprisal, stating the view that he and another Official IRA member had already been in position, and the shot had probably been fired simply because the opportunity had presented itself. Ultimately the Saville Inquiry was inconclusive on Martin McGuinness' role, due to a lack of certainty over his movements, concluding that while he was \"engaged in paramilitary activity\" during Bloody Sunday, and had probably been armed with a Thompson submachine gun, there was insufficient evidence to make any finding other than they were \"sure that he did not engage in any activity that provided any of the soldiers with any justification for opening fire\".\n\nRegarding the soldiers in charge on the day of Bloody Sunday, the Saville Inquiry arrived at the following findings:\n\n*Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford: Commander of 1 Para and directly responsible for arresting rioters and returning to base. Found to have 'deliberately disobeyed' his superior Brigadier Patrick MacLellan's orders by sending Support Company into the Bogside (and without informing MacLellan).\n*Major Ted Loden: Commander in charge of soldiers, following orders issued by Lieutenant Colonel Wilford. Cleared of misconduct; Saville cited in the report that Loden \"neither realised nor should have realised that his soldiers were or might be firing at people who were not posing or about to pose a threat\". The inquiry found that Loden could not be held responsible for claims (whether malicious or not) by some of the individual soldiers that they had received fire from snipers.\n*Captain Mike Jackson: Second in command of 1 Para on the day of Bloody Sunday. Cleared of sinister actions following Jackson's compiling of a list of what soldiers told Major Loden on why they had fired. This list became known as the \"Loden List of Engagements\" which played a role in the Army's initial explanations. While the inquiry found the compiling of the list was 'far from ideal', Jackson's explanations were accepted based on the list not containing the names of soldiers and the number of times they fired.\n*Major General Robert Ford: Commander of land forces and set the British strategy to oversee the civil march in Derry. Cleared of any fault, but his selection of 1 Para, and in particular his selection of Colonel Wilford to be in control of arresting rioters, was found to be disconcerting, specifically as \"1 PARA was a force with a reputation for using excessive physical violence, which thus ran the risk of exacerbating the tensions between the Army and nationalists\".\n*Brigadier Pat MacLellan: Operational commander of the day. Cleared of any wrongdoing as he was under the impression that Wilford would follow orders by arresting rioters and then returning to base, and could not be blamed for Wilford's actions.\n*Major Michael Steele: With MacLellan in the operations room and in charge of passing on the orders of the day. The inquiry report accepted that Steele could not believe other than that a separation had been achieved between rioters and marchers, because both groups were in different areas.\n*Other soldiers: Lance Corporal F was found responsible for a number of the deaths and that a number of soldiers have \"knowingly put forward false accounts in order to seek to justify their firing\".\n*Intelligence officer Colonel Maurice Tugwell and Colin Wallace, (an IPU army press officer): Cleared of wrongdoing. Saville believed the information Tugwell and Wallace released through the media was not down to any deliberate attempt to deceive the public but rather due to much of the inaccurate information Tugwell had received at the time by various other figures.\n\nReporting on the findings of the Saville Inquiry in the House of Commons, the British Prime Minister David Cameron said:\n\n\"Mr Speaker, I am deeply patriotic. I never want to believe anything bad about our country. I never want to call into question the behaviour of our soldiers and our army, who I believe to be the finest in the world. And I have seen for myself the very difficult and dangerous circumstances in which we ask our soldiers to serve. But the conclusions of this report are absolutely clear. There is no doubt, there is nothing equivocal, there are no ambiguities. What happened on Bloody Sunday was both unjustified and unjustifiable. It was wrong.\"\n",
"Bloody Sunday memorial in the Bogside\n\nHarold Wilson, then the Leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons, reiterated his belief that a united Ireland was the only possible solution to Northern Ireland's Troubles. William Craig, then Stormont Home Affairs Minister, suggested that the west bank of Derry should be ceded to the Republic of Ireland.\n\nWhen it was deployed on duty in Northern Ireland, the British Army was welcomed by Roman Catholics as a neutral force there to protect them from Protestant mobs, the RUC and the B-Specials. After Bloody Sunday many Catholics turned on the British army, seeing it no longer as their protector but as their enemy. Young nationalists became increasingly attracted to violent republican groups. With the Official IRA and Official Sinn Féin having moved away from mainstream Irish republicanism towards Marxism, the Provisional IRA began to win the support of newly radicalised, disaffected young people.\n\nIn the following twenty years, the Provisional Irish Republican Army and other smaller republican groups such as the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) stepped up their armed campaigns against the state and those seen as being in service to it. With rival paramilitary organisations appearing in both the nationalist/republican and unionist/loyalist communities (such as the Ulster Defence Association (UDA), Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), etc. on the loyalist side), the Troubles cost the lives of thousands of people.\n\nIn his speech to the House of Commons on the Inquiry, British Prime Minister David Cameron stated: \"These are shocking conclusions to read and shocking words to have to say. But you do not defend the British Army by defending the indefensible.\" He acknowledged that all those who died were unarmed when they were killed by British soldiers, and that a British soldier had fired the first shot at civilians. He also said that this was not a premeditated action, though \"there was no point in trying to soften or equivocate\" as \"what happened should never, ever have happened\". Cameron then apologised on behalf of the British Government by saying he was \"deeply sorry\".\n\nA survey conducted by Angus Reid Public Opinion in June 2010 found that 61 per cent of Britons and 70 per cent of Northern Irish agreed with Cameron's apology for the Bloody Sunday events.\n\nStephen Pollard, solicitor representing several of the soldiers, said on 15 June 2010 that Saville had cherry-picked the evidence and did not have justification for his findings.\nParachute Regiment flag and the Union flag flying in Ballymena\n\nIn 2012 an actively serving British army soldier from Belfast was charged with inciting hatred by a surviving relative of the deceased, due to their online use of social media to promote sectarian slogans about the killings while featuring banners of the Parachute Regiment logo.\n\nIn January 2013, shortly before the annual Bloody Sunday remembrance march, two Parachute Regiment flags appeared in the loyalist Fountain, and Waterside, Drumahoe areas of Derry. The display of the flags was heavily criticised by nationalist politicians and relatives of the Bloody Sunday dead. The Ministry of Defence also condemned the flying of the flags. The flags were removed to be replaced by Union Flags. In the run up to the loyalist marching season in 2013 the flag of the Parachute Regiment appeared alongside other loyalist flags in other parts of Northern Ireland. In 2014 loyalists in Cookstown erected the flags in opposition, close to the route of a St.Patrick's Day parade in the town.\n",
"Paul McCartney (who is of Irish descent) recorded the first song in response only two days after the incident. The single entitled \"Give Ireland Back to the Irish\", expressed his views on the matter. It was one of a few McCartney solo songs to be banned by the BBC.\n\nThe 1972 John Lennon album ''Some Time in New York City'' features a song entitled \"Sunday Bloody Sunday\", inspired by the incident, as well as the song \"The Luck of the Irish\", which dealt more with the Irish conflict in general. Lennon, who was of Irish descent, also spoke at a protest in New York in support of the victims and families of Bloody Sunday.\n\nIrish poet Thomas Kinsella's 1972 poem ''Butcher's Dozen'' is a satirical and angry response to the Widgery Tribunal and the events of Bloody Sunday.\n\nBlack Sabbath's Geezer Butler (also of Irish descent) wrote the lyrics to the Black Sabbath song \"Sabbath Bloody Sabbath\" on the album of the same name in 1973. Butler stated, \"…the Sunday Bloody Sunday thing had just happened in Ireland, when the British troops opened fire on the Irish demonstrators… So I came up with the title 'Sabbath Bloody Sabbath', and sort of put it in how the band was feeling at the time, getting away from management, mixed with the state Ireland was in.\"\n\nThe Roy Harper song \"All Ireland\" from the album ''Lifemask'', written in the days following the incident, is critical of the military but takes a long term view with regard to a solution. In Harper's book (''The Passions of Great Fortune''), his comment on the song ends \"…there must always be some hope that the children of 'Bloody Sunday', on both sides, can grow into some wisdom\".\n\nBrian Friel's 1973 play ''The Freedom of the City'' deals with the incident from the viewpoint of three civilians.\n\nIrish poet Seamus Heaney's ''Casualty'' (published in ''Field Work,'' 1981) criticizes Britain for the death of his friend.\n\nThe incident has been commemorated by Irish band, U2, in their 1983 protest song \"Sunday Bloody Sunday\".\n\nChristy Moore's song \"Minds Locked Shut\" on the album ''Graffiti Tongue'' is all about the events of the day, and names the dead civilians.\n\nThe events of the day have been dramatised in two 2002 television films, ''Bloody Sunday'' (starring James Nesbitt) and ''Sunday'' by Jimmy McGovern.\n\nThe Celtic metal band Cruachan addressed the incident in a song \"Bloody Sunday\" from their 2004 album ''Folk-Lore''.\n\nWillie Doherty, a Derry-born artist, has amassed a large body of work which addresses the troubles in Northern Ireland. \"30 January 1972\" deals specifically with the events of Bloody Sunday.\n\nIn mid-2005, the play ''Bloody Sunday: Scenes from the Saville Inquiry'', a dramatisation based on the Saville Inquiry, opened in London, and subsequently travelled to Derry and Dublin. The writer, journalist Richard Norton-Taylor, distilled four years of evidence into two hours of stage performance by Tricycle Theatre. The play received glowing reviews in all the British broadsheets, including ''The Times'': \"The Tricycle's latest recreation of a major inquiry is its most devastating\"; ''The Daily Telegraph'': \"I can't praise this enthralling production too highly… exceptionally gripping courtroom drama\"; and ''The Independent'': \"A necessary triumph\".\n\nSwedish troubadour Fred Åkerström wrote a song called \"Den 30/1-72\" about the incident.\n\nIn October 2010, T with the Maggies released the song ''Domhnach na Fola'' (Irish for ''Bloody Sunday''), written by Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh and Tríona Ní Dhomhnaill on their debut album.\n\nIrish professional wrestler Finn Bálor named one of his signature manoeuvres, a lifting single underhook DDT, \"Bloody Sunday\".\n",
"\n",
"* \n* (extracts available online)\n* \n* \n* \n* English, Richard. ''Armed Struggle;– A History of the IRA'', MacMillan, London 2003, \n",
"\n* Madden & Finucane Bloody Sunday index\n* CAIN Web Service Bloody Sunday index\n* UTV Coverage: Bloody Sunday & The Saville Report\n* Guardian Coverage\n* Dáil debate on Bloody Sunday\n* The Widgery Report (from Cain website)\n* BBC Special Report\n* Programme of events commemorating Bloody Sunday – 2008\n* 1610: Soldiers open fire\n\n;The events of the day\n* BBC Interactive Guide\n* Guardian Interactive Guide\n* History – Bloody Sunday – Events of the Day Museum of Free Derry\n\n;Contemporary newspaper coverage\n* \"13 killed as paratroops break riot\" from The Guardian, Monday 31 January 1972\n* \"Bogsiders insist that soldiers shot first\" from The Guardian, Tuesday 1 February 1972\n\n;Importance and impact\n* \"Shootings 'triggered decades of violence'\" from The Guardian, Wednesday 16 May 2001\n* Britain Acknowledges \"Bloody Sunday\" Killings Were Unjustified and Apologizes to Victims’ Families – video report by ''Democracy Now!''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Background",
"Events of the day",
"Aftermath",
"Saville Inquiry",
"Impact on Northern Ireland divisions",
"Artistic reaction",
"References",
"Bibliography",
"External links"
] | Bloody Sunday (1972) | [
"William Craig, then Stormont Home Affairs Minister, suggested that the west bank of Derry should be ceded to the Republic of Ireland."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Bloody Sunday''' – sometimes called the '''Bogside Massacre''' – was an incident on 30 January 1972 in the Bogside area of Derry, Northern Ireland, when British soldiers shot 28 unarmed civilians during a peaceful protest march against internment.",
"Fourteen people died: thirteen were killed outright, while the death of another man four months later was attributed to his injuries.",
"Many of the victims were shot while fleeing from the soldiers and some were shot while trying to help the wounded.",
"Other protesters were injured by rubber bullets or batons, and two were run down by army vehicles.",
"The march had been organised by the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA).",
"The soldiers involved were members of the 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment, also known as \"1 Para\".",
"Two investigations have been held by the British government.",
"The Widgery Tribunal, held in the immediate aftermath of the incident, largely cleared the soldiers and British authorities of blame.",
"It described the soldiers' shooting as \"bordering on the reckless\", but accepted their claims that they shot at gunmen and bomb-throwers.",
"The report was widely criticised as a \"whitewash\".",
"The Saville Inquiry, chaired by Lord Saville of Newdigate, was established in 1998 to reinvestigate the incident.",
"Following a 12-year inquiry, Saville's report was made public in 2010 and concluded that the killings were both \"unjustified\" and \"unjustifiable\".",
"It found that all of those shot were unarmed, that none were posing a serious threat, that no bombs were thrown, and that soldiers \"knowingly put forward false accounts\" to justify their firing.",
"On the publication of the report, British prime minister David Cameron made a formal apology on behalf of the United Kingdom.",
"Following this, police began a murder investigation into the killings.",
"Bloody Sunday was one of the most significant events of \"the Troubles\" because a large number of civilian citizens were killed, by forces of the state, in full view of the public and the press.",
"It was the highest number of people killed in a single shooting incident during the conflict.",
"Bloody Sunday increased Catholic and Irish nationalist hostility towards the British Army and exacerbated the conflict.",
"Support for the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) rose and there was a surge of recruitment into the organisation, especially locally.",
"\nThe City of Londonderry was perceived by many Catholics and Irish nationalists in Northern Ireland to be the epitome of what was described as \"fifty years of Unionist misrule\": despite having a nationalist majority, gerrymandering ensured elections to the City Corporation always returned a unionist majority.",
"At the same time the city was perceived to be deprived of public investment – rail routes to the city were closed, motorways were not extended to it, a university was opened in the relatively small (Protestant-majority) town of Coleraine rather than Derry and, above all, the city's housing stock was in an appalling state.",
"The city therefore became a significant focus of the civil rights campaign led by organisations such as Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) in the late 1960s and it was in Derry that the so-called Battle of the Bogside – the event that more than any other pushed the Northern Ireland administration to ask for military support for civil policing – took place in August 1969.",
"While many Catholics initially welcomed the British Army as a neutral force, in contrast to what was regarded as a sectarian police force, relations between them soon deteriorated.",
"In response to escalating levels of violence across Northern Ireland, internment without trial was introduced on 9 August 1971.",
"There was disorder across Northern Ireland following the introduction of internment, with 21 people being killed in three days of rioting.",
"In Belfast, soldiers of the Parachute Regiment shot dead 11 Catholic civilians in what became known as the Ballymurphy Massacre.",
"On 10 August, Bombardier Paul Challenor became the first soldier to be killed by the Provisional IRA in Derry, when he was shot by a sniper on the Creggan estate.",
"A further six soldiers had been killed in Derry by mid-December 1971.",
"At least 1,332 rounds were fired at the British Army, who also faced 211 explosions and 180 nail bombs, and who fired 364 rounds in return.",
"IRA activity also increased across Northern Ireland with thirty British soldiers being killed in the remaining months of 1971, in contrast to the ten soldiers killed during the pre-internment period of the year.",
"Both the Official IRA and Provisional IRA had established no-go areas for the British Army and Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) in Derry through the use of barricades.",
"By the end of 1971, 29 barricades were in place to prevent access to what was known as Free Derry, 16 of them impassable even to the British Army's one-ton armoured vehicles.",
"IRA members openly mounted roadblocks in front of the media, and daily clashes took place between nationalist youths and the British Army at a spot known as \"aggro corner\".",
"Due to rioting and damage to shops caused by incendiary devices, an estimated total of worth of damage had been done to local businesses.",
"On 18 January 1972 Brian Faulkner, Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, banned all parades and marches in Northern Ireland until the end of the year.",
"On 22 January 1972, a week before Bloody Sunday, an anti-internment march was held at Magilligan strand, near Derry.",
"The protesters marched to a new internment camp there, but were stopped by soldiers of the Parachute Regiment.",
"When some protesters threw stones and tried to go around the barbed wire, paratroopers drove them back by firing rubber bullets at close range and making baton charges.",
"The paratroopers badly beat a number of protesters and had to be physically restrained by their own officers.",
"These allegations of brutality by paratroopers were reported widely on television and in the press.",
"Some in the Army also thought there had been undue violence by the paratroopers.",
"NICRA intended, despite the ban, to hold another anti-internment march in Derry on Sunday 30 January.",
"The authorities decided to allow it to proceed in the Catholic areas of the city, but to stop it from reaching Guildhall Square, as planned by the organisers.",
"The authorities expected that this would lead to rioting.",
"Major General Robert Ford, then Commander of Land Forces in Northern Ireland, ordered that the 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment (1 Para), should travel to Derry to be used to arrest possible rioters.",
"The arrest operation was codenamed 'Operation Forecast'.",
"The Saville Report criticised General Ford for choosing the Parachute Regiment for the operation, as it had \"a reputation for using excessive physical violence\".",
"The paratroopers arrived in Derry on the morning of the march and took up positions in the city.",
"Brigadier Pat MacLellan was the operational commander and issued orders from Ebrington Barracks.",
"He gave orders to Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford, commander of 1 Para.",
"He in turn gave orders to Major Ted Loden, who commanded the company who launched the arrest operation.",
"\nThe Bogside in 1981, overlooking the area where many of the victims were shot.",
"On the right of the picture is the south side of Rossville Flats, and in the middle distance is Glenfada Park.",
"The protesters planned on marching from Bishop's Field, in the Creggan housing estate, to the Guildhall, in the city centre, where they would hold a rally.",
"The march set off at about 2:45pm.",
"There were 10–15,000 people on the march, with many joining along its route.",
"Lord Widgery, in his now discredited tribunal, said that there were only 3,000 to 5,000.",
"The march made its way along William Street but, as it neared the city centre, its path was blocked by British Army barriers.",
"The organisers redirected the march down Rossville Street, intending to hold the rally at Free Derry Corner instead.",
"However, some broke off from the march and began throwing stones at soldiers manning the barriers.",
"The soldiers fired rubber bullets, CS gas and water cannon to try to disperse the rioters.",
"Such clashes between soldiers and youths were common, and observers reported that the rioting was not intense.",
"Some of the crowd spotted paratroopers hiding in a derelict three-storey building overlooking William Street, and began throwing stones at the windows.",
"At about 3:55pm, these paratroopers opened fire.",
"Civilians Damien Donaghy and John Johnston were shot and wounded while standing on waste ground opposite the building.",
"These were the first shots fired.",
"The soldiers claimed Donaghy was holding a black cylindrical object, but the Saville Inquiry concluded that all of those shot were unarmed.",
"At 4:07pm, the paratroopers were ordered to go through the barriers and arrest rioters.",
"The paratroopers, on foot and in armoured vehicles, chased people down Rossville Street and into the Bogside.",
"Two people were knocked down by the vehicles.",
"Brigadier MacLellan had ordered that only one company of paratroopers be sent through the barriers, on foot, and that they should not chase people down Rossville Street.",
"Colonel Wilford disobeyed this order, which meant there was no separation between rioters and peaceful marchers.",
"The paratroopers disembarked and began seizing people.",
"There were many claims of paratroopers beating people, clubbing them with rifle butts, firing rubber bullets at them from close range, making threats to kill, and hurling abuse.",
"The Saville Report agreed that soldiers \"used excessive force when arresting people … as well as seriously assaulting them for no good reason while in their custody\".",
"One group of paratroopers took up position at a low wall about in front of a rubble barricade that stretched across Rossville Street.",
"There were people at the barricade and some were throwing stones at the soldiers, but none were near enough to hit them.",
"The soldiers fired on the people at the barricade, killing six and wounding a seventh.",
"A large group of people fled or were chased into the car park of Rossville Flats.",
"This area was like a courtyard, surrounded on three sides by high-rise flats.",
"The soldiers opened fire, killing one civilian and wounding six others.",
"This fatality, Jackie Duddy, was running alongside a priest, Father Edward Daly, when he was shot in the back.",
"Another group of people fled into the car park of Glenfada Park, which was also a courtyard-like area surrounded by flats.",
"Here, the soldiers shot at people across the car park, about 40–50 yards away.",
"Two civilians were killed and at least four others wounded.",
"The Saville Report says it is \"probable\" that at least one soldier fired from the hip towards the crowd, without aiming.",
"The soldiers went through the car park and out the other side.",
"Some soldiers went out the southwest corner, where they shot dead two civilians.",
"The other soldiers went out the southeast corner and shot four more civilians, killing two.",
"About ten minutes had elapsed between the time soldiers drove into the Bogside and the time the last of the civilians was shot.",
"More than 100 rounds were fired by the soldiers.",
"Some of those shot were given first aid by civilian volunteers, either on the scene or after being carried into nearby homes.",
"They were then driven to hospital, either in civilian cars or in ambulances.",
"The first ambulances arrived at 4:28pm.",
"The three boys killed at the rubble barricade were driven to hospital by the paratroopers.",
"Witnesses said paratroopers lifted the bodies by the hands and feet and dumped them in the back of their APC, as if they were \"pieces of meat\".",
"The Saville Report agreed that this is an \"accurate description of what happened\".",
"It says the paratroopers \"might well have felt themselves at risk, but in our view this does not excuse them\".",
"===Casualties===\nMural by the Bogside Artists depicting all who were killed by the British Army on the day\nBelt worn by Patrick Doherty.",
"The notch was made by the bullet that killed him.",
"In all, 26 people were shot by the paratroopers; 13 died on the day and another died four months later.",
"Most of them were killed in four main areas: the rubble barricade across Rossville Street, the courtyard car park of Rossville Flats (on the north side of the flats), the courtyard car park of Glenfada Park, and the forecourt of Rossville Flats (on the south side of the flats).",
"All of the soldiers responsible insisted that they had shot at, and hit, gunmen or bomb-throwers.",
"The Saville Report concluded that all of those shot were unarmed and that none were posing a serious threat.",
"It also concluded that none of the soldiers fired in response to attacks, or threatened attacks, by gunmen or bomb-throwers.",
"The casualties are listed in the order in which they were killed.",
"* '''John 'Jackie' Duddy''', age 17.",
"Shot as he ran away from soldiers in the car park of Rossville Flats.",
"The bullet struck him in the shoulder and entered his chest.",
"Three witnesses said they saw a soldier take deliberate aim at the youth as he ran.",
"He was the first fatality on Bloody Sunday.",
"Like Saville, Widgery also concluded that Duddy was unarmed.",
"His nephew is boxer John Duddy.",
"* '''Michael Kelly''', age 17.",
"Shot in the stomach while standing at the rubble barricade on Rossville Street.",
"Both Saville and Widgery concluded that Kelly was unarmed.",
"* '''Hugh Gilmour''', age 17.",
"Shot as he ran away from soldiers near the rubble barricade.",
"The bullet went through his left elbow and entered his chest.",
"Widgery acknowledged that a photograph taken seconds after Gilmour was hit corroborated witness reports that he was unarmed, and that tests for gunshot residue were negative.",
"* '''William Nash''', age 19.",
"Shot in the chest at the rubble barricade.",
"Witnesses stated Nash was unarmed.",
"Three people were shot while apparently going to his aid, including his father Alexander Nash.",
"* '''John Young''', age 17.",
"Shot in the face at the rubble barricade, apparently while crouching and going to the aid of William Nash.",
"Two witnesses stated Young was unarmed.",
"* '''Michael McDaid''', age 20.",
"Shot in the face at the rubble barricade, apparently while crouching and going to the aid of William Nash.",
"* '''Kevin McElhinney''', age 17.",
"Shot from behind, near the rubble barricade, while attempting to crawl to safety.",
"Two witnesses stated McElhinney was unarmed.",
"* '''James 'Jim' Wray''', age 22.",
"Shot in the back while running away from soldiers in Glenfada Park courtyard.",
"He was then shot again in the back as he lay mortally wounded on the ground.",
"Witnesses, who were not called to the Widgery Tribunal, stated that Wray was calling out that he could not move his legs before he was shot the second time.",
"* '''William McKinney''', age 27.",
"Shot in the back as he attempted to flee through Glenfada Park courtyard.",
"* '''Gerard McKinney''', age 35.",
"Shot in the chest at Abbey Park.",
"A soldier ran through an alleyway from Glenfada Park and shot him from a few yards away.",
"Witnesses said that when he saw the soldier, McKinney stopped and held up his arms, shouting \"Don't shoot!",
"Don't shoot!",
"\", before being shot.",
"The bullet apparently went through his body and struck Gerard Donaghy behind him.",
"* '''Gerard Donaghy''', age 17.",
"Shot in the stomach at Abbey Park while standing behind Gerard McKinney.",
"Both were apparently struck by the same bullet.",
"Bystanders brought Donaghy to a nearby house, where he was examined by a doctor.",
"The doctor opened Donaghy's clothes to examine him, and his pockets were also searched for identification.",
"Two bystanders then attempted to drive Donaghy to hospital, but the car was stopped at an Army checkpoint.",
"They were ordered to leave the car and a soldier drove it to a Regimental Aid Post, where an Army medical officer pronounced Donaghy dead.",
"Shortly after, soldiers found four nail bombs in his pockets.",
"The civilians who searched him, the soldier who drove him to the Army post, and the Army medical officer, all said that they did not see any bombs.",
"This led to claims that soldiers planted the bombs on Donaghy to justify the killings.",
"Donaghy was a member of Fianna Éireann, an IRA-linked republican youth movement.",
"Paddy Ward, a police informer who gave evidence at the Saville Inquiry, claimed he gave two nail bombs to Donaghy several hours before he was shot.",
"The Saville Report concluded that the bombs were probably in Donaghy's pockets when he was shot.",
"However, it concluded that he was not about to throw a bomb when he was shot; and that he was not shot because he had bombs.",
"\"He was shot while trying to escape from the soldiers\".",
"* '''Patrick Doherty''', age 31.",
"Shot from behind while attempting to crawl to safety in the forecourt of Rossville Flats.",
"He was shot by soldiers who came out of Glenfada Park.",
"Doherty was photographed, moments before and after he died, by French journalist Gilles Peress.",
"Despite testimony from \"Soldier F\" that he had shot a man holding a pistol, Widgery acknowledged that the photographs show Doherty was unarmed, and that forensic tests on his hands for gunshot residue proved negative.",
"* '''Bernard 'Barney' McGuigan''', age 41.",
"Shot in the head when he walked out from cover to help Patrick Doherty.",
"He had been waving a white handkerchief to indicate his peaceful intentions.",
"* '''John Johnston''', age 59.",
"Shot in the leg and left shoulder on William Street 15 minutes before the rest of the shooting started.",
"Johnston was not on the march, but on his way to visit a friend in Glenfada Park.",
"He died on 16 June 1972; his death has been attributed to the injuries he received on the day.",
"He was the only one not to die immediately or soon after being shot.",
"Thirteen people were shot and killed, with another man later dying of his wounds.",
"The official army position, backed by the British Home Secretary the next day in the House of Commons, was that the paratroopers had reacted to gun and nail bomb attacks from suspected IRA members.",
"All eyewitnesses (apart from the soldiers), including marchers, local residents, and British and Irish journalists present, maintain that soldiers fired into an unarmed crowd, or were aiming at fleeing people and those tending the wounded, whereas the soldiers themselves were not fired upon.",
"No British soldier was wounded by gunfire or reported any injuries, nor were any bullets or nail bombs recovered to back up their claims.",
"On 2 February, the day that 12 of those killed were buried, there was a general strike in the Republic, described as the biggest general strike in Europe since the Second World War relative to population.",
"Memorial services were held in Catholic and Protestant churches, as well as synagogues, throughout the Republic.",
"The same day, irate crowds burned down the British embassy on Merrion Square in Dublin.",
"Anglo-Irish relations hit one of their lowest ebbs with the Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs, Patrick Hillery, going to the United Nations Security Council in New York to demand the involvement of a UN peacekeeping force in the Northern Ireland \"Troubles\".",
"Although there were many IRA men—both Official and Provisional—at the protest, it is claimed they were all unarmed, apparently because it was anticipated that the paratroopers would attempt to \"draw them out.\"",
"March organiser and MP Ivan Cooper had been promised beforehand that no armed IRA men would be near the march.",
"One paratrooper who gave evidence at the tribunal testified that they were told by an officer to expect a gunfight and \"We want some kills.\"",
"In the event, one man was witnessed by Father Edward Daly and others haphazardly firing a revolver in the direction of the paratroopers.",
"Later identified as a member of the Official IRA, this man was also photographed in the act of drawing his weapon, but was apparently not seen or targeted by the soldiers.",
"Various other claims have been made to the Saville Inquiry about gunmen on the day.",
"The city's coroner, Hubert O'Neill, a retired British Army major, issued a statement on 21 August 1973 at the completion of the inquest into the deaths of those killed.",
"He declared:\n\n\nTwo days after Bloody Sunday, the Westminster Parliament adopted a resolution for a tribunal into the events of the day, resulting in Prime Minister Edward Heath commissioning the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Widgery, to undertake it.",
"Many witnesses intended to boycott the tribunal as they lacked faith in Widgery's impartiality, but were eventually persuaded to take part.",
"Widgery's quickly-produced report—completed within 10 weeks (10 April) and published within 11 (19 April)—supported the Army's account of the events of the day.",
"Among the evidence presented to the tribunal were the results of paraffin tests, used to identify lead residues from firing weapons, and that nail bombs had been found on the body of one of those killed.",
"Tests for traces of explosives on the clothes of eleven of the dead proved negative, while those of the remaining man could not be tested as they had already been washed.",
"Most witnesses to the event disputed the report's conclusions and regarded it as a whitewash.",
"It has been argued that firearms residue on some deceased may have come from contact with the soldiers who themselves moved some of the bodies, or that the presence of lead on the hands of one (James Wray) was easily explained by the fact that his occupation involved the use of lead-based solder.",
"In 1992, John Major, writing to John Hume stated:\n\n\nThe 35th Bloody Sunday memorial march in Derry, 28 January 2007\nFollowing the events of Bloody Sunday Bernadette Devlin, an Independent Socialist nationalist MP from Northern Ireland, expressed anger at what she perceived as government attempts to stifle accounts being reported about the day.",
"Having witnessed the events firsthand, she was later infuriated that Speaker Selwyn Lloyd consistently denied her the chance to speak in Parliament about the day, although parliamentary convention decreed that any MP witnessing an incident under discussion would be granted an opportunity to speak about it in the House.",
"Devlin punched Reginald Maudling, the Secretary of State for the Home Department in the Conservative government, when he made a statement to Parliament on the events of Bloody Sunday stating that the British Army had fired only in self-defence.",
"She was temporarily suspended from Parliament as a result of the incident.",
"Nonetheless, six months after Bloody Sunday, Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford who was directly in charge of 1 Para, the soldiers who went into the Bogside, was awarded the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II.",
"In January 1997, the UK television broadcaster Channel 4 carried a news report suggesting that members of the Royal Anglian Regiment had also opened fire on the protesters, and could have been responsible for three of the 14 deaths.",
"On 29 May 2007, General (then Captain) Sir Mike Jackson, adjutant of 1 Para on Bloody Sunday, said: \"I have no doubt that innocent people were shot.\"",
"This was in sharp contrast to his insistence, for more than 30 years, that those killed on the day had not been innocent.",
"In 2008 a former aide to British Prime Minister Tony Blair, Jonathan Powell, described Widgery as a \"complete and utter whitewash.\"",
"In 1998 Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford expressed his anger at Tony Blair's intention of setting up the Saville inquiry, stating that he was proud of his actions on Bloody Sunday.",
"Two years later in 2000 during an interview with the BBC, Wilford said: \"There might have been things wrong in the sense that some innocent people, people who were not carrying a weapon, were wounded or even killed.",
"But that was not done as a deliberate malicious act.",
"It was done as an act of war.\"",
"On 10 November 2015, a 66-year-old former member of the Parachute Regiment was arrested for questioning over the deaths of William Nash, Michael McDaid and John Young.",
"\nGuildhall, home to the Inquiry\n\nAlthough British Prime Minister John Major rejected John Hume's requests for a public inquiry into the killings, his successor, Tony Blair, decided to start one.",
"A second commission of inquiry, chaired by Lord Saville, was established in January 1998 to re-examine Bloody Sunday.",
"The other judges were John Toohey QC, a former Justice of the High Court of Australia who had worked on Aboriginal issues (he replaced New Zealander Sir Edward Somers QC, who retired from the Inquiry in 2000 for personal reasons), and Mr Justice William Hoyt QC, former Chief Justice of New Brunswick and a member of the Canadian Judicial Council.",
"The hearings were concluded in November 2004, and the report was published 15 June 2010.",
"The Saville Inquiry was a more comprehensive study than the Widgery Tribunal, interviewing a wide range of witnesses, including local residents, soldiers, journalists and politicians.",
"Lord Saville declined to comment on the Widgery report and made the point that the Saville Inquiry was a judicial inquiry into Bloody Sunday, not the Widgery Tribunal.",
"Evidence given by Martin McGuinness, a senior member of Sinn Féin and later the deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland, to the inquiry stated that he was second-in-command of the Derry City brigade of the Provisional IRA and was present at the march.",
"A claim was made at the Saville Inquiry that McGuinness was responsible for supplying detonators for nail bombs on Bloody Sunday.",
"Paddy Ward claimed he was the leader of the Fianna Éireann, the youth wing of the IRA in January 1972.",
"He claimed that McGuinness, the second-in-command of the IRA in the city at the time, and another anonymous IRA member gave him bomb parts on the morning of 30 January, the date planned for the civil rights march.",
"He said his organisation intended to attack city-centre premises in Derry on the day when civilians were shot dead by British soldiers.",
"In response McGuinness rejected the claims as \"fantasy\", while Gerry O'Hara, a Sinn Féin councillor in Derry stated that he and not Ward was the Fianna leader at the time.",
"Many observers allege that the Ministry of Defence acted in a way to impede the inquiry.",
"Over 1,000 army photographs and original army helicopter video footage were never made available.",
"Additionally, guns used on the day by the soldiers that could have been evidence in the inquiry were lost by the MoD.",
"The MoD claimed that all the guns had been destroyed, but some were subsequently recovered in various locations (such as Sierra Leone and Beirut) despite the obstruction.",
"By the time the inquiry had retired to write up its findings, it had interviewed over 900 witnesses, over seven years, making it the biggest investigation in British legal history.",
"The cost of this process has drawn criticism; as of the publication of the Saville Report being .",
"Banner and crosses carried by the families of the victims on the annual commemoration march\nThe inquiry was expected to report in late 2009 but was delayed until after the general election on 6 May 2010.",
"The report of the inquiry was published on 15 June 2010.",
"The report concluded, \"The firing by soldiers of 1 PARA on Bloody Sunday caused the deaths of 13 people and injury to a similar number, none of whom was posing a threat of causing death or serious injury.\"",
"Saville stated that British paratroopers \"lost control\", fatally shooting fleeing civilians and those who tried to aid civilians who had been shot by the British soldiers.",
"The report stated that British soldiers had concocted lies in their attempt to hide their acts.",
"Saville stated that the civilians had not been warned by the British soldiers that they intended to shoot.",
"The report states, contrary to the previously established belief, that no stones and no petrol bombs were thrown by civilians before British soldiers shot at them, and that the civilians were not posing any threat.",
"The report concluded that an Official IRA sniper fired on British soldiers, albeit that on the balance of evidence his shot was fired ''after'' the Army shots that wounded Damien Donaghey and John Johnston.",
"The Inquiry rejected the sniper's account that this shot had been made in reprisal, stating the view that he and another Official IRA member had already been in position, and the shot had probably been fired simply because the opportunity had presented itself.",
"Ultimately the Saville Inquiry was inconclusive on Martin McGuinness' role, due to a lack of certainty over his movements, concluding that while he was \"engaged in paramilitary activity\" during Bloody Sunday, and had probably been armed with a Thompson submachine gun, there was insufficient evidence to make any finding other than they were \"sure that he did not engage in any activity that provided any of the soldiers with any justification for opening fire\".",
"Regarding the soldiers in charge on the day of Bloody Sunday, the Saville Inquiry arrived at the following findings:\n\n*Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford: Commander of 1 Para and directly responsible for arresting rioters and returning to base.",
"Found to have 'deliberately disobeyed' his superior Brigadier Patrick MacLellan's orders by sending Support Company into the Bogside (and without informing MacLellan).",
"*Major Ted Loden: Commander in charge of soldiers, following orders issued by Lieutenant Colonel Wilford.",
"Cleared of misconduct; Saville cited in the report that Loden \"neither realised nor should have realised that his soldiers were or might be firing at people who were not posing or about to pose a threat\".",
"The inquiry found that Loden could not be held responsible for claims (whether malicious or not) by some of the individual soldiers that they had received fire from snipers.",
"*Captain Mike Jackson: Second in command of 1 Para on the day of Bloody Sunday.",
"Cleared of sinister actions following Jackson's compiling of a list of what soldiers told Major Loden on why they had fired.",
"This list became known as the \"Loden List of Engagements\" which played a role in the Army's initial explanations.",
"While the inquiry found the compiling of the list was 'far from ideal', Jackson's explanations were accepted based on the list not containing the names of soldiers and the number of times they fired.",
"*Major General Robert Ford: Commander of land forces and set the British strategy to oversee the civil march in Derry.",
"Cleared of any fault, but his selection of 1 Para, and in particular his selection of Colonel Wilford to be in control of arresting rioters, was found to be disconcerting, specifically as \"1 PARA was a force with a reputation for using excessive physical violence, which thus ran the risk of exacerbating the tensions between the Army and nationalists\".",
"*Brigadier Pat MacLellan: Operational commander of the day.",
"Cleared of any wrongdoing as he was under the impression that Wilford would follow orders by arresting rioters and then returning to base, and could not be blamed for Wilford's actions.",
"*Major Michael Steele: With MacLellan in the operations room and in charge of passing on the orders of the day.",
"The inquiry report accepted that Steele could not believe other than that a separation had been achieved between rioters and marchers, because both groups were in different areas.",
"*Other soldiers: Lance Corporal F was found responsible for a number of the deaths and that a number of soldiers have \"knowingly put forward false accounts in order to seek to justify their firing\".",
"*Intelligence officer Colonel Maurice Tugwell and Colin Wallace, (an IPU army press officer): Cleared of wrongdoing.",
"Saville believed the information Tugwell and Wallace released through the media was not down to any deliberate attempt to deceive the public but rather due to much of the inaccurate information Tugwell had received at the time by various other figures.",
"Reporting on the findings of the Saville Inquiry in the House of Commons, the British Prime Minister David Cameron said:\n\n\"Mr Speaker, I am deeply patriotic.",
"I never want to believe anything bad about our country.",
"I never want to call into question the behaviour of our soldiers and our army, who I believe to be the finest in the world.",
"And I have seen for myself the very difficult and dangerous circumstances in which we ask our soldiers to serve.",
"But the conclusions of this report are absolutely clear.",
"There is no doubt, there is nothing equivocal, there are no ambiguities.",
"What happened on Bloody Sunday was both unjustified and unjustifiable.",
"It was wrong.\"",
"Bloody Sunday memorial in the Bogside\n\nHarold Wilson, then the Leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons, reiterated his belief that a united Ireland was the only possible solution to Northern Ireland's Troubles.",
"When it was deployed on duty in Northern Ireland, the British Army was welcomed by Roman Catholics as a neutral force there to protect them from Protestant mobs, the RUC and the B-Specials.",
"After Bloody Sunday many Catholics turned on the British army, seeing it no longer as their protector but as their enemy.",
"Young nationalists became increasingly attracted to violent republican groups.",
"With the Official IRA and Official Sinn Féin having moved away from mainstream Irish republicanism towards Marxism, the Provisional IRA began to win the support of newly radicalised, disaffected young people.",
"In the following twenty years, the Provisional Irish Republican Army and other smaller republican groups such as the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) stepped up their armed campaigns against the state and those seen as being in service to it.",
"With rival paramilitary organisations appearing in both the nationalist/republican and unionist/loyalist communities (such as the Ulster Defence Association (UDA), Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), etc.",
"on the loyalist side), the Troubles cost the lives of thousands of people.",
"In his speech to the House of Commons on the Inquiry, British Prime Minister David Cameron stated: \"These are shocking conclusions to read and shocking words to have to say.",
"But you do not defend the British Army by defending the indefensible.\"",
"He acknowledged that all those who died were unarmed when they were killed by British soldiers, and that a British soldier had fired the first shot at civilians.",
"He also said that this was not a premeditated action, though \"there was no point in trying to soften or equivocate\" as \"what happened should never, ever have happened\".",
"Cameron then apologised on behalf of the British Government by saying he was \"deeply sorry\".",
"A survey conducted by Angus Reid Public Opinion in June 2010 found that 61 per cent of Britons and 70 per cent of Northern Irish agreed with Cameron's apology for the Bloody Sunday events.",
"Stephen Pollard, solicitor representing several of the soldiers, said on 15 June 2010 that Saville had cherry-picked the evidence and did not have justification for his findings.",
"Parachute Regiment flag and the Union flag flying in Ballymena\n\nIn 2012 an actively serving British army soldier from Belfast was charged with inciting hatred by a surviving relative of the deceased, due to their online use of social media to promote sectarian slogans about the killings while featuring banners of the Parachute Regiment logo.",
"In January 2013, shortly before the annual Bloody Sunday remembrance march, two Parachute Regiment flags appeared in the loyalist Fountain, and Waterside, Drumahoe areas of Derry.",
"The display of the flags was heavily criticised by nationalist politicians and relatives of the Bloody Sunday dead.",
"The Ministry of Defence also condemned the flying of the flags.",
"The flags were removed to be replaced by Union Flags.",
"In the run up to the loyalist marching season in 2013 the flag of the Parachute Regiment appeared alongside other loyalist flags in other parts of Northern Ireland.",
"In 2014 loyalists in Cookstown erected the flags in opposition, close to the route of a St.Patrick's Day parade in the town.",
"Paul McCartney (who is of Irish descent) recorded the first song in response only two days after the incident.",
"The single entitled \"Give Ireland Back to the Irish\", expressed his views on the matter.",
"It was one of a few McCartney solo songs to be banned by the BBC.",
"The 1972 John Lennon album ''Some Time in New York City'' features a song entitled \"Sunday Bloody Sunday\", inspired by the incident, as well as the song \"The Luck of the Irish\", which dealt more with the Irish conflict in general.",
"Lennon, who was of Irish descent, also spoke at a protest in New York in support of the victims and families of Bloody Sunday.",
"Irish poet Thomas Kinsella's 1972 poem ''Butcher's Dozen'' is a satirical and angry response to the Widgery Tribunal and the events of Bloody Sunday.",
"Black Sabbath's Geezer Butler (also of Irish descent) wrote the lyrics to the Black Sabbath song \"Sabbath Bloody Sabbath\" on the album of the same name in 1973.",
"Butler stated, \"…the Sunday Bloody Sunday thing had just happened in Ireland, when the British troops opened fire on the Irish demonstrators… So I came up with the title 'Sabbath Bloody Sabbath', and sort of put it in how the band was feeling at the time, getting away from management, mixed with the state Ireland was in.\"",
"The Roy Harper song \"All Ireland\" from the album ''Lifemask'', written in the days following the incident, is critical of the military but takes a long term view with regard to a solution.",
"In Harper's book (''The Passions of Great Fortune''), his comment on the song ends \"…there must always be some hope that the children of 'Bloody Sunday', on both sides, can grow into some wisdom\".",
"Brian Friel's 1973 play ''The Freedom of the City'' deals with the incident from the viewpoint of three civilians.",
"Irish poet Seamus Heaney's ''Casualty'' (published in ''Field Work,'' 1981) criticizes Britain for the death of his friend.",
"The incident has been commemorated by Irish band, U2, in their 1983 protest song \"Sunday Bloody Sunday\".",
"Christy Moore's song \"Minds Locked Shut\" on the album ''Graffiti Tongue'' is all about the events of the day, and names the dead civilians.",
"The events of the day have been dramatised in two 2002 television films, ''Bloody Sunday'' (starring James Nesbitt) and ''Sunday'' by Jimmy McGovern.",
"The Celtic metal band Cruachan addressed the incident in a song \"Bloody Sunday\" from their 2004 album ''Folk-Lore''.",
"Willie Doherty, a Derry-born artist, has amassed a large body of work which addresses the troubles in Northern Ireland.",
"\"30 January 1972\" deals specifically with the events of Bloody Sunday.",
"In mid-2005, the play ''Bloody Sunday: Scenes from the Saville Inquiry'', a dramatisation based on the Saville Inquiry, opened in London, and subsequently travelled to Derry and Dublin.",
"The writer, journalist Richard Norton-Taylor, distilled four years of evidence into two hours of stage performance by Tricycle Theatre.",
"The play received glowing reviews in all the British broadsheets, including ''The Times'': \"The Tricycle's latest recreation of a major inquiry is its most devastating\"; ''The Daily Telegraph'': \"I can't praise this enthralling production too highly… exceptionally gripping courtroom drama\"; and ''The Independent'': \"A necessary triumph\".",
"Swedish troubadour Fred Åkerström wrote a song called \"Den 30/1-72\" about the incident.",
"In October 2010, T with the Maggies released the song ''Domhnach na Fola'' (Irish for ''Bloody Sunday''), written by Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh and Tríona Ní Dhomhnaill on their debut album.",
"Irish professional wrestler Finn Bálor named one of his signature manoeuvres, a lifting single underhook DDT, \"Bloody Sunday\".",
"* \n* (extracts available online)\n* \n* \n* \n* English, Richard.",
"''Armed Struggle;– A History of the IRA'', MacMillan, London 2003,",
"\n* Madden & Finucane Bloody Sunday index\n* CAIN Web Service Bloody Sunday index\n* UTV Coverage: Bloody Sunday & The Saville Report\n* Guardian Coverage\n* Dáil debate on Bloody Sunday\n* The Widgery Report (from Cain website)\n* BBC Special Report\n* Programme of events commemorating Bloody Sunday – 2008\n* 1610: Soldiers open fire\n\n;The events of the day\n* BBC Interactive Guide\n* Guardian Interactive Guide\n* History – Bloody Sunday – Events of the Day Museum of Free Derry\n\n;Contemporary newspaper coverage\n* \"13 killed as paratroops break riot\" from The Guardian, Monday 31 January 1972\n* \"Bogsiders insist that soldiers shot first\" from The Guardian, Tuesday 1 February 1972\n\n;Importance and impact\n* \"Shootings 'triggered decades of violence'\" from The Guardian, Wednesday 16 May 2001\n* Britain Acknowledges \"Bloody Sunday\" Killings Were Unjustified and Apologizes to Victims’ Families – video report by ''Democracy Now!''"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\nSaint '''Bruno of Querfurt''' ( 974 – February 14, 1009 AD), also known as ''Brun'' and ''Boniface'', was a missionary bishop and martyr, who was beheaded near the border of Kievan Rus and Lithuania while trying to spread Christianity in Eastern Europe. He is also called the second \"Apostle of the Prussians\".\n",
"\n=== Early life ===\nBruno was from a noble family of Querfurt (now in Saxony-Anhalt). He is rumored to have been a relative of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto III. At the age of six, he was sent to be educated at the cathedral school in Magdeburg, seat of Adalbert of Magdeburg, the teacher and namesake of Saint Adalbert. While still a youth, he was made a canon of the Cathedral of Magdeburg. The fifteen-year-old Otto III made Bruno a part of his royal court. While in Rome for Otto's imperial coronation, Bruno met Saint Adalbert of Prague, the first \"Apostle of the Prussians\", killed a year later, which inspired Bruno to write a biography of St. Adalbert when he reached the recently Christianized and consolidated Kingdom of Hungary himself. Bruno spent much time at the monastery where Adalbert had become a monk and where abbot John Canaparius may have written a life of Saint Adalbert. Later, Bruno entered a monastery near Ravenna that Otto had founded, and underwent strict ascetic training under the guidance of Saint Romuald.\n\n=== Missionary life ===\nThe lands given St. Bruno in 1003 were in the region shown on left bank of the Oder, Hither Pomerania along the coast, or the future Margraviate of Brandenburg to its south.\n\nOtto III hoped to establish a monastery between the Elbe and the Oder (somewhere in the pagan lands that became Brandenburg or Western Pomerania) to help convert the local population to Christianity and colonize the area. In 1001, two monks from his monastery traveled to Poland, while Bruno was with Otto in Italy, studying the language and awaiting the Apostolic appointment by Pope Sylvester II. \n\nIn 1003 Pope Sylvester II appointed Bruno, at the age of 33, to head a mission amongst the pagan peoples of Eastern Europe. Bruno left Rome in 1004, and having been named an archbishop was consecrated in February of that year by Archbishop Tagino of Magdeburg. Owing to a regional conflict between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry II and Duke Boleslaus I of Poland he delayed the plans for the monastery, and so Bruno set out for Hungary. There he went to the places that Saint Adalbert of Prague had attended.\n\nBruno tried to persuade Ahtum, the Duke of Banat, who was under jurisdiction of Patriarchate of Constantinople to accept the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, but this precipitated a large controversy leading to organized opposition from local monks. Bruno elected to gracefully exit the region after he first finished his book, the famous ''\"Life of St. Adalbert,\"'' a literary memorial of much worth giving a history of the (relatively recent) conversion of the Hungarians.\n\nAfter this diplomatic failure, Bruno went to Kiev, where Grand Duke Vladimir I authorized him to make Christian converts among the Pechenegs, semi-nomadic Turkic peoples living between the Danube and the Don rivers. Bruno spent five months there and baptized some thirty adults. He helped to bring about a peace treaty between them and the ruler of Kiev.\n\nBefore leaving for Poland, Bruno consecrated a bishop for the Pechenegs. While in Poland he consecrated the first Bishop of Sweden and is said to have sent emissaries to baptize the king of Sweden, whose mother had come from Poland. Bruno found out that his friend Benedict and four companions had been killed by robbers in 1003. Bruno took eyewitness accounts and wrote down a touching history of the so-called Five Martyred Brothers.\n\n=== Mission to Prussia and death ===\nIn the autumn or at the end of 1008 Bruno and eighteen companions set out to found a mission among the Old Prussians; they succeeded in converting Netimer and then traveled to the east, heading very likely towards Yotvingia. Yotvingia was a Prussian region, then subordinate to Kievan Rus (since 983), that intersected the borders of what was then Prussia, Kievan Rus and the Duchy of Lithuania.\n\nSaint Bruno was beheaded on February 14, 1009, whereas most of his companions were hanged the same day by Zebeden, brother of Netimer. Duke Boleslaus the Brave brought the bodies to Poland (it was supposed that they were laid to rest in Przemyśl, where some historians place Bruno's diocese; such localization of the Bruno's burial place is hardly probable because Przemyśl then belonged to Orthodox Kievan Rus through 1018). The ''Annals of Magdeburg,'' Thietmar of Merseburg's ''Chronicle'', the ''Annals of Quedlinburg'', various works of Magdeburg Bishops, and many other written sources of 11th–15th centuries record this story.\n\nSoon after his death, Bruno and his companions were venerated as martyrs and Bruno was soon after canonized. It was said that Braunsberg was named after St Bruno.\n",
"\n*Name of Lithuania\n* A. Bumblauskas. Lithuania’s Millennium –Millennium Lithuaniae Or What Lithuania Can Tell the World on this Occasion. ''Lietuvos istorijos studijos'', 2009, t. 23, p. 127–158.\n* A. Bumblauskas. Lithuania's Millennium – Millennium Lithuaniae\n* D. Baronas. ST BRUNO OF QUERFURT: THE MISSIONARY VOCATION. ''LITHUANIAN HISTORICAL STUDIES'', 2009, t. 14. p. 41–52.\n",
"\n",
"\n\n* Saint Bruno Querfurt \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Biography ",
" See also ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Bruno of Querfurt | [
"=== Missionary life ===\nThe lands given St. Bruno in 1003 were in the region shown on left bank of the Oder, Hither Pomerania along the coast, or the future Margraviate of Brandenburg to its south."
] | [
"\n\n\nSaint '''Bruno of Querfurt''' ( 974 – February 14, 1009 AD), also known as ''Brun'' and ''Boniface'', was a missionary bishop and martyr, who was beheaded near the border of Kievan Rus and Lithuania while trying to spread Christianity in Eastern Europe.",
"He is also called the second \"Apostle of the Prussians\".",
"\n=== Early life ===\nBruno was from a noble family of Querfurt (now in Saxony-Anhalt).",
"He is rumored to have been a relative of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto III.",
"At the age of six, he was sent to be educated at the cathedral school in Magdeburg, seat of Adalbert of Magdeburg, the teacher and namesake of Saint Adalbert.",
"While still a youth, he was made a canon of the Cathedral of Magdeburg.",
"The fifteen-year-old Otto III made Bruno a part of his royal court.",
"While in Rome for Otto's imperial coronation, Bruno met Saint Adalbert of Prague, the first \"Apostle of the Prussians\", killed a year later, which inspired Bruno to write a biography of St. Adalbert when he reached the recently Christianized and consolidated Kingdom of Hungary himself.",
"Bruno spent much time at the monastery where Adalbert had become a monk and where abbot John Canaparius may have written a life of Saint Adalbert.",
"Later, Bruno entered a monastery near Ravenna that Otto had founded, and underwent strict ascetic training under the guidance of Saint Romuald.",
"Otto III hoped to establish a monastery between the Elbe and the Oder (somewhere in the pagan lands that became Brandenburg or Western Pomerania) to help convert the local population to Christianity and colonize the area.",
"In 1001, two monks from his monastery traveled to Poland, while Bruno was with Otto in Italy, studying the language and awaiting the Apostolic appointment by Pope Sylvester II.",
"In 1003 Pope Sylvester II appointed Bruno, at the age of 33, to head a mission amongst the pagan peoples of Eastern Europe.",
"Bruno left Rome in 1004, and having been named an archbishop was consecrated in February of that year by Archbishop Tagino of Magdeburg.",
"Owing to a regional conflict between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry II and Duke Boleslaus I of Poland he delayed the plans for the monastery, and so Bruno set out for Hungary.",
"There he went to the places that Saint Adalbert of Prague had attended.",
"Bruno tried to persuade Ahtum, the Duke of Banat, who was under jurisdiction of Patriarchate of Constantinople to accept the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, but this precipitated a large controversy leading to organized opposition from local monks.",
"Bruno elected to gracefully exit the region after he first finished his book, the famous ''\"Life of St. Adalbert,\"'' a literary memorial of much worth giving a history of the (relatively recent) conversion of the Hungarians.",
"After this diplomatic failure, Bruno went to Kiev, where Grand Duke Vladimir I authorized him to make Christian converts among the Pechenegs, semi-nomadic Turkic peoples living between the Danube and the Don rivers.",
"Bruno spent five months there and baptized some thirty adults.",
"He helped to bring about a peace treaty between them and the ruler of Kiev.",
"Before leaving for Poland, Bruno consecrated a bishop for the Pechenegs.",
"While in Poland he consecrated the first Bishop of Sweden and is said to have sent emissaries to baptize the king of Sweden, whose mother had come from Poland.",
"Bruno found out that his friend Benedict and four companions had been killed by robbers in 1003.",
"Bruno took eyewitness accounts and wrote down a touching history of the so-called Five Martyred Brothers.",
"=== Mission to Prussia and death ===\nIn the autumn or at the end of 1008 Bruno and eighteen companions set out to found a mission among the Old Prussians; they succeeded in converting Netimer and then traveled to the east, heading very likely towards Yotvingia.",
"Yotvingia was a Prussian region, then subordinate to Kievan Rus (since 983), that intersected the borders of what was then Prussia, Kievan Rus and the Duchy of Lithuania.",
"Saint Bruno was beheaded on February 14, 1009, whereas most of his companions were hanged the same day by Zebeden, brother of Netimer.",
"Duke Boleslaus the Brave brought the bodies to Poland (it was supposed that they were laid to rest in Przemyśl, where some historians place Bruno's diocese; such localization of the Bruno's burial place is hardly probable because Przemyśl then belonged to Orthodox Kievan Rus through 1018).",
"The ''Annals of Magdeburg,'' Thietmar of Merseburg's ''Chronicle'', the ''Annals of Quedlinburg'', various works of Magdeburg Bishops, and many other written sources of 11th–15th centuries record this story.",
"Soon after his death, Bruno and his companions were venerated as martyrs and Bruno was soon after canonized.",
"It was said that Braunsberg was named after St Bruno.",
"\n*Name of Lithuania\n* A. Bumblauskas.",
"Lithuania’s Millennium –Millennium Lithuaniae Or What Lithuania Can Tell the World on this Occasion.",
"''Lietuvos istorijos studijos'', 2009, t. 23, p. 127–158.",
"* A. Bumblauskas.",
"Lithuania's Millennium – Millennium Lithuaniae\n* D. Baronas.",
"ST BRUNO OF QUERFURT: THE MISSIONARY VOCATION.",
"''LITHUANIAN HISTORICAL STUDIES'', 2009, t. 14. p. 41–52.",
"\n\n* Saint Bruno Querfurt"
] | river |
[
"\n1669 report that claims a woman fasted for 12 months\n'''Inedia''' (Latin for \"fasting\") or '''breatharianism''' is the belief that it is possible for a person to live without consuming food. Breatharians claim that food, and in some cases water, are not necessary for survival, and that humans can be sustained solely by ''prana'', the vital life force in Hinduism. According to Ayurveda, sunlight is one of the main sources of ''prana'', and some practitioners believe that it is possible for a person to survive on sunlight alone. The terms ''breatharianism'' or ''inedia'' may also refer to this philosophy when it is practiced as a lifestyle in place of the usual diet.\n\nBreatharianism is considered a lethal pseudoscience by scientists and medical professionals, and several adherents of these practices have died from starvation and dehydration. Though it is common knowledge that biological entities require sustenance to survive, breatharianism continues.\n",
"Nutritional science proves that fasting for extended periods leads to starvation, dehydration, and eventual death. In the absence of food intake, the body normally burns its own reserves of glycogen, body fat, and muscle. Breatharians claim that their bodies do not consume these reserves while fasting.\n\nSome breatharians have submitted themselves to medical testing, including a hospital's observation of Indian mystic Prahlad Jani appearing to survive without food or water for 15 days, and an Israeli breatharian appearing to survive for eight days on a television documentary. In a handful of documented cases, individuals attempting breatharian fasting have died. Among the claims in support of Inedia investigated by the Indian Rationalist Association, all were found to be fraudulent. In other cases, people have attempted to survive on sunlight alone, only to abandon the effort after losing a large percentage of their body weight.\n",
"\n===Rosicrucianism===\nThe 1670 Rosicrucian text ''Comte de Gabalis'' attributed the practice to the physician and occultist Paracelsus (1493–1541) who was described as having lived \"several years by taking only one half scrupule of Solar Quintessence\". In this book, it is also stated that, \"Paracelsus affirms that He has seen many of the Sages fast twenty years without eating anything whatsoever.\"\n\n===Ram Bahadur Bomjon===\nRam Bahadur Bomjon is a young Nepalese Buddhist monk who lives as an ascetic in a remote area of Nepal. Bomjon appears to go for periods of time without ingesting either food or water. One such period was chronicled in a 2006 Discovery Channel documentary titled ''The Boy With Divine Powers'', which reported that Bomjon neither moved, ate, nor drank anything during 96 hours of filming.\n\n===Prahlad Jani (\"Mataji\")===\nPrahlad Jani is an Indian sadhu who says he has lived without food and water for more than 70 years. His claims were investigated by doctors at Sterling Hospital, Ahmedabad, Gujarat in 2003 and 2010. The study concluded that Prahlad Jani was able to survive under observation for two weeks without either food or water, and had passed no urine or stool, with no need for dialysis. Interviews with the researchers speak of strict observation and relate that round-the-clock observation was ensured by multiple CCTV cameras. Jani was subjected to multiple medical tests, and his only contact with any form of fluid was during bathing and gargling, with the fluid spat out measured by the doctors. The research team could not comment on his claim of having been able to survive in this way for decades.\n\nThe case has attracted criticism, both after the 2003 tests and the 2010 tests. Sanal Edamaruku, president of the Indian Rationalist Association, criticized the 2010 experiment for allowing Jani to move out of a certain CCTV camera's field of view, meet devotees and leave the sealed test room to sunbathe. Edamaruku stated that the regular gargling and bathing activities were not sufficiently monitored, and accused Jani of having had some \"influential protectors\" who denied Edamaruku permission to inspect the project during its operation.\n\n===Jasmuheen===\nJasmuheen (born Ellen Greve) was a prominent advocate of breatharianism in the 1990s. She said \"I can go for months and months without having anything at all other than a cup of tea. My body runs on a different kind of nourishment.\" Interviewers found her house stocked with food; Jasmuheen claimed the food was for her husband and daughter. In 1999, she volunteered to be monitored closely by the Australian television program ''60 Minutes'' for one week without eating to demonstrate her methods. Jasmuheen stated that she found it difficult on the third day of the test because the hotel room in which she was confined was located near a busy road, causing stress and pollution that prevented absorption of required nutrients from the air. \"I asked for fresh air. Seventy percent of my nutrients come from fresh air. I couldn’t even breathe,\" she said. The third day the test was moved to a mountainside retreat where her condition continued to deteriorate. After Jasmuheen had fasted for four days, Dr. Berris Wink, president of the Queensland branch of the Australian Medical Association, urged her to stop the test.\n\nAccording to Dr. Wink, Jasmuheen’s pupils were dilated, her speech was slow, and she was \"quite dehydrated, probably over 10%, getting up to 11%\". Towards the end of the test, she said, \"Her pulse is about double what it was when she started. The risks if she goes any further are kidney failure. ''60 Minutes'' would be culpable if they encouraged her to continue. She should stop now.\" The test was stopped. Dr. Wink said, \"Unfortunately there are a few people who may believe what she says, and I'm sure it's only a few, but I think it's quite irresponsible for somebody to be trying to encourage others to do something that is so detrimental to their health.\" Jasmuheen challenged the results of the program, saying, \"Look, 6,000 people have done this around the world without any problem.\"\n\nJasmuheen was awarded the Bent Spoon Award by Australian Skeptics in 2000 (\"presented to the perpetrator of the most preposterous piece of paranormal or pseudoscientific piffle\"). She also won the 2000 Ig Nobel Prize for Literature for ''Living on Light''. Jasmuheen claims that their beliefs are based on the writings and \"more recent channelled material\" from St. Germain. She stated that some people's DNA has expanded from 2 to 12 strands, to \"absorb more hydrogen\". When offered $30,000 to prove her claim with a blood test, she said that she didn't understand the relevance as she was not referring to herself.\n\nIn the documentary ''No Way to Heaven'' the Swiss chemist Michael Werner claims to have followed the directions appearing on Jasmuheen's books, living for several years without food. The documentary also describes two attempts at scientific verification of his claims. , five deaths had been directly linked to breatharianism as a result of Jasmuheen's publications. Jasmuheen has denied any responsibility for the deaths.\n\n===Wiley Brooks===\nWiley Brooks is the founder of the Breatharian Institute of America. He was first introduced to the public in 1980 when he appeared on the TV show ''That's Incredible!''. Brooks stopped teaching recently to \"devote 100% of his time on solving the problem as to why he needed to eat some type of food to keep his physical body alive and allow his light body to manifest completely.\" Brooks claims to have found \"four major deterrents\" which prevented him from living without food: \"people pollution\", \"food pollution\", \"air pollution\" and \"electro pollution\".\n\nIn 1983 he was reportedly observed leaving a Santa Cruz 7-Eleven with a Slurpee, a hot dog, and Twinkies. He told ''Colors'' magazine in 2003 that he periodically breaks his fasting with a cheeseburger and a cola, explaining that when he's surrounded by junk culture and junk food, consuming them adds balance. \n\nWiley Brooks later claimed that Diet Coke and McDonald's cheeseburgers have special \"5D\" properties. The idea of separate but interconnected 5D and 3D worlds is a major part of Wiley Brooks' ideology, and Wiley Brooks encourages his followers to only eat these special 5D foods, as well as meditate on a set of magical 5D words.\n\nBrooks's institute has charged varying fees to prospective clients who wished to learn how to live without food, which have ranged from US$100,000 with an initial deposit of $10,000 to one billion dollars, to be paid via bank wire transfer with a preliminary deposit of $100,000, for a session called \"Immortality workshop\". A payment plan was also offered. These charges have typically been presented as limited time offers exclusively for billionaires.\n\n===Hira Ratan Manek===\nHira Ratan Manek (born 12 September 1937) claims that since 18 June 1995 he has lived on water and occasionally tea, coffee, and buttermilk. Manek states that Sungazing is the key to his health citing yogis, ancient Egyptians, Aztecs, Mayans and Native Americans as practitioners of the art. While he and his proponents state that medical experts have confirmed his ability to draw sustenance by gazing at the sun, he was caught on camera eating a big meal in a San Francisco restaurant in the 2011 documentary ''Eat the Sun''.\n\n===Ray Maor===\nIn a television documentary produced by the Israeli television investigative show ''The Real Face'' (פנים אמיתיות) hosted by Amnon Levy, Israeli practitioner of Inedia, Ray Maor (ריי מאור), appeared to survive without food or water for eight days and eight nights. According to the documentary, he was restricted to a small villa and placed under constant video surveillance, with medical supervision that included daily blood testing. The documentary claimed Maor was in good spirits throughout the experiment, lost 17 lb after eight days, blood tests showed no change before, during or after the experiment, and Cardiologist Ilan Kitsis from Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center was \"baffled.\"\n",
"\n===Buddhism===\n* Fuhui (福慧)\n\n===Hinduism===\nHindu religious texts contain account of saints and hermits practicing what would be called inedia, breatharianism or Sustenance through Light in modern terms. In Valmiki's Ramayana, Book III, Canto VI, an account of anchorites and holy men is given, who flocked around Rama when he came to Śarabhanga's hermitage. These included, among others, the \"...saints who live on rays which moon and daystar give\" and \"those ... whose food the wave of air supplies\". In Canto XI of the same book a hermit named Māṇḍakarṇi is mentioned: \"For he, great votarist, intent – On strictest rule his stern life spent – ... – Ten thousand years on air he fed...\" (English quotations are from Ralph T. H. Griffith's translation).\n\nParamahansa Yogananda's ''Autobiography of a Yogi'' details two alleged historical examples of breatharianism, Hari Giri Baba and Therese Neumann.\n\nThere are claims that Devraha Baba lived without food.\n\n===Taoism===\n* Bigu (avoiding grains)\n* Chi Song Zi (赤松子)\n",
"* ''No Way to Heaven'', a 2008 documentary on breatharianism\n* ''In the Beginning There Was Light'', a 2010 Austrian documentary on breatharianism\n* Fasting girls\n* Sungazing\n",
"\n",
"\n* A list of historical and contemporary breatharians\n* ''Living on Light'' at Google Videos – episode of ''60 Minutes'' (Jasmuheen's aborted experiment)\n* Skeptic's Dictionary article on Breatharianism\n* Past Breatharian hoaxes in India\n* Professor claims to survive on just sunshine and fruit juice\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Scientific assessment",
"Practitioners",
"Religious traditions",
" See also ",
"References",
"External links"
] | Inedia | [
"Brooks's institute has charged varying fees to prospective clients who wished to learn how to live without food, which have ranged from US$100,000 with an initial deposit of $10,000 to one billion dollars, to be paid via bank wire transfer with a preliminary deposit of $100,000, for a session called \"Immortality workshop\"."
] | [
"\n1669 report that claims a woman fasted for 12 months\n'''Inedia''' (Latin for \"fasting\") or '''breatharianism''' is the belief that it is possible for a person to live without consuming food.",
"Breatharians claim that food, and in some cases water, are not necessary for survival, and that humans can be sustained solely by ''prana'', the vital life force in Hinduism.",
"According to Ayurveda, sunlight is one of the main sources of ''prana'', and some practitioners believe that it is possible for a person to survive on sunlight alone.",
"The terms ''breatharianism'' or ''inedia'' may also refer to this philosophy when it is practiced as a lifestyle in place of the usual diet.",
"Breatharianism is considered a lethal pseudoscience by scientists and medical professionals, and several adherents of these practices have died from starvation and dehydration.",
"Though it is common knowledge that biological entities require sustenance to survive, breatharianism continues.",
"Nutritional science proves that fasting for extended periods leads to starvation, dehydration, and eventual death.",
"In the absence of food intake, the body normally burns its own reserves of glycogen, body fat, and muscle.",
"Breatharians claim that their bodies do not consume these reserves while fasting.",
"Some breatharians have submitted themselves to medical testing, including a hospital's observation of Indian mystic Prahlad Jani appearing to survive without food or water for 15 days, and an Israeli breatharian appearing to survive for eight days on a television documentary.",
"In a handful of documented cases, individuals attempting breatharian fasting have died.",
"Among the claims in support of Inedia investigated by the Indian Rationalist Association, all were found to be fraudulent.",
"In other cases, people have attempted to survive on sunlight alone, only to abandon the effort after losing a large percentage of their body weight.",
"\n===Rosicrucianism===\nThe 1670 Rosicrucian text ''Comte de Gabalis'' attributed the practice to the physician and occultist Paracelsus (1493–1541) who was described as having lived \"several years by taking only one half scrupule of Solar Quintessence\".",
"In this book, it is also stated that, \"Paracelsus affirms that He has seen many of the Sages fast twenty years without eating anything whatsoever.\"",
"===Ram Bahadur Bomjon===\nRam Bahadur Bomjon is a young Nepalese Buddhist monk who lives as an ascetic in a remote area of Nepal.",
"Bomjon appears to go for periods of time without ingesting either food or water.",
"One such period was chronicled in a 2006 Discovery Channel documentary titled ''The Boy With Divine Powers'', which reported that Bomjon neither moved, ate, nor drank anything during 96 hours of filming.",
"===Prahlad Jani (\"Mataji\")===\nPrahlad Jani is an Indian sadhu who says he has lived without food and water for more than 70 years.",
"His claims were investigated by doctors at Sterling Hospital, Ahmedabad, Gujarat in 2003 and 2010.",
"The study concluded that Prahlad Jani was able to survive under observation for two weeks without either food or water, and had passed no urine or stool, with no need for dialysis.",
"Interviews with the researchers speak of strict observation and relate that round-the-clock observation was ensured by multiple CCTV cameras.",
"Jani was subjected to multiple medical tests, and his only contact with any form of fluid was during bathing and gargling, with the fluid spat out measured by the doctors.",
"The research team could not comment on his claim of having been able to survive in this way for decades.",
"The case has attracted criticism, both after the 2003 tests and the 2010 tests.",
"Sanal Edamaruku, president of the Indian Rationalist Association, criticized the 2010 experiment for allowing Jani to move out of a certain CCTV camera's field of view, meet devotees and leave the sealed test room to sunbathe.",
"Edamaruku stated that the regular gargling and bathing activities were not sufficiently monitored, and accused Jani of having had some \"influential protectors\" who denied Edamaruku permission to inspect the project during its operation.",
"===Jasmuheen===\nJasmuheen (born Ellen Greve) was a prominent advocate of breatharianism in the 1990s.",
"She said \"I can go for months and months without having anything at all other than a cup of tea.",
"My body runs on a different kind of nourishment.\"",
"Interviewers found her house stocked with food; Jasmuheen claimed the food was for her husband and daughter.",
"In 1999, she volunteered to be monitored closely by the Australian television program ''60 Minutes'' for one week without eating to demonstrate her methods.",
"Jasmuheen stated that she found it difficult on the third day of the test because the hotel room in which she was confined was located near a busy road, causing stress and pollution that prevented absorption of required nutrients from the air.",
"\"I asked for fresh air.",
"Seventy percent of my nutrients come from fresh air.",
"I couldn’t even breathe,\" she said.",
"The third day the test was moved to a mountainside retreat where her condition continued to deteriorate.",
"After Jasmuheen had fasted for four days, Dr. Berris Wink, president of the Queensland branch of the Australian Medical Association, urged her to stop the test.",
"According to Dr. Wink, Jasmuheen’s pupils were dilated, her speech was slow, and she was \"quite dehydrated, probably over 10%, getting up to 11%\".",
"Towards the end of the test, she said, \"Her pulse is about double what it was when she started.",
"The risks if she goes any further are kidney failure.",
"''60 Minutes'' would be culpable if they encouraged her to continue.",
"She should stop now.\"",
"The test was stopped.",
"Dr. Wink said, \"Unfortunately there are a few people who may believe what she says, and I'm sure it's only a few, but I think it's quite irresponsible for somebody to be trying to encourage others to do something that is so detrimental to their health.\"",
"Jasmuheen challenged the results of the program, saying, \"Look, 6,000 people have done this around the world without any problem.\"",
"Jasmuheen was awarded the Bent Spoon Award by Australian Skeptics in 2000 (\"presented to the perpetrator of the most preposterous piece of paranormal or pseudoscientific piffle\").",
"She also won the 2000 Ig Nobel Prize for Literature for ''Living on Light''.",
"Jasmuheen claims that their beliefs are based on the writings and \"more recent channelled material\" from St. Germain.",
"She stated that some people's DNA has expanded from 2 to 12 strands, to \"absorb more hydrogen\".",
"When offered $30,000 to prove her claim with a blood test, she said that she didn't understand the relevance as she was not referring to herself.",
"In the documentary ''No Way to Heaven'' the Swiss chemist Michael Werner claims to have followed the directions appearing on Jasmuheen's books, living for several years without food.",
"The documentary also describes two attempts at scientific verification of his claims.",
", five deaths had been directly linked to breatharianism as a result of Jasmuheen's publications.",
"Jasmuheen has denied any responsibility for the deaths.",
"===Wiley Brooks===\nWiley Brooks is the founder of the Breatharian Institute of America.",
"He was first introduced to the public in 1980 when he appeared on the TV show ''That's Incredible!''.",
"Brooks stopped teaching recently to \"devote 100% of his time on solving the problem as to why he needed to eat some type of food to keep his physical body alive and allow his light body to manifest completely.\"",
"Brooks claims to have found \"four major deterrents\" which prevented him from living without food: \"people pollution\", \"food pollution\", \"air pollution\" and \"electro pollution\".",
"In 1983 he was reportedly observed leaving a Santa Cruz 7-Eleven with a Slurpee, a hot dog, and Twinkies.",
"He told ''Colors'' magazine in 2003 that he periodically breaks his fasting with a cheeseburger and a cola, explaining that when he's surrounded by junk culture and junk food, consuming them adds balance.",
"Wiley Brooks later claimed that Diet Coke and McDonald's cheeseburgers have special \"5D\" properties.",
"The idea of separate but interconnected 5D and 3D worlds is a major part of Wiley Brooks' ideology, and Wiley Brooks encourages his followers to only eat these special 5D foods, as well as meditate on a set of magical 5D words.",
"A payment plan was also offered.",
"These charges have typically been presented as limited time offers exclusively for billionaires.",
"===Hira Ratan Manek===\nHira Ratan Manek (born 12 September 1937) claims that since 18 June 1995 he has lived on water and occasionally tea, coffee, and buttermilk.",
"Manek states that Sungazing is the key to his health citing yogis, ancient Egyptians, Aztecs, Mayans and Native Americans as practitioners of the art.",
"While he and his proponents state that medical experts have confirmed his ability to draw sustenance by gazing at the sun, he was caught on camera eating a big meal in a San Francisco restaurant in the 2011 documentary ''Eat the Sun''.",
"===Ray Maor===\nIn a television documentary produced by the Israeli television investigative show ''The Real Face'' (פנים אמיתיות) hosted by Amnon Levy, Israeli practitioner of Inedia, Ray Maor (ריי מאור), appeared to survive without food or water for eight days and eight nights.",
"According to the documentary, he was restricted to a small villa and placed under constant video surveillance, with medical supervision that included daily blood testing.",
"The documentary claimed Maor was in good spirits throughout the experiment, lost 17 lb after eight days, blood tests showed no change before, during or after the experiment, and Cardiologist Ilan Kitsis from Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center was \"baffled.\"",
"\n===Buddhism===\n* Fuhui (福慧)\n\n===Hinduism===\nHindu religious texts contain account of saints and hermits practicing what would be called inedia, breatharianism or Sustenance through Light in modern terms.",
"In Valmiki's Ramayana, Book III, Canto VI, an account of anchorites and holy men is given, who flocked around Rama when he came to Śarabhanga's hermitage.",
"These included, among others, the \"...saints who live on rays which moon and daystar give\" and \"those ... whose food the wave of air supplies\".",
"In Canto XI of the same book a hermit named Māṇḍakarṇi is mentioned: \"For he, great votarist, intent – On strictest rule his stern life spent – ... – Ten thousand years on air he fed...\" (English quotations are from Ralph T. H. Griffith's translation).",
"Paramahansa Yogananda's ''Autobiography of a Yogi'' details two alleged historical examples of breatharianism, Hari Giri Baba and Therese Neumann.",
"There are claims that Devraha Baba lived without food.",
"===Taoism===\n* Bigu (avoiding grains)\n* Chi Song Zi (赤松子)",
"* ''No Way to Heaven'', a 2008 documentary on breatharianism\n* ''In the Beginning There Was Light'', a 2010 Austrian documentary on breatharianism\n* Fasting girls\n* Sungazing",
"\n* A list of historical and contemporary breatharians\n* ''Living on Light'' at Google Videos – episode of ''60 Minutes'' (Jasmuheen's aborted experiment)\n* Skeptic's Dictionary article on Breatharianism\n* Past Breatharian hoaxes in India\n* Professor claims to survive on just sunshine and fruit juice"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n= Flag of Belfast.\n\n\n'''Belfast''' ( or ; ) is the capital and largest city of Northern Ireland, and the second largest on the island of Ireland. On the River Lagan, it had a population of 333,871 in 2015. Belfast was granted city status in 1888.\n\nBelfast was a centre of the Irish linen, tobacco-processing, rope-making and shipbuilding industries: in the early 20th century, Harland and Wolff, which built the , was the world's biggest and most productive shipyard. Belfast played a key role in the Industrial Revolution, and was a global industrial centre until the latter half of the 20th century. It has sustained a major aerospace and missiles industry since the mid 1930s. Industrialisation and the inward migration it brought made Belfast Ireland's biggest city at the beginning of the 20th century.\n\nToday, Belfast remains a centre for industry, as well as the arts, higher education, business, and law, and is the economic engine of Northern Ireland. The city suffered greatly during the Troubles, but latterly has undergone a sustained period of calm, free from the intense political violence of former years, and substantial economic and commercial growth. Additionally, Belfast city centre has undergone considerable expansion and regeneration in recent years, notably around Victoria Square.\n\nBelfast is served by two airports: George Best Belfast City Airport in the city, and Belfast International Airport west of the city. Belfast is a major port, with commercial and industrial docks dominating the Belfast Lough shoreline, including the Harland and Wolff shipyard, and is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network (GaWC) as a global city.\n",
"\nThe name Belfast is derived from the Irish '''', which was later spelt ''''. The word '''' means \"mouth\" or \"rivermouth\" while '''' is the genitive singular of '''' and refers to a sandbar or tidal ford across a river's mouth. The name would thus translate literally as \"(river) mouth of the sandbar\" or \"(river) mouth of the ford\". This sandbar was formed at the confluence of two rivers at what is now Donegall Quay: the Lagan, which flows into Belfast Lough, and its tributary the Farset. This area was the hub around which the original settlement developed. The Irish name '''' is shared by a townland in County Mayo, whose name has been anglicised as ''Belfarsad''.\n\nAn alternative interpretation of the name is \"mouth of the river of the sandbar\", an allusion to the River Farset, which flows into the Lagan where the sandbar was located. This interpretation was favoured by Edmund Hogan and John O'Donovan. It seems clear, however, that the river itself was named after the tidal crossing.\n\nIn Ulster-Scots, the name of the city has been variously translated as ''Bilfawst'', ''Bilfaust'' or ''Baelfawst'', although \"Belfast\" is also used.\n",
"\n\nAlthough the county borough of Belfast was created when it was granted city status by Queen Victoria in 1888, the city continues to be viewed as straddling County Antrim and County Down.\n\n===Origins===\nBelfast Castle\n\nThe site of Belfast has been occupied since the Bronze Age. The Giant's Ring, a 5,000-year-old henge, is located near the city, and the remains of Iron Age hill forts can still be seen in the surrounding hills. Belfast remained a small settlement of little importance during the Middle Ages. John de Courcy built a castle on what is now Castle Street in the city centre in the 12th century, but this was on a lesser scale and not as strategically important as Carrickfergus Castle to the north, which was built by de Courcy in 1177. The O'Neill clan had a presence in the area.\n\nIn the 14th century, Cloinne Aodha Buidhe, descendants of Aodh Buidhe O'Neill built Grey Castle at Castlereagh, now in the east of the city. Conn O'Neill of the Clannaboy O'Neills owned vast lands in the area and was the last inhabitant of Grey Castle, one remaining link being the Conn's Water river flowing through east Belfast.\n\n===Growth===\nCastle Place, Belfast in c.1830\nBelfast became a substantial settlement in the 17th century after being established as a town by Sir Arthur Chichester, which was initially settled by Protestant English and Scottish migrants at the time of the Plantation of Ulster. (Belfast and County Antrim, however, did not form part of this particular Plantation scheme as they were privately colonised.) In 1791, the Society of United Irishmen was founded in Belfast, after Henry Joy McCracken and other prominent Presbyterians from the city invited Theobald Wolfe Tone and Thomas Russell to a meeting, after having read Tone's \"Argument on Behalf of the Catholics of Ireland\". Evidence of this period of Belfast's growth can still be seen in the oldest areas of the city, known as the Entries.\n\nDonegall Square in the early 1900s\nBelfast blossomed as a commercial and industrial centre in the 18th and 19th centuries and became Ireland's pre-eminent industrial city. Industries thrived, including linen, rope-making, tobacco, heavy engineering and shipbuilding, and at the end of the 19th century, Belfast briefly overtook Dublin as the largest city in Ireland. The Harland and Wolff shipyards became one of the largest shipbuilders in the world, employing up to 35,000 workers. In 1886 the city suffered intense riots over the issue of home rule, which had divided the city.\n\nIn 1920–22, Belfast became the capital of the new entity of Northern Ireland as the island of Ireland was partitioned. The accompanying conflict (the Irish War of Independence) cost up to 500 lives in Belfast, the bloodiest sectarian strife in the city until the Troubles of the late 1960s onwards.\n\nAftermath of the Blitz in May 1941\n\nBelfast was heavily bombed during World War II. In one raid, in 1941, German bombers killed around one thousand people and left tens of thousands homeless. Apart from London, this was the greatest loss of life in a night raid during the Blitz.\n\n===The Troubles===\n\nBelfast has been the capital of Northern Ireland since its establishment in 1921 following the Government of Ireland Act 1920. It had been the scene of various episodes of sectarian conflict between its Catholic and Protestant populations. These opposing groups in this conflict are now often termed republican and loyalist respectively, although they are also loosely referred to as 'nationalist' and 'unionist'. The most recent example of this conflict was known as the Troubles – a civil conflict that raged from around 1969 to 1998.\n\nBelfast saw some of the worst of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, particularly in the 1970s, with rival paramilitary groups formed on both sides. Bombing, assassination and street violence formed a backdrop to life throughout the Troubles. The Provisional IRA detonated 22 bombs within the confines of Belfast city centre in 1972, on what is known as \"Bloody Friday\", killing eleven people. Loyalist paramilitaries including the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and the Ulster Defence Association (UDA) claimed that the killings they carried out were in retaliation for the IRA campaign. Most of their victims were Catholics with no links to the Provisional IRA. A particularly notorious group, based on the Shankill Road in the mid-1970s, became known as the Shankill Butchers.\n\nIn all, over 1,600 people were killed in political violence in the city between 1969 and 2001. Sporadic violent events continue , although not supported by the previous antagonists who had reached political agreement in 1998.\n\n",
"Belfast was granted borough status by James VI and I in 1613 and official city status by Queen Victoria in 1888. Since 1973 it has been a local government district under local administration by Belfast City Council. Belfast is represented in both the British House of Commons and in the Northern Ireland Assembly. For elections to the European Parliament, Belfast is within the Northern Ireland constituency.\n\n===Local government===\n\nBelfast City Hall\n\nBelfast City Council is the local council with responsibility for the city. The city's elected officials are the Lord Mayor of Belfast, Deputy Lord Mayor and High Sheriff who are elected from among 60 councillors. The first Lord Mayor of Belfast was Daniel Dixon, who was elected in 1892. The Lord Mayor for 2016–17 is Alderman Brian Kingston of the Democratic Unionist Party, while the Deputy Lord Mayor is Mary Ellen Campbell of Sinn Féin, both of whom were elected in June 2016 to serve a one-year term. The Lord Mayor's duties include presiding over meetings of the council, receiving distinguished visitors to the city, and representing and promoting the city on the national and international stage.\n\nIn 1997, Unionists lost overall control of Belfast City Council for the first time in its history, with the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland gaining the balance of power between Nationalists and Unionists. This position was confirmed in the three subsequent council elections, with mayors from Sinn Féin and the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP), both of whom are Nationalist parties, and the cross-community Alliance Party regularly elected since. The first nationalist Lord Mayor of Belfast was Alban Maginness of the SDLP, in 1997.\n\nThe last elections to Belfast City Council were held on 22 May 2014, with the city's voters electing sixty councillors across ten district electoral areas. The results were: 19(+3) Sinn Féin, 13(−2) Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), 8(+2) Alliance Party, 7(−1) SDLP, 7(+4) Ulster Unionist Party (UUP), 3(+1) Progressive Unionist Party (PUP), with the Traditional Unionist Voice. Greens and People Before Profit Alliance all winning their first seats.\n\nBelfast council takes part in the twinning scheme, and is twinned with Nashville, in the United States, Hefei in China, and Boston, in the United States.\n\n===Northern Ireland Assembly and Westminster===\nStormont is home to the Northern Ireland Assembly.\n\n\n\n\nAs Northern Ireland's capital city, Belfast is host to the Northern Ireland Assembly at Stormont, the site of the devolved legislature for Northern Ireland. Belfast is divided into four Northern Ireland Assembly and UK parliamentary constituencies: Belfast North, Belfast West, Belfast South and Belfast East. All four extend beyond the city boundaries to include parts of Castlereagh, Lisburn and Newtownabbey districts. In the Northern Ireland Assembly Elections in 2017, Belfast elected 20 Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs), 5 from each constituency. Belfast elected 7 Sinn Féin, 5 DUP, 2 SDLP, 3 Alliance Party, 1 UUP, 1 Green and 1 PBPA MLAs. In the 2017 UK general election, Belfast elected one MP from each constituency to the House of Commons at Westminster, London. This comprised 3 DUP and 1 Sinn Féin.\n\n\n===Coat of arms and motto===\nBelfast's coat of arms was adopted in 1890\n\nThe city of Belfast has the Latin motto \".\" This is taken from Psalms 116 Verse 12 in the Latin Vulgate Bible and is literally \"For so much what shall we repay \" The verse has been translated in bibles differently – for example as \"What shall I render unto the Lord for all his benefits toward me?\". It is also translated as \"In return for so much, what shall we give back?\" The Queen's University Students' Union Rag Week publication ''PTQ'' derives its name from the first three words of the motto.\n\nThe coat of arms of the city were designed by John Vinycomb and are blazoned as ''Party per fesse argent and azure, in chief a pile vair and on a canton gules a bell argent, in base a ship with sails set argent on waves of the sea proper''. This heraldic language describes a shield that is divided in two horizontally (''party per fesse''). The top (''chief'') of the shield is silver (''argent''), and has a point-down triangle (''a pile'') with a repeating blue-and-white pattern that represents fur (''vair''). There is also a red square in the top corner (''a canton gules'') on which there is a silver bell. It is likely that the bell is an example here of \"canting\" (or punning) heraldry, representing the first syllable of Belfast. In the lower part of the shield (''in base'') there is a silver sailing ship shown sailing on waves coloured in the actual colours of the sea (''proper''). The supporter on the \"dexter\" side (the right hand side, to note that in heraldry \"right and \"left\" are from the wearer of the shield's perspective) is a chained wolf, while on the \"sinister\" (the left side from the bearer's perspective) is a sea-horse. The crest above the shield is also a sea-horse. These arms date back to 1613, when James VI and I granted Belfast town status. The seal was used by Belfast merchants throughout the 17th century on their signs and trade-coins. A large stained glass window in the City Hall displays the arms, where an explanation suggests that the seahorse and the ship refer to Belfast's significant maritime history. The wolf may be a tribute to the city's founder, Sir Arthur Chichester, and refer to his own coat of arms.\n",
"alt=Aerial photo of urban sprawl, edged by green hills and sea shore, and bisected by a winding river.\nBelfast is at the western end of Belfast Lough and at the mouth of the River Lagan giving it the ideal location for the shipbuilding industry that once made it famous. When the ''Titanic'' was built in Belfast in 1911–1912, Harland and Wolff had the largest shipyard in the world.\nBelfast is situated on Northern Ireland's eastern coast at . A consequence of this northern latitude is that it both endures short winter days and enjoys long summer evenings. During the winter solstice, the shortest day of the year, local sunset is before 16:00 while sunrise is around 08:45. This is balanced by the summer solstice in June, when the sun sets after 22:00 and rises before 05:00.\n\nOpenStreetMap of metro Belfast-Lisburn\nIn 1994, a weir was built across the river by the Laganside Corporation to raise the average water level so that it would cover the unseemly mud flats which gave Belfast its name (). The area of Belfast Local Government District is .\n\nThe River Farset is also named after this silt deposit (from the Irish ''feirste'' meaning \"sand spit\"). Originally a more significant river than it is today, the Farset formed a dock on High Street until the mid 19th century. Bank Street in the city centre referred to the river bank and Bridge Street was named for the site of an early Farset bridge. Superseded by the River Lagan as the more important river in the city, the Farset now languishes in obscurity, under High Street. There are no less than eleven other minor rivers in and around Belfast, namely the Blackstaff, the Colin, the Connswater, the Cregagh, the Derriaghy, the Forth, the Knock, the Legoniel, the Milewater, the Purdysburn and the Ravernet.\n\nCavehill, a basaltic hill overlooking the city\nThe city is flanked on the north and northwest by a series of hills, including Divis Mountain, Black Mountain and Cavehill, thought to be the inspiration for Jonathan Swift's ''Gulliver's Travels''. When Swift was living at Lilliput Cottage near the bottom of Belfast's Limestone Road, he imagined that the Cavehill resembled the shape of a sleeping giant safeguarding the city. The shape of the giant's nose, known locally as ''Napoleon's Nose'', is officially called McArt's Fort probably named after Art O'Neill, a 17th-century chieftain who controlled the area at that time. The Castlereagh Hills overlook the city on the southeast.\n\n===Climate===\nAs with the rest of Ireland, Belfast has a temperate or oceanic climate, with a narrow range of temperatures and rainfall throughout the year. The climate of Belfast is significantly milder than some other locations in the world at a similar latitude, due to the warming influence of the Gulf Stream. There are currently 5 weather observing stations in the Belfast area: Helens Bay, Stormont, Newforge, Castlereagh, and Ravenhill Road. Slightly further afield is Aldergrove Airport. The highest temperature recorded at any official weather station in the Belfast area was at Shaws Bridge on 12 July 1983. Belfast holds the record for Northern Ireland's warmest night time minimum, at Whitehouse on 14 August 2001.\n\nThe city gets significant precipitation (greater than 1mm) on 157 days in an average year with an average annual rainfall of , less than areas of northern England or most of Scotland, but higher than Dublin or the south-east coast of Ireland. As an urban and coastal area, Belfast typically gets snow on fewer than 10 days per year. The absolute maximum temperature at the weather station at Stormont is , set during July 1983. In an average year the warmest day will rise to a temperature of with a day of or above occurring roughly once every two in three years. The absolute minimum temperature at Stormont is , during January 1982, although in an average year the coldest night will fall no lower than with air frost being recorded on just 26 nights. The lowest temperature to occur in recent years was on 22 December 2010.\n\nThe nearest weather station for which sunshine data and longer term observations are available is Belfast International Airport (Aldergrove). Temperature extremes here have slightly more variability due to the more inland location. The average warmest day at Aldergrove for example will reach a temperature of , ( higher than Stormont) and 2.1 days should attain a temperature of or above in total. Conversely the coldest night of the year averages (or lower than Stormont) and 39 nights should register an air frost. Some 13 more frosty nights than Stormont. The minimum temperature at Aldergrove was , during December 2010.\n\n\n\n\n\n===Areas and districts===\n\nRoyal Avenue in Belfast\n\nBelfast expanded very rapidly from being a market town to becoming an industrial city during the course of the 19th century. Because of this, it is less an agglomeration of villages and towns which have expanded into each other, than other comparable cities, such as Manchester or Birmingham. The city expanded to the natural barrier of the hills that surround it, overwhelming other settlements. Consequently, the arterial roads along which this expansion took place (such as the Falls Road or the Newtownards Road) are more significant in defining the districts of the city than nucleated settlements. Belfast remains segregated by walls, commonly known as \"peace lines\", erected by the British Army after August 1969, and which still divide 14 districts in the inner city. In 2008 a process was proposed for the removal of the 'peace walls'. In June 2007, a £16 million programme was announced which will transform and redevelop streets and public spaces in the city centre. Major arterial roads (quality bus corridor) into the city include the Antrim Road, Shore Road, Holywood Road, Newtownards Road, Castlereagh Road, Cregagh Road, Ormeau Road, Malone Road, Lisburn Road, Falls Road, Springfield Road, Shankill Road, and Crumlin Road, Four Winds.\n\nSt Anne's Cathedral\nBelfast city centre is divided into two postcode districts, ''BT1'' for the area lying north of the City Hall, and ''BT2'' for the area to its south. The industrial estate and docklands ''BT3''. The rest of the Belfast post town is divided in a broadly clockwise system from ''BT3'' in the north-east round to ''BT15'', with ''BT16'' and ''BT17'' further out to the east and west respectively. Although ''BT'' derives from ''Belfast'', the BT postcode area extends across the whole of Northern Ireland.\n\nSince 2001, boosted by increasing numbers of tourists, the city council has developed a number of cultural quarters. The '''Cathedral Quarter''' takes its name from St Anne's Cathedral (Church of Ireland) and has taken on the mantle of the city's key cultural locality. It hosts a yearly visual and performing arts festival.\n\nCustom House Square is one of the city's main outdoor venues for free concerts and street entertainment. The '''Gaeltacht Quarter''' is an area around the Falls Road in west Belfast which promotes and encourages the use of the Irish language. The '''Queen's Quarter''' in south Belfast is named after Queen's University. The area has a large student population and hosts the annual Belfast Festival at Queen's each autumn. It is home to Botanic Gardens and the Ulster Museum, which was reopened in 2009 after major redevelopment. The Golden Mile is the name given to the mile between Belfast City Hall and Queen's University. Taking in Dublin Road, Great Victoria Street, Shaftesbury Square and Bradbury Place, it contains some of the best bars and restaurants in the city. Since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, the nearby Lisburn Road has developed into the city's most exclusive shopping strip. Finally, the '''Titanic Quarter''' covers of reclaimed land adjacent to Belfast Harbour, formerly known as ''Queen's Island''. Named after ''RMS Titanic'', which was built here in 1912, work has begun which promises to transform some former shipyard land into \"one of the largest waterfront developments in Europe\". Plans include apartments, a riverside entertainment district, and a major Titanic-themed museum.\n",
"\n\n\n===Architecture===\n\nObel Tower is the tallest building in Belfast and Ireland.\n\nThe architectural style of Belfast's buildings range from Edwardian, like the City Hall, to modern, like Waterfront Hall. Many of the city's Victorian landmarks, including the main ''Lanyon Building'' at Queen's University Belfast and the Linenhall Library, were designed by Sir Charles Lanyon.\n\nThe City Hall was finished in 1906 and was built to reflect Belfast's city status, granted by Queen Victoria in 1888. The Edwardian architectural style of Belfast City Hall influenced the Victoria Memorial in Calcutta, India, and Durban City Hall in South Africa. The dome is high and figures above the door state \"Hibernia encouraging and promoting the Commerce and Arts of the City\".\n\nAmong the city's grandest buildings are two former banks: Ulster Bank in Waring Street (built in 1860) and Northern Bank, in nearby Donegall Street (built in 1769). The Royal Courts of Justice in Chichester Street are home to Northern Ireland's Supreme Court. Many of Belfast's oldest buildings are found in the Cathedral Quarter area, which is currently undergoing redevelopment as the city's main cultural and tourist area. Windsor House, high, has 23 floors and is the second tallest building (as distinct from structure) in Ireland. Work has started on the taller Obel Tower, which already surpasses the height of Windsor House in its unfinished state.\n\nScottish Provident Institution, an example of Victorian architecture in Belfast\nThe ornately decorated Crown Liquor Saloon, designed by Joseph Anderson in 1876, in Great Victoria Street is one of only two pubs in the UK that are owned by the National Trust (the other is the George Inn, Southwark in London). It was made internationally famous as the setting for the classic film, ''Odd Man Out'', starring James Mason. The restaurant panels in the Crown Bar were originally made for ''Britannic'', the sister ship of the ''Titanic'', built in Belfast.\n\nThe Harland and Wolff shipyard has two of the largest dry docks in Europe, where the giant cranes, Samson and Goliath stand out against Belfast's skyline.\nIncluding the Waterfront Hall and the Odyssey Arena, Belfast has several other venues for performing arts. The architecture of the Grand Opera House has an oriental theme and was completed in 1895. It was bombed several times during the Troubles but has now been restored to its former glory. The Lyric Theatre, (re-opened 1 May 2011 after undergoing a rebuilding programme) the only full-time producing theatre in the country, is where film star Liam Neeson began his career. The Ulster Hall (1859–1862) was originally designed for grand dances but is now used primarily as a concert and sporting venue. Lloyd George, Parnell and Patrick Pearse all attended political rallies there.\n\n===Parks and gardens===\n\nBotanic Gardens\n\nSitting at the mouth of the River Lagan where it becomes a deep and sheltered lough, Belfast is surrounded by mountains that create a micro-climate conducive to horticulture. From the Victorian Botanic Gardens in the heart of the city to the heights of Cave Hill Country Park, the great expanse of Lagan Valley Regional Park to Colin Glen, Belfast contains an abundance of parkland and forest parks.\n\nParks and gardens are an integral part of Belfast's heritage, and home to an abundance of local wildlife and popular places for a picnic, a stroll or a jog. Numerous events take place throughout including festivals such as Rose Week and special activities such as bird watching evenings and great beast hunts.\n\nBelfast has over forty public parks. The Forest of Belfast is a partnership between government and local groups, set up in 1992 to manage and conserve the city's parks and open spaces. They have commissioned more than 30 public sculptures since 1993. In 2006, the City Council set aside £8 million to continue this work. The Belfast Naturalists' Field Club was founded in 1863 and is administered by National Museums and Galleries of Northern Ireland.\n\nWith an average of 670,000 visitors per year between 2007 and 2011, one of the most popular parks is Botanic Gardens in the Queen's Quarter. Built in the 1830s and designed by Sir Charles Lanyon, Botanic Gardens Palm House is one of the earliest examples of a curvilinear and cast iron glasshouse. Other attractions in the park include the Tropical Ravine, a humid jungle glen built in 1889, rose gardens and public events ranging from live opera broadcasts to pop concerts. U2 played here in 1997. Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park, to the south of the city centre, attracts thousands of visitors each year to its International Rose Garden. Rose Week in July each year features over 20,000 blooms. It has an area of of meadows, woodland and gardens and features a Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Garden, a Japanese garden, a walled garden, and the Golden Crown Fountain commissioned in 2002 as part of the Queen's Golden Jubilee celebrations.\n\nIn 2008, Belfast was named a finalist in the Large City (200,001 and over) category of the RHS Britain in Bloom competition along with London Borough of Croydon and Sheffield.\n\nBelfast Zoo is owned by Belfast City Council. The council spends £1.5 million every year on running and promoting the zoo, which is one of the few local government-funded zoos in the UK and Ireland. The zoo is one of the top visitor attractions in Northern Ireland, receiving more than 295,000 visitors a year. The majority of the animals are in danger in their natural habitat. The zoo houses more than 1,200 animals of 140 species including Asian elephants, Barbary lions, Malayan sun bears (one of the few in the United Kingdom), two species of penguin, a family of western lowland gorillas, a troop of common chimpanzees, a pair of red pandas, a pair of Goodfellow's tree-kangaroos and Francois' langurs. The zoo also carries out important conservation work and takes part in European and international breeding programmes which help to ensure the survival of many species under threat.\n",
"\nAt the 2001 census, the population was 276,459, while 579,554 people lived in the wider Belfast Metropolitan Area.\n\nThis made it the fifteenth-largest city in the United Kingdom, but the eleventh-largest conurbation.\n\nBelfast experienced a huge growth in population in the first half of the twentieth century. This rise slowed and peaked around the start of the Troubles with the 1971 census showing almost 600,000 people in the Belfast Urban Area. Since then, the inner city numbers have dropped dramatically as people have moved to swell the Greater Belfast suburb population. The 2001 census population in the same Urban Area had fallen to 277,391 people, with 579,554 people living in the wider Belfast Metropolitan Area.\n\nThe 2001 census recorded 81,650 people from Catholic backgrounds and 79,650 people from Protestant backgrounds of working age living in Belfast. The population density in 2011 was 24.88 people/hectare (compared to 1.34 for the rest of Northern Ireland).\n\nAs with many cities, Belfast's inner city is currently characterised by the elderly, students and single young people, while families tend to live on the periphery. Socio-economic areas radiate out from the Central Business District, with a pronounced wedge of affluence extending out the Malone Road and Upper Malone Road to the south. An area of greater deprivation extends to the west of the city. The areas around the Falls (Catholic nationalist) and the Shankill Road (Protestant loyalist) are the most deprived wards in Northern Ireland.\n\nDespite a period of relative peace, most areas and districts of Belfast still reflect the divided nature of Northern Ireland as a whole. Many areas are still highly segregated along ethnic, political and religious lines, especially in working-class neighbourhoods.\n\nThese zones – Catholic/Republican on one side and Protestant/Loyalist on the other – are invariably marked by flags, graffiti and murals. Segregation has been present throughout the history of Belfast, but has been maintained and increased by each outbreak of violence in the city. This escalation in segregation, described as a \"ratchet effect\", has shown little sign of decreasing.\n\nThe highest levels of segregation in the city are in west Belfast with many areas greater than 90% Catholic. Opposite but comparatively high levels are seen in the predominantly Protestant east Belfast. Areas where segregated working-class areas meet are known as interface areas and sometimes marked by peace lines. When violence flares, it tends to be in interface areas.\n\nEthnic minority communities have been in Belfast since the 1930s. The largest groups are Poles, Chinese and Indians.\n\nSince the expansion of the European Union, numbers have been boosted by an influx of Eastern European immigrants. Census figures (2011) showed that Belfast has a total non-white population of 10,219 or 3.3%, while 18,420 or 6.6% of the population were born outside the UK and Ireland. Almost half of those born outside the UK and Ireland live in south Belfast, where they comprise 9.5% of the population. The majority of the estimated 5,000 Muslims and 200 Hindu families living in Northern Ireland live in the Greater Belfast area.\n\n\n\nFile:Population Density Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Population density\nFile:Religion Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Percentage Catholic or brought up Catholic\nFile:National Identity Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Most commonly stated national identity\nFile:Born Outside UK And Ireland Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Percentage born outside the UK and Ireland\n\n",
"\n\nThe IRA Ceasefire in 1994 and the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 have given investors increased confidence to invest in Belfast. This has led to a period of sustained economic growth and large-scale redevelopment of the city centre. Developments include Victoria Square, the Cathedral Quarter, and the Laganside with the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall. The Waterfront Hall. Built in 1997, the hall is a concert, exhibition and conference venue.\nOther major developments include the regeneration of the Titanic Quarter, and the erection of the Obel Tower, a skyscraper set to be the tallest tower on the island.\nToday, Belfast is Northern Ireland's educational and commercial hub. In February 2006, Belfast's unemployment rate stood at 4.2%, lower than both the Northern Ireland and the UK average of 5.5%. Over the past 10 years employment has grown by 16.4 per cent, compared with 9.2 per cent for the UK as a whole.\n\nNorthern Ireland's peace dividend has led to soaring property prices in the city. In 2007, Belfast saw house prices grow by 50%, the fastest rate of growth in the UK. In March 2007, the average house in Belfast cost £91,819, with the average in south Belfast being £141,000. In 2004, Belfast had the lowest owner occupation rate in Northern Ireland at 54%.\n\nPeace has boosted the numbers of tourists coming to Belfast. There were 6.4 million visitors in 2005, which was a growth of 8.5% from 2004. The visitors spent £285.2 million, supporting more than 15,600 jobs. Visitor numbers rose by 6% to reach 6.8 million in 2006, with tourists spending £324 million, an increase of 15% on 2005. The city's two airports have helped make the city one of the most visited weekend destinations in Europe.\n\nBelfast has been the fastest-growing economy of the thirty largest cities in the UK over the past decade, a new economy report by Howard Spencer has found. ''\"That's because of the fundamentals of the UK economy and because people actually want to invest in the UK,\"'' he commented on that report.\n\nBBC Radio 4's World reported furthermore that despite higher levels of corporation tax in the UK than in the Republic. There are \"huge amounts\" of foreign investment coming into the country.\n\n''The Times'' wrote about Belfast's growing economy: \"According to the region's development agency, throughout the 1990s Northern Ireland had the fastest-growing regional economy in the UK, with GDP increasing 1 per cent per annum faster than the rest of the country. As with any modern economy, the service sector is vital to Northern Ireland's development and is enjoying excellent growth. In particular, the region has a booming tourist industry with record levels of visitors and tourist revenues and has established itself as a significant location for call centres.\"\nSince the ending of the regions conflict tourism has boomed in Northern Ireland, greatly aided by low cost.\n\nDer Spiegel, a German weekly magazine for politics and economy, titled Belfast as ''The New Celtic Tiger'' which is \"open for business\".\n\n===Industrial growth===\nA 1907 stereoscope postcard depicting the construction of a passenger liner (the RMS ''Adriatic'') at the Harland and Wolff shipyard\n\nWhen the population of Belfast town began to grow in the 17th century, its economy was built on commerce. It provided a market for the surrounding countryside and the natural inlet of Belfast Lough gave the city its own port. The port supplied an avenue for trade with Great Britain and later Europe and North America. In the mid-17th century, Belfast exported beef, butter, hides, tallow and corn and it imported coal, cloth, wine, brandy, paper, timber and tobacco.\n\nAround this time, the linen trade in Northern Ireland blossomed and by the middle of the 18th century, one fifth of all the linen exported from Ireland was shipped from Belfast. The present city however is a product of the Industrial Revolution. It was not until industry transformed the linen and shipbuilding trades that the economy and the population boomed. By the turn of the 19th century, Belfast had transformed into the largest linen producing centre in the world, earning the nickname \"Linenopolis\".\n\nBelfast harbour was dredged in 1845 to provide deeper berths for larger ships. Donegall Quay was built out into the river as the harbour was developed further and trade flourished. The Harland and Wolff shipbuilding firm was created in 1861, and by the time the ''Titanic'' was built, in 1912, it had become the largest shipyard in the world.\nSamson and Goliath, Harland & Wolff's gantry cranes.\nShort Brothers plc is a British aerospace company based in Belfast. It was the first aircraft manufacturing company in the world. The company began its association with Belfast in 1936, with Short & Harland Ltd, a venture jointly owned by Shorts and Harland and Wolff. Now known as Shorts Bombardier it works as an international aircraft manufacturer located near the Port of Belfast.\n\nThe rise of mass-produced and cotton clothing following World War I were some of the factors which led to the decline of Belfast's international linen trade. Like many British cities dependent on traditional heavy industry, Belfast suffered serious decline since the 1960s, exacerbated greatly in the 1970s and 1980s by the Troubles. More than 100,000 manufacturing jobs have been lost since the 1970s. For several decades, Northern Ireland's fragile economy required significant public support from the British exchequer of up to £4 billion per year.\n",
"Ulster University, Belfast campus\n\nBelfast saw the worst of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, with nearly half of the total deaths in the conflict occurring in the city. However, since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, there has been significant urban regeneration in the city centre including Victoria Square, Queen's Island and Laganside as well as the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall. The city is served by two airports: The George Best Belfast City Airport adjacent to Belfast Lough and Belfast International Airport which is near Lough Neagh. Queen's University of Belfast is the main university in the city. The Ulster University also maintains a campus in the city, which concentrates on fine art, design and architecture.\n\nBelfast is one of the constituent cities that makes up the Dublin-Belfast corridor region, which has a population of just under 3 million.\n\n===Utilities===\nSilent Valley Reservoir, showing the brick-built overflow\n\nMost of Belfast's water is supplied from the Silent Valley Reservoir in County Down, created to collect water from the Mourne Mountains. The rest of the city's water is sourced from Lough Neagh, via ''Dunore Water Treatment Works'' in County Antrim. The citizens of Belfast pay for their water in their rates bill. Plans to bring in additional water tariffs have been deferred by devolution in May 2007. Belfast has approximately of sewers, which are currently being replaced in a project costing over £100 million and due for completion in 2009.\n\nNorthern Ireland Electricity is responsible for transmitting electricity in Northern Ireland. Belfast's electricity comes from Kilroot Power Station, a 520 MegaWatt dual coal and oil fired plant, situated near Carrickfergus. Phoenix Natural Gas Ltd. started supplying customers in Larne and Greater Belfast with natural gas in 1996 via the newly constructed Scotland-Northern Ireland pipeline. Rates in Belfast (and the rest of Northern Ireland) were reformed in April 2007. The discrete capital value system means rates bills are determined by the capital value of each domestic property as assessed by the ''Valuation and Lands Agency''. The recent dramatic rise in house prices has made these reforms unpopular.\n\n===Health care===\n\nThe Belfast Health & Social Care Trust is one of five trusts that were created on 1 April 2007 by the Department of Health. Belfast contains most of Northern Ireland's regional specialist centres. The Royal Victoria Hospital is an internationally renowned centre of excellence in trauma care and provides specialist trauma care for all of Northern Ireland. It also provides the city's specialist neurosurgical, ophthalmology, ENT, and dentistry services. The Belfast City Hospital is the regional specialist centre for haematology and is home to a cancer centre that rivals the best in the world. The Mary G McGeown Regional Nephrology Unit at the City Hospital is the kidney transplant centre and provides regional renal services for Northern Ireland.\nMusgrave Park Hospital in south Belfast specialises in orthopaedics, rheumatology, sports medicine and rehabilitation. It is home to Northern Ireland's first Acquired Brain Injury Unit, costing £9 million and opened by the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall in May 2006. Other hospitals in Belfast include the Mater Hospital in north Belfast and the Children's Hospital.\n\n===Transport===\n\nGeorge Best Belfast City Airport.\nGreat Victoria Street station on Northern Ireland Railways\n\nBelfast is a relatively car-dependent city by European standards, with an extensive road network including the M2 and M22 motorway route. A 2005 survey of how people travel in Northern Ireland showed that people in Belfast made 77% of all journeys by car, 11% by public transport and 6% on foot. It showed that Belfast has 0.70 cars per household compared to figures of 1.18 in the East and 1.14 in the West of Northern Ireland. A road improvement-scheme in Belfast began early in 2006, with the upgrading of two junctions along the Westlink dual-carriageway to grade-separated standard. The improvement scheme was completed five months ahead of schedule on February 2009, with the official opening taking place on 4 March 2009.\n\nCommentators have argued that this may create a bottleneck at York Street, the next at-grade intersection, until that too is upgraded. On 25 October 2012 the stage 2 report for the York Street intersection was approved and in December 2012 the planned upgrade moved into stage 3 of the development process. If successfully completing the necessary statutory procedures, work on a grade separated junction to connect the Westlink to the M2/M3 motorways is scheduled to take place between 2014 and 2018, creating a continuous link between the M1 and M2, the two main motorways in Northern Ireland.\n\nBlack taxis are common in the city, operating on a share basis in some areas. These are outnumbered by private hire taxis. Bus and rail public transport in Northern Ireland is operated by subsidiaries of Translink. Bus services in the city proper and the nearer suburbs are operated by Translink Metro, with services focusing on linking residential districts with the city centre on 12 quality bus corridors running along main radial roads,\n\nMore distant suburbs are served by Ulsterbus. Northern Ireland Railways provides suburban services along three lines running through Belfast's northern suburbs to Carrickfergus, Larne and Larne Harbour, eastwards towards Bangor and south-westwards towards Lisburn and Portadown. This service is known as the Belfast Suburban Rail system. Belfast is linked directly to Coleraine, Portrush and Derry. Belfast has a direct rail connection with Dublin called ''Enterprise'' which is operated jointly by NIR and Iarnród Éireann, the state railway company of the Republic of Ireland.\nThere are no rail services to cities in other countries of the United Kingdom, due to the lack of a bridge or tunnel connecting Great Britain to the island of Ireland. There is, however, a combined ferry and rail ticket between Belfast and cities in Great Britain, which is referred to as ''Sailrail''.\n\nIn April 2008, the Department for Regional Development reported on a plan for a light-rail system, similar to that in Dublin. The consultants said Belfast does not have the population to support a light rail system, suggesting that investment in bus-based rapid transit would be preferable.The study found that bus-based rapid transit produces positive economic results, but light rail does not. The report by Atkins & KPMG, however, said there would be the option of migrating to light rail in the future should the demand increase.\n\nThe city has two airports: Belfast International Airport offering, domestic, European and international flights such as Newark (New York) operated by United Airlines, Orlando, and Las Vegas both operated by Thomas Cook. The seasonal flight to Orlando is also operated by Virgin Atlantic. The airport is located northwest of the city, near Lough Neagh, while the George Best Belfast City Airport, which is closer to the city centre by train from Sydenham on the Bangor Line, adjacent to Belfast Lough, offers UK domestic flights and a few European flights. In 2005, Belfast International Airport was the 11th busiest commercial airport in the UK, accounting for just over 2% of all UK terminal passengers while the George Best Belfast City Airport was the 16th busiest and had 1% of UK terminal passengers. The Belfast – Liverpool route is the busiest domestic flight route in the UK excluding London with 555,224 passengers in 2009. Over 2.2 million passengers flew between Belfast and London in 2009.\n\nBelfast has a large port used for exporting and importing goods, and for passenger ferry services. Stena Line runs regular routes to Cairnryan in Scotland using its conventional vessels – with a crossing time of around 2 hours 15 minutes. Until 2011 the route went to Stranraer and used inter alia a HSS (High Speed Service) vessel – with a crossing time of around 90 minutes. Stena Line also operates a route to Liverpool. A seasonal sailing to Douglas, Isle of Man is operated by the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company.\n",
"\nAC/DC with Bon Scott (centre) pictured with guitarist Angus Young (left) and bassist Cliff Williams (back), performing at the Ulster Hall in August 1979\n\nBelfast's population is evenly split between its Protestant and Catholic residents. These two distinct cultural communities have both contributed significantly to the city's culture. Throughout the Troubles, Belfast artists continued to express themselves through poetry, art and music. In the period since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, Belfast has begun a social, economic and cultural transformation giving it a growing international cultural reputation. In 2003, Belfast had an unsuccessful bid for the 2008 European Capital of Culture. The bid was run by an independent company, ''Imagine Belfast'', who boasted that it would \"make Belfast the meeting place of Europe's legends, where the meaning of history and belief find a home and a sanctuary from caricature, parody and oblivion.\" According to ''The Guardian'' the bid may have been undermined by the city's history and volatile politics.\n\nIn 2004–05, art and cultural events in Belfast were attended by 1.8 million people (400,000 more than the previous year). The same year, 80,000 people participated in culture and other arts activities, twice as many as in 2003–04. A combination of relative peace, international investment and an active promotion of arts and culture is attracting more tourists to Belfast than ever before. In 2004–05, 5.9 million people visited Belfast, a 10% increase from the previous year, and spent £262.5 million.\nThe Beatles emerging from the Ritz Cinema, Belfast following their concert, 8 November 1963.\nThe Ulster Orchestra, based in Belfast, is Northern Ireland's only full-time symphony orchestra and is well renowned in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1966, it has existed in its present form since 1981, when the BBC Northern Ireland Orchestra was disbanded. The music school of Queen's University is responsible for arranging a notable series of lunchtime and evening concerts, often given by renowned musicians which are usually given in The Harty Room at the university (University Square).\n\nThere are many Traditional Irish bands playing throughout the city and quite a few music schools concentrate on teaching Traditional music.\n\nMusicians and bands who have written songs about or dedicated to Belfast:\nU2, Van Morrison, Snow Patrol, Simple Minds, Elton John, Rogue Male, Katie Melua, Boney M, Paul Muldoon, Stiff Little Fingers, Nanci Griffith, Glenn Patterson, Orbital, James Taylor, Fun Boy Three, Spandau Ballet, The Police, Barnbrack, Gary Moore, Neon Neon, Toxic Waste, Energy Orchard, and Billy Bragg.\n\nFurther in Belfast the Oh Yeah Music Centre is located (Cathedral Quarter), a project founded to give young musicians and artists a place where they can share ideas and kick-start their music careers as a chance to be supported and promoted by professional musicians of Northern Ireland's music-scene.\n\nBelfast has a longstanding underground club scene which was established in the early 1980s.\n\nLike all areas of the island of Ireland outside of the Gaeltacht, the Irish language in Belfast is not that of an unbroken intergenerational transmission. Due to community activity in the 1960s, including the establishment of the Shaws Road Gaeltacht community, the expanse in the Irish language arts, and the advancements made in the availability of Irish medium education throughout the city, it can now be said that there is a 'mother-tongue' community of speakers. The language is heavily promoted in the city and is particularly visible in the Falls Road area, where the signs on both the iconic black taxis and on the public buses are bilingual. Belfast has the highest concentration of Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. Projects to promote the language in the city are funded by various sources, notably Foras na Gaeilge, an all-Ireland body funded by both the Irish and British governments. There are a number Irish language Primary schools and one secondary school in Belfast. The provision of certain resources for these schools (for example, such as the provision of textbooks) is supported by the charitable organisation TACA.\n\n===Media===\nThe Belfast Telegraph Headquarters\n\nBelfast is the home of the ''Belfast Telegraph'', ''Irish News'', and ''The News Letter'', the oldest English-language newspaper in the world still in publication. The city has a number of free publications including ''Fate'' magazine, ''Go Belfast'', and the ''Vacuum'', that are distributed through bar, cafes and public venues.\n\nThe city is the headquarters of BBC Northern Ireland, ITV station UTV and commercial radio stations Belfast CityBeat and U105. Two community radio stations, Blast 106 and Irish-language station Raidió Fáilte, broadcast to the city from west Belfast, as does Queen's Radio, a student-run radio station which broadcasts from Queen's University Students' Union. One of Northern Ireland's two community TV stations, NvTv, is based in the Cathedral Quarter of the city. There are two independent cinemas in Belfast: the Queen's Film Theatre and the Strand Cinema, which host screenings during the Belfast Film Festival and the Belfast Festival at Queen's. Broadcasting only over the Internet is Homely Planet, the Cultural Radio Station for Northern Ireland, supporting community relations.\n\nThe city has become a popular film location; The Paint Hall at Harland and Wolff has become one of the UK Film Council's main studios. The facility comprises four stages of . Shows filmed at The Paint Hall include the film ''City of Ember'' (2008) and HBO's ''Game of Thrones'' series (beginning in late 2009).\n\nIn November 2011, Belfast became the smallest city to host the MTV Europe Music Awards. The event was hosted by Selena Gomez and celebrities such as Justin Bieber, Jessie J, Hayden Panettiere, and Lady Gaga travelled to Northern Ireland to attend the event, held in the Odyssey Arena.\n\n===Sports===\n\nThe Kingspan Stadium is the home of Ulster Rugby\n\nBelfast has several notable sports teams playing a diverse variety of sports such as football, Gaelic games, rugby, cricket, and ice hockey. The Belfast Marathon is run annually on May Day, and attracted 20,000 participants in 2011.\n\nThe Northern Ireland national football team, ranked 23rd in August 2017 in the FIFA World Rankings, plays its home matches at Windsor Park. The current Irish League champions Crusaders are based at Seaview, in the north of the city. Other senior clubs are Glentoran, Linfield, Cliftonville, Harland & Wolff Welders and PSNI. Intermediate-level clubs are: Donegal Celtic, Dundela, Newington Youth, Queen's University and Sport & Leisure Swifts, who compete in the NIFL Premier Intermediate League; Albert Foundry, Bloomfield, Colin Valley, Crumlin Star, Dunmurry Rec., Dunmurry Young Men, East Belfast, Grove United, Immaculata, Iveagh United, Malachians, Orangefield Old Boys, Rosario Youth Club, St Luke's, St Patrick's Young Men, Shankill United, Short Brothers and Sirocco Works of the Northern Amateur Football League and Brantwood of the Ballymena & Provincial League. Belfast was the home town of Manchester United legend George Best who died in November 2005. On the day he was buried in the city, 100,000 people lined the route from his home on the Cregagh Road to Roselawn cemetery. Since his death the City Airport was named after him and a trust has been set up to fund a memorial to him in the city centre.\n\nBelfast is home to over twenty Gaelic football and hurling clubs. Casement Park in west Belfast, home to the Antrim county teams, has a capacity of 32,000 which makes it the second largest Gaelic Athletic Association ground in Ulster. The 1999 Heineken Cup champions Ulster Rugby play at the Kingspan Stadium in the south of the city. Belfast has four teams in rugby's All-Ireland League: Belfast Harlequins in Division 1B; and Instonians, Queen's University and Malone in Division 2A.\n\nBelfast is home to the Stormont cricket ground since 1949 and was the venue for the Irish cricket team's first ever one day international (ODI) against England in 2006.\n\nIn 2007, Pro Wrestling Ulster formed. This is wrestling promotion on the independent circuit, holding events and PPV's in Europa Hotel and The Mandela Hall. It runs to this day.\n\nBelfast is home to one of the biggest British ice hockey clubs, the Belfast Giants. The Giants were founded in 2000 and play their games at the 9,500 capacity Odyssey Arena, crowds normally range from 4,000–7,000. Many ex-NHL players have featured on the Giants roster, none more famous than world superstar Theo Fleury. The Giants play in the 10 team professional Elite Ice Hockey League which is the top league in Britain. The Giants have been league champions 4 times, most recently in the 2013–14 season. The Belfast Giants are a huge brand in Northern Ireland and their increasing stature in the game led to the Belfast Giants playing the Boston Bruins of the NHL on 2 October 2010 at the Odyssey Arena in Belfast, losing the game 5–1.\n\nOther significant sportspeople from Belfast include double world snooker champion Alex \"Hurricane\" Higgins and world champion boxers Wayne McCullough and Rinty Monaghan.\nLeander A.S.C is a well known swimming club in Belfast. Belfast produced the Formula One racing stars John Watson who raced for five different teams during his career in the 1970s and 1980s and Ferrari driver Eddie Irvine.\n",
"\n\nA blue plaque adorned the Belfast birthplace of former President of Israel Chaim Herzog\nBrian Desmond Hurst in 1976 (portrait by Allan Warren)\n*John Stewart Bell, physicist\n*George Best, football player, Ballon D'or winner\n*Danny Blanchflower, football player and manager\n*Dave Finlay, wrestler\n*Jackie Blanchflower football player\n*Sir Kenneth Branagh, actor\n*Christopher Brunt, football player\n*Dame Jocelyn Bell Burnell, astrophysicist\n*Patrick Carlin, Victoria Cross recipient\n*Ciaran Carson, writer\n*Frank Carson, comedian\n*Craig Cathcart, football player\n*Shaw Clifton, former General of The Salvation Army\n*Lord Craigavon, former Prime Minister of Northern Ireland\n*Mal Donaghy, football player\n*Jamie Dornan, actor\n*Barry Douglas, musician\n*John Boyd Dunlop, inventor\n*Jonny Evans, football player\n*Corry Evans, football player\n*Carl Frampton, boxer\n*Sir James Galway, musician\n*Craig Gilroy, rugby union player\n*Chaim Herzog, former President of Israel\n*Alex Higgins, snooker player\n*Eamonn Holmes, broadcaster\n*Brian Desmond Hurst, film director\n*Paddy Jackson, rugby union player\n*Oliver Jeffers, artist\n*Dame Rotha Johnston, entrepreneur\n*Lord Kelvin, physicist and engineer\n*C. S. Lewis, author\n*James Joseph Magennis, Victoria Cross recipient\n*Jim Magilton, football player and manager\n*Paula Malcomson, actress\n*Mary McAleese, former President of Ireland\n*Gerry McAvoy, musician and long time bass guitarist with Rory Gallagher\n*Sir Tony McCoy, horse racing jockey\n*Wayne McCullough, Olympic Games Silver Medalist, WBC World Champion Boxer, Patron of Northern Ireland Children's Hospice\n*Alan McDonald, football player\n*Rory McIlroy, golfer\n*Sammy McIlroy, football player and manager\n*Gary Moore, guitarist\n*Van Morrison, singer-songwriter\n*Doc Neeson, singer-songwriter\n*Dame Mary Peters, Olympic sportswoman\n*Patricia Quinn, actress\n*Pat Rice, football player and coach\n*Trevor Ringland, rugby union player\n*Peter Robinson, First Minister of Northern Ireland\n*Mark Ryder, actor\n*Jonathan Simms, victim of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD) who survived for an unprecedented ten years after diagnosis\n*David Trimble, former First Minister of Northern Ireland, Nobel Peace Prize winner\n*Gary Wilson, cricketer\n*Roy Walker (comedian), TV Gameshow Host\n",
"\n\nBelfast has two universities. Queen's University Belfast was founded in 1845 and is a member of the Russell Group, an association of 24 leading research-intensive universities in the UK. It is one of the largest universities in the UK with 25,231 undergraduate and postgraduate students spread over 250 buildings, 120 of which are listed as being of architectural merit. Ulster University, created in its current form in 1984, is a multi-centre university with a campus in the Cathedral Quarter of Belfast. The Belfast campus has a specific focus on Art and Design and Architecture, and is currently undergoing major redevelopment. The Jordanstown campus, just from Belfast city centre concentrates on engineering, health and social science. The Coleraine campus, about from Belfast city centre concentrates on a broad range of subjects. Course provision is broad – biomedical sciences, environmental science and geography, psychology, business, the humanities and languages, film and journalism, travel and tourism, teacher training and computing are among the campus strengths. The Magee campus, about from Belfast city centre has many teaching strengths; including business, computing, creative technologies, nursing, Irish language and literature, social sciences, law, psychology, peace and conflict studies and the performing arts. The Conflict Archive on the INternet (CAIN) Web Service receives funding from both universities and is a rich source of information and source material on the Troubles as well as society and politics in Northern Ireland.\n\nBelfast Metropolitan College is a large further education college with three main campuses around the city, including several smaller buildings. Formerly known as Belfast Institute of Further and Higher Education, it specialises in vocational education. The college has over 53,000 students enrolled on full-time and part-time courses, making it one of the largest further education colleges in the UK and the largest in the island of Ireland.\n\nThe Belfast Education and Library Board was established in 1973 as the local council responsible for education, youth and library services within the city. There are 184 primary, secondary and grammar schools in the city.\n\nThe Ulster Museum is located in Belfast.\n",
"Titanic Belfast, devoted to the Belfast-built RMS ''Titanic'', opened in 2012\n\nBelfast is one of the most visited cities in the UK, and the second most visited on the island of Ireland. In 2008, 7.1 million tourists visited the city. Numerous popular tour bus companies and boat tours run there throughout the year.\n\nFrommer's, the American travel guidebook series, listed Belfast as the only United Kingdom destination in its ''Top 12 Destinations to Visit'' in 2009. The other listed destinations were Berlin (Germany), Cambodia, Cape Town (South Africa), Cartagena (Colombia), Istanbul (Turkey), the Lassen Volcanic National Park (USA), Saqqara (Egypt), the Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail (USA), Waiheke Island (New Zealand), Washington, D.C. (USA), and Waterton Lakes National Park (Canada).\n\nThe Belfast City Council is currently investing into the complete redevelopment of the Titanic Quarter, which is planned to consist of apartments, hotels, and a riverside entertainment district. A major visitor attraction, Titanic Belfast is a monument to Belfast's maritime heritage on the site of the former Harland & Wolff shipyard, opened on 31 March 2012. It features a criss-cross of escalators and suspended walkways and nine high-tech galleries. They also hope to invest in a new modern transport system (including high-speed rail and others) for Belfast, with a cost of £250 million.\n\nThere is a tourist information centre located at Donegall Place.\n",
"Belfast has the following sister cities:\n\n* Nashville, Tennessee, United States (since 1994)\n* Hefei, Anhui Province, China (since 2005)\n* Boston, Massachusetts, United States (since 2014)\n* Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China (since 2016)\n",
"\n",
"* Beesley, S. and Wilde, J. 1997. ''Urban Flora of Belfast''. Institute of Irish Studies & The Queen's University of Belfast.\n* Deane, C.Douglas. 1983. ''The Ulster Countryside.'' Century Books. \n* Gillespie, R. 2007. ''Early Belfast.'' Belfast Natural History & Philosophical Society in Association with Ulster Historical Foundation. .\n* Nesbitt, Noel. 1982. ''The Changing Face of Belfast.'' Ulster Museum, Belfast. Publication no. 183.\n* Pollock, V. and Parkhill, T. 1997. ''Belfast''. National Museums of Northern Ireland. \n* Scott, Robert. 2004. ''Wild Belfast on safari in the city.'' Blackstaff Press. .\n* Walker, B.M. and Dixon, H. 1984. ''Early Photographs from the Lawrence Collection in Belfast Town 1864–1880.'' The Friar's Bush Press, \n* Walker, B.M. and Dixon, H. 1983. ''No Mean City: Belfast 1880–1914.'' .\n* Connolly, S.J. Ed. 2012. Belfast 400 People Places and History. Liverpool University Press. \n* McCracken, E. 1971. ''The Palm House and Botanic Garden, Belfast''. Ulster Architectural Heritage Society.\n* McMahon, Sean. 2011. ''A Brief History of Belfast.'' The Brehon Press. Belfast. \n* Fulton, C. 2011. ''Coalbricks and Prefabs, Glimpses of Belfast in the 1950s.'' Thedoc Press. \n* O'Reilly, D. 2010. \" Rivers of Belfast\". Colourpoint Books. \n",
"\n\n\n*\n* Belfast City Council\n* Belfast Pride\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Name",
"History",
"Governance",
"Geography",
"Cityscape",
"Demography",
"Economy",
"Infrastructure",
"Culture",
"Famous natives",
"Education",
"Tourism",
"Twin towns – sister cities",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Belfast | [
"Bank Street in the city centre referred to the river bank and Bridge Street was named for the site of an early Farset bridge.",
"Among the city's grandest buildings are two former banks: Ulster Bank in Waring Street (built in 1860) and Northern Bank, in nearby Donegall Street (built in 1769)."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n= Flag of Belfast.",
"'''Belfast''' ( or ; ) is the capital and largest city of Northern Ireland, and the second largest on the island of Ireland.",
"On the River Lagan, it had a population of 333,871 in 2015.",
"Belfast was granted city status in 1888.",
"Belfast was a centre of the Irish linen, tobacco-processing, rope-making and shipbuilding industries: in the early 20th century, Harland and Wolff, which built the , was the world's biggest and most productive shipyard.",
"Belfast played a key role in the Industrial Revolution, and was a global industrial centre until the latter half of the 20th century.",
"It has sustained a major aerospace and missiles industry since the mid 1930s.",
"Industrialisation and the inward migration it brought made Belfast Ireland's biggest city at the beginning of the 20th century.",
"Today, Belfast remains a centre for industry, as well as the arts, higher education, business, and law, and is the economic engine of Northern Ireland.",
"The city suffered greatly during the Troubles, but latterly has undergone a sustained period of calm, free from the intense political violence of former years, and substantial economic and commercial growth.",
"Additionally, Belfast city centre has undergone considerable expansion and regeneration in recent years, notably around Victoria Square.",
"Belfast is served by two airports: George Best Belfast City Airport in the city, and Belfast International Airport west of the city.",
"Belfast is a major port, with commercial and industrial docks dominating the Belfast Lough shoreline, including the Harland and Wolff shipyard, and is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network (GaWC) as a global city.",
"\nThe name Belfast is derived from the Irish '''', which was later spelt ''''.",
"The word '''' means \"mouth\" or \"rivermouth\" while '''' is the genitive singular of '''' and refers to a sandbar or tidal ford across a river's mouth.",
"The name would thus translate literally as \"(river) mouth of the sandbar\" or \"(river) mouth of the ford\".",
"This sandbar was formed at the confluence of two rivers at what is now Donegall Quay: the Lagan, which flows into Belfast Lough, and its tributary the Farset.",
"This area was the hub around which the original settlement developed.",
"The Irish name '''' is shared by a townland in County Mayo, whose name has been anglicised as ''Belfarsad''.",
"An alternative interpretation of the name is \"mouth of the river of the sandbar\", an allusion to the River Farset, which flows into the Lagan where the sandbar was located.",
"This interpretation was favoured by Edmund Hogan and John O'Donovan.",
"It seems clear, however, that the river itself was named after the tidal crossing.",
"In Ulster-Scots, the name of the city has been variously translated as ''Bilfawst'', ''Bilfaust'' or ''Baelfawst'', although \"Belfast\" is also used.",
"\n\nAlthough the county borough of Belfast was created when it was granted city status by Queen Victoria in 1888, the city continues to be viewed as straddling County Antrim and County Down.",
"===Origins===\nBelfast Castle\n\nThe site of Belfast has been occupied since the Bronze Age.",
"The Giant's Ring, a 5,000-year-old henge, is located near the city, and the remains of Iron Age hill forts can still be seen in the surrounding hills.",
"Belfast remained a small settlement of little importance during the Middle Ages.",
"John de Courcy built a castle on what is now Castle Street in the city centre in the 12th century, but this was on a lesser scale and not as strategically important as Carrickfergus Castle to the north, which was built by de Courcy in 1177.",
"The O'Neill clan had a presence in the area.",
"In the 14th century, Cloinne Aodha Buidhe, descendants of Aodh Buidhe O'Neill built Grey Castle at Castlereagh, now in the east of the city.",
"Conn O'Neill of the Clannaboy O'Neills owned vast lands in the area and was the last inhabitant of Grey Castle, one remaining link being the Conn's Water river flowing through east Belfast.",
"===Growth===\nCastle Place, Belfast in c.1830\nBelfast became a substantial settlement in the 17th century after being established as a town by Sir Arthur Chichester, which was initially settled by Protestant English and Scottish migrants at the time of the Plantation of Ulster.",
"(Belfast and County Antrim, however, did not form part of this particular Plantation scheme as they were privately colonised.)",
"In 1791, the Society of United Irishmen was founded in Belfast, after Henry Joy McCracken and other prominent Presbyterians from the city invited Theobald Wolfe Tone and Thomas Russell to a meeting, after having read Tone's \"Argument on Behalf of the Catholics of Ireland\".",
"Evidence of this period of Belfast's growth can still be seen in the oldest areas of the city, known as the Entries.",
"Donegall Square in the early 1900s\nBelfast blossomed as a commercial and industrial centre in the 18th and 19th centuries and became Ireland's pre-eminent industrial city.",
"Industries thrived, including linen, rope-making, tobacco, heavy engineering and shipbuilding, and at the end of the 19th century, Belfast briefly overtook Dublin as the largest city in Ireland.",
"The Harland and Wolff shipyards became one of the largest shipbuilders in the world, employing up to 35,000 workers.",
"In 1886 the city suffered intense riots over the issue of home rule, which had divided the city.",
"In 1920–22, Belfast became the capital of the new entity of Northern Ireland as the island of Ireland was partitioned.",
"The accompanying conflict (the Irish War of Independence) cost up to 500 lives in Belfast, the bloodiest sectarian strife in the city until the Troubles of the late 1960s onwards.",
"Aftermath of the Blitz in May 1941\n\nBelfast was heavily bombed during World War II.",
"In one raid, in 1941, German bombers killed around one thousand people and left tens of thousands homeless.",
"Apart from London, this was the greatest loss of life in a night raid during the Blitz.",
"===The Troubles===\n\nBelfast has been the capital of Northern Ireland since its establishment in 1921 following the Government of Ireland Act 1920.",
"It had been the scene of various episodes of sectarian conflict between its Catholic and Protestant populations.",
"These opposing groups in this conflict are now often termed republican and loyalist respectively, although they are also loosely referred to as 'nationalist' and 'unionist'.",
"The most recent example of this conflict was known as the Troubles – a civil conflict that raged from around 1969 to 1998.",
"Belfast saw some of the worst of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, particularly in the 1970s, with rival paramilitary groups formed on both sides.",
"Bombing, assassination and street violence formed a backdrop to life throughout the Troubles.",
"The Provisional IRA detonated 22 bombs within the confines of Belfast city centre in 1972, on what is known as \"Bloody Friday\", killing eleven people.",
"Loyalist paramilitaries including the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and the Ulster Defence Association (UDA) claimed that the killings they carried out were in retaliation for the IRA campaign.",
"Most of their victims were Catholics with no links to the Provisional IRA.",
"A particularly notorious group, based on the Shankill Road in the mid-1970s, became known as the Shankill Butchers.",
"In all, over 1,600 people were killed in political violence in the city between 1969 and 2001.",
"Sporadic violent events continue , although not supported by the previous antagonists who had reached political agreement in 1998.",
"Belfast was granted borough status by James VI and I in 1613 and official city status by Queen Victoria in 1888.",
"Since 1973 it has been a local government district under local administration by Belfast City Council.",
"Belfast is represented in both the British House of Commons and in the Northern Ireland Assembly.",
"For elections to the European Parliament, Belfast is within the Northern Ireland constituency.",
"===Local government===\n\nBelfast City Hall\n\nBelfast City Council is the local council with responsibility for the city.",
"The city's elected officials are the Lord Mayor of Belfast, Deputy Lord Mayor and High Sheriff who are elected from among 60 councillors.",
"The first Lord Mayor of Belfast was Daniel Dixon, who was elected in 1892.",
"The Lord Mayor for 2016–17 is Alderman Brian Kingston of the Democratic Unionist Party, while the Deputy Lord Mayor is Mary Ellen Campbell of Sinn Féin, both of whom were elected in June 2016 to serve a one-year term.",
"The Lord Mayor's duties include presiding over meetings of the council, receiving distinguished visitors to the city, and representing and promoting the city on the national and international stage.",
"In 1997, Unionists lost overall control of Belfast City Council for the first time in its history, with the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland gaining the balance of power between Nationalists and Unionists.",
"This position was confirmed in the three subsequent council elections, with mayors from Sinn Féin and the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP), both of whom are Nationalist parties, and the cross-community Alliance Party regularly elected since.",
"The first nationalist Lord Mayor of Belfast was Alban Maginness of the SDLP, in 1997.",
"The last elections to Belfast City Council were held on 22 May 2014, with the city's voters electing sixty councillors across ten district electoral areas.",
"The results were: 19(+3) Sinn Féin, 13(−2) Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), 8(+2) Alliance Party, 7(−1) SDLP, 7(+4) Ulster Unionist Party (UUP), 3(+1) Progressive Unionist Party (PUP), with the Traditional Unionist Voice.",
"Greens and People Before Profit Alliance all winning their first seats.",
"Belfast council takes part in the twinning scheme, and is twinned with Nashville, in the United States, Hefei in China, and Boston, in the United States.",
"===Northern Ireland Assembly and Westminster===\nStormont is home to the Northern Ireland Assembly.",
"As Northern Ireland's capital city, Belfast is host to the Northern Ireland Assembly at Stormont, the site of the devolved legislature for Northern Ireland.",
"Belfast is divided into four Northern Ireland Assembly and UK parliamentary constituencies: Belfast North, Belfast West, Belfast South and Belfast East.",
"All four extend beyond the city boundaries to include parts of Castlereagh, Lisburn and Newtownabbey districts.",
"In the Northern Ireland Assembly Elections in 2017, Belfast elected 20 Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs), 5 from each constituency.",
"Belfast elected 7 Sinn Féin, 5 DUP, 2 SDLP, 3 Alliance Party, 1 UUP, 1 Green and 1 PBPA MLAs.",
"In the 2017 UK general election, Belfast elected one MP from each constituency to the House of Commons at Westminster, London.",
"This comprised 3 DUP and 1 Sinn Féin.",
"===Coat of arms and motto===\nBelfast's coat of arms was adopted in 1890\n\nThe city of Belfast has the Latin motto \".\"",
"This is taken from Psalms 116 Verse 12 in the Latin Vulgate Bible and is literally \"For so much what shall we repay \" The verse has been translated in bibles differently – for example as \"What shall I render unto the Lord for all his benefits toward me?\".",
"It is also translated as \"In return for so much, what shall we give back?\"",
"The Queen's University Students' Union Rag Week publication ''PTQ'' derives its name from the first three words of the motto.",
"The coat of arms of the city were designed by John Vinycomb and are blazoned as ''Party per fesse argent and azure, in chief a pile vair and on a canton gules a bell argent, in base a ship with sails set argent on waves of the sea proper''.",
"This heraldic language describes a shield that is divided in two horizontally (''party per fesse'').",
"The top (''chief'') of the shield is silver (''argent''), and has a point-down triangle (''a pile'') with a repeating blue-and-white pattern that represents fur (''vair'').",
"There is also a red square in the top corner (''a canton gules'') on which there is a silver bell.",
"It is likely that the bell is an example here of \"canting\" (or punning) heraldry, representing the first syllable of Belfast.",
"In the lower part of the shield (''in base'') there is a silver sailing ship shown sailing on waves coloured in the actual colours of the sea (''proper'').",
"The supporter on the \"dexter\" side (the right hand side, to note that in heraldry \"right and \"left\" are from the wearer of the shield's perspective) is a chained wolf, while on the \"sinister\" (the left side from the bearer's perspective) is a sea-horse.",
"The crest above the shield is also a sea-horse.",
"These arms date back to 1613, when James VI and I granted Belfast town status.",
"The seal was used by Belfast merchants throughout the 17th century on their signs and trade-coins.",
"A large stained glass window in the City Hall displays the arms, where an explanation suggests that the seahorse and the ship refer to Belfast's significant maritime history.",
"The wolf may be a tribute to the city's founder, Sir Arthur Chichester, and refer to his own coat of arms.",
"alt=Aerial photo of urban sprawl, edged by green hills and sea shore, and bisected by a winding river.",
"Belfast is at the western end of Belfast Lough and at the mouth of the River Lagan giving it the ideal location for the shipbuilding industry that once made it famous.",
"When the ''Titanic'' was built in Belfast in 1911–1912, Harland and Wolff had the largest shipyard in the world.",
"Belfast is situated on Northern Ireland's eastern coast at .",
"A consequence of this northern latitude is that it both endures short winter days and enjoys long summer evenings.",
"During the winter solstice, the shortest day of the year, local sunset is before 16:00 while sunrise is around 08:45.",
"This is balanced by the summer solstice in June, when the sun sets after 22:00 and rises before 05:00.",
"OpenStreetMap of metro Belfast-Lisburn\nIn 1994, a weir was built across the river by the Laganside Corporation to raise the average water level so that it would cover the unseemly mud flats which gave Belfast its name ().",
"The area of Belfast Local Government District is .",
"The River Farset is also named after this silt deposit (from the Irish ''feirste'' meaning \"sand spit\").",
"Originally a more significant river than it is today, the Farset formed a dock on High Street until the mid 19th century.",
"Superseded by the River Lagan as the more important river in the city, the Farset now languishes in obscurity, under High Street.",
"There are no less than eleven other minor rivers in and around Belfast, namely the Blackstaff, the Colin, the Connswater, the Cregagh, the Derriaghy, the Forth, the Knock, the Legoniel, the Milewater, the Purdysburn and the Ravernet.",
"Cavehill, a basaltic hill overlooking the city\nThe city is flanked on the north and northwest by a series of hills, including Divis Mountain, Black Mountain and Cavehill, thought to be the inspiration for Jonathan Swift's ''Gulliver's Travels''.",
"When Swift was living at Lilliput Cottage near the bottom of Belfast's Limestone Road, he imagined that the Cavehill resembled the shape of a sleeping giant safeguarding the city.",
"The shape of the giant's nose, known locally as ''Napoleon's Nose'', is officially called McArt's Fort probably named after Art O'Neill, a 17th-century chieftain who controlled the area at that time.",
"The Castlereagh Hills overlook the city on the southeast.",
"===Climate===\nAs with the rest of Ireland, Belfast has a temperate or oceanic climate, with a narrow range of temperatures and rainfall throughout the year.",
"The climate of Belfast is significantly milder than some other locations in the world at a similar latitude, due to the warming influence of the Gulf Stream.",
"There are currently 5 weather observing stations in the Belfast area: Helens Bay, Stormont, Newforge, Castlereagh, and Ravenhill Road.",
"Slightly further afield is Aldergrove Airport.",
"The highest temperature recorded at any official weather station in the Belfast area was at Shaws Bridge on 12 July 1983.",
"Belfast holds the record for Northern Ireland's warmest night time minimum, at Whitehouse on 14 August 2001.",
"The city gets significant precipitation (greater than 1mm) on 157 days in an average year with an average annual rainfall of , less than areas of northern England or most of Scotland, but higher than Dublin or the south-east coast of Ireland.",
"As an urban and coastal area, Belfast typically gets snow on fewer than 10 days per year.",
"The absolute maximum temperature at the weather station at Stormont is , set during July 1983.",
"In an average year the warmest day will rise to a temperature of with a day of or above occurring roughly once every two in three years.",
"The absolute minimum temperature at Stormont is , during January 1982, although in an average year the coldest night will fall no lower than with air frost being recorded on just 26 nights.",
"The lowest temperature to occur in recent years was on 22 December 2010.",
"The nearest weather station for which sunshine data and longer term observations are available is Belfast International Airport (Aldergrove).",
"Temperature extremes here have slightly more variability due to the more inland location.",
"The average warmest day at Aldergrove for example will reach a temperature of , ( higher than Stormont) and 2.1 days should attain a temperature of or above in total.",
"Conversely the coldest night of the year averages (or lower than Stormont) and 39 nights should register an air frost.",
"Some 13 more frosty nights than Stormont.",
"The minimum temperature at Aldergrove was , during December 2010.",
"===Areas and districts===\n\nRoyal Avenue in Belfast\n\nBelfast expanded very rapidly from being a market town to becoming an industrial city during the course of the 19th century.",
"Because of this, it is less an agglomeration of villages and towns which have expanded into each other, than other comparable cities, such as Manchester or Birmingham.",
"The city expanded to the natural barrier of the hills that surround it, overwhelming other settlements.",
"Consequently, the arterial roads along which this expansion took place (such as the Falls Road or the Newtownards Road) are more significant in defining the districts of the city than nucleated settlements.",
"Belfast remains segregated by walls, commonly known as \"peace lines\", erected by the British Army after August 1969, and which still divide 14 districts in the inner city.",
"In 2008 a process was proposed for the removal of the 'peace walls'.",
"In June 2007, a £16 million programme was announced which will transform and redevelop streets and public spaces in the city centre.",
"Major arterial roads (quality bus corridor) into the city include the Antrim Road, Shore Road, Holywood Road, Newtownards Road, Castlereagh Road, Cregagh Road, Ormeau Road, Malone Road, Lisburn Road, Falls Road, Springfield Road, Shankill Road, and Crumlin Road, Four Winds.",
"St Anne's Cathedral\nBelfast city centre is divided into two postcode districts, ''BT1'' for the area lying north of the City Hall, and ''BT2'' for the area to its south.",
"The industrial estate and docklands ''BT3''.",
"The rest of the Belfast post town is divided in a broadly clockwise system from ''BT3'' in the north-east round to ''BT15'', with ''BT16'' and ''BT17'' further out to the east and west respectively.",
"Although ''BT'' derives from ''Belfast'', the BT postcode area extends across the whole of Northern Ireland.",
"Since 2001, boosted by increasing numbers of tourists, the city council has developed a number of cultural quarters.",
"The '''Cathedral Quarter''' takes its name from St Anne's Cathedral (Church of Ireland) and has taken on the mantle of the city's key cultural locality.",
"It hosts a yearly visual and performing arts festival.",
"Custom House Square is one of the city's main outdoor venues for free concerts and street entertainment.",
"The '''Gaeltacht Quarter''' is an area around the Falls Road in west Belfast which promotes and encourages the use of the Irish language.",
"The '''Queen's Quarter''' in south Belfast is named after Queen's University.",
"The area has a large student population and hosts the annual Belfast Festival at Queen's each autumn.",
"It is home to Botanic Gardens and the Ulster Museum, which was reopened in 2009 after major redevelopment.",
"The Golden Mile is the name given to the mile between Belfast City Hall and Queen's University.",
"Taking in Dublin Road, Great Victoria Street, Shaftesbury Square and Bradbury Place, it contains some of the best bars and restaurants in the city.",
"Since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, the nearby Lisburn Road has developed into the city's most exclusive shopping strip.",
"Finally, the '''Titanic Quarter''' covers of reclaimed land adjacent to Belfast Harbour, formerly known as ''Queen's Island''.",
"Named after ''RMS Titanic'', which was built here in 1912, work has begun which promises to transform some former shipyard land into \"one of the largest waterfront developments in Europe\".",
"Plans include apartments, a riverside entertainment district, and a major Titanic-themed museum.",
"\n\n\n===Architecture===\n\nObel Tower is the tallest building in Belfast and Ireland.",
"The architectural style of Belfast's buildings range from Edwardian, like the City Hall, to modern, like Waterfront Hall.",
"Many of the city's Victorian landmarks, including the main ''Lanyon Building'' at Queen's University Belfast and the Linenhall Library, were designed by Sir Charles Lanyon.",
"The City Hall was finished in 1906 and was built to reflect Belfast's city status, granted by Queen Victoria in 1888.",
"The Edwardian architectural style of Belfast City Hall influenced the Victoria Memorial in Calcutta, India, and Durban City Hall in South Africa.",
"The dome is high and figures above the door state \"Hibernia encouraging and promoting the Commerce and Arts of the City\".",
"The Royal Courts of Justice in Chichester Street are home to Northern Ireland's Supreme Court.",
"Many of Belfast's oldest buildings are found in the Cathedral Quarter area, which is currently undergoing redevelopment as the city's main cultural and tourist area.",
"Windsor House, high, has 23 floors and is the second tallest building (as distinct from structure) in Ireland.",
"Work has started on the taller Obel Tower, which already surpasses the height of Windsor House in its unfinished state.",
"Scottish Provident Institution, an example of Victorian architecture in Belfast\nThe ornately decorated Crown Liquor Saloon, designed by Joseph Anderson in 1876, in Great Victoria Street is one of only two pubs in the UK that are owned by the National Trust (the other is the George Inn, Southwark in London).",
"It was made internationally famous as the setting for the classic film, ''Odd Man Out'', starring James Mason.",
"The restaurant panels in the Crown Bar were originally made for ''Britannic'', the sister ship of the ''Titanic'', built in Belfast.",
"The Harland and Wolff shipyard has two of the largest dry docks in Europe, where the giant cranes, Samson and Goliath stand out against Belfast's skyline.",
"Including the Waterfront Hall and the Odyssey Arena, Belfast has several other venues for performing arts.",
"The architecture of the Grand Opera House has an oriental theme and was completed in 1895.",
"It was bombed several times during the Troubles but has now been restored to its former glory.",
"The Lyric Theatre, (re-opened 1 May 2011 after undergoing a rebuilding programme) the only full-time producing theatre in the country, is where film star Liam Neeson began his career.",
"The Ulster Hall (1859–1862) was originally designed for grand dances but is now used primarily as a concert and sporting venue.",
"Lloyd George, Parnell and Patrick Pearse all attended political rallies there.",
"===Parks and gardens===\n\nBotanic Gardens\n\nSitting at the mouth of the River Lagan where it becomes a deep and sheltered lough, Belfast is surrounded by mountains that create a micro-climate conducive to horticulture.",
"From the Victorian Botanic Gardens in the heart of the city to the heights of Cave Hill Country Park, the great expanse of Lagan Valley Regional Park to Colin Glen, Belfast contains an abundance of parkland and forest parks.",
"Parks and gardens are an integral part of Belfast's heritage, and home to an abundance of local wildlife and popular places for a picnic, a stroll or a jog.",
"Numerous events take place throughout including festivals such as Rose Week and special activities such as bird watching evenings and great beast hunts.",
"Belfast has over forty public parks.",
"The Forest of Belfast is a partnership between government and local groups, set up in 1992 to manage and conserve the city's parks and open spaces.",
"They have commissioned more than 30 public sculptures since 1993.",
"In 2006, the City Council set aside £8 million to continue this work.",
"The Belfast Naturalists' Field Club was founded in 1863 and is administered by National Museums and Galleries of Northern Ireland.",
"With an average of 670,000 visitors per year between 2007 and 2011, one of the most popular parks is Botanic Gardens in the Queen's Quarter.",
"Built in the 1830s and designed by Sir Charles Lanyon, Botanic Gardens Palm House is one of the earliest examples of a curvilinear and cast iron glasshouse.",
"Other attractions in the park include the Tropical Ravine, a humid jungle glen built in 1889, rose gardens and public events ranging from live opera broadcasts to pop concerts.",
"U2 played here in 1997.",
"Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park, to the south of the city centre, attracts thousands of visitors each year to its International Rose Garden.",
"Rose Week in July each year features over 20,000 blooms.",
"It has an area of of meadows, woodland and gardens and features a Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Garden, a Japanese garden, a walled garden, and the Golden Crown Fountain commissioned in 2002 as part of the Queen's Golden Jubilee celebrations.",
"In 2008, Belfast was named a finalist in the Large City (200,001 and over) category of the RHS Britain in Bloom competition along with London Borough of Croydon and Sheffield.",
"Belfast Zoo is owned by Belfast City Council.",
"The council spends £1.5 million every year on running and promoting the zoo, which is one of the few local government-funded zoos in the UK and Ireland.",
"The zoo is one of the top visitor attractions in Northern Ireland, receiving more than 295,000 visitors a year.",
"The majority of the animals are in danger in their natural habitat.",
"The zoo houses more than 1,200 animals of 140 species including Asian elephants, Barbary lions, Malayan sun bears (one of the few in the United Kingdom), two species of penguin, a family of western lowland gorillas, a troop of common chimpanzees, a pair of red pandas, a pair of Goodfellow's tree-kangaroos and Francois' langurs.",
"The zoo also carries out important conservation work and takes part in European and international breeding programmes which help to ensure the survival of many species under threat.",
"\nAt the 2001 census, the population was 276,459, while 579,554 people lived in the wider Belfast Metropolitan Area.",
"This made it the fifteenth-largest city in the United Kingdom, but the eleventh-largest conurbation.",
"Belfast experienced a huge growth in population in the first half of the twentieth century.",
"This rise slowed and peaked around the start of the Troubles with the 1971 census showing almost 600,000 people in the Belfast Urban Area.",
"Since then, the inner city numbers have dropped dramatically as people have moved to swell the Greater Belfast suburb population.",
"The 2001 census population in the same Urban Area had fallen to 277,391 people, with 579,554 people living in the wider Belfast Metropolitan Area.",
"The 2001 census recorded 81,650 people from Catholic backgrounds and 79,650 people from Protestant backgrounds of working age living in Belfast.",
"The population density in 2011 was 24.88 people/hectare (compared to 1.34 for the rest of Northern Ireland).",
"As with many cities, Belfast's inner city is currently characterised by the elderly, students and single young people, while families tend to live on the periphery.",
"Socio-economic areas radiate out from the Central Business District, with a pronounced wedge of affluence extending out the Malone Road and Upper Malone Road to the south.",
"An area of greater deprivation extends to the west of the city.",
"The areas around the Falls (Catholic nationalist) and the Shankill Road (Protestant loyalist) are the most deprived wards in Northern Ireland.",
"Despite a period of relative peace, most areas and districts of Belfast still reflect the divided nature of Northern Ireland as a whole.",
"Many areas are still highly segregated along ethnic, political and religious lines, especially in working-class neighbourhoods.",
"These zones – Catholic/Republican on one side and Protestant/Loyalist on the other – are invariably marked by flags, graffiti and murals.",
"Segregation has been present throughout the history of Belfast, but has been maintained and increased by each outbreak of violence in the city.",
"This escalation in segregation, described as a \"ratchet effect\", has shown little sign of decreasing.",
"The highest levels of segregation in the city are in west Belfast with many areas greater than 90% Catholic.",
"Opposite but comparatively high levels are seen in the predominantly Protestant east Belfast.",
"Areas where segregated working-class areas meet are known as interface areas and sometimes marked by peace lines.",
"When violence flares, it tends to be in interface areas.",
"Ethnic minority communities have been in Belfast since the 1930s.",
"The largest groups are Poles, Chinese and Indians.",
"Since the expansion of the European Union, numbers have been boosted by an influx of Eastern European immigrants.",
"Census figures (2011) showed that Belfast has a total non-white population of 10,219 or 3.3%, while 18,420 or 6.6% of the population were born outside the UK and Ireland.",
"Almost half of those born outside the UK and Ireland live in south Belfast, where they comprise 9.5% of the population.",
"The majority of the estimated 5,000 Muslims and 200 Hindu families living in Northern Ireland live in the Greater Belfast area.",
"File:Population Density Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Population density\nFile:Religion Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Percentage Catholic or brought up Catholic\nFile:National Identity Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Most commonly stated national identity\nFile:Born Outside UK And Ireland Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Percentage born outside the UK and Ireland",
"\n\nThe IRA Ceasefire in 1994 and the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 have given investors increased confidence to invest in Belfast.",
"This has led to a period of sustained economic growth and large-scale redevelopment of the city centre.",
"Developments include Victoria Square, the Cathedral Quarter, and the Laganside with the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall.",
"The Waterfront Hall.",
"Built in 1997, the hall is a concert, exhibition and conference venue.",
"Other major developments include the regeneration of the Titanic Quarter, and the erection of the Obel Tower, a skyscraper set to be the tallest tower on the island.",
"Today, Belfast is Northern Ireland's educational and commercial hub.",
"In February 2006, Belfast's unemployment rate stood at 4.2%, lower than both the Northern Ireland and the UK average of 5.5%.",
"Over the past 10 years employment has grown by 16.4 per cent, compared with 9.2 per cent for the UK as a whole.",
"Northern Ireland's peace dividend has led to soaring property prices in the city.",
"In 2007, Belfast saw house prices grow by 50%, the fastest rate of growth in the UK.",
"In March 2007, the average house in Belfast cost £91,819, with the average in south Belfast being £141,000.",
"In 2004, Belfast had the lowest owner occupation rate in Northern Ireland at 54%.",
"Peace has boosted the numbers of tourists coming to Belfast.",
"There were 6.4 million visitors in 2005, which was a growth of 8.5% from 2004.",
"The visitors spent £285.2 million, supporting more than 15,600 jobs.",
"Visitor numbers rose by 6% to reach 6.8 million in 2006, with tourists spending £324 million, an increase of 15% on 2005.",
"The city's two airports have helped make the city one of the most visited weekend destinations in Europe.",
"Belfast has been the fastest-growing economy of the thirty largest cities in the UK over the past decade, a new economy report by Howard Spencer has found.",
"''\"That's because of the fundamentals of the UK economy and because people actually want to invest in the UK,\"'' he commented on that report.",
"BBC Radio 4's World reported furthermore that despite higher levels of corporation tax in the UK than in the Republic.",
"There are \"huge amounts\" of foreign investment coming into the country.",
"''The Times'' wrote about Belfast's growing economy: \"According to the region's development agency, throughout the 1990s Northern Ireland had the fastest-growing regional economy in the UK, with GDP increasing 1 per cent per annum faster than the rest of the country.",
"As with any modern economy, the service sector is vital to Northern Ireland's development and is enjoying excellent growth.",
"In particular, the region has a booming tourist industry with record levels of visitors and tourist revenues and has established itself as a significant location for call centres.\"",
"Since the ending of the regions conflict tourism has boomed in Northern Ireland, greatly aided by low cost.",
"Der Spiegel, a German weekly magazine for politics and economy, titled Belfast as ''The New Celtic Tiger'' which is \"open for business\".",
"===Industrial growth===\nA 1907 stereoscope postcard depicting the construction of a passenger liner (the RMS ''Adriatic'') at the Harland and Wolff shipyard\n\nWhen the population of Belfast town began to grow in the 17th century, its economy was built on commerce.",
"It provided a market for the surrounding countryside and the natural inlet of Belfast Lough gave the city its own port.",
"The port supplied an avenue for trade with Great Britain and later Europe and North America.",
"In the mid-17th century, Belfast exported beef, butter, hides, tallow and corn and it imported coal, cloth, wine, brandy, paper, timber and tobacco.",
"Around this time, the linen trade in Northern Ireland blossomed and by the middle of the 18th century, one fifth of all the linen exported from Ireland was shipped from Belfast.",
"The present city however is a product of the Industrial Revolution.",
"It was not until industry transformed the linen and shipbuilding trades that the economy and the population boomed.",
"By the turn of the 19th century, Belfast had transformed into the largest linen producing centre in the world, earning the nickname \"Linenopolis\".",
"Belfast harbour was dredged in 1845 to provide deeper berths for larger ships.",
"Donegall Quay was built out into the river as the harbour was developed further and trade flourished.",
"The Harland and Wolff shipbuilding firm was created in 1861, and by the time the ''Titanic'' was built, in 1912, it had become the largest shipyard in the world.",
"Samson and Goliath, Harland & Wolff's gantry cranes.",
"Short Brothers plc is a British aerospace company based in Belfast.",
"It was the first aircraft manufacturing company in the world.",
"The company began its association with Belfast in 1936, with Short & Harland Ltd, a venture jointly owned by Shorts and Harland and Wolff.",
"Now known as Shorts Bombardier it works as an international aircraft manufacturer located near the Port of Belfast.",
"The rise of mass-produced and cotton clothing following World War I were some of the factors which led to the decline of Belfast's international linen trade.",
"Like many British cities dependent on traditional heavy industry, Belfast suffered serious decline since the 1960s, exacerbated greatly in the 1970s and 1980s by the Troubles.",
"More than 100,000 manufacturing jobs have been lost since the 1970s.",
"For several decades, Northern Ireland's fragile economy required significant public support from the British exchequer of up to £4 billion per year.",
"Ulster University, Belfast campus\n\nBelfast saw the worst of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, with nearly half of the total deaths in the conflict occurring in the city.",
"However, since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, there has been significant urban regeneration in the city centre including Victoria Square, Queen's Island and Laganside as well as the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall.",
"The city is served by two airports: The George Best Belfast City Airport adjacent to Belfast Lough and Belfast International Airport which is near Lough Neagh.",
"Queen's University of Belfast is the main university in the city.",
"The Ulster University also maintains a campus in the city, which concentrates on fine art, design and architecture.",
"Belfast is one of the constituent cities that makes up the Dublin-Belfast corridor region, which has a population of just under 3 million.",
"===Utilities===\nSilent Valley Reservoir, showing the brick-built overflow\n\nMost of Belfast's water is supplied from the Silent Valley Reservoir in County Down, created to collect water from the Mourne Mountains.",
"The rest of the city's water is sourced from Lough Neagh, via ''Dunore Water Treatment Works'' in County Antrim.",
"The citizens of Belfast pay for their water in their rates bill.",
"Plans to bring in additional water tariffs have been deferred by devolution in May 2007.",
"Belfast has approximately of sewers, which are currently being replaced in a project costing over £100 million and due for completion in 2009.",
"Northern Ireland Electricity is responsible for transmitting electricity in Northern Ireland.",
"Belfast's electricity comes from Kilroot Power Station, a 520 MegaWatt dual coal and oil fired plant, situated near Carrickfergus.",
"Phoenix Natural Gas Ltd. started supplying customers in Larne and Greater Belfast with natural gas in 1996 via the newly constructed Scotland-Northern Ireland pipeline.",
"Rates in Belfast (and the rest of Northern Ireland) were reformed in April 2007.",
"The discrete capital value system means rates bills are determined by the capital value of each domestic property as assessed by the ''Valuation and Lands Agency''.",
"The recent dramatic rise in house prices has made these reforms unpopular.",
"===Health care===\n\nThe Belfast Health & Social Care Trust is one of five trusts that were created on 1 April 2007 by the Department of Health.",
"Belfast contains most of Northern Ireland's regional specialist centres.",
"The Royal Victoria Hospital is an internationally renowned centre of excellence in trauma care and provides specialist trauma care for all of Northern Ireland.",
"It also provides the city's specialist neurosurgical, ophthalmology, ENT, and dentistry services.",
"The Belfast City Hospital is the regional specialist centre for haematology and is home to a cancer centre that rivals the best in the world.",
"The Mary G McGeown Regional Nephrology Unit at the City Hospital is the kidney transplant centre and provides regional renal services for Northern Ireland.",
"Musgrave Park Hospital in south Belfast specialises in orthopaedics, rheumatology, sports medicine and rehabilitation.",
"It is home to Northern Ireland's first Acquired Brain Injury Unit, costing £9 million and opened by the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall in May 2006.",
"Other hospitals in Belfast include the Mater Hospital in north Belfast and the Children's Hospital.",
"===Transport===\n\nGeorge Best Belfast City Airport.",
"Great Victoria Street station on Northern Ireland Railways\n\nBelfast is a relatively car-dependent city by European standards, with an extensive road network including the M2 and M22 motorway route.",
"A 2005 survey of how people travel in Northern Ireland showed that people in Belfast made 77% of all journeys by car, 11% by public transport and 6% on foot.",
"It showed that Belfast has 0.70 cars per household compared to figures of 1.18 in the East and 1.14 in the West of Northern Ireland.",
"A road improvement-scheme in Belfast began early in 2006, with the upgrading of two junctions along the Westlink dual-carriageway to grade-separated standard.",
"The improvement scheme was completed five months ahead of schedule on February 2009, with the official opening taking place on 4 March 2009.",
"Commentators have argued that this may create a bottleneck at York Street, the next at-grade intersection, until that too is upgraded.",
"On 25 October 2012 the stage 2 report for the York Street intersection was approved and in December 2012 the planned upgrade moved into stage 3 of the development process.",
"If successfully completing the necessary statutory procedures, work on a grade separated junction to connect the Westlink to the M2/M3 motorways is scheduled to take place between 2014 and 2018, creating a continuous link between the M1 and M2, the two main motorways in Northern Ireland.",
"Black taxis are common in the city, operating on a share basis in some areas.",
"These are outnumbered by private hire taxis.",
"Bus and rail public transport in Northern Ireland is operated by subsidiaries of Translink.",
"Bus services in the city proper and the nearer suburbs are operated by Translink Metro, with services focusing on linking residential districts with the city centre on 12 quality bus corridors running along main radial roads,\n\nMore distant suburbs are served by Ulsterbus.",
"Northern Ireland Railways provides suburban services along three lines running through Belfast's northern suburbs to Carrickfergus, Larne and Larne Harbour, eastwards towards Bangor and south-westwards towards Lisburn and Portadown.",
"This service is known as the Belfast Suburban Rail system.",
"Belfast is linked directly to Coleraine, Portrush and Derry.",
"Belfast has a direct rail connection with Dublin called ''Enterprise'' which is operated jointly by NIR and Iarnród Éireann, the state railway company of the Republic of Ireland.",
"There are no rail services to cities in other countries of the United Kingdom, due to the lack of a bridge or tunnel connecting Great Britain to the island of Ireland.",
"There is, however, a combined ferry and rail ticket between Belfast and cities in Great Britain, which is referred to as ''Sailrail''.",
"In April 2008, the Department for Regional Development reported on a plan for a light-rail system, similar to that in Dublin.",
"The consultants said Belfast does not have the population to support a light rail system, suggesting that investment in bus-based rapid transit would be preferable.The study found that bus-based rapid transit produces positive economic results, but light rail does not.",
"The report by Atkins & KPMG, however, said there would be the option of migrating to light rail in the future should the demand increase.",
"The city has two airports: Belfast International Airport offering, domestic, European and international flights such as Newark (New York) operated by United Airlines, Orlando, and Las Vegas both operated by Thomas Cook.",
"The seasonal flight to Orlando is also operated by Virgin Atlantic.",
"The airport is located northwest of the city, near Lough Neagh, while the George Best Belfast City Airport, which is closer to the city centre by train from Sydenham on the Bangor Line, adjacent to Belfast Lough, offers UK domestic flights and a few European flights.",
"In 2005, Belfast International Airport was the 11th busiest commercial airport in the UK, accounting for just over 2% of all UK terminal passengers while the George Best Belfast City Airport was the 16th busiest and had 1% of UK terminal passengers.",
"The Belfast – Liverpool route is the busiest domestic flight route in the UK excluding London with 555,224 passengers in 2009.",
"Over 2.2 million passengers flew between Belfast and London in 2009.",
"Belfast has a large port used for exporting and importing goods, and for passenger ferry services.",
"Stena Line runs regular routes to Cairnryan in Scotland using its conventional vessels – with a crossing time of around 2 hours 15 minutes.",
"Until 2011 the route went to Stranraer and used inter alia a HSS (High Speed Service) vessel – with a crossing time of around 90 minutes.",
"Stena Line also operates a route to Liverpool.",
"A seasonal sailing to Douglas, Isle of Man is operated by the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company.",
"\nAC/DC with Bon Scott (centre) pictured with guitarist Angus Young (left) and bassist Cliff Williams (back), performing at the Ulster Hall in August 1979\n\nBelfast's population is evenly split between its Protestant and Catholic residents.",
"These two distinct cultural communities have both contributed significantly to the city's culture.",
"Throughout the Troubles, Belfast artists continued to express themselves through poetry, art and music.",
"In the period since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, Belfast has begun a social, economic and cultural transformation giving it a growing international cultural reputation.",
"In 2003, Belfast had an unsuccessful bid for the 2008 European Capital of Culture.",
"The bid was run by an independent company, ''Imagine Belfast'', who boasted that it would \"make Belfast the meeting place of Europe's legends, where the meaning of history and belief find a home and a sanctuary from caricature, parody and oblivion.\"",
"According to ''The Guardian'' the bid may have been undermined by the city's history and volatile politics.",
"In 2004–05, art and cultural events in Belfast were attended by 1.8 million people (400,000 more than the previous year).",
"The same year, 80,000 people participated in culture and other arts activities, twice as many as in 2003–04.",
"A combination of relative peace, international investment and an active promotion of arts and culture is attracting more tourists to Belfast than ever before.",
"In 2004–05, 5.9 million people visited Belfast, a 10% increase from the previous year, and spent £262.5 million.",
"The Beatles emerging from the Ritz Cinema, Belfast following their concert, 8 November 1963.",
"The Ulster Orchestra, based in Belfast, is Northern Ireland's only full-time symphony orchestra and is well renowned in the United Kingdom.",
"Founded in 1966, it has existed in its present form since 1981, when the BBC Northern Ireland Orchestra was disbanded.",
"The music school of Queen's University is responsible for arranging a notable series of lunchtime and evening concerts, often given by renowned musicians which are usually given in The Harty Room at the university (University Square).",
"There are many Traditional Irish bands playing throughout the city and quite a few music schools concentrate on teaching Traditional music.",
"Musicians and bands who have written songs about or dedicated to Belfast:\nU2, Van Morrison, Snow Patrol, Simple Minds, Elton John, Rogue Male, Katie Melua, Boney M, Paul Muldoon, Stiff Little Fingers, Nanci Griffith, Glenn Patterson, Orbital, James Taylor, Fun Boy Three, Spandau Ballet, The Police, Barnbrack, Gary Moore, Neon Neon, Toxic Waste, Energy Orchard, and Billy Bragg.",
"Further in Belfast the Oh Yeah Music Centre is located (Cathedral Quarter), a project founded to give young musicians and artists a place where they can share ideas and kick-start their music careers as a chance to be supported and promoted by professional musicians of Northern Ireland's music-scene.",
"Belfast has a longstanding underground club scene which was established in the early 1980s.",
"Like all areas of the island of Ireland outside of the Gaeltacht, the Irish language in Belfast is not that of an unbroken intergenerational transmission.",
"Due to community activity in the 1960s, including the establishment of the Shaws Road Gaeltacht community, the expanse in the Irish language arts, and the advancements made in the availability of Irish medium education throughout the city, it can now be said that there is a 'mother-tongue' community of speakers.",
"The language is heavily promoted in the city and is particularly visible in the Falls Road area, where the signs on both the iconic black taxis and on the public buses are bilingual.",
"Belfast has the highest concentration of Irish speakers in Northern Ireland.",
"Projects to promote the language in the city are funded by various sources, notably Foras na Gaeilge, an all-Ireland body funded by both the Irish and British governments.",
"There are a number Irish language Primary schools and one secondary school in Belfast.",
"The provision of certain resources for these schools (for example, such as the provision of textbooks) is supported by the charitable organisation TACA.",
"===Media===\nThe Belfast Telegraph Headquarters\n\nBelfast is the home of the ''Belfast Telegraph'', ''Irish News'', and ''The News Letter'', the oldest English-language newspaper in the world still in publication.",
"The city has a number of free publications including ''Fate'' magazine, ''Go Belfast'', and the ''Vacuum'', that are distributed through bar, cafes and public venues.",
"The city is the headquarters of BBC Northern Ireland, ITV station UTV and commercial radio stations Belfast CityBeat and U105.",
"Two community radio stations, Blast 106 and Irish-language station Raidió Fáilte, broadcast to the city from west Belfast, as does Queen's Radio, a student-run radio station which broadcasts from Queen's University Students' Union.",
"One of Northern Ireland's two community TV stations, NvTv, is based in the Cathedral Quarter of the city.",
"There are two independent cinemas in Belfast: the Queen's Film Theatre and the Strand Cinema, which host screenings during the Belfast Film Festival and the Belfast Festival at Queen's.",
"Broadcasting only over the Internet is Homely Planet, the Cultural Radio Station for Northern Ireland, supporting community relations.",
"The city has become a popular film location; The Paint Hall at Harland and Wolff has become one of the UK Film Council's main studios.",
"The facility comprises four stages of .",
"Shows filmed at The Paint Hall include the film ''City of Ember'' (2008) and HBO's ''Game of Thrones'' series (beginning in late 2009).",
"In November 2011, Belfast became the smallest city to host the MTV Europe Music Awards.",
"The event was hosted by Selena Gomez and celebrities such as Justin Bieber, Jessie J, Hayden Panettiere, and Lady Gaga travelled to Northern Ireland to attend the event, held in the Odyssey Arena.",
"===Sports===\n\nThe Kingspan Stadium is the home of Ulster Rugby\n\nBelfast has several notable sports teams playing a diverse variety of sports such as football, Gaelic games, rugby, cricket, and ice hockey.",
"The Belfast Marathon is run annually on May Day, and attracted 20,000 participants in 2011.",
"The Northern Ireland national football team, ranked 23rd in August 2017 in the FIFA World Rankings, plays its home matches at Windsor Park.",
"The current Irish League champions Crusaders are based at Seaview, in the north of the city.",
"Other senior clubs are Glentoran, Linfield, Cliftonville, Harland & Wolff Welders and PSNI.",
"Intermediate-level clubs are: Donegal Celtic, Dundela, Newington Youth, Queen's University and Sport & Leisure Swifts, who compete in the NIFL Premier Intermediate League; Albert Foundry, Bloomfield, Colin Valley, Crumlin Star, Dunmurry Rec., Dunmurry Young Men, East Belfast, Grove United, Immaculata, Iveagh United, Malachians, Orangefield Old Boys, Rosario Youth Club, St Luke's, St Patrick's Young Men, Shankill United, Short Brothers and Sirocco Works of the Northern Amateur Football League and Brantwood of the Ballymena & Provincial League.",
"Belfast was the home town of Manchester United legend George Best who died in November 2005.",
"On the day he was buried in the city, 100,000 people lined the route from his home on the Cregagh Road to Roselawn cemetery.",
"Since his death the City Airport was named after him and a trust has been set up to fund a memorial to him in the city centre.",
"Belfast is home to over twenty Gaelic football and hurling clubs.",
"Casement Park in west Belfast, home to the Antrim county teams, has a capacity of 32,000 which makes it the second largest Gaelic Athletic Association ground in Ulster.",
"The 1999 Heineken Cup champions Ulster Rugby play at the Kingspan Stadium in the south of the city.",
"Belfast has four teams in rugby's All-Ireland League: Belfast Harlequins in Division 1B; and Instonians, Queen's University and Malone in Division 2A.",
"Belfast is home to the Stormont cricket ground since 1949 and was the venue for the Irish cricket team's first ever one day international (ODI) against England in 2006.",
"In 2007, Pro Wrestling Ulster formed.",
"This is wrestling promotion on the independent circuit, holding events and PPV's in Europa Hotel and The Mandela Hall.",
"It runs to this day.",
"Belfast is home to one of the biggest British ice hockey clubs, the Belfast Giants.",
"The Giants were founded in 2000 and play their games at the 9,500 capacity Odyssey Arena, crowds normally range from 4,000–7,000.",
"Many ex-NHL players have featured on the Giants roster, none more famous than world superstar Theo Fleury.",
"The Giants play in the 10 team professional Elite Ice Hockey League which is the top league in Britain.",
"The Giants have been league champions 4 times, most recently in the 2013–14 season.",
"The Belfast Giants are a huge brand in Northern Ireland and their increasing stature in the game led to the Belfast Giants playing the Boston Bruins of the NHL on 2 October 2010 at the Odyssey Arena in Belfast, losing the game 5–1.",
"Other significant sportspeople from Belfast include double world snooker champion Alex \"Hurricane\" Higgins and world champion boxers Wayne McCullough and Rinty Monaghan.",
"Leander A.S.C is a well known swimming club in Belfast.",
"Belfast produced the Formula One racing stars John Watson who raced for five different teams during his career in the 1970s and 1980s and Ferrari driver Eddie Irvine.",
"\n\nA blue plaque adorned the Belfast birthplace of former President of Israel Chaim Herzog\nBrian Desmond Hurst in 1976 (portrait by Allan Warren)\n*John Stewart Bell, physicist\n*George Best, football player, Ballon D'or winner\n*Danny Blanchflower, football player and manager\n*Dave Finlay, wrestler\n*Jackie Blanchflower football player\n*Sir Kenneth Branagh, actor\n*Christopher Brunt, football player\n*Dame Jocelyn Bell Burnell, astrophysicist\n*Patrick Carlin, Victoria Cross recipient\n*Ciaran Carson, writer\n*Frank Carson, comedian\n*Craig Cathcart, football player\n*Shaw Clifton, former General of The Salvation Army\n*Lord Craigavon, former Prime Minister of Northern Ireland\n*Mal Donaghy, football player\n*Jamie Dornan, actor\n*Barry Douglas, musician\n*John Boyd Dunlop, inventor\n*Jonny Evans, football player\n*Corry Evans, football player\n*Carl Frampton, boxer\n*Sir James Galway, musician\n*Craig Gilroy, rugby union player\n*Chaim Herzog, former President of Israel\n*Alex Higgins, snooker player\n*Eamonn Holmes, broadcaster\n*Brian Desmond Hurst, film director\n*Paddy Jackson, rugby union player\n*Oliver Jeffers, artist\n*Dame Rotha Johnston, entrepreneur\n*Lord Kelvin, physicist and engineer\n*C. S. Lewis, author\n*James Joseph Magennis, Victoria Cross recipient\n*Jim Magilton, football player and manager\n*Paula Malcomson, actress\n*Mary McAleese, former President of Ireland\n*Gerry McAvoy, musician and long time bass guitarist with Rory Gallagher\n*Sir Tony McCoy, horse racing jockey\n*Wayne McCullough, Olympic Games Silver Medalist, WBC World Champion Boxer, Patron of Northern Ireland Children's Hospice\n*Alan McDonald, football player\n*Rory McIlroy, golfer\n*Sammy McIlroy, football player and manager\n*Gary Moore, guitarist\n*Van Morrison, singer-songwriter\n*Doc Neeson, singer-songwriter\n*Dame Mary Peters, Olympic sportswoman\n*Patricia Quinn, actress\n*Pat Rice, football player and coach\n*Trevor Ringland, rugby union player\n*Peter Robinson, First Minister of Northern Ireland\n*Mark Ryder, actor\n*Jonathan Simms, victim of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD) who survived for an unprecedented ten years after diagnosis\n*David Trimble, former First Minister of Northern Ireland, Nobel Peace Prize winner\n*Gary Wilson, cricketer\n*Roy Walker (comedian), TV Gameshow Host",
"\n\nBelfast has two universities.",
"Queen's University Belfast was founded in 1845 and is a member of the Russell Group, an association of 24 leading research-intensive universities in the UK.",
"It is one of the largest universities in the UK with 25,231 undergraduate and postgraduate students spread over 250 buildings, 120 of which are listed as being of architectural merit.",
"Ulster University, created in its current form in 1984, is a multi-centre university with a campus in the Cathedral Quarter of Belfast.",
"The Belfast campus has a specific focus on Art and Design and Architecture, and is currently undergoing major redevelopment.",
"The Jordanstown campus, just from Belfast city centre concentrates on engineering, health and social science.",
"The Coleraine campus, about from Belfast city centre concentrates on a broad range of subjects.",
"Course provision is broad – biomedical sciences, environmental science and geography, psychology, business, the humanities and languages, film and journalism, travel and tourism, teacher training and computing are among the campus strengths.",
"The Magee campus, about from Belfast city centre has many teaching strengths; including business, computing, creative technologies, nursing, Irish language and literature, social sciences, law, psychology, peace and conflict studies and the performing arts.",
"The Conflict Archive on the INternet (CAIN) Web Service receives funding from both universities and is a rich source of information and source material on the Troubles as well as society and politics in Northern Ireland.",
"Belfast Metropolitan College is a large further education college with three main campuses around the city, including several smaller buildings.",
"Formerly known as Belfast Institute of Further and Higher Education, it specialises in vocational education.",
"The college has over 53,000 students enrolled on full-time and part-time courses, making it one of the largest further education colleges in the UK and the largest in the island of Ireland.",
"The Belfast Education and Library Board was established in 1973 as the local council responsible for education, youth and library services within the city.",
"There are 184 primary, secondary and grammar schools in the city.",
"The Ulster Museum is located in Belfast.",
"Titanic Belfast, devoted to the Belfast-built RMS ''Titanic'', opened in 2012\n\nBelfast is one of the most visited cities in the UK, and the second most visited on the island of Ireland.",
"In 2008, 7.1 million tourists visited the city.",
"Numerous popular tour bus companies and boat tours run there throughout the year.",
"Frommer's, the American travel guidebook series, listed Belfast as the only United Kingdom destination in its ''Top 12 Destinations to Visit'' in 2009.",
"The other listed destinations were Berlin (Germany), Cambodia, Cape Town (South Africa), Cartagena (Colombia), Istanbul (Turkey), the Lassen Volcanic National Park (USA), Saqqara (Egypt), the Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail (USA), Waiheke Island (New Zealand), Washington, D.C. (USA), and Waterton Lakes National Park (Canada).",
"The Belfast City Council is currently investing into the complete redevelopment of the Titanic Quarter, which is planned to consist of apartments, hotels, and a riverside entertainment district.",
"A major visitor attraction, Titanic Belfast is a monument to Belfast's maritime heritage on the site of the former Harland & Wolff shipyard, opened on 31 March 2012.",
"It features a criss-cross of escalators and suspended walkways and nine high-tech galleries.",
"They also hope to invest in a new modern transport system (including high-speed rail and others) for Belfast, with a cost of £250 million.",
"There is a tourist information centre located at Donegall Place.",
"Belfast has the following sister cities:\n\n* Nashville, Tennessee, United States (since 1994)\n* Hefei, Anhui Province, China (since 2005)\n* Boston, Massachusetts, United States (since 2014)\n* Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China (since 2016)",
"* Beesley, S. and Wilde, J.",
"1997.",
"''Urban Flora of Belfast''.",
"Institute of Irish Studies & The Queen's University of Belfast.",
"* Deane, C.Douglas.",
"1983.",
"''The Ulster Countryside.''",
"Century Books.",
"* Gillespie, R. 2007.",
"''Early Belfast.''",
"Belfast Natural History & Philosophical Society in Association with Ulster Historical Foundation.",
".",
"* Nesbitt, Noel.",
"1982.",
"''The Changing Face of Belfast.''",
"Ulster Museum, Belfast.",
"Publication no.",
"183.",
"* Pollock, V. and Parkhill, T. 1997.",
"''Belfast''.",
"National Museums of Northern Ireland.",
"* Scott, Robert.",
"2004.",
"''Wild Belfast on safari in the city.''",
"Blackstaff Press.",
".",
"* Walker, B.M.",
"and Dixon, H. 1984.",
"''Early Photographs from the Lawrence Collection in Belfast Town 1864–1880.''",
"The Friar's Bush Press, \n* Walker, B.M.",
"and Dixon, H. 1983.",
"''No Mean City: Belfast 1880–1914.''",
".",
"* Connolly, S.J.",
"Ed.",
"2012.",
"Belfast 400 People Places and History.",
"Liverpool University Press.",
"* McCracken, E. 1971.",
"''The Palm House and Botanic Garden, Belfast''.",
"Ulster Architectural Heritage Society.",
"* McMahon, Sean.",
"2011.",
"''A Brief History of Belfast.''",
"The Brehon Press.",
"Belfast.",
"* Fulton, C. 2011.",
"''Coalbricks and Prefabs, Glimpses of Belfast in the 1950s.''",
"Thedoc Press.",
"* O'Reilly, D. 2010. \"",
"Rivers of Belfast\".",
"Colourpoint Books.",
"\n\n\n*\n* Belfast City Council\n* Belfast Pride"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Charlize Theron''' ( ; ; born 7 August 1975) is a South African and American actress and film producer. She has starred in several Hollywood films, such as ''The Devil's Advocate'' (1997), ''Mighty Joe Young'' (1998), ''The Cider House Rules'' (1999), ''Monster'' (2003), ''The Italian Job'' (2003), ''Hancock'' (2008), ''Snow White and the Huntsman'' (2012), ''Prometheus'' (2012), ''A Million Ways to Die in the West '' (2014), ''Mad Max: Fury Road'' (2015), ''The Fate of the Furious'' (2017), and ''Atomic Blonde'' (2017).\n\nTheron received critical acclaim for her portrayal of serial killer Aileen Wuornos in ''Monster'' (2003), for which she won the Academy Award, Silver Bear, Golden Globe Award, and Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actress among several other accolades, becoming the first South African to win an Academy Award in a major acting category. She received Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for her performance in the sexual harassment-themed drama ''North Country'' in 2005 and a Golden Globe Award nomination for her performance in Jason Reitman's 2011 film ''Young Adult''.\n\nTheron became a U.S. citizen in 2007, while retaining her South African citizenship. In the late 2000s, she moved into the field of producing, both in television and film. She founded and owns the production company Denver and Delilah Productions. In 2006, she produced the documentary ''East of Havana''. She had producing credits on the films ''The Burning Plain'' (2008) and ''Dark Places'' (2015), both of which she starred in. In 2016, ''Time'' named her in the annual ''Time 100'' most influential people list.\n",
"Theron was born in Benoni, in the then-Transvaal Province (currently in the Gauteng Province) of South Africa, the only child of Gerda Jacoba Aletta (née Maritz) and Charles Jacobus Theron (born 27 November 1947). Second Boer War figure Danie Theron was her great-great-uncle. She is from an Afrikaner family, and her ancestry includes Dutch, as well as French and German; her French forebears were early Huguenot settlers in South Africa. \"Theron\" is an Occitan surname (originally spelled Théron) pronounced in Afrikaans as (or ).\n\nShe grew up on her parents' farm in Benoni, near Johannesburg. On 21 June 1991, Theron's father, an alcoholic, threatened both teenaged Charlize and her mother while drunk, physically attacking her mother. Theron's mother then shot and killed him. The shooting was legally adjudged to have been self-defence, and her mother faced no charges.\n\nTheron attended Putfontein Primary School (Laerskool Putfontein), a period during which she has said she was not \"fitting in.\" At thirteen, Theron was sent to boarding school and began her studies at the National School of the Arts in Johannesburg. Although Theron is fluent in English, her first language is Afrikaans.\n",
"\n===Early work===\nAlthough seeing herself as a dancer, Theron at 16 won a one-year modelling contract at a local competition in Salerno and with her mother moved to Milan, Italy. After Theron spent a year modelling throughout Europe, she and her mother moved to the US, both New York City and Miami. In New York, she attended the Joffrey Ballet School, where she trained as a ballet dancer until a knee injury closed this career path. As Theron recalled in 2008:\n\nAt 19, Theron flew to Los Angeles, on a one-way ticket her mother bought for her, intending to work in the film industry. During the initial months there, she went to a Hollywood Boulevard bank to cash a cheque her mother had sent to help with the rent. When the teller refused to cash it, Theron engaged in a shouting match with him. Upon seeing this, talent agent John Crosby, waiting behind her, handed her his business card and subsequently introduced her to casting agents and also an acting school. She later fired him as her manager after he kept sending her scripts for films similar to ''Showgirls'' and ''Species''. After several months in the city, she made her film debut with a non-speaking role in the horror film ''Children of the Corn III: Urban Harvest'' (1995). Her first speaking role was a supporting but significant and attention-garnering part as a hitwoman in ''2 Days in the Valley'' (1996). Larger roles in widely released Hollywood films followed, and her career expanded in the late 1990s with box-office successes like ''The Devil's Advocate'' (1997), ''Mighty Joe Young'' (1998), and ''The Cider House Rules'' (1999). She was on the cover of the January 1999 issue of ''Vanity Fair'' as the \"White Hot Venus\". She also appeared on the cover of the May 1999 issue of ''Playboy'' magazine, in photos taken several years earlier when she was an unknown model; Theron unsuccessfully sued the magazine for publishing them without her consent.\n\n===Success and hiatus===\nShe starred in five films in 2000: ''Reindeer Games'', ''The Yards'', ''The Legend of Bagger Vance'' and ''Men of Honor'', ''Sweet November'' and was briefly considered a new \"It girl\". Theron has said of this period in her career that, \"I kept finding myself in a place where directors would back me but studios didn't. I began a love affair with directors, the ones I really, truly admired. I found myself making really bad movies, too. ''Reindeer Games'' was not a good movie, but I did it because I loved John Frankenheimer.\"\n\nNorth Country'' at the 2005 Toronto International Film Festival\n\nAfter appearing in other films, Theron starred as serial killer Aileen Wuornos in ''Monster'' (2003). Film critic Roger Ebert called it \"one of the greatest performances in the history of the cinema\". For her role, she won the Academy Award for Best Actress at the 76th Academy Awards in February 2004, as well as the Screen Actors Guild Award and the Golden Globe Award. She is the first South African to win an Oscar for Best Actress. The Oscar win pushed her to ''The Hollywood Reporter's'' 2006 list of highest-paid actresses in Hollywood, earning US$10 million for both her subsequent films, ''North Country'' and ''Aeon Flux'', she ranked seventh, behind Halle Berry, Cameron Diaz, Drew Barrymore, Renée Zellweger, Reese Witherspoon and Nicole Kidman. AskMen also named her the number one most desirable woman of 2003.\n\nTheron at the 82nd Academy Awards\n\nIn 2005, Theron portrayed Rita, Michael Bluth's (Jason Bateman) love interest, on the third season of Fox's critically acclaimed television series ''Arrested Development''. She also received Golden Globe Award and Primetime Emmy Award nominations for her role of Britt Ekland in the 2004 HBO film ''The Life and Death of Peter Sellers''. On 30 September, Theron received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In the same year, she starred in the financially unsuccessful science fiction thriller ''Aeon Flux''. She also received the 2005 Spike Video Game Award for Best Performance by a Human Female for her voiceover work in the ''Aeon Flux'' video game. Theron was listed for the role of Susan Storm in the film ''Fantastic Four'' (2005).\n\nTheron received Best Actress Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for her lead performance in the drama ''North Country''. ''Ms.'' magazine also honoured her for this performance with a feature article in its Fall 2005 issue. She was supposed to star in the screen adaption of the short story ''The Ice at the Bottom of the World'' by Mark Richard, and it was to be directed by Kimberly Peirce and produced by Theron's company Denver and Delilah Productions (named after Theron's two dogs). Theron has owned the rights for many years. She was also supposed to star in a movie adaption of the graphic novel ''Jinx'', but neither project has been produced yet.\n\nIn 2008, Theron was named the Hasty Pudding Theatricals Woman of the Year. That year she also starred with Will Smith in the superhero film ''Hancock'', and in late 2008 she was asked to be a UN Messenger of Peace by the UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon.\n\nOn 4 December 2009, Theron co-presented the draw for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in Cape Town, South Africa, accompanied by several other celebrities of South African nationality or ancestry. During rehearsals she drew an Ireland ball instead of France as a joke at the expense of FIFA, referring to Thierry Henry's handball controversy in the play-off match between France and Ireland. The stunt alarmed FIFA enough for it to fear she might do it again in front of a live global audience.\n\n===Recent work===\nTheron at WonderCon in March 2012 promoting ''Prometheus''\n\nFollowing a two-year hiatus from the big screen, Theron returned to the spotlight in 2011 with ''Young Adult''. Directed by Jason Reitman, the film earned critical acclaim, especially for Theron's performance. She was nominated for a Golden Globe Award and several other awards. Theron then played the Evil Queen Ravenna, Snow White's evil stepmother, in the film ''Snow White and the Huntsman'', which began production in 2011 and was released in 2012. In 2011, she described her process for becoming the characters in her film:\n\n\nIn 2012, she starred in Ridley Scott's science fiction film ''Prometheus''. In 2013, Vulture/NYMag named her the 68th Most Valuable Star in Hollywood saying: \"We’re just happy that Theron can stay on the list in a year when she didn’t come out with anything … any actress who’s got that kind of skill, beauty, and ferocity ought to have a permanent place in Hollywood.\"\n\nIn 2015, Theron played Libby Day, the lead character in the film adaptation of the Gillian Flynn novel ''Dark Places'', directed by Gilles Paquet-Brenner. Theron also had a producer credit. The same year, Theron also starred as Imperator Furiosa in ''Mad Max: Fury Road'' (2015), opposite Tom Hardy.\n\nTheron reprised her role as Queen Ravenna in the fantasy epic ''The Huntsman: Winter's War'', a sequel to ''Snow White and the Huntsman''. The film was released on 22 April 2016.\n\nIn 2017, she starred in ''Atomic Blonde'', an adaptation of the graphic novel ''The Coldest City'', directed by David Leitch. Production started in November 2015.\n",
"\n===Activism===\nTheron at the 2013 Crystal Award Ceremony for Exploring Arts in Society\n\nThe Charlize Theron Africa Outreach Project (CTAOP) was created in 2007 by Theron, a UN Messenger of Peace, in an effort to support African youth in the fight against HIV/AIDS. CTAOP's mission is to help keep African youth safe from HIV/AIDS. The project is committed to supporting community-engaged organizations that address the key drivers of the disease. Although the geographic scope of CTAOP is Sub-Saharan Africa, the primary concentration has mostly been Charlize's home country of South Africa. CTAOP's approach is based on the belief that community-based organizations on the ground understand the social and structural relationships of their communities better than anyone. By supporting these organizations through grant giving, networking, and spotlighting their work, CTAOP enables communities to mobilize and empower themselves to prevent HIV.\n\nIn 2008, Theron was named a United Nations Messenger of Peace. In his citation, Ban Ki-Moon said of Theron \"You have consistently dedicated yourself to improving the lives of women and children in South Africa, and to preventing and stopping violence against women and girls.\" She recorded a public service announcement in 2014 as part of their Stop Rape Now program.\n\nIn December 2009, CTAOP and TOMS Shoes partnered to create a limited edition unisex shoe. The shoe was made from vegan materials and inspired by the African baobab tree, the silhouette of which was embroidered on blue and orange canvas. Ten-thousand pairs were given to destitute children, and a portion of the proceeds went to CTAOP.\n\nTheron is involved in women's rights organizations and has marched in pro-choice rallies. Theron also is a supporter of animal rights and active member of PETA. She appeared in a PETA ad for its anti-fur campaign.\n\nTheron is a supporter of same-sex marriage and attended a march and rally to support that in Fresno, California, on 30 May 2009. She has publicly stated that she refuses to get married until same sex marriage is legal in the United States. Theron commented on the subject matter, saying: \"I don't want to get married because right now the institution of marriage feels very one-sided, and I want to live in a country where we all have equal rights. I think it would be exactly the same if we were married, but for me to go through that kind of ceremony, because I have so many friends who are gays and lesbians who would so badly want to get married, that I wouldn't be able to sleep with myself.\" Theron further elaborated on her stance in a June 2011 interview on ''Piers Morgan Tonight''. She stated: \"I do have a problem with the fact that our government hasn't stepped up enough to make this federal, to make gay marriage legal. I think everybody has that right.\"\n\nIn March 2014, CTAOP was among the charities that benefited from the annual Fame and Philanthropy fundraising event on the night of the 86th Academy Awards. Theron was an honoured guest along with Halle Berry and keynote speaker James Cameron.\n\nIn 2015, Theron signed an open letter which the ONE Campaign had been collecting signatures for; the letter was addressed to Angela Merkel and Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the G7 in Germany and the AU in South Africa respectively, which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main UN summit in September 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation.\n\n===Endorsements===\nHaving signed a deal with John Galliano in 2004, Theron replaced Estonian model Tiiu Kuik as the spokeswoman in the \"J'adore\" advertisements by Christian Dior. From October 2005 to December 2006, Theron earned US$3 million for the use of her image in a worldwide print media advertising campaign for Raymond Weil watches. In February 2006, she and her corporate entity were sued by Weil for breach of contract. The lawsuit was settled on 4 November 2008.\n",
"Theron at the 2008 Meteor Awards\n\nTheron dated Irish actor Stuart Townsend after meeting him on the set of 2002's ''Trapped''. The couple lived together in Los Angeles and Ireland. Theron split from Townsend when she came back from a holiday in Mexico in January 2010.\n\nIn 2007, Theron became a naturalized citizen of the United States, while retaining her South African citizenship.\n\nTheron has two children, both adopted. In March 2012, she adopted a boy. In July 2015, she adopted a girl. She lives in Los Angeles.\n\n===Health concerns===\nAs a child, Theron had suffered from jaundice and due to antibiotics her teeth had rotted away and had to be removed. In an interview, she said \"sic I had no teeth until I was 11. I had these fangs because I had jaundice when I was a kid and I was put on so many antibiotics that my teeth rotted. They had to cut them out. So I never had baby teeth.\"\n\nWhile filming ''Æon Flux'' in Berlin, Germany, Theron suffered a herniated disc in her neck, caused by a fall while filming a series of back handsprings. It required her to wear a neck brace for a month. In July 2009, she was diagnosed with a serious stomach virus, thought to be contracted while overseas. While filming ''The Road'', Theron injured her vocal cords during the labour screaming scenes.\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"\n\n* \n* Charlize Theron at Encyclopædia Britannica\n* \n* \n* Charlize Theron at Who's Who Southern Africa\n* Charlize Theron at AskMen\n* Charlize Theron at Emmys.com\n* Charlize Theron (Aveleyman)\n* @CharlizeAfrica (Verified Twitter Account)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life",
"Career",
"Other ventures",
"Personal life",
"Filmography",
"Awards and nominations",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Charlize Theron | [
"During the initial months there, she went to a Hollywood Boulevard bank to cash a cheque her mother had sent to help with the rent."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Charlize Theron''' ( ; ; born 7 August 1975) is a South African and American actress and film producer.",
"She has starred in several Hollywood films, such as ''The Devil's Advocate'' (1997), ''Mighty Joe Young'' (1998), ''The Cider House Rules'' (1999), ''Monster'' (2003), ''The Italian Job'' (2003), ''Hancock'' (2008), ''Snow White and the Huntsman'' (2012), ''Prometheus'' (2012), ''A Million Ways to Die in the West '' (2014), ''Mad Max: Fury Road'' (2015), ''The Fate of the Furious'' (2017), and ''Atomic Blonde'' (2017).",
"Theron received critical acclaim for her portrayal of serial killer Aileen Wuornos in ''Monster'' (2003), for which she won the Academy Award, Silver Bear, Golden Globe Award, and Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actress among several other accolades, becoming the first South African to win an Academy Award in a major acting category.",
"She received Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for her performance in the sexual harassment-themed drama ''North Country'' in 2005 and a Golden Globe Award nomination for her performance in Jason Reitman's 2011 film ''Young Adult''.",
"Theron became a U.S. citizen in 2007, while retaining her South African citizenship.",
"In the late 2000s, she moved into the field of producing, both in television and film.",
"She founded and owns the production company Denver and Delilah Productions.",
"In 2006, she produced the documentary ''East of Havana''.",
"She had producing credits on the films ''The Burning Plain'' (2008) and ''Dark Places'' (2015), both of which she starred in.",
"In 2016, ''Time'' named her in the annual ''Time 100'' most influential people list.",
"Theron was born in Benoni, in the then-Transvaal Province (currently in the Gauteng Province) of South Africa, the only child of Gerda Jacoba Aletta (née Maritz) and Charles Jacobus Theron (born 27 November 1947).",
"Second Boer War figure Danie Theron was her great-great-uncle.",
"She is from an Afrikaner family, and her ancestry includes Dutch, as well as French and German; her French forebears were early Huguenot settlers in South Africa.",
"\"Theron\" is an Occitan surname (originally spelled Théron) pronounced in Afrikaans as (or ).",
"She grew up on her parents' farm in Benoni, near Johannesburg.",
"On 21 June 1991, Theron's father, an alcoholic, threatened both teenaged Charlize and her mother while drunk, physically attacking her mother.",
"Theron's mother then shot and killed him.",
"The shooting was legally adjudged to have been self-defence, and her mother faced no charges.",
"Theron attended Putfontein Primary School (Laerskool Putfontein), a period during which she has said she was not \"fitting in.\"",
"At thirteen, Theron was sent to boarding school and began her studies at the National School of the Arts in Johannesburg.",
"Although Theron is fluent in English, her first language is Afrikaans.",
"\n===Early work===\nAlthough seeing herself as a dancer, Theron at 16 won a one-year modelling contract at a local competition in Salerno and with her mother moved to Milan, Italy.",
"After Theron spent a year modelling throughout Europe, she and her mother moved to the US, both New York City and Miami.",
"In New York, she attended the Joffrey Ballet School, where she trained as a ballet dancer until a knee injury closed this career path.",
"As Theron recalled in 2008:\n\nAt 19, Theron flew to Los Angeles, on a one-way ticket her mother bought for her, intending to work in the film industry.",
"When the teller refused to cash it, Theron engaged in a shouting match with him.",
"Upon seeing this, talent agent John Crosby, waiting behind her, handed her his business card and subsequently introduced her to casting agents and also an acting school.",
"She later fired him as her manager after he kept sending her scripts for films similar to ''Showgirls'' and ''Species''.",
"After several months in the city, she made her film debut with a non-speaking role in the horror film ''Children of the Corn III: Urban Harvest'' (1995).",
"Her first speaking role was a supporting but significant and attention-garnering part as a hitwoman in ''2 Days in the Valley'' (1996).",
"Larger roles in widely released Hollywood films followed, and her career expanded in the late 1990s with box-office successes like ''The Devil's Advocate'' (1997), ''Mighty Joe Young'' (1998), and ''The Cider House Rules'' (1999).",
"She was on the cover of the January 1999 issue of ''Vanity Fair'' as the \"White Hot Venus\".",
"She also appeared on the cover of the May 1999 issue of ''Playboy'' magazine, in photos taken several years earlier when she was an unknown model; Theron unsuccessfully sued the magazine for publishing them without her consent.",
"===Success and hiatus===\nShe starred in five films in 2000: ''Reindeer Games'', ''The Yards'', ''The Legend of Bagger Vance'' and ''Men of Honor'', ''Sweet November'' and was briefly considered a new \"It girl\".",
"Theron has said of this period in her career that, \"I kept finding myself in a place where directors would back me but studios didn't.",
"I began a love affair with directors, the ones I really, truly admired.",
"I found myself making really bad movies, too.",
"''Reindeer Games'' was not a good movie, but I did it because I loved John Frankenheimer.\"",
"North Country'' at the 2005 Toronto International Film Festival\n\nAfter appearing in other films, Theron starred as serial killer Aileen Wuornos in ''Monster'' (2003).",
"Film critic Roger Ebert called it \"one of the greatest performances in the history of the cinema\".",
"For her role, she won the Academy Award for Best Actress at the 76th Academy Awards in February 2004, as well as the Screen Actors Guild Award and the Golden Globe Award.",
"She is the first South African to win an Oscar for Best Actress.",
"The Oscar win pushed her to ''The Hollywood Reporter's'' 2006 list of highest-paid actresses in Hollywood, earning US$10 million for both her subsequent films, ''North Country'' and ''Aeon Flux'', she ranked seventh, behind Halle Berry, Cameron Diaz, Drew Barrymore, Renée Zellweger, Reese Witherspoon and Nicole Kidman.",
"AskMen also named her the number one most desirable woman of 2003.",
"Theron at the 82nd Academy Awards\n\nIn 2005, Theron portrayed Rita, Michael Bluth's (Jason Bateman) love interest, on the third season of Fox's critically acclaimed television series ''Arrested Development''.",
"She also received Golden Globe Award and Primetime Emmy Award nominations for her role of Britt Ekland in the 2004 HBO film ''The Life and Death of Peter Sellers''.",
"On 30 September, Theron received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.",
"In the same year, she starred in the financially unsuccessful science fiction thriller ''Aeon Flux''.",
"She also received the 2005 Spike Video Game Award for Best Performance by a Human Female for her voiceover work in the ''Aeon Flux'' video game.",
"Theron was listed for the role of Susan Storm in the film ''Fantastic Four'' (2005).",
"Theron received Best Actress Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for her lead performance in the drama ''North Country''.",
"''Ms.''",
"magazine also honoured her for this performance with a feature article in its Fall 2005 issue.",
"She was supposed to star in the screen adaption of the short story ''The Ice at the Bottom of the World'' by Mark Richard, and it was to be directed by Kimberly Peirce and produced by Theron's company Denver and Delilah Productions (named after Theron's two dogs).",
"Theron has owned the rights for many years.",
"She was also supposed to star in a movie adaption of the graphic novel ''Jinx'', but neither project has been produced yet.",
"In 2008, Theron was named the Hasty Pudding Theatricals Woman of the Year.",
"That year she also starred with Will Smith in the superhero film ''Hancock'', and in late 2008 she was asked to be a UN Messenger of Peace by the UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon.",
"On 4 December 2009, Theron co-presented the draw for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in Cape Town, South Africa, accompanied by several other celebrities of South African nationality or ancestry.",
"During rehearsals she drew an Ireland ball instead of France as a joke at the expense of FIFA, referring to Thierry Henry's handball controversy in the play-off match between France and Ireland.",
"The stunt alarmed FIFA enough for it to fear she might do it again in front of a live global audience.",
"===Recent work===\nTheron at WonderCon in March 2012 promoting ''Prometheus''\n\nFollowing a two-year hiatus from the big screen, Theron returned to the spotlight in 2011 with ''Young Adult''.",
"Directed by Jason Reitman, the film earned critical acclaim, especially for Theron's performance.",
"She was nominated for a Golden Globe Award and several other awards.",
"Theron then played the Evil Queen Ravenna, Snow White's evil stepmother, in the film ''Snow White and the Huntsman'', which began production in 2011 and was released in 2012.",
"In 2011, she described her process for becoming the characters in her film:\n\n\nIn 2012, she starred in Ridley Scott's science fiction film ''Prometheus''.",
"In 2013, Vulture/NYMag named her the 68th Most Valuable Star in Hollywood saying: \"We’re just happy that Theron can stay on the list in a year when she didn’t come out with anything … any actress who’s got that kind of skill, beauty, and ferocity ought to have a permanent place in Hollywood.\"",
"In 2015, Theron played Libby Day, the lead character in the film adaptation of the Gillian Flynn novel ''Dark Places'', directed by Gilles Paquet-Brenner.",
"Theron also had a producer credit.",
"The same year, Theron also starred as Imperator Furiosa in ''Mad Max: Fury Road'' (2015), opposite Tom Hardy.",
"Theron reprised her role as Queen Ravenna in the fantasy epic ''The Huntsman: Winter's War'', a sequel to ''Snow White and the Huntsman''.",
"The film was released on 22 April 2016.",
"In 2017, she starred in ''Atomic Blonde'', an adaptation of the graphic novel ''The Coldest City'', directed by David Leitch.",
"Production started in November 2015.",
"\n===Activism===\nTheron at the 2013 Crystal Award Ceremony for Exploring Arts in Society\n\nThe Charlize Theron Africa Outreach Project (CTAOP) was created in 2007 by Theron, a UN Messenger of Peace, in an effort to support African youth in the fight against HIV/AIDS.",
"CTAOP's mission is to help keep African youth safe from HIV/AIDS.",
"The project is committed to supporting community-engaged organizations that address the key drivers of the disease.",
"Although the geographic scope of CTAOP is Sub-Saharan Africa, the primary concentration has mostly been Charlize's home country of South Africa.",
"CTAOP's approach is based on the belief that community-based organizations on the ground understand the social and structural relationships of their communities better than anyone.",
"By supporting these organizations through grant giving, networking, and spotlighting their work, CTAOP enables communities to mobilize and empower themselves to prevent HIV.",
"In 2008, Theron was named a United Nations Messenger of Peace.",
"In his citation, Ban Ki-Moon said of Theron \"You have consistently dedicated yourself to improving the lives of women and children in South Africa, and to preventing and stopping violence against women and girls.\"",
"She recorded a public service announcement in 2014 as part of their Stop Rape Now program.",
"In December 2009, CTAOP and TOMS Shoes partnered to create a limited edition unisex shoe.",
"The shoe was made from vegan materials and inspired by the African baobab tree, the silhouette of which was embroidered on blue and orange canvas.",
"Ten-thousand pairs were given to destitute children, and a portion of the proceeds went to CTAOP.",
"Theron is involved in women's rights organizations and has marched in pro-choice rallies.",
"Theron also is a supporter of animal rights and active member of PETA.",
"She appeared in a PETA ad for its anti-fur campaign.",
"Theron is a supporter of same-sex marriage and attended a march and rally to support that in Fresno, California, on 30 May 2009.",
"She has publicly stated that she refuses to get married until same sex marriage is legal in the United States.",
"Theron commented on the subject matter, saying: \"I don't want to get married because right now the institution of marriage feels very one-sided, and I want to live in a country where we all have equal rights.",
"I think it would be exactly the same if we were married, but for me to go through that kind of ceremony, because I have so many friends who are gays and lesbians who would so badly want to get married, that I wouldn't be able to sleep with myself.\"",
"Theron further elaborated on her stance in a June 2011 interview on ''Piers Morgan Tonight''.",
"She stated: \"I do have a problem with the fact that our government hasn't stepped up enough to make this federal, to make gay marriage legal.",
"I think everybody has that right.\"",
"In March 2014, CTAOP was among the charities that benefited from the annual Fame and Philanthropy fundraising event on the night of the 86th Academy Awards.",
"Theron was an honoured guest along with Halle Berry and keynote speaker James Cameron.",
"In 2015, Theron signed an open letter which the ONE Campaign had been collecting signatures for; the letter was addressed to Angela Merkel and Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the G7 in Germany and the AU in South Africa respectively, which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main UN summit in September 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation.",
"===Endorsements===\nHaving signed a deal with John Galliano in 2004, Theron replaced Estonian model Tiiu Kuik as the spokeswoman in the \"J'adore\" advertisements by Christian Dior.",
"From October 2005 to December 2006, Theron earned US$3 million for the use of her image in a worldwide print media advertising campaign for Raymond Weil watches.",
"In February 2006, she and her corporate entity were sued by Weil for breach of contract.",
"The lawsuit was settled on 4 November 2008.",
"Theron at the 2008 Meteor Awards\n\nTheron dated Irish actor Stuart Townsend after meeting him on the set of 2002's ''Trapped''.",
"The couple lived together in Los Angeles and Ireland.",
"Theron split from Townsend when she came back from a holiday in Mexico in January 2010.",
"In 2007, Theron became a naturalized citizen of the United States, while retaining her South African citizenship.",
"Theron has two children, both adopted.",
"In March 2012, she adopted a boy.",
"In July 2015, she adopted a girl.",
"She lives in Los Angeles.",
"===Health concerns===\nAs a child, Theron had suffered from jaundice and due to antibiotics her teeth had rotted away and had to be removed.",
"In an interview, she said \"sic I had no teeth until I was 11.",
"I had these fangs because I had jaundice when I was a kid and I was put on so many antibiotics that my teeth rotted.",
"They had to cut them out.",
"So I never had baby teeth.\"",
"While filming ''Æon Flux'' in Berlin, Germany, Theron suffered a herniated disc in her neck, caused by a fall while filming a series of back handsprings.",
"It required her to wear a neck brace for a month.",
"In July 2009, she was diagnosed with a serious stomach virus, thought to be contracted while overseas.",
"While filming ''The Road'', Theron injured her vocal cords during the labour screaming scenes.",
"\n\n* \n* Charlize Theron at Encyclopædia Britannica\n* \n* \n* Charlize Theron at Who's Who Southern Africa\n* Charlize Theron at AskMen\n* Charlize Theron at Emmys.com\n* Charlize Theron (Aveleyman)\n* @CharlizeAfrica (Verified Twitter Account)"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Sir Charles Spencer \"Charlie\" Chaplin''', (16 April 1889 – 25 December 1977) was an English comic actor, filmmaker, and composer who rose to fame in the era of silent film. Chaplin became a worldwide icon through his screen persona \"the Tramp\" and is considered one of the most important figures in the history of the film industry. His career spanned more than 75 years, from childhood in the Victorian era until a year before his death in 1977, and encompassed both adulation and controversy.\n\nChaplin's childhood in London was one of poverty and hardship. As his father was absent and his mother struggled financially, he was sent to a workhouse twice before the age of nine. When he was 14, his mother was committed to a mental asylum. Chaplin began performing at an early age, touring music halls and later working as a stage actor and comedian. At 19, he was signed to the prestigious Fred Karno company, which took him to America. Chaplin was scouted for the film industry and began appearing in 1914 for Keystone Studios. He soon developed the Tramp persona and formed a large fan base. Chaplin directed his own films from an early stage and continued to hone his craft as he moved to the Essanay, Mutual, and First National corporations. By 1918, he was one of the best-known figures in the world.\n\nIn 1919, Chaplin co-founded the distribution company United Artists, which gave him complete control over his films. His first feature-length was ''The Kid'' (1921), followed by ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923), ''The Gold Rush'' (1925), and ''The Circus'' (1928). He refused to move to sound films in the 1930s, instead producing ''City Lights'' (1931) and ''Modern Times'' (1936) without dialogue. Chaplin became increasingly political, and his next film, ''The Great Dictator'' (1940), satirised Adolf Hitler. The 1940s were a decade marked with controversy for Chaplin, and his popularity declined rapidly. He was accused of communist sympathies, while his involvement in a paternity suit and marriages to much younger women caused scandal. An FBI investigation was opened, and Chaplin was forced to leave the United States and settle in Switzerland. He abandoned the Tramp in his later films, which include ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947), ''Limelight'' (1952), ''A King in New York'' (1957), and ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967).\n\nChaplin wrote, directed, produced, edited, starred in, and composed the music for most of his films. He was a perfectionist, and his financial independence enabled him to spend years on the development and production of a picture. His films are characterised by slapstick combined with pathos, typified in the Tramp's struggles against adversity. Many contain social and political themes, as well as autobiographical elements. In 1972, as part of a renewed appreciation for his work, Chaplin received an Honorary Academy Award for \"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\". He continues to be held in high regard, with ''The Gold Rush'', ''City Lights'', ''Modern Times'', and ''The Great Dictator'' often ranked on industry lists of the greatest films of all time.\n",
"===1889–1913: Early years===\n\n====Background and childhood hardship====\nCharles Spencer Chaplin was born on 16 April 1889 to Hannah Chaplin (born Hannah Harriet Pedlingham Hill) and Charles Chaplin Sr. There is no official record of his birth, although Chaplin believed he was born at East Street, Walworth, in South London. His mother and father had married four years previously, at which time Charles Sr. became the legal carer of Hannah's illegitimate son, Sydney John Hill. At the time of his birth, Chaplin's parents were both music hall entertainers. Hannah, the daughter of a shoemaker, had a brief and unsuccessful career under the stage name Lily Harley, while Charles Sr., a butcher's son, was a popular singer. Although they never divorced, Chaplin's parents were estranged by around 1891. The following year, Hannah gave birth to a third son – George Wheeler Dryden – fathered by the music hall entertainer Leo Dryden. The child was taken by Dryden at six months old, and did not re-enter Chaplin's life for 30 years.\n\nSeven-year-old Chaplin (lower centre) at the Central London District School for paupers, 1897\n\nChaplin's childhood was fraught with poverty and hardship, making his eventual trajectory \"the most dramatic of all the rags to riches stories ever told\" according to his authorised biographer David Robinson. Chaplin's early years were spent with his mother and brother Sydney in the London district of Kennington; Hannah had no means of income, other than occasional nursing and dressmaking, and Chaplin Sr. provided no financial support. As the situation deteriorated, Chaplin was sent to Lambeth Workhouse when he was seven years old. The council housed him at the Central London District School for paupers, which Chaplin remembered as \"a forlorn existence\". He was briefly reunited with his mother 18 months later, before Hannah was forced to readmit her family to the workhouse in July 1898. The boys were promptly sent to Norwood Schools, another institution for destitute children.\n\n\n\nIn September 1898, Hannah was committed to Cane Hill mental asylum – she had developed a psychosis seemingly brought on by an infection of syphilis and malnutrition. For the two months she was there, Chaplin and his brother Sydney were sent to live with their father, whom the young boys scarcely knew. Charles Sr. was by then a severe alcoholic, and life there was bad enough to provoke a visit from the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. Chaplin's father died two years later, at 38 years old, from cirrhosis of the liver.\n\nHannah entered a period of remission but, in May 1903, became ill again. Chaplin, then 14, had the task of taking his mother to the infirmary, from where she was sent back to Cane Hill. He lived alone for several days, searching for food and occasionally sleeping rough, until Sydney – who had enrolled in the Navy two years earlier – returned. Hannah was released from the asylum eight months later, but in March 1905, her illness returned, this time permanently. \"There was nothing we could do but accept poor mother's fate\", Chaplin later wrote, and she remained in care until her death in 1928.\n\n====Young performer====\nSherlock Holmes'', in which he appeared between 1903 and 1906\n\nBetween his time in the poor schools and his mother succumbing to mental illness, Chaplin began to perform on stage. He later recalled making his first amateur appearance at the age of five years, when he took over from Hannah one night in Aldershot. This was an isolated occurrence, but by the time he was nine Chaplin had, with his mother's encouragement, grown interested in performing. He later wrote: \"she imbued me with the feeling that I had some sort of talent\". Through his father's connections, Chaplin became a member of the Eight Lancashire Lads clog-dancing troupe, with whom he toured English music halls throughout 1899 and 1900. Chaplin worked hard, and the act was popular with audiences, but he was not satisfied with dancing and wished to form a comedy act.\n\nIn the years Chaplin was touring with the Eight Lancashire Lads, his mother ensured that he still attended school but, by age 13, he had abandoned education. He supported himself with a range of jobs, while nursing his ambition to become an actor. At 14, shortly after his mother's relapse, he registered with a theatrical agency in London's West End. The manager sensed potential in Chaplin, who was promptly given his first role as a newsboy in Harry Arthur Saintsbury's ''Jim, a Romance of Cockayne''. It opened in July 1903, but the show was unsuccessful and closed after two weeks. Chaplin's comic performance, however, was singled out for praise in many of the reviews.\n\nSaintsbury secured a role for Chaplin in Charles Frohman's production of ''Sherlock Holmes'', where he played Billy the pageboy in three nationwide tours. His performance was so well received that he was called to London to play the role alongside William Gillette, the original Holmes. \"It was like tidings from heaven\", Chaplin recalled. At 16 years old, Chaplin starred in the play's West End production at the Duke of York's Theatre from October to December 1905. He completed one final tour of ''Sherlock Holmes'' in early 1906, before leaving the play after more than two-and-a-half years.\n\n====Stage comedy and vaudeville====\nChaplin soon found work with a new company, and went on tour with his brother – who was also pursuing an acting career – in a comedy sketch called ''Repairs''. In May 1906, Chaplin joined the juvenile act ''Casey's Circus'', where he developed popular burlesque pieces and was soon the star of the show. By the time the act finished touring in July 1907, the 18-year-old had become an accomplished comedic performer. He struggled to find more work, however, and a brief attempt at a solo act was a failure.\n\nAdvertisement from Chaplin's American tour with the Fred Karno comedy company, 1913\n\nMeanwhile, Sydney Chaplin had joined Fred Karno's prestigious comedy company in 1906 and, by 1908, he was one of their key performers. In February, he managed to secure a two-week trial for his younger brother. Karno was initially wary, and considered Chaplin a \"pale, puny, sullen-looking youngster\" who \"looked much too shy to do any good in the theatre.\" However, the teenager made an impact on his first night at the London Coliseum and he was quickly signed to a contract. Chaplin began by playing a series of minor parts, eventually progressing to starring roles in 1909. In April 1910, he was given the lead in a new sketch, ''Jimmy the Fearless''. It was a big success, and Chaplin received considerable press attention.\n\nKarno selected his new star to join the section of the company, one that also included Stan Laurel, that toured North America's vaudeville circuit. The young comedian headed the show and impressed reviewers, being described as \"one of the best pantomime artists ever seen here\". His most successful role was a drunk called the \"Inebriate Swell\", which drew him significant recognition. The tour lasted 21 months, and the troupe returned to England in June 1912. Chaplin recalled that he \"had a disquieting feeling of sinking back into a depressing commonplaceness\" and was, therefore, delighted when a new tour began in October.\n\n===1914–1917: Entering films===\n====Keystone====\n\nSix months into the second American tour, Chaplin was invited to join the New York Motion Picture Company. A representative who had seen his performances thought he could replace Fred Mace, a star of their Keystone Studios who intended to leave. Chaplin thought the Keystone comedies \"a crude mélange of rough and rumble\", but liked the idea of working in films and rationalised: \"Besides, it would mean a new life.\" He met with the company and signed a $150-per-week ($ in dollars) contract in September 1913.\n\n\n\nChaplin arrived in Los Angeles, home of the Keystone studio, in early December 1913. His boss was Mack Sennett, who initially expressed concern that the 24-year-old looked too young. He was not used in a picture until late January, during which time Chaplin attempted to learn the processes of filmmaking. The one-reeler ''Making a Living'' marked his film acting debut and was released on 2 February 1914. Chaplin strongly disliked the picture, but one review picked him out as \"a comedian of the first water\". For his second appearance in front of the camera, Chaplin selected the costume with which he became identified. He described the process in his autobiography:\n\n\n\nThe film was ''Mabel's Strange Predicament'', but \"the Tramp\" character, as it became known, debuted to audiences in ''Kid Auto Races at Venice'' – shot later than ''Mabel's Strange Predicament'' but released two days earlier. Chaplin adopted the character as his screen persona and attempted to make suggestions for the films he appeared in. These ideas were dismissed by his directors. During the filming of his eleventh picture, ''Mabel at the Wheel'', he clashed with director Mabel Normand and was almost released from his contract. Sennett kept him on, however, when he received orders from exhibitors for more Chaplin films. Sennett also allowed Chaplin to direct his next film himself after Chaplin promised to pay $1,500 ($ in dollars) if the film was unsuccessful.\n\n''Caught in the Rain'', issued 4 May 1914, was Chaplin's directorial debut and was highly successful. Thereafter he directed almost every short film in which he appeared for Keystone, at the rate of approximately one per week, a period which he later remembered as the most exciting time of his career. Chaplin's films introduced a slower form of comedy than the typical Keystone farce, and he developed a large fan base. In November 1914, he had a supporting role in the first feature length comedy film, ''Tillie's Punctured Romance'', directed by Sennett and starring Marie Dressler, which was a commercial success and increased his popularity. When Chaplin's contract came up for renewal at the end of the year, he asked for $1,000 a week ($ in dollars) – an amount Sennett refused as too large.\n\n====Essanay====\nChaplin and Edna Purviance, his regular leading lady, in ''Work'' (1915)\n\nThe Essanay Film Manufacturing Company of Chicago sent Chaplin an offer of $1,250 a week with a signing bonus of $10,000. He joined the studio in late December 1914, where he began forming a stock company of regular players, including Leo White, Bud Jamison, Paddy McGuire and Billy Armstrong. He soon recruited a leading lady – Edna Purviance, whom Chaplin met in a cafe and hired on account of her beauty. She went on to appear in 35 films with Chaplin over eight years; the pair also formed a romantic relationship that lasted into 1917.\n\nChaplin asserted a high level of control over his pictures and started to put more time and care into each film. There was a month-long interval between the release of his second production, ''A Night Out'', and his third, ''The Champion''. The final seven of Chaplin's 14 Essanay films were all produced at this slower pace. Chaplin also began to alter his screen persona, which had attracted some criticism at Keystone for its \"mean, crude, and brutish\" nature. The character became more gentle and romantic; ''The Tramp'' (April 1915) was considered a particular turning point in his development. The use of pathos was developed further with ''The Bank'', in which Chaplin created a sad ending. Robinson notes that this was an innovation in comedy films, and marked the time when serious critics began to appreciate Chaplin's work. At Essanay, writes film scholar Simon Louvish, Chaplin \"found the themes and the settings that would define the Tramp's world.\"\n\nDuring 1915, Chaplin became a cultural phenomenon. Shops were stocked with Chaplin merchandise, he was featured in cartoons and comic strips, and several songs were written about him. In July, a journalist for ''Motion Picture Magazine'' wrote that \"Chaplinitis\" had spread across America. As his fame grew worldwide, he became the film industry's first international star. When the Essanay contract ended in December 1915, Chaplin – fully aware of his popularity – requested a $150,000 signing bonus from his next studio. He received several offers, including Universal, Fox, and Vitagraph, the best of which came from the Mutual Film Corporation at $10,000 a week.\n\n====Mutual====\nBy 1916, Chaplin was a global phenomenon. Here he shows off some of his merchandise, c. 1918.\n\nA contract was negotiated with Mutual that amounted to $670,000 a year, which Robinson says made Chaplin – at 26 years old – one of the highest paid people in the world. The high salary shocked the public and was widely reported in the press. John R. Freuler, the studio president, explained: \"We can afford to pay Mr. Chaplin this large sum annually because the public wants Chaplin and will pay for him.\"\n\nMutual gave Chaplin his own Los Angeles studio to work in, which opened in March 1916. He added two key members to his stock company, Albert Austin and Eric Campbell, and produced a series of elaborate two-reelers: ''The Floorwalker'', ''The Fireman'', ''The Vagabond'', ''One A.M.'', and ''The Count''. For ''The Pawnshop'', he recruited the actor Henry Bergman, who was to work with Chaplin for 30 years. ''Behind the Screen'' and ''The Rink'' completed Chaplin's releases for 1916. The Mutual contract stipulated that he release a two-reel film every four weeks, which he had managed to achieve. With the new year, however, Chaplin began to demand more time. He made only four more films for Mutual over the first ten months of 1917: ''Easy Street'', ''The Cure'', ''The Immigrant'', and ''The Adventurer''. With their careful construction, these films are considered by Chaplin scholars to be among his finest work. Later in life, Chaplin referred to his Mutual years as the happiest period of his career. However, Chaplin also felt that those films became increasingly formulaic over the period of the contract and he was increasingly dissatisfied with the working conditions encouraging that. \n\n\nChaplin was attacked in the British media for not fighting in the First World War. He defended himself, revealing that he would fight for Britain if called and had registered for the American draft, but he was not summoned by either country. Despite this criticism Chaplin was a favourite with the troops, and his popularity continued to grow worldwide. ''Harper's Weekly'' reported that the name of Charlie Chaplin was \"a part of the common language of almost every country\", and that the Tramp image was \"universally familiar\". In 1917, professional Chaplin imitators were so widespread that he took legal action, and it was reported that nine out of ten men who attended costume parties dressed as the Tramp. The same year, a study by the Boston Society for Psychical Research concluded that Chaplin was \"an American obsession\". The actress Minnie Maddern Fiske wrote that \"a constantly increasing body of cultured, artistic people are beginning to regard the young English buffoon, Charles Chaplin, as an extraordinary artist, as well as a comic genius\".\n\n===1918–1922: First National===\n''A Dog's Life'' (1918). It was around this time that Chaplin began to conceive the Tramp as \"a sort of Pierrot\", or sad clown.\n\nMutual were patient with Chaplin's decreased rate of output, and the contract ended amicably. With his aforementioned concern about the declining quality of his films because of contract scheduling stipulations, Chaplin's primary concern in finding a new distributor was independence; Sydney Chaplin, then his business manager, told the press, \"Charlie must be allowed all the time he needs and all the money for producing films the way he wants ... It is quality, not quantity, we are after.\" In June 1917, Chaplin signed to complete eight films for First National Exhibitors' Circuit in return for $1 million. He chose to build his own studio, situated on five acres of land off Sunset Boulevard, with production facilities of the highest order. It was completed in January 1918, and Chaplin was given freedom over the making of his pictures.\n\n''A Dog's Life'', released April 1918, was the first film under the new contract. In it, Chaplin demonstrated his increasing concern with story construction and his treatment of the Tramp as \"a sort of Pierrot\". The film was described by Louis Delluc as \"cinema's first total work of art\". Chaplin then embarked on the Third Liberty Bond campaign, touring the United States for one month to raise money for the Allies of the First World War. He also produced a short propaganda film, donated to the government for fund-raising, called ''The Bond''. Chaplin's next release was war-based, placing the Tramp in the trenches for ''Shoulder Arms''. Associates warned him against making a comedy about the war but, as he later recalled: \"Dangerous or not, the idea excited me.\" He spent four months filming the 45-minute-long picture, which was released in October 1918 with great success.\n\n====United Artists, Mildred Harris, and ''The Kid''====\nAfter the release of ''Shoulder Arms'', Chaplin requested more money from First National, which was refused. Frustrated with their lack of concern for quality, and worried about rumours of a possible merger between the company and Famous Players-Lasky, Chaplin joined forces with Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pickford, and D. W. Griffith to form a new distribution company – United Artists, established in January 1919. The arrangement was revolutionary in the film industry, as it enabled the four partners – all creative artists – to personally fund their pictures and have complete control. Chaplin was eager to start with the new company and offered to buy out his contract with First National. They declined this and insisted that he complete the final six films he owed them.\n\nThe Kid'' (1921), with Jackie Coogan, combined comedy with drama and was Chaplin's first film to exceed an hour.\n\nBefore the creation of United Artists, Chaplin married for the first time. The 17-year-old actress Mildred Harris had revealed that she was pregnant with his child, and in September 1918, he married her quietly in Los Angeles to avoid controversy. Soon after, the pregnancy was found to be a false alarm. Chaplin was unhappy with the union and, feeling that marriage stunted his creativity, struggled over the production of his film ''Sunnyside''. Harris was by then legitimately pregnant, and on 7 July 1919, gave birth to a son. Norman Spencer Chaplin was born malformed and died three days later. The marriage eventually ended in April 1920, with Chaplin explaining in his autobiography that they were \"irreconcilably mismated\".\n\nLosing a child is thought to have influenced Chaplin's work, as he planned a film which turned the Tramp into the caretaker of a young boy. For this new venture, Chaplin also wished to do more than comedy and, according to Louvish, \"make his mark on a changed world.\" Filming on ''The Kid'' began in August 1919, with four-year-old Jackie Coogan his co-star. It occurred to Chaplin that it was turning into a large project, so to placate First National, he halted production and quickly filmed ''A Day's Pleasure''. ''The Kid'' was in production for nine months until May 1920 and, at 68 minutes, it was Chaplin's longest picture to date. Dealing with issues of poverty and parent–child separation, ''The Kid'' is thought to have been influenced by Chaplin's own childhood and was one of the earliest films to combine comedy and drama. It was released in January 1921 with instant success, and, by 1924, had been screened in over 50 countries.\n\nChaplin spent five months on his next film, the two-reeler ''The Idle Class''. Following its September 1921 release, he chose to return to England for the first time in almost a decade. He then worked to fulfil his First National contract, releasing ''Pay Day'' in February 1922. ''The Pilgrim'' – his final short film – was delayed by distribution disagreements with the studio, and released a year later.\n\n===1923–1938: Silent features===\n====''A Woman of Paris'' and ''The Gold Rush''====\n\nHaving fulfilled his First National contract, Chaplin was free to make his first picture as an independent producer. In November 1922, he began filming ''A Woman of Paris'', a romantic drama about ill-fated lovers. Chaplin intended it to be a star-making vehicle for Edna Purviance, and did not appear in the picture himself other than in a brief, uncredited cameo. He wished for the film to have a realistic feel and directed his cast to give restrained performances. In real life, he explained, \"men and women try to hide their emotions rather than seek to express them\". ''A Woman of Paris'' premiered in September 1923 and was acclaimed for its subtle approach, then an innovation. The public, however, seemed to have little interest in a Chaplin film without his presence, and it was a box office disappointment. The filmmaker was hurt by this failure – he had long wanted to produce a dramatic film and was proud of the result – and withdrew ''A Woman of Paris'' from circulation as soon as he could.\n\nThe Tramp resorts to eating his boot in a famous scene from ''The Gold Rush'' (1925).\n\nChaplin returned to comedy for his next project. Setting his standards high, he told himself: \"This next film must be an epic! The Greatest!\" Inspired by a photograph of the 1898 Klondike Gold Rush, and later the story of the Donner Party of 1846–47, he made what Geoffrey Macnab calls \"an epic comedy out of grim subject matter.\" In ''The Gold Rush'', the Tramp is a lonely prospector fighting adversity and looking for love. With Georgia Hale as his new leading lady, Chaplin began filming the picture in February 1924. Its elaborate production, costing almost $1 million, included location shooting in the Truckee mountains with 600 extras, extravagant sets, and special effects. The last scene was not shot until May 1925, after 15 months of filming.\n\nChaplin felt ''The Gold Rush'' was the best film he had made to that point. It opened in August 1925 and became one of the highest-grossing films of the silent era with a profit of $5 million. The comedy contains some of Chaplin's most famous sequences, such as the Tramp eating his shoe and the \"Dance of the Rolls\". Macnab has called it \"the quintessential Chaplin film\". Chaplin stated, \"This is the picture that I want to be remembered by\" at the time of the film's release.\n\n====Lita Grey and ''The Circus''====\nLita Grey, whose bitter divorce from Chaplin caused a scandal\n\nWhile making ''The Gold Rush'', Chaplin married for the second time. Mirroring the circumstances of his first union, Lita Grey was a teenage actress, originally set to star in the film, whose surprise announcement of pregnancy forced Chaplin into marriage. She was 16 and he was 35, meaning Chaplin could have been charged with statutory rape under California law. He therefore arranged a discreet marriage in Mexico on 25 November 1924. Their first son, Charles Spencer Chaplin, Jr., was born on 5 May 1925, followed by Sydney Earl Chaplin on 30 March 1926.\n\nIt was an unhappy marriage, and Chaplin spent long hours at the studio to avoid seeing his wife. In November 1926, Grey took the children and left the family home. A bitter divorce followed, in which Grey's application – accusing Chaplin of infidelity, abuse, and of harbouring \"perverted sexual desires\" – was leaked to the press. Chaplin was reported to be in a state of nervous breakdown, as the story became headline news and groups formed across America calling for his films to be banned. Eager to end the case without further scandal, Chaplin's lawyers agreed to a cash settlement of $600,000the largest awarded by American courts at that time. His fan base was strong enough to survive the incident, and it was soon forgotten, but Chaplin was deeply affected by it.\n\nBefore the divorce suit was filed, Chaplin had begun work on a new film, ''The Circus''. He built a story around the idea of walking a tightrope while besieged by monkeys, and turned the Tramp into the accidental star of a circus. Filming was suspended for 10 months while he dealt with the divorce scandal, and it was generally a trouble-ridden production. Finally completed in October 1927, ''The Circus'' was released in January 1928 to a positive reception. At the 1st Academy Awards, Chaplin was given a special trophy \"For versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing and producing ''The Circus''\". Despite its success, he permanently associated the film with the stress of its production; Chaplin omitted ''The Circus'' from his autobiography, and struggled to work on it when he recorded the score in his later years.\n\n====''City Lights''====\n\n\nBy the time ''The Circus'' was released, Hollywood had witnessed the introduction of sound films. Chaplin was cynical about this new medium and the technical shortcomings it presented, believing that \"talkies\" lacked the artistry of silent films. He was also hesitant to change the formula that had brought him such success, and feared that giving the Tramp a voice would limit his international appeal. He, therefore, rejected the new Hollywood craze and began work on a new silent film. Chaplin was nonetheless anxious about this decision and remained so throughout the film's production.\n\n''City Lights'' (1931), regarded as one of Chaplin's finest works\n\nWhen filming began at the end of 1928, Chaplin had been working on the story for almost a year. ''City Lights'' followed the Tramp's love for a blind flower girl (played by Virginia Cherrill) and his efforts to raise money for her sight-saving operation. It was a challenging production that lasted 21 months, with Chaplin later confessing that he \"had worked himself into a neurotic state of wanting perfection\". One advantage Chaplin found in sound technology was the opportunity to record a musical score for the film, which he composed himself.\n\nChaplin finished editing ''City Lights'' in December 1930, by which time silent films were an anachronism. A preview before an unsuspecting public audience was not a success, but a showing for the press produced positive reviews. One journalist wrote, \"Nobody in the world but Charlie Chaplin could have done it. He is the only person that has that peculiar something called 'audience appeal' in sufficient quality to defy the popular penchant for movies that talk.\" Given its general release in January 1931, ''City Lights'' proved to be a popular and financial success – eventually grossing over $3 million. The British Film Institute cites it as Chaplin's finest accomplishment, and the critic James Agee hails the closing scene as \"the greatest piece of acting and the highest moment in movies\". ''City Lights'' became Chaplin's personal favourite of his films and remained so throughout his life.\n\n====Travels, Paulette Goddard, and ''Modern Times''====\n''City Lights'' had been a success, but Chaplin was unsure if he could make another picture without dialogue. He remained convinced that sound would not work in his films, but was also \"obsessed by a depressing fear of being old-fashioned.\" In this state of uncertainty, early in 1931, the comedian decided to take a holiday and ended up travelling for 16 months. In his autobiography, Chaplin recalled that on his return to Los Angeles, \"I was confused and without plan, restless and conscious of an extreme loneliness\". He briefly considered retiring and moving to China.\n\nModern Times'' (1936), described by Jérôme Larcher as a \"grim contemplation on the automatization of the individual\"\n\nChaplin's loneliness was relieved when he met 21-year-old actress Paulette Goddard in July 1932, and the pair began a successful relationship. He was not ready to commit to a film, however, and focused on writing a serial about his travels (published in ''Woman's Home Companion''). The trip had been a stimulating experience for Chaplin, including meetings with several prominent thinkers, and he became increasingly interested in world affairs. The state of labour in America troubled him, and he feared that capitalism and machinery in the workplace would increase unemployment levels. It was these concerns that stimulated Chaplin to develop his new film.\n\n''Modern Times'' was announced by Chaplin as \"a satire on certain phases of our industrial life.\" Featuring the Tramp and Goddard as they endure the Great Depression, it took ten and a half months to film. Chaplin intended to use spoken dialogue but changed his mind during rehearsals. Like its predecessor, ''Modern Times'' employed sound effects but almost no speaking. Chaplin's performance of a gibberish song did, however, give the Tramp a voice for the only time on film. After recording the music, Chaplin released ''Modern Times'' in February 1936. It was his first feature in 15 years to adopt political references and social realism, a factor that attracted considerable press coverage despite Chaplin's attempts to downplay the issue. The film earned less at the box-office than his previous features and received mixed reviews, as some viewers disliked the politicising. Today, ''Modern Times'' is seen by the British Film Institute as one of Chaplin's \"great features,\" while David Robinson says it shows the filmmaker at \"his unrivalled peak as a creator of visual comedy.\"\n\nFollowing the release of ''Modern Times'', Chaplin left with Goddard for a trip to the Far East. The couple had refused to comment on the nature of their relationship, and it was not known whether they were married or not. Some time later, Chaplin revealed that they married in Canton during this trip. By 1938, the couple had drifted apart, as both focused heavily on their work, although Goddard was again his leading lady in his next feature film, ''The Great Dictator''. She eventually divorced Chaplin in Mexico in 1942, citing incompatibility and separation for more than a year.\n\n===1939–1952: Controversies and fading popularity===\n====''The Great Dictator''====\nChaplin satirising Adolf Hitler in ''The Great Dictator'' (1940)\n\nThe 1940s saw Chaplin face a series of controversies, both in his work and in his personal life, which changed his fortunes and severely affected his popularity in the United States. The first of these was his growing boldness in expressing his political beliefs. Deeply disturbed by the surge of militaristic nationalism in 1930s world politics, Chaplin found that he could not keep these issues out of his work. Parallels between himself and Adolf Hitler had been widely noted: the pair were born four days apart, both had risen from poverty to world prominence, and Hitler wore the same toothbrush moustache as Chaplin. It was this physical resemblance that supplied the plot for Chaplin's next film, ''The Great Dictator'', which directly satirised Hitler and attacked fascism.\n\nChaplin spent two years developing the script, and began filming in September 1939 – six days after Britain declared war on Germany. He had submitted to using spoken dialogue, partly out of acceptance that he had no other choice, but also because he recognised it as a better method for delivering a political message. Making a comedy about Hitler was seen as highly controversial, but Chaplin's financial independence allowed him to take the risk. \"I was determined to go ahead,\" he later wrote, \"for Hitler must be laughed at.\" Chaplin replaced the Tramp (while wearing similar attire) with \"A Jewish Barber\", a reference to the Nazi party's belief that he was Jewish. In a dual performance, he also played the dictator \"Adenoid Hynkel\", who parodied Hitler.\n\n''The Great Dictator'' spent a year in production and was released in October 1940. The film generated a vast amount of publicity, with a critic for ''The New York Times'' calling it \"the most eagerly awaited picture of the year\", and it was one of the biggest money-makers of the era. The ending was unpopular, however, and generated controversy. Chaplin concluded the film with a five-minute speech in which he abandoned his barber character, looked directly into the camera, and pleaded against war and fascism. Charles J. Maland has identified this overt preaching as triggering a decline in Chaplin's popularity, and writes, \"Henceforth, no movie fan would ever be able to separate the dimension of politics from his star image\". ''The Great Dictator'' received five Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Original Screenplay and Best Actor.\n\n====Legal troubles and Oona O'Neill====\nIn the mid-1940s, Chaplin was involved in a series of trials that occupied most of his time and significantly affected his public image. The troubles stemmed from his affair with an aspirant actress named Joan Barry, with whom he was involved intermittently between June 1941 and the autumn of 1942. Barry, who displayed obsessive behaviour and was twice arrested after they separated, reappeared the following year and announced that she was pregnant with Chaplin's child. As Chaplin denied the claim, Barry filed a paternity suit against him.\n\nThe director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), J. Edgar Hoover, who had long been suspicious of Chaplin's political leanings, used the opportunity to generate negative publicity about him. As part of a smear campaign to damage Chaplin's image, the FBI named him in four indictments related to the Barry case. Most serious of these was an alleged violation of the Mann Act, which prohibits the transportation of women across state boundaries for sexual purposes. The historian Otto Friedrich has called this an \"absurd prosecution\" of an \"ancient statute\", yet if Chaplin was found guilty, he faced 23 years in jail. Three charges lacked sufficient evidence to proceed to court, but the Mann Act trial began in March 1944. Chaplin was acquitted two weeks later. The case was frequently headline news, with ''Newsweek'' calling it the \"biggest public relations scandal since the Fatty Arbuckle murder trial in 1921.\"\n\nChaplin's fourth wife Oona O'Neill, to whom he was married from 1943 until his death. The couple had eight children.\n\nBarry's child, Carole Ann, was born in October 1944, and the paternity suit went to court in February 1945. After two arduous trials, in which the prosecuting lawyer accused him of \"moral turpitude\", Chaplin was declared to be the father. Evidence from blood tests which indicated otherwise were not admissible, and the judge ordered Chaplin to pay child support until Carole Ann turned 21. Media coverage of the paternity suit was influenced by the FBI, as information was fed to the prominent gossip columnist Hedda Hopper, and Chaplin was portrayed in an overwhelmingly critical light.\n\nThe controversy surrounding Chaplin increased when, two weeks after the paternity suit was filed, it was announced that he had married his newest protégée, 18-year-old Oona O'Neill – daughter of the American playwright Eugene O'Neill. Chaplin, then 54, had been introduced to her by a film agent seven months earlier. In his autobiography, Chaplin described meeting O'Neill as \"the happiest event of my life\", and claimed to have found \"perfect love\". Chaplin's son, Charles Jr., reported that Oona \"worshipped\" his father. The couple remained married until Chaplin's death, and had eight children over 18 years: Geraldine Leigh (b. July 1944), Michael John (b. March 1946), Josephine Hannah (b. March 1949), Victoria (b. May 1951), Eugene Anthony (b. August 1953), Jane Cecil (b. May 1957), Annette Emily (b. December 1959), and Christopher James (b. July 1962).\n\n====''Monsieur Verdoux'' and communist accusations====\n''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947), a dark comedy about a serial killer, marked a significant departure for Chaplin. He was so unpopular at the time of release that it flopped in the United States.\n\nChaplin claimed that the Barry trials had \"crippled his creativeness\", and it was some time before he began working again. In April 1946, he finally began filming a project that had been in development since 1942. ''Monsieur Verdoux'' was a black comedy, the story of a French bank clerk, Verdoux (Chaplin), who loses his job and begins marrying and murdering wealthy widows to support his family. Chaplin's inspiration for the project came from Orson Welles, who wanted him to star in a film about the French serial killer Henri Désiré Landru. Chaplin decided that the concept would \"make a wonderful comedy\", and paid Welles $5,000 for the idea.\n\nChaplin again vocalised his political views in ''Monsieur Verdoux'', criticising capitalism and arguing that the world encourages mass killing through wars and weapons of mass destruction. Because of this, the film met with controversy when it was released in April 1947; Chaplin was booed at the premiere, and there were calls for a boycott. ''Monsieur Verdoux'' was the first Chaplin release that failed both critically and commercially in the United States. It was more successful abroad, and Chaplin's screenplay was nominated at the Academy Awards. He was proud of the film, writing in his autobiography, \"''Monsieur Verdoux'' is the cleverest and most brilliant film I have yet made.\"\n\nThe negative reaction to ''Monsieur Verdoux'' was largely the result of changes in Chaplin's public image. Along with damage of the Joan Barry scandal, he was publicly accused of being a communist. His political activity had heightened during World War II, when he campaigned for the opening of a Second Front to help the Soviet Union and supported various Soviet–American friendship groups. He was also friendly with several suspected communists, and attended functions given by Soviet diplomats in Los Angeles. In the political climate of 1940s America, such activities meant Chaplin was considered, as Larcher writes, \"dangerously progressive and amoral.\" The FBI wanted him out of the country, and launched an official investigation in early 1947.\n\nChaplin denied being a communist, instead calling himself a \"peacemonger\", but felt the government's effort to suppress the ideology was an unacceptable infringement of civil liberties. Unwilling to be quiet about the issue, he openly protested against the trials of Communist Party members and the activities of the House Un-American Activities Committee. Chaplin received a subpoena to appear before HUAC but was not called to testify. As his activities were widely reported in the press, and Cold War fears grew, questions were raised over his failure to take American citizenship. Calls were made for him to be deported; in one extreme and widely published example, Representative John E. Rankin, who helped establish HUAC, told Congress in June 1947: \"Chaplin's very life in Hollywood is detrimental to the moral fabric of America. If he is deported ... his loathsome pictures can be kept from before the eyes of the American youth. He should be deported and gotten rid of at once.\"\n\n====''Limelight'' and banning from the United States====\nLimelight'' (1952) was a serious and autobiographical film for Chaplin: his character, Calvero, is an ex music hall star (described in this image as a \"Tramp Comedian\") forced to deal with his loss of popularity.\n\nAlthough Chaplin remained politically active in the years following the failure of ''Monsieur Verdoux'', his next film, about a forgotten vaudeville comedian and a young ballerina in Edwardian London, was devoid of political themes. ''Limelight'' was heavily autobiographical, alluding not only to Chaplin's childhood and the lives of his parents, but also to his loss of popularity in the United States. The cast included various members of his family, including his five oldest children and his half-brother, Wheeler Dryden.\n\nFilming began in November 1951, by which time Chaplin had spent three years working on the story. He aimed for a more serious tone than any of his previous films, regularly using the word \"melancholy\" when explaining his plans to his co-star Claire Bloom. ''Limelight'' featured a cameo appearance from Buster Keaton, whom Chaplin cast as his stage partner in a pantomime scene. This marked the only time the comedians worked together.\n\nChaplin decided to hold the world premiere of ''Limelight'' in London, since it was the setting of the film. As he left Los Angeles, he expressed a premonition that he would not be returning. At New York, he boarded the with his family on 18 September 1952. The next day, attorney general James P. McGranery revoked Chaplin's re-entry permit and stated that he would have to submit to an interview concerning his political views and moral behaviour in order to re-enter the US. Although McGranery told the press that he had \"a pretty good case against Chaplin\", Maland has concluded, on the basis of the FBI files that were released in the 1980s, that the US government had no real evidence to prevent Chaplin's re-entry. It is likely that he would have gained entry if he had applied for it. However, when Chaplin received a cablegram informing him of the news, he privately decided to cut his ties with the United States:\n\n\n\nBecause all of his property remained in America, Chaplin refrained from saying anything negative about the incident to the press. The scandal attracted vast attention, but Chaplin and his film were warmly received in Europe. In America, the hostility towards him continued, and, although it received some positive reviews, ''Limelight'' was subjected to a wide-scale boycott. Reflecting on this, Maland writes that Chaplin's fall, from an \"unprecedented\" level of popularity, \"may be the most dramatic in the history of stardom in America\".\n\n===1953–1977: European years===\n====Move to Switzerland and ''A King in New York''====\n\n\n\nChaplin did not attempt to return to the United States after his re-entry permit was revoked, and instead sent his wife to settle his affairs. The couple decided to settle in Switzerland and, in January 1953, the family moved into their permanent home: Manoir de Ban, a estate overlooking Lake Geneva in Corsier-sur-Vevey. Chaplin put his Beverly Hills house and studio up for sale in March, and surrendered his re-entry permit in April. The next year, his wife renounced her US citizenship and became a British citizen. Chaplin severed the last of his professional ties with the United States in 1955, when he sold the remainder of his stock in United Artists, which had been in financial difficulty since the early 1940s.\n\nManoir de Ban, Chaplin's home in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland\n\nChaplin remained a controversial figure throughout the 1950s, especially after he was awarded the International Peace Prize by the communist-led World Peace Council, and after his meetings with Zhou Enlai and Nikita Khrushchev. He began developing his first European film, ''A King in New York'', in 1954. Casting himself as an exiled king who seeks asylum in the United States, Chaplin included several of his recent experiences in the screenplay. His son, Michael, was cast as a boy whose parents are targeted by the FBI, while Chaplin's character faces accusations of communism. The political satire parodied HUAC and attacked elements of 1950s culture – including consumerism, plastic surgery, and wide-screen cinema. In a review, the playwright John Osborne called it Chaplin's \"most bitter\" and \"most openly personal\" film.\n\nChaplin founded a new production company, Attica, and used Shepperton Studios for the shooting. Filming in England proved a difficult experience, as he was used to his own Hollywood studio and familiar crew, and no longer had limitless production time. According to Robinson, this had an effect on the quality of the film. ''A King in New York'' was released in September 1957, and received mixed reviews. Chaplin banned American journalists from its Paris première and decided not to release the film in the United States. This severely limited its revenue, although it achieved moderate commercial success in Europe. ''A King in New York'' was not shown in America until 1973.\n\n====Final works and renewed appreciation====\nChaplin with his wife Oona and six of their children in 1961\n\nIn the last two decades of his career, Chaplin concentrated on re-editing and scoring his old films for re-release, along with securing their ownership and distribution rights. In an interview he granted in 1959, the year of his 70th birthday, Chaplin stated that there was still \"room for the Little Man in the atomic age\". The first of these re-releases was ''The Chaplin Revue'' (1959), which included new versions of ''A Dog's Life'', ''Shoulder Arms'', and ''The Pilgrim''.\n\nIn America, the political atmosphere began to change and attention was once again directed to Chaplin's films instead of his views. In July 1962, ''The New York Times'' published an editorial stating that \"we do not believe the Republic would be in danger if yesterday's unforgotten little tramp were allowed to amble down the gangplank of a steamer or plane in an American port\". The same month, Chaplin was invested with the honorary degree of Doctor of Letters by the universities of Oxford and Durham. In November 1963, the Plaza Theater in New York started a year-long series of Chaplin's films, including ''Monsieur Verdoux'' and ''Limelight'', which gained excellent reviews from American critics. September 1964 saw the release of Chaplin's memoirs, ''My Autobiography'', which he had been working on since 1957. The 500-page book, which focused on his early years and personal life, became a worldwide best-seller, despite criticism over the lack of information on his film career.\n\nShortly after the publication of his memoirs, Chaplin began work on ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967), a romantic comedy based on a script he had written for Paulette Goddard in the 1930s. Set on an ocean liner, it starred Marlon Brando as an American ambassador and Sophia Loren as a stowaway found in his cabin. The film differed from Chaplin's earlier productions in several aspects. It was his first to use Technicolor and the widescreen format, while he concentrated on directing and appeared on-screen only in a cameo role as a seasick steward. He also signed a deal with Universal Pictures and appointed his assistant, Jerome Epstein, as the producer. Chaplin was paid $600,000 director's fee as well as a percentage of the gross receipts. ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' premiered in January 1967, to unfavourable reviews, and was a box-office failure. Chaplin was deeply hurt by the negative reaction to the film, which turned out to be his last.\n\nChaplin suffered a series of minor strokes in the late 1960s, which marked the beginning of a slow decline in his health. Despite the setbacks, he was soon writing a new film script, ''The Freak'', a story of a winged girl found in South America, which he intended as a starring vehicle for his daughter, Victoria. His fragile health prevented the project from being realised. In the early 1970s, Chaplin concentrated on re-releasing his old films, including ''The Kid'' and ''The Circus''. In 1971, he was made a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour at the Cannes Film Festival. The following year, he was honoured with a special award by the Venice Film Festival.\n\nChaplin (right) receiving his Honorary Academy Award from Jack Lemmon in 1972. It was the first time he had been to the United States in 20 years.\n\nIn 1972, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences offered Chaplin an Honorary Award, which Robinson sees as a sign that America \"wanted to make amends\". Chaplin was initially hesitant about accepting but decided to return to the US for the first time in 20 years. The visit attracted a large amount of press coverage and, at the Academy Awards gala, he was given a twelve-minute standing ovation, the longest in the Academy's history. Visibly emotional, Chaplin accepted his award for \"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\".\n\nAlthough Chaplin still had plans for future film projects, by the mid-1970s he was very frail. He experienced several further strokes, which made it difficult for him to communicate, and he had to use a wheelchair. His final projects were compiling a pictorial autobiography, ''My Life in Pictures'' (1974) and scoring ''A Woman of Paris'' for re-release in 1976. He also appeared in a documentary about his life, ''The Gentleman Tramp'' (1975), directed by Richard Patterson. In the 1975 New Year Honours, Chaplin was awarded a knighthood by Queen Elizabeth II, though he was too weak to kneel and received the honour in his wheelchair.\n\n====Death====\nChaplin's grave in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland\nBy October 1977, Chaplin's health had declined to the point that he needed constant care. In the early morning of 25 December 1977, Chaplin died at home after suffering a stroke in his sleep. He was 88 years old. The funeral, on 27 December, was a small and private Anglican ceremony, according to his wishes. Chaplin was interred in the Corsier-sur-Vevey cemetery. Among the film industry's tributes, director René Clair wrote, \"He was a monument of the cinema, of all countries and all times ... the most beautiful gift the cinema made to us.\" Actor Bob Hope declared, \"We were lucky to have lived in his time.\"\n\nOn 1 March 1978, Chaplin's coffin was dug up and stolen from its grave by two unemployed immigrants, Roman Wardas, from Poland, and Gantcho Ganev, from Bulgaria. The body was held for ransom in an attempt to extort money from Oona Chaplin. The pair were caught in a large police operation in May, and Chaplin's coffin was found buried in a field in the nearby village of Noville. It was re-interred in the Corsier cemetery surrounded by reinforced concrete.\n",
"===Influences===\nChaplin believed his first influence to be his mother, who entertained him as a child by sitting at the window and mimicking passers-by: \"it was through watching her that I learned not only how to express emotions with my hands and face, but also how to observe and study people.\" Chaplin's early years in music hall allowed him to see stage comedians at work; he also attended the Christmas pantomimes at Drury Lane, where he studied the art of clowning through performers like Dan Leno. Chaplin's years with the Fred Karno company had a formative effect on him as an actor and filmmaker. Simon Louvish writes that the company was his \"training ground\", and it was here that Chaplin learned to vary the pace of his comedy. The concept of mixing pathos with slapstick was learnt from Karno, who also used elements of absurdity that became familiar in Chaplin's gags. From the film industry, Chaplin drew upon the work of the French comedian Max Linder, whose films he greatly admired. In developing the Tramp costume and persona, he was likely inspired by the American vaudeville scene, where tramp characters were common.\n\n===Method===\nA 1922 image of Charlie Chaplin Studios, where all of Chaplin's films between 1918 and 1952 were produced\n\nChaplin never spoke more than cursorily about his filmmaking methods, claiming such a thing would be tantamount to a magician spoiling his own illusion. Little was known about his working process throughout his lifetime, but research from film historians – particularly the findings of Kevin Brownlow and David Gill that were presented in the three-part documentary ''Unknown Chaplin'' (1983) – has since revealed his unique working method.\n\nUntil he began making spoken dialogue films with ''The Great Dictator'', Chaplin never shot from a completed script. Many of his early films began with only a vague premise – for example \"Charlie enters a health spa\" or \"Charlie works in a pawn shop.\" He then had sets constructed and worked with his stock company to improvise gags and \"business\" using them, almost always working the ideas out on film. As ideas were accepted and discarded, a narrative structure would emerge, frequently requiring Chaplin to reshoot an already-completed scene that might have otherwise contradicted the story. From ''A Woman of Paris'' onward Chaplin began the filming process with a prepared plot, but Robinson writes that every film up to ''Modern Times'' \"went through many metamorphoses and permutations before the story took its final form.\"\n\nProducing films in this manner meant Chaplin took longer to complete his pictures than almost any other filmmaker at the time. If he was out of ideas, he often took a break from the shoot, which could last for days, while keeping the studio ready for when inspiration returned. Delaying the process further was Chaplin's rigorous perfectionism. According to his friend Ivor Montagu, \"nothing but perfection would be right\" for the filmmaker. Because he personally funded his films, Chaplin was at liberty to strive for this goal and shoot as many takes as he wished. The number was often excessive, for instance 53 takes for every finished take in ''The Kid''. For ''The Immigrant'', a 20 minute-short, Chaplin shot 40,000 feet of film – enough for a feature-length.\n\n\n\nDescribing his working method as \"sheer perseverance to the point of madness\", Chaplin would be completely consumed by the production of a picture. Robinson writes that even in Chaplin's later years, his work continued \"to take precedence over everything and everyone else.\" The combination of story improvisation and relentless perfectionism – which resulted in days of effort and thousands of feet of film being wasted, all at enormous expense – often proved taxing for Chaplin who, in frustration, would lash out at his actors and crew.\n\nChaplin exercised complete control over his pictures, to the extent that he would act out the other roles for his cast, expecting them to imitate him exactly. He personally edited all of his films, trawling through the large amounts of footage to create the exact picture he wanted. As a result of his complete independence, he was identified by the film historian Andrew Sarris as one of the first auteur filmmakers. Chaplin did receive help, notably from his long-time cinematographer Roland Totheroh, brother Sydney Chaplin, and various assistant directors such as Harry Crocker and Charles Reisner.\n\n===Style and themes===\nThe Kid'' (1921), demonstrating Chaplin's mixture of slapstick, pathos, and social commentary\n\nWhile Chaplin's comedic style is broadly defined as slapstick, it is considered restrained and intelligent, with the film historian Philip Kemp describing his work as a mix of \"deft, balletic physical comedy and thoughtful, situation-based gags\". Chaplin diverged from conventional slapstick by slowing the pace and exhausting each scene of its comic potential, with more focus on developing the viewer's relationship to the characters. Unlike conventional slapstick comedies, Robinson states that the comic moments in Chaplin's films centre on the Tramp's attitude to the things happening to him: the humour does not come from the Tramp bumping into a tree, but from his lifting his hat to the tree in apology. Dan Kamin writes that Chaplin's \"quirky mannerisms\" and \"serious demeanour in the midst of slapstick action\" are other key aspects of his comedy, while the surreal transformation of objects and the employment of in-camera trickery are also common features.\n\nChaplin's silent films typically follow the Tramp's efforts to survive in a hostile world. The character lives in poverty and is frequently treated badly, but remains kind and upbeat; defying his social position, he strives to be seen as a gentleman. As Chaplin said in 1925, \"The whole point of the Little Fellow is that no matter how down on his ass he is, no matter how well the jackals succeed in tearing him apart, he's still a man of dignity.\" The Tramp defies authority figures and \"gives as good as he gets\", leading Robinson and Louvish to see him as a representative for the underprivileged – an \"everyman turned heroic saviour\". Hansmeyer notes that several of Chaplin's films end with \"the homeless and lonely Tramp walking optimistically ... into the sunset ... to continue his journey\".\n\n\n\nThe infusion of pathos is a well-known aspect of Chaplin's work, and Larcher notes his reputation for \"inducing laughter and tears\". Sentimentality in his films comes from a variety of sources, with Louvish pinpointing \"personal failure, society's strictures, economic disaster, and the elements.\" Chaplin sometimes drew on tragic events when creating his films, as in the case of ''The Gold Rush'' (1925), which was inspired by the fate of the Donner Party. Constance B. Kuriyama has identified serious underlying themes in the early comedies, such as greed (''The Gold Rush'') and loss (''The Kid''). Chaplin also touched on controversial issues: immigration (''The Immigrant'', 1917); illegitimacy (''The Kid'', 1921); and drug use (''Easy Street'', 1917). He often explored these topics ironically, making comedy out of suffering.\n\nSocial commentary was a feature of Chaplin's films from early in his career, as he portrayed the underdog in a sympathetic light and highlighted the difficulties of the poor. Later, as he developed a keen interest in economics and felt obliged to publicise his views, Chaplin began incorporating overtly political messages into his films. ''Modern Times'' (1936) depicted factory workers in dismal conditions, ''The Great Dictator'' (1940) parodied Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini and ended in a speech against nationalism, ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947) criticised war and capitalism, and ''A King in New York'' (1957) attacked McCarthyism.\n\nSeveral of Chaplin's films incorporate autobiographical elements, and the psychologist Sigmund Freud believed that Chaplin \"always plays only himself as he was in his dismal youth\". ''The Kid'' is thought to reflect Chaplin's childhood trauma of being sent into an orphanage, the main characters in ''Limelight'' (1952) contain elements from the lives of his parents, and ''A King in New York'' references Chaplin's experiences of being shunned by the United States. Many of his sets, especially in street scenes, bear a strong similarity to Kennington, where he grew up. Stephen M. Weissman has argued that Chaplin's problematic relationship with his mentally ill mother was often reflected in his female characters and the Tramp's desire to save them.\n\nRegarding the structure of Chaplin's films, the scholar Gerald Mast sees them as consisting of sketches tied together by the same theme and setting, rather than having a tightly unified storyline. Visually, his films are simple and economic, with scenes portrayed as if set on a stage. His approach to filming was described by the art director Eugène Lourié: \"Chaplin did not think in 'artistic' images when he was shooting. He believed that action is the main thing. The camera is there to photograph the actors\". In his autobiography, Chaplin wrote, \"Simplicity is best ... pompous effects slow up action, are boring and unpleasant ... The camera should not intrude.\" This approach has prompted criticism, since the 1940s, for being \"old fashioned\", while the film scholar Donald McCaffrey sees it as an indication that Chaplin never completely understood film as a medium. Kamin, however, comments that Chaplin's comedic talent would not be enough to remain funny on screen if he did not have an \"ability to conceive and direct scenes specifically for the film medium\".\n\n===Composing===\nChaplin playing the cello in 1915\n\nChaplin developed a passion for music as a child and taught himself to play the piano, violin, and cello. He considered the musical accompaniment of a film to be important, and from ''A Woman of Paris'' onwards he took an increasing interest in this area. With the advent of sound technology, Chaplin began using a synchronised orchestral soundtrack – composed by himself – for ''City Lights'' (1931). He thereafter composed the scores for all of his films, and from the late 1950s to his death, he scored all of his silent features and some of his short films.\n\nAs Chaplin was not a trained musician, he could not read sheet music and needed the help of professional composers, such as David Raksin, Raymond Rasch and Eric James, when creating his scores. Musical directors were employed to oversee the recording process, such as Alfred Newman for ''City Lights''. Although some critics have claimed that credit for his film music should be given to the composers who worked with him, Raksin – who worked with Chaplin on ''Modern Times'' – stressed Chaplin's creative position and active participation in the composing process. This process, which could take months, would start with Chaplin describing to the composer(s) exactly what he wanted and singing or playing tunes he had improvised on the piano. These tunes were then developed further in a close collaboration among the composer(s) and Chaplin. According to film historian Jeffrey Vance, \"although he relied upon associates to arrange varied and complex instrumentation, the musical imperative is his, and not a note in a Chaplin musical score was placed there without his assent.\"\n\nChaplin's compositions produced three popular songs. \"Smile\", composed originally for ''Modern Times'' (1936) and later set to lyrics by John Turner and Geoffrey Parsons, was a hit for Nat King Cole in 1954. For ''Limelight'', Chaplin composed \"Terry's Theme\", which was popularised by Jimmy Young as \"Eternally\" (1952). Finally, \"This Is My Song\", performed by Petula Clark for ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967), reached number one on the UK and other European charts. Chaplin also received his only competitive Oscar for his composition work, as the ''Limelight'' theme won an Academy Award for Best Original Score in 1973 following the film's re-release.\n",
"Chaplin as the Tramp in 1915, cinema's \"most universal icon\"\n\nIn 1998, the film critic Andrew Sarris called Chaplin \"arguably the single most important artist produced by the cinema, certainly its most extraordinary performer and probably still its most universal icon\". He is described by the British Film Institute as \"a towering figure in world culture\", and was included in ''Time'' magazine's list of the \"100 Most Important People of the 20th Century\" for the \"laughter he brought to millions\" and because he \"more or less invented global recognizability and helped turn an industry into an art\".\n\nThe image of the Tramp has become a part of cultural history; according to Simon Louvish, the character is recognisable to people who have never seen a Chaplin film, and in places where his films are never shown. The critic Leonard Maltin has written of the \"unique\" and \"indelible\" nature of the Tramp, and argued that no other comedian matched his \"worldwide impact\". Praising the character, Richard Schickel suggests that Chaplin's films with the Tramp contain the most \"eloquent, richly comedic expressions of the human spirit\" in movie history. Memorabilia connected to the character still fetches large sums in auctions: in 2006 a bowler hat and a bamboo cane that were part of the Tramp's costume were bought for $140,000 in a Los Angeles auction.\n\nAs a filmmaker, Chaplin is considered a pioneer and one of the most influential figures of the early twentieth century. He is often credited as one of the medium's first artists. Film historian Mark Cousins has written that Chaplin \"changed not only the imagery of cinema, but also its sociology and grammar\" and claims that Chaplin was as important to the development of comedy as a genre as D.W. Griffith was to drama. He was the first to popularise feature-length comedy and to slow down the pace of action, adding pathos and subtlety to it. Although his work is mostly classified as slapstick, Chaplin's drama ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923) was a major influence on Ernst Lubitsch's film ''The Marriage Circle'' (1924) and thus played a part in the development of \"sophisticated comedy\". According to David Robinson, Chaplin's innovations were \"rapidly assimilated to become part of the common practice of film craft.\" Filmmakers who cited Chaplin as an influence include Federico Fellini (who called Chaplin \"a sort of Adam, from whom we are all descended\"), Jacques Tati (\"Without him I would never have made a film\"), René Clair (\"He inspired practically every filmmaker\"), Michael Powell, Billy Wilder, Vittorio De Sica, and Richard Attenborough. Russian filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky praised Chaplin as \"the only person to have gone down into cinematic history without any shadow of a doubt. The films he left behind can never grow old.\"\n\nChaplin also strongly influenced the work of later comedians. Marcel Marceau said he was inspired to become a mime artist after watching Chaplin, while the actor Raj Kapoor based his screen persona on the Tramp. Mark Cousins has also detected Chaplin's comedic style in the French character Monsieur Hulot and the Italian character Totò. In other fields, Chaplin helped inspire the cartoon characters Felix the Cat and Mickey Mouse, and was an influence on the Dada art movement. As one of the founding members of United Artists, Chaplin also had a role in the development of the film industry. Gerald Mast has written that although UA never became a major company like MGM or Paramount Pictures, the idea that directors could produce their own films was \"years ahead of its time\".\n\nIn the 21st century, several of Chaplin's films are still regarded as classics and among the greatest ever made. The 2012 ''Sight & Sound'' poll, which compiles \"top ten\" ballots from film critics and directors to determine each group's most acclaimed films,\nsaw ''City Lights'' rank among the critics' top 50, ''Modern Times'' inside the top 100, and ''The Great Dictator'' and ''The Gold Rush'' placed in the top 250. The top 100 films as voted on by directors included ''Modern Times'' at number 22, ''City Lights'' at number 30, and ''The Gold Rush'' at number 91. Every one of Chaplin's features received a vote. In 2007, the American Film Institute named ''City Lights'' the 11th greatest American film of all time, while ''The Gold Rush'' and ''Modern Times'' again ranked in the top 100. Books about Chaplin continue to be published regularly, and he is a popular subject for media scholars and film archivists. Many of Chaplin's film have had a DVD and Blu-Ray release.\n\n===Commemoration and tributes===\n\nA room inside Chaplin's World\n\nChaplin's final home, Manoir de Ban in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland, has been converted into a museum named \"Chaplin's World\". It opened on 17 April 2016 after 15 years of development, and is described by Reuters as \"an interactive museum showcasing the life and works of Charlie Chaplin\". On the 128th anniversary of his birth, a record-setting 662 people dressed as the Tramp in an event organised by the museum. Previously, the Museum of the Moving Image in London held a permanent display on Chaplin, and hosted a dedicated exhibition to his life and career in 1988. The London Film Museum hosted an exhibition called ''Charlie Chaplin – The Great Londoner'', from 2010 until 2013.\n\nIn London, a statue of Chaplin as the Tramp, sculpted by John Doubleday and unveiled in 1981, is located in Leicester Square. The city also includes a road named after him in central London, \"Charlie Chaplin Walk\", which is the location of the BFI IMAX. There are nine blue plaques memorialising Chaplin in London, Hampshire, and Yorkshire. The Swiss town of Vevey named a park in his honour in 1980 and erected a statue there in 1982. In 2011, two large murals depicting Chaplin on two 14-storey buildings were also unveiled in Vevey. Chaplin has also been honoured by the Irish town of Waterville, where he spent several summers with his family in the 1960s. A statue was erected in 1998; since 2011, the town has been host to the annual Charlie Chaplin Comedy Film Festival, which was founded to celebrate Chaplin's legacy and to showcase new comic talent.\n\nIn other tributes, a minor planet, 3623 Chaplin – discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Karachkina in 1981 – is named after Chaplin. Throughout the 1980s, the Tramp image was used by IBM to advertise their personal computers. Chaplin's 100th birthday anniversary in 1989 was marked with several events around the world, and on 15 April 2011, a day before his 122nd birthday, Google celebrated him with a special Google Doodle video on its global and other country-wide homepages. Many countries, spanning six continents, have honoured Chaplin with a postal stamp.\n\nChaplin's legacy is managed on behalf of his children by the Chaplin office, located in Paris. The office represents Association Chaplin, founded by some of his children \"to protect the name, image and moral rights\" to his body of work, Roy Export SAS, which owns the copyright to most of his films made after 1918, and Bubbles Incorporated S.A., which owns the copyrights to his image and name. Their central archive is held at the archives of Montreux, Switzerland and scanned versions of its contents, including 83,630 images, 118 scripts, 976 manuscripts, 7,756 letters, and thousands of other documents, are available for research purposes at the Chaplin Research Centre at the Cineteca di Bologna. The photographic archive, which includes approximately 10,000 photographs from Chaplin's life and career, is kept at the Musée de l'Elysée in Lausanne, Switzerland. The British Film Institute has also established the Charles Chaplin Research Foundation, and the first international Charles Chaplin Conference was held in London in July 2005.\n\nStatues of Chaplin around the world, located at (left to right) 1. Trenčianske Teplice, Slovakia; 2. Chełmża, Poland; 3. Waterville, Ireland; 4. London, United Kingdom; 5. Hyderabad, India; 6. Alassio, Italy; 7. Barcelona, Spain; 8. Vevey, Switzerland\n\n===Characterisations===\nChaplin is the subject of a biographical film, ''Chaplin'' (1992) directed by Richard Attenborough, and starring Robert Downey Jr. in the title role. He is also a character in the period drama film ''The Cat's Meow'' (2001), played by Eddie Izzard, and in the made-for-television movie ''The Scarlett O'Hara War'' (1980), played by Clive Revill. A television series about Chaplin's childhood, ''Young Charlie Chaplin'', ran on PBS in 1989, and was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Program.\n\nChaplin's life has also been the subject of several stage productions. Two musicals, ''Little Tramp'' and ''Chaplin'', were produced in the early 1990s. In 2006, Thomas Meehan and Christopher Curtis created another musical, ''Limelight: The Story of Charlie Chaplin'', which was first performed at the La Jolla Playhouse in San Diego in 2010. It was adapted for Broadway two years later, re-titled ''Chaplin – A Musical''. Chaplin was portrayed by Robert McClure in both productions. In 2013, two plays about Chaplin premiered in Finland: ''Chaplin'' at the Svenska Teatern, and ''Kulkuri'' (''The Tramp'') at the Tampere Workers' Theatre.\n\nChaplin has also been characterised in literary fiction. He is the protagonist of Robert Coover's short story \"Charlie in the House of Rue\" (1980; reprinted in Coover's 1987 collection ''A Night at the Movies''), and of Glen David Gold's ''Sunnyside'' (2009), a historical novel set in the First World War period. A day in Chaplin's life in 1909 is dramatised in the chapter entitled \"Modern Times\" in Alan Moore's ''Jerusalem'' (2016), a novel set in the author's home town of Northampton, England.\n",
"Chaplin's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, located at 6755 Hollywood Boulevard. Although the project started in 1958, Chaplin only received his star in 1970 because of his political views.\n\nChaplin received many awards and honours, especially later in life. In the 1975 New Year Honours, he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (KBE). He was also awarded honorary Doctor of Letters degrees by the University of Oxford and the University of Durham in 1962. In 1965, he and Ingmar Bergman were joint winners of the Erasmus Prize and, in 1971, he was appointed a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour by the French government.\n\nFrom the film industry, Chaplin received a special Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival in 1972, and a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Lincoln Center Film Society the same year. The latter has since been presented annually to filmmakers as The Chaplin Award. Chaplin was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1972, having been previously excluded because of his political beliefs.\n\nChaplin received three Academy Awards: an Honorary Award for \"versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing, and producing ''The Circus''\" in 1929, a second Honorary Award for \"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\" in 1972, and a Best Score award in 1973 for ''Limelight'' (shared with Ray Rasch and Larry Russell). He was further nominated in the Best Actor, Best Original Screenplay, and Best Picture (as producer) categories for ''The Great Dictator'', and received another Best Original Screenplay nomination for ''Monsieur Verdoux''. In 1976, Chaplin was made a Fellow of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA).\n\nSix of Chaplin's films have been selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress: ''The Immigrant'' (1917), ''The Kid'' (1921), ''The Gold Rush'' (1925), ''City Lights'' (1931), ''Modern Times'' (1936), and ''The Great Dictator'' (1940).\n",
"\n\n'''Directed features:'''\n* ''The Kid'' (1921)\n* ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923)\n* ''The Gold Rush'' (1925)\n* ''The Circus'' (1928)\n* ''City Lights'' (1931)\n* ''Modern Times'' (1936)\n* ''The Great Dictator'' (1940)\n* ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947)\n* ''Limelight'' (1952)\n* ''A King in New York'' (1957)\n* ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967)\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"===Footnotes===\n\n\n===Sources===\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n",
"\n\n* by Association Chaplin\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* The Charlie Chaplin Archive Online catalogue of Chaplin's professional and personal archives at the Cineteca di Bologna, Italy\n* Charlie Chaplin Comedy Film Festival in Waterville, Ireland\n* Chaplin's World Museum at the Manoir de Ban, Switzerland\n* Chaplin's file at the Federal Bureau of Investigation website\n* Charlie Chaplin at the British Film Institute\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Biography",
"Filmmaking",
"Legacy",
"Awards and recognition",
"Filmography",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Charlie Chaplin | [
"The use of pathos was developed further with ''The Bank'', in which Chaplin created a sad ending.",
"''Monsieur Verdoux'' was a black comedy, the story of a French bank clerk, Verdoux (Chaplin), who loses his job and begins marrying and murdering wealthy widows to support his family."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Sir Charles Spencer \"Charlie\" Chaplin''', (16 April 1889 – 25 December 1977) was an English comic actor, filmmaker, and composer who rose to fame in the era of silent film.",
"Chaplin became a worldwide icon through his screen persona \"the Tramp\" and is considered one of the most important figures in the history of the film industry.",
"His career spanned more than 75 years, from childhood in the Victorian era until a year before his death in 1977, and encompassed both adulation and controversy.",
"Chaplin's childhood in London was one of poverty and hardship.",
"As his father was absent and his mother struggled financially, he was sent to a workhouse twice before the age of nine.",
"When he was 14, his mother was committed to a mental asylum.",
"Chaplin began performing at an early age, touring music halls and later working as a stage actor and comedian.",
"At 19, he was signed to the prestigious Fred Karno company, which took him to America.",
"Chaplin was scouted for the film industry and began appearing in 1914 for Keystone Studios.",
"He soon developed the Tramp persona and formed a large fan base.",
"Chaplin directed his own films from an early stage and continued to hone his craft as he moved to the Essanay, Mutual, and First National corporations.",
"By 1918, he was one of the best-known figures in the world.",
"In 1919, Chaplin co-founded the distribution company United Artists, which gave him complete control over his films.",
"His first feature-length was ''The Kid'' (1921), followed by ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923), ''The Gold Rush'' (1925), and ''The Circus'' (1928).",
"He refused to move to sound films in the 1930s, instead producing ''City Lights'' (1931) and ''Modern Times'' (1936) without dialogue.",
"Chaplin became increasingly political, and his next film, ''The Great Dictator'' (1940), satirised Adolf Hitler.",
"The 1940s were a decade marked with controversy for Chaplin, and his popularity declined rapidly.",
"He was accused of communist sympathies, while his involvement in a paternity suit and marriages to much younger women caused scandal.",
"An FBI investigation was opened, and Chaplin was forced to leave the United States and settle in Switzerland.",
"He abandoned the Tramp in his later films, which include ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947), ''Limelight'' (1952), ''A King in New York'' (1957), and ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967).",
"Chaplin wrote, directed, produced, edited, starred in, and composed the music for most of his films.",
"He was a perfectionist, and his financial independence enabled him to spend years on the development and production of a picture.",
"His films are characterised by slapstick combined with pathos, typified in the Tramp's struggles against adversity.",
"Many contain social and political themes, as well as autobiographical elements.",
"In 1972, as part of a renewed appreciation for his work, Chaplin received an Honorary Academy Award for \"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\".",
"He continues to be held in high regard, with ''The Gold Rush'', ''City Lights'', ''Modern Times'', and ''The Great Dictator'' often ranked on industry lists of the greatest films of all time.",
"===1889–1913: Early years===\n\n====Background and childhood hardship====\nCharles Spencer Chaplin was born on 16 April 1889 to Hannah Chaplin (born Hannah Harriet Pedlingham Hill) and Charles Chaplin Sr.",
"There is no official record of his birth, although Chaplin believed he was born at East Street, Walworth, in South London.",
"His mother and father had married four years previously, at which time Charles Sr. became the legal carer of Hannah's illegitimate son, Sydney John Hill.",
"At the time of his birth, Chaplin's parents were both music hall entertainers.",
"Hannah, the daughter of a shoemaker, had a brief and unsuccessful career under the stage name Lily Harley, while Charles Sr., a butcher's son, was a popular singer.",
"Although they never divorced, Chaplin's parents were estranged by around 1891.",
"The following year, Hannah gave birth to a third son – George Wheeler Dryden – fathered by the music hall entertainer Leo Dryden.",
"The child was taken by Dryden at six months old, and did not re-enter Chaplin's life for 30 years.",
"Seven-year-old Chaplin (lower centre) at the Central London District School for paupers, 1897\n\nChaplin's childhood was fraught with poverty and hardship, making his eventual trajectory \"the most dramatic of all the rags to riches stories ever told\" according to his authorised biographer David Robinson.",
"Chaplin's early years were spent with his mother and brother Sydney in the London district of Kennington; Hannah had no means of income, other than occasional nursing and dressmaking, and Chaplin Sr. provided no financial support.",
"As the situation deteriorated, Chaplin was sent to Lambeth Workhouse when he was seven years old.",
"The council housed him at the Central London District School for paupers, which Chaplin remembered as \"a forlorn existence\".",
"He was briefly reunited with his mother 18 months later, before Hannah was forced to readmit her family to the workhouse in July 1898.",
"The boys were promptly sent to Norwood Schools, another institution for destitute children.",
"In September 1898, Hannah was committed to Cane Hill mental asylum – she had developed a psychosis seemingly brought on by an infection of syphilis and malnutrition.",
"For the two months she was there, Chaplin and his brother Sydney were sent to live with their father, whom the young boys scarcely knew.",
"Charles Sr. was by then a severe alcoholic, and life there was bad enough to provoke a visit from the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children.",
"Chaplin's father died two years later, at 38 years old, from cirrhosis of the liver.",
"Hannah entered a period of remission but, in May 1903, became ill again.",
"Chaplin, then 14, had the task of taking his mother to the infirmary, from where she was sent back to Cane Hill.",
"He lived alone for several days, searching for food and occasionally sleeping rough, until Sydney – who had enrolled in the Navy two years earlier – returned.",
"Hannah was released from the asylum eight months later, but in March 1905, her illness returned, this time permanently.",
"\"There was nothing we could do but accept poor mother's fate\", Chaplin later wrote, and she remained in care until her death in 1928.",
"====Young performer====\nSherlock Holmes'', in which he appeared between 1903 and 1906\n\nBetween his time in the poor schools and his mother succumbing to mental illness, Chaplin began to perform on stage.",
"He later recalled making his first amateur appearance at the age of five years, when he took over from Hannah one night in Aldershot.",
"This was an isolated occurrence, but by the time he was nine Chaplin had, with his mother's encouragement, grown interested in performing.",
"He later wrote: \"she imbued me with the feeling that I had some sort of talent\".",
"Through his father's connections, Chaplin became a member of the Eight Lancashire Lads clog-dancing troupe, with whom he toured English music halls throughout 1899 and 1900.",
"Chaplin worked hard, and the act was popular with audiences, but he was not satisfied with dancing and wished to form a comedy act.",
"In the years Chaplin was touring with the Eight Lancashire Lads, his mother ensured that he still attended school but, by age 13, he had abandoned education.",
"He supported himself with a range of jobs, while nursing his ambition to become an actor.",
"At 14, shortly after his mother's relapse, he registered with a theatrical agency in London's West End.",
"The manager sensed potential in Chaplin, who was promptly given his first role as a newsboy in Harry Arthur Saintsbury's ''Jim, a Romance of Cockayne''.",
"It opened in July 1903, but the show was unsuccessful and closed after two weeks.",
"Chaplin's comic performance, however, was singled out for praise in many of the reviews.",
"Saintsbury secured a role for Chaplin in Charles Frohman's production of ''Sherlock Holmes'', where he played Billy the pageboy in three nationwide tours.",
"His performance was so well received that he was called to London to play the role alongside William Gillette, the original Holmes.",
"\"It was like tidings from heaven\", Chaplin recalled.",
"At 16 years old, Chaplin starred in the play's West End production at the Duke of York's Theatre from October to December 1905.",
"He completed one final tour of ''Sherlock Holmes'' in early 1906, before leaving the play after more than two-and-a-half years.",
"====Stage comedy and vaudeville====\nChaplin soon found work with a new company, and went on tour with his brother – who was also pursuing an acting career – in a comedy sketch called ''Repairs''.",
"In May 1906, Chaplin joined the juvenile act ''Casey's Circus'', where he developed popular burlesque pieces and was soon the star of the show.",
"By the time the act finished touring in July 1907, the 18-year-old had become an accomplished comedic performer.",
"He struggled to find more work, however, and a brief attempt at a solo act was a failure.",
"Advertisement from Chaplin's American tour with the Fred Karno comedy company, 1913\n\nMeanwhile, Sydney Chaplin had joined Fred Karno's prestigious comedy company in 1906 and, by 1908, he was one of their key performers.",
"In February, he managed to secure a two-week trial for his younger brother.",
"Karno was initially wary, and considered Chaplin a \"pale, puny, sullen-looking youngster\" who \"looked much too shy to do any good in the theatre.\"",
"However, the teenager made an impact on his first night at the London Coliseum and he was quickly signed to a contract.",
"Chaplin began by playing a series of minor parts, eventually progressing to starring roles in 1909.",
"In April 1910, he was given the lead in a new sketch, ''Jimmy the Fearless''.",
"It was a big success, and Chaplin received considerable press attention.",
"Karno selected his new star to join the section of the company, one that also included Stan Laurel, that toured North America's vaudeville circuit.",
"The young comedian headed the show and impressed reviewers, being described as \"one of the best pantomime artists ever seen here\".",
"His most successful role was a drunk called the \"Inebriate Swell\", which drew him significant recognition.",
"The tour lasted 21 months, and the troupe returned to England in June 1912.",
"Chaplin recalled that he \"had a disquieting feeling of sinking back into a depressing commonplaceness\" and was, therefore, delighted when a new tour began in October.",
"===1914–1917: Entering films===\n====Keystone====\n\nSix months into the second American tour, Chaplin was invited to join the New York Motion Picture Company.",
"A representative who had seen his performances thought he could replace Fred Mace, a star of their Keystone Studios who intended to leave.",
"Chaplin thought the Keystone comedies \"a crude mélange of rough and rumble\", but liked the idea of working in films and rationalised: \"Besides, it would mean a new life.\"",
"He met with the company and signed a $150-per-week ($ in dollars) contract in September 1913.",
"Chaplin arrived in Los Angeles, home of the Keystone studio, in early December 1913.",
"His boss was Mack Sennett, who initially expressed concern that the 24-year-old looked too young.",
"He was not used in a picture until late January, during which time Chaplin attempted to learn the processes of filmmaking.",
"The one-reeler ''Making a Living'' marked his film acting debut and was released on 2 February 1914.",
"Chaplin strongly disliked the picture, but one review picked him out as \"a comedian of the first water\".",
"For his second appearance in front of the camera, Chaplin selected the costume with which he became identified.",
"He described the process in his autobiography:\n\n\n\nThe film was ''Mabel's Strange Predicament'', but \"the Tramp\" character, as it became known, debuted to audiences in ''Kid Auto Races at Venice'' – shot later than ''Mabel's Strange Predicament'' but released two days earlier.",
"Chaplin adopted the character as his screen persona and attempted to make suggestions for the films he appeared in.",
"These ideas were dismissed by his directors.",
"During the filming of his eleventh picture, ''Mabel at the Wheel'', he clashed with director Mabel Normand and was almost released from his contract.",
"Sennett kept him on, however, when he received orders from exhibitors for more Chaplin films.",
"Sennett also allowed Chaplin to direct his next film himself after Chaplin promised to pay $1,500 ($ in dollars) if the film was unsuccessful.",
"''Caught in the Rain'', issued 4 May 1914, was Chaplin's directorial debut and was highly successful.",
"Thereafter he directed almost every short film in which he appeared for Keystone, at the rate of approximately one per week, a period which he later remembered as the most exciting time of his career.",
"Chaplin's films introduced a slower form of comedy than the typical Keystone farce, and he developed a large fan base.",
"In November 1914, he had a supporting role in the first feature length comedy film, ''Tillie's Punctured Romance'', directed by Sennett and starring Marie Dressler, which was a commercial success and increased his popularity.",
"When Chaplin's contract came up for renewal at the end of the year, he asked for $1,000 a week ($ in dollars) – an amount Sennett refused as too large.",
"====Essanay====\nChaplin and Edna Purviance, his regular leading lady, in ''Work'' (1915)\n\nThe Essanay Film Manufacturing Company of Chicago sent Chaplin an offer of $1,250 a week with a signing bonus of $10,000.",
"He joined the studio in late December 1914, where he began forming a stock company of regular players, including Leo White, Bud Jamison, Paddy McGuire and Billy Armstrong.",
"He soon recruited a leading lady – Edna Purviance, whom Chaplin met in a cafe and hired on account of her beauty.",
"She went on to appear in 35 films with Chaplin over eight years; the pair also formed a romantic relationship that lasted into 1917.",
"Chaplin asserted a high level of control over his pictures and started to put more time and care into each film.",
"There was a month-long interval between the release of his second production, ''A Night Out'', and his third, ''The Champion''.",
"The final seven of Chaplin's 14 Essanay films were all produced at this slower pace.",
"Chaplin also began to alter his screen persona, which had attracted some criticism at Keystone for its \"mean, crude, and brutish\" nature.",
"The character became more gentle and romantic; ''The Tramp'' (April 1915) was considered a particular turning point in his development.",
"Robinson notes that this was an innovation in comedy films, and marked the time when serious critics began to appreciate Chaplin's work.",
"At Essanay, writes film scholar Simon Louvish, Chaplin \"found the themes and the settings that would define the Tramp's world.\"",
"During 1915, Chaplin became a cultural phenomenon.",
"Shops were stocked with Chaplin merchandise, he was featured in cartoons and comic strips, and several songs were written about him.",
"In July, a journalist for ''Motion Picture Magazine'' wrote that \"Chaplinitis\" had spread across America.",
"As his fame grew worldwide, he became the film industry's first international star.",
"When the Essanay contract ended in December 1915, Chaplin – fully aware of his popularity – requested a $150,000 signing bonus from his next studio.",
"He received several offers, including Universal, Fox, and Vitagraph, the best of which came from the Mutual Film Corporation at $10,000 a week.",
"====Mutual====\nBy 1916, Chaplin was a global phenomenon.",
"Here he shows off some of his merchandise, c. 1918.",
"A contract was negotiated with Mutual that amounted to $670,000 a year, which Robinson says made Chaplin – at 26 years old – one of the highest paid people in the world.",
"The high salary shocked the public and was widely reported in the press.",
"John R. Freuler, the studio president, explained: \"We can afford to pay Mr. Chaplin this large sum annually because the public wants Chaplin and will pay for him.\"",
"Mutual gave Chaplin his own Los Angeles studio to work in, which opened in March 1916.",
"He added two key members to his stock company, Albert Austin and Eric Campbell, and produced a series of elaborate two-reelers: ''The Floorwalker'', ''The Fireman'', ''The Vagabond'', ''One A.M.'', and ''The Count''.",
"For ''The Pawnshop'', he recruited the actor Henry Bergman, who was to work with Chaplin for 30 years.",
"''Behind the Screen'' and ''The Rink'' completed Chaplin's releases for 1916.",
"The Mutual contract stipulated that he release a two-reel film every four weeks, which he had managed to achieve.",
"With the new year, however, Chaplin began to demand more time.",
"He made only four more films for Mutual over the first ten months of 1917: ''Easy Street'', ''The Cure'', ''The Immigrant'', and ''The Adventurer''.",
"With their careful construction, these films are considered by Chaplin scholars to be among his finest work.",
"Later in life, Chaplin referred to his Mutual years as the happiest period of his career.",
"However, Chaplin also felt that those films became increasingly formulaic over the period of the contract and he was increasingly dissatisfied with the working conditions encouraging that.",
"Chaplin was attacked in the British media for not fighting in the First World War.",
"He defended himself, revealing that he would fight for Britain if called and had registered for the American draft, but he was not summoned by either country.",
"Despite this criticism Chaplin was a favourite with the troops, and his popularity continued to grow worldwide.",
"''Harper's Weekly'' reported that the name of Charlie Chaplin was \"a part of the common language of almost every country\", and that the Tramp image was \"universally familiar\".",
"In 1917, professional Chaplin imitators were so widespread that he took legal action, and it was reported that nine out of ten men who attended costume parties dressed as the Tramp.",
"The same year, a study by the Boston Society for Psychical Research concluded that Chaplin was \"an American obsession\".",
"The actress Minnie Maddern Fiske wrote that \"a constantly increasing body of cultured, artistic people are beginning to regard the young English buffoon, Charles Chaplin, as an extraordinary artist, as well as a comic genius\".",
"===1918–1922: First National===\n''A Dog's Life'' (1918).",
"It was around this time that Chaplin began to conceive the Tramp as \"a sort of Pierrot\", or sad clown.",
"Mutual were patient with Chaplin's decreased rate of output, and the contract ended amicably.",
"With his aforementioned concern about the declining quality of his films because of contract scheduling stipulations, Chaplin's primary concern in finding a new distributor was independence; Sydney Chaplin, then his business manager, told the press, \"Charlie must be allowed all the time he needs and all the money for producing films the way he wants ...",
"It is quality, not quantity, we are after.\"",
"In June 1917, Chaplin signed to complete eight films for First National Exhibitors' Circuit in return for $1 million.",
"He chose to build his own studio, situated on five acres of land off Sunset Boulevard, with production facilities of the highest order.",
"It was completed in January 1918, and Chaplin was given freedom over the making of his pictures.",
"''A Dog's Life'', released April 1918, was the first film under the new contract.",
"In it, Chaplin demonstrated his increasing concern with story construction and his treatment of the Tramp as \"a sort of Pierrot\".",
"The film was described by Louis Delluc as \"cinema's first total work of art\".",
"Chaplin then embarked on the Third Liberty Bond campaign, touring the United States for one month to raise money for the Allies of the First World War.",
"He also produced a short propaganda film, donated to the government for fund-raising, called ''The Bond''.",
"Chaplin's next release was war-based, placing the Tramp in the trenches for ''Shoulder Arms''.",
"Associates warned him against making a comedy about the war but, as he later recalled: \"Dangerous or not, the idea excited me.\"",
"He spent four months filming the 45-minute-long picture, which was released in October 1918 with great success.",
"====United Artists, Mildred Harris, and ''The Kid''====\nAfter the release of ''Shoulder Arms'', Chaplin requested more money from First National, which was refused.",
"Frustrated with their lack of concern for quality, and worried about rumours of a possible merger between the company and Famous Players-Lasky, Chaplin joined forces with Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pickford, and D. W. Griffith to form a new distribution company – United Artists, established in January 1919.",
"The arrangement was revolutionary in the film industry, as it enabled the four partners – all creative artists – to personally fund their pictures and have complete control.",
"Chaplin was eager to start with the new company and offered to buy out his contract with First National.",
"They declined this and insisted that he complete the final six films he owed them.",
"The Kid'' (1921), with Jackie Coogan, combined comedy with drama and was Chaplin's first film to exceed an hour.",
"Before the creation of United Artists, Chaplin married for the first time.",
"The 17-year-old actress Mildred Harris had revealed that she was pregnant with his child, and in September 1918, he married her quietly in Los Angeles to avoid controversy.",
"Soon after, the pregnancy was found to be a false alarm.",
"Chaplin was unhappy with the union and, feeling that marriage stunted his creativity, struggled over the production of his film ''Sunnyside''.",
"Harris was by then legitimately pregnant, and on 7 July 1919, gave birth to a son.",
"Norman Spencer Chaplin was born malformed and died three days later.",
"The marriage eventually ended in April 1920, with Chaplin explaining in his autobiography that they were \"irreconcilably mismated\".",
"Losing a child is thought to have influenced Chaplin's work, as he planned a film which turned the Tramp into the caretaker of a young boy.",
"For this new venture, Chaplin also wished to do more than comedy and, according to Louvish, \"make his mark on a changed world.\"",
"Filming on ''The Kid'' began in August 1919, with four-year-old Jackie Coogan his co-star.",
"It occurred to Chaplin that it was turning into a large project, so to placate First National, he halted production and quickly filmed ''A Day's Pleasure''.",
"''The Kid'' was in production for nine months until May 1920 and, at 68 minutes, it was Chaplin's longest picture to date.",
"Dealing with issues of poverty and parent–child separation, ''The Kid'' is thought to have been influenced by Chaplin's own childhood and was one of the earliest films to combine comedy and drama.",
"It was released in January 1921 with instant success, and, by 1924, had been screened in over 50 countries.",
"Chaplin spent five months on his next film, the two-reeler ''The Idle Class''.",
"Following its September 1921 release, he chose to return to England for the first time in almost a decade.",
"He then worked to fulfil his First National contract, releasing ''Pay Day'' in February 1922.",
"''The Pilgrim'' – his final short film – was delayed by distribution disagreements with the studio, and released a year later.",
"===1923–1938: Silent features===\n====''A Woman of Paris'' and ''The Gold Rush''====\n\nHaving fulfilled his First National contract, Chaplin was free to make his first picture as an independent producer.",
"In November 1922, he began filming ''A Woman of Paris'', a romantic drama about ill-fated lovers.",
"Chaplin intended it to be a star-making vehicle for Edna Purviance, and did not appear in the picture himself other than in a brief, uncredited cameo.",
"He wished for the film to have a realistic feel and directed his cast to give restrained performances.",
"In real life, he explained, \"men and women try to hide their emotions rather than seek to express them\".",
"''A Woman of Paris'' premiered in September 1923 and was acclaimed for its subtle approach, then an innovation.",
"The public, however, seemed to have little interest in a Chaplin film without his presence, and it was a box office disappointment.",
"The filmmaker was hurt by this failure – he had long wanted to produce a dramatic film and was proud of the result – and withdrew ''A Woman of Paris'' from circulation as soon as he could.",
"The Tramp resorts to eating his boot in a famous scene from ''The Gold Rush'' (1925).",
"Chaplin returned to comedy for his next project.",
"Setting his standards high, he told himself: \"This next film must be an epic!",
"The Greatest!\"",
"Inspired by a photograph of the 1898 Klondike Gold Rush, and later the story of the Donner Party of 1846–47, he made what Geoffrey Macnab calls \"an epic comedy out of grim subject matter.\"",
"In ''The Gold Rush'', the Tramp is a lonely prospector fighting adversity and looking for love.",
"With Georgia Hale as his new leading lady, Chaplin began filming the picture in February 1924.",
"Its elaborate production, costing almost $1 million, included location shooting in the Truckee mountains with 600 extras, extravagant sets, and special effects.",
"The last scene was not shot until May 1925, after 15 months of filming.",
"Chaplin felt ''The Gold Rush'' was the best film he had made to that point.",
"It opened in August 1925 and became one of the highest-grossing films of the silent era with a profit of $5 million.",
"The comedy contains some of Chaplin's most famous sequences, such as the Tramp eating his shoe and the \"Dance of the Rolls\".",
"Macnab has called it \"the quintessential Chaplin film\".",
"Chaplin stated, \"This is the picture that I want to be remembered by\" at the time of the film's release.",
"====Lita Grey and ''The Circus''====\nLita Grey, whose bitter divorce from Chaplin caused a scandal\n\nWhile making ''The Gold Rush'', Chaplin married for the second time.",
"Mirroring the circumstances of his first union, Lita Grey was a teenage actress, originally set to star in the film, whose surprise announcement of pregnancy forced Chaplin into marriage.",
"She was 16 and he was 35, meaning Chaplin could have been charged with statutory rape under California law.",
"He therefore arranged a discreet marriage in Mexico on 25 November 1924.",
"Their first son, Charles Spencer Chaplin, Jr., was born on 5 May 1925, followed by Sydney Earl Chaplin on 30 March 1926.",
"It was an unhappy marriage, and Chaplin spent long hours at the studio to avoid seeing his wife.",
"In November 1926, Grey took the children and left the family home.",
"A bitter divorce followed, in which Grey's application – accusing Chaplin of infidelity, abuse, and of harbouring \"perverted sexual desires\" – was leaked to the press.",
"Chaplin was reported to be in a state of nervous breakdown, as the story became headline news and groups formed across America calling for his films to be banned.",
"Eager to end the case without further scandal, Chaplin's lawyers agreed to a cash settlement of $600,000the largest awarded by American courts at that time.",
"His fan base was strong enough to survive the incident, and it was soon forgotten, but Chaplin was deeply affected by it.",
"Before the divorce suit was filed, Chaplin had begun work on a new film, ''The Circus''.",
"He built a story around the idea of walking a tightrope while besieged by monkeys, and turned the Tramp into the accidental star of a circus.",
"Filming was suspended for 10 months while he dealt with the divorce scandal, and it was generally a trouble-ridden production.",
"Finally completed in October 1927, ''The Circus'' was released in January 1928 to a positive reception.",
"At the 1st Academy Awards, Chaplin was given a special trophy \"For versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing and producing ''The Circus''\".",
"Despite its success, he permanently associated the film with the stress of its production; Chaplin omitted ''The Circus'' from his autobiography, and struggled to work on it when he recorded the score in his later years.",
"====''City Lights''====\n\n\nBy the time ''The Circus'' was released, Hollywood had witnessed the introduction of sound films.",
"Chaplin was cynical about this new medium and the technical shortcomings it presented, believing that \"talkies\" lacked the artistry of silent films.",
"He was also hesitant to change the formula that had brought him such success, and feared that giving the Tramp a voice would limit his international appeal.",
"He, therefore, rejected the new Hollywood craze and began work on a new silent film.",
"Chaplin was nonetheless anxious about this decision and remained so throughout the film's production.",
"''City Lights'' (1931), regarded as one of Chaplin's finest works\n\nWhen filming began at the end of 1928, Chaplin had been working on the story for almost a year.",
"''City Lights'' followed the Tramp's love for a blind flower girl (played by Virginia Cherrill) and his efforts to raise money for her sight-saving operation.",
"It was a challenging production that lasted 21 months, with Chaplin later confessing that he \"had worked himself into a neurotic state of wanting perfection\".",
"One advantage Chaplin found in sound technology was the opportunity to record a musical score for the film, which he composed himself.",
"Chaplin finished editing ''City Lights'' in December 1930, by which time silent films were an anachronism.",
"A preview before an unsuspecting public audience was not a success, but a showing for the press produced positive reviews.",
"One journalist wrote, \"Nobody in the world but Charlie Chaplin could have done it.",
"He is the only person that has that peculiar something called 'audience appeal' in sufficient quality to defy the popular penchant for movies that talk.\"",
"Given its general release in January 1931, ''City Lights'' proved to be a popular and financial success – eventually grossing over $3 million.",
"The British Film Institute cites it as Chaplin's finest accomplishment, and the critic James Agee hails the closing scene as \"the greatest piece of acting and the highest moment in movies\".",
"''City Lights'' became Chaplin's personal favourite of his films and remained so throughout his life.",
"====Travels, Paulette Goddard, and ''Modern Times''====\n''City Lights'' had been a success, but Chaplin was unsure if he could make another picture without dialogue.",
"He remained convinced that sound would not work in his films, but was also \"obsessed by a depressing fear of being old-fashioned.\"",
"In this state of uncertainty, early in 1931, the comedian decided to take a holiday and ended up travelling for 16 months.",
"In his autobiography, Chaplin recalled that on his return to Los Angeles, \"I was confused and without plan, restless and conscious of an extreme loneliness\".",
"He briefly considered retiring and moving to China.",
"Modern Times'' (1936), described by Jérôme Larcher as a \"grim contemplation on the automatization of the individual\"\n\nChaplin's loneliness was relieved when he met 21-year-old actress Paulette Goddard in July 1932, and the pair began a successful relationship.",
"He was not ready to commit to a film, however, and focused on writing a serial about his travels (published in ''Woman's Home Companion'').",
"The trip had been a stimulating experience for Chaplin, including meetings with several prominent thinkers, and he became increasingly interested in world affairs.",
"The state of labour in America troubled him, and he feared that capitalism and machinery in the workplace would increase unemployment levels.",
"It was these concerns that stimulated Chaplin to develop his new film.",
"''Modern Times'' was announced by Chaplin as \"a satire on certain phases of our industrial life.\"",
"Featuring the Tramp and Goddard as they endure the Great Depression, it took ten and a half months to film.",
"Chaplin intended to use spoken dialogue but changed his mind during rehearsals.",
"Like its predecessor, ''Modern Times'' employed sound effects but almost no speaking.",
"Chaplin's performance of a gibberish song did, however, give the Tramp a voice for the only time on film.",
"After recording the music, Chaplin released ''Modern Times'' in February 1936.",
"It was his first feature in 15 years to adopt political references and social realism, a factor that attracted considerable press coverage despite Chaplin's attempts to downplay the issue.",
"The film earned less at the box-office than his previous features and received mixed reviews, as some viewers disliked the politicising.",
"Today, ''Modern Times'' is seen by the British Film Institute as one of Chaplin's \"great features,\" while David Robinson says it shows the filmmaker at \"his unrivalled peak as a creator of visual comedy.\"",
"Following the release of ''Modern Times'', Chaplin left with Goddard for a trip to the Far East.",
"The couple had refused to comment on the nature of their relationship, and it was not known whether they were married or not.",
"Some time later, Chaplin revealed that they married in Canton during this trip.",
"By 1938, the couple had drifted apart, as both focused heavily on their work, although Goddard was again his leading lady in his next feature film, ''The Great Dictator''.",
"She eventually divorced Chaplin in Mexico in 1942, citing incompatibility and separation for more than a year.",
"===1939–1952: Controversies and fading popularity===\n====''The Great Dictator''====\nChaplin satirising Adolf Hitler in ''The Great Dictator'' (1940)\n\nThe 1940s saw Chaplin face a series of controversies, both in his work and in his personal life, which changed his fortunes and severely affected his popularity in the United States.",
"The first of these was his growing boldness in expressing his political beliefs.",
"Deeply disturbed by the surge of militaristic nationalism in 1930s world politics, Chaplin found that he could not keep these issues out of his work.",
"Parallels between himself and Adolf Hitler had been widely noted: the pair were born four days apart, both had risen from poverty to world prominence, and Hitler wore the same toothbrush moustache as Chaplin.",
"It was this physical resemblance that supplied the plot for Chaplin's next film, ''The Great Dictator'', which directly satirised Hitler and attacked fascism.",
"Chaplin spent two years developing the script, and began filming in September 1939 – six days after Britain declared war on Germany.",
"He had submitted to using spoken dialogue, partly out of acceptance that he had no other choice, but also because he recognised it as a better method for delivering a political message.",
"Making a comedy about Hitler was seen as highly controversial, but Chaplin's financial independence allowed him to take the risk.",
"\"I was determined to go ahead,\" he later wrote, \"for Hitler must be laughed at.\"",
"Chaplin replaced the Tramp (while wearing similar attire) with \"A Jewish Barber\", a reference to the Nazi party's belief that he was Jewish.",
"In a dual performance, he also played the dictator \"Adenoid Hynkel\", who parodied Hitler.",
"''The Great Dictator'' spent a year in production and was released in October 1940.",
"The film generated a vast amount of publicity, with a critic for ''The New York Times'' calling it \"the most eagerly awaited picture of the year\", and it was one of the biggest money-makers of the era.",
"The ending was unpopular, however, and generated controversy.",
"Chaplin concluded the film with a five-minute speech in which he abandoned his barber character, looked directly into the camera, and pleaded against war and fascism.",
"Charles J. Maland has identified this overt preaching as triggering a decline in Chaplin's popularity, and writes, \"Henceforth, no movie fan would ever be able to separate the dimension of politics from his star image\".",
"''The Great Dictator'' received five Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Original Screenplay and Best Actor.",
"====Legal troubles and Oona O'Neill====\nIn the mid-1940s, Chaplin was involved in a series of trials that occupied most of his time and significantly affected his public image.",
"The troubles stemmed from his affair with an aspirant actress named Joan Barry, with whom he was involved intermittently between June 1941 and the autumn of 1942.",
"Barry, who displayed obsessive behaviour and was twice arrested after they separated, reappeared the following year and announced that she was pregnant with Chaplin's child.",
"As Chaplin denied the claim, Barry filed a paternity suit against him.",
"The director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), J. Edgar Hoover, who had long been suspicious of Chaplin's political leanings, used the opportunity to generate negative publicity about him.",
"As part of a smear campaign to damage Chaplin's image, the FBI named him in four indictments related to the Barry case.",
"Most serious of these was an alleged violation of the Mann Act, which prohibits the transportation of women across state boundaries for sexual purposes.",
"The historian Otto Friedrich has called this an \"absurd prosecution\" of an \"ancient statute\", yet if Chaplin was found guilty, he faced 23 years in jail.",
"Three charges lacked sufficient evidence to proceed to court, but the Mann Act trial began in March 1944.",
"Chaplin was acquitted two weeks later.",
"The case was frequently headline news, with ''Newsweek'' calling it the \"biggest public relations scandal since the Fatty Arbuckle murder trial in 1921.\"",
"Chaplin's fourth wife Oona O'Neill, to whom he was married from 1943 until his death.",
"The couple had eight children.",
"Barry's child, Carole Ann, was born in October 1944, and the paternity suit went to court in February 1945.",
"After two arduous trials, in which the prosecuting lawyer accused him of \"moral turpitude\", Chaplin was declared to be the father.",
"Evidence from blood tests which indicated otherwise were not admissible, and the judge ordered Chaplin to pay child support until Carole Ann turned 21.",
"Media coverage of the paternity suit was influenced by the FBI, as information was fed to the prominent gossip columnist Hedda Hopper, and Chaplin was portrayed in an overwhelmingly critical light.",
"The controversy surrounding Chaplin increased when, two weeks after the paternity suit was filed, it was announced that he had married his newest protégée, 18-year-old Oona O'Neill – daughter of the American playwright Eugene O'Neill.",
"Chaplin, then 54, had been introduced to her by a film agent seven months earlier.",
"In his autobiography, Chaplin described meeting O'Neill as \"the happiest event of my life\", and claimed to have found \"perfect love\".",
"Chaplin's son, Charles Jr., reported that Oona \"worshipped\" his father.",
"The couple remained married until Chaplin's death, and had eight children over 18 years: Geraldine Leigh (b. July 1944), Michael John (b.",
"March 1946), Josephine Hannah (b.",
"March 1949), Victoria (b.",
"May 1951), Eugene Anthony (b. August 1953), Jane Cecil (b.",
"May 1957), Annette Emily (b. December 1959), and Christopher James (b. July 1962).",
"====''Monsieur Verdoux'' and communist accusations====\n''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947), a dark comedy about a serial killer, marked a significant departure for Chaplin.",
"He was so unpopular at the time of release that it flopped in the United States.",
"Chaplin claimed that the Barry trials had \"crippled his creativeness\", and it was some time before he began working again.",
"In April 1946, he finally began filming a project that had been in development since 1942.",
"Chaplin's inspiration for the project came from Orson Welles, who wanted him to star in a film about the French serial killer Henri Désiré Landru.",
"Chaplin decided that the concept would \"make a wonderful comedy\", and paid Welles $5,000 for the idea.",
"Chaplin again vocalised his political views in ''Monsieur Verdoux'', criticising capitalism and arguing that the world encourages mass killing through wars and weapons of mass destruction.",
"Because of this, the film met with controversy when it was released in April 1947; Chaplin was booed at the premiere, and there were calls for a boycott.",
"''Monsieur Verdoux'' was the first Chaplin release that failed both critically and commercially in the United States.",
"It was more successful abroad, and Chaplin's screenplay was nominated at the Academy Awards.",
"He was proud of the film, writing in his autobiography, \"''Monsieur Verdoux'' is the cleverest and most brilliant film I have yet made.\"",
"The negative reaction to ''Monsieur Verdoux'' was largely the result of changes in Chaplin's public image.",
"Along with damage of the Joan Barry scandal, he was publicly accused of being a communist.",
"His political activity had heightened during World War II, when he campaigned for the opening of a Second Front to help the Soviet Union and supported various Soviet–American friendship groups.",
"He was also friendly with several suspected communists, and attended functions given by Soviet diplomats in Los Angeles.",
"In the political climate of 1940s America, such activities meant Chaplin was considered, as Larcher writes, \"dangerously progressive and amoral.\"",
"The FBI wanted him out of the country, and launched an official investigation in early 1947.",
"Chaplin denied being a communist, instead calling himself a \"peacemonger\", but felt the government's effort to suppress the ideology was an unacceptable infringement of civil liberties.",
"Unwilling to be quiet about the issue, he openly protested against the trials of Communist Party members and the activities of the House Un-American Activities Committee.",
"Chaplin received a subpoena to appear before HUAC but was not called to testify.",
"As his activities were widely reported in the press, and Cold War fears grew, questions were raised over his failure to take American citizenship.",
"Calls were made for him to be deported; in one extreme and widely published example, Representative John E. Rankin, who helped establish HUAC, told Congress in June 1947: \"Chaplin's very life in Hollywood is detrimental to the moral fabric of America.",
"If he is deported ... his loathsome pictures can be kept from before the eyes of the American youth.",
"He should be deported and gotten rid of at once.\"",
"====''Limelight'' and banning from the United States====\nLimelight'' (1952) was a serious and autobiographical film for Chaplin: his character, Calvero, is an ex music hall star (described in this image as a \"Tramp Comedian\") forced to deal with his loss of popularity.",
"Although Chaplin remained politically active in the years following the failure of ''Monsieur Verdoux'', his next film, about a forgotten vaudeville comedian and a young ballerina in Edwardian London, was devoid of political themes.",
"''Limelight'' was heavily autobiographical, alluding not only to Chaplin's childhood and the lives of his parents, but also to his loss of popularity in the United States.",
"The cast included various members of his family, including his five oldest children and his half-brother, Wheeler Dryden.",
"Filming began in November 1951, by which time Chaplin had spent three years working on the story.",
"He aimed for a more serious tone than any of his previous films, regularly using the word \"melancholy\" when explaining his plans to his co-star Claire Bloom.",
"''Limelight'' featured a cameo appearance from Buster Keaton, whom Chaplin cast as his stage partner in a pantomime scene.",
"This marked the only time the comedians worked together.",
"Chaplin decided to hold the world premiere of ''Limelight'' in London, since it was the setting of the film.",
"As he left Los Angeles, he expressed a premonition that he would not be returning.",
"At New York, he boarded the with his family on 18 September 1952.",
"The next day, attorney general James P. McGranery revoked Chaplin's re-entry permit and stated that he would have to submit to an interview concerning his political views and moral behaviour in order to re-enter the US.",
"Although McGranery told the press that he had \"a pretty good case against Chaplin\", Maland has concluded, on the basis of the FBI files that were released in the 1980s, that the US government had no real evidence to prevent Chaplin's re-entry.",
"It is likely that he would have gained entry if he had applied for it.",
"However, when Chaplin received a cablegram informing him of the news, he privately decided to cut his ties with the United States:\n\n\n\nBecause all of his property remained in America, Chaplin refrained from saying anything negative about the incident to the press.",
"The scandal attracted vast attention, but Chaplin and his film were warmly received in Europe.",
"In America, the hostility towards him continued, and, although it received some positive reviews, ''Limelight'' was subjected to a wide-scale boycott.",
"Reflecting on this, Maland writes that Chaplin's fall, from an \"unprecedented\" level of popularity, \"may be the most dramatic in the history of stardom in America\".",
"===1953–1977: European years===\n====Move to Switzerland and ''A King in New York''====\n\n\n\nChaplin did not attempt to return to the United States after his re-entry permit was revoked, and instead sent his wife to settle his affairs.",
"The couple decided to settle in Switzerland and, in January 1953, the family moved into their permanent home: Manoir de Ban, a estate overlooking Lake Geneva in Corsier-sur-Vevey.",
"Chaplin put his Beverly Hills house and studio up for sale in March, and surrendered his re-entry permit in April.",
"The next year, his wife renounced her US citizenship and became a British citizen.",
"Chaplin severed the last of his professional ties with the United States in 1955, when he sold the remainder of his stock in United Artists, which had been in financial difficulty since the early 1940s.",
"Manoir de Ban, Chaplin's home in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland\n\nChaplin remained a controversial figure throughout the 1950s, especially after he was awarded the International Peace Prize by the communist-led World Peace Council, and after his meetings with Zhou Enlai and Nikita Khrushchev.",
"He began developing his first European film, ''A King in New York'', in 1954.",
"Casting himself as an exiled king who seeks asylum in the United States, Chaplin included several of his recent experiences in the screenplay.",
"His son, Michael, was cast as a boy whose parents are targeted by the FBI, while Chaplin's character faces accusations of communism.",
"The political satire parodied HUAC and attacked elements of 1950s culture – including consumerism, plastic surgery, and wide-screen cinema.",
"In a review, the playwright John Osborne called it Chaplin's \"most bitter\" and \"most openly personal\" film.",
"Chaplin founded a new production company, Attica, and used Shepperton Studios for the shooting.",
"Filming in England proved a difficult experience, as he was used to his own Hollywood studio and familiar crew, and no longer had limitless production time.",
"According to Robinson, this had an effect on the quality of the film.",
"''A King in New York'' was released in September 1957, and received mixed reviews.",
"Chaplin banned American journalists from its Paris première and decided not to release the film in the United States.",
"This severely limited its revenue, although it achieved moderate commercial success in Europe.",
"''A King in New York'' was not shown in America until 1973.",
"====Final works and renewed appreciation====\nChaplin with his wife Oona and six of their children in 1961\n\nIn the last two decades of his career, Chaplin concentrated on re-editing and scoring his old films for re-release, along with securing their ownership and distribution rights.",
"In an interview he granted in 1959, the year of his 70th birthday, Chaplin stated that there was still \"room for the Little Man in the atomic age\".",
"The first of these re-releases was ''The Chaplin Revue'' (1959), which included new versions of ''A Dog's Life'', ''Shoulder Arms'', and ''The Pilgrim''.",
"In America, the political atmosphere began to change and attention was once again directed to Chaplin's films instead of his views.",
"In July 1962, ''The New York Times'' published an editorial stating that \"we do not believe the Republic would be in danger if yesterday's unforgotten little tramp were allowed to amble down the gangplank of a steamer or plane in an American port\".",
"The same month, Chaplin was invested with the honorary degree of Doctor of Letters by the universities of Oxford and Durham.",
"In November 1963, the Plaza Theater in New York started a year-long series of Chaplin's films, including ''Monsieur Verdoux'' and ''Limelight'', which gained excellent reviews from American critics.",
"September 1964 saw the release of Chaplin's memoirs, ''My Autobiography'', which he had been working on since 1957.",
"The 500-page book, which focused on his early years and personal life, became a worldwide best-seller, despite criticism over the lack of information on his film career.",
"Shortly after the publication of his memoirs, Chaplin began work on ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967), a romantic comedy based on a script he had written for Paulette Goddard in the 1930s.",
"Set on an ocean liner, it starred Marlon Brando as an American ambassador and Sophia Loren as a stowaway found in his cabin.",
"The film differed from Chaplin's earlier productions in several aspects.",
"It was his first to use Technicolor and the widescreen format, while he concentrated on directing and appeared on-screen only in a cameo role as a seasick steward.",
"He also signed a deal with Universal Pictures and appointed his assistant, Jerome Epstein, as the producer.",
"Chaplin was paid $600,000 director's fee as well as a percentage of the gross receipts.",
"''A Countess from Hong Kong'' premiered in January 1967, to unfavourable reviews, and was a box-office failure.",
"Chaplin was deeply hurt by the negative reaction to the film, which turned out to be his last.",
"Chaplin suffered a series of minor strokes in the late 1960s, which marked the beginning of a slow decline in his health.",
"Despite the setbacks, he was soon writing a new film script, ''The Freak'', a story of a winged girl found in South America, which he intended as a starring vehicle for his daughter, Victoria.",
"His fragile health prevented the project from being realised.",
"In the early 1970s, Chaplin concentrated on re-releasing his old films, including ''The Kid'' and ''The Circus''.",
"In 1971, he was made a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour at the Cannes Film Festival.",
"The following year, he was honoured with a special award by the Venice Film Festival.",
"Chaplin (right) receiving his Honorary Academy Award from Jack Lemmon in 1972.",
"It was the first time he had been to the United States in 20 years.",
"In 1972, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences offered Chaplin an Honorary Award, which Robinson sees as a sign that America \"wanted to make amends\".",
"Chaplin was initially hesitant about accepting but decided to return to the US for the first time in 20 years.",
"The visit attracted a large amount of press coverage and, at the Academy Awards gala, he was given a twelve-minute standing ovation, the longest in the Academy's history.",
"Visibly emotional, Chaplin accepted his award for \"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\".",
"Although Chaplin still had plans for future film projects, by the mid-1970s he was very frail.",
"He experienced several further strokes, which made it difficult for him to communicate, and he had to use a wheelchair.",
"His final projects were compiling a pictorial autobiography, ''My Life in Pictures'' (1974) and scoring ''A Woman of Paris'' for re-release in 1976.",
"He also appeared in a documentary about his life, ''The Gentleman Tramp'' (1975), directed by Richard Patterson.",
"In the 1975 New Year Honours, Chaplin was awarded a knighthood by Queen Elizabeth II, though he was too weak to kneel and received the honour in his wheelchair.",
"====Death====\nChaplin's grave in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland\nBy October 1977, Chaplin's health had declined to the point that he needed constant care.",
"In the early morning of 25 December 1977, Chaplin died at home after suffering a stroke in his sleep.",
"He was 88 years old.",
"The funeral, on 27 December, was a small and private Anglican ceremony, according to his wishes.",
"Chaplin was interred in the Corsier-sur-Vevey cemetery.",
"Among the film industry's tributes, director René Clair wrote, \"He was a monument of the cinema, of all countries and all times ... the most beautiful gift the cinema made to us.\"",
"Actor Bob Hope declared, \"We were lucky to have lived in his time.\"",
"On 1 March 1978, Chaplin's coffin was dug up and stolen from its grave by two unemployed immigrants, Roman Wardas, from Poland, and Gantcho Ganev, from Bulgaria.",
"The body was held for ransom in an attempt to extort money from Oona Chaplin.",
"The pair were caught in a large police operation in May, and Chaplin's coffin was found buried in a field in the nearby village of Noville.",
"It was re-interred in the Corsier cemetery surrounded by reinforced concrete.",
"===Influences===\nChaplin believed his first influence to be his mother, who entertained him as a child by sitting at the window and mimicking passers-by: \"it was through watching her that I learned not only how to express emotions with my hands and face, but also how to observe and study people.\"",
"Chaplin's early years in music hall allowed him to see stage comedians at work; he also attended the Christmas pantomimes at Drury Lane, where he studied the art of clowning through performers like Dan Leno.",
"Chaplin's years with the Fred Karno company had a formative effect on him as an actor and filmmaker.",
"Simon Louvish writes that the company was his \"training ground\", and it was here that Chaplin learned to vary the pace of his comedy.",
"The concept of mixing pathos with slapstick was learnt from Karno, who also used elements of absurdity that became familiar in Chaplin's gags.",
"From the film industry, Chaplin drew upon the work of the French comedian Max Linder, whose films he greatly admired.",
"In developing the Tramp costume and persona, he was likely inspired by the American vaudeville scene, where tramp characters were common.",
"===Method===\nA 1922 image of Charlie Chaplin Studios, where all of Chaplin's films between 1918 and 1952 were produced\n\nChaplin never spoke more than cursorily about his filmmaking methods, claiming such a thing would be tantamount to a magician spoiling his own illusion.",
"Little was known about his working process throughout his lifetime, but research from film historians – particularly the findings of Kevin Brownlow and David Gill that were presented in the three-part documentary ''Unknown Chaplin'' (1983) – has since revealed his unique working method.",
"Until he began making spoken dialogue films with ''The Great Dictator'', Chaplin never shot from a completed script.",
"Many of his early films began with only a vague premise – for example \"Charlie enters a health spa\" or \"Charlie works in a pawn shop.\"",
"He then had sets constructed and worked with his stock company to improvise gags and \"business\" using them, almost always working the ideas out on film.",
"As ideas were accepted and discarded, a narrative structure would emerge, frequently requiring Chaplin to reshoot an already-completed scene that might have otherwise contradicted the story.",
"From ''A Woman of Paris'' onward Chaplin began the filming process with a prepared plot, but Robinson writes that every film up to ''Modern Times'' \"went through many metamorphoses and permutations before the story took its final form.\"",
"Producing films in this manner meant Chaplin took longer to complete his pictures than almost any other filmmaker at the time.",
"If he was out of ideas, he often took a break from the shoot, which could last for days, while keeping the studio ready for when inspiration returned.",
"Delaying the process further was Chaplin's rigorous perfectionism.",
"According to his friend Ivor Montagu, \"nothing but perfection would be right\" for the filmmaker.",
"Because he personally funded his films, Chaplin was at liberty to strive for this goal and shoot as many takes as he wished.",
"The number was often excessive, for instance 53 takes for every finished take in ''The Kid''.",
"For ''The Immigrant'', a 20 minute-short, Chaplin shot 40,000 feet of film – enough for a feature-length.",
"Describing his working method as \"sheer perseverance to the point of madness\", Chaplin would be completely consumed by the production of a picture.",
"Robinson writes that even in Chaplin's later years, his work continued \"to take precedence over everything and everyone else.\"",
"The combination of story improvisation and relentless perfectionism – which resulted in days of effort and thousands of feet of film being wasted, all at enormous expense – often proved taxing for Chaplin who, in frustration, would lash out at his actors and crew.",
"Chaplin exercised complete control over his pictures, to the extent that he would act out the other roles for his cast, expecting them to imitate him exactly.",
"He personally edited all of his films, trawling through the large amounts of footage to create the exact picture he wanted.",
"As a result of his complete independence, he was identified by the film historian Andrew Sarris as one of the first auteur filmmakers.",
"Chaplin did receive help, notably from his long-time cinematographer Roland Totheroh, brother Sydney Chaplin, and various assistant directors such as Harry Crocker and Charles Reisner.",
"===Style and themes===\nThe Kid'' (1921), demonstrating Chaplin's mixture of slapstick, pathos, and social commentary\n\nWhile Chaplin's comedic style is broadly defined as slapstick, it is considered restrained and intelligent, with the film historian Philip Kemp describing his work as a mix of \"deft, balletic physical comedy and thoughtful, situation-based gags\".",
"Chaplin diverged from conventional slapstick by slowing the pace and exhausting each scene of its comic potential, with more focus on developing the viewer's relationship to the characters.",
"Unlike conventional slapstick comedies, Robinson states that the comic moments in Chaplin's films centre on the Tramp's attitude to the things happening to him: the humour does not come from the Tramp bumping into a tree, but from his lifting his hat to the tree in apology.",
"Dan Kamin writes that Chaplin's \"quirky mannerisms\" and \"serious demeanour in the midst of slapstick action\" are other key aspects of his comedy, while the surreal transformation of objects and the employment of in-camera trickery are also common features.",
"Chaplin's silent films typically follow the Tramp's efforts to survive in a hostile world.",
"The character lives in poverty and is frequently treated badly, but remains kind and upbeat; defying his social position, he strives to be seen as a gentleman.",
"As Chaplin said in 1925, \"The whole point of the Little Fellow is that no matter how down on his ass he is, no matter how well the jackals succeed in tearing him apart, he's still a man of dignity.\"",
"The Tramp defies authority figures and \"gives as good as he gets\", leading Robinson and Louvish to see him as a representative for the underprivileged – an \"everyman turned heroic saviour\".",
"Hansmeyer notes that several of Chaplin's films end with \"the homeless and lonely Tramp walking optimistically ... into the sunset ... to continue his journey\".",
"The infusion of pathos is a well-known aspect of Chaplin's work, and Larcher notes his reputation for \"inducing laughter and tears\".",
"Sentimentality in his films comes from a variety of sources, with Louvish pinpointing \"personal failure, society's strictures, economic disaster, and the elements.\"",
"Chaplin sometimes drew on tragic events when creating his films, as in the case of ''The Gold Rush'' (1925), which was inspired by the fate of the Donner Party.",
"Constance B. Kuriyama has identified serious underlying themes in the early comedies, such as greed (''The Gold Rush'') and loss (''The Kid'').",
"Chaplin also touched on controversial issues: immigration (''The Immigrant'', 1917); illegitimacy (''The Kid'', 1921); and drug use (''Easy Street'', 1917).",
"He often explored these topics ironically, making comedy out of suffering.",
"Social commentary was a feature of Chaplin's films from early in his career, as he portrayed the underdog in a sympathetic light and highlighted the difficulties of the poor.",
"Later, as he developed a keen interest in economics and felt obliged to publicise his views, Chaplin began incorporating overtly political messages into his films.",
"''Modern Times'' (1936) depicted factory workers in dismal conditions, ''The Great Dictator'' (1940) parodied Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini and ended in a speech against nationalism, ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947) criticised war and capitalism, and ''A King in New York'' (1957) attacked McCarthyism.",
"Several of Chaplin's films incorporate autobiographical elements, and the psychologist Sigmund Freud believed that Chaplin \"always plays only himself as he was in his dismal youth\".",
"''The Kid'' is thought to reflect Chaplin's childhood trauma of being sent into an orphanage, the main characters in ''Limelight'' (1952) contain elements from the lives of his parents, and ''A King in New York'' references Chaplin's experiences of being shunned by the United States.",
"Many of his sets, especially in street scenes, bear a strong similarity to Kennington, where he grew up.",
"Stephen M. Weissman has argued that Chaplin's problematic relationship with his mentally ill mother was often reflected in his female characters and the Tramp's desire to save them.",
"Regarding the structure of Chaplin's films, the scholar Gerald Mast sees them as consisting of sketches tied together by the same theme and setting, rather than having a tightly unified storyline.",
"Visually, his films are simple and economic, with scenes portrayed as if set on a stage.",
"His approach to filming was described by the art director Eugène Lourié: \"Chaplin did not think in 'artistic' images when he was shooting.",
"He believed that action is the main thing.",
"The camera is there to photograph the actors\".",
"In his autobiography, Chaplin wrote, \"Simplicity is best ... pompous effects slow up action, are boring and unpleasant ...",
"The camera should not intrude.\"",
"This approach has prompted criticism, since the 1940s, for being \"old fashioned\", while the film scholar Donald McCaffrey sees it as an indication that Chaplin never completely understood film as a medium.",
"Kamin, however, comments that Chaplin's comedic talent would not be enough to remain funny on screen if he did not have an \"ability to conceive and direct scenes specifically for the film medium\".",
"===Composing===\nChaplin playing the cello in 1915\n\nChaplin developed a passion for music as a child and taught himself to play the piano, violin, and cello.",
"He considered the musical accompaniment of a film to be important, and from ''A Woman of Paris'' onwards he took an increasing interest in this area.",
"With the advent of sound technology, Chaplin began using a synchronised orchestral soundtrack – composed by himself – for ''City Lights'' (1931).",
"He thereafter composed the scores for all of his films, and from the late 1950s to his death, he scored all of his silent features and some of his short films.",
"As Chaplin was not a trained musician, he could not read sheet music and needed the help of professional composers, such as David Raksin, Raymond Rasch and Eric James, when creating his scores.",
"Musical directors were employed to oversee the recording process, such as Alfred Newman for ''City Lights''.",
"Although some critics have claimed that credit for his film music should be given to the composers who worked with him, Raksin – who worked with Chaplin on ''Modern Times'' – stressed Chaplin's creative position and active participation in the composing process.",
"This process, which could take months, would start with Chaplin describing to the composer(s) exactly what he wanted and singing or playing tunes he had improvised on the piano.",
"These tunes were then developed further in a close collaboration among the composer(s) and Chaplin.",
"According to film historian Jeffrey Vance, \"although he relied upon associates to arrange varied and complex instrumentation, the musical imperative is his, and not a note in a Chaplin musical score was placed there without his assent.\"",
"Chaplin's compositions produced three popular songs.",
"\"Smile\", composed originally for ''Modern Times'' (1936) and later set to lyrics by John Turner and Geoffrey Parsons, was a hit for Nat King Cole in 1954.",
"For ''Limelight'', Chaplin composed \"Terry's Theme\", which was popularised by Jimmy Young as \"Eternally\" (1952).",
"Finally, \"This Is My Song\", performed by Petula Clark for ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967), reached number one on the UK and other European charts.",
"Chaplin also received his only competitive Oscar for his composition work, as the ''Limelight'' theme won an Academy Award for Best Original Score in 1973 following the film's re-release.",
"Chaplin as the Tramp in 1915, cinema's \"most universal icon\"\n\nIn 1998, the film critic Andrew Sarris called Chaplin \"arguably the single most important artist produced by the cinema, certainly its most extraordinary performer and probably still its most universal icon\".",
"He is described by the British Film Institute as \"a towering figure in world culture\", and was included in ''Time'' magazine's list of the \"100 Most Important People of the 20th Century\" for the \"laughter he brought to millions\" and because he \"more or less invented global recognizability and helped turn an industry into an art\".",
"The image of the Tramp has become a part of cultural history; according to Simon Louvish, the character is recognisable to people who have never seen a Chaplin film, and in places where his films are never shown.",
"The critic Leonard Maltin has written of the \"unique\" and \"indelible\" nature of the Tramp, and argued that no other comedian matched his \"worldwide impact\".",
"Praising the character, Richard Schickel suggests that Chaplin's films with the Tramp contain the most \"eloquent, richly comedic expressions of the human spirit\" in movie history.",
"Memorabilia connected to the character still fetches large sums in auctions: in 2006 a bowler hat and a bamboo cane that were part of the Tramp's costume were bought for $140,000 in a Los Angeles auction.",
"As a filmmaker, Chaplin is considered a pioneer and one of the most influential figures of the early twentieth century.",
"He is often credited as one of the medium's first artists.",
"Film historian Mark Cousins has written that Chaplin \"changed not only the imagery of cinema, but also its sociology and grammar\" and claims that Chaplin was as important to the development of comedy as a genre as D.W. Griffith was to drama.",
"He was the first to popularise feature-length comedy and to slow down the pace of action, adding pathos and subtlety to it.",
"Although his work is mostly classified as slapstick, Chaplin's drama ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923) was a major influence on Ernst Lubitsch's film ''The Marriage Circle'' (1924) and thus played a part in the development of \"sophisticated comedy\".",
"According to David Robinson, Chaplin's innovations were \"rapidly assimilated to become part of the common practice of film craft.\"",
"Filmmakers who cited Chaplin as an influence include Federico Fellini (who called Chaplin \"a sort of Adam, from whom we are all descended\"), Jacques Tati (\"Without him I would never have made a film\"), René Clair (\"He inspired practically every filmmaker\"), Michael Powell, Billy Wilder, Vittorio De Sica, and Richard Attenborough.",
"Russian filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky praised Chaplin as \"the only person to have gone down into cinematic history without any shadow of a doubt.",
"The films he left behind can never grow old.\"",
"Chaplin also strongly influenced the work of later comedians.",
"Marcel Marceau said he was inspired to become a mime artist after watching Chaplin, while the actor Raj Kapoor based his screen persona on the Tramp.",
"Mark Cousins has also detected Chaplin's comedic style in the French character Monsieur Hulot and the Italian character Totò.",
"In other fields, Chaplin helped inspire the cartoon characters Felix the Cat and Mickey Mouse, and was an influence on the Dada art movement.",
"As one of the founding members of United Artists, Chaplin also had a role in the development of the film industry.",
"Gerald Mast has written that although UA never became a major company like MGM or Paramount Pictures, the idea that directors could produce their own films was \"years ahead of its time\".",
"In the 21st century, several of Chaplin's films are still regarded as classics and among the greatest ever made.",
"The 2012 ''Sight & Sound'' poll, which compiles \"top ten\" ballots from film critics and directors to determine each group's most acclaimed films,\nsaw ''City Lights'' rank among the critics' top 50, ''Modern Times'' inside the top 100, and ''The Great Dictator'' and ''The Gold Rush'' placed in the top 250.",
"The top 100 films as voted on by directors included ''Modern Times'' at number 22, ''City Lights'' at number 30, and ''The Gold Rush'' at number 91.",
"Every one of Chaplin's features received a vote.",
"In 2007, the American Film Institute named ''City Lights'' the 11th greatest American film of all time, while ''The Gold Rush'' and ''Modern Times'' again ranked in the top 100.",
"Books about Chaplin continue to be published regularly, and he is a popular subject for media scholars and film archivists.",
"Many of Chaplin's film have had a DVD and Blu-Ray release.",
"===Commemoration and tributes===\n\nA room inside Chaplin's World\n\nChaplin's final home, Manoir de Ban in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland, has been converted into a museum named \"Chaplin's World\".",
"It opened on 17 April 2016 after 15 years of development, and is described by Reuters as \"an interactive museum showcasing the life and works of Charlie Chaplin\".",
"On the 128th anniversary of his birth, a record-setting 662 people dressed as the Tramp in an event organised by the museum.",
"Previously, the Museum of the Moving Image in London held a permanent display on Chaplin, and hosted a dedicated exhibition to his life and career in 1988.",
"The London Film Museum hosted an exhibition called ''Charlie Chaplin – The Great Londoner'', from 2010 until 2013.",
"In London, a statue of Chaplin as the Tramp, sculpted by John Doubleday and unveiled in 1981, is located in Leicester Square.",
"The city also includes a road named after him in central London, \"Charlie Chaplin Walk\", which is the location of the BFI IMAX.",
"There are nine blue plaques memorialising Chaplin in London, Hampshire, and Yorkshire.",
"The Swiss town of Vevey named a park in his honour in 1980 and erected a statue there in 1982.",
"In 2011, two large murals depicting Chaplin on two 14-storey buildings were also unveiled in Vevey.",
"Chaplin has also been honoured by the Irish town of Waterville, where he spent several summers with his family in the 1960s.",
"A statue was erected in 1998; since 2011, the town has been host to the annual Charlie Chaplin Comedy Film Festival, which was founded to celebrate Chaplin's legacy and to showcase new comic talent.",
"In other tributes, a minor planet, 3623 Chaplin – discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Karachkina in 1981 – is named after Chaplin.",
"Throughout the 1980s, the Tramp image was used by IBM to advertise their personal computers.",
"Chaplin's 100th birthday anniversary in 1989 was marked with several events around the world, and on 15 April 2011, a day before his 122nd birthday, Google celebrated him with a special Google Doodle video on its global and other country-wide homepages.",
"Many countries, spanning six continents, have honoured Chaplin with a postal stamp.",
"Chaplin's legacy is managed on behalf of his children by the Chaplin office, located in Paris.",
"The office represents Association Chaplin, founded by some of his children \"to protect the name, image and moral rights\" to his body of work, Roy Export SAS, which owns the copyright to most of his films made after 1918, and Bubbles Incorporated S.A., which owns the copyrights to his image and name.",
"Their central archive is held at the archives of Montreux, Switzerland and scanned versions of its contents, including 83,630 images, 118 scripts, 976 manuscripts, 7,756 letters, and thousands of other documents, are available for research purposes at the Chaplin Research Centre at the Cineteca di Bologna.",
"The photographic archive, which includes approximately 10,000 photographs from Chaplin's life and career, is kept at the Musée de l'Elysée in Lausanne, Switzerland.",
"The British Film Institute has also established the Charles Chaplin Research Foundation, and the first international Charles Chaplin Conference was held in London in July 2005.",
"Statues of Chaplin around the world, located at (left to right) 1.",
"Trenčianske Teplice, Slovakia; 2.",
"Chełmża, Poland; 3.",
"Waterville, Ireland; 4.",
"London, United Kingdom; 5.",
"Hyderabad, India; 6.",
"Alassio, Italy; 7.",
"Barcelona, Spain; 8.",
"Vevey, Switzerland\n\n===Characterisations===\nChaplin is the subject of a biographical film, ''Chaplin'' (1992) directed by Richard Attenborough, and starring Robert Downey Jr. in the title role.",
"He is also a character in the period drama film ''The Cat's Meow'' (2001), played by Eddie Izzard, and in the made-for-television movie ''The Scarlett O'Hara War'' (1980), played by Clive Revill.",
"A television series about Chaplin's childhood, ''Young Charlie Chaplin'', ran on PBS in 1989, and was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Program.",
"Chaplin's life has also been the subject of several stage productions.",
"Two musicals, ''Little Tramp'' and ''Chaplin'', were produced in the early 1990s.",
"In 2006, Thomas Meehan and Christopher Curtis created another musical, ''Limelight: The Story of Charlie Chaplin'', which was first performed at the La Jolla Playhouse in San Diego in 2010.",
"It was adapted for Broadway two years later, re-titled ''Chaplin – A Musical''.",
"Chaplin was portrayed by Robert McClure in both productions.",
"In 2013, two plays about Chaplin premiered in Finland: ''Chaplin'' at the Svenska Teatern, and ''Kulkuri'' (''The Tramp'') at the Tampere Workers' Theatre.",
"Chaplin has also been characterised in literary fiction.",
"He is the protagonist of Robert Coover's short story \"Charlie in the House of Rue\" (1980; reprinted in Coover's 1987 collection ''A Night at the Movies''), and of Glen David Gold's ''Sunnyside'' (2009), a historical novel set in the First World War period.",
"A day in Chaplin's life in 1909 is dramatised in the chapter entitled \"Modern Times\" in Alan Moore's ''Jerusalem'' (2016), a novel set in the author's home town of Northampton, England.",
"Chaplin's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, located at 6755 Hollywood Boulevard.",
"Although the project started in 1958, Chaplin only received his star in 1970 because of his political views.",
"Chaplin received many awards and honours, especially later in life.",
"In the 1975 New Year Honours, he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (KBE).",
"He was also awarded honorary Doctor of Letters degrees by the University of Oxford and the University of Durham in 1962.",
"In 1965, he and Ingmar Bergman were joint winners of the Erasmus Prize and, in 1971, he was appointed a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour by the French government.",
"From the film industry, Chaplin received a special Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival in 1972, and a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Lincoln Center Film Society the same year.",
"The latter has since been presented annually to filmmakers as The Chaplin Award.",
"Chaplin was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1972, having been previously excluded because of his political beliefs.",
"Chaplin received three Academy Awards: an Honorary Award for \"versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing, and producing ''The Circus''\" in 1929, a second Honorary Award for \"the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century\" in 1972, and a Best Score award in 1973 for ''Limelight'' (shared with Ray Rasch and Larry Russell).",
"He was further nominated in the Best Actor, Best Original Screenplay, and Best Picture (as producer) categories for ''The Great Dictator'', and received another Best Original Screenplay nomination for ''Monsieur Verdoux''.",
"In 1976, Chaplin was made a Fellow of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA).",
"Six of Chaplin's films have been selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress: ''The Immigrant'' (1917), ''The Kid'' (1921), ''The Gold Rush'' (1925), ''City Lights'' (1931), ''Modern Times'' (1936), and ''The Great Dictator'' (1940).",
"\n\n'''Directed features:'''\n* ''The Kid'' (1921)\n* ''A Woman of Paris'' (1923)\n* ''The Gold Rush'' (1925)\n* ''The Circus'' (1928)\n* ''City Lights'' (1931)\n* ''Modern Times'' (1936)\n* ''The Great Dictator'' (1940)\n* ''Monsieur Verdoux'' (1947)\n* ''Limelight'' (1952)\n* ''A King in New York'' (1957)\n* ''A Countess from Hong Kong'' (1967)",
"===Footnotes===\n\n\n===Sources===\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*",
"\n\n* by Association Chaplin\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* The Charlie Chaplin Archive Online catalogue of Chaplin's professional and personal archives at the Cineteca di Bologna, Italy\n* Charlie Chaplin Comedy Film Festival in Waterville, Ireland\n* Chaplin's World Museum at the Manoir de Ban, Switzerland\n* Chaplin's file at the Federal Bureau of Investigation website\n* Charlie Chaplin at the British Film Institute"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''''The World Factbook''''' (; also known as the '''''CIA World Factbook''''') is a reference resource produced by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) with almanac-style information about the countries of the world. The official print version is available from the National Technical Information Service and the Government Printing Office. Other companies—such as Skyhorse Publishing—also print a paper edition. ''The Factbook'' is available in the form of a website that is partially updated every week. It is also available for download for use off-line. It provides a two- to three-page summary of the demographics, geography, communications, government, economy, and military of each of 267 international entities including U.S.-recognized countries, dependencies, and other areas in the world.\n\n''The World Factbook'' is prepared by the CIA for the use of U.S. government officials, and its style, format, coverage, and content are primarily designed to meet their requirements. However, it is frequently used as a resource for academic research papers and news articles. As a work of the U.S. government, it is in the public domain in the United States.\n",
"In researching the ''Factbook'', the CIA uses the sources listed below. Other public and private sources are also consulted.\n\n*Antarctic Information Program (National Science Foundation)\n*Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center (Department of Defense)\n*Bureau of the Census (Department of Commerce)\n*Bureau of Labor Statistics (Department of Labor)\n*Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs\n*Defense Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense)\n*Department of Energy\n*Department of State\n*Fish and Wildlife Service (Department of the Interior)\n*Maritime Administration (Department of Transportation)\n*National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense)\n*Naval Facilities Engineering Command (Department of Defense)\n*Office of Insular Affairs (Department of the Interior)\n*Office of Naval Intelligence (Department of Defense)\n*''Oil & Gas Journal''\n*United States Board on Geographic Names (Department of the Interior)\n*United States Transportation Command (Department of Defense)\n",
"The World Factbook website as it appeared in December 2014\n\nBecause the ''Factbook'' is in the public domain, people are free under United States law to redistribute it or parts of it in any way that they like, without permission of the CIA. However, the CIA requests that it be cited when the ''Factbook'' is used. Copying the official seal of the CIA without permission is prohibited by U.S. federal law—specifically, the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 ().\n",
"Before November 2001 ''The World Factbook'' website was updated yearly; from 2004 to 2010 it was updated every two weeks; since 2010 it has been updated weekly. Generally, information currently available as of January 1 of the current year is used in preparing the ''Factbook''.\n\n=== Government edition of the ''Factbook'' ===\nThe first, classified, edition of ''Factbook'' was published in August 1962, and the first unclassified version in June 1971. ''The World Factbook'' was first available to the public in print in 1975. In 2008 the CIA discontinued printing the ''Factbook'' themselves, instead turning printing responsibilities over to the Government Printing Office. This happened due to a CIA decision to \"focus Factbook resources\" on the online edition. The ''Factbook'' has been on the World Wide Web since October 1994. The web version gets an average of 6 million visits per month; it can also be downloaded. The official printed version is sold by the Government Printing Office and National Technical Information Service. In past years, the ''Factbook'' was available on CD-ROM, microfiche, magnetic tape, and floppy disk.\n\n=== Reprints and older editions online ===\nMany Internet sites use information and images from the CIA ''World Factbook''. Several publishers, including Grand River Books, Potomac Books (formerly known as Brassey's Inc.), and Skyhorse Publishing have re-published the ''Factbook'' in recent years.\n",
"\n\nAs of July 2011, ''The World Factbook'' consists of '''267''' entities. These entities can be divided into categories. They are:\n\n; Independent countries: This category has independent countries, which the CIA defines as people \"politically organized into a sovereign state with a definite territory\". In this category, there are '''195''' entities.\n; Others: The ''Other'' category is a list of other places set apart from the list of independent countries. Currently there are '''two''': Taiwan and the European Union.\n; Dependencies and Areas of Special Sovereignty: This category is a list of places affiliated with another country. They may be subdivided into categories using the country they are affiliated with:\n:*Australia: six entities\n:*China: two entities\n:*Denmark: two entities\n:*France: eight entities\n:*Netherlands: three entities\n:*New Zealand: three entities\n:*Norway: three entities\n:*United Kingdom: seventeen entities\n:*United States: fourteen entities\n; Miscellaneous: This category is for Antarctica and places in dispute. There are '''six''' entities.\n; Other entities: This category is for the World and the oceans. There are '''five''' oceans and the World (the World entry is intended as a summary of the other entries).\n",
"=== Political ===\n; Areas not covered\n: Specific regions within a country or areas in dispute among countries, such as Kashmir, are not covered, but other areas of the world whose status is disputed, such as the Spratly Islands, have entries. Subnational areas of countries (such as U.S. states or the Canadian provinces and territories) are not included in the ''Factbook''. Instead, users looking for information about subnational areas are referred to \"a comprehensive encyclopedia\" for their reference needs. This criterion was invoked in the 2007 and 2011 editions with the decision to drop the entries for French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, and Reunion. They were dropped because besides being overseas departments, they were now overseas regions, and an integral part of France.\n\n; Kashmir\n: Maps depicting Kashmir have the Indo-Pakistani border drawn at the Line of Control, but the region of Kashmir administered by China drawn in hash marks.\n\n; Northern Cyprus\n: Northern Cyprus, which the U.S. considers part of the Republic of Cyprus, is not given a separate entry because \"territorial occupations/annexations not recognized by the United States Government are not shown on U.S. Government maps.\"\n\n; Taiwan/Republic of China\n: The name \"Republic of China\" is not listed as Taiwan's official name under the \"Government\" section, due to U.S. acknowledgement of Beijing's One-China policy according to which there is one China and Taiwan is a part of it. The name \"Republic of China\" was briefly added on January 27, 2005, but has since been changed back to \"none\". Of the ''Factbook''s two maps of China, one highlights the island of Taiwan highlighted as part of the country while the other does not. (See also: Political status of Taiwan, Legal status of Taiwan)\n\n; Disputed South China Sea Islands\n: The Paracel Islands and Spratly Islands, subjects of territorial disputes, have entries in the ''Factbook'' where they are not listed as the territory of any one nation. The disputed claims to the islands are discussed in the entries.\n\n; Burma/Myanmar\n: The U.S. does not recognize the renaming of Burma by its ruling military junta to ''Myanmar'' and thus keeps its entry for the country under the ''Burma'' name.\n\n; Republic of Macedonia\n: The Republic of Macedonia is entered as ''Macedonia'', the name used in its first entry in the ''Factbook'' upon independence in 1992. In the 1994 edition, the name of the entry was changed to the ''Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia'', as it is recognised by the United Nations (pending resolution of the Macedonia naming dispute). For the next decade, this was the name the nation was listed under. Finally, in the 2004 edition of the ''Factbook'', the name of the entry was changed back to ''Macedonia'', following a November 2004 U.S. decision to refer to the country using this name.\n\n; European Union\n: On December 16, 2004, the CIA added an entry for the European Union (EU) for the first time.) The \"What's New\" section of the 2005 ''Factbook'' states: \"The European Union continues to accrue more nation-like characteristics for itself and so a separate listing was deemed appropriate.\"\n\n; United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges and Iles Eparses\n: In the 2006 edition of ''The World Factbook'', the entries for Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Kingman Reef, Johnston Atoll, Palmyra Atoll and the Midway Islands were merged into a new United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges entry. The old entries for each individual insular area remain as redirects on the ''Factbook'' website. On September 7, 2006, the CIA also merged the entries for Bassas da India, Europa Island, the Glorioso Islands, Juan de Nova Island, and Tromelin Island into a new Iles Eparses entry. As with the new United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges entry, the old entries for these five islands remained as redirects on the website. On July 19, 2007, the Iles Eparses entry and redirects for each island were dropped due to the group becoming a district of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands in February.\n\n; Serbia and Montenegro/Yugoslavia\n: The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) broke apart in 1991. The following year, it was replaced in the ''Factbook'' with entries for each of its former constituent republics. In doing this, the CIA listed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY), proclaimed in 1992, as ''Serbia and Montenegro'', as the U.S. did not recognize the union between the two republics. This was done in accordance with a May 21, 1992, decision by the U.S. not to recognize any of the former Yugoslav republics as successor states to the recently dissolved SFRY.\nSerbia and Montenegro from the 2000 edition of ''The World Factbook''. Notice how the disclaimer is printed in the upper right hand corner. One can see how the capital cities of both republics are individually labeled on the map.\n:These views were made clear in a disclaimer printed in the ''Factbook'': \"Serbia and Montenegro have asserted the formation of a joint independent state, but this entity has not been recognized as a state by the United States.\" Montenegro and Serbia were treated separately in the ''Factbook'' data, as can be seen on the map. In October 2000, Slobodan Milošević was forced out of office after a disputed election. This event led to democratic elections and U.S. diplomatic recognition. The 2001 edition of the ''Factbook'' thus referred to the state as ''Yugoslavia''. On March 14, 2002, an agreement was signed to transform the FRY into a loose state union called Serbia and Montenegro; it took effect on February 4, 2003. The name of the Yugoslavia entity was altered in the ''Factbook'' the month after the change.\n\n; Kosovo\n:On February 28, 2008, the CIA added an entry for Kosovo, which declared independence on February 17 of the same year. Before this, Kosovo was excluded in the ''Factbook''. Kosovo is the subject of a territorial dispute; Serbia continues to claim Kosovo as part of its own sovereign territory. Kosovo's independence has been out of United Nations member states, including the United States.\n\n; East Timor/Timor-Leste\n:On July 19, 2007, the entry for East Timor was renamed ''Timor-Leste'' following a decision of the United States Board on Geographic Names (BGN).\n\n=== Factual ===\nThe Factbook is full of usually minor errors, inaccuracies, and out-of-date information, which are often repeated elsewhere due to the ''Factbook''s widespread use as a reference. For example, Albania was until recently, described in the ''Factbook'' as 70% Muslim, 20% Eastern Orthodox, and 10% Roman Catholic, which was based on a survey conducted in 1939, before World War II; numerous surveys conducted since the fall of the Communist regime since 1990 have given quite different figures. Another example is Singapore, which the ''Factbook'' states has a total fertility rate of 0.78 children per woman, despite figures in Statistics Singapore which state that the rate has been about 1.2–1.3 children per woman for at least the past several years, and it is unclear when, or even whether, it ever dropped as low as 0.78. This low and inaccurate value then gets cited in news articles which state that Singapore has the world's lowest fertility, or at least use the figure for its shock value. Another serious problem is that the Factbook never cites its sources, making verification of the information it presents difficult if not impossible.\n\nIn June 2009, National Public Radio (NPR), relying on information obtained from the ''CIA World Factbook'', put the number of Israeli Jews living in settlements in the West Bank and Israeli-annexed East Jerusalem at 250,000. However, a better estimate, based on State Department and Israeli sources put the figure at about 500,000. NPR then issued a correction. Chuck Holmes, foreign editor for NPR Digital, said, \"I'm surprised and displeased, and it makes me wonder what other information is out-of-date or incorrect in the CIA ''World Factbook''.\"\n\nScholars have acknowledged that some entries in the ''Factbook'' are out of date.\n",
"* ''World Leaders'', another regular publication of the CIA\n* National Security Agency academic publications\n\n;Alternative publications\n* ''Europa World Year Book''\n* ''The New York Times Almanac''\n* ''The World Almanac and Book of Facts''\n* ''TIME Almanac with Information Please''\n* ''Whitaker's Almanack''\n",
"\n\n",
"\n\n* Current ''CIA World Factbook'' (official website)\n* ''CIA World Factbook'' as XML\n* The ''World Factbook'' for Google Earth – The ''Factbook'' as Google Earth placemarks\n* On stephansmap.org – The ''CIA World Factbook'' accessible by location and date range; covers the years 2001–2007. All ''Factbook'' entries are tagged with \"cia\". Requires graphical browser with javascript.\n* The current ''CIA World Factbook'' in Excel spreadsheet format\n\n=== Mobile versions of the ''Factbook'' ===\n* ''CIA World Factbook'' for Android - Optimized ''CIA World Factbook'' version for Android, last updated March 2015\n* Mobile Edition of the ''CIA World Factbook'', last updated 10 June 2008\n* Mobile menu of 33 years of ''CIA World Factbooks'', last updated 14 February 2017\n* ''World Factbook'' for Android – Optimized ''CIA World Factbook'' version for Android Devices\n* Mobile ''World Factbook'' – Mobile version of ''World Factbook'' for Android and J2ME\n\n=== The ''Factbook'' by year ===\n* Countries of the World – 30 years of the ''CIA World Factbook'': (1982–2013)\n* Previous editions of ''The World Factbook'' from the University of Missouri–St. Louis archive:\n: 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008\n* 1991 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1990 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1989 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1987 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1986 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1985 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1984 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1982 ''CIA World Factbook''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Sources ",
" Copyright ",
" Frequency of updates and availability ",
" Entities listed ",
" Territorial issues and controversies ",
" See also ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | The World Factbook | [
"In June 2009, National Public Radio (NPR), relying on information obtained from the ''CIA World Factbook'', put the number of Israeli Jews living in settlements in the West Bank and Israeli-annexed East Jerusalem at 250,000."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n'''''The World Factbook''''' (; also known as the '''''CIA World Factbook''''') is a reference resource produced by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) with almanac-style information about the countries of the world.",
"The official print version is available from the National Technical Information Service and the Government Printing Office.",
"Other companies—such as Skyhorse Publishing—also print a paper edition.",
"''The Factbook'' is available in the form of a website that is partially updated every week.",
"It is also available for download for use off-line.",
"It provides a two- to three-page summary of the demographics, geography, communications, government, economy, and military of each of 267 international entities including U.S.-recognized countries, dependencies, and other areas in the world.",
"''The World Factbook'' is prepared by the CIA for the use of U.S. government officials, and its style, format, coverage, and content are primarily designed to meet their requirements.",
"However, it is frequently used as a resource for academic research papers and news articles.",
"As a work of the U.S. government, it is in the public domain in the United States.",
"In researching the ''Factbook'', the CIA uses the sources listed below.",
"Other public and private sources are also consulted.",
"*Antarctic Information Program (National Science Foundation)\n*Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center (Department of Defense)\n*Bureau of the Census (Department of Commerce)\n*Bureau of Labor Statistics (Department of Labor)\n*Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs\n*Defense Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense)\n*Department of Energy\n*Department of State\n*Fish and Wildlife Service (Department of the Interior)\n*Maritime Administration (Department of Transportation)\n*National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense)\n*Naval Facilities Engineering Command (Department of Defense)\n*Office of Insular Affairs (Department of the Interior)\n*Office of Naval Intelligence (Department of Defense)\n*''Oil & Gas Journal''\n*United States Board on Geographic Names (Department of the Interior)\n*United States Transportation Command (Department of Defense)",
"The World Factbook website as it appeared in December 2014\n\nBecause the ''Factbook'' is in the public domain, people are free under United States law to redistribute it or parts of it in any way that they like, without permission of the CIA.",
"However, the CIA requests that it be cited when the ''Factbook'' is used.",
"Copying the official seal of the CIA without permission is prohibited by U.S. federal law—specifically, the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 ().",
"Before November 2001 ''The World Factbook'' website was updated yearly; from 2004 to 2010 it was updated every two weeks; since 2010 it has been updated weekly.",
"Generally, information currently available as of January 1 of the current year is used in preparing the ''Factbook''.",
"=== Government edition of the ''Factbook'' ===\nThe first, classified, edition of ''Factbook'' was published in August 1962, and the first unclassified version in June 1971.",
"''The World Factbook'' was first available to the public in print in 1975.",
"In 2008 the CIA discontinued printing the ''Factbook'' themselves, instead turning printing responsibilities over to the Government Printing Office.",
"This happened due to a CIA decision to \"focus Factbook resources\" on the online edition.",
"The ''Factbook'' has been on the World Wide Web since October 1994.",
"The web version gets an average of 6 million visits per month; it can also be downloaded.",
"The official printed version is sold by the Government Printing Office and National Technical Information Service.",
"In past years, the ''Factbook'' was available on CD-ROM, microfiche, magnetic tape, and floppy disk.",
"=== Reprints and older editions online ===\nMany Internet sites use information and images from the CIA ''World Factbook''.",
"Several publishers, including Grand River Books, Potomac Books (formerly known as Brassey's Inc.), and Skyhorse Publishing have re-published the ''Factbook'' in recent years.",
"\n\nAs of July 2011, ''The World Factbook'' consists of '''267''' entities.",
"These entities can be divided into categories.",
"They are:\n\n; Independent countries: This category has independent countries, which the CIA defines as people \"politically organized into a sovereign state with a definite territory\".",
"In this category, there are '''195''' entities.",
"; Others: The ''Other'' category is a list of other places set apart from the list of independent countries.",
"Currently there are '''two''': Taiwan and the European Union.",
"; Dependencies and Areas of Special Sovereignty: This category is a list of places affiliated with another country.",
"They may be subdivided into categories using the country they are affiliated with:\n:*Australia: six entities\n:*China: two entities\n:*Denmark: two entities\n:*France: eight entities\n:*Netherlands: three entities\n:*New Zealand: three entities\n:*Norway: three entities\n:*United Kingdom: seventeen entities\n:*United States: fourteen entities\n; Miscellaneous: This category is for Antarctica and places in dispute.",
"There are '''six''' entities.",
"; Other entities: This category is for the World and the oceans.",
"There are '''five''' oceans and the World (the World entry is intended as a summary of the other entries).",
"=== Political ===\n; Areas not covered\n: Specific regions within a country or areas in dispute among countries, such as Kashmir, are not covered, but other areas of the world whose status is disputed, such as the Spratly Islands, have entries.",
"Subnational areas of countries (such as U.S. states or the Canadian provinces and territories) are not included in the ''Factbook''.",
"Instead, users looking for information about subnational areas are referred to \"a comprehensive encyclopedia\" for their reference needs.",
"This criterion was invoked in the 2007 and 2011 editions with the decision to drop the entries for French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, and Reunion.",
"They were dropped because besides being overseas departments, they were now overseas regions, and an integral part of France.",
"; Kashmir\n: Maps depicting Kashmir have the Indo-Pakistani border drawn at the Line of Control, but the region of Kashmir administered by China drawn in hash marks.",
"; Northern Cyprus\n: Northern Cyprus, which the U.S. considers part of the Republic of Cyprus, is not given a separate entry because \"territorial occupations/annexations not recognized by the United States Government are not shown on U.S. Government maps.\"",
"; Taiwan/Republic of China\n: The name \"Republic of China\" is not listed as Taiwan's official name under the \"Government\" section, due to U.S. acknowledgement of Beijing's One-China policy according to which there is one China and Taiwan is a part of it.",
"The name \"Republic of China\" was briefly added on January 27, 2005, but has since been changed back to \"none\".",
"Of the ''Factbook''s two maps of China, one highlights the island of Taiwan highlighted as part of the country while the other does not.",
"(See also: Political status of Taiwan, Legal status of Taiwan)\n\n; Disputed South China Sea Islands\n: The Paracel Islands and Spratly Islands, subjects of territorial disputes, have entries in the ''Factbook'' where they are not listed as the territory of any one nation.",
"The disputed claims to the islands are discussed in the entries.",
"; Burma/Myanmar\n: The U.S. does not recognize the renaming of Burma by its ruling military junta to ''Myanmar'' and thus keeps its entry for the country under the ''Burma'' name.",
"; Republic of Macedonia\n: The Republic of Macedonia is entered as ''Macedonia'', the name used in its first entry in the ''Factbook'' upon independence in 1992.",
"In the 1994 edition, the name of the entry was changed to the ''Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia'', as it is recognised by the United Nations (pending resolution of the Macedonia naming dispute).",
"For the next decade, this was the name the nation was listed under.",
"Finally, in the 2004 edition of the ''Factbook'', the name of the entry was changed back to ''Macedonia'', following a November 2004 U.S. decision to refer to the country using this name.",
"; European Union\n: On December 16, 2004, the CIA added an entry for the European Union (EU) for the first time.)",
"The \"What's New\" section of the 2005 ''Factbook'' states: \"The European Union continues to accrue more nation-like characteristics for itself and so a separate listing was deemed appropriate.\"",
"; United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges and Iles Eparses\n: In the 2006 edition of ''The World Factbook'', the entries for Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Kingman Reef, Johnston Atoll, Palmyra Atoll and the Midway Islands were merged into a new United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges entry.",
"The old entries for each individual insular area remain as redirects on the ''Factbook'' website.",
"On September 7, 2006, the CIA also merged the entries for Bassas da India, Europa Island, the Glorioso Islands, Juan de Nova Island, and Tromelin Island into a new Iles Eparses entry.",
"As with the new United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges entry, the old entries for these five islands remained as redirects on the website.",
"On July 19, 2007, the Iles Eparses entry and redirects for each island were dropped due to the group becoming a district of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands in February.",
"; Serbia and Montenegro/Yugoslavia\n: The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) broke apart in 1991.",
"The following year, it was replaced in the ''Factbook'' with entries for each of its former constituent republics.",
"In doing this, the CIA listed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY), proclaimed in 1992, as ''Serbia and Montenegro'', as the U.S. did not recognize the union between the two republics.",
"This was done in accordance with a May 21, 1992, decision by the U.S. not to recognize any of the former Yugoslav republics as successor states to the recently dissolved SFRY.",
"Serbia and Montenegro from the 2000 edition of ''The World Factbook''.",
"Notice how the disclaimer is printed in the upper right hand corner.",
"One can see how the capital cities of both republics are individually labeled on the map.",
":These views were made clear in a disclaimer printed in the ''Factbook'': \"Serbia and Montenegro have asserted the formation of a joint independent state, but this entity has not been recognized as a state by the United States.\"",
"Montenegro and Serbia were treated separately in the ''Factbook'' data, as can be seen on the map.",
"In October 2000, Slobodan Milošević was forced out of office after a disputed election.",
"This event led to democratic elections and U.S. diplomatic recognition.",
"The 2001 edition of the ''Factbook'' thus referred to the state as ''Yugoslavia''.",
"On March 14, 2002, an agreement was signed to transform the FRY into a loose state union called Serbia and Montenegro; it took effect on February 4, 2003.",
"The name of the Yugoslavia entity was altered in the ''Factbook'' the month after the change.",
"; Kosovo\n:On February 28, 2008, the CIA added an entry for Kosovo, which declared independence on February 17 of the same year.",
"Before this, Kosovo was excluded in the ''Factbook''.",
"Kosovo is the subject of a territorial dispute; Serbia continues to claim Kosovo as part of its own sovereign territory.",
"Kosovo's independence has been out of United Nations member states, including the United States.",
"; East Timor/Timor-Leste\n:On July 19, 2007, the entry for East Timor was renamed ''Timor-Leste'' following a decision of the United States Board on Geographic Names (BGN).",
"=== Factual ===\nThe Factbook is full of usually minor errors, inaccuracies, and out-of-date information, which are often repeated elsewhere due to the ''Factbook''s widespread use as a reference.",
"For example, Albania was until recently, described in the ''Factbook'' as 70% Muslim, 20% Eastern Orthodox, and 10% Roman Catholic, which was based on a survey conducted in 1939, before World War II; numerous surveys conducted since the fall of the Communist regime since 1990 have given quite different figures.",
"Another example is Singapore, which the ''Factbook'' states has a total fertility rate of 0.78 children per woman, despite figures in Statistics Singapore which state that the rate has been about 1.2–1.3 children per woman for at least the past several years, and it is unclear when, or even whether, it ever dropped as low as 0.78.",
"This low and inaccurate value then gets cited in news articles which state that Singapore has the world's lowest fertility, or at least use the figure for its shock value.",
"Another serious problem is that the Factbook never cites its sources, making verification of the information it presents difficult if not impossible.",
"However, a better estimate, based on State Department and Israeli sources put the figure at about 500,000.",
"NPR then issued a correction.",
"Chuck Holmes, foreign editor for NPR Digital, said, \"I'm surprised and displeased, and it makes me wonder what other information is out-of-date or incorrect in the CIA ''World Factbook''.\"",
"Scholars have acknowledged that some entries in the ''Factbook'' are out of date.",
"* ''World Leaders'', another regular publication of the CIA\n* National Security Agency academic publications\n\n;Alternative publications\n* ''Europa World Year Book''\n* ''The New York Times Almanac''\n* ''The World Almanac and Book of Facts''\n* ''TIME Almanac with Information Please''\n* ''Whitaker's Almanack''",
"\n\n* Current ''CIA World Factbook'' (official website)\n* ''CIA World Factbook'' as XML\n* The ''World Factbook'' for Google Earth – The ''Factbook'' as Google Earth placemarks\n* On stephansmap.org – The ''CIA World Factbook'' accessible by location and date range; covers the years 2001–2007.",
"All ''Factbook'' entries are tagged with \"cia\".",
"Requires graphical browser with javascript.",
"* The current ''CIA World Factbook'' in Excel spreadsheet format\n\n=== Mobile versions of the ''Factbook'' ===\n* ''CIA World Factbook'' for Android - Optimized ''CIA World Factbook'' version for Android, last updated March 2015\n* Mobile Edition of the ''CIA World Factbook'', last updated 10 June 2008\n* Mobile menu of 33 years of ''CIA World Factbooks'', last updated 14 February 2017\n* ''World Factbook'' for Android – Optimized ''CIA World Factbook'' version for Android Devices\n* Mobile ''World Factbook'' – Mobile version of ''World Factbook'' for Android and J2ME\n\n=== The ''Factbook'' by year ===\n* Countries of the World – 30 years of the ''CIA World Factbook'': (1982–2013)\n* Previous editions of ''The World Factbook'' from the University of Missouri–St.",
"Louis archive:\n: 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008\n* 1991 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1990 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1989 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1987 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1986 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1985 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1984 ''CIA World Factbook''\n* 1982 ''CIA World Factbook''"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Copenhagen''' ( ; ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark. The city has a population of 763,908 (), of whom 601,448 live in the Municipality of Copenhagen. The larger urban area has a population of 1,280,371 (), while the Copenhagen metropolitan area has just over 2 million inhabitants. Copenhagen is situated on the eastern coast of the island of Zealand; another small portion of the city is located on Amager, and is separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the strait of Øresund. The Øresund Bridge connects the two cities by rail and road.\n\nOriginally a Viking fishing village founded in the 10th century, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark in the early 15th century. Beginning in the 17th century it consolidated its position as a regional centre of power with its institutions, defences and armed forces. After suffering from the effects of plague and fire in the 18th century, the city underwent a period of redevelopment. This included construction of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden and founding of such cultural institutions as the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts. After further disasters in the early 19th century when Nelson attacked the Dano-Norwegian fleet and bombarded the city, rebuilding during the Danish Golden Age brought a Neoclassical look to Copenhagen's architecture. Later, following the Second World War, the Finger Plan fostered the development of housing and businesses along the five urban railway routes stretching out from the city centre.\n\nSince the turn of the 21st century, Copenhagen has seen strong urban and cultural development, facilitated by investment in its institutions and infrastructure. The city is the cultural, economic and governmental centre of Denmark; it is one of the major financial centres of Northern Europe with the Copenhagen Stock Exchange. Copenhagen's economy has seen rapid developments in the service sector, especially through initiatives in information technology, pharmaceuticals and clean technology. Since the completion of the Øresund Bridge, Copenhagen has become increasingly integrated with the Swedish province of Scania and its largest city, Malmö, forming the Øresund Region. With a number of bridges connecting the various districts, the cityscape is characterized by parks, promenades and waterfronts. Copenhagen's landmarks such as Tivoli Gardens, ''The Little Mermaid'' statue, the Amalienborg and Christiansborg palaces, Rosenborg Castle Gardens, Frederik's Church, and many museums, restaurants and nightclubs are significant tourist attractions.\n\nCopenhagen is home to the University of Copenhagen, the Technical University of Denmark and Copenhagen Business School. The University of Copenhagen, founded in 1479, is the oldest university in Denmark. Copenhagen is home to the FC København and Brøndby football clubs. The annual Copenhagen Marathon was established in 1980. Copenhagen is one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world. The Copenhagen Metro launched in 2002 serves central Copenhagen while the Copenhagen S-train network serves and connects central Copenhagen to its outlying boroughs. Serving roughly two million passengers a month, Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup, is the busiest airport in the Nordic countries.\n\n\n",
"The name of the city reflects its origin as a harbour and a place of commerce. The original designation, from which the contemporary Danish name derives, was ''Køpmannæhafn'', meaning \"merchants' harbour\", often simply ''Hafn'' or ''Havn'' (\"harbour\"). The literal English translation would be \"Chapman's haven\". The English name for the city was adapted from its Low German name, ''Kopenhagen''. The abbreviations ''Kbh.'' or ''Kbhvn'' are often used in Danish for ''København'', and ''kbh.'' for ''københavnsk'' (of Copenhagen).\n\nThe chemical element hafnium is named after Copenhagen (Latin name ''Hafnia''), where it was discovered. The bacterium ''Hafnia'' is also named after Copenhagen: Vagn Møller of the State Serum Institute in Copenhagen named it in 1954.\n",
"\nReconstruction of Copenhagen \n\n===Early history===\nAlthough the earliest historical records of Copenhagen are from the end of the 12th century, recent archaeological finds in connection with work on the city's metropolitan rail system revealed the remains of a large merchant's mansion near today's Kongens Nytorv from c. 1020. Excavations in Pilestræde have also led to the discovery of a well from the late 12th century. The remains of an ancient church, with graves dating to the 11th century, have been unearthed near where Strøget meets Rådhuspladsen.\n\nThese finds indicate that Copenhagen's origins as a city go back at least to the 11th century. Substantial discoveries of flint tools in the area provide evidence of human settlements dating to the Stone Age. Many historians believe the town dates to the late Viking Age, and was possibly founded by Sweyn I Forkbeard. \nThe natural harbour and good herring stocks seem to have attracted fishermen and merchants to the area on a seasonal basis from the 11th century and more permanently in the 13th century. The first habitations were probably centred on Gammel Strand (literally \"old shore\") in the 11th century or even earlier.\n\nThe earliest written mention of the town was in the 12th century when Saxo Grammaticus in Gesta Danorum referred to it as ''Portus Mercatorum'', meaning Merchants' Harbour or, in the Danish of the time, ''Købmannahavn''. Traditionally, Copenhagen's founding has been dated to Bishop Absalon's construction of a modest fortress on the little island of Slotsholmen in 1167 where Christiansborg Palace stands today. The construction of the fortress was in response to attacks by Wendish pirates who plagued the coastline during the 12th century. Defensive ramparts and moats were completed and by 1177 St. Clemens Church had been built. Attacks by the Germans continued, and after the original fortress was eventually destroyed by the marauders, islanders replaced it with Copenhagen Castle.\n\n===Middle Ages===\n\nIn 1186, a letter from Pope Urban III states that the castle of ''Hafn'' (Copenhagen) and its surrounding lands, including the town of Hafn, were given to Absalon, Bishop of Roskilde 1158–1191 and Archbishop of Lund 1177–1201, by King Valdemar I. On Absalon's death, the property was to come into the ownership of the Bishopric of Roskilde. Around 1200, the Church of Our Lady was constructed on higher ground to the northeast of the town, which began to develop around it.\n\nAs the town became more prominent, it was repeatedly attacked by the Hanseatic League. As the fishing industry thrived in Copenhagen, particularly in the trade of herring, the city began expanding to the north of Slotsholmen. In 1254, it received a charter as a city under Bishop Jakob Erlandsen who garnered support from the local fishing merchants against the king by granting them special privileges. In the mid 1330s, the first land assessment of the city was published.\n\nWith the establishment of the Kalmar Union (1397–1523) between Denmark, Norway and Sweden, by about 1416 Copenhagen had emerged as the capital of Denmark when Eric of Pomerania moved his seat to Copenhagen Castle. The University of Copenhagen was inaugurated on 1 June 1479 by King Christian I, following approval from Pope Sixtus IV. This makes it the oldest university in Denmark and one of the oldest in Europe. Originally controlled by the Catholic Church, the university's role in society was forced to change during the Reformation in Denmark in the late 1530s.\n\n===16th and 17th centuries===\n\n\nIn disputes prior to the Reformation of 1536, the city which had been faithful to Christian II, who was Catholic, was successfully besieged in 1523 by the forces of Frederik I, who supported Lutheranism. Copenhagen's defences were reinforced with a series of towers along the city wall. After an extended siege from July 1535 to July 1536, during which the city supported Christian II's alliance with Malmö and Lübeck, it was finally forced to capitulate to Christian III. During the second half of the century, the city prospered from increased trade across the Baltic supported by Dutch shipping. Christoffer Valkendorff, a high-ranking statesman, defended the city's interests and contributed to its development. The Netherlands had also become primarily Protestant, as were northern German states.\n\nDuring the reign of Christian IV between 1588 and 1648, Copenhagen had dramatic growth as a city. On his initiative at the beginning of the 17th century, two important buildings were completed on Slotsholmen: the Tøjhus Arsenal and Børsen, the stock exchange. To foster international trade, the East India Company was founded in 1616. To the east of the city, inspired by Dutch planning, the king developed the district of Christianshavn with canals and ramparts. It was initially intended to be a fortified trading centre but ultimately became part of Copenhagen. Christian IV also sponsored an array of ambitious building projects including Rosenborg Slot and the Rundetårn. In 1658–59, the city withstood a siege by the Swedes under Charles X and successfully repelled a major assault.\n\nBy 1661, Copenhagen had asserted its position as capital of Denmark and Norway. All the major institutions were located there, as was the fleet and most of the army. The defences were further enhanced with the completion of the Citadel in 1664 and the extension of Christianshavns Vold with its bastions in 1692, leading to the creation of a new base for the fleet at Nyholm.\n\n===18th century===\nA mansion at Amalienborg in Frederiksstaden (1750), part of the Amalienborg Palace\n\nCopenhagen lost around 22,000 of its population of 65,000 to the plague in 1711. The city was also struck by two major fires which destroyed much of its infrastructure. The Copenhagen Fire of 1728 was the largest in the history of Copenhagen. It began on the evening of 20 October, and continued to burn until the morning of 23 October, destroying approximately 28% of the city, leaving some 20% of the population homeless. No less than 47% of the medieval section of the city was completely lost. Along with the 1795 fire, it is the main reason that few traces of the old town can be found in the modern city.\n\nA substantial amount of rebuilding followed. In 1733, work began on the royal residence of Christiansborg Palace which was completed in 1745. In 1749, development of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden was initiated. Designed by Nicolai Eigtved in the Rococo style, its centre contained the mansions which now form Amalienborg Palace. Major extensions to the naval base of Holmen were undertaken while the city's cultural importance was enhanced with the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts.\n\nIn the second half of the 18th century, Copenhagen benefitted from Denmark's neutrality during the wars between Europe's main powers, allowing it to play an important role in trade between the states around the Baltic Sea. After Christiansborg was destroyed by fire in 1794 and another fire caused serious damage to the city in 1795, work began on the classical Copenhagen landmark of Højbro Plads while Nytorv and Gammel Torv were converged.\n\n===19th century===\nOn 2 April 1801, a British fleet under the command of Admiral Sir Hyde Parker defeated a Danish-Norwegian fleet anchored near Copenhagen. Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson led the main attack. He famously disobeyed Parker's order to withdraw, destroying many of the Dano-Norwegian ships before a truce was agreed. Copenhagen is often considered to be Nelson's hardest-fought battle, surpassing even the heavy fighting at Trafalgar. It was during this battle that Lord Nelson was said to have \"put the telescope to the blind eye\" in order not to see Admiral Parker's signal to cease fire.\nGottlieb Bindesbøll's Thorvaldsen Museum (1848)\nThe Second Battle of Copenhagen (or the Bombardment of Copenhagen) (16 August – 5 September 1807) was from a British point of view a preemptive attack on Copenhagen, targeting the civilian population in order to seize the Dano-Norwegian fleet. But from a Danish point of view the battle was a terror bombardment on their capital. Particularly notable was the use of incendiary Congreve rockets (containing phosphorus, which cannot be extinguished with water) that randomly hit the city. Few houses with straw roofs remained after the bombardment. The largest church, ''Vor frue kirke'', was destroyed by the sea artillery. Several historians consider this battle the first terror attack against a major European city in modern times.\n\nSlotsholmen canal, as seen from the Børsen building (). In the background from left to right: Church of the Holy Ghost, Trinitatis Complex, St. Nicholas Church and Holmen Church The British landed 30,000 men, they surrounded Copenhagen and the attack continued for the next three days, killing some 2,000 civilians and destroying most of the city. The devastation was so great because Copenhagen relied on an old defence-line whose limited range could not reach the British ships and their longer-range artillery.\n\nDespite the disasters of the early 19th century, Copenhagen experienced a period of intense cultural creativity known as the Danish Golden Age. Painting prospered under C.W. Eckersberg and his students while C.F. Hansen and Gottlieb Bindesbøll brought a Neoclassical look to the city's architecture. In the early 1850s, the ramparts of the city were opened to allow new housing to be built around The Lakes () that bordered the old defences to the west. By the 1880s, the districts of Nørrebro and Vesterbro developed to accommodate those who came from the provinces to participate in the city's industrialization. This dramatic increase of space was long overdue, as not only were the old ramparts out of date as a defence system but bad sanitation in the old city had to be overcome. From 1886, the west rampart (Vestvolden) was flattened, allowing major extensions to the harbour leading to the establishment of the Freeport of Copenhagen 1892–94. Electricity came in 1892 with electric trams in 1897. The spread of housing to areas outside the old ramparts brought about a huge increase in the population. In 1840, Copenhagen was inhabited by approximately 120,000 people. By 1901, it had some 400,000 inhabitants.\n\n===20th century===\nCentral Copenhagen in 1939\nBy the beginning of the 20th century, Copenhagen had become a thriving industrial and administrative city. With its new city hall and railway station, its centre was drawn towards the west. New housing developments grew up in Brønshøj and Valby while Frederiksberg became an enclave within the city of Copenhagen. The northern part of Amager and Valby were also incorporated into the City of Copenhagen in 1901–02.\n\nAs a result of Denmark's neutrality in the First World War, Copenhagen prospered from trade with both Britain and Germany while the city's defences were kept fully manned by some 40,000 soldiers for the duration of the war.\n\nIn the 1920s there were serious shortages of goods and housing. Plans were drawn up to demolish the old part of Christianshavn and to get rid of the worst of the city's slum areas. However, it was not until the 1930s that substantial housing developments ensued, with the demolishment of one side of Christianhavn's Torvegade in order to build five large blocks of flats.\n\n====World War II====\n\nThe RAF's bombing of Gestapo headquarters in March 1945 was coordinated with the Danish resistance movement\nPeople celebrating the liberation of Denmark at Strøget in Copenhagen, 5 May 1945. Germany surrendered two days later \n\nDuring World War II in Denmark, Copenhagen was occupied by German troops along with the rest of the country from 9 April 1940 until 4 May 1945. German leader Adolf Hitler hoped that Denmark would be \"a model protectorate\" and initially the Nazi authorities sought to arrive at an understanding with the Danish government. The 1943 Danish parliamentary election was also allowed to take place, with only the Communist Party excluded. But in August 1943, after the government's collaboration with the occupation forces collapsed, several ships were sunk in Copenhagen Harbor by the Royal Danish Navy to prevent their use by the Germans. Around that time the Nazis started to arrest Jews, although most managed to escape to Sweden.\n\nIn 1945 Ole Lippman, leader of the Danish section of the Special Operations Executive, invited the British Royal Air Force to assist their operations by attacking Nazi headquarters in Copenhagen. Accordingly, Air Vice-Marshal Sir Basil Embry drew up plans for a spectacular precision attack on the Sicherheitsdienst and Gestapo building, the former offices of the Shell Oil Company. Political prisoners were kept in the attic to prevent an air raid, so the RAF had to bomb the lower levels of the building.\n\nThe attack, known as \"Operation Carthage\", came on 22 March 1945, in three small waves. In the first wave, all six planes (carrying one bomb each) hit their target, but one of the aircraft crashed near Frederiksberg Girls School. Because of this crash four of the planes in the two following waves assumed the school was the military target, and aimed their bombs at the school leading to the death of 123 civilians (of which 87 were schoolchildren). However, 18 of the 26 political prisoners in the Shell Building managed to escape while the Gestapo archives were completely destroyed.\n\nOn 8 May 1945 Copenhagen was officially liberated by British troops commanded by Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery who supervised the surrender of 30,000 Germans situated around the capital.\n\n====Post-war decades====\nBlack Diamond (1999)\nShortly after the end of the war, an innovative urban development project known as the Finger Plan was introduced in 1947, encouraging the creation of new housing and businesses interspersed with large green areas along five \"fingers\" stretching out from the city centre along the S-train routes. With the expansion of the welfare state and women entering the work force, schools, nurseries, sports facilities and hospitals were established across the city. As a result of student unrest in the late 1960s, the former Bådsmandsstræde Barracks in Christianshavn was occupied, leading to the establishment of Freetown Christiania in September 1971.\n\nØresund Bridge (1999)\nMotor traffic in the city grew significantly and in 1972 the trams were replaced by buses. From the 1960s, on the initiative of the young architect Jan Gehl, pedestrian streets and cycle tracks were created in the city centre. Activity in the port of Copenhagen declined with the closure of the Holmen naval base. Copenhagen Airport underwent considerable expansion, becoming a hub for the Nordic countries. In the 1990s, large-scale housing developments were realized in the harbour area and in the west of Amager. The national library's Black Diamond building on the waterfront was completed in 1999.\n\n===2000 to present===\nCopenhagen Opera House (2004)\nSince the summer of 2000, Copenhagen and the Swedish city of Malmö have been connected by the Øresund Bridge, which carries rail and road traffic. As a result, Copenhagen has become the centre of a larger metropolitan area spanning both nations. The bridge has brought about considerable changes in the public transport system and has led to the extensive redevelopment of Amager. The city's service and trade sectors have developed while a number of banking and financial institutions have been established. Educational institutions have also gained importance, especially the University of Copenhagen with its 35,000 students. Another important development for the city has been the Copenhagen Metro, the underground railway system which opened in 2000 with additions until 2007, transporting some 54 million passengers by 2011.\n\nOn the cultural front, the lavish Copenhagen Opera House, a gift to the city from the shipping magnate Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller on behalf of the A.P. Møller foundation, was completed in 2004. In December 2009 Copenhagen gained international prominence when it hosted the worldwide climate meeting COP15.\n\n",
"Satellite view\nA view over Freetown Christiania\nCopenhagen is part of the Øresund Region, which consists of Zealand, Lolland-Falster and Bornholm in Denmark and Scania in Sweden. It is located on the eastern shore of the island of Zealand, partly on the island of Amager and on a number of natural and artificial islets between the two. Copenhagen faces the Øresund to the east, the strait of water that separates Denmark from Sweden, and which connects the North Sea with the Baltic Sea. The Swedish towns of Malmö and Landskrona lie on the Swedish side of the sound directly across from Copenhagen. By road, Copenhagen is northwest of Malmö, Sweden, northeast of Næstved, northeast of Odense, east of Esbjerg and southeast of Aarhus by sea and road via Sjællands Odde.\n\nThe city centre lies in the area originally defined by the old ramparts, which are still referred to as the Fortification Ring (''Fæstningsringen'') and kept as a partial green band around it. Then come the late 19th and early 20th century residential neighbourhoods of Østerbro, Nørrebro, Vesterbro and Amagerbro. The outlying areas of Kongens Enghave, Valby, Vigerslev, Vanløse, Brønshøj, Utterslev and Sundby followed from 1920 to 1960. They consist mainly of residential housing and apartments often enhanced with parks and greenery.\n\n===Topography===\nThe central area of the city consists of relatively low-lying flat ground formed by moraines from the last ice age while the hilly areas to the north and west frequently rise to above sea level. The slopes of Valby and Brønshøj reach heights of over , divided by valleys running from the northeast to the southwest. Close to the centre are the Copenhagen lakes of Sortedams Sø, Peblinge Sø and Sankt Jørgens Sø.\n\nCopenhagen rests on a subsoil of flint-layered limestone deposited in the Danian period some 60 to 66 million years ago. Some greensand from the Selandian is also present. There are a few faults in the area, the most important of which is the Carlsberg fault which runs northwest to southeast through the centre of the city. During the last ice age, glaciers eroded the surface leaving a layer of moraines up to thick.\n\n===Beaches===\nAmager Strandpark\nAmager Strandpark, which opened in 2005, is a long artificial island, with a total of of beaches. It is located just 15 minutes by bicycle or a few minutes by metro from the city centre. In Klampenborg, about 10 kilometers from downtown Copenhagen, is Bellevue Beach. It is long and has both lifeguards and freshwater showers on the beach.\n\nThe beaches are supplemented by a system of Harbour Baths along the Copenhagen waterfront. The first and most popular of these is located at Islands Brygge and has won international acclaim for its design.\n\n===Climate===\nFrederiksberg Palace in the snow\nCopenhagen is in the oceanic climate zone (Köppen: ''Cfb ''). Its weather is subject to low-pressure systems from the Atlantic which result in unstable conditions throughout the year. Apart from slightly higher rainfall from July to September, precipitation is moderate. While snowfall occurs mainly from late December to early March, there can also be rain, with average temperatures around the freezing point.\n\nJune is the sunniest month of the year with an average of about eight hours of sunshine a day. July is the warmest month with an average daytime high of 21 °C. By contrast, the average hours of sunshine are less than two per day in November and only one and a half per day from December to February. In the spring, it gets warmer again with from four to six hours of sunshine per day from March to May. February is the driest month of the year. Exceptional weather conditions can bring as much as 50 cm of snow to Copenhagen in a 24-hour period during the winter months while summer temperatures have been known to rise to heights of .\n\nBecause of Copenhagen's northern latitude, the number of daylight hours varies considerably between summer and winter. On the summer solstice, the sun rises at 04:26 and sets at 21:58, providing 17 hours 32 minutes of daylight. On the winter solstice, it rises at 08:37 and sets at 15:39 with 7 hours and 1 minute of daylight. There is therefore a difference of 10 hours and 31 minutes in the length of days and nights between the summer and winter solstices.\n\n\n",
"City Hall of Copenhagen Municipality\n\nAccording to Statistics Denmark, the urban area of Copenhagen () consists of the municipalities of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Albertslund, Brøndby, Gentofte, Gladsaxe, Glostrup, Herlev, Hvidovre, Lyngby-Taarbæk, Rødovre, Tårnby and Vallensbæk as well as parts of Ballerup, Rudersdal and Furesø municipalities, along with the cities of Ishøj and Greve Strand. They are located in the Capital Region (). Municipalities are responsible for a wide variety of public services, which include land-use planning, environmental planning, public housing, management and maintenance of local roads, and social security. Municipal administration is also conducted by a mayor, a council, and an executive.\n\nCopenhagen Municipality is by far the largest municipality, with the historic city at its core. The seat of Copenhagen's municipal council is the Copenhagen City Hall (''''), which is situated on City Hall Square. The second largest municipality is Frederiksberg, an enclave within Copenhagen Municipality.\n\nCopenhagen Municipality is divided into ten districts (''bydele''): Indre By, Østerbro, Nørrebro, Vesterbro/Kongens Enghave, Valby, Vanløse, Brønshøj-Husum, Bispebjerg, Amager Øst, and Amager Vest. Neighbourhoods of Copenhagen include Slotsholmen, Frederiksstaden, Islands Brygge, Holmen, Christiania, Carlsberg, Sluseholmen, Amagerbro, Ørestad, Nordhavnen, Bellahøj, Brønshøj, Ryparken, and Vigerslev.\n\n===Law and order===\n\nMost of Denmark's top legal courts and institutions are based in Copenhagen. A modern style court of justice, ''Hof- og Stadsretten'', was introduced in Denmark, specifically for Copenhagen, by Johann Friedrich Struensee in 1771. Now known as the City Court of Copenhagen (''Københavns Byret''), it is the largest of the 24 city courts in Denmark with jurisdiction over the municipalities of Copenhagen, Dragør and Tårnby. With its 42 judges, it has a Probate Division, an Enforcement Division and a Registration and Notorial Acts Division while bankruptcy is handled by the Maritime and Commercial Court of Copenhagen. Established in 1862, the Maritime and Commercial Court (''Sø- og Handelsretten'') also hears commercial cases including those relating to trade marks, marketing practices and competition for the whole of Denmark. Denmark's Supreme Court (''Højesteret''), located in Christiansborg Palace on Prins Jørgens Gård in the centre of Copenhagen, is the country's final court of appeal. Handling civil and criminal cases from the subordinate courts, it has two chambers which each hear all types of cases.\n\nThe Danish National Police and Copenhagen Police headquarters is situated in the Neoclassical-inspired Politigården building built in 1918–24 under architects Hack Kampmann and Holger Alfred Jacobsen. The building also contains administration, management, emergency department and radio service offices. In their efforts to deal with drugs, the police have noted considerable success in the two special drug consumption rooms opened by the city where addicts can use sterile needles and receive help from nurses if necessary. Use of these rooms does not lead to prosecution; the city treats drug use as a public health issue, not a criminal one.\n\nThe Copenhagen Fire Department forms the largest municipal fire brigade in Denmark with some 500 fire and ambulance personnel, 150 administration and service workers, and 35 workers in prevention. The brigade began as the Copenhagen Royal Fire Brigade on 9 July 1687 under King Christian V. After the passing of the Copenhagen Fire Act on 18 May 1868, on 1 August 1870 the Copenhagen Fire Brigade became a municipal institution in its own right. The fire department has its headquarters in the Copenhagen Central Fire Station which was designed by Ludvig Fenger in the Historicist style and inaugurated in 1892.\n\n=== Environmental planning ===\n\n\nCopenhagen is recognized as one of the most environmentally friendly cities in the world. As a result of its commitment to high environmental standards, Copenhagen has been praised for its green economy, ranked as the top green city for the second time in the 2014 ''Global Green Economy Index (GGEI)''. In 2001 a large offshore wind farm was built just off the coast of Copenhagen at Middelgrunden. It produces about 4% of the city's energy. Years of substantial investment in sewage treatment have improved water quality in the harbour to an extent that the inner harbour can be used for swimming with facilities at a number of locations.\nMiddelgrunden offshore wind farm\n\nCopenhagen aims to be carbon-neutral by 2025. Commercial and residential buildings are to reduce electricity consumption by 20 percent and 10 percent respectively, and total heat consumption is to fall by 20 percent by 2025. Renewable energy features such as solar panels are becoming increasingly common in the newest buildings in Copenhagen. District heating will be carbon-neutral by 2025, by waste incineration and biomass. New buildings must now be constructed according to Low Energy Class ratings and in 2020 near net-zero energy buildings. By 2025, 75% of trips should be made on foot, by bike, or by using public transit. The city plans that 20–30% of cars will run on electricity or biofuel by 2025. The investment is estimated at $472 million public funds and $4.78 billion private funds.\n\nThe city's architectural planning authorities continue to take full account of these priorities. Special attention is given both to climate issues and efforts to ensure maximum application of low-energy standards. Priorities include sustainable drainage systems, recycling rainwater, green roofs and efficient waste management solutions. In city planning, streets and squares are to be designed to encourage cycling and walking rather than driving.\n",
"\n\n\n First-generation immigrants by country of origin (Q12016)\n\n '''Nationality''' \n '''Population''' \n\n Pakistan \n5,409\n\n Morocco \n5,197\n\n Poland \n4,767\n\n Germany \n4,560\t\n\n Iraq \n4,407\n\n Turkey \n4,168\t\n\n Sweden \n4,471\n\n Norway \n3,836\n\n United Kingdom \n3,292\n\n United States \n3,244\n\n Italy \n3,098\t\t\n\n China \n3,002\t\t\n\n\n\nCopenhagen is the most populous city in Denmark and one of the most populous in the Nordic countries. For statistical purposes, Statistics Denmark considers the City of Copenhagen (''Byen København'') to consist of the Municipality of Copenhagen plus three adjacent municipalities, viz. Dragør, Frederiksberg, and Tårnby. Their combined population stands at 763,908 ().\n\nThe Municipality of Copenhagen is by far the most populous in the country and one of the one of the most populous Nordic municipalities with 601,448 inhabitants (). There was a demographic boom in the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, largely due to immigration to Denmark. According to figures from the first quarter of 2016, approximately 76% of the municipality's population was of Danish descent, defined as having at least one parent who was born in Denmark and has Danish citizenship. Much of the remaining 24% were of a foreign background, defined as immigrants (18%) or descendants of recent immigrants (6%). There are no official statistics on ethnic groups. The table to the right shows the most common countries of birth of Copenhagen residents.\n\nAccording to Statistics Denmark, Copenhagen's urban area has a larger population of 1,280,371 (). The urban area consists of the municipalities of Copenhagen and Frederiksberg plus 16 of the 20 municipalities of the former counties Copenhagen and Roskilde, though five of them only partially. Metropolitan Copenhagen has a total of 2,016,285 inhabitants (). The area of Metropolitan Copenhagen is defined by the Finger Plan. Since the opening of the Øresund Bridge in 2000, commuting between Zealand and Scania in Sweden has increased rapidly, leading to a wider, integrated area. Known as the Øresund Region, it has 3.8 million inhabitants (of whom 2.5 million live in the Danish part of the region).\n\n===Religion===\n\nChurch of Our Lady, situated on Frue Plads\nWith 58.1% a majority of those living in Copenhagen are members of the Lutheran Church of Denmark which is 1.2% lower than one year earlier according to 2017 figures. The National Cathedral, the Church of Our Lady, is one of the dozens of churches in Copenhagen. There are also several other Christian communities in the city, of which the largest is Roman Catholic.\n\nForeign migration to Copenhagen, rising over the last three decades, has contributed to increasing religious diversity; the Grand Mosque of Copenhagen, the first in Denmark, opened in 2014. Islam is the second largest religion in Copenhagen, accounting for approximately 10% of the population. While there are no official statistics, a significant portion of the estimated 175,000–200,000 Muslims in the country live in the Copenhagen urban area, with the highest concentration in Nørrebro and the Vestegnen. There are also some 7,000 Jews in Denmark, most of them in the Copenhagen area where there are several synagogues.\n\n\n===Quality of living===\nFor a number of years, Copenhagen has ranked high in international surveys for its quality of life. Its stable economy together with its education services and level of social safety make it attractive for locals and visitors alike. Although it is one of the world's most expensive cities, it is also one of the most liveable with its public transport, facilities for cyclists and its environmental policies. In elevating Copenhagen to \"most liveable city\" in 2013, ''Monocle'' pointed to its open spaces, increasing activity on the streets, city planning in favour of cyclists and pedestrians, and features to encourage inhabitants to enjoy city life with an emphasis on community, culture and cuisine. Other sources have ranked Copenhagen high for its business environment, accessibility, restaurants and environmental planning. However, Copenhagen ranks only 39th for student friendliness in 2012. Despite a top score for quality of living, its scores were low for employer activity and affordability.\n",
"Copenhagen is the major economic and financial centre of Denmark. The city's economy is based largely on services and commerce. Statistics for 2010 show that the vast majority of the 350,000 workers in Copenhagen are employed in the service sector, especially transport and communications, trade, and finance, while less than 10,000 work in the manufacturing industries. The public sector workforce is around 110,000, including education and healthcare. From 2006 to 2011, the economy grew by 2.5% in Copenhagen, while it fell by some 4% in the rest of Denmark. In 2010, the wider Capital Region of Denmark had a gross domestic product (GDP) of €88,366 million, and the 15th largest GDP per capita of regions in the European Union.\n\nThe Crystal, headquarters of Nykredit bank\nSeveral financial institutions and banks have headquarters in Copenhagen, including Alm. Brand, Danske Bank, Nykredit and Nordea Bank Danmark. The Copenhagen Stock Exchange (CSE) was founded in 1620 and is now owned by Nasdaq, Inc.. Copenhagen is also home to a number of international companies including A.P. Møller-Mærsk, Novo Nordisk, Carlsberg and Novozymes. City authorities have encouraged the development of business clusters in several innovative sectors, which include information technology, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, clean technology and smart city solutions.\n\nScandinavian headquarters for the Swiss pharmaceutical company Ferring Pharmaceuticals\nLife science is a key sector with extensive research and development activities. Medicon Valley is a leading bi-national life sciences cluster in Europe, spanning the Øresund Region. Copenhagen is rich in companies and institutions with a focus on research and development within the field of biotechnology, and the Medicon Valley initiative aims to strengthen this position and to promote cooperation between companies and academia. Many major Danish companies like Novo Nordisk and Lundbeck, both of which are among the 50 largest pharmaceutical and biotech companies in the world, are located in this business cluster.\n\nShipping is another import sector with Maersk, the world's largest shipping company, having their world headquarters in Copenhagen. The city has an industrial harbour, Copenhagen Port. Following decades of stagnation, it has experienced a resurgence since 1990 following a merger with Malmö harbour. Both ports are operated by Copenhagen Malmö Port (CMP). The central location in the Øresund Region allows the ports to act as a hub for freight that is transported onward to the Baltic countries. CMP annually receives about 8,000 ships and handled some 148,000 TEU in 2012.\n\nCopenhagen has some of the highest gross wages in the world. High taxes mean that wages are reduced after mandatory deduction. A ''beneficial researcher scheme'' with low taxation of foreign specialists has made Denmark an attractive location for foreign labour. It is however also among the most expensive cities in Europe.\n\nDenmark's Flexicurity model features some of the most flexible hiring and firing legislation in Europe, providing attractive conditions for foreign investment and international companies looking to locate in Copenhagen. In Dansk Industri's 2013 survey of employment factors in the ninety-six municipalities of Denmark, Copenhagen came in first place for educational qualifications and for the development of private companies in recent years, but fell to 86th place in local companies' assessment of the employment climate. The survey revealed considerable dissatisfaction in the level of dialogue companies enjoyed with the municipal authorities.\n\n===Tourism===\n\nTourism is a major contributor to Copenhagen's economy, attracting visitors due to the city's harbour, cultural attractions and award-winning restaurants. Since 2009, Copenhagen has been one of the fastest growing metropolitan destinations in Europe. Hotel capacity in the city is growing significantly. From 2009 to 2013, it experienced a 42% growth in international bed nights (total number of nights spent by tourists), tallying a rise of nearly 70% for Chinese visitors. The total number of bed nights in the Capital Region surpassed 9 million in 2013, while international bed nights reached 5 million.\n\nIn 2010, it is estimated that city break tourism contributed to DKK 2 billion in turnover. However, 2010 was an exceptional year for city break tourism and turnover increased with 29% in that one year. 680,000 cruise passengers visited the port in 2015.\n",
"\nThe city's appearance today is shaped by the key role it has played as a regional centre for centuries. Copenhagen has a multitude of districts, each with its distinctive character and representing its own period. Other distinctive features of Copenhagen include the abundance of water, its many parks, and the bicycle paths that line most streets.\n\n===Architecture===\n\n\n\nThe oldest section of Copenhagen's inner city is often referred to as ''Middelalderbyen'' (the medieval city). However, the city's most distinctive district is Frederiksstaden, developed during the reign of Frederick V. It has the Amalienborg Palace at its centre and is dominated by the dome of Frederik's Church (or the Marble Church) and several elegant 18th-century Rococo mansions. The inner city includes Slotsholmen, a little island on which Christiansborg Palace stands and Christianshavn with its canals. Børsen on Slotsholmen and Frederiksborg Palace in Hillerød are prominent examples of the Dutch Renaissance style in Copenhagen. Around the historical city centre lies a band of congenial residential boroughs (Vesterbro, Inner Nørrebro, Inner Østerbro) dating mainly from late 19th century. They were built outside the old ramparts when the city was finally allowed to expand beyond its fortifications.\n\nSometimes referred to as \"the City of Spires\", Copenhagen is known for its horizontal skyline, broken only by the spires and towers of its churches and castles. Most characteristic of all is the Baroque spire of the Church of Our Saviour with its narrowing external spiral stairway that visitors can climb to the top. Other important spires are those of Christiansborg Palace, the City Hall and the former Church of St. Nikolaj that now houses a modern art venue. Not quite so high are the Renaissance spires of Rosenborg Castle and the \"dragon spire\" of Christian IV's former stock exchange, so named because it resembles the intertwined tails of four dragons.\n\nCopenhagen is recognised globally as an exemplar of best practice urban planning. Its thriving mixed use city centre is defined by striking contemporary architecture, engaging public spaces and an abundance of human activity. These design outcomes have been deliberately achieved through careful replanning in the second half of the 20th century.\n\nRecent years have seen a boom in modern architecture in Copenhagen both for Danish architecture and for works by international architects. For a few hundred years, virtually no foreign architects had worked in Copenhagen, but since the turn of the millennium the city and its immediate surroundings have seen buildings and projects designed by top international architects. British design magazine ''Monocle'' named Copenhagen the ''World's best design city 2008''.\n\nCopenhagen's urban development in the first half of the 20th century was heavily influenced by industrialisation. After World War II, Copenhagen Municipality adopted Fordism and repurposed its medieval centre to facilitate private automobile infrastructure in response to innovations in transport, trade and communication. Copenhagen’s spacial planning in this time frame was characterised by the separation of land uses: an approach which requires residents to travel by car to access facilities of different uses.\n\nThe boom in urban development and modern architecture has brought some changes to the city's skyline. A political majority has decided to keep the historical centre free of high-rise buildings, but several areas will see or have already seen massive urban development. Ørestad now has seen most of the recent development. Located near Copenhagen Airport, it currently boasts one of the largest malls in Scandinavia and a variety of office and residential buildings as well as the IT University and a high school.\n\n===Parks, gardens and zoo===\n\nRosenborg Castle and park in central Copenhagen\nCopenhagen is a green city with many parks, both large and small. King's Garden (''''), the garden of Rosenborg Castle, is the oldest and most frequented of them all. It was Christian IV who first developed its landscaping in 1606. Every year it sees more than 2.5 million visitors and in the summer months it is packed with sunbathers, picnickers and ballplayers. It serves as a sculpture garden with both a permanent display and temporary exhibits during the summer months. Also located in the city centre are the Botanical Gardens noted for their large complex of 19th-century greenhouses donated by Carlsberg founder J. C. Jacobsen. Fælledparken at is the largest park in Copenhagen.\n\nIt is popular for sports fixtures and hosts several annual events including a free opera concert at the opening of the opera season, other open-air concerts, carnival and Labour Day celebrations, and the Copenhagen Historic Grand Prix, a race for antique cars. A historical green space in the northeastern part of the city is Kastellet, a well-preserved Renaissance citadel that now serves mainly as a park. Another popular park is the Frederiksberg Gardens, a 32-hectare romantic landscape park. It houses a colony of tame grey herons and other waterfowl. The park offers views of the elephants and the elephant house designed by world-famous British architect Norman Foster of the adjacent Copenhagen Zoo. Langelinie, a park and promenade along the inner Øresund coast, is home to one of Copenhagen's most-visited tourist attractions, the Little Mermaid statue.\n\nIn Copenhagen, many cemeteries double as parks, though only for the more quiet activities such as sunbathing, reading and meditation. Assistens Cemetery, the burial place of Hans Christian Andersen, is an important green space for the district of Inner Nørrebro and a Copenhagen institution. The lesser known Vestre Kirkegaard is the largest cemetery in Denmark () and offers a maze of dense groves, open lawns, winding paths, hedges, overgrown tombs, monuments, tree-lined avenues, lakes and other garden features.\n\nIt is official municipal policy in Copenhagen that by 2015 all citizens must be able to reach a park or beach on foot in less than 15 minutes. In line with this policy, several new parks, including the innovative Superkilen in the Nørrebro district, have been completed or are under development in areas lacking green spaces.\n\n===Landmarks by district===\n\n====Indre By====\nThe historic centre of the city, Indre By or the Inner City, features many of Copenhagen's most popular monuments and attractions. The area known as Frederiksstaden, developed by Frederik V in the second half of the 18th century in the Rococo style, has the four mansions of Amalienborg, the royal residence, and the wide-domed Marble Church at its centre. Directly across the water from Amalienborg, the recently completed Copenhagen Opera stands on the island of Holmen. To the south of Frederiksstaden, the Nyhavn canal is lined with colourful houses from the 17th and 18th centuries, many now with lively restaurants and bars. The canal runs from the harbour front to the spacious square of Kongens Nytorv which was laid out by Christian V in 1670. Important buildings include Charlottenborg Palace, famous for its art exhibitions, the Thott Palace (now the French embassy), the Royal Danish Theatre and the Hotel D'Angleterre, dated to 1755. Other landmarks in Indre By include the parliament building of Christiansborg, the City Hall and Rundetårn, originally an observatory. There are also several museums in the area including Thorvaldsen Museum dedicated to the 18th-century sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen. Closed to traffic since 1964, Strøget, the world's oldest and longest pedestrian street, runs the from Rådhuspladsen to Kongens Nytorv. With its speciality shops, cafés, restaurants, and buskers, it is always full of life and includes the old squares of Gammel Torv and Amagertorv, each with a fountain. Rosenborg Castle on Øster Voldgade was built by Christian IV in 1606 as a summer residence in the Renaissance style. It houses the Danish crown jewels and crown regalia, the coronation throne and tapestries illustrating Christian V's victories in the Scanian War.\n\n====Christianshavn====\nChristianshavn Canal\nChristianshavn lies to the southeast of Indre By on the other side of the harbour. The area was developed by Christian IV in the early 17th century. Impressed by the city of Amsterdam, he employed Dutch architects to create canals within its ramparts which are still well preserved today. The canals themselves, branching off the central Christianshavn Canal and lined with house boats and pleasure craft are one of the area's attractions. Another interesting feature is Freetown Christiania, a fairly large area which was initially occupied by squatters during student unrest in 1971. Today it still maintains a measure of autonomy. The inhabitants openly sell drugs on \"Pusher Street\" as well as their arts and crafts. Other buildings of interest in Christianshavn include the Church of Our Saviour with its spiralling steeple and the magnificent Rococo Christian's Church. Once a warehouse, the North Atlantic House now displays culture from Iceland and Greenland and houses the Noma restaurant, known for its Nordic cuisine.\n\n====Vesterbro====\nHalmtorvet in Vesterbro\nVesterbro, to the southwest of Indre By, begins with the Tivoli Gardens, the city's top tourist attraction with its fairground atmosphere, its Pantomime Theatre, its Concert Hall and its many rides and restaurants. The Carlsberg neighbourhood has some interesting vestiges of the old brewery of the same name including the Elephant Gate and the Ny Carlsberg Brewhouse. The Tycho Brahe Planetarium is located on the edge of Skt. Jørgens Sø, one of the Copenhagen lakes. Halmtorvet, the old haymarket behind the Central Station, is an increasingly popular area with its cafés and restaurants. The former cattle market Øksnehallen has been converted into a modern exhibition centre for art and photography. Radisson Blu Royal Hotel, built by Danish architect and designer Arne Jacobsen for the airline Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS) between 1956 and 1960 was once the tallest hotel in Denmark with a height of and the city's only skyscraper until 1969. Completed in 1908, Det Ny Teater (the New Theatre) located in a passage between Vesterbrogade and Gammel Kongevej has become a popular venue for musicals since its reopening in 1994, attracting the largest audiences in the country.\n\n====Nørrebro====\nDronning Louises Bro leading into Nørrebrogade\nNørrebro to the northwest of the city centre has recently developed from a working-class district into a colourful cosmopolitan area with antique shops, ethnic food stores and restaurants. Much of the activity is centred on Sankt Hans Torv. Copenhagen's historic cemetery, Assistens Kirkegård halfway up Nørrebrogade, is the resting place of many famous figures including Søren Kierkegaard, Niels Bohr, and Hans Christian Andersen but is also used by locals as a park and recreation area.\n\n====Østerbro====\nThe Gefion Fountain\nJust north of the city centre, Østerbro is an upper middle-class district with a number of fine mansions, some now serving as embassies. The district stretches from Nørrebro to the waterfront where ''The Little Mermaid'' statue can be seen from the promenade known as Langelinie. Inspired by Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale, it was created by Edvard Eriksen and unveiled in 1913. Not far from the Little Mermaid, the old Citadel (''Kastellet'') can be seen. Built by Christian IV, it is one of northern Europe's best preserved fortifications. There is also a windmill in the area. The large Gefion Fountain (''Gefionspringvandet'') designed by Anders Bundgaard and completed in 1908 stands close to the southeast corner of Kastellet. Its figures illustrate a Nordic legend.\n\n====Frederiksberg====\nFrederiksberg Palace\nFrederiksberg, a separate municipality within the urban area of Copenhagen, lies to the west of Nørrebro and Indre By and north of Vesterbro. Its landmarks include Copenhagen Zoo founded in 1869 with over 250 species from all over the world and Frederiksberg Palace built as a summer residence by Charles IV who was inspired by Italian architecture. Now a military academy, it overlooks the extensive landscaped Frederiksberg Gardens with its follies, waterfalls, lakes and decorative buildings. The wide tree-lined avenue of Frederiksberg Allé connecting Vesterbrogade with the Frederiksberg Gardens has long been associated with theatres and entertainment. While a number of the earlier theatres are now closed, the Betty Nansen Theatre and Aveny-T are still active.\n\n====Other districts====\nNot far from Copenhagen Airport on the Kastrup coast, The Blue Planet completed in March 2013 now houses the national aquarium. With its 53 aquariums, it is the largest facility of its kind in Scandinavia. Grundtvig's Church, located in the northern suburb of Bispebjerg, was designed by P.V. Jensen Klint and completed in 1940. A rare example of Expressionist church architecture, its striking west façade is reminiscent of a church organ.\n",
"The Little Mermaid'' statue, an icon of the city and a popular tourist attraction\nApart from being the national capital, Copenhagen also serves as the cultural hub of Denmark and wider Scandinavia. Since the late 1990s, it has undergone a transformation from a modest Scandinavian capital into a metropolitan city of international appeal in the same league as Barcelona and Amsterdam. This is a result of huge investments in infrastructure and culture as well as the work of successful new Danish architects, designers and chefs. Copenhagen Fashion Week, the largest fashion event in Northern Europe, takes place every year in February and August.\n\n===Museums===\n\n\nCopenhagen has a wide array of museums of international standing. The National Museum, ''Nationalmuseet'', is Denmark's largest museum of archaeology and cultural history, comprising the histories of Danish and foreign cultures alike. Denmark's National Gallery (''Statens Museum for Kunst'') is the national art museum with collections dating from the 12th century to the present. In addition to Danish painters, artists represented in the collections include Rubens, Rembrandt, Picasso, Braque, Léger, Matisse, Emil Nolde, Olafur Eliasson, Elmgreen and Dragset, Superflex and Jens Haaning.\n\nNy Carlsberg Glyptotek art museum\nAnother important Copenhagen art museum is the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek founded by second generation Carlsberg philanthropist Carl Jacobsen and built around his personal collections. Its main focus is classical Egyptian, Roman and Greek sculptures and antiquities and a collection of Rodin sculptures, the largest outside France. Besides its sculpture collections, the museum also holds a comprehensive collection of paintings of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist painters such as Monet, Renoir, Cézanne, van Gogh and Toulouse-Lautrec as well as works by the Danish Golden Age painters.\n\nLouisiana is a museum of modern art situated on the coast just north of Copenhagen. It is located in the middle of a sculpture garden on a cliff overlooking Øresund. Its collection of over 3,000 items includes works by Picasso, Giacometti and Dubuffet. The Danish Design Museum is housed in the 18th-century former Frederiks Hospital and displays Danish design as well as international design and crafts.\n\nOther museums include: the Thorvaldsens Museum, dedicated to the oeuvre of romantic Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen who lived and worked in Rome; the Cisternerne museum dedicated to modern glass art, located in former cisterns that come complete with stalactites formed by the changing water levels; and the Ordrupgaard Museum, located just north of Copenhagen, which features 19th-century French and Danish art and is noted for its works by Paul Gauguin.\n\n===Entertainment and performing arts===\nThe Royal Danish Playhouse (left) and Opera House (background, right)\nThe new Copenhagen Concert Hall opened in January 2009. Designed by Jean Nouvel, it has four halls with the main auditorium seating 1,800 people. It serves as the home of the Danish National Symphony Orchestra and along with the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles is the most expensive concert hall ever built. Another important venue for classical music is the Tivoli Concert Hall located in the Tivoli Gardens. Designed by Henning Larsen, the Copenhagen Opera House (''Operaen'') opened in 2005. It is among the most modern opera houses in the world. The Royal Danish Theatre also stages opera in addition to its drama productions. It is also home to the Royal Danish Ballet. Founded in 1748 along with the theatre, it is one of the oldest ballet troupes in Europe, and is noted for its Bournonville style of ballet. \nThe Royal Danish Theatre main building\nCopenhagen has a significant jazz scene that has existed for many years. It developed when a number of American jazz musicians such as Ben Webster, Thad Jones, Richard Boone, Ernie Wilkins, Kenny Drew, Ed Thigpen, Bob Rockwell, Dexter Gordon, and others such as rock guitarist Link Wray came to live in Copenhagen during the 1960s. Every year in early July, Copenhagen's streets, squares, parks as well as cafés and concert halls fill up with big and small jazz concerts during the Copenhagen Jazz Festival. One of Europe's top jazz festivals, the annual event features around 900 concerts at 100 venues with over 200,000 guests from Denmark and around the world.\n\nThe largest venue for popular music in Copenhagen is Vega in the Vesterbro district. It was chosen as \"best concert venue in Europe\" by international music magazine ''Live''. The venue has three concert halls: the great hall, Store Vega, accommodates audiences of 1,550, the middle hall, Lille Vega, has space for 500 and Ideal Bar Live has a capacity of 250. Every September since 2006, the Festival of Endless Gratitude (FOEG) has taken place in Copenhagen. This festival focuses on indie counterculture, experimental pop music and left field music combined with visual arts exhibitions.\n\nCopenhagen is home to the \"K-Town\" punk and hardcore music community. This community developed around the underground scene venue Ungdomshuset in the late 90's punk scene, with punk- and hardcore acts such as Snipers, Amdi Petersens Armé, Gorilla Angreb, Young Wasteners, and No Hope For The Kids emerging as significant bands. The term \"K-town\" got international recognition within the punk-scene with the emergence of \"K-Town\" festivals. In 2001, the first of these was held in Ungdomshuset, on Jagtvej 69, Nørrebro, Copenhagen. The festival temporarily moved to Freetown Christiania after Ungdomshuset was evicted from its original location until a new Ungdomshuset location was opened on Dortheavej 61.\n\nFor free entertainment one can stroll along Strøget, especially between Nytorv and Højbro Plads, which in the late afternoon and evening is a bit like an impromptu three-ring circus with musicians, magicians, jugglers and other street performers.\n\n===Literature===\nCopenhagen's main public library\nMost of Denmarks's major publishing houses are based in Copenhagen. These include the book publishers Gyldendal and Akademisk Forlag and newspaper publishers Berlingske and Politiken (the latter also publishing books). Many of the most important contributors to Danish literature such as Hans Christian Andersen (1805–1875) with his fairy tales, the philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) and playwright Ludvig Holberg (1684–1754) spent much of their lives in Copenhagen. Novels set in Copenhagen include ''Baby'' (1973) by Kirsten Thorup, ''The Copenhagen Connection'' (1982) by Barbara Mertz, ''Number the Stars'' (1989) by Lois Lowry, ''Miss Smilla's Feeling for Snow'' (1992) and ''Borderliners'' (1993) by Peter Høeg, ''Music and Silence'' (1999) by Rose Tremain, ''The Danish Girl'' (2000) by David Ebershoff, and ''Sharpe's Prey'' (2001) by Bernard Cornwell. Michael Frayn's 1998 play ''Copenhagen'' about the meeting between the physicists Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg in 1941 is also set in the city. On 15–18 August 1973, an oral literature conference took place in Copenhagen as part of the 9th International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences.\n\nThe Royal Library, belonging to the University of Copenhagen, is the largest library in the Nordic countries with an almost complete collection of all printed Danish books since 1482. Founded in 1648, the Royal Library is located at four sites in the city, the main one being on the Slotsholmen waterfront. Copenhagen's public library network has over 20 outlets, the largest being the Central Library (''Københavns Hovedbibliotek'') on Krystalgade in the inner city.\n\n===Art===\nInterior of the National Gallery (Statens Museum for Kunst), combining new and old architecture\nCopenhagen has a wide selection of art museums and galleries displaying both historic works and more modern contributions. They include Statens Museum for Kunst, i.e. the Danish national art gallery, in the Østre Anlæg park, and the adjacent Hirschsprung Collection specialising in the 19th and early 20th century. Kunsthal Charlottenborg in the city centre exhibits national and international contemporary art. Den Frie Udstilling near the Østerport Station exhibits paintings created and selected by contemporary artists themselves rather than by the official authorities. The Arken Museum of Modern Art is located in southwestern Ishøj. Among artists who have painted scenes of Copenhagen are Martinus Rørbye (1803–1848), Christen Købke (1810–1848) and the prolific Paul Gustav Fischer (1860–1934).\n\nA number of notable sculptures can be seen in the city. In addition to ''The Little Mermaid'' on the waterfront, there are two historic equestrian statues in the city centre: Jacques Saly's ''Frederik V on Horseback'' (1771) in Amalienborg Square and the statue of Christian V on Kongens Nytorv created by Abraham-César Lamoureux in 1688 who was inspired by the statue of Louis XIII in Paris. Rosenborg Castle Gardens contains several sculptures and monuments including August Saabye's Hans Christian Andersen, Aksel Hansen's Echo, and Vilhelm Bissen's Dowager Queen Caroline Amalie.\n\nCopenhagen is believed to have invented the photomarathon photography competition, which has been held in the City each year since 1989.\n\n===Cuisine===\n\nNoma is an example of Copenhagen's renowned experimental restaurants, and has gained two Michelin stars.\n, Copenhagen has 15 Michelin-starred restaurants, the most of any Scandinavian city. The city is increasingly recognized internationally as a gourmet destination. These include Den Røde Cottage, Formel B Restaurant, Grønbech & Churchill, Søllerød Kro, Kadeau, Kiin Kiin (Denmark's first Michelin-starred Asian gourmet restaurant), the French restaurant Kong Hans Kælder, Relæ, Restaurant AOC, Noma (short for Danish: ''no''rdisk ''ma''d, English: Nordic food) with two Stars and Geranium with three. Noma, was ranked as the Best Restaurant in the World by ''Restaurant'' in 2010, 2011, 2012, and again in 2014, sparking interest in the New Nordic Cuisine.\n\nApart from the selection of upmarket restaurants, Copenhagen offers a great variety of Danish, ethnic and experimental restaurants. It is possible to find modest eateries serving open sandwiches, known as smørrebrød – a traditional, Danish lunch dish; however, most restaurants serve international dishes. Danish pastry can be sampled from any of numerous bakeries found in all parts of the city. The Copenhagen Baker's Association dates back to the 1290s and Denmark's oldest confectioner's shop still operating, ''Conditori La Glace'', was founded in 1870 in Skoubogade by Nicolaus Henningsen, a trained master baker from Flensburg.\n\nCopenhagen has long been associated with beer. Carlsberg beer has been brewed at the brewery's premises on the border between the Vesterbro and Valby districts since 1847 and has long been almost synonymous with Danish beer production. However, recent years have seen an explosive growth in the number of microbreweries so that Denmark today has more than 100 breweries, many of which are located in Copenhagen. Some like ''Nørrebro Bryghus'' also act as brewpubs where it is also possible to eat on the premises.\n\n===Nightlife and festivals===\nCopenhagen Pride Parade, 2008\nCopenhagen has one of the highest number of restaurants and bars per capita in the world. The nightclubs and bars stay open until 5 or 6 in the morning, some even longer. Denmark has a very liberal alcohol culture and a strong tradition for beer breweries, although binge drinking is frowned upon and the Danish Police take driving under the influence very seriously. Inner city areas such as Istedgade and Enghave Plads in Vesterbro, Sankt Hans Torv in Nørrebro and certain places in Frederiksberg are especially noted for their nightlife. Notable nightclubs include Bakken Kbh, ARCH (previously ZEN), Jolene, The Jane, Chateau Motel, KB3, At Dolores (previously Sunday Club), Rust, Vega Nightclub, Culture Box and Gefährlich, which also serves as a bar, café, restaurant, and art gallery.\n\nCopenhagen has several recurring community festivals, mainly in the summer. Copenhagen Carnival has taken place every year since 1982 during the Whitsun Holiday in Fælledparken and around the city with the participation of 120 bands, 2,000 dancers and 100,000 spectators. Since 2010, the old B&W Shipyard at Refshaleøen in the harbour has been the location for Copenhell, a heavy metal rock music festival. Copenhagen Pride is a gay pride festival taking place every year in August. The Pride has a series of different activities all over Copenhagen, but it is at the City Hall Square that most of the celebration takes place. During the Pride the square is renamed Pride Square. Copenhagen Distortion has emerged to be one of the biggest street festivals in Europe with 100.000 people joining to parties in the beginning of June every year.\n\n===Amusement parks===\nPantomime Theatre, opened in 1874, is the oldest building in the Tivoli Gardens\nCopenhagen has the two oldest amusement parks in the world.\n\nDyrehavsbakken, a fair-ground and pleasure-park established in 1583, is located in Klampenborg just north of Copenhagen in a forested area known as Dyrehaven. Created as an amusement park complete with rides, games and restaurants by Christian IV, it is the oldest surviving amusement park in the world. Pierrot (), a nitwit dressed in white with a scarlet grin wearing a boat-like hat while entertaining children, remains one of the park's key attractions. In Danish, Dyrehavsbakken is often abbreviated as ''Bakken''. There is no entrance fee to pay and Klampenborg Station on the C-line, is situated nearby.\n\nThe Tivoli Gardens is an amusement park and pleasure garden located in central Copenhagen between the City Hall Square and the Central Station. It opened in 1843, making it the second oldest amusement park in the world. Among its rides are the oldest still operating rollercoaster ''Rutschebanen'' from 1915 and the oldest ferris wheel still in use, opened in 1943. Tivoli Gardens also serves as a venue for various performing arts and as an active part of the cultural scene in Copenhagen.\n",
"The main building of the University of Copenhagen\nCopenhagen has over 94,000 students enrolled in its largest universities and institutions: University of Copenhagen (38,867 students), Copenhagen Business School (19,999 students), Metropolitan University College and University College Capital (10,000 students each), Technical University of Denmark (7,000 students), KEA (c. 4,500 students), IT University of Copenhagen (2,000 students) and Aalborg University – Copenhagen (2,300 students).\n\nThe University of Copenhagen is Denmark's oldest university founded in 1479. It attracts some 1,500 international and exchange students every year. The Academic Ranking of World Universities placed it 30th in the world in 2016.\n\nThe Technical University of Denmark is located in Lyngby in the northern outskirts of Copenhagen. In 2013, it was ranked as one of the leading technical universities in Northern Europe. The IT University is Denmark's youngest university, a mono-faculty institution focusing on technical, societal and business aspects of information technology.\n\nThe Danish Academy of Fine Arts has provided education in the arts for more than 250 years. It includes the historic School of Visual Arts, and has in later years come to include a School of Architecture, a School of Design and a School of Conservation. Copenhagen Business School (CBS) is an EQUIS-accredited business school located in Frederiksberg.\nThere are also branches of both University College Capital and Metropolitan University College inside and outside Copenhagen.\n",
"The city has a variety of sporting teams. The major football teams are the historically successful FC København and Brøndby. FC København plays at Parken in Østerbro. Formed in 1992, it is a merger of two older Copenhagen clubs, B 1903 (from the inner suburb Gentofte) and KB (from Frederiksberg). Brøndby plays at Brøndby Stadion in the inner suburb of Brøndbyvester. BK Frem is based in the southern part of Copenhagen (Sydhavnen, Valby). Other teams are FC Nordsjælland (from suburban Farum), Fremad Amager, B93, AB, Lyngby and Hvidovre IF.\n\nCopenhagen Marathon 2008\nCopenhagen has several handball teams—a sport which is particularly popular in Denmark. Of clubs playing in the \"highest\" leagues, there are Ajax, Ydun, and HIK (Hellerup). The København Håndbold women's club has recently been established. Copenhagen also has ice hockey teams, of which three play in the top league, Rødovre Mighty Bulls, Herlev Eagles and Hvidovre Ligahockey all inner suburban clubs. Copenhagen Ice Skating Club founded in 1869 is the oldest ice hockey team in Denmark but is no longer in the top league.\n\nRugby union is also played in the Danish capital with teams such as CSR-Nanok, Copenhagen Business School Sport Rugby, Frederiksberg RK, Exiles RUFC and Rugbyklubben Speed. Rugby league is now played in Copenhagen, with the national team playing out of Gentofte Stadion. The Danish Australian Football League, based in Copenhagen is the largest Australian rules football competition outside of the English-speaking world.\n\nCopenhagen Marathon, Copenhagen's annual marathon event, was established in 1980.\nRound Christiansborg Open Water Swim Race is a open water swimming competition taking place each year in late August. This amateur event is combined with a Danish championship. In 2009 the event included a FINA World Cup competition in the morning. Copenhagen hosted the 2011 UCI Road World Championships in September 2011, taking advantage of its bicycle-friendly infrastructure. It was the first time that Denmark had hosted the event since 1956, when it was also held in Copenhagen.\n",
"\n\nCopenhagen Airport, Kastrup\nThe greater Copenhagen area has a very well established transportation infrastructure making it a hub in Northern Europe. Copenhagen Airport, opened in 1925, is Scandinavia's largest airport, located in Kastrup on the island of Amager. It is connected to the city centre by metro and main line railway services. October 2013 was a record month with 2.2 million passengers, and November 2013 figures reveal that the number of passengers is increasing by some 3% annually, about 50% more than the European average.\n\nS-train at Copenhagen Central Station\nCopenhagen has an extensive road network including motorways connecting the city to other parts of Denmark and to Sweden over the Øresund Bridge. The car is still the most popular form of transport within the city itself, representing two-thirds of all distances travelled. This can however lead to serious congestion in rush hour traffic.\nCopenhagen is also served by a daily ferry connection to Oslo in Norway. In 2012, Copenhagen Harbour handled 372 cruise ships and 840,000 passengers.\n\nThe intense use of bicycles here illustrated at the Christianshavn Metro Station\nThe Copenhagen S-Train, Copenhagen Metro and the regional train networks are used by about half of the city's passengers, the remainder using bus services. Nørreport Station near the city centre serves passengers travelling by main-line rail, S-train, regional train, metro and bus. Some 750,000 passengers make use of public transport facilities every day. Copenhagen Central Station is the hub of the DSB railway network serving Denmark and international destinations.\n\nThe Danish capital is known as one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world, with bicycles actually outnumbering its inhabitants. In 2012 some 36% of all working or studying city-dwellers cycled to work, school, or university. With 1.27 million km covered every working day by Copenhagen's cyclists (including both residents and commuters), and 75% of Copenhageners cycling throughout the year. The city's bicycle paths are extensive and well used, boasting of cycle lanes not shared with cars or pedestrians, and sometimes have their own signal systems – giving the cyclists a lead of a couple of seconds to accelerate.\n\n",
"\n\nPromoting health is an extremely important issue for Copenhagen's municipal authorities. Central to its sustainability mission is its \"Long Live Copenhagen\" (''Længe Leve København'') scheme in which it has the goal of increasing the life expectancy of citizens, improving quality of life through better standards of health, and encouraging more productive lives and equal opportunities. The city has targets to encourage people to exercise regularly and to reduce the number who smoke and consume alcohol.\n\nRigshospitalet is one of the largest hospitals in Denmark.\nCopenhagen University Hospital forms a conglomerate of several hospitals in Region Hovedstaden and Region Sjælland, together with the faculty of health sciences at the University of Copenhagen; Rigshospitalet and Bispebjerg Hospital in Copenhagen belong to this group of university hospitals. Rigshospitalet began operating in March 1757 as Frederiks Hospital, and became state-owned in 1903. With 1,120 beds, Rigshospitalet has responsibility for 65,000 inpatients and approximately 420,000 outpatients annually. It seeks to be the number one specialist hospital in the country, with an extensive team of researchers into cancer treatment, surgery and radiotherapy. In addition to its 8,000 personnel, the hospital has training and hosting functions. It benefits from the presence of in-service students of medicine and other healthcare sciences, as well as scientists working under a variety of research grants. The hospital became internationally famous as the location of Lars von Trier's television horror mini-series ''The Kingdom''. Bispebjerg Hospital was built in 1913, and serves about 400,000 people in the Greater Copenhagen area, with some 3,000 employees. Other large hospitals in the city include Amager Hospital (1997), Herlev Hospital (1976), Hvidovre Hospital (1970), and Gentofte Hospital (1927).\n",
"Aller Media conglomerate building in Havneholm\nMany Danish media corporations are located in Copenhagen. DR, the major Danish public service broadcasting corporation collected their activities in a new headquarters, DR Byen, in 2006 and 2007. Similarly TV2 which is based in Odense has concentrated its Copenhagen activities in a modern media house in Teglholmen. The two national daily newspapers ''Politiken'' and ''Berlingske Tidende'' and the two tabloids ''Ekstra Bladet'' and ''B.T.'' are based in Copenhagen. ''Kristeligt Dagblad'' is based in Copenhagen and is published six days a week. Other important media corporations include Aller Media which is the largest publisher of weekly and monthly magazines in Scandinavia, the Egmont media group and Gyldendal, the largest Danish publisher of books.\n\nCopenhagen also has a sizable film and television industry. Nordisk Film, established in Valby, Copenhagen in 1906 is the oldest continuously operating film production company in the world. In 1992 it merged with the Egmont media group and currently runs the 17-screen Palads Cinema in Copenhagen. Filmbyen (movie city), located in a former military camp in the suburb of Hvidovre, houses several movie companies and studios. Among the movie companies is Zentropa, co-owned by Danish movie director Lars von Trier who is behind several international movie productions as well as a founding force behind the Dogme Movement. CPH:PIX is Copenhagen's international feature film festival, established in 2009 as a fusion of the 20-year-old Natfilm festival and the four-year-old CIFF. The CPH:PIX festival takes place in mid-April. CPH:DOX is Copenhagen's international documentary film festival, every year in November. On top of its documentary film programme of over 100 films, CPH:DOX includes a wide event programme with dozens of events, concerts, exhibitions and parties all over town.\n\n\n",
"\nCopenhagen is twinned or cooperating with several cities, including:\n\n\n* Beijing, China\n\n* Paris, France (friendship and cooperation agreement only)\n\n* Reykjavík, Iceland\n\n* Campeche, Mexico\n\n",
"\n*:Category: People from Copenhagen\n*2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen\n*Architecture in Copenhagen\n*Copenhagen Climate Council\n*Outline of Denmark\n*Ports of the Baltic Sea\n",
"\n",
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"*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n",
"\n",
"* VisitCopenhagen.dk – Official VisitCopenhagen tourism website\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Etymology",
"History",
"Geography",
"Administration",
"Demographics and society",
"Economy",
"Cityscape",
"Culture and contemporary life",
"Education",
"Sport",
"Transport",
"Healthcare",
"Media",
"Twin cities",
"See also",
"Footnotes",
"Citations",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Copenhagen | [
"The Crystal, headquarters of Nykredit bank\nSeveral financial institutions and banks have headquarters in Copenhagen, including Alm.",
"Brand, Danske Bank, Nykredit and Nordea Bank Danmark."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Copenhagen''' ( ; ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark.",
"The city has a population of 763,908 (), of whom 601,448 live in the Municipality of Copenhagen.",
"The larger urban area has a population of 1,280,371 (), while the Copenhagen metropolitan area has just over 2 million inhabitants.",
"Copenhagen is situated on the eastern coast of the island of Zealand; another small portion of the city is located on Amager, and is separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the strait of Øresund.",
"The Øresund Bridge connects the two cities by rail and road.",
"Originally a Viking fishing village founded in the 10th century, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark in the early 15th century.",
"Beginning in the 17th century it consolidated its position as a regional centre of power with its institutions, defences and armed forces.",
"After suffering from the effects of plague and fire in the 18th century, the city underwent a period of redevelopment.",
"This included construction of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden and founding of such cultural institutions as the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts.",
"After further disasters in the early 19th century when Nelson attacked the Dano-Norwegian fleet and bombarded the city, rebuilding during the Danish Golden Age brought a Neoclassical look to Copenhagen's architecture.",
"Later, following the Second World War, the Finger Plan fostered the development of housing and businesses along the five urban railway routes stretching out from the city centre.",
"Since the turn of the 21st century, Copenhagen has seen strong urban and cultural development, facilitated by investment in its institutions and infrastructure.",
"The city is the cultural, economic and governmental centre of Denmark; it is one of the major financial centres of Northern Europe with the Copenhagen Stock Exchange.",
"Copenhagen's economy has seen rapid developments in the service sector, especially through initiatives in information technology, pharmaceuticals and clean technology.",
"Since the completion of the Øresund Bridge, Copenhagen has become increasingly integrated with the Swedish province of Scania and its largest city, Malmö, forming the Øresund Region.",
"With a number of bridges connecting the various districts, the cityscape is characterized by parks, promenades and waterfronts.",
"Copenhagen's landmarks such as Tivoli Gardens, ''The Little Mermaid'' statue, the Amalienborg and Christiansborg palaces, Rosenborg Castle Gardens, Frederik's Church, and many museums, restaurants and nightclubs are significant tourist attractions.",
"Copenhagen is home to the University of Copenhagen, the Technical University of Denmark and Copenhagen Business School.",
"The University of Copenhagen, founded in 1479, is the oldest university in Denmark.",
"Copenhagen is home to the FC København and Brøndby football clubs.",
"The annual Copenhagen Marathon was established in 1980.",
"Copenhagen is one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world.",
"The Copenhagen Metro launched in 2002 serves central Copenhagen while the Copenhagen S-train network serves and connects central Copenhagen to its outlying boroughs.",
"Serving roughly two million passengers a month, Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup, is the busiest airport in the Nordic countries.",
"The name of the city reflects its origin as a harbour and a place of commerce.",
"The original designation, from which the contemporary Danish name derives, was ''Køpmannæhafn'', meaning \"merchants' harbour\", often simply ''Hafn'' or ''Havn'' (\"harbour\").",
"The literal English translation would be \"Chapman's haven\".",
"The English name for the city was adapted from its Low German name, ''Kopenhagen''.",
"The abbreviations ''Kbh.''",
"or ''Kbhvn'' are often used in Danish for ''København'', and ''kbh.''",
"for ''københavnsk'' (of Copenhagen).",
"The chemical element hafnium is named after Copenhagen (Latin name ''Hafnia''), where it was discovered.",
"The bacterium ''Hafnia'' is also named after Copenhagen: Vagn Møller of the State Serum Institute in Copenhagen named it in 1954.",
"\nReconstruction of Copenhagen \n\n===Early history===\nAlthough the earliest historical records of Copenhagen are from the end of the 12th century, recent archaeological finds in connection with work on the city's metropolitan rail system revealed the remains of a large merchant's mansion near today's Kongens Nytorv from c. 1020.",
"Excavations in Pilestræde have also led to the discovery of a well from the late 12th century.",
"The remains of an ancient church, with graves dating to the 11th century, have been unearthed near where Strøget meets Rådhuspladsen.",
"These finds indicate that Copenhagen's origins as a city go back at least to the 11th century.",
"Substantial discoveries of flint tools in the area provide evidence of human settlements dating to the Stone Age.",
"Many historians believe the town dates to the late Viking Age, and was possibly founded by Sweyn I Forkbeard.",
"The natural harbour and good herring stocks seem to have attracted fishermen and merchants to the area on a seasonal basis from the 11th century and more permanently in the 13th century.",
"The first habitations were probably centred on Gammel Strand (literally \"old shore\") in the 11th century or even earlier.",
"The earliest written mention of the town was in the 12th century when Saxo Grammaticus in Gesta Danorum referred to it as ''Portus Mercatorum'', meaning Merchants' Harbour or, in the Danish of the time, ''Købmannahavn''.",
"Traditionally, Copenhagen's founding has been dated to Bishop Absalon's construction of a modest fortress on the little island of Slotsholmen in 1167 where Christiansborg Palace stands today.",
"The construction of the fortress was in response to attacks by Wendish pirates who plagued the coastline during the 12th century.",
"Defensive ramparts and moats were completed and by 1177 St. Clemens Church had been built.",
"Attacks by the Germans continued, and after the original fortress was eventually destroyed by the marauders, islanders replaced it with Copenhagen Castle.",
"===Middle Ages===\n\nIn 1186, a letter from Pope Urban III states that the castle of ''Hafn'' (Copenhagen) and its surrounding lands, including the town of Hafn, were given to Absalon, Bishop of Roskilde 1158–1191 and Archbishop of Lund 1177–1201, by King Valdemar I.",
"On Absalon's death, the property was to come into the ownership of the Bishopric of Roskilde.",
"Around 1200, the Church of Our Lady was constructed on higher ground to the northeast of the town, which began to develop around it.",
"As the town became more prominent, it was repeatedly attacked by the Hanseatic League.",
"As the fishing industry thrived in Copenhagen, particularly in the trade of herring, the city began expanding to the north of Slotsholmen.",
"In 1254, it received a charter as a city under Bishop Jakob Erlandsen who garnered support from the local fishing merchants against the king by granting them special privileges.",
"In the mid 1330s, the first land assessment of the city was published.",
"With the establishment of the Kalmar Union (1397–1523) between Denmark, Norway and Sweden, by about 1416 Copenhagen had emerged as the capital of Denmark when Eric of Pomerania moved his seat to Copenhagen Castle.",
"The University of Copenhagen was inaugurated on 1 June 1479 by King Christian I, following approval from Pope Sixtus IV.",
"This makes it the oldest university in Denmark and one of the oldest in Europe.",
"Originally controlled by the Catholic Church, the university's role in society was forced to change during the Reformation in Denmark in the late 1530s.",
"===16th and 17th centuries===\n\n\nIn disputes prior to the Reformation of 1536, the city which had been faithful to Christian II, who was Catholic, was successfully besieged in 1523 by the forces of Frederik I, who supported Lutheranism.",
"Copenhagen's defences were reinforced with a series of towers along the city wall.",
"After an extended siege from July 1535 to July 1536, during which the city supported Christian II's alliance with Malmö and Lübeck, it was finally forced to capitulate to Christian III.",
"During the second half of the century, the city prospered from increased trade across the Baltic supported by Dutch shipping.",
"Christoffer Valkendorff, a high-ranking statesman, defended the city's interests and contributed to its development.",
"The Netherlands had also become primarily Protestant, as were northern German states.",
"During the reign of Christian IV between 1588 and 1648, Copenhagen had dramatic growth as a city.",
"On his initiative at the beginning of the 17th century, two important buildings were completed on Slotsholmen: the Tøjhus Arsenal and Børsen, the stock exchange.",
"To foster international trade, the East India Company was founded in 1616.",
"To the east of the city, inspired by Dutch planning, the king developed the district of Christianshavn with canals and ramparts.",
"It was initially intended to be a fortified trading centre but ultimately became part of Copenhagen.",
"Christian IV also sponsored an array of ambitious building projects including Rosenborg Slot and the Rundetårn.",
"In 1658–59, the city withstood a siege by the Swedes under Charles X and successfully repelled a major assault.",
"By 1661, Copenhagen had asserted its position as capital of Denmark and Norway.",
"All the major institutions were located there, as was the fleet and most of the army.",
"The defences were further enhanced with the completion of the Citadel in 1664 and the extension of Christianshavns Vold with its bastions in 1692, leading to the creation of a new base for the fleet at Nyholm.",
"===18th century===\nA mansion at Amalienborg in Frederiksstaden (1750), part of the Amalienborg Palace\n\nCopenhagen lost around 22,000 of its population of 65,000 to the plague in 1711.",
"The city was also struck by two major fires which destroyed much of its infrastructure.",
"The Copenhagen Fire of 1728 was the largest in the history of Copenhagen.",
"It began on the evening of 20 October, and continued to burn until the morning of 23 October, destroying approximately 28% of the city, leaving some 20% of the population homeless.",
"No less than 47% of the medieval section of the city was completely lost.",
"Along with the 1795 fire, it is the main reason that few traces of the old town can be found in the modern city.",
"A substantial amount of rebuilding followed.",
"In 1733, work began on the royal residence of Christiansborg Palace which was completed in 1745.",
"In 1749, development of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden was initiated.",
"Designed by Nicolai Eigtved in the Rococo style, its centre contained the mansions which now form Amalienborg Palace.",
"Major extensions to the naval base of Holmen were undertaken while the city's cultural importance was enhanced with the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts.",
"In the second half of the 18th century, Copenhagen benefitted from Denmark's neutrality during the wars between Europe's main powers, allowing it to play an important role in trade between the states around the Baltic Sea.",
"After Christiansborg was destroyed by fire in 1794 and another fire caused serious damage to the city in 1795, work began on the classical Copenhagen landmark of Højbro Plads while Nytorv and Gammel Torv were converged.",
"===19th century===\nOn 2 April 1801, a British fleet under the command of Admiral Sir Hyde Parker defeated a Danish-Norwegian fleet anchored near Copenhagen.",
"Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson led the main attack.",
"He famously disobeyed Parker's order to withdraw, destroying many of the Dano-Norwegian ships before a truce was agreed.",
"Copenhagen is often considered to be Nelson's hardest-fought battle, surpassing even the heavy fighting at Trafalgar.",
"It was during this battle that Lord Nelson was said to have \"put the telescope to the blind eye\" in order not to see Admiral Parker's signal to cease fire.",
"Gottlieb Bindesbøll's Thorvaldsen Museum (1848)\nThe Second Battle of Copenhagen (or the Bombardment of Copenhagen) (16 August – 5 September 1807) was from a British point of view a preemptive attack on Copenhagen, targeting the civilian population in order to seize the Dano-Norwegian fleet.",
"But from a Danish point of view the battle was a terror bombardment on their capital.",
"Particularly notable was the use of incendiary Congreve rockets (containing phosphorus, which cannot be extinguished with water) that randomly hit the city.",
"Few houses with straw roofs remained after the bombardment.",
"The largest church, ''Vor frue kirke'', was destroyed by the sea artillery.",
"Several historians consider this battle the first terror attack against a major European city in modern times.",
"Slotsholmen canal, as seen from the Børsen building ().",
"In the background from left to right: Church of the Holy Ghost, Trinitatis Complex, St. Nicholas Church and Holmen Church The British landed 30,000 men, they surrounded Copenhagen and the attack continued for the next three days, killing some 2,000 civilians and destroying most of the city.",
"The devastation was so great because Copenhagen relied on an old defence-line whose limited range could not reach the British ships and their longer-range artillery.",
"Despite the disasters of the early 19th century, Copenhagen experienced a period of intense cultural creativity known as the Danish Golden Age.",
"Painting prospered under C.W.",
"Eckersberg and his students while C.F.",
"Hansen and Gottlieb Bindesbøll brought a Neoclassical look to the city's architecture.",
"In the early 1850s, the ramparts of the city were opened to allow new housing to be built around The Lakes () that bordered the old defences to the west.",
"By the 1880s, the districts of Nørrebro and Vesterbro developed to accommodate those who came from the provinces to participate in the city's industrialization.",
"This dramatic increase of space was long overdue, as not only were the old ramparts out of date as a defence system but bad sanitation in the old city had to be overcome.",
"From 1886, the west rampart (Vestvolden) was flattened, allowing major extensions to the harbour leading to the establishment of the Freeport of Copenhagen 1892–94.",
"Electricity came in 1892 with electric trams in 1897.",
"The spread of housing to areas outside the old ramparts brought about a huge increase in the population.",
"In 1840, Copenhagen was inhabited by approximately 120,000 people.",
"By 1901, it had some 400,000 inhabitants.",
"===20th century===\nCentral Copenhagen in 1939\nBy the beginning of the 20th century, Copenhagen had become a thriving industrial and administrative city.",
"With its new city hall and railway station, its centre was drawn towards the west.",
"New housing developments grew up in Brønshøj and Valby while Frederiksberg became an enclave within the city of Copenhagen.",
"The northern part of Amager and Valby were also incorporated into the City of Copenhagen in 1901–02.",
"As a result of Denmark's neutrality in the First World War, Copenhagen prospered from trade with both Britain and Germany while the city's defences were kept fully manned by some 40,000 soldiers for the duration of the war.",
"In the 1920s there were serious shortages of goods and housing.",
"Plans were drawn up to demolish the old part of Christianshavn and to get rid of the worst of the city's slum areas.",
"However, it was not until the 1930s that substantial housing developments ensued, with the demolishment of one side of Christianhavn's Torvegade in order to build five large blocks of flats.",
"====World War II====\n\nThe RAF's bombing of Gestapo headquarters in March 1945 was coordinated with the Danish resistance movement\nPeople celebrating the liberation of Denmark at Strøget in Copenhagen, 5 May 1945.",
"Germany surrendered two days later \n\nDuring World War II in Denmark, Copenhagen was occupied by German troops along with the rest of the country from 9 April 1940 until 4 May 1945.",
"German leader Adolf Hitler hoped that Denmark would be \"a model protectorate\" and initially the Nazi authorities sought to arrive at an understanding with the Danish government.",
"The 1943 Danish parliamentary election was also allowed to take place, with only the Communist Party excluded.",
"But in August 1943, after the government's collaboration with the occupation forces collapsed, several ships were sunk in Copenhagen Harbor by the Royal Danish Navy to prevent their use by the Germans.",
"Around that time the Nazis started to arrest Jews, although most managed to escape to Sweden.",
"In 1945 Ole Lippman, leader of the Danish section of the Special Operations Executive, invited the British Royal Air Force to assist their operations by attacking Nazi headquarters in Copenhagen.",
"Accordingly, Air Vice-Marshal Sir Basil Embry drew up plans for a spectacular precision attack on the Sicherheitsdienst and Gestapo building, the former offices of the Shell Oil Company.",
"Political prisoners were kept in the attic to prevent an air raid, so the RAF had to bomb the lower levels of the building.",
"The attack, known as \"Operation Carthage\", came on 22 March 1945, in three small waves.",
"In the first wave, all six planes (carrying one bomb each) hit their target, but one of the aircraft crashed near Frederiksberg Girls School.",
"Because of this crash four of the planes in the two following waves assumed the school was the military target, and aimed their bombs at the school leading to the death of 123 civilians (of which 87 were schoolchildren).",
"However, 18 of the 26 political prisoners in the Shell Building managed to escape while the Gestapo archives were completely destroyed.",
"On 8 May 1945 Copenhagen was officially liberated by British troops commanded by Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery who supervised the surrender of 30,000 Germans situated around the capital.",
"====Post-war decades====\nBlack Diamond (1999)\nShortly after the end of the war, an innovative urban development project known as the Finger Plan was introduced in 1947, encouraging the creation of new housing and businesses interspersed with large green areas along five \"fingers\" stretching out from the city centre along the S-train routes.",
"With the expansion of the welfare state and women entering the work force, schools, nurseries, sports facilities and hospitals were established across the city.",
"As a result of student unrest in the late 1960s, the former Bådsmandsstræde Barracks in Christianshavn was occupied, leading to the establishment of Freetown Christiania in September 1971.",
"Øresund Bridge (1999)\nMotor traffic in the city grew significantly and in 1972 the trams were replaced by buses.",
"From the 1960s, on the initiative of the young architect Jan Gehl, pedestrian streets and cycle tracks were created in the city centre.",
"Activity in the port of Copenhagen declined with the closure of the Holmen naval base.",
"Copenhagen Airport underwent considerable expansion, becoming a hub for the Nordic countries.",
"In the 1990s, large-scale housing developments were realized in the harbour area and in the west of Amager.",
"The national library's Black Diamond building on the waterfront was completed in 1999.",
"===2000 to present===\nCopenhagen Opera House (2004)\nSince the summer of 2000, Copenhagen and the Swedish city of Malmö have been connected by the Øresund Bridge, which carries rail and road traffic.",
"As a result, Copenhagen has become the centre of a larger metropolitan area spanning both nations.",
"The bridge has brought about considerable changes in the public transport system and has led to the extensive redevelopment of Amager.",
"The city's service and trade sectors have developed while a number of banking and financial institutions have been established.",
"Educational institutions have also gained importance, especially the University of Copenhagen with its 35,000 students.",
"Another important development for the city has been the Copenhagen Metro, the underground railway system which opened in 2000 with additions until 2007, transporting some 54 million passengers by 2011.",
"On the cultural front, the lavish Copenhagen Opera House, a gift to the city from the shipping magnate Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller on behalf of the A.P.",
"Møller foundation, was completed in 2004.",
"In December 2009 Copenhagen gained international prominence when it hosted the worldwide climate meeting COP15.",
"Satellite view\nA view over Freetown Christiania\nCopenhagen is part of the Øresund Region, which consists of Zealand, Lolland-Falster and Bornholm in Denmark and Scania in Sweden.",
"It is located on the eastern shore of the island of Zealand, partly on the island of Amager and on a number of natural and artificial islets between the two.",
"Copenhagen faces the Øresund to the east, the strait of water that separates Denmark from Sweden, and which connects the North Sea with the Baltic Sea.",
"The Swedish towns of Malmö and Landskrona lie on the Swedish side of the sound directly across from Copenhagen.",
"By road, Copenhagen is northwest of Malmö, Sweden, northeast of Næstved, northeast of Odense, east of Esbjerg and southeast of Aarhus by sea and road via Sjællands Odde.",
"The city centre lies in the area originally defined by the old ramparts, which are still referred to as the Fortification Ring (''Fæstningsringen'') and kept as a partial green band around it.",
"Then come the late 19th and early 20th century residential neighbourhoods of Østerbro, Nørrebro, Vesterbro and Amagerbro.",
"The outlying areas of Kongens Enghave, Valby, Vigerslev, Vanløse, Brønshøj, Utterslev and Sundby followed from 1920 to 1960.",
"They consist mainly of residential housing and apartments often enhanced with parks and greenery.",
"===Topography===\nThe central area of the city consists of relatively low-lying flat ground formed by moraines from the last ice age while the hilly areas to the north and west frequently rise to above sea level.",
"The slopes of Valby and Brønshøj reach heights of over , divided by valleys running from the northeast to the southwest.",
"Close to the centre are the Copenhagen lakes of Sortedams Sø, Peblinge Sø and Sankt Jørgens Sø.",
"Copenhagen rests on a subsoil of flint-layered limestone deposited in the Danian period some 60 to 66 million years ago.",
"Some greensand from the Selandian is also present.",
"There are a few faults in the area, the most important of which is the Carlsberg fault which runs northwest to southeast through the centre of the city.",
"During the last ice age, glaciers eroded the surface leaving a layer of moraines up to thick.",
"===Beaches===\nAmager Strandpark\nAmager Strandpark, which opened in 2005, is a long artificial island, with a total of of beaches.",
"It is located just 15 minutes by bicycle or a few minutes by metro from the city centre.",
"In Klampenborg, about 10 kilometers from downtown Copenhagen, is Bellevue Beach.",
"It is long and has both lifeguards and freshwater showers on the beach.",
"The beaches are supplemented by a system of Harbour Baths along the Copenhagen waterfront.",
"The first and most popular of these is located at Islands Brygge and has won international acclaim for its design.",
"===Climate===\nFrederiksberg Palace in the snow\nCopenhagen is in the oceanic climate zone (Köppen: ''Cfb '').",
"Its weather is subject to low-pressure systems from the Atlantic which result in unstable conditions throughout the year.",
"Apart from slightly higher rainfall from July to September, precipitation is moderate.",
"While snowfall occurs mainly from late December to early March, there can also be rain, with average temperatures around the freezing point.",
"June is the sunniest month of the year with an average of about eight hours of sunshine a day.",
"July is the warmest month with an average daytime high of 21 °C.",
"By contrast, the average hours of sunshine are less than two per day in November and only one and a half per day from December to February.",
"In the spring, it gets warmer again with from four to six hours of sunshine per day from March to May.",
"February is the driest month of the year.",
"Exceptional weather conditions can bring as much as 50 cm of snow to Copenhagen in a 24-hour period during the winter months while summer temperatures have been known to rise to heights of .",
"Because of Copenhagen's northern latitude, the number of daylight hours varies considerably between summer and winter.",
"On the summer solstice, the sun rises at 04:26 and sets at 21:58, providing 17 hours 32 minutes of daylight.",
"On the winter solstice, it rises at 08:37 and sets at 15:39 with 7 hours and 1 minute of daylight.",
"There is therefore a difference of 10 hours and 31 minutes in the length of days and nights between the summer and winter solstices.",
"City Hall of Copenhagen Municipality\n\nAccording to Statistics Denmark, the urban area of Copenhagen () consists of the municipalities of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Albertslund, Brøndby, Gentofte, Gladsaxe, Glostrup, Herlev, Hvidovre, Lyngby-Taarbæk, Rødovre, Tårnby and Vallensbæk as well as parts of Ballerup, Rudersdal and Furesø municipalities, along with the cities of Ishøj and Greve Strand.",
"They are located in the Capital Region ().",
"Municipalities are responsible for a wide variety of public services, which include land-use planning, environmental planning, public housing, management and maintenance of local roads, and social security.",
"Municipal administration is also conducted by a mayor, a council, and an executive.",
"Copenhagen Municipality is by far the largest municipality, with the historic city at its core.",
"The seat of Copenhagen's municipal council is the Copenhagen City Hall (''''), which is situated on City Hall Square.",
"The second largest municipality is Frederiksberg, an enclave within Copenhagen Municipality.",
"Copenhagen Municipality is divided into ten districts (''bydele''): Indre By, Østerbro, Nørrebro, Vesterbro/Kongens Enghave, Valby, Vanløse, Brønshøj-Husum, Bispebjerg, Amager Øst, and Amager Vest.",
"Neighbourhoods of Copenhagen include Slotsholmen, Frederiksstaden, Islands Brygge, Holmen, Christiania, Carlsberg, Sluseholmen, Amagerbro, Ørestad, Nordhavnen, Bellahøj, Brønshøj, Ryparken, and Vigerslev.",
"===Law and order===\n\nMost of Denmark's top legal courts and institutions are based in Copenhagen.",
"A modern style court of justice, ''Hof- og Stadsretten'', was introduced in Denmark, specifically for Copenhagen, by Johann Friedrich Struensee in 1771.",
"Now known as the City Court of Copenhagen (''Københavns Byret''), it is the largest of the 24 city courts in Denmark with jurisdiction over the municipalities of Copenhagen, Dragør and Tårnby.",
"With its 42 judges, it has a Probate Division, an Enforcement Division and a Registration and Notorial Acts Division while bankruptcy is handled by the Maritime and Commercial Court of Copenhagen.",
"Established in 1862, the Maritime and Commercial Court (''Sø- og Handelsretten'') also hears commercial cases including those relating to trade marks, marketing practices and competition for the whole of Denmark.",
"Denmark's Supreme Court (''Højesteret''), located in Christiansborg Palace on Prins Jørgens Gård in the centre of Copenhagen, is the country's final court of appeal.",
"Handling civil and criminal cases from the subordinate courts, it has two chambers which each hear all types of cases.",
"The Danish National Police and Copenhagen Police headquarters is situated in the Neoclassical-inspired Politigården building built in 1918–24 under architects Hack Kampmann and Holger Alfred Jacobsen.",
"The building also contains administration, management, emergency department and radio service offices.",
"In their efforts to deal with drugs, the police have noted considerable success in the two special drug consumption rooms opened by the city where addicts can use sterile needles and receive help from nurses if necessary.",
"Use of these rooms does not lead to prosecution; the city treats drug use as a public health issue, not a criminal one.",
"The Copenhagen Fire Department forms the largest municipal fire brigade in Denmark with some 500 fire and ambulance personnel, 150 administration and service workers, and 35 workers in prevention.",
"The brigade began as the Copenhagen Royal Fire Brigade on 9 July 1687 under King Christian V. After the passing of the Copenhagen Fire Act on 18 May 1868, on 1 August 1870 the Copenhagen Fire Brigade became a municipal institution in its own right.",
"The fire department has its headquarters in the Copenhagen Central Fire Station which was designed by Ludvig Fenger in the Historicist style and inaugurated in 1892.",
"=== Environmental planning ===\n\n\nCopenhagen is recognized as one of the most environmentally friendly cities in the world.",
"As a result of its commitment to high environmental standards, Copenhagen has been praised for its green economy, ranked as the top green city for the second time in the 2014 ''Global Green Economy Index (GGEI)''.",
"In 2001 a large offshore wind farm was built just off the coast of Copenhagen at Middelgrunden.",
"It produces about 4% of the city's energy.",
"Years of substantial investment in sewage treatment have improved water quality in the harbour to an extent that the inner harbour can be used for swimming with facilities at a number of locations.",
"Middelgrunden offshore wind farm\n\nCopenhagen aims to be carbon-neutral by 2025.",
"Commercial and residential buildings are to reduce electricity consumption by 20 percent and 10 percent respectively, and total heat consumption is to fall by 20 percent by 2025.",
"Renewable energy features such as solar panels are becoming increasingly common in the newest buildings in Copenhagen.",
"District heating will be carbon-neutral by 2025, by waste incineration and biomass.",
"New buildings must now be constructed according to Low Energy Class ratings and in 2020 near net-zero energy buildings.",
"By 2025, 75% of trips should be made on foot, by bike, or by using public transit.",
"The city plans that 20–30% of cars will run on electricity or biofuel by 2025.",
"The investment is estimated at $472 million public funds and $4.78 billion private funds.",
"The city's architectural planning authorities continue to take full account of these priorities.",
"Special attention is given both to climate issues and efforts to ensure maximum application of low-energy standards.",
"Priorities include sustainable drainage systems, recycling rainwater, green roofs and efficient waste management solutions.",
"In city planning, streets and squares are to be designed to encourage cycling and walking rather than driving.",
"\n\n\n First-generation immigrants by country of origin (Q12016)\n\n '''Nationality''' \n '''Population''' \n\n Pakistan \n5,409\n\n Morocco \n5,197\n\n Poland \n4,767\n\n Germany \n4,560\t\n\n Iraq \n4,407\n\n Turkey \n4,168\t\n\n Sweden \n4,471\n\n Norway \n3,836\n\n United Kingdom \n3,292\n\n United States \n3,244\n\n Italy \n3,098\t\t\n\n China \n3,002\t\t\n\n\n\nCopenhagen is the most populous city in Denmark and one of the most populous in the Nordic countries.",
"For statistical purposes, Statistics Denmark considers the City of Copenhagen (''Byen København'') to consist of the Municipality of Copenhagen plus three adjacent municipalities, viz.",
"Dragør, Frederiksberg, and Tårnby.",
"Their combined population stands at 763,908 ().",
"The Municipality of Copenhagen is by far the most populous in the country and one of the one of the most populous Nordic municipalities with 601,448 inhabitants ().",
"There was a demographic boom in the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, largely due to immigration to Denmark.",
"According to figures from the first quarter of 2016, approximately 76% of the municipality's population was of Danish descent, defined as having at least one parent who was born in Denmark and has Danish citizenship.",
"Much of the remaining 24% were of a foreign background, defined as immigrants (18%) or descendants of recent immigrants (6%).",
"There are no official statistics on ethnic groups.",
"The table to the right shows the most common countries of birth of Copenhagen residents.",
"According to Statistics Denmark, Copenhagen's urban area has a larger population of 1,280,371 ().",
"The urban area consists of the municipalities of Copenhagen and Frederiksberg plus 16 of the 20 municipalities of the former counties Copenhagen and Roskilde, though five of them only partially.",
"Metropolitan Copenhagen has a total of 2,016,285 inhabitants ().",
"The area of Metropolitan Copenhagen is defined by the Finger Plan.",
"Since the opening of the Øresund Bridge in 2000, commuting between Zealand and Scania in Sweden has increased rapidly, leading to a wider, integrated area.",
"Known as the Øresund Region, it has 3.8 million inhabitants (of whom 2.5 million live in the Danish part of the region).",
"===Religion===\n\nChurch of Our Lady, situated on Frue Plads\nWith 58.1% a majority of those living in Copenhagen are members of the Lutheran Church of Denmark which is 1.2% lower than one year earlier according to 2017 figures.",
"The National Cathedral, the Church of Our Lady, is one of the dozens of churches in Copenhagen.",
"There are also several other Christian communities in the city, of which the largest is Roman Catholic.",
"Foreign migration to Copenhagen, rising over the last three decades, has contributed to increasing religious diversity; the Grand Mosque of Copenhagen, the first in Denmark, opened in 2014.",
"Islam is the second largest religion in Copenhagen, accounting for approximately 10% of the population.",
"While there are no official statistics, a significant portion of the estimated 175,000–200,000 Muslims in the country live in the Copenhagen urban area, with the highest concentration in Nørrebro and the Vestegnen.",
"There are also some 7,000 Jews in Denmark, most of them in the Copenhagen area where there are several synagogues.",
"===Quality of living===\nFor a number of years, Copenhagen has ranked high in international surveys for its quality of life.",
"Its stable economy together with its education services and level of social safety make it attractive for locals and visitors alike.",
"Although it is one of the world's most expensive cities, it is also one of the most liveable with its public transport, facilities for cyclists and its environmental policies.",
"In elevating Copenhagen to \"most liveable city\" in 2013, ''Monocle'' pointed to its open spaces, increasing activity on the streets, city planning in favour of cyclists and pedestrians, and features to encourage inhabitants to enjoy city life with an emphasis on community, culture and cuisine.",
"Other sources have ranked Copenhagen high for its business environment, accessibility, restaurants and environmental planning.",
"However, Copenhagen ranks only 39th for student friendliness in 2012.",
"Despite a top score for quality of living, its scores were low for employer activity and affordability.",
"Copenhagen is the major economic and financial centre of Denmark.",
"The city's economy is based largely on services and commerce.",
"Statistics for 2010 show that the vast majority of the 350,000 workers in Copenhagen are employed in the service sector, especially transport and communications, trade, and finance, while less than 10,000 work in the manufacturing industries.",
"The public sector workforce is around 110,000, including education and healthcare.",
"From 2006 to 2011, the economy grew by 2.5% in Copenhagen, while it fell by some 4% in the rest of Denmark.",
"In 2010, the wider Capital Region of Denmark had a gross domestic product (GDP) of €88,366 million, and the 15th largest GDP per capita of regions in the European Union.",
"The Copenhagen Stock Exchange (CSE) was founded in 1620 and is now owned by Nasdaq, Inc.. Copenhagen is also home to a number of international companies including A.P.",
"Møller-Mærsk, Novo Nordisk, Carlsberg and Novozymes.",
"City authorities have encouraged the development of business clusters in several innovative sectors, which include information technology, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, clean technology and smart city solutions.",
"Scandinavian headquarters for the Swiss pharmaceutical company Ferring Pharmaceuticals\nLife science is a key sector with extensive research and development activities.",
"Medicon Valley is a leading bi-national life sciences cluster in Europe, spanning the Øresund Region.",
"Copenhagen is rich in companies and institutions with a focus on research and development within the field of biotechnology, and the Medicon Valley initiative aims to strengthen this position and to promote cooperation between companies and academia.",
"Many major Danish companies like Novo Nordisk and Lundbeck, both of which are among the 50 largest pharmaceutical and biotech companies in the world, are located in this business cluster.",
"Shipping is another import sector with Maersk, the world's largest shipping company, having their world headquarters in Copenhagen.",
"The city has an industrial harbour, Copenhagen Port.",
"Following decades of stagnation, it has experienced a resurgence since 1990 following a merger with Malmö harbour.",
"Both ports are operated by Copenhagen Malmö Port (CMP).",
"The central location in the Øresund Region allows the ports to act as a hub for freight that is transported onward to the Baltic countries.",
"CMP annually receives about 8,000 ships and handled some 148,000 TEU in 2012.",
"Copenhagen has some of the highest gross wages in the world.",
"High taxes mean that wages are reduced after mandatory deduction.",
"A ''beneficial researcher scheme'' with low taxation of foreign specialists has made Denmark an attractive location for foreign labour.",
"It is however also among the most expensive cities in Europe.",
"Denmark's Flexicurity model features some of the most flexible hiring and firing legislation in Europe, providing attractive conditions for foreign investment and international companies looking to locate in Copenhagen.",
"In Dansk Industri's 2013 survey of employment factors in the ninety-six municipalities of Denmark, Copenhagen came in first place for educational qualifications and for the development of private companies in recent years, but fell to 86th place in local companies' assessment of the employment climate.",
"The survey revealed considerable dissatisfaction in the level of dialogue companies enjoyed with the municipal authorities.",
"===Tourism===\n\nTourism is a major contributor to Copenhagen's economy, attracting visitors due to the city's harbour, cultural attractions and award-winning restaurants.",
"Since 2009, Copenhagen has been one of the fastest growing metropolitan destinations in Europe.",
"Hotel capacity in the city is growing significantly.",
"From 2009 to 2013, it experienced a 42% growth in international bed nights (total number of nights spent by tourists), tallying a rise of nearly 70% for Chinese visitors.",
"The total number of bed nights in the Capital Region surpassed 9 million in 2013, while international bed nights reached 5 million.",
"In 2010, it is estimated that city break tourism contributed to DKK 2 billion in turnover.",
"However, 2010 was an exceptional year for city break tourism and turnover increased with 29% in that one year.",
"680,000 cruise passengers visited the port in 2015.",
"\nThe city's appearance today is shaped by the key role it has played as a regional centre for centuries.",
"Copenhagen has a multitude of districts, each with its distinctive character and representing its own period.",
"Other distinctive features of Copenhagen include the abundance of water, its many parks, and the bicycle paths that line most streets.",
"===Architecture===\n\n\n\nThe oldest section of Copenhagen's inner city is often referred to as ''Middelalderbyen'' (the medieval city).",
"However, the city's most distinctive district is Frederiksstaden, developed during the reign of Frederick V. It has the Amalienborg Palace at its centre and is dominated by the dome of Frederik's Church (or the Marble Church) and several elegant 18th-century Rococo mansions.",
"The inner city includes Slotsholmen, a little island on which Christiansborg Palace stands and Christianshavn with its canals.",
"Børsen on Slotsholmen and Frederiksborg Palace in Hillerød are prominent examples of the Dutch Renaissance style in Copenhagen.",
"Around the historical city centre lies a band of congenial residential boroughs (Vesterbro, Inner Nørrebro, Inner Østerbro) dating mainly from late 19th century.",
"They were built outside the old ramparts when the city was finally allowed to expand beyond its fortifications.",
"Sometimes referred to as \"the City of Spires\", Copenhagen is known for its horizontal skyline, broken only by the spires and towers of its churches and castles.",
"Most characteristic of all is the Baroque spire of the Church of Our Saviour with its narrowing external spiral stairway that visitors can climb to the top.",
"Other important spires are those of Christiansborg Palace, the City Hall and the former Church of St. Nikolaj that now houses a modern art venue.",
"Not quite so high are the Renaissance spires of Rosenborg Castle and the \"dragon spire\" of Christian IV's former stock exchange, so named because it resembles the intertwined tails of four dragons.",
"Copenhagen is recognised globally as an exemplar of best practice urban planning.",
"Its thriving mixed use city centre is defined by striking contemporary architecture, engaging public spaces and an abundance of human activity.",
"These design outcomes have been deliberately achieved through careful replanning in the second half of the 20th century.",
"Recent years have seen a boom in modern architecture in Copenhagen both for Danish architecture and for works by international architects.",
"For a few hundred years, virtually no foreign architects had worked in Copenhagen, but since the turn of the millennium the city and its immediate surroundings have seen buildings and projects designed by top international architects.",
"British design magazine ''Monocle'' named Copenhagen the ''World's best design city 2008''.",
"Copenhagen's urban development in the first half of the 20th century was heavily influenced by industrialisation.",
"After World War II, Copenhagen Municipality adopted Fordism and repurposed its medieval centre to facilitate private automobile infrastructure in response to innovations in transport, trade and communication.",
"Copenhagen’s spacial planning in this time frame was characterised by the separation of land uses: an approach which requires residents to travel by car to access facilities of different uses.",
"The boom in urban development and modern architecture has brought some changes to the city's skyline.",
"A political majority has decided to keep the historical centre free of high-rise buildings, but several areas will see or have already seen massive urban development.",
"Ørestad now has seen most of the recent development.",
"Located near Copenhagen Airport, it currently boasts one of the largest malls in Scandinavia and a variety of office and residential buildings as well as the IT University and a high school.",
"===Parks, gardens and zoo===\n\nRosenborg Castle and park in central Copenhagen\nCopenhagen is a green city with many parks, both large and small.",
"King's Garden (''''), the garden of Rosenborg Castle, is the oldest and most frequented of them all.",
"It was Christian IV who first developed its landscaping in 1606.",
"Every year it sees more than 2.5 million visitors and in the summer months it is packed with sunbathers, picnickers and ballplayers.",
"It serves as a sculpture garden with both a permanent display and temporary exhibits during the summer months.",
"Also located in the city centre are the Botanical Gardens noted for their large complex of 19th-century greenhouses donated by Carlsberg founder J. C. Jacobsen.",
"Fælledparken at is the largest park in Copenhagen.",
"It is popular for sports fixtures and hosts several annual events including a free opera concert at the opening of the opera season, other open-air concerts, carnival and Labour Day celebrations, and the Copenhagen Historic Grand Prix, a race for antique cars.",
"A historical green space in the northeastern part of the city is Kastellet, a well-preserved Renaissance citadel that now serves mainly as a park.",
"Another popular park is the Frederiksberg Gardens, a 32-hectare romantic landscape park.",
"It houses a colony of tame grey herons and other waterfowl.",
"The park offers views of the elephants and the elephant house designed by world-famous British architect Norman Foster of the adjacent Copenhagen Zoo.",
"Langelinie, a park and promenade along the inner Øresund coast, is home to one of Copenhagen's most-visited tourist attractions, the Little Mermaid statue.",
"In Copenhagen, many cemeteries double as parks, though only for the more quiet activities such as sunbathing, reading and meditation.",
"Assistens Cemetery, the burial place of Hans Christian Andersen, is an important green space for the district of Inner Nørrebro and a Copenhagen institution.",
"The lesser known Vestre Kirkegaard is the largest cemetery in Denmark () and offers a maze of dense groves, open lawns, winding paths, hedges, overgrown tombs, monuments, tree-lined avenues, lakes and other garden features.",
"It is official municipal policy in Copenhagen that by 2015 all citizens must be able to reach a park or beach on foot in less than 15 minutes.",
"In line with this policy, several new parks, including the innovative Superkilen in the Nørrebro district, have been completed or are under development in areas lacking green spaces.",
"===Landmarks by district===\n\n====Indre By====\nThe historic centre of the city, Indre By or the Inner City, features many of Copenhagen's most popular monuments and attractions.",
"The area known as Frederiksstaden, developed by Frederik V in the second half of the 18th century in the Rococo style, has the four mansions of Amalienborg, the royal residence, and the wide-domed Marble Church at its centre.",
"Directly across the water from Amalienborg, the recently completed Copenhagen Opera stands on the island of Holmen.",
"To the south of Frederiksstaden, the Nyhavn canal is lined with colourful houses from the 17th and 18th centuries, many now with lively restaurants and bars.",
"The canal runs from the harbour front to the spacious square of Kongens Nytorv which was laid out by Christian V in 1670.",
"Important buildings include Charlottenborg Palace, famous for its art exhibitions, the Thott Palace (now the French embassy), the Royal Danish Theatre and the Hotel D'Angleterre, dated to 1755.",
"Other landmarks in Indre By include the parliament building of Christiansborg, the City Hall and Rundetårn, originally an observatory.",
"There are also several museums in the area including Thorvaldsen Museum dedicated to the 18th-century sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen.",
"Closed to traffic since 1964, Strøget, the world's oldest and longest pedestrian street, runs the from Rådhuspladsen to Kongens Nytorv.",
"With its speciality shops, cafés, restaurants, and buskers, it is always full of life and includes the old squares of Gammel Torv and Amagertorv, each with a fountain.",
"Rosenborg Castle on Øster Voldgade was built by Christian IV in 1606 as a summer residence in the Renaissance style.",
"It houses the Danish crown jewels and crown regalia, the coronation throne and tapestries illustrating Christian V's victories in the Scanian War.",
"====Christianshavn====\nChristianshavn Canal\nChristianshavn lies to the southeast of Indre By on the other side of the harbour.",
"The area was developed by Christian IV in the early 17th century.",
"Impressed by the city of Amsterdam, he employed Dutch architects to create canals within its ramparts which are still well preserved today.",
"The canals themselves, branching off the central Christianshavn Canal and lined with house boats and pleasure craft are one of the area's attractions.",
"Another interesting feature is Freetown Christiania, a fairly large area which was initially occupied by squatters during student unrest in 1971.",
"Today it still maintains a measure of autonomy.",
"The inhabitants openly sell drugs on \"Pusher Street\" as well as their arts and crafts.",
"Other buildings of interest in Christianshavn include the Church of Our Saviour with its spiralling steeple and the magnificent Rococo Christian's Church.",
"Once a warehouse, the North Atlantic House now displays culture from Iceland and Greenland and houses the Noma restaurant, known for its Nordic cuisine.",
"====Vesterbro====\nHalmtorvet in Vesterbro\nVesterbro, to the southwest of Indre By, begins with the Tivoli Gardens, the city's top tourist attraction with its fairground atmosphere, its Pantomime Theatre, its Concert Hall and its many rides and restaurants.",
"The Carlsberg neighbourhood has some interesting vestiges of the old brewery of the same name including the Elephant Gate and the Ny Carlsberg Brewhouse.",
"The Tycho Brahe Planetarium is located on the edge of Skt.",
"Jørgens Sø, one of the Copenhagen lakes.",
"Halmtorvet, the old haymarket behind the Central Station, is an increasingly popular area with its cafés and restaurants.",
"The former cattle market Øksnehallen has been converted into a modern exhibition centre for art and photography.",
"Radisson Blu Royal Hotel, built by Danish architect and designer Arne Jacobsen for the airline Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS) between 1956 and 1960 was once the tallest hotel in Denmark with a height of and the city's only skyscraper until 1969.",
"Completed in 1908, Det Ny Teater (the New Theatre) located in a passage between Vesterbrogade and Gammel Kongevej has become a popular venue for musicals since its reopening in 1994, attracting the largest audiences in the country.",
"====Nørrebro====\nDronning Louises Bro leading into Nørrebrogade\nNørrebro to the northwest of the city centre has recently developed from a working-class district into a colourful cosmopolitan area with antique shops, ethnic food stores and restaurants.",
"Much of the activity is centred on Sankt Hans Torv.",
"Copenhagen's historic cemetery, Assistens Kirkegård halfway up Nørrebrogade, is the resting place of many famous figures including Søren Kierkegaard, Niels Bohr, and Hans Christian Andersen but is also used by locals as a park and recreation area.",
"====Østerbro====\nThe Gefion Fountain\nJust north of the city centre, Østerbro is an upper middle-class district with a number of fine mansions, some now serving as embassies.",
"The district stretches from Nørrebro to the waterfront where ''The Little Mermaid'' statue can be seen from the promenade known as Langelinie.",
"Inspired by Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale, it was created by Edvard Eriksen and unveiled in 1913.",
"Not far from the Little Mermaid, the old Citadel (''Kastellet'') can be seen.",
"Built by Christian IV, it is one of northern Europe's best preserved fortifications.",
"There is also a windmill in the area.",
"The large Gefion Fountain (''Gefionspringvandet'') designed by Anders Bundgaard and completed in 1908 stands close to the southeast corner of Kastellet.",
"Its figures illustrate a Nordic legend.",
"====Frederiksberg====\nFrederiksberg Palace\nFrederiksberg, a separate municipality within the urban area of Copenhagen, lies to the west of Nørrebro and Indre By and north of Vesterbro.",
"Its landmarks include Copenhagen Zoo founded in 1869 with over 250 species from all over the world and Frederiksberg Palace built as a summer residence by Charles IV who was inspired by Italian architecture.",
"Now a military academy, it overlooks the extensive landscaped Frederiksberg Gardens with its follies, waterfalls, lakes and decorative buildings.",
"The wide tree-lined avenue of Frederiksberg Allé connecting Vesterbrogade with the Frederiksberg Gardens has long been associated with theatres and entertainment.",
"While a number of the earlier theatres are now closed, the Betty Nansen Theatre and Aveny-T are still active.",
"====Other districts====\nNot far from Copenhagen Airport on the Kastrup coast, The Blue Planet completed in March 2013 now houses the national aquarium.",
"With its 53 aquariums, it is the largest facility of its kind in Scandinavia.",
"Grundtvig's Church, located in the northern suburb of Bispebjerg, was designed by P.V.",
"Jensen Klint and completed in 1940.",
"A rare example of Expressionist church architecture, its striking west façade is reminiscent of a church organ.",
"The Little Mermaid'' statue, an icon of the city and a popular tourist attraction\nApart from being the national capital, Copenhagen also serves as the cultural hub of Denmark and wider Scandinavia.",
"Since the late 1990s, it has undergone a transformation from a modest Scandinavian capital into a metropolitan city of international appeal in the same league as Barcelona and Amsterdam.",
"This is a result of huge investments in infrastructure and culture as well as the work of successful new Danish architects, designers and chefs.",
"Copenhagen Fashion Week, the largest fashion event in Northern Europe, takes place every year in February and August.",
"===Museums===\n\n\nCopenhagen has a wide array of museums of international standing.",
"The National Museum, ''Nationalmuseet'', is Denmark's largest museum of archaeology and cultural history, comprising the histories of Danish and foreign cultures alike.",
"Denmark's National Gallery (''Statens Museum for Kunst'') is the national art museum with collections dating from the 12th century to the present.",
"In addition to Danish painters, artists represented in the collections include Rubens, Rembrandt, Picasso, Braque, Léger, Matisse, Emil Nolde, Olafur Eliasson, Elmgreen and Dragset, Superflex and Jens Haaning.",
"Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek art museum\nAnother important Copenhagen art museum is the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek founded by second generation Carlsberg philanthropist Carl Jacobsen and built around his personal collections.",
"Its main focus is classical Egyptian, Roman and Greek sculptures and antiquities and a collection of Rodin sculptures, the largest outside France.",
"Besides its sculpture collections, the museum also holds a comprehensive collection of paintings of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist painters such as Monet, Renoir, Cézanne, van Gogh and Toulouse-Lautrec as well as works by the Danish Golden Age painters.",
"Louisiana is a museum of modern art situated on the coast just north of Copenhagen.",
"It is located in the middle of a sculpture garden on a cliff overlooking Øresund.",
"Its collection of over 3,000 items includes works by Picasso, Giacometti and Dubuffet.",
"The Danish Design Museum is housed in the 18th-century former Frederiks Hospital and displays Danish design as well as international design and crafts.",
"Other museums include: the Thorvaldsens Museum, dedicated to the oeuvre of romantic Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen who lived and worked in Rome; the Cisternerne museum dedicated to modern glass art, located in former cisterns that come complete with stalactites formed by the changing water levels; and the Ordrupgaard Museum, located just north of Copenhagen, which features 19th-century French and Danish art and is noted for its works by Paul Gauguin.",
"===Entertainment and performing arts===\nThe Royal Danish Playhouse (left) and Opera House (background, right)\nThe new Copenhagen Concert Hall opened in January 2009.",
"Designed by Jean Nouvel, it has four halls with the main auditorium seating 1,800 people.",
"It serves as the home of the Danish National Symphony Orchestra and along with the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles is the most expensive concert hall ever built.",
"Another important venue for classical music is the Tivoli Concert Hall located in the Tivoli Gardens.",
"Designed by Henning Larsen, the Copenhagen Opera House (''Operaen'') opened in 2005.",
"It is among the most modern opera houses in the world.",
"The Royal Danish Theatre also stages opera in addition to its drama productions.",
"It is also home to the Royal Danish Ballet.",
"Founded in 1748 along with the theatre, it is one of the oldest ballet troupes in Europe, and is noted for its Bournonville style of ballet.",
"The Royal Danish Theatre main building\nCopenhagen has a significant jazz scene that has existed for many years.",
"It developed when a number of American jazz musicians such as Ben Webster, Thad Jones, Richard Boone, Ernie Wilkins, Kenny Drew, Ed Thigpen, Bob Rockwell, Dexter Gordon, and others such as rock guitarist Link Wray came to live in Copenhagen during the 1960s.",
"Every year in early July, Copenhagen's streets, squares, parks as well as cafés and concert halls fill up with big and small jazz concerts during the Copenhagen Jazz Festival.",
"One of Europe's top jazz festivals, the annual event features around 900 concerts at 100 venues with over 200,000 guests from Denmark and around the world.",
"The largest venue for popular music in Copenhagen is Vega in the Vesterbro district.",
"It was chosen as \"best concert venue in Europe\" by international music magazine ''Live''.",
"The venue has three concert halls: the great hall, Store Vega, accommodates audiences of 1,550, the middle hall, Lille Vega, has space for 500 and Ideal Bar Live has a capacity of 250.",
"Every September since 2006, the Festival of Endless Gratitude (FOEG) has taken place in Copenhagen.",
"This festival focuses on indie counterculture, experimental pop music and left field music combined with visual arts exhibitions.",
"Copenhagen is home to the \"K-Town\" punk and hardcore music community.",
"This community developed around the underground scene venue Ungdomshuset in the late 90's punk scene, with punk- and hardcore acts such as Snipers, Amdi Petersens Armé, Gorilla Angreb, Young Wasteners, and No Hope For The Kids emerging as significant bands.",
"The term \"K-town\" got international recognition within the punk-scene with the emergence of \"K-Town\" festivals.",
"In 2001, the first of these was held in Ungdomshuset, on Jagtvej 69, Nørrebro, Copenhagen.",
"The festival temporarily moved to Freetown Christiania after Ungdomshuset was evicted from its original location until a new Ungdomshuset location was opened on Dortheavej 61.",
"For free entertainment one can stroll along Strøget, especially between Nytorv and Højbro Plads, which in the late afternoon and evening is a bit like an impromptu three-ring circus with musicians, magicians, jugglers and other street performers.",
"===Literature===\nCopenhagen's main public library\nMost of Denmarks's major publishing houses are based in Copenhagen.",
"These include the book publishers Gyldendal and Akademisk Forlag and newspaper publishers Berlingske and Politiken (the latter also publishing books).",
"Many of the most important contributors to Danish literature such as Hans Christian Andersen (1805–1875) with his fairy tales, the philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) and playwright Ludvig Holberg (1684–1754) spent much of their lives in Copenhagen.",
"Novels set in Copenhagen include ''Baby'' (1973) by Kirsten Thorup, ''The Copenhagen Connection'' (1982) by Barbara Mertz, ''Number the Stars'' (1989) by Lois Lowry, ''Miss Smilla's Feeling for Snow'' (1992) and ''Borderliners'' (1993) by Peter Høeg, ''Music and Silence'' (1999) by Rose Tremain, ''The Danish Girl'' (2000) by David Ebershoff, and ''Sharpe's Prey'' (2001) by Bernard Cornwell.",
"Michael Frayn's 1998 play ''Copenhagen'' about the meeting between the physicists Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg in 1941 is also set in the city.",
"On 15–18 August 1973, an oral literature conference took place in Copenhagen as part of the 9th International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences.",
"The Royal Library, belonging to the University of Copenhagen, is the largest library in the Nordic countries with an almost complete collection of all printed Danish books since 1482.",
"Founded in 1648, the Royal Library is located at four sites in the city, the main one being on the Slotsholmen waterfront.",
"Copenhagen's public library network has over 20 outlets, the largest being the Central Library (''Københavns Hovedbibliotek'') on Krystalgade in the inner city.",
"===Art===\nInterior of the National Gallery (Statens Museum for Kunst), combining new and old architecture\nCopenhagen has a wide selection of art museums and galleries displaying both historic works and more modern contributions.",
"They include Statens Museum for Kunst, i.e.",
"the Danish national art gallery, in the Østre Anlæg park, and the adjacent Hirschsprung Collection specialising in the 19th and early 20th century.",
"Kunsthal Charlottenborg in the city centre exhibits national and international contemporary art.",
"Den Frie Udstilling near the Østerport Station exhibits paintings created and selected by contemporary artists themselves rather than by the official authorities.",
"The Arken Museum of Modern Art is located in southwestern Ishøj.",
"Among artists who have painted scenes of Copenhagen are Martinus Rørbye (1803–1848), Christen Købke (1810–1848) and the prolific Paul Gustav Fischer (1860–1934).",
"A number of notable sculptures can be seen in the city.",
"In addition to ''The Little Mermaid'' on the waterfront, there are two historic equestrian statues in the city centre: Jacques Saly's ''Frederik V on Horseback'' (1771) in Amalienborg Square and the statue of Christian V on Kongens Nytorv created by Abraham-César Lamoureux in 1688 who was inspired by the statue of Louis XIII in Paris.",
"Rosenborg Castle Gardens contains several sculptures and monuments including August Saabye's Hans Christian Andersen, Aksel Hansen's Echo, and Vilhelm Bissen's Dowager Queen Caroline Amalie.",
"Copenhagen is believed to have invented the photomarathon photography competition, which has been held in the City each year since 1989.",
"===Cuisine===\n\nNoma is an example of Copenhagen's renowned experimental restaurants, and has gained two Michelin stars.",
", Copenhagen has 15 Michelin-starred restaurants, the most of any Scandinavian city.",
"The city is increasingly recognized internationally as a gourmet destination.",
"These include Den Røde Cottage, Formel B Restaurant, Grønbech & Churchill, Søllerød Kro, Kadeau, Kiin Kiin (Denmark's first Michelin-starred Asian gourmet restaurant), the French restaurant Kong Hans Kælder, Relæ, Restaurant AOC, Noma (short for Danish: ''no''rdisk ''ma''d, English: Nordic food) with two Stars and Geranium with three.",
"Noma, was ranked as the Best Restaurant in the World by ''Restaurant'' in 2010, 2011, 2012, and again in 2014, sparking interest in the New Nordic Cuisine.",
"Apart from the selection of upmarket restaurants, Copenhagen offers a great variety of Danish, ethnic and experimental restaurants.",
"It is possible to find modest eateries serving open sandwiches, known as smørrebrød – a traditional, Danish lunch dish; however, most restaurants serve international dishes.",
"Danish pastry can be sampled from any of numerous bakeries found in all parts of the city.",
"The Copenhagen Baker's Association dates back to the 1290s and Denmark's oldest confectioner's shop still operating, ''Conditori La Glace'', was founded in 1870 in Skoubogade by Nicolaus Henningsen, a trained master baker from Flensburg.",
"Copenhagen has long been associated with beer.",
"Carlsberg beer has been brewed at the brewery's premises on the border between the Vesterbro and Valby districts since 1847 and has long been almost synonymous with Danish beer production.",
"However, recent years have seen an explosive growth in the number of microbreweries so that Denmark today has more than 100 breweries, many of which are located in Copenhagen.",
"Some like ''Nørrebro Bryghus'' also act as brewpubs where it is also possible to eat on the premises.",
"===Nightlife and festivals===\nCopenhagen Pride Parade, 2008\nCopenhagen has one of the highest number of restaurants and bars per capita in the world.",
"The nightclubs and bars stay open until 5 or 6 in the morning, some even longer.",
"Denmark has a very liberal alcohol culture and a strong tradition for beer breweries, although binge drinking is frowned upon and the Danish Police take driving under the influence very seriously.",
"Inner city areas such as Istedgade and Enghave Plads in Vesterbro, Sankt Hans Torv in Nørrebro and certain places in Frederiksberg are especially noted for their nightlife.",
"Notable nightclubs include Bakken Kbh, ARCH (previously ZEN), Jolene, The Jane, Chateau Motel, KB3, At Dolores (previously Sunday Club), Rust, Vega Nightclub, Culture Box and Gefährlich, which also serves as a bar, café, restaurant, and art gallery.",
"Copenhagen has several recurring community festivals, mainly in the summer.",
"Copenhagen Carnival has taken place every year since 1982 during the Whitsun Holiday in Fælledparken and around the city with the participation of 120 bands, 2,000 dancers and 100,000 spectators.",
"Since 2010, the old B&W Shipyard at Refshaleøen in the harbour has been the location for Copenhell, a heavy metal rock music festival.",
"Copenhagen Pride is a gay pride festival taking place every year in August.",
"The Pride has a series of different activities all over Copenhagen, but it is at the City Hall Square that most of the celebration takes place.",
"During the Pride the square is renamed Pride Square.",
"Copenhagen Distortion has emerged to be one of the biggest street festivals in Europe with 100.000 people joining to parties in the beginning of June every year.",
"===Amusement parks===\nPantomime Theatre, opened in 1874, is the oldest building in the Tivoli Gardens\nCopenhagen has the two oldest amusement parks in the world.",
"Dyrehavsbakken, a fair-ground and pleasure-park established in 1583, is located in Klampenborg just north of Copenhagen in a forested area known as Dyrehaven.",
"Created as an amusement park complete with rides, games and restaurants by Christian IV, it is the oldest surviving amusement park in the world.",
"Pierrot (), a nitwit dressed in white with a scarlet grin wearing a boat-like hat while entertaining children, remains one of the park's key attractions.",
"In Danish, Dyrehavsbakken is often abbreviated as ''Bakken''.",
"There is no entrance fee to pay and Klampenborg Station on the C-line, is situated nearby.",
"The Tivoli Gardens is an amusement park and pleasure garden located in central Copenhagen between the City Hall Square and the Central Station.",
"It opened in 1843, making it the second oldest amusement park in the world.",
"Among its rides are the oldest still operating rollercoaster ''Rutschebanen'' from 1915 and the oldest ferris wheel still in use, opened in 1943.",
"Tivoli Gardens also serves as a venue for various performing arts and as an active part of the cultural scene in Copenhagen.",
"The main building of the University of Copenhagen\nCopenhagen has over 94,000 students enrolled in its largest universities and institutions: University of Copenhagen (38,867 students), Copenhagen Business School (19,999 students), Metropolitan University College and University College Capital (10,000 students each), Technical University of Denmark (7,000 students), KEA (c. 4,500 students), IT University of Copenhagen (2,000 students) and Aalborg University – Copenhagen (2,300 students).",
"The University of Copenhagen is Denmark's oldest university founded in 1479.",
"It attracts some 1,500 international and exchange students every year.",
"The Academic Ranking of World Universities placed it 30th in the world in 2016.",
"The Technical University of Denmark is located in Lyngby in the northern outskirts of Copenhagen.",
"In 2013, it was ranked as one of the leading technical universities in Northern Europe.",
"The IT University is Denmark's youngest university, a mono-faculty institution focusing on technical, societal and business aspects of information technology.",
"The Danish Academy of Fine Arts has provided education in the arts for more than 250 years.",
"It includes the historic School of Visual Arts, and has in later years come to include a School of Architecture, a School of Design and a School of Conservation.",
"Copenhagen Business School (CBS) is an EQUIS-accredited business school located in Frederiksberg.",
"There are also branches of both University College Capital and Metropolitan University College inside and outside Copenhagen.",
"The city has a variety of sporting teams.",
"The major football teams are the historically successful FC København and Brøndby.",
"FC København plays at Parken in Østerbro.",
"Formed in 1992, it is a merger of two older Copenhagen clubs, B 1903 (from the inner suburb Gentofte) and KB (from Frederiksberg).",
"Brøndby plays at Brøndby Stadion in the inner suburb of Brøndbyvester.",
"BK Frem is based in the southern part of Copenhagen (Sydhavnen, Valby).",
"Other teams are FC Nordsjælland (from suburban Farum), Fremad Amager, B93, AB, Lyngby and Hvidovre IF.",
"Copenhagen Marathon 2008\nCopenhagen has several handball teams—a sport which is particularly popular in Denmark.",
"Of clubs playing in the \"highest\" leagues, there are Ajax, Ydun, and HIK (Hellerup).",
"The København Håndbold women's club has recently been established.",
"Copenhagen also has ice hockey teams, of which three play in the top league, Rødovre Mighty Bulls, Herlev Eagles and Hvidovre Ligahockey all inner suburban clubs.",
"Copenhagen Ice Skating Club founded in 1869 is the oldest ice hockey team in Denmark but is no longer in the top league.",
"Rugby union is also played in the Danish capital with teams such as CSR-Nanok, Copenhagen Business School Sport Rugby, Frederiksberg RK, Exiles RUFC and Rugbyklubben Speed.",
"Rugby league is now played in Copenhagen, with the national team playing out of Gentofte Stadion.",
"The Danish Australian Football League, based in Copenhagen is the largest Australian rules football competition outside of the English-speaking world.",
"Copenhagen Marathon, Copenhagen's annual marathon event, was established in 1980.",
"Round Christiansborg Open Water Swim Race is a open water swimming competition taking place each year in late August.",
"This amateur event is combined with a Danish championship.",
"In 2009 the event included a FINA World Cup competition in the morning.",
"Copenhagen hosted the 2011 UCI Road World Championships in September 2011, taking advantage of its bicycle-friendly infrastructure.",
"It was the first time that Denmark had hosted the event since 1956, when it was also held in Copenhagen.",
"\n\nCopenhagen Airport, Kastrup\nThe greater Copenhagen area has a very well established transportation infrastructure making it a hub in Northern Europe.",
"Copenhagen Airport, opened in 1925, is Scandinavia's largest airport, located in Kastrup on the island of Amager.",
"It is connected to the city centre by metro and main line railway services.",
"October 2013 was a record month with 2.2 million passengers, and November 2013 figures reveal that the number of passengers is increasing by some 3% annually, about 50% more than the European average.",
"S-train at Copenhagen Central Station\nCopenhagen has an extensive road network including motorways connecting the city to other parts of Denmark and to Sweden over the Øresund Bridge.",
"The car is still the most popular form of transport within the city itself, representing two-thirds of all distances travelled.",
"This can however lead to serious congestion in rush hour traffic.",
"Copenhagen is also served by a daily ferry connection to Oslo in Norway.",
"In 2012, Copenhagen Harbour handled 372 cruise ships and 840,000 passengers.",
"The intense use of bicycles here illustrated at the Christianshavn Metro Station\nThe Copenhagen S-Train, Copenhagen Metro and the regional train networks are used by about half of the city's passengers, the remainder using bus services.",
"Nørreport Station near the city centre serves passengers travelling by main-line rail, S-train, regional train, metro and bus.",
"Some 750,000 passengers make use of public transport facilities every day.",
"Copenhagen Central Station is the hub of the DSB railway network serving Denmark and international destinations.",
"The Danish capital is known as one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world, with bicycles actually outnumbering its inhabitants.",
"In 2012 some 36% of all working or studying city-dwellers cycled to work, school, or university.",
"With 1.27 million km covered every working day by Copenhagen's cyclists (including both residents and commuters), and 75% of Copenhageners cycling throughout the year.",
"The city's bicycle paths are extensive and well used, boasting of cycle lanes not shared with cars or pedestrians, and sometimes have their own signal systems – giving the cyclists a lead of a couple of seconds to accelerate.",
"\n\nPromoting health is an extremely important issue for Copenhagen's municipal authorities.",
"Central to its sustainability mission is its \"Long Live Copenhagen\" (''Længe Leve København'') scheme in which it has the goal of increasing the life expectancy of citizens, improving quality of life through better standards of health, and encouraging more productive lives and equal opportunities.",
"The city has targets to encourage people to exercise regularly and to reduce the number who smoke and consume alcohol.",
"Rigshospitalet is one of the largest hospitals in Denmark.",
"Copenhagen University Hospital forms a conglomerate of several hospitals in Region Hovedstaden and Region Sjælland, together with the faculty of health sciences at the University of Copenhagen; Rigshospitalet and Bispebjerg Hospital in Copenhagen belong to this group of university hospitals.",
"Rigshospitalet began operating in March 1757 as Frederiks Hospital, and became state-owned in 1903.",
"With 1,120 beds, Rigshospitalet has responsibility for 65,000 inpatients and approximately 420,000 outpatients annually.",
"It seeks to be the number one specialist hospital in the country, with an extensive team of researchers into cancer treatment, surgery and radiotherapy.",
"In addition to its 8,000 personnel, the hospital has training and hosting functions.",
"It benefits from the presence of in-service students of medicine and other healthcare sciences, as well as scientists working under a variety of research grants.",
"The hospital became internationally famous as the location of Lars von Trier's television horror mini-series ''The Kingdom''.",
"Bispebjerg Hospital was built in 1913, and serves about 400,000 people in the Greater Copenhagen area, with some 3,000 employees.",
"Other large hospitals in the city include Amager Hospital (1997), Herlev Hospital (1976), Hvidovre Hospital (1970), and Gentofte Hospital (1927).",
"Aller Media conglomerate building in Havneholm\nMany Danish media corporations are located in Copenhagen.",
"DR, the major Danish public service broadcasting corporation collected their activities in a new headquarters, DR Byen, in 2006 and 2007.",
"Similarly TV2 which is based in Odense has concentrated its Copenhagen activities in a modern media house in Teglholmen.",
"The two national daily newspapers ''Politiken'' and ''Berlingske Tidende'' and the two tabloids ''Ekstra Bladet'' and ''B.T.''",
"are based in Copenhagen.",
"''Kristeligt Dagblad'' is based in Copenhagen and is published six days a week.",
"Other important media corporations include Aller Media which is the largest publisher of weekly and monthly magazines in Scandinavia, the Egmont media group and Gyldendal, the largest Danish publisher of books.",
"Copenhagen also has a sizable film and television industry.",
"Nordisk Film, established in Valby, Copenhagen in 1906 is the oldest continuously operating film production company in the world.",
"In 1992 it merged with the Egmont media group and currently runs the 17-screen Palads Cinema in Copenhagen.",
"Filmbyen (movie city), located in a former military camp in the suburb of Hvidovre, houses several movie companies and studios.",
"Among the movie companies is Zentropa, co-owned by Danish movie director Lars von Trier who is behind several international movie productions as well as a founding force behind the Dogme Movement.",
"CPH:PIX is Copenhagen's international feature film festival, established in 2009 as a fusion of the 20-year-old Natfilm festival and the four-year-old CIFF.",
"The CPH:PIX festival takes place in mid-April.",
"CPH:DOX is Copenhagen's international documentary film festival, every year in November.",
"On top of its documentary film programme of over 100 films, CPH:DOX includes a wide event programme with dozens of events, concerts, exhibitions and parties all over town.",
"\nCopenhagen is twinned or cooperating with several cities, including:\n\n\n* Beijing, China\n\n* Paris, France (friendship and cooperation agreement only)\n\n* Reykjavík, Iceland\n\n* Campeche, Mexico",
"\n*:Category: People from Copenhagen\n*2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen\n*Architecture in Copenhagen\n*Copenhagen Climate Council\n*Outline of Denmark\n*Ports of the Baltic Sea",
"*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*",
"* VisitCopenhagen.dk – Official VisitCopenhagen tourism website"
] | finance |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Capital''' may refer to:\n\n* Capital city, the area of a country, province, region, or state, regarded as enjoying primary status, usually but not always the seat of the government\n* Capital letter, an upper-case letter in a writing system\n** Capitals (typeface), a small-caps serif typeface\n** Illuminated capital in a manuscript\n* Capital punishment, the death sentence\n\n\n",
"\n* Capital (architecture), the crowning member of a column or a pilaster\n* Capital (fortification), a proportion of a bastion\n",
"\n* Capital Bible Seminary, the seminary component of Washington Bible College with its main campus in Lanham, Maryland\n* Capital Community College, a community college in Hartford, Connecticut\n* Capital University, a four-year private university in Columbus, Ohio\n* Capitol Technology University, a private, non-profit, and non-sectarian college located just south of Laurel, Maryland\n* Penn State Harrisburg, also called: ''The Capital College''citation needed an undergraduate college and graduate school of the Pennsylvania State University, in Middletown, Pennsylvania\n",
"\n* Capital (economics), a factor of production that is not wanted for itself but for its ability to help in producing other goods\n* Capital requirement or \"bank capital\", the requirement that banks keep certain monetary reserves\n* Cultural capital, the advantage individuals can gain from mastering the cultural tastes of a privileged group\n* Financial capital, any form of wealth capable of being employed in the production of more wealth\n* Human capital, workers' skills and abilities as regards their contribution to an economy\n* Intellectual capital, intangible assets, for example, knowledge, resource know-how and processes\n* Natural capital, the resources of an ecosystem that yields a flow of goods and services into the future\n* Physical capital, any non-human asset made by humans and then used in production\n* Political capital, means by which a politician or political party may gain support or popularity\n* Positive psychological capital, the value of an individual's level of optimism, hope, resilience, self-efficacy\n* Public capital, means of production other than natural capital\n* Social capital, the value of social networks to individuals embedded in them\n* Symbolic capital, it can be language and/or images that circulate as power. Or, symbolic capital is one of the four types of capital in Pierre Bourdieu's theory; it can be a type of capital that is strongly correlated to social capital, and it comes into existence once it is perceived and recognized as legitimate.\n* Working capital, short term capital needed by the company to finance its operations\n",
"\n===Films===\n*''Capital'' (film), 2012 French drama film\n\n===Literature===\n* ''Capital'' (novel), a novel by John Lanchester\n\n===Music===\n* Capital (band), a band from the UK\n* Capital Cities (band), a band from the US\n* \"Capital\", a song by We Stood Like Kings from the album ''USSR 1926'' (2015), a new soundtrack for the silent movie A Sixth Part of the World.\n\n===Publications===\n* ''Capital: Critique of Political Economy'', a work by political economist Karl Marx\n* ''Capital'' (French magazine), a French-language magazine\n* ''Capital'' (German magazine), a German-language magazine\n* ''Capital'' (newspaper), a Bulgarian business-oriented weekly newspaper\n* ''Capital'' (Romanian newspaper), a Romanian business-oriented weekly newspaper\n* ''Capital'' (Ukrainian newspaper), a Ukrainian weekly newspaper\n* ''Kapital'' (newspaper), a Macedonian weekly newspaper\n* ''Capital'', online newszine published in Albany, New York, United States\n* ''Capital Ethiopia'', also known as: ''Capital'', an Ethiopian business-oriented weekly English-language newspaper\n* ''Capital in the Twenty-First Century'' a 2013 bestselling book by French economist Thomas Piketty\n* ''Capital New York'', an online news site owned by ''Politico''\n* ''The Capital'', a daily newspaper based in Annapolis, Maryland, United States\n\n===Radio===\n* Capital Radio (disambiguation), various radio stations named Capital\n* Capital (radio network), a network of nine Independent Local Radio stations in the United Kingdom\n\n===Television===\n* ''Capital'', an Iranian TV Series\n*''Capital'', a three part BBC television adaptation of John Lanchester's novel of the same name.\n",
"* Capital Clube de Futebol, a Brazilian football (soccer) club\n* Delhi Capitals, an Indian basketball team\n* Edinburgh Capitals, a Scottish ice-hockey team\n* Edmonton Capitals, a baseball team\n* University of Canberra Capitals, an Australian women's basketball team\n* Vienna Capitals, an Austrian ice-hockey team\n* Washington Capitals, a National Hockey League team (USA)\n",
"* Capital Airlines (UK), was an airline based in the United Kingdom and self-proclaimed \"Yorkshire International Airlines\"\n* Capital ship, a classification of a naval vessel\n",
"* \n* \n* Capitalism\n* Capitalization (disambiguation)\n* List of national capitals\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Architecture ",
" Colleges, seminaries, and universities ",
" Forms of capital ",
"Media ",
" Sports ",
"Transportation and vessels",
" See also "
] | Capital | [
"\n* Capital (economics), a factor of production that is not wanted for itself but for its ability to help in producing other goods\n* Capital requirement or \"bank capital\", the requirement that banks keep certain monetary reserves\n* Cultural capital, the advantage individuals can gain from mastering the cultural tastes of a privileged group\n* Financial capital, any form of wealth capable of being employed in the production of more wealth\n* Human capital, workers' skills and abilities as regards their contribution to an economy\n* Intellectual capital, intangible assets, for example, knowledge, resource know-how and processes\n* Natural capital, the resources of an ecosystem that yields a flow of goods and services into the future\n* Physical capital, any non-human asset made by humans and then used in production\n* Political capital, means by which a politician or political party may gain support or popularity\n* Positive psychological capital, the value of an individual's level of optimism, hope, resilience, self-efficacy\n* Public capital, means of production other than natural capital\n* Social capital, the value of social networks to individuals embedded in them\n* Symbolic capital, it can be language and/or images that circulate as power."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Capital''' may refer to:\n\n* Capital city, the area of a country, province, region, or state, regarded as enjoying primary status, usually but not always the seat of the government\n* Capital letter, an upper-case letter in a writing system\n** Capitals (typeface), a small-caps serif typeface\n** Illuminated capital in a manuscript\n* Capital punishment, the death sentence",
"\n* Capital (architecture), the crowning member of a column or a pilaster\n* Capital (fortification), a proportion of a bastion",
"\n* Capital Bible Seminary, the seminary component of Washington Bible College with its main campus in Lanham, Maryland\n* Capital Community College, a community college in Hartford, Connecticut\n* Capital University, a four-year private university in Columbus, Ohio\n* Capitol Technology University, a private, non-profit, and non-sectarian college located just south of Laurel, Maryland\n* Penn State Harrisburg, also called: ''The Capital College''citation needed an undergraduate college and graduate school of the Pennsylvania State University, in Middletown, Pennsylvania",
"Or, symbolic capital is one of the four types of capital in Pierre Bourdieu's theory; it can be a type of capital that is strongly correlated to social capital, and it comes into existence once it is perceived and recognized as legitimate.",
"* Working capital, short term capital needed by the company to finance its operations",
"\n===Films===\n*''Capital'' (film), 2012 French drama film\n\n===Literature===\n* ''Capital'' (novel), a novel by John Lanchester\n\n===Music===\n* Capital (band), a band from the UK\n* Capital Cities (band), a band from the US\n* \"Capital\", a song by We Stood Like Kings from the album ''USSR 1926'' (2015), a new soundtrack for the silent movie A Sixth Part of the World.",
"===Publications===\n* ''Capital: Critique of Political Economy'', a work by political economist Karl Marx\n* ''Capital'' (French magazine), a French-language magazine\n* ''Capital'' (German magazine), a German-language magazine\n* ''Capital'' (newspaper), a Bulgarian business-oriented weekly newspaper\n* ''Capital'' (Romanian newspaper), a Romanian business-oriented weekly newspaper\n* ''Capital'' (Ukrainian newspaper), a Ukrainian weekly newspaper\n* ''Kapital'' (newspaper), a Macedonian weekly newspaper\n* ''Capital'', online newszine published in Albany, New York, United States\n* ''Capital Ethiopia'', also known as: ''Capital'', an Ethiopian business-oriented weekly English-language newspaper\n* ''Capital in the Twenty-First Century'' a 2013 bestselling book by French economist Thomas Piketty\n* ''Capital New York'', an online news site owned by ''Politico''\n* ''The Capital'', a daily newspaper based in Annapolis, Maryland, United States\n\n===Radio===\n* Capital Radio (disambiguation), various radio stations named Capital\n* Capital (radio network), a network of nine Independent Local Radio stations in the United Kingdom\n\n===Television===\n* ''Capital'', an Iranian TV Series\n*''Capital'', a three part BBC television adaptation of John Lanchester's novel of the same name.",
"* Capital Clube de Futebol, a Brazilian football (soccer) club\n* Delhi Capitals, an Indian basketball team\n* Edinburgh Capitals, a Scottish ice-hockey team\n* Edmonton Capitals, a baseball team\n* University of Canberra Capitals, an Australian women's basketball team\n* Vienna Capitals, an Austrian ice-hockey team\n* Washington Capitals, a National Hockey League team (USA)",
"* Capital Airlines (UK), was an airline based in the United Kingdom and self-proclaimed \"Yorkshire International Airlines\"\n* Capital ship, a classification of a naval vessel",
"* \n* \n* Capitalism\n* Capitalization (disambiguation)\n* List of national capitals"
] | finance |
[
"\nThis article is about the demographic features of the population of Canada, including population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population, the People of Canada.\n",
"\nThe Canada 2016 Census had a total population count of 35,151,728 individuals, making up approximately 0.5% of the world's total population. Estimates have the population over 36 million as of July 2016.\n\n=== Provinces and territories ===\n\n\nProvince or territory\nPopulation,\n2016 Census\nPopulation,\n2011 Census\nPopulation \nChange (%),\n\n2011-2016\nTotal landarea (km2)\nDensity(people/km2)\nHouse ofCommons seats\nPeople perseat\n\nNumber\nPercentage\n Number\n Percentage\n\n \n13,448,494\n38.26%\n\n 38.39%\n4.6%\n\n 12.19\n 121\n \n\n \n8,164,361\n23.23%\n\n 23.61%\n3.3%\n\n 5.76\n 78\n \n\n \n4,648,055\n13.22%\n\n 13.14%\n5.6%\n\n 4.84\n 42\n \n\n \n4,067,175\n11.57%\n\n 10.89%\n11.6%\n\n 5.77\n 34\n \n\n \n1,278,365\n3.64%\n\n 3.61%\n5.8%\n\n 2.22\n 14\n \n\n \n1,098,352\n3.12%\n\n 3.09%\n6.3%\n\n 1.75\n 14\n \n\n \n923,598\n2.63%\n\n 2.75%\n0.2%\n\n 17.63\n 11\n \n\n \n747,101\n2.13%\n\n 2.24%\n\n\n 10.50\n 10\n \n\n \n519,716\n1.48%\n\n 1.54%\n1.0%\n\n 1.36\n 7\n \n\n \n142,907\n0.41%\n\n 0.42%\n1.9%\n\n 24.98\n 4\n \n\n \n41,786\n0.12%\n\n 0.12%\n0.8%\n\n 0.04\n 1\n \n\n \n35,944\n0.10%\n\n 0.09%\n12.7%\n\n 0.02\n 1\n \n\n \n35,874\n0.10%\n\n 0.10%\n5.8%\n\n 0.07\n 1\n \n\n \n35,151,728\n100%\n \n 100%\n5.0%\n \n 3.73\n 338\n \n\n\n:Sources: Statistics Canada\n\n=== Cities ===\n\n\n\n=== Census metropolitan areas ===\n\n\n\n===Population growth rates===\nAccording to OECD/World Bank, the population in Canada increased from 1990 to 2008 with 5.6 million and 20.4% growth in population, compared to 21.7% growth in the United States and 31.2% growth in Mexico. According to the OECD/World Bank population statistics, between 1990–2008 the world population growth was 27%, a total of 1,423 million people.\n\n\n\n Rank\n Province or territory\n Population(2011)\n Population(2006)\n Difference\n Change(%)\n\n 1\n Ontario\n\n\n''''''\n 5.7\n\n 2\n Quebec\n\n\n''''''\n 4.7\n\n 3\n British Columbia\n\n\n''''''\n 7.0\n\n 4\n Alberta\n\n\n''''''\n 10.8\n\n 5\n Manitoba\n\n\n''''''\n 5.2\n\n 6\n Saskatchewan\n\n\n''''''\n 6.7\n\n 7\n Nova Scotia\n\n\n''''''\n 0.9\n\n 8\n New Brunswick\n\n\n''''''\n 2.9\n\n 9\n Newfoundland and Labrador\n\n\n''''''\n 1.8\n\n 10\n Prince Edward Island\n\n\n''''''\n 3.2\n\n 11\n Northwest Territories\n\n\n''''''\n 0.0\n\n 12\n Yukon\n\n\n''''''\n 11.6\n\n 13\n Nunavut\n\n\n''''''\n 8.3\n\n Total\n Canada\n\n\n\n 5.9\n\n\n'''Derived from:''' Statistics Canada – (table) Population and Dwelling Counts, for Canada, Provinces and Territories, 2011 and 2006 Censuses – 100% Data\n\n===Population projection===\n\n\n\n\n\n\n",
"\n\n\n\n Average population (x 1,000)\n Live births\n Deaths\n Natural change\n Birth rate (per 1,000)\n Death rate (per 1,000)\n Natural change (per 1,000)\n\n 1900\n5,500\n150,000\n89,000\n61,000\n27.2\n16.2\n11.0\n\n 1901\n5,600\n175,000\n79,000\n96,000\n31.2\n14.1\n17.1\n\n 1902\n5,760\n180,000\n77,000\n103,000\n31.3\n13.4\n17.9\n\n 1903\n5,930\n186,000\n78,000\n108,000\n31.3\n13.2\n18.1\n\n 1904\n6,100\n192,000\n82,000\n110,000\n31.4\n13.5\n17.9\n\n 1905\n6,280\n195,000\n82,000\n113,000\n31.0\n13.0\n18.0\n\n 1906\n6,460\n193,000\n85,000\n108,000\n29.9\n13.2\n16.7\n\n 1907\n6,650\n196,000\n85,000\n111,000\n29.5\n12.8\n16.7\n\n 1908\n6,850\n208,000\n86,000\n122,000\n30.3\n12.6\n17.7\n\n 1909\n7,040\n213,000\n90,000\n123,000\n30.2\n12.8\n17.4\n\n 1910\n7,250\n220,000\n95,000\n125,000\n30.4\n13.1\n17.3\n\n 1911\n7,460\n225,000\n100,000\n125,000\n30.1\n13.4\n16.7\n\n 1912\n7,610\n238,000\n99,000\n139,000\n31.3\n13.0\n19.3\n\n 1913\n7,760\n246,000\n102,000\n144,000\n31.7\n13.1\n19.6\n\n 1914\n7,910\n252,000\n100,000\n152,000\n31.9\n12.6\n19.3\n\n 1915\n8,060\n257,000\n101,000\n156,000\n31.9\n12.5\n19.4\n\n 1916\n8,220\n252,000\n107,000\n145,000\n30.7\n13.0\n17.7\n\n 1917\n8,380\n244,000\n106,000\n138,000\n29.1\n12.7\n16.4\n\n 1918\n8,450\n243,000\n134,000\n109,000\n28.8\n15.9\n12.9\n\n 1919\n8,710\n241,000\n119,000\n122,000\n27.7\n13.7\n14.0\n\n 1920\n8,880\n259,000\n118,000\n141,000\n29.2\n13.3\n15.9\n\n 1921\n9,060\n265,000\n105,000\n160,000\n29.3\n11.6\n17.7\n\n 1922\n9,230\n261,000\n107,000\n154,000\n28.3\n11.6\n16.7\n\n 1923\n9,400\n251,000\n111,000\n140,000\n26.7\n11.8\n14.9\n\n 1924\n9,560\n255,000\n104,000\n151,000\n26.7\n10.9\n15.8\n\n 1925\n9,730\n254,000\n104,000\n150,000\n26.1\n10.7\n15.4\n\n 1926\n9,890\n244,000\n113,000\n131,000\n24.7\n11.4\n13.3\n\n 1927\n10,040\n244,000\n110,000\n134,000\n24.3\n11.0\n13.3\n\n 1928\n10,190\n246,000\n114,000\n132,000\n24.1\n11.2\n12.9\n\n 1929\n10,350\n243,000\n118,000\n125,000\n23.5\n11.4\n12.1\n\n 1930\n10,498\n251,000\n113,000\n138,000\n23.9\n10.8\n13.1\n\n 1931\n10,630\n247,000\n108,000\n139,000\n23.2\n10.2\n13.0\n\n 1932\n10,794\n243,000\n108,000\n135,000\n22.5\n10.0\n12.5\n\n 1933\n10,919\n229,000\n106,000\n123,000\n21.0\n9.7\n11.3\n\n 1934\n11,029\n228,296\n105,277\n123,019\n20.7\n9.5\n11.2\n\n 1935\n11,135\n228,396\n109,724\n118,672\n20.5\n9.9\n10.6\n\n 1936\n11,242\n227,980\n111,111\n116,869\n20.3\n9.9\n10.4\n\n 1937\n11,339\n227,878\n118,019\n109,859\n20.1\n10.4\n9.7\n\n 1938\n11,448\n237,091\n110,647\n126,444\n20.7\n9.7\n11.0\n\n 1939\n11,565\n237,991\n112,729\n125,262\n20.6\n9.7\n10.9\n\n 1940\n11,682\n252,577\n114,717\n137,860\n21.6\n9.8\n11.8\n\n 1941\n11,810\n263,993\n118,797\n145,196\n22.4\n10.1\n12.3\n\n 1942\n11,962\n281,569\n117,110\n164,459\n23.5\n9.8\n13.7\n\n 1943\n12,125\n292,943\n122,640\n170,303\n24.2\n10.1\n14.1\n\n 1944\n12,291\n283,967\n120,393\n163,574\n24.0\n9.8\n14.2\n\n 1945\n12,441\n300,570\n117,319\n183,251\n24.3\n9.5\n14.8\n\n 1946\n12,637\n343,504\n118,785\n224,719\n27.2\n9.4\n17.8\n\n 1947\n12,919\n372,443\n121,478\n250,965\n28.9\n9.4\n19.5\n\n 1948\n13,167\n359,860\n122,974\n236,886\n27.3\n9.3\n18.0\n\n 1949\n13,475\n367,092\n124,567\n242,525\n27.2\n9.2\n18.0\n\n 1950\n13,737\n372,009\n124,220\n247,789\n27.1\n9.0\n18.0\n\n 1951\n14,050\n381,092\n125,823\n255,269\n27.1\n9.0\n18.2\n\n 1952\n14,496\n403,559\n126,385\n277,174\n27.8\n8.7\n19.1\n\n 1953\n14,886\n417,884\n127,791\n290,093\n28.1\n8.6\n19.5\n\n 1954\n15,330\n436,198\n124,855\n311,343\n28.5\n8.1\n20.3\n\n 1955\n15,736\n442,937\n128,476\n314,461\n28.1\n8.2\n20.0\n\n 1956\n16,123\n450,739\n131,961\n318,778\n28.0\n8.2\n19.8\n\n 1957\n16,677\n469,093\n136,579\n332,514\n28.1\n8.2\n19.9\n\n 1958\n17,120\n470,118\n135,201\n334,917\n27.5\n7.9\n19.6\n\n 1959\n17,522\n479,275\n139,913\n339,362\n27.4\n8.0\n19.4\n\n 1960\n17,909\n478,551\n139,693\n338,858\n26.7\n7.8\n18.9\n\n 1961\n18,271\n475,700\n140,985\n334,715\n26.0\n7.7\n18.3\n\n 1962\n18,614\n469,693\n143,699\n325,994\n25.2\n7.7\n17.5\n\n 1963\n18,964\n465,767\n147,367\n318,400\n24.6\n7.8\n16.8\n\n 1964\n19,325\n452,915\n145,850\n307,065\n23.4\n7.5\n15.9\n\n 1965\n19,678\n418,595\n148,939\n269,656\n21.3\n7.6\n13.7\n\n 1966\n20,048\n387,710\n149,863\n237,847\n19.3\n7.5\n11.9\n\n 1967\n20,412\n370,894\n150,283\n220,611\n18.2\n7.4\n10.8\n\n 1968\n20,744\n364,310\n153,196\n211,114\n17.6\n7.4\n10.2\n\n 1969\n21,028\n369,647\n154,477\n215,170\n17.6\n7.3\n10.2\n\n 1970\n21,324\n371,988\n155,961\n216,027\n17.4\n7.3\n10.1\n\n 1971\n21,962\n362,187\n157,272\n204,915\n16.7\n7.3\n9.5\n\n 1972\n22,218\n347,319\n162,413\n184,906\n15.8\n7.4\n8.4\n\n 1973\n22,492\n343,373\n164,039\n179,334\n15.4\n7.4\n8.1\n\n 1974\n22,808\n350,650\n166,794\n178,851\n15.3\n7.4\n7.9\n\n 1975\n23,143\n359,323\n167,176\n191,919\n15.6\n7.3\n8.3\n\n 1976\n23,450\n359,987\n167,009\n192,978\n15.4\n7.2\n8.3\n\n 1977\n23,726\n361,400\n167,498\n193,902\n15.3\n7.1\n8.2\n\n 1978\n23,963\n358,852\n168,179\n190,673\n15.0\n7.0\n8.0\n\n 1979\n24,202\n366,064\n168,183\n197,881\n15.1\n6.9\n8.2\n\n 1980\n24,516\n370,709\n171,473\n199,236\n15.1\n7.0\n8.1\n\n 1981\n24,820\n371,346\n171,029\n200,317\n14.9\n6.8\n8.0\n\n 1982\n25,117\n373,082\n174,413\n198,669\n14.8\n6.9\n7.9\n\n 1983\n25,367\n373,689\n174,484\n199,205\n14.6\n6.8\n7.8\n\n 1984\n25,608\n377,031\n175,727\n201,304\n14.6\n6.8\n7.8\n\n 1985\n25,843\n375,727\n181,323\n194,404\n14.4\n7.0\n7.5\n\n 1986\n26,101\n372,913\n184,224\n188,689\n14.3\n7.1\n7.2\n\n 1987\n26,449\n369,742\n184,953\n184,789\n14.0\n7.0\n7.0\n\n 1988\n26,795\n376,795\n190,011\n186,784\n14.1\n7.1\n7.0\n\n 1989\n27,282\n392,661\n190,965\n201,696\n14.4\n7.0\n7.4\n\n 1990\n27,698\n405,486\n191,973\n213,513\n14.6\n6.9\n7.7\n\n 1991\n28,031\n402,533\n195,569\n206,964\n14.4\n7.0\n7.4\n\n 1992\n28,367\n398,643\n196,535\n202,108\n14.1\n6.9\n7.1\n\n 1993\n28,682\n388,394\n204,912\n183,482\n13.5\n7.1\n6.4\n\n 1994\n28,999\n385,114\n207,077\n178,037\n13.3\n7.1\n6.1\n\n 1995\n29,302\n378,016\n210,733\n167,283\n12.9\n7.2\n5.7\n\n 1996\n29,611\n366,200\n212,880\n153,320\n12.4\n7.2\n5.2\n\n 1997\n29,907\n348,598\n215,669\n132,929\n11.7\n7.2\n4.4\n\n 1998\n30,157\n342,418\n218,091\n124,327\n11.4\n7.2\n4.1\n\n 1999\n30,404\n337,249\n219,530\n117,719\n11.1\n7.2\n3.9\n\n 2000\n30,689\n327,882\n218,062\n109,820\n10.7\n7.1\n3.6\n\n 2001\n31,021\n333,744\n219,538\n114,206\n10.8\n7.1\n3.7\n\n 2002\n31,373\n328,802\n223,603\n105,199\n10.5\n7.1\n3.4\n\n 2003\n31,676\n335,202\n226,169\n109,033\n10.6\n7.1\n3.4\n\n 2004\n31,941\n337,072\n226,584\n110,488\n10.6\n7.1\n3.5\n\n 2005\n32,245\n342,176\n230,132\n112,044\n10.6\n7.1\n3.5\n\n 2006\n32,576\n354,617\n228,079\n126,538\n10.9\n7.0\n3.9\n\n 2007\n32,930\n367,864\n235,217\n132,647\n11.2\n7.1\n4.0\n\n 2008\n33,318\n377,886\n238,617\n139,269\n11.3\n7.2\n4.2\n\n 2009\n33,727\n380,863\n242,277\n138,586\n11.3\n7.2\n4.1\n\n 2010\n34,127\n377,213\n247,926\n129,287\n11.1\n7.3\n3.8\n\n 2011\n34,484\n377,636\n254,731\n122,905\n11.0\n7.4\n3.6\n\n 2012\n34,880\n381,429 \n256,965\n124,464\n10.9\n7.4\n3.6\n\n 2013\n35,293\n386,044 \n256,982\n129,062\n11.0\n7.4\n3.7\n\n2014\n35,667\n389,914\n266,164\n123,750\n10.9\n7.6\n3.3\n\n2015\n35,981\n390,836\n267,875\n122,961\n10.9\n7.6\n3.3\n\n2016(p)\n36,503\n395,065\n272,891\n122,174\n10.8\n7.5\n3.3\n\n\n(p)=January–September 2016\n\n===Current population growth===\n\n*Births from January–March 2016 = 94,517\n*Births from January–March 2017 = 94,851\n*Deaths from January–March 2016 = 71,278\n*Deaths from January–March 2017 = 74,985\n*Natural increase from January–March 2016 = 23,239\n*Natural increase from January–March 2017 = 19,866\n\n'''Age characteristics:'''\n\n Population by age and gender, 2011\n\nAge group\nMale\nFemale\nTotal\nPercent\n\n\n 0 to 4 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 5 to 9 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 10 to 14 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 15 to 19 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 20 to 24 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 25 to 29 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 30 to 34 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 35 to 39 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 40 to 44 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 45 to 49 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 50 to 54 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 55 to 59 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 60 to 64 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 65 to 69 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 70 to 74 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 75 to 79 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 80 to 84 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 85 years and over \n \n \n \n \n\nTotal \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 0 to 14 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 15 to 64 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 65 years and over \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n'''Net migration rate:''' 5.65 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2013 est.)\n\n'''Urbanization:'''\n* ''urban population:'' 81% of total population (2010)\n* ''rate of urbanization:'' 1.1% annual rate of change (2010-2015 est.)\n\nPopulation pyramid in 2010\n'''Sex ratio:'''\n* ''at birth:'' 1.06 male(s)/female\n* ''under 15 years:'' 1.05 male(s)/female\n* ''15 – 24 years:'' 1.06 male(s)/female\n* ''25 - 54 years:'' 1.03 male(s)/female\n* ''55 - 64 years:'' 0.98 male(s)/female\n* ''65 years and over:'' 0.79 male(s)/female\n* ''total population:'' 0.99 male(s)/female (2013 est.)\n\n'''Maternal mortality rate:''' 12 deaths/100,000 live births (2010 est.)\n\n'''Life expectancy:'''\n* ''total population'': 81.57 years\n* ''male'': 78.98 years\n* ''female'': 84.31 years (2013 est.)\n\n===Median age===\n* ''total:'' 40.6 years\n** ''male:'' 39.6 years\n** ''female:'' 41.5 years (2011)\n\n'''Median age by province and territory, 2011'''\n# Newfoundland and Labrador: 44.0\n# Nova Scotia: 43.7\n# New Brunswick:43.7\n# Prince Edward Island: 42.8\n# Quebec: 41.9\n# British Columbia: 41.9\n# Ontario: 40.4\n# Yukon: 39.1\n# Manitoba: 38.4\n# Saskatchewan: 38.2\n# Alberta: 36.5\n# Northwest Territories: 32.3\n# Nunavut: 24.1\n\n'''Total''': 40.6\n:Sources: Statistics Canada\n",
"\n===Ethnic origin===\n\nIn the 2006 census, Canadians could identify as being of one or more ethnicities. Percentages therefore add up to more than 100%. The most common response was \"Canadian\". As data is completely self-reported, and reporting individuals may have varying definitions of \"Ethnic origin\" (or may not know their ethnic origin), these figures should not be considered an exact record of the relative prevalence of different ethno-cultural ancestries but rather how Canadians self-identify.\n\nStatistics Canada projects that, by 2031, about 28% of the population will be foreign-born. The number of people belonging to visible minority groups will double, the majority of which will live in Toronto and Vancouver.\n\nCounting both single and multiple responses, the most commonly identified ethnic origins were (2011):\n\n\n Ethnic origin\n %\n Population\n Area of largest proportion\n\n Canadian\n 32.16%\n\n Quebec (59.1%)\n\n English\n 19.81%\n\n Newfoundland and Labrador (43.4%)\n\n French\n 15.42%\n\n Quebec (29.1%)\n\n Scottish\n 14.35%\n\n Prince Edward Island (39.3%)\n\n Irish\n 13.83%\n\n Prince Edward Island (30.4%)\n\n German\n 9.75%\n\n Saskatchewan (28.6%)\n\n Italian\n 4.53%\n\n Ontario (7.0%)\n\n Chinese\n 4.53%\n\n British Columbia (10.7%)\n\n First Nations\n 4.17%\n\n Northwest Territories (37.0%)\n\n Ukrainian\n 3.81%\n\n Manitoba (14.9%)\n\n East Indian\n 3.55%\n\n British Columbia (6.3%)\n\n Dutch (Netherlands)\n 3.25%\n\n Alberta (5.1%)\n\n Polish\n 3.08%\n\n Manitoba (7.3%)\n\n Filipino\n 2.02%\n\n Manitoba (5.2%)\n\n British, not included elsewhere\n 1.75%\n\n Yukon (2.4%)\n\n Russian\n 1.68%\n\n Manitoba (4.3%)\n\n Welsh\n 1.40%\n\n Yukon (2.8%)\n\n Norwegian\n 1.38%\n\n Saskatchewan (6.9%)\n\n Métis\n 1.36%\n\n Northwest Territories (6.7%)\n\n Portuguese\n 1.31%\n\n Ontario (2.3%)\n\n American\n 1.13%\n\n Yukon (2.2%)\n\n Spanish\n 1.12%\n\n British Columbia (1.4%)\n\n Swedish\n 1.04%\n\n Saskatchewan (3.2%)\n\n Hungarian\n 0.96%\n\n Saskatchewan (2.8%)\n\n Jewish\n 0.94%\n\n Ontario (1.4%)\n\n\nData from the same subject matter, though from 2001, is also grouped more geographically by Statistics Canada as follows:\n\n\n\n\n 2001\n\nNorth American (non-aboriginal)\n40.21%\n\nBritish Isles\n33.64%\n\nFrench\n15.89%\n\nWestern European\n12.78%\n\nEastern European\n8.50%\n\nSouthern European\n7.87%\n\n\n\n\n 2001\n\nEast and Southeast Asian\n6.03%\n\nAboriginal\n4.45%\n\nSouth Asian\n3.25%\n\nNorthern European\n3.22%\n\nCaribbean\n1.70%\n\nOther European\n1.28%\n\n\n\n\n 2001\n\nArab\n1.17%\n\nAfrican\n0.99%\n\nLatin, Central andSouth American\n0.82%\n\nWest Asian\n0.69%\n\nOceania\n0.16%\n\n\n:''Percentages are calculated as a proportion of the total number of respondents (32,852,325 in 2011) and total more than 100% due to dual responses. All ethnocultural ancestries with responses totalling to more than 1% of the total number of responses are listed in the table above according to the exact terminology used by Statistics Canada.''\n\nThe most common ethnic origins per province are as follows (total responses; only percentages 10% or higher shown; ordered by percentage of \"Canadian\"):\n* Quebec (7,723,525): '''Canadian''' (59.1%), '''French''' (29.1%)\n* New Brunswick (735,835): '''Canadian''' (50.3%), French (27.2%), English (25.9%), Irish (21.6%), Scottish (19.9%)\n* Newfoundland and Labrador (507,265): '''Canadian''' (49.0%), '''English''' (43.4%), Irish (21.8%)\n* Nova Scotia (906,170): '''Canadian''' (39.1%), Scottish (31.2%), English (30.8%), Irish (22.3%), French (17.0%), German (10.8%)\n* Prince Edward Island (137,375): '''Scottish''' (39.3%), Canadian (36.8%), English (31.1%), '''Irish''' (30.4%), French (21.1%)\n* Ontario (12,651,795): '''Canadian''' (23.3%), English (23.1%), Scottish (16.4%), Irish (16.4%), French (10.8%)\n* Alberta (3,567,980): '''English''' (24.9%), Canadian (21.8%), German (19.2%), Scottish (18.8%), Irish (15.8%), French (11.1%)\n* Manitoba (1,174,345): '''English''' (21.8%), German (18.6%), Canadian (18.5%), Scottish (18.0%), '''Ukrainian''' (14.9%), Irish (13.2%), French (12.6%), North American Indian (10.6%)\n* Saskatchewan (1,008,760): '''German''' (28.6%), English (24.9%), Scottish (18.9%), Canadian (18.8%), Irish (15.5%), Ukrainian (13.5%), French (12.2%), '''North American Indian''' (12.1%)\n* British Columbia (4,324,455): '''English''' (27.7%), Scottish (19.3%), Canadian (19.1%), German (13.1%), '''Chinese''' (10.7%)\n* Yukon (33,320): '''English''' (28.5%), Scottish (25.0%), Irish (22.0%), North American Indian (21.8%), Canadian (21.8%), German (15.6%), French (13.1%)\n* Northwest Territories (40,800): '''North American Indian''' (37.0%), Scottish (13.9%), English (13.7%), Canadian (12.8%), Irish (11.9%), Inuit (11.7%)\n* Nunavut (31,700): '''Inuit''' (85.4%)\n\n'''Bold''' indicates either that this response is dominant within this province, or that this province has the highest ratio (percentage) of this response among provinces.\n\n\n\n Ethnic origin \n Canadian\t\n English\n French\n Scottish\n Irish\n German\n Italian\n Chinese\n First Nations\n Ukrainian\n Dutch\n\n Canada\n 32.1\n 19.8\n 15.4\n 14.3\n 13.8\n 9.7\n 4.5\n 4.5\n 4.1\n 3.8\n 3.2\n\n Ontario \n 23\n 24.7\n 11.2\n 17.5\n 16.5\n 9.5\n 7.2\n 5.4\n 2.6\n 2.8\n 4.1\n\n Quebec \n 60.1 \n 3.3\n 28.8\n 2.7\n 5.5\n 1.8\n 4.0\n 1.2\n 3.0\n 0.4\n 0.3\n\n British Columbia \n 17.7\n 29.6\n 8.9\n 20.3\n 15.2\n 13.8\n 3.5\n 10.6\n 4.7\n 4.8\n 4.8\n\n Alberta \n 21.8\n 24.9\n 11.1\n 18.8\n 15.8\n 19.2\n 2.5\n 4.4\n 5.0\n 9.7\n 5.1\n\n Manitoba \n 18.2\n 22.1\n 13.1\n 18.5\n 13.4\n 19.1\n 1.6\n 1.5\n 10.6\n 14.7\n 4.9\n\n Newfoundland and Labrador\n 53.4\n 39.4\n 5.4\n 6.0\n 19.7\n 1.2\n 0.2\n 0.2\n 3.1\n 0.1\n 0.3\n\n Prince Edward Island\n 44.9\n 28.7\n 21.3\n 38\n 27.9\n 4.1\n 0.5\n 0.1\n 1.0\n 0.3\n 3.1\n\n Nova Scotia\n 37.6\n 34.2\n 18\n 29.8\n 24.5\n 12\n 1.8\n 1.0\n 3.4\n 1.1\n 4.0\n\n New Brunswick\n 57.8\n 23\n 26.8\n 17.7\n 18.9\n 3.8\n 1.7\n 1.1\n 3.3\n 0.1\n 1.8\n\n Saskatchewan\n 25\n 24.5\n 11.4\n 17.9\n 14.5\n 28.6\n 0.5\n 1.0\n 10.5\n 12.6\n 3.4\n\n\n=== Visible minority population ===\nStatistics Canada identifies visible minorities in accordance with the ''Employment Equity Act''. Statistics Canada states the \"''Employment Equity Act'' defines visible minorities as 'persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour.'\"\n\n\n Visible and non-visible minority populations by group, 1996–2011\n\n Group\n 1996\n 2001\n 2006 \n 2011\n\n Total\n \n Total\n \n Total\n \n Total\n \n\n Total visible minority population \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n South Asian \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Chinese \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Black \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Filipino \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Latin American \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Arab/West Asian \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Arab \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Southeast Asian \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n West Asian \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Korean \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Japanese \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Visible minority, \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Multiple visible minorities \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Not a visible minority \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Aboriginal identity (see breakdown below) \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Others (Caucasian or White) \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Total population in private households \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n==== By province and territory ====\n\n\n Visible minority population by province and territory, 2011\n\n Province/territory\n '''Not a visible minority'''\n South Asian\n Chinese\n Black\n Filipino\n Latin American\n Arab\n Southeast Asian\n West Asian\n Korean\n Japanese\n Visible minority, \n Multiple visible minorities\n '''Total visible minority population'''\n '''''Total population'''''\n '''Percent visible minority'''\n\n Alberta\n '''2,690,960'''\n 156,665\n 133,390\n 74,435\n 106,035\n 41,305\n 34,920\n 41,025\n 16,030\n 15,000\n 12,415\n 6,270\n 18,840\n '''656,325'''\n '''''3,567,980'''''\n '''18.39%'''\n\n British Columbia\n '''2,911,295'''\n 313,440\n 438,140\n 33,260\n 126,040\n 35,465\n 14,090\n 51,970\n 38,960\n 53,770\n 38,120\n 6,465\n 31,160\n '''1,180,870'''\n '''''4,324,455'''''\n '''27.31%'''\n\n Manitoba\n '''824,830'''\n 25,265\n 17,025\n 19,610\n 59,220\n 9,140\n 3,235\n 7,565\n 2,040\n 3,045\n 1,745\n 1,765\n 3,975\n '''153,625'''\n '''''1,174,350'''''\n '''13.08%'''\n\n New Brunswick\n '''696,080'''\n 2,445\n 2,540\n 4,870\n 1,100\n 1,160\n 1,380\n 730\n 305\n 1,855\n 305\n 85\n 360\n '''17,135'''\n '''''735,835'''''\n '''2.33%'''\n\n Newfoundland and Labrador\n '''464,540'''\n 1,855\n 1,645\n 1,455\n 350\n 185\n 370\n 320\n 155\n 80\n 60\n 205\n 250\n '''6,930'''\n '''''507,270'''''\n '''1.37%'''\n\n Northwest Territories\n '''16,920'''\n 185\n 380\n 555\n 895\n 105\n 115\n 230\n 60\n 50\n 45\n 75\n 30\n '''2,720'''\n '''''40,800'''''\n '''6.67%'''\n\n Nova Scotia\n '''825,055'''\n 4,965\n 6,050\n 20,790\n 1,890\n 1,360\n 6,290\n 1,155\n 1,365\n 960\n 445\n 720\n 1,290\n '''47,270'''\n '''''906,175'''''\n '''5.22%'''\n\n Nunavut\n '''3,825'''\n 95\n 65\n 120\n 130\n 25\n 15\n 30\n 0\n 10\n 0\n 10\n 0\n '''510'''\n '''''31,700'''''\n '''1.61%'''\n\n Ontario\n '''9,070,800'''\n 965,990\n 629,140\n 539,205\n 275,380\n 172,560\n 151,645\n 137,875\n 122,530\n 78,290\n 29,085\n 81,130\n 96,735\n '''3,279,565'''\n '''''12,651,795'''''\n '''25.92%'''\n\n Prince Edward Island\n '''130,890'''\n 485\n 1,830\n 390\n 85\n 235\n 200\n 205\n 345\n 140\n 210\n 75\n 70\n '''4,260'''\n '''''137,380'''''\n '''3.10%'''\n\n Quebec\n '''6,740,375'''\n 83,320\n 82,845\n 243,625\n 31,495\n 116,380\n 166,260\n 65,855\n 23,445\n 6,665\n 4,025\n 8,895\n 17,420\n '''850,235'''\n '''''7,732,525'''''\n '''11.00%'''\n\n Saskatchewan\n '''787,745'''\n 12,325\n 11,300\n 7,255\n 16,025\n 3,250\n 2,095\n 4,910\n 1,600\n 1,270\n 720\n 745\n 1,775\n '''63,275'''\n '''''1,008,760'''''\n '''6.27%'''\n\n Yukon\n '''23,590'''\n 365\n 400\n 100\n 675\n 110\n 0\n 210\n 0\n 0\n 80\n 35\n 35\n '''2,025'''\n '''''33,320'''''\n '''6.08%'''\n\n Canada\n '''25,186,890'''\n 1,567,400\n 1,324,750\n 945,665\n 619,310\n 381,280\n 380,620\n 312,075\n 206,840\n 161,130\n 87,270\n 106,475\n 171,935\n '''6,264,750'''\n '''''32,852,325'''''\n '''19.07%'''\n\nAll statistics are from the Canada 2011 Census.\n\n==== By city over 100,000 ====\n\n\n Visible minority in Canadian cities over 100,000 people, 2011\n\nCity\nPopulation\nEuropean\nVisible minority\nBlack\nEast Asian\nLatin American\nSouth Asian\nSoutheast Asian\nWest Asian\nArab \nMultiracial\nOther\n\nToronto\n2,576,025 \n50.2%\n'''49.1%'''\n8.5%\n12.7%\n2.8%\n12.3% \n7.0%\n2.0%\n1.1%\n1.5%\n1.3%\n\nMontreal\n1,612,640\n67.7%\n'''31.7%'''\n9.1%\n3.2%\n4.2%\n3.3%\n3.8%\n0.8%\n6.4%\n0.6%\n0.3%\n\nCalgary\n1,082,235\n67.3%\n'''30.1%'''\n2.9%\n8.1%\n1.8%\n7.5%\n6.3%\n0.8%\n1.5%\n0.8%\n0.3%\n\nOttawa\n867,090\n74.2%\n'''23.7%'''\n5.7%\n4.5%\n1.2%\n3.9%\n2.8%\n0.9%\n3.7%\n0.7%\n0.2%\n\nEdmonton\n795,675\n64.7%\n'''30.0%'''\n3.8%\n7.1%\n1.7%\n7.2%\n6.5%\n0.9%\n1.7%\n0.8%\n0.3%\n\nMississauga\n708,725\n45.8%\n'''53.7%'''\n6.3%\n8.3%\n2.2%\n21.8%\n7.8%\n1.1%\n3.5%\n1.5%\n1.3%\n\nWinnipeg\n649,995\n66.9%\n'''21.4%'''\n2.7%\n2.9%\n1.0%\n3.5%\n9.8%\n0.3%\n0.4%\n0.6%\n0.2%\n\nVancouver\n590,210\n46.2%\n'''51.8%'''\n1.0%\n30.9%\n1.6%\n6.0%\n9.0%\n1.2%\n0.5%\n1.5%\n0.2%\n\nBrampton\n521,315\n32.9%\n'''66.4%'''\n13.5%\n1.8%\n2.2%\n38.4%\n5.1%\n0.7%\n0.8%\n1.4%\n2.6%\n\nHamilton\n509,640\n82.3%\n'''15.7%'''\n3.2%\n2.2%\n1.4%\n3.4%\n2.6%\n0.8%\n1.4%\n0.4%\n0.3%\n\nQuebec City\n502,595\n95.0%\n'''4.0%'''\n1.1%\n0.4%\n1.0%\n0.2%\n0.4%\n0.1%\n0.7%\n0.1%\n0.1%\n\nSurrey\n463,340\n44.5%\n'''52.6%'''\n1.3%\n8.5%\n1.2%\n30.7%\n8.5%\n0.5%\n0.7%\n0.9%\n0.2%\n\nLaval\n392,725\n78.7%\n'''20.7%'''\n6.2%\n0.9%\n2.5%\n1.7%\n2.2%\n0.8%\n5.9%\n0.3%\n0.1%\n\nHalifax\n384,330\n88.4%\n'''9.1%'''\n3.6%\n1.5%\n0.3%\n1.0%\n0.6%\n0.4%\n1.4%\n0.3%\n0.1%\n\nLondon\n360,715\n82.0%\n'''16.1%'''\n2.4%\n2.9%\n2.7%\n2.2%\n1.7%\n0.8%\n2.6%\n0.5%\n0.2%\n\nMarkham\n300,135\n27.5%\n'''72.3%'''\n3.2%\n39.7%\n0.5%\n19.1%\n3.9%\n2.1%\n1.1%\n1.9%\n0.7%\n\nVaughan\n286,305\n68.4%\n'''31.4%'''\n2.7%\n6.3%\n2.1%\n9.7%\n5.7%\n2.1%\n1.0%\n1.0%\n0.8%\n\nGatineau\n261,665\n86.2%\n'''10.3%'''\n3.9%\n1.0%\n1.5%\n0.3%\n0.7%\n0.2%\n2.5%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n\nLongueuil\n227,970\n84.8%\n'''14.2%'''\n4.6%\n1.4%\n2.5%\n0.9%\n1.4%\n0.6%\n2.3%\n0.2%\n0.2%\n\nBurnaby\n220,255\n39.1%\n'''59.5%'''\n1.6%\n36.0%\n1.7%\n7.9%\n7.7%\n2.0%\n0.7%\n1.8%\n0.2%\n\nSaskatoon\n218,315\n77.4%\n'''12.8%'''\n1.1%\n2.7%\n0.6%\n2.7%\n3.9%\n0.5%\n0.6%\n0.4%\n0.2%\n\nKitchener\n215,950\n80.1%\n'''18.4%'''\n3.1%\n2.2%\n2.7%\n4.1%\n3.0%\n1.1%\n1.2%\n0.6%\n0.4%\n\nWindsor\n208,015\n74.8%\n'''22.9%'''\n4.6%\n3.2%\n1.1%\n3.9%\n3.1%\n0.8%\n5.5%\n0.5%\n0.4%\n\nRegina\n189,740\n78.6%\n'''11.5%'''\n1.6%\n2.2%\n0.7%\n2.6%\n3.5%\n0.3%\n0.3%\n0.3%\n0.0%\n\nRichmond\n189,305\n28.6%\n'''70.4%'''\n0.7%\n49.8%\n0.9%\n7.7%\n7.8%\n0.7%\n0.5%\n2.3%\n0.2%\n\nRichmond Hill\n184,370\n46.9%\n'''52.9%'''\n2.0%\n26.9%\n0.9%\n8.1%\n3.0%\n8.6%\n1.7%\n1.3%\n0.4%\n\nOakville\n180,430\n77.2%\n'''22.8%'''\n2.7%\n5.3%\n1.5%\n7.2%\n2.7%\n0.7%\n1.6%\n0.8%\n0.4%\n\nBurlington\n173,495\n87.1%\n'''12.0%'''\n1.6%\n2.4%\n1.0%\n3.6%\n1.3%\n0.5%\n0.9%\n0.5%\n0.2%\n\nGreater Sudbury\n157,765\n89.1%\n'''2.7%'''\n0.6%\n0.6%\n0.2%\n0.4%\n0.3%\n0.1%\n0.3%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n\nSherbrooke\n150,255\n93.6%\n'''5.5%'''\n1.7%\n0.3%\n1.4%\n0.3%\n0.4%\n0.3%\n0.9%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n\nOshawa\n147,680\n88.7%\n'''9.3%'''\n3.2%\n1.1%\n0.7%\n1.9%\n1.2%\n0.3%\n0.2%\n0.4%\n0.4%\n\nSaguenay\n141,335\n96.6%\n'''0.9%'''\n0.3%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n0.2%\n0.0%\n0.0%\n\nLévis\n135,835\n98.0%\n'''1.4%'''\n0.4%\n0.3%\n0.2%\n0.0%\n0.2%\n0.0%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n\nBarrie\n133,240\n89.8%\n'''7.6%'''\n1.9%\n1.3%\n0.8%\n1.3%\n1.0%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.4%\n0.4%\n\nAbbotsford\n130,950\n66.5%\n'''29.6%'''\n0.9%\n2.9%\n0.6%\n22.4%\n1.5%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.4%\n0.3%\n\nSt. Catharines\n128,770\n88.3%\n'''9.9%'''\n2.1%\n1.9%\n1.5%\n1.1%\n1.3%\n0.3%\n1.0%\n0.3%\n0.3%\n\nTrois-Rivières\n126,980\n96.3%\n'''2.5%'''\n0.9%\n0.2%\n0.6%\n0.0%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n0.5%\n0.0%\n0.0%\n\nCambridge\n125,060\n85.4%\n'''12.6%'''\n1.9%\n1.2%\n1.0%\n5.2%\n1.7%\n0.3%\n0.6%\n0.3%\n0.4%\n\nCoquitlam\n125,015\n54.1%\n'''43.8%'''\n1.0%\n24.1%\n1.5%\n4.2%\n5.1%\n5.1%\n0.8%\n1.3%\n0.2%\n\nKingston\n118,930\n89.7%\n'''7.4%'''\n0.9%\n2.1%\n0.7%\n1.7%\n0.9%\n0.3%\n0.6%\n0.1%\n0.1%\n\nWhitby\n120,285\n79.5%\n'''19.2%'''\n6.2%\n2.5%\n0.8%\n4.7%\n2.2%\n0.5%\n0.6%\n1.0%\n0.7%\n\nGuelph\n120,550\n82.7%\n'''15.7%'''\n1.4%\n3.1%\n1.0%\n4.1%\n4.0%\n0.8%\n0.5%\n0.5%\n0.2%\n\nKelowna\n114,570\n87.9%\n'''7.6%'''\n0.6%\n2.6%\n0.5%\n2.3%\n1.0%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.2%\n0.2%\n\nSaanich\n107,855\n79.3%\n'''18.0%'''\n1.1%\n8.6%\n0.7%\n3.8%\n2.4%\n0.3%\n0.4%\n0.4%\n0.2%\n\nAjax\n109,220\n53.2%\n'''45.8%'''\n16.0%\n2.8%\n1.0%\n13.8%\n5.0%\n1.6%\n1.1%\n2.0%\n2.6%\n\nThunder Bay\n105,950\n87.1%\n'''3.4%'''\n0.5%\n1.0%\n0.2%\n0.5%\n0.7%\n0.1%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n\nTerrebonne\n105,610\n91.7%\n'''7.6%'''\n4.5%\n0.2%\n1.3%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n1.1%\n0.1%\n0.1%\n\nSt. John's\n103,905\n93.3%\n'''4.4%'''\n0.9%\n1.1%\n0.1%\n1.2%\n0.3%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n0.1%\n\nLangley\n103,145\n83.2%\n'''13.4%'''\n0.5%\n6.3%\n0.6%\n2.7%\n2.4%\n0.2%\n0.2%\n0.5%\n0.1%\n\nChatham-Kent\n101,680\n93.2%\n'''3.9%'''\n1.9%\n0.5%\n0.3%\n0.5%\n0.5%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n\n\n=== Aboriginal population ===\n\n\n\n Aboriginal population in Canada, 1996–2011 censuses\n\n Group\n 1996\n 2001\n 2006 \n 2011\n\n %\n Total\n %\n Total\n %\n Total\n %\n Total\n\n'''Total Aboriginal'''\n'''2.8%'''\n'''799,005'''\n'''3.3%''' \n'''976,305'''\n'''3.8%''' \n'''1,172,785'''\n'''4.3%'''\n'''1,400,685'''\n\nFirst Nations\n1.8% \n529,040\n2.1%\n608,850\n2.2%\n698,025\n2.6% \n851,560\n\nMétis\n0.7%\n204,115\n1.0%\n292,305\n1.2%\n389,780\n1.4% \n451,795\n\nInuit\n0.14%\n40,220 \n\n \n0.16%\n50,485\n0.2%\n59,445\n\n\n''Note: Inuit, other Aboriginal and mixed Aboriginal groups are not listed as their own, but they are all accounted for in total Aboriginal''\n\n==== By province and territory ====\n\n\n Aboriginal population by province and territory, 2011\n\n Province/territory\n Not Aboriginal\n First Nations\n Métis\n Inuit\n Aboriginal, \n Multiple Aboriginal identities\n '''Total Aboriginal population'''\n '''''Total population'''''\n\n Alberta\n '''2,690,960'''\n 116,670\n 96,870\n 1,985\n 3,300\n 1,870\n '''220,695'''\n '''''3,567,980'''''\n\n British Columbia\n '''2,911,295'''\n 155,020\n 69,475\n 1,570\n 3,745\n 2,480\n '''232,290'''\n '''''4,324,455'''''\n\n Manitoba\n '''824,830'''\n 114,225\n 78,830\n 580\n 1,055\n 1,200\n '''195,895'''\n '''''1,174,350'''''\n\n New Brunswick\n '''696,080'''\n 16,120\n 4,850\n 485\n 1,020\n 150\n '''22,620'''\n '''''735,835'''''\n\n Newfoundland and Labrador\n '''464,540'''\n 19,315\n 7,660\n 6,265\n 2,300\n 260\n '''35,800'''\n '''''507,270'''''\n\n Northwest Territories\n '''16,920'''\n 13,350\n 3,250\n 4,335\n 185\n 45\n '''21,160'''\n '''''40,800'''''\n\n Nova Scotia\n '''825,055'''\n 21,895\n 10,050\n 695\n 980\n 225\n '''33,850'''\n '''''906,175'''''\n\n Nunavut\n '''3,825'''\n 125\n 130\n 27,070\n 15\n 20\n '''27,365'''\n '''''31,700'''''\n\n Ontario\n '''9,070,800'''\n\n 201,100\n 86,020\n 3,355\n 8,040\n 2,910\n '''301,430'''\n '''''12,651,795'''''\n\n Prince Edward Island\n '''130,890'''\n\n 1,520\n 410\n 55\n 235\n 0\n '''2,230'''\n '''''137,380'''''\n\n Quebec\n '''6,740,375'''\n\n 82,425\n 40,960\n 12,570\n 4,415\n 1,545\n '''141,915'''\n '''''7,732,525'''''\n\n Saskatchewan\n '''787,745'''\n\n 103,205\n 52,450\n 290\n 1,120\n 675\n '''157,740'''\n '''''1,008,760'''''\n\n Yukon\n '''23,590'''\n\n 6,585\n 845\n 175\n 70\n 25\n '''7,705'''\n '''''33,320'''''\n\n Canada\n '''25,186,890'''\n 851,560\n 451,795\n 59,440\n 26,475\n 11,415\n '''1,400,685'''\n '''''32,852,325'''''\n\nAll statistics are from the Canada 2011 Census.\n\n==== By city over 100,000 ====\n\n\n Aboriginal population in Canadian cities over 100,000 people, 2011\n\nCity\nPopulation\nEuropean\nTotal Aboriginal\nFirst Nations\nMétis\n\nToronto\n2,576,025 \n50.2%\n'''0.7%'''\n0.5%\n0.2%\n\nMontreal\n1,612,640\n67.7%\n'''0.6%'''\n0.3%\n0.2%\n\nCalgary\n1,082,235\n67.3%\n'''2.7%'''\n1.2%\n1.4%\n\nOttawa\n867,090\n74.2%\n'''2.1%'''\n1.2%\n0.7%\n\nEdmonton\n795,675\n64.7%\n'''5.3%'''\n2.4%\n2.7%\n\nMississauga\n708,725\n45.8%\n'''0.5%'''\n0.3%\n0.1%\n\nWinnipeg\n649,995\n66.9%\n'''11.7%'''\n5.9%\n6.3%\n\nVancouver\n590,210\n46.2%\n'''2.0%'''\n1.3%\n0.6%\n\nBrampton\n521,315\n32.9%\n'''0.7%'''\n0.4%\n0.2%\n\nHamilton\n509,640\n82.3%\n'''2.0%'''\n1.6%\n0.3%\n\nQuebec City\n502,595\n95.0%\n'''0.9%'''\n0.5%\n0.4%\n\nSurrey\n463,340\n44.5%\n'''2.9%'''\n1.9%\n1.0%\n\nLaval\n392,725\n78.7%\n'''0.6%'''\n0.3%\n0.2%\n\nHalifax\n384,330\n88.4%\n'''2.5%'''\n1.5%\n0.8%\n\nLondon\n360,715\n82.0%\n'''1.9%'''\n1.4%\n0.4%\n\nMarkham\n300,135\n27.5%\n'''0.2%'''\n0.1%\n0.1%\n\nVaughan\n286,305\n68.4%\n'''0.2%'''\n0.1%\n\n0.0%\n\nGatineau\n261,665\n86.2%\n'''3.5%'''\n1.8%\n1.5%\n\nLongueuil\n227,970\n84.8%\n'''1.0%'''\n0.6%\n0.0%\n\nBurnaby\n220,255\n39.1%\n'''1.5%'''\n0.9%\n0.5%\n\nSaskatoon\n218,315\n77.4%\n'''10.2%'''\n4.9%\n4.6%\n\nKitchener\n215,950\n80.1%\n'''1.5%'''\n0.9%\n0.5%\n\nWindsor\n208,015\n74.8%\n'''2.3%'''\n1.3%\n0.9%\n\nRegina\n189,740\n78.6%\n'''9.9%'''\n5.8%\n3.9%\n\nRichmond\n189,305\n28.6%\n'''1.0%'''\n0.7%\n0.3%\n\nRichmond Hill\n184,370\n46.9%\n'''0.2%'''\n0.1%\n0.0%\n\nOakville\n180,430\n77.2%\n'''0.6%'''\n0.4%\n0.2%\n\nBurlington\n173,495\n87.1%\n'''0.9%'''\n0.5%\n0.3%\n\nGreater Sudbury\n157,765\n89.1%\n\n'''8.2%'''\n3.8%\n4.1%\n\nSherbrooke\n150,255\n93.6%\n'''0.9%'''\n0.5%\n0.3%\n\nOshawa\n147,680\n88.7%\n'''2.0%'''\n1.2%\n0.8%\n\nSaguenay\n141,335\n96.6%\n'''2.5%'''\n0.8%\n1.6%\n\nLévis\n135,835\n98.0%\n'''0.5%'''\n0.2%\n0.2%\n\nBarrie\n133,240\n89.8%\n'''2.6%'''\n1.4%\n1.2%\n\nAbbotsford\n130,950\n66.5%\n'''4.0%'''\n2.5%\n1.6%\n\nSt. Catharines\n128,770\n88.3%\n'''1.9%'''\n1.2%\n0.6%\n\nTrois-Rivières\n126,980\n96.3%\n'''1.1%'''\n0.6%\n0.4%\n\nCambridge\n125,060\n85.4%\n'''2.0%'''\n1.2%\n0.6%\n\nCoquitlam\n125,015\n54.1%\n'''2.1%'''\n1.1%\n0.9%\n\nKingston\n118,930\n89.7%\n'''2.9%'''\n2.0%\n0.8%\n\nWhitby\n120,285\n79.5%\n'''1.2%'''\n0.7%\n0.4%\n\nGuelph\n120,550\n82.7%\n'''1.6%'''\n1.0%\n0.6%\n\nKelowna\n114,570\n87.9%\n'''4.5%'''\n2.1%\n2.3%\n\nSaanich\n107,855\n79.3%\n'''2.7%'''\n1.5%\n1.1%\n\nAjax\n109,220\n53.2%\n'''1.0%'''\n0.7%\n0.3%\n\nThunder Bay\n105,950\n87.1%\n'''9.5%'''\n7.3%\n2.0%\n\nTerrebonne\n105,610\n91.7%\n'''0.7%'''\n0.5%\n0.1%\n\nSt. John's\n103,905\n93.3%\n'''2.6%'''\n1.2%\n0.8%\n\nLangley\n103,145\n83.2%\n'''3.4%'''\n1.6%\n1.7%\n\nChatham-Kent\n101,680\n93.2%\n'''2.9%'''\n1.7%\n0.9%\n\n",
"\n\n\n'''Language used most often at work:'''\n* English: 78.3%\n* French: 21.7%\n* Non-official languages: 2%\n\n'''Languages by language used most often at home:'''\n* English: 67.1%\n* French: 21.5%\n* Non-official languages: 11.4%\n\n'''Languages by mother tongue:'''\n\n\nFirst language\nPopulation (2011)\n% of total population (2011)\nPopulation (2006)\n% of total population (2006)\nIncrease (2006–2011)\nNotes\n\n '''''Single language responses'''''\n '''''32,481,635'''''\n ''''''''''\n '''''30,848,270'''''\n '''''98.7%'''''\n ''''''''''\n\n\n ''Official languages''\n ''25,913,955''\n ''''\n ''24,700,425''\n ''79.1%''\n ''''\n\n\n English\n 18,858,980\n \n 17,882,775\n 57.2%\n \n\n\n French\n 7,054,975\n \n 6,817,650\n 21.8%\n \n\n\n ''Non-official languages''\n ''6,567,680''\n ''''\n ''6,147,840''\n ''19.7%''\n ''''\n\n\n Punjabi\n 430,705\n \n 367,505\n 1.2%\n \n\n\n Chinese, \n 425,210\n \n 456,705\n 1.5%\n \n\n\n Spanish\n 410,670\n \n 345,345\n 1.1%\n \n\n\n German\n 409,200\n \n 450,570\n 1.4%\n \n\n\n Italian\n 407,485\n \n 455,040\n 1.5%\n \n\n\n Cantonese\n 372,460\n \n 361,450\n 1.2%\n \n\n\n Arabic\n 327,870\n \n 261,640\n 0.8%\n \n\n\n Tagalog (Pilipino, Filipino)\n 327,445\n \n 235,615\n 0.8%\n \n\n\n Mandarin\n 248,705\n \n 170,950\n 0.5%\n \n\n\n Portuguese\n 211,335\n \n 219,275\n 0.7%\n \n\n\n Polish\n 191,645\n \n 211,175\n 0.7%\n \n\n\n Urdu\n 172,800\n \n 145,805\n 0.5%\n \n\n\n Persian\n 170,045\n \n 134,080\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Russian\n 164,330\n \n 133,580\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Vietnamese\n 144,880\n \n 141,625\n 0.5%\n \n\n\n Korean\n 137,925\n \n 125,570\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Tamil\n 131,265\n \n 115,880\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Ukrainian\n 111,540\n \n 134,500\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Dutch\n 110,490\n \n 128,900\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Greek\n 108,925\n \n 117,285\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Gujarati\n 91,450\n \n 81,465\n 0.3%\n \n\n\n Hindustani (Hindi)\n 90,545\n \n 78,240\n 0.3%\n \n\n\n Romanian\n 90,300\n \n 78,495\n 0.3%\n \n\n\n Cree, \n 77,900\n \n 78,855\n 0.3%\n \n In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to simply as 'Cree'.\n\n Hungarian\n 67,920\n \n 73,335\n 0.2%\n \n\n\n Creoles\n 61,725\n \n 53,515\n 0.2%\n \n\n\n Bengali\n 59,370\n \n 45,685\n 0.1%\n \n\n\n Serbian\n 56,420\n \n 51,665\n 0.2%\n \n\n\n Croatian\n 49,730\n \n 55,330\n 0.2%\n \n\n\n Japanese\n 39,985\n \n 40,200\n 0.1%\n \n\n\n Inuktitut\n 33,500\n \n 32,015\n 0.1%\n \n In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to as 'Inuktitut, '.\n\n Somali\n 31,380\n \n 27,320\n 0.09%\n \n\n\n Armenian\n 29,795\n \n 30,130\n 0.1%\n \n\n\n Turkish\n 29,640\n \n 24,745\n 0.08%\n \n\n\n Albanian\n 23,820\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Czech\n 23,585\n \n 24,450\n 0.08%\n \n\n\n Khmer (Cambodian)\n 19,440\n \n 19,105\n 0.06%\n \n\n\n Bulgarian\n 19,050\n \n 16,790\n 0.05%\n \n\n\n Hebrew\n 18,450\n \n 17,635\n 0.06%\n \n\n\n Amharic\n 18,020\n \n 14,555\n 0.05%\n \n\n\n Ilocano\n 17,915\n \n 13,450\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Ojibway\n 17,625\n \n 24,190\n 0.08%\n \n\n\n Slovak\n 17,580\n \n 18,820\n 0.06%\n \n\n\n Finnish\n 17,415\n \n 21,030\n 0.07%\n \n\n\n Macedonian\n 17,245\n \n 18,435\n 0.06%\n \n\n\n Semitic languages, \n 16,970\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Bisayan languages\n 16,240\n \n 11,240\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Malayalam\n 16,080\n \n 11,925\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Yiddish\n 15,205\n \n 16,295\n 0.05%\n \n\n\n Sinhala (Sinhalese)\n 14,185\n \n 10,180\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Danish\n 14,145\n \n 18,735\n 0.06%\n \n\n\n Niger–Congo languages, \n 14,075\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Lao\n 12,970\n \n 13,940\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Akan (Twi)\n 12,680\n \n 12,780\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Pashto\n 12,465\n \n 9,025\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Bosnian\n 11,685\n \n 12,790\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Sindhi\n 11,330\n \n 10,355\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Dene\n 11,215\n \n 9,745\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Oromo\n 11,140\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Malay\n 10,910\n \n 9,490\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Innu/Montagnais\n 10,785\n \n 10,975\n 0.04%\n \n In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to as 'Montagnais-Naskapi'.\n\n Slovenian\n 10,775\n \n 13,135\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Tigrigna\n 10,220\n \n 7,105\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Serbo-Croatian\n 10,155\n \n 12,510\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Swahili\n 10,090\n \n 7,935\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Oji-Cree\n 9,835\n \n 11,690\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Kurdish\n 9,805\n \n 7,660\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Taiwanese\n 9,635\n \n 9,620\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Telugu\n 9,315\n \n 6,625\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n African languages, \n 9,125\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Afrikaans\n 8,770\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Nepali\n 8,480\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Thai\n 7,935\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Mi'kmaq\n 7,635\n \n 7,365\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Swedish\n 7,350\n \n 8,220\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Lithuanian\n 7,245\n \n 8,335\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Bantu languages, \n 7,150\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Estonian\n 6,385\n \n 8,240\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Maltese\n 6,220\n \n 6,405\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Latvian\n 6,200\n \n 7,000\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Fukien\n 5,925\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Berber languages (Kabyle)\n 5,855\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Marathi\n 5,830\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Atikamekw\n 5,820\n \n 5,250\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Norwegian\n 5,800\n \n 7,225\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Indo-Iranian languages, \n 5,255\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Hakka\n 5,115\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Flemish\n 4,690\n \n 5,660\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Tibetan languages\n 4,640\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Sino-Tibetan languages, \n 4,360\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Rundi (Kirundi)\n 3,975\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Rwanda (Kinyarwanda)\n 3,895\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Sign languages, \n 3,815\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Slavic languages, \n 3,630\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Lingala\n 3,085\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Stoney\n 3,050\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Burmese\n 2,985\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Shanghainese\n 2,920\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Siouan languages (Dakota/Sioux)\n N/A\n N/A\n 5,585\n 0.02%\n N/A\n\n\n Blackfoot\n N/A\n N/A\n 3,085\n 0.01%\n N/A\n\n\n Frisian\n N/A\n N/A\n 2,890\n 0.009%\n N/A\n\n\n Dogrib\n N/A\n N/A\n 2,020\n 0.006%\n N/A\n\n\n Algonquin\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,920\n 0.006%\n N/A\n\n\n South Slave\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,605\n 0.005%\n N/A\n\n\n Carrier\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,560\n 0.005%\n N/A\n\n\n Gitksan\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,180\n 0.004%\n N/A\n\n\n Chilcotin\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,070\n 0.003%\n N/A\n\n\n North Slave (Hare)\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,065\n 0.003%\n N/A\n\n\n Shuswap\n N/A\n N/A\n 935\n 0.003%\n N/A\n\n\n Nisga’a\n N/A\n N/A\n 680\n 0.002%\n N/A\n\n\n Malecite\n N/A\n N/A\n 535\n 0.002%\n N/A\n\n\n Chipewyan\n N/A\n N/A\n 525\n 0.002%\n N/A\n\n\n Inuinnaqtun\n N/A\n N/A\n 365\n 0.001%\n N/A\n\n\n Kutchin-Gwich’in (Loucheux)\n N/A\n N/A\n 360\n 0.001%\n N/A\n\n\n Mohawk\n N/A\n N/A\n 290\n 0.0009%\n N/A\n\n\n Tlingit\n N/A\n N/A\n 80\n 0.0003%\n N/A\n\n\n Other languages\n 77,890\n \n 172,650\n 0.6%\n \n\n\n '''''Multiple language responses'''''\n '''''639,540'''''\n ''''''''''\n '''''392,760'''''\n '''''1.3%'''''\n ''''''''''\n\n\n English and French\n 144,685\n \n 98,630\n 0.3%\n \n\n\n English and a non-official language\n 396,330\n \n 240,005\n 0.8%\n \n\n\n French and a non-official language\n 74,430\n \n 43,335\n 0.1%\n \n\n\n English, French, and a non-official language\n 24,095\n \n 10,790\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n '''Total'''\n '''33,121,175'''\n ''''''\n '''31,241,030'''\n '''100%'''\n ''''''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n",
"\nStatistics Canada (StatCan) grouped responses to the 2011 National Household Survey (NHS) question on religion into nine core religious categories – Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, Traditional (Aboriginal) Spirituality, other religions and no religious affiliation. Among these, of Canadians were self-identified as Christians in 2011. The second and third-largest categories were of Canadians with no religious affiliation at and Canadian Muslims at .\n\nWithin the 2011 NHS results, StatCan further subcategorized Christianity in nine groups of its own – Anglican, Baptist, Catholic, Christian Orthodox, Lutheran, Pentecostal, Presbyterian, United Church and Other Christian. Among these, of Canadians were self-identified as Catholic in 2011. The second and third-largest ungrouped subcategories of Christian Canadians were United at and Anglican at , while of Christians were grouped into the Other Christian subcategory comprising numerous denominations.\n\nOf the 3,036,785 or of Canadians identified as Other Christians:\n*105,365 ( of Canadians) were identified as Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon);\n*137,775 ( of Canadians) were identified as Jehovah's Witness;\n*175,880 ( of Canadians) were identified as Mennonite;\n*550,965 ( of Canadians) were identified as Protestant; and\n*102,830 ( of Canadians) were identified as Reformed.\n\n\nReligion status of the Canadian Population in 2011\n\n Religion\n Total\n Percent\n\n Buddhist \n \n \n\n Christian \n \n \n\n Anglican \n \n \n\n Baptist \n \n \n\n Roman Catholic \n \n \n\n Christian Orthodox \n \n \n\n Lutheran \n \n \n\n Pentecostal \n \n \n\n Presbyterian \n \n \n\n United Church \n \n \n\n Other Christian \n \n \n\n Hindu \n \n 1.5%\n\n Jewish \n \n \n\n Muslim \n \n \n\n Sikh \n \n \n\n Traditional (Aboriginal) Spirituality \n \n \n\n Other religions \n \n \n\n No religious affiliation \n \n \n\n\n",
"\n\n* 1666 census of New France\n* Canada 1906 Census\n* Canada 1911 Census\n* Canada 1996 Census\n* Canada 2001 Census\n* Canada 2006 Census\n* Canada 2011 Census\n* List of Canadian census areas demographic extremes\n* ''Cahiers québécois de démographie'' academic journal\n* ''Canadian Studies in Population'' academic journal\n*\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Roderic Beaujot and Don Kerr, (2007) '' The Changing Face of Canada: Essential Readings in Population'', Canadian Scholars' Press, .\n\n",
"\n* Canada Year Book (2010) – Statistics Canada\n* Population estimates and projections, 2010 – 2036 – Statistics Canada\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Population ",
"Vital statistics",
"Ethnicity",
"Languages",
"Religion",
"See also",
" Notes ",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Demographics of Canada | [
"=== Provinces and territories ===\n\n\nProvince or territory\nPopulation,\n2016 Census\nPopulation,\n2011 Census\nPopulation \nChange (%),\n\n2011-2016\nTotal landarea (km2)\nDensity(people/km2)\nHouse ofCommons seats\nPeople perseat\n\nNumber\nPercentage\n Number\n Percentage\n\n \n13,448,494\n38.26%\n\n 38.39%\n4.6%\n\n 12.19\n 121\n \n\n \n8,164,361\n23.23%\n\n 23.61%\n3.3%\n\n 5.76\n 78\n \n\n \n4,648,055\n13.22%\n\n 13.14%\n5.6%\n\n 4.84\n 42\n \n\n \n4,067,175\n11.57%\n\n 10.89%\n11.6%\n\n 5.77\n 34\n \n\n \n1,278,365\n3.64%\n\n 3.61%\n5.8%\n\n 2.22\n 14\n \n\n \n1,098,352\n3.12%\n\n 3.09%\n6.3%\n\n 1.75\n 14\n \n\n \n923,598\n2.63%\n\n 2.75%\n0.2%\n\n 17.63\n 11\n \n\n \n747,101\n2.13%\n\n 2.24%\n\n\n 10.50\n 10\n \n\n \n519,716\n1.48%\n\n 1.54%\n1.0%\n\n 1.36\n 7\n \n\n \n142,907\n0.41%\n\n 0.42%\n1.9%\n\n 24.98\n 4\n \n\n \n41,786\n0.12%\n\n 0.12%\n0.8%\n\n 0.04\n 1\n \n\n \n35,944\n0.10%\n\n 0.09%\n12.7%\n\n 0.02\n 1\n \n\n \n35,874\n0.10%\n\n 0.10%\n5.8%\n\n 0.07\n 1\n \n\n \n35,151,728\n100%\n \n 100%\n5.0%\n \n 3.73\n 338\n \n\n\n:Sources: Statistics Canada\n\n=== Cities ===\n\n\n\n=== Census metropolitan areas ===\n\n\n\n===Population growth rates===\nAccording to OECD/World Bank, the population in Canada increased from 1990 to 2008 with 5.6 million and 20.4% growth in population, compared to 21.7% growth in the United States and 31.2% growth in Mexico.",
"According to the OECD/World Bank population statistics, between 1990–2008 the world population growth was 27%, a total of 1,423 million people."
] | [
"\nThis article is about the demographic features of the population of Canada, including population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population, the People of Canada.",
"\nThe Canada 2016 Census had a total population count of 35,151,728 individuals, making up approximately 0.5% of the world's total population.",
"Estimates have the population over 36 million as of July 2016.",
"Rank\n Province or territory\n Population(2011)\n Population(2006)\n Difference\n Change(%)\n\n 1\n Ontario\n\n\n''''''\n 5.7\n\n 2\n Quebec\n\n\n''''''\n 4.7\n\n 3\n British Columbia\n\n\n''''''\n 7.0\n\n 4\n Alberta\n\n\n''''''\n 10.8\n\n 5\n Manitoba\n\n\n''''''\n 5.2\n\n 6\n Saskatchewan\n\n\n''''''\n 6.7\n\n 7\n Nova Scotia\n\n\n''''''\n 0.9\n\n 8\n New Brunswick\n\n\n''''''\n 2.9\n\n 9\n Newfoundland and Labrador\n\n\n''''''\n 1.8\n\n 10\n Prince Edward Island\n\n\n''''''\n 3.2\n\n 11\n Northwest Territories\n\n\n''''''\n 0.0\n\n 12\n Yukon\n\n\n''''''\n 11.6\n\n 13\n Nunavut\n\n\n''''''\n 8.3\n\n Total\n Canada\n\n\n\n 5.9\n\n\n'''Derived from:''' Statistics Canada – (table) Population and Dwelling Counts, for Canada, Provinces and Territories, 2011 and 2006 Censuses – 100% Data\n\n===Population projection===",
"\n\n\n\n Average population (x 1,000)\n Live births\n Deaths\n Natural change\n Birth rate (per 1,000)\n Death rate (per 1,000)\n Natural change (per 1,000)\n\n 1900\n5,500\n150,000\n89,000\n61,000\n27.2\n16.2\n11.0\n\n 1901\n5,600\n175,000\n79,000\n96,000\n31.2\n14.1\n17.1\n\n 1902\n5,760\n180,000\n77,000\n103,000\n31.3\n13.4\n17.9\n\n 1903\n5,930\n186,000\n78,000\n108,000\n31.3\n13.2\n18.1\n\n 1904\n6,100\n192,000\n82,000\n110,000\n31.4\n13.5\n17.9\n\n 1905\n6,280\n195,000\n82,000\n113,000\n31.0\n13.0\n18.0\n\n 1906\n6,460\n193,000\n85,000\n108,000\n29.9\n13.2\n16.7\n\n 1907\n6,650\n196,000\n85,000\n111,000\n29.5\n12.8\n16.7\n\n 1908\n6,850\n208,000\n86,000\n122,000\n30.3\n12.6\n17.7\n\n 1909\n7,040\n213,000\n90,000\n123,000\n30.2\n12.8\n17.4\n\n 1910\n7,250\n220,000\n95,000\n125,000\n30.4\n13.1\n17.3\n\n 1911\n7,460\n225,000\n100,000\n125,000\n30.1\n13.4\n16.7\n\n 1912\n7,610\n238,000\n99,000\n139,000\n31.3\n13.0\n19.3\n\n 1913\n7,760\n246,000\n102,000\n144,000\n31.7\n13.1\n19.6\n\n 1914\n7,910\n252,000\n100,000\n152,000\n31.9\n12.6\n19.3\n\n 1915\n8,060\n257,000\n101,000\n156,000\n31.9\n12.5\n19.4\n\n 1916\n8,220\n252,000\n107,000\n145,000\n30.7\n13.0\n17.7\n\n 1917\n8,380\n244,000\n106,000\n138,000\n29.1\n12.7\n16.4\n\n 1918\n8,450\n243,000\n134,000\n109,000\n28.8\n15.9\n12.9\n\n 1919\n8,710\n241,000\n119,000\n122,000\n27.7\n13.7\n14.0\n\n 1920\n8,880\n259,000\n118,000\n141,000\n29.2\n13.3\n15.9\n\n 1921\n9,060\n265,000\n105,000\n160,000\n29.3\n11.6\n17.7\n\n 1922\n9,230\n261,000\n107,000\n154,000\n28.3\n11.6\n16.7\n\n 1923\n9,400\n251,000\n111,000\n140,000\n26.7\n11.8\n14.9\n\n 1924\n9,560\n255,000\n104,000\n151,000\n26.7\n10.9\n15.8\n\n 1925\n9,730\n254,000\n104,000\n150,000\n26.1\n10.7\n15.4\n\n 1926\n9,890\n244,000\n113,000\n131,000\n24.7\n11.4\n13.3\n\n 1927\n10,040\n244,000\n110,000\n134,000\n24.3\n11.0\n13.3\n\n 1928\n10,190\n246,000\n114,000\n132,000\n24.1\n11.2\n12.9\n\n 1929\n10,350\n243,000\n118,000\n125,000\n23.5\n11.4\n12.1\n\n 1930\n10,498\n251,000\n113,000\n138,000\n23.9\n10.8\n13.1\n\n 1931\n10,630\n247,000\n108,000\n139,000\n23.2\n10.2\n13.0\n\n 1932\n10,794\n243,000\n108,000\n135,000\n22.5\n10.0\n12.5\n\n 1933\n10,919\n229,000\n106,000\n123,000\n21.0\n9.7\n11.3\n\n 1934\n11,029\n228,296\n105,277\n123,019\n20.7\n9.5\n11.2\n\n 1935\n11,135\n228,396\n109,724\n118,672\n20.5\n9.9\n10.6\n\n 1936\n11,242\n227,980\n111,111\n116,869\n20.3\n9.9\n10.4\n\n 1937\n11,339\n227,878\n118,019\n109,859\n20.1\n10.4\n9.7\n\n 1938\n11,448\n237,091\n110,647\n126,444\n20.7\n9.7\n11.0\n\n 1939\n11,565\n237,991\n112,729\n125,262\n20.6\n9.7\n10.9\n\n 1940\n11,682\n252,577\n114,717\n137,860\n21.6\n9.8\n11.8\n\n 1941\n11,810\n263,993\n118,797\n145,196\n22.4\n10.1\n12.3\n\n 1942\n11,962\n281,569\n117,110\n164,459\n23.5\n9.8\n13.7\n\n 1943\n12,125\n292,943\n122,640\n170,303\n24.2\n10.1\n14.1\n\n 1944\n12,291\n283,967\n120,393\n163,574\n24.0\n9.8\n14.2\n\n 1945\n12,441\n300,570\n117,319\n183,251\n24.3\n9.5\n14.8\n\n 1946\n12,637\n343,504\n118,785\n224,719\n27.2\n9.4\n17.8\n\n 1947\n12,919\n372,443\n121,478\n250,965\n28.9\n9.4\n19.5\n\n 1948\n13,167\n359,860\n122,974\n236,886\n27.3\n9.3\n18.0\n\n 1949\n13,475\n367,092\n124,567\n242,525\n27.2\n9.2\n18.0\n\n 1950\n13,737\n372,009\n124,220\n247,789\n27.1\n9.0\n18.0\n\n 1951\n14,050\n381,092\n125,823\n255,269\n27.1\n9.0\n18.2\n\n 1952\n14,496\n403,559\n126,385\n277,174\n27.8\n8.7\n19.1\n\n 1953\n14,886\n417,884\n127,791\n290,093\n28.1\n8.6\n19.5\n\n 1954\n15,330\n436,198\n124,855\n311,343\n28.5\n8.1\n20.3\n\n 1955\n15,736\n442,937\n128,476\n314,461\n28.1\n8.2\n20.0\n\n 1956\n16,123\n450,739\n131,961\n318,778\n28.0\n8.2\n19.8\n\n 1957\n16,677\n469,093\n136,579\n332,514\n28.1\n8.2\n19.9\n\n 1958\n17,120\n470,118\n135,201\n334,917\n27.5\n7.9\n19.6\n\n 1959\n17,522\n479,275\n139,913\n339,362\n27.4\n8.0\n19.4\n\n 1960\n17,909\n478,551\n139,693\n338,858\n26.7\n7.8\n18.9\n\n 1961\n18,271\n475,700\n140,985\n334,715\n26.0\n7.7\n18.3\n\n 1962\n18,614\n469,693\n143,699\n325,994\n25.2\n7.7\n17.5\n\n 1963\n18,964\n465,767\n147,367\n318,400\n24.6\n7.8\n16.8\n\n 1964\n19,325\n452,915\n145,850\n307,065\n23.4\n7.5\n15.9\n\n 1965\n19,678\n418,595\n148,939\n269,656\n21.3\n7.6\n13.7\n\n 1966\n20,048\n387,710\n149,863\n237,847\n19.3\n7.5\n11.9\n\n 1967\n20,412\n370,894\n150,283\n220,611\n18.2\n7.4\n10.8\n\n 1968\n20,744\n364,310\n153,196\n211,114\n17.6\n7.4\n10.2\n\n 1969\n21,028\n369,647\n154,477\n215,170\n17.6\n7.3\n10.2\n\n 1970\n21,324\n371,988\n155,961\n216,027\n17.4\n7.3\n10.1\n\n 1971\n21,962\n362,187\n157,272\n204,915\n16.7\n7.3\n9.5\n\n 1972\n22,218\n347,319\n162,413\n184,906\n15.8\n7.4\n8.4\n\n 1973\n22,492\n343,373\n164,039\n179,334\n15.4\n7.4\n8.1\n\n 1974\n22,808\n350,650\n166,794\n178,851\n15.3\n7.4\n7.9\n\n 1975\n23,143\n359,323\n167,176\n191,919\n15.6\n7.3\n8.3\n\n 1976\n23,450\n359,987\n167,009\n192,978\n15.4\n7.2\n8.3\n\n 1977\n23,726\n361,400\n167,498\n193,902\n15.3\n7.1\n8.2\n\n 1978\n23,963\n358,852\n168,179\n190,673\n15.0\n7.0\n8.0\n\n 1979\n24,202\n366,064\n168,183\n197,881\n15.1\n6.9\n8.2\n\n 1980\n24,516\n370,709\n171,473\n199,236\n15.1\n7.0\n8.1\n\n 1981\n24,820\n371,346\n171,029\n200,317\n14.9\n6.8\n8.0\n\n 1982\n25,117\n373,082\n174,413\n198,669\n14.8\n6.9\n7.9\n\n 1983\n25,367\n373,689\n174,484\n199,205\n14.6\n6.8\n7.8\n\n 1984\n25,608\n377,031\n175,727\n201,304\n14.6\n6.8\n7.8\n\n 1985\n25,843\n375,727\n181,323\n194,404\n14.4\n7.0\n7.5\n\n 1986\n26,101\n372,913\n184,224\n188,689\n14.3\n7.1\n7.2\n\n 1987\n26,449\n369,742\n184,953\n184,789\n14.0\n7.0\n7.0\n\n 1988\n26,795\n376,795\n190,011\n186,784\n14.1\n7.1\n7.0\n\n 1989\n27,282\n392,661\n190,965\n201,696\n14.4\n7.0\n7.4\n\n 1990\n27,698\n405,486\n191,973\n213,513\n14.6\n6.9\n7.7\n\n 1991\n28,031\n402,533\n195,569\n206,964\n14.4\n7.0\n7.4\n\n 1992\n28,367\n398,643\n196,535\n202,108\n14.1\n6.9\n7.1\n\n 1993\n28,682\n388,394\n204,912\n183,482\n13.5\n7.1\n6.4\n\n 1994\n28,999\n385,114\n207,077\n178,037\n13.3\n7.1\n6.1\n\n 1995\n29,302\n378,016\n210,733\n167,283\n12.9\n7.2\n5.7\n\n 1996\n29,611\n366,200\n212,880\n153,320\n12.4\n7.2\n5.2\n\n 1997\n29,907\n348,598\n215,669\n132,929\n11.7\n7.2\n4.4\n\n 1998\n30,157\n342,418\n218,091\n124,327\n11.4\n7.2\n4.1\n\n 1999\n30,404\n337,249\n219,530\n117,719\n11.1\n7.2\n3.9\n\n 2000\n30,689\n327,882\n218,062\n109,820\n10.7\n7.1\n3.6\n\n 2001\n31,021\n333,744\n219,538\n114,206\n10.8\n7.1\n3.7\n\n 2002\n31,373\n328,802\n223,603\n105,199\n10.5\n7.1\n3.4\n\n 2003\n31,676\n335,202\n226,169\n109,033\n10.6\n7.1\n3.4\n\n 2004\n31,941\n337,072\n226,584\n110,488\n10.6\n7.1\n3.5\n\n 2005\n32,245\n342,176\n230,132\n112,044\n10.6\n7.1\n3.5\n\n 2006\n32,576\n354,617\n228,079\n126,538\n10.9\n7.0\n3.9\n\n 2007\n32,930\n367,864\n235,217\n132,647\n11.2\n7.1\n4.0\n\n 2008\n33,318\n377,886\n238,617\n139,269\n11.3\n7.2\n4.2\n\n 2009\n33,727\n380,863\n242,277\n138,586\n11.3\n7.2\n4.1\n\n 2010\n34,127\n377,213\n247,926\n129,287\n11.1\n7.3\n3.8\n\n 2011\n34,484\n377,636\n254,731\n122,905\n11.0\n7.4\n3.6\n\n 2012\n34,880\n381,429 \n256,965\n124,464\n10.9\n7.4\n3.6\n\n 2013\n35,293\n386,044 \n256,982\n129,062\n11.0\n7.4\n3.7\n\n2014\n35,667\n389,914\n266,164\n123,750\n10.9\n7.6\n3.3\n\n2015\n35,981\n390,836\n267,875\n122,961\n10.9\n7.6\n3.3\n\n2016(p)\n36,503\n395,065\n272,891\n122,174\n10.8\n7.5\n3.3\n\n\n(p)=January–September 2016\n\n===Current population growth===\n\n*Births from January–March 2016 = 94,517\n*Births from January–March 2017 = 94,851\n*Deaths from January–March 2016 = 71,278\n*Deaths from January–March 2017 = 74,985\n*Natural increase from January–March 2016 = 23,239\n*Natural increase from January–March 2017 = 19,866\n\n'''Age characteristics:'''\n\n Population by age and gender, 2011\n\nAge group\nMale\nFemale\nTotal\nPercent\n\n\n 0 to 4 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 5 to 9 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 10 to 14 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 15 to 19 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 20 to 24 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 25 to 29 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 30 to 34 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 35 to 39 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 40 to 44 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 45 to 49 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 50 to 54 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 55 to 59 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 60 to 64 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 65 to 69 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 70 to 74 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 75 to 79 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 80 to 84 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 85 years and over \n \n \n \n \n\nTotal \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 0 to 14 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 15 to 64 years \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 65 years and over \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n'''Net migration rate:''' 5.65 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2013 est.)",
"'''Urbanization:'''\n* ''urban population:'' 81% of total population (2010)\n* ''rate of urbanization:'' 1.1% annual rate of change (2010-2015 est.)",
"Population pyramid in 2010\n'''Sex ratio:'''\n* ''at birth:'' 1.06 male(s)/female\n* ''under 15 years:'' 1.05 male(s)/female\n* ''15 – 24 years:'' 1.06 male(s)/female\n* ''25 - 54 years:'' 1.03 male(s)/female\n* ''55 - 64 years:'' 0.98 male(s)/female\n* ''65 years and over:'' 0.79 male(s)/female\n* ''total population:'' 0.99 male(s)/female (2013 est.)",
"'''Maternal mortality rate:''' 12 deaths/100,000 live births (2010 est.)",
"'''Life expectancy:'''\n* ''total population'': 81.57 years\n* ''male'': 78.98 years\n* ''female'': 84.31 years (2013 est.)",
"===Median age===\n* ''total:'' 40.6 years\n** ''male:'' 39.6 years\n** ''female:'' 41.5 years (2011)\n\n'''Median age by province and territory, 2011'''\n# Newfoundland and Labrador: 44.0\n# Nova Scotia: 43.7\n# New Brunswick:43.7\n# Prince Edward Island: 42.8\n# Quebec: 41.9\n# British Columbia: 41.9\n# Ontario: 40.4\n# Yukon: 39.1\n# Manitoba: 38.4\n# Saskatchewan: 38.2\n# Alberta: 36.5\n# Northwest Territories: 32.3\n# Nunavut: 24.1\n\n'''Total''': 40.6\n:Sources: Statistics Canada",
"\n===Ethnic origin===\n\nIn the 2006 census, Canadians could identify as being of one or more ethnicities.",
"Percentages therefore add up to more than 100%.",
"The most common response was \"Canadian\".",
"As data is completely self-reported, and reporting individuals may have varying definitions of \"Ethnic origin\" (or may not know their ethnic origin), these figures should not be considered an exact record of the relative prevalence of different ethno-cultural ancestries but rather how Canadians self-identify.",
"Statistics Canada projects that, by 2031, about 28% of the population will be foreign-born.",
"The number of people belonging to visible minority groups will double, the majority of which will live in Toronto and Vancouver.",
"Counting both single and multiple responses, the most commonly identified ethnic origins were (2011):\n\n\n Ethnic origin\n %\n Population\n Area of largest proportion\n\n Canadian\n 32.16%\n\n Quebec (59.1%)\n\n English\n 19.81%\n\n Newfoundland and Labrador (43.4%)\n\n French\n 15.42%\n\n Quebec (29.1%)\n\n Scottish\n 14.35%\n\n Prince Edward Island (39.3%)\n\n Irish\n 13.83%\n\n Prince Edward Island (30.4%)\n\n German\n 9.75%\n\n Saskatchewan (28.6%)\n\n Italian\n 4.53%\n\n Ontario (7.0%)\n\n Chinese\n 4.53%\n\n British Columbia (10.7%)\n\n First Nations\n 4.17%\n\n Northwest Territories (37.0%)\n\n Ukrainian\n 3.81%\n\n Manitoba (14.9%)\n\n East Indian\n 3.55%\n\n British Columbia (6.3%)\n\n Dutch (Netherlands)\n 3.25%\n\n Alberta (5.1%)\n\n Polish\n 3.08%\n\n Manitoba (7.3%)\n\n Filipino\n 2.02%\n\n Manitoba (5.2%)\n\n British, not included elsewhere\n 1.75%\n\n Yukon (2.4%)\n\n Russian\n 1.68%\n\n Manitoba (4.3%)\n\n Welsh\n 1.40%\n\n Yukon (2.8%)\n\n Norwegian\n 1.38%\n\n Saskatchewan (6.9%)\n\n Métis\n 1.36%\n\n Northwest Territories (6.7%)\n\n Portuguese\n 1.31%\n\n Ontario (2.3%)\n\n American\n 1.13%\n\n Yukon (2.2%)\n\n Spanish\n 1.12%\n\n British Columbia (1.4%)\n\n Swedish\n 1.04%\n\n Saskatchewan (3.2%)\n\n Hungarian\n 0.96%\n\n Saskatchewan (2.8%)\n\n Jewish\n 0.94%\n\n Ontario (1.4%)\n\n\nData from the same subject matter, though from 2001, is also grouped more geographically by Statistics Canada as follows:\n\n\n\n\n 2001\n\nNorth American (non-aboriginal)\n40.21%\n\nBritish Isles\n33.64%\n\nFrench\n15.89%\n\nWestern European\n12.78%\n\nEastern European\n8.50%\n\nSouthern European\n7.87%\n\n\n\n\n 2001\n\nEast and Southeast Asian\n6.03%\n\nAboriginal\n4.45%\n\nSouth Asian\n3.25%\n\nNorthern European\n3.22%\n\nCaribbean\n1.70%\n\nOther European\n1.28%\n\n\n\n\n 2001\n\nArab\n1.17%\n\nAfrican\n0.99%\n\nLatin, Central andSouth American\n0.82%\n\nWest Asian\n0.69%\n\nOceania\n0.16%\n\n\n:''Percentages are calculated as a proportion of the total number of respondents (32,852,325 in 2011) and total more than 100% due to dual responses.",
"All ethnocultural ancestries with responses totalling to more than 1% of the total number of responses are listed in the table above according to the exact terminology used by Statistics Canada.''",
"The most common ethnic origins per province are as follows (total responses; only percentages 10% or higher shown; ordered by percentage of \"Canadian\"):\n* Quebec (7,723,525): '''Canadian''' (59.1%), '''French''' (29.1%)\n* New Brunswick (735,835): '''Canadian''' (50.3%), French (27.2%), English (25.9%), Irish (21.6%), Scottish (19.9%)\n* Newfoundland and Labrador (507,265): '''Canadian''' (49.0%), '''English''' (43.4%), Irish (21.8%)\n* Nova Scotia (906,170): '''Canadian''' (39.1%), Scottish (31.2%), English (30.8%), Irish (22.3%), French (17.0%), German (10.8%)\n* Prince Edward Island (137,375): '''Scottish''' (39.3%), Canadian (36.8%), English (31.1%), '''Irish''' (30.4%), French (21.1%)\n* Ontario (12,651,795): '''Canadian''' (23.3%), English (23.1%), Scottish (16.4%), Irish (16.4%), French (10.8%)\n* Alberta (3,567,980): '''English''' (24.9%), Canadian (21.8%), German (19.2%), Scottish (18.8%), Irish (15.8%), French (11.1%)\n* Manitoba (1,174,345): '''English''' (21.8%), German (18.6%), Canadian (18.5%), Scottish (18.0%), '''Ukrainian''' (14.9%), Irish (13.2%), French (12.6%), North American Indian (10.6%)\n* Saskatchewan (1,008,760): '''German''' (28.6%), English (24.9%), Scottish (18.9%), Canadian (18.8%), Irish (15.5%), Ukrainian (13.5%), French (12.2%), '''North American Indian''' (12.1%)\n* British Columbia (4,324,455): '''English''' (27.7%), Scottish (19.3%), Canadian (19.1%), German (13.1%), '''Chinese''' (10.7%)\n* Yukon (33,320): '''English''' (28.5%), Scottish (25.0%), Irish (22.0%), North American Indian (21.8%), Canadian (21.8%), German (15.6%), French (13.1%)\n* Northwest Territories (40,800): '''North American Indian''' (37.0%), Scottish (13.9%), English (13.7%), Canadian (12.8%), Irish (11.9%), Inuit (11.7%)\n* Nunavut (31,700): '''Inuit''' (85.4%)\n\n'''Bold''' indicates either that this response is dominant within this province, or that this province has the highest ratio (percentage) of this response among provinces.",
"Ethnic origin \n Canadian\t\n English\n French\n Scottish\n Irish\n German\n Italian\n Chinese\n First Nations\n Ukrainian\n Dutch\n\n Canada\n 32.1\n 19.8\n 15.4\n 14.3\n 13.8\n 9.7\n 4.5\n 4.5\n 4.1\n 3.8\n 3.2\n\n Ontario \n 23\n 24.7\n 11.2\n 17.5\n 16.5\n 9.5\n 7.2\n 5.4\n 2.6\n 2.8\n 4.1\n\n Quebec \n 60.1 \n 3.3\n 28.8\n 2.7\n 5.5\n 1.8\n 4.0\n 1.2\n 3.0\n 0.4\n 0.3\n\n British Columbia \n 17.7\n 29.6\n 8.9\n 20.3\n 15.2\n 13.8\n 3.5\n 10.6\n 4.7\n 4.8\n 4.8\n\n Alberta \n 21.8\n 24.9\n 11.1\n 18.8\n 15.8\n 19.2\n 2.5\n 4.4\n 5.0\n 9.7\n 5.1\n\n Manitoba \n 18.2\n 22.1\n 13.1\n 18.5\n 13.4\n 19.1\n 1.6\n 1.5\n 10.6\n 14.7\n 4.9\n\n Newfoundland and Labrador\n 53.4\n 39.4\n 5.4\n 6.0\n 19.7\n 1.2\n 0.2\n 0.2\n 3.1\n 0.1\n 0.3\n\n Prince Edward Island\n 44.9\n 28.7\n 21.3\n 38\n 27.9\n 4.1\n 0.5\n 0.1\n 1.0\n 0.3\n 3.1\n\n Nova Scotia\n 37.6\n 34.2\n 18\n 29.8\n 24.5\n 12\n 1.8\n 1.0\n 3.4\n 1.1\n 4.0\n\n New Brunswick\n 57.8\n 23\n 26.8\n 17.7\n 18.9\n 3.8\n 1.7\n 1.1\n 3.3\n 0.1\n 1.8\n\n Saskatchewan\n 25\n 24.5\n 11.4\n 17.9\n 14.5\n 28.6\n 0.5\n 1.0\n 10.5\n 12.6\n 3.4\n\n\n=== Visible minority population ===\nStatistics Canada identifies visible minorities in accordance with the ''Employment Equity Act''.",
"Statistics Canada states the \"''Employment Equity Act'' defines visible minorities as 'persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour.'\"",
"Visible and non-visible minority populations by group, 1996–2011\n\n Group\n 1996\n 2001\n 2006 \n 2011\n\n Total\n \n Total\n \n Total\n \n Total\n \n\n Total visible minority population \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n South Asian \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Chinese \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Black \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Filipino \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Latin American \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Arab/West Asian \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Arab \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Southeast Asian \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n West Asian \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Korean \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Japanese \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Visible minority, \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Multiple visible minorities \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Not a visible minority \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Aboriginal identity (see breakdown below) \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n Others (Caucasian or White) \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n Total population in private households \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n==== By province and territory ====\n\n\n Visible minority population by province and territory, 2011\n\n Province/territory\n '''Not a visible minority'''\n South Asian\n Chinese\n Black\n Filipino\n Latin American\n Arab\n Southeast Asian\n West Asian\n Korean\n Japanese\n Visible minority, \n Multiple visible minorities\n '''Total visible minority population'''\n '''''Total population'''''\n '''Percent visible minority'''\n\n Alberta\n '''2,690,960'''\n 156,665\n 133,390\n 74,435\n 106,035\n 41,305\n 34,920\n 41,025\n 16,030\n 15,000\n 12,415\n 6,270\n 18,840\n '''656,325'''\n '''''3,567,980'''''\n '''18.39%'''\n\n British Columbia\n '''2,911,295'''\n 313,440\n 438,140\n 33,260\n 126,040\n 35,465\n 14,090\n 51,970\n 38,960\n 53,770\n 38,120\n 6,465\n 31,160\n '''1,180,870'''\n '''''4,324,455'''''\n '''27.31%'''\n\n Manitoba\n '''824,830'''\n 25,265\n 17,025\n 19,610\n 59,220\n 9,140\n 3,235\n 7,565\n 2,040\n 3,045\n 1,745\n 1,765\n 3,975\n '''153,625'''\n '''''1,174,350'''''\n '''13.08%'''\n\n New Brunswick\n '''696,080'''\n 2,445\n 2,540\n 4,870\n 1,100\n 1,160\n 1,380\n 730\n 305\n 1,855\n 305\n 85\n 360\n '''17,135'''\n '''''735,835'''''\n '''2.33%'''\n\n Newfoundland and Labrador\n '''464,540'''\n 1,855\n 1,645\n 1,455\n 350\n 185\n 370\n 320\n 155\n 80\n 60\n 205\n 250\n '''6,930'''\n '''''507,270'''''\n '''1.37%'''\n\n Northwest Territories\n '''16,920'''\n 185\n 380\n 555\n 895\n 105\n 115\n 230\n 60\n 50\n 45\n 75\n 30\n '''2,720'''\n '''''40,800'''''\n '''6.67%'''\n\n Nova Scotia\n '''825,055'''\n 4,965\n 6,050\n 20,790\n 1,890\n 1,360\n 6,290\n 1,155\n 1,365\n 960\n 445\n 720\n 1,290\n '''47,270'''\n '''''906,175'''''\n '''5.22%'''\n\n Nunavut\n '''3,825'''\n 95\n 65\n 120\n 130\n 25\n 15\n 30\n 0\n 10\n 0\n 10\n 0\n '''510'''\n '''''31,700'''''\n '''1.61%'''\n\n Ontario\n '''9,070,800'''\n 965,990\n 629,140\n 539,205\n 275,380\n 172,560\n 151,645\n 137,875\n 122,530\n 78,290\n 29,085\n 81,130\n 96,735\n '''3,279,565'''\n '''''12,651,795'''''\n '''25.92%'''\n\n Prince Edward Island\n '''130,890'''\n 485\n 1,830\n 390\n 85\n 235\n 200\n 205\n 345\n 140\n 210\n 75\n 70\n '''4,260'''\n '''''137,380'''''\n '''3.10%'''\n\n Quebec\n '''6,740,375'''\n 83,320\n 82,845\n 243,625\n 31,495\n 116,380\n 166,260\n 65,855\n 23,445\n 6,665\n 4,025\n 8,895\n 17,420\n '''850,235'''\n '''''7,732,525'''''\n '''11.00%'''\n\n Saskatchewan\n '''787,745'''\n 12,325\n 11,300\n 7,255\n 16,025\n 3,250\n 2,095\n 4,910\n 1,600\n 1,270\n 720\n 745\n 1,775\n '''63,275'''\n '''''1,008,760'''''\n '''6.27%'''\n\n Yukon\n '''23,590'''\n 365\n 400\n 100\n 675\n 110\n 0\n 210\n 0\n 0\n 80\n 35\n 35\n '''2,025'''\n '''''33,320'''''\n '''6.08%'''\n\n Canada\n '''25,186,890'''\n 1,567,400\n 1,324,750\n 945,665\n 619,310\n 381,280\n 380,620\n 312,075\n 206,840\n 161,130\n 87,270\n 106,475\n 171,935\n '''6,264,750'''\n '''''32,852,325'''''\n '''19.07%'''\n\nAll statistics are from the Canada 2011 Census.",
"==== By city over 100,000 ====\n\n\n Visible minority in Canadian cities over 100,000 people, 2011\n\nCity\nPopulation\nEuropean\nVisible minority\nBlack\nEast Asian\nLatin American\nSouth Asian\nSoutheast Asian\nWest Asian\nArab \nMultiracial\nOther\n\nToronto\n2,576,025 \n50.2%\n'''49.1%'''\n8.5%\n12.7%\n2.8%\n12.3% \n7.0%\n2.0%\n1.1%\n1.5%\n1.3%\n\nMontreal\n1,612,640\n67.7%\n'''31.7%'''\n9.1%\n3.2%\n4.2%\n3.3%\n3.8%\n0.8%\n6.4%\n0.6%\n0.3%\n\nCalgary\n1,082,235\n67.3%\n'''30.1%'''\n2.9%\n8.1%\n1.8%\n7.5%\n6.3%\n0.8%\n1.5%\n0.8%\n0.3%\n\nOttawa\n867,090\n74.2%\n'''23.7%'''\n5.7%\n4.5%\n1.2%\n3.9%\n2.8%\n0.9%\n3.7%\n0.7%\n0.2%\n\nEdmonton\n795,675\n64.7%\n'''30.0%'''\n3.8%\n7.1%\n1.7%\n7.2%\n6.5%\n0.9%\n1.7%\n0.8%\n0.3%\n\nMississauga\n708,725\n45.8%\n'''53.7%'''\n6.3%\n8.3%\n2.2%\n21.8%\n7.8%\n1.1%\n3.5%\n1.5%\n1.3%\n\nWinnipeg\n649,995\n66.9%\n'''21.4%'''\n2.7%\n2.9%\n1.0%\n3.5%\n9.8%\n0.3%\n0.4%\n0.6%\n0.2%\n\nVancouver\n590,210\n46.2%\n'''51.8%'''\n1.0%\n30.9%\n1.6%\n6.0%\n9.0%\n1.2%\n0.5%\n1.5%\n0.2%\n\nBrampton\n521,315\n32.9%\n'''66.4%'''\n13.5%\n1.8%\n2.2%\n38.4%\n5.1%\n0.7%\n0.8%\n1.4%\n2.6%\n\nHamilton\n509,640\n82.3%\n'''15.7%'''\n3.2%\n2.2%\n1.4%\n3.4%\n2.6%\n0.8%\n1.4%\n0.4%\n0.3%\n\nQuebec City\n502,595\n95.0%\n'''4.0%'''\n1.1%\n0.4%\n1.0%\n0.2%\n0.4%\n0.1%\n0.7%\n0.1%\n0.1%\n\nSurrey\n463,340\n44.5%\n'''52.6%'''\n1.3%\n8.5%\n1.2%\n30.7%\n8.5%\n0.5%\n0.7%\n0.9%\n0.2%\n\nLaval\n392,725\n78.7%\n'''20.7%'''\n6.2%\n0.9%\n2.5%\n1.7%\n2.2%\n0.8%\n5.9%\n0.3%\n0.1%\n\nHalifax\n384,330\n88.4%\n'''9.1%'''\n3.6%\n1.5%\n0.3%\n1.0%\n0.6%\n0.4%\n1.4%\n0.3%\n0.1%\n\nLondon\n360,715\n82.0%\n'''16.1%'''\n2.4%\n2.9%\n2.7%\n2.2%\n1.7%\n0.8%\n2.6%\n0.5%\n0.2%\n\nMarkham\n300,135\n27.5%\n'''72.3%'''\n3.2%\n39.7%\n0.5%\n19.1%\n3.9%\n2.1%\n1.1%\n1.9%\n0.7%\n\nVaughan\n286,305\n68.4%\n'''31.4%'''\n2.7%\n6.3%\n2.1%\n9.7%\n5.7%\n2.1%\n1.0%\n1.0%\n0.8%\n\nGatineau\n261,665\n86.2%\n'''10.3%'''\n3.9%\n1.0%\n1.5%\n0.3%\n0.7%\n0.2%\n2.5%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n\nLongueuil\n227,970\n84.8%\n'''14.2%'''\n4.6%\n1.4%\n2.5%\n0.9%\n1.4%\n0.6%\n2.3%\n0.2%\n0.2%\n\nBurnaby\n220,255\n39.1%\n'''59.5%'''\n1.6%\n36.0%\n1.7%\n7.9%\n7.7%\n2.0%\n0.7%\n1.8%\n0.2%\n\nSaskatoon\n218,315\n77.4%\n'''12.8%'''\n1.1%\n2.7%\n0.6%\n2.7%\n3.9%\n0.5%\n0.6%\n0.4%\n0.2%\n\nKitchener\n215,950\n80.1%\n'''18.4%'''\n3.1%\n2.2%\n2.7%\n4.1%\n3.0%\n1.1%\n1.2%\n0.6%\n0.4%\n\nWindsor\n208,015\n74.8%\n'''22.9%'''\n4.6%\n3.2%\n1.1%\n3.9%\n3.1%\n0.8%\n5.5%\n0.5%\n0.4%\n\nRegina\n189,740\n78.6%\n'''11.5%'''\n1.6%\n2.2%\n0.7%\n2.6%\n3.5%\n0.3%\n0.3%\n0.3%\n0.0%\n\nRichmond\n189,305\n28.6%\n'''70.4%'''\n0.7%\n49.8%\n0.9%\n7.7%\n7.8%\n0.7%\n0.5%\n2.3%\n0.2%\n\nRichmond Hill\n184,370\n46.9%\n'''52.9%'''\n2.0%\n26.9%\n0.9%\n8.1%\n3.0%\n8.6%\n1.7%\n1.3%\n0.4%\n\nOakville\n180,430\n77.2%\n'''22.8%'''\n2.7%\n5.3%\n1.5%\n7.2%\n2.7%\n0.7%\n1.6%\n0.8%\n0.4%\n\nBurlington\n173,495\n87.1%\n'''12.0%'''\n1.6%\n2.4%\n1.0%\n3.6%\n1.3%\n0.5%\n0.9%\n0.5%\n0.2%\n\nGreater Sudbury\n157,765\n89.1%\n'''2.7%'''\n0.6%\n0.6%\n0.2%\n0.4%\n0.3%\n0.1%\n0.3%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n\nSherbrooke\n150,255\n93.6%\n'''5.5%'''\n1.7%\n0.3%\n1.4%\n0.3%\n0.4%\n0.3%\n0.9%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n\nOshawa\n147,680\n88.7%\n'''9.3%'''\n3.2%\n1.1%\n0.7%\n1.9%\n1.2%\n0.3%\n0.2%\n0.4%\n0.4%\n\nSaguenay\n141,335\n96.6%\n'''0.9%'''\n0.3%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n0.2%\n0.0%\n0.0%\n\nLévis\n135,835\n98.0%\n'''1.4%'''\n0.4%\n0.3%\n0.2%\n0.0%\n0.2%\n0.0%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n\nBarrie\n133,240\n89.8%\n'''7.6%'''\n1.9%\n1.3%\n0.8%\n1.3%\n1.0%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.4%\n0.4%\n\nAbbotsford\n130,950\n66.5%\n'''29.6%'''\n0.9%\n2.9%\n0.6%\n22.4%\n1.5%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.4%\n0.3%\n\nSt. Catharines\n128,770\n88.3%\n'''9.9%'''\n2.1%\n1.9%\n1.5%\n1.1%\n1.3%\n0.3%\n1.0%\n0.3%\n0.3%\n\nTrois-Rivières\n126,980\n96.3%\n'''2.5%'''\n0.9%\n0.2%\n0.6%\n0.0%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n0.5%\n0.0%\n0.0%\n\nCambridge\n125,060\n85.4%\n'''12.6%'''\n1.9%\n1.2%\n1.0%\n5.2%\n1.7%\n0.3%\n0.6%\n0.3%\n0.4%\n\nCoquitlam\n125,015\n54.1%\n'''43.8%'''\n1.0%\n24.1%\n1.5%\n4.2%\n5.1%\n5.1%\n0.8%\n1.3%\n0.2%\n\nKingston\n118,930\n89.7%\n'''7.4%'''\n0.9%\n2.1%\n0.7%\n1.7%\n0.9%\n0.3%\n0.6%\n0.1%\n0.1%\n\nWhitby\n120,285\n79.5%\n'''19.2%'''\n6.2%\n2.5%\n0.8%\n4.7%\n2.2%\n0.5%\n0.6%\n1.0%\n0.7%\n\nGuelph\n120,550\n82.7%\n'''15.7%'''\n1.4%\n3.1%\n1.0%\n4.1%\n4.0%\n0.8%\n0.5%\n0.5%\n0.2%\n\nKelowna\n114,570\n87.9%\n'''7.6%'''\n0.6%\n2.6%\n0.5%\n2.3%\n1.0%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.2%\n0.2%\n\nSaanich\n107,855\n79.3%\n'''18.0%'''\n1.1%\n8.6%\n0.7%\n3.8%\n2.4%\n0.3%\n0.4%\n0.4%\n0.2%\n\nAjax\n109,220\n53.2%\n'''45.8%'''\n16.0%\n2.8%\n1.0%\n13.8%\n5.0%\n1.6%\n1.1%\n2.0%\n2.6%\n\nThunder Bay\n105,950\n87.1%\n'''3.4%'''\n0.5%\n1.0%\n0.2%\n0.5%\n0.7%\n0.1%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n\nTerrebonne\n105,610\n91.7%\n'''7.6%'''\n4.5%\n0.2%\n1.3%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n1.1%\n0.1%\n0.1%\n\nSt. John's\n103,905\n93.3%\n'''4.4%'''\n0.9%\n1.1%\n0.1%\n1.2%\n0.3%\n0.1%\n0.2%\n0.1%\n0.1%\n\nLangley\n103,145\n83.2%\n'''13.4%'''\n0.5%\n6.3%\n0.6%\n2.7%\n2.4%\n0.2%\n0.2%\n0.5%\n0.1%\n\nChatham-Kent\n101,680\n93.2%\n'''3.9%'''\n1.9%\n0.5%\n0.3%\n0.5%\n0.5%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n0.1%\n0.0%\n\n\n=== Aboriginal population ===\n\n\n\n Aboriginal population in Canada, 1996–2011 censuses\n\n Group\n 1996\n 2001\n 2006 \n 2011\n\n %\n Total\n %\n Total\n %\n Total\n %\n Total\n\n'''Total Aboriginal'''\n'''2.8%'''\n'''799,005'''\n'''3.3%''' \n'''976,305'''\n'''3.8%''' \n'''1,172,785'''\n'''4.3%'''\n'''1,400,685'''\n\nFirst Nations\n1.8% \n529,040\n2.1%\n608,850\n2.2%\n698,025\n2.6% \n851,560\n\nMétis\n0.7%\n204,115\n1.0%\n292,305\n1.2%\n389,780\n1.4% \n451,795\n\nInuit\n0.14%\n40,220 \n\n \n0.16%\n50,485\n0.2%\n59,445\n\n\n''Note: Inuit, other Aboriginal and mixed Aboriginal groups are not listed as their own, but they are all accounted for in total Aboriginal''\n\n==== By province and territory ====\n\n\n Aboriginal population by province and territory, 2011\n\n Province/territory\n Not Aboriginal\n First Nations\n Métis\n Inuit\n Aboriginal, \n Multiple Aboriginal identities\n '''Total Aboriginal population'''\n '''''Total population'''''\n\n Alberta\n '''2,690,960'''\n 116,670\n 96,870\n 1,985\n 3,300\n 1,870\n '''220,695'''\n '''''3,567,980'''''\n\n British Columbia\n '''2,911,295'''\n 155,020\n 69,475\n 1,570\n 3,745\n 2,480\n '''232,290'''\n '''''4,324,455'''''\n\n Manitoba\n '''824,830'''\n 114,225\n 78,830\n 580\n 1,055\n 1,200\n '''195,895'''\n '''''1,174,350'''''\n\n New Brunswick\n '''696,080'''\n 16,120\n 4,850\n 485\n 1,020\n 150\n '''22,620'''\n '''''735,835'''''\n\n Newfoundland and Labrador\n '''464,540'''\n 19,315\n 7,660\n 6,265\n 2,300\n 260\n '''35,800'''\n '''''507,270'''''\n\n Northwest Territories\n '''16,920'''\n 13,350\n 3,250\n 4,335\n 185\n 45\n '''21,160'''\n '''''40,800'''''\n\n Nova Scotia\n '''825,055'''\n 21,895\n 10,050\n 695\n 980\n 225\n '''33,850'''\n '''''906,175'''''\n\n Nunavut\n '''3,825'''\n 125\n 130\n 27,070\n 15\n 20\n '''27,365'''\n '''''31,700'''''\n\n Ontario\n '''9,070,800'''\n\n 201,100\n 86,020\n 3,355\n 8,040\n 2,910\n '''301,430'''\n '''''12,651,795'''''\n\n Prince Edward Island\n '''130,890'''\n\n 1,520\n 410\n 55\n 235\n 0\n '''2,230'''\n '''''137,380'''''\n\n Quebec\n '''6,740,375'''\n\n 82,425\n 40,960\n 12,570\n 4,415\n 1,545\n '''141,915'''\n '''''7,732,525'''''\n\n Saskatchewan\n '''787,745'''\n\n 103,205\n 52,450\n 290\n 1,120\n 675\n '''157,740'''\n '''''1,008,760'''''\n\n Yukon\n '''23,590'''\n\n 6,585\n 845\n 175\n 70\n 25\n '''7,705'''\n '''''33,320'''''\n\n Canada\n '''25,186,890'''\n 851,560\n 451,795\n 59,440\n 26,475\n 11,415\n '''1,400,685'''\n '''''32,852,325'''''\n\nAll statistics are from the Canada 2011 Census.",
"==== By city over 100,000 ====\n\n\n Aboriginal population in Canadian cities over 100,000 people, 2011\n\nCity\nPopulation\nEuropean\nTotal Aboriginal\nFirst Nations\nMétis\n\nToronto\n2,576,025 \n50.2%\n'''0.7%'''\n0.5%\n0.2%\n\nMontreal\n1,612,640\n67.7%\n'''0.6%'''\n0.3%\n0.2%\n\nCalgary\n1,082,235\n67.3%\n'''2.7%'''\n1.2%\n1.4%\n\nOttawa\n867,090\n74.2%\n'''2.1%'''\n1.2%\n0.7%\n\nEdmonton\n795,675\n64.7%\n'''5.3%'''\n2.4%\n2.7%\n\nMississauga\n708,725\n45.8%\n'''0.5%'''\n0.3%\n0.1%\n\nWinnipeg\n649,995\n66.9%\n'''11.7%'''\n5.9%\n6.3%\n\nVancouver\n590,210\n46.2%\n'''2.0%'''\n1.3%\n0.6%\n\nBrampton\n521,315\n32.9%\n'''0.7%'''\n0.4%\n0.2%\n\nHamilton\n509,640\n82.3%\n'''2.0%'''\n1.6%\n0.3%\n\nQuebec City\n502,595\n95.0%\n'''0.9%'''\n0.5%\n0.4%\n\nSurrey\n463,340\n44.5%\n'''2.9%'''\n1.9%\n1.0%\n\nLaval\n392,725\n78.7%\n'''0.6%'''\n0.3%\n0.2%\n\nHalifax\n384,330\n88.4%\n'''2.5%'''\n1.5%\n0.8%\n\nLondon\n360,715\n82.0%\n'''1.9%'''\n1.4%\n0.4%\n\nMarkham\n300,135\n27.5%\n'''0.2%'''\n0.1%\n0.1%\n\nVaughan\n286,305\n68.4%\n'''0.2%'''\n0.1%\n\n0.0%\n\nGatineau\n261,665\n86.2%\n'''3.5%'''\n1.8%\n1.5%\n\nLongueuil\n227,970\n84.8%\n'''1.0%'''\n0.6%\n0.0%\n\nBurnaby\n220,255\n39.1%\n'''1.5%'''\n0.9%\n0.5%\n\nSaskatoon\n218,315\n77.4%\n'''10.2%'''\n4.9%\n4.6%\n\nKitchener\n215,950\n80.1%\n'''1.5%'''\n0.9%\n0.5%\n\nWindsor\n208,015\n74.8%\n'''2.3%'''\n1.3%\n0.9%\n\nRegina\n189,740\n78.6%\n'''9.9%'''\n5.8%\n3.9%\n\nRichmond\n189,305\n28.6%\n'''1.0%'''\n0.7%\n0.3%\n\nRichmond Hill\n184,370\n46.9%\n'''0.2%'''\n0.1%\n0.0%\n\nOakville\n180,430\n77.2%\n'''0.6%'''\n0.4%\n0.2%\n\nBurlington\n173,495\n87.1%\n'''0.9%'''\n0.5%\n0.3%\n\nGreater Sudbury\n157,765\n89.1%\n\n'''8.2%'''\n3.8%\n4.1%\n\nSherbrooke\n150,255\n93.6%\n'''0.9%'''\n0.5%\n0.3%\n\nOshawa\n147,680\n88.7%\n'''2.0%'''\n1.2%\n0.8%\n\nSaguenay\n141,335\n96.6%\n'''2.5%'''\n0.8%\n1.6%\n\nLévis\n135,835\n98.0%\n'''0.5%'''\n0.2%\n0.2%\n\nBarrie\n133,240\n89.8%\n'''2.6%'''\n1.4%\n1.2%\n\nAbbotsford\n130,950\n66.5%\n'''4.0%'''\n2.5%\n1.6%\n\nSt. Catharines\n128,770\n88.3%\n'''1.9%'''\n1.2%\n0.6%\n\nTrois-Rivières\n126,980\n96.3%\n'''1.1%'''\n0.6%\n0.4%\n\nCambridge\n125,060\n85.4%\n'''2.0%'''\n1.2%\n0.6%\n\nCoquitlam\n125,015\n54.1%\n'''2.1%'''\n1.1%\n0.9%\n\nKingston\n118,930\n89.7%\n'''2.9%'''\n2.0%\n0.8%\n\nWhitby\n120,285\n79.5%\n'''1.2%'''\n0.7%\n0.4%\n\nGuelph\n120,550\n82.7%\n'''1.6%'''\n1.0%\n0.6%\n\nKelowna\n114,570\n87.9%\n'''4.5%'''\n2.1%\n2.3%\n\nSaanich\n107,855\n79.3%\n'''2.7%'''\n1.5%\n1.1%\n\nAjax\n109,220\n53.2%\n'''1.0%'''\n0.7%\n0.3%\n\nThunder Bay\n105,950\n87.1%\n'''9.5%'''\n7.3%\n2.0%\n\nTerrebonne\n105,610\n91.7%\n'''0.7%'''\n0.5%\n0.1%\n\nSt. John's\n103,905\n93.3%\n'''2.6%'''\n1.2%\n0.8%\n\nLangley\n103,145\n83.2%\n'''3.4%'''\n1.6%\n1.7%\n\nChatham-Kent\n101,680\n93.2%\n'''2.9%'''\n1.7%\n0.9%",
"\n\n\n'''Language used most often at work:'''\n* English: 78.3%\n* French: 21.7%\n* Non-official languages: 2%\n\n'''Languages by language used most often at home:'''\n* English: 67.1%\n* French: 21.5%\n* Non-official languages: 11.4%\n\n'''Languages by mother tongue:'''\n\n\nFirst language\nPopulation (2011)\n% of total population (2011)\nPopulation (2006)\n% of total population (2006)\nIncrease (2006–2011)\nNotes\n\n '''''Single language responses'''''\n '''''32,481,635'''''\n ''''''''''\n '''''30,848,270'''''\n '''''98.7%'''''\n ''''''''''\n\n\n ''Official languages''\n ''25,913,955''\n ''''\n ''24,700,425''\n ''79.1%''\n ''''\n\n\n English\n 18,858,980\n \n 17,882,775\n 57.2%\n \n\n\n French\n 7,054,975\n \n 6,817,650\n 21.8%\n \n\n\n ''Non-official languages''\n ''6,567,680''\n ''''\n ''6,147,840''\n ''19.7%''\n ''''\n\n\n Punjabi\n 430,705\n \n 367,505\n 1.2%\n \n\n\n Chinese, \n 425,210\n \n 456,705\n 1.5%\n \n\n\n Spanish\n 410,670\n \n 345,345\n 1.1%\n \n\n\n German\n 409,200\n \n 450,570\n 1.4%\n \n\n\n Italian\n 407,485\n \n 455,040\n 1.5%\n \n\n\n Cantonese\n 372,460\n \n 361,450\n 1.2%\n \n\n\n Arabic\n 327,870\n \n 261,640\n 0.8%\n \n\n\n Tagalog (Pilipino, Filipino)\n 327,445\n \n 235,615\n 0.8%\n \n\n\n Mandarin\n 248,705\n \n 170,950\n 0.5%\n \n\n\n Portuguese\n 211,335\n \n 219,275\n 0.7%\n \n\n\n Polish\n 191,645\n \n 211,175\n 0.7%\n \n\n\n Urdu\n 172,800\n \n 145,805\n 0.5%\n \n\n\n Persian\n 170,045\n \n 134,080\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Russian\n 164,330\n \n 133,580\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Vietnamese\n 144,880\n \n 141,625\n 0.5%\n \n\n\n Korean\n 137,925\n \n 125,570\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Tamil\n 131,265\n \n 115,880\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Ukrainian\n 111,540\n \n 134,500\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Dutch\n 110,490\n \n 128,900\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Greek\n 108,925\n \n 117,285\n 0.4%\n \n\n\n Gujarati\n 91,450\n \n 81,465\n 0.3%\n \n\n\n Hindustani (Hindi)\n 90,545\n \n 78,240\n 0.3%\n \n\n\n Romanian\n 90,300\n \n 78,495\n 0.3%\n \n\n\n Cree, \n 77,900\n \n 78,855\n 0.3%\n \n In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to simply as 'Cree'.",
"Hungarian\n 67,920\n \n 73,335\n 0.2%\n \n\n\n Creoles\n 61,725\n \n 53,515\n 0.2%\n \n\n\n Bengali\n 59,370\n \n 45,685\n 0.1%\n \n\n\n Serbian\n 56,420\n \n 51,665\n 0.2%\n \n\n\n Croatian\n 49,730\n \n 55,330\n 0.2%\n \n\n\n Japanese\n 39,985\n \n 40,200\n 0.1%\n \n\n\n Inuktitut\n 33,500\n \n 32,015\n 0.1%\n \n In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to as 'Inuktitut, '.",
"Somali\n 31,380\n \n 27,320\n 0.09%\n \n\n\n Armenian\n 29,795\n \n 30,130\n 0.1%\n \n\n\n Turkish\n 29,640\n \n 24,745\n 0.08%\n \n\n\n Albanian\n 23,820\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Czech\n 23,585\n \n 24,450\n 0.08%\n \n\n\n Khmer (Cambodian)\n 19,440\n \n 19,105\n 0.06%\n \n\n\n Bulgarian\n 19,050\n \n 16,790\n 0.05%\n \n\n\n Hebrew\n 18,450\n \n 17,635\n 0.06%\n \n\n\n Amharic\n 18,020\n \n 14,555\n 0.05%\n \n\n\n Ilocano\n 17,915\n \n 13,450\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Ojibway\n 17,625\n \n 24,190\n 0.08%\n \n\n\n Slovak\n 17,580\n \n 18,820\n 0.06%\n \n\n\n Finnish\n 17,415\n \n 21,030\n 0.07%\n \n\n\n Macedonian\n 17,245\n \n 18,435\n 0.06%\n \n\n\n Semitic languages, \n 16,970\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Bisayan languages\n 16,240\n \n 11,240\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Malayalam\n 16,080\n \n 11,925\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Yiddish\n 15,205\n \n 16,295\n 0.05%\n \n\n\n Sinhala (Sinhalese)\n 14,185\n \n 10,180\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Danish\n 14,145\n \n 18,735\n 0.06%\n \n\n\n Niger–Congo languages, \n 14,075\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Lao\n 12,970\n \n 13,940\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Akan (Twi)\n 12,680\n \n 12,780\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Pashto\n 12,465\n \n 9,025\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Bosnian\n 11,685\n \n 12,790\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Sindhi\n 11,330\n \n 10,355\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Dene\n 11,215\n \n 9,745\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Oromo\n 11,140\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Malay\n 10,910\n \n 9,490\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Innu/Montagnais\n 10,785\n \n 10,975\n 0.04%\n \n In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to as 'Montagnais-Naskapi'.",
"Slovenian\n 10,775\n \n 13,135\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Tigrigna\n 10,220\n \n 7,105\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Serbo-Croatian\n 10,155\n \n 12,510\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Swahili\n 10,090\n \n 7,935\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Oji-Cree\n 9,835\n \n 11,690\n 0.04%\n \n\n\n Kurdish\n 9,805\n \n 7,660\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Taiwanese\n 9,635\n \n 9,620\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Telugu\n 9,315\n \n 6,625\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n African languages, \n 9,125\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Afrikaans\n 8,770\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Nepali\n 8,480\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Thai\n 7,935\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Mi'kmaq\n 7,635\n \n 7,365\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Swedish\n 7,350\n \n 8,220\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Lithuanian\n 7,245\n \n 8,335\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Bantu languages, \n 7,150\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Estonian\n 6,385\n \n 8,240\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n Maltese\n 6,220\n \n 6,405\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Latvian\n 6,200\n \n 7,000\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Fukien\n 5,925\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Berber languages (Kabyle)\n 5,855\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Marathi\n 5,830\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Atikamekw\n 5,820\n \n 5,250\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Norwegian\n 5,800\n \n 7,225\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Indo-Iranian languages, \n 5,255\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Hakka\n 5,115\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Flemish\n 4,690\n \n 5,660\n 0.02%\n \n\n\n Tibetan languages\n 4,640\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Sino-Tibetan languages, \n 4,360\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Rundi (Kirundi)\n 3,975\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Rwanda (Kinyarwanda)\n 3,895\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Sign languages, \n 3,815\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Slavic languages, \n 3,630\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Lingala\n 3,085\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Stoney\n 3,050\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Burmese\n 2,985\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Shanghainese\n 2,920\n \n N/A\n N/A\n N/A\n\n\n Siouan languages (Dakota/Sioux)\n N/A\n N/A\n 5,585\n 0.02%\n N/A\n\n\n Blackfoot\n N/A\n N/A\n 3,085\n 0.01%\n N/A\n\n\n Frisian\n N/A\n N/A\n 2,890\n 0.009%\n N/A\n\n\n Dogrib\n N/A\n N/A\n 2,020\n 0.006%\n N/A\n\n\n Algonquin\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,920\n 0.006%\n N/A\n\n\n South Slave\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,605\n 0.005%\n N/A\n\n\n Carrier\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,560\n 0.005%\n N/A\n\n\n Gitksan\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,180\n 0.004%\n N/A\n\n\n Chilcotin\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,070\n 0.003%\n N/A\n\n\n North Slave (Hare)\n N/A\n N/A\n 1,065\n 0.003%\n N/A\n\n\n Shuswap\n N/A\n N/A\n 935\n 0.003%\n N/A\n\n\n Nisga’a\n N/A\n N/A\n 680\n 0.002%\n N/A\n\n\n Malecite\n N/A\n N/A\n 535\n 0.002%\n N/A\n\n\n Chipewyan\n N/A\n N/A\n 525\n 0.002%\n N/A\n\n\n Inuinnaqtun\n N/A\n N/A\n 365\n 0.001%\n N/A\n\n\n Kutchin-Gwich’in (Loucheux)\n N/A\n N/A\n 360\n 0.001%\n N/A\n\n\n Mohawk\n N/A\n N/A\n 290\n 0.0009%\n N/A\n\n\n Tlingit\n N/A\n N/A\n 80\n 0.0003%\n N/A\n\n\n Other languages\n 77,890\n \n 172,650\n 0.6%\n \n\n\n '''''Multiple language responses'''''\n '''''639,540'''''\n ''''''''''\n '''''392,760'''''\n '''''1.3%'''''\n ''''''''''\n\n\n English and French\n 144,685\n \n 98,630\n 0.3%\n \n\n\n English and a non-official language\n 396,330\n \n 240,005\n 0.8%\n \n\n\n French and a non-official language\n 74,430\n \n 43,335\n 0.1%\n \n\n\n English, French, and a non-official language\n 24,095\n \n 10,790\n 0.03%\n \n\n\n '''Total'''\n '''33,121,175'''\n ''''''\n '''31,241,030'''\n '''100%'''\n ''''''",
"\nStatistics Canada (StatCan) grouped responses to the 2011 National Household Survey (NHS) question on religion into nine core religious categories – Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, Traditional (Aboriginal) Spirituality, other religions and no religious affiliation.",
"Among these, of Canadians were self-identified as Christians in 2011.",
"The second and third-largest categories were of Canadians with no religious affiliation at and Canadian Muslims at .",
"Within the 2011 NHS results, StatCan further subcategorized Christianity in nine groups of its own – Anglican, Baptist, Catholic, Christian Orthodox, Lutheran, Pentecostal, Presbyterian, United Church and Other Christian.",
"Among these, of Canadians were self-identified as Catholic in 2011.",
"The second and third-largest ungrouped subcategories of Christian Canadians were United at and Anglican at , while of Christians were grouped into the Other Christian subcategory comprising numerous denominations.",
"Of the 3,036,785 or of Canadians identified as Other Christians:\n*105,365 ( of Canadians) were identified as Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon);\n*137,775 ( of Canadians) were identified as Jehovah's Witness;\n*175,880 ( of Canadians) were identified as Mennonite;\n*550,965 ( of Canadians) were identified as Protestant; and\n*102,830 ( of Canadians) were identified as Reformed.",
"Religion status of the Canadian Population in 2011\n\n Religion\n Total\n Percent\n\n Buddhist \n \n \n\n Christian \n \n \n\n Anglican \n \n \n\n Baptist \n \n \n\n Roman Catholic \n \n \n\n Christian Orthodox \n \n \n\n Lutheran \n \n \n\n Pentecostal \n \n \n\n Presbyterian \n \n \n\n United Church \n \n \n\n Other Christian \n \n \n\n Hindu \n \n 1.5%\n\n Jewish \n \n \n\n Muslim \n \n \n\n Sikh \n \n \n\n Traditional (Aboriginal) Spirituality \n \n \n\n Other religions \n \n \n\n No religious affiliation",
"\n\n* 1666 census of New France\n* Canada 1906 Census\n* Canada 1911 Census\n* Canada 1996 Census\n* Canada 2001 Census\n* Canada 2006 Census\n* Canada 2011 Census\n* List of Canadian census areas demographic extremes\n* ''Cahiers québécois de démographie'' academic journal\n* ''Canadian Studies in Population'' academic journal\n*",
"\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Roderic Beaujot and Don Kerr, (2007) '' The Changing Face of Canada: Essential Readings in Population'', Canadian Scholars' Press, .",
"\n* Canada Year Book (2010) – Statistics Canada\n* Population estimates and projections, 2010 – 2036 – Statistics Canada"
] | finance |
[
" \n \n\n\nThe '''economy of Canada''' is a highly developed mixed economy with 10th largest GDP by nominal and 17th largest GDP by PPP in the world. Canada is one of the world's wealthiest nations with high standard of living and quality of life. As with other developed nations, the country's economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three quarters of Canadians. Canada has fourth highest total estimated value of natural resources, valued at US$33.2 trillion in 2016. It has the world's third largest proven petroleum reserves and fourth largest exporter of petroleum. It is also the fourth largest exporter of natural gas. Canada is considered an \"energy superpower\" due to its abundant natural resources. \n\nCanada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of the primary sector, with the logging and oil industries being two of Canada's most important. Canada also has a sizable manufacturing sector, based in Central Canada, with the automobile industry and aircraft industry being especially important. With a long coastline, Canada has the 8th largest commercial fishing and seafood industry in the world. Canada is one of the global leaders of the entertainment software industry. It is a member of the APEC, NAFTA, G7, G20, OECD and WTO. \n",
"With the exception of a few island nations in the Caribbean, Canada is the only major parliamentary democracy in the western hemisphere. As a result, Canada has developed its own social and political institutions, distinct from most other countries in the world. Though the Canadian economy is closely integrated with the American economy, it has developed unique economic institutions.\n\nThe Canadian economic system generally combines elements of private enterprise and public enterprise. Many aspects of public enterprise, most notably the development of an extensive social welfare system to redress social and economic inequities, were adopted after the end of World War Two in 1945.\n\nCanada has a private to public (Crown) property ratio of 60:40 and one of the highest levels of economic freedom in the world. Today Canada closely resembles the U.S. in its market-oriented economic system and pattern of production. According to the Forbes Global 2000 list of the world's largest companies in 2008, Canada has 69 companies in the list, ranking 5th next to France.\n\nInternational trade makes up a large part of the Canadian economy, particularly of its natural resources. In 2009, agriculture, energy, forestry and mining exports accounted for about 58% of Canada's total exports. Machinery, equipment, automotive products and other manufactures accounted for a further 38% of exports in 2009. In 2009, exports accounted for approximately 30% of Canada's GDP. The United States is by far its largest trading partner, accounting for about 73% of exports and 63% of imports as of 2009. Canada's combined exports and imports ranked 8th among all nations in 2006.\n\nApproximately 4% of Canadians are directly employed in primary resource fields, and they account for 6.2% of GDP. They are still paramount in many parts of the country. Many, if not most, towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, exist because of a nearby mine or source of timber. Canada is a world leader in the production of many natural resources such as gold, nickel, uranium, diamonds, lead, and in recent years, crude petroleum, which, with the world's second-largest oil reserves, is taking an increasingly prominent position in natural resources extraction. Several of Canada's largest companies are based in natural resource industries, such as EnCana, Cameco, Goldcorp, and Barrick Gold. The vast majority of these products are exported, mainly to the United States. There are also many secondary and service industries that are directly linked to primary ones. For instance one of Canada's largest manufacturing industries is the pulp and paper sector, which is directly linked to the logging business.\n\nThe reliance on natural resources has several effects on the Canadian economy and Canadian society. While manufacturing and service industries are easy to standardize, natural resources vary greatly by region. This ensures that differing economic structures developed in each region of Canada, contributing to Canada's strong regionalism. At the same time the vast majority of these resources are exported, integrating Canada closely into the international economy. Howlett and Ramesh argue that the inherent instability of such industries also contributes to greater government intervention in the economy, to reduce the social impact of market changes.\n\nNatural resource industries also raise important questions of sustainability. Despite many decades as a leading producer, there is little risk of depletion. Large discoveries continue to be made, such as the massive nickel find at Voisey's Bay. Moreover, the far north remains largely undeveloped as producers await higher prices or new technologies as many operations in this region are not yet cost effective. In recent decades Canadians have become less willing to accept the environmental destruction associated with exploiting natural resources. High wages and Aboriginal land claims have also curbed expansion. Instead many Canadian companies have focused their exploration, exploitation and expansion activities overseas where prices are lower and governments more amenable. Canadian companies are increasingly playing important roles in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa.\n\nThe depletion of renewable resources has raised concerns in recent years. After decades of escalating overutilization the cod fishery all but collapsed in the 1990s, and the Pacific salmon industry also suffered greatly. The logging industry, after many years of activism, has in recent years moved to a more sustainable model, or to other countries.\n\n===Unemployment rate===\n\n\n Province\n Unemployment ratepercentage of population\n\n Newfoundland and Labrador\n15.7\n\n Prince Edward Island\n10.0\n\n Nova Scotia\n7.9\n\n10.1\n New Brunswick\n6.5\n\n Quebec\n5.8\n\n Ontario\n6.1\n\n Manitoba\n5.0\n\n Saskatchewan\n6.6\n\n Alberta\n7.8\n\n British Columbia\n5.3\n\n '''Canada (national)'''\n6.3\n\n",
"\nProductivity measures are key indicators of economic performance and a key source of economic growth and competitiveness. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) The OECD Compendium of Productivity Indicators, published annually, presents a broad overview of productivity levels and growth in member nations, highlighting key measurement issues. It analyses the role of \"productivity as the main driver of economic growth and convergence\" and the \"contributions of labour, capital and MFP in driving economic growth.\" According to the definition above \"MFP is often interpreted as the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation\" (OECD 2008,11). Measures of productivity include Gross Domestic Product (GDP)(OECD 2008,11) and multifactor productivity.\n\n===Gross Domestic Product (GDP)===\n\nThe OECD provides data for example comparing labour productivity levels in the total economy of each member nation. In their 2011 report Canada's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was $CDN 1,720,748 million.\n\nIn the International Monetary Fund's (IMF) quarterly World Economic Outlook released in April 2015, the IMF forecast that Canada’s real gross domestic product (GDP) would grow 2.2 percent. In the July World Economic Outlook the IMF forecast that Canada's real GDP would grow by 1.5 per cent in 2015.\n\nAccording to CTV News real estate accounts for half of all GDP growth.\n\n===Multifactor productivity (MFP)===\n\nAnother productivity measure, used by the OECD, is the long-term trend in multifactor productivity (MFP) also known as total factor productivity (TFP). This indicator assesses an economy’s \"underlying productive capacity (\"potential output\"), itself an important measure of the growth possibilities of economies and of inflationary pressures.\" MFP measures the residual growth that cannot be explained by the rate of change in the services of labour, capital and intermediate outputs, and is often interpreted as the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation. (OECD 2008,11)\n\nAccording to the OECD's annual economic survey of Canada in June 2012, Canada has experienced weak growth of multi-factor productivity (MFP) and has been declining further since 2002. One of the ways MFP growth is raised is by boosting innovation and Canada's innovation indicators such as business R&D and patenting rates were poor. Raising MFP growth, is \"needed to sustain rising living standards, especially as the population ages.\"\n",
"\n===Inflation targeting===\nThe Bank of Canada, a federal crown corporation, has the responsibility of Canada's monetary system. During the period that John Crow was Governor of the Bank of Canada—1987 to 1994— there was a worldwide recession and the bank rate rose to around 14% and unemployment topped 11%. In 1991, with Prime Minister Brian Mulroney in office, the federal government and the Bank of Canada announced a new inflation targeting monetary policy that has been the cornerstone of Canada's monetary and fiscal policy ever since. Although since that time inflation-targeting has been adopted by \"most advanced-world central banks\", in 1991 it was innovative and Canada was an early adopter when the then-Finance Minister Michael Wilson approved the Bank of Canada's first inflation-targeting in the 1991 federal budget. The inflation target was set at 2 per cent, which is the midpoint of an inflation range of 1 to 3 per cent. They established a set of inflation-reduction targets in order to keep inflation \"low, stable and predictable\" and to foster \"confidence in the value of money,\" contribute to Canada's sustained growth, employment gains and improved standard of living. Inflation is measured by the total consumer price index (CPI). In 2011 the Government of Canada and the Bank of Canada extended Canada's inflation-control target to December 31, 2016. The Bank of Canada uses three unconventional instruments to achieve the inflation target: \"a conditional statement on the future path of the policy rate,\" quantitative easing, and credit easing.\n\nAs a result, interest rates and inflation eventually came down along with the value of the Canadian dollar. From 1991 to 2011 the inflation-targeting regime kept \"price gains fairly reliable.\"\n\nFollowing the Financial crisis of 2007–08 the narrow focus of inflation-targeting as a means of providing stable growth in the Canadian economy, was questioned. By 2011, the then-Bank of Canada Governor Mark Carney argued that the central bank’s mandate would allow for a more flexible inflation-targeting in specific situations where he would consider taking longer \"than the typical six to eight quarters to return inflation to 2 per cent.\"\n\nThe central bank— the Bank of Canada— issues its rate announcement through its Monetary Policy Report which is released eight times a year. On July 15, 2015 the Bank of Canada announced that it was lowering its target for the overnight rate by another one-quarter percentage point, to 0.5 per cent \"to try to stimulate an economy that appears to have failed to rebound meaningfully from the oil shock woes that dragged it into decline in the first quarter.\" According to the Bank of Canada announcement, in the first quarter of 2015, the total Consumer price index (CPI) inflation was about 1 per cent. This reflects \"year-over-year price declines for consumer energy products.\" Core inflation in the first quarter of 2015 was about 2 per cent with an underlying trend in inflation at about 1.5 to 1.7 per cent.\n\nIn response to the Bank of Canada's July 15, 2015 rate adjustment, Prime Minister Stephen Harper explained that the Canadian economy was being dragged down by forces beyond Canadian borders such as global oil prices, the European debt crisis, and China's economic slowdown\" which has made the global economy \"fragile.\"\n\nThe Chinese stock market had lost about US$3 trillion of wealth by July 2015 when panicked investors sold stocks, which created declines in the commodities markets, which in turn negatively impacted resource-producing countries like Canada.\n\nThe Bank's main priority has been to keep inflation at a moderate level. As part of that strategy, interest rates were kept at a low level for almost seven years. Since September 2010, the key interest rate (overnight rate) was 0.5%. In mid 2017, inflation remained below the Bank's 2% target, (at 1.6%) mostly because of reductions in the cost of energy, food and automobiles; as well, the economy was in a continuing spurt with a predicted GDP growth of 2.8 percent by year end. Early on 12 July 2017, the bank issued a statement that the benchmark rate would be increased to 0.75%. \"The economy can handle very well this move we have today and of course you need to preface that with an acknowledgment that of course interest rates are still very low,\" Governor Stephen Poloz subsequently said. In its press release, the bank had confirmed that the rate would continue to be evaluated at least partly on the basis of inflation. \"Future adjustments to the target for the overnight rate will be guided by incoming data as they inform the bank's inflation outlook, keeping in mind continued uncertainty and financial system vulnerabilities.\" Poloz refused to speculate on the future of the economy but said, \"I don't doubt that interest rates will move higher, but there's no predetermined path in mind at this stage\".\n",
"\nIn 2012, the Canadian economy had the following relative weighting by industry, as percentage value of GDP:\n\n* 12.34 Real estate and rental and leasing\n* 10.86 Manufacturing\n* 07.96 Mining, quarrying and oil or gas extraction\n* 07.03 Health care and social assistance\n* 06.90 Public administration\n* 06.55 Finance and insurance\n* 05.41 Wholesale trade\n* 05.41 Retail trade\n* 05.38 Educational services\n* 05.21 Professional scientific and technical services\n* 04.20 Transportation and warehousing\n* 03.31 Information and cultural industries\n* 02.58 Administrative and support, waste management and remediation services\n* 02.46 Utilities\n* 02.10 Accommodation and food services\n* 02.04 Other services (except public administration)\n* 01.59 Agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting\n* 00.76 Management of companies and enterprises\n* 00.75 Arts, entertainment and recreation\n\n===Service sector===\nThe Toronto-Dominion Centre in Toronto\n\nThe service sector in Canada is vast and multifaceted, employing about three quarters of Canadians and accounting for 70% of GDP. The largest employer is the retail sector, employing almost 12% of Canadians. The retail industry is mainly concentrated in a small number of chain stores clustered together in shopping malls. In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of big-box stores, such as Wal-Mart (of the United States), Real Canadian Superstore, and Best Buy (of the United States). This has led to fewer workers in this sector and a migration of retail jobs to the suburbs.\n\nThe second largest portion of the service sector is the business service and hire only a slightly smaller percentage of the population. This includes the financial services, real estate, and communications industries. This portion of the economy has been rapidly growing in recent years. It is largely concentrated in the major urban centres, especially Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver (see Banking in Canada).\n\nThe education and health sectors are two of Canada's largest, but both are largely under the influence of the government. The health care industry has been quickly growing, and is the third largest in Canada. Its rapid growth has led to problems for governments who must find money to fund it.\n\nCanada has an important high tech industry, and a burgeoning film, television, and entertainment industry creating content for local and international consumption (see Media in Canada). Tourism is of ever increasing importance, with the vast majority of international visitors coming from the United States. Though the recent strength of the Canadian Dollar has hurt this sector, other nations such as China have increased tourism to Canada. Casino gaming is currently the fastest-growing component of the Canadian tourism industry, contributing $5 billion in profits for Canadian governments and employing 41,000 Canadians as of 2001.\n\n===Manufacturing===\n Bombardier Aerospace is the 3rd largest manufacturer of commercial aircraft in the world. Pictured here is a CRJ-900 airplane of Scandinavian Airlines (Y-KFA) built in Canada\nCseries family of aircraft to better compete with narrow-body aircraft from Airbus and Boeing. Pictured here is a CS300 prototype C-FFDK in testing\n\nTreemap of Canada's goods exports in 2014\n\nThe general pattern of development for wealthy nations was a transition from a primary industry based economy to a manufacturing based one, and then to a service based economy. Canada did not escape this pattern - at its (abnormally high World War II) peak in 1944, manufacturing accounted for 29% of GDP, declining to 15.6% in 2005. Canada has not suffered as greatly as most other rich, industrialized nations from the pains of the relative decline in the importance of manufacturing since the 1960s. A 2009 study by Statistics Canada also found that, while manufacturing declined as a relative percentage of GDP from 24.3% in the 1960s to 15.6% in 2005, manufacturing volumes between 1961 and 2005 kept pace with the overall growth in the volume index of GDP. Manufacturing in Canada was especially hit hard by the financial crisis of 2007–08. As of 2010, manufacturing accounts for 13% of Canada's GDP, a relative decline of more than 2% of GDP since 2005.\n\nCentral Canada is home to branch plants to all the major American and Japanese automobile makers and many parts factories owned by Canadian firms such as Magna International and Linamar Corporation. Central Canada today produces more vehicles each year than the neighbouring U.S. state of Michigan, the heart of the American automobile industry. Manufacturers have been attracted to Canada due to the highly educated population with lower labour costs than the United States. Canada's publicly funded health care system is also an important attraction, as companies are exempt from the high health insurance costs US firms pay, though they are offset by corporate health care taxes.\n\nMuch of the Canadian manufacturing industry consists of branch plants of United States firms, though there are some important domestic manufacturers, such as Bombardier Inc.. This has raised several concerns for Canadians. Branch plants provide mainly blue collar jobs, with research and executive positions confined to the United States.\n\n===Energy===\n\n\nPumpjack pumping an oil well near Sarnia, OntarioCanada is one of the few developed nations that is a net exporter of energy - in 2009 net exports of energy products amounted to 2.9% of GDP. Most important are the large oil and gas resources centred in Alberta and the Northern Territories, but also present in neighbouring British Columbia and Saskatchewan. The vast Athabasca oil sands give Canada the world's third largest reserves of oil after Saudi Arabia and Venezuela according to USGS. In British Columbia and Quebec, as well as Ontario, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and the Labrador region, hydroelectric power is an inexpensive and relatively environmentally friendly source of abundant energy. In part because of this, Canada is also one of the world's highest per capita consumers of energy. Cheap energy has enabled the creation of several important industries, such as the large aluminium industries in British Columbia and Quebec.\n\nHistorically, an important issue in Canadian politics is the interplay between the oil and energy industry in Western Canada and the industrial heartland of Southern Ontario. Foreign investment in Western oil projects has fueled Canada's rising dollar. This has raised the price of Ontario's manufacturing exports and made them less competitive, a problem similar to the decline of the manufacturing sector in the Netherlands. Also, Ontario has relatively fewer native sources of power. However, it is cheaper for Alberta to ship its oil to the western United States than to eastern Canada. The eastern Canadian ports thus import significant quantities of oil from overseas, and Ontario makes significant use of nuclear power.\n\nThe National Energy Policy of the early 1980s attempted to force Alberta to sell low priced oil to eastern Canada. This policy proved deeply divisive, and quickly lost its importance as oil prices collapsed in the mid-1980s. One of the most controversial sections of the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement of 1988 was a promise that Canada would never charge the United States more for energy than fellow Canadians.\n\n===Agriculture===\n\nAn inland grain terminal in Alberta\nCanada is also one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products, particularly of wheat and other grains. Canada is a major exporter of agricultural products, to the United States and Asia. As with all other developed nations the proportion of the population and GDP devoted to agriculture fell dramatically over the 20th century.\n\nAs with other developed nations, the Canadian agriculture industry receives significant government subsidies and supports. However, Canada has been a strong supporter of reducing market influencing subsidies through the World Trade Organization. In 2000, Canada spent approximately CDN$4.6 billion on supports for the industry. Of this, $2.32 billion was classified under the WTO designation of \"green box\" support, meaning it did not directly influence the market, such as money for research or disaster relief. All but $848.2 million were subsidies worth less than 5% of the value of the crops they were provided for.\n",
"\n\n\n===Free Trade Agreements in force===\n\n*Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement (Signed 12-Oct-1987, entered into force 01-Jan-1989, later superseded by NAFTA)\n*North American Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Jan-1994, includes Canada, U.S. and Mexico)\n*Canada-Israel Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Jan-1997, modernization ongoing)\n*Canada-Chile Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 05-Jul-1997)\n*Canada-Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Nov-2002, modernization ongoing)\n*Canada-European Free Trade Association Free Trade Agreement (Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein; entered into force 01-Jul-2009)\n*Canada-Peru Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Aug-2009)\n*Canada-Colombia Free Trade Agreement (Signed 21-Nov-2008, entered into force 15-Aug-2011; Canada's ratification of this FTA had been dependent upon Colombia's ratification of the \"Agreement Concerning Annual Reports on Human Rights and Free Trade Between Canada and the Republic of Colombia\" signed on 27-May-2010)\n*Canada-Jordan Free Trade Agreement (Signed on 28-June-2009, entered into force 01-Oct-2012)\n*Canada-Panama Free Trade Agreement (Signed on 14-May-2010, entered into force 01-April-2013)\n*Canada-South Korea Free Trade Agreement (Signed on 11-March-2014, entered into force 01-January-2015)\n\n===Free Trade Agreements concluded===\n*Trans-Pacific Partnership (concluded 05-October-2015)\n*Canada-Ukraine Free Trade Agreement (concluded 14-July-2015)\n*Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (concluded 05-August-2014)\n\n===Ongoing Free Trade Agreements Negotiations===\n\nCanada is negotiating bilateral FTAs with the following countries and trade blocs:\n*Caribbean Community (CARICOM)\n*Guatemala, Nicaragua and El Salvador\n*Dominican Republic\n*India\n*Japan\n*Morocco\n*Singapore\n*Andean Community (FTA's are already in force with Peru and Colombia)\n\nCanada has been involved in negotiations to create the following regional trade blocks:\n\n*Canada-Central American Free Trade Agreement\n*Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA)\n",
"\n\n=== Relations with the U.S. ===\n\nCanada and the United States share a common trading relationship. Canada's job market continues to perform well along with the US, reaching a 30-year low in the unemployment rate in December 2006, following 14 consecutive years of employment growth.\nFlags of Canada and the United States\nThe United States is by far Canada's largest trading partner, with more than $1.7 billion CAD in trade per day in 2005. In 2009, 73% of Canada's exports went to the United States, and 63% of Canada's imports were from the United States. Trade with Canada makes up 23% of the United States' exports and 17% of its imports. By comparison, in 2005 this was more than U.S. trade with all countries in the European Union combined, and well over twice U.S. trade with all the countries of Latin America combined. Just the two-way trade that crosses the Ambassador Bridge between Michigan and Ontario equals all U.S. exports to Japan. Canada's importance to the United States is not just a border-state phenomenon: Canada is the leading export market for 35 of 50 U.S. states, and is the United States' largest foreign supplier of energy.\n\nBilateral trade increased by 52% between 1989, when the U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA) went into effect, and 1994, when the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) superseded it. Trade has since increased by 40%. NAFTA continues the FTA's moves toward reducing trade barriers and establishing agreed-upon trade rules. It also resolves some long-standing bilateral irritants and liberalizes rules in several areas, including agriculture, services, energy, financial services, investment, and government procurement. NAFTA forms the largest trading area in the world, embracing the 405 million people of the three North American countries.\n\nThe largest component of U.S.-Canada trade is in the commodity sector.\n\nThe U.S. is Canada's largest agricultural export market, taking well over half of all Canadian food exports. Similarly, Canada is the largest market for U.S. agricultural goods, with nearly 20% of American food exports going to its northern neighbour. Nearly two-thirds of Canada's forest products, including pulp and paper, are exported to the United States; 72% of Canada's total newsprint production also is exported to the U.S.\n\nAt $73.6 billion in 2004, U.S.-Canada trade in energy is the largest U.S. energy trading relationship, with the overwhelming majority ($66.7 billion) being exports from Canada. The primary components of U.S. energy trade with Canada are petroleum, natural gas, and electricity. Canada is the United States' largest oil supplier and the fifth-largest energy producing country in the world. Canada provides about 16% of U.S. oil imports and 14% of total U.S. consumption of natural gas. The United States and Canada's national electricity grids are linked, and both countries share hydropower facilities on the western borders.\n\nWhile most of U.S.-Canada trade flows smoothly, there are occasionally bilateral trade disputes, particularly in the agricultural and cultural fields. Usually these issues are resolved through bilateral consultative forums or referral to World Trade Organization (WTO) or NAFTA dispute resolution. In May 1999, the U.S. and Canadian governments negotiated an agreement on magazines that provides increased access for the U.S. publishing industry to the Canadian market. The United States and Canada also have resolved several major issues involving fisheries. By common agreement, the two countries submitted a Gulf of Maine boundary dispute to the International Court of Justice in 1981; both accepted the court's 12 October 1984 ruling which demarcated the territorial sea boundary. A current issue between the United States and Canada is the ongoing softwood lumber dispute, as the U.S. alleges that Canada unfairly subsidizes its forestry industry.\n\nIn 1990, the United States and Canada signed a bilateral Fisheries Enforcement Agreement, which has served to deter illegal fishing activity and reduce the risk of injury during fisheries enforcement incidents. The U.S. and Canada signed a Pacific Salmon Agreement in June 1999 that settled differences over implementation of the 1985 Pacific Salmon Treaty for the next decade.\n\nCanada and the United States signed an aviation agreement during Bill Clinton's visit to Canada in February 1995, and air traffic between the two countries has increased dramatically as a result. The two countries also share in operation of the St. Lawrence Seaway, connecting the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean.\n\nThe U.S. is Canada's largest foreign investor and the most popular destination for Canadian foreign investments; at the end of 2007, the stock of U.S. direct investment in Canada was estimated at $293 billion, while Canadian direct investment (stock) in the United States was valued at $213 billion. U.S. FDI accounts for 59.5% of total foreign direct investment in Canada while Canadian FDI in the U.S. accounts for 10% (5th largest foreign investor). US investments are primarily directed at Canada's mining and smelting industries, petroleum, chemicals, the manufacture of machinery and transportation equipment, and finance, while Canadian investment in the United States is concentrated in manufacturing, wholesale trade, real estate, petroleum, finance, and insurance and other services.\n",
"\n===Central Government Debt===\nThe OECD reports the Central Government Debt as percentage of the GDP. In 2000 Canada's was 40.9 percent, in 2007 it was 25.2 percent, in 2008 it was 28.6 percent and by 2010 it was 36.1 percent. The OECD reports ''net'' financial liabilities measure used by the OECD, reports the net number at 25.2%, as of 2008, making Canada’s total government debt burden as the lowest in the G8. The gross number was 68% in 2011.\n\nThe CIA World Factbook, updated weekly, measures financial liabilities by using gross general government debt, as opposed to net federal debt used by the OECD and the Canadian federal government. Gross general government debt includes both \"intragovernmental debt and the debt of public entities at the sub-national level.\" For example, the CIA measured Canada's public debt as 84.1% of GDP in 2012 and 87.4% of GDP in 2011 making it 22nd in the world.\n\n===Household Debt===\nIn March 2015 the International Monetary Fund reported that Canada's high household debt was one of two vulnerable domestic areas in Canada's economy; the second is its overheated housing market.\n\nAccording to a July 2015 report by Laura Cooper, an economist with the RBC—the largest financial institution in Canada— \"outstanding household credit balances\" had reached $1.83 trillion. Canadian household credit growth had reached a peak in 2009 then plummeted to a cycle-low in late 2013. There was a quickened pace of growth in household debt in December 2012 and another in April and May 2015.\n\n====Household debt in 2013====\nAccording to the August 2013 third annual Ipsos Reid Debt Poll only 24 per cent of Canadians were debt free in 2013 compared to 26 per cent in 2012. The average personal non-mortgage debt in 2013 was $15,920 up from $13,141 in 2012. According to an IPSOS chart produced in 2013 debt levels increased \"a staggering 35 per cent\" in Western Canada compared to 10 per cent in Eastern Canada since 2012 even before the Alberta floods. In Alberta in 2013 household debt rose 63 per cent to $24,271 per household from 2012 after the 2013 Alberta floods. In 2013 the average personal debt load in British Columbia was \"up 38 per cent to $15,549;\" in \"Manitoba and Saskatchewan, up 32 per cent to $16,145;\" in Ontario, \"up 13 per cent to $17,416,\" in Quebec up \"3 per cent to $10,458;\" and in Atlantic Canada, \"up 12 per cent to $15,243.\"\n\n====Household debt in 2014====\n\nStatistics Canada announced in December 2014 that Canada's household debt-to-income ratio \"hit a record high in the third quarter of 2014, climbing to 162.6 percent from 161.5 percent in the second quarter.\" However \"household assets and net worth increased much faster than debt,\" with the national net worth at C$8.12 trillion in the third quarter of 2014, a increase of 2.8 percent from the second quarter. Also through the inflation-targeting policy of the Bank of Canada, interest rates are kept low improving the ability of households to service their debt. \"The debt-service ratio, or interest paid as a proportion of disposable income, fell to a record low 6.8 percent in the third quarter.\"\n\n====Household debt in 2015====\n\nBy 2015 according to the Globe and Mail, \"The total debt owed by all Canadians at the end of March 2015 was a record $1.8-trillion with mortgage debt making up $1.29-trillion.\"\n\nAccording to Philip Cross of the Fraser Institute, in May 2015, while the Canadian household debt-to-income ratio is similar to that in the US, however lending standards in Canada are tighter than those in the United States to protect against high-risk borrowers taking out unsustainable debt.\n\nHousehold debt, the amount of money that all adults in the household owe financial institutions, includes consumer debt and mortgage loans. Paul Krugman argued that by 2007 household debt in the United States, prior to the financial crisis, had reached 130 percent of household income. Krugman distinguished between the total domestic non-financial debt (public plus private) relative to GDP which is \"money we owe to ourselves\" and net foreign debt. Statistics Canada reported in March 2013 that \"credit-market debt such as mortgages rose to 165% of disposable income, compared with 164.7% in the prior three-month period\" in 2013 According to the IMF in 2012, \"Housing-related debt (mortgages) comprises about 70 percent of gross household debt in advanced economies. The remainder consists mainly of credit card debt and auto loans.\"\n",
"\nAs shown in the table below—based on the RBC Economic and Financial Market Outlook March 11, 2016 report—in Canada in 2015—while business investments decreased—consumption, housing and government spending along with net exports contributed to a real GDP increase at a subpar 1.2% pace. In December 2015 export volumes reached $1.2 billion—the sixth time since 2010 with sales growing by such a large amount-evidence that the Canadian economy is transitioning. In November and December 2015, with the weakening in the Canadian dollar, manufacturing sales and exports increased and employment rose. Job losses in construction, mining, oil and gas were countered by gains in the service sector.\n\nBetween early December, 2015 and mid-January the price of oil unexpectedly dropped 24%. RBC economists argued that fear not fundamentals led the shift in financial conditions. Risk adverse investors contributed to a global double-digit decline in the first six weeks of 2016. In Canada, the US, UK and Euro-area yields on long-term government bonds reached an all-time low. As financial market volatility continued in March 2016 the Bank of Canada and Bank of England held their policy rate at 0.5%.\n\n\n+ RBC Economic Forecast March 2016 \n Type \n 2014 YR \n2015 YR \n Q1 2015 \n Q2 2015 \n Q3 2015 \n Q4 2015 \n\n Household consumption \n 2.6 \n1.9 \n 0.6 \n 1.9 \n 2.2 \n 1.0 \n\n * Durables \n 4.3 \n3.3 \n -5.6 \n 5.1 \n 10.3 \n 1.7 \n\n * Semi-Durables \n 3.1 \n2.4 \n 0.2 \n 3.0 \n 1.2 \n 2.6 \n\n * Non-durables \n 2.4\n0.7 \n 2.7 \n -2.9 \n 1.7 \n -1.0 \n\n * Services \n 2.3 \n2.1 \n 1.2 \n 3.3 \n 0.8 \n 1.5 \n\n NPISH consumption \n 0.2 \n1.4 \n -5.3 \n 6.7 \n -0.9 \n -0.1 \n\n Government expenditures \n 0.3 \n1.4 \n 3.8 \n 2.4 \n 0.1 \n 1.5\n\n Government Fixed investment \n 2.1 \n2.6 \n 2.8 \n 0.5 \n -1.8 \n -5.1\n\n Residential investment \n 2.5 \n3.9 \n 5.9 \n 1.3 \n 2.7 \n 1.8\n\n Non-residential investment \n 0.0 \n\n -19.4 \n -13.0 \n -10.1 \n -12.4\n\n * Non-residential structures \n -0.4 \n\n -27.7 \n -12.8 \n -11.7 \n -14.6 \n\n * Machinery and equipment \n 1.0 \n\n -2.1 \n -13.4 \n -7.5 \n -9.0\n\n Intellectual property \n -4.2 \n\n -32.4 \n -12.5 \n -6.4 \n -4.7\n\n Final domestic demand \n 1.6 \n0.5 \n -1.5 \n 0.1 \n 10.8 \n -2.2 \n\n Exports \n 5.3 \n3.0 \n -0.6 \n -0.1 \n 10.8 \n -2.2\n\n Imports \n 1.8 \n0.1 \n 0.5 \n -1.7 \n -2.4 \n -8.9 \n\n Inventories (change in $b) \n 9.9 \n4.5 \n 12.7 \n 8.4 \n 1.1 \n -4.0 \n\n Real gross domestic product \n 2.5 \n1.2 \n -0.9 \n -0.4 \n 2.4 \n 0.8 \n\n",
"\n\n*Canada's Global Markets Action Plan\n*Comparison of Canadian and American economies\n*Economy of Alberta\n*Economy of Ontario\n*Economy of Quebec\n*Economy of Saskatchewan\n*Free trade agreements of Canada\n*History of the petroleum industry in Canada\n*List of Median household income of cities in Canada\n*List of Commonwealth of Nations countries by GDP\n*List of Canadian provinces and territories by gross domestic product\n*List of companies of Canada\n*Taxation in Canada\n*Trans-Pacific Partnership\n*Transport in Canada\n*Tourism in Canada\n",
"\n",
" \n",
"\n\n* Howlett, Michael and M. Ramesh. ''Political Economy of Canada: An Introduction.'' Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1992.\n* Wallace, Iain, ''A Geography of the Canadian Economy.'' Don Mills: Oxford University Press, 2002. \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n",
"\n \n* Statistics Canada \n* Department of Finance Canada \n* Bank of Canada \n* World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Canada \n* Canada - OECD \n* Canada profile at the CIA World Factbook\n* Canada profile at The World Bank \n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Overview",
"Measuring productivity",
"Bank of Canada",
"Key industries",
"Free trade agreements",
"Political issues",
"Debt issue",
"Royal Bank of Canada 2016 report",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Economy of Canada | [
"\n===Inflation targeting===\nThe Bank of Canada, a federal crown corporation, has the responsibility of Canada's monetary system.",
"During the period that John Crow was Governor of the Bank of Canada—1987 to 1994— there was a worldwide recession and the bank rate rose to around 14% and unemployment topped 11%.",
"In 1991, with Prime Minister Brian Mulroney in office, the federal government and the Bank of Canada announced a new inflation targeting monetary policy that has been the cornerstone of Canada's monetary and fiscal policy ever since.",
"Although since that time inflation-targeting has been adopted by \"most advanced-world central banks\", in 1991 it was innovative and Canada was an early adopter when the then-Finance Minister Michael Wilson approved the Bank of Canada's first inflation-targeting in the 1991 federal budget.",
"In 2011 the Government of Canada and the Bank of Canada extended Canada's inflation-control target to December 31, 2016.",
"The Bank of Canada uses three unconventional instruments to achieve the inflation target: \"a conditional statement on the future path of the policy rate,\" quantitative easing, and credit easing.",
"By 2011, the then-Bank of Canada Governor Mark Carney argued that the central bank’s mandate would allow for a more flexible inflation-targeting in specific situations where he would consider taking longer \"than the typical six to eight quarters to return inflation to 2 per cent.\"",
"The central bank— the Bank of Canada— issues its rate announcement through its Monetary Policy Report which is released eight times a year.",
"On July 15, 2015 the Bank of Canada announced that it was lowering its target for the overnight rate by another one-quarter percentage point, to 0.5 per cent \"to try to stimulate an economy that appears to have failed to rebound meaningfully from the oil shock woes that dragged it into decline in the first quarter.\"",
"According to the Bank of Canada announcement, in the first quarter of 2015, the total Consumer price index (CPI) inflation was about 1 per cent.",
"In response to the Bank of Canada's July 15, 2015 rate adjustment, Prime Minister Stephen Harper explained that the Canadian economy was being dragged down by forces beyond Canadian borders such as global oil prices, the European debt crisis, and China's economic slowdown\" which has made the global economy \"fragile.\"",
"The Bank's main priority has been to keep inflation at a moderate level.",
"In mid 2017, inflation remained below the Bank's 2% target, (at 1.6%) mostly because of reductions in the cost of energy, food and automobiles; as well, the economy was in a continuing spurt with a predicted GDP growth of 2.8 percent by year end.",
"Early on 12 July 2017, the bank issued a statement that the benchmark rate would be increased to 0.75%.",
"In its press release, the bank had confirmed that the rate would continue to be evaluated at least partly on the basis of inflation.",
"\"Future adjustments to the target for the overnight rate will be guided by incoming data as they inform the bank's inflation outlook, keeping in mind continued uncertainty and financial system vulnerabilities.\"",
"Also through the inflation-targeting policy of the Bank of Canada, interest rates are kept low improving the ability of households to service their debt.",
"As financial market volatility continued in March 2016 the Bank of Canada and Bank of England held their policy rate at 0.5%.",
"\n \n* Statistics Canada \n* Department of Finance Canada \n* Bank of Canada \n* World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Canada \n* Canada - OECD \n* Canada profile at the CIA World Factbook\n* Canada profile at The World Bank"
] | [
" \n \n\n\nThe '''economy of Canada''' is a highly developed mixed economy with 10th largest GDP by nominal and 17th largest GDP by PPP in the world.",
"Canada is one of the world's wealthiest nations with high standard of living and quality of life.",
"As with other developed nations, the country's economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three quarters of Canadians.",
"Canada has fourth highest total estimated value of natural resources, valued at US$33.2 trillion in 2016.",
"It has the world's third largest proven petroleum reserves and fourth largest exporter of petroleum.",
"It is also the fourth largest exporter of natural gas.",
"Canada is considered an \"energy superpower\" due to its abundant natural resources.",
"Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of the primary sector, with the logging and oil industries being two of Canada's most important.",
"Canada also has a sizable manufacturing sector, based in Central Canada, with the automobile industry and aircraft industry being especially important.",
"With a long coastline, Canada has the 8th largest commercial fishing and seafood industry in the world.",
"Canada is one of the global leaders of the entertainment software industry.",
"It is a member of the APEC, NAFTA, G7, G20, OECD and WTO.",
"With the exception of a few island nations in the Caribbean, Canada is the only major parliamentary democracy in the western hemisphere.",
"As a result, Canada has developed its own social and political institutions, distinct from most other countries in the world.",
"Though the Canadian economy is closely integrated with the American economy, it has developed unique economic institutions.",
"The Canadian economic system generally combines elements of private enterprise and public enterprise.",
"Many aspects of public enterprise, most notably the development of an extensive social welfare system to redress social and economic inequities, were adopted after the end of World War Two in 1945.",
"Canada has a private to public (Crown) property ratio of 60:40 and one of the highest levels of economic freedom in the world.",
"Today Canada closely resembles the U.S. in its market-oriented economic system and pattern of production.",
"According to the Forbes Global 2000 list of the world's largest companies in 2008, Canada has 69 companies in the list, ranking 5th next to France.",
"International trade makes up a large part of the Canadian economy, particularly of its natural resources.",
"In 2009, agriculture, energy, forestry and mining exports accounted for about 58% of Canada's total exports.",
"Machinery, equipment, automotive products and other manufactures accounted for a further 38% of exports in 2009.",
"In 2009, exports accounted for approximately 30% of Canada's GDP.",
"The United States is by far its largest trading partner, accounting for about 73% of exports and 63% of imports as of 2009.",
"Canada's combined exports and imports ranked 8th among all nations in 2006.",
"Approximately 4% of Canadians are directly employed in primary resource fields, and they account for 6.2% of GDP.",
"They are still paramount in many parts of the country.",
"Many, if not most, towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, exist because of a nearby mine or source of timber.",
"Canada is a world leader in the production of many natural resources such as gold, nickel, uranium, diamonds, lead, and in recent years, crude petroleum, which, with the world's second-largest oil reserves, is taking an increasingly prominent position in natural resources extraction.",
"Several of Canada's largest companies are based in natural resource industries, such as EnCana, Cameco, Goldcorp, and Barrick Gold.",
"The vast majority of these products are exported, mainly to the United States.",
"There are also many secondary and service industries that are directly linked to primary ones.",
"For instance one of Canada's largest manufacturing industries is the pulp and paper sector, which is directly linked to the logging business.",
"The reliance on natural resources has several effects on the Canadian economy and Canadian society.",
"While manufacturing and service industries are easy to standardize, natural resources vary greatly by region.",
"This ensures that differing economic structures developed in each region of Canada, contributing to Canada's strong regionalism.",
"At the same time the vast majority of these resources are exported, integrating Canada closely into the international economy.",
"Howlett and Ramesh argue that the inherent instability of such industries also contributes to greater government intervention in the economy, to reduce the social impact of market changes.",
"Natural resource industries also raise important questions of sustainability.",
"Despite many decades as a leading producer, there is little risk of depletion.",
"Large discoveries continue to be made, such as the massive nickel find at Voisey's Bay.",
"Moreover, the far north remains largely undeveloped as producers await higher prices or new technologies as many operations in this region are not yet cost effective.",
"In recent decades Canadians have become less willing to accept the environmental destruction associated with exploiting natural resources.",
"High wages and Aboriginal land claims have also curbed expansion.",
"Instead many Canadian companies have focused their exploration, exploitation and expansion activities overseas where prices are lower and governments more amenable.",
"Canadian companies are increasingly playing important roles in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa.",
"The depletion of renewable resources has raised concerns in recent years.",
"After decades of escalating overutilization the cod fishery all but collapsed in the 1990s, and the Pacific salmon industry also suffered greatly.",
"The logging industry, after many years of activism, has in recent years moved to a more sustainable model, or to other countries.",
"===Unemployment rate===\n\n\n Province\n Unemployment ratepercentage of population\n\n Newfoundland and Labrador\n15.7\n\n Prince Edward Island\n10.0\n\n Nova Scotia\n7.9\n\n10.1\n New Brunswick\n6.5\n\n Quebec\n5.8\n\n Ontario\n6.1\n\n Manitoba\n5.0\n\n Saskatchewan\n6.6\n\n Alberta\n7.8\n\n British Columbia\n5.3\n\n '''Canada (national)'''\n6.3",
"\nProductivity measures are key indicators of economic performance and a key source of economic growth and competitiveness.",
"The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) The OECD Compendium of Productivity Indicators, published annually, presents a broad overview of productivity levels and growth in member nations, highlighting key measurement issues.",
"It analyses the role of \"productivity as the main driver of economic growth and convergence\" and the \"contributions of labour, capital and MFP in driving economic growth.\"",
"According to the definition above \"MFP is often interpreted as the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation\" (OECD 2008,11).",
"Measures of productivity include Gross Domestic Product (GDP)(OECD 2008,11) and multifactor productivity.",
"===Gross Domestic Product (GDP)===\n\nThe OECD provides data for example comparing labour productivity levels in the total economy of each member nation.",
"In their 2011 report Canada's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was $CDN 1,720,748 million.",
"In the International Monetary Fund's (IMF) quarterly World Economic Outlook released in April 2015, the IMF forecast that Canada’s real gross domestic product (GDP) would grow 2.2 percent.",
"In the July World Economic Outlook the IMF forecast that Canada's real GDP would grow by 1.5 per cent in 2015.",
"According to CTV News real estate accounts for half of all GDP growth.",
"===Multifactor productivity (MFP)===\n\nAnother productivity measure, used by the OECD, is the long-term trend in multifactor productivity (MFP) also known as total factor productivity (TFP).",
"This indicator assesses an economy’s \"underlying productive capacity (\"potential output\"), itself an important measure of the growth possibilities of economies and of inflationary pressures.\"",
"MFP measures the residual growth that cannot be explained by the rate of change in the services of labour, capital and intermediate outputs, and is often interpreted as the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation.",
"(OECD 2008,11)\n\nAccording to the OECD's annual economic survey of Canada in June 2012, Canada has experienced weak growth of multi-factor productivity (MFP) and has been declining further since 2002.",
"One of the ways MFP growth is raised is by boosting innovation and Canada's innovation indicators such as business R&D and patenting rates were poor.",
"Raising MFP growth, is \"needed to sustain rising living standards, especially as the population ages.\"",
"The inflation target was set at 2 per cent, which is the midpoint of an inflation range of 1 to 3 per cent.",
"They established a set of inflation-reduction targets in order to keep inflation \"low, stable and predictable\" and to foster \"confidence in the value of money,\" contribute to Canada's sustained growth, employment gains and improved standard of living.",
"Inflation is measured by the total consumer price index (CPI).",
"As a result, interest rates and inflation eventually came down along with the value of the Canadian dollar.",
"From 1991 to 2011 the inflation-targeting regime kept \"price gains fairly reliable.\"",
"Following the Financial crisis of 2007–08 the narrow focus of inflation-targeting as a means of providing stable growth in the Canadian economy, was questioned.",
"This reflects \"year-over-year price declines for consumer energy products.\"",
"Core inflation in the first quarter of 2015 was about 2 per cent with an underlying trend in inflation at about 1.5 to 1.7 per cent.",
"The Chinese stock market had lost about US$3 trillion of wealth by July 2015 when panicked investors sold stocks, which created declines in the commodities markets, which in turn negatively impacted resource-producing countries like Canada.",
"As part of that strategy, interest rates were kept at a low level for almost seven years.",
"Since September 2010, the key interest rate (overnight rate) was 0.5%.",
"\"The economy can handle very well this move we have today and of course you need to preface that with an acknowledgment that of course interest rates are still very low,\" Governor Stephen Poloz subsequently said.",
"Poloz refused to speculate on the future of the economy but said, \"I don't doubt that interest rates will move higher, but there's no predetermined path in mind at this stage\".",
"\nIn 2012, the Canadian economy had the following relative weighting by industry, as percentage value of GDP:\n\n* 12.34 Real estate and rental and leasing\n* 10.86 Manufacturing\n* 07.96 Mining, quarrying and oil or gas extraction\n* 07.03 Health care and social assistance\n* 06.90 Public administration\n* 06.55 Finance and insurance\n* 05.41 Wholesale trade\n* 05.41 Retail trade\n* 05.38 Educational services\n* 05.21 Professional scientific and technical services\n* 04.20 Transportation and warehousing\n* 03.31 Information and cultural industries\n* 02.58 Administrative and support, waste management and remediation services\n* 02.46 Utilities\n* 02.10 Accommodation and food services\n* 02.04 Other services (except public administration)\n* 01.59 Agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting\n* 00.76 Management of companies and enterprises\n* 00.75 Arts, entertainment and recreation\n\n===Service sector===\nThe Toronto-Dominion Centre in Toronto\n\nThe service sector in Canada is vast and multifaceted, employing about three quarters of Canadians and accounting for 70% of GDP.",
"The largest employer is the retail sector, employing almost 12% of Canadians.",
"The retail industry is mainly concentrated in a small number of chain stores clustered together in shopping malls.",
"In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of big-box stores, such as Wal-Mart (of the United States), Real Canadian Superstore, and Best Buy (of the United States).",
"This has led to fewer workers in this sector and a migration of retail jobs to the suburbs.",
"The second largest portion of the service sector is the business service and hire only a slightly smaller percentage of the population.",
"This includes the financial services, real estate, and communications industries.",
"This portion of the economy has been rapidly growing in recent years.",
"It is largely concentrated in the major urban centres, especially Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver (see Banking in Canada).",
"The education and health sectors are two of Canada's largest, but both are largely under the influence of the government.",
"The health care industry has been quickly growing, and is the third largest in Canada.",
"Its rapid growth has led to problems for governments who must find money to fund it.",
"Canada has an important high tech industry, and a burgeoning film, television, and entertainment industry creating content for local and international consumption (see Media in Canada).",
"Tourism is of ever increasing importance, with the vast majority of international visitors coming from the United States.",
"Though the recent strength of the Canadian Dollar has hurt this sector, other nations such as China have increased tourism to Canada.",
"Casino gaming is currently the fastest-growing component of the Canadian tourism industry, contributing $5 billion in profits for Canadian governments and employing 41,000 Canadians as of 2001.",
"===Manufacturing===\n Bombardier Aerospace is the 3rd largest manufacturer of commercial aircraft in the world.",
"Pictured here is a CRJ-900 airplane of Scandinavian Airlines (Y-KFA) built in Canada\nCseries family of aircraft to better compete with narrow-body aircraft from Airbus and Boeing.",
"Pictured here is a CS300 prototype C-FFDK in testing\n\nTreemap of Canada's goods exports in 2014\n\nThe general pattern of development for wealthy nations was a transition from a primary industry based economy to a manufacturing based one, and then to a service based economy.",
"Canada did not escape this pattern - at its (abnormally high World War II) peak in 1944, manufacturing accounted for 29% of GDP, declining to 15.6% in 2005.",
"Canada has not suffered as greatly as most other rich, industrialized nations from the pains of the relative decline in the importance of manufacturing since the 1960s.",
"A 2009 study by Statistics Canada also found that, while manufacturing declined as a relative percentage of GDP from 24.3% in the 1960s to 15.6% in 2005, manufacturing volumes between 1961 and 2005 kept pace with the overall growth in the volume index of GDP.",
"Manufacturing in Canada was especially hit hard by the financial crisis of 2007–08.",
"As of 2010, manufacturing accounts for 13% of Canada's GDP, a relative decline of more than 2% of GDP since 2005.",
"Central Canada is home to branch plants to all the major American and Japanese automobile makers and many parts factories owned by Canadian firms such as Magna International and Linamar Corporation.",
"Central Canada today produces more vehicles each year than the neighbouring U.S. state of Michigan, the heart of the American automobile industry.",
"Manufacturers have been attracted to Canada due to the highly educated population with lower labour costs than the United States.",
"Canada's publicly funded health care system is also an important attraction, as companies are exempt from the high health insurance costs US firms pay, though they are offset by corporate health care taxes.",
"Much of the Canadian manufacturing industry consists of branch plants of United States firms, though there are some important domestic manufacturers, such as Bombardier Inc..",
"This has raised several concerns for Canadians.",
"Branch plants provide mainly blue collar jobs, with research and executive positions confined to the United States.",
"===Energy===\n\n\nPumpjack pumping an oil well near Sarnia, OntarioCanada is one of the few developed nations that is a net exporter of energy - in 2009 net exports of energy products amounted to 2.9% of GDP.",
"Most important are the large oil and gas resources centred in Alberta and the Northern Territories, but also present in neighbouring British Columbia and Saskatchewan.",
"The vast Athabasca oil sands give Canada the world's third largest reserves of oil after Saudi Arabia and Venezuela according to USGS.",
"In British Columbia and Quebec, as well as Ontario, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and the Labrador region, hydroelectric power is an inexpensive and relatively environmentally friendly source of abundant energy.",
"In part because of this, Canada is also one of the world's highest per capita consumers of energy.",
"Cheap energy has enabled the creation of several important industries, such as the large aluminium industries in British Columbia and Quebec.",
"Historically, an important issue in Canadian politics is the interplay between the oil and energy industry in Western Canada and the industrial heartland of Southern Ontario.",
"Foreign investment in Western oil projects has fueled Canada's rising dollar.",
"This has raised the price of Ontario's manufacturing exports and made them less competitive, a problem similar to the decline of the manufacturing sector in the Netherlands.",
"Also, Ontario has relatively fewer native sources of power.",
"However, it is cheaper for Alberta to ship its oil to the western United States than to eastern Canada.",
"The eastern Canadian ports thus import significant quantities of oil from overseas, and Ontario makes significant use of nuclear power.",
"The National Energy Policy of the early 1980s attempted to force Alberta to sell low priced oil to eastern Canada.",
"This policy proved deeply divisive, and quickly lost its importance as oil prices collapsed in the mid-1980s.",
"One of the most controversial sections of the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement of 1988 was a promise that Canada would never charge the United States more for energy than fellow Canadians.",
"===Agriculture===\n\nAn inland grain terminal in Alberta\nCanada is also one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products, particularly of wheat and other grains.",
"Canada is a major exporter of agricultural products, to the United States and Asia.",
"As with all other developed nations the proportion of the population and GDP devoted to agriculture fell dramatically over the 20th century.",
"As with other developed nations, the Canadian agriculture industry receives significant government subsidies and supports.",
"However, Canada has been a strong supporter of reducing market influencing subsidies through the World Trade Organization.",
"In 2000, Canada spent approximately CDN$4.6 billion on supports for the industry.",
"Of this, $2.32 billion was classified under the WTO designation of \"green box\" support, meaning it did not directly influence the market, such as money for research or disaster relief.",
"All but $848.2 million were subsidies worth less than 5% of the value of the crops they were provided for.",
"\n\n\n===Free Trade Agreements in force===\n\n*Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement (Signed 12-Oct-1987, entered into force 01-Jan-1989, later superseded by NAFTA)\n*North American Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Jan-1994, includes Canada, U.S. and Mexico)\n*Canada-Israel Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Jan-1997, modernization ongoing)\n*Canada-Chile Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 05-Jul-1997)\n*Canada-Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Nov-2002, modernization ongoing)\n*Canada-European Free Trade Association Free Trade Agreement (Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein; entered into force 01-Jul-2009)\n*Canada-Peru Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force 01-Aug-2009)\n*Canada-Colombia Free Trade Agreement (Signed 21-Nov-2008, entered into force 15-Aug-2011; Canada's ratification of this FTA had been dependent upon Colombia's ratification of the \"Agreement Concerning Annual Reports on Human Rights and Free Trade Between Canada and the Republic of Colombia\" signed on 27-May-2010)\n*Canada-Jordan Free Trade Agreement (Signed on 28-June-2009, entered into force 01-Oct-2012)\n*Canada-Panama Free Trade Agreement (Signed on 14-May-2010, entered into force 01-April-2013)\n*Canada-South Korea Free Trade Agreement (Signed on 11-March-2014, entered into force 01-January-2015)\n\n===Free Trade Agreements concluded===\n*Trans-Pacific Partnership (concluded 05-October-2015)\n*Canada-Ukraine Free Trade Agreement (concluded 14-July-2015)\n*Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (concluded 05-August-2014)\n\n===Ongoing Free Trade Agreements Negotiations===\n\nCanada is negotiating bilateral FTAs with the following countries and trade blocs:\n*Caribbean Community (CARICOM)\n*Guatemala, Nicaragua and El Salvador\n*Dominican Republic\n*India\n*Japan\n*Morocco\n*Singapore\n*Andean Community (FTA's are already in force with Peru and Colombia)\n\nCanada has been involved in negotiations to create the following regional trade blocks:\n\n*Canada-Central American Free Trade Agreement\n*Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA)",
"\n\n=== Relations with the U.S. ===\n\nCanada and the United States share a common trading relationship.",
"Canada's job market continues to perform well along with the US, reaching a 30-year low in the unemployment rate in December 2006, following 14 consecutive years of employment growth.",
"Flags of Canada and the United States\nThe United States is by far Canada's largest trading partner, with more than $1.7 billion CAD in trade per day in 2005.",
"In 2009, 73% of Canada's exports went to the United States, and 63% of Canada's imports were from the United States.",
"Trade with Canada makes up 23% of the United States' exports and 17% of its imports.",
"By comparison, in 2005 this was more than U.S. trade with all countries in the European Union combined, and well over twice U.S. trade with all the countries of Latin America combined.",
"Just the two-way trade that crosses the Ambassador Bridge between Michigan and Ontario equals all U.S. exports to Japan.",
"Canada's importance to the United States is not just a border-state phenomenon: Canada is the leading export market for 35 of 50 U.S. states, and is the United States' largest foreign supplier of energy.",
"Bilateral trade increased by 52% between 1989, when the U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA) went into effect, and 1994, when the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) superseded it.",
"Trade has since increased by 40%.",
"NAFTA continues the FTA's moves toward reducing trade barriers and establishing agreed-upon trade rules.",
"It also resolves some long-standing bilateral irritants and liberalizes rules in several areas, including agriculture, services, energy, financial services, investment, and government procurement.",
"NAFTA forms the largest trading area in the world, embracing the 405 million people of the three North American countries.",
"The largest component of U.S.-Canada trade is in the commodity sector.",
"The U.S. is Canada's largest agricultural export market, taking well over half of all Canadian food exports.",
"Similarly, Canada is the largest market for U.S. agricultural goods, with nearly 20% of American food exports going to its northern neighbour.",
"Nearly two-thirds of Canada's forest products, including pulp and paper, are exported to the United States; 72% of Canada's total newsprint production also is exported to the U.S.\n\nAt $73.6 billion in 2004, U.S.-Canada trade in energy is the largest U.S. energy trading relationship, with the overwhelming majority ($66.7 billion) being exports from Canada.",
"The primary components of U.S. energy trade with Canada are petroleum, natural gas, and electricity.",
"Canada is the United States' largest oil supplier and the fifth-largest energy producing country in the world.",
"Canada provides about 16% of U.S. oil imports and 14% of total U.S. consumption of natural gas.",
"The United States and Canada's national electricity grids are linked, and both countries share hydropower facilities on the western borders.",
"While most of U.S.-Canada trade flows smoothly, there are occasionally bilateral trade disputes, particularly in the agricultural and cultural fields.",
"Usually these issues are resolved through bilateral consultative forums or referral to World Trade Organization (WTO) or NAFTA dispute resolution.",
"In May 1999, the U.S. and Canadian governments negotiated an agreement on magazines that provides increased access for the U.S. publishing industry to the Canadian market.",
"The United States and Canada also have resolved several major issues involving fisheries.",
"By common agreement, the two countries submitted a Gulf of Maine boundary dispute to the International Court of Justice in 1981; both accepted the court's 12 October 1984 ruling which demarcated the territorial sea boundary.",
"A current issue between the United States and Canada is the ongoing softwood lumber dispute, as the U.S. alleges that Canada unfairly subsidizes its forestry industry.",
"In 1990, the United States and Canada signed a bilateral Fisheries Enforcement Agreement, which has served to deter illegal fishing activity and reduce the risk of injury during fisheries enforcement incidents.",
"The U.S. and Canada signed a Pacific Salmon Agreement in June 1999 that settled differences over implementation of the 1985 Pacific Salmon Treaty for the next decade.",
"Canada and the United States signed an aviation agreement during Bill Clinton's visit to Canada in February 1995, and air traffic between the two countries has increased dramatically as a result.",
"The two countries also share in operation of the St. Lawrence Seaway, connecting the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean.",
"The U.S. is Canada's largest foreign investor and the most popular destination for Canadian foreign investments; at the end of 2007, the stock of U.S. direct investment in Canada was estimated at $293 billion, while Canadian direct investment (stock) in the United States was valued at $213 billion.",
"U.S. FDI accounts for 59.5% of total foreign direct investment in Canada while Canadian FDI in the U.S. accounts for 10% (5th largest foreign investor).",
"US investments are primarily directed at Canada's mining and smelting industries, petroleum, chemicals, the manufacture of machinery and transportation equipment, and finance, while Canadian investment in the United States is concentrated in manufacturing, wholesale trade, real estate, petroleum, finance, and insurance and other services.",
"\n===Central Government Debt===\nThe OECD reports the Central Government Debt as percentage of the GDP.",
"In 2000 Canada's was 40.9 percent, in 2007 it was 25.2 percent, in 2008 it was 28.6 percent and by 2010 it was 36.1 percent.",
"The OECD reports ''net'' financial liabilities measure used by the OECD, reports the net number at 25.2%, as of 2008, making Canada’s total government debt burden as the lowest in the G8.",
"The gross number was 68% in 2011.",
"The CIA World Factbook, updated weekly, measures financial liabilities by using gross general government debt, as opposed to net federal debt used by the OECD and the Canadian federal government.",
"Gross general government debt includes both \"intragovernmental debt and the debt of public entities at the sub-national level.\"",
"For example, the CIA measured Canada's public debt as 84.1% of GDP in 2012 and 87.4% of GDP in 2011 making it 22nd in the world.",
"===Household Debt===\nIn March 2015 the International Monetary Fund reported that Canada's high household debt was one of two vulnerable domestic areas in Canada's economy; the second is its overheated housing market.",
"According to a July 2015 report by Laura Cooper, an economist with the RBC—the largest financial institution in Canada— \"outstanding household credit balances\" had reached $1.83 trillion.",
"Canadian household credit growth had reached a peak in 2009 then plummeted to a cycle-low in late 2013.",
"There was a quickened pace of growth in household debt in December 2012 and another in April and May 2015.",
"====Household debt in 2013====\nAccording to the August 2013 third annual Ipsos Reid Debt Poll only 24 per cent of Canadians were debt free in 2013 compared to 26 per cent in 2012.",
"The average personal non-mortgage debt in 2013 was $15,920 up from $13,141 in 2012.",
"According to an IPSOS chart produced in 2013 debt levels increased \"a staggering 35 per cent\" in Western Canada compared to 10 per cent in Eastern Canada since 2012 even before the Alberta floods.",
"In Alberta in 2013 household debt rose 63 per cent to $24,271 per household from 2012 after the 2013 Alberta floods.",
"In 2013 the average personal debt load in British Columbia was \"up 38 per cent to $15,549;\" in \"Manitoba and Saskatchewan, up 32 per cent to $16,145;\" in Ontario, \"up 13 per cent to $17,416,\" in Quebec up \"3 per cent to $10,458;\" and in Atlantic Canada, \"up 12 per cent to $15,243.\"",
"====Household debt in 2014====\n\nStatistics Canada announced in December 2014 that Canada's household debt-to-income ratio \"hit a record high in the third quarter of 2014, climbing to 162.6 percent from 161.5 percent in the second quarter.\"",
"However \"household assets and net worth increased much faster than debt,\" with the national net worth at C$8.12 trillion in the third quarter of 2014, a increase of 2.8 percent from the second quarter.",
"\"The debt-service ratio, or interest paid as a proportion of disposable income, fell to a record low 6.8 percent in the third quarter.\"",
"====Household debt in 2015====\n\nBy 2015 according to the Globe and Mail, \"The total debt owed by all Canadians at the end of March 2015 was a record $1.8-trillion with mortgage debt making up $1.29-trillion.\"",
"According to Philip Cross of the Fraser Institute, in May 2015, while the Canadian household debt-to-income ratio is similar to that in the US, however lending standards in Canada are tighter than those in the United States to protect against high-risk borrowers taking out unsustainable debt.",
"Household debt, the amount of money that all adults in the household owe financial institutions, includes consumer debt and mortgage loans.",
"Paul Krugman argued that by 2007 household debt in the United States, prior to the financial crisis, had reached 130 percent of household income.",
"Krugman distinguished between the total domestic non-financial debt (public plus private) relative to GDP which is \"money we owe to ourselves\" and net foreign debt.",
"Statistics Canada reported in March 2013 that \"credit-market debt such as mortgages rose to 165% of disposable income, compared with 164.7% in the prior three-month period\" in 2013 According to the IMF in 2012, \"Housing-related debt (mortgages) comprises about 70 percent of gross household debt in advanced economies.",
"The remainder consists mainly of credit card debt and auto loans.\"",
"\nAs shown in the table below—based on the RBC Economic and Financial Market Outlook March 11, 2016 report—in Canada in 2015—while business investments decreased—consumption, housing and government spending along with net exports contributed to a real GDP increase at a subpar 1.2% pace.",
"In December 2015 export volumes reached $1.2 billion—the sixth time since 2010 with sales growing by such a large amount-evidence that the Canadian economy is transitioning.",
"In November and December 2015, with the weakening in the Canadian dollar, manufacturing sales and exports increased and employment rose.",
"Job losses in construction, mining, oil and gas were countered by gains in the service sector.",
"Between early December, 2015 and mid-January the price of oil unexpectedly dropped 24%.",
"RBC economists argued that fear not fundamentals led the shift in financial conditions.",
"Risk adverse investors contributed to a global double-digit decline in the first six weeks of 2016.",
"In Canada, the US, UK and Euro-area yields on long-term government bonds reached an all-time low.",
"+ RBC Economic Forecast March 2016 \n Type \n 2014 YR \n2015 YR \n Q1 2015 \n Q2 2015 \n Q3 2015 \n Q4 2015 \n\n Household consumption \n 2.6 \n1.9 \n 0.6 \n 1.9 \n 2.2 \n 1.0 \n\n * Durables \n 4.3 \n3.3 \n -5.6 \n 5.1 \n 10.3 \n 1.7 \n\n * Semi-Durables \n 3.1 \n2.4 \n 0.2 \n 3.0 \n 1.2 \n 2.6 \n\n * Non-durables \n 2.4\n0.7 \n 2.7 \n -2.9 \n 1.7 \n -1.0 \n\n * Services \n 2.3 \n2.1 \n 1.2 \n 3.3 \n 0.8 \n 1.5 \n\n NPISH consumption \n 0.2 \n1.4 \n -5.3 \n 6.7 \n -0.9 \n -0.1 \n\n Government expenditures \n 0.3 \n1.4 \n 3.8 \n 2.4 \n 0.1 \n 1.5\n\n Government Fixed investment \n 2.1 \n2.6 \n 2.8 \n 0.5 \n -1.8 \n -5.1\n\n Residential investment \n 2.5 \n3.9 \n 5.9 \n 1.3 \n 2.7 \n 1.8\n\n Non-residential investment \n 0.0 \n\n -19.4 \n -13.0 \n -10.1 \n -12.4\n\n * Non-residential structures \n -0.4 \n\n -27.7 \n -12.8 \n -11.7 \n -14.6 \n\n * Machinery and equipment \n 1.0 \n\n -2.1 \n -13.4 \n -7.5 \n -9.0\n\n Intellectual property \n -4.2 \n\n -32.4 \n -12.5 \n -6.4 \n -4.7\n\n Final domestic demand \n 1.6 \n0.5 \n -1.5 \n 0.1 \n 10.8 \n -2.2 \n\n Exports \n 5.3 \n3.0 \n -0.6 \n -0.1 \n 10.8 \n -2.2\n\n Imports \n 1.8 \n0.1 \n 0.5 \n -1.7 \n -2.4 \n -8.9 \n\n Inventories (change in $b) \n 9.9 \n4.5 \n 12.7 \n 8.4 \n 1.1 \n -4.0 \n\n Real gross domestic product \n 2.5 \n1.2 \n -0.9 \n -0.4 \n 2.4 \n 0.8",
"\n\n*Canada's Global Markets Action Plan\n*Comparison of Canadian and American economies\n*Economy of Alberta\n*Economy of Ontario\n*Economy of Quebec\n*Economy of Saskatchewan\n*Free trade agreements of Canada\n*History of the petroleum industry in Canada\n*List of Median household income of cities in Canada\n*List of Commonwealth of Nations countries by GDP\n*List of Canadian provinces and territories by gross domestic product\n*List of companies of Canada\n*Taxation in Canada\n*Trans-Pacific Partnership\n*Transport in Canada\n*Tourism in Canada",
"\n\n* Howlett, Michael and M. Ramesh.",
"''Political Economy of Canada: An Introduction.''",
"Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1992.",
"* Wallace, Iain, ''A Geography of the Canadian Economy.''",
"Don Mills: Oxford University Press, 2002.",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*"
] | finance |
[
"\n\nPrime Minister Justin Trudeau and President Donald Trump meet in Washington, February 2017.\n'''Relations between Canada and the United States of America''' historically have been extensive, given a shared border and ever-increasing close cultural, economical ties and similarities. The shared historical and cultural heritage has resulted in one of the most stable and mutually beneficial international relationships in the world. For both countries, the level of trade with the other is at the top of the annual combined import-export total. Tourism and migration between the two nations have increased rapport, but border security was heightened after the terrorist attacks in the United States on September 11, 2001. The U.S. is ten times larger in population and has the dominant cultural and economic influence in the world. Starting with the American Revolution, when anti-American Loyalists fled to Canada, a vocal element in Canada has warned against US dominance or annexation. The War of 1812 saw invasions across the border. In 1815, the war ended with the border unchanged and demilitarized, as were the Great Lakes. The British ceased aiding First Nation attacks on American territory, and the United States never again attempted to invade Canada. Apart from minor raids, it has remained peaceful.\n\nAs Britain decided to disengage, fears of an American takeover played a role in the formation of the Dominion of Canada (1867), and Canada's rejection of free trade (1911). Military collaboration was close during World War II and continued throughout the Cold War, bilaterally through NORAD and multilaterally through NATO. A very high volume of trade and migration continues between the two nations, as well as a heavy overlapping of popular and elite culture, a dynamic which has generated closer ties, especially after the signing of the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement in 1988.\n\nCanada and the United States are the world's largest trading partners. The two nations have the world's longest shared border (), and also have significant interoperability within the defense sphere. Recent difficulties have included repeated trade disputes, environmental concerns, Canadian concern for the future of oil exports, and issues of illegal immigration and the threat of terrorism. Trade has continued to expand, especially following the 1988 FTA and North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994 which has further merged the two economies.\nCo-operation on many fronts, such as the ease of the flow of goods, services, and people across borders are to be even more extended, as well as the establishment of joint border inspection agencies, relocation of U.S. food inspectors agents to Canadian plants and vice versa, greater sharing of intelligence, and harmonizing regulations on everything from food to manufactured goods, thus further increasing the American-Canadian assemblage.\n\nThe foreign policies of the neighbours have been closely aligned since the Cold War. Canada has disagreed with American policies regarding the Vietnam War, the status of Cuba, the Iraq War, Missile Defense, and the War on Terror. A diplomatic debate has been underway in recent years on whether the Northwest Passage is in international waters or under Canadian sovereignty.\n\nToday there are close cultural ties, many similar and identical traits and according to Gallup's annual public opinion polls, Canada has consistently been Americans' favorite nation, with 96% of Americans viewing Canada favorably in 2012. According to a 2013 BBC World Service Poll, 84% of Americans view their northern neighbor's influence positively, with only 5% expressing a negative view, the most favorable perception of Canada in the world. As of spring 2013, 64% of Canadians had a favorable view of the U.S. and 81% expressed confidence in then-US President Obama to do the right thing in international matters. According to the same poll, 30% viewed the U.S. negatively. Also, according to a 2014 BBC World Service Poll, 86% of Americans view Canada's influence positively, with only 5% expressing a negative view. However, according to the same poll, 43% of Canadians view U.S. influence positively, with 52% expressing a negative view. In addition, according to Spring 2017 Global Attitudes Survey, 43% of Canadians view U.S. positively, while 51% hold a negative view.\n",
"{| class=\"wikitable\"\n\n\n '''United States of America'''''''''\n '''Canada'''\n\n '''Flag'''\n \n \n\n '''Populations'''\n 325,090,579 (March 2017) (3rd)\n 35,151,728 (2016 census) (38th)\n\n '''Area'''\n 9,833,634 km2 (3,796,787 sq mi)\n 9,984,670 km2 (3,855,103 sq mi)\n\n '''Population density'''\n 35/km2 (87.4/sq mi)\n 3.41/km2 (8.3/sq mi)\n\n '''Time zones'''\n 9\n 6\n\n '''Capital'''\n Washington, D.C.\n Ottawa\n\n '''Largest cities'''\n New York CityLos AngelesChicagoHouston\n TorontoMontrealVancouverCalgary\n\n '''Government'''\n Federal presidentialconstitutional republic\n Federal parliamentary democraticconstitutional monarchy\n\n '''First leader'''\n George Washington\n Sir John A. Macdonald\n\n '''Current leader(s)'''\n President Donald Trump\n\n* Queen Elizabeth II (head of state)Represented by Governor General David Johnston\n* Prime Minister Justin Trudeau (head of government)\n\n '''Ruling political party'''\n Republican Party\n Liberal Party\n\n '''Official languages'''\n None at federal level, but English ''de facto''\n English and French\n\n '''Main religions'''\n 70.6% Christianity, 22.8% non-Religious, 1.9% Judaism, 0.9% Islam, 0.7% Buddhism, 0.7% Hinduism\n 67.3% Christianity, 23.9% Unaffiliated, 3.2% Islam, 1.5% Hinduism, 1.4% Sikhism, 1.1% Buddhism, 1.0% Judaism\n\n '''Human Development Index (2015)'''\n 0.920 (very high)\n 0.920 (very high)\n\n '''GDP (nominal) (2014)'''\n $17.416 trillion ($54,390 per capita)\n $1.793 trillion ($50,577 per capita)\n\n '''GDP (PPP) (2014)'''\n $17.416 trillion ($54,390 per capita)\n $1.578 trillion ($44,519 per capita)\n\n '''Military expenditures(2015)'''\n $596 billion (3.3% of GDP)\n $15 billion (1.0% of GDP)\n\n\nLeaders of Canada and the United States from 1950\n\n\nImageSize = width:800 height:auto barincrement:70\nPlotArea = left:80 right:15 bottom:80 top:5\n\nDateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy\nDefine $start = 01/01/1950\nDefine $end = 31/12/2017\nPeriod = from:$start till:$end\nTimeAxis = orientation:horizontal\nScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:01/01/1955\nScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:01/01/1950\nLegend = orientation:horizontal position:bottom\nColors =\n id:lib value:coral legend:Liberals_(Canada)\n id:con value:blue legend:Conservatives_(Canada)\n id:dem value:skyblue legend:Democratic_Party_(United_States)\n id:gop value:pink legend:Republican_Party_(United_States)\n\nBarData =\n bar:ca text:Canada\n bar:us text:United States\n\nPlotData=\n align:center mark:(line,black)\n bar:ca\n from: 04/11/2015 till: $end color:lib text:\"J.Trudeau\n from: 06/02/2006 till: 04/11/2015 color:con text:\"Harper\n from: 12/12/2003 till: 06/02/2006 color:lib text:\"Martin\n from: 04/11/1993 till: 12/12/2003 color:lib text:\"Chretien\n from: 25/06/1993 till: 04/11/1993 color:con text:\"C.\n from: 17/09/1984 till: 25/06/1993 color:con text:\"Mulroney\n from: 30/06/1984 till: 17/09/1984 color:lib text:\"T.\n from: 03/03/1980 till: 30/06/1984 color:lib text:\"P.Trudeau\n from: 04/06/1979 till: 03/03/1980 color:con text:\"Clark\n from: 20/04/1968 till: 03/06/1979 color:lib text:\"P.Trudeau\n from: 22/04/1963 till: 20/04/1968 color:lib text:\"Pearson\n from: 21/06/1957 till: 22/04/1963 color:con text:\"Diefenbaker\n from: $start till: 21/06/1957 color:lib text:\"Laurent\n\n bar:us\n from: 20/01/2017 till: $end color:gop text:\"Trump\"\n from: 20/01/2009 till: 20/01/2017 color:dem text:\"Obama\"\n from: 20/01/2001 till: 20/01/2009 color:gop text:\"G.W.Bush\"\n from: 20/01/1993 till: 20/01/2001 color:dem text:\"Clinton\"\n from: 20/01/1989 till: 20/01/1993 color:gop text:\"G.H.W.Bush\"\n from: 20/01/1981 till: 20/01/1989 color:gop text:\"Reagan\"\n from: 20/01/1977 till: 20/01/1981 color:dem text:\"Carter\"\n from: 09/08/1974 till: 20/01/1977 color:gop text:\"Ford\"\n from: 20/01/1969 till: 09/08/1974 color:gop text:\"Nixon\"\n from: 22/11/1963 till: 20/01/1969 color:dem text:\"Johnson\"\n from: 20/01/1961 till: 22/11/1963 color:dem text:\"Kennedy\"\n from: 20/01/1953 till: 20/01/1961 color:gop text:\"Eisenhower\"\n from: $Start till: 20/01/1953 color:dem text:\"Truman\"\n\n",
"\n===Colonial wars===\nBefore the British conquest of French Canada in 1760, there had been a series of wars between the British and the French which were fought out in the colonies as well as in Europe and the high seas. In general, the British heavily relied on American colonial militia units, while the French heavily relied on their First Nation allies. The Iroquois Nation were important allies of the British. Much of the fighting involved ambushes and small-scale warfare in the villages along the border between New England and Quebec. The New England colonies had a much larger population than Quebec, so major invasions came from south to north. The First Nation allies, only loosely controlled by the French, repeatedly raided New England villages to kidnap women and children, and torture and kill the men. Those who survived were brought up as Francophone Catholics. The tension along the border was exacerbated by religion, the French Catholics and English Protestants had a deep mutual distrust. There was a naval dimension as well, involving privateers attacking enemy merchant ships.\n\nEngland seized Quebec from 1629 to 1632, and Acadia in 1613 and again from 1654 to 1670; These territories were returned to France by the peace treaties. The major wars were (to use American names), King William's War (1689–1697); Queen Anne's War (1702–1713); King George's War (1744–1748), and the French and Indian War (1755–1763). In Canada, as in Europe, this era is known as the Seven Years' War.\n\nNew England soldiers and sailors were critical to the successful British campaign to capture the French fortress of Louisbourg in 1745, and (after it had been returned by treaty) to capture it again in 1758.\n\n===Mingling of peoples===\nFrom the 1750s to the 21st century, there has been extensive mingling of the Canadian and American populations, with large movements in both directions.\n\nNew England Yankees settled large parts of Nova Scotia before 1775, and were neutral during the American Revolution. At the end of the Revolution, about 75,000 Loyalists moved out of the new United States to Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the lands of Quebec, east and south of Montreal. From 1790 to 1812 many farmers moved from New York and New England into Ontario (mostly to Niagara, and the north shore of Lake Ontario). In the mid and late 19th century gold rushes attracted American prospectors, mostly to British Columbia after the Cariboo Gold Rush, Fraser Canyon Gold Rush, and later to the Yukon. In the early 20th century, the opening of land blocks in the Prairie Provinces attracted many farmers from the American Midwest. Many Mennonites immigrated from Pennsylvania and formed their own colonies. In the 1890s some Mormons went north to form communities in Alberta after The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints rejected plural marriage. The 1960s saw the arrival of about 50,000 draft-dodgers who opposed the Vietnam War.\n\nIn the late 19th and early 20th centuries, about 900,000 French Canadians moved to the U.S., with 395,000 residents there in 1900. Two-thirds went to mill towns in New England, where they formed distinctive ethnic communities. By the late 20th century, they had abandoned the French language, but most kept the Catholic religion. About twice as many English Canadians came to the U.S., but they did not form distinctive ethnic settlements.\n\nCanada was a way-station through which immigrants from other lands stopped for a while, ultimately heading to the U.S. In 1851–1951, 7.1 million people arrived in Canada (mostly from Continental Europe), and 6.6 million left Canada, most of them to the U.S.\n\n===American Revolutionary War===\nAt the outset of the American Revolutionary War, the American revolutionaries hoped the French Canadians in Quebec and the Colonists in Nova Scotia would join their rebellion and they were pre-approved for joining the United States in the Articles of Confederation. When Canada was invaded, thousands joined the American cause and formed regiments that fought during the war; however most remained neutral and some joined the British effort. Britain advised the French Canadians that the British Empire already enshrined their rights in the Quebec Act, which the American colonies had viewed as one of the Intolerable Acts. The American invasion was a fiasco and Britain tightened its grip on its northern possessions; in 1777, a major British invasion into New York led to the surrender of the entire British army at Saratoga, and led France to enter the war as an ally of the U.S. The French Canadians largely ignored France's appeals for solidarity. After the war Canada became a refuge for about 75,000 Loyalists who either wanted to leave the U.S., or were compelled by Patriot reprisals to do so.\n\nAmong the original Loyalists there were 3,500 free blacks. Most went to Nova Scotia and in 1792, 1200 migrated to Sierra Leone. About 2000 black slaves were brought in by Loyalist owners; they remained slaves in Canada until the Empire abolished slavery in 1833. Before 1860, about 30,000–40,000 blacks entered Canada; many were already free and others were escaped slaves who came through the Underground Railroad.\n\n===War of 1812===\n\nThe Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war, called for British forces to vacate all their forts south of the Great Lakes border. Britain refused to do so, citing failure of the United States to provide financial restitution for Loyalists who had lost property in the war. The Jay Treaty in 1795 with Great Britain resolved that lingering issue and the British departed the forts. Thomas Jefferson saw the nearby British imperial presence as a threat to the United States, and so he opposed the Jay Treaty, and it became one of the major political issues in the United States at the time. Thousands of Americans immigrated to Upper Canada (Ontario) from 1785 to 1812 to obtain cheaper land and better tax rates prevalent in that province; despite expectations that they would be loyal to the U.S. if a war broke out, in the event they were largely non-political.\n\nTensions mounted again after 1805, erupting into the War of 1812, when the Americans declared war on Britain. The Americans were angered by British harassment of U.S. ships on the high seas and seizure (\"Impressment\") of 6,000 sailors from American ships, severe restrictions against neutral American trade with France, and British support for hostile Indian tribes in Ohio and territories the U.S. had gained in 1783. American \"honor\" was an implicit issue. The Americans were outgunned by more than 10 to 1 by the Royal Navy, but could call on an army much larger than the British garrison in Canada, and so a land invasion of Canada was proposed as the only feasible, and most advantegous means of attacking the British Empire. Americans on the western frontier also hoped an invasion would bring an end to British support of Native American resistance to the westward expansion of the United States, typified by Tecumseh's coalition of tribes. Americans may also have wanted to annex Canada.\n\nOnce war broke out, the American strategy was to seize Canada—perhaps as a means of forcing concessions from the British Empire, or perhaps in order to annex it. There was some hope that settlers in western Canada—most of them recent immigrants from the U.S.—would welcome the chance to overthrow their British rulers. However, the American invasions were defeated primarily by British regulars with support from Native Americans and Upper Canada (Ontario) militia. Aided by the powerful Royal Navy, a series of British raids on the American coast were highly successful, culminating with an attack on Washington that resulted in the British burning of the White House, Capitol, and other public buildings. Major British invasions of New York in 1814 and Louisiana in 1814–15 were fiascoes, with the British retreating from New York and decisively defeated at the Battle of New Orleans. At the end of the war, Britain's American Indian allies had largely been defeated, and the Americans controlled a strip of Western Ontario centered on Fort Malden. However, Britain held much of Maine, and, with the support of their remaining American Indian allies, huge areas of the Old Northwest, including Wisconsin and much of Michigan and Illinois. With the surrender of Napoleon in 1814, Britain ended naval policies that angered Americans; with the defeat of the Indian tribes the threat to American expansion was ended. The upshot was both sides had asserted their honour, Canada was not annexed, and London and Washington had nothing more to fight over. The war was ended by the Treaty of Ghent, which took effect in February 1815. A series of postwar agreements further stabilized peaceful relations along the Canadian-US border. Canada reduced American immigration for fear of undue American influence, and built up the Anglican church as a counterweight to the largely American Methodist and Baptist churches.\n\nIn later years, Anglophone Canadians, especially in Ontario, viewed the War of 1812 as a heroic and successful resistance against invasion and as a victory that defined them as a people. The myth that the Canadian militia had defeated the invasion almost single-handed, known logically as the \"militia myth\", became highly prevalent after the war, having been propounded by John Strachan, Anglican Bishop of York. Meanwhile, the United States celebrated victory in its \"Second War of Independence,\" and war heroes such as Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison headed to the White House.\n\n===Conservative reaction===\nIn the aftermath of the War of 1812, pro-imperial conservatives led by Anglican Bishop John Strachan took control in Ontario (\"Upper Canada\"), and promoted the Anglican religion as opposed to the more republican Methodist and Baptist churches. A small interlocking elite, known as the Family Compact took full political control. Democracy, as practiced in the US, was ridiculed. The policies had the desired effect of deterring immigration from United States. Revolts in favor of democracy in Ontario and Quebec (\"Lower Canada\") in 1837 were suppressed; many of the leaders fled to the US. The American policy was to largely ignore the rebellions, and indeed ignore Canada generally in favor of westward expansion of the American Frontier.\n\n===Alabama claims===\nAn editorial cartoon on Canada–United States relations, 1886. It reads: Mrs. Britannia.—\"Is it possible, my dear, that you have ever given your cousin Jonathan any encouragement?\" Miss Canada.—\"Encouragement! Certainly not, Mamma. I have told him that we can never be united.\"\nAt the end of the American Civil War in 1865, Americans were angry at British support for the Confederacy. One result was toleration of Fenian efforts to use the U.S. as a base to attack Canada. More serious was the demand for a huge payment to cover the damages caused, on the notion that British involvement had lengthened the war. Senator Charles Sumner, the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, originally wanted to ask for $2 billion, or alternatively the ceding of all of Canada to the United States. When American Secretary of State William H. Seward negotiated the Alaska Purchase with Russia in 1867, he intended it as the first step in a comprehensive plan to gain control of the entire northwest Pacific Coast. Seward was a firm believer in Manifest Destiny, primarily for its commercial advantages to the U.S. Seward expected British Columbia to seek annexation to the U.S. and thought Britain might accept this in exchange for the ''Alabama'' claims. Soon other elements endorsed annexation, Their plan was to annex British Columbia, Red River Colony (Manitoba), and Nova Scotia, in exchange for the dropping the damage claims. The idea reached a peak in the spring and summer of 1870, with American expansionists, Canadian separatists, and British anti-imperialists seemingly combining forces. The plan was dropped for multiple reasons. London continued to stall, American commercial and financial groups pressed Washington for a quick settlement of the dispute on a cash basis, growing Canadian nationalist sentiment in British Columbia called for staying inside the British Empire, Congress became preoccupied with Reconstruction, and most Americans showed little interest in territorial expansion. The \"Alabama Claims\" dispute went to international arbitration. In one of the first major cases of arbitration, the tribunal in 1872 supported the American claims and ordered Britain to pay $15.5 million. Britain paid and the episode ended in peaceful relations.\n\n===Dominion of Canada===\nCanada became a self-governing dominion in 1867 in internal affairs while Britain controlled diplomacy and defense policy. Prior to Confederation, there was an Oregon boundary dispute in which the Americans claimed the 54th degree latitude. That issue was resolved by splitting the disputed territory; the northern half became British Columbia, and the southern half the states of Washington and Oregon. Strained relations with America continued, however, due to a series of small-scale armed incursions named the Fenian raids by Irish-American Civil War veterans across the border from 1866 to 1871 in an attempt to trade Canada for Irish independence. The American government, angry at Canadian tolerance of Confederate raiders during the American Civil War, moved very slowly to disarm the Fenians. The British government, in charge of diplomatic relations, protested cautiously, as Anglo-American relations were tense. Much of the tension was relieved as the Fenians faded away and in 1872 by the settlement of the Alabama Claims, when Britain paid the U.S. $15.5 million for war losses caused by warships built in Britain and sold to the Confederacy.\n\nDisputes over ocean boundaries on Georges Bank and over fishing, whaling, and sealing rights in the Pacific were settled by international arbitration, setting an important precedent.\n\n===Emigration to and from the United States===\n\nAfter 1850, the pace of industrialization and urbanization was much faster in the United States, drawing a wide range of immigrants from the North. By 1870, 1/6 of all the people born in Canada had moved to the United States, with the highest concentrations in New England, which was the destination of Francophone emigrants from Quebec and Anglophone emigrants from the Maritimes. It was common for people to move back and forth across the border, such as seasonal lumberjacks, entrepreneurs looking for larger markets, and families looking for jobs in the textile mills that paid much higher wages than in Canada.\n\nThe southward migration slacked off after 1890, as Canadian industry began a growth spurt. By then, the American frontier was closing, and thousands of farmers looking for fresh land moved from the United States north into the Prairie Provinces. The net result of the flows were that in 1901 there were 128,000 American-born residents in Canada (3.5% of the Canadian population) and 1.18 million Canadian-born residents in the United States (1.6% of the U.S. population).\n\n===Alaska boundary===\nA short-lived controversy was the Alaska boundary dispute, settled in favor of the United States in 1903. No one cared until a gold rush brought tens of thousands of men to Canada's Yukon, and they had to arrive through American ports. Canada needed its port and claimed that it had a legal right to a port near the present American town of Haines, Alaska. It would provide an all-Canadian route to the rich goldfields. The dispute was settled by arbitration, and the British delegate voted with the Americans—to the astonishment and disgust of Canadians who suddenly realized that Britain considered its relations with the United States paramount compared to those with Canada. The arbitrartion validated the status quo, but made Canada angry at Britain.\n\n1907 saw a minor controversy over USS ''Nashville'' sailing into the Great Lakes via Canada without Canadian permission. To head off future embarrassments, in 1909 the two sides signed the International Boundary Waters Treaty and the International Joint Commission was established to manage the Great Lakes and keep them disarmed. It was amended in World War II to allow the building and training of warships.\n\n===Reciprocal trade with U.S.===\nA 1911 Conservative campaign poster warns that the big American companies (\"trusts\") will hog all the benefits of reciprocity as proposed by Liberals, leaving little left over for Canadian interests\nAnti-Americanism reached a shrill peak in 1911 in Canada. The Liberal government in 1911 negotiated a Reciprocity treaty with the U.S. that would lower trade barriers. Canadian manufacturing interests were alarmed that free trade would allow the bigger and more efficient American factories to take their markets. The Conservatives made it a central campaign issue in the 1911 election, warning that it would be a \"sell out\" to the United States with economic annexation a special danger. Conservative slogan was \"No truck or trade with the Yankees\", as they appealed to Canadian nationalism and nostalgia for the British Empire to win a major victory.\n\n===Canadian autonomy===\nCanada demanded and received permission from London to send its own delegation to the Versailles Peace Talks in 1919, with the proviso that it sign the treaty under the British Empire. Canada subsequently took responsibility for its own foreign and military affairs in the 1920s. Its first ambassador to the United States, Vincent Massey, was named in 1927. The United States first ambassador to Canada was William Phillips. Canada became an active member of the British Commonwealth, the League of Nations, and the World Court, none of which included the U.S.\n\nIn July 1923, as part of his Pacific Northwest tour and a week before his death, US President Warren Harding visited Vancouver, making him the first head of state of the United States to visit Canada. The then Premier of British Columbia, John Oliver, and then mayor of Vancouver, Charles Tisdall, hosted a lunch in his honor at the Hotel Vancouver. Over 50,000 people heard Harding speak in Stanley Park. A monument to Harding designed by Charles Marega was unveiled in Stanley Park in 1925.\n\nRelations with the United States were cordial until 1930, when Canada vehemently protested the new Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act by which the U.S. raised tariffs (taxes) on products imported from Canada. Canada retaliated with higher tariffs of its own against American products, and moved toward more trade within the British Commonwealth. U.S.–Canadian trade fell 75% as the Great Depression dragged both countries down.\n\nDown to the 1920s the war and naval departments of both nations designed hypothetical war game scenarios with the other as an enemy. These were primarily exercises; the departments were never told to get ready for a real war. In 1921, Canada developed Defence Scheme No. 1 for an attack on American cities and for forestalling invasion by the United States until Imperial reinforcements arrived. Through the later 1920s and 1930s, the United States Army War College developed a plan for a war with the British Empire waged largely on North American territory, in War Plan Red.\n\nHerbert Hoover meeting in 1927 with British Ambassador Sir Esme Howard agreed on the \"absurdity of contemplating the possibility of war between the United States and the British Empire.\"\n\nIn 1938, as the roots of World War II were set in motion, U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt gave a public speech at Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, declaring that the United States would not sit idly by if another power tried to dominate Canada. Diplomats saw it as a clear warning to Germany not to attack Canada.\n\n===World War II===\nMountie and a Vermont State Trooper on their respective sides of the Canada–United States (Quebec–Vermont) border in 1941\nThe two nations cooperated closely in World War II, as both nations saw new levels of prosperity and a determination to defeat the Axis powers. Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King and President Franklin D. Roosevelt were determined not to repeat the mistakes of their predecessors. They met in August 1940 at Ogdensburg, issuing a declaration calling for close cooperation, and formed the Permanent Joint Board on Defense (PJBD).\n\nKing sought to raise Canada's international visibility by hosting the August 1943 Quadrant conference in Quebec on military and political strategy; he was a gracious host but was kept out of the important meetings by Winston Churchill and Roosevelt.\n\nCanada allowed the construction of the Alaska Highway and participated in the building of the atomic bomb. 49,000 Americans joined the RCAF (Canadian) or RAF (British) air forces through the Clayton Knight Committee, which had Roosevelt's permission to recruit in the U.S. in 1940–42.\n\nAmerican attempts in the mid-1930s to integrate British Columbia into a united West Coast military command had aroused Canadian opposition. Fearing a Japanese invasion of Canada's vulnerable coast, American officials urged the creation of a united military command for an eastern Pacific Ocean theater of war. Canadian leaders feared American imperialism and the loss of autonomy more than a Japanese invasion. In 1941, Canadians successfully argued within the PJBD for mutual cooperation rather than unified command for the West Coast.\n\n====Newfoundland====\nThe United States built large military bases in Newfoundland, at the time, a British dominion. The American involvement ended the depression and brought new prosperity; Newfoundland's business community sought closer ties with the United States as expressed by the Economic Union Party. Ottawa took notice and wanted Newfoundland to join Canada, which it did after hotly contested referenda. There was little demand in the United States for the acquisition of Newfoundland, so the United States did not protest the British decision not to allow an American option on the Newfoundland referendum.\n\n===Cold War===\nFollowing co-operation in the two World Wars, Canada and the United States lost much of their previous animosity. As Britain's influence as a global imperial power declined, Canada and the United States became extremely close partners. Canada was a close ally of the United States during the Cold War.\n\n===Nixon Shock 1971===\naddresses a joint session of the Parliament of Canada, 1972\nThe United States had become Canada's largest market, and after the war the Canadian economy became dependent on smooth trade flows with the United States so much that in 1971 when the United States enacted the \"Nixon Shock\" economic policies (including a 10% tariff on all imports) it put the Canadian government into a panic. This led in a large part to the articulation of Prime Minister Trudeau's \"Third Option\" policy of diversifying Canada's trade and downgrading the importance of Canada – United States relations. In a 1972 speech in Ottawa, Nixon declared the \"special relationship\" between Canada and the United States dead.\n\n===1990s===\nThe main issues in Canada–U.S. relations in the 1990s focused on the NAFTA agreement, which was signed in 1994. It created a common market that by 2014 was worth $19 trillion, encompassed 470 million people, and had created millions of jobs. Wilson says, \"Few dispute that NAFTA has produced\nlarge and measurable gains for Canadian consumers, workers, and businesses.\" However, he adds, \"NAFTA has fallen well short of expectations.\"\n\n",
"\nSince the arrival of the Loyalists as refugees from the American Revolution in the 1780s, historians have identified a constant theme of Canadian fear of the United States and of \"Americanization\" or a cultural takeover. In the War of 1812, for example, the enthusiastic response by French militia to defend Lower Canada reflected, according to Heidler and Heidler (2004), \"the fear of Americanization.\" Scholars have traced this attitude over time in Ontario and Quebec.\n\nCanadian intellectuals who wrote about the U.S. in the first half of the 20th century identified America as the world center of modernity, and deplored it. Imperialists (who admired the British Empire) explained that Canadians had narrowly escaped American conquest with its rejection of tradition, its worship of \"progress\" and technology, and its mass culture; they explained that Canada was much better because of its commitment to orderly government and societal harmony. There were a few ardent defenders of the nation to the south, notably liberal and socialist intellectuals such as F. R. Scott and Jean-Charles Harvey (1891–1967).\n\nLooking at television, Collins (1990) finds that it is in English Canada that fear of cultural Americanization is most powerful, for there the attractions of the U.S. are strongest. Meren (2009) argues that after 1945, the emergence of Quebec nationalism and the desire to preserve French-Canadian cultural heritage led to growing anxiety regarding American cultural imperialism and Americanization. In 2006 surveys showed that 60 percent of Quebecers had a fear of Americanization, while other surveys showed they preferred their current situation to that of the Americans in the realms of health care, quality of life as seniors, environmental quality, poverty, educational system, racism and standard of living. While agreeing that job opportunities are greater in America, 89 percent disagreed with the notion that they would rather be in the United States, and they were more likely to feel closer to English Canadians than to Americans. However, there is evidence that the elites and Quebec are much less fearful of Americanization, and much more open to economic integration than the general public.\n\nThe history has been traced in detail by a leading Canadian historian J.L. Granatstein in ''Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism'' (1997). Current studies report the phenomenon persists. Two scholars report, \"Anti-Americanism is alive and well in Canada today, strengthened by, among other things, disputes related to NAFTA, American involvement in the Middle East, and the ever-increasing Americanization of Canadian culture.\" Jamie Glazov writes, \"More than anything else, Diefenbaker became the tragic victim of Canadian anti-Americanism, a sentiment the prime minister had fully embraced by 1962. He was unable to imagine himself (or his foreign policy) without enemies.\" Historian J. M. Bumsted says, \"In its most extreme form, Canadian suspicion of the United States has led to outbreaks of overt anti-Americanism, usually spilling over against American residents in Canada.\" John R. Wennersten writes, \"But at the heart of Canadian anti-Americanism lies a cultural bitterness that takes an American expatriate unaware. Canadians fear the American media's influence on their culture and talk critically about how Americans are exporting a culture of violence in its television programming and movies.\" However Kim Nossal points out that the Canadian variety is much milder than anti-Americanism in some other countries. By contrast Americans show very little knowledge or interest one way or the other regarding Canadian affairs. Canadian historian Frank Underhill, quoting Canadian playwright Merrill Denison summed it up: \"Americans are benevolently ignorant about Canada, whereas Canadians are malevolently informed about the United States.\"\n",
"The executive of each country is represented differently. The President of the United States serves as both the head of state and head of government, and his \"administration\" is the executive, while the Prime Minister of Canada is head of government only, and his or her \"government\" or \"ministry\" directs the executive.\n\n\n===W.L. Mackenzie King and Franklin D. Roosevelt (October 1935 – April 1945)===\n\n\n===W.L. Mackenzie King and Harry S. Truman (April 1945 – November 1948)===\n\n\n===Louis St. Laurent and Harry S. Truman (November 1948 – January 1953)===\n\n\n===Louis St. Laurent and Dwight D. Eisenhower (January 1953 – June 1957)===\n\n\n===John G. Diefenbaker and Dwight D. Eisenhower (June 1957 – January 1961)===\n\n\n===John G. Diefenbaker and John F. Kennedy (January 1961 – April 1963)===\n\n\n===Lester B. Pearson and John F. Kennedy (April–November 1963)===\n\n\n===Lester B. Pearson and Lyndon B. Johnson (November 1963 – April 1968)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Lyndon B. Johnson (April 1968 – January 1969)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Richard Nixon (January 1969 – August 1974)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Gerald Ford (August 1974 – January 1977)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Jimmy Carter (January 1977 – June 1979)===\n\n\n===Joe Clark and Jimmy Carter (June 1979 – March 1980)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Jimmy Carter (March 1980 – January 1981)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Ronald Reagan (January 1981 – June 1984)===\n\n\n===John Turner and Ronald Reagan (June–September 1984)===\n\n\n===Brian Mulroney and Ronald Reagan (September 1984 – January 1989)===\nRonald Reagan (left) and Brian Mulroney (right) at the Hotel Cipriani in Venice, Italy, June 11, 1987\nRelations between Brian Mulroney and Ronald Reagan were famously close. This relationship resulted in negotiations for the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement, and the U.S.–Canada Air Quality Agreement to reduce acid-rain-causing emissions, both major policy goals of Mulroney, that would be finalized under the presidency of George H. W. Bush.\n\n===Brian Mulroney and George H. W. Bush (January 1989 – January 1993)===\n\n\n===Brian Mulroney and Bill Clinton (January–June 1993)===\n\n\n===Kim Campbell and Bill Clinton (June–November 1993)===\n\n\n===Jean Chrétien and Bill Clinton (November 1993 – January 2001)===\nAlthough Jean Chrétien was wary of appearing too close to the President, personally, he and Bill Clinton were known to be golfing partners. Their governments had many small trade quarrels over the Canadian content of American magazines, softwood lumber, and so on, but on the whole were quite friendly. Both leaders had run on reforming or abolishing NAFTA, but the agreement went ahead with the addition of environmental and labor side agreements. Crucially, the Clinton administration lent rhetorical support to Canadian unity during the 1995 referendum in Quebec on separation from Canada.\n\n===Jean Chrétien and George W. Bush (January 2001 – December 2003)===\nRelations between Chrétien and George W. Bush were strained throughout their overlapping times in office. After the September 11 attacks terror attacks, Jean Chrétien publicly mused that U.S. foreign policy might be part of the \"root causes\" of terrorism. Some Americans criticized his \"smug moralism\", and Chrétien's public refusal to support the 2003 Iraq war was met drew responses in the United States, especially among conservatives.\n\n===Paul Martin and George W. Bush (December 2003 – February 2006)===\n\n\n===Stephen Harper and George W. Bush (February 2006 – January 2009)===\nPrime Minister Stephen Harper (left) and President George W. Bush (right) meet in Washington in July 2006\nStephen Harper and George W. Bush were thought to share warm personal relations and also close ties between their administrations. Because Bush was so unpopular among liberals in Canada (particularly in the media), this was underplayed by the Harper government.\n\nShortly after being congratulated by Bush for his victory in February 2006, Harper rebuked U.S. ambassador to Canada David Wilkins for criticizing the Conservatives' plans to assert Canada's sovereignty over the Arctic Ocean waters with military force.\n\n===Stephen Harper and Barack Obama (January 2009 – November 2015)===\nBarack Obama boards Air Force One in Ottawa 2-19-09\nPresident Barack Obama's first international trip was to Canada on February 19, 2009, thereby sending a strong message of peace and cooperation. With the exception of Canadian lobbying against \"Buy American\" provisions in the U.S. stimulus package, relations between the two administrations were smooth.\n\nThey also held friendly bets on hockey games during the Winter Olympic season. In the 2010 Winter Olympics hosted by Canada in Vancouver, Canada defeated the US in both gold medal matches, entitling Stephen Harper to receive a case of Molson Canadian beer from Barack Obama; in reverse, if Canada had lost, Harper would have provided a case of Yuengling beer to Obama. During the 2014 Winter Olympics, alongside U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry & Minister of Foreign Affairs John Baird, Stephen Harper was given a case of Samuel Adams beer by Obama for the Canadian gold medal victory over the US in women's hockey, and the semi-final victory over the US in men's hockey.\n\n====Canada-United States Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) (2011)====\nOn February 4, 2011, Harper and Obama issued a \"Declaration on a Shared Vision for Perimeter Security and Economic Competitiveness\" and announced the creation of the Canada–United States Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) \"to increase regulatory transparency and coordination between the two countries.\"\n\nHealth Canada and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under the RCC mandate, undertook the \"first of its kind\" initiative by selecting \"as its first area of alignment common cold indications for certain over-the-counter antihistamine ingredients (GC 2013-01-10).\"\n\nOn December 7, 2011, Harper flew to Washington, met with Obama and signed an agreement to implement the joint action plans that had been developed since the initial meeting in February. The plans called on both countries to spend more on border infrastructure, share more information on people who cross the border, and acknowledge more of each other's safety and security inspection on third-country traffic. An editorial in ''The Globe and Mail'' praised the agreement for giving Canada the ability to track whether failed refugee claimants have left Canada via the U.S. and for eliminating \"duplicated baggage screenings on connecting flights\". The agreement is not a legally binding treaty, and relies on the political will and ability of the executives of both governments to implement the terms of the agreement. These types of executive agreements are routine—on both sides of the Canada–U.S. border.\n\n===Justin Trudeau and Barack Obama (November 2015 – January 2017)===\nPrime Minister Justin Trudeau (left) and President Barack Obama (right) meet in Washington in March 2016\nPresident Barack Obama and Prime Minister Justin Trudeau first met formally at the APEC summit meeting in Manila, Philippines in November 2015, nearly a week after the latter was sworn into the office. Both leaders expressed eagerness for increased cooperation and coordination between the two countries during the course of Trudeau's government with Trudeau promising an \"enhanced Canada–U.S. partnership\".\n\nOn November 6, 2015, Obama announced the U.S. State Department's rejection of the proposed Keystone XL pipeline, the fourth phase of the Keystone oil pipeline system running between Canada and the United States, to which Trudeau expressed disappointment but said that the rejection would not damage Canada–U.S. relations and would instead provide a \"fresh start\" to strengthening ties through cooperation and coordination, saying that \"the Canada–U.S. relationship is much bigger than any one project.\" Obama has since praised Trudeau's efforts to prioritize the reduction of climate change, calling it \"extraordinarily helpful\" to establish a worldwide consensus on addressing the issue.\n\nAlthough Trudeau has told Obama his plans to withdraw Canada's McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet jets assisting in the American-led intervention against ISIL, Trudeau said that Canada will still \"do more than its part\" in combating the terrorist group by increasing the number of Canadian special forces members training and fighting on ground in Iraq and Syria.\n\nTrudeau visited the White House for an official visit and state dinner on March 10, 2016. Trudeau and Obama were reported to have shared warm personal relations during the visit, making humorous remarks about which country was better at hockey and which country had better beer. Obama complimented Trudeau's 2015 election campaign for its \"message of hope and change\" and \"positive and optimistic vision\". Obama and Trudeau also held \"productive\" discussions on climate change and relations between the two countries, and Trudeau invited Obama to speak in the Canadian parliament in Ottawa later in the year.\n\n===Justin Trudeau and Donald Trump (January 2017–present)===\nFollowing the victory of Donald Trump in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, Trudeau congratulated him and invited him to visit Canada at the \"earliest opportunity.\" Prime Minister Trudeau and President Trump formally met for the first time at the White House on February 13, 2017, nearly a month after Trump was sworn into the office. Trump has ruffled relations with Canada with tariffs on softwood lumber. Diafiltered Milk has also been brought up by Trump as an area that needs to be negotiated. Trump is expected to renegotiate NAFTA with Canada.\n",
"North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), long headquartered in the Cheyenne Mountain Complex in Colorado, exemplifies military co-operation between Canada and the U.S.\nCanadian embassy in Washington saying \"Friends, Neighbours, Partners, Allies\"\nThe Canadian military, like forces of other NATO countries, fought alongside the United States in most major conflicts since World War II, including the Korean War, the Gulf War, the Kosovo War, and most recently the war in Afghanistan. The main exceptions to this were the Canadian government's opposition to the Vietnam War and the Iraq War, which caused some brief diplomatic tensions. Despite these issues, military relations have remained close.\n\nAmerican defense arrangements with Canada are more extensive than with any other country. The Permanent Joint Board of Defense, established in 1940, provides policy-level consultation on bilateral defense matters. The United States and Canada share North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) mutual security commitments. In addition, American and Canadian military forces have cooperated since 1958 on continental air defense within the framework of the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD). Canadian forces have provided indirect support for the American invasion of Iraq that began in 2003. Moreover, interoperability with the American armed forces has been a guiding principle of Canadian military force structuring and doctrine since the end of the Cold War. Canadian navy frigates, for instance, integrate seamlessly into American carrier battle groups.\n\nIn commemoration of the 200th Anniversary of the War of 1812 ambassadors from Canada and the US, and naval officers from both countries gathered at the Pritzker Military Library on August 17, 2012, for a panel discussion on Canada-US relations with emphasis on national security-related matters. Also as part of the commemoration, the navies of both countries sailed together throughout the Great Lakes region.\n\n===War in Afghanistan===\n\nCanada's elite JTF2 unit joined American special forces in Afghanistan shortly after the al-Qaida attacks on September 11, 2001. Canadian forces joined the multinational coalition in Operation Anaconda in January 2002. On April 18, 2002, an American pilot bombed Canadian forces involved in a training exercise, killing four and wounding eight Canadians. A joint American-Canadian inquiry determined the cause of the incident to be pilot error, in which the pilot interpreted ground fire as an attack; the pilot ignored orders that he felt were \"second-guessing\" his field tactical decision. Canadian forces assumed a six-month command rotation of the International Security Assistance Force in 2003; in 2005, Canadians assumed operational command of the multi-national Brigade in Kandahar, with 2,300 troops, and supervises the Provincial Reconstruction Team in Kandahar, where al-Qaida forces are most active. Canada has also deployed naval forces in the Persian Gulf since 1991 in support of the UN Gulf Multinational Interdiction Force.\n\nThe Canadian Embassy in Washington, DC maintains a public relations website named CanadianAlly.com, which is intended \"to give American citizens a better sense of the scope of Canada's role in North American and Global Security and the War on Terror\".\n\nThe New Democratic Party and some recent Liberal leadership candidates have expressed opposition to Canada's expanded role in the Afghan conflict on the ground that it is inconsistent with Canada's historic role (since the Second World War) of peacekeeping operations.\n\n===2003 Invasion of Iraq===\n\n\nAccording to contemporary polls, 71% of Canadians were opposed to the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Many Canadians, and the former Liberal Cabinet headed by Paul Martin (as well as many Americans such as Bill Clinton and Barack Obama), made a policy distinction between conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq, unlike the Bush Doctrine, which linked these together in a \"Global war on terror\".\n\n=== Responding to ISIS/Daesh ===\nCanada has been involved in international responses to the threats from Daesh/ISIS/ISIL in Syria and Iraq, and is a member of the Global Coalition to Counter Daesh. In October 2016, Foreign Affairs Minister Dion and National Defence Minister Sajjan meet U.S. special envoy for this coalition. The Americans thanked Canada \"for the role of Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) in providing training and assistance to Iraqi security forces, as well as the CAF's role in improving essential capacity-building capabilities with regional forces.\"\n",
"\nCanada and the United States have the world's largest trading relationship, with huge quantities of goods and people flowing across the border each year. Since the 1987 Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement, there have been no tariffs on most goods passed between the two countries.\n\nIn the course of the softwood lumber dispute, the U.S. has placed tariffs on Canadian softwood lumber because of what it argues is an unfair Canadian government subsidy, a claim which Canada disputes. The dispute has cycled through several agreements and arbitration cases. Other notable disputes include the Canadian Wheat Board, and Canadian cultural \"restrictions\" on magazines and television (See CRTC, CBC, and National Film Board of Canada). Canadians have been criticized about such things as the ban on beef since a case of Mad Cow disease was discovered in 2003 in cows from the United States (and a few subsequent cases) and the high American agricultural subsidies. Concerns in Canada also run high over aspects of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) such as Chapter 11.\n",
"A Canadian BC Parks Ranger and a U.S. National Park Service Ranger work to remove a bear from a campground along the international boundary in British Columbia and Washington state\n\nA principal instrument of this cooperation is the International Joint Commission (IJC), established as part of the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909 to resolve differences and promote international cooperation on boundary waters. The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1972 is another historic example of joint cooperation in controlling trans-border water pollution. However, there have been some disputes. Most recently, the Devil's Lake Outlet, a project instituted by North Dakota, has angered Manitobans who fear that their water may soon become polluted as a result of this project.\n\nBeginning in 1986 the Canadian government of Brian Mulroney began pressing the Reagan administration for an \"Acid Rain Treaty\" in order to do something about U.S. industrial air pollution causing acid rain in Canada. The Reagan administration was hesitant, and questioned the science behind Mulroney's claims. However, Mulroney was able to prevail. The product was the signing and ratification of the Air Quality Agreement of 1991 by the first Bush administration. Under that treaty, the two governments consult semi-annually on trans-border air pollution, which has demonstrably reduced acid rain, and they have since signed an annex to the treaty dealing with ground level ozone in 2000. Despite this, trans-border air pollution remains an issue, particularly in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence watershed during the summer. The main source of this trans-border pollution results from coal-fired power stations, most of them located in the Midwestern United States. As part of the negotiations to create NAFTA, Canada and the U.S. signed, along with Mexico, the North American Agreement On Environmental Cooperation which created the Commission for Environmental Cooperation which monitors environmental issues across the continent, publishing the North American Environmental Atlas as one aspect of its monitoring duties.\n\nCurrently neither of the countries' governments support the Kyoto Protocol, which set out time scheduled curbing of greenhouse gas emissions. Unlike the United States, Canada has ratified the agreement. Yet after ratification, due to internal political conflict within Canada, the Canadian government does not enforce the Kyoto Protocol, and has received criticism from environmental groups and from other governments for its climate change positions. In January 2011, the Canadian minister of the environment, Peter Kent, explicitly stated that the policy of his government with regards to greenhouse gas emissions reductions is to wait for the United States to act first, and then try to harmonize with that action – a position that has been condemned by environmentalists and Canadian nationalists, and as well as scientists and government think-tanks.\n\n===Newfoundland fisheries dispute===\nThe United States and Britain, had a long-standing dispute about the rights of Americans fishing in the waters near Newfoundland. Before 1776, there was no question that American fishermen, mostly from Massachusetts, had rights to use the waters off Newfoundland. In the peace treaty negotiations of 1783, the Americans insisted on a statement of these rights. However, France, an American ally, disputed the American position because France had its own specified rights in the area and wanted them to be exclusive. The Treaty of Paris (1783) gave the Americans not rights, but rather \"liberties\" to fish within the territorial waters of British North America and to dry fish on certain coasts.\n\nAfter the War of 1812, the Convention of 1818 between the United States and Britain specified exactly what liberties were involved. Canadian and Newfoundland fishermen contested these liberties in the 1830s and 1840s. The Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty of 1854, and the Treaty of Washington of 1871 spelled-out the liberties in more detail. However the Treaty of Washington expired in 1885, and there was a continuous round of disputes over jurisdictions and liberties. Britain and the United States sent the issue to the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague in 1909. It produced a compromise settlement that permanently ended the problems.\n",
"\nIn 2003 the American government became concerned when members of the Canadian government announced plans to decriminalize marijuana. David Murray, an assistant to U.S. Drug Czar John P. Walters, said in a CBC interview that, \"We would have to respond. We would be forced to respond.\" However the election of the Conservative Party in early 2006 halted the liberalization of marijuana laws for the foreseeable future.\n\nA 2007 joint report by American and Canadian officials on cross-border drug smuggling indicated that, despite their best efforts, \"drug trafficking still occurs in significant quantities in both directions across the border. The principal illicit substances smuggled across our shared border are MDMA (''Ecstasy''), cocaine, and marijuana.\" The report indicated that Canada was a major producer of ''Ecstasy'' and marijuana for the U.S. market, while the U.S. was a transit country for cocaine entering Canada.\n",
"RCMP honor guards wait for Air Force One in Ottawa.\n===Views of presidents and prime ministers===\nPresidents and prime ministers typically make formal or informal statements that indicate the diplomatic policy of their administration. Diplomats and journalists at the time—and historians since—dissect the nuances and tone to detect the warmth or coolness of the relationship.\n* Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, speaking at the beginning of the 1891 election (fought mostly over Canadian free trade with the United States), arguing against closer trade relations with the U.S. stated \"As for myself, my course is clear. A British subject I was born—a British subject I will die. With my utmost effort, with my latest breath, will I oppose the ‘veiled treason’ which attempts by sordid means and mercenary proffers to lure our people from their allegiance.\" (February 3, 1891.)\n\nCanada's first Prime Minister also said:\n\n* Prime Minister John Sparrow Thompson, angry at failed trade talks in 1888, privately complained to his wife, Lady Thompson, that \"These Yankee politicians are the lowest race of thieves in existence.\"\n* After the World War II years of close military and economic cooperation, President Harry S. Truman said in 1947 that \"Canada and the United States have reached the point where we can no longer think of each other as 'foreign' countries.\"\n* President John F. Kennedy told Parliament in Ottawa in May 1961 that \"Geography has made us neighbors. History has made us friends. Economics has made us partners. And necessity has made us allies. Those whom nature hath so joined together, let no man put asunder.\"\n* President Lyndon Johnson helped open Expo '67 with an upbeat theme, saying that \"We of the United States consider ourselves blessed. We have much to give thanks for. But the gift of providence we cherish most is that we were given as our neighbours on this wonderful continent the people and the nation of Canada.\" Remarks at Expo '67, Montreal, May 25, 1967.\n\n\n* Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau famously said that being America's neighbour \"is like sleeping with an elephant. No matter how friendly and even-tempered the beast, if one can call it that, one is affected by every twitch and grunt.\"\n* Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau, sharply at odds with the U.S. over Cold War policy, warned at a press conference in 1971 that the overwhelming American presence posed \"a danger to our national identity from a cultural, economic and perhaps even military point of view.\"\n* President Richard Nixon, in a speech to Parliament in 1972 was angry at Trudeau, declared that the \"special relationship\" between Canada and the United States was dead. \"It is time for us to recognize,\" he stated, \"that we have very separate identities; that we have significant differences; and that nobody's interests are furthered when these realities are obscured.\"\n* In late 2001, President George W. Bush did not mention Canada during a speech in which he thanked a list of countries who had assisted in responding to the events of September 11, although Canada had provided military, financial, and other support. Ten years later, David Frum, one of President Bush's speechwriters, stated that it was an unintentional omission.\n* Prime Minister Stephen Harper, in a statement congratulating Barack Obama on his inauguration, stated that \"The United States remains Canada's most important ally, closest friend and largest trading partner and I look forward to working with President Obama and his administration as we build on this special relationship.\"\n* President Barack Obama, speaking in Ottawa at his first official international visit in February 19, 2009, said, \"I love this country. We could not have a better friend and ally.\"\n\n===Canadian public opinion on U.S. presidents===\nUnited States President George W. Bush was \"deeply disliked\" by a majority of Canadians according to the ''Arizona Daily Sun''. A 2004 poll found that more than two thirds of Canadians favoured Democrat John Kerry over Bush in the 2004 presidential election, with Bush's lowest approval ratings in Canada being in the province of Quebec where just 11% of the population supported him. Canadian public opinion of Barack Obama was significantly more positive. A 2012 poll found that 65% of Canadians would vote for Obama in the 2012 presidential election \"if they could\" while only 9% of Canadians would vote for his Republican opponent Mitt Romney. The same study found that 61% of Canadians felt that the Obama administration had been \"good\" for America, while only 12% felt it had been \"bad\". Similarly, a Pew Research poll conducted in June 2016 found that 83% of Canadians were \"confident in Obama to do the right thing regarding world affairs\". The study also found that a majority of members of all three major Canadian political parties supported Obama, and also found that Obama had slightly higher approval ratings in Canada in 2012 than he did in 2008. John Ibbitson of ''The Globe and Mail'' stated in 2012 that Canadians generally supported Democratic presidents over Republican presidents, citing how President Richard Nixon was \"never liked\" in Canada and that Canadians generally did not approve of Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's friendship with President Ronald Reagan.\n\nA January 2017 poll found that 66% of Canadians \"disapproved\" of Donald Trump, with 23% approving of him and 11% being \"unsure\". The poll also found that only 18% of Canadians believed Trump's presidency would have a positive impact on Canada, while 63% believed it would have a negative effect.\n\n===Territorial disputes===\n\n\nThese include maritime boundary disputes:\n* Dixon Entrance\n* Beaufort Sea\n* Strait of Juan de Fuca\n* San Juan Islands\n* Machias Seal Island and North Rock\n\nTerritorial land disputes:\n* Aroostook War (Maine boundary)\n* Alaska Boundary Dispute\n* Pig War\n\nand disputes over the international status of the:\n* Northwest Passage\n* Inside Passage\n\n====Arctic disputes====\n\nA long-simmering dispute between Canada and the U.S. involves the issue of Canadian sovereignty over the Northwest Passage (the sea passages in the Arctic). Canada's assertion that the Northwest Passage represents internal (territorial) waters has been challenged by other countries, especially the U.S., which argue that these waters constitute an international strait (international waters). Canadians were alarmed when Americans drove the reinforced oil tanker through the Northwest Passage in 1969, followed by the icebreaker Polar Sea in 1985, which actually resulted in a minor diplomatic incident. In 1970, the Canadian parliament enacted the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, which asserts Canadian regulatory control over pollution within a 100-mile zone. In response, the United States in 1970 stated, \"We cannot accept the assertion of a Canadian claim that the Arctic waters are internal waters of Canada. ... Such acceptance would jeopardize the freedom of navigation essential for United States naval activities worldwide.\" A compromise of sorts was reached in 1988, by an agreement on \"Arctic Cooperation,\" which pledges that voyages of American icebreakers \"will be undertaken with the consent of the Government of Canada.\" However the agreement did not alter either country's basic legal position. Paul Cellucci, the American ambassador to Canada, in 2005 suggested to Washington that it should recognize the straits as belonging to Canada. His advice was rejected and Harper took opposite positions. The U.S. opposes Harper's proposed plan to deploy military icebreakers in the Arctic to detect interlopers and assert Canadian sovereignty over those waters.\n\n===Common memberships===\n\nCanada and the United States both hold membership in a number of multinational organizations such as:\n* Arctic Council\n* Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation\n* Canadian Football League\n* CONCACAF\n* FIBA\n* FIFA\n* Food and Agriculture Organization\n* G7\n* G-10\n* G-20 major economies\n* International Chamber of Commerce\n* International Development Association\n* International Ice Hockey Federation\n* International Monetary Fund\n* International Olympic Committee\n* Interpol\n* Major League Baseball\n* Major League Soccer\n* National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing\n* National Basketball Association\n* National Football League\n* National Hockey League\n* National Lacrosse League\n* North American Free Trade Agreement\n* North American Aerospace Defense Command\n* North American Numbering Plan\n* North Atlantic Treaty Organization\n* Organization of American States\n* Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development\n* Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America\n* UKUSA Community\n* United Nations\n* UNESCO\n* World Bowling\n* World Health Organization\n* World Trade Organization\n* World Bank\n",
"\n===Canadian missions in the United States===\n\nCanada's chief diplomatic mission to the United States is the Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C.. It is further supported by many consulates located through United States.\nThe Canadian Government maintains consulates-general in several major U.S. cities including: Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Detroit, Los Angeles, Miami, Minneapolis, New York City, San Francisco and Seattle. Canadian consular services are also available in Honolulu at the consulate of Australia through the Canada–Australia Consular Services Sharing Agreement.\n\nThere are also Canadian trade offices located in Houston, Palo Alto and San Diego.\n\n===U.S. missions in Canada===\nThe United States's chief diplomatic mission to Canada is the United States Embassy in Ottawa. It is further supported by many consulates located throughout Canada.\nThe U.S government maintains consulates-general in several major Canadian cities including:\nCalgary, Halifax, Montreal, Quebec City, Toronto, Vancouver and Winnipeg.\n\nThe United States also maintains Virtual Presence Posts (VPP) in the: Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Southwestern Ontario and Yukon.\n",
"\n* Borders of Canada\n* Comparison of Canadian and American economies\n* Continental One Highway\n* Etiquette in North America\n* Foreign relations of Canada\n* Foreign relations of the United States\n* Garrison mentality\n* Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America\n* United States Border Patrol interior checkpoints\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n* Azzi, Stephen. ''Reconcilable Differences: A History of Canada-US Relations'' (Oxford University Press, 2014)\n* Behiels, Michael D. and Reginald C. Stuart, eds. ''Transnationalism: Canada-United States History into the Twenty-First Century'' (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2010) 312 pp. online 2012 review\n* Bothwell, Robert. ''Your Country, My Country: A Unified History of the United States and Canada'' (2015), 400 pages; traces relations, shared values, and differences across the centuries\n* Doran, Charles F., and James Patrick Sewell, \"Anti-Americanism in Canada,\" ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,'' Vol. 497, Anti-Americanism: Origins and Context (May 1988), pp. 105–119 in JSTOR\n* Clarkson, Stephen. ''Uncle Sam and Us: Globalization, Neoconservatism and the Canadian State'' (University of Toronto Press, 2002)\n* Engler, Yves\n* Ek, Carl, and Ian F. Fergusson. ''Canada-U.S. Relations'' (Congressional Research Service, 2010) 2010 Report, by an agency of the U.S. Congress\n** \"Report Highlight\" of 2010 report\n* Granatstein, J. L. ''Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism'' (1997)\n* Granatstein, J. L. and Norman Hillmer, ''For Better or for Worse: Canada and the United States to the 1990s'' (1991)\n* Gravelle, Timothy B. \"Partisanship, Border Proximity, and Canadian Attitudes toward North American Integration.\" ''International Journal of Public Opinion Research'' (2014) 26#4 pp: 453–474.\n* Gravelle, Timothy B. \"Love Thy Neighbo (u) r? Political Attitudes, Proximity and the Mutual Perceptions of the Canadian and American Publics.\" ''Canadian Journal of Political Science'' (2014) 47#1 pp: 135–157.\n* Hale, Geoffrey. ''So Near Yet So Far: The Public and Hidden Worlds of Canada-US Relations'' (University of British Columbia Press, 2012); 352 pages focus on 2001–2011\n* Holland, Kenneth. \"The Canada–United States defence relationship: a partnership for the twenty-first century.\" ''Canadian Foreign Policy Journal'' ahead-of-print (2015): 1–6. online\n* Holmes, Ken. \"The Canadian Cognitive Bias and its Influence on Canada/US Relations.\" ''International Social Science Review'' (2015) 90#1 online.\n* Holmes, John W. \"Impact of Domestic Political Factors on Canadian-American Relations: Canada,\" ''International Organization,'' Vol. 28, No. 4, Canada and the United States: Transnational and Transgovernmental Relations (Autumn, 1974), pp. 611–635 in JSTOR\n* Innes, Hugh, ed. ''Americanization: Issues for the Seventies'' (McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1972). ; re 1970s\n* Lennox, Patrick. ''At Home and Abroad: The Canada-U.S. Relationship and Canada's Place in the World'' (University of British Columbia Press; 2010) 192 pages; the post–World War II period.\n* Little, John Michael. \"Canada Discovered: Continentalist Perceptions of the Roosevelt Administration, 1939–1945,\" PhD dissertation. ''Dissertation Abstracts International,'' 1978, Vol. 38 Issue 9, p5696-5697\n* Lumsden, Ian, ed. ''The Americanization of Canada'', ed. ... for the University League for Social Reform (U of Toronto Press, 1970). \n* McKercher, Asa. ''Camelot and Canada: Canadian-American Relations in the Kennedy Era'' (Oxford UP, 2016). xii, 298 pp. \n* Graeme S. Mount and Edelgard Mahant, ''An Introduction to Canadian-American Relations'' (1984, updated 1989)\n* Molloy, Patricia. ''Canada/US and Other Unfriendly Relations: Before and After 9/11'' (Palgrave Macmillan; 2012) 192 pages; essays on various \"myths\"\n* Mount, Graeme S. and Edelgard Mahant, ''Invisible and Inaudible in Washington: American Policies toward Canada during the Cold War'' (1999)\n* Muirhead, Bruce. \"From Special Relationship to Third Option: Canada, the U.S., and the Nixon Shock,\" ''American Review of Canadian Studies,'' Vol. 34, 2004 online edition\n* Myers, Phillip E. ''Dissolving Tensions: Rapprochement and Resolution in British-American-Canadian Relations in the Treaty of Washington Era, 1865–1914'' (Kent State UP, 2015). x, 326 pp.\n* Pederson, William D. ed. ''A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt'' (2011) online pp 517–41, covers FDR's policies\n* Stuart, Reginald C. ''Dispersed Relations: Americans and Canadians in Upper North America'' (2007) excerpt and text search\n* Tagg, James.. \"'And, We Burned down the White House, Too': American History, Canadian Undergraduates, and Nationalism,\" ''The History Teacher,'' 37#3 (May 2004), pp. 309–334 in JSTOR\n* Tansill, C. C. ''Canadian-American Relations, 1875–1911'' (1943)\n* Thompson, John Herd, and Stephen J. Randall. ''Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies'' (4th ed. McGill-Queen's UP, 2008), 387pp, the standard scholarly survey\n\n===Primary sources===\n* Gallagher, Connell. \"The Senator George D. Aiken Papers: Sources for the Study of Canadian-American Relations, 1930–1974.\" ''Archivaria'' 1#21 (1985) pp 176–79 online.\n\n",
"* History of Canada – U.S. relations\n* Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C.\n* U.S. Embassy & Consulates in Canada\n* Canadian Association of New York\n* Canada and the United States, by Stephen Azzi and J.L. Granatstein\n* Canadian-American Relations, by John English\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Country comparison",
"History",
"Anti-Americanism",
"Relations between political executives",
"Military and security",
"Trade",
"Environmental issues",
"Illicit drugs",
"Diplomacy",
"Diplomatic missions",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Canada–United States relations | [
"Disputes over ocean boundaries on Georges Bank and over fishing, whaling, and sealing rights in the Pacific were settled by international arbitration, setting an important precedent.",
"===Common memberships===\n\nCanada and the United States both hold membership in a number of multinational organizations such as:\n* Arctic Council\n* Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation\n* Canadian Football League\n* CONCACAF\n* FIBA\n* FIFA\n* Food and Agriculture Organization\n* G7\n* G-10\n* G-20 major economies\n* International Chamber of Commerce\n* International Development Association\n* International Ice Hockey Federation\n* International Monetary Fund\n* International Olympic Committee\n* Interpol\n* Major League Baseball\n* Major League Soccer\n* National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing\n* National Basketball Association\n* National Football League\n* National Hockey League\n* National Lacrosse League\n* North American Free Trade Agreement\n* North American Aerospace Defense Command\n* North American Numbering Plan\n* North Atlantic Treaty Organization\n* Organization of American States\n* Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development\n* Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America\n* UKUSA Community\n* United Nations\n* UNESCO\n* World Bowling\n* World Health Organization\n* World Trade Organization\n* World Bank"
] | [
"\n\nPrime Minister Justin Trudeau and President Donald Trump meet in Washington, February 2017.",
"'''Relations between Canada and the United States of America''' historically have been extensive, given a shared border and ever-increasing close cultural, economical ties and similarities.",
"The shared historical and cultural heritage has resulted in one of the most stable and mutually beneficial international relationships in the world.",
"For both countries, the level of trade with the other is at the top of the annual combined import-export total.",
"Tourism and migration between the two nations have increased rapport, but border security was heightened after the terrorist attacks in the United States on September 11, 2001.",
"The U.S. is ten times larger in population and has the dominant cultural and economic influence in the world.",
"Starting with the American Revolution, when anti-American Loyalists fled to Canada, a vocal element in Canada has warned against US dominance or annexation.",
"The War of 1812 saw invasions across the border.",
"In 1815, the war ended with the border unchanged and demilitarized, as were the Great Lakes.",
"The British ceased aiding First Nation attacks on American territory, and the United States never again attempted to invade Canada.",
"Apart from minor raids, it has remained peaceful.",
"As Britain decided to disengage, fears of an American takeover played a role in the formation of the Dominion of Canada (1867), and Canada's rejection of free trade (1911).",
"Military collaboration was close during World War II and continued throughout the Cold War, bilaterally through NORAD and multilaterally through NATO.",
"A very high volume of trade and migration continues between the two nations, as well as a heavy overlapping of popular and elite culture, a dynamic which has generated closer ties, especially after the signing of the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement in 1988.",
"Canada and the United States are the world's largest trading partners.",
"The two nations have the world's longest shared border (), and also have significant interoperability within the defense sphere.",
"Recent difficulties have included repeated trade disputes, environmental concerns, Canadian concern for the future of oil exports, and issues of illegal immigration and the threat of terrorism.",
"Trade has continued to expand, especially following the 1988 FTA and North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994 which has further merged the two economies.",
"Co-operation on many fronts, such as the ease of the flow of goods, services, and people across borders are to be even more extended, as well as the establishment of joint border inspection agencies, relocation of U.S. food inspectors agents to Canadian plants and vice versa, greater sharing of intelligence, and harmonizing regulations on everything from food to manufactured goods, thus further increasing the American-Canadian assemblage.",
"The foreign policies of the neighbours have been closely aligned since the Cold War.",
"Canada has disagreed with American policies regarding the Vietnam War, the status of Cuba, the Iraq War, Missile Defense, and the War on Terror.",
"A diplomatic debate has been underway in recent years on whether the Northwest Passage is in international waters or under Canadian sovereignty.",
"Today there are close cultural ties, many similar and identical traits and according to Gallup's annual public opinion polls, Canada has consistently been Americans' favorite nation, with 96% of Americans viewing Canada favorably in 2012.",
"According to a 2013 BBC World Service Poll, 84% of Americans view their northern neighbor's influence positively, with only 5% expressing a negative view, the most favorable perception of Canada in the world.",
"As of spring 2013, 64% of Canadians had a favorable view of the U.S. and 81% expressed confidence in then-US President Obama to do the right thing in international matters.",
"According to the same poll, 30% viewed the U.S. negatively.",
"Also, according to a 2014 BBC World Service Poll, 86% of Americans view Canada's influence positively, with only 5% expressing a negative view.",
"However, according to the same poll, 43% of Canadians view U.S. influence positively, with 52% expressing a negative view.",
"In addition, according to Spring 2017 Global Attitudes Survey, 43% of Canadians view U.S. positively, while 51% hold a negative view.",
"{| class=\"wikitable\"\n\n\n '''United States of America'''''''''\n '''Canada'''\n\n '''Flag'''\n \n \n\n '''Populations'''\n 325,090,579 (March 2017) (3rd)\n 35,151,728 (2016 census) (38th)\n\n '''Area'''\n 9,833,634 km2 (3,796,787 sq mi)\n 9,984,670 km2 (3,855,103 sq mi)\n\n '''Population density'''\n 35/km2 (87.4/sq mi)\n 3.41/km2 (8.3/sq mi)\n\n '''Time zones'''\n 9\n 6\n\n '''Capital'''\n Washington, D.C.\n Ottawa\n\n '''Largest cities'''\n New York CityLos AngelesChicagoHouston\n TorontoMontrealVancouverCalgary\n\n '''Government'''\n Federal presidentialconstitutional republic\n Federal parliamentary democraticconstitutional monarchy\n\n '''First leader'''\n George Washington\n Sir John A. Macdonald\n\n '''Current leader(s)'''\n President Donald Trump\n\n* Queen Elizabeth II (head of state)Represented by Governor General David Johnston\n* Prime Minister Justin Trudeau (head of government)\n\n '''Ruling political party'''\n Republican Party\n Liberal Party\n\n '''Official languages'''\n None at federal level, but English ''de facto''\n English and French\n\n '''Main religions'''\n 70.6% Christianity, 22.8% non-Religious, 1.9% Judaism, 0.9% Islam, 0.7% Buddhism, 0.7% Hinduism\n 67.3% Christianity, 23.9% Unaffiliated, 3.2% Islam, 1.5% Hinduism, 1.4% Sikhism, 1.1% Buddhism, 1.0% Judaism\n\n '''Human Development Index (2015)'''\n 0.920 (very high)\n 0.920 (very high)\n\n '''GDP (nominal) (2014)'''\n $17.416 trillion ($54,390 per capita)\n $1.793 trillion ($50,577 per capita)\n\n '''GDP (PPP) (2014)'''\n $17.416 trillion ($54,390 per capita)\n $1.578 trillion ($44,519 per capita)\n\n '''Military expenditures(2015)'''\n $596 billion (3.3% of GDP)\n $15 billion (1.0% of GDP)\n\n\nLeaders of Canada and the United States from 1950\n\n\nImageSize = width:800 height:auto barincrement:70\nPlotArea = left:80 right:15 bottom:80 top:5\n\nDateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy\nDefine $start = 01/01/1950\nDefine $end = 31/12/2017\nPeriod = from:$start till:$end\nTimeAxis = orientation:horizontal\nScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:01/01/1955\nScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:01/01/1950\nLegend = orientation:horizontal position:bottom\nColors =\n id:lib value:coral legend:Liberals_(Canada)\n id:con value:blue legend:Conservatives_(Canada)\n id:dem value:skyblue legend:Democratic_Party_(United_States)\n id:gop value:pink legend:Republican_Party_(United_States)\n\nBarData =\n bar:ca text:Canada\n bar:us text:United States\n\nPlotData=\n align:center mark:(line,black)\n bar:ca\n from: 04/11/2015 till: $end color:lib text:\"J.Trudeau\n from: 06/02/2006 till: 04/11/2015 color:con text:\"Harper\n from: 12/12/2003 till: 06/02/2006 color:lib text:\"Martin\n from: 04/11/1993 till: 12/12/2003 color:lib text:\"Chretien\n from: 25/06/1993 till: 04/11/1993 color:con text:\"C.\n from: 17/09/1984 till: 25/06/1993 color:con text:\"Mulroney\n from: 30/06/1984 till: 17/09/1984 color:lib text:\"T.\n from: 03/03/1980 till: 30/06/1984 color:lib text:\"P.Trudeau\n from: 04/06/1979 till: 03/03/1980 color:con text:\"Clark\n from: 20/04/1968 till: 03/06/1979 color:lib text:\"P.Trudeau\n from: 22/04/1963 till: 20/04/1968 color:lib text:\"Pearson\n from: 21/06/1957 till: 22/04/1963 color:con text:\"Diefenbaker\n from: $start till: 21/06/1957 color:lib text:\"Laurent\n\n bar:us\n from: 20/01/2017 till: $end color:gop text:\"Trump\"\n from: 20/01/2009 till: 20/01/2017 color:dem text:\"Obama\"\n from: 20/01/2001 till: 20/01/2009 color:gop text:\"G.W.Bush\"\n from: 20/01/1993 till: 20/01/2001 color:dem text:\"Clinton\"\n from: 20/01/1989 till: 20/01/1993 color:gop text:\"G.H.W.Bush\"\n from: 20/01/1981 till: 20/01/1989 color:gop text:\"Reagan\"\n from: 20/01/1977 till: 20/01/1981 color:dem text:\"Carter\"\n from: 09/08/1974 till: 20/01/1977 color:gop text:\"Ford\"\n from: 20/01/1969 till: 09/08/1974 color:gop text:\"Nixon\"\n from: 22/11/1963 till: 20/01/1969 color:dem text:\"Johnson\"\n from: 20/01/1961 till: 22/11/1963 color:dem text:\"Kennedy\"\n from: 20/01/1953 till: 20/01/1961 color:gop text:\"Eisenhower\"\n from: $Start till: 20/01/1953 color:dem text:\"Truman\"",
"\n===Colonial wars===\nBefore the British conquest of French Canada in 1760, there had been a series of wars between the British and the French which were fought out in the colonies as well as in Europe and the high seas.",
"In general, the British heavily relied on American colonial militia units, while the French heavily relied on their First Nation allies.",
"The Iroquois Nation were important allies of the British.",
"Much of the fighting involved ambushes and small-scale warfare in the villages along the border between New England and Quebec.",
"The New England colonies had a much larger population than Quebec, so major invasions came from south to north.",
"The First Nation allies, only loosely controlled by the French, repeatedly raided New England villages to kidnap women and children, and torture and kill the men.",
"Those who survived were brought up as Francophone Catholics.",
"The tension along the border was exacerbated by religion, the French Catholics and English Protestants had a deep mutual distrust.",
"There was a naval dimension as well, involving privateers attacking enemy merchant ships.",
"England seized Quebec from 1629 to 1632, and Acadia in 1613 and again from 1654 to 1670; These territories were returned to France by the peace treaties.",
"The major wars were (to use American names), King William's War (1689–1697); Queen Anne's War (1702–1713); King George's War (1744–1748), and the French and Indian War (1755–1763).",
"In Canada, as in Europe, this era is known as the Seven Years' War.",
"New England soldiers and sailors were critical to the successful British campaign to capture the French fortress of Louisbourg in 1745, and (after it had been returned by treaty) to capture it again in 1758.",
"===Mingling of peoples===\nFrom the 1750s to the 21st century, there has been extensive mingling of the Canadian and American populations, with large movements in both directions.",
"New England Yankees settled large parts of Nova Scotia before 1775, and were neutral during the American Revolution.",
"At the end of the Revolution, about 75,000 Loyalists moved out of the new United States to Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the lands of Quebec, east and south of Montreal.",
"From 1790 to 1812 many farmers moved from New York and New England into Ontario (mostly to Niagara, and the north shore of Lake Ontario).",
"In the mid and late 19th century gold rushes attracted American prospectors, mostly to British Columbia after the Cariboo Gold Rush, Fraser Canyon Gold Rush, and later to the Yukon.",
"In the early 20th century, the opening of land blocks in the Prairie Provinces attracted many farmers from the American Midwest.",
"Many Mennonites immigrated from Pennsylvania and formed their own colonies.",
"In the 1890s some Mormons went north to form communities in Alberta after The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints rejected plural marriage.",
"The 1960s saw the arrival of about 50,000 draft-dodgers who opposed the Vietnam War.",
"In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, about 900,000 French Canadians moved to the U.S., with 395,000 residents there in 1900.",
"Two-thirds went to mill towns in New England, where they formed distinctive ethnic communities.",
"By the late 20th century, they had abandoned the French language, but most kept the Catholic religion.",
"About twice as many English Canadians came to the U.S., but they did not form distinctive ethnic settlements.",
"Canada was a way-station through which immigrants from other lands stopped for a while, ultimately heading to the U.S.",
"In 1851–1951, 7.1 million people arrived in Canada (mostly from Continental Europe), and 6.6 million left Canada, most of them to the U.S.\n\n===American Revolutionary War===\nAt the outset of the American Revolutionary War, the American revolutionaries hoped the French Canadians in Quebec and the Colonists in Nova Scotia would join their rebellion and they were pre-approved for joining the United States in the Articles of Confederation.",
"When Canada was invaded, thousands joined the American cause and formed regiments that fought during the war; however most remained neutral and some joined the British effort.",
"Britain advised the French Canadians that the British Empire already enshrined their rights in the Quebec Act, which the American colonies had viewed as one of the Intolerable Acts.",
"The American invasion was a fiasco and Britain tightened its grip on its northern possessions; in 1777, a major British invasion into New York led to the surrender of the entire British army at Saratoga, and led France to enter the war as an ally of the U.S.",
"The French Canadians largely ignored France's appeals for solidarity.",
"After the war Canada became a refuge for about 75,000 Loyalists who either wanted to leave the U.S., or were compelled by Patriot reprisals to do so.",
"Among the original Loyalists there were 3,500 free blacks.",
"Most went to Nova Scotia and in 1792, 1200 migrated to Sierra Leone.",
"About 2000 black slaves were brought in by Loyalist owners; they remained slaves in Canada until the Empire abolished slavery in 1833.",
"Before 1860, about 30,000–40,000 blacks entered Canada; many were already free and others were escaped slaves who came through the Underground Railroad.",
"===War of 1812===\n\nThe Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war, called for British forces to vacate all their forts south of the Great Lakes border.",
"Britain refused to do so, citing failure of the United States to provide financial restitution for Loyalists who had lost property in the war.",
"The Jay Treaty in 1795 with Great Britain resolved that lingering issue and the British departed the forts.",
"Thomas Jefferson saw the nearby British imperial presence as a threat to the United States, and so he opposed the Jay Treaty, and it became one of the major political issues in the United States at the time.",
"Thousands of Americans immigrated to Upper Canada (Ontario) from 1785 to 1812 to obtain cheaper land and better tax rates prevalent in that province; despite expectations that they would be loyal to the U.S. if a war broke out, in the event they were largely non-political.",
"Tensions mounted again after 1805, erupting into the War of 1812, when the Americans declared war on Britain.",
"The Americans were angered by British harassment of U.S. ships on the high seas and seizure (\"Impressment\") of 6,000 sailors from American ships, severe restrictions against neutral American trade with France, and British support for hostile Indian tribes in Ohio and territories the U.S. had gained in 1783.",
"American \"honor\" was an implicit issue.",
"The Americans were outgunned by more than 10 to 1 by the Royal Navy, but could call on an army much larger than the British garrison in Canada, and so a land invasion of Canada was proposed as the only feasible, and most advantegous means of attacking the British Empire.",
"Americans on the western frontier also hoped an invasion would bring an end to British support of Native American resistance to the westward expansion of the United States, typified by Tecumseh's coalition of tribes.",
"Americans may also have wanted to annex Canada.",
"Once war broke out, the American strategy was to seize Canada—perhaps as a means of forcing concessions from the British Empire, or perhaps in order to annex it.",
"There was some hope that settlers in western Canada—most of them recent immigrants from the U.S.—would welcome the chance to overthrow their British rulers.",
"However, the American invasions were defeated primarily by British regulars with support from Native Americans and Upper Canada (Ontario) militia.",
"Aided by the powerful Royal Navy, a series of British raids on the American coast were highly successful, culminating with an attack on Washington that resulted in the British burning of the White House, Capitol, and other public buildings.",
"Major British invasions of New York in 1814 and Louisiana in 1814–15 were fiascoes, with the British retreating from New York and decisively defeated at the Battle of New Orleans.",
"At the end of the war, Britain's American Indian allies had largely been defeated, and the Americans controlled a strip of Western Ontario centered on Fort Malden.",
"However, Britain held much of Maine, and, with the support of their remaining American Indian allies, huge areas of the Old Northwest, including Wisconsin and much of Michigan and Illinois.",
"With the surrender of Napoleon in 1814, Britain ended naval policies that angered Americans; with the defeat of the Indian tribes the threat to American expansion was ended.",
"The upshot was both sides had asserted their honour, Canada was not annexed, and London and Washington had nothing more to fight over.",
"The war was ended by the Treaty of Ghent, which took effect in February 1815.",
"A series of postwar agreements further stabilized peaceful relations along the Canadian-US border.",
"Canada reduced American immigration for fear of undue American influence, and built up the Anglican church as a counterweight to the largely American Methodist and Baptist churches.",
"In later years, Anglophone Canadians, especially in Ontario, viewed the War of 1812 as a heroic and successful resistance against invasion and as a victory that defined them as a people.",
"The myth that the Canadian militia had defeated the invasion almost single-handed, known logically as the \"militia myth\", became highly prevalent after the war, having been propounded by John Strachan, Anglican Bishop of York.",
"Meanwhile, the United States celebrated victory in its \"Second War of Independence,\" and war heroes such as Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison headed to the White House.",
"===Conservative reaction===\nIn the aftermath of the War of 1812, pro-imperial conservatives led by Anglican Bishop John Strachan took control in Ontario (\"Upper Canada\"), and promoted the Anglican religion as opposed to the more republican Methodist and Baptist churches.",
"A small interlocking elite, known as the Family Compact took full political control.",
"Democracy, as practiced in the US, was ridiculed.",
"The policies had the desired effect of deterring immigration from United States.",
"Revolts in favor of democracy in Ontario and Quebec (\"Lower Canada\") in 1837 were suppressed; many of the leaders fled to the US.",
"The American policy was to largely ignore the rebellions, and indeed ignore Canada generally in favor of westward expansion of the American Frontier.",
"===Alabama claims===\nAn editorial cartoon on Canada–United States relations, 1886.",
"It reads: Mrs. Britannia.—\"Is it possible, my dear, that you have ever given your cousin Jonathan any encouragement?\"",
"Miss Canada.—\"Encouragement!",
"Certainly not, Mamma.",
"I have told him that we can never be united.\"",
"At the end of the American Civil War in 1865, Americans were angry at British support for the Confederacy.",
"One result was toleration of Fenian efforts to use the U.S. as a base to attack Canada.",
"More serious was the demand for a huge payment to cover the damages caused, on the notion that British involvement had lengthened the war.",
"Senator Charles Sumner, the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, originally wanted to ask for $2 billion, or alternatively the ceding of all of Canada to the United States.",
"When American Secretary of State William H. Seward negotiated the Alaska Purchase with Russia in 1867, he intended it as the first step in a comprehensive plan to gain control of the entire northwest Pacific Coast.",
"Seward was a firm believer in Manifest Destiny, primarily for its commercial advantages to the U.S. Seward expected British Columbia to seek annexation to the U.S. and thought Britain might accept this in exchange for the ''Alabama'' claims.",
"Soon other elements endorsed annexation, Their plan was to annex British Columbia, Red River Colony (Manitoba), and Nova Scotia, in exchange for the dropping the damage claims.",
"The idea reached a peak in the spring and summer of 1870, with American expansionists, Canadian separatists, and British anti-imperialists seemingly combining forces.",
"The plan was dropped for multiple reasons.",
"London continued to stall, American commercial and financial groups pressed Washington for a quick settlement of the dispute on a cash basis, growing Canadian nationalist sentiment in British Columbia called for staying inside the British Empire, Congress became preoccupied with Reconstruction, and most Americans showed little interest in territorial expansion.",
"The \"Alabama Claims\" dispute went to international arbitration.",
"In one of the first major cases of arbitration, the tribunal in 1872 supported the American claims and ordered Britain to pay $15.5 million.",
"Britain paid and the episode ended in peaceful relations.",
"===Dominion of Canada===\nCanada became a self-governing dominion in 1867 in internal affairs while Britain controlled diplomacy and defense policy.",
"Prior to Confederation, there was an Oregon boundary dispute in which the Americans claimed the 54th degree latitude.",
"That issue was resolved by splitting the disputed territory; the northern half became British Columbia, and the southern half the states of Washington and Oregon.",
"Strained relations with America continued, however, due to a series of small-scale armed incursions named the Fenian raids by Irish-American Civil War veterans across the border from 1866 to 1871 in an attempt to trade Canada for Irish independence.",
"The American government, angry at Canadian tolerance of Confederate raiders during the American Civil War, moved very slowly to disarm the Fenians.",
"The British government, in charge of diplomatic relations, protested cautiously, as Anglo-American relations were tense.",
"Much of the tension was relieved as the Fenians faded away and in 1872 by the settlement of the Alabama Claims, when Britain paid the U.S. $15.5 million for war losses caused by warships built in Britain and sold to the Confederacy.",
"===Emigration to and from the United States===\n\nAfter 1850, the pace of industrialization and urbanization was much faster in the United States, drawing a wide range of immigrants from the North.",
"By 1870, 1/6 of all the people born in Canada had moved to the United States, with the highest concentrations in New England, which was the destination of Francophone emigrants from Quebec and Anglophone emigrants from the Maritimes.",
"It was common for people to move back and forth across the border, such as seasonal lumberjacks, entrepreneurs looking for larger markets, and families looking for jobs in the textile mills that paid much higher wages than in Canada.",
"The southward migration slacked off after 1890, as Canadian industry began a growth spurt.",
"By then, the American frontier was closing, and thousands of farmers looking for fresh land moved from the United States north into the Prairie Provinces.",
"The net result of the flows were that in 1901 there were 128,000 American-born residents in Canada (3.5% of the Canadian population) and 1.18 million Canadian-born residents in the United States (1.6% of the U.S. population).",
"===Alaska boundary===\nA short-lived controversy was the Alaska boundary dispute, settled in favor of the United States in 1903.",
"No one cared until a gold rush brought tens of thousands of men to Canada's Yukon, and they had to arrive through American ports.",
"Canada needed its port and claimed that it had a legal right to a port near the present American town of Haines, Alaska.",
"It would provide an all-Canadian route to the rich goldfields.",
"The dispute was settled by arbitration, and the British delegate voted with the Americans—to the astonishment and disgust of Canadians who suddenly realized that Britain considered its relations with the United States paramount compared to those with Canada.",
"The arbitrartion validated the status quo, but made Canada angry at Britain.",
"1907 saw a minor controversy over USS ''Nashville'' sailing into the Great Lakes via Canada without Canadian permission.",
"To head off future embarrassments, in 1909 the two sides signed the International Boundary Waters Treaty and the International Joint Commission was established to manage the Great Lakes and keep them disarmed.",
"It was amended in World War II to allow the building and training of warships.",
"===Reciprocal trade with U.S.===\nA 1911 Conservative campaign poster warns that the big American companies (\"trusts\") will hog all the benefits of reciprocity as proposed by Liberals, leaving little left over for Canadian interests\nAnti-Americanism reached a shrill peak in 1911 in Canada.",
"The Liberal government in 1911 negotiated a Reciprocity treaty with the U.S. that would lower trade barriers.",
"Canadian manufacturing interests were alarmed that free trade would allow the bigger and more efficient American factories to take their markets.",
"The Conservatives made it a central campaign issue in the 1911 election, warning that it would be a \"sell out\" to the United States with economic annexation a special danger.",
"Conservative slogan was \"No truck or trade with the Yankees\", as they appealed to Canadian nationalism and nostalgia for the British Empire to win a major victory.",
"===Canadian autonomy===\nCanada demanded and received permission from London to send its own delegation to the Versailles Peace Talks in 1919, with the proviso that it sign the treaty under the British Empire.",
"Canada subsequently took responsibility for its own foreign and military affairs in the 1920s.",
"Its first ambassador to the United States, Vincent Massey, was named in 1927.",
"The United States first ambassador to Canada was William Phillips.",
"Canada became an active member of the British Commonwealth, the League of Nations, and the World Court, none of which included the U.S.",
"In July 1923, as part of his Pacific Northwest tour and a week before his death, US President Warren Harding visited Vancouver, making him the first head of state of the United States to visit Canada.",
"The then Premier of British Columbia, John Oliver, and then mayor of Vancouver, Charles Tisdall, hosted a lunch in his honor at the Hotel Vancouver.",
"Over 50,000 people heard Harding speak in Stanley Park.",
"A monument to Harding designed by Charles Marega was unveiled in Stanley Park in 1925.",
"Relations with the United States were cordial until 1930, when Canada vehemently protested the new Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act by which the U.S. raised tariffs (taxes) on products imported from Canada.",
"Canada retaliated with higher tariffs of its own against American products, and moved toward more trade within the British Commonwealth.",
"U.S.–Canadian trade fell 75% as the Great Depression dragged both countries down.",
"Down to the 1920s the war and naval departments of both nations designed hypothetical war game scenarios with the other as an enemy.",
"These were primarily exercises; the departments were never told to get ready for a real war.",
"In 1921, Canada developed Defence Scheme No.",
"1 for an attack on American cities and for forestalling invasion by the United States until Imperial reinforcements arrived.",
"Through the later 1920s and 1930s, the United States Army War College developed a plan for a war with the British Empire waged largely on North American territory, in War Plan Red.",
"Herbert Hoover meeting in 1927 with British Ambassador Sir Esme Howard agreed on the \"absurdity of contemplating the possibility of war between the United States and the British Empire.\"",
"In 1938, as the roots of World War II were set in motion, U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt gave a public speech at Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, declaring that the United States would not sit idly by if another power tried to dominate Canada.",
"Diplomats saw it as a clear warning to Germany not to attack Canada.",
"===World War II===\nMountie and a Vermont State Trooper on their respective sides of the Canada–United States (Quebec–Vermont) border in 1941\nThe two nations cooperated closely in World War II, as both nations saw new levels of prosperity and a determination to defeat the Axis powers.",
"Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King and President Franklin D. Roosevelt were determined not to repeat the mistakes of their predecessors.",
"They met in August 1940 at Ogdensburg, issuing a declaration calling for close cooperation, and formed the Permanent Joint Board on Defense (PJBD).",
"King sought to raise Canada's international visibility by hosting the August 1943 Quadrant conference in Quebec on military and political strategy; he was a gracious host but was kept out of the important meetings by Winston Churchill and Roosevelt.",
"Canada allowed the construction of the Alaska Highway and participated in the building of the atomic bomb.",
"49,000 Americans joined the RCAF (Canadian) or RAF (British) air forces through the Clayton Knight Committee, which had Roosevelt's permission to recruit in the U.S. in 1940–42.",
"American attempts in the mid-1930s to integrate British Columbia into a united West Coast military command had aroused Canadian opposition.",
"Fearing a Japanese invasion of Canada's vulnerable coast, American officials urged the creation of a united military command for an eastern Pacific Ocean theater of war.",
"Canadian leaders feared American imperialism and the loss of autonomy more than a Japanese invasion.",
"In 1941, Canadians successfully argued within the PJBD for mutual cooperation rather than unified command for the West Coast.",
"====Newfoundland====\nThe United States built large military bases in Newfoundland, at the time, a British dominion.",
"The American involvement ended the depression and brought new prosperity; Newfoundland's business community sought closer ties with the United States as expressed by the Economic Union Party.",
"Ottawa took notice and wanted Newfoundland to join Canada, which it did after hotly contested referenda.",
"There was little demand in the United States for the acquisition of Newfoundland, so the United States did not protest the British decision not to allow an American option on the Newfoundland referendum.",
"===Cold War===\nFollowing co-operation in the two World Wars, Canada and the United States lost much of their previous animosity.",
"As Britain's influence as a global imperial power declined, Canada and the United States became extremely close partners.",
"Canada was a close ally of the United States during the Cold War.",
"===Nixon Shock 1971===\naddresses a joint session of the Parliament of Canada, 1972\nThe United States had become Canada's largest market, and after the war the Canadian economy became dependent on smooth trade flows with the United States so much that in 1971 when the United States enacted the \"Nixon Shock\" economic policies (including a 10% tariff on all imports) it put the Canadian government into a panic.",
"This led in a large part to the articulation of Prime Minister Trudeau's \"Third Option\" policy of diversifying Canada's trade and downgrading the importance of Canada – United States relations.",
"In a 1972 speech in Ottawa, Nixon declared the \"special relationship\" between Canada and the United States dead.",
"===1990s===\nThe main issues in Canada–U.S.",
"relations in the 1990s focused on the NAFTA agreement, which was signed in 1994.",
"It created a common market that by 2014 was worth $19 trillion, encompassed 470 million people, and had created millions of jobs.",
"Wilson says, \"Few dispute that NAFTA has produced\nlarge and measurable gains for Canadian consumers, workers, and businesses.\"",
"However, he adds, \"NAFTA has fallen well short of expectations.\"",
"\nSince the arrival of the Loyalists as refugees from the American Revolution in the 1780s, historians have identified a constant theme of Canadian fear of the United States and of \"Americanization\" or a cultural takeover.",
"In the War of 1812, for example, the enthusiastic response by French militia to defend Lower Canada reflected, according to Heidler and Heidler (2004), \"the fear of Americanization.\"",
"Scholars have traced this attitude over time in Ontario and Quebec.",
"Canadian intellectuals who wrote about the U.S. in the first half of the 20th century identified America as the world center of modernity, and deplored it.",
"Imperialists (who admired the British Empire) explained that Canadians had narrowly escaped American conquest with its rejection of tradition, its worship of \"progress\" and technology, and its mass culture; they explained that Canada was much better because of its commitment to orderly government and societal harmony.",
"There were a few ardent defenders of the nation to the south, notably liberal and socialist intellectuals such as F. R. Scott and Jean-Charles Harvey (1891–1967).",
"Looking at television, Collins (1990) finds that it is in English Canada that fear of cultural Americanization is most powerful, for there the attractions of the U.S. are strongest.",
"Meren (2009) argues that after 1945, the emergence of Quebec nationalism and the desire to preserve French-Canadian cultural heritage led to growing anxiety regarding American cultural imperialism and Americanization.",
"In 2006 surveys showed that 60 percent of Quebecers had a fear of Americanization, while other surveys showed they preferred their current situation to that of the Americans in the realms of health care, quality of life as seniors, environmental quality, poverty, educational system, racism and standard of living.",
"While agreeing that job opportunities are greater in America, 89 percent disagreed with the notion that they would rather be in the United States, and they were more likely to feel closer to English Canadians than to Americans.",
"However, there is evidence that the elites and Quebec are much less fearful of Americanization, and much more open to economic integration than the general public.",
"The history has been traced in detail by a leading Canadian historian J.L.",
"Granatstein in ''Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism'' (1997).",
"Current studies report the phenomenon persists.",
"Two scholars report, \"Anti-Americanism is alive and well in Canada today, strengthened by, among other things, disputes related to NAFTA, American involvement in the Middle East, and the ever-increasing Americanization of Canadian culture.\"",
"Jamie Glazov writes, \"More than anything else, Diefenbaker became the tragic victim of Canadian anti-Americanism, a sentiment the prime minister had fully embraced by 1962.",
"He was unable to imagine himself (or his foreign policy) without enemies.\"",
"Historian J. M. Bumsted says, \"In its most extreme form, Canadian suspicion of the United States has led to outbreaks of overt anti-Americanism, usually spilling over against American residents in Canada.\"",
"John R. Wennersten writes, \"But at the heart of Canadian anti-Americanism lies a cultural bitterness that takes an American expatriate unaware.",
"Canadians fear the American media's influence on their culture and talk critically about how Americans are exporting a culture of violence in its television programming and movies.\"",
"However Kim Nossal points out that the Canadian variety is much milder than anti-Americanism in some other countries.",
"By contrast Americans show very little knowledge or interest one way or the other regarding Canadian affairs.",
"Canadian historian Frank Underhill, quoting Canadian playwright Merrill Denison summed it up: \"Americans are benevolently ignorant about Canada, whereas Canadians are malevolently informed about the United States.\"",
"The executive of each country is represented differently.",
"The President of the United States serves as both the head of state and head of government, and his \"administration\" is the executive, while the Prime Minister of Canada is head of government only, and his or her \"government\" or \"ministry\" directs the executive.",
"===W.L.",
"Mackenzie King and Franklin D. Roosevelt (October 1935 – April 1945)===\n\n\n===W.L.",
"Mackenzie King and Harry S. Truman (April 1945 – November 1948)===\n\n\n===Louis St. Laurent and Harry S. Truman (November 1948 – January 1953)===\n\n\n===Louis St. Laurent and Dwight D. Eisenhower (January 1953 – June 1957)===\n\n\n===John G. Diefenbaker and Dwight D. Eisenhower (June 1957 – January 1961)===\n\n\n===John G. Diefenbaker and John F. Kennedy (January 1961 – April 1963)===\n\n\n===Lester B. Pearson and John F. Kennedy (April–November 1963)===\n\n\n===Lester B. Pearson and Lyndon B. Johnson (November 1963 – April 1968)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Lyndon B. Johnson (April 1968 – January 1969)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Richard Nixon (January 1969 – August 1974)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Gerald Ford (August 1974 – January 1977)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Jimmy Carter (January 1977 – June 1979)===\n\n\n===Joe Clark and Jimmy Carter (June 1979 – March 1980)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Jimmy Carter (March 1980 – January 1981)===\n\n\n===Pierre Trudeau and Ronald Reagan (January 1981 – June 1984)===\n\n\n===John Turner and Ronald Reagan (June–September 1984)===\n\n\n===Brian Mulroney and Ronald Reagan (September 1984 – January 1989)===\nRonald Reagan (left) and Brian Mulroney (right) at the Hotel Cipriani in Venice, Italy, June 11, 1987\nRelations between Brian Mulroney and Ronald Reagan were famously close.",
"This relationship resulted in negotiations for the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement, and the U.S.–Canada Air Quality Agreement to reduce acid-rain-causing emissions, both major policy goals of Mulroney, that would be finalized under the presidency of George H. W. Bush.",
"===Brian Mulroney and George H. W. Bush (January 1989 – January 1993)===\n\n\n===Brian Mulroney and Bill Clinton (January–June 1993)===\n\n\n===Kim Campbell and Bill Clinton (June–November 1993)===\n\n\n===Jean Chrétien and Bill Clinton (November 1993 – January 2001)===\nAlthough Jean Chrétien was wary of appearing too close to the President, personally, he and Bill Clinton were known to be golfing partners.",
"Their governments had many small trade quarrels over the Canadian content of American magazines, softwood lumber, and so on, but on the whole were quite friendly.",
"Both leaders had run on reforming or abolishing NAFTA, but the agreement went ahead with the addition of environmental and labor side agreements.",
"Crucially, the Clinton administration lent rhetorical support to Canadian unity during the 1995 referendum in Quebec on separation from Canada.",
"===Jean Chrétien and George W. Bush (January 2001 – December 2003)===\nRelations between Chrétien and George W. Bush were strained throughout their overlapping times in office.",
"After the September 11 attacks terror attacks, Jean Chrétien publicly mused that U.S. foreign policy might be part of the \"root causes\" of terrorism.",
"Some Americans criticized his \"smug moralism\", and Chrétien's public refusal to support the 2003 Iraq war was met drew responses in the United States, especially among conservatives.",
"===Paul Martin and George W. Bush (December 2003 – February 2006)===\n\n\n===Stephen Harper and George W. Bush (February 2006 – January 2009)===\nPrime Minister Stephen Harper (left) and President George W. Bush (right) meet in Washington in July 2006\nStephen Harper and George W. Bush were thought to share warm personal relations and also close ties between their administrations.",
"Because Bush was so unpopular among liberals in Canada (particularly in the media), this was underplayed by the Harper government.",
"Shortly after being congratulated by Bush for his victory in February 2006, Harper rebuked U.S. ambassador to Canada David Wilkins for criticizing the Conservatives' plans to assert Canada's sovereignty over the Arctic Ocean waters with military force.",
"===Stephen Harper and Barack Obama (January 2009 – November 2015)===\nBarack Obama boards Air Force One in Ottawa 2-19-09\nPresident Barack Obama's first international trip was to Canada on February 19, 2009, thereby sending a strong message of peace and cooperation.",
"With the exception of Canadian lobbying against \"Buy American\" provisions in the U.S. stimulus package, relations between the two administrations were smooth.",
"They also held friendly bets on hockey games during the Winter Olympic season.",
"In the 2010 Winter Olympics hosted by Canada in Vancouver, Canada defeated the US in both gold medal matches, entitling Stephen Harper to receive a case of Molson Canadian beer from Barack Obama; in reverse, if Canada had lost, Harper would have provided a case of Yuengling beer to Obama.",
"During the 2014 Winter Olympics, alongside U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry & Minister of Foreign Affairs John Baird, Stephen Harper was given a case of Samuel Adams beer by Obama for the Canadian gold medal victory over the US in women's hockey, and the semi-final victory over the US in men's hockey.",
"====Canada-United States Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) (2011)====\nOn February 4, 2011, Harper and Obama issued a \"Declaration on a Shared Vision for Perimeter Security and Economic Competitiveness\" and announced the creation of the Canada–United States Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) \"to increase regulatory transparency and coordination between the two countries.\"",
"Health Canada and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under the RCC mandate, undertook the \"first of its kind\" initiative by selecting \"as its first area of alignment common cold indications for certain over-the-counter antihistamine ingredients (GC 2013-01-10).\"",
"On December 7, 2011, Harper flew to Washington, met with Obama and signed an agreement to implement the joint action plans that had been developed since the initial meeting in February.",
"The plans called on both countries to spend more on border infrastructure, share more information on people who cross the border, and acknowledge more of each other's safety and security inspection on third-country traffic.",
"An editorial in ''The Globe and Mail'' praised the agreement for giving Canada the ability to track whether failed refugee claimants have left Canada via the U.S. and for eliminating \"duplicated baggage screenings on connecting flights\".",
"The agreement is not a legally binding treaty, and relies on the political will and ability of the executives of both governments to implement the terms of the agreement.",
"These types of executive agreements are routine—on both sides of the Canada–U.S.",
"border.",
"===Justin Trudeau and Barack Obama (November 2015 – January 2017)===\nPrime Minister Justin Trudeau (left) and President Barack Obama (right) meet in Washington in March 2016\nPresident Barack Obama and Prime Minister Justin Trudeau first met formally at the APEC summit meeting in Manila, Philippines in November 2015, nearly a week after the latter was sworn into the office.",
"Both leaders expressed eagerness for increased cooperation and coordination between the two countries during the course of Trudeau's government with Trudeau promising an \"enhanced Canada–U.S.",
"partnership\".",
"On November 6, 2015, Obama announced the U.S. State Department's rejection of the proposed Keystone XL pipeline, the fourth phase of the Keystone oil pipeline system running between Canada and the United States, to which Trudeau expressed disappointment but said that the rejection would not damage Canada–U.S.",
"relations and would instead provide a \"fresh start\" to strengthening ties through cooperation and coordination, saying that \"the Canada–U.S.",
"relationship is much bigger than any one project.\"",
"Obama has since praised Trudeau's efforts to prioritize the reduction of climate change, calling it \"extraordinarily helpful\" to establish a worldwide consensus on addressing the issue.",
"Although Trudeau has told Obama his plans to withdraw Canada's McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet jets assisting in the American-led intervention against ISIL, Trudeau said that Canada will still \"do more than its part\" in combating the terrorist group by increasing the number of Canadian special forces members training and fighting on ground in Iraq and Syria.",
"Trudeau visited the White House for an official visit and state dinner on March 10, 2016.",
"Trudeau and Obama were reported to have shared warm personal relations during the visit, making humorous remarks about which country was better at hockey and which country had better beer.",
"Obama complimented Trudeau's 2015 election campaign for its \"message of hope and change\" and \"positive and optimistic vision\".",
"Obama and Trudeau also held \"productive\" discussions on climate change and relations between the two countries, and Trudeau invited Obama to speak in the Canadian parliament in Ottawa later in the year.",
"===Justin Trudeau and Donald Trump (January 2017–present)===\nFollowing the victory of Donald Trump in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, Trudeau congratulated him and invited him to visit Canada at the \"earliest opportunity.\"",
"Prime Minister Trudeau and President Trump formally met for the first time at the White House on February 13, 2017, nearly a month after Trump was sworn into the office.",
"Trump has ruffled relations with Canada with tariffs on softwood lumber.",
"Diafiltered Milk has also been brought up by Trump as an area that needs to be negotiated.",
"Trump is expected to renegotiate NAFTA with Canada.",
"North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), long headquartered in the Cheyenne Mountain Complex in Colorado, exemplifies military co-operation between Canada and the U.S.\nCanadian embassy in Washington saying \"Friends, Neighbours, Partners, Allies\"\nThe Canadian military, like forces of other NATO countries, fought alongside the United States in most major conflicts since World War II, including the Korean War, the Gulf War, the Kosovo War, and most recently the war in Afghanistan.",
"The main exceptions to this were the Canadian government's opposition to the Vietnam War and the Iraq War, which caused some brief diplomatic tensions.",
"Despite these issues, military relations have remained close.",
"American defense arrangements with Canada are more extensive than with any other country.",
"The Permanent Joint Board of Defense, established in 1940, provides policy-level consultation on bilateral defense matters.",
"The United States and Canada share North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) mutual security commitments.",
"In addition, American and Canadian military forces have cooperated since 1958 on continental air defense within the framework of the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD).",
"Canadian forces have provided indirect support for the American invasion of Iraq that began in 2003.",
"Moreover, interoperability with the American armed forces has been a guiding principle of Canadian military force structuring and doctrine since the end of the Cold War.",
"Canadian navy frigates, for instance, integrate seamlessly into American carrier battle groups.",
"In commemoration of the 200th Anniversary of the War of 1812 ambassadors from Canada and the US, and naval officers from both countries gathered at the Pritzker Military Library on August 17, 2012, for a panel discussion on Canada-US relations with emphasis on national security-related matters.",
"Also as part of the commemoration, the navies of both countries sailed together throughout the Great Lakes region.",
"===War in Afghanistan===\n\nCanada's elite JTF2 unit joined American special forces in Afghanistan shortly after the al-Qaida attacks on September 11, 2001.",
"Canadian forces joined the multinational coalition in Operation Anaconda in January 2002.",
"On April 18, 2002, an American pilot bombed Canadian forces involved in a training exercise, killing four and wounding eight Canadians.",
"A joint American-Canadian inquiry determined the cause of the incident to be pilot error, in which the pilot interpreted ground fire as an attack; the pilot ignored orders that he felt were \"second-guessing\" his field tactical decision.",
"Canadian forces assumed a six-month command rotation of the International Security Assistance Force in 2003; in 2005, Canadians assumed operational command of the multi-national Brigade in Kandahar, with 2,300 troops, and supervises the Provincial Reconstruction Team in Kandahar, where al-Qaida forces are most active.",
"Canada has also deployed naval forces in the Persian Gulf since 1991 in support of the UN Gulf Multinational Interdiction Force.",
"The Canadian Embassy in Washington, DC maintains a public relations website named CanadianAlly.com, which is intended \"to give American citizens a better sense of the scope of Canada's role in North American and Global Security and the War on Terror\".",
"The New Democratic Party and some recent Liberal leadership candidates have expressed opposition to Canada's expanded role in the Afghan conflict on the ground that it is inconsistent with Canada's historic role (since the Second World War) of peacekeeping operations.",
"===2003 Invasion of Iraq===\n\n\nAccording to contemporary polls, 71% of Canadians were opposed to the 2003 invasion of Iraq.",
"Many Canadians, and the former Liberal Cabinet headed by Paul Martin (as well as many Americans such as Bill Clinton and Barack Obama), made a policy distinction between conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq, unlike the Bush Doctrine, which linked these together in a \"Global war on terror\".",
"=== Responding to ISIS/Daesh ===\nCanada has been involved in international responses to the threats from Daesh/ISIS/ISIL in Syria and Iraq, and is a member of the Global Coalition to Counter Daesh.",
"In October 2016, Foreign Affairs Minister Dion and National Defence Minister Sajjan meet U.S. special envoy for this coalition.",
"The Americans thanked Canada \"for the role of Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) in providing training and assistance to Iraqi security forces, as well as the CAF's role in improving essential capacity-building capabilities with regional forces.\"",
"\nCanada and the United States have the world's largest trading relationship, with huge quantities of goods and people flowing across the border each year.",
"Since the 1987 Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement, there have been no tariffs on most goods passed between the two countries.",
"In the course of the softwood lumber dispute, the U.S. has placed tariffs on Canadian softwood lumber because of what it argues is an unfair Canadian government subsidy, a claim which Canada disputes.",
"The dispute has cycled through several agreements and arbitration cases.",
"Other notable disputes include the Canadian Wheat Board, and Canadian cultural \"restrictions\" on magazines and television (See CRTC, CBC, and National Film Board of Canada).",
"Canadians have been criticized about such things as the ban on beef since a case of Mad Cow disease was discovered in 2003 in cows from the United States (and a few subsequent cases) and the high American agricultural subsidies.",
"Concerns in Canada also run high over aspects of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) such as Chapter 11.",
"A Canadian BC Parks Ranger and a U.S. National Park Service Ranger work to remove a bear from a campground along the international boundary in British Columbia and Washington state\n\nA principal instrument of this cooperation is the International Joint Commission (IJC), established as part of the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909 to resolve differences and promote international cooperation on boundary waters.",
"The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1972 is another historic example of joint cooperation in controlling trans-border water pollution.",
"However, there have been some disputes.",
"Most recently, the Devil's Lake Outlet, a project instituted by North Dakota, has angered Manitobans who fear that their water may soon become polluted as a result of this project.",
"Beginning in 1986 the Canadian government of Brian Mulroney began pressing the Reagan administration for an \"Acid Rain Treaty\" in order to do something about U.S. industrial air pollution causing acid rain in Canada.",
"The Reagan administration was hesitant, and questioned the science behind Mulroney's claims.",
"However, Mulroney was able to prevail.",
"The product was the signing and ratification of the Air Quality Agreement of 1991 by the first Bush administration.",
"Under that treaty, the two governments consult semi-annually on trans-border air pollution, which has demonstrably reduced acid rain, and they have since signed an annex to the treaty dealing with ground level ozone in 2000.",
"Despite this, trans-border air pollution remains an issue, particularly in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence watershed during the summer.",
"The main source of this trans-border pollution results from coal-fired power stations, most of them located in the Midwestern United States.",
"As part of the negotiations to create NAFTA, Canada and the U.S. signed, along with Mexico, the North American Agreement On Environmental Cooperation which created the Commission for Environmental Cooperation which monitors environmental issues across the continent, publishing the North American Environmental Atlas as one aspect of its monitoring duties.",
"Currently neither of the countries' governments support the Kyoto Protocol, which set out time scheduled curbing of greenhouse gas emissions.",
"Unlike the United States, Canada has ratified the agreement.",
"Yet after ratification, due to internal political conflict within Canada, the Canadian government does not enforce the Kyoto Protocol, and has received criticism from environmental groups and from other governments for its climate change positions.",
"In January 2011, the Canadian minister of the environment, Peter Kent, explicitly stated that the policy of his government with regards to greenhouse gas emissions reductions is to wait for the United States to act first, and then try to harmonize with that action – a position that has been condemned by environmentalists and Canadian nationalists, and as well as scientists and government think-tanks.",
"===Newfoundland fisheries dispute===\nThe United States and Britain, had a long-standing dispute about the rights of Americans fishing in the waters near Newfoundland.",
"Before 1776, there was no question that American fishermen, mostly from Massachusetts, had rights to use the waters off Newfoundland.",
"In the peace treaty negotiations of 1783, the Americans insisted on a statement of these rights.",
"However, France, an American ally, disputed the American position because France had its own specified rights in the area and wanted them to be exclusive.",
"The Treaty of Paris (1783) gave the Americans not rights, but rather \"liberties\" to fish within the territorial waters of British North America and to dry fish on certain coasts.",
"After the War of 1812, the Convention of 1818 between the United States and Britain specified exactly what liberties were involved.",
"Canadian and Newfoundland fishermen contested these liberties in the 1830s and 1840s.",
"The Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty of 1854, and the Treaty of Washington of 1871 spelled-out the liberties in more detail.",
"However the Treaty of Washington expired in 1885, and there was a continuous round of disputes over jurisdictions and liberties.",
"Britain and the United States sent the issue to the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague in 1909.",
"It produced a compromise settlement that permanently ended the problems.",
"\nIn 2003 the American government became concerned when members of the Canadian government announced plans to decriminalize marijuana.",
"David Murray, an assistant to U.S. Drug Czar John P. Walters, said in a CBC interview that, \"We would have to respond.",
"We would be forced to respond.\"",
"However the election of the Conservative Party in early 2006 halted the liberalization of marijuana laws for the foreseeable future.",
"A 2007 joint report by American and Canadian officials on cross-border drug smuggling indicated that, despite their best efforts, \"drug trafficking still occurs in significant quantities in both directions across the border.",
"The principal illicit substances smuggled across our shared border are MDMA (''Ecstasy''), cocaine, and marijuana.\"",
"The report indicated that Canada was a major producer of ''Ecstasy'' and marijuana for the U.S. market, while the U.S. was a transit country for cocaine entering Canada.",
"RCMP honor guards wait for Air Force One in Ottawa.",
"===Views of presidents and prime ministers===\nPresidents and prime ministers typically make formal or informal statements that indicate the diplomatic policy of their administration.",
"Diplomats and journalists at the time—and historians since—dissect the nuances and tone to detect the warmth or coolness of the relationship.",
"* Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, speaking at the beginning of the 1891 election (fought mostly over Canadian free trade with the United States), arguing against closer trade relations with the U.S. stated \"As for myself, my course is clear.",
"A British subject I was born—a British subject I will die.",
"With my utmost effort, with my latest breath, will I oppose the ‘veiled treason’ which attempts by sordid means and mercenary proffers to lure our people from their allegiance.\"",
"(February 3, 1891.)",
"Canada's first Prime Minister also said:\n\n* Prime Minister John Sparrow Thompson, angry at failed trade talks in 1888, privately complained to his wife, Lady Thompson, that \"These Yankee politicians are the lowest race of thieves in existence.\"",
"* After the World War II years of close military and economic cooperation, President Harry S. Truman said in 1947 that \"Canada and the United States have reached the point where we can no longer think of each other as 'foreign' countries.\"",
"* President John F. Kennedy told Parliament in Ottawa in May 1961 that \"Geography has made us neighbors.",
"History has made us friends.",
"Economics has made us partners.",
"And necessity has made us allies.",
"Those whom nature hath so joined together, let no man put asunder.\"",
"* President Lyndon Johnson helped open Expo '67 with an upbeat theme, saying that \"We of the United States consider ourselves blessed.",
"We have much to give thanks for.",
"But the gift of providence we cherish most is that we were given as our neighbours on this wonderful continent the people and the nation of Canada.\"",
"Remarks at Expo '67, Montreal, May 25, 1967.",
"* Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau famously said that being America's neighbour \"is like sleeping with an elephant.",
"No matter how friendly and even-tempered the beast, if one can call it that, one is affected by every twitch and grunt.\"",
"* Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau, sharply at odds with the U.S. over Cold War policy, warned at a press conference in 1971 that the overwhelming American presence posed \"a danger to our national identity from a cultural, economic and perhaps even military point of view.\"",
"* President Richard Nixon, in a speech to Parliament in 1972 was angry at Trudeau, declared that the \"special relationship\" between Canada and the United States was dead.",
"\"It is time for us to recognize,\" he stated, \"that we have very separate identities; that we have significant differences; and that nobody's interests are furthered when these realities are obscured.\"",
"* In late 2001, President George W. Bush did not mention Canada during a speech in which he thanked a list of countries who had assisted in responding to the events of September 11, although Canada had provided military, financial, and other support.",
"Ten years later, David Frum, one of President Bush's speechwriters, stated that it was an unintentional omission.",
"* Prime Minister Stephen Harper, in a statement congratulating Barack Obama on his inauguration, stated that \"The United States remains Canada's most important ally, closest friend and largest trading partner and I look forward to working with President Obama and his administration as we build on this special relationship.\"",
"* President Barack Obama, speaking in Ottawa at his first official international visit in February 19, 2009, said, \"I love this country.",
"We could not have a better friend and ally.\"",
"===Canadian public opinion on U.S. presidents===\nUnited States President George W. Bush was \"deeply disliked\" by a majority of Canadians according to the ''Arizona Daily Sun''.",
"A 2004 poll found that more than two thirds of Canadians favoured Democrat John Kerry over Bush in the 2004 presidential election, with Bush's lowest approval ratings in Canada being in the province of Quebec where just 11% of the population supported him.",
"Canadian public opinion of Barack Obama was significantly more positive.",
"A 2012 poll found that 65% of Canadians would vote for Obama in the 2012 presidential election \"if they could\" while only 9% of Canadians would vote for his Republican opponent Mitt Romney.",
"The same study found that 61% of Canadians felt that the Obama administration had been \"good\" for America, while only 12% felt it had been \"bad\".",
"Similarly, a Pew Research poll conducted in June 2016 found that 83% of Canadians were \"confident in Obama to do the right thing regarding world affairs\".",
"The study also found that a majority of members of all three major Canadian political parties supported Obama, and also found that Obama had slightly higher approval ratings in Canada in 2012 than he did in 2008.",
"John Ibbitson of ''The Globe and Mail'' stated in 2012 that Canadians generally supported Democratic presidents over Republican presidents, citing how President Richard Nixon was \"never liked\" in Canada and that Canadians generally did not approve of Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's friendship with President Ronald Reagan.",
"A January 2017 poll found that 66% of Canadians \"disapproved\" of Donald Trump, with 23% approving of him and 11% being \"unsure\".",
"The poll also found that only 18% of Canadians believed Trump's presidency would have a positive impact on Canada, while 63% believed it would have a negative effect.",
"===Territorial disputes===\n\n\nThese include maritime boundary disputes:\n* Dixon Entrance\n* Beaufort Sea\n* Strait of Juan de Fuca\n* San Juan Islands\n* Machias Seal Island and North Rock\n\nTerritorial land disputes:\n* Aroostook War (Maine boundary)\n* Alaska Boundary Dispute\n* Pig War\n\nand disputes over the international status of the:\n* Northwest Passage\n* Inside Passage\n\n====Arctic disputes====\n\nA long-simmering dispute between Canada and the U.S. involves the issue of Canadian sovereignty over the Northwest Passage (the sea passages in the Arctic).",
"Canada's assertion that the Northwest Passage represents internal (territorial) waters has been challenged by other countries, especially the U.S., which argue that these waters constitute an international strait (international waters).",
"Canadians were alarmed when Americans drove the reinforced oil tanker through the Northwest Passage in 1969, followed by the icebreaker Polar Sea in 1985, which actually resulted in a minor diplomatic incident.",
"In 1970, the Canadian parliament enacted the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, which asserts Canadian regulatory control over pollution within a 100-mile zone.",
"In response, the United States in 1970 stated, \"We cannot accept the assertion of a Canadian claim that the Arctic waters are internal waters of Canada.",
"...",
"Such acceptance would jeopardize the freedom of navigation essential for United States naval activities worldwide.\"",
"A compromise of sorts was reached in 1988, by an agreement on \"Arctic Cooperation,\" which pledges that voyages of American icebreakers \"will be undertaken with the consent of the Government of Canada.\"",
"However the agreement did not alter either country's basic legal position.",
"Paul Cellucci, the American ambassador to Canada, in 2005 suggested to Washington that it should recognize the straits as belonging to Canada.",
"His advice was rejected and Harper took opposite positions.",
"The U.S. opposes Harper's proposed plan to deploy military icebreakers in the Arctic to detect interlopers and assert Canadian sovereignty over those waters.",
"\n===Canadian missions in the United States===\n\nCanada's chief diplomatic mission to the United States is the Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C..",
"It is further supported by many consulates located through United States.",
"The Canadian Government maintains consulates-general in several major U.S. cities including: Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Detroit, Los Angeles, Miami, Minneapolis, New York City, San Francisco and Seattle.",
"Canadian consular services are also available in Honolulu at the consulate of Australia through the Canada–Australia Consular Services Sharing Agreement.",
"There are also Canadian trade offices located in Houston, Palo Alto and San Diego.",
"===U.S.",
"missions in Canada===\nThe United States's chief diplomatic mission to Canada is the United States Embassy in Ottawa.",
"It is further supported by many consulates located throughout Canada.",
"The U.S government maintains consulates-general in several major Canadian cities including:\nCalgary, Halifax, Montreal, Quebec City, Toronto, Vancouver and Winnipeg.",
"The United States also maintains Virtual Presence Posts (VPP) in the: Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Southwestern Ontario and Yukon.",
"\n* Borders of Canada\n* Comparison of Canadian and American economies\n* Continental One Highway\n* Etiquette in North America\n* Foreign relations of Canada\n* Foreign relations of the United States\n* Garrison mentality\n* Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America\n* United States Border Patrol interior checkpoints",
"\n* \n* Azzi, Stephen.",
"''Reconcilable Differences: A History of Canada-US Relations'' (Oxford University Press, 2014)\n* Behiels, Michael D. and Reginald C. Stuart, eds.",
"''Transnationalism: Canada-United States History into the Twenty-First Century'' (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2010) 312 pp.",
"online 2012 review\n* Bothwell, Robert.",
"''Your Country, My Country: A Unified History of the United States and Canada'' (2015), 400 pages; traces relations, shared values, and differences across the centuries\n* Doran, Charles F., and James Patrick Sewell, \"Anti-Americanism in Canada,\" ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,'' Vol.",
"497, Anti-Americanism: Origins and Context (May 1988), pp.",
"105–119 in JSTOR\n* Clarkson, Stephen.",
"''Uncle Sam and Us: Globalization, Neoconservatism and the Canadian State'' (University of Toronto Press, 2002)\n* Engler, Yves\n* Ek, Carl, and Ian F. Fergusson.",
"''Canada-U.S. Relations'' (Congressional Research Service, 2010) 2010 Report, by an agency of the U.S. Congress\n** \"Report Highlight\" of 2010 report\n* Granatstein, J. L. ''Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism'' (1997)\n* Granatstein, J. L. and Norman Hillmer, ''For Better or for Worse: Canada and the United States to the 1990s'' (1991)\n* Gravelle, Timothy B.",
"\"Partisanship, Border Proximity, and Canadian Attitudes toward North American Integration.\"",
"''International Journal of Public Opinion Research'' (2014) 26#4 pp: 453–474.",
"* Gravelle, Timothy B.",
"\"Love Thy Neighbo (u) r?",
"Political Attitudes, Proximity and the Mutual Perceptions of the Canadian and American Publics.\"",
"''Canadian Journal of Political Science'' (2014) 47#1 pp: 135–157.",
"* Hale, Geoffrey.",
"''So Near Yet So Far: The Public and Hidden Worlds of Canada-US Relations'' (University of British Columbia Press, 2012); 352 pages focus on 2001–2011\n* Holland, Kenneth.",
"\"The Canada–United States defence relationship: a partnership for the twenty-first century.\"",
"''Canadian Foreign Policy Journal'' ahead-of-print (2015): 1–6.",
"online\n* Holmes, Ken.",
"\"The Canadian Cognitive Bias and its Influence on Canada/US Relations.\"",
"''International Social Science Review'' (2015) 90#1 online.",
"* Holmes, John W. \"Impact of Domestic Political Factors on Canadian-American Relations: Canada,\" ''International Organization,'' Vol.",
"28, No.",
"4, Canada and the United States: Transnational and Transgovernmental Relations (Autumn, 1974), pp.",
"611–635 in JSTOR\n* Innes, Hugh, ed.",
"''Americanization: Issues for the Seventies'' (McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1972).",
"; re 1970s\n* Lennox, Patrick.",
"''At Home and Abroad: The Canada-U.S.",
"Relationship and Canada's Place in the World'' (University of British Columbia Press; 2010) 192 pages; the post–World War II period.",
"* Little, John Michael.",
"\"Canada Discovered: Continentalist Perceptions of the Roosevelt Administration, 1939–1945,\" PhD dissertation.",
"''Dissertation Abstracts International,'' 1978, Vol.",
"38 Issue 9, p5696-5697\n* Lumsden, Ian, ed.",
"''The Americanization of Canada'', ed.",
"... for the University League for Social Reform (U of Toronto Press, 1970).",
"* McKercher, Asa.",
"''Camelot and Canada: Canadian-American Relations in the Kennedy Era'' (Oxford UP, 2016).",
"xii, 298 pp.",
"* Graeme S. Mount and Edelgard Mahant, ''An Introduction to Canadian-American Relations'' (1984, updated 1989)\n* Molloy, Patricia.",
"''Canada/US and Other Unfriendly Relations: Before and After 9/11'' (Palgrave Macmillan; 2012) 192 pages; essays on various \"myths\"\n* Mount, Graeme S. and Edelgard Mahant, ''Invisible and Inaudible in Washington: American Policies toward Canada during the Cold War'' (1999)\n* Muirhead, Bruce.",
"\"From Special Relationship to Third Option: Canada, the U.S., and the Nixon Shock,\" ''American Review of Canadian Studies,'' Vol.",
"34, 2004 online edition\n* Myers, Phillip E. ''Dissolving Tensions: Rapprochement and Resolution in British-American-Canadian Relations in the Treaty of Washington Era, 1865–1914'' (Kent State UP, 2015).",
"x, 326 pp.",
"* Pederson, William D. ed.",
"''A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt'' (2011) online pp 517–41, covers FDR's policies\n* Stuart, Reginald C. ''Dispersed Relations: Americans and Canadians in Upper North America'' (2007) excerpt and text search\n* Tagg, James.. \"'And, We Burned down the White House, Too': American History, Canadian Undergraduates, and Nationalism,\" ''The History Teacher,'' 37#3 (May 2004), pp.",
"309–334 in JSTOR\n* Tansill, C. C. ''Canadian-American Relations, 1875–1911'' (1943)\n* Thompson, John Herd, and Stephen J. Randall.",
"''Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies'' (4th ed.",
"McGill-Queen's UP, 2008), 387pp, the standard scholarly survey\n\n===Primary sources===\n* Gallagher, Connell.",
"\"The Senator George D. Aiken Papers: Sources for the Study of Canadian-American Relations, 1930–1974.\"",
"''Archivaria'' 1#21 (1985) pp 176–79 online.",
"* History of Canada – U.S. relations\n* Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C.\n* U.S. Embassy & Consulates in Canada\n* Canadian Association of New York\n* Canada and the United States, by Stephen Azzi and J.L.",
"Granatstein\n* Canadian-American Relations, by John English"
] | river |
[
"\n\nThe Las Vegas Strip is renowned for its high concentration of casino resort hotels\n\nA '''casino''' is a facility which houses and accommodates certain types of gambling activities. The industry that deals in casinos is called the '''gaming industry'''. Casinos are most commonly built near or combined with hotels, restaurants, retail shopping, cruise ships or other tourist attractions. There is much debate over whether or not the social and economic consequences of casino gambling outweigh the initial revenue that may be generated. Some casinos are also known for hosting live entertainment events, such as stand-up comedy, concerts, and sporting events.\n",
"The term \"casino\" is a confusing linguistic false friend for translators.\n\n''Casino'' is of Italian origin; the root ''casa'' (house) originally meant a small country villa, summerhouse, or social club. During the 19th century, the term ''casino'' came to include other public buildings where pleasurable activities took place; such edifices were usually built on the grounds of a larger Italian villa or palazzo, and were used to host civic town functions, including dancing, gambling, music listening, and sports; examples in Italy include Villa Farnese and Villa Giulia, and in the US the Newport Casino in Newport, Rhode Island. In modern-day Italian, the term ''casino'' designates a bordello (also called ''casa chiusa'', literally \"closed house\"), while the gambling house is spelled ''casinò'' with an accent.\n\nNot all casinos were used for gaming. The Catalina Casino, a famous landmark overlooking Avalon Harbor on Santa Catalina Island, California, has never been used for traditional games of chance, which were already outlawed in California by the time it was built. The Copenhagen Casino was a theatre, known for the mass public meetings often held in its hall during the 1848 Revolution, which made Denmark a constitutional monarchy. Until 1937, it was a well-known Danish theatre. The Hanko Casino in Hanko, Finland—one of that town's most conspicuous landmarks—was never used for gambling. Rather, it was a banquet hall for the Russian nobility which frequented this spa resort in the late 19th century and is now used as a restaurant.\n\nIn military and non-military usage in German and Spanish, a ''casino'' or ''kasino'' is an officers' mess. In Italian—the source-language of the word—a ''casino'' is either a brothel, a mess, or a noisy environment, while a gaming house is called a ''casinò''.\n",
"The precise origin of gambling is unknown. It is generally believed that gambling in some form or another has been seen in almost every society in history. From the Ancient Greeks and Romans to Napoleon's France and Elizabethan England, much of history is filled with stories of entertainment based on games of chance.\n\nThe first known European gambling house, not called a casino although meeting the modern definition, was the Ridotto, established in Venice, Italy in 1638 by the Great Council of Venice to provide controlled gambling during the carnival season. It was closed in 1774 as the city government felt it was impoverishing the local gentry.\n\nIn American history, early gambling establishments were known as saloons. The creation and importance of saloons was greatly influenced by four major cities: New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago and San Francisco. It was in the saloons that travelers could find people to talk to, drink with, and often gamble with. During the early 20th century in America, gambling became outlawed and banned by state legislation and social reformers of the time. However, in 1931, gambling was legalized throughout the state of Nevada. America's first legalized casinos were set up in those places. In 1976 New Jersey allowed gambling in Atlantic City, now America's second largest gambling city.\n",
"Slot machines in Atlantic City. Slot machines are a standard attraction of casinos\nMost jurisdictions worldwide have a minimum gambling age (16 to 21 years of age in most countries which permit the operation of casinos).\n\nCustomers gamble by playing games of chance, in some cases with an element of skill, such as craps, roulette, baccarat, blackjack, and video poker. Most games played have mathematically determined odds that ensure the house has at all times an overall advantage over the players. This can be expressed more precisely by the notion of expected value, which is uniformly negative (from the player's perspective). This advantage is called the ''house edge''. In games such as poker where players play against each other, the house takes a commission called the rake. Casinos sometimes give out complimentary items or comps to gamblers.\n\n''Payout'' is the percentage of funds (\"winnings\") returned to players.\n\nCasinos in the United States say that a player staking money won from the casino is ''playing with the house's money''.\n\nVideo Lottery Machines (slot machines) have become one of the most popular forms of gambling in casinos. investigative reports have started calling into question whether the modern-day slot-machine is addictive.\n\n",
"Casino design—regarded as a psychological exercise—is an intricate process that involves optimising floor plan, décor and atmospherics to encourage consumer gambling.\n\nFactors influencing consumer gambling tendencies include sound, odour and lighting. Natasha Dow Schüll, an anthropologist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, highlights the audio directors at Silicon Gaming’s decision to make its slot machines resonate in, “the universally pleasant tone of C, sampling existing casino soundscapes to create a sound that would please but not clash”.\n\nDr. Alan Hirsch, founder of the Smell & Taste Treatment and Research Foundation in Chicago, studied the impact of certain scents on gamblers, discerning that a pleasant albeit unidentifiable odour released by Las Vegas slots machines generated approximately 50% more in daily revenue. He suggested that the scent acted as an aphrodisiac, facilitating a more aggressive form of gambling.\n\nCasino designer Roger Thomas is credited with implementing a successful, disruptive design for the Las Vegas Wynn Resorts’ casinos in 2008. He broke casino design convention by introducing natural sunlight and flora to appeal to a female demographic. Thomas inserted skylights and antique clocks, defying the commonplace notion that a casino should be a timeless space.\n",
"The following lists major casino markets in the world with casino revenue of over $1 billion USD as published in PricewaterhouseCoopers's report on \nthe outlook for the global casino market:\n\n===By region===\n\n\n Rank !! Location !! Casinos !! Revenue (2009)US$M !! Revenue (2010 Projected)US$M !! Revenue (2011 Projected)US$M\n\n 1 \n United States \n \n57,240\n56,500\n58,030\n\n 2 \n Asia Pacific \n \n21,845\n32,305\n41,259\n\n 3 \n Europe, Middle East, Africa \n \n17,259\n16,186\n16,452\n\n 4 \n Canada \n \n3,712\n3,835\n4,045\n\n 5 \n Latin America \n \n425\n528\n594\n\n \n '''Total'''\n \n'''100,481'''\n'''109,354'''\n'''120,380'''\n\n\n===By markets===\n\n\n Rank !! Location !! Casinos !! Revenue (2009)US$M !! Revenue (2010 Projected)US$M !! Revenue (2011 Projected)US$M\n\n 1 \n Macau \n 33 \n14,955\n22,445\n28,379\n\n 2 \n Las Vegas, Nevada \n 122 \n 10,247\n9,950\n10,300\n\n 3 \n Singapore \n 2 \n 2,119 \n2,750\n5,479\n\n 4 \n France \n 189 \n3,965\n3,909\n3,957\n\n 5 \n Atlantic City, New Jersey \n 12 \n3,943\n3,550\n3,330\n\n 6 \n Australia \n 11 \n2,697\n2,769\n2,847\n\n 7 \n South Korea \n 17 \n2,401\n2,430\n2,512\n\n 8 \n Germany \n 76 \n2,073\n2,055\n2,081\n\n 9 \n South Africa \n 36 \n1,845\n1,782\n2,012\n\n 10 \n United Kingdom \n 141 \n1,212\n1,193\n1,209\n\n 11 \n Poland \n 36 \n1,089\n1,091\n1,126\n\n 12 \n Niagara Falls, Canada \n 2 \n1,102\n1,114\n1,203\n\n\n===By company===\nAccording to Bloomberg, accumulated revenue of biggest casino operator companies worldwide amounted almost 55 billion US dollars as per 2011. SJM Holdings ltd. was the leading company in this field and earned 9.7 billion in 2011, followed by Las Vegas Sands Corp. (7.4 bn). The third biggest casino operator company (based on revenue) was Caesars Entertainment with revenue of 6.2 bn US dollar.\n\n===Significant sites===\nWhile there are casinos in many places, a few places have become well-known specifically for gambling. Perhaps the place almost defined by its casino is Monte Carlo, but other places are known as gambling centers.\n\n====Monte Carlo, Monaco====\n\nMonte Carlo has a famous casino popular with well-off visitors and is a tourist attraction in its own right. A song and a film named ''The Man Who Broke the Bank at Monte Carlo'' need no explanation—they clearly refer to the casino.\n\nMonte Carlo's Casino has also been depicted in many books including Ben Mezrich's ''Busting Vegas'', where a group of Massachusetts Institute of Technology students beat the casino out of nearly $1 000 000. This book is based on real people and events; however, many of those events are contested by main character Semyon Dukach.\n\nThe casino has made Monte Carlo so well known for games of chance that mathematical methods for solving various problems using many quasi-random numbers—numbers with the statistical distribution of numbers generated by chance—are formally known as Monte Carlo methods. Monte Carlo was part of the plot in a few James Bond novels and films.\n\n====Macau====\n\nThe Venetian Macao\nThe former Portuguese colony of Macau, a special administrative region of China since 1999, is a popular destination for visitors who wish to gamble. This started in Portuguese times, when Macau was popular with visitors from nearby British Hong Kong where gambling was more closely regulated. The Venetian Macao is currently the largest casino in the world. Macau also surpassed Las Vegas as the largest gambling market in the world.\n\n====Singapore====\nThe Marina Bay Sands\nSingapore is an up-and-coming destination for visitors wanting to gamble, although there are currently only two casinos (both foreign owned), in Singapore. The Marina Bay Sands is the most expensive standalone casino in the world, at a price of US$8 billion, and is among the world's ten most expensive buildings. The Resorts World Sentosa has the world's largest oceanarium.\n\n====United States====\n\nWith currently over 1,000 casinos, the United States has the largest number of casinos in the world. The number continues to grow steadily as more states seek to legalize casinos. 40 states now have some form of casino gambling. Relatively small places such as Las Vegas are best known for gambling; larger cities such as Chicago are not defined by their casinos in spite of the large turnover.\n\nThe Las Vegas Valley has the largest concentration of casinos in the United States. Based on revenue, Atlantic City, New Jersey ranks second, and the Chicago region third.\n\nTop American casino markets by revenue (2015 annual revenues):\n\n# Las Vegas Strip $6.348 billion\n# Atlantic City $2.426 billion\n# Chicago region $2.002 billion\n# New York City $1.400 billion\n# Detroit $1.376 billion\n# Baltimore–Washington Metropolitan Area $1.306 billion\n# Philadelphia $1.192 billion\n# Mississippi Gulf Coast $1.135 billion\n# St. Louis $1.007 billion\n# The Poconos $965.56 million\n# Lake Charles, Louisiana $907.51 million\n# Boulder Strip $784.35 million\n# Kansas City $782.05 million\n# Shreveport $732.51 million\n\nThe Nevada Gaming Control Board divides Clark County, which is coextensive with the Las Vegas metropolitan area, into seven market regions for reporting purposes.\n\nIndian gaming has been responsible for a rise in the number of casinos outside of Las Vegas and Atlantic City.\n",
"\nThousand Islands Casino\nGiven the large amounts of currency handled within a casino, both patrons and staff may be tempted to cheat and steal, in collusion or independently; most casinos have security measures to prevent this. Security cameras located throughout the casino are the most basic measure.\n\nModern casino security is usually divided between a physical security force and a specialized surveillance department. The physical security force usually patrols the casino and responds to calls for assistance and reports of suspicious or definite criminal activity. A specialized surveillance department operates the casino's closed circuit television system, known in the industry as the eye in the sky. Both of these specialized casino security departments work very closely with each other to ensure the safety of both guests and the casino's assets, and have been quite successful in preventing crime. Some casinos also have catwalks in the ceiling above the casino floor, which allow surveillance personnel to look directly down, through one way glass, on the activities at the tables and slot machines.\n\nWhen it opened in 1989, The Mirage was the first casino to use cameras full-time on all table games.\n\nIn addition to cameras and other technological measures, casinos also enforce security through rules of conduct and behavior; for example, players at card games are required to keep the cards they are holding in their hands visible at all times.\n",
"Over the past few decades, casinos have developed many different marketing techniques for attracting and maintaining loyal patrons. Many casinos use a loyalty rewards program used to track players' spending habits and target their patrons more effectively, by sending mailings with free slot play and other promotions.\n",
"One area of controversy surrounding casinos is their relationship to crime rates. Economic studies that show a positive relationship between casinos and crime usually fail to consider the visiting population at risk when they calculate the crime rate in casino areas. Such studies thus count the crimes committed by visitors, but do not count visitors in the population measure, and this overstates the crime rates in casino areas. Part of the reason this methodology is used, despite it leading to an overstatement of crime rates is that reliable data on tourist count are often not available.\nIn a 2004 report by the US Department of Justice, researchers interviewed people who had been arrested in Las Vegas and Des Moines and found that the percentage of problem or pathological gamblers among the arrestees was three to five times higher than in the general population. According to some police reports, incidences of reported crime often double and triple in communities within three years of a casino opening.\n",
"\nFile:Casino Estoril.jpg|Portugal's Casino Estoril, near Lisbon, is the largest in Europe\nFile:Casino at RWS.jpg|Entrance to the casino at Resorts World Sentosa, Singapore\nFile:ResortsWorldManilajfjf9934_08.JPG|Entrance to the casino at Resort World Manila, Philippines\nFile:Casino Royale & hotel.jpg|The Casino Royale Hotel & Casino in Paradise, Nevada, United States\nFile:Marina Bay Sands in the evening - 20101120.jpg|View of the Marina Bay Sands in Marina Bay, Singapore\nFile:Venetian Las Vegas, NV.jpg|The Venetian in Paradise is also the headquarters of casino giant Las Vegas Sands.\nFile:The venetian macao outside night.jpg|The Venetian Macau in Macau owned by Las Vegas Sands.\nFile:Real Monte Carlo Casino.jpg|View of the Monte Carlo Casino, Monaco.\nFile:Borgata_Slots,_Atlantic_City,_Feb_2016.jpg|Slot machines at the Borgata Hotel Casino & Spa in Atlantic City, New Jersey, USA.\nFile:Bally's Casino- Poker Table (26741374976).jpg|Bally's Casino- Poker Table, Las Vegas USA.\n\n",
"\n* American Gaming Association\n* Black Book (gaming)\n* Casino hotel\n** List of casino hotels\n* Casino token\n* European Gaming & Amusement Federation\n* Gambling in Macau\n* Gaming in Mexico\n* Gambling in the United States\n* Gambling in Manila\n* Gaming Control Boards\n* Gaming law\n* Global Gaming Expo\n* List of casinos\n* Locals casino\n* Native American gaming\n* Online casino\n* Online gambling\n* Online poker\n* Sports betting\n\n",
"\n",
"\n\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Etymology and usage",
"History of gambling houses",
"Gambling in casinos",
"Design",
"Markets",
"Security",
"Business practices",
"Crime",
"Gallery",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Casino | [
"A song and a film named ''The Man Who Broke the Bank at Monte Carlo'' need no explanation—they clearly refer to the casino."
] | [
"\n\nThe Las Vegas Strip is renowned for its high concentration of casino resort hotels\n\nA '''casino''' is a facility which houses and accommodates certain types of gambling activities.",
"The industry that deals in casinos is called the '''gaming industry'''.",
"Casinos are most commonly built near or combined with hotels, restaurants, retail shopping, cruise ships or other tourist attractions.",
"There is much debate over whether or not the social and economic consequences of casino gambling outweigh the initial revenue that may be generated.",
"Some casinos are also known for hosting live entertainment events, such as stand-up comedy, concerts, and sporting events.",
"The term \"casino\" is a confusing linguistic false friend for translators.",
"''Casino'' is of Italian origin; the root ''casa'' (house) originally meant a small country villa, summerhouse, or social club.",
"During the 19th century, the term ''casino'' came to include other public buildings where pleasurable activities took place; such edifices were usually built on the grounds of a larger Italian villa or palazzo, and were used to host civic town functions, including dancing, gambling, music listening, and sports; examples in Italy include Villa Farnese and Villa Giulia, and in the US the Newport Casino in Newport, Rhode Island.",
"In modern-day Italian, the term ''casino'' designates a bordello (also called ''casa chiusa'', literally \"closed house\"), while the gambling house is spelled ''casinò'' with an accent.",
"Not all casinos were used for gaming.",
"The Catalina Casino, a famous landmark overlooking Avalon Harbor on Santa Catalina Island, California, has never been used for traditional games of chance, which were already outlawed in California by the time it was built.",
"The Copenhagen Casino was a theatre, known for the mass public meetings often held in its hall during the 1848 Revolution, which made Denmark a constitutional monarchy.",
"Until 1937, it was a well-known Danish theatre.",
"The Hanko Casino in Hanko, Finland—one of that town's most conspicuous landmarks—was never used for gambling.",
"Rather, it was a banquet hall for the Russian nobility which frequented this spa resort in the late 19th century and is now used as a restaurant.",
"In military and non-military usage in German and Spanish, a ''casino'' or ''kasino'' is an officers' mess.",
"In Italian—the source-language of the word—a ''casino'' is either a brothel, a mess, or a noisy environment, while a gaming house is called a ''casinò''.",
"The precise origin of gambling is unknown.",
"It is generally believed that gambling in some form or another has been seen in almost every society in history.",
"From the Ancient Greeks and Romans to Napoleon's France and Elizabethan England, much of history is filled with stories of entertainment based on games of chance.",
"The first known European gambling house, not called a casino although meeting the modern definition, was the Ridotto, established in Venice, Italy in 1638 by the Great Council of Venice to provide controlled gambling during the carnival season.",
"It was closed in 1774 as the city government felt it was impoverishing the local gentry.",
"In American history, early gambling establishments were known as saloons.",
"The creation and importance of saloons was greatly influenced by four major cities: New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago and San Francisco.",
"It was in the saloons that travelers could find people to talk to, drink with, and often gamble with.",
"During the early 20th century in America, gambling became outlawed and banned by state legislation and social reformers of the time.",
"However, in 1931, gambling was legalized throughout the state of Nevada.",
"America's first legalized casinos were set up in those places.",
"In 1976 New Jersey allowed gambling in Atlantic City, now America's second largest gambling city.",
"Slot machines in Atlantic City.",
"Slot machines are a standard attraction of casinos\nMost jurisdictions worldwide have a minimum gambling age (16 to 21 years of age in most countries which permit the operation of casinos).",
"Customers gamble by playing games of chance, in some cases with an element of skill, such as craps, roulette, baccarat, blackjack, and video poker.",
"Most games played have mathematically determined odds that ensure the house has at all times an overall advantage over the players.",
"This can be expressed more precisely by the notion of expected value, which is uniformly negative (from the player's perspective).",
"This advantage is called the ''house edge''.",
"In games such as poker where players play against each other, the house takes a commission called the rake.",
"Casinos sometimes give out complimentary items or comps to gamblers.",
"''Payout'' is the percentage of funds (\"winnings\") returned to players.",
"Casinos in the United States say that a player staking money won from the casino is ''playing with the house's money''.",
"Video Lottery Machines (slot machines) have become one of the most popular forms of gambling in casinos.",
"investigative reports have started calling into question whether the modern-day slot-machine is addictive.",
"Casino design—regarded as a psychological exercise—is an intricate process that involves optimising floor plan, décor and atmospherics to encourage consumer gambling.",
"Factors influencing consumer gambling tendencies include sound, odour and lighting.",
"Natasha Dow Schüll, an anthropologist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, highlights the audio directors at Silicon Gaming’s decision to make its slot machines resonate in, “the universally pleasant tone of C, sampling existing casino soundscapes to create a sound that would please but not clash”.",
"Dr. Alan Hirsch, founder of the Smell & Taste Treatment and Research Foundation in Chicago, studied the impact of certain scents on gamblers, discerning that a pleasant albeit unidentifiable odour released by Las Vegas slots machines generated approximately 50% more in daily revenue.",
"He suggested that the scent acted as an aphrodisiac, facilitating a more aggressive form of gambling.",
"Casino designer Roger Thomas is credited with implementing a successful, disruptive design for the Las Vegas Wynn Resorts’ casinos in 2008.",
"He broke casino design convention by introducing natural sunlight and flora to appeal to a female demographic.",
"Thomas inserted skylights and antique clocks, defying the commonplace notion that a casino should be a timeless space.",
"The following lists major casino markets in the world with casino revenue of over $1 billion USD as published in PricewaterhouseCoopers's report on \nthe outlook for the global casino market:\n\n===By region===\n\n\n Rank !",
"!",
"Location !",
"!",
"Casinos !",
"!",
"Revenue (2009)US$M !",
"!",
"Revenue (2010 Projected)US$M !",
"!",
"Revenue (2011 Projected)US$M\n\n 1 \n United States \n \n57,240\n56,500\n58,030\n\n 2 \n Asia Pacific \n \n21,845\n32,305\n41,259\n\n 3 \n Europe, Middle East, Africa \n \n17,259\n16,186\n16,452\n\n 4 \n Canada \n \n3,712\n3,835\n4,045\n\n 5 \n Latin America \n \n425\n528\n594\n\n \n '''Total'''\n \n'''100,481'''\n'''109,354'''\n'''120,380'''\n\n\n===By markets===\n\n\n Rank !",
"!",
"Location !",
"!",
"Casinos !",
"!",
"Revenue (2009)US$M !",
"!",
"Revenue (2010 Projected)US$M !",
"!",
"Revenue (2011 Projected)US$M\n\n 1 \n Macau \n 33 \n14,955\n22,445\n28,379\n\n 2 \n Las Vegas, Nevada \n 122 \n 10,247\n9,950\n10,300\n\n 3 \n Singapore \n 2 \n 2,119 \n2,750\n5,479\n\n 4 \n France \n 189 \n3,965\n3,909\n3,957\n\n 5 \n Atlantic City, New Jersey \n 12 \n3,943\n3,550\n3,330\n\n 6 \n Australia \n 11 \n2,697\n2,769\n2,847\n\n 7 \n South Korea \n 17 \n2,401\n2,430\n2,512\n\n 8 \n Germany \n 76 \n2,073\n2,055\n2,081\n\n 9 \n South Africa \n 36 \n1,845\n1,782\n2,012\n\n 10 \n United Kingdom \n 141 \n1,212\n1,193\n1,209\n\n 11 \n Poland \n 36 \n1,089\n1,091\n1,126\n\n 12 \n Niagara Falls, Canada \n 2 \n1,102\n1,114\n1,203\n\n\n===By company===\nAccording to Bloomberg, accumulated revenue of biggest casino operator companies worldwide amounted almost 55 billion US dollars as per 2011.",
"SJM Holdings ltd. was the leading company in this field and earned 9.7 billion in 2011, followed by Las Vegas Sands Corp. (7.4 bn).",
"The third biggest casino operator company (based on revenue) was Caesars Entertainment with revenue of 6.2 bn US dollar.",
"===Significant sites===\nWhile there are casinos in many places, a few places have become well-known specifically for gambling.",
"Perhaps the place almost defined by its casino is Monte Carlo, but other places are known as gambling centers.",
"====Monte Carlo, Monaco====\n\nMonte Carlo has a famous casino popular with well-off visitors and is a tourist attraction in its own right.",
"Monte Carlo's Casino has also been depicted in many books including Ben Mezrich's ''Busting Vegas'', where a group of Massachusetts Institute of Technology students beat the casino out of nearly $1 000 000.",
"This book is based on real people and events; however, many of those events are contested by main character Semyon Dukach.",
"The casino has made Monte Carlo so well known for games of chance that mathematical methods for solving various problems using many quasi-random numbers—numbers with the statistical distribution of numbers generated by chance—are formally known as Monte Carlo methods.",
"Monte Carlo was part of the plot in a few James Bond novels and films.",
"====Macau====\n\nThe Venetian Macao\nThe former Portuguese colony of Macau, a special administrative region of China since 1999, is a popular destination for visitors who wish to gamble.",
"This started in Portuguese times, when Macau was popular with visitors from nearby British Hong Kong where gambling was more closely regulated.",
"The Venetian Macao is currently the largest casino in the world.",
"Macau also surpassed Las Vegas as the largest gambling market in the world.",
"====Singapore====\nThe Marina Bay Sands\nSingapore is an up-and-coming destination for visitors wanting to gamble, although there are currently only two casinos (both foreign owned), in Singapore.",
"The Marina Bay Sands is the most expensive standalone casino in the world, at a price of US$8 billion, and is among the world's ten most expensive buildings.",
"The Resorts World Sentosa has the world's largest oceanarium.",
"====United States====\n\nWith currently over 1,000 casinos, the United States has the largest number of casinos in the world.",
"The number continues to grow steadily as more states seek to legalize casinos.",
"40 states now have some form of casino gambling.",
"Relatively small places such as Las Vegas are best known for gambling; larger cities such as Chicago are not defined by their casinos in spite of the large turnover.",
"The Las Vegas Valley has the largest concentration of casinos in the United States.",
"Based on revenue, Atlantic City, New Jersey ranks second, and the Chicago region third.",
"Top American casino markets by revenue (2015 annual revenues):\n\n# Las Vegas Strip $6.348 billion\n# Atlantic City $2.426 billion\n# Chicago region $2.002 billion\n# New York City $1.400 billion\n# Detroit $1.376 billion\n# Baltimore–Washington Metropolitan Area $1.306 billion\n# Philadelphia $1.192 billion\n# Mississippi Gulf Coast $1.135 billion\n# St. Louis $1.007 billion\n# The Poconos $965.56 million\n# Lake Charles, Louisiana $907.51 million\n# Boulder Strip $784.35 million\n# Kansas City $782.05 million\n# Shreveport $732.51 million\n\nThe Nevada Gaming Control Board divides Clark County, which is coextensive with the Las Vegas metropolitan area, into seven market regions for reporting purposes.",
"Indian gaming has been responsible for a rise in the number of casinos outside of Las Vegas and Atlantic City.",
"\nThousand Islands Casino\nGiven the large amounts of currency handled within a casino, both patrons and staff may be tempted to cheat and steal, in collusion or independently; most casinos have security measures to prevent this.",
"Security cameras located throughout the casino are the most basic measure.",
"Modern casino security is usually divided between a physical security force and a specialized surveillance department.",
"The physical security force usually patrols the casino and responds to calls for assistance and reports of suspicious or definite criminal activity.",
"A specialized surveillance department operates the casino's closed circuit television system, known in the industry as the eye in the sky.",
"Both of these specialized casino security departments work very closely with each other to ensure the safety of both guests and the casino's assets, and have been quite successful in preventing crime.",
"Some casinos also have catwalks in the ceiling above the casino floor, which allow surveillance personnel to look directly down, through one way glass, on the activities at the tables and slot machines.",
"When it opened in 1989, The Mirage was the first casino to use cameras full-time on all table games.",
"In addition to cameras and other technological measures, casinos also enforce security through rules of conduct and behavior; for example, players at card games are required to keep the cards they are holding in their hands visible at all times.",
"Over the past few decades, casinos have developed many different marketing techniques for attracting and maintaining loyal patrons.",
"Many casinos use a loyalty rewards program used to track players' spending habits and target their patrons more effectively, by sending mailings with free slot play and other promotions.",
"One area of controversy surrounding casinos is their relationship to crime rates.",
"Economic studies that show a positive relationship between casinos and crime usually fail to consider the visiting population at risk when they calculate the crime rate in casino areas.",
"Such studies thus count the crimes committed by visitors, but do not count visitors in the population measure, and this overstates the crime rates in casino areas.",
"Part of the reason this methodology is used, despite it leading to an overstatement of crime rates is that reliable data on tourist count are often not available.",
"In a 2004 report by the US Department of Justice, researchers interviewed people who had been arrested in Las Vegas and Des Moines and found that the percentage of problem or pathological gamblers among the arrestees was three to five times higher than in the general population.",
"According to some police reports, incidences of reported crime often double and triple in communities within three years of a casino opening.",
"\nFile:Casino Estoril.jpg|Portugal's Casino Estoril, near Lisbon, is the largest in Europe\nFile:Casino at RWS.jpg|Entrance to the casino at Resorts World Sentosa, Singapore\nFile:ResortsWorldManilajfjf9934_08.JPG|Entrance to the casino at Resort World Manila, Philippines\nFile:Casino Royale & hotel.jpg|The Casino Royale Hotel & Casino in Paradise, Nevada, United States\nFile:Marina Bay Sands in the evening - 20101120.jpg|View of the Marina Bay Sands in Marina Bay, Singapore\nFile:Venetian Las Vegas, NV.jpg|The Venetian in Paradise is also the headquarters of casino giant Las Vegas Sands.",
"File:The venetian macao outside night.jpg|The Venetian Macau in Macau owned by Las Vegas Sands.",
"File:Real Monte Carlo Casino.jpg|View of the Monte Carlo Casino, Monaco.",
"File:Borgata_Slots,_Atlantic_City,_Feb_2016.jpg|Slot machines at the Borgata Hotel Casino & Spa in Atlantic City, New Jersey, USA.",
"File:Bally's Casino- Poker Table (26741374976).jpg|Bally's Casino- Poker Table, Las Vegas USA.",
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"\n\n\n\nA '''central processing unit''' ('''CPU''') is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions. The computer industry has used the term \"central processing unit\" at least since the early 1960s. Traditionally, the term \"CPU\" refers to a '''processor''', more specifically to its processing unit and control unit (CU), distinguishing these core elements of a computer from external components such as main memory and I/O circuitry.\n\nThe form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, but their fundamental operation remains almost unchanged. Principal components of a CPU include the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that performs arithmetic and logic operations, processor registers that supply operands to the ALU and store the results of ALU operations, and a control unit that orchestrates the fetching (from memory) and execution of instructions by directing the coordinated operations of the ALU, registers and other components.\n\nMost modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit (IC) chip. An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, and other components of a computer; such integrated devices are variously called microcontrollers or systems on a chip (SoC). Some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called \"cores\"; in that context, one can speak of such single chips as \"sockets\". Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, with no unit considered central. There also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources.\n",
"\nEDVAC, one of the first stored-program computers\n\nEarly computers such as the ENIAC had to be physically rewired to perform different tasks, which caused these machines to be called \"fixed-program computers\". Since the term \"CPU\" is generally defined as a device for software (computer program) execution, the earliest devices that could rightly be called CPUs came with the advent of the stored-program computer.\n\nThe idea of a stored-program computer was already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchly's ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner. On June 30, 1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed the paper entitled ''First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC''. It was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949. EDVAC was designed to perform a certain number of instructions (or operations) of various types. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the physical wiring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time and effort required to reconfigure the computer to perform a new task. With von Neumann's design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory. EDVAC, however, was not the first stored-program computer; the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine, a small prototype stored-program computer, ran its first program on 21 June 1948 and the Manchester Mark 1 ran its first program during the night of 16–17 June 1949.\n\nEarly CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger and sometimes distinctive computer. However, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities. This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC). The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers. Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, and sometimes even in toys.\n\nWhile von Neumann is most often credited with the design of the stored-program computer because of his design of EDVAC, and the design became known as the von Neumann architecture, others before him, such as Konrad Zuse, had suggested and implemented similar ideas. The so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory. The key difference between the von Neumann and Harvard architectures is that the latter separates the storage and treatment of CPU instructions and data, while the former uses the same memory space for both. Most modern CPUs are primarily von Neumann in design, but CPUs with the Harvard architecture are seen as well, especially in embedded applications; for instance, the Atmel AVR microcontrollers are Harvard architecture processors.\n\nRelays and vacuum tubes (thermionic tubes) were commonly used as switching elements; a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches. Tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the (slower, but earlier) Harvard Mark I failed very rarely. In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems. Most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs. Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, limited largely by the speed of the switching devices they were built with.\n\n===Transistor CPUs===\nIBM PowerPC 604e processor\n\nThe design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices. The first such improvement came with the advent of the transistor. Transistorized CPUs during the 1950s and 1960s no longer had to be built out of bulky, unreliable, and fragile switching elements like vacuum tubes and relays. With this improvement more complex and reliable CPUs were built onto one or several printed circuit boards containing discrete (individual) components.\n\nIn 1964, IBM introduced its IBM System/360 computer architecture that was used in a series of computers capable of running the same programs with different speed and performance. This was significant at a time when most electronic computers were incompatible with one another, even those made by the same manufacturer. To facilitate this improvement, IBM utilized the concept of a microprogram (often called \"microcode\"), which still sees widespread usage in modern CPUs. The System/360 architecture was so popular that it dominated the mainframe computer market for decades and left a legacy that is still continued by similar modern computers like the IBM zSeries. In 1965, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced another influential computer aimed at the scientific and research markets, the PDP-8.\nFujitsu board with SPARC64 VIIIfx processors\nTransistor-based computers had several distinct advantages over their predecessors. Aside from facilitating increased reliability and lower power consumption, transistors also allowed CPUs to operate at much higher speeds because of the short switching time of a transistor in comparison to a tube or relay. The increased reliability and dramatically increased speed of the switching elements (which were almost exclusively transistors by this time), CPU clock rates in the tens of megahertz were easily obtained during this period. Additionally while discrete transistor and IC CPUs were in heavy usage, new high-performance designs like SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) vector processors began to appear. These early experimental designs later gave rise to the era of specialized supercomputers like those made by Cray Inc and Fujitsu Ltd.\n\n===Small-scale integration CPUs===\ncore memory, and external bus interface of a DEC PDP-8/I. Made of medium-scale integrated circuits.\n\nDuring this period, a method of manufacturing many interconnected transistors in a compact space was developed. The integrated circuit (IC) allowed a large number of transistors to be manufactured on a single semiconductor-based die, or \"chip\". At first, only very basic non-specialized digital circuits such as NOR gates were miniaturized into ICs. CPUs based on these \"building block\" ICs are generally referred to as \"small-scale integration\" (SSI) devices. SSI ICs, such as the ones used in the Apollo guidance computer, usually contained up to a few dozen transistors. To build an entire CPU out of SSI ICs required thousands of individual chips, but still consumed much less space and power than earlier discrete transistor designs.\n\nIBM's System/370 follow-on to the System/360 used SSI ICs rather than Solid Logic Technology discrete-transistor modules. DEC's PDP-8/I and KI10 PDP-10 also switched from the individual transistors used by the PDP-8 and PDP-10 to SSI ICs, and their extremely popular PDP-11 line was originally built with SSI ICs but was eventually implemented with LSI components once these became practical.\n\n===Large-scale integration CPUs===\nLee Boysel published influential articles, including a 1967 \"manifesto\", which described how to build the equivalent of a 32-bit mainframe computer from a relatively small number of large-scale integration circuits (LSI). At the time, the only way to build LSI chips, which are chips with a hundred or more gates, was to build them using a MOS process (i.e., PMOS logic, NMOS logic, or CMOS logic). However, some companies continued to build processors out of bipolar chips because bipolar junction transistors were so much faster than MOS chips; for example, Datapoint built processors out of transistor–transistor logic (TTL) chips until the early 1980s. At the time, MOS ICs were so slow that they were considered useful only in a few niche applications that required low power.\n\nAs the microelectronic technology advanced, an increasing number of transistors were placed on ICs, decreasing the number of individual ICs needed for a complete CPU. MSI and LSI ICs increased transistor counts to hundreds, and then thousands. By 1968, the number of ICs required to build a complete CPU had been reduced to 24 ICs of eight different types, with each IC containing roughly 1000 MOSFETs. In stark contrast with its SSI and MSI predecessors, the first LSI implementation of the PDP-11 contained a CPU composed of only four LSI integrated circuits.\n\n===Microprocessors===\n\n\n\nSince the introduction of the first commercially available microprocessor, the Intel 4004 in 1970, and the first widely used microprocessor, the Intel 8080 in 1974, this class of CPUs has almost completely overtaken all other central processing unit implementation methods. Mainframe and minicomputer manufacturers of the time launched proprietary IC development programs to upgrade their older computer architectures, and eventually produced instruction set compatible microprocessors that were backward-compatible with their older hardware and software. Combined with the advent and eventual success of the ubiquitous personal computer, the term ''CPU'' is now applied almost exclusively to microprocessors. Several CPUs (denoted ''cores'') can be combined in a single processing chip.\n\n\nPrevious generations of CPUs were implemented as discrete components and numerous small integrated circuits (ICs) on one or more circuit boards. Microprocessors, on the other hand, are CPUs manufactured on a very small number of ICs; usually just one. The overall smaller CPU size, as a result of being implemented on a single die, means faster switching time because of physical factors like decreased gate parasitic capacitance. This has allowed synchronous microprocessors to have clock rates ranging from tens of megahertz to several gigahertz. Additionally, the ability to construct exceedingly small transistors on an IC has increased the complexity and number of transistors in a single CPU many fold. This widely observed trend is described by Moore's law, which has proven to be a fairly accurate predictor of the growth of CPU (and other IC) complexity.\n\nWhile the complexity, size, construction, and general form of CPUs have changed enormously since 1950, it is notable that the basic design and function has not changed much at all. Almost all common CPUs today can be very accurately described as von Neumann stored-program machines. As the aforementioned Moore's law continues to hold true, concerns have arisen about the limits of integrated circuit transistor technology. Extreme miniaturization of electronic gates is causing the effects of phenomena like electromigration and subthreshold leakage to become much more significant. These newer concerns are among the many factors causing researchers to investigate new methods of computing such as the quantum computer, as well as to expand the usage of parallelism and other methods that extend the usefulness of the classical von Neumann model.\n",
"The fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless of the physical form they take, is to execute a sequence of stored instructions that is called a program. The instructions to be executed are kept in some kind of computer memory. Nearly all CPUs follow the fetch, decode and execute steps in their operation, which are collectively known as the instruction cycle.\n\nAfter the execution of an instruction, the entire process repeats, with the next instruction cycle normally fetching the next-in-sequence instruction because of the incremented value in the program counter. If a jump instruction was executed, the program counter will be modified to contain the address of the instruction that was jumped to and program execution continues normally. In more complex CPUs, multiple instructions can be fetched, decoded, and executed simultaneously. This section describes what is generally referred to as the \"classic RISC pipeline\", which is quite common among the simple CPUs used in many electronic devices (often called microcontroller). It largely ignores the important role of CPU cache, and therefore the access stage of the pipeline.\n\nSome instructions manipulate the program counter rather than producing result data directly; such instructions are generally called \"jumps\" and facilitate program behavior like loops, conditional program execution (through the use of a conditional jump), and existence of functions. In some processors, some other instructions change the state of bits in a \"flags\" register. These flags can be used to influence how a program behaves, since they often indicate the outcome of various operations. For example, in such processors a \"compare\" instruction evaluates two values and sets or clears bits in the flags register to indicate which one is greater or whether they are equal; one of these flags could then be used by a later jump instruction to determine program flow.\n\n===Fetch===\nThe first step, fetch, involves retrieving an instruction (which is represented by a number or sequence of numbers) from program memory. The instruction's location (address) in program memory is determined by a program counter (PC), which stores a number that identifies the address of the next instruction to be fetched. After an instruction is fetched, the PC is incremented by the length of the instruction so that it will contain the address of the next instruction in the sequence. Often, the instruction to be fetched must be retrieved from relatively slow memory, causing the CPU to stall while waiting for the instruction to be returned. This issue is largely addressed in modern processors by caches and pipeline architectures (see below).\n\n===Decode===\nThe instruction that the CPU fetches from memory determines what the CPU will do. In the decode step, performed by the circuitry known as the ''instruction decoder'', the instruction is converted into signals that control other parts of the CPU.\n\nThe way in which the instruction is interpreted is defined by the CPU's instruction set architecture (ISA). Often, one group of bits (that is, a \"field\") within the instruction, called the opcode, indicates which operation is to be performed, while the remaining fields usually provide supplemental information required for the operation, such as the operands. Those operands may be specified as a constant value (called an immediate value), or as the location of a value that may be a processor register or a memory address, as determined by some addressing mode.\n\nIn some CPU designs the instruction decoder is implemented as a hardwired, unchangeable circuit. In others, a microprogram is used to translate instructions into sets of CPU configuration signals that are applied sequentially over multiple clock pulses. In some cases the memory that stores the microprogram is rewritable, making it possible to change the way in which the CPU decodes instructions.\n\n===Execute===\nAfter the fetch and decode steps, the execute step is performed. Depending on the CPU architecture, this may consist of a single action or a sequence of actions. During each action, various parts of the CPU are electrically connected so they can perform all or part of the desired operation and then the action is completed, typically in response to a clock pulse. Very often the results are written to an internal CPU register for quick access by subsequent instructions. In other cases results may be written to slower, but less expensive and higher capacity main memory.\n\nFor example, if an addition instruction is to be executed, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) inputs are connected to a pair of operand sources (numbers to be summed), the ALU is configured to perform an addition operation so that the sum of its operand inputs will appear at its output, and the ALU output is connected to storage (e.g., a register or memory) that will receive the sum. When the clock pulse occurs, the sum will be transferred to storage and, if the resulting sum is too large (i.e., it is larger than the ALU's output word size), an arithmetic overflow flag will be set.\n",
"\nBlock diagram of a basic uniprocessor-CPU computer. Black lines indicate data flow, whereas red lines indicate control flow; arrows indicate flow directions.\n\nHardwired into a CPU's circuitry is a set of basic operations it can perform, called an instruction set. Such operations may involve, for example, adding or subtracting two numbers, comparing two numbers, or jumping to a different part of a program. Each basic operation is represented by a particular combination of bits, known as the machine language opcode; while executing instructions in a machine language program, the CPU decides which operation to perform by \"decoding\" the opcode. A complete machine language instruction consists of an opcode and, in many cases, additional bits that specify arguments for the operation (for example, the numbers to be summed in the case of an addition operation). Going up the complexity scale, a machine language program is a collection of machine language instructions that the CPU executes.\n\nThe actual mathematical operation for each instruction is performed by a combinational logic circuit within the CPU's processor known as the arithmetic logic unit or ALU. In general, a CPU executes an instruction by fetching it from memory, using its ALU to perform an operation, and then storing the result to memory. Beside the instructions for integer mathematics and logic operations, various other machine instructions exist, such as those for loading data from memory and storing it back, branching operations, and mathematical operations on floating-point numbers performed by the CPU's floating-point unit (FPU).\n\n===Control unit===\n\nThe control unit of the CPU contains circuitry that uses electrical signals to direct the entire computer system to carry out stored program instructions. The control unit does not execute program instructions; rather, it directs other parts of the system to do so. The control unit communicates with both the ALU and memory.\n\n===Arithmetic logic unit===\n\nSymbolic representation of an ALU and its input and output signals\n\nThe arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit within the processor that performs integer arithmetic and bitwise logic operations. The inputs to the ALU are the data words to be operated on (called operands), status information from previous operations, and a code from the control unit indicating which operation to perform. Depending on the instruction being executed, the operands may come from internal CPU registers or external memory, or they may be constants generated by the ALU itself.\n\nWhen all input signals have settled and propagated through the ALU circuitry, the result of the performed operation appears at the ALU's outputs. The result consists of both a data word, which may be stored in a register or memory, and status information that is typically stored in a special, internal CPU register reserved for this purpose.\n\n===Memory management unit===\n\n\nMost high-end microprocessors (in desktop, laptop, server computers) have a memory management unit, translating logical addresses into physical RAM addresses, providing memory protection and paging abilities, useful for virtual memory. Simpler processors, especially microcontrollers, usually don't include an MMU.\n\n===Clock rate===\n\nMost CPUs are synchronous circuits, which means they employ a clock signal to pace their sequential operations. The clock signal is produced by an external oscillator circuit that generates a consistent number of pulses each second in the form of a periodic square wave. The frequency of the clock pulses determines the rate at which a CPU executes instructions and, consequently, the faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU will execute each second.\n\nTo ensure proper operation of the CPU, the clock period is longer than the maximum time needed for all signals to propagate (move) through the CPU. In setting the clock period to a value well above the worst-case propagation delay, it is possible to design the entire CPU and the way it moves data around the \"edges\" of the rising and falling clock signal. This has the advantage of simplifying the CPU significantly, both from a design perspective and a component-count perspective. However, it also carries the disadvantage that the entire CPU must wait on its slowest elements, even though some portions of it are much faster. This limitation has largely been compensated for by various methods of increasing CPU parallelism (see below).\n\nHowever, architectural improvements alone do not solve all of the drawbacks of globally synchronous CPUs. For example, a clock signal is subject to the delays of any other electrical signal. Higher clock rates in increasingly complex CPUs make it more difficult to keep the clock signal in phase (synchronized) throughout the entire unit. This has led many modern CPUs to require multiple identical clock signals to be provided to avoid delaying a single signal significantly enough to cause the CPU to malfunction. Another major issue, as clock rates increase dramatically, is the amount of heat that is dissipated by the CPU. The constantly changing clock causes many components to switch regardless of whether they are being used at that time. In general, a component that is switching uses more energy than an element in a static state. Therefore, as clock rate increases, so does energy consumption, causing the CPU to require more heat dissipation in the form of CPU cooling solutions.\n\nOne method of dealing with the switching of unneeded components is called clock gating, which involves turning off the clock signal to unneeded components (effectively disabling them). However, this is often regarded as difficult to implement and therefore does not see common usage outside of very low-power designs. One notable recent CPU design that uses extensive clock gating is the IBM PowerPC-based Xenon used in the Xbox 360; that way, power requirements of the Xbox 360 are greatly reduced. Another method of addressing some of the problems with a global clock signal is the removal of the clock signal altogether. While removing the global clock signal makes the design process considerably more complex in many ways, asynchronous (or clockless) designs carry marked advantages in power consumption and heat dissipation in comparison with similar synchronous designs. While somewhat uncommon, entire asynchronous CPUs have been built without utilizing a global clock signal. Two notable examples of this are the ARM compliant AMULET and the MIPS R3000 compatible MiniMIPS.\n\nRather than totally removing the clock signal, some CPU designs allow certain portions of the device to be asynchronous, such as using asynchronous ALUs in conjunction with superscalar pipelining to achieve some arithmetic performance gains. While it is not altogether clear whether totally asynchronous designs can perform at a comparable or better level than their synchronous counterparts, it is evident that they do at least excel in simpler math operations. This, combined with their excellent power consumption and heat dissipation properties, makes them very suitable for embedded computers.\n\n===Integer range===\nEvery CPU represents numerical values in a specific way. For example, some early digital computers represented numbers as familiar decimal (base 10) numeral system values, and others have employed more unusual representations such as ternary (base three). Nearly all modern CPUs represent numbers in binary form, with each digit being represented by some two-valued physical quantity such as a \"high\" or \"low\" voltage.\n\nA six-bit word containing the binary encoded representation of decimal value 40. Most modern CPUs employ word sizes that are a power of two, for example 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits.\n\nRelated to numeric representation is the size and precision of integer numbers that a CPU can represent. In the case of a binary CPU, this is measured by the number of bits (significant digits of a binary encoded integer) that the CPU can process in one operation, which is commonly called \"word size\", \"bit width\", \"data path width\", \"integer precision\", or \"integer size\". A CPU's integer size determines the range of integer values it can directly operate on. For example, an 8-bit CPU can directly manipulate integers represented by eight bits, which have a range of 256 (28) discrete integer values.\n\nInteger range can also affect the number of memory locations the CPU can directly address (an address is an integer value representing a specific memory location). For example, if a binary CPU uses 32 bits to represent a memory address then it can directly address 232 memory locations. To circumvent this limitation and for various other reasons, some CPUs use mechanisms (such as bank switching) that allow additional memory to be addressed.\n\nCPUs with larger word sizes require more circuitry and consequently are physically larger, cost more, and consume more power (and therefore generate more heat). As a result, smaller 4- or 8-bit microcontrollers are commonly used in modern applications even though CPUs with much larger word sizes (such as 16, 32, 64, even 128-bit) are available. When higher performance is required, however, the benefits of a larger word size (larger data ranges and address spaces) may outweigh the disadvantages. A CPU can have internal data paths shorter than the word size to reduce size and cost. For example, even though the IBM System/360 instruction set was a 32-bit instruction set, the System/360 Model 30 and Model 40 had 8-bit data paths in the arithmetic logical unit, so that a 32-bit add required four cycles, one for each 8 bits of the operands, and, even though the Motorola 68000 series instruction set was a 32-bit instruction set, the Motorola 68000 and Motorola 68010 had 16-bit data paths in the arithmetic logical unit, so that a 32-bit add required two cycles.\n\nTo gain some of the advantages afforded by both lower and higher bit lengths, many instruction sets have different bit widths for integer and floating-point data, allowing CPUs implementing that instruction set to have different bit widths for different portions of the device. For example, the IBM System/360 instruction set was primarily 32 bit, but supported 64-bit floating point values to facilitate greater accuracy and range in floating point numbers. The System/360 Model 65 had an 8-bit adder for decimal and fixed-point binary arithmetic and a 60-bit adder for floating-point arithmetic. Many later CPU designs use similar mixed bit width, especially when the processor is meant for general-purpose usage where a reasonable balance of integer and floating point capability is required.\n\n===Parallelism===\n\nModel of a subscalar CPU, in which it takes fifteen clock cycles to complete three instructions.\n\nThe description of the basic operation of a CPU offered in the previous section describes the simplest form that a CPU can take. This type of CPU, usually referred to as ''subscalar'', operates on and executes one instruction on one or two pieces of data at a time, that is less than one instruction per clock cycle ().\n\nThis process gives rise to an inherent inefficiency in subscalar CPUs. Since only one instruction is executed at a time, the entire CPU must wait for that instruction to complete before proceeding to the next instruction. As a result, the subscalar CPU gets \"hung up\" on instructions which take more than one clock cycle to complete execution. Even adding a second execution unit (see below) does not improve performance much; rather than one pathway being hung up, now two pathways are hung up and the number of unused transistors is increased. This design, wherein the CPU's execution resources can operate on only one instruction at a time, can only possibly reach ''scalar'' performance (one instruction per clock cycle, ). However, the performance is nearly always subscalar (less than one instruction per clock cycle, ).\n\nAttempts to achieve scalar and better performance have resulted in a variety of design methodologies that cause the CPU to behave less linearly and more in parallel. When referring to parallelism in CPUs, two terms are generally used to classify these design techniques:\n* ''instruction-level parallelism'' (ILP), which seeks to increase the rate at which instructions are executed within a CPU (that is, to increase the utilization of on-die execution resources);\n* ''task-level parallelism'' (TLP), which purposes to increase the number of threads or processes that a CPU can execute simultaneously.\n\nEach methodology differs both in the ways in which they are implemented, as well as the relative effectiveness they afford in increasing the CPU's performance for an application.\n\n====Instruction-level parallelism====\n\nBasic five-stage pipeline. In the best case scenario, this pipeline can sustain a completion rate of one instruction per clock cycle.\n\nOne of the simplest methods used to accomplish increased parallelism is to begin the first steps of instruction fetching and decoding before the prior instruction finishes executing. This is the simplest form of a technique known as instruction pipelining, and is utilized in almost all modern general-purpose CPUs. Pipelining allows more than one instruction to be executed at any given time by breaking down the execution pathway into discrete stages. This separation can be compared to an assembly line, in which an instruction is made more complete at each stage until it exits the execution pipeline and is retired.\n\nPipelining does, however, introduce the possibility for a situation where the result of the previous operation is needed to complete the next operation; a condition often termed data dependency conflict. To cope with this, additional care must be taken to check for these sorts of conditions and delay a portion of the instruction pipeline if this occurs. Naturally, accomplishing this requires additional circuitry, so pipelined processors are more complex than subscalar ones (though not very significantly so). A pipelined processor can become very nearly scalar, inhibited only by pipeline stalls (an instruction spending more than one clock cycle in a stage).\n\nA simple superscalar pipeline. By fetching and dispatching two instructions at a time, a maximum of two instructions per clock cycle can be completed.\n\nFurther improvement upon the idea of instruction pipelining led to the development of a method that decreases the idle time of CPU components even further. Designs that are said to be ''superscalar'' include a long instruction pipeline and multiple identical execution units. In a superscalar pipeline, multiple instructions are read and passed to a dispatcher, which decides whether or not the instructions can be executed in parallel (simultaneously). If so they are dispatched to available execution units, resulting in the ability for several instructions to be executed simultaneously. In general, the more instructions a superscalar CPU is able to dispatch simultaneously to waiting execution units, the more instructions will be completed in a given cycle.\n\nMost of the difficulty in the design of a superscalar CPU architecture lies in creating an effective dispatcher. The dispatcher needs to be able to quickly and correctly determine whether instructions can be executed in parallel, as well as dispatch them in such a way as to keep as many execution units busy as possible. This requires that the instruction pipeline is filled as often as possible and gives rise to the need in superscalar architectures for significant amounts of CPU cache. It also makes hazard-avoiding techniques like branch prediction, speculative execution, and out-of-order execution crucial to maintaining high levels of performance. By attempting to predict which branch (or path) a conditional instruction will take, the CPU can minimize the number of times that the entire pipeline must wait until a conditional instruction is completed. Speculative execution often provides modest performance increases by executing portions of code that may not be needed after a conditional operation completes. Out-of-order execution somewhat rearranges the order in which instructions are executed to reduce delays due to data dependencies. Also in case of single instruction stream, multiple data stream—a case when a lot of data from the same type has to be processed—, modern processors can disable parts of the pipeline so that when a single instruction is executed many times, the CPU skips the fetch and decode phases and thus greatly increases performance on certain occasions, especially in highly monotonous program engines such as video creation software and photo processing.\n\nIn the case where a portion of the CPU is superscalar and part is not, the part which is not suffers a performance penalty due to scheduling stalls. The Intel P5 Pentium had two superscalar ALUs which could accept one instruction per clock cycle each, but its FPU could not accept one instruction per clock cycle. Thus the P5 was integer superscalar but not floating point superscalar. Intel's successor to the P5 architecture, P6, added superscalar capabilities to its floating point features, and therefore afforded a significant increase in floating point instruction performance.\n\nBoth simple pipelining and superscalar design increase a CPU's ILP by allowing a single processor to complete execution of instructions at rates surpassing one instruction per clock cycle. Most modern CPU designs are at least somewhat superscalar, and nearly all general purpose CPUs designed in the last decade are superscalar. In later years some of the emphasis in designing high-ILP computers has been moved out of the CPU's hardware and into its software interface, or ISA. The strategy of the very long instruction word (VLIW) causes some ILP to become implied directly by the software, reducing the amount of work the CPU must perform to boost ILP and thereby reducing the design's complexity.\n\n====Task-level parallelism====\n\nAnother strategy of achieving performance is to execute multiple threads or processes in parallel. This area of research is known as parallel computing. In Flynn's taxonomy, this strategy is known as multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream (MIMD).\n\nOne technology used for this purpose was multiprocessing (MP). The initial flavor of this technology is known as symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), where a small number of CPUs share a coherent view of their memory system. In this scheme, each CPU has additional hardware to maintain a constantly up-to-date view of memory. By avoiding stale views of memory, the CPUs can cooperate on the same program and programs can migrate from one CPU to another. To increase the number of cooperating CPUs beyond a handful, schemes such as non-uniform memory access (NUMA) and directory-based coherence protocols were introduced in the 1990s. SMP systems are limited to a small number of CPUs while NUMA systems have been built with thousands of processors. Initially, multiprocessing was built using multiple discrete CPUs and boards to implement the interconnect between the processors. When the processors and their interconnect are all implemented on a single chip, the technology is known as chip-level multiprocessing (CMP) and the single chip as a multi-core processor.\n\nIt was later recognized that finer-grain parallelism existed with a single program. A single program might have several threads (or functions) that could be executed separately or in parallel. Some of the earliest examples of this technology implemented input/output processing such as direct memory access as a separate thread from the computation thread. A more general approach to this technology was introduced in the 1970s when systems were designed to run multiple computation threads in parallel. This technology is known as multi-threading (MT). This approach is considered more cost-effective than multiprocessing, as only a small number of components within a CPU is replicated to support MT as opposed to the entire CPU in the case of MP. In MT, the execution units and the memory system including the caches are shared among multiple threads. The downside of MT is that the hardware support for multithreading is more visible to software than that of MP and thus supervisor software like operating systems have to undergo larger changes to support MT. One type of MT that was implemented is known as temporal multithreading, where one thread is executed until it is stalled waiting for data to return from external memory. In this scheme, the CPU would then quickly context switch to another thread which is ready to run, the switch often done in one CPU clock cycle, such as the UltraSPARC T1. Another type of MT is simultaneous multithreading, where instructions from multiple threads are executed in parallel within one CPU clock cycle.\n\nFor several decades from the 1970s to early 2000s, the focus in designing high performance general purpose CPUs was largely on achieving high ILP through technologies such as pipelining, caches, superscalar execution, out-of-order execution, etc. This trend culminated in large, power-hungry CPUs such as the Intel Pentium 4. By the early 2000s, CPU designers were thwarted from achieving higher performance from ILP techniques due to the growing disparity between CPU operating frequencies and main memory operating frequencies as well as escalating CPU power dissipation owing to more esoteric ILP techniques.\n\nCPU designers then borrowed ideas from commercial computing markets such as transaction processing, where the aggregate performance of multiple programs, also known as throughput computing, was more important than the performance of a single thread or process.\n\nThis reversal of emphasis is evidenced by the proliferation of dual and more core processor designs and notably, Intel's newer designs resembling its less superscalar P6 architecture. Late designs in several processor families exhibit CMP, including the x86-64 Opteron and Athlon 64 X2, the SPARC UltraSPARC T1, IBM POWER4 and POWER5, as well as several video game console CPUs like the Xbox 360's triple-core PowerPC design, and the PlayStation 3's 7-core Cell microprocessor.\n\n====Data parallelism====\n\nA less common but increasingly important paradigm of processors (and indeed, computing in general) deals with data parallelism. The processors discussed earlier are all referred to as some type of scalar device. As the name implies, vector processors deal with multiple pieces of data in the context of one instruction. This contrasts with scalar processors, which deal with one piece of data for every instruction. Using Flynn's taxonomy, these two schemes of dealing with data are generally referred to as single instruction stream, multiple data stream (SIMD) and single instruction stream, single data stream (SISD), respectively. The great utility in creating processors that deal with vectors of data lies in optimizing tasks that tend to require the same operation (for example, a sum or a dot product) to be performed on a large set of data. Some classic examples of these types of tasks include multimedia applications (images, video, and sound), as well as many types of scientific and engineering tasks. Whereas a scalar processor must complete the entire process of fetching, decoding, and executing each instruction and value in a set of data, a vector processor can perform a single operation on a comparatively large set of data with one instruction. Of course, this is only possible when the application tends to require many steps which apply one operation to a large set of data.\n\nMost early vector processors, such as the Cray-1, were associated almost exclusively with scientific research and cryptography applications. However, as multimedia has largely shifted to digital media, the need for some form of SIMD in general-purpose processors has become significant. Shortly after inclusion of floating-point units started to become commonplace in general-purpose processors, specifications for and implementations of SIMD execution units also began to appear for general-purpose processors. Some of these early SIMD specifications - like HP's Multimedia Acceleration eXtensions (MAX) and Intel's MMX - were integer-only. This proved to be a significant impediment for some software developers, since many of the applications that benefit from SIMD primarily deal with floating-point numbers. Progressively, developers refined and remade these early designs into some of the common modern SIMD specifications, which are usually associated with one ISA. Some notable modern examples include Intel's SSE and the PowerPC-related AltiVec (also known as VMX).\n\n===Virtual CPUs===\n\nCloud computing can involve subdividing CPU operation into '''virtual central processing units''' (vCPUs).\n\nA host is the virtual equivalent of a physical machine, on which a virtual system is operating. When there are several physical machines operating in tandem and managed as a whole, the grouped computing and memory resources form a cluster. In some systems it is possible to dynamically add and remove from a cluster. Resources available at a host and cluster level can be partitioned out into resources pools with fine granularity.\n",
"\nThe ''performance'' or ''speed'' of a processor depends on, among many other factors, the clock rate (generally given in multiples of hertz) and the instructions per clock (IPC), which together are the factors for the instructions per second (IPS) that the CPU can perform.\nMany reported IPS values have represented \"peak\" execution rates on artificial instruction sequences with few branches, whereas realistic workloads consist of a mix of instructions and applications, some of which take longer to execute than others. The performance of the memory hierarchy also greatly affects processor performance, an issue barely considered in MIPS calculations. Because of these problems, various standardized tests, often called \"benchmarks\" for this purposesuch as SPECinthave been developed to attempt to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications.\n\nProcessing performance of computers is increased by using multi-core processors, which essentially is plugging two or more individual processors (called ''cores'' in this sense) into one integrated circuit. Ideally, a dual core processor would be nearly twice as powerful as a single core processor. In practice, the performance gain is far smaller, only about 50%, due to imperfect software algorithms and implementation. Increasing the number of cores in a processor (i.e. dual-core, quad-core, etc.) increases the workload that can be handled. This means that the processor can now handle numerous asynchronous events, interrupts, etc. which can take a toll on the CPU when overwhelmed. These cores can be thought of as different floors in a processing plant, with each floor handling a different task. Sometimes, these cores will handle the same tasks as cores adjacent to them if a single core is not enough to handle the information.\n\nDue to specific capabilities of modern CPUs, such as hyper-threading and uncore, which involve sharing of actual CPU resources while aiming at increased utilization, monitoring performance levels and hardware utilization gradually became a more complex task. As a response, some CPUs implement additional hardware logic that monitors actual utilization of various parts of a CPU and provides various counters accessible to software; an example is Intel's ''Performance Counter Monitor'' technology.\n",
"\n\n* Addressing mode\n* AMD Accelerated Processing Unit\n* CISC\n* Computer bus\n* Computer engineering\n* CPU core voltage\n* CPU socket\n* Digital signal processor\n* Hyper-threading\n* List of CPU architectures\n* Microprocessor\n* Multi-core processor\n* Protection ring\n* RISC\n* Stream processing\n* True Performance Index\n* Wait state\n\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"\n\n\n\n* .\n* 25 Microchips that shook the world – an article by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Operation",
"Structure and implementation",
"{{anchor|PCM}}Performance",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Central processing unit | [
"To circumvent this limitation and for various other reasons, some CPUs use mechanisms (such as bank switching) that allow additional memory to be addressed."
] | [
"\n\n\n\nA '''central processing unit''' ('''CPU''') is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions.",
"The computer industry has used the term \"central processing unit\" at least since the early 1960s.",
"Traditionally, the term \"CPU\" refers to a '''processor''', more specifically to its processing unit and control unit (CU), distinguishing these core elements of a computer from external components such as main memory and I/O circuitry.",
"The form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, but their fundamental operation remains almost unchanged.",
"Principal components of a CPU include the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that performs arithmetic and logic operations, processor registers that supply operands to the ALU and store the results of ALU operations, and a control unit that orchestrates the fetching (from memory) and execution of instructions by directing the coordinated operations of the ALU, registers and other components.",
"Most modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit (IC) chip.",
"An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, and other components of a computer; such integrated devices are variously called microcontrollers or systems on a chip (SoC).",
"Some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called \"cores\"; in that context, one can speak of such single chips as \"sockets\".",
"Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, with no unit considered central.",
"There also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources.",
"\nEDVAC, one of the first stored-program computers\n\nEarly computers such as the ENIAC had to be physically rewired to perform different tasks, which caused these machines to be called \"fixed-program computers\".",
"Since the term \"CPU\" is generally defined as a device for software (computer program) execution, the earliest devices that could rightly be called CPUs came with the advent of the stored-program computer.",
"The idea of a stored-program computer was already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchly's ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner.",
"On June 30, 1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed the paper entitled ''First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC''.",
"It was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949.",
"EDVAC was designed to perform a certain number of instructions (or operations) of various types.",
"Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the physical wiring of the computer.",
"This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time and effort required to reconfigure the computer to perform a new task.",
"With von Neumann's design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory.",
"EDVAC, however, was not the first stored-program computer; the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine, a small prototype stored-program computer, ran its first program on 21 June 1948 and the Manchester Mark 1 ran its first program during the night of 16–17 June 1949.",
"Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger and sometimes distinctive computer.",
"However, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities.",
"This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC).",
"The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers.",
"Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines.",
"Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, and sometimes even in toys.",
"While von Neumann is most often credited with the design of the stored-program computer because of his design of EDVAC, and the design became known as the von Neumann architecture, others before him, such as Konrad Zuse, had suggested and implemented similar ideas.",
"The so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory.",
"The key difference between the von Neumann and Harvard architectures is that the latter separates the storage and treatment of CPU instructions and data, while the former uses the same memory space for both.",
"Most modern CPUs are primarily von Neumann in design, but CPUs with the Harvard architecture are seen as well, especially in embedded applications; for instance, the Atmel AVR microcontrollers are Harvard architecture processors.",
"Relays and vacuum tubes (thermionic tubes) were commonly used as switching elements; a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices.",
"The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches.",
"Tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the (slower, but earlier) Harvard Mark I failed very rarely.",
"In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems.",
"Most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs.",
"Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, limited largely by the speed of the switching devices they were built with.",
"===Transistor CPUs===\nIBM PowerPC 604e processor\n\nThe design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices.",
"The first such improvement came with the advent of the transistor.",
"Transistorized CPUs during the 1950s and 1960s no longer had to be built out of bulky, unreliable, and fragile switching elements like vacuum tubes and relays.",
"With this improvement more complex and reliable CPUs were built onto one or several printed circuit boards containing discrete (individual) components.",
"In 1964, IBM introduced its IBM System/360 computer architecture that was used in a series of computers capable of running the same programs with different speed and performance.",
"This was significant at a time when most electronic computers were incompatible with one another, even those made by the same manufacturer.",
"To facilitate this improvement, IBM utilized the concept of a microprogram (often called \"microcode\"), which still sees widespread usage in modern CPUs.",
"The System/360 architecture was so popular that it dominated the mainframe computer market for decades and left a legacy that is still continued by similar modern computers like the IBM zSeries.",
"In 1965, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced another influential computer aimed at the scientific and research markets, the PDP-8.",
"Fujitsu board with SPARC64 VIIIfx processors\nTransistor-based computers had several distinct advantages over their predecessors.",
"Aside from facilitating increased reliability and lower power consumption, transistors also allowed CPUs to operate at much higher speeds because of the short switching time of a transistor in comparison to a tube or relay.",
"The increased reliability and dramatically increased speed of the switching elements (which were almost exclusively transistors by this time), CPU clock rates in the tens of megahertz were easily obtained during this period.",
"Additionally while discrete transistor and IC CPUs were in heavy usage, new high-performance designs like SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) vector processors began to appear.",
"These early experimental designs later gave rise to the era of specialized supercomputers like those made by Cray Inc and Fujitsu Ltd.\n\n===Small-scale integration CPUs===\ncore memory, and external bus interface of a DEC PDP-8/I.",
"Made of medium-scale integrated circuits.",
"During this period, a method of manufacturing many interconnected transistors in a compact space was developed.",
"The integrated circuit (IC) allowed a large number of transistors to be manufactured on a single semiconductor-based die, or \"chip\".",
"At first, only very basic non-specialized digital circuits such as NOR gates were miniaturized into ICs.",
"CPUs based on these \"building block\" ICs are generally referred to as \"small-scale integration\" (SSI) devices.",
"SSI ICs, such as the ones used in the Apollo guidance computer, usually contained up to a few dozen transistors.",
"To build an entire CPU out of SSI ICs required thousands of individual chips, but still consumed much less space and power than earlier discrete transistor designs.",
"IBM's System/370 follow-on to the System/360 used SSI ICs rather than Solid Logic Technology discrete-transistor modules.",
"DEC's PDP-8/I and KI10 PDP-10 also switched from the individual transistors used by the PDP-8 and PDP-10 to SSI ICs, and their extremely popular PDP-11 line was originally built with SSI ICs but was eventually implemented with LSI components once these became practical.",
"===Large-scale integration CPUs===\nLee Boysel published influential articles, including a 1967 \"manifesto\", which described how to build the equivalent of a 32-bit mainframe computer from a relatively small number of large-scale integration circuits (LSI).",
"At the time, the only way to build LSI chips, which are chips with a hundred or more gates, was to build them using a MOS process (i.e., PMOS logic, NMOS logic, or CMOS logic).",
"However, some companies continued to build processors out of bipolar chips because bipolar junction transistors were so much faster than MOS chips; for example, Datapoint built processors out of transistor–transistor logic (TTL) chips until the early 1980s.",
"At the time, MOS ICs were so slow that they were considered useful only in a few niche applications that required low power.",
"As the microelectronic technology advanced, an increasing number of transistors were placed on ICs, decreasing the number of individual ICs needed for a complete CPU.",
"MSI and LSI ICs increased transistor counts to hundreds, and then thousands.",
"By 1968, the number of ICs required to build a complete CPU had been reduced to 24 ICs of eight different types, with each IC containing roughly 1000 MOSFETs.",
"In stark contrast with its SSI and MSI predecessors, the first LSI implementation of the PDP-11 contained a CPU composed of only four LSI integrated circuits.",
"===Microprocessors===\n\n\n\nSince the introduction of the first commercially available microprocessor, the Intel 4004 in 1970, and the first widely used microprocessor, the Intel 8080 in 1974, this class of CPUs has almost completely overtaken all other central processing unit implementation methods.",
"Mainframe and minicomputer manufacturers of the time launched proprietary IC development programs to upgrade their older computer architectures, and eventually produced instruction set compatible microprocessors that were backward-compatible with their older hardware and software.",
"Combined with the advent and eventual success of the ubiquitous personal computer, the term ''CPU'' is now applied almost exclusively to microprocessors.",
"Several CPUs (denoted ''cores'') can be combined in a single processing chip.",
"Previous generations of CPUs were implemented as discrete components and numerous small integrated circuits (ICs) on one or more circuit boards.",
"Microprocessors, on the other hand, are CPUs manufactured on a very small number of ICs; usually just one.",
"The overall smaller CPU size, as a result of being implemented on a single die, means faster switching time because of physical factors like decreased gate parasitic capacitance.",
"This has allowed synchronous microprocessors to have clock rates ranging from tens of megahertz to several gigahertz.",
"Additionally, the ability to construct exceedingly small transistors on an IC has increased the complexity and number of transistors in a single CPU many fold.",
"This widely observed trend is described by Moore's law, which has proven to be a fairly accurate predictor of the growth of CPU (and other IC) complexity.",
"While the complexity, size, construction, and general form of CPUs have changed enormously since 1950, it is notable that the basic design and function has not changed much at all.",
"Almost all common CPUs today can be very accurately described as von Neumann stored-program machines.",
"As the aforementioned Moore's law continues to hold true, concerns have arisen about the limits of integrated circuit transistor technology.",
"Extreme miniaturization of electronic gates is causing the effects of phenomena like electromigration and subthreshold leakage to become much more significant.",
"These newer concerns are among the many factors causing researchers to investigate new methods of computing such as the quantum computer, as well as to expand the usage of parallelism and other methods that extend the usefulness of the classical von Neumann model.",
"The fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless of the physical form they take, is to execute a sequence of stored instructions that is called a program.",
"The instructions to be executed are kept in some kind of computer memory.",
"Nearly all CPUs follow the fetch, decode and execute steps in their operation, which are collectively known as the instruction cycle.",
"After the execution of an instruction, the entire process repeats, with the next instruction cycle normally fetching the next-in-sequence instruction because of the incremented value in the program counter.",
"If a jump instruction was executed, the program counter will be modified to contain the address of the instruction that was jumped to and program execution continues normally.",
"In more complex CPUs, multiple instructions can be fetched, decoded, and executed simultaneously.",
"This section describes what is generally referred to as the \"classic RISC pipeline\", which is quite common among the simple CPUs used in many electronic devices (often called microcontroller).",
"It largely ignores the important role of CPU cache, and therefore the access stage of the pipeline.",
"Some instructions manipulate the program counter rather than producing result data directly; such instructions are generally called \"jumps\" and facilitate program behavior like loops, conditional program execution (through the use of a conditional jump), and existence of functions.",
"In some processors, some other instructions change the state of bits in a \"flags\" register.",
"These flags can be used to influence how a program behaves, since they often indicate the outcome of various operations.",
"For example, in such processors a \"compare\" instruction evaluates two values and sets or clears bits in the flags register to indicate which one is greater or whether they are equal; one of these flags could then be used by a later jump instruction to determine program flow.",
"===Fetch===\nThe first step, fetch, involves retrieving an instruction (which is represented by a number or sequence of numbers) from program memory.",
"The instruction's location (address) in program memory is determined by a program counter (PC), which stores a number that identifies the address of the next instruction to be fetched.",
"After an instruction is fetched, the PC is incremented by the length of the instruction so that it will contain the address of the next instruction in the sequence.",
"Often, the instruction to be fetched must be retrieved from relatively slow memory, causing the CPU to stall while waiting for the instruction to be returned.",
"This issue is largely addressed in modern processors by caches and pipeline architectures (see below).",
"===Decode===\nThe instruction that the CPU fetches from memory determines what the CPU will do.",
"In the decode step, performed by the circuitry known as the ''instruction decoder'', the instruction is converted into signals that control other parts of the CPU.",
"The way in which the instruction is interpreted is defined by the CPU's instruction set architecture (ISA).",
"Often, one group of bits (that is, a \"field\") within the instruction, called the opcode, indicates which operation is to be performed, while the remaining fields usually provide supplemental information required for the operation, such as the operands.",
"Those operands may be specified as a constant value (called an immediate value), or as the location of a value that may be a processor register or a memory address, as determined by some addressing mode.",
"In some CPU designs the instruction decoder is implemented as a hardwired, unchangeable circuit.",
"In others, a microprogram is used to translate instructions into sets of CPU configuration signals that are applied sequentially over multiple clock pulses.",
"In some cases the memory that stores the microprogram is rewritable, making it possible to change the way in which the CPU decodes instructions.",
"===Execute===\nAfter the fetch and decode steps, the execute step is performed.",
"Depending on the CPU architecture, this may consist of a single action or a sequence of actions.",
"During each action, various parts of the CPU are electrically connected so they can perform all or part of the desired operation and then the action is completed, typically in response to a clock pulse.",
"Very often the results are written to an internal CPU register for quick access by subsequent instructions.",
"In other cases results may be written to slower, but less expensive and higher capacity main memory.",
"For example, if an addition instruction is to be executed, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) inputs are connected to a pair of operand sources (numbers to be summed), the ALU is configured to perform an addition operation so that the sum of its operand inputs will appear at its output, and the ALU output is connected to storage (e.g., a register or memory) that will receive the sum.",
"When the clock pulse occurs, the sum will be transferred to storage and, if the resulting sum is too large (i.e., it is larger than the ALU's output word size), an arithmetic overflow flag will be set.",
"\nBlock diagram of a basic uniprocessor-CPU computer.",
"Black lines indicate data flow, whereas red lines indicate control flow; arrows indicate flow directions.",
"Hardwired into a CPU's circuitry is a set of basic operations it can perform, called an instruction set.",
"Such operations may involve, for example, adding or subtracting two numbers, comparing two numbers, or jumping to a different part of a program.",
"Each basic operation is represented by a particular combination of bits, known as the machine language opcode; while executing instructions in a machine language program, the CPU decides which operation to perform by \"decoding\" the opcode.",
"A complete machine language instruction consists of an opcode and, in many cases, additional bits that specify arguments for the operation (for example, the numbers to be summed in the case of an addition operation).",
"Going up the complexity scale, a machine language program is a collection of machine language instructions that the CPU executes.",
"The actual mathematical operation for each instruction is performed by a combinational logic circuit within the CPU's processor known as the arithmetic logic unit or ALU.",
"In general, a CPU executes an instruction by fetching it from memory, using its ALU to perform an operation, and then storing the result to memory.",
"Beside the instructions for integer mathematics and logic operations, various other machine instructions exist, such as those for loading data from memory and storing it back, branching operations, and mathematical operations on floating-point numbers performed by the CPU's floating-point unit (FPU).",
"===Control unit===\n\nThe control unit of the CPU contains circuitry that uses electrical signals to direct the entire computer system to carry out stored program instructions.",
"The control unit does not execute program instructions; rather, it directs other parts of the system to do so.",
"The control unit communicates with both the ALU and memory.",
"===Arithmetic logic unit===\n\nSymbolic representation of an ALU and its input and output signals\n\nThe arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit within the processor that performs integer arithmetic and bitwise logic operations.",
"The inputs to the ALU are the data words to be operated on (called operands), status information from previous operations, and a code from the control unit indicating which operation to perform.",
"Depending on the instruction being executed, the operands may come from internal CPU registers or external memory, or they may be constants generated by the ALU itself.",
"When all input signals have settled and propagated through the ALU circuitry, the result of the performed operation appears at the ALU's outputs.",
"The result consists of both a data word, which may be stored in a register or memory, and status information that is typically stored in a special, internal CPU register reserved for this purpose.",
"===Memory management unit===\n\n\nMost high-end microprocessors (in desktop, laptop, server computers) have a memory management unit, translating logical addresses into physical RAM addresses, providing memory protection and paging abilities, useful for virtual memory.",
"Simpler processors, especially microcontrollers, usually don't include an MMU.",
"===Clock rate===\n\nMost CPUs are synchronous circuits, which means they employ a clock signal to pace their sequential operations.",
"The clock signal is produced by an external oscillator circuit that generates a consistent number of pulses each second in the form of a periodic square wave.",
"The frequency of the clock pulses determines the rate at which a CPU executes instructions and, consequently, the faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU will execute each second.",
"To ensure proper operation of the CPU, the clock period is longer than the maximum time needed for all signals to propagate (move) through the CPU.",
"In setting the clock period to a value well above the worst-case propagation delay, it is possible to design the entire CPU and the way it moves data around the \"edges\" of the rising and falling clock signal.",
"This has the advantage of simplifying the CPU significantly, both from a design perspective and a component-count perspective.",
"However, it also carries the disadvantage that the entire CPU must wait on its slowest elements, even though some portions of it are much faster.",
"This limitation has largely been compensated for by various methods of increasing CPU parallelism (see below).",
"However, architectural improvements alone do not solve all of the drawbacks of globally synchronous CPUs.",
"For example, a clock signal is subject to the delays of any other electrical signal.",
"Higher clock rates in increasingly complex CPUs make it more difficult to keep the clock signal in phase (synchronized) throughout the entire unit.",
"This has led many modern CPUs to require multiple identical clock signals to be provided to avoid delaying a single signal significantly enough to cause the CPU to malfunction.",
"Another major issue, as clock rates increase dramatically, is the amount of heat that is dissipated by the CPU.",
"The constantly changing clock causes many components to switch regardless of whether they are being used at that time.",
"In general, a component that is switching uses more energy than an element in a static state.",
"Therefore, as clock rate increases, so does energy consumption, causing the CPU to require more heat dissipation in the form of CPU cooling solutions.",
"One method of dealing with the switching of unneeded components is called clock gating, which involves turning off the clock signal to unneeded components (effectively disabling them).",
"However, this is often regarded as difficult to implement and therefore does not see common usage outside of very low-power designs.",
"One notable recent CPU design that uses extensive clock gating is the IBM PowerPC-based Xenon used in the Xbox 360; that way, power requirements of the Xbox 360 are greatly reduced.",
"Another method of addressing some of the problems with a global clock signal is the removal of the clock signal altogether.",
"While removing the global clock signal makes the design process considerably more complex in many ways, asynchronous (or clockless) designs carry marked advantages in power consumption and heat dissipation in comparison with similar synchronous designs.",
"While somewhat uncommon, entire asynchronous CPUs have been built without utilizing a global clock signal.",
"Two notable examples of this are the ARM compliant AMULET and the MIPS R3000 compatible MiniMIPS.",
"Rather than totally removing the clock signal, some CPU designs allow certain portions of the device to be asynchronous, such as using asynchronous ALUs in conjunction with superscalar pipelining to achieve some arithmetic performance gains.",
"While it is not altogether clear whether totally asynchronous designs can perform at a comparable or better level than their synchronous counterparts, it is evident that they do at least excel in simpler math operations.",
"This, combined with their excellent power consumption and heat dissipation properties, makes them very suitable for embedded computers.",
"===Integer range===\nEvery CPU represents numerical values in a specific way.",
"For example, some early digital computers represented numbers as familiar decimal (base 10) numeral system values, and others have employed more unusual representations such as ternary (base three).",
"Nearly all modern CPUs represent numbers in binary form, with each digit being represented by some two-valued physical quantity such as a \"high\" or \"low\" voltage.",
"A six-bit word containing the binary encoded representation of decimal value 40.",
"Most modern CPUs employ word sizes that are a power of two, for example 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits.",
"Related to numeric representation is the size and precision of integer numbers that a CPU can represent.",
"In the case of a binary CPU, this is measured by the number of bits (significant digits of a binary encoded integer) that the CPU can process in one operation, which is commonly called \"word size\", \"bit width\", \"data path width\", \"integer precision\", or \"integer size\".",
"A CPU's integer size determines the range of integer values it can directly operate on.",
"For example, an 8-bit CPU can directly manipulate integers represented by eight bits, which have a range of 256 (28) discrete integer values.",
"Integer range can also affect the number of memory locations the CPU can directly address (an address is an integer value representing a specific memory location).",
"For example, if a binary CPU uses 32 bits to represent a memory address then it can directly address 232 memory locations.",
"CPUs with larger word sizes require more circuitry and consequently are physically larger, cost more, and consume more power (and therefore generate more heat).",
"As a result, smaller 4- or 8-bit microcontrollers are commonly used in modern applications even though CPUs with much larger word sizes (such as 16, 32, 64, even 128-bit) are available.",
"When higher performance is required, however, the benefits of a larger word size (larger data ranges and address spaces) may outweigh the disadvantages.",
"A CPU can have internal data paths shorter than the word size to reduce size and cost.",
"For example, even though the IBM System/360 instruction set was a 32-bit instruction set, the System/360 Model 30 and Model 40 had 8-bit data paths in the arithmetic logical unit, so that a 32-bit add required four cycles, one for each 8 bits of the operands, and, even though the Motorola 68000 series instruction set was a 32-bit instruction set, the Motorola 68000 and Motorola 68010 had 16-bit data paths in the arithmetic logical unit, so that a 32-bit add required two cycles.",
"To gain some of the advantages afforded by both lower and higher bit lengths, many instruction sets have different bit widths for integer and floating-point data, allowing CPUs implementing that instruction set to have different bit widths for different portions of the device.",
"For example, the IBM System/360 instruction set was primarily 32 bit, but supported 64-bit floating point values to facilitate greater accuracy and range in floating point numbers.",
"The System/360 Model 65 had an 8-bit adder for decimal and fixed-point binary arithmetic and a 60-bit adder for floating-point arithmetic.",
"Many later CPU designs use similar mixed bit width, especially when the processor is meant for general-purpose usage where a reasonable balance of integer and floating point capability is required.",
"===Parallelism===\n\nModel of a subscalar CPU, in which it takes fifteen clock cycles to complete three instructions.",
"The description of the basic operation of a CPU offered in the previous section describes the simplest form that a CPU can take.",
"This type of CPU, usually referred to as ''subscalar'', operates on and executes one instruction on one or two pieces of data at a time, that is less than one instruction per clock cycle ().",
"This process gives rise to an inherent inefficiency in subscalar CPUs.",
"Since only one instruction is executed at a time, the entire CPU must wait for that instruction to complete before proceeding to the next instruction.",
"As a result, the subscalar CPU gets \"hung up\" on instructions which take more than one clock cycle to complete execution.",
"Even adding a second execution unit (see below) does not improve performance much; rather than one pathway being hung up, now two pathways are hung up and the number of unused transistors is increased.",
"This design, wherein the CPU's execution resources can operate on only one instruction at a time, can only possibly reach ''scalar'' performance (one instruction per clock cycle, ).",
"However, the performance is nearly always subscalar (less than one instruction per clock cycle, ).",
"Attempts to achieve scalar and better performance have resulted in a variety of design methodologies that cause the CPU to behave less linearly and more in parallel.",
"When referring to parallelism in CPUs, two terms are generally used to classify these design techniques:\n* ''instruction-level parallelism'' (ILP), which seeks to increase the rate at which instructions are executed within a CPU (that is, to increase the utilization of on-die execution resources);\n* ''task-level parallelism'' (TLP), which purposes to increase the number of threads or processes that a CPU can execute simultaneously.",
"Each methodology differs both in the ways in which they are implemented, as well as the relative effectiveness they afford in increasing the CPU's performance for an application.",
"====Instruction-level parallelism====\n\nBasic five-stage pipeline.",
"In the best case scenario, this pipeline can sustain a completion rate of one instruction per clock cycle.",
"One of the simplest methods used to accomplish increased parallelism is to begin the first steps of instruction fetching and decoding before the prior instruction finishes executing.",
"This is the simplest form of a technique known as instruction pipelining, and is utilized in almost all modern general-purpose CPUs.",
"Pipelining allows more than one instruction to be executed at any given time by breaking down the execution pathway into discrete stages.",
"This separation can be compared to an assembly line, in which an instruction is made more complete at each stage until it exits the execution pipeline and is retired.",
"Pipelining does, however, introduce the possibility for a situation where the result of the previous operation is needed to complete the next operation; a condition often termed data dependency conflict.",
"To cope with this, additional care must be taken to check for these sorts of conditions and delay a portion of the instruction pipeline if this occurs.",
"Naturally, accomplishing this requires additional circuitry, so pipelined processors are more complex than subscalar ones (though not very significantly so).",
"A pipelined processor can become very nearly scalar, inhibited only by pipeline stalls (an instruction spending more than one clock cycle in a stage).",
"A simple superscalar pipeline.",
"By fetching and dispatching two instructions at a time, a maximum of two instructions per clock cycle can be completed.",
"Further improvement upon the idea of instruction pipelining led to the development of a method that decreases the idle time of CPU components even further.",
"Designs that are said to be ''superscalar'' include a long instruction pipeline and multiple identical execution units.",
"In a superscalar pipeline, multiple instructions are read and passed to a dispatcher, which decides whether or not the instructions can be executed in parallel (simultaneously).",
"If so they are dispatched to available execution units, resulting in the ability for several instructions to be executed simultaneously.",
"In general, the more instructions a superscalar CPU is able to dispatch simultaneously to waiting execution units, the more instructions will be completed in a given cycle.",
"Most of the difficulty in the design of a superscalar CPU architecture lies in creating an effective dispatcher.",
"The dispatcher needs to be able to quickly and correctly determine whether instructions can be executed in parallel, as well as dispatch them in such a way as to keep as many execution units busy as possible.",
"This requires that the instruction pipeline is filled as often as possible and gives rise to the need in superscalar architectures for significant amounts of CPU cache.",
"It also makes hazard-avoiding techniques like branch prediction, speculative execution, and out-of-order execution crucial to maintaining high levels of performance.",
"By attempting to predict which branch (or path) a conditional instruction will take, the CPU can minimize the number of times that the entire pipeline must wait until a conditional instruction is completed.",
"Speculative execution often provides modest performance increases by executing portions of code that may not be needed after a conditional operation completes.",
"Out-of-order execution somewhat rearranges the order in which instructions are executed to reduce delays due to data dependencies.",
"Also in case of single instruction stream, multiple data stream—a case when a lot of data from the same type has to be processed—, modern processors can disable parts of the pipeline so that when a single instruction is executed many times, the CPU skips the fetch and decode phases and thus greatly increases performance on certain occasions, especially in highly monotonous program engines such as video creation software and photo processing.",
"In the case where a portion of the CPU is superscalar and part is not, the part which is not suffers a performance penalty due to scheduling stalls.",
"The Intel P5 Pentium had two superscalar ALUs which could accept one instruction per clock cycle each, but its FPU could not accept one instruction per clock cycle.",
"Thus the P5 was integer superscalar but not floating point superscalar.",
"Intel's successor to the P5 architecture, P6, added superscalar capabilities to its floating point features, and therefore afforded a significant increase in floating point instruction performance.",
"Both simple pipelining and superscalar design increase a CPU's ILP by allowing a single processor to complete execution of instructions at rates surpassing one instruction per clock cycle.",
"Most modern CPU designs are at least somewhat superscalar, and nearly all general purpose CPUs designed in the last decade are superscalar.",
"In later years some of the emphasis in designing high-ILP computers has been moved out of the CPU's hardware and into its software interface, or ISA.",
"The strategy of the very long instruction word (VLIW) causes some ILP to become implied directly by the software, reducing the amount of work the CPU must perform to boost ILP and thereby reducing the design's complexity.",
"====Task-level parallelism====\n\nAnother strategy of achieving performance is to execute multiple threads or processes in parallel.",
"This area of research is known as parallel computing.",
"In Flynn's taxonomy, this strategy is known as multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream (MIMD).",
"One technology used for this purpose was multiprocessing (MP).",
"The initial flavor of this technology is known as symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), where a small number of CPUs share a coherent view of their memory system.",
"In this scheme, each CPU has additional hardware to maintain a constantly up-to-date view of memory.",
"By avoiding stale views of memory, the CPUs can cooperate on the same program and programs can migrate from one CPU to another.",
"To increase the number of cooperating CPUs beyond a handful, schemes such as non-uniform memory access (NUMA) and directory-based coherence protocols were introduced in the 1990s.",
"SMP systems are limited to a small number of CPUs while NUMA systems have been built with thousands of processors.",
"Initially, multiprocessing was built using multiple discrete CPUs and boards to implement the interconnect between the processors.",
"When the processors and their interconnect are all implemented on a single chip, the technology is known as chip-level multiprocessing (CMP) and the single chip as a multi-core processor.",
"It was later recognized that finer-grain parallelism existed with a single program.",
"A single program might have several threads (or functions) that could be executed separately or in parallel.",
"Some of the earliest examples of this technology implemented input/output processing such as direct memory access as a separate thread from the computation thread.",
"A more general approach to this technology was introduced in the 1970s when systems were designed to run multiple computation threads in parallel.",
"This technology is known as multi-threading (MT).",
"This approach is considered more cost-effective than multiprocessing, as only a small number of components within a CPU is replicated to support MT as opposed to the entire CPU in the case of MP.",
"In MT, the execution units and the memory system including the caches are shared among multiple threads.",
"The downside of MT is that the hardware support for multithreading is more visible to software than that of MP and thus supervisor software like operating systems have to undergo larger changes to support MT.",
"One type of MT that was implemented is known as temporal multithreading, where one thread is executed until it is stalled waiting for data to return from external memory.",
"In this scheme, the CPU would then quickly context switch to another thread which is ready to run, the switch often done in one CPU clock cycle, such as the UltraSPARC T1.",
"Another type of MT is simultaneous multithreading, where instructions from multiple threads are executed in parallel within one CPU clock cycle.",
"For several decades from the 1970s to early 2000s, the focus in designing high performance general purpose CPUs was largely on achieving high ILP through technologies such as pipelining, caches, superscalar execution, out-of-order execution, etc.",
"This trend culminated in large, power-hungry CPUs such as the Intel Pentium 4.",
"By the early 2000s, CPU designers were thwarted from achieving higher performance from ILP techniques due to the growing disparity between CPU operating frequencies and main memory operating frequencies as well as escalating CPU power dissipation owing to more esoteric ILP techniques.",
"CPU designers then borrowed ideas from commercial computing markets such as transaction processing, where the aggregate performance of multiple programs, also known as throughput computing, was more important than the performance of a single thread or process.",
"This reversal of emphasis is evidenced by the proliferation of dual and more core processor designs and notably, Intel's newer designs resembling its less superscalar P6 architecture.",
"Late designs in several processor families exhibit CMP, including the x86-64 Opteron and Athlon 64 X2, the SPARC UltraSPARC T1, IBM POWER4 and POWER5, as well as several video game console CPUs like the Xbox 360's triple-core PowerPC design, and the PlayStation 3's 7-core Cell microprocessor.",
"====Data parallelism====\n\nA less common but increasingly important paradigm of processors (and indeed, computing in general) deals with data parallelism.",
"The processors discussed earlier are all referred to as some type of scalar device.",
"As the name implies, vector processors deal with multiple pieces of data in the context of one instruction.",
"This contrasts with scalar processors, which deal with one piece of data for every instruction.",
"Using Flynn's taxonomy, these two schemes of dealing with data are generally referred to as single instruction stream, multiple data stream (SIMD) and single instruction stream, single data stream (SISD), respectively.",
"The great utility in creating processors that deal with vectors of data lies in optimizing tasks that tend to require the same operation (for example, a sum or a dot product) to be performed on a large set of data.",
"Some classic examples of these types of tasks include multimedia applications (images, video, and sound), as well as many types of scientific and engineering tasks.",
"Whereas a scalar processor must complete the entire process of fetching, decoding, and executing each instruction and value in a set of data, a vector processor can perform a single operation on a comparatively large set of data with one instruction.",
"Of course, this is only possible when the application tends to require many steps which apply one operation to a large set of data.",
"Most early vector processors, such as the Cray-1, were associated almost exclusively with scientific research and cryptography applications.",
"However, as multimedia has largely shifted to digital media, the need for some form of SIMD in general-purpose processors has become significant.",
"Shortly after inclusion of floating-point units started to become commonplace in general-purpose processors, specifications for and implementations of SIMD execution units also began to appear for general-purpose processors.",
"Some of these early SIMD specifications - like HP's Multimedia Acceleration eXtensions (MAX) and Intel's MMX - were integer-only.",
"This proved to be a significant impediment for some software developers, since many of the applications that benefit from SIMD primarily deal with floating-point numbers.",
"Progressively, developers refined and remade these early designs into some of the common modern SIMD specifications, which are usually associated with one ISA.",
"Some notable modern examples include Intel's SSE and the PowerPC-related AltiVec (also known as VMX).",
"===Virtual CPUs===\n\nCloud computing can involve subdividing CPU operation into '''virtual central processing units''' (vCPUs).",
"A host is the virtual equivalent of a physical machine, on which a virtual system is operating.",
"When there are several physical machines operating in tandem and managed as a whole, the grouped computing and memory resources form a cluster.",
"In some systems it is possible to dynamically add and remove from a cluster.",
"Resources available at a host and cluster level can be partitioned out into resources pools with fine granularity.",
"\nThe ''performance'' or ''speed'' of a processor depends on, among many other factors, the clock rate (generally given in multiples of hertz) and the instructions per clock (IPC), which together are the factors for the instructions per second (IPS) that the CPU can perform.",
"Many reported IPS values have represented \"peak\" execution rates on artificial instruction sequences with few branches, whereas realistic workloads consist of a mix of instructions and applications, some of which take longer to execute than others.",
"The performance of the memory hierarchy also greatly affects processor performance, an issue barely considered in MIPS calculations.",
"Because of these problems, various standardized tests, often called \"benchmarks\" for this purposesuch as SPECinthave been developed to attempt to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications.",
"Processing performance of computers is increased by using multi-core processors, which essentially is plugging two or more individual processors (called ''cores'' in this sense) into one integrated circuit.",
"Ideally, a dual core processor would be nearly twice as powerful as a single core processor.",
"In practice, the performance gain is far smaller, only about 50%, due to imperfect software algorithms and implementation.",
"Increasing the number of cores in a processor (i.e.",
"dual-core, quad-core, etc.)",
"increases the workload that can be handled.",
"This means that the processor can now handle numerous asynchronous events, interrupts, etc.",
"which can take a toll on the CPU when overwhelmed.",
"These cores can be thought of as different floors in a processing plant, with each floor handling a different task.",
"Sometimes, these cores will handle the same tasks as cores adjacent to them if a single core is not enough to handle the information.",
"Due to specific capabilities of modern CPUs, such as hyper-threading and uncore, which involve sharing of actual CPU resources while aiming at increased utilization, monitoring performance levels and hardware utilization gradually became a more complex task.",
"As a response, some CPUs implement additional hardware logic that monitors actual utilization of various parts of a CPU and provides various counters accessible to software; an example is Intel's ''Performance Counter Monitor'' technology.",
"\n\n* Addressing mode\n* AMD Accelerated Processing Unit\n* CISC\n* Computer bus\n* Computer engineering\n* CPU core voltage\n* CPU socket\n* Digital signal processor\n* Hyper-threading\n* List of CPU architectures\n* Microprocessor\n* Multi-core processor\n* Protection ring\n* RISC\n* Stream processing\n* True Performance Index\n* Wait state",
"\n\n\n\n* .",
"* 25 Microchips that shook the world – an article by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers."
] | river |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Colombia''' ( or ; ), officially the '''Republic of Colombia''' (), is a sovereign state largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and Peru. It shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments. The territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples, with as most advanced the Muisca, Quimbaya and the Tairona.\n\nThe Spanish set foot on Colombian soil for the first time in 1499 and in the first half of the 16th century initiated a period of conquest and colonization, ultimately creating the New Kingdom of Granada, with as capital Santafé de Bogotá. Independence from Spain was acquired in 1819, but by 1830 the \"Gran Colombia\" Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada. The new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation (1858), and then the United States of Colombia (1863), before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Panama seceded in 1903. Since the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, which escalated in the 1990s but then decreased from 2005 onward. Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. The urban centres are mostly located in the highlands of the Andes mountains.\n\nColombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines. Ecologically, it is one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a middle power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is a member of the UN, the WTO, the OAS, the Pacific Alliance, and other international organizations. Colombia has a diversified economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run.\n",
"''Colombia'' is named after Christopher Columbus\nThe name \"Colombia\" is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus (, ). It was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was later adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819, formed from the territories of the old Viceroyalty of New Granada (modern-day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, and northwest Brazil).\n\nWhen Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, the former Department of Cundinamarca adopted the name \"Republic of New Granada\". New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was again changed, this time to United States of Colombia, before finally adopting its present name – the Republic of Colombia – in 1886.\n\nTo refer to this country, the Colombian government uses the terms ''Colombia'' and ''República de Colombia''.\n",
"\n\n=== Pre-Columbian era ===\n\nOwing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica and the Caribbean to the Andes and Amazon basin. The oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period (18,000–8000 BCE). At Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period (~8000–2000 BCE) have been found. Vestiges indicate that there was also early occupation in the regions of El Abra and Tequendama in Cundinamarca. The oldest pottery discovered in the Americas, found at San Jacinto, dates to 5000–4000 BCE.\nMuisca raft. The figure refers to the ceremony of the legend of El Dorado.\n\nIndigenous people inhabited the territory that is now Colombia by 12,500 BCE. Nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes at the El Abra, Tibitó and Tequendama sites near present-day Bogotá traded with one another and with other cultures from the Magdalena River Valley. Between 5000 and 1000 BCE, hunter-gatherer tribes transitioned to agrarian societies; fixed settlements were established, and pottery appeared. Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE, groups of Amerindians including the Muisca, Quimbaya, and Tairona developed the political system of ''cacicazgos'' with a pyramidal structure of power headed by caciques. The Muisca inhabited mainly the area of what is now the Departments of Boyacá and Cundinamarca high plateau (''Altiplano Cundiboyacense'') where they formed the Muisca Confederation. They farmed maize, potato, quinoa and cotton, and traded gold, emeralds, blankets, ceramic handicrafts, coca and especially rock salt with neighboring nations. The Tairona inhabited northern Colombia in the isolated mountain range of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. The Quimbaya inhabited regions of the Cauca River Valley between the Western and Central Ranges of the Colombian Andes. Most of the Amerindians practiced agriculture and the social structure of each indigenous community was different. Some groups of indigenous people such as the Caribs lived in a state of permanent war, but others had less bellicose attitudes. The Incas expanded their empire onto the southwest part of the country.\n\n=== Spanish conquest ===\nMap of Juan de la Cosa. It is the oldest known European cartographic representation of the New World.\nAlonso de Ojeda (who had sailed with Columbus) reached the Guajira Peninsula in 1499. Spanish explorers, led by Rodrigo de Bastidas, made the first exploration of the Caribbean coast in 1500. Christopher Columbus navigated near the Caribbean in 1502. In 1508, Vasco Núñez de Balboa accompanied an expedition to the territory through the region of Gulf of Urabá and they founded the town of Santa María la Antigua del Darién in 1510, the first stable settlement on the continent. \n\nSanta Marta was founded in 1525, and Cartagena in 1533. Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada led an expedition to the interior in April 1536, and christened the districts through which he passed \"New Kingdom of Granada\". In August 1538, he founded provisionally its capital near the Muisca cacicazgo of Bacatá, and named it \"Santa Fe\". The name soon acquired a suffix and was called Santa Fe de Bogotá. Two other notable journeys by early conquistadors to the interior took place in the same period. Sebastián de Belalcázar, conqueror of Quito, traveled north and founded Cali, in 1536, and Popayán, in 1537; from 1536 to 1539, German conquistador Nikolaus Federmann crossed the Llanos Orientales and went over the Cordillera Oriental in a search for El Dorado, the \"city of gold\". The legend and the gold would play a pivotal role in luring the Spanish and other Europeans to New Granada during the 16th and 17th centuries.\n\nThe conquistadors made frequent alliances with the enemies of different indigenous communities. Indigenous allies were crucial to conquest, as well as to creating and maintaining empire. Indigenous peoples in New Granada experienced a decline in population due to conquest as well as Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox, to which they had no immunity. With the risk that the land was deserted, the Spanish Crown sold properties to all persons interested in colonise territories creating large farms and possession of mines.\n\nIn the 16th century, the nautical science in Spain reached a great development thanks to numerous scientific figures of the Casa de Contratación and nautical science was an essential pillar of the Iberian expansion.\n\n=== Colonial period ===\nIn 1542, the region of New Granada, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America, became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, with its capital at Lima. In 1547, New Granada became the Captaincy-General of New Granada within the viceroyalty.\n\nIn 1549, the Royal Audiencia was created by a royal decree, and New Granada was ruled by the Royal Audience of Santa Fe de Bogotá, which at that time comprised the provinces of Santa Marta, Rio de San Juan, Popayán, Guayana and Cartagena. But important decisions were taken from the colony to Spain by the Council of the Indies.\nThe battle resulted in a major defeat for the British Navy and Army during the War of Jenkins' Ear, 1739–48.\n\nIn the 16th century, Europeans began to bring slaves from Africa. Spain was the only European power that could not establish factories in Africa to purchase slaves and therefore the Spanish empire relied on the asiento system, awarding merchants (mostly from Portugal, France, England and the Dutch Empire) the license to trade enslaved people to their overseas territories. Also there were people who defended the human rights and freedoms of oppressed peoples. The indigenous peoples could not be enslaved because they were legally subjects of the Spanish Crown and to protect the indigenous peoples, several forms of land ownership and regulation were established: ''resguardos'', ''encomiendas'' and ''haciendas''.\nMany intellectual leaders of the independence process participated in the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada.\n\nIn 1717 the Viceroyalty of New Granada was originally created, and then it was temporarily removed, to finally be reestablished in 1739. The Viceroyalty had Santa Fé de Bogotá as its capital. This Viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America which had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalties of New Spain or Peru and correspond mainly to today's Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama. So, Bogotá became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with Lima and Mexico City, though it remained somewhat backward compared to those two cities in several economic and logistical ways.\n\nAfter Great Britain declared war on Spain in 1739, Cartagena quickly became the British forces' top target but an upset Spanish victory during the War of Jenkins' Ear, a war with Great Britain for economic control of the Caribbean, cemented Spanish dominance in the Caribbean until the Seven Years' War.\n\nThe 18th-century priest, botanist and mathematician José Celestino Mutis was delegated by Viceroy Antonio Caballero y Góngora to conduct an inventory of the nature of the New Granada. Started in 1783, this became known as the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada which classified plants, wildlife and founded the first astronomical observatory in the city of Santa Fe de Bogotá. In July 1801 the Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt reached Santa Fe de Bogotá where he met with Mutis. In addition, historical figures in the process of independence in New Granada emerged from the expedition as the astronomer Francisco José de Caldas, the scientist Francisco Antonio Zea, the zoologist Jorge Tadeo Lozano and the painter Salvador Rizo.\n\n=== Independence ===\nThe Battle of Boyacá was the decisive battle which would ensure the success of the liberation campaign of New Granada.\nSince the beginning of the periods of conquest and colonization, there were several rebel movements against Spanish rule, but most were either crushed or remained too weak to change the overall situation. The last one that sought outright independence from Spain sprang up around 1810, following the independence of St. Domingue (present-day Haiti) in 1804, which provided some support to an eventual leader of this rebellion: Simón Bolívar. Francisco de Paula Santander also would play a decisive role.\nThe Socorro Province was the site of the genesis of the independence process.\nA movement was initiated by Antonio Nariño, who opposed Spanish centralism and led the opposition against the Viceroyalty. Cartagena became independent in November 1811. In 1811 the United Provinces of New Granada were proclaimed, headed by Camilo Torres Tenorio. The emergence of two distinct ideological currents among the patriots (federalism and centralism) gave rise to a period of instability. Shortly after the Napoleonic Wars ended, Ferdinand VII, recently restored to the throne in Spain, unexpectedly decided to send military forces to retake most of northern South America. The viceroyalty was restored under the command of Juan Sámano, whose regime punished those who participated in the patriotic movements, ignoring the political nuances of the juntas. The retribution stoked renewed rebellion, which, combined with a weakened Spain, made possible a successful rebellion led by the Venezuelan-born Simón Bolívar, who finally proclaimed independence in 1819. The pro-Spanish resistance was defeated in 1822 in the present territory of Colombia and in 1823 in Venezuela.\n\nThe territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada became the Republic of Colombia, organized as a union of the current territories of Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, Venezuela, parts of Guyana and Brazil and north of Marañón River. The Congress of Cúcuta in 1821 adopted a constitution for the new Republic. Simón Bolívar became the first President of Colombia, and Francisco de Paula Santander was made Vice President. However, the new republic was unstable and three countries emerged from the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (New Granada, Ecuador and Venezuela).\nFormation of the present Colombia since the Viceroyalty of New Granada's independence from the Spanish Empire\nColombia was the first constitutional government in South America, and the Liberal and Conservative parties, founded in 1848 and 1849 respectively, are two of the oldest surviving political parties in the Americas. Slavery was abolished in the country in 1851.\n\nInternal political and territorial divisions led to the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1830. The so-called \"Department of Cundinamarca\" adopted the name \"New Granada\", which it kept until 1858 when it became the \"Confederación Granadina\" (Granadine Confederation). After a two-year civil war in 1863, the \"United States of Colombia\" was created, lasting until 1886, when the country finally became known as the Republic of Colombia. Internal divisions remained between the bipartisan political forces, occasionally igniting very bloody civil wars, the most significant being the Thousand Days' War (1899–1902).\n\n=== 20th century ===\nThe United States of America's intentions to influence the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to the separation of the Department of Panama in 1903 and the establishment of it as a nation. The United States paid Colombia $25,000,000 in 1921, seven years after completion of the canal, for redress of President Roosevelt's role in the creation of Panama, and Colombia recognized Panama under the terms of the Thomson–Urrutia Treaty. Colombia and Peru went to war because of territory disputes far in the Amazon basin. The war ended with a peace deal brokered by the League of Nations. The League finally awarded the disputed area to Colombia in June 1934.\nThe Bogotazo in 1948\nSoon after, Colombia achieved some degree of political stability, which was interrupted by a bloody conflict that took place between the late 1940s and the early 1950s, a period known as ''La Violencia'' (\"The Violence\"). Its cause was mainly mounting tensions between the two leading political parties, which subsequently ignited after the assassination of the Liberal presidential candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán on 9 April 1948. The ensuing riots in Bogotá, known as El Bogotazo, spread throughout the country and claimed the lives of at least 180,000 Colombians.\n\nColombia entered the Korean War when Laureano Gómez was elected president. It was the only Latin American country to join the war in a direct military role as an ally of the United States. Particularly important was the resistance of the Colombian troops at Old Baldy.\n\nThe violence between the two political parties decreased first when Gustavo Rojas deposed the President of Colombia in a coup d'état and negotiated with the guerrillas, and then under the military junta of General Gabriel París.\nThe Axis of Peace and Memory: A “memorial” in recognition of the victims of the conflict\nAfter Rojas' deposition, the Colombian Conservative Party and Colombian Liberal Party agreed to create the \"National Front\", a coalition which would jointly govern the country. Under the deal, the presidency would alternate between conservatives and liberals every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices. The National Front ended \"La Violencia\", and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress. Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political problems continued, and guerrilla groups were formally created such as the FARC, the ELN and the M-19 to fight the government and political apparatus.\n\nSince the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict between the government forces, left-wing guerrilla groups and right-wing paramilitaries. The conflict escalated in the 1990s, mainly in remote rural areas. Since the beginning of the armed conflict, human rights defenders have fought for the respect for human rights, despite staggering opposition. Several guerrillas' organizations decided to demobilize after peace negotiations in 1989–1994.\n\nThe United States has been heavily involved in the conflict since its beginnings, when in the early 1960s the U.S. government encouraged the Colombian military to attack leftist militias in rural Colombia. This was part of the U.S. fight against communism. Mercenaries and multinational corporations such as Chiquita Brands International are some of the international actors that have contributed to the violence of the conflict. \n\nOn 4 July 1991, a new Constitution was promulgated. The changes generated by the new constitution are viewed as positive by Colombian society.\n\n===21st century===\nColombia's President Juan Manuel Santos signed a historic peace accord.\nThe administration of President Álvaro Uribe (2002–10), adopted the democratic security policy which included an integrated counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency campaign. The Government economic plan also promoted confidence in investors. As part of a controversial peace process the AUC (right-wing paramilitaries) as a formal organization had ceased to function. In February 2008, millions of Colombians demonstrated against FARC and other outlawed groups.\n\nAfter peace negotiations in Cuba, the Colombian government of President Juan Manuel Santos and guerrilla of FARC-EP announced a final agreement to end the conflict. However, a referendum to ratify the deal was unsuccessful. Afterward, the Colombian government and the FARC signed a revised peace deal in November 2016, which the Colombian congress approved. In 2016, President Santos was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. The Government began a process of attention and comprehensive reparation for victims of conflict. Colombia shows modest progress in the struggle to defend human rights, as expressed by HRW. A Special Jurisdiction for Peace will be created to investigate, clarify, prosecute and punish serious human rights violations and grave breaches of international humanitarian law which occurred during the armed conflict and to satisfy victims' right to justice.\n\nIn terms of international relations, Colombia and Venezuela have agreed to restore diplomatic relations. Latin America, with a long memory of U.S. interventions such as the infamous Operation Condor, rejects US military threat against Venezuela. Colombia's Foreign Ministry said that all efforts to resolve Venezuela's crisis should be peaceful and respect its sovereignty. Colombia will not recognize result of Venezuela assembly vote, amid opposition concerns that the election will lead to dictatorship. Colombia with a very clean electricity generation matrix reaffirms its support for the Paris Climate Agreement. During his visit to Colombia, Pope Francis brought with him a message of peace and paid tribute to the victims of the conflict.\n",
"\n\nRelief map\nThe geography of Colombia is characterized by its six main natural regions that present their own unique characteristics, from the Andes mountain range region shared with Ecuador and Venezuela; the Pacific coastal region shared with Panama and Ecuador; the Caribbean coastal region shared with Venezuela and Panama; the ''Llanos'' (plains) shared with Venezuela; the Amazon Rainforest region shared with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Ecuador; to the insular area, comprising islands in both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.\n\nColombia is bordered to the northwest by Panama; to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; it established its maritime boundaries with neighboring countries through seven agreements on the Caribbean Sea and three on the Pacific Ocean. It lies between latitudes 12°N and 4°S, and longitudes 67° and 79°W.\nColombia map of Köppen climate classification\nPart of the Ring of Fire, a region of the world subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, In the interior of Colombia the Andes are the prevailing geographical feature. Most of Colombia's population centers are located in these interior highlands. Beyond the Colombian Massif (in the south-western departments of Cauca and Nariño) these are divided into three branches known as ''cordilleras'' (mountain ranges): the Cordillera Occidental, running adjacent to the Pacific coast and including the city of Cali; the Cordillera Central, running between the Cauca and Magdalena River valleys (to the west and east respectively) and including the cities of Medellín, Manizales, Pereira and Armenia; and the Cordillera Oriental, extending north east to the Guajira Peninsula and including Bogotá, Bucaramanga and Cúcuta.\n\nPeaks in the Cordillera Occidental exceed , and in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental they reach . At , Bogotá is the highest city of its size in the world.\n\nEast of the Andes lies the savanna of the ''Llanos'', part of the Orinoco River basin, and, in the far south east, the jungle of the Amazon rainforest. Together these lowlands comprise over half Colombia's territory, but they contain less than 6% of the population. To the north the Caribbean coast, home to 21.9% of the population and the location of the major port cities of Barranquilla and Cartagena, generally consists of low-lying plains, but it also contains the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range, which includes the country's tallest peaks (Pico Cristóbal Colón and Pico Simón Bolívar), and the La Guajira Desert. By contrast the narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, backed by the Serranía de Baudó mountains, are sparsely populated and covered in dense vegetation. The principal Pacific port is Buenaventura.\n\nThe main rivers of Colombia are Magdalena, Cauca, Guaviare, Atrato, Meta, Putumayo and Caquetá. Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin. The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers mark limits with Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively.\n\nProtected areas and the \"National Park System\" cover an area of about and account for 12.77% of the Colombian territory. Compared to neighboring countries, rates of deforestation in Colombia are still relatively low. Colombia is the sixth country in the world by magnitude of total renewable freshwater supply, and still has large reserves of freshwater.\n\n=== Climate ===\n\nThe climate of Colombia is characterized for being tropical presenting variations within six natural regions and depending on the altitude, temperature, humidity, winds and rainfall. The diversity of climate zones in Colombia is characterized for having tropical rainforests, savannas, steppes, deserts and mountain climate.\n\nMountain climate is one of the unique features of the Andes and other high altitude reliefs where climate is determined by elevation. Below in elevation is the warm altitudinal zone, where temperatures are above . About 82.5% of the country's total area lies in the warm altitudinal zone. The temperate climate altitudinal zone located between ) is characterized for presenting an average temperature ranging between . The cold climate is present between and the temperatures vary between . Beyond the cold land lie the alpine conditions of the forested zone and then the treeless grasslands of the páramos. Above , where temperatures are below freezing, the climate is glacial, a zone of permanent snow and ice.\n\n\nFile:Nevado del Ruiz en Colombia.jpg|Ice cap climate in the Nevado del Ruiz\nFile:Páramo de Sumapaz.jpg |Alpine tundra climate in the Sumapaz Paramo\nFile:Tota Lake 1.JPG|Oceanic climate in Tota Lake\nFile:Desierto Frio en Boyacá.jpg|Cold desert climate near Villa de Leyva\nFile:Chiribiquete view.jpg|Tropical wet climate in the tepuis of the Serranía de Chiribiquete\nFile:Paisaje rural en Tinjacá.jpg|Mediterranean climate in Boyacá Department\nFile:Sunset on the Amazon (7613489930).jpg|Tropical rainforest climate in the Amazon Rainforest\nFile:NP Llanos36 lo (5853389005).jpg|Tropical savanna climate in Los Llanos\nFile:Cabo de La vela.JPG|Hot desert climate in the Guajira Peninsula\nFile:Johny Cay.jpg|Tropical wet and dry climate in San Andrés y Providencia\nFile:CAÑO CRISTALES – LOS OCHOS 01.jpg| Warm and wet climate in Caño Cristales\nFile:Munchique2.jpg|Mountain climate in the Cordillera Occidental\n\n\n=== Biodiversity ===\n''Chlorochrysa nitidissima''. Colombia is home to more bird species than any other country in the world.\n\n\nThe national flower of Colombia is the orchid ''Cattleya trianae'', which was named after the Colombian botanist and physician José Jerónimo Triana.\nColombia is one of the megadiverse countries in biodiversity, ranking first in bird species. As for plants, the country has between 40,000 and 45,000 plant species, equivalent to 10 or 20% of total global species, this is even more remarkable given that Colombia is considered a country of intermediate size. Colombia is the second most biodiverse country in the world, lagging only after Brazil which is approximately 7 times bigger.\n\nColombia is the country in the planet more characterized by a high biodiversity, with the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide and it has the largest number of endemisms (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country. About 10% of the species of the Earth live in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined, Colombia has 10% of the world’s mammals species, 14% of the amphibian species and 18% of the bird species of the world.\n\nColombia has about 2,000 species of marine fish and is the second most diverse country in freshwater fish. Colombia is the country with more endemic species of butterflies, number 1 in terms of orchid species and approximately 7,000 species of beetles. Colombia is second in the number of amphibian species and is the third most diverse country in reptiles and palms. There are about 1,900 species of mollusks and according to estimates there are about 300,000 species of invertebrates in the country. In Colombia there are 32 terrestrial biomes and 314 types of ecosystems.\n",
"\n\nCasa de Nariño is the official home and principal workplace of the President of Colombia.\nThe government of Colombia takes place within the framework of a presidential participatory democratic republic as established in the Constitution of 1991. In accordance with the principle of separation of powers, government is divided into three branches: the executive branch, the legislative branch and the judicial branch.\n\nAs the head of the executive branch, the President of Colombia serves as both head of state and head of government, followed by the Vice President and the Council of Ministers. The president is elected by popular vote to serve four-year term (In 2015, Colombia’s Congress approved the repeal of a 2004 constitutional amendment that eliminated the one-term limit for presidents). At the provincial level executive power is vested in department governors, municipal mayors and local administrators for smaller administrative subdivisions, such as ''corregimientos'' or ''comunas''. All regional elections are held one year and five months after the presidential election.\n\nThe legislative branch of government is represented nationally by the Congress, a bicameral institution comprising a 166-seat Chamber of Representatives and a 102-seat Senate. The Senate is elected nationally and the Chamber of Representatives is elected in electoral districts. Members of both houses are elected to serve four-year terms two months before the president, also by popular vote.\nColombia's Palace of Justice\nThe judicial branch is headed by four high courts, consisting of the Supreme Court which deals with penal and civil matters, the Council of State, which has special responsibility for administrative law and also provides legal advice to the executive, the Constitutional Court, responsible for assuring the integrity of the Colombian constitution, and the Superior Council of Judicature, responsible for auditing the judicial branch. Colombia operates a system of civil law, which since 2005 has been applied through an adversarial system.\n\nDespite a number of controversies, the democratic security policy has ensured that former President Uribe remained popular among Colombian people, with his approval rating peaking at 76%, according to a poll in 2009. However, having served two terms, he was constitutionally barred from seeking re-election in 2010. In the run-off elections on 20 June 2010 the former Minister of defense Juan Manuel Santos won with 69% of the vote against the second most popular candidate, Antanas Mockus. A second round was required since no candidate received over the 50% winning threshold of votes. Santos won nearly 51% of the vote in second-round elections on 15 June 2014, beating right-wing rival Óscar Iván Zuluaga, who won 45%. His term as Colombia's president runs for four years beginning 7 August 2014.\n\n=== Foreign affairs ===\nThe VI Summit of the Pacific Alliance: President of Colombia, Juan Manuel Santos is second from the left.\n\n\nThe foreign affairs of Colombia are headed by the President, as head of state, and managed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Colombia has diplomatic missions in all continents.\n\nColombia was one of the 4 founding members of the Pacific Alliance, which is a political, economic and co-operative integration mechanism that promotes the free circulation of goods, services, capital and persons between the members, as well as a common stock exchange and joint embassies in several countries. Colombia is also a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Organization of American States, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the Union of South American Nations and the Andean Community of Nations. Colombia is a global partner of NATO. Colombia is currently in the accession process with the OECD.\n\n=== Military ===\nArpía III of the Colombian Air Force\n\nThe executive branch of government is responsible for managing the defense of Colombia, with the President commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The Ministry of Defence exercises day-to-day control of the military and the Colombian National Police. Colombia has 455,461 active military personnel. And in 2016 3.4% of the country's GDP went towards military expenditure, placing it 24th in the world. Colombia's armed forces are the largest in Latin America, and it is the second largest spender on its military after Brazil.\n\nThe Colombian military is divided into three branches: the National Army of Colombia; the Colombian Air Force; and the Colombian Navy. The National Police functions as a gendarmerie, operating independently from the military as the law enforcement agency for the entire country. Each of these operates with their own intelligence apparatus separate from the National Intelligence Directorate (DNI, in Spanish).\n\nThe National Army is formed by divisions, brigades, special brigades and special units; the Colombian Navy by the Naval Infantry, the Naval Force of the Caribbean, the Naval Force of the Pacific, the Naval Force of the South, the Naval Force of the East, Colombia Coast Guards, Naval Aviation and the Specific Command of San Andres y Providencia; and the Air Force by 15 air units. The National Police has a presence in all municipalities.\n\n=== Administrative divisions ===\n\n\nColombia is divided into 32 departments and one capital district, which is treated as a department (Bogotá also serves as the capital of the department of Cundinamarca). Departments are subdivided into municipalities, each of which is assigned a municipal seat, and municipalities are in turn subdivided into ''corregimientos'' in rural areas and into ''comunas'' in urban areas. Each department has a local government with a governor and assembly directly elected to four-year terms, and each municipality is headed by a mayor and council. There is a popularly elected local administrative board in each of the ''corregimientos'' or ''comunas''.\n\nIn addition to the capital four other cities have been designated districts (in effect special municipalities), on the basis of special distinguishing features. These are Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta and Buenaventura. Some departments have local administrative subdivisions, where towns have a large concentration of population and municipalities are near each other (for example in Antioquia and Cundinamarca). Where departments have a low population (for example Amazonas, Vaupés and Vichada), special administrative divisions are employed, such as \"department ''corregimientos''\", which are a hybrid of a municipality and a ''corregimiento''.\n\nClick on a department on the map below to go to its article.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n \n Department \n Capital city\n\n 1 \n Flag of the Department of Amazonas Amazonas \n Leticia\n\n 2 \n Flag of the Department of Antioquia Antioquia \n Medellín\n\n 3 \n Flag of the Department of Arauca Arauca \n Arauca\n\n 4 \n Flag of the Department of Atlántico Atlántico \n Barranquilla\n\n 5 \n Flag of the Department of Bolívar Bolívar \n Cartagena\n\n 6 \n Flag of the Department of Boyacá Boyacá \n Tunja\n\n 7 \n Flag of the Department of Caldas Caldas \n Manizales\n\n 8 \n Flag of the Department of Caquetá Caquetá \n Florencia\n\n 9 \n Flag of the Department of Casanare Casanare\n\n\n 10 \n Flag of the Department of Cauca Cauca \n Popayán\n\n 11 \n Flag of the Department of Cesar Cesar \n Valledupar\n\n 12 \n Flag of the Department of Chocó Chocó \n Quibdó\n\n 13 \n Flag of the Department of Córdoba Córdoba \n Montería\n\n 14 \n Flag of the Department of Cundinamarca Cundinamarca \n Bogotá\n\n 15 \n Flag of the Department of Guainía Guainía \n Inírida\n\n 16 \n Flag of the Department of Guaviare Guaviare \n San José del Guaviare\n\n 17 \n Flag of the Department of Huila Huila \n Neiva\n\n\n\n\n \n Department \n Capital city\n\n 18 \n Flag of La Guajira La Guajira\n\n\n 19 \n Flag of the Department of Magdalena Magdalena \n Santa Marta\n\n 20 \n Flag of the Department of Meta Meta \n Villavicencio\n\n 21 \n Flag of the Department of Nariño Nariño \n Pasto\n\n 22 \n Flag of the Department of Norte de Santander Norte de Santander \n Cúcuta\n\n 23 \n Flag of the Department of Putumayo Putumayo \n Mocoa\n\n 24 \n Flag of the Department of Quindío Quindío \n Armenia\n\n 25 \n Flag of the Department of Risaralda Risaralda \n Pereira\n\n 26 \n Flag of the Department of San Andres, Providencia and Santa Catalina San Andrés, Providenciaand Santa Catalina \n San Andrés\n\n 27 \n Flag of the Department of Santander Santander \n Bucaramanga\n\n 28 \n Flag of the Department of Sucre Sucre \n Sincelejo\n\n 29 \n Flag of the Department of Tolima Tolima \n Ibagué\n\n 30 \n Flag of the Department of Valle del Cauca Valle del Cauca \n Cali\n\n 31 \n Flag of the Department of Vichada Vaupés \n Mitú\n\n 32 \n Flag of the Department of Vichada Vichada \n Puerto Carreño\n\n 33 \n Flag of Bogotá Bogotá \n Bogotá\n\n\n",
"\n\nColombia's gross domestic product by sector for the second half of the year 2015\nHistorically an agrarian economy, Colombia urbanised rapidly in the 20th century, by the end of which just 15.8% of the workforce were employed in agriculture, generating just 6.8% of GDP; 19.6% of the workforce were employed in industry and 64.6% in services, responsible for 34.0% and 59.2% of GDP respectively. The country's economic production is dominated by its strong domestic demand. Consumption expenditure by households is the largest component of GDP.\n\nColombia's market economy grew steadily in the latter part of the 20th century, with gross domestic product (GDP) increasing at an average rate of over 4% per year between 1970 and 1998. The country suffered a recession in 1999 (the first full year of negative growth since the Great Depression), and the recovery from that recession was long and painful. However, in recent years growth has been impressive, reaching 6.9% in 2007, one of the highest rates of growth in Latin America. According to International Monetary Fund estimates, in 2012 Colombia's GDP (PPP) was US$500 billion (28th in the world and third in South America).\n\nTotal government expenditures account for 28.7 percent of the domestic economy. Public debt equals 41 percent of gross domestic product. A strong fiscal climate was reaffirmed by a boost in bond ratings. Annual inflation closed 2016 at 5.75% YoY (vs. 6.77% YoY in 2015). The average national unemployment rate in 2016 was 9.2%, although the informality is the biggest problem facing the labour market (the income of formal workers climbed 24.8% in 5 years while labor incomes of informal workers rose only 9%). Colombia has Free trade Zone (FTZ), such as Zona Franca del Pacifico, located in the Valle del Cauca, one of the most striking areas for foreign investment.\n\nThe financial sector has grown favorably due to good liquidity in the economy, the growth of credit and the positive performance of the Colombian economy. The Colombian Stock Exchange through the Latin American Integrated Market (MILA) offers a regional market to trade equities. Colombia is now one of only three economies with a perfect score on the strength of legal rights index, according to the World Bank.\nThe Colombian Stock Exchange is part of the Latin American Integrated Market (MILA).\nThe electricity production in Colombia comes mainly from renewable energy sources. 69.97% is obtained from the hydroelectric generation. Colombia's commitment to renewable energy was recognized in the 2014 ''Global Green Economy Index (GGEI)'', ranking among the top 10 nations in the world in terms of greening efficiency sectors.\n\nColombia is rich in natural resources, and its main exports include mineral fuels, oils, distillation products, fruit and other agricultural products, sugars and sugar confectionery, food products, plastics, precious stones, metals, forest products, chemical goods, pharmaceuticals, vehicles, electronic products, electrical equipments, perfumery and cosmetics, machinery, manufactured articles, textile and fabrics, clothing and footwear, glass and glassware, furniture, prefabricated buildings, military products, home and office material, construction equipment, software, among others. Principal trading partners are the United States, China, the European Union and some Latin American countries.\n\nNon-traditional exports have boosted the growth of Colombian foreign sales as well as the diversification of destinations of export thanks to new free trade agreements.\n\nIn 2016, the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) reported that 28.0% of the population were living below the poverty line, of which 8.5% in \"extreme poverty\". The multidimensional poverty rate stands at 17.8 percent of the population. The Government has also been developing a process of financial inclusion within the country's most vulnerable population.\n\nRecent economic growth has led to a considerable increase of new millionaires, including the new entrepreneurs, Colombians with a net worth exceeding US $1 billion.\n\nThe contribution of Travel & Tourism to GDP was USD5,880.3bn (2.0% of total GDP) in 2016. Tourism generated 556,135 jobs (2.5% of total employment) in 2016. Foreign tourist visits were predicted to have risen from 0.6 million in 2007 to 3.3 million in 2016.\n\n=== Science and technology ===\n\nCOLCIENCIAS is a Colombian Government agency that supports fundamental and applied research.\nColombia has more than 3,950 research groups in science and technology. iNNpulsa, a government body that promotes entrepreneurship and innovation in the country, provides grants to startups, in addition to other services it and institutions like Apps.co provide. Co-working spaces have arisen to serve as communities for startups large and small. Organizations such as the Corporation for Biological Research (CIB) for the support of young people interested in scientific work has been successfully developed in Colombia. The International Center for Tropical Agriculture based in Colombia investigates the increasing challenge of global warming and food security.\n\nImportant inventions related to the medicine have been made in Colombia, such as the first external artificial pacemaker with internal electrodes, invented by the electronics engineer Jorge Reynolds Pombo, invention of great importance for those who suffer from heart failure. Also invented in Colombia were the microkeratome and keratomileusis technique, which form the fundamental basis of what now is known as LASIK (one of the most important techniques for the correction of refractive errors of vision) and the Hakim valve for the treatment of Hydrocephalus, among others. Colombia has begun to innovate in military technology for its army and other armies of the world; especially in the design and creation of personal ballistic protection products, military hardware, military robots, bombs, simulators and radar.\n\nSome leading Colombian scientists are Joseph M. Tohme, researcher recognized for his work on the genetic diversity of food, Manuel Elkin Patarroyo who is known for his groundbreaking work on synthetic vaccines for malaria, Francisco Lopera who discovered the \"Paisa Mutation\" or a type of early-onset Alzheimer's, Rodolfo Llinás known for his study of the intrinsic neurons properties and the theory of a syndrome that had changed the way of understanding the functioning of the brain, Jairo Quiroga Puello recognized for his studies on the characterization of synthetic substances which can be used to fight fungus, tumors, tuberculosis and even some viruses and Ángela Restrepo who established accurate diagnoses and treatments to combat the effects of a disease caused by the ''Paracoccidioides brasiliensis'', among other scientists.\n\n=== Infrastructure ===\n\nCartagena.\nTransportation in Colombia is regulated within the functions of the Ministry of Transport and entities such as the National Roads Institute (INVÍAS) responsible for the Highways in Colombia, the Aerocivil, responsible for civil aviation and airports, the National Infrastructure Agency, in charge of concessions through public–private partnerships, for the design, construction, maintenance, operation, and administration of the transport infrastructure, the General Maritime Directorate (Dimar) has the responsibility of coordinating maritime traffic control along with the Colombian Navy, among others and under the supervision of the Superintendency of Ports and Transport. The road network in Colombia has a length of about 215,000 km of which 23,000 are paved. Rail transportation in Colombia is dedicated almost entirely to freight shipments and the railway network has a length of 1,700 km of potentially active rails. Colombia has 3,960 kilometers of gas pipelines, 4,900 kilometers of oil pipelines, and 2,990 kilometers of refined-products pipelines.\n\nThe target of Colombia’s government is to build 7,000 km of roads for the 2016–2020 period and reduce travel times by 30 per cent and transport costs by 20 per cent. A toll road concession programme will comprise 40 projects, and is part of a larger strategic goal to invest nearly $50bn in transport infrastructure, including: railway systems; making the Magdalena river navigable again; improving port facilities; as well as an expansion of Bogotá’s airport.\n",
"\n\nPopulation density of Colombia\nWith an estimated 49 million people in 2017, Colombia is the third-most populous country in Latin America, after Brazil and Mexico. It is also home to the third-largest number of Spanish speakers in the world after Mexico and the United States. At the beginning of the 20th century, Colombia's population was approximately 4 million. Since the early 1970s Colombia has experienced steady declines in its fertility, mortality, and population growth rates. The population growth rate for 2015 is estimated to be 0.9%. The total fertility rate was 1.9 births per woman in 2015. About 26.8% of the population were 15 years old or younger, 65.7% were between 15 and 64 years old, and 7.4% were over 65 years old. The proportion of older persons in the total population has begun to increase substantially. Colombia is projected to have a population of 50.2 million by 2020 and 55.3 million by 2050.\n\nThe population is concentrated in the Andean highlands and along the Caribbean coast, also the population densities are generally higher in the Andean region. The nine eastern lowland departments, comprising about 54% of Colombia's area, have less than 6% of the population. Traditionally a rural society, movement to urban areas was very heavy in the mid-20th century, and Colombia is now one of the most urbanized countries in Latin America. The urban population increased from 31% of the total in 1938 to nearly 60% in 1973, and by 2014 the figure stood at 76%. The population of Bogotá alone has increased from just over 300,000 in 1938 to approximately 8 million today. In total seventy-two cities now have populations of 100,000 or more (2015). Colombia has the world's largest populations of internally displaced persons (IDPs), estimated to be up to 4.9 million people.\n\nThe life expectancy is 74.8 years in 2015 and infant mortality is 13.6 per thousand in 2015. In 2015, 94.58% of adults and 98.66% of youth are literate and the government spends about 4.49% of its GDP in education.\n\nColombia is ranked third in the world in the Happy Planet Index.\n\n===Languages===\n\n\nMore than 99.2% of Colombians speak Spanish, also called Castilian; 65 Amerindian languages, two Creole languages, the Romani language and Colombian Sign Language are also spoken in the country. English has official status in the archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina.\n\nIncluding Spanish, a total of 101 languages are listed for Colombia in the Ethnologue database. The specific number of spoken languages varies slightly since some authors consider as different languages what others consider to be varieties or dialects of the same language. Best estimates recorded 71 languages that are spoken in-country today—most of which belong to the Chibchan, Tucanoan, Bora–Witoto, Guajiboan, Arawakan, Cariban, Barbacoan, and Saliban language families. There are currently about 850,000 speakers of native languages.\n\n=== Ethnic groups ===\n\n\nColombia is ethnically diverse, its people descending from the original native inhabitants, Spanish colonists, Africans originally brought to the country as slaves, and 20th-century immigrants from Europe and the Middle East, all contributing to a diverse cultural heritage. The demographic distribution reflects a pattern that is influenced by colonial history. Whites tend to live mainly in urban centers, like Bogotá, Medellín or Cali, and the burgeoning highland cities. The populations of the major cities also include mestizos. Mestizo ''campesinos'' (people living in rural areas) also live in the Andean highlands where some Spanish conquerors mixed with the women of Amerindian chiefdoms. Mestizos include artisans and small tradesmen that have played a major part in the urban expansion of recent decades.\n\nThe 2005 census reported that the \"non-ethnic population\", consisting of whites and mestizos (those of mixed white European and Amerindian ancestry), constituted 86% of the national population. 10.6% is of African ancestry. Indigenous Amerindians comprise 3.4% of the population. 0.01% of the population are Roma. An extraofficial estimate considers that the 49% of the Colombian population is Mestizo or of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry, and that approximately 37% is White, mainly of Spanish lineage, but there is also a large population of Middle East descent; in some sectors of society there is a considerable input of Italian and German ancestry.\n\nMany of the Indigenous peoples experienced a reduction in population during the Spanish rule and many others were absorbed into the mestizo population, but the remainder currently represents over eighty distinct cultures. Reserves (''resguardos'') established for indigenous peoples occupy (27% of the country's total) and are inhabited by more than 800,000 people. Some of the largest indigenous groups are the Wayuu, the Paez, the Pastos, the Emberá and the Zenú. The departments of La Guajira, Cauca, Nariño, Córdoba and Sucre have the largest indigenous populations.\n\nThe Organización Nacional Indígena de Colombia (ONIC), founded at the first National Indigenous Congress in 1982, is an organization representing the indigenous peoples of Colombia. In 1991, Colombia signed and ratified the current international law concerning indigenous peoples, Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989.\n\nBlack Africans were brought as slaves, mostly to the coastal lowlands, beginning early in the 16th century and continuing into the 19th century. Large Afro-Colombian communities are found today on the Caribbean and Pacific coasts. The population of the department of Chocó, running along the northern portion of Colombia's Pacific coast, is over 80% black. British and Jamaicans migrated mainly to the islands of San Andres and Providencia. A number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including people from the former USSR during and after the Second World War.\n\nMany immigrant communities have settled on the Caribbean coast, in particular recent immigrants from the Middle East. Barranquilla (the largest city of the Colombian Caribbean) and other Caribbean cities have the largest populations of Lebanese, Palestinian, and other Arabs. There are also important communities of Chinese, Japanese, Romanis and Jews. There is a major migration trend of Venezuelans, due to the political and economic situation in Venezuela.\n\n=== Religion ===\n\n\nThe Las Lajas Sanctuary in the southern Colombian Department of Nariño\n\nThe National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) does not collect religious statistics, and accurate reports are difficult to obtain. However, based on various studies and a survey, about 90% of the population adheres to Christianity, the majority of which (70.9%) are Roman Catholic, while a significant minority (16.7%) adhere to Protestantism (primarily Evangelicalism). Some 4.7% of the population is atheist or agnostic, while 3.5% claim to believe in God but do not follow a specific religion. 1.8% of Colombians adhere to Jehovah's Witnesses and Adventism and less than 1% adhere to other religions, such as Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Mormonism, Hinduism, Indigenous religions, Hare Krishna movement, Rastafari movement, Orthodox Catholic Church, and spiritual studies. The remaining people either did not respond or replied that they did not know. In addition to the above statistics, 35.9% of Colombians reported that they did not practice their faith actively.\n\nWhile Colombia remains a mostly Roman Catholic country by baptism numbers, the 1991 Colombian constitution guarantees freedom of religion and all religious faiths and churches are equally free before the law.\n\n===Largest cities===\nColombia is a highly urbanized country. The largest cities in the country are Bogotá, with an estimated 8 million inhabitants, Medellín, with an estimated 2.5 million inhabitants, Cali, with an estimated 2.4 million inhabitants, and Barranquilla, with an estimated 1.2 million inhabitants. Cartagena highlights in number of inhabitants and the city of Bucaramanga is relevant in terms of metropolitan area population.\n\n",
"\n\nColombia lies at the crossroads of Latin America and the broader American continent, and as such has been hit by a wide range of cultural influences. Native American, Spanish and other European, African, American, Caribbean, and Middle Eastern influences, as well as other Latin American cultural influences, are all present in Colombia's modern culture. Urban migration, industrialization, globalization, and other political, social and economic changes have also left an impression.\n\nMany national symbols, both objects and themes, have arisen from Colombia's diverse cultural traditions and aim to represent what Colombia, and the Colombian people, have in common. Cultural expressions in Colombia are promoted by the government through the Ministry of Culture.\n\n=== Literature ===\n\nNobel literature prize winner Gabriel García Márquez\nJorge Isaacs was one of the greatest exponents of Colombian literature in the nineteenth century.\nColombian literature dates back to pre-Columbian era; a notable example of the period is the epic poem known as the ''Legend of Yurupary''. In Spanish colonial times, notable writers include Juan de Castellanos (''Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias''), Hernando Domínguez Camargo and his epic poem to San Ignacio de Loyola, Pedro Simón, Juan Rodríguez Freyle (''El Carnero''), Lucas Fernández de Piedrahita, and the nun Francisca Josefa de Castillo, representative of mysticism.\n\nPost-independence literature linked to Romanticism highlighted Antonio Nariño, José Fernández Madrid, Camilo Torres Tenorio and Francisco Antonio Zea. In the second half of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century the literary genre known as ''costumbrismo'' became popular; great writers of this period were Tomás Carrasquilla, Jorge Isaacs and Rafael Pombo (the latter of whom wrote notable works of children's literature). Within that period, authors such as José Asunción Silva, José Eustasio Rivera, León de Greiff, Porfirio Barba-Jacob and José María Vargas Vila developed the modernist movement. In 1872, Colombia established the Colombian Academy of Language, the first Spanish language academy in the Americas. Candelario Obeso wrote the groundbreaking ''Cantos Populares de mi Tierra'' (1877), the first book of poetry by an Afro-Colombian author.\n\nBetween 1939 and 1940 seven books of poetry were published under the name ''Stone and Sky'' in the city of Bogotá that significantly impacted the country; they were edited by the poet Jorge Rojas. In the following decade, Gonzalo Arango founded the movement of \"nothingness\" in response to the violence of the time; he was influenced by nihilism, existentialism, and the thought of another great Colombian writer: Fernando González Ochoa. During the boom in Latin American literature, successful writers emerged, led by Nobel laureate Gabriel García Márquez and his magnum opus, ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', Eduardo Caballero Calderón, Manuel Mejía Vallejo, and Álvaro Mutis, a writer who was awarded the Cervantes Prize and the Prince of Asturias Award for Letters. Other leading contemporary authors are Fernando Vallejo, William Ospina (Rómulo Gallegos Prize) and Germán Castro Caycedo.\n\n=== Visual arts ===\n\nVargas Swamp Lancers, artwork by Rodrigo Arenas Betancourt\n\nColombian art has over 3,000 years of history. Colombian artists have captured the country's changing political and cultural backdrop using a range of styles and mediums. There is archeological evidence of ceramics being produced earlier in Colombia than anywhere else in the Americas, dating as early as 3,000 BCE.\n\nThe earliest examples of gold craftsmanship have been attributed to the Tumaco people of the Pacific coast and date to around 325 BCE. Roughly between 200 BCE and 800 CE, the San Agustín culture, masters of stonecutting, entered its “classical period\". They erected raised ceremonial centres, sarcophagi, and large stone monoliths depicting anthropomorphic and zoomorphhic forms out of stone.\n\nColombian art has followed the trends of the time, so during the 16th to 18th centuries, Spanish Catholicism had a huge influence on Colombian art, and the popular baroque style was replaced with rococo when the Bourbons ascended to the Spanish crown. More recently, Colombian artists Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago Martínez Delgado started the Colombian Murial Movement in the 1940s, featuring the neoclassical features of Art Deco.\n\nSince the 1950s, the Colombian art started to have a distinctive point of view, reinventing traditional elements under the concepts of the 20th century. Examples of this are the Greiff portraits by Ignacio Gómez Jaramillo, showing what the Colombian art could do with the new techniques applied to typical Colombian themes. Carlos Correa, with his paradigmatic “Naturaleza muerta en silencio” (silent dead nature), combines geometrical abstraction and cubism. Alejandro Obregón is often considered as the father of modern Colombian painting, and one of the most influential artist in this period, due to his originality, the painting of Colombian landscapes with symbolic and expressionist use of animals, (specially the Andean condor). Fernando Botero, Omar Rayo, Enrique Grau, Édgar Negret, David Manzur, Rodrigo Arenas Betancourt and Oscar Murillo are some of the Colombian artists featured at the international level.\n\n\nThe Colombian sculpture from the sixteenth to 18th centuries was mostly devoted to religious depictions of ecclesiastic art, strongly influenced by the Spanish schools of sacred sculpture. During the early period of the Colombian republic, the national artists were focused in the production of sculptural portraits of politicians and public figures, in a plain neoclassicist trend. During the 20th century, the Colombian sculpture began to develop a bold and innovative work with the aim of reaching a better understanding of national sensitivity.\n\nColombian photography was marked by the arrival of the daguerreotype. Jean-Baptiste Louis Gros was who brought the daguerreotype process to Colombia in 1841. The Piloto public library has Latin America’s largest archive of negatives, containing 1.7 million antique photographs covering Colombia 1848 until 2005.\n\nThe Colombian press has promoted the work of the cartoonists. In recent decades, fanzines, internet and independent publishers have been fundamental to the growth of the comic in Colombia.\n\n=== Architecture ===\n\n\n\nThroughout the times, there have been a variety of architectural styles, from those of indigenous peoples to contemporary ones, passing through colonial (military and religious), Republican, transition and modern styles.\n\nAncient habitation areas, longhouses, crop terraces, roads as the Inca road system, cemeteries, hypogeums and necropolises are all part of the architectural heritage of indigenous peoples. Some prominent indigenous structures are the preceramic and ceramic archaeological site of Tequendama, Tierradentro (a park that contains the largest concentration of pre-Columbian monumental shaft tombs with side chambers), the largest collection of religious monuments and megalithic sculptures in South America, located in San Agustín, Huila. Lost city (an archaeological site with a series of terraces carved into the mountainside, a net of tiled roads and several circular plazas) and also stand out the large villages mainly built with stone, wood, cane and mud.\nHistoric Centre of Santa Cruz de Mompox, an architectural site with colonial elements\nArchitecture during the period of conquest and colonization is mainly derived of adapting European styles to local conditions, and Spanish influence, especially Andalusian and Extremaduran, can be easily seen. When Europeans founded cities two things were making simultaneously: the dimensioning of geometrical space (town square, street), and the location of a tangible point of orientation. The construction of forts was common throughout the Caribbean and in some cities of the interior, because of the dangers that represented the English, French, and Dutch pirates and the hostile indigenous groups. Churches, chapels, schools, and hospitals belonging to religious orders cause a great urban impact. Baroque architecture is used in military buildings and public spaces. Marcelino Arroyo, Francisco José de Caldas and Domingo de Petrés were great representatives of neo-classical architecture.\n\nThe National Capitol is a great representative of romanticism. Wood is extensively used in doors, windows, railings and ceilings during the colonization of Antioquia. The Caribbean architecture acquires a strong Arabic influence. The Teatro Colón in Bogotá is a lavish example of architecture from the 19th century. The quintas houses with innovations in the volumetric conception are some of the best examples of the Republican architecture; the Republican action in the city focused on the design of three types of spaces: parks with forests, small urban parks and avenues and the Gothic style was most commonly used for the design of churches.\n\nDeco style, modern neoclassicism, eclecticism folklorist and art deco ornamental resources significantly influenced the architecture of Colombia, especially during the transition period. Modernism contributed with new construction technologies and new materials (steel, reinforced concrete, glass and synthetic materials) and the topology architecture and lightened slabs system also have a great influence. The most influential architects of the modern movement were Rogelio Salmona and Fernando Martínez Sanabria.\n\nThe contemporary architecture of Colombia is designed to give greater importance to the materials, this architecture takes into account the specific natural and artificial geographies and is also an architecture that appeals to the senses. The conservation of the architectural and urban heritage of Colombia has been promoted in recent years.\n\n=== Music ===\n\n \nColombian music blends European-influenced guitar and song structure with large gaita flutes and percussion instruments from the indigenous population, while its percussion structure and dance forms come from Africa. Colombia has a diverse and dynamic musical environment. Musicians, composers, music producers and singers from Colombia are recognized internationally such as Shakira, Juanes, Carlos Vives and others.\n\nGuillermo Uribe Holguín, an important cultural figure in the National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia, Luis Antonio Calvo and Blas Emilio Atehortúa are some of the greatest exponents of the art music. The Bogotá Philharmonic Orchestra is one of the most active orchestras in Colombia.\n\nCaribbean music has many vibrant rhythms, such as cumbia (it is played by the maracas, the drums, the gaitas and guacharaca), porro (it is a monotonous but joyful rhythm), mapalé (with its fast rhythm and constant clapping) and the \"vallenato\", which originated in the northern part of the Caribbean coast (the rhythm is mainly played by the caja, the guacharaca, and accordion).\n\nThe music from the Pacific coast, such as the currulao is characterized by its strong use of drums (instruments such as the native marimba, the conunos, the bass drum, the side drum and the cuatro guasas or tubular rattle). An important rhythm of the south region of the Pacific coast is the contradanza (it is used in dance shows, as a result of the striking colours of the costumes). Marimba music, traditional chants and dances from the Colombia South Pacific region are on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.\n\nImportant musical rhythms of the Andean Region are the danza (dance of Andean folklore arising from the transformation of the European contredance), the bambuco (it is played with guitar, tiple and mandolin, the rhythm is danced by couples), the pasillo (a rhythm inspired by the Austrian waltz and the Colombian \"danza\", the lyrics have been composed by well-known poets), the guabina (the tiple, the bandola and the requinto are the basic instruments), the sanjuanero (it originated in Tolima and Huila Departments, the rhythm is joyful and fast). Apart from these traditional rhythms, salsa music has spread throughout the country, and the city of Cali is considered by many salsa singers to be 'The New Salsa Capital of the World'.\nColombian-style salsa dancing\nThe instruments that distinguish the music of the Eastern Plains are the harp, the cuatro (a type of four-stringed guitar) and maracas. Important rhythms of this region are the joropo (a fast rhythm and there is also tapping as a result of its flamenco ancestry) and the galeron (it is heard a lot while cowboys are working).\n\nThe music of the Amazon region is strongly influenced by the indigenous religious practices. Some of the musical instruments used are the manguaré (a musical instrument of ceremonial type, consisting of a pair of large cylindrical drums), the quena (melodic instrument), the rondador, the congas, bells, and different types of flutes.\n\nThe music of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina is usually accompanied by a mandolin, a tub-bass, a jawbone, a guitar and maracas. Some popular archipelago rhythms are the Schottische, the Calypso, the Polka and the Mento.\n\n=== Popular culture ===\n\nThe Ibero-American Theater Festival of Bogotá is one of the biggest theater festivals in the world.\nTheater was introduced in Colombia during the Spanish colonization in 1550 through zarzuela companies. Colombian theater is supported by the Ministry of Culture and a number of private and state owned organizations. The Ibero-American Theater Festival of Bogotá is the cultural event of the highest importance in Colombia and one of the biggest theater festivals in the world. Other important theater events are: The Festival of Puppet The Fanfare (Medellín), The Manizales Theater Festival, The Caribbean Theatre Festival (Santa Marta) and The Art Festival of Popular Culture \"Cultural Invasion\" (Bogotá).\nThe Cartagena Film Festival is the oldest cinema event in Latin America. The central focus is on films from Ibero-America.\nAlthough the Colombian cinema is young as an industry, more recently the film industry was growing with support from the Film Act passed in 2003. Many film festivals take place in Colombia, but the two most important are the Cartagena Film Festival, which is the oldest film festival in Latin America, and the Bogotá Film Festival.\n\nSome important national circulation newspapers are ''El Tiempo'' and ''El Espectador''. Television in Colombia has two privately owned TV networks and three state-owned TV networks with national coverage, as well as six regional TV networks and dozens of local TV stations. Private channels, RCN and Caracol are the highest-rated. The regional channels and regional newspapers cover a department or more and its content is made in these particular areas.\n\nColombia has three major national radio networks: Radiodifusora Nacional de Colombia, a state-run national radio; Caracol Radio and RCN Radio, privately owned networks with hundreds of affiliates. There are other national networks, including Cadena Super, Todelar, and Colmundo. Many hundreds of radio stations are registered with the Ministry of Information Technologies and Communications.\n\n=== Cuisine ===\n\nSancocho de gallina criolla is a traditional soup in Colombia.\n\nColombia's varied cuisine is influenced by its diverse fauna and flora as well as the cultural traditions of the ethnic groups. Colombian dishes and ingredients vary widely by region. Some of the most common ingredients are: cereals such as rice and maize; tubers such as potato and cassava; assorted legumes; meats, including beef, chicken, pork and goat; fish; and seafood. Colombia cuisine also features a variety of tropical fruits such as cape gooseberry, feijoa, arazá, dragon fruit, mangostino, granadilla, papaya, guava, mora (blackberry), lulo, soursop and passionfruit. Colombia is one of the world's largest consumers of fruit juices.\n\nAmong the most representative appetizers and soups are patacones (fried green plantains), sancocho de gallina (chicken soup with root vegetables) and ajiaco (potato and corn soup). Representative snacks and breads are pandebono, arepas (corn cakes), aborrajados (fried sweet plantains with cheese), torta de choclo, empanadas and almojábanas. Representative main courses are bandeja paisa, lechona tolimense, mamona, tamales and fish dishes (such as arroz de lisa), especially in coastal regions where kibbeh, suero, costeño cheese and carimañolas are also eaten. Representative side dishes are papas chorreadas (potatoes with cheese), remolachas rellenas con huevo duro (beets stuffed with hard-boiled egg) and arroz con coco (coconut rice). Organic food is a current trend in big cities, although in general across the country the fruits and veggies are very natural and fresh.\n\nRepresentative desserts are buñuelos, natillas, Maria Luisa cake, bocadillo made of guayaba (guava jelly), cocadas (coconut balls), casquitos de guayaba (candied guava peels), torta de natas, obleas, flan de mango, roscón, milhoja, manjar blanco, dulce de feijoa, dulce de papayuela, torta de mojicón, and esponjado de curuba. Typical sauces (salsas) are hogao (tomato and onion sauce) and Colombian-style ají.\n\nSome representative beverages are coffee (Tinto), champús, cholado, lulada, avena colombiana, sugarcane juice, aguapanela, aguardiente, hot chocolate and fresh fruit juices (often made with water or milk).\n\n===Sports===\n\nNairo Quintana: Colombian Champion of the Giro d'Italia and the Vuelta a España\nWorld Roller Speed Skating Championships.\nTejo is Colombia’s national sport and is a team sport that involves launching projectiles to hit a target. But of all sports in Colombia, football is the most popular. Colombia was the champion of the 2001 Copa América, in which they set a new record of being undefeated, conceding no goals and winning each match. Interestingly, Colombia has been awarded “mover of the year” twice.\n\nColombia is a mecca for roller skaters. The national team is a perennial powerhouse at the World Roller Speed Skating Championships. Colombia has traditionally been very good in cycling and a large number of Colombian cyclists have triumphed in major competitions of cycling.\n\nIn baseball, another sport rooted in the Caribbean Coast, Colombia was world amateur champion in 1947 and 1965.\nBaseball is popular in the Caribbean, mainly in the cities Cartagena, Barranquilla and Santa Marta. Of those cities have come good players like: Orlando Cabrera, Édgar Rentería who was champion of the World Series in 1997 and 2010, and others who have played in Major League Baseball.\n\nBoxing is one of the sports that more world champions has produced for Colombia.\nMotorsports also occupies an important place in the sporting preferences of Colombians; Juan Pablo Montoya is a race car driver known for winning 7 Formula One events. Colombia also has excelled in sports such as BMX, judo, shooting sport, taekwondo, wrestling, high diving and athletics, also has a long tradition in weightlifting and bowling.\n",
"\n\nThe overall life expectancy in Colombia at birth is 74.8 years (71.2 years for males and 78.4 years for females). Health standards in Colombia have improved very much since the 1980s, healthcare reforms have led to the massive improvements in the healthcare systems of the country. Although this new system has widened population coverage by the social and health security system from 21% (pre-1993) to 96% in 2012, health disparities persist.\n\nThrough health tourism, many people from over the world travel from their places of residence to other countries in search of medical treatment and the attractions in the countries visited. Colombia is projected as one of Latin America’s main destinations in terms of health tourism due to the quality of its health care professionals, a good number of institutions devoted to health, and an immense inventory of natural and architectural sites. Cities such as Bogotá, Cali, Medellín and Bucaramanga are the most visited in cardiology procedures, neurology, dental treatments, stem cell therapy, ENT, ophthalmology and joint replacements among others for the medical services of high quality.\n\nA study conducted by ''América Economía'' magazine ranked 21 Colombian health care institutions among the top 44 in Latin America, amounting to 48 percent of the total.\n",
"\nM5 building – National University of Colombia, designed by Pedro Nel Gómez\nUniversity of Los Andes\nThe educational experience of many Colombian children begins with attendance at a preschool academy until age five (''Educación preescolar''). Basic education (''Educación básica'') is compulsory by law. It has two stages: Primary basic education (''Educación básica primaria'') which goes from first to fifth grade – children from six to ten years old, and Secondary basic education (''Educación básica secundaria''), which goes from sixth to ninth grade. Basic education is followed by Middle vocational education (''Educación media vocacional'') that comprises the tenth and eleventh grades. It may have different vocational training modalities or specialties (academic, technical, business, and so on.) according to the curriculum adopted by each school.\n\nAfter the successful completion of all the basic and middle education years, a high-school diploma is awarded. The high-school graduate is known as a ''bachiller'', because secondary basic school and middle education are traditionally considered together as a unit called ''bachillerato'' (sixth to eleventh grade). Students in their final year of middle education take the ICFES test (now renamed Saber 11) in order to gain access to higher education (''Educación superior''). This higher education includes undergraduate professional studies, technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies. Technical professional institutions of Higher Education are also opened to students holder of a qualification in Arts and Business. This qualification is usually awarded by the SENA after a two years curriculum.\n\n''Bachilleres'' (high-school graduates) may enter into a professional undergraduate career program offered by a university; these programs last up to five years (or less for technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies), even as much to six to seven years for some careers, such as medicine. In Colombia, there is not an institution such as college; students go directly into a career program at a university or any other educational institution to obtain a professional, technical or technological title. Once graduated from the university, people are granted a (professional, technical or technological) diploma and licensed (if required) to practice the career they have chosen. For some professional career programs, students are required to take the Saber-Pro test, in their final year of undergraduate academic education.\n\nPublic spending on education as a proportion of gross domestic product in 2015 was 4.49%. This represented 15.05% of total government expenditure. The primary and secondary gross enrolment ratios stood at 113.56% and 98.09% respectively. School-life expectancy was 14.42 years. A total of 94.58% of the population aged 15 and older were recorded as literate, including 98.66% of those aged 15–24.\n",
"* Index of Colombia-related articles\n* Outline of Colombia\n* \n* \n* \n\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"\n\n'''General information'''\n* Colombia at Encyclopædia Britannica\n* Colombia at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''\n* \n* \n* Key Development Forecasts for Colombia from International Futures\n* Official investment portal\n* Official Colombia Tourism Website\n* Study Spanish in Colombia\n* National Administrative Department of Statistics\n\n'''Government'''\n* Colombia Online Government website\n\n'''Culture'''\n* Ministry of Culture\n\n'''Geography'''\n* National parks of Colombia\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Etymology ",
" History ",
" Geography ",
" Government and politics ",
" Economy ",
" Demographics ",
" Culture ",
"Health",
" Education ",
" See also ",
" Notes ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Colombia | [
"Colombia is now one of only three economies with a perfect score on the strength of legal rights index, according to the World Bank."
] | [
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Colombia''' ( or ; ), officially the '''Republic of Colombia''' (), is a sovereign state largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America.",
"Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and Peru.",
"It shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic.",
"It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments.",
"The territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples, with as most advanced the Muisca, Quimbaya and the Tairona.",
"The Spanish set foot on Colombian soil for the first time in 1499 and in the first half of the 16th century initiated a period of conquest and colonization, ultimately creating the New Kingdom of Granada, with as capital Santafé de Bogotá.",
"Independence from Spain was acquired in 1819, but by 1830 the \"Gran Colombia\" Federation was dissolved.",
"What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada.",
"The new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation (1858), and then the United States of Colombia (1863), before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886.",
"Panama seceded in 1903.",
"Since the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, which escalated in the 1990s but then decreased from 2005 onward.",
"Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage.",
"The urban centres are mostly located in the highlands of the Andes mountains.",
"Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines.",
"Ecologically, it is one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer.",
"Colombia is a middle power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is a member of the UN, the WTO, the OAS, the Pacific Alliance, and other international organizations.",
"Colombia has a diversified economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run.",
"''Colombia'' is named after Christopher Columbus\nThe name \"Colombia\" is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus (, ).",
"It was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule.",
"The name was later adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819, formed from the territories of the old Viceroyalty of New Granada (modern-day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, and northwest Brazil).",
"When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, the former Department of Cundinamarca adopted the name \"Republic of New Granada\".",
"New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation.",
"In 1863 the name was again changed, this time to United States of Colombia, before finally adopting its present name – the Republic of Colombia – in 1886.",
"To refer to this country, the Colombian government uses the terms ''Colombia'' and ''República de Colombia''.",
"\n\n=== Pre-Columbian era ===\n\nOwing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica and the Caribbean to the Andes and Amazon basin.",
"The oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley southwest of Bogotá.",
"These sites date from the Paleoindian period (18,000–8000 BCE).",
"At Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period (~8000–2000 BCE) have been found.",
"Vestiges indicate that there was also early occupation in the regions of El Abra and Tequendama in Cundinamarca.",
"The oldest pottery discovered in the Americas, found at San Jacinto, dates to 5000–4000 BCE.",
"Muisca raft.",
"The figure refers to the ceremony of the legend of El Dorado.",
"Indigenous people inhabited the territory that is now Colombia by 12,500 BCE.",
"Nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes at the El Abra, Tibitó and Tequendama sites near present-day Bogotá traded with one another and with other cultures from the Magdalena River Valley.",
"Between 5000 and 1000 BCE, hunter-gatherer tribes transitioned to agrarian societies; fixed settlements were established, and pottery appeared.",
"Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE, groups of Amerindians including the Muisca, Quimbaya, and Tairona developed the political system of ''cacicazgos'' with a pyramidal structure of power headed by caciques.",
"The Muisca inhabited mainly the area of what is now the Departments of Boyacá and Cundinamarca high plateau (''Altiplano Cundiboyacense'') where they formed the Muisca Confederation.",
"They farmed maize, potato, quinoa and cotton, and traded gold, emeralds, blankets, ceramic handicrafts, coca and especially rock salt with neighboring nations.",
"The Tairona inhabited northern Colombia in the isolated mountain range of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.",
"The Quimbaya inhabited regions of the Cauca River Valley between the Western and Central Ranges of the Colombian Andes.",
"Most of the Amerindians practiced agriculture and the social structure of each indigenous community was different.",
"Some groups of indigenous people such as the Caribs lived in a state of permanent war, but others had less bellicose attitudes.",
"The Incas expanded their empire onto the southwest part of the country.",
"=== Spanish conquest ===\nMap of Juan de la Cosa.",
"It is the oldest known European cartographic representation of the New World.",
"Alonso de Ojeda (who had sailed with Columbus) reached the Guajira Peninsula in 1499.",
"Spanish explorers, led by Rodrigo de Bastidas, made the first exploration of the Caribbean coast in 1500.",
"Christopher Columbus navigated near the Caribbean in 1502.",
"In 1508, Vasco Núñez de Balboa accompanied an expedition to the territory through the region of Gulf of Urabá and they founded the town of Santa María la Antigua del Darién in 1510, the first stable settlement on the continent.",
"Santa Marta was founded in 1525, and Cartagena in 1533.",
"Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada led an expedition to the interior in April 1536, and christened the districts through which he passed \"New Kingdom of Granada\".",
"In August 1538, he founded provisionally its capital near the Muisca cacicazgo of Bacatá, and named it \"Santa Fe\".",
"The name soon acquired a suffix and was called Santa Fe de Bogotá.",
"Two other notable journeys by early conquistadors to the interior took place in the same period.",
"Sebastián de Belalcázar, conqueror of Quito, traveled north and founded Cali, in 1536, and Popayán, in 1537; from 1536 to 1539, German conquistador Nikolaus Federmann crossed the Llanos Orientales and went over the Cordillera Oriental in a search for El Dorado, the \"city of gold\".",
"The legend and the gold would play a pivotal role in luring the Spanish and other Europeans to New Granada during the 16th and 17th centuries.",
"The conquistadors made frequent alliances with the enemies of different indigenous communities.",
"Indigenous allies were crucial to conquest, as well as to creating and maintaining empire.",
"Indigenous peoples in New Granada experienced a decline in population due to conquest as well as Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox, to which they had no immunity.",
"With the risk that the land was deserted, the Spanish Crown sold properties to all persons interested in colonise territories creating large farms and possession of mines.",
"In the 16th century, the nautical science in Spain reached a great development thanks to numerous scientific figures of the Casa de Contratación and nautical science was an essential pillar of the Iberian expansion.",
"=== Colonial period ===\nIn 1542, the region of New Granada, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America, became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, with its capital at Lima.",
"In 1547, New Granada became the Captaincy-General of New Granada within the viceroyalty.",
"In 1549, the Royal Audiencia was created by a royal decree, and New Granada was ruled by the Royal Audience of Santa Fe de Bogotá, which at that time comprised the provinces of Santa Marta, Rio de San Juan, Popayán, Guayana and Cartagena.",
"But important decisions were taken from the colony to Spain by the Council of the Indies.",
"The battle resulted in a major defeat for the British Navy and Army during the War of Jenkins' Ear, 1739–48.",
"In the 16th century, Europeans began to bring slaves from Africa.",
"Spain was the only European power that could not establish factories in Africa to purchase slaves and therefore the Spanish empire relied on the asiento system, awarding merchants (mostly from Portugal, France, England and the Dutch Empire) the license to trade enslaved people to their overseas territories.",
"Also there were people who defended the human rights and freedoms of oppressed peoples.",
"The indigenous peoples could not be enslaved because they were legally subjects of the Spanish Crown and to protect the indigenous peoples, several forms of land ownership and regulation were established: ''resguardos'', ''encomiendas'' and ''haciendas''.",
"Many intellectual leaders of the independence process participated in the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada.",
"In 1717 the Viceroyalty of New Granada was originally created, and then it was temporarily removed, to finally be reestablished in 1739.",
"The Viceroyalty had Santa Fé de Bogotá as its capital.",
"This Viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America which had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalties of New Spain or Peru and correspond mainly to today's Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama.",
"So, Bogotá became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with Lima and Mexico City, though it remained somewhat backward compared to those two cities in several economic and logistical ways.",
"After Great Britain declared war on Spain in 1739, Cartagena quickly became the British forces' top target but an upset Spanish victory during the War of Jenkins' Ear, a war with Great Britain for economic control of the Caribbean, cemented Spanish dominance in the Caribbean until the Seven Years' War.",
"The 18th-century priest, botanist and mathematician José Celestino Mutis was delegated by Viceroy Antonio Caballero y Góngora to conduct an inventory of the nature of the New Granada.",
"Started in 1783, this became known as the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada which classified plants, wildlife and founded the first astronomical observatory in the city of Santa Fe de Bogotá.",
"In July 1801 the Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt reached Santa Fe de Bogotá where he met with Mutis.",
"In addition, historical figures in the process of independence in New Granada emerged from the expedition as the astronomer Francisco José de Caldas, the scientist Francisco Antonio Zea, the zoologist Jorge Tadeo Lozano and the painter Salvador Rizo.",
"=== Independence ===\nThe Battle of Boyacá was the decisive battle which would ensure the success of the liberation campaign of New Granada.",
"Since the beginning of the periods of conquest and colonization, there were several rebel movements against Spanish rule, but most were either crushed or remained too weak to change the overall situation.",
"The last one that sought outright independence from Spain sprang up around 1810, following the independence of St. Domingue (present-day Haiti) in 1804, which provided some support to an eventual leader of this rebellion: Simón Bolívar.",
"Francisco de Paula Santander also would play a decisive role.",
"The Socorro Province was the site of the genesis of the independence process.",
"A movement was initiated by Antonio Nariño, who opposed Spanish centralism and led the opposition against the Viceroyalty.",
"Cartagena became independent in November 1811.",
"In 1811 the United Provinces of New Granada were proclaimed, headed by Camilo Torres Tenorio.",
"The emergence of two distinct ideological currents among the patriots (federalism and centralism) gave rise to a period of instability.",
"Shortly after the Napoleonic Wars ended, Ferdinand VII, recently restored to the throne in Spain, unexpectedly decided to send military forces to retake most of northern South America.",
"The viceroyalty was restored under the command of Juan Sámano, whose regime punished those who participated in the patriotic movements, ignoring the political nuances of the juntas.",
"The retribution stoked renewed rebellion, which, combined with a weakened Spain, made possible a successful rebellion led by the Venezuelan-born Simón Bolívar, who finally proclaimed independence in 1819.",
"The pro-Spanish resistance was defeated in 1822 in the present territory of Colombia and in 1823 in Venezuela.",
"The territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada became the Republic of Colombia, organized as a union of the current territories of Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, Venezuela, parts of Guyana and Brazil and north of Marañón River.",
"The Congress of Cúcuta in 1821 adopted a constitution for the new Republic.",
"Simón Bolívar became the first President of Colombia, and Francisco de Paula Santander was made Vice President.",
"However, the new republic was unstable and three countries emerged from the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (New Granada, Ecuador and Venezuela).",
"Formation of the present Colombia since the Viceroyalty of New Granada's independence from the Spanish Empire\nColombia was the first constitutional government in South America, and the Liberal and Conservative parties, founded in 1848 and 1849 respectively, are two of the oldest surviving political parties in the Americas.",
"Slavery was abolished in the country in 1851.",
"Internal political and territorial divisions led to the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1830.",
"The so-called \"Department of Cundinamarca\" adopted the name \"New Granada\", which it kept until 1858 when it became the \"Confederación Granadina\" (Granadine Confederation).",
"After a two-year civil war in 1863, the \"United States of Colombia\" was created, lasting until 1886, when the country finally became known as the Republic of Colombia.",
"Internal divisions remained between the bipartisan political forces, occasionally igniting very bloody civil wars, the most significant being the Thousand Days' War (1899–1902).",
"=== 20th century ===\nThe United States of America's intentions to influence the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to the separation of the Department of Panama in 1903 and the establishment of it as a nation.",
"The United States paid Colombia $25,000,000 in 1921, seven years after completion of the canal, for redress of President Roosevelt's role in the creation of Panama, and Colombia recognized Panama under the terms of the Thomson–Urrutia Treaty.",
"Colombia and Peru went to war because of territory disputes far in the Amazon basin.",
"The war ended with a peace deal brokered by the League of Nations.",
"The League finally awarded the disputed area to Colombia in June 1934.",
"The Bogotazo in 1948\nSoon after, Colombia achieved some degree of political stability, which was interrupted by a bloody conflict that took place between the late 1940s and the early 1950s, a period known as ''La Violencia'' (\"The Violence\").",
"Its cause was mainly mounting tensions between the two leading political parties, which subsequently ignited after the assassination of the Liberal presidential candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán on 9 April 1948.",
"The ensuing riots in Bogotá, known as El Bogotazo, spread throughout the country and claimed the lives of at least 180,000 Colombians.",
"Colombia entered the Korean War when Laureano Gómez was elected president.",
"It was the only Latin American country to join the war in a direct military role as an ally of the United States.",
"Particularly important was the resistance of the Colombian troops at Old Baldy.",
"The violence between the two political parties decreased first when Gustavo Rojas deposed the President of Colombia in a coup d'état and negotiated with the guerrillas, and then under the military junta of General Gabriel París.",
"The Axis of Peace and Memory: A “memorial” in recognition of the victims of the conflict\nAfter Rojas' deposition, the Colombian Conservative Party and Colombian Liberal Party agreed to create the \"National Front\", a coalition which would jointly govern the country.",
"Under the deal, the presidency would alternate between conservatives and liberals every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices.",
"The National Front ended \"La Violencia\", and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress.",
"Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political problems continued, and guerrilla groups were formally created such as the FARC, the ELN and the M-19 to fight the government and political apparatus.",
"Since the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict between the government forces, left-wing guerrilla groups and right-wing paramilitaries.",
"The conflict escalated in the 1990s, mainly in remote rural areas.",
"Since the beginning of the armed conflict, human rights defenders have fought for the respect for human rights, despite staggering opposition.",
"Several guerrillas' organizations decided to demobilize after peace negotiations in 1989–1994.",
"The United States has been heavily involved in the conflict since its beginnings, when in the early 1960s the U.S. government encouraged the Colombian military to attack leftist militias in rural Colombia.",
"This was part of the U.S. fight against communism.",
"Mercenaries and multinational corporations such as Chiquita Brands International are some of the international actors that have contributed to the violence of the conflict.",
"On 4 July 1991, a new Constitution was promulgated.",
"The changes generated by the new constitution are viewed as positive by Colombian society.",
"===21st century===\nColombia's President Juan Manuel Santos signed a historic peace accord.",
"The administration of President Álvaro Uribe (2002–10), adopted the democratic security policy which included an integrated counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency campaign.",
"The Government economic plan also promoted confidence in investors.",
"As part of a controversial peace process the AUC (right-wing paramilitaries) as a formal organization had ceased to function.",
"In February 2008, millions of Colombians demonstrated against FARC and other outlawed groups.",
"After peace negotiations in Cuba, the Colombian government of President Juan Manuel Santos and guerrilla of FARC-EP announced a final agreement to end the conflict.",
"However, a referendum to ratify the deal was unsuccessful.",
"Afterward, the Colombian government and the FARC signed a revised peace deal in November 2016, which the Colombian congress approved.",
"In 2016, President Santos was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.",
"The Government began a process of attention and comprehensive reparation for victims of conflict.",
"Colombia shows modest progress in the struggle to defend human rights, as expressed by HRW.",
"A Special Jurisdiction for Peace will be created to investigate, clarify, prosecute and punish serious human rights violations and grave breaches of international humanitarian law which occurred during the armed conflict and to satisfy victims' right to justice.",
"In terms of international relations, Colombia and Venezuela have agreed to restore diplomatic relations.",
"Latin America, with a long memory of U.S. interventions such as the infamous Operation Condor, rejects US military threat against Venezuela.",
"Colombia's Foreign Ministry said that all efforts to resolve Venezuela's crisis should be peaceful and respect its sovereignty.",
"Colombia will not recognize result of Venezuela assembly vote, amid opposition concerns that the election will lead to dictatorship.",
"Colombia with a very clean electricity generation matrix reaffirms its support for the Paris Climate Agreement.",
"During his visit to Colombia, Pope Francis brought with him a message of peace and paid tribute to the victims of the conflict.",
"\n\nRelief map\nThe geography of Colombia is characterized by its six main natural regions that present their own unique characteristics, from the Andes mountain range region shared with Ecuador and Venezuela; the Pacific coastal region shared with Panama and Ecuador; the Caribbean coastal region shared with Venezuela and Panama; the ''Llanos'' (plains) shared with Venezuela; the Amazon Rainforest region shared with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Ecuador; to the insular area, comprising islands in both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.",
"Colombia is bordered to the northwest by Panama; to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; it established its maritime boundaries with neighboring countries through seven agreements on the Caribbean Sea and three on the Pacific Ocean.",
"It lies between latitudes 12°N and 4°S, and longitudes 67° and 79°W.",
"Colombia map of Köppen climate classification\nPart of the Ring of Fire, a region of the world subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, In the interior of Colombia the Andes are the prevailing geographical feature.",
"Most of Colombia's population centers are located in these interior highlands.",
"Beyond the Colombian Massif (in the south-western departments of Cauca and Nariño) these are divided into three branches known as ''cordilleras'' (mountain ranges): the Cordillera Occidental, running adjacent to the Pacific coast and including the city of Cali; the Cordillera Central, running between the Cauca and Magdalena River valleys (to the west and east respectively) and including the cities of Medellín, Manizales, Pereira and Armenia; and the Cordillera Oriental, extending north east to the Guajira Peninsula and including Bogotá, Bucaramanga and Cúcuta.",
"Peaks in the Cordillera Occidental exceed , and in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental they reach .",
"At , Bogotá is the highest city of its size in the world.",
"East of the Andes lies the savanna of the ''Llanos'', part of the Orinoco River basin, and, in the far south east, the jungle of the Amazon rainforest.",
"Together these lowlands comprise over half Colombia's territory, but they contain less than 6% of the population.",
"To the north the Caribbean coast, home to 21.9% of the population and the location of the major port cities of Barranquilla and Cartagena, generally consists of low-lying plains, but it also contains the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range, which includes the country's tallest peaks (Pico Cristóbal Colón and Pico Simón Bolívar), and the La Guajira Desert.",
"By contrast the narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, backed by the Serranía de Baudó mountains, are sparsely populated and covered in dense vegetation.",
"The principal Pacific port is Buenaventura.",
"The main rivers of Colombia are Magdalena, Cauca, Guaviare, Atrato, Meta, Putumayo and Caquetá.",
"Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin.",
"The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers mark limits with Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively.",
"Protected areas and the \"National Park System\" cover an area of about and account for 12.77% of the Colombian territory.",
"Compared to neighboring countries, rates of deforestation in Colombia are still relatively low.",
"Colombia is the sixth country in the world by magnitude of total renewable freshwater supply, and still has large reserves of freshwater.",
"=== Climate ===\n\nThe climate of Colombia is characterized for being tropical presenting variations within six natural regions and depending on the altitude, temperature, humidity, winds and rainfall.",
"The diversity of climate zones in Colombia is characterized for having tropical rainforests, savannas, steppes, deserts and mountain climate.",
"Mountain climate is one of the unique features of the Andes and other high altitude reliefs where climate is determined by elevation.",
"Below in elevation is the warm altitudinal zone, where temperatures are above .",
"About 82.5% of the country's total area lies in the warm altitudinal zone.",
"The temperate climate altitudinal zone located between ) is characterized for presenting an average temperature ranging between .",
"The cold climate is present between and the temperatures vary between .",
"Beyond the cold land lie the alpine conditions of the forested zone and then the treeless grasslands of the páramos.",
"Above , where temperatures are below freezing, the climate is glacial, a zone of permanent snow and ice.",
"File:Nevado del Ruiz en Colombia.jpg|Ice cap climate in the Nevado del Ruiz\nFile:Páramo de Sumapaz.jpg |Alpine tundra climate in the Sumapaz Paramo\nFile:Tota Lake 1.JPG|Oceanic climate in Tota Lake\nFile:Desierto Frio en Boyacá.jpg|Cold desert climate near Villa de Leyva\nFile:Chiribiquete view.jpg|Tropical wet climate in the tepuis of the Serranía de Chiribiquete\nFile:Paisaje rural en Tinjacá.jpg|Mediterranean climate in Boyacá Department\nFile:Sunset on the Amazon (7613489930).jpg|Tropical rainforest climate in the Amazon Rainforest\nFile:NP Llanos36 lo (5853389005).jpg|Tropical savanna climate in Los Llanos\nFile:Cabo de La vela.JPG|Hot desert climate in the Guajira Peninsula\nFile:Johny Cay.jpg|Tropical wet and dry climate in San Andrés y Providencia\nFile:CAÑO CRISTALES – LOS OCHOS 01.jpg| Warm and wet climate in Caño Cristales\nFile:Munchique2.jpg|Mountain climate in the Cordillera Occidental\n\n\n=== Biodiversity ===\n''Chlorochrysa nitidissima''.",
"Colombia is home to more bird species than any other country in the world.",
"The national flower of Colombia is the orchid ''Cattleya trianae'', which was named after the Colombian botanist and physician José Jerónimo Triana.",
"Colombia is one of the megadiverse countries in biodiversity, ranking first in bird species.",
"As for plants, the country has between 40,000 and 45,000 plant species, equivalent to 10 or 20% of total global species, this is even more remarkable given that Colombia is considered a country of intermediate size.",
"Colombia is the second most biodiverse country in the world, lagging only after Brazil which is approximately 7 times bigger.",
"Colombia is the country in the planet more characterized by a high biodiversity, with the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide and it has the largest number of endemisms (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country.",
"About 10% of the species of the Earth live in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined, Colombia has 10% of the world’s mammals species, 14% of the amphibian species and 18% of the bird species of the world.",
"Colombia has about 2,000 species of marine fish and is the second most diverse country in freshwater fish.",
"Colombia is the country with more endemic species of butterflies, number 1 in terms of orchid species and approximately 7,000 species of beetles.",
"Colombia is second in the number of amphibian species and is the third most diverse country in reptiles and palms.",
"There are about 1,900 species of mollusks and according to estimates there are about 300,000 species of invertebrates in the country.",
"In Colombia there are 32 terrestrial biomes and 314 types of ecosystems.",
"\n\nCasa de Nariño is the official home and principal workplace of the President of Colombia.",
"The government of Colombia takes place within the framework of a presidential participatory democratic republic as established in the Constitution of 1991.",
"In accordance with the principle of separation of powers, government is divided into three branches: the executive branch, the legislative branch and the judicial branch.",
"As the head of the executive branch, the President of Colombia serves as both head of state and head of government, followed by the Vice President and the Council of Ministers.",
"The president is elected by popular vote to serve four-year term (In 2015, Colombia’s Congress approved the repeal of a 2004 constitutional amendment that eliminated the one-term limit for presidents).",
"At the provincial level executive power is vested in department governors, municipal mayors and local administrators for smaller administrative subdivisions, such as ''corregimientos'' or ''comunas''.",
"All regional elections are held one year and five months after the presidential election.",
"The legislative branch of government is represented nationally by the Congress, a bicameral institution comprising a 166-seat Chamber of Representatives and a 102-seat Senate.",
"The Senate is elected nationally and the Chamber of Representatives is elected in electoral districts.",
"Members of both houses are elected to serve four-year terms two months before the president, also by popular vote.",
"Colombia's Palace of Justice\nThe judicial branch is headed by four high courts, consisting of the Supreme Court which deals with penal and civil matters, the Council of State, which has special responsibility for administrative law and also provides legal advice to the executive, the Constitutional Court, responsible for assuring the integrity of the Colombian constitution, and the Superior Council of Judicature, responsible for auditing the judicial branch.",
"Colombia operates a system of civil law, which since 2005 has been applied through an adversarial system.",
"Despite a number of controversies, the democratic security policy has ensured that former President Uribe remained popular among Colombian people, with his approval rating peaking at 76%, according to a poll in 2009.",
"However, having served two terms, he was constitutionally barred from seeking re-election in 2010.",
"In the run-off elections on 20 June 2010 the former Minister of defense Juan Manuel Santos won with 69% of the vote against the second most popular candidate, Antanas Mockus.",
"A second round was required since no candidate received over the 50% winning threshold of votes.",
"Santos won nearly 51% of the vote in second-round elections on 15 June 2014, beating right-wing rival Óscar Iván Zuluaga, who won 45%.",
"His term as Colombia's president runs for four years beginning 7 August 2014.",
"=== Foreign affairs ===\nThe VI Summit of the Pacific Alliance: President of Colombia, Juan Manuel Santos is second from the left.",
"The foreign affairs of Colombia are headed by the President, as head of state, and managed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs.",
"Colombia has diplomatic missions in all continents.",
"Colombia was one of the 4 founding members of the Pacific Alliance, which is a political, economic and co-operative integration mechanism that promotes the free circulation of goods, services, capital and persons between the members, as well as a common stock exchange and joint embassies in several countries.",
"Colombia is also a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Organization of American States, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the Union of South American Nations and the Andean Community of Nations.",
"Colombia is a global partner of NATO.",
"Colombia is currently in the accession process with the OECD.",
"=== Military ===\nArpía III of the Colombian Air Force\n\nThe executive branch of government is responsible for managing the defense of Colombia, with the President commander-in-chief of the armed forces.",
"The Ministry of Defence exercises day-to-day control of the military and the Colombian National Police.",
"Colombia has 455,461 active military personnel.",
"And in 2016 3.4% of the country's GDP went towards military expenditure, placing it 24th in the world.",
"Colombia's armed forces are the largest in Latin America, and it is the second largest spender on its military after Brazil.",
"The Colombian military is divided into three branches: the National Army of Colombia; the Colombian Air Force; and the Colombian Navy.",
"The National Police functions as a gendarmerie, operating independently from the military as the law enforcement agency for the entire country.",
"Each of these operates with their own intelligence apparatus separate from the National Intelligence Directorate (DNI, in Spanish).",
"The National Army is formed by divisions, brigades, special brigades and special units; the Colombian Navy by the Naval Infantry, the Naval Force of the Caribbean, the Naval Force of the Pacific, the Naval Force of the South, the Naval Force of the East, Colombia Coast Guards, Naval Aviation and the Specific Command of San Andres y Providencia; and the Air Force by 15 air units.",
"The National Police has a presence in all municipalities.",
"=== Administrative divisions ===\n\n\nColombia is divided into 32 departments and one capital district, which is treated as a department (Bogotá also serves as the capital of the department of Cundinamarca).",
"Departments are subdivided into municipalities, each of which is assigned a municipal seat, and municipalities are in turn subdivided into ''corregimientos'' in rural areas and into ''comunas'' in urban areas.",
"Each department has a local government with a governor and assembly directly elected to four-year terms, and each municipality is headed by a mayor and council.",
"There is a popularly elected local administrative board in each of the ''corregimientos'' or ''comunas''.",
"In addition to the capital four other cities have been designated districts (in effect special municipalities), on the basis of special distinguishing features.",
"These are Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta and Buenaventura.",
"Some departments have local administrative subdivisions, where towns have a large concentration of population and municipalities are near each other (for example in Antioquia and Cundinamarca).",
"Where departments have a low population (for example Amazonas, Vaupés and Vichada), special administrative divisions are employed, such as \"department ''corregimientos''\", which are a hybrid of a municipality and a ''corregimiento''.",
"Click on a department on the map below to go to its article.",
"Department \n Capital city\n\n 1 \n Flag of the Department of Amazonas Amazonas \n Leticia\n\n 2 \n Flag of the Department of Antioquia Antioquia \n Medellín\n\n 3 \n Flag of the Department of Arauca Arauca \n Arauca\n\n 4 \n Flag of the Department of Atlántico Atlántico \n Barranquilla\n\n 5 \n Flag of the Department of Bolívar Bolívar \n Cartagena\n\n 6 \n Flag of the Department of Boyacá Boyacá \n Tunja\n\n 7 \n Flag of the Department of Caldas Caldas \n Manizales\n\n 8 \n Flag of the Department of Caquetá Caquetá \n Florencia\n\n 9 \n Flag of the Department of Casanare Casanare\n\n\n 10 \n Flag of the Department of Cauca Cauca \n Popayán\n\n 11 \n Flag of the Department of Cesar Cesar \n Valledupar\n\n 12 \n Flag of the Department of Chocó Chocó \n Quibdó\n\n 13 \n Flag of the Department of Córdoba Córdoba \n Montería\n\n 14 \n Flag of the Department of Cundinamarca Cundinamarca \n Bogotá\n\n 15 \n Flag of the Department of Guainía Guainía \n Inírida\n\n 16 \n Flag of the Department of Guaviare Guaviare \n San José del Guaviare\n\n 17 \n Flag of the Department of Huila Huila \n Neiva\n\n\n\n\n \n Department \n Capital city\n\n 18 \n Flag of La Guajira La Guajira\n\n\n 19 \n Flag of the Department of Magdalena Magdalena \n Santa Marta\n\n 20 \n Flag of the Department of Meta Meta \n Villavicencio\n\n 21 \n Flag of the Department of Nariño Nariño \n Pasto\n\n 22 \n Flag of the Department of Norte de Santander Norte de Santander \n Cúcuta\n\n 23 \n Flag of the Department of Putumayo Putumayo \n Mocoa\n\n 24 \n Flag of the Department of Quindío Quindío \n Armenia\n\n 25 \n Flag of the Department of Risaralda Risaralda \n Pereira\n\n 26 \n Flag of the Department of San Andres, Providencia and Santa Catalina San Andrés, Providenciaand Santa Catalina \n San Andrés\n\n 27 \n Flag of the Department of Santander Santander \n Bucaramanga\n\n 28 \n Flag of the Department of Sucre Sucre \n Sincelejo\n\n 29 \n Flag of the Department of Tolima Tolima \n Ibagué\n\n 30 \n Flag of the Department of Valle del Cauca Valle del Cauca \n Cali\n\n 31 \n Flag of the Department of Vichada Vaupés \n Mitú\n\n 32 \n Flag of the Department of Vichada Vichada \n Puerto Carreño\n\n 33 \n Flag of Bogotá Bogotá \n Bogotá",
"\n\nColombia's gross domestic product by sector for the second half of the year 2015\nHistorically an agrarian economy, Colombia urbanised rapidly in the 20th century, by the end of which just 15.8% of the workforce were employed in agriculture, generating just 6.8% of GDP; 19.6% of the workforce were employed in industry and 64.6% in services, responsible for 34.0% and 59.2% of GDP respectively.",
"The country's economic production is dominated by its strong domestic demand.",
"Consumption expenditure by households is the largest component of GDP.",
"Colombia's market economy grew steadily in the latter part of the 20th century, with gross domestic product (GDP) increasing at an average rate of over 4% per year between 1970 and 1998.",
"The country suffered a recession in 1999 (the first full year of negative growth since the Great Depression), and the recovery from that recession was long and painful.",
"However, in recent years growth has been impressive, reaching 6.9% in 2007, one of the highest rates of growth in Latin America.",
"According to International Monetary Fund estimates, in 2012 Colombia's GDP (PPP) was US$500 billion (28th in the world and third in South America).",
"Total government expenditures account for 28.7 percent of the domestic economy.",
"Public debt equals 41 percent of gross domestic product.",
"A strong fiscal climate was reaffirmed by a boost in bond ratings.",
"Annual inflation closed 2016 at 5.75% YoY (vs. 6.77% YoY in 2015).",
"The average national unemployment rate in 2016 was 9.2%, although the informality is the biggest problem facing the labour market (the income of formal workers climbed 24.8% in 5 years while labor incomes of informal workers rose only 9%).",
"Colombia has Free trade Zone (FTZ), such as Zona Franca del Pacifico, located in the Valle del Cauca, one of the most striking areas for foreign investment.",
"The financial sector has grown favorably due to good liquidity in the economy, the growth of credit and the positive performance of the Colombian economy.",
"The Colombian Stock Exchange through the Latin American Integrated Market (MILA) offers a regional market to trade equities.",
"The Colombian Stock Exchange is part of the Latin American Integrated Market (MILA).",
"The electricity production in Colombia comes mainly from renewable energy sources.",
"69.97% is obtained from the hydroelectric generation.",
"Colombia's commitment to renewable energy was recognized in the 2014 ''Global Green Economy Index (GGEI)'', ranking among the top 10 nations in the world in terms of greening efficiency sectors.",
"Colombia is rich in natural resources, and its main exports include mineral fuels, oils, distillation products, fruit and other agricultural products, sugars and sugar confectionery, food products, plastics, precious stones, metals, forest products, chemical goods, pharmaceuticals, vehicles, electronic products, electrical equipments, perfumery and cosmetics, machinery, manufactured articles, textile and fabrics, clothing and footwear, glass and glassware, furniture, prefabricated buildings, military products, home and office material, construction equipment, software, among others.",
"Principal trading partners are the United States, China, the European Union and some Latin American countries.",
"Non-traditional exports have boosted the growth of Colombian foreign sales as well as the diversification of destinations of export thanks to new free trade agreements.",
"In 2016, the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) reported that 28.0% of the population were living below the poverty line, of which 8.5% in \"extreme poverty\".",
"The multidimensional poverty rate stands at 17.8 percent of the population.",
"The Government has also been developing a process of financial inclusion within the country's most vulnerable population.",
"Recent economic growth has led to a considerable increase of new millionaires, including the new entrepreneurs, Colombians with a net worth exceeding US $1 billion.",
"The contribution of Travel & Tourism to GDP was USD5,880.3bn (2.0% of total GDP) in 2016.",
"Tourism generated 556,135 jobs (2.5% of total employment) in 2016.",
"Foreign tourist visits were predicted to have risen from 0.6 million in 2007 to 3.3 million in 2016.",
"=== Science and technology ===\n\nCOLCIENCIAS is a Colombian Government agency that supports fundamental and applied research.",
"Colombia has more than 3,950 research groups in science and technology.",
"iNNpulsa, a government body that promotes entrepreneurship and innovation in the country, provides grants to startups, in addition to other services it and institutions like Apps.co provide.",
"Co-working spaces have arisen to serve as communities for startups large and small.",
"Organizations such as the Corporation for Biological Research (CIB) for the support of young people interested in scientific work has been successfully developed in Colombia.",
"The International Center for Tropical Agriculture based in Colombia investigates the increasing challenge of global warming and food security.",
"Important inventions related to the medicine have been made in Colombia, such as the first external artificial pacemaker with internal electrodes, invented by the electronics engineer Jorge Reynolds Pombo, invention of great importance for those who suffer from heart failure.",
"Also invented in Colombia were the microkeratome and keratomileusis technique, which form the fundamental basis of what now is known as LASIK (one of the most important techniques for the correction of refractive errors of vision) and the Hakim valve for the treatment of Hydrocephalus, among others.",
"Colombia has begun to innovate in military technology for its army and other armies of the world; especially in the design and creation of personal ballistic protection products, military hardware, military robots, bombs, simulators and radar.",
"Some leading Colombian scientists are Joseph M. Tohme, researcher recognized for his work on the genetic diversity of food, Manuel Elkin Patarroyo who is known for his groundbreaking work on synthetic vaccines for malaria, Francisco Lopera who discovered the \"Paisa Mutation\" or a type of early-onset Alzheimer's, Rodolfo Llinás known for his study of the intrinsic neurons properties and the theory of a syndrome that had changed the way of understanding the functioning of the brain, Jairo Quiroga Puello recognized for his studies on the characterization of synthetic substances which can be used to fight fungus, tumors, tuberculosis and even some viruses and Ángela Restrepo who established accurate diagnoses and treatments to combat the effects of a disease caused by the ''Paracoccidioides brasiliensis'', among other scientists.",
"=== Infrastructure ===\n\nCartagena.",
"Transportation in Colombia is regulated within the functions of the Ministry of Transport and entities such as the National Roads Institute (INVÍAS) responsible for the Highways in Colombia, the Aerocivil, responsible for civil aviation and airports, the National Infrastructure Agency, in charge of concessions through public–private partnerships, for the design, construction, maintenance, operation, and administration of the transport infrastructure, the General Maritime Directorate (Dimar) has the responsibility of coordinating maritime traffic control along with the Colombian Navy, among others and under the supervision of the Superintendency of Ports and Transport.",
"The road network in Colombia has a length of about 215,000 km of which 23,000 are paved.",
"Rail transportation in Colombia is dedicated almost entirely to freight shipments and the railway network has a length of 1,700 km of potentially active rails.",
"Colombia has 3,960 kilometers of gas pipelines, 4,900 kilometers of oil pipelines, and 2,990 kilometers of refined-products pipelines.",
"The target of Colombia’s government is to build 7,000 km of roads for the 2016–2020 period and reduce travel times by 30 per cent and transport costs by 20 per cent.",
"A toll road concession programme will comprise 40 projects, and is part of a larger strategic goal to invest nearly $50bn in transport infrastructure, including: railway systems; making the Magdalena river navigable again; improving port facilities; as well as an expansion of Bogotá’s airport.",
"\n\nPopulation density of Colombia\nWith an estimated 49 million people in 2017, Colombia is the third-most populous country in Latin America, after Brazil and Mexico.",
"It is also home to the third-largest number of Spanish speakers in the world after Mexico and the United States.",
"At the beginning of the 20th century, Colombia's population was approximately 4 million.",
"Since the early 1970s Colombia has experienced steady declines in its fertility, mortality, and population growth rates.",
"The population growth rate for 2015 is estimated to be 0.9%.",
"The total fertility rate was 1.9 births per woman in 2015.",
"About 26.8% of the population were 15 years old or younger, 65.7% were between 15 and 64 years old, and 7.4% were over 65 years old.",
"The proportion of older persons in the total population has begun to increase substantially.",
"Colombia is projected to have a population of 50.2 million by 2020 and 55.3 million by 2050.",
"The population is concentrated in the Andean highlands and along the Caribbean coast, also the population densities are generally higher in the Andean region.",
"The nine eastern lowland departments, comprising about 54% of Colombia's area, have less than 6% of the population.",
"Traditionally a rural society, movement to urban areas was very heavy in the mid-20th century, and Colombia is now one of the most urbanized countries in Latin America.",
"The urban population increased from 31% of the total in 1938 to nearly 60% in 1973, and by 2014 the figure stood at 76%.",
"The population of Bogotá alone has increased from just over 300,000 in 1938 to approximately 8 million today.",
"In total seventy-two cities now have populations of 100,000 or more (2015).",
"Colombia has the world's largest populations of internally displaced persons (IDPs), estimated to be up to 4.9 million people.",
"The life expectancy is 74.8 years in 2015 and infant mortality is 13.6 per thousand in 2015.",
"In 2015, 94.58% of adults and 98.66% of youth are literate and the government spends about 4.49% of its GDP in education.",
"Colombia is ranked third in the world in the Happy Planet Index.",
"===Languages===\n\n\nMore than 99.2% of Colombians speak Spanish, also called Castilian; 65 Amerindian languages, two Creole languages, the Romani language and Colombian Sign Language are also spoken in the country.",
"English has official status in the archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina.",
"Including Spanish, a total of 101 languages are listed for Colombia in the Ethnologue database.",
"The specific number of spoken languages varies slightly since some authors consider as different languages what others consider to be varieties or dialects of the same language.",
"Best estimates recorded 71 languages that are spoken in-country today—most of which belong to the Chibchan, Tucanoan, Bora–Witoto, Guajiboan, Arawakan, Cariban, Barbacoan, and Saliban language families.",
"There are currently about 850,000 speakers of native languages.",
"=== Ethnic groups ===\n\n\nColombia is ethnically diverse, its people descending from the original native inhabitants, Spanish colonists, Africans originally brought to the country as slaves, and 20th-century immigrants from Europe and the Middle East, all contributing to a diverse cultural heritage.",
"The demographic distribution reflects a pattern that is influenced by colonial history.",
"Whites tend to live mainly in urban centers, like Bogotá, Medellín or Cali, and the burgeoning highland cities.",
"The populations of the major cities also include mestizos.",
"Mestizo ''campesinos'' (people living in rural areas) also live in the Andean highlands where some Spanish conquerors mixed with the women of Amerindian chiefdoms.",
"Mestizos include artisans and small tradesmen that have played a major part in the urban expansion of recent decades.",
"The 2005 census reported that the \"non-ethnic population\", consisting of whites and mestizos (those of mixed white European and Amerindian ancestry), constituted 86% of the national population.",
"10.6% is of African ancestry.",
"Indigenous Amerindians comprise 3.4% of the population.",
"0.01% of the population are Roma.",
"An extraofficial estimate considers that the 49% of the Colombian population is Mestizo or of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry, and that approximately 37% is White, mainly of Spanish lineage, but there is also a large population of Middle East descent; in some sectors of society there is a considerable input of Italian and German ancestry.",
"Many of the Indigenous peoples experienced a reduction in population during the Spanish rule and many others were absorbed into the mestizo population, but the remainder currently represents over eighty distinct cultures.",
"Reserves (''resguardos'') established for indigenous peoples occupy (27% of the country's total) and are inhabited by more than 800,000 people.",
"Some of the largest indigenous groups are the Wayuu, the Paez, the Pastos, the Emberá and the Zenú.",
"The departments of La Guajira, Cauca, Nariño, Córdoba and Sucre have the largest indigenous populations.",
"The Organización Nacional Indígena de Colombia (ONIC), founded at the first National Indigenous Congress in 1982, is an organization representing the indigenous peoples of Colombia.",
"In 1991, Colombia signed and ratified the current international law concerning indigenous peoples, Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989.",
"Black Africans were brought as slaves, mostly to the coastal lowlands, beginning early in the 16th century and continuing into the 19th century.",
"Large Afro-Colombian communities are found today on the Caribbean and Pacific coasts.",
"The population of the department of Chocó, running along the northern portion of Colombia's Pacific coast, is over 80% black.",
"British and Jamaicans migrated mainly to the islands of San Andres and Providencia.",
"A number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including people from the former USSR during and after the Second World War.",
"Many immigrant communities have settled on the Caribbean coast, in particular recent immigrants from the Middle East.",
"Barranquilla (the largest city of the Colombian Caribbean) and other Caribbean cities have the largest populations of Lebanese, Palestinian, and other Arabs.",
"There are also important communities of Chinese, Japanese, Romanis and Jews.",
"There is a major migration trend of Venezuelans, due to the political and economic situation in Venezuela.",
"=== Religion ===\n\n\nThe Las Lajas Sanctuary in the southern Colombian Department of Nariño\n\nThe National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) does not collect religious statistics, and accurate reports are difficult to obtain.",
"However, based on various studies and a survey, about 90% of the population adheres to Christianity, the majority of which (70.9%) are Roman Catholic, while a significant minority (16.7%) adhere to Protestantism (primarily Evangelicalism).",
"Some 4.7% of the population is atheist or agnostic, while 3.5% claim to believe in God but do not follow a specific religion.",
"1.8% of Colombians adhere to Jehovah's Witnesses and Adventism and less than 1% adhere to other religions, such as Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Mormonism, Hinduism, Indigenous religions, Hare Krishna movement, Rastafari movement, Orthodox Catholic Church, and spiritual studies.",
"The remaining people either did not respond or replied that they did not know.",
"In addition to the above statistics, 35.9% of Colombians reported that they did not practice their faith actively.",
"While Colombia remains a mostly Roman Catholic country by baptism numbers, the 1991 Colombian constitution guarantees freedom of religion and all religious faiths and churches are equally free before the law.",
"===Largest cities===\nColombia is a highly urbanized country.",
"The largest cities in the country are Bogotá, with an estimated 8 million inhabitants, Medellín, with an estimated 2.5 million inhabitants, Cali, with an estimated 2.4 million inhabitants, and Barranquilla, with an estimated 1.2 million inhabitants.",
"Cartagena highlights in number of inhabitants and the city of Bucaramanga is relevant in terms of metropolitan area population.",
"\n\nColombia lies at the crossroads of Latin America and the broader American continent, and as such has been hit by a wide range of cultural influences.",
"Native American, Spanish and other European, African, American, Caribbean, and Middle Eastern influences, as well as other Latin American cultural influences, are all present in Colombia's modern culture.",
"Urban migration, industrialization, globalization, and other political, social and economic changes have also left an impression.",
"Many national symbols, both objects and themes, have arisen from Colombia's diverse cultural traditions and aim to represent what Colombia, and the Colombian people, have in common.",
"Cultural expressions in Colombia are promoted by the government through the Ministry of Culture.",
"=== Literature ===\n\nNobel literature prize winner Gabriel García Márquez\nJorge Isaacs was one of the greatest exponents of Colombian literature in the nineteenth century.",
"Colombian literature dates back to pre-Columbian era; a notable example of the period is the epic poem known as the ''Legend of Yurupary''.",
"In Spanish colonial times, notable writers include Juan de Castellanos (''Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias''), Hernando Domínguez Camargo and his epic poem to San Ignacio de Loyola, Pedro Simón, Juan Rodríguez Freyle (''El Carnero''), Lucas Fernández de Piedrahita, and the nun Francisca Josefa de Castillo, representative of mysticism.",
"Post-independence literature linked to Romanticism highlighted Antonio Nariño, José Fernández Madrid, Camilo Torres Tenorio and Francisco Antonio Zea.",
"In the second half of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century the literary genre known as ''costumbrismo'' became popular; great writers of this period were Tomás Carrasquilla, Jorge Isaacs and Rafael Pombo (the latter of whom wrote notable works of children's literature).",
"Within that period, authors such as José Asunción Silva, José Eustasio Rivera, León de Greiff, Porfirio Barba-Jacob and José María Vargas Vila developed the modernist movement.",
"In 1872, Colombia established the Colombian Academy of Language, the first Spanish language academy in the Americas.",
"Candelario Obeso wrote the groundbreaking ''Cantos Populares de mi Tierra'' (1877), the first book of poetry by an Afro-Colombian author.",
"Between 1939 and 1940 seven books of poetry were published under the name ''Stone and Sky'' in the city of Bogotá that significantly impacted the country; they were edited by the poet Jorge Rojas.",
"In the following decade, Gonzalo Arango founded the movement of \"nothingness\" in response to the violence of the time; he was influenced by nihilism, existentialism, and the thought of another great Colombian writer: Fernando González Ochoa.",
"During the boom in Latin American literature, successful writers emerged, led by Nobel laureate Gabriel García Márquez and his magnum opus, ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', Eduardo Caballero Calderón, Manuel Mejía Vallejo, and Álvaro Mutis, a writer who was awarded the Cervantes Prize and the Prince of Asturias Award for Letters.",
"Other leading contemporary authors are Fernando Vallejo, William Ospina (Rómulo Gallegos Prize) and Germán Castro Caycedo.",
"=== Visual arts ===\n\nVargas Swamp Lancers, artwork by Rodrigo Arenas Betancourt\n\nColombian art has over 3,000 years of history.",
"Colombian artists have captured the country's changing political and cultural backdrop using a range of styles and mediums.",
"There is archeological evidence of ceramics being produced earlier in Colombia than anywhere else in the Americas, dating as early as 3,000 BCE.",
"The earliest examples of gold craftsmanship have been attributed to the Tumaco people of the Pacific coast and date to around 325 BCE.",
"Roughly between 200 BCE and 800 CE, the San Agustín culture, masters of stonecutting, entered its “classical period\".",
"They erected raised ceremonial centres, sarcophagi, and large stone monoliths depicting anthropomorphic and zoomorphhic forms out of stone.",
"Colombian art has followed the trends of the time, so during the 16th to 18th centuries, Spanish Catholicism had a huge influence on Colombian art, and the popular baroque style was replaced with rococo when the Bourbons ascended to the Spanish crown.",
"More recently, Colombian artists Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago Martínez Delgado started the Colombian Murial Movement in the 1940s, featuring the neoclassical features of Art Deco.",
"Since the 1950s, the Colombian art started to have a distinctive point of view, reinventing traditional elements under the concepts of the 20th century.",
"Examples of this are the Greiff portraits by Ignacio Gómez Jaramillo, showing what the Colombian art could do with the new techniques applied to typical Colombian themes.",
"Carlos Correa, with his paradigmatic “Naturaleza muerta en silencio” (silent dead nature), combines geometrical abstraction and cubism.",
"Alejandro Obregón is often considered as the father of modern Colombian painting, and one of the most influential artist in this period, due to his originality, the painting of Colombian landscapes with symbolic and expressionist use of animals, (specially the Andean condor).",
"Fernando Botero, Omar Rayo, Enrique Grau, Édgar Negret, David Manzur, Rodrigo Arenas Betancourt and Oscar Murillo are some of the Colombian artists featured at the international level.",
"The Colombian sculpture from the sixteenth to 18th centuries was mostly devoted to religious depictions of ecclesiastic art, strongly influenced by the Spanish schools of sacred sculpture.",
"During the early period of the Colombian republic, the national artists were focused in the production of sculptural portraits of politicians and public figures, in a plain neoclassicist trend.",
"During the 20th century, the Colombian sculpture began to develop a bold and innovative work with the aim of reaching a better understanding of national sensitivity.",
"Colombian photography was marked by the arrival of the daguerreotype.",
"Jean-Baptiste Louis Gros was who brought the daguerreotype process to Colombia in 1841.",
"The Piloto public library has Latin America’s largest archive of negatives, containing 1.7 million antique photographs covering Colombia 1848 until 2005.",
"The Colombian press has promoted the work of the cartoonists.",
"In recent decades, fanzines, internet and independent publishers have been fundamental to the growth of the comic in Colombia.",
"=== Architecture ===\n\n\n\nThroughout the times, there have been a variety of architectural styles, from those of indigenous peoples to contemporary ones, passing through colonial (military and religious), Republican, transition and modern styles.",
"Ancient habitation areas, longhouses, crop terraces, roads as the Inca road system, cemeteries, hypogeums and necropolises are all part of the architectural heritage of indigenous peoples.",
"Some prominent indigenous structures are the preceramic and ceramic archaeological site of Tequendama, Tierradentro (a park that contains the largest concentration of pre-Columbian monumental shaft tombs with side chambers), the largest collection of religious monuments and megalithic sculptures in South America, located in San Agustín, Huila.",
"Lost city (an archaeological site with a series of terraces carved into the mountainside, a net of tiled roads and several circular plazas) and also stand out the large villages mainly built with stone, wood, cane and mud.",
"Historic Centre of Santa Cruz de Mompox, an architectural site with colonial elements\nArchitecture during the period of conquest and colonization is mainly derived of adapting European styles to local conditions, and Spanish influence, especially Andalusian and Extremaduran, can be easily seen.",
"When Europeans founded cities two things were making simultaneously: the dimensioning of geometrical space (town square, street), and the location of a tangible point of orientation.",
"The construction of forts was common throughout the Caribbean and in some cities of the interior, because of the dangers that represented the English, French, and Dutch pirates and the hostile indigenous groups.",
"Churches, chapels, schools, and hospitals belonging to religious orders cause a great urban impact.",
"Baroque architecture is used in military buildings and public spaces.",
"Marcelino Arroyo, Francisco José de Caldas and Domingo de Petrés were great representatives of neo-classical architecture.",
"The National Capitol is a great representative of romanticism.",
"Wood is extensively used in doors, windows, railings and ceilings during the colonization of Antioquia.",
"The Caribbean architecture acquires a strong Arabic influence.",
"The Teatro Colón in Bogotá is a lavish example of architecture from the 19th century.",
"The quintas houses with innovations in the volumetric conception are some of the best examples of the Republican architecture; the Republican action in the city focused on the design of three types of spaces: parks with forests, small urban parks and avenues and the Gothic style was most commonly used for the design of churches.",
"Deco style, modern neoclassicism, eclecticism folklorist and art deco ornamental resources significantly influenced the architecture of Colombia, especially during the transition period.",
"Modernism contributed with new construction technologies and new materials (steel, reinforced concrete, glass and synthetic materials) and the topology architecture and lightened slabs system also have a great influence.",
"The most influential architects of the modern movement were Rogelio Salmona and Fernando Martínez Sanabria.",
"The contemporary architecture of Colombia is designed to give greater importance to the materials, this architecture takes into account the specific natural and artificial geographies and is also an architecture that appeals to the senses.",
"The conservation of the architectural and urban heritage of Colombia has been promoted in recent years.",
"=== Music ===\n\n \nColombian music blends European-influenced guitar and song structure with large gaita flutes and percussion instruments from the indigenous population, while its percussion structure and dance forms come from Africa.",
"Colombia has a diverse and dynamic musical environment.",
"Musicians, composers, music producers and singers from Colombia are recognized internationally such as Shakira, Juanes, Carlos Vives and others.",
"Guillermo Uribe Holguín, an important cultural figure in the National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia, Luis Antonio Calvo and Blas Emilio Atehortúa are some of the greatest exponents of the art music.",
"The Bogotá Philharmonic Orchestra is one of the most active orchestras in Colombia.",
"Caribbean music has many vibrant rhythms, such as cumbia (it is played by the maracas, the drums, the gaitas and guacharaca), porro (it is a monotonous but joyful rhythm), mapalé (with its fast rhythm and constant clapping) and the \"vallenato\", which originated in the northern part of the Caribbean coast (the rhythm is mainly played by the caja, the guacharaca, and accordion).",
"The music from the Pacific coast, such as the currulao is characterized by its strong use of drums (instruments such as the native marimba, the conunos, the bass drum, the side drum and the cuatro guasas or tubular rattle).",
"An important rhythm of the south region of the Pacific coast is the contradanza (it is used in dance shows, as a result of the striking colours of the costumes).",
"Marimba music, traditional chants and dances from the Colombia South Pacific region are on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.",
"Important musical rhythms of the Andean Region are the danza (dance of Andean folklore arising from the transformation of the European contredance), the bambuco (it is played with guitar, tiple and mandolin, the rhythm is danced by couples), the pasillo (a rhythm inspired by the Austrian waltz and the Colombian \"danza\", the lyrics have been composed by well-known poets), the guabina (the tiple, the bandola and the requinto are the basic instruments), the sanjuanero (it originated in Tolima and Huila Departments, the rhythm is joyful and fast).",
"Apart from these traditional rhythms, salsa music has spread throughout the country, and the city of Cali is considered by many salsa singers to be 'The New Salsa Capital of the World'.",
"Colombian-style salsa dancing\nThe instruments that distinguish the music of the Eastern Plains are the harp, the cuatro (a type of four-stringed guitar) and maracas.",
"Important rhythms of this region are the joropo (a fast rhythm and there is also tapping as a result of its flamenco ancestry) and the galeron (it is heard a lot while cowboys are working).",
"The music of the Amazon region is strongly influenced by the indigenous religious practices.",
"Some of the musical instruments used are the manguaré (a musical instrument of ceremonial type, consisting of a pair of large cylindrical drums), the quena (melodic instrument), the rondador, the congas, bells, and different types of flutes.",
"The music of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina is usually accompanied by a mandolin, a tub-bass, a jawbone, a guitar and maracas.",
"Some popular archipelago rhythms are the Schottische, the Calypso, the Polka and the Mento.",
"=== Popular culture ===\n\nThe Ibero-American Theater Festival of Bogotá is one of the biggest theater festivals in the world.",
"Theater was introduced in Colombia during the Spanish colonization in 1550 through zarzuela companies.",
"Colombian theater is supported by the Ministry of Culture and a number of private and state owned organizations.",
"The Ibero-American Theater Festival of Bogotá is the cultural event of the highest importance in Colombia and one of the biggest theater festivals in the world.",
"Other important theater events are: The Festival of Puppet The Fanfare (Medellín), The Manizales Theater Festival, The Caribbean Theatre Festival (Santa Marta) and The Art Festival of Popular Culture \"Cultural Invasion\" (Bogotá).",
"The Cartagena Film Festival is the oldest cinema event in Latin America.",
"The central focus is on films from Ibero-America.",
"Although the Colombian cinema is young as an industry, more recently the film industry was growing with support from the Film Act passed in 2003.",
"Many film festivals take place in Colombia, but the two most important are the Cartagena Film Festival, which is the oldest film festival in Latin America, and the Bogotá Film Festival.",
"Some important national circulation newspapers are ''El Tiempo'' and ''El Espectador''.",
"Television in Colombia has two privately owned TV networks and three state-owned TV networks with national coverage, as well as six regional TV networks and dozens of local TV stations.",
"Private channels, RCN and Caracol are the highest-rated.",
"The regional channels and regional newspapers cover a department or more and its content is made in these particular areas.",
"Colombia has three major national radio networks: Radiodifusora Nacional de Colombia, a state-run national radio; Caracol Radio and RCN Radio, privately owned networks with hundreds of affiliates.",
"There are other national networks, including Cadena Super, Todelar, and Colmundo.",
"Many hundreds of radio stations are registered with the Ministry of Information Technologies and Communications.",
"=== Cuisine ===\n\nSancocho de gallina criolla is a traditional soup in Colombia.",
"Colombia's varied cuisine is influenced by its diverse fauna and flora as well as the cultural traditions of the ethnic groups.",
"Colombian dishes and ingredients vary widely by region.",
"Some of the most common ingredients are: cereals such as rice and maize; tubers such as potato and cassava; assorted legumes; meats, including beef, chicken, pork and goat; fish; and seafood.",
"Colombia cuisine also features a variety of tropical fruits such as cape gooseberry, feijoa, arazá, dragon fruit, mangostino, granadilla, papaya, guava, mora (blackberry), lulo, soursop and passionfruit.",
"Colombia is one of the world's largest consumers of fruit juices.",
"Among the most representative appetizers and soups are patacones (fried green plantains), sancocho de gallina (chicken soup with root vegetables) and ajiaco (potato and corn soup).",
"Representative snacks and breads are pandebono, arepas (corn cakes), aborrajados (fried sweet plantains with cheese), torta de choclo, empanadas and almojábanas.",
"Representative main courses are bandeja paisa, lechona tolimense, mamona, tamales and fish dishes (such as arroz de lisa), especially in coastal regions where kibbeh, suero, costeño cheese and carimañolas are also eaten.",
"Representative side dishes are papas chorreadas (potatoes with cheese), remolachas rellenas con huevo duro (beets stuffed with hard-boiled egg) and arroz con coco (coconut rice).",
"Organic food is a current trend in big cities, although in general across the country the fruits and veggies are very natural and fresh.",
"Representative desserts are buñuelos, natillas, Maria Luisa cake, bocadillo made of guayaba (guava jelly), cocadas (coconut balls), casquitos de guayaba (candied guava peels), torta de natas, obleas, flan de mango, roscón, milhoja, manjar blanco, dulce de feijoa, dulce de papayuela, torta de mojicón, and esponjado de curuba.",
"Typical sauces (salsas) are hogao (tomato and onion sauce) and Colombian-style ají.",
"Some representative beverages are coffee (Tinto), champús, cholado, lulada, avena colombiana, sugarcane juice, aguapanela, aguardiente, hot chocolate and fresh fruit juices (often made with water or milk).",
"===Sports===\n\nNairo Quintana: Colombian Champion of the Giro d'Italia and the Vuelta a España\nWorld Roller Speed Skating Championships.",
"Tejo is Colombia’s national sport and is a team sport that involves launching projectiles to hit a target.",
"But of all sports in Colombia, football is the most popular.",
"Colombia was the champion of the 2001 Copa América, in which they set a new record of being undefeated, conceding no goals and winning each match.",
"Interestingly, Colombia has been awarded “mover of the year” twice.",
"Colombia is a mecca for roller skaters.",
"The national team is a perennial powerhouse at the World Roller Speed Skating Championships.",
"Colombia has traditionally been very good in cycling and a large number of Colombian cyclists have triumphed in major competitions of cycling.",
"In baseball, another sport rooted in the Caribbean Coast, Colombia was world amateur champion in 1947 and 1965.",
"Baseball is popular in the Caribbean, mainly in the cities Cartagena, Barranquilla and Santa Marta.",
"Of those cities have come good players like: Orlando Cabrera, Édgar Rentería who was champion of the World Series in 1997 and 2010, and others who have played in Major League Baseball.",
"Boxing is one of the sports that more world champions has produced for Colombia.",
"Motorsports also occupies an important place in the sporting preferences of Colombians; Juan Pablo Montoya is a race car driver known for winning 7 Formula One events.",
"Colombia also has excelled in sports such as BMX, judo, shooting sport, taekwondo, wrestling, high diving and athletics, also has a long tradition in weightlifting and bowling.",
"\n\nThe overall life expectancy in Colombia at birth is 74.8 years (71.2 years for males and 78.4 years for females).",
"Health standards in Colombia have improved very much since the 1980s, healthcare reforms have led to the massive improvements in the healthcare systems of the country.",
"Although this new system has widened population coverage by the social and health security system from 21% (pre-1993) to 96% in 2012, health disparities persist.",
"Through health tourism, many people from over the world travel from their places of residence to other countries in search of medical treatment and the attractions in the countries visited.",
"Colombia is projected as one of Latin America’s main destinations in terms of health tourism due to the quality of its health care professionals, a good number of institutions devoted to health, and an immense inventory of natural and architectural sites.",
"Cities such as Bogotá, Cali, Medellín and Bucaramanga are the most visited in cardiology procedures, neurology, dental treatments, stem cell therapy, ENT, ophthalmology and joint replacements among others for the medical services of high quality.",
"A study conducted by ''América Economía'' magazine ranked 21 Colombian health care institutions among the top 44 in Latin America, amounting to 48 percent of the total.",
"\nM5 building – National University of Colombia, designed by Pedro Nel Gómez\nUniversity of Los Andes\nThe educational experience of many Colombian children begins with attendance at a preschool academy until age five (''Educación preescolar'').",
"Basic education (''Educación básica'') is compulsory by law.",
"It has two stages: Primary basic education (''Educación básica primaria'') which goes from first to fifth grade – children from six to ten years old, and Secondary basic education (''Educación básica secundaria''), which goes from sixth to ninth grade.",
"Basic education is followed by Middle vocational education (''Educación media vocacional'') that comprises the tenth and eleventh grades.",
"It may have different vocational training modalities or specialties (academic, technical, business, and so on.)",
"according to the curriculum adopted by each school.",
"After the successful completion of all the basic and middle education years, a high-school diploma is awarded.",
"The high-school graduate is known as a ''bachiller'', because secondary basic school and middle education are traditionally considered together as a unit called ''bachillerato'' (sixth to eleventh grade).",
"Students in their final year of middle education take the ICFES test (now renamed Saber 11) in order to gain access to higher education (''Educación superior'').",
"This higher education includes undergraduate professional studies, technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies.",
"Technical professional institutions of Higher Education are also opened to students holder of a qualification in Arts and Business.",
"This qualification is usually awarded by the SENA after a two years curriculum.",
"''Bachilleres'' (high-school graduates) may enter into a professional undergraduate career program offered by a university; these programs last up to five years (or less for technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies), even as much to six to seven years for some careers, such as medicine.",
"In Colombia, there is not an institution such as college; students go directly into a career program at a university or any other educational institution to obtain a professional, technical or technological title.",
"Once graduated from the university, people are granted a (professional, technical or technological) diploma and licensed (if required) to practice the career they have chosen.",
"For some professional career programs, students are required to take the Saber-Pro test, in their final year of undergraduate academic education.",
"Public spending on education as a proportion of gross domestic product in 2015 was 4.49%.",
"This represented 15.05% of total government expenditure.",
"The primary and secondary gross enrolment ratios stood at 113.56% and 98.09% respectively.",
"School-life expectancy was 14.42 years.",
"A total of 94.58% of the population aged 15 and older were recorded as literate, including 98.66% of those aged 15–24.",
"* Index of Colombia-related articles\n* Outline of Colombia\n* \n* \n*",
"\n\n'''General information'''\n* Colombia at Encyclopædia Britannica\n* Colombia at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''\n* \n* \n* Key Development Forecasts for Colombia from International Futures\n* Official investment portal\n* Official Colombia Tourism Website\n* Study Spanish in Colombia\n* National Administrative Department of Statistics\n\n'''Government'''\n* Colombia Online Government website\n\n'''Culture'''\n* Ministry of Culture\n\n'''Geography'''\n* National parks of Colombia\n*"
] | river |
[
"\n\n\nRugged coastline of the West Coast Region of New Zealand\nA '''coastline''' or a '''seashore''' is the area where land meets the sea or ocean, or a line that forms the boundary between the land and the ocean or a lake. A precise line that can be called a coastline cannot be determined due to the Coastline paradox.\n\nThe term ''coastal zone'' is a region where interaction of the sea and land processes occurs. Both the terms coast and coastal are often used to describe a geographic location or region; for example, New Zealand's West Coast, or the East and West Coasts of the United States. Edinburgh for example is a city on the coast of Scotland.\n\nA pelagic coast refers to a coast which fronts the open ocean, as opposed to a more sheltered coast in a gulf or bay. A shore, on the other hand, can refer to parts of the land which adjoin any large body of water, including oceans (sea shore) and lakes (lake shore). Similarly, the somewhat related term \"Stream bed/bank\" refers to the land alongside or sloping down to a river (riverbank) or to a body of water smaller than a lake. \"Bank\" is also used in some parts of the world to refer to an artificial ridge of earth intended to retain the water of a river or pond; in other places this may be called a levee.\n \nWhile many scientific experts might agree on a common definition of the term \"coast\", the delineation of the extents of a coast differ according to jurisdiction, with many scientific and government authorities in various countries differing for economic and social policy reasons. According to the UN atlas, 44% of people live within of the sea.\n",
"Atlantic rocky coastline, showing a surf area. Porto Covo, west coast of Portugal\nTides often determine the range over which sediment is deposited or eroded. Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce deprossosition at a smaller elevation interval. The tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline. Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however, tidal bores can erode as the waves surge up river estuaries from the ocean.\n\nWaves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves. Coastlines with longer shores have more room for the waves to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed. In these areas the wave energy breaking against the cliffs is higher, and air and water are compressed into cracks in the rock, forcing the rock apart, breaking it down. Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and is moved along the coastline by the waves. This forms an abrasion or cliffed coast.\n\nSediment deposited by rivers is the dominant influence on the amount of sediment located on a coastline. Today riverine deposition at the coast is often blocked by dams and other human regulatory devices, which remove the sediment from the stream by causing it to be deposited inland.\n\nLike the ocean which shapes them, coasts are a dynamic environment with constant change. The Earth's natural processes, particularly sea level rises, waves and various weather phenomena, have resulted in the erosion, accretion and reshaping of coasts as well as flooding and creation of continental shelves and drowned river valleys (rias).\n",
"Somalia has the longest coastline in Africa\nThe coast and its adjacent areas on and off shore are an important part of a local ecosystem: the mixture of fresh water and salt water (brackish water) in estuaries provides many nutrients for marine life. Salt marshes and beaches also support a diversity of plants, animals and insects crucial to the food chain.\n\nThe high level of biodiversity creates a high level of biological activity, which has attracted human activity for thousands of years.\n",
"\n===Human uses of coasts===\nThe Coastal Hazard Wheel system published by UNEP for global coastal management\nA settled coastline in Marblehead, Massachusetts. Once a fishing port, the harbor is now dedicated to tourism and pleasure boating. Observe that the sand and rocks have been darkened by oil slick up to the high-water line.\nThis stretch of coast in Tanzania's capital Dar es Salaam serves as a public waste dump.\nHouses close to the coast, like these in Tiburon, California, may be especially desirable properties.\nView of sea coast from top of a hill at Visakhapatnam in India\n\nMore and more of the world's people live in coastal regions. Many major cities are on or near good harbors and have port facilities. Some landlocked places have achieved port status by building canals.\n\nThe coast is a frontier that nations have typically defended against military invaders, smugglers and illegal migrants. Fixed coastal defenses have long been erected in many nations and coastal countries typically have a navy and some form of coast guard.\n\nCoasts, especially those with beaches and warm water, attract tourists. In many island nations such as those of the Mediterranean, South Pacific and Caribbean, tourism is central to the economy. Coasts offer recreational activities such as swimming, fishing, surfing, boating, and sunbathing. Growth management can be a challenge for coastal local authorities who often struggle to provide the infrastructure required by new residents.\n\n===Threats to a coast===\nCoasts also face many human-induced environmental impacts. The human influence on climate change is thought to contribute to an accelerated trend in sea level rise which threatens coastal habitats.\n\nPollution can occur from a number of sources: garbage and industrial debris; the transportation of petroleum in tankers, increasing the probability of large oil spills; small oil spills created by large and small vessels, which flush bilge water into the ocean.\n\nFishing has declined due to habitat degradation, overfishing, trawling, bycatch and climate change. Since the growth of global fishing enterprises after the 1950s, intensive fishing has spread from a few concentrated areas to encompass nearly all fisheries. The scraping of the ocean floor in bottom dragging is devastating to coral, sponges and other long-lived species that do not recover quickly. This destruction alters the functioning of the ecosystem and can permanently alter species composition and biodiversity. Bycatch, the capture of unintended species in the course of fishing, is typically returned to the ocean only to die from injuries or exposure. Bycatch represents about a quarter of all marine catch. In the case of shrimp capture, the bycatch is five times larger than the shrimp caught.\n\nIt is believed that melting Arctic ice will cause sea levels to rise and flood coastal areas.\n\n\n===Conservation===\nExtraordinary population growth in the 21st century has placed stress on the planet's ecosystems. For example, on Saint Lucia, harvesting mangrove for timber and clearing for fishing reduced the mangrove forests, resulting in a loss of habitat and spawning grounds for marine life that was unique to the area. These forests also helped to stabilize the coastline. Conservation efforts since the 1980s have partially restored the ecosystem.\n",
"According to one principle of classification, an emergent coastline is a coastline which has experienced a fall in sea level, because of either a global sea level change, or local uplift. Emergent coastlines are identifiable by the coastal landforms, which are above the high tide mark, such as raised beaches. In contrast, a submergent coastline is one where the sea level has risen, due to a global sea level change, local subsidence, or isostatic rebound. Submergent coastlines are identifiable by their submerged, or \"drowned\" landforms, such as rias (drowned valleys) and fjords.\n\n\nAccording to a second principle of classification, a concordant coastline is a coastline where bands of different rock types run parallel to the shore. These rock types are usually of varying resistance, so the coastline forms distinctive landforms, such as coves. Discordant coastlines feature distinctive landforms because the rocks are eroded by ocean waves. The less resistant rocks erode faster, creating inlets or bay; the more resistant rocks erode more slowly, remaining as headlands or outcroppings.\n\n\nOther coastal categories:\n*A cliffed coast or abrasion coast is one where marine action has produced steep declivities known as cliffs.\n*A flat coast is one where the land gradually descends into the sea.\n*A graded shoreline is one where wind and water action has produced a flat and straight coastline.\n",
"Coastal landforms. The feature shown here as a bay would, in certain (mainly southern) parts of Britain, be called a cove. That between the cuspate foreland and the tombolo is a British bay.\nThe following articles describe some coastal landforms\n\n\n*Bay\n*Headland\n*Cove\n*Peninsula\n\n\n===Cliff erosion===\n* Much of the sediment deposited along a coast is the result of erosion of a surrounding cliff, or bluff. Sea cliffs retreat landward because of the constant undercutting of slopes by waves. If the slope/cliff being undercut is made of unconsolidated sediment it will erode at a much faster rate then a cliff made of bedrock.\n*A natural arch is formed when a headland is eroded through by waves.\n*Sea caves are made when certain rock beds are more susceptible to erosion than the surrounding rock beds because of different areas of weakness. These areas are eroded at a faster pace creating a hole or crevice that, through time, by means of wave action and erosion, becomes a cave.\n*A stack is formed when a headland is eroded away by wave and wind action.\n*A stump is a shortened sea stack that has been eroded away or fallen because of instability.\n* Wave-cut notches are caused by the undercutting of overhanging slopes which leads to increased stress on cliff material and a greater probability that the slope material will fall. The fallen debris accumulates at the bottom of the cliff and is eventually removed by waves.\n*A wave-cut platform forms after erosion and retreat of a sea cliff has been occurring for a long time. Gently sloping wave-cut platforms develop early on in the first stages of cliff retreat. Later, the length of the platform decreases because the waves lose their energy as they break further off shore.\n\n===Coastal features formed by sediment===\n\n*Beach\n*Beach cusps\n*Raised beach\n*Cuspate foreland\n*Dune system\n*Mudflat\n*Ria\n*Shoal\n*Strand plain\n*Spit\n*Surge channel\n*Tombolo\n\n\n===Coastal features formed by another feature===\n*Lagoon\n*Salt marsh\n\n===Other features on the coast===\n\n*Concordant coastline\n*Discordant coastline\n*Fjord\n*Island\n*Island arc\n*Machair\n\n",
"The following articles describe the various geologic processes that affect a coastal zone:\n\n*Attrition\n*Currents\n*Denudation\n*Deposition\n*Erosion\n*Flooding\n*Longshore drift\n*Saltation\n*Sea level change\n**eustatic\n**isostatic\n*Sedimentation\n* Coastal sediment supply\n**sediment transport\n**solution\n**subaerial processes\n**suspension\n*Tides\n*Water waves\n**diffraction\n**refraction\n**wave breaking\n**wave shoaling\n*Weathering\n\n",
"\n\n===Animals===\nSome of the animals live along a typical coast. There are animals like puffins, sea turtles and rockhopper penguins. Sea snails and various kinds of barnacles live on the coast and scavenge on food deposited by the sea. Most coastal animals are used to humans in developed areas, such as dolphins and seagulls who eat food thrown for them by tourists. Since the coastal areas are all part of the littoral zone, there is a profusion of marine life found just off-coast.\n\nThere are many kinds of seabirds on the coast. Pelicans and cormorants join up with terns and oystercatchers to forage for fish and shellfish on the coast. There are sea lions on the coast of Wales and other countries.\n\n===Plants===\nCoastal areas are famous for their kelp beds. Kelp is a fast-growing seaweed that grows up to a metre a day. Corals and sea anemones are true animals, but live a lifestyle similar to that of plants. Mangroves, seagrasses and salt marsh are important coastal vegetation types in tropical and temperate environments respectively.\n",
"\n===Coastline problem===\n\n\nShortly before 1951, Lewis Fry Richardson, in researching the possible effect of border lengths on the probability of war, noticed that the Portuguese reported their measured border with Spain to be 987 km, but the Spanish reported it as 1214 km. This was the beginning of the coastline problem, which is a mathematical uncertainty inherent in the measurement of boundaries that are irregular.\n\nThe prevailing method of estimating the length of a border (or coastline) was to lay out ''n'' equal straight-line segments of length ''ℓ'' with dividers on a map or aerial photograph. Each end of the segment must be on the boundary. Investigating the discrepancies in border estimation, Richardson discovered what is now termed the '''Richardson Effect''': the sum of the segments is inversely proportional to the common length of the segments. In effect, the shorter the ruler, the longer the measured border; the Spanish and Portuguese geographers were simply using different-length rulers.\n\nThe result most astounding to Richardson is that, under certain circumstances, as ''ℓ'' approaches zero, the length of the coastline approaches infinity. Richardson had believed, based on Euclidean geometry, that a coastline would approach a fixed length, as do similar estimations of regular geometric figures. For example, the perimeter of a regular polygon inscribed in a circle approaches the circumference with increasing numbers of sides (and decrease in the length of one side). In geometric measure theory such a smooth curve as the circle that can be approximated by small straight segments with a definite limit is termed a rectifiable curve.\n\n===Measuring a coastline===\nMore than a decade after Richardson completed his work, Benoit Mandelbrot developed a new branch of mathematics, fractal geometry, to describe just such non-rectifiable complexes in nature as the infinite coastline. His own definition of the new figure serving as the basis for his study is:\n\nA key property of the fractal is self-similarity; that is, at any scale the same general configuration appears. A coastline is perceived as bays alternating with promontories. In the hypothetical situation that a given coastline has this property of self-similarity, then no matter how greatly any one small section of coastline is magnified, a similar pattern of smaller bays and promontories superimposed on larger bays and promontories appears, right down to the grains of sand. At that scale the coastline appears as a momentarily shifting, potentially infinitely long thread with a stochastic arrangement of bays and promontories formed from the small objects at hand. In such an environment (as opposed to smooth curves) Mandelbrot asserts \"coastline length turns out to be an elusive notion that slips between the fingers of those who want to grasp it.\"\n\nThere are different kinds of fractals. A coastline with the stated property is in \"a first category of fractals, namely curves whose fractal dimension is greater than 1.\" That last statement represents an extension by Mandelbrot of Richardson's thought. Mandelbrot's statement of the Richardson Effect is:\n\n:\n\nwhere L, coastline length, a function of the measurement unit, ε, is approximated by the expression. F is a constant and D is a parameter that Richardson found depended on the coastline approximated by L. He gave no theoretical explanation but Mandelbrot identified D with a non-integer form of the Hausdorff dimension, later the fractal dimension. Rearranging the right side of the expression obtains:\n\n:\n\nwhere Fε−D must be the number of units ε required to obtain L. The fractal dimension is the number of the dimensions of the figure being used to approximate the fractal: 0 for a dot, 1 for a line, 2 for a square. D in the expression is between 1 and 2, for coastlines typically less than 1.5. The broken line measuring the coast does not extend in one direction nor does it represent an area, but is intermediate. It can be interpreted as a thick line or band of width 2ε. More broken coastlines have greater D and therefore L is longer for the same ε. Mandelbrot showed that D is independent of ε.\n\n\n",
"\n*Ballantine scale\n*Coastal and Estuarine Research Federation\n*Coastal biogeomorphology\n*Coastal development hazards\n*Coastline of the North Sea\n*European Atlas of the Seas\n*How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension\n*Land reclamation\n*List of beaches\n*List of countries by length of coastline\n*List of U.S. states by coastline\n*Marine debris\n*National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Climate and Societal Interactions Program\n*Nautical chart\n*Pole of inaccessibility\n*Seaside resort\n*Tombolo\n\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Formation {{anchor|Formation of Coasts}}",
"Environmental importance",
"Human impacts",
"Types of coast",
" Coastal landforms ",
"Coastal processes",
"Wildlife",
"Coastline statistics",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Coast | [
"Similarly, the somewhat related term \"Stream bed/bank\" refers to the land alongside or sloping down to a river (riverbank) or to a body of water smaller than a lake.",
"\"Bank\" is also used in some parts of the world to refer to an artificial ridge of earth intended to retain the water of a river or pond; in other places this may be called a levee."
] | [
"\n\n\nRugged coastline of the West Coast Region of New Zealand\nA '''coastline''' or a '''seashore''' is the area where land meets the sea or ocean, or a line that forms the boundary between the land and the ocean or a lake.",
"A precise line that can be called a coastline cannot be determined due to the Coastline paradox.",
"The term ''coastal zone'' is a region where interaction of the sea and land processes occurs.",
"Both the terms coast and coastal are often used to describe a geographic location or region; for example, New Zealand's West Coast, or the East and West Coasts of the United States.",
"Edinburgh for example is a city on the coast of Scotland.",
"A pelagic coast refers to a coast which fronts the open ocean, as opposed to a more sheltered coast in a gulf or bay.",
"A shore, on the other hand, can refer to parts of the land which adjoin any large body of water, including oceans (sea shore) and lakes (lake shore).",
"While many scientific experts might agree on a common definition of the term \"coast\", the delineation of the extents of a coast differ according to jurisdiction, with many scientific and government authorities in various countries differing for economic and social policy reasons.",
"According to the UN atlas, 44% of people live within of the sea.",
"Atlantic rocky coastline, showing a surf area.",
"Porto Covo, west coast of Portugal\nTides often determine the range over which sediment is deposited or eroded.",
"Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce deprossosition at a smaller elevation interval.",
"The tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline.",
"Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however, tidal bores can erode as the waves surge up river estuaries from the ocean.",
"Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves.",
"Coastlines with longer shores have more room for the waves to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed.",
"In these areas the wave energy breaking against the cliffs is higher, and air and water are compressed into cracks in the rock, forcing the rock apart, breaking it down.",
"Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and is moved along the coastline by the waves.",
"This forms an abrasion or cliffed coast.",
"Sediment deposited by rivers is the dominant influence on the amount of sediment located on a coastline.",
"Today riverine deposition at the coast is often blocked by dams and other human regulatory devices, which remove the sediment from the stream by causing it to be deposited inland.",
"Like the ocean which shapes them, coasts are a dynamic environment with constant change.",
"The Earth's natural processes, particularly sea level rises, waves and various weather phenomena, have resulted in the erosion, accretion and reshaping of coasts as well as flooding and creation of continental shelves and drowned river valleys (rias).",
"Somalia has the longest coastline in Africa\nThe coast and its adjacent areas on and off shore are an important part of a local ecosystem: the mixture of fresh water and salt water (brackish water) in estuaries provides many nutrients for marine life.",
"Salt marshes and beaches also support a diversity of plants, animals and insects crucial to the food chain.",
"The high level of biodiversity creates a high level of biological activity, which has attracted human activity for thousands of years.",
"\n===Human uses of coasts===\nThe Coastal Hazard Wheel system published by UNEP for global coastal management\nA settled coastline in Marblehead, Massachusetts.",
"Once a fishing port, the harbor is now dedicated to tourism and pleasure boating.",
"Observe that the sand and rocks have been darkened by oil slick up to the high-water line.",
"This stretch of coast in Tanzania's capital Dar es Salaam serves as a public waste dump.",
"Houses close to the coast, like these in Tiburon, California, may be especially desirable properties.",
"View of sea coast from top of a hill at Visakhapatnam in India\n\nMore and more of the world's people live in coastal regions.",
"Many major cities are on or near good harbors and have port facilities.",
"Some landlocked places have achieved port status by building canals.",
"The coast is a frontier that nations have typically defended against military invaders, smugglers and illegal migrants.",
"Fixed coastal defenses have long been erected in many nations and coastal countries typically have a navy and some form of coast guard.",
"Coasts, especially those with beaches and warm water, attract tourists.",
"In many island nations such as those of the Mediterranean, South Pacific and Caribbean, tourism is central to the economy.",
"Coasts offer recreational activities such as swimming, fishing, surfing, boating, and sunbathing.",
"Growth management can be a challenge for coastal local authorities who often struggle to provide the infrastructure required by new residents.",
"===Threats to a coast===\nCoasts also face many human-induced environmental impacts.",
"The human influence on climate change is thought to contribute to an accelerated trend in sea level rise which threatens coastal habitats.",
"Pollution can occur from a number of sources: garbage and industrial debris; the transportation of petroleum in tankers, increasing the probability of large oil spills; small oil spills created by large and small vessels, which flush bilge water into the ocean.",
"Fishing has declined due to habitat degradation, overfishing, trawling, bycatch and climate change.",
"Since the growth of global fishing enterprises after the 1950s, intensive fishing has spread from a few concentrated areas to encompass nearly all fisheries.",
"The scraping of the ocean floor in bottom dragging is devastating to coral, sponges and other long-lived species that do not recover quickly.",
"This destruction alters the functioning of the ecosystem and can permanently alter species composition and biodiversity.",
"Bycatch, the capture of unintended species in the course of fishing, is typically returned to the ocean only to die from injuries or exposure.",
"Bycatch represents about a quarter of all marine catch.",
"In the case of shrimp capture, the bycatch is five times larger than the shrimp caught.",
"It is believed that melting Arctic ice will cause sea levels to rise and flood coastal areas.",
"===Conservation===\nExtraordinary population growth in the 21st century has placed stress on the planet's ecosystems.",
"For example, on Saint Lucia, harvesting mangrove for timber and clearing for fishing reduced the mangrove forests, resulting in a loss of habitat and spawning grounds for marine life that was unique to the area.",
"These forests also helped to stabilize the coastline.",
"Conservation efforts since the 1980s have partially restored the ecosystem.",
"According to one principle of classification, an emergent coastline is a coastline which has experienced a fall in sea level, because of either a global sea level change, or local uplift.",
"Emergent coastlines are identifiable by the coastal landforms, which are above the high tide mark, such as raised beaches.",
"In contrast, a submergent coastline is one where the sea level has risen, due to a global sea level change, local subsidence, or isostatic rebound.",
"Submergent coastlines are identifiable by their submerged, or \"drowned\" landforms, such as rias (drowned valleys) and fjords.",
"According to a second principle of classification, a concordant coastline is a coastline where bands of different rock types run parallel to the shore.",
"These rock types are usually of varying resistance, so the coastline forms distinctive landforms, such as coves.",
"Discordant coastlines feature distinctive landforms because the rocks are eroded by ocean waves.",
"The less resistant rocks erode faster, creating inlets or bay; the more resistant rocks erode more slowly, remaining as headlands or outcroppings.",
"Other coastal categories:\n*A cliffed coast or abrasion coast is one where marine action has produced steep declivities known as cliffs.",
"*A flat coast is one where the land gradually descends into the sea.",
"*A graded shoreline is one where wind and water action has produced a flat and straight coastline.",
"Coastal landforms.",
"The feature shown here as a bay would, in certain (mainly southern) parts of Britain, be called a cove.",
"That between the cuspate foreland and the tombolo is a British bay.",
"The following articles describe some coastal landforms\n\n\n*Bay\n*Headland\n*Cove\n*Peninsula\n\n\n===Cliff erosion===\n* Much of the sediment deposited along a coast is the result of erosion of a surrounding cliff, or bluff.",
"Sea cliffs retreat landward because of the constant undercutting of slopes by waves.",
"If the slope/cliff being undercut is made of unconsolidated sediment it will erode at a much faster rate then a cliff made of bedrock.",
"*A natural arch is formed when a headland is eroded through by waves.",
"*Sea caves are made when certain rock beds are more susceptible to erosion than the surrounding rock beds because of different areas of weakness.",
"These areas are eroded at a faster pace creating a hole or crevice that, through time, by means of wave action and erosion, becomes a cave.",
"*A stack is formed when a headland is eroded away by wave and wind action.",
"*A stump is a shortened sea stack that has been eroded away or fallen because of instability.",
"* Wave-cut notches are caused by the undercutting of overhanging slopes which leads to increased stress on cliff material and a greater probability that the slope material will fall.",
"The fallen debris accumulates at the bottom of the cliff and is eventually removed by waves.",
"*A wave-cut platform forms after erosion and retreat of a sea cliff has been occurring for a long time.",
"Gently sloping wave-cut platforms develop early on in the first stages of cliff retreat.",
"Later, the length of the platform decreases because the waves lose their energy as they break further off shore.",
"===Coastal features formed by sediment===\n\n*Beach\n*Beach cusps\n*Raised beach\n*Cuspate foreland\n*Dune system\n*Mudflat\n*Ria\n*Shoal\n*Strand plain\n*Spit\n*Surge channel\n*Tombolo\n\n\n===Coastal features formed by another feature===\n*Lagoon\n*Salt marsh\n\n===Other features on the coast===\n\n*Concordant coastline\n*Discordant coastline\n*Fjord\n*Island\n*Island arc\n*Machair",
"The following articles describe the various geologic processes that affect a coastal zone:\n\n*Attrition\n*Currents\n*Denudation\n*Deposition\n*Erosion\n*Flooding\n*Longshore drift\n*Saltation\n*Sea level change\n**eustatic\n**isostatic\n*Sedimentation\n* Coastal sediment supply\n**sediment transport\n**solution\n**subaerial processes\n**suspension\n*Tides\n*Water waves\n**diffraction\n**refraction\n**wave breaking\n**wave shoaling\n*Weathering",
"\n\n===Animals===\nSome of the animals live along a typical coast.",
"There are animals like puffins, sea turtles and rockhopper penguins.",
"Sea snails and various kinds of barnacles live on the coast and scavenge on food deposited by the sea.",
"Most coastal animals are used to humans in developed areas, such as dolphins and seagulls who eat food thrown for them by tourists.",
"Since the coastal areas are all part of the littoral zone, there is a profusion of marine life found just off-coast.",
"There are many kinds of seabirds on the coast.",
"Pelicans and cormorants join up with terns and oystercatchers to forage for fish and shellfish on the coast.",
"There are sea lions on the coast of Wales and other countries.",
"===Plants===\nCoastal areas are famous for their kelp beds.",
"Kelp is a fast-growing seaweed that grows up to a metre a day.",
"Corals and sea anemones are true animals, but live a lifestyle similar to that of plants.",
"Mangroves, seagrasses and salt marsh are important coastal vegetation types in tropical and temperate environments respectively.",
"\n===Coastline problem===\n\n\nShortly before 1951, Lewis Fry Richardson, in researching the possible effect of border lengths on the probability of war, noticed that the Portuguese reported their measured border with Spain to be 987 km, but the Spanish reported it as 1214 km.",
"This was the beginning of the coastline problem, which is a mathematical uncertainty inherent in the measurement of boundaries that are irregular.",
"The prevailing method of estimating the length of a border (or coastline) was to lay out ''n'' equal straight-line segments of length ''ℓ'' with dividers on a map or aerial photograph.",
"Each end of the segment must be on the boundary.",
"Investigating the discrepancies in border estimation, Richardson discovered what is now termed the '''Richardson Effect''': the sum of the segments is inversely proportional to the common length of the segments.",
"In effect, the shorter the ruler, the longer the measured border; the Spanish and Portuguese geographers were simply using different-length rulers.",
"The result most astounding to Richardson is that, under certain circumstances, as ''ℓ'' approaches zero, the length of the coastline approaches infinity.",
"Richardson had believed, based on Euclidean geometry, that a coastline would approach a fixed length, as do similar estimations of regular geometric figures.",
"For example, the perimeter of a regular polygon inscribed in a circle approaches the circumference with increasing numbers of sides (and decrease in the length of one side).",
"In geometric measure theory such a smooth curve as the circle that can be approximated by small straight segments with a definite limit is termed a rectifiable curve.",
"===Measuring a coastline===\nMore than a decade after Richardson completed his work, Benoit Mandelbrot developed a new branch of mathematics, fractal geometry, to describe just such non-rectifiable complexes in nature as the infinite coastline.",
"His own definition of the new figure serving as the basis for his study is:\n\nA key property of the fractal is self-similarity; that is, at any scale the same general configuration appears.",
"A coastline is perceived as bays alternating with promontories.",
"In the hypothetical situation that a given coastline has this property of self-similarity, then no matter how greatly any one small section of coastline is magnified, a similar pattern of smaller bays and promontories superimposed on larger bays and promontories appears, right down to the grains of sand.",
"At that scale the coastline appears as a momentarily shifting, potentially infinitely long thread with a stochastic arrangement of bays and promontories formed from the small objects at hand.",
"In such an environment (as opposed to smooth curves) Mandelbrot asserts \"coastline length turns out to be an elusive notion that slips between the fingers of those who want to grasp it.\"",
"There are different kinds of fractals.",
"A coastline with the stated property is in \"a first category of fractals, namely curves whose fractal dimension is greater than 1.\"",
"That last statement represents an extension by Mandelbrot of Richardson's thought.",
"Mandelbrot's statement of the Richardson Effect is:\n\n:\n\nwhere L, coastline length, a function of the measurement unit, ε, is approximated by the expression.",
"F is a constant and D is a parameter that Richardson found depended on the coastline approximated by L. He gave no theoretical explanation but Mandelbrot identified D with a non-integer form of the Hausdorff dimension, later the fractal dimension.",
"Rearranging the right side of the expression obtains:\n\n:\n\nwhere Fε−D must be the number of units ε required to obtain L. The fractal dimension is the number of the dimensions of the figure being used to approximate the fractal: 0 for a dot, 1 for a line, 2 for a square.",
"D in the expression is between 1 and 2, for coastlines typically less than 1.5.",
"The broken line measuring the coast does not extend in one direction nor does it represent an area, but is intermediate.",
"It can be interpreted as a thick line or band of width 2ε.",
"More broken coastlines have greater D and therefore L is longer for the same ε. Mandelbrot showed that D is independent of ε.",
"\n*Ballantine scale\n*Coastal and Estuarine Research Federation\n*Coastal biogeomorphology\n*Coastal development hazards\n*Coastline of the North Sea\n*European Atlas of the Seas\n*How Long Is the Coast of Britain?",
"Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension\n*Land reclamation\n*List of beaches\n*List of countries by length of coastline\n*List of U.S. states by coastline\n*Marine debris\n*National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Climate and Societal Interactions Program\n*Nautical chart\n*Pole of inaccessibility\n*Seaside resort\n*Tombolo",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n*",
"\n* \n* \n*"
] | river |
[
"\n'''Crony capitalism''' is an economy in which businesses thrive not as a result of risk taken for them, but rather, as a return on money amassed through a nexus between a business class and the political class. This is done using state power to crush genuine competition in handing out permits, government grants, special tax breaks, or other forms of state intervention over resources where the state exercises monopolist control over public goods, for example, mining concessions for primary commodities or contracts for public works. Money is then made not merely by making a profit in the market, but by profiteering by 'rent seeking' using this monopoly or oligopoly. Entrepreneurship and innovative practices, which seek to reward risk are stifled, since the value-add is little by crony businesses as hardly anything of significant value is created by them, with transactions taking the form of 'trading'.\n\nCrony capitalism spills over into the government, the politics and the media, when this nexus distorts the economy and affects society to an extent it corrupts public-serving economic, political and social ideals.\n\nThe term \"crony capitalism\" made a significant impact in the public, as an explanation of the Asian financial crisis. It is also used to describe governmental decisions favoring \"cronies\" of governmental officials. In this context, the term is often used comparatively with corporate welfare, a technical term often used to assess government bailouts and favoritistic monetary policy, as opposed to the economic theory, described by \"crony capitalism\". The extent of difference between these terms is whether a government action can be said to benefit the individuals rather than the industry.\n",
"\n\n\nCrony capitalism exists along a continuum. In its lightest form, crony capitalism consists of collusion among market players which is officially tolerated or encouraged by the government. While perhaps lightly competing against each other, they will present a unified front (sometimes called a trade association or industry trade group) to the government in requesting subsidies or aid or regulation. Newcomers to a market then need to surmount significant \"barriers to entry\" for instance, in seeking loans, acquire shelf space, or receive official sanction. Some such systems are very formalized, such as sports leagues and the Medallion System of the taxicabs of New York City, but often the process is more subtle, such as expanding training and certification exams to make it more expensive for new entrants to enter a market and thereby limit competition. In technological fields, there may evolve a system whereby new entrants may be accused of infringing on patents that the established competitors never assert against each other. In spite of this, some competitors may succeed when the legal barriers are light. \n\nThe term crony capitalism is generally used when these practices come to dominate the economy as a whole or to dominate the most valuable industries in an economy. Intentionally ambiguous laws and regulations are common in such systems. Taken strictly, such laws would greatly impede practically all business; in practice, they are only erratically enforced. The specter of having such laws suddenly brought down upon a business provides incentive to stay in the good graces of political officials. Troublesome rivals who have overstepped their bounds can have the laws suddenly enforced against them, leading to fines or even jail time. Even in high-income democracies with well-established legal systems and freedom of the press in place, a larger state is associated with more political corruption.\n\nThe term ''crony capitalism'' was initially applied to states involved in the 1997 Asian financial crisis such as Thailand and Indonesia. In these cases, the term was used to point out how family members of the ruling leaders become extremely wealthy with no non-political justification. Southeast Asian nations still score very poorly in rankings measuring this. Hong Kong, and Malaysia are perhaps most noted for this, and the term has also been applied to the system of oligarchs in Russia.\n \nOther states to which the term has been applied include India, in particular, the system after the 1990s liberalization whereby land and other resources were given at throwaway prices in the name of public private partnerships, the more recent coal-gate scam and cheap allocation of land and resources to Adani SEZ under the Congress and BJP governments.\n\nSimilar references to crony capitalism have been made to other countries such as Argentina and Greece. Wu Jinglian, one of China's leading economists and a longtime advocate of its transition to free markets, says that it faces two starkly contrasting futures: a market economy under the rule of law or crony capitalism.\n\nMany prosperous nations have also had varying amounts of cronyism throughout their history including the United Kingdom, especially in the 1600s and 1700s, United States, and Japan.\n\n=== Crony capitalism index ===\n''The Economist'' benchmarks countries based on a \"crony-capitalism index\" calculated via how much economic activity occurs in industries prone to cronyism. Its 2014 Crony Capitalism Index ranking listed Hong Kong, Russia and Malaysia in the top 3 spots.\n",
"Crony capitalism in finance was found in the Second Bank of the United States. It was a private company, but its largest stockholder was the federal government which owned 20%. It was an early bank regulator and grew to be one being the most powerful organizations in the country due largely to being the depository of the government's revenue.\n\nThe Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act in 1999 completely removed Glass-Steagall’s separation between commercial banks and investment banks. After this repeal, commercial banks, investment banks, and insurance companies combined their lobbying efforts. Critics claim this was instrumental in the passage of the Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act of 2005.\n",
"\n\nMore direct government involvement in a specific sector can also lead to specific areas of crony capitalism, even if the economy as a whole may be competitive. This is most common in natural resource sectors through the granting of mining or drilling concessions, but it is also possible through a process known as regulatory capture where the government agencies in charge of regulating an industry come to be controlled by that industry. Governments will often, in good faith, establish government agencies to regulate an industry. However, the members of an industry have a very strong interest in the actions of that regulatory body, while the rest of the citizenry are only lightly affected. As a result, it is not uncommon for current industry players to gain control of the \"watchdog\" and to use it against competitors. This typically takes the form of making it very expensive for a new entrant to enter the market.\nAn 1824 landmark U.S. Supreme Court ruling overturned a New York State-granted monopoly (\"a veritable model of state munificence\" facilitated by one of the Founding Fathers, Robert R. Livingston) for the then-revolutionary technology of steamboats. Leveraging the Supreme Court's establishment of Congressional supremacy over commerce, the Interstate Commerce Commission was established in 1887 with the intent of regulating railroad \"robber barons\". President Grover Cleveland appointed Thomas M. Cooley, a railroad ally, as its first chairman and a permit system was used to deny access to new entrants and legalize price fixing.\n\nThe defense industry in the United States is often described as an example of crony capitalism in an industry. Connections with the Pentagon and lobbyists in Washington are described by critics as more important than actual competition, due to the political and secretive nature of defense contracts. In the Airbus-Boeing WTO dispute, Airbus (which receives outright subsidies from European governments) has stated Boeing receives similar subsidies, which are hidden as inefficient defense contracts. Other American defense companies were put under scrutiny for no-bid contracts for Iraq war and Hurricane Katrina related contracts purportedly due to having cronies in the Bush administration.\n\nGerald P. O'Driscoll, former vice president at the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, stated that Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac became examples of crony capitalism. Government backing let Fannie and Freddie dominate mortgage underwriting. \"The politicians created the mortgage giants, which then returned some of the profits to the pols—sometimes directly, as campaign funds; sometimes as \"contributions\" to favored constituents.\"\n",
"\nIn its worst form, crony capitalism can devolve into simple corruption, where any pretense of a free market is dispensed with. Bribes to government officials are considered ''de rigueur'' and tax evasion is common; this is seen in many parts of Africa, for instance. This is sometimes called plutocracy (rule by wealth) or kleptocracy (rule by theft).\n\nCorrupt governments may favor one set of business owners who have close ties to the government over others. This may also be done with racial, religious, or ethnic favoritism; for instance, Alawites in Syria have a disproportionate share of power in the government and business there. (President Assad is an Alawite.) This can be explained by considering personal relationships as a social network. As government and business leaders try to accomplish various things, they naturally turn to other powerful people for support in their endeavors. These people form hubs in the network. In a developing country those hubs may be very few, thus concentrating economic and political power in a small interlocking group.\n\nNormally, this will be untenable to maintain in business; new entrants will affect the market. However, if business and government are entwined, then the government can maintain the small-hub network.\n\nRaymond Vernon, specialist in economics and international affairs,\nwrote that the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, because they were the first to successfully limit the power of veto groups (typically cronies of those with power in government) to block innovations. \"Unlike most other national environments, the British environment of the early 19th century contained relatively few threats to those who improved and applied existing inventions, whether from business competitors, labor, or the government itself. In other European countries, by contrast, the merchant guilds ... were a pervasive source of veto for many centuries. This power was typically bestowed upon them by government\". For example, a Russian inventor produced a steam engine in 1766 and disappeared without a trace. \"A steam powered horseless carriage produced in France in 1769 was officially suppressed.\" James Watt began experimenting with steam in 1763, got a patent in 1769, and began commercial production in 1775.\n\nRaghuram Rajan, former governor of the Reserve Bank of India, has said \"One of the greatest dangers to the growth of developing countries is the middle income trap, where crony capitalism creates oligarchies that slow down growth. If the debate during the elections is any pointer, this is a very real concern of the public in India today.\" Tavleen Singh, columnist for ''The Indian Express'' has disagreed. According to her, India's corporate success is not a product of crony capitalism, but because India is no longer under the influence of crony socialism.\n",
"\nWhile the problem is generally accepted across the political spectrum, ideology shades the view of the problem's causes and therefore its solutions. Political views mostly fall into two camps which might be called the socialist and capitalist critique. The socialist position is that broadly democratic government must regulate economic, or wealthy, interests in order to restrict monopoly. The capitalist position is that \"natural monopolies\" are rare, therefore governmental regulations generally abet established wealthy interests by restricting competition.\n\n===Socialist critique===\nCritics of crony capitalism including socialists and anti-capitalists often assert that crony capitalism is the inevitable result of ''any'' strictly capitalist system. Jane Jacobs described it as a natural consequence of collusion between those managing power and trade, while Noam Chomsky has argued that the word \"crony\" is superfluous when describing capitalism. Since businesses make money and money leads to political power, business will inevitably use their power to influence governments. Much of the impetus behind campaign finance reform in the United States and in other countries is an attempt to prevent economic power being used to take political power.\n\nRavi Batra argues that \"all official economic measures adopted since 1981...have devastated the middle class\" and that the Occupy Wall Street movement should push for their repeal and thus end the influence of the super wealthy in the political process, which he considers a manifestation of crony capitalism.\n\nSocialist economists, such as Robin Hahnel, have criticized the term as an ideologically motivated attempt to cast what is in their view the fundamental problems of capitalism as avoidable irregularities. Socialist economists dismiss the term as an apologetic for failures of neoliberal policy and, more fundamentally, their perception of the weaknesses of market allocation.\n\n===Capitalist critique===\nSupporters of capitalism generally oppose crony capitalism as well, and consider it an aberration brought on by governmental favors incompatible with free market. In this view, crony capitalism is the result of an excess of socialist-style interference in the market, which inherently will result in a toxic combination of corporations and government officials running the sector of the economy. Some advocates prefer to equate this problem with terms such as \"corporatism, a modern form of mercantilism\" to emphasize that the only way to run a profitable business in such a system is to have help from corrupt government officials.\n\nEven if the initial regulation was well-intentioned (to curb actual abuses), and even if the initial lobbying by corporations was well-intentioned (to reduce illogical regulations), the mixture of business and government stifle competition, a collusive result called regulatory capture. Burton W. Folsom, Jr. distinguishes those that engage in crony capitalism—designated by him \"political entrepreneurs\"—from those who compete in the marketplace without special aid from government, whom he calls \"market entrepreneurs\". The market entrepreneurs, such as Hill, Vanderbilt, and Rockefeller, succeeded by producing a quality product at a competitive price. The political entrepreneurs, for example, Edward Collins in steamships and the leaders of the Union Pacific Railroad in railroads, were men who used the power of government to succeed. They tried to gain subsidies or in some way use government to stop competitors.\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"*\n",
"*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n* Khatri, Naresh (2013). Anatomy of Indian Brand of Crony Capitalism. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2335201.\n* http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/19626/1/WP0802.pdf\n",
"* New York Times, \"The Global Cost of Crony Capitalism\"\n* New York Times, \"Vladivostok Journal: Out of Russia's Gangland, and Into Cafe Society.\"\n* Joseph Stiglitz, \"Crony capitalism American-style\".\n* William Anderson, The Mises Institute, \"Myths About Enron\"\n* Crony capitalism: The actors of change towards neoliberalism in Chile, by Patricio Imbert and Patricio Morales\n* Will Africa Finally Take Off? Becker\n* Crony Chronicles – The Cronyism Resource\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"In practice",
" In finance ",
"In sections of an economy",
"In developing economies",
"Political viewpoints",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Crony capitalism | [
"Crony capitalism in finance was found in the Second Bank of the United States.",
"It was an early bank regulator and grew to be one being the most powerful organizations in the country due largely to being the depository of the government's revenue.",
"Gerald P. O'Driscoll, former vice president at the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, stated that Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac became examples of crony capitalism.",
"Raghuram Rajan, former governor of the Reserve Bank of India, has said \"One of the greatest dangers to the growth of developing countries is the middle income trap, where crony capitalism creates oligarchies that slow down growth."
] | [
"\n'''Crony capitalism''' is an economy in which businesses thrive not as a result of risk taken for them, but rather, as a return on money amassed through a nexus between a business class and the political class.",
"This is done using state power to crush genuine competition in handing out permits, government grants, special tax breaks, or other forms of state intervention over resources where the state exercises monopolist control over public goods, for example, mining concessions for primary commodities or contracts for public works.",
"Money is then made not merely by making a profit in the market, but by profiteering by 'rent seeking' using this monopoly or oligopoly.",
"Entrepreneurship and innovative practices, which seek to reward risk are stifled, since the value-add is little by crony businesses as hardly anything of significant value is created by them, with transactions taking the form of 'trading'.",
"Crony capitalism spills over into the government, the politics and the media, when this nexus distorts the economy and affects society to an extent it corrupts public-serving economic, political and social ideals.",
"The term \"crony capitalism\" made a significant impact in the public, as an explanation of the Asian financial crisis.",
"It is also used to describe governmental decisions favoring \"cronies\" of governmental officials.",
"In this context, the term is often used comparatively with corporate welfare, a technical term often used to assess government bailouts and favoritistic monetary policy, as opposed to the economic theory, described by \"crony capitalism\".",
"The extent of difference between these terms is whether a government action can be said to benefit the individuals rather than the industry.",
"\n\n\nCrony capitalism exists along a continuum.",
"In its lightest form, crony capitalism consists of collusion among market players which is officially tolerated or encouraged by the government.",
"While perhaps lightly competing against each other, they will present a unified front (sometimes called a trade association or industry trade group) to the government in requesting subsidies or aid or regulation.",
"Newcomers to a market then need to surmount significant \"barriers to entry\" for instance, in seeking loans, acquire shelf space, or receive official sanction.",
"Some such systems are very formalized, such as sports leagues and the Medallion System of the taxicabs of New York City, but often the process is more subtle, such as expanding training and certification exams to make it more expensive for new entrants to enter a market and thereby limit competition.",
"In technological fields, there may evolve a system whereby new entrants may be accused of infringing on patents that the established competitors never assert against each other.",
"In spite of this, some competitors may succeed when the legal barriers are light.",
"The term crony capitalism is generally used when these practices come to dominate the economy as a whole or to dominate the most valuable industries in an economy.",
"Intentionally ambiguous laws and regulations are common in such systems.",
"Taken strictly, such laws would greatly impede practically all business; in practice, they are only erratically enforced.",
"The specter of having such laws suddenly brought down upon a business provides incentive to stay in the good graces of political officials.",
"Troublesome rivals who have overstepped their bounds can have the laws suddenly enforced against them, leading to fines or even jail time.",
"Even in high-income democracies with well-established legal systems and freedom of the press in place, a larger state is associated with more political corruption.",
"The term ''crony capitalism'' was initially applied to states involved in the 1997 Asian financial crisis such as Thailand and Indonesia.",
"In these cases, the term was used to point out how family members of the ruling leaders become extremely wealthy with no non-political justification.",
"Southeast Asian nations still score very poorly in rankings measuring this.",
"Hong Kong, and Malaysia are perhaps most noted for this, and the term has also been applied to the system of oligarchs in Russia.",
"Other states to which the term has been applied include India, in particular, the system after the 1990s liberalization whereby land and other resources were given at throwaway prices in the name of public private partnerships, the more recent coal-gate scam and cheap allocation of land and resources to Adani SEZ under the Congress and BJP governments.",
"Similar references to crony capitalism have been made to other countries such as Argentina and Greece.",
"Wu Jinglian, one of China's leading economists and a longtime advocate of its transition to free markets, says that it faces two starkly contrasting futures: a market economy under the rule of law or crony capitalism.",
"Many prosperous nations have also had varying amounts of cronyism throughout their history including the United Kingdom, especially in the 1600s and 1700s, United States, and Japan.",
"=== Crony capitalism index ===\n''The Economist'' benchmarks countries based on a \"crony-capitalism index\" calculated via how much economic activity occurs in industries prone to cronyism.",
"Its 2014 Crony Capitalism Index ranking listed Hong Kong, Russia and Malaysia in the top 3 spots.",
"It was a private company, but its largest stockholder was the federal government which owned 20%.",
"The Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act in 1999 completely removed Glass-Steagall’s separation between commercial banks and investment banks.",
"After this repeal, commercial banks, investment banks, and insurance companies combined their lobbying efforts.",
"Critics claim this was instrumental in the passage of the Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act of 2005.",
"\n\nMore direct government involvement in a specific sector can also lead to specific areas of crony capitalism, even if the economy as a whole may be competitive.",
"This is most common in natural resource sectors through the granting of mining or drilling concessions, but it is also possible through a process known as regulatory capture where the government agencies in charge of regulating an industry come to be controlled by that industry.",
"Governments will often, in good faith, establish government agencies to regulate an industry.",
"However, the members of an industry have a very strong interest in the actions of that regulatory body, while the rest of the citizenry are only lightly affected.",
"As a result, it is not uncommon for current industry players to gain control of the \"watchdog\" and to use it against competitors.",
"This typically takes the form of making it very expensive for a new entrant to enter the market.",
"An 1824 landmark U.S. Supreme Court ruling overturned a New York State-granted monopoly (\"a veritable model of state munificence\" facilitated by one of the Founding Fathers, Robert R. Livingston) for the then-revolutionary technology of steamboats.",
"Leveraging the Supreme Court's establishment of Congressional supremacy over commerce, the Interstate Commerce Commission was established in 1887 with the intent of regulating railroad \"robber barons\".",
"President Grover Cleveland appointed Thomas M. Cooley, a railroad ally, as its first chairman and a permit system was used to deny access to new entrants and legalize price fixing.",
"The defense industry in the United States is often described as an example of crony capitalism in an industry.",
"Connections with the Pentagon and lobbyists in Washington are described by critics as more important than actual competition, due to the political and secretive nature of defense contracts.",
"In the Airbus-Boeing WTO dispute, Airbus (which receives outright subsidies from European governments) has stated Boeing receives similar subsidies, which are hidden as inefficient defense contracts.",
"Other American defense companies were put under scrutiny for no-bid contracts for Iraq war and Hurricane Katrina related contracts purportedly due to having cronies in the Bush administration.",
"Government backing let Fannie and Freddie dominate mortgage underwriting.",
"\"The politicians created the mortgage giants, which then returned some of the profits to the pols—sometimes directly, as campaign funds; sometimes as \"contributions\" to favored constituents.\"",
"\nIn its worst form, crony capitalism can devolve into simple corruption, where any pretense of a free market is dispensed with.",
"Bribes to government officials are considered ''de rigueur'' and tax evasion is common; this is seen in many parts of Africa, for instance.",
"This is sometimes called plutocracy (rule by wealth) or kleptocracy (rule by theft).",
"Corrupt governments may favor one set of business owners who have close ties to the government over others.",
"This may also be done with racial, religious, or ethnic favoritism; for instance, Alawites in Syria have a disproportionate share of power in the government and business there.",
"(President Assad is an Alawite.)",
"This can be explained by considering personal relationships as a social network.",
"As government and business leaders try to accomplish various things, they naturally turn to other powerful people for support in their endeavors.",
"These people form hubs in the network.",
"In a developing country those hubs may be very few, thus concentrating economic and political power in a small interlocking group.",
"Normally, this will be untenable to maintain in business; new entrants will affect the market.",
"However, if business and government are entwined, then the government can maintain the small-hub network.",
"Raymond Vernon, specialist in economics and international affairs,\nwrote that the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, because they were the first to successfully limit the power of veto groups (typically cronies of those with power in government) to block innovations.",
"\"Unlike most other national environments, the British environment of the early 19th century contained relatively few threats to those who improved and applied existing inventions, whether from business competitors, labor, or the government itself.",
"In other European countries, by contrast, the merchant guilds ... were a pervasive source of veto for many centuries.",
"This power was typically bestowed upon them by government\".",
"For example, a Russian inventor produced a steam engine in 1766 and disappeared without a trace.",
"\"A steam powered horseless carriage produced in France in 1769 was officially suppressed.\"",
"James Watt began experimenting with steam in 1763, got a patent in 1769, and began commercial production in 1775.",
"If the debate during the elections is any pointer, this is a very real concern of the public in India today.\"",
"Tavleen Singh, columnist for ''The Indian Express'' has disagreed.",
"According to her, India's corporate success is not a product of crony capitalism, but because India is no longer under the influence of crony socialism.",
"\nWhile the problem is generally accepted across the political spectrum, ideology shades the view of the problem's causes and therefore its solutions.",
"Political views mostly fall into two camps which might be called the socialist and capitalist critique.",
"The socialist position is that broadly democratic government must regulate economic, or wealthy, interests in order to restrict monopoly.",
"The capitalist position is that \"natural monopolies\" are rare, therefore governmental regulations generally abet established wealthy interests by restricting competition.",
"===Socialist critique===\nCritics of crony capitalism including socialists and anti-capitalists often assert that crony capitalism is the inevitable result of ''any'' strictly capitalist system.",
"Jane Jacobs described it as a natural consequence of collusion between those managing power and trade, while Noam Chomsky has argued that the word \"crony\" is superfluous when describing capitalism.",
"Since businesses make money and money leads to political power, business will inevitably use their power to influence governments.",
"Much of the impetus behind campaign finance reform in the United States and in other countries is an attempt to prevent economic power being used to take political power.",
"Ravi Batra argues that \"all official economic measures adopted since 1981...have devastated the middle class\" and that the Occupy Wall Street movement should push for their repeal and thus end the influence of the super wealthy in the political process, which he considers a manifestation of crony capitalism.",
"Socialist economists, such as Robin Hahnel, have criticized the term as an ideologically motivated attempt to cast what is in their view the fundamental problems of capitalism as avoidable irregularities.",
"Socialist economists dismiss the term as an apologetic for failures of neoliberal policy and, more fundamentally, their perception of the weaknesses of market allocation.",
"===Capitalist critique===\nSupporters of capitalism generally oppose crony capitalism as well, and consider it an aberration brought on by governmental favors incompatible with free market.",
"In this view, crony capitalism is the result of an excess of socialist-style interference in the market, which inherently will result in a toxic combination of corporations and government officials running the sector of the economy.",
"Some advocates prefer to equate this problem with terms such as \"corporatism, a modern form of mercantilism\" to emphasize that the only way to run a profitable business in such a system is to have help from corrupt government officials.",
"Even if the initial regulation was well-intentioned (to curb actual abuses), and even if the initial lobbying by corporations was well-intentioned (to reduce illogical regulations), the mixture of business and government stifle competition, a collusive result called regulatory capture.",
"Burton W. Folsom, Jr. distinguishes those that engage in crony capitalism—designated by him \"political entrepreneurs\"—from those who compete in the marketplace without special aid from government, whom he calls \"market entrepreneurs\".",
"The market entrepreneurs, such as Hill, Vanderbilt, and Rockefeller, succeeded by producing a quality product at a competitive price.",
"The political entrepreneurs, for example, Edward Collins in steamships and the leaders of the Union Pacific Railroad in railroads, were men who used the power of government to succeed.",
"They tried to gain subsidies or in some way use government to stop competitors.",
"*",
"*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n* Khatri, Naresh (2013).",
"Anatomy of Indian Brand of Crony Capitalism.",
"http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2335201.",
"* http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/19626/1/WP0802.pdf",
"* New York Times, \"The Global Cost of Crony Capitalism\"\n* New York Times, \"Vladivostok Journal: Out of Russia's Gangland, and Into Cafe Society.\"",
"* Joseph Stiglitz, \"Crony capitalism American-style\".",
"* William Anderson, The Mises Institute, \"Myths About Enron\"\n* Crony capitalism: The actors of change towards neoliberalism in Chile, by Patricio Imbert and Patricio Morales\n* Will Africa Finally Take Off?",
"Becker\n* Crony Chronicles – The Cronyism Resource"
] | finance |
[
"\n\nA '''car''' is a wheeled motor vehicle used for transporting passengers.\n\n'''Car''', '''Cars''', '''CAR''' or '''CARs''' may also refer to:\n\n",
"* Central African Republic\n* Cordillera Administrative Region, a region of the Philippines\n* Car, Azerbaijan, a village\n* Čar, a village in Serbia\n* Cars, Gironde, France, a commune\n* Les Cars, Haute-Vienne, France, a commune\n",
"* Railroad car\n* The cab of an elevator\n* A streetcar or trolley car\n* In capital letters, Canada Atlantic Railway, 1879–1914\n* In capital letters, Canadian Atlantic Railway, 1986–1994\n",
"===Films===\n* ''The Car'', a 1977 suspense-horror film\n* ''The Car'' (1997 film), a Malayalam film\n* ''Cars'' (franchise), a Disney/Pixar film series\n** ''Cars'' (film), a 2006 computer animated film from Disney and Pixar\n** ''Cars 2'', the 2011 sequel\n** ''Cars 3'', the 2017 sequel\n** ''Cars'' (video game), a video game based on the film\n** ''Cars 2'' (video game), a video game based on the sequel\n* ''Cars 3'' (2009 film), a 2008 comedy action film not related to the Disney/Pixar series\n\n===Music===\n* The Cars, an American rock band\n** ''The Cars'' (album)\n* ''C.A.R.'' (album), a 2012 album by American hip hop artist Serengeti\n* ''Peter Gabriel'' (1977 album), one of four albums of that name, often distinguished as \"Car\" because of its cover illustration\n* ''Cars'' (Now, Now Every Children album), a 2008 album\n** \"Cars\", a song on the album\n* ''Cars'', an album by Kris Delmhorst \n* ''Cars'', a soundtrack album for the film ''Cars''\n* \"Car\", a song by Built to Spill on their 1994 album ''There's Nothing Wrong with Love''\n* \"The Car\" (song), by Jeff Carson\n* \"Cars\" (song), a 1979 single by Gary Numan and covered by Fear Factory\n\n===Other===\n* ''Cars'' (painting), a series of paintings by Andy Warhol\n* ''The Car'' (Brack), a 1955 painting by John Brack\n* ''The Car'' (novel), by Gary Paulsen\n* \"The Car\" (''The Assistants'' episode), the first episode of the Nickelodeon sitcom\n* ''Car'' (magazine), a British auto-enthusiast publication\n* Car, a television ident for BBC Two\n",
"* Capital adequacy ratio, a ratio of a bank's capital to its risk\n* Cost Accrual Ratio, an accounting formula\n* Cumulative average return, a financial concept related to the time value of money\n* Cumulative abnormal return\n",
"* Carina (constellation), astronomical constellation abbreviation \"Car\"\n* Canonical anticommutation relation, a concept in quantum field theory\n* Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy\n* Catecholamine releaser, a hormone releaser\n* Cocksackie Adenovirus Receptor, alternative symbol CAR for the human gene CXADR\n* Constitutive androstane receptor\n* Cortisol awakening response, a physiological response when a person wakes up\n* Chimeric antigen receptor, artificial T cell receptors\n* Childhood Autism Rating Scale\n* Clock with Adaptive Replacement, a page replacement algorithm\n* CAR and CDR, computer programming operations first introduced in the LISP language\n* Computer-assisted reporting, the use of computers in researching news stories\n* Computer-assisted reviewing, the use of computer software for more effective text reviewing\n* C.a.R. (Z.u.L.) \"compass and ruler\", geometry software\n",
"* Canadian Airborne Regiment, a Canadian Forces formation\n* Combat Action Ribbon, a United States military decoration\n* Colt Automatic Rifle, a 5.56mm NATO firearm\n* CAR-15, a family of AR-15 and M16 rifle-based firearms\n* U.S. Army Combat Arms Regimental System a 1950s reorganisation of the regiments of the US Army\n",
"* Action Committee for Renewal (''Comité d'Action pour la Renouveau''), a political party of Togo\n* Children of the American Revolution, a genealogical society\n* Rugby Africa, formerly known as Confederation of African Rugby\n* Confederation of Asia Roller Sports, a sports federation\n* Carolina Panthers, a professional football team in Charlotte, North Carolina\n",
"* Car (King of Caria)\n* Car (King of Megara)\n* Car (surname)\n* Jean-François Cars (1670–1739), a French engraver\n* Laurent Cars (1699–1771), a French designer and engraver\n",
"* Car language, the most widely spoken of the Nicobarese languages\n* Central apparatus room, an equipment room found at broadcasting facilities\n* Contractor's all risk (CAR) insurance, see builder's risk insurance\n* Criminal Appeal Reports\n* Cable television relay service station\n* CARs or Canadian Aviation Regulations\n* Caucasian Achievement and Recognition Scholarship\n* Car Allowance Rebate System, a.k.a. the Consumer Assistance to Recycle and Save program\n* Customer Access and Retrieval System\n* The spelling of tsar in several Slavic languages\n",
"* Carr (disambiguation)\n* Le Car (disambiguation)\n* Passenger car (disambiguation)\n* \n* \n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Places",
"Transportation",
"Arts and entertainment",
"Economics and finance",
"Science and technology",
"Military and firearms",
"Organisations",
"People",
"Other",
"See also"
] | Car (disambiguation) | [
"* Capital adequacy ratio, a ratio of a bank's capital to its risk\n* Cost Accrual Ratio, an accounting formula\n* Cumulative average return, a financial concept related to the time value of money\n* Cumulative abnormal return"
] | [
"\n\nA '''car''' is a wheeled motor vehicle used for transporting passengers.",
"'''Car''', '''Cars''', '''CAR''' or '''CARs''' may also refer to:",
"* Central African Republic\n* Cordillera Administrative Region, a region of the Philippines\n* Car, Azerbaijan, a village\n* Čar, a village in Serbia\n* Cars, Gironde, France, a commune\n* Les Cars, Haute-Vienne, France, a commune",
"* Railroad car\n* The cab of an elevator\n* A streetcar or trolley car\n* In capital letters, Canada Atlantic Railway, 1879–1914\n* In capital letters, Canadian Atlantic Railway, 1986–1994",
"===Films===\n* ''The Car'', a 1977 suspense-horror film\n* ''The Car'' (1997 film), a Malayalam film\n* ''Cars'' (franchise), a Disney/Pixar film series\n** ''Cars'' (film), a 2006 computer animated film from Disney and Pixar\n** ''Cars 2'', the 2011 sequel\n** ''Cars 3'', the 2017 sequel\n** ''Cars'' (video game), a video game based on the film\n** ''Cars 2'' (video game), a video game based on the sequel\n* ''Cars 3'' (2009 film), a 2008 comedy action film not related to the Disney/Pixar series\n\n===Music===\n* The Cars, an American rock band\n** ''The Cars'' (album)\n* ''C.A.R.''",
"(album), a 2012 album by American hip hop artist Serengeti\n* ''Peter Gabriel'' (1977 album), one of four albums of that name, often distinguished as \"Car\" because of its cover illustration\n* ''Cars'' (Now, Now Every Children album), a 2008 album\n** \"Cars\", a song on the album\n* ''Cars'', an album by Kris Delmhorst \n* ''Cars'', a soundtrack album for the film ''Cars''\n* \"Car\", a song by Built to Spill on their 1994 album ''There's Nothing Wrong with Love''\n* \"The Car\" (song), by Jeff Carson\n* \"Cars\" (song), a 1979 single by Gary Numan and covered by Fear Factory\n\n===Other===\n* ''Cars'' (painting), a series of paintings by Andy Warhol\n* ''The Car'' (Brack), a 1955 painting by John Brack\n* ''The Car'' (novel), by Gary Paulsen\n* \"The Car\" (''The Assistants'' episode), the first episode of the Nickelodeon sitcom\n* ''Car'' (magazine), a British auto-enthusiast publication\n* Car, a television ident for BBC Two",
"* Carina (constellation), astronomical constellation abbreviation \"Car\"\n* Canonical anticommutation relation, a concept in quantum field theory\n* Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy\n* Catecholamine releaser, a hormone releaser\n* Cocksackie Adenovirus Receptor, alternative symbol CAR for the human gene CXADR\n* Constitutive androstane receptor\n* Cortisol awakening response, a physiological response when a person wakes up\n* Chimeric antigen receptor, artificial T cell receptors\n* Childhood Autism Rating Scale\n* Clock with Adaptive Replacement, a page replacement algorithm\n* CAR and CDR, computer programming operations first introduced in the LISP language\n* Computer-assisted reporting, the use of computers in researching news stories\n* Computer-assisted reviewing, the use of computer software for more effective text reviewing\n* C.a.R.",
"(Z.u.L.)",
"\"compass and ruler\", geometry software",
"* Canadian Airborne Regiment, a Canadian Forces formation\n* Combat Action Ribbon, a United States military decoration\n* Colt Automatic Rifle, a 5.56mm NATO firearm\n* CAR-15, a family of AR-15 and M16 rifle-based firearms\n* U.S. Army Combat Arms Regimental System a 1950s reorganisation of the regiments of the US Army",
"* Action Committee for Renewal (''Comité d'Action pour la Renouveau''), a political party of Togo\n* Children of the American Revolution, a genealogical society\n* Rugby Africa, formerly known as Confederation of African Rugby\n* Confederation of Asia Roller Sports, a sports federation\n* Carolina Panthers, a professional football team in Charlotte, North Carolina",
"* Car (King of Caria)\n* Car (King of Megara)\n* Car (surname)\n* Jean-François Cars (1670–1739), a French engraver\n* Laurent Cars (1699–1771), a French designer and engraver",
"* Car language, the most widely spoken of the Nicobarese languages\n* Central apparatus room, an equipment room found at broadcasting facilities\n* Contractor's all risk (CAR) insurance, see builder's risk insurance\n* Criminal Appeal Reports\n* Cable television relay service station\n* CARs or Canadian Aviation Regulations\n* Caucasian Achievement and Recognition Scholarship\n* Car Allowance Rebate System, a.k.a.",
"the Consumer Assistance to Recycle and Save program\n* Customer Access and Retrieval System\n* The spelling of tsar in several Slavic languages",
"* Carr (disambiguation)\n* Le Car (disambiguation)\n* Passenger car (disambiguation)\n* \n*"
] | finance |
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